Bulbs

Bulbs

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<Bulbs Revised Edition

by John E. Bryan, F. I. HORT.

Timber Press Portland, Oregon

All photographs are by John E. Bryan unless otherwise stated. Copyright © 2002 by John E. Bryan. All rights reserved. First edition published in 1989 by Christopher Helm in Great Britain (ISBN 07470-023102) and by Timber Press in North America (ISBN 0-88192-101-7, as 2 volumes). Revised edition published in 2002 by Timber Press, Inc. The Haseltine Building 133 S.W. Second Avenue, Suite 450 Portland, Oregon 97204 U.S.A. Printed through Colorcraft Ltd., Hong Kong

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bryan, John E., 1931Bulbs / by John E. Bryan.—Rev. ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. ISBN 0-88192-529-2 1. Bulbs—Encyclopedias. I. Title.

).

SB425 .B74 2002 635.9'4'03—dc21 2001045691

To my daughters, Daphne and Jasmine, and my grandchildren, Davina, Sophia, Anastasia, Zander, and Annika, for their love and support.

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Contents

Acknowledgments

9

Introduction 11

CHAPTER 1

Overview

13

CHAPTER 2

A Matter of History 15

CHAPTER 3

Botany and Classification of Bulbs 22

CHAPTER 4

Propagation

CHAPTER 5

Cultivation

CHAPTER 6

Bulbs in the Landscape 43

CHAPTER 7

Growing Bulbs Out of Season 51

CHAPTER 8

Pests and Diseases 58

CHAPTER 9

Alphabetical Listing of the Genera 64

29 37

APPENDIX A Families of Bulbous Plants 481 APPENDIX B

Bulbs Around the World 487

APPENDIX C

Specific Landscape Uses of Bulbs 493

APPENDIX D

Conversion Table 503 Glossary 504 Bibliography 508 Index of Common Names 515

Color plates follow pages 48, 144, and 272

7

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Acknowledgments

f m w or over 10 years I have been working on this second edi\ g j tion. I am indebted to the generous people who helped m * with the first edition, including several of whom have JL. now departed the scene. Their contributions are and will continue to be appreciated. To all who kindly contributed photographs to this edition, I say "Thank you. Your generosity is much appreciated": Tom Abrego, Daan Barnhoorn, Turhan Baytop, Botanical Research Institute of Pretoria (B.R.I.), Maurice Boussard, British Alpine Garden Society (B.A.G.S.), PHI S. Clark, John G. Conran, Gordon Courtright, Ron K. Crowden, August A. de Hertogh, Richard Doutt, Graham Duncan, Jack Elliott, Daniel Gildenhuys, Alfred Byrd Graf, Charles Hardman, Harry B. Hay, Helen Crocker Russell Library of San Francisco (H.C.R.L.), Antoine M. D. Hoog, International Bloembollencentrum of the Netherlands (I.B.), Jepson Herbarium of the University of California at Berkeley (J.H.), Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden of South Africa (K.N.B.G.), Klehm Nursery, John and Kitty Kohout, Chris Lovell, Brian Mathew, Edward McRae, Robert Ornduff, Robin Parer, Jnis Ruksns, Rod Saunders, James Shields, Katarina Stenman, Anne Strid, John Trager, Herman von Wall, David M. Ward, and Doug Westfall. The line drawings, by Pat Halliday, are reproduced here by permission.

T

Forty-three colored botanical illustrations in this book are from Curtis's Botanical Magazine, which began in 1787 and which still continues its tradition of fine color printing and articles by experts. It is currently edited at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and published as Kew Magazine. Between 1787 and 1987 it published nearly 10,500 color plates. The botanical prints used in this work are from the private collection of the author and are reproduced here by kind permission of the publishers of Kew Magazine. To the staff at Timber Press I owe special thanks. No one could put together such a work without their understanding, patience, and helpful suggestions. To those who have, over the last 10 years, written and talked to me about my favorite plants, bulbs, I must say "Thank you all." I appreciate your sharing your knowledge with me. Of special note are the members of the International Bulb Society. A greater group of people with whom I am privileged to be associated is impossible to find. Thanks to all my many friends for bearing with me as I worked on this edition. I hasten to add I very much doubt I will be around to write another.

9

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Introduction

y^-w- cannot claim that my fascination with bulbs, in the broad^ • est definition of the word, came at the start of my career in I horticulture in 1946. As an apprentice in a nursery located ^M~ in Devon, England, I was introduced to the wonderful world of plants by having to water tomatoes in greenhouses for six solid weeks. For this work I did 48 hours each week, I received the princely sum of 10 shillings, roughly $ 1.25 per week. Having survived this period and having learned a great deal about the culture of tomatoes, I was assigned the job of preparing bulbs for forcing. There were no special chambers with controlled temperatures and humidity at that time. Rather, we used the old method, still in use in many areas today, of plunging the bulbs into beds and covering them with sand and soil. The interest in the miracles that can be forced upon a bulb, in this case tulips, hyacinths, daffodils, and crocuses, was sparked then and has remained with me to this day. While a student at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, Scotland, and during postgraduate studies that followed at the Royal Horticultural Society's Garden at Wisley, Surrey, England; at The Hague in the Netherlands; and in Paris, France, bulbs were never far from my mind, even though they did not demand all of my time. My interest was heightened when I first saw the magnificent colors of the bulb fields in the Netherlands. This was reinforced when I came to the United States in 1961 to work at Jan de Graaff s Oregon Bulb Farms near Portland. Here, the raising of many new lily hybrids and their introduction into commerce fascinated me. Over the years it has been my good fortune to have known and worked with such great men in the lily world as Jan de Graaff, Earl Hornback, Harold Comber, and Edward McRae, with whom I was a student at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, and who is the originator of many fine new hybrid lilies. My association with these fine horticulturists and my past experience stood me in good stead when, while I was the director of the Strybing Arboretum and Botanic Gardens in Golden

7

Gate Park in San Francisco, California, we undertook experimental plantings of many different types of bulbs, recording their growth patterns, time of flowering, height at flowering, and so on. Since that time I have visited many other parts of the world and have seen a great number of bulbs growing in the wild. To my mind this is the best way to understand the cultural needs of any plant and also to gain a greater perspective of the enormous numbers of species. Despite all of this, you may well ask, "Why another book about bulbs? Hasn't everything definitive concerning these beautiful plants been written already?" It is my belief there is a need for a book that will give the reader an insight into the culture of bulbs and the role they have played in the cultural affairs of mankind. I find their history fascinating, and I hope to convey and induce a comparable fascination in you. This publication is not meant to be a series of monographs on each and every bulb. I believe that more bulbs are described here than has been done before in one work, but I also know that I have by no means encompassed all the known species. The selection of those described in detail is my choice alone, but the choices have not been easy to make. I have described in more detail plants offered by major commercial nurseries and those being grown in gardens, as well as less familiar ones that I deem worthy of introduction into horticulture. No one person can hope to see all the species and cultivars found in the farflung corners of the Earth. That would require several lifetimes. Where personal knowledge was lacking, I have relied upon the many authorities on the various genera. In many cases the nomenclature is both confused and confusing. A great deal of work and thorough evaluation of many genera is needed. This is a mammoth task. As modern technology, such as DNA analysis and other molecular research, or statistical techniques, such as cladistics, enables scientists to examine the various species in greater detail, and as our under11

12

Introduction

standing of plants increases, there are bound to be changes in the classification and naming of genera and individual species. Where confusion exists, I have noted this, and I hope I have not muddied the waters any worse. I have drawn upon my long experience with bulbs, with the much-enjoyed contact with gardeners during my work in television, the publishing of a monthly newsletter, a newspaper column, lecturing, and, last but not least, my correspondence with many bulb lovers from all around the world. It is profoundly to be hoped long-established methods of plant identification will continue, following what are now traditional methods. Having to establish the DNA of a species before identifying it with certainty belongs in the laboratory. I will not dispute the value of these findings; however, I hope such important information will not result in greater difficulty of identification in the field. Perhaps the time has come to establish a separate system incorporating the technical advances which can exist with tried, true, and to now acceptable criteria for identification. Differences not visible to the naked eye or with a lOx hand-held lens would not, in my opinion, help most plant lovers know or enjoy their plants. It is most gratifying to be allowed to write a second edition of Bulbs. Since the first edition was published in 1989, there have

been numerous changes in the nomenclature. These have been taken into account with this edition. Many genera have been added and an even greater number of species. Certain of them have not been regarded as bulbs even in the broadest sense; however, if such plants have a rhizome, corm, tuber, or a true bulb as a rootstock, I have included them. I do not claim all such plants are discussed, but I feel I have included the majority. I greatly appreciate those readers who brought to my attention inaccuracies contained in the first edition. I have endeavored to correct such. This edition, like the earlier one, is intended to give both the keen amateur and the professional a greater appreciation of bulbs. It is hoped that the information contained herein will be both useful and enjoyable to the reader. Nothing I write here, however, can accomplish this as well as the thrill of watching bulbs grow and each year witnessing their dazzling displays of brilliance, often with little effort on the part of the gardener. If I have encouraged but one person to grow these wondrous plants who has never done so, if I have enhanced just a little the remarkable world of bulbs by an enlightened overview, or if I have added little pieces of historic information to your knowledge, then I will have achieved my purpose and the effort will have been more than worthwhile.

CHAPTER

1

Overview Diversity, distribution, and adaptation of bulbs

^<-w y* ention the word bulb to most people and a whole • /I /t range of plants comes to mind, including dahlias, / \i t gladiolus, irises, lilies, tulips, crocuses, and many ^j r ^M^ others commonly known by this term. But are they "true" bulbs? And just what is a true bulb? A true bulb is composed of leaves modified for storage and attached to a basal plate that can be considered a squashed stem (Plate 43). Crocuses are regarded as bulbs; in fact, they are not true bulbs but corms. Here, the base of the stem is used to store food, as is also the case with the gladiolus, which is regarded (in the broad sense) as a bulb. In the genus Iris can be found true bulbs, as well as rhizomes, but a rhizome is actually a creeping stem swollen to enable foods to be stored. Many begonias are considered tuberous, the tuber being an underground branch modified for storage and capable of producing buds and roots. These are not true bulbs but, to the world at large, bulbs, corms, rhizomes, and tubers all fall under the umbrella term bulb. The diversity of color, flower form, size, habitat, and desirable growing conditions of bulbous plants rivals all other forms of vegetation. The flowers of certain Crocus species just manage to peep above the ground, while the towering shoots of Dahlia imperialis often will reach more than 16 feet in one season of growth. Bulbs are found all over the world. Nomocharis is found above 12,000 feet in southwestern Sichuan Province, China; Hyacinthoides non-scripta (English bluebell) in the wooded areas and glades of Great Britain; Watsonia at the southern tip of Africa. Camassia quamash is at home in the wet meadows of the Pacific Northwest. The principal areas of the world, however, that are the common natural habitats of a high percentage of these plants are the Mediterranean; South Africa; Western Asia, especially Turkey and Iran; Central Asia and Afghanistan; the area around the Black Sea and the Caucasus; and the Pacific coasts of North and South America. Fewer bulbous genera are indigenous to Japan, tropical and North Africa, Great Britain, and eastern North America.

Despite this great diversity, the majority of bulbous plants have a common characteristic, namely, a dormant period. This period in a bulb's life cycle is brought about by prevailing growing conditions, such as the heat and dryness of summer or the extreme cold (accompanied by snow) of winter. It is doubtful, however, that all activity actually stops, since many unexplained changes take place inside the bulb during this dormant, or resting, stage. A spring crocus comes into flower as soon as (or just as) the snows melt, the moisture being supplied by the melting snows. Such moisture allows for only a short growing season. The flowers are followed by the foliage, and, after it withers, the bulb enters the dormant state during the dry summer. In the fall, as moisture becomes available, the bulb produces roots and is thus able to flower again in the spring, when the snows melt and the temperature of the soil rises. Its growth cycle is thus complete. Bluebells, enjoying the comparatively mild climate of Great Britain, will be brought to life by the warming soil of spring, accompanied by adequate moisture. The flowers and the foliage that sustain the strength of the bulb are produced well before the deciduous trees produce their canopy of leaves. In this way the bluebells can manufacture the necessary food before the sun is hidden by the leaves. You will never find them growing below evergreens as, underneath such a canopy, there is not enough light for them to complete their life cycle. Once the trees are in full leaf, the bluebells drift into a state of dormancy. Light or lack of it, however, is not the only factor that triggers dormancy, although it is the principal one. The other factor is the gradual reduction in available moisture. The active roots of the trees remove the moisture from the top inches of soil, making it less readily available to the shallower-rooted bulbs. Thus, bluebells are adapted to their environment. Nerines, coming from a part of the world that enjoys winter rainfall, produce their leaves during that season. Often the rainfall will be sufficient to support the foliage for a number of

13

14

Chapter 1

months. During the drier summer months the bulb becomes dormant. In late summer the flowers come, mature, and the seed ripens. With the advent of the winter rains, the seed germinates and grows into spring, becomes dormant when summer conies, and remains dormant until the rains come again. When the growing bulb, derived from the seedling, has reached the size at which it can produce a flower, it will do so at the end of the summer, well before the arrival of the winter rains. The foliage then follows, and the seedling, now an adult, will continue with the pattern of its life cycle. What triggers the flower production? The accumulation of warmth in the soil causes chemical changes in the bulb, which in turn trigger the interior mechanism for flower growth. Lilium, a genus unique to the Northern Hemisphere, exhibits a variety of flowering times. For example, L formosanum, which comes from a moist and subtropical habitat unusual for any other Lilium species, seems to flower in almost every month of the year. A dwarf variety of this species, collected at 8000 feet (and higher) above sea level, where the winters are cold, flowers in July to August and behaves like a typical bulb. The plants from the warmer climate (at lower elevations) are not long lived, but seed production is prolific, and they will flower in six months from seed. This almost continuous growing season and quick flowering apparently cause the bulbs to exhaust themselves. A large bulb is not produced; however, the species is able to perpetuate itself because of this rapid and prolific seed production. Why, then, is a bulb, even if small, produced at all? We seem to be confronted here with a kind of "Which came first, the chicken or the egg?" situation. Did the dwarf form come down from the higher elevation, where the formation of a bulb is necessary for the species to survive, to the lower location, where seed production is more important, or did the reverse occur? Was it a natural transition, or was there some kind of massive land shift? These and other questions remain unanswered, but certainly not for lack of trying on the part of the world's botanists, who are constantly experimenting, testing, arranging, rearranging—all with a view toward greater clarification and more exact classification. I believe I can provide an answer to the question of the need for either a bulb or seeds. Due to the agreeable growing conditions throughout the year, the plant in the warmer climate does not need the production of a bulb to survive. It behaves more like a short-lived perennial in this climate so conducive to continual growth, with prolific seed production ensuring the continuation of the species. That a bulb is produced leads me to believe that at one time there was but one species, dependent upon bulb production for survival. Perhaps, in a matter of time—and who knows how many thousands of years that might be—this tropical form will lose its characteristics of a bulbous plant and become a short-lived perennial, or even perhaps a biennial. Adaptation is the key word here. It refers to that amazing ability of all living things to acclimate themselves to the constantly changing environment of this world.

The conditions bulbous plants enjoy in their natural habitats must be taken into consideration to grow them successfully in cultivation; we must duplicate in our gardens the environment they knew, or were adapted to, in the wild. Then will they become permanent residents of our gardens and not just shortterm visitors. Today's bulb industry is firmly established in those areas of the world where growers can duplicate by various cultural practices the conditions the many genera have found to their liking and to which they have become adapted in the wild. Europe, the Netherlands (Plates 19-21), and, to some degree, England have a climate that can support a vast bulb industry. The Pacific Northwest produces many lilies and daffodils, as well as bulbous plants native to that area. Japan raises a significant number of many kinds of bulbs, principally tulips, lilies, and the so-called minor bulbs. South Africa is an important center for anemones, ranunculus, freesias, hippeastrums, chincherinchees, and other bulbs. With such diversity of form and with the apparent disappearance and reappearance of most bulbous plants each year, it is not surprising that they have entered into folklore. They were esteemed by the ancients. The properties of bulbs for curing the sick, prescribed by peoples of yesteryear, were numerous. Lilies and yarrows, boiled together in butter, produced an excellent salve for burns. Saffron in wine would relieve or cure the more unpleasant results of overindulgence in alcohol. Perhaps one of the more unusual was the idea that the sex of an unborn child could be determined by presenting the expectant mother with a lily and a rose—selecting the rose denoted a girl, the lily, a boy. Using bulbs in tribal medicine, as is the case in South Africa, has resulted in the depletion of several species in the wild. Such practices are continuing, and it is becoming obvious that an alternative supply is needed, that is, commercial production of the species involved to be made available at affordable prices to those dependent on such plants. In my opinion, subsidizing such productions will provide the only way extinction, in the wild, of certain species can be avoided. Mythology is replete with tales in which flowering bulbs play an important role. Hyacinthus, a beautiful Laconian youth, was killed by Apollo in a fit of jealous rage. The spilled blood of Hyacinthus was changed by Apollo into the flower we know as the hyacinth. Similarly, the blood of Adonis, the lover of Aphrodite who was slain while hunting, is said to stain the red flower that bears his name. The narcissus that nods at the waterside is said to have originated when a beautiful youth of that name, entranced by his own reflection in a pool, faded away and was transformed into the flower. From early times bulbs have been part of the fabric of the human race. Their beauty has inspired mankind throughout the centuries and has been realized and appreciated in literature, paintings, other art forms, and, most importantly, in living art—our gardens.

CHAPTER

2

A Matter of History Bulbs in mythology, folklore, literature, and art', their introduction to cultivation

j~-m /* ow does one condense and still do justice to the • f j mountain of information known about bulbous i i plants in the history of mankind, and in mythology, / -A. folklore, literature, and art? The task is almost impossible! Volumes and volumes have been written covering all of these subjects. How else would we have become familiar with the legendary characters in Greek mythology who have given their names to many of our beautiful flowering bulbs—Crocus, Hyacinth, and Narcissus? There was Iris, believed to be the messenger of the gods, who led the souls of dead women to the Elysian Fields, where the flower bearing her name was planted on their graves. She also was the goddess of the rainbow, and her varicolored namesakes reflect this. While Greek mythology is filled with these tales, the mythology of other countries brings us similar stories, an example being the story of the tulip. In Persian legend, Ferhad loved the young maiden Shirin, but, unfortunately, his love was spurned. He went into the desert to die, where each tear he shed turned into a flower called lale in Persian, the flowering bulb we call the tulip. This name actually is derived from the Turkish tulbend, "turban," so-called because of its resemblance to the traditional Turkish headdress. Eventually the word evolved to tulipam. Mythology leads to folklore, which in turn leads to history, which is a compendium of all that is known of human cultures, including literature and art. Very often it is difficult to distinguish between the real and the fanciful, but we do know that some legends are of dependable substance. For example the "old wives tales" of the use of bulbous plants for food and medicine are true, because some of these bulbs are still so used today. Much of this information has been given us by the herbalists, that wonderful group of scientists, most of whom were physicians, who dedicated years and years to compiling texts on the medicinal qualities of plants. But they, too, were unable at times

X

to distinguish between fact and fiction, so these fascinating tales became part of their learned treatises. It was once thought that the liquid obtained by steeping the flower portions of the lily-of-the-valley in water would cure apoplexy, gout, rheumatism, sprains, poor memory, headaches, and on and on. We now use it as a slightly less potent substitute for digitalis in the treatment of heart disease and as a diuretic. Mention the lily, especially Lilium candidum, and immediately several images come to mind—purity, chastity, innocence. In Christianity the lily is the symbol of the Virgin Mother, in Judaism, the symbol of motherhood. It too is used primarily for medicinal purposes. The mucilaginous substance concocted when the bulb is cooked is employed as an external compress for tumors, ulcers, and inflammations; as an ointment, it is an emollient for softening corns and helping to heal scalds and burns. And let us not forget that the oil of the lily was used from antiquity to "cleareth ye face and maketh them without wrinkles." In a few countries, however, especially in the Far East, the bulb is eaten and enjoyed. Dahlia tubers were used at one time to prepare a diabetic sugar. Although no longer popular as a sugar substitute, they are still useful in deriving chemical substances employed in medical testing of liver and kidney function. It is not my desire to entertain you with any more of these fascinating details, but, perhaps, to whet your appetite to learn more and so send you to those books with full descriptions of bulbs in mythology and folklore. Let us go on to history, both of the written word and of art, for much of our knowledge is gleaned from the art works of early peoples. Again, we will look at just a smattering of examples, enough to show you how the bulbous plants were and remain important in our world. Ancient relics reveal that as early as 2200 B.C. (and possibly much earlier) representations of lilies, tulips, irises, and other bulbs were found on walls, vases, and other artifacts. The Mi-

15

16

Chapter 2

noans of Crete depicted the lily (which is said to have been their sacred flower) in any number of ways; the tulip, seen on a black pottery jar outlined in white; the iris, painted on a number of walls, including their palaces; and the crocus, found on a pottery jug, in a fresco on a palace wall, as well as on the robes dedicated to one of their goddesses. Bulbs were memorialized on the thrones and tombs of early Egyptian pharaohs. Most of these relics were found in the Mediterranean region, for this was their home. At the risk of alienating some of my readers who may think levity has no place in a book of this kind, I must say this is where their "roots" were. In A.D. 50, Dioscorides, a Greek herbalist, presented his treatise De Materia Medica, in which he detailed the medicinal properties of about 600 plants and which was the leading pharmacology text for more than a thousand years. An English translation of his work was made in 1655. Many herbals have been published since, each adding some new-found facts to the countless number already known. And, as research continues, more books will come, with fresh ideas and data. The time when the inhabitants of the Mediterranean lands first lifted the various bulbs growing in the wild and planted them in their gardens marks their introduction into culture. While the first plants introduced usually are species, it is more than likely that the first major bulb introduction into Western Europe, the tulip, was already hybridized. Gathered into the gardens in a country where this genus is native, and with species from different areas being planted together for display, the opportunity for cross-hybridization was created. The seedlings that resulted from such natural cross-pollination undoubtedly produced many variations. That hybridization actually took place is supported by the fact that in the sixteenth century many different "sorts" were being grown. Note that the records define these "sorts" as distinct from "species." These would have been made, albeit by chance, long before the bulb was introduced into Western culture. Today, more than 70 species of tulips are recognized, yet, as late as the 1930s, the exact number had not been determined. This is yet another confirmation that hybrids were first introduced along with species. The parentage of certain cultivars, especially the older ones and those first introduced, confuse breeders to this day. In Islamic culture, the tulip was well regarded. Omar Khayyam mentioned it in his writing, prior to the thirteenth century. Species were collected by Mohammed Babur, the first Mogul ruler in India, in the early part of the sixteenth century. Pierre Belon, the French naturalist, traveling in Turkey in that same century, described the gardens as having many "red lilies"—in all probability a reference to tulips. When Suleiman the Magnificent was besieging Vienna (1529), Emperor Ferdinand I of Austria wished to talk peace with him and sent Augier Ghislain de Busbecq. This was indeed a fortunate choice for the world's gardeners. Busbecq admired the tulips he saw growing in the gardens of Constantinople, bought a number of them, and shipped them back to Ferdinand's gardens in Vienna. The bulbs came under the care of Carolus Clusius (Plate 18). A short time later, Clusius left Vienna

to take an appointment as professor of botany at the University of Leiden in the Netherlands and his bulbs went with him. This garden is well worth a visit. The Dutch not only admired the tulips, but such was their love for them that they paid tremendous prices for just a single bulb. The "tulipmania" that engulfed the Netherlands early in the seventeenth century was the high point of the passion to obtain these grand garden additions. At this point, I would like to give a chronological list of when bulbs were introduced in England. I chose this country as it has long been in the forefront of botanic science and horticultural enterprise, and so representative of when various plants were brought into general cultivation. Year

Botanic name

1562 1570

Tulipa Canna indica

1570 1576

1587 1594 1596 1596 1596 1596 1596 1596 1596 1596 1596 1596 1596 1600 1613 1615 1629 1629 1629 1629 1664 1677 1690 1702 1712 1731 1731 1732 1739 1739

Country of origin

Turkey Warm and tropical America Iris latifolia (as I. xiphioides) Pyrenees Narcissus pseudonardssus Spain subsp. major (as N. hispanicus) Moraea ciliata South Africa Allium sphaerocephalon Europe to Iran Balkans, North Africa Bellevalia romana (as Hyacinthus romanus) Erythronium dens-canis Europe, Asia, Japan Mediterranean Gladiolus communis Central Europe Leucojum vernum Central Europe Lilium martagon Europe Muscari comosum Asia Minor Muscari muscarimi (as M. moschatum) Southern and Eastern Ornithogalum comosum Europe Asia Minor Ranunculus asiaticus Cyprus Scillaamoena Europe Sternbergia lutea Levant Hermodactylus tuberosus Southern Europe Cyclamen purpurascens (as C. europaeum) Southern Europe Pancratium illyricum South Africa Agapanthus africanus Southern Europe Paradisea Uliastrum Mexico Polianthes tuberosa United States Zephyranthes atamasca North America Arisaema triphyllum Brazil Hippeastrum reticulatum Tropical Asia, Africa Gloriosa superba South Africa Eucomis regia South Africa Amaryllis belladonna South Africa Haemanthus coccineus South Africa Zantedeschia aethiopica Tropical Asia Crinum asiaticum Mediterranean Allium victorialis Mediterranean Romulea bulbocodium

A Matter of History

Year

Botanic name

Country of origin

Year

Botanic name

Country of origin

1750 1752

Watsonia meriana Brunsvigia josephinae (as B. gigantea) Lachenalia orchioides Alstroemeria pelegrina Amianthum muscitoxicun Lycoris radiata Sparaxis grandiflora Sprekelia formosissima Chasmanthe aethiopica Hymenocallis speciosa Trillium erectum Albuca major Veltheimia bracteata (as V. viridifolia) Oxalis violacea Babiana disticha (as "B. plicata") Cyrtanthus elatus (as Vallota speciosa) Tritonia lineata Tritonia securigera Achimenes erecta (as A. coccinea) Hesperantha spicata (as H. cinnamomea) Nerine fothergillii (as N. curvifolia) Wurmbea capensis Lapeirousia corymbosa Homeria collina Tigridia pavonia Dahlia pinnata (as D. variabilis) Eremurus spectabilis

South Africa South Africa

1827

Herbertia pulchella

1837

Camassia quamash

1844

Ixiolirion Ixiolirion tataricum subsp. montanum (as I. montanum) Notholirion thomsonianum Eucharis Candida Cardiocrinum giganteum Sandersonia aurantiaca Lilium nanum (as Nomocharis nana) Littonia modesta Caladium picturatum Galanthus nivalis Arum hygrophilum Hesperantha coccinea (as Schizostylis coccinea} Bloomeria crocea (as B. aurea) Tecophilaea cyanocrocus Chionodoxa luciliae Eranthis cilicica Dracunculus vulgaris Pamianthe peruviana Anemone biflora Hesperantha baurii Lilium mackliniae Begonia viscida Crocus abantensis Bellevalia modesta Gladiolus macrospathus Gladiolus negeliensis Iris curvifolia Iris sanguinea var. yixingensis Allium tuncelianum (as A. macrochaetum subsp. tuncelianum) Gladiolus balensis Gladiolus manikaensis Lachenalia elegans var. flava Albuca pendula

Southern South America to Brazil Western North America Central Asia

1752 1754 1758 1758 1758 1758 1759 1759 1759 1767 1768 1772 1774 1774 1774 1774 1778 1787 1788 1788 1791 1793 1796 1798 1800 1804

1806 1812 1816 1819 1820 1821 1823 1823 1823 1825 1826 1826

Begonia grandis subsp. evansiana (as B. evansiana) Brodiaea coronaria Blandfordia grandiflora Freesia refracta Puschkinia scilloides Stenomesson croceum Habranthus gracilifolius Belamcanda chinensis Colchicum trigyna (as Merendera trigyna) Cypella herbertii Sparaxis elegans Fritillaria ruthenica Leucocoryne ixioides

South Africa Chile North America China South Africa Mexico South Africa West Indies Eastern North America South Africa South Africa United States South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa Peru South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa South Africa Mexico Mexico Asia Minor to Western Pakistan China, Japan

1844 1851 1852 1852 1853 1853 1854 1856 1860 1864 1869 1872 1877 1892 1910 1928 1935 1936 1946 1969 1973 1980 1981 1982 1982 1982 1983

Western North America Australia South Africa Asia Minor Peru Uruguay China Caucasus, Iran Brazil South Africa Caucasus Chile

1983 1984 1988 1991

17

Afghanistan Colombia Himalayas South Africa Northern India, Tibet South Africa Peru Europe Syria South Africa United States (California) Chile Asia Minor Greece Mediterranean Peru Iran South Africa India Mexico Turkey Turkey Burundi Ethiopia China China Turkey

Ethiopia Congo South Africa Saudi Arabia

In 1493 Pope Alexander VI had given the lands of the Caribbean to Spain and Portugal, a gift confirmed in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1506. Not unnaturally, England and France objected strenuously. Ships under the command of such great seamen as Sir Francis Drake and Sir Walter Raleigh sailed into the region known as the Spanish Main. It is possible they returned

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Chapter 2

with many plants, including the potato, the tomato, and tobacco, as well as one bulbous plant, the canna. Who actually was responsible for the introduction of the latter is not known, although the recorded date of its introduction into culture is 1570. The choice of this particular bulb could have been due to its resemblance to the ginger plant, as spices commanded high prices at that time. In sixteenth-century Great Britain, growing unusual and different plants was in vogue. Wealthy and influential people vied with one another not only in the creation of great gardens but also growing new and unique species. The plants came from all over the Western world. Lord Zouche sent seeds from Crete, Italy, and Spain. Queen Elizabeth's envoy to France, Lord Hunsdon, sent home rare plants that he came across. John Gerard, a surgeon and head gardener to Lord Burleigh, chief secretary of state under Queen Elizabeth I, listed more than one thousand plants in his 1596 publication, Catalogus arborumfruticum, all of which were purported to be growing in that garden. This accounts for the date of introduction as shown in my list, although they were introduced prior to this time. The date given, however, is the earliest on record for these plants. One year later, Gerard published his famous Herbal. The great expansion of trade that took place during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries accounts for many bulbous plants being introduced during that period. One in particular, native to South Africa and introduced in 1587, could well have been the result of its particular properties—Moraea. Thunberg writes in his Kaffraria that the roots of this plant were eaten by the Hottentots. They were roasted, boiled, or stewed with milk and appeared to him to be both palatable and nourishing, tasting much like potatoes. South Africa, thanks to the voyages of such fifteenth- and sixteenth-century explorers as Bartholomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama, had fast become an important element in world trade. One of the lucrative by-products of the commercial business was the trade in human lives—slavery. It is highly possible that Moraea bulbs were used to feed slaves on the long sea journeys and so came into cultivation elsewhere purely by chance. The roots of this plant can be harvested and stored for a considerable time without spoiling. This trait would have made them an ideal food for long sea voyages to distant lands. Chance, however, played no part in the introduction of most plants into cultivation. After the Crusades, Great Britain became an integral part of Europe. During the reign of Henry VIII, seeds and plants accompanied state papers in the pouches of traveling diplomats. In 1551 William Turner, doctor of physics at Oxford, had been put in charge of the gardens at Sion House; the Index Kewensis credits him with being the first to record and introduce many plants. The interest in plants by merchants, which resulted in the introduction of many species, including Lilium martagon, is recorded by John Gerard. Concerning one Nicholas Lete, a merchant who traded with the Levant, Gerard wrote that Lete was "greatly in love with rare floures." He also noted that Lete sent his servants into Syria and other countries for plants, to such an extent that Gerard and the whole land was grateful to him.

William Harrison, dean of Windsor, in his Description of England (1577), wrote that "strange herbs, plants, and annual fruits are daily brought unto us from the Indies, America, Ceylon, the Canary Islands and all parts of the world." Such was the increase in the number of bulbous plants which had been introduced that John Parkinson (1629) mentioned daffodils, fritillaries, iacinthes [sic], saffron flowers (crocuses), lilies, fiowerdeluces, tulips, anemones, cyclamen, and muscari. He also was familiar with the blue agapanthus and Ornithogalum aethiopica. The names of those responsible for their introduction were not mentioned, except that "they were gathered by some Hollanders on the West side of the Cape of Good Hope." That such plants came into cultivation is not surprising. The Cape Peninsula of South Africa, an area of 500 square kilometers, contains more species (some 2600) than the entire British Isles (which is more than 600 times larger but has only some 1500 species) and includes a veritable treasure trove of bulbous plants. The Dutch East India Company established a garden in Cape Town in 1652 to supply its ships with fresh fruits and vegetables. The indigenous plants came under the scrutiny of a professional botanist, Paul Herman, when he visited there in 1672 and 1680. Herman was professor of botany at Leiden, the home of Clusius, and while he himself did introduce some plants, his pupil, Hendrich Bernard Oldenland, did more. Oldenland, a Dane, became superintendent of the Cape Town garden and, together with his master gardener Jan Hartog, journeyed into the interior of this plantsman's paradise and sent back to Europe seeds, bulbs, and plants. The garden in Cape Town is still there, now a delightful park next to the Parliament. Despite the richness of the known flora, the potential for use in European gardens was not fully exploited. For example, until 1747, there were few introductions from South Africa. In that year, Johan Andreas Auge, a German gardener who had studied in the Netherlands, was appointed assistant gardener in Cape Town. He made many trips into the interior and put together collections of plants for sale, which were purchased by the crews from ships putting in at Cape Town for supplies. The beauty of the flora became known, and the Cape became a favorite place for botanists. One of these botanists, Carl Peter Thunberg, a pupil of Carl Linnaeus, arrived in South Africa in 1772. Together with Auge, he undertook expeditions into the areas where the flora was prolific and varied, enriching the collection in the garden at Cape Town. The arrival there of the Scotsman Francis Masson, however, actually marks the beginning of the period of significant introduction of bulbous plants. Masson was sent to South Africa at the suggestion of Sir Joseph Banks, the most distinguished naturalist in Great Britain and the head of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. He was the first of many official collectors sent out by Banks, and he, too, teamed with Thunberg, a most fortunate circumstance. The botanist and gardener made a great team. Among the bulbs they discovered were Ixia, Lachenalia, Zantedeschia aethiopica (calla), Ornithogalum thyrsoides (chincherinchee), and Gladiolus. We owe much to the efforts of these two

A Matter of History men, as the introductions from South Africa in the eighteenth century were extremely significant. Plants that had long been in cultivation in their native lands should have been prime candidates for introduction when those countries established communications with Europe, but this was not always the case. The dahlia is an example. The Aztecs had used the dahlia in many of their medicines. The plants, however, did not excite much enthusiasm in Europe until 1791, when Antonio J. Cavanilles published Icones. In 1789 the marchioness of Bute was in Spain, where she saw the lovely flower for the first time. She sent one of the tubers to England, but it died. Then, in 1804, the dahlia was truly introduced and became popular, and all because of a bit of a scandal. It's rather fun to know that the history of bulbs includes something other than cut-and-dried facts. Sir Godfrey Webster and his wife were living in Florence at the end of the eighteenth century. Lady Webster fell in love with a Lord Holland and eloped with him. Lord Webster finally divorced her, whereupon she married Holland, and they seemed to have had a very successful marriage. In 1804 she saw dahlias in Spain and sent some of them back to England. They thrived and she is given credit for having brought that lovely flower to Great Britain. Sir Joseph Banks, whose work in the field of botany was outstanding and to whom gardeners all over the world owe a deep debt of gratitude, persuaded King George, in 1803, to sponsor William Kerr on a plant-hunting journey to China. Interest in China's flora was sparked by David Lance, who was in charge of the East India Company's factory in Canton. Kerr sailed in 1803 and by 1804 had sent back significant collections. Among the plants were Begonia evansiana and Lilium japonicum. Kerr was not credited with their introduction, however, having fallen out of favor (possibly because he had become addicted to opium), and the credit went to Lance or the Company's directors. Thanks to two missionaries in China, Pere Delavay and Armand David, the Western World came to know of the great genus Nomocharis, as well as many new species of already introduced genera. Their writings and discoveries made apparent the richness of the flora and the value of plants from this temperate region to European gardens. Many plant hunters subsequently explored the area, despite the great difficulties of travel in that turbulent part of the world. Among such men were Augustine Henry, after whom Lilium henryi was named; E. H. Wilson, who introduced L regale; Robert Fortune; George Forrest; Francis Kingdon Ward; and, in more recent times, Frank Ludlow and Major George Sheriff. Books written by these men are fascinating and well worth reading. North America also contributed to the richness of bulbous plants in cultivation. David Douglas, who met such an untimely death in Hawaii, explored the West Coast, sending back many different species. Thomas Nuttall introduced Camassia fraseri. The lovely Erythronium grandiflorum we owe to the explorations of Lewis and Clark. William Bartram and John Lyon also introduced bulbous plants to Europe. South America, the native habitat of a number of plants that we enjoy in our bulb gardens, also contributed, but not to the

19

same extent as other parts of the world. Theodore Hartweg introduced Achimenes longiflora and Edward F. Poeppig introduced the amaryllis and alstroemerias, the first sight of which made him shout with joy. William Lobb and Harold Comber were instrumental in bringing bulbs out of South America. As so frequently happens, many of the first introductions did not survive. We owe a deep debt of gratitude to Comber, who reintroduced the alstroemerias; the grand hybrids we enjoy today were raised from his plants. These plants are finally receiving the attention they deserve from hybridizers and, with the many new colors being developed, are becoming increasingly important as cut flowers, especially in Europe. Flowers appeal to our esthetic values, to our appreciation of form and color. Throughout the ages, artists have endeavored to appeal to the human mind by capturing on canvas, in sculpture, and as engravings their grace, color, and charm, as well as to make a permanent record to which reference can be made at any time of the year. While early wooden engravings did not allow for great detail, the copper and steel plates that followed allowed for the finest details to be captured. In many older books, the flowers were hand painted, inadvertent works of art, although they were produced mainly for purposes of identification. They were produced in limited numbers, primarily by members of religious orders, where most scholars were to be found at that time, and used primarily by them. We have already spoken of the representation of lilies, irises, and other bulbs in ancient times. During the Middle Ages, life was dominated, and in large part measured, by the tenets of the Christian religion. Woodblock illustrations in herbals depicted flowers for practical, everyday use in the identification of plants used mainly for medicinal purposes. When plants were depicted in paintings or in other art forms, however, their principal role was symbolic, reflecting the current Christian interpretation of particular flowers. Thus, most paintings of the Annunciation included the Madonna lily. Duccio di Buoninsegna (1260-1339), in his painting of the Annunciation now in the National Gallery in London, placed a pot of lilies between Mary and the angel, a symbolic usage in keeping with the age. Fra Filippo Lippi, when painting his Annunciation a hundred years later, portrayed a container of Madonna lilies. He, however, showed them in a more naturalistic style now associated with the early Renaissance. The mode in which they were presented is evidence that, especially in northern Italy, plants were being grown, and grown well, in containers. The painting shows not just stems of flowers placed in a container but also an actual plant, complete with foliage. Such containers were placed most often on window sills and balconies. The custom of bringing plants and cut flowers into the home for decorative purposes did not really begin until the nineteenth century. Prior to that time, herbs and other aromatic plants were used indoors, not as decoration but for the fragrance they exuded when walked upon, which made dwellings (fetid with the odors resulting from primitive sanitation) more habitable. Early in the fifteenth century, painters began to portray flowers in much greater detail. During the Renaissance the domi-

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nant influence of the Catholic church began to decline, especially in northern Europe. In depictions of still lifes, scenes of everyday, ordinary objects, including flowers, became an accepted and predominant motif of artists. Interestingly, acceptance of this form of art coincides with the introduction of the tulip into the Netherlands. Thus, plants and flowers became common subjects for the painters of the Lowlands, although most often shown with other subjects. Ludger Tom Ring, a Westphalian painter, did a still life in 1562 which was distinct from paintings created previously to that time—his subjects were irises and lilies. Jan Brueghel (1568-1625), of the famous Flemish family of artists, painted magnificent portraitures of flowers. One cannot help but marvel at the diversity of flowers he assembled in a painting. Flowers in bloom at different times of the year are shown together: summer-flowering lilies are mixed with spring-blooming tulips and daffodils. It must be remembered that artists would often make sketches of the various flowers at the time they blossomed, and, when commissioned to produce a painting, would draw upon the subjects they had sketched, assembling them to create a grand floral painting. Beauty, not adherence to factual representation of a particular season, was the rule that governed. For the same reason, each flower was shown at its very best. No imperfect flowers, no wilted or faded flowers—even a fallen petal was shown in perfect shape. During this time it also was the custom, requested by art patrons, that the flowers be depicted against a dark, mostly black background. Not until the time of Jan van Huysum (1682-1749) were other backgrounds used. French painter Philippe Rousseau (1816-1887) depicted crocuses and hyacinths on one of his canvases. They are shown not as cut flowers in a vase with each petal in perfect condition and in its right place, but more as we frequently find them— some a little past their prime, some simply thrust into a glass of water, some growing in soil in a small, clay pot. An interesting element of this same picture is a hyacinth growing in a vase, with its roots in water; the shape of the vase is identical with the hyacinth vases still used today. Against a brown background, with the flowers resting on a ledge, it looks for all the world like a corner of a work area where the flowers have been placed for a moment, not arranged for a painting—a very natural setting. It should be noted that the subjects painted by Rousseau— crocuses and hyacinths—signified the end of the dominance of the tulip, lily, and iris in art. A greater variety of bulbs, from many different areas of the world, some quite exotic, was starting to be appreciated and grown for enjoyment both in the home and in the garden. The art of the period reflected this shift. The tulip and daffodil reemerge in one work of French painter Paul Cezanne (1839-1906), but with a slight difference. The tulips are of a solid color and the daffodils have a red cup. They are not shown in a formal arrangement but thrust into a vase, as we do in our homes, where the flowers are loved for the qualities they hold and not just as stylized decorations. The great European noble houses also appreciated the beauty of flowers. Not infrequently they selected them as part of

their coat of arms. Their banners often depicted, in stylized form, the flower of a bulbous plant. The fleur-de-lis of France is perhaps one of the better-known examples. "Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow, they toil not, neither do they spin, and yet I say unto you that Solomon in all his glory was not arrayed like one of these" is possibly one of the best-known passages in the Bible. Although many have tried to determine the precise flower to which Christ referred, there remains some doubt regarding the exact species. Early commentators thought the reference was to either Lilium chalcedonicum or L. candidum. Modern opinion leans toward the anemone, while others think it a general reference to wild flowers. The desire to intertwine the symbolic with the practical can be seen in the intense discussion that has revolved around this point. Greater knowledge and understanding of the flora of the area where Christ taught has led some to pinpoint and identify the exact plants to which He referred. It is hoped that in such discussions dealing with the need to combine the practical with the symbolic, the very beauty of the illustration used is not overlooked or does not go unappreciated. On the author's coat-ofarms, tulip bulbs are featured together with other elements pertaining to the family. Some of the world's greatest writers have used the flowers of various bulbs in telling their stories. The lily has been a favorite, both in a serious vein, as above, and in a more jocular fashion. In their operetta "Patience," Gilbert and Sullivan announce: "You will rank as an apostle in the high aesthetic band if you walk down Piccadilly with a poppy or a lily in your medieval hand." And John Ruskin, in his Stones of Venice, wrote: "Remember the most beautiful things in this world are the most useless, peacocks and lilies for instance." Few gardeners would agree! Although we generally associate the white-flowered lily with purity and sweetness (yellow, being the color of cowards in such phrases as yellow-bellied, when used with flowers may mean "falsehood," but no one seems to know why) and relate it to religion, it was only selected four times by Roman Catholic monks in assigning flowers to each day of the year and dedicating a flower to the saints. The daffodil seems to have been the favorite, a dozen species being mentioned—five for March, four for April, and one each for February, May, and October. Of this flower, Shakespeare (The Winter's Tale, IV, iii) wrote, "Daffodils, that come before the swallow dares, and take the winds of March with beauty." English poet John Masefield (in "The West Wind") wrote, "and April's in the west wind, and daffodils." Both were correct, as daffodils flower during those months in Great Britain. It is interesting to note that the great authors were keen observers of nature. The beauty of daffodils moving in the wind also inspired William Wordsworth when he wrote possibly the best-known verse about flowers (/ Wandered Lonely as a Cloud): I wandered lonely as a cloud That floats on high o'er vales and hills, When all at once I saw a crowd,

A Matter of History A host, of golden daffodils; Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. What better way to describe the ideal location to plant a mass of daffodils for naturalizing. The second most popular flower dedicated to the Saints is the crocus, with 10. It seldom inspired the poets, however, despite its symbolic meaning—cheerfulness. That writers should refer to the tulip in the eighteenth century is not surprising, considering the tulipmania that gripped the Netherlands at the time. It is understandable that Samuel Johnson should write, "The business of a poet... is to examine, not the individual, but the species;... he does not number the streaks of the tulip, or describe the different shades in the verdure of the forest."

21

Lord Byron wrote, "Heaven is free from clouds, but of all colours seems to be, / Melted to one vast Iris of the West, where the day joins the past Eternity." Can any description better conjure the wide variety of colors found in the irises? Perhaps the meaning of "iris" in the language of flowers—"I have a message for you"—coupled with Byron's words, gives that meaning added significance. In the calendar of the monks, Valentine's Day, 14 February, was the day of the crocus, but in modern usage the rose has replaced it. Other bulbs mentioned are four days for the amaryllis, three for the tulip, two for the hyacinth and crown imperial, and one each for the anemone, snowdrop, cyclamen, star of Bethlehem, ixia, day lily, agapanthus, colchicum, arum, and ranunculus. Thus have the bulbous plants become an integral part of the fabric of life.

CHAPTER

3

Botany and Classification of Bulbs True bulbs, corms, rhizomes, and tubers, what they are and how they function, their taxonomy and nomenclature

Botany of Bulbs A true bulb consists of a stem and leaves altered or adapted for storage. The stem is compressed into a flattened plate, from which roots are produced and on which leaves, modified for storage, are placed. These modified leaves are fleshy, because they are filled with the plant's food reserves. The actual placement of the leaves can differ. In the tulip, hyacinth, and daffodil, they are layered closely around each other, forming a tunicated bulb; that is, the outermost leaves form a tunic around the bulb, with the outer leaves often dry and brown in color. In all other bulbs, the leaves are not wrapped but overlap each other, do not form a tunic, and are more succulent, as in the lily and fritillary. Such bulbs are known as scaly bulbs. Between the leaves, lateral buds rise from the basal plate and eventually form the daughter bulb(s) when the parent dies. The actual number of growing seasons required by such a daughter to achieve independence will vary. In the tulip the parent dies after flowering; in the daffodil the parent may live for more than two seasons, with daughter bulb(s) sharing the same basal plate. From the basal plate, normally on the upper side in the center, the flower stem is found in a contracted, telescoped form. In some bulbs the embryonic flowers are formed the previous season, as in the hyacinth. In others, this stem will produce leaves and flowers on the same stalk during the season of growth. The lily is an example of the latter. Not all bulbous plants arise from a true bulb, however. Included in this vast family are those produced from corms, rhizomes, and tubers. A corm is a stem that is swollen and modified for storage. The normal shape is rounded, flattened on top, and slightly concave on the bottom. On the top will be found the young buds; roots will be produced from the basal area. Frequently a corm will produce a brown skin, not dissimilar in appearance to the tunic of a true bulb. Upon being cut, however, the corm will

22

appear solid. The new corm will grow on top of the old one being formed at the base of the new stem, which is produced from the bud(s) on the top side of the corm. On the basal plate, young, small corms, known as cormels, will arise. The quantity of cormels produced often can be quite large. Crocus, Gladiolus, and Watsonia are corms. A rhizome is a swollen underground stem (sometimes breaking the surface of the soil) from the apices (ends) of which shoots emerge. The roots are produced on the underside; side branches will be formed which have leaves with roots on the undersides and foliage at their apices. The most commonly recognized rhizome is the iris, although some iris species are true bulbs. A tuber also is a swollen underground stem, but not the base of a stem as in a corm. It is usually fleshy, rounded, and covered with scaly leaves, often minute and concentrated toward the top of the tuber. In the axils, eyes develop which produce the stems. One example is the tuberous begonia. Another is the dahlia, whose eyes or buds (often known as tuberous roots) are found at the base of the older stem(s).

Dormancy As we handle bulbs (in the broad sense) mostly when they are dormant, we ought to understand just when a bulb is dormant. Dormancy is a state of suspended growth, and this definition accurately describes the dormant period of a bulb. A bulb ceases active growth when climatic conditions impose that state and when such ceasing of active growth will not cause it harm. Dormancy can be imposed, for example, by not providing moisture. A bulb allowed to become dry will enter the state of dormancy, while a bulb of the same species will continue (to a greater or lesser degree) in growth, if moisture is provided. But, at a given point dictated by its internal clock, a bulb will become dormant with or without water. Dormancy then is, in many

Figure 3-1. Bulbous plants include true bulbs, corms, rhizomes, and tubers.

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bulbs, inevitable. Certain interior activities will continue during dormancy, as obviously they are needed, being part of the life cycle. Evergreen bulbs, that is, plants that can rest (become dormant) without shedding their foliage, reach their dormant period when climatic conditions and the interior cyclical clock dictate it. Dormancy then is that part of the life cycle belonging to a definite chronological cycle, in all bulbs, evergreen or not.

Taxonomy To present the plant (or vegetable) kingdom in a logical fashion, it is necessary to examine all its components. The grouping together of closely related plants has been accomplished by organizing them mainly according to reproductive characteristics and behavior, a science known as taxonomy. On the basis of this taxonomic observation, a natural system of classification was devised. Differences of opinion are found since the input has come from a number of eminent botanists. My own preference is for that system based on the work of German botanist Adolf Engler (1844-1930). The basic structure is the same in all systems: division, class, order, family, genus, and species. There are 13 divisions of the vegetable kingdom: 11 include the bacteria, fungi, and algae; one, mosses and liverworts; and one, flowering plants. The latter division is the only one with which we will be concerned in this book and the one in which the greatest difference among experts occurs. Flowering plants have been subdivided into Gymnospermae and Angiospermae. Conifers and cycads belong to the former, as the taxonomic criterion for Gymnospermae is that the seeds are not borne in an ovary. The Angiospermae is further subdivided into two classes: the Monocotyledones (monocots) and Dicotyledones (dicots). The monocot embryos bear only one cotyledon (the first leaflike structure that appears after germination and sprouting). The true leaves, as a rule, are alternate, with simple form, parallel veins, showing no secondary thickening since their vascular strands contain no cambium, as in the dicots. The flowers usually are constructed of five alternating whorls of parts, each whorl being commonly trimerous. The dicot embryos bear two cotyledons. The leaves are net-veined, usually with a narrow base and a definite petiole. The flowers are pentamerous or tetramerous, with a distinct calyx and corolla. These classes (and subclasses) are divided, in turn, into orders. Each order contains one or more families. Before proceeding, I think it is wise to understand the reasons for the importance of order and family and how they can be of great assistance in the identification of plants. The order Liliales contains three families—Amaryllidaceae, Iridaceae, and Liliaceae. All have perianth segments consisting of three petals and three sepals; ovaries that have three chambers; three carpels; and six stamens. The differences between the three families are minor when compared with other families. The need for breaking down the Liliales into the three families is as follows. In Liliaceae, the ovary is superior, the stamens, petals, and so forth being seated below the ovary. While the flo-

ral plan of the Amaryllidaceae is the same as the Liliaceae, the ovary is inferior, a difference of such significance that it merits being placed in a separate family but not in a different order. Members of the Liliales that have an inferior ovary and only three stamens are grouped in the Iridaceae. This, however, is not the only difference that can be seen. In the Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae, the petals are quite similar to one another, but in the Iridaceae the outer series of petals is broad and recurved, the inner, narrow and erect. The actual number and pattern in which they are held on the flower, however, are not different from the Amaryllidaceae. Another refinement in the Iridaceae is that the style(s) is petaloid. The overall floral pattern is close to the other families of the order and thus it is placed in Liliales. The most familiar plants in the Liliaceae are the lily (genus Lilium) and the tulip (genus Tulipa). In the Amaryllidaceae are found the amaryllis (genus Amaryllis} and the daffodil (genus Narcissus). The Iridaceae contains the iris (genus Iris), crocus (genus Crocus), and gladiolus (genus Gladiolus). See appendix A for further discussion of these. Recapping, then, we can see that there is justification for grouping families in orders. The juxtaposition of petals to sepals, the number of each part, the placement of all parts that make up the flowers—all unite the three families (Liliaceae, Amaryllidaceae, and Iridaceae) into the order Liliales. But, to be exact and, in the case being examined, due to the ovary being superior in one group of plants (Liliaceae) and inferior in the others (Amaryllidaceae and Iridaceae), another breakdown in the classification can be undertaken and understood. Some botanists now prefer to split the Liliaceae into a large number of smaller families. In the alphabetical list that makes up the main part of this book, the "new" family appears with the family name Liliaceae in the entry heading. Other differences allow the Amaryllidaceae and Iridaceae to be separate. The former has six stamens, the latter, three with petaloid styles, hence the need for two families. Together, however, these three families are more similar to each other than to other families and thus are grouped in the same order, Liliales. Before proceeding to the discussion of the genera (singular, genus), it will be useful to list the principal families into which bulbous plants have been placed. The list is not complete; it is ever-changing in minor respects as botanists and taxonomists continue to study in greater depth the individual plants and the various genera. Shown with each family are representative plants. Including those cited above, the main families are Araceae (Arum), Begoniaceae (Begonia), Compositae (Dahlia), Gesneriaceae (Achimenes, Sinningid), Primulaceae (Cyclamen), and Ranunculaceae (Anemone, Ranunculus). Having reached the family level in the classification of plants, it is self-evident that to identify exact plants within the family, greater differentiation is needed. The next step is to assign each plant to a genus. In recent years, DNA research has enabled a greater understanding of plant relationships. Presently, species may be found to have closer and unexpected relationships, and consequently various species have been moved from one genus into another, the changes the result of relationships not realized prior to the advent of DNA research.

Botany and Classification of Bulbs

GENUS This category is used to include structurally or phylogenetically related plants. While the tulip and lily have the same arrangement of their flower parts, that is, the same basic flower plan, there are many differences between them. Some are quite obvious. The lily has a scaly bulb, the tulip has a truncated bulb; the lily has leaves on its flowering stem, the tulip does not; in some lilies the tepals are fused into a trumpet, with nectaries at their base, characteristics not found in the tulip. Although both are members of the same family, it is necessary to be more definitive about the classification to more fully distinguish between the two, so we have the genus Tulipa and the genus Lilium. In the same way we can group together Allium, Chionodoxa, Erythronium, and Fritillaria—all members of the family Liliaceae but with sufficient difference, each from the other, to be classified in a separate genus. Having broadly classified the plants into genera, there still is a need to be able to identify the individual members of a particular genus. There are many tulips, there are many lilies. How do we give each its own identity? The next step, then, is to give each a specific name—a species name.

SPECIES The word species is both singular and plural. Using the floral diagram of a lily plant, for example, we can determine that it is a member of the genus Lilium. Taking two popular members of this genus, the tiger lily and the Easter lily, we can appreciate their similarities and their differences. The tiger lily is called Lilium (genus) lancifolium (species), the Easter lily, Lilium longiflorum. (See "Nomenclature," later in this chapter, for greater detail on the rules governing the specific names of plants.) The species name maybe given on the basis of a certain characteristic, its native habitat, its discoverer—any number of ways to identify it as that species alone. Examples of lilies with names that help describe them are L. canadense, which grows wild in Canada, and I. japonicum, a native of Japan. The Latin word speciosus means "good-looking, showy, splendid, brilliant" and has been given to a lily that is all of these things, L. spedosum. Notice that the ending of an adjectival species name changes to agree with the grammatical gender of the genus name; Latin and Greek, the languages of taxonomy, have three genders— masculine, feminine, and neuter.

SUBSPECIES We have covered the main classifications, but provision has to be made for those plants that are almost identical but with some part of the plant that is consistently different. It is not necessarily a major part, such as the flower, but a minor part, such as the leaves, perhaps due to geographic location. While not meriting a distinct species name, such plants do merit another category, known as the subspecies. A bulbous plant that can be used to illustrate the classification is Lilium canadense subsp. editorum. Note that the word

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subspecies is shortened to "subsp." and is not italicized, but the actual name of the subspecies—editorum—is. Lilium canadense grows mostly east of the Appalachian Mountain range. The subspecies is found in the Appalachians themselves and in drier situations, inhabiting rocky, woody slopes and open mountain meadows. The consistent, significant difference between this subspecies and the species itself is that the leaves of the subspecies are broader and not so tapered. This is enough of a significant difference to merit being given the rank of subspecies but not enough to merit full, specific rank.

VARIETY A botanical variety, abbreviated var., is the next step down after subspecies. Varieties have less significant differences among themselves than do subspecies. In horticulture, the word variety is also used in a looser sense to refer to artificially bred plants (see "Cultivar" below).

FORMA The last step on the staircase of botanical nomenclature is the forma, abbreviated f., also known as form. This category is used to distinguish plants that differ from other members of their species, subspecies, and variety in some feature that crops up almost at random in a population. The usual example is a plant with white flowers growing among typical blue-flowered forms. The white-flowered ones may be called forma albus ("white").

Horticultural Selections Horticulturists select individual plants, either from wild populations or from seedlings bred for the purpose, for distinctive, superior characteristics and increase them by vegetative means (that is, by all other means than seed). A group of plants that are genetically identical to one another are called a "clone" or "cultivar," but may loosely and incorrectly be referred to as a "variety." Examples are Tulipa 'Apeldoorn' or Lilium 'Destiny' and 'Enchantment'. Notice that the cultivar name is capitalized and enclosed in single quotes. Every tulip named 'Apeldoorn' is identical (though some features may be influenced by variations in growing conditions). Some cultivars are individual selections of true species, while others are hybrids whose ancestry includes two or more wild species, almost always in the same genus. The creation of a good hybrid may take many years of experimental breeding and selection with a definite end result in mind. Many different species and other cultivars will have been cross-pollinated, the resulting seedlings will have been selected for the particular characteristic(s) desired, and all the thousands of remainders discarded. Hybrids may be bred to realize the objective(s) of greater disease-resistance, for more and better flower production, for greater ability to withstand frost or wind, to last longer as cut flowers, or in some way to be superior to other cultivars listed in the catalogs of rival firms. The introduction into com-

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merce of new hybrids often results in considerable financial reward for the breeder who has invested the time, knowledge, and energy necessary to come up with a successful end result. Each year, new hybrid cultivars of tulips, lilies, dahlias, daffodils, and other bulbs are offered to the public in the catalogs of commercial firms. Normally, only after testing in growing grounds and extensive comparisons with other plants already on the market are such new cultivars presented for sale. A name is given only after all the many tests are passed. For example, Lilium longiflorum 'Croft' was introduced by Sydney Croft of Bandon, Oregon. He offered his plant, an Easter lily, to the commercial trade, secure in the knowledge that he had a plant superior to any then on the market.

STRAINS It sometimes happens that the entire population of seedlings resulting from a cross is similar and worthy of cultivation. The plants are not identical, but their variation is within definite limits. In lilies an example would be the Golden Splendor strain. In catalogs, the word strain is often dropped and the bulbs offered as simply Golden Splendor. The flowers of these bulbs are all of the same color and of the same form (or nearly so), and while the height varies it does so only within established limits. Thus it is possible to identify these plants as being Golden Splendor. The flowering time could vary a little, and, should such strains be subject to growing under "forcing" conditions, the differences might well be more visible. Under normal cultural conditions, the strain performs in a consistent manner. After a certain period of time, the grower might find that by introducing new clonal parents, a plant's color is heightened, its vigor is improved, or some other feature is superior to the original strain introduced. In effect, these are improved plants, but because the name, color form, and performance of the original strain are well known, and to avoid confusing the public, the newer bulbs might be offered under a name such as Golden Splendor Improved. Improvement can be ongoing, and over the years the strain offered for sale will be far superior in every way to the original introduction, all, however, marketed under the same name—Golden Splendor. It will be appreciated that hybridizers and growers use many species in the breeding of plants. Intermingled with the species used will be hybrids that have the desired characteristics the breeder wishes to obtain in the new creations. The picture becomes complex. The use of botanic or scientific names becomes cumbersome and impractical. The botanical classification no longer is a good way in which to classify the plants as there are too many cultivars, clones, and strains, all with mixed and complicated parentage involved.

HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION Breeding programs followed by the world's leading hybridizers produce many new cultivars. Modern techniques enable the hybridizer to overcome barriers between species, making crosses possible that were not feasible previously. Examples are Orien-

tal lilies crossed with Asiatic; Trumpet hybrids crossed with Oriental hybrids; and species with unusual color markings such as Lilium nepalense crossed with cultivars of proven performance. Such advances in hybridizing are being used to create new generations of hybrids in Lilium and many popular genera. Botanical classifications cannot accommodate the many new cultivars, clones, strains, and interspecific hybrids with complicated parentage. Such unusual combinations of genetic material are horticultural creations. A horticultural classification has yet to be formulated that is cognizant of the changes made, levels of breeding already attained, and levels perhaps still attainable with proven methods of breeding in the foreseeable future. Another way to understand horticultural classifications is to regard them as divisions. While such divisions can be determined (to a greater or lesser degree) by parentage, they give greater emphasis to flower form and shape. Such groupings or divisions are adopted by societies such as the North American Lily Society and the National Dahlia Society. Upon acceptance by a body such as the Royal Horticultural Society of England, these classifications are used internationally by all who grow the plants that are the subject of the classification. Thus horticultural classifications allow for like types to be compared, which is of value to hybridizers, to catalog writers, and to flower show committees. Perhaps these classifications are of even greater importance to gardeners, who can use them to understand and categorize the plant(s) purchased, basic characteristics, shape of the flower, and positioning of the flower(s) on the stem(s), and thus make comparisons that also allow for more meaningful evaluations of each plant. In some cases (and dahlias are a good example) the grouping of garden forms is straightforward and is used in catalogs, at flower shows, and so on. Since these classes or divisions are well defined, it is possible to place (categorize) all hybrids on the market today. Horticultural classifications are in use for daffodils, dahlias, lilies, and tulips, where extensive breeding has made them essential. Today with so many advances in breeding techniques, they are of ever-increasing importance. Given such advances as are evident, it is necessary to evaluate and update horticultural classifications on a regular basis. I would suggest that every five years an interim classification be proposed, taking into account important changes, with major revisions becoming official every 10 years. Obviously it is not possible to change every year. With careful thought, classifications can be devised to accommodate new hybrids and those in the pipeline, and then any necessary divisions confirmed and accepted after a period of practical use. Major societies concerned with a particular genus, the principle breeders of that genus worldwide, and representatives of the governing body or association could each appoint members to a standing committee. With today's means of communication, it is possible for a committee to formulate and discuss any changes, which can then be approved at a convened meeting. Such a process would serve all segments of the horticultural profession and ultimately the consumer. I suggest that classifications and divisions be formulated for all genera which are subject to ongoing breeding programs, and

Botany and Classification of Bulbs where distinctive hybrid types can be recognized within a genus. Such would not be needed for any introduction that is a selection from a range of colors and forms known within a given species. Such variations fall into botanical classifications. Only when breeding blurs the lines of species definition should horticultural classifications be compiled.

Nomenclature Every known thing in the world has been given a name to distinguish it from anything else. It is this way in the plant kingdom, only more so, where a slight variation may result in a new genus or species. In the eighteenth century, Carl Linnaeus, the famous Swedish botanist, devised the binomial system of plant nomenclature on which the modern system is based. This method consists of a two-part name cast into a form consonant with the classical languages Greek or Latin. (These are casually called "Latin names," even though genus names are more often derived from Greek.) As mentioned earlier, the first word, always capitalized, is the genus name; the second word, always lowercased, is the species name. Both are italicized (or underlined). With this system it became possible for anyone in any part of the world to immediately recognize a given species. Common names vary from country to country, and even from state to state, as in the United States, but the scientific name is the same all over the world. In 1905 the modern rules were drawn up and agreed to at the Botanical Congress held in Vienna. From this Congress came the principal code governing the naming of plants—the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN). There is a supplement that provides for names not in Latin form, that is, for cultivars, the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (ICNCP). These international congresses are held in different countries on a regular basis to solve problems regarding nomenclature of plants. The governing rules are simple in principle. First, a plant can bear but one correct name. Second, that name is the earliest that conforms to the code of nomenclature. Third, the name must have been properly published, with a description of the plant. And fourth, the same name cannot have been used previously for any other plant. Note that to render a name valid, it must be published with a full, authentic description of the plant and an illustration, in a dated publication. The description must be in Latin. The date of first publication is the method for establishing the rank for priority of the name. As the very first name used is the only true one, a great number of name changes have resulted from better communications between botanists. Prior to the acceptance of the international rules, other codes of nomenclature were in use. A name once bestowed upon a plant cannot be used for another plant in the same genus. There is an escape rule, however, which does allow for historical preference, as the confusion that would reign if older and older names were continually found for genera now accepted would far outweigh the advantages of being strictly accurate, in this regard, according to the rules.

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Botanists name wild plants after studying their structure and relationship with other plants. They can be designated species, subspecies, varieties, and so forth, as determined by the botanist examining the plant in question. Species names derived from a person's name, for example, wilsonii (named for E. H. Wilson) or forrestii (for George Forrest) used to be capitalized. Originally provision also was made for names derived from a native name or from former generic names to be capitalized. Today it is generally accepted that all species names be printed in lowercase; when reading older books, one comes across capitalized species names. The ideal is that any plant bear only one "official" name. It is often left up to the international horticultural conferences as to which names are retained. An example of the need for such rulings can be found in the genus Anemone of the family Ranunculaceae. Certain botanists placed in this genus all plants with regular flowers, petaloid sepals, no petals or nectaries, and many stamens and carpels. Others separated out those species in this genus having distinct arrangements of bracts and similarly constructed carpels. Such species were all under Anemone, but the botanists made a case for elevating the species A. pulsatilla to generic rank, calling the genus Pulsatilla and placing into this genus those plants with similar arrangements of bracts and similar carpels. This decision split plants in the genus Anemone away from that genus. Another group of botanists regarded the plants once known as A. hepatica as being worthy of generic rank, Hepatica, on the grounds that the leaves and flowers of that species are distinct from others in the genus Anemone. I use this as an example as it is easy to understand, changes made in these genera in the 1990s not withstanding. Splitting of genera is obviously not unknown, but is not always accepted by the international congress; however, a list of genera divided by botanists has been compiled by the international congress, and this (generally) is adhered to in horticultural and botanical writings, often with reference being made to the other nomenclature. Names of botanical varieties are always written after the name of the species as follows: Narcissus triandrusva.r. albus. In nursery catalogs and other nonscientific literature, writers sometimes omit "variety" or the abbreviation "var.," but the resulting trinomial is unacceptable and should be avoided. The name of a man-made cultivar must be placed in single quotes and cannot be Latinized and called a "fancy" name, for example, Lilium longiflorum 'Croft' is correct, not L. longiflorum croftii. A cultivar name given to one plant in a genus cannot be used for another in the same genus. Thus, if we refer to Lilium 'Enchantment', we know to which hybrid we refer—an upright Asiatic lily—and the same name cannot be given to a trumpet lily. It could, however, be used for a new rose introduction, provided it had not been used previously for another rose. Cultivar names given to plants in a genus are kept by official registrars throughout the world and referred to by those who wish to give a name to an introduction they are making. There is some difficulty in the selection of a name for plants, as many that come quickly to mind have been used already. Similar names cannot be used either. If'Mary Lee' has been used, 'Maryly' would not be acceptable. The articles "A" or

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"The" also are to be avoided whenever possible. Thus, "Wedding" but not "The Wedding" or "Giant" but not "A Giant," albeit this rule is not always adhered to. Each year new cultivars are introduced onto the market, often in a series, and the names are chosen to catch the attention of the public. Often the plants themselves will have little or nothing to do with the name chosen. For example, Hemerocallis 'Bald Eagle', a rich crimson, and H. 'Falcon', a deeper red, do not show the colors of the birds after which they are named. The name given to a new introduction is important, however, and a great deal of time is spent selecting names for new hybrids. Hybrids between genera are preceded by an x and followed by the parentage, as in xChionoscilla (Chionodoxa x Scilla). In these designations the seed parent is given first. It will be appreciated that the naming of plants by botanists and the introduction of new cultivars by growers and hybridizers, when named according to whim and not in keeping with the rules of nomenclature, can cause a great deal of confusion. While comparatively rare, instances of established names being given to plants resembling the original introduction do occur, so the buyer of bulbs should be aware that such practices are

not unknown. The principal reason for such unethical introductions is that the grower can take advantage of the publicity and acceptance by the public of the original introduction, with a corresponding effect upon sales. While many people disregard the Latin names of plants, and many others are often overawed by scientific names, such names are essential. Without a specific nomenclature code, accepted around the world, it would be impossible to determine to which plant one is referring. With such specific naming of plants, accepted internationally by botanists and horticulturists, there is no room for error or misinterpretation. The placing of plants into families is logical. Knowing the floral formula of the families allows plants to be placed in that family. This automatically limits the genera in which the plant is to be found. By observing the differences between the genera in a family, the exact genus can be determined, then the difference between species comes into play so that exact identification can be made (Plate 11). Such processes may appear cumbersome, but the system has withstood the test of time and, without such widely accepted classification, the nomenclature of the world of plants would be in a terrible mess.

CHAPTER

4

Propagation Seed, cuttings, division, scales, bulbils, bulblets, layering, cormels, and meristem and tissue culture

ulbs lend themselves to a number of methods of propagation, many of them uncomplicated and fairly easy to accomplish. Despite this, few home gardeners actually propagate their bulbs. The most commonly practiced method used by home gardeners—lifting and dividing—stems from the cultural requirements of the bulbs. Irises, agapanthus, daylilies, and, to a certain degree, lilies and daffodils require lifting and dividing to continue flower production. While this is regarded as one method of propagation, it is also essentially a necessary cultural procedure in the life of a bulb. Propagation is either asexual (vegetative) or sexual (by seed). Asexual methods ensure that the plants produced are identical to the parent plant—in effect, cloned. Plants produced from seed may exhibit some variation, which is not always desirable (Plate 47). New cultivars (introductions), however, are almost always raised from seed. While many seedlings will be discarded, the possibility always exists that an improved plant will result, be it only one plant among thousands (Plate 48). On occasion, a bulb may sport, a phenomenon in which one part of the plant (rarely the entire plant) produces a flower of different form or color. To increase the stock of such a sport, asexual methods must be used. In breeding for new cultivars, the hybridizer selects plants that exhibit desired characteristics. These are mated by crosspollination. Precautions must be taken so that no other pollen can fertilize the parent plants. This is done in a variety of ways. The simplest is to cover the fertilized flower with a paper bag; another is to top the fertilized stigma with an aluminum or other type of protective cap (Plate 46). In this way only selected pollen, carrying the desired features sought, can fertilize the ovary. From such crosses perhaps only one seedling of hundreds or thousands exhibits a desired combination of characteristics. The color and form of the flowers, the strength of the stem, and the appearance of the foliage are all critically examined.

Should the new selection pass all these tests, it also must exhibit resistance to disease and, most importantly, be easily propagated; otherwise, it will be too expensive to raise in quantity for commercial purposes. Only after stringent evaluation is a new cultivar introduced into the marketplace. It can be seen, then, that this type of propagation is a long and tedious process. Sometimes, however, the hybridizer is fortunate and obtains several new, distinctive, and different cultivars from a single cross.

Seed If there is a disadvantage to raising bulbs from seed, it is the time it takes many of them to flower. Some, such as begonias, dahlias, and ranunculus, can flower the same year as the seed is sown. Others, such as tulips, daffodils, and some lilies, take as many as five to six years before a flower is produced. This discourages many gardeners. If, however, seed is sown each year, there soon will be a succession of bulbs coming into flower annually. The exciting possibility always exists that a new and improved plant will pop up!

SOIL MIXES Most growers now use soilless formulas for raising seed. In earlier times, a standard mix was two parts sterilized topsoil, one part peat moss, and one part sharp horticultural sand. For plants requiring extra drainage, the amount of sand could be increased, or ground horticultural pumice added; for plants requiring more water retention, the amount of peat moss could be increased. The topsoil is sifted through a fine sieve and sterilized in small quantities by boiling V-L inch of water in a large pan, then adding the soil, allowing the mix to simmer for 15 minutes. For the home gardener who raises small quantities of

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many different types of seed, this is still a fine soil mix and a good way to sterilize the soil. Seedlings that have germinated in a medium containing a small percentage of topsoil have more robust roots and are often more readily established when transplanted than those growing in a soilless mix. There are many ready-mixed media available to the gardener today. Most contain sphagnum peat with perlite or vermiculite, or a combination of the two. I prefer perlite because it retains less moisture than vermiculite, important when it is mixed with the highly water-retentive peat. Media containing bark should not be used for growing bulb seed. Professional growers often develop their own special formulas. Peat moss mixed with perlite is popular, the exact percentage of each varying. Such media are light in weight (an advantage when shipping), retain moisture well, and allow the grower to fertilize with a broad range of products. Another advantage is that such mixes are sterile and thus no further sterilization is necessary. Experimentation with various soil mixes is advised, until the particular one that performs well for the majority of crops has been determined. Several universities have conducted experiments with soilless mixes and their recommendations are worth considering, with modifications as needed to adapt to a particular situation or crop. In greenhouse culture, soilless mixes are used to reduce weight when shipping plants. Percentages of peat moss, sand, perlite, and vermiculite are adjusted to the needs of plants, and gardeners should try various combinations. The John Innes soil mix of three parts soil, two parts peat, and one part sand is a basic mix suitable for a wide range of plants. While vermiculite is much used, soil mixes containing perlite will be found to warm up more easily. The disadvantage is that perlite is less retentive of moisture and thus greater care must be paid to watering. If watering is done with an automatic system, this becomes less of a problem. With such irrigation systems it is very important that the consistency of the soil mixes be uniform so that all the plants in the media lose water at the same rate. To obtain well-mixed media, mechanical methods are an advantage. Throwing the ingredients into a large hopper, such as a cement mixer, is a quick and efficient way to ensure this. Such methods also help to eliminate poorly combined mixes that can occur if unskilled labor is used. Should ingredients contain weed seeds, fungi spores, or other harmful pathogens, sterilization is essential. A boiler capable of raising the necessary steam pressure or ovens that can bake the mix at the required temperature (180°F) will be needed. Temperatures above this will harm the good bacteria and organic matter contained in the soil. Time spent in ensuring that the soil mixes are sterile can make the difference between the success or failure of a crop. The principal points, then, to keep in mind are availability of materials used, cost, suitability for the majority of crops, ease of storage, weight, moisture retention, and drainage.

REQUIREMENTS FOR GERMINATION It is necessary to understand the requirements for seed germination before we go on to the actual sowing of the seed. Nature provides the right conditions in the wild for species to be continued. Bounteous quantities of seed are produced, but only a small percentage germinates and even fewer of the resulting seedlings reach maturity. Nature can afford to squander some of its bounty; however, neither the home gardener nor the commercial grower can afford such luxury. It is essential that the highest percentage of seed sown results in plants suitable for the garden or for sale. Thus the elements necessary for germination must be provided to ensure success with the rather limited number of seeds available to the seedling raiser. The three essential requirements are moisture, warmth, and air. Only when all three are met will the process commence. Light is a requirement only after the seedlings have germinated. Moisture is needed to soak the outer seed coat so the root and shoot can break out of the hard coat. It also is needed to swell the cells inside the seed. Warmth activates these cells, although the actual temperatures required will vary. Seeds from the tropics need higher temperatures than those from more temperate climes. Providing the right temperature is essential—if too high, the seedling that develops might well become weak and etiolated ("stretched out"); too low and there is no metabolic activity. Air is necessary because the developing seedlings need oxygen to fuel their metabolic processes. Good circulation around them also helps keep fungus diseases under control. Germination has occurred when the root and shoot emerge from the seed.

SOWING THE SEED The ideal method is to sow the seeds, allow them to germinate, and, without interruption, have them continue to grow into strong, healthy plants. Such conditions are provided by Nature in the spring, allowing the growth to continue with the lengthening days, then slowly reducing the growth rate by diminished light and lower temperatures as the year progresses. The seeds of many bulbs, however, are not so accommodating. Many require a period of cold, as they receive in the wild. This causes changes inside the seed, breaking down certain hormones that inhibit germination. It is a logical control, as many species of bulbs inhabit areas where the winters are severe. If the seeds germinated quickly, the seedlings would not be able to withstand the rigors of winter. The need to undergo a period of cold to break dormancy ensures germination in the spring, producing growth and the gaining of strength to survive the first winter after germination. Bulbs that require moist chilling to germinate include Allium, Anemone, Arum, Bloomeria, Calochortus, Camassia, Chionodoxa, Crocus, Cyclamen, Erythronium, Fritillaria, Gladiolus, Hemerocallis, Hyacinth, Iris, Leucojum, Muscari, Narcissus, Nerine, Scilla, and Tulipa.

Propagation Sow seed of bulbous plants from temperate climes in pots when ripe and place them in a cold frame or a sheltered position (such as a roofed deck) outside to enjoy the cold of winter. Come the following spring they will germinate. Certain seeds, however, may take more than one season to germinate. Among them are Colchicum, some Iris species, and Sternbergia. In warmer climates, where winter temperatures do not go below 40°F for any length of time, placing the seeds in a refrigerator substitutes for natural conditions. The seed pots (or seeds in bags of slightly moist peat) should not be frozen but only chilled. It also is necessary to ensure that the seeds, once sown, enjoy steady, unfluctuating temperatures. Constant thawing and freezing can cause the soil to heave, thus dislodging the developing roots from the surrounding soil. In cooler climates, plunging the pots into the ground or a medium in a cold frame works well. Protection against birds, mice, and other animals must be provided when growing the seeds outside. Placing wire mesh over the containers or setting the containers in a cold frame are two methods that serve the purpose nicely. Most seed purchased from commercial sources becomes available in the early part of the year. Providing as long a growing season as possible is most beneficial. In the majority of cases this will require either a greenhouse or a heated frame. Few seeds germinate below 50°F; most, however, prefer temperatures between 60°F and 65°F. If such conditions are not available, then sowing should be delayed until they are. While the cost of a frame is not high and warming cables also may be purchased at reasonable prices, alternatives such as a window in the home or a warm basement with adequate light, using growing lamps if necessary, are satisfactory. In commercial establishments, where considerable amounts of seed are sown, it is advisable to construct cold rooms where the precise temperatures needed by the various species to break dormancy can be maintained. Exact controls, proper handling of the seed, and the additional protection such structures provide against the ravages of mice and other pests give a good return on the investment needed for their construction. A separate greenhouse or section of one should be allocated for raising commercial quantities of seedlings for the production of bulbous plants (Plate 49). If large numbers are being sown, they can be planted in an open bed on a bench. The soil mix should be porous, uncompacted, light, and fluffy, of a sandy texture, and free of all weed seeds. Excellent drainage and good cross ventilation must be assured. Bottom heat is an advantage. Some growers find it advantageous to install an automatic drip-watering system. While hand watering is preferred after germination, an automated system can cut down on the labor needed for watering when the seedlings are growing well. Provision should be made for fertilizer to be fed through the system. Every 10 to 15 days, it is wise to "fluff up" the soil mix between the rows. This increases the amount of air in the top layer of soil and cuts down the possibility of slime molds and other unwanted vegetative growth, which are contributing factors to fungal and disease problems. A further advantage of light, fluffy

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soil will be appreciated when the seedlings are being lifted for transplanting. The tender roots will come out easily, with a minimum of damage. There is a definite advantage in having artificial light over the benches. Such light will help speed the growth of the seedlings should the days be cloudy, as is quite common during the early months of the year. Under controlled greenhouse conditions, the grower is able to duplicate with warmth and light the elements that seedlings in their natural habitats would enjoy later in the year. The longer the growing season provided, the larger the plants will grow and the more quickly they can be raised to commercial size. Those raised in optimum growing conditions right from the start will carry this growth advantage throughout their lives and make better adult plants.

SOWING IN CONTAINERS The containers, flats, or pots, be they of clay, plastic, or wood, must be clean. If not new, they should be sterilized before use. Fill the container with soil mix and firm gently. Ensuring that the surface is level is easily done by using a smooth wooden block or a piece of glass. The mix should be moist, holding the imprint of the hand when squeezed but breaking apart when touched; it should not be wet enough to wring water from it when squeezed. After gently firming, the level of the mix should be at least Vi inch below the lip of the container. Seed that is very fine, such as begonia (there are several million to the ounce), should not be covered. Larger seeds can be covered with a layer of soil mix equal to the depth of the seed itself. In all cases, care must be taken to ensure even distribution over the surface of the container; covering the soil with a shallow layer of sand before sowing can assist in spotting good seed distribution. Do not sow too thickly; allow plenty of room for each seed as this will make transplanting much easier. The seeds should be watered in by placing the container in a larger pan of water and allowing it to seep up through the bottom until the surface is damp. Larger seeds can be watered by using a fine rose on the end of a watering can. After the seed is sown, the container should be covered with a sheet of glass or clear plastic. The cover must be kept level or drops of water will accumulate, falling into one location and causing that area to become too moist. The container then can be set in a place where ideally an even temperature of 50° to 55°F at night can be maintained. Do not place the container where the sun will strike it as this can cause the soil mix to dry too quickly. Check regularly, wiping away any excess moisture that has accumulated on the cover. As soon as any of the seeds have germinated, the cover must be removed. Maintain an even moisture content. This cultural practice will enable agapanthus, anemones, begonias, cannas, dahlias, galtonias, gloriosas, hippeastrums, and ranunculus to produce sizable bulbs and, in some cases, to flower that summer. If containers are used in the commercial production of seedlings, it is essential that standard-sized flats be used. These will make maximum use of the space available on benches in the greenhouse or in frames.

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To maintain consistency of sowing rates, it is advisable for one person to be responsible for all sowing. While the methods described above for home gardeners may seem tedious, it must be emphasized that getting seed sown in containers off to a good start is time well spent. In commerce, the construction of a simple frame inside the greenhouse should be considered instead of covering individual containers with glass or plastic. This will isolate the containers and provide a closed environment without the necessity of a cover.

SOWING IN THE GROUND While it is preferable to sow the seeds of bulbous plants in containers, certain species, such as alstroemerias, irises, lilies, gladiolus, and tulips, can be sown outdoors in the ground (Plate 39). Outdoor sowing in beds will be necessary for commercial quantities. Before sowing seed outdoors, work the soil well and, for best results, provide protection with a cold frame. Cannas, dahlias, and summer hyacinths can be sown where they are to be grown. In cold areas this should be done after the danger of frost has passed; in areas where no frost is experienced, sow when the soil has warmed and night temperatures are above 50° to 55°F. In all cases, when sowing in the ground make sure the seed has received the necessary chilling required by that species. See individual notes on each bulb in the alphabetical listing. The home gardener can sow the seeds of some species in those locations where they will be left to grow into adult plants, but commercial production does not allow for such propagation. While it is possible to sow lilies, for example, in the open ground and harvest mature, commercial-sized bulbs two or three seasons later, it is more economical to lift the bulbs after one season, sort them into sizes, and replant those from the open-ground sowing that are not of a size to be sold. Dahlias, however, are marketed as small plants and offered for sale in convenient six-pacs or in 3- or 4-inch pots. Open-ground sowing is impractical for these plants. The trend with the majority of bulbs is toward clonal varieties. This renders seed sowing applicable only to those bulbous types that are sold as straight species or strains. In the case of the professional grower, where monetary considerations are involved, it is especially important that correct horticultural practices be followed. The seed beds must be well prepared with a fine tilth. They should be about 48 inches wide so they can be tended from both sides. A gap of 24 inches should be allowed between types. The seed should be covered lightly with soil after it is sown, so lightly that some seeds can still be seen, indicating those covered are only about 1A inch below the soil. After germination, another top dressing can be given so the seedlings are set firmly in the ground. A half-inch mulch of sawdust, spread evenly over the surface, can be applied when the seedlings are 1-2 inches tall. This mulch will conserve moisture and keep down the weeds (Plate 40). Labels identifying the specific seeds being grown should be placed at both ends of the bed, and records should be kept on the number of feet of each type sown. These records will allow

for ascertaining production per foot of row. In this manner, more accurate seed sowing can be accomplished in following years, planting only that number of feet necessary to meet the production quota. Speaking of record-keeping, I feel this is a very important part of growing bulbs commercially. As shown above, much time, labor, and money can be saved recording seed numbers planted. The date the seed is received and the name of the supplier^) should be listed. While all seeds may be first-class, strains from certain suppliers will invariably perform better than others—earlier into flower, less mildew, quicker to germinate, and so on. Some seed companies may offer different cultivars than others. Seed is expensive and so it is advantageous for the grower to know that the supplier is of consequence when reordering. Special techniques for growing certain genera from seed are described in the "Propagation" sections for each in the alphabetical list.

Asexual Propagation Asexual propagation is the only way a clone can be propagated to ensure that the resulting plant is the same as the parent. True species can be raised from seed since the parentage is fixed and they come "true" from seed. All cultivars of bulbous plants, if they are to be identical to the parent, must be propagated without the intervention of sex, that is, without pollen from the plant's male organ and female ovaries. The reason is that the possible combination of chromosomes and genes, as contained in the male and female gametes, rarely if ever will match in such a way that a plant identical to the parent will be produced. The possibility of other combinations of genes being assembled is more common. Thus, unless a small part of the parent plant is detached and grown to full size, there is no way an identical plant can be produced. The methods of asexual propagation are numerous and include division, cuttings, meristem culture, and bulblet and scale production. For the gardener, asexual propagation is the only way a favorite plant can be propagated to ensure an exact duplicate. For the commercial grower such methods are the only means for propagating clones.

Stem Cuttings Two popular bulbs can be propagated by stem cuttings other than cutting tubers—dahlias and begonias (Plates 53, 54). Dahlias lend themselves to this method easily; indeed, it is one way in which commercial cultivars are produced in quantity. Begonias normally are raised from seed, but cuttings provide an easy method of increasing the stock of a specific species or cultivar. For details, see the entry "Begonia" in the alphabetical list. Both amateur and professional should take particular care in the selection of "parent stock" plants. They should be free of virus, be vigorous, and have flowers that are uniform and typi-

Propagation cal of the variety. In examining plants of any given species or cultivar, certain of them will be better than others. These are the ones to select and tag for separation at harvesting time. The inspection of the crop for selection should be undertaken at different times: at the beginning of the season when good growth has been made, again at the time when the plants are in full flower, and, last, toward the end of the season. The exact number of tubers needed for propagation is first determined in the spring. Then, after each field inspection, the number of plants is reduced to ensure that the exact number required and those of the finest and strongest health have been selected. These selected bulbs are lifted ahead of the others and handled with extra care. They are labeled, tagged, and carefully stored to ensure that they are in the best condition possible when they are started back into growth.

Division Almost without exception, bulbs will need lifting and dividing after they have been in the same location for several seasons. If this is not done, overcrowding will reduce space available for them to develop and they will not flower well. Such lifting and dividing is a cultural procedure; however, it is also a way in which stocks can be increased. It must be mentioned that there are exceptions; lifting and dividing are not essential cultural operations for such genera as Clivia and Canna. Clivias seem to have no objection remaining in the same container for 10 or 20 years, or even longer. Indeed they seem to thrive under such overcrowding, and flower production does not diminish but rather seems to increase. Cannas can remain in the same container for five years, but in the ground can remain for an even longer period. I have seen lilies performing extremely well after being left undisturbed for more than 20 years in the same location, and indeed, in the wild, species are not lifted and divided and they thrive. The more complicated the parentage of a hybrid, the shorter the time that it can be left without lifting, in my opinion. I have not seen any studies comparing the life span of modern hybrids with earlier introductions, but feel that the former are not as durable as the hybrids of yesteryear, and these early hybrids were not as durable as species that have persisted for centuries. The point to remember is that when plants seem to decline and when flower production drops, overcrowding is a very likely reason, but is by no means the only one. If propagation is the objective, division should be undertaken long before the bulbs become overcrowded, at which time division can be difficult. The bulbs should be lifted when the foliage has almost, but not quite, died down. Many horticulturists recommend waiting until the foliage has died completely; however, this can cause a problem as it is not so easy to find the bulbs if some of the foliage is not attached. After the bulbs are removed from the soil, they are sorted into sizes—small, medium, and large. If desired, the larger ones can be planted back at once to provide additional bulblets the following year. These should be spaced according to their ma-

33

ture size. Smaller bulbs are planted in nursery rows, but set as mature bulbs. They are cultivated and allowed to follow their natural life cycle, but not allowed to flower until the bulbs have reached full size. The number of seasons required depends entirely on the size of the bulb when planted. During their growth season they should be fertilized, the first feeding being given when the foliage first appears and then at three- to four-week intervals. A balanced fertilizer, 10-10-10 or equivalent, is given the first two feedings. The third feeding should have less nitrogen, such as a 5-10-10 formula. If space is not available for planting, the bulbs can be stored in a paper bag in a dry, airy location. A plastic bag may be used, but holes must be made in it so air can circulate. The stored bulbs should be checked from time to time for mold or rotting. Before storing bulbs it is helpful to dust them with a fungicide. All damaged bulbs should be discarded, unless they are to be used for propagation by the bulb cutting method (see below). Many lilies will produce quite large bulblets along the side of the stem of the parent plant. These make excellent planting stock and should be treated as described above. Rare bulbs that deserve special attention can be stored in boxes, planted in sand which can be slightly moist and then allowed to dry through the resting period. Spring-flowering bulbs benefit from a cold period during the winter. If soil temperatures are not below 35° to 40°F for at least 6, but preferably 10, weeks, it is advisable to induce this cold period by storing the bulbs in a refrigerator (not freezer) prior to planting.

Bulb Cutting It is helpful to think of the actual structure of the bulb in understanding the method of propagating by bulb cuttings. A true bulb, made up of a basal plate which is a compressed stem flattened into a disc, is surrounded by leaves that are modified for storage. Buds are to be found in the axils of the leaves attached to the stem of the plant. It is not surprising that tissue is found at the base of each modified leaf at the point where it is attached to the basal plate. Given the correct conditions, the tissue will produce buds capable of forming new plants. Keeping this in mind, it is understandable that true bulbs can be propagated by cutting the mature bulb into eight equal portions, each portion carrying a piece of the basal plate. These sections then are subdivided by inserting a knife between the rings of leaves so that two or three are attached to each nowsmaller section of the basal plate. Mid summer is the best time for propagating the majority of bulbs by bulb cuttings. Hippeastrum is propagated in this manner. These cuttings then are inserted into a mixture of peat moss and perlite or sand. They are placed vertically, with just the tips of the sections showing above the soil mix. Keep the cuttings moist and maintain a temperature of about 65°F. New bulblets will form in six to eight weeks, the actual time varying according to the species being propagated. When the new bulblets are well formed, transplant them and grow on as you would seedlings.

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This type of propagation has been practiced for years by growers of hyacinths. The bottom of the bulb is scooped out, exposing the base of the modified leaves. The response is a mass of bulblets that can be grown on to become salable stock in two or three seasons. The time saved by such a method is considerable and amounts to at least a year's growth ahead, when compared with raising plants from seed. Because scooping is an asexual method, each bulblet produced in this way will be identical to the parent plant.

Scales The explanation of the production of true bulbs by bulb cutting makes understandable the production of lilies by the scaling method (Plate 44). The selected bulbs, chosen for their strength and vigor, are "scaled" by simply peeling off their outside scales. The complete bulb can be torn apart, much as you peel off artichoke leaves. If wanted, the number of scales taken off is restricted and the center of the bulb, with a fair number of scales left on, can be planted back to be grown on. Prior to scaling, commercial growers dip the bulbs in a fungicide bath with the water at 70°F. The time of year this operation is carried out depends on the type of lily being propagated. Asiatic and Oriental hybrids are treated in the same way, except that the actual amount of time the scales spend in an incubator varies: Asiatics must have six to eight weeks at 60°F, followed by six weeks of precooling. Orientals require about a dozen weeks, six of incubation and six of precooling. Scaling should be timed so the rooted scales can be planted outside in the spring when the ground is warming. Trumpets are incubated at 60°F for about a dozen weeks and are planted without precooling. Should there be an interval between the time the scales are taken out of the incubator and planted, the scales should be stored at around 50°F. All scales are placed in either boxes or plastic bags in a coarse grade of damp vermiculite. It is essential they be kept in darkness during the entire time they are being incubated and coldstored. The vermiculite should be checked every two weeks to ensure it remains moist. Each scale will produce at least one (sometimes more) new bulblet at its base. In many lilies, especially those that have Lilium lancifolium as a parent, new bulblets also will form along the edges of the scale. The scales are sown outdoors in beds, covered with an inch of soil. In the case of Orientals, some shading maybe necessary during the first growing season. The beds can be left down for two years or lifted after one complete growing season. Commercial-sized bulbs can be obtained in two seasons, while the remainder are grown on in rows until of suitable size. It will be appreciated that many new plants can be produced from one large bulb in a short time. Each plant will be identical to the parent bulb from which the scale was detached.

Bulbils Understanding that lilies can be propagated by scales and how and where they are formed, it is not surprising that certain lilies will produce small bulbils in the axils of the leaves on the aboveground stems. These bulbils can be harvested as soon as they are ripe, which is determined by the ease with which they are detached from the stems. They then are sown in flats with 4 inches of medium in the bottom and covered with half an inch of soil or placed out in rows in shallow drills. When these have reached the size of small planting stock, some one inch in diameter, they can be planted out in field rows with several inches between each bulb. They are lifted and graded when they reach commercial size. Each season they must be examined and moved at the first signs of overcrowding. They are planted into their final positions when of sufficient size. Some alliums also produce bulbils on the maturing flowerheads. The use of stem bulbils of lilies in commercial production is rare; however, if maximum production is called for, they do provide a good means for quick increase. The bulbils are gathered by hand in late summer, as soon as they can be detached easily from the plants. Then they can be sown in shallow drills in well-prepared soil in the field or sown broadcast in beds. Early in the summer or in areas where there is a good growing climate into the fall (for example, no frosts before November), bulbils can be sown as they are gathered. If such conditions do not exist, the bulbils can be packed in vermiculite and sown outside in the spring as soon as the ground can be worked and the night temperature is above 45°F. After a season of growth, the plants should be examined. If many are of good size, they can be lifted and replanted in regular production rows. If growth has been slow, they can be left in the same location for another season. During the growing seasons, weed control is essential and the plants should receive a top dressing of a general fertilizer as soon as growth has commenced in the spring.

Bulblets Most lilies produce bulblets alongside the parent bulbs and on the portions of the stems underground. These can be separated and harvested in early fall when the top growth has begun to die back. In many cases sizable bulbs will be produced which may well flower the following season. If a weak stem with a solitary flower is produced, remove the flower and send the strength of the plant into producing a larger bulb. The commercial grower can expect to harvest, from a crop of lilies, not only bulbs of commercial size, but also planting stock for the following year's crops. Many lilies will produce bulblets on the flowering stem on the portion underground. This is especially the case with Asiatic hybrids. Generally two sizes of planting stock are needed, small and large. They are both planted back in the fall, harvesting and planting proceeding together. The small planting stock will pro-

Propagation duce some commercial-sized bulbs by the end of the next season but is normally relied upon for providing the large planting stock. The large planting stock will produce a high proportion of commercial bulbs as well as a supply of smaller bulbs suitable for planting back for planting stock. The size of planting stock varies from grower to grower. Generally bulbs that are 1-2,2-3, 3-4, and 4-5 inches in circumference constitute large planting stock. There is always a temptation to sell the 4- to 5-inch size bulbs as they are commercially of a size that will produce a good flower the following season. The following season's production requirements should be satisfied prior to removing 4- to 5-inch bulbs for sale. Such bulbs, when planted back, will yield larger bulbs the following year and will often bring in twice or more the dollar value of a 4or 5-inch bulb. During the growing season, the crops should be constantly examined and the health and vigor of each planting recorded. It is from those with the highest rating that the planting stock should be selected. These underground bulblets are easily separated from the stem. The general method of grading is for the bulbs to be placed on a conveyor belt which passes in front of workers standing on each side of the belt. The commercial bulbs are removed while the stems with bulblets attached pass down the line. During the selection of planting stock, great care must be taken to ensure the correct labeling of the stock. All trays of one cultivar must be removed from the area so that they are not mixed in with those of another cultivar. The stock should be planted as soon as possible. If this is not feasible due to weather or other reason, the stock should be stored under refrigeration at around 38° to 40°F and kept covered with sheets of newspaper to prevent loss of moisture from the bulbs.

LAYERING Lilies that have a tendency to produce bulbils, including those with Lilium lancifolium and L. speciosum in their parentage, and hybrids with L. xhollandicum and L. dauricum, can be layered. In this procedure, the stem is jerked from the bulb when the stem is just coming into flower. A trench 6 inches deep, sloping to ground level over a length of 18 inches, is prepared. The lily stem is placed on the slope and covered with sandy soil. The top of the stem will be sticking about 6 inches out of the ground. The early flowering cultivars will produce bulbils along the stem in about eight weeks. As the season advances, the time needed decreases. Late-flowering types can be lifted in about six weeks. The bulbils are removed and treated as seedlings; they may be lined in rows or grown on in beds.

Cormels Corms will produce a number of cormels, about the size of a pea or smaller, around the edges of their base. In some gladiolus and other corms, a great number of cormels are produced.

35

If increased cormel production is desired, plant the corm closer to the surface of the soil than normal. The cormels are harvested after the plant has finished flowering and the foliage has died or almost died back. The cormels are lined out in nursery rows, planted about 1 ¥2. inches deep. The actual time needed to produce a flowering corm from a cormel will vary with the species or cultivar being grown. In some cases a flower may be produced the following year; however, discretion must be used and the flower removed if the spike is not of good size. Delaying the flowering will produce a larger corm the following year.

Meristem and Tissue Culture Horticulture has not been left behind with the advent of new technology. New methods of propagation are having a profound affect upon production. The advantages of such modern propagation methods are found not only in greatly increased production in a short period of time, but, by selecting healthy material, clean, virus-free stock can be produced. Several techniques are used. Apical tissue, selected from the growing point of a shoot prior to the cells being infested with virus, can be cultured. Alternatively, any part of a healthy plant can be propagated by tissue culture (Plates 50-52). These small sections of the plant(s) being propagated are placed, in vials, on agar containing specific nutrients. The tissue then forms a callus—an undifferentiated (neither roots nor shoots) group of cells. From one plant many blocks of tissue can be made. Grown under artificial conditions, they grow quickly. After reaching a suitable size (about the size of a marble) the vials, which up to now have been on a rotating disc, are removed. The growth is then divided into small sections and placed in separate vials. Given different nutrients in the agar upon which placed, the sections develop into small plants, both shoots and roots being initiated. These are grown on under laboratory conditions until large enough to handle. Should production demand, the sections can be returned to the rotating discs and, in effect, an infinite number of new plants can be produced in a very short time. Tissue culture demands complex facilities and trained staff working in sterile conditions. It can be undertaken by amateurs in the kitchen if the gardener is prepared to observe strict demands for sterility and precise nutrient formula preparation. Plants propagated by these methods are vigorous and free from disease, and, while the costs involved in building suitable facilities for this type of production are high, the production rate is such that more and more growers are turning to this method of propagation. Plants produced by tissue culture are perforce clones. The grower, however, having produced a seedling of outstanding merit, no longer has to wait for several seasons before a new cultivar can be introduced into commerce; but by using such techniques can rapidly increase the stock. While employed extensively in the commercial production of lilies, techniques for producing other plants by the same methods are being developed. At the time of writing tulips have

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Chapter 4

not been successfully propagated by these techniques, yet it is only a matter of time before the necessary formulas and techniques are developed. The effect such methods of production will have upon commercial horticulture can be appreciated. Clean, healthy stock and new varieties quickly brought into commercial production are but two benefits. No one, however, has yet found a way to duplicate the ability of the male and female organs to produce new and better cultivars, so the plant breeder will still be the person who produces new varieties. The time before introduction of them will, however, be shortened.

Division and Cutting of Tubers and Roots Many tubers, among them begonias, cyclamens, dahlias, daylilies, eremurus, gloriosas, irises, polianthes, and zantedeschias, are propagated by dividing and cutting. As many of these require slightly different treatment, they are described in detail under each genus in the alphabetical list.

CHAPTER

5

Cultivation Planting, fertilizing, lifting, and storing bulbs at home and commercially; conserving bulbs

•R

y"¥""V egardless of the plants grown, there is no substitute for • • J thorough and proper soil cultivation. Bulbs, too, l~^ should be planted only after a good cultivation of the ~A- ^k soil to a depth of about 12 inches, which is especially ^^ important if commercial crops have been grown in the same area previously. A general fertilizer (10-10-10) should be applied and raked into the surface. After such preparation, the soil should be allowed to settle for a day or two so that air pockets are eliminated. This is of particular importance with very sandy soil. A good loam is the halfway point between clay and sand. A loamy soil will have the draining qualities of sand and the moisture-retention capacity of clay. Both types of soil are improved by the addition of organic matter. It binds sandy soil, improving moisture retention, and loosens clay, allowing air to enter and water to drain. Well-rotted compost and manure are both excellent organic additives. Avoid fresh manure and unrotted compost. Many bulbs require deep planting (Plate 43). Indeed, the most common single mistake made is planting at an incorrect depth. The planting charts in this chapter show the correct depths for a large number of bulbous plants. A rule of thumb for those not shown is to place the bulb at a depth of three times its height; for example, a bulb one inch high should be planted with 3 inches of soil over it. This may seem a lot; however, it is what is needed when planting in good loam. The depth can be slightly less in heavy soil or slightly more in sandy soil. If in doubt, err on the deeper side. Variations from this rule are mentioned in the alphabetical listing.

Planting There are many ways to plant bulbs. Bulb planters, which remove a core of soil, often have a marker on the side that enables

a hole of correct depth to be made. A trowel can also be used. For small bulbs or large plantings, all the soil is removed (to the needed planting depth) from the area where they are to be set. This enables the gardener to space the bulbs evenly. The necessary bone meal (check directions on the bag) is sprinkled over the bottom of the area and mixed with the soil before spacing and placing the bulbs. Then set the bulbs out, nestling them firmly but without excessive pressure, which can harm the basal plate or compact the soil. The earth is then replaced, covering the bulbs. If a trowel or bulb planter is used, a small amount of bone meal can be mixed into the soil at the bottom of the hole. The bulb is then put in position and the hole filled with soil. The earth, placed over the bulbs by whatever method of planting used, should not be compacted. If annuals are to be planted over the tops of the bulbs, a planting board should be used to prevent undue compaction. Water in to ensure the soil is well placed around the bulbs and to eliminate air pockets. Applying a mulch after planting will preserve moisture and reduce the weed population. The taller the flower spikes, the deeper the mulch—2 or 3 inches for taller bulbs, about one inch for shorter ones such as crocuses. Crocuses and other small bulbs should be covered with a finer grade of mulch than used for daffodils or tulips. Mulch also serves as an insulator. It will minimize constant thawing and freezing of the soil, which causes heaving, most detrimental to bulbous plants. Heaving breaks the roots and forms air pockets under the bulbs. This is especially a problem for shallowly planted bulbs. The bulbs require little attention until new seasonal growth appears above the soil. As soon as they break through, a general fertilizer should be given. This can be 10-10-10 or similar; however, excessive nitrogen should be avoided. In rainy climates, the fertilizer will be washed into the soil; where the spring weather is dry, the fertilizer will have to be watered in. If

37

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Chapter 5

the soil is not friable, an additional feeding should be given three or four weeks after the first feeding. For spring-flowering bulbs, two feedings are sufficient. Bulbs grown in nursery rows to increase their size will require two feedings. After planting and throughout their growth period, they must be kept free of weeds, and moist but not wet. Those being grown for size should not be allowed to flower, except if color is to be ascertained. Some growers are of the opinion that the removal of the flower buds makes no appreciable difference to bulb size; however, if the buds are removed, the plant's foliage stays green for a longer period, thus food manufacture is increased. If color recognition is a requirement, the flower buds should be removed as soon as they are easily grasped without damaging the plant. In the flowering beds, spent flowers, together with the forming seed pods, should be removed. During the spring, protect the plants from slugs and snails using a commercial bait. After flowering, daffodil foliage becomes straggly and untidy. Bend the foliage over and slip a rubber band around it to keep it in place to improve the appearance of the garden. Daffodils being naturalized require the same basic treatment; however, the foliage is allowed to just ripen. As soon as it begins to turn brown, reduce watering. While it is preferable to let the foliage die completely before mowing the grass, it can be done safely without fear of damaging the bulbs, as soon as a change in foliage color is noted.

LIFTING AND STORING Daffodils, hyacinths, and tulips planted in the border should be lifted as soon as the foliage becomes unsightly. There is no need to wait until the foliage has turned completely brown. Remove the bulbs from the ground with foliage still attached; it is not necessary to remove all the soil. Allow the bulbs to dry in a cool, airy place. When all the foliage has died down, it will be easy to

remove it and any remaining soil. The bulbs should then be examined and any unsound or bruised discarded. Next, they should be sorted according to size, smaller ones separated and stored apart from those of flowering size. As a precaution against fungus diseases, the bulbs should be dusted with a fungicide. All of the bulbs then are stored, at a temperature of around 60°F and where air can circulate freely. During the summer months, check periodically to make sure no rotting or spoilage is taking place.

PRECOOLING In colder climates where soil temperatures are low, no precooling prior to planting is necessary. In warmer climates, bulbs that are to be set out in late October or November should be precooled prior to planting. This applies especially to tulips. Precooling should start six to eight weeks before the soil temperatures are the same, or a little lower, than the precooling temperature of around 45°F. For more information about cooling bulbs, see "Preparation of the Bulbs for Out-of-Season Forcing" in chapter 7.

PLANTING SUMMER-FLOWERING BULBS Summer-flowering and frost-tender bulbs should be planted some two weeks before the last frost is expected. In most of the United States this is the first week in May; at higher elevations, the middle to end of May. If the ground is cold the bulbs will not grow, so delay planting if there is any chance of a late frost or if the ground is not warming. In warm regions, planting can be done earlier, March to April being a good time. It must be remembered that summer-flowering bulbs are in need of good day length to grow well. Begonias, caladiums, and dahlias can be started into growth in the greenhouse or frame or even a welllighted garage. These started bulbs should never be exposed to

Figure 5-1. Planting depths for selected spring-flowering bulbs. These should be planted in September or October where there is frost during winter. In warmer climes plant in November or December. Flowering times vary considerably according to variety.

Cultivation frost; however, starting them inside can speed the first flowering by several weeks. Care must be taken not to disturb the roots when planting, or any advantage gained will be lost. Some of the taller-flowering dahlias and gladiolus in exposed locations may need support during the summer months. Such plants should be staked early in their growth cycle so the stems will remain straight. The stake should be placed behind the plant so it is not as visible. Gladiolus can be planted at intervals during the season. Allow about 90 days to flowering time and plant the last crop some 90 days before the first expected frost. In warmer areas, where little or no frost is expected, they can be grown throughout the year. About 120 days should be allowed from planting to flowering during the fall and winter months. If large flowers are desired on dahlias, the number of buds allowed to develop per stem is restricted by removing most of the buds as soon as they are large enough to handle. Those bulbs that are in continuous growth, such as begonias and dahlias, will benefit from feedings of liquid fertilizer each month. Feeding must be stopped some six weeks before the bulbs are to be lifted, which is just prior to the first frost. In warmer regions, where dahlias are left in the ground overwinter, a feeding of 0-10-10 given the first part of September will increase the hardiness of the bulbs and reduce the possibility of rotting in the ground.

LIFTING SUMMER-FLOWERING BULBS Bulbs to be lifted and stored overwinter should be allowed to ripen by withholding water toward the end of summer. The first frost often is a light one, enough to burn the foliage but not harm the stems or the bulbs themselves. The bulbs then should be protected or moved to a frost-free location. They should be allowed to dry. After the foliage has died, it is removed and the bulbs cleaned and stored.

39

Gladiolus are stored in paper sacks with air circulation ensured by holes in the bags. Nets also can be used. Begonias and dahlias, as well as cannas and caladiums, should be stored in barely moist peat. In this way the roots will not lose moisture and will be plump when planting time comes around again. Storing temperature for the summer-flowering bulbs must be above freezing but below that which will entice growth; around 40° to 45°F is ideal. As with the spring-flowering bulbs, any damaged or unsound summer-flowering bulbs should be discarded. Dusting with a fungicide also is advisable. At no time should caladium, canna, or dahlia roots be allowed to dehydrate. It also is wise to remember, when storing bulbs overwinter, to protect them from mice. Label the bulbs, at a minimum, as to color prior to lifting to ensure good planting arrangements in the spring.

Cultivation of Lilies Culture during the growing season of lilies is not much different from the foregoing for summer bulbs. It is necessary to remove flowerheads, however, once they have finished flowering. Should the flowers be cut for use in the home, remove as little of the stem as possible. The leaves manufacture food for the bulbs, so the more foliage left the better. While lilies do not like to sit in water, moisture must be made available during the growing and flowering season. "Heads in sun, feet in shade" is a good maxim. Once lilies have finished flowering, watering can be reduced, but not discontinued, until the foliage has begun to ripen. Lilies should remain undisturbed for years; however, there will come a time when, because of natural increase, the site will become overcrowded. When that occurs, lift the bulbs early in the fall. The larger bulbs can be replanted at once; the smaller

Figure 5-2. Planting depths for selected summer-flowering bulbs. These should be planted about two weeks before the last frost and can be expected to flower some six to eight weeks after planting.

40

Chapter 5

bulbs either planted or lined out in nursery rows for cultivation and eventual replanting (Plate 45). As the young emerging shoots of lilies are very brittle, it is a good idea to mark the location of the bulbs so that, when cultivating in the spring, the developing shoots are not damaged.

OTHER BULBS Anemones, trilliums, and other bulbs planted in the woodlands appreciate less moisture during late summer and early fall; as much as possible, duplicate the rainfall they would receive in their natural habitats. These bulbs can be left undisturbed for many years and, indeed, should be moved only if cultivation or new plantings in their area will harm them. Bulbs that are naturalized or are permanent residents in the garden should be fertilized twice a year. An 8-8-8 formula is given in the fall and another in the spring. The time of application in the fall is important. It should be done when the night temperatures are dropping and are around 50°F. If the rains are not adequate for washing the fertilizer down to the level of the bulbs, water should be given. The most common reason for bulbs not performing well in the garden, especially the spring-flowering ones, is too much moisture during the late summer, when most prefer a drier resting period.

Cultivation on a Commercial Scale The advice offered the home gardener regarding the cultivation of bulbs also applies to the commercial grower, there being no substitute for good cultivation of the soil prior to planting (Plate 41). While weeds are usually easy to manage in the home garden, removing them can become quite expensive in the field-scale operations of a commercial nursery. Growers are well advised to fumigate the soil prior to planting, destroying any harmful pests or diseases harbored there. Alternatively, the beds can be prepared, the buried weed seeds allowed to germinate, and then destroyed with a flame gun prior to sowing. In either case destruction of weeds before actual sowing is a time-saving operation, as they must be removed by hand if allowed to grow among germinating bulb seedlings—definitely not a time- and labor-saving chore. Keep in mind that the use of machinery is far more economical than hand labor for most operations (Plate 30). The distances between beds, width of the beds, and width of the paths should be designed to accommodate the machinery used. Subsequent cultural procedures differ, depending on the crop raised, so it is best to look at the various operations separately.

SEED BEDS After the soil has been fumigated following the directions on the label of the fumigant used, the beds are worked to a fine tilth, using a rotovator. The depth need not be great. The seed

then is sown and covered lightly with a soil which has been worked into a fine tilth and does not contain any stones or debris. Obviously no preemergent herbicide should be used on the beds themselves. Headrows and paths can be treated, if desired, and mulch can be laid in the rows to inhibit germination ofweeds. It is of the utmost importance that seedlings be protected throughout their development. The developing seedlings must be kept moist, but not wet. Irrigate using overhead sprinklers that distribute a fine droplet spray that will not disturb the soil. Spraying against botrytis must be undertaken as the seedlings grow. The control and prevention of fungal diseases should be an ongoing program as they are devastating in a seed bed. Aphids, too, must be controlled as they can infest the developing crop with virus in addition to weakening the plants. After the seedlings have become well established and the first true leaves appear, fertilize with a balanced fertilizer, 10-10-10 or similar. It is best applied while the foliage is dry and then watered into the ground afterward. Feeding must be ongoing throughout the growing season, at regular intervals. The number of applications will vary, depending on the type of fertilizer used and the crop. In exceptionally warm regions seed beds may require protection from the sun (Plate 34). Shade cloth mounted on suitable supports and placed above the beds is recommended. The structures should be placed at a sufficient height to allow for easy weeding, and they should be wide enough to shade the entire bed, especially during the height of the day; for example, in the Northern Hemisphere they should extend over the southern edge of the beds. Wooden lath frames also can be used, but handling is more difficult and construction more expensive. Weeds and other vegetative growth can harbor many pests and diseases, and should be kept under control by regular cultivation or spraying as necessary. Some growers find it advantageous to sow a grain crop in blocks surrounding the seed beds as a buffer against infestations.

Rows AND BEDS FOR SMALL BULBS Rotation of bulb crops is absolutely necessary. If several different types of crops (for example, bulbs and perennials) are being grown, a rotation system is not difficult to implement. If only bulbs are being grown, however, allow the ground to lie fallow after two or three crops. The fallow period can be used to grow a grain crop or, if carefully planned, advantage can be taken of the season to sow a crop to be used as green manure, plowing it into the ground to improve soil quality. Planting usually is by mechanical means. Good tilth of the soil will make for straight rows and, in consequence, easier control of pests, diseases, and weeds. The spacing between rows must allow for good cultivation, so the exact width of the rows will be determined by the machinery used. When using mechanical cultivation, care must be exercised not to damage the vegetation or roots of the crop. A number of soil-borne diseases attack bulbs. Fusarium is one; another is ink spot (Mystrosporium adustum), which likes

Cultivation irises in particular. It is essential, therefore, that the soil be correctly fumigated prior to planting. While some of these diseases may not be seen during the growing season, they can manifest themselves after harvesting and during storage. Bulb spoilage at later stages is often caused by incorrect cultural conditions in the field. Apply a general fertilizer some three or four days prior to planting, working it into the soil to obtain the desired tilth. A preemergent herbicide can be applied, except where the smallest planting stock is being grown. Prior to using such controls on the smallest stock, experiment to ascertain the susceptibility of the crop to the material being used. The value of such trials cannot be overemphasized as the climate, soil texture, and quality, as well as structure, can be determined only by such means. Keeping any crop free of weeds is essential, and, while hand weeding is expensive, it is preferable to the partial or total loss of a crop due to the incorrect use of chemical controls. While chemical weed controls can be used on the headrows and waste areas surrounding the production fields, great care must be taken when applying them and no spray allowed to drift onto the crop. Pretty much the same regimen should be followed as recommended in the "Seed Beds" section above: moisture given during the growing season, preferably by overhead irrigation (Plates 32, 35); pest, disease, and weed control programs; generally three feedings of fertilizer, determined by the length of the growing season. (Crops that mature and whose foliage dies by mid summer will require only two feedings at the most, so it is a complete waste to apply such fertilizers if the crop is unable to benefit.) During the growing season, as the plants come into flower, the rows or beds must be checked at least once a week to rogue out plants not true to type (Plates 31,36). Care must be taken to remove all the rogue plants, including bulbils and stem bulbs. If this is not done, these can find their way into planting stock saved from the row, causing a severe problem. After this procedure has been performed, the flowers and buds must be removed (Plate 42). There is debate among growers as to whether the removal of the flowers and buds actually increases the size of the bulbs produced. Experiments with the particular group being grown can help to determine this in each case. Another point to be considered is whether the fallen petals and spent flowers will cause rot or fungal problems. This should be carefully considered prior to making a decision about debudding or deflowering. In any case it is a good idea to allow about 2 percent of the crop to flower fully so that the authenticity of the species or cultivars can be checked. Catalog descriptions can be made and prospective buyers can see a true selection of flowers. A number also can be cut for exhibition and display.

HARVESTING The date of harvesting will be determined by the crop itself. Most crops are harvested by mechanical bulb diggers that pass under the bulbs, lifting the entire row with soil. The bulbs then

41

either are dropped back onto the ground or onto a conveyor belt, from which they are placed into containers for transport to the grading and packing sheds. During these operations the bulbs must be handled with care to avoid bruising or physical damage. The condition of the soil at harvesting time is important. Bulbs are more likely to be bruised if the soil is very dry rather than moist. Irrigation performed several days prior to harvesting makes this operation easier and less hazardous to the bulbs. Top growth can also be a problem, so it is best to cut and remove it prior to the actual harvest operation. Remember to correctly identify and label the bulb containers. Because this is a very critical operation, only a very responsible person should be put in charge. Invariably some bulbs will be left in the field after harvesting. Unless they can be positively identified, they are best discarded. The mixing of stock of one variety with another can prove to be extremely expensive in the roguing and sorting required in following years. If there is still uncertainty or a reluctance to discard viable bulbs, they can be presented as a mixed variety and offered at reduced prices.

Conservation All who love and appreciate plants are aware that over the last few years numerous species have become extinct. In southern Africa some nine bulbous species are now no longer with us, and some 41 genera have species that are extinct, endangered, or vulnerable. Collecting in the wild must be, at the very least, under strict control, and better yet, discontinued unless for some very important purpose such as the preservation of the species. Over the years bulbs collected in the wild have been harvested and sold in commerce. Such must not be allowed to continue. Bulb growers the world over are cognizant of the extreme urgency of preserving natural areas where species bulbs are located. The Dutch bulb industry, conscious of this imperative need, has put into place a labeling system. Since 1995, all bulbs exported by Dutch firms (including hybrid tulips, daffodils, and hyacinths) have been labeled "bulbs grown from cultivated stock" or "bulbs from wild sources." It is hoped this later label will be seen less and less. Unfortunately, American dealers are not obliged to comply with this sound labeling program. While some have pledged not to sell bulbs collected in the wild, others may well continue to do so. How can one be sure? Ask when purchasing. Wild stocks are more likely to be found with Anemone blanda; Cyclamen species (except C. persicum); Eranthis ciUcica and E. hyemalis; many Galanthus species; Leucojum aestivum and L. vernum; Narcissus asturiensis, N. bulbocodium, and N. triandrus; Sternbergia species; and Trillium species. Many organizations are working together to preserve wild species. Among them are the National Resources Defense Council (NRDC), the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), and the Garden Club of America (GCA). Also active, particularly with

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Chapter 5

bulbous species, is the International Bulb Society, headquartered in Pasadena, California. Careful checks on the preservation of species in the wild are undertaken by various government agencies including the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. In Africa, one of the leaders is the National Botanical Institute of South Africa. These organizations are worthy of support. The only international plant conservation treaty, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), was established in 1973 to control the exporting and importing of wild plants listed in the convention appendices. This important document monitors the status of species in the wild and seeks protection from development and unauthorized collection, bringing such to the attention of local authorities to assure protection of these valuable and irreplaceable sources. The position is serious as more than 3400 taxa are considered globally to be threatened with extinction, and many more endangered. Many bulbous plants are used in herbal medicine, but the wild sources supplying such are dwindling. Medicine is

as needed as ever. Today in South Africa such medicinal plants are cultivated; this has had a beneficial effect on wild plantings. It is hoped that such a solution will be followed in other countries where herbs are widely used in tribal medicine. All of us must play a part in conservation. All must support those making efforts to conserve our natural heritage for generations yet unborn. The conservation status of species described in chapter 9 of this book is based on the Red Data categories developed by the World Conservation Union (IUCN): Extinct: No longer known to exist in the wild. Endangered: In danger of extinction if the factors causing decline continue to operate. Vulnerable: Likely to become endangered in the near future if the factors causing decline continue to operate. Rare: Part of a small world population not yet vulnerable or endangered, but at risk as some unexpected threat could easily cause a critical decline.

CHAPTER

6

Bulbs in the Landscape Naturalizing bulbs; using them in the garden, woodlands, borders, and containers

A

mong the many plants grown in gardens and woodland areas, few attract the eye or add focal points as effectively as bulbous plants. To achieve such points of interest the correct bulbs must be selected (Plate 14). The type chosen is perforce compatible with the other plants, but can vary greatly in height and time of flowering. Crocuses planted in a lawn can add much interest very early in the year when there is little other color in the garden (Plate 55). Daffodils planted close to a rose bed will give color before they face the competition of the roses. Bluebells are superb in woodland settings where they will enjoy shade during the summer. While effective when planted among shrubs, their foliage when the flowers have finished can be messy—not a problem in woodland settings, but unsightly in more formal borders. A shrub border composed of spring- or early summer-flowering shrubs can have the season of interest and color prolonged by the addition of summer-flowering lilies that can tower over the shrubs. Wellplaced containers of flowering bulbs add color to decks and terraces. All things considered, bulbs are among the most versatile of plants. By choosing wisely the gardener can complement a garden, prolonging those periods of interest and adding different and often exotic forms and colors, not to mention fragrance. The finest example of a bulb garden is undoubtedly the Keukenhof Gardens in the Netherlands (Plates 1-5). Situated in the heart of the bulb-growing district between Haarlem and Leiden, this 80-acre park is at its best from late March through May. Over six million flower bulbs are on display. This magnificent display by the Dutch Bulb Growers is rightly world renowned. The layout of beds is changed each year. Each spring the growers vie with each other in presenting, as part of their sales promotion, established favorites and the latest cultivars of spring-flowering bulbs. All who have an interest in bulbs should visit these gardens. Such plantings on a grand scale are not possible in a home garden, nor do many park departments have sufficient funds

today to make them. Bulbs can be used to good effect in combination plantings with spring-flowering annuals, but, with modest expenditure, spectacular naturalized plantings can be formed. Correctly placed, they can be eye-catching and not appear foreign to the landscape. With correct maintenance, such plantings will increase naturally each year. They are indeed a sound investment.

Naturalizing Bulbs in Grass Not all bulbs are suitable for naturalizing in grass. The more effective are the species and cultivars of Narcissus among tallergrowing grasses, and Crocus, especially planted in a lawn or shorter grasses, the former being the most commonly used. Deciduous trees add much to the beauty of such plantings and preferably are high branching so the view is not obstructed. Not only do the branches form interesting patterns of sunlight and shade, they also serve as the framework that confines the eye to the area. Evergreen trees or trees with branches reaching to the ground provide an effective backdrop to plantings of bulbs.

LOCATION Several factors must be kept in mind when considering the location for naturalizing bulbs. Crocuses require viewing from a closer range than daffodils. Small-flowered daffodils make a showing when seen from a little farther away, and the largeflowered cultivars from even a greater distance. Bluebells, being less imposing as individual plants, look best in drifts under small trees or planted among or in front of large shrubs. A naturalized scene of bulbs is more effective on a slope or undulating ground than on level ground (Plate 57). Even if only slight, a rise will afford better drainage and present a better staging than flat land; the eye is then able to appreciate the entire

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Chapter 6

planting. The same applies to undulating ground, where the plantings should be on the slopes and crests, not in the valleys. The direction in which the slope faces is of lesser importance; it should not be exposed to much wind, which can flatten the flowers, especially when accompanied by rain.

SOIL The type of soil, while important, is not critical, but extremes are not suitable. It is difficult to establish bulbs in heavy clay without ameliorating the soil; the same applies to very sandy soil. Above all other conditions of the soil, free drainage is essential, and if necessary the installation of a drainage system should be considered. On flat areas, the importation of good quality top soil is often a solution to create at least mounds if not an entire slope. Such moundings must be in scale with the surroundings. The bulbs should spill over the mounds and flow with the contours created. It is a distinct advantage when creating such mounds to know the number and type of bulbs that will be planted—then the mounds can be sculptured accordingly. The quality of the soil should also determine the selection of cultivars to be planted. The poorer the soil, the more vigorous the growth habit of the bulbs should be.

CULTURE To maintain the vigor of bulbs naturalized in grass, the foliage should be allowed to mature. Unfortunately this means that among grasses, the site of the planting can become unsightly by the end of spring and early summer. The combination of long grass and the ripening foliage of the bulbs means the area will look unkempt, another reason for careful site selection. Close to the home or in an area where there is much foot traffic, the gardener will be torn between making the area tidy and mowing the grass, or allowing the bulbs' foliage to ripen. Unless such untidiness can be tolerated, naturalized plantings should be located away from the home. It should be remembered, when selecting an area for naturalizing bulbs, that time is an essential element in the culture of bulbs: time to allow foliage to ripen and time to allow the bulbs to increase naturally. Allowing them to stay for years undisturbed will finally result in a grand display. Attention to the culture of the bulbs each year, while minimal, is on no account to be neglected. The basic operations are as follows. Allow for a last cutting of the grass just as the first bulbs appear through the soil. As soon as several bulbs have appeared, give them a dressing of 12-12-12 or a similarly balanced fertilizer. The spring rains should wash the fertilizer into the soil; if no rain is expected, water it into the soil. In heavy soils such feeding is not as essential as on sandy soils but is still recommended. As soon as the flowers have passed their best, they are better removed. Here again it is not essential, but it is preferred. Slugs and snails like a habitat of grass; the tender buds of the spring flowers provide a tasty meal. Slug and snail control should be practiced.

Planting CROCUS, IN LAWNS Crocuses are planted some 3 to 4 inches deep. Cut the turf so it can be rolled back, exposing the soil, much as you would turn back a carpet. The exposed area of soil should then be forked over to a depth of some 6 inches and a dressing of bone meal should be added, forked lightly into the prepared soil. The bulbs are then set into position, following a random pattern, no straight lines and in clumps of 15 to 25, spacing the bulbs some 3 to 5 inches apart. Here again the spacing should not be regular but varying; some but not too many bulbs should be placed only 1 or 2 inches apart. If the soil is not moist, water the bulbs in before turning back the grass to cover them. If moist, turn the grass back, firm it well, and water. Mow the grass before rolling it back to plant. No harm will be done to the area by light foot traffic, but, as soon as the first shoots are noticed, the area should be protected by staking it off. Such protection can be removed as soon as the bulbs have started to flower.

DAFFODILS, IN GRASSY AREAS Planting daffodils with a trowel is not a difficult job, especially if the ground has been dug over beforehand. Some authorities recommend lifting out the plugs of grass and replacing them after the bulbs are planted. This is not necessary in the majority of cases as rough grasses will fill back in quite quickly. Having a clear area above them will allow the bulbs to grow with less competition, especially the first year. In sandy soil the daffodils should have at least 6 to 8 inches of soil over their tops; in heavier soils 5 or 6 inches will suffice. If in doubt err on the deeper side. Incorporate bone meal or bulb fertilizer into the bottom of the soil before setting in the bulbs, especially if the soil is poor. This operation is made easier by working over the soil at the bottom of the holes and can be done while incorporating the bone meal, which should not be in direct contact with the bulbs. This softer area of soil allows the bulbs to be nestled into the soil without damaging the basal plate. The soil should be moist at planting time. Water if the ground is dry, and then water in the bulbs after planting. As the depth of the planting hole is considerable, rain cannot always be relied upon to accomplish this operation. While bone meal is slow acting, certain trace minerals are quickly available, and these are essential elements contained in bone meal. Application of a general fertilizer in the spring should follow the first emergence of shoots from the ground. Additional bulbs can be added each fall as the years go. Follow the same procedures for each planting.

BLUEBELLS The easiest way to accomplish plantings of bluebells under small trees, the ideal location for the plants, is to use a fork to dig

Bulbs in the Landscape over the ground. Once the ground is prepared in this way, using a trowel becomes less of a chore. Setting the bulbs 2 or 3 inches deep and en masse is preferred as it looks more natural. Spreading the area with a good mulch of leaf mold will cover the traces of disturbance to the soil and also provide good conditioning to the soil. While bone meal is not essential when planting bluebells, it is recommended, and another feeding of a balanced fertilizer as soon as the shoots appear in the spring is preferred, especially for the first season or two after planting. After that these bulbs are capable offending for themselves.

Naturalizing

Daffodils

DESIRED FORMS OF PLANTING The form and shape of plantings will vary according to the individual taste of the gardener. It is strongly recommended that in areas where daffodils are to be planted a spade be used to turn over the proposed planting areas. These areas should be grouped so each colony of bulbs forms a "cloud" upon the area of grass. As much attention should be given to areas left unplanted as to those areas to be planted. Viewed from a distance, the planted areas should not obscure one another; distinct separations are allowed, with here and there a few bulbs set just a little apart from the larger plantings. This duplicates the cloud effect in the sky. Another way to achieve the desired effect is to mark out the principal area of planting and then just let the bulbs fall from the hand in a random pattern, planting them where they fall. At all times straight lines should be avoided as they will not create the desired natural look.

45

Professional and Commercial Landscaping GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS The professional landscaper has to think along the same lines as the homeowner, so the foregoing remarks are valid. Other considerations should be kept in mind as well. Nothing looks as good as naturalized bulbs in the spring— the effect can be a knockout—but the care of the bulbs when they emerge from the ground and after they have flowered is critical to achieve the same effect in succeeding years. The amount of maintenance needed each year must be ascertained and the plantings undertaken only when proper maintenance is available. As the care is sometimes not understood, it should be outlined in detail and given to the person undertaking the work. The bulbs themselves are easy to obtain, but they should be ordered well ahead to avoid delays. Storage of large quantities of bulbs on the site is not always ideal, as there should be little delay between the arrival of the bulbs and their planting. Perhaps the most often overlooked consideration is the need for periodic maintenance and, as importantly, the costs involved. At all times the funds should be available and be part of the maintenance budget. While few plantings are as colorful in the spring or summer as a mass display of bulbs in full flower (Plate 7), few are as disappointing as those of poorly maintained bulbous plants. Far too frequently the cost of ongoing maintenance is ignored, and the costs are not budgeted, if funds are difficult to obtain; maintenance is, unfortunately, the first casualty.

SITE SELECTION CULTIVARS OF DAFFODILS TO BE CONSIDERED The general mixture of daffodils offered by nurseries and sold often as mixed types, or cultivars for naturalizing, is most suitable. This will provide the desired mixture of different heights, colors, and times of flowering. The mix can be augmented by the purchase of bulbs of known colors and heights and times of flowering, and this should most certainly be considered after the first season of flowering, when inadequacies in the mix are more easily determined. The newest and most expensive cultivars will give no better an effect than tried-and-true cultivars that are often much lower in price. Good stock at a fair price is a good rule of thumb when purchasing daffodil bulbs for naturalizing. Vigorous species should not be overlooked. Narcissus bulbocodium is an ideal species for such treatment; however, it is not a tall-growing plant and thus should be planted in front of other, more vigorous cultivars or by itself. The addition of specific cultivars each year increases the diversity of colors and flowering times. Thus can a rich planting be achieved, which will give attractive colors over a considerable period of time.

Planting areas can be defined; but again it is advantageous to look at the site and the surroundings carefully. The removal of certain vegetation to allow drifts to disappear into or under the vegetation can heighten the drift effect. In some cases the addition of shrubs with complementary flowering times—such as the flowering quince, Chaenomeles japonica, and various cultivars in red or pink—can produce a superb background or focal point when located among such naturalized plantings.

CULTURE A sharp lookout at the time the bulbs are emerging from the soil is necessary and will require one or more inspections of the site. The grass should be cut as late as possible. If the mower is set at an inch or so in height, the emerging bulb growth will be unharmed. As the bulbs grow more quickly than the grass, the end result of the display of flowers carried well above the grass will look at its best. As soon as the planted area is well defined, the remainder of the grassy areas should be mown so that the bulbs are seen clearly. This mowing must be done with care so that the bulbs, flowers, and foliage are not damaged.

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Chapter 6

SIZE OF PLANTINGS While the homeowner will be able to add to the collection of bulbs each fall, it is in the first year that the work of a professional landscaper will be judged. The plantings must be bold and more densely planted than what the homeowner would be likely to undertake. It is also wise to consider plantings of just one cultivar. A mass planting of 250 'King Alfred' daffodils will most certainly be noticed as they come into flower; however, if 50 each of five different cultivars were planted, the effect would not be as dramatic. While the latter arrangement might be fine for the home garden, it would be lost in the scale of a commercial development. If more than one cultivar is desired, those cultivars selected should flower at exactly the same time. Albeit the principal one, this is but one reason among others that need to be considered. In commercial plantings the benefits of planting larger quantities of one cultivar, or several identical in development, do not end with effect alone. Having the bulbs flower and mature at one time, having them emerge from the ground at one time, means the necessary culture can be carried out at one time. They are thus more amenable to commercial-type care, for example, only one application time for fertilizer. After they have finished flowering, all can be removed at once or the grass cut at one time rather than waiting for the different flowering times and maturity dates. Another point to keep in mind is that early flowering cultivars, coming into flower during colder weather, will remain in flower for a longer time.

CONTAINERS When considering large plantings in commercial developments, containers with the same cultivars should be considered. These containers can be placed to give a perspective to the plantings and the continuance of the theme being established. This allows the theme to be carried into other parts of the property and ties the plantings into the overall landscape scheme of the property. Consideration can, in some instances, be given to growing the bulbs in small containers. When the bulbs are of interest (and the flower buds well formed with a few flowers in bloom), plunge the containers into the ground in a suitable medium such as bark chips, peat moss, or the like. The effect is instantaneous and the installation and removal a comparatively simple operation. Should turf need to be removed, it can be lifted and stored, laid out where care can be given in another location. Replacing the turf after the bulbs are removed should not present a problem, because in springtime the turf will have good climatic conditions to help it back into shape in a short period of time. While plunging containers into the ground would probably not be cost effective in the summer, the cooler conditions of spring are more favorable and the display of color would last for a considerable time. If desired, the containers could be replaced with others planted with late spring or early summer annuals.

Naturalizing on Sparsely Covered Ground This subject has not received much attention. Generally such areas are poor in plant foods, or else there would be more vegetation. Adding in more organic matter each fall will make naturalizing bulbs possible. If there exist certain native species of bulbs, additional bulbs of that species should be planted. Attention should be given to cultivars and varieties of these native bulbs as well as to closely related genera. Many sites, perhaps barely covered with shrubs planted in their own pockets of soil to hold a slope, can be given added interest by a few more bulbs at the base of the shrubs.

COMMERCIAL ASPECTS OF BULBS ON SPARSELY COVERED GROUND The professional landscaper and home gardener are often confronted with having to plant on sparsely covered ground, be it level or sloping. Bulbs can provide added interest. All too frequently, any shrubs and groundcovers used to cover such areas do not look attractive until they have had a season or two to become established, and good growth has been made. Spring- and summer-flowering bulbs will add interest within a short space of time; for example, bulbs planted in the fall will flower the following spring. If irrigation is provided to the area, then attention must be given to the choice of bulb planted. Many bulbs require a resting period after their foliage ripens, and during that time dry conditions are needed or the bulbs will rot. Such bulbs could not then be relied upon to give more than the first season of color. Daffodils are good for such locations. While they do prefer to be drier toward the end of summer, many of the strongergrowing cultivars, such as 'Dutch Master' and 'Mount Hood', do not readily succumb to rots and prove quite reliable in giving two seasons of color. Even these strong-growing cultivars might not give a good performance the third season, however. Dahlias need summer moisture and are a good choice for such areas, but adequate fertilizer should be given if strong plants are needed. A slow-release fertilizer is a good tool for commercial landscapers faced with such conditions. The range of heights and colors of dahlia cultivars is a wide one, but bold plantings of one color will provide a more stunning impact than a mixture of colors. While the color should be the same, a mix of dwarf and taller-growing plants provides greater interest than plants all of the same height (Plate 71). Although slow-release fertilizers are useful, the professional is well advised to give attention to an ongoing feeding program. In poor soils, organic fertilizers will be more beneficial to the soil than inorganic. The drainage also must be attended to as no plants will survive if they are growing in pockets of waterlogged soil. This is of greater importance on clay soils than on sandy soils.

Bulbs in the Landscape

BULBS IN THE WOODLAND Cardiocrinums, daffodils, lilies, and trilliums are superb for planting in woodland areas. English bluebells are at home in such surroundings but must be planted in large quantities to be effective. Cyclamen neapolitanum does well at the base of a large tree, if planted on the shady side, but not too close to the tree or to a path. Woodland plants should be seen and admired but not walked upon. If these plants like their home, they can spread with surprising rapidity. I have seen areas of many square yards covered in just a few years, without any attention being given to the plants at any time. The species or cultivar of lilies for such woodland plantings should be selected carefully. The upright, flowering Asiatics do not look at home in this kind of setting; they are too stiff and formal. While large-flowered trumpet lilies can be used, they do not look, in my opinion, as much at home as the pendant types such as Lilium canadense, L. hansonii, L. kelloggii, L martagon, L. pardalinum, L wardii, and such hybrids as the Bellingham Hybrids and those from other American species having the same pendant flower form. When planting these lilies, make sure they will have room to spread; plant a sufficient number so they will be a feature. The ideal location is an area where the lower part of the stems are shielded from the sun while the flowerheads are in some sun and can be seen against a background of foliage. The tall-flowering Cardiocrinum species (formerly Lilium giganteum) likes to have good moisture during the summer. While not ideal for the heart of a woodland area, these plants are ideal for an open glade in the woodland. They take several years to flower but the display of lovely white trumpet flowers and their fragrance are worth waiting for. It is because of the size of these plants (they can reach well over 6 feet in height) that they are better suited for an open glade. In addition, these plants will form large colonies, so ample room should be provided to ensure plants can remain undisturbed for years. Snowdrops and snowflakes also have their place in the woodland garden, but should be near a path so they can be admired. Being a little more formal in appearance, they are ideal for the fringes of the woods. Consider having groups of them alongside the paths leading to the woodland area. This will soften the abruptness caused by just having them in the woods. Eranthis hyemalis (winter aconite) is another plant that does well in woodlands, but do allow room for it to wander. This also applies to the bluebells. While these plants will give color the first spring after planting, the result of letting them remain undisturbed for years is a massive and most natural-looking planting. Autumn- and spring-flowering crocuses as well as the colchicums deserve consideration, but only around the perimeter of woodland gardens as they need sunlight to perform well. Several anemones grow wild in the woodlands of Europe, but they do not like too much heat in summer unless moisture is available. Given these conditions they are lovely. Anemone nemorosa and A. quinquefolia, native to the United States, are excellent for the woodland as is the somewhat rarer A. apennina, which is better suited to warmer temperatures.

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Trilliums are great woodland plants. Trillium sessile, with its dark crimson petals, will spread well in favored locations; but T. grandiflorum perhaps is the best, provided the soil remains damp throughout the year. The pure white flowers, taking on hues of pink and purple as they age, are a delight. Trillium cernuum, native to the eastern United States, is a pleasant plant that prefers quite cold winters. Plant these bulbs in fall with at least 4 inches of soil over them. The soil should contain a high percentage of organic material. Fritillaries also look at home when grown in woodlands. There are several named clones of Fritillaria meleagris offered for sale. They do require summer moisture and are at their best with smaller-leaved shrubs; the scale is then correct. It will be seen from the above that bulbs that look at home have, for the most part, pendant flowers. The grape hyacinths (Muscari species) do not look out of place on the edge of woodland areas, but they should receive good sun; these are not effective unless planted en masse. They grow well, multiply easily, and are worth considering along the borders surrounding the woodland area. With all woodland plantings of bulbs, it must be remembered that competition offered by vigorous shrubs and groundcovers can be severe. Occasional additional feedings will be appreciated by bulbs that face such competition. The gardener should also keep in mind the growth habit of other plants in or near the locations where bulbs are planted—additional pruning or removal of these plants may be needed to protect the bulbs.

COMMERCIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE WOODLAND GARDEN While the home gardener will be able to plant any or all the bulbs mentioned above in woodland areas, the professional gardener and landscape architect should start by growing those bulbs that are of easier culture in commercial landscapes. Bluebells, daffodils, and lilies are almost certain to give good effects. Trilliums, being a little less showy in flower and slightly more fragile and expensive to obtain, should be added later when variation and increased interest is needed. Cardiocrinum will not flower for a number of years so also must be considered as a later addition, except where funds are available for continued maintenance. Where there is much foot traffic, care must be taken in placing bulbs alongside the paths. It is wise to consider such plantings only when the bulbs can be protected in some way. They do not take too well to being walked upon. An effective way of giving protection is to line the paths with tree trunks. These should be no smaller than 6 to 8 inches in diameter. They should not be much over 14 to 18 inches in diameter or they will appear too massive. A good effect is achieved by leaving a small space between logs that are used, say a distance of some 18 inches. In this area the smaller bulbs can be planted and this type of planting breaks the line of the logs and a more pleasing natural-looking effect is achieved. The logs should be of such a length that they can not be easily moved by one person. Cyclamens, colchicums, chives, and autumn-flowering crocuses are well suited for bordering paths. The planting should

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not be in a regular pattern but varying in depth back from the path. Anemones can stand a little foot traffic, but for all intents and purposes all bulbs planted in public woodlands should be protected from foot traffic. Planting bulbs in front of or close to shrubs also will afford them protection. In larger open areas, a grouping of logs, placed as if they had fallen onto one another, can offer a natural and pleasant looking setting for bulbs and provide protection as well. Ferns make effective companion plants in such settings. Grape hyacinths can be planted, but if strictly woodland plants are to be grown and an authentic woodland planting is desired, these tiny bulbs should not be used as they are not woodland plants. They can be effectively used at a little distance from the entry to such woodland areas, leading the eye to a planting of bluebells, which are woodland denizens.

SIZE OF PLANTINGS Large bold plantings are recommended in woodlands, especially if the trees are of good size (Plate 8). Nature would not have allowed the trees to have reached such a size before some colonies of woodland bulbs had become established, hence the need to keep in mind the scale of the woods. Smaller colonies, however, are not to be ruled out, but they should appear as if they are offshoots of the larger. It is a good idea to watch the pattern of shade formed by the trees and plant in the sunlit areas. On sunny days the colors of the plantings will be enhanced. The sunlight will not fall in regular patterns, making the plantings look natural. In woods the surface of the ground is covered with fallen leaves and a number of smaller branches. These should be left in place and only removed if they impede the development of the bulbs. If they must be removed, scatter them in areas where they will do no harm; there is no need to remove them from the site. Scattering leaves over a planted area is suggested as this will hide the bulbs from potential disturbance by the public. While the first impulse is to scatter bulbs throughout the entire area, it is more attractive and the effects are greater if concentrated in specific areas. This is again duplicating nature, since once a plant finds an ideal location it will increase rapidly. By all means tempt people to enter the woods by placing some color where it can be seen from the outer limits, but hold back the main plantings so they are indeed a surprise. There is another reason for such planting: hidden plantings will be soon discovered by those who love plants, but casual walkers will not be so interested and another small measure of protection to the plants is achieved.

Bulbs in the Garden No garden is too small to have at least a few bulbs. Alstroemerias, dahlias, gladiolus, irises, lilies, nerines, and tulips can be planted and look at home. The smaller the area, the smaller the size of the plant; scale always is of importance (Plate 4).

While bulbs are frequently recommended for the perennial border, not all bulbs are suitable. The struggle for space and root competition may be too much, with the possible exception of dahlias, gladiolus, rhizomatous irises, and certain types of lilies. If no other space is available, then other bulbs can be grown in the perennial garden, but most deserve a place where they can be appreciated for their individual beauty, not mixed in and having to compete with the perennials. If lilies, such as the upright-flowering Asiatics, trumpets, or Oriental hybrids, are grown, then sufficient quantities must be planted so they make a good showing in their own right. They should also be staged against complementary foliage, preferably not competing with perennials of equal height and strong color. They should be planted to take center stage when in flower. The tuberous begonias are so lovely that a shady (but not deep shade) location should be provided. The base of a tree in a lawn is a good place, as are containers and hanging baskets. Tulips, daffodils, large-flowered ornamental onions, bulbous irises, gladiolus, freesias, anemones, and ranunculus always look their best as components of an annual border. They give a look of permanence even though their companions are annuals. Pink tulips above a bed of blue forget-me-nots, daffodils with pansies, large-flowered onions towering above tallergrowing annuals, irises, and gladiolus—used not only for their color but also for their stiffer foliage—form grand contrasts with looser-flowering annuals. It is not that the latter do not have a beauty of their own, but just as a fine piece of jewelry looks better when worn by a well-groomed individual, so do these bulbs need such a platform to give of their best and undoubted value. The hyacinth, the most fragrant spring-flowering bulb, can be used in many ways. Place individual groups near a window or close to an entrance, or in containers on the deck or patio. Be sure to bring them into the home if the weather is inclement, and keep in mind the adaptability of these bulbs for use indoors, even if only for a special dinner party or when guests are expected. The bulbs can be returned outside afterwards. Being indoors for too long a period will shorten their length of being at their best. Color and fragrance are as much a part of the charm of bulbs as any other plants. Their value does not stop there, however. In some bulbs the beauty of the faded flowers should be remembered; for example, the flowering heads of certain ornamental onions are very popular for use in dried flower arrangements.

BULBS FOR CUT FLOWERS Bulbs grown for cut flowers are best placed in a location where, if they are cut, obvious gaps in their display are avoided. Planting them very close together so the bulbs almost touch will allow for a selective cutting to take place with enough flowers left to remain attractive (Plate 76). An effective way to plant in this fashion is to open up a trench to the correct depth and place the bulbs into position. Amaryllis, anemones, daffodils, dahlias, freesias, gladiolus, irises, ixias (Plate 77), lilies (Plate 78), nerines, ranunculus, and

Bulbs in the Landscape tulips are all excellent cut flowers. Alstroemerias are becoming more popular as new and colorful hybrids reach the market. Ornithogalums, while not commonly grown by the home gardener, will provide long-lasting flowers for the home and are worth making space for in the garden. Watsonias, while not a popular bulb for cut-flower production, deserve to be more widely grown by home gardeners, especially if they have an area where these lovely plants can become established. Calla lilies, while mainly associated with weddings and funerals, actually present a lovely display in the home, especially when mixed with other flowers, and they last a long time. When cutting flowers for the home, the less foliage removed from the plant the better; as previously noted, the leaves manufacture the plant's food, and, if you want the bulbs to perform satisfactorily again, do not remove any more foliage than is absolutely necessary. The use of preservative substances in the water of cut flowers is now common. Bulbs do appreciate and last longer if arranged in copper containers. If not available, then dropping a few copper coins into the water does help them last longer.

SOILLESS CULTURE Modern lifestyles favor smaller townhouses and apartments. Certain bulbs, types of Crocus, Hyadnthus cultivars, and Narcissus, can be grown indoors without soil. Special vases are available, or you can fill a dish with pebbles, then add bulbs and more pebbles to keep the bulbs standing upright. After planting the bulbs, add water so that it almost but not quite touches the base of the bulbs. Place the vase or dish in the dark with temperatures between 45°F and 50°F until there is a good production of roots. Only when these roots have been produced and some top growth made should the bulbs be brought into the home and given normal room temperature and light. This method of growing bulbs without soil is explained in greater detail in chapter 7, in the section titled "Forcing Without Soil and Without Cooling." Containers, which come in a wide assortment of shapes, depths, and colors, can be used effectively to grow bulbs. The danger lies in the container not being of sufficient size to hold enough soil to maintain fairly constant root and soil temperatures. If the container is too small and then is warmed by the sun, the soil temperature will reach a point which harms the bulbs. If there is no room for a large container, then do keep the smaller ones shaded to avoid extremes of temperature. Drainage is essential; use a porous soil mix with a good organic content. The container should be of sufficient depth to give the bulbs the desired thickness of soil cover, as if they were in the open ground. The culture in containers and soil mixes is described in chapter 5. I wish to emphasize here that having only a very small amount of room—be it verandah, deck, or balcony—should not preclude a homeowner from the pleasure of growing bulbs, even if the selection is limited.

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Commercial Aspects of Planning and Planting with Bulbs The professional gardener and landscape architect will find the preceding remarks applicable to many aspects of commercial planting and planning. There are, however, other points that should be borne in mind by the professional. Annuals are not as expensive as bulbs. When planning large beds of bulbs, be they for spring or summer color, the most effective use will be made if the bulbs are planted en masse and edged with annuals which complement the colors (Plate 9), or, for very large beds, consider islands of bulbs surrounded by annuals. Care should be taken in the selection of cultivars so that the beds are in flower at the same time and at the same height (Plate 64), or alternating lower- and taller-growing cultivars. Mixed colors are best avoided when a public display is the objective. While such can be appreciated by an individual in his or her own garden, the passing foot traffic experienced in larger areas demands a colorful impact at one time (Plate 12). Very little effect will be obtained by having just one or two types of bulbs in flower at one time unless en masse. While a good effect can be obtained by having some earlier-flowering bulbs in flower, after a climax of color, small plantings look insignificant. Very effective plantings can be obtained with Bellis (Plate 13), Myosotis, Primula, and Viola. These give good value for the money, but the addition of tall-stemmed tulips growing through them gives a display sure to catch the eye of the public. Such plantings tend to be more formal in appearance, and the tulips or other bulbs used should, in these cases, be planted in a formal style, equally spaced and in a distinct pattern (Plate 6). Summer-flowering bulbs can be effective in beds. Surrounded by lower-growing types, the larger cultivars and showy flowers of Dahlia are superb. Gladiolus, when used for summer color, should be regarded as extra color to perk up a bed. They should not be relied upon to provide color by themselves as they flower for a relatively short period of time. Hence, gladiolus should be used to provide additional, not basic, interest (Plate 13). Their swordlike foliage provides contrast when, for example, they emerge above a planting of taller-growing marigolds. Such combinations give pleasure all summer long, when the form of the foliage is almost as effective as the flowers themselves. A massed display of gladiolus is effective in itself if timed for a certain date. As a guide for such plantings allow 100 to 120 days for them to come into flower from winter and late spring plantings, and 70 to 90 days from early and mid summer plantings. Such a planting can effectively hide a bare wall where the area for planting is only a foot or so in width. In such locations it is difficult to obtain annuals of sufficient height without crowding the walkways. Under such conditions the colors and cultivars should blend well with their background and, as timing is all-important, the use of a single cultivar is to be preferred. In the perennial border, bulbs planted in bold clumps add variation during the summer months (Plates 58-60). When

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planning, be sure to consider other plants in the border to achieve the maximum effect of contrasting foliage textures and colors (Plate 70). As the effect of such plantings is dramatic, so is the bleak look after they have passed their best. The professional should consider growing other bulbs in containers to be plunged into position when the first are removed. Remember that the time plants take to come into flower is exciting, but

their going out of flower is not. Better to err on the late side than to be too early with such plantings. Vandalism can be a problem, especially with hanging baskets that can be reached easily. Place them up high where an effort is required to reach them and use the cheapest possible containers to avoid creating too much of an attractive nuisance. Firmly attach the containers to their support.

CHAPTER

7

Growing Bulbs Out of Season Forcing bulbs at home or commercially

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any types of bulbs are used by greenhouse growers to provide out-of-season color for retail florists. Several firms offer in their various catalogs bulbs which the homeowner can have in flower at Christmas. To obtain such out-of-season flowering, the bulbs are said to have been forced. Before bulbs can be brought into flower, certain treatments must be given to them to advance their development. This development inside the bulbs, normally accomplished by nature, brings the bulbs into flower at their usual flowering time. To have bulbs in flower out-of-season the grower or producer either speeds the development for earlier flowering or retards the development for later flowering.

Preparing Bulbs for Out-of-Season Flowering The forcing of bulbs for the market has been long practiced and is most profitable. Rising fuel costs have given much impetus to searching for treatments prior to planting to ensure good performance from bulbs. Providing warmth alone does not always mean success. Some bulbs have not performed in a satisfactory manner; others just have not produced flowers at all. It has been noted over the years that bulbs from areas such as Cornwall and other parts of southern England, and in particular the Isles of Scilly, come into flower as much as two weeks before similar bulbs, even the same cultivars, grown in cooler climates. Such earlier flowering was an obvious advantage. The question was, Why do these bulbs flower earlier? Research was undertaken to answer this question. Among other things it was discovered that the development of the embryo flower continued during the dormant or rest period of the bulbs, especially among true bulbs.

It has long been a common practice to give Narcissus bulbs a warm-water treatment to control eelworm. The critical temperature (111°F for three hours) was found to damage the bulbs, resulting in poor flower production if temperatures were not exactly maintained. By prewarming the bulbs and treating them only after the flowers were formed, losses were reduced. Thus it was established that warmth and warm-water treatment, at a particular time in the formation of the flowers, had a decided effect on flowering performance. Genera perform differently when forced. They require different specific treatments to take advantage of the natural processes within the bulbs. There are also differences, even though to a lesser degree, between cultivars within a genus. The dates on which the bulbs are required to flower also will alter the treatment. An example is perhaps in order. Before cooling, tulips should be warmed for two weeks at temperatures between 68°F and 72°F. For very early flowering, warming at 94°F for one week prior to the two-week treatment is beneficial. For Narcissus the treatment is four days at 94°F, followed by two weeks at 63°F before cooling. Such treatments, known as curing, prepare bulbs for early flowering by forcing. Even if not forced in a greenhouse or other structure, prepared bulbs will flower earlier outdoors or indoors. Bulbs that have received good growing conditions, including both moisture and temperature, are of course much easier to treat as described above. By the same token, it is best if all the bulbs being so treated have reached the same stage of development. For this reason bulbs from the Netherlands, parts of England, and the Pacific Northwest are preferred for forcing, as in these regions large quantities of bulbs are produced under almost identical conditions. In Japan, by contrast, climatic conditions can vary considerably from one area to another. This does not have any detrimental effect on the bulbs' performance in the garden, but under the stress of forcing, irregular flowering is more likely to occur. If it were possible to establish that all

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the bulbs from Japan (or any other region except those mentioned) had received identical growing conditions and were all at the same development stage, then such bulbs would be suitable for treatment and subsequent forcing. The standard process for preparing bulbs for forcing involves curing them by warming for short or long periods, and then cooling them for varied periods, depending on genus, at 48° to 50°F for four to nine months. Note that cooling below 45°F can have adverse effects on the bulbs. It can be seen that warming, when followed by cooling, induces flowering. Warmth in itself, if given for long periods, will delay flowering. Thus the producers of flowering bulbs can help the grower achieve earlier-than-normal flowering times as well as delayed flowering times. In this way crops for specific dates can be planned and the appropriate treatment given. This is a tremendous advantage, especially in light of the costs of fuel to heat greenhouses. The basic principles for treatment are that the flowers must be formed within the bulb prior to cooling and temperatures must be maintained within specific and strict limits. (These specific and strict limits will vary slightly for cultivars of any genus.) The purposes of warming bulbs before cooling them are varied and include making sure the flower is fully formed before cooling and retarding flower production for flower sales after the normal season. With these principles in mind, we can now look at specific requirements for bulb (in the wide sense) crops. Research to perfect temperature control programs continues, so the following guidelines can only familiarize growers with the basic principles involved. It must be emphasized that the requirements are very exact: variations of only a few degrees either up or down frequently can lead to poor crop performance. Growers should obtain exact and up-to-date information about the cultivars to be grown from the supplier, and adapt schedules as needed. By manipulating the temperature bulbs receive, the grower can program the crops for a long period of flowering

HYACINTHS Growers cure these bulbs in a number of ways. One is by soil warming, heating the soil by deploying electric cables or warm water pipes in it. Flower bud development is induced by temperatures between 68°F and 78°F. Certain cultivars, among them 'LTnnocence', need temperatures toward the higher end. Curing these bulbs for Christmas flowering, which is about the earliest these bulbs can be obtained in flower without undue expense, requires lifting them in the middle of June while the foliage is still green. The bulbs are allowed to dry and are then cleaned and graded as needed. Then, for seven weeks the bulbs are exposed to exact temperatures for set periods of time: two weeks at 86°F, then three weeks at 78°F, then two weeks at 73°F. After this the bulbs are stored at 63°F until the last week of September. Hyacinths for later forcing (say, well after Christmas) are lifted in mid-July and then stored at 78°F for two months, then at 63°F, as for Christmas-flowering bulbs.

For garden hyacinths the curing time is mid-July to midAugust, after which they are stored at 55°F.

IRIS, BULBOUS TYPES Bulbous iris need a warm period from the time they are dug up until they are placed in cold temperatures. This is usually done by giving the bulbs some 21 days at 83°F, followed by some 35 days at 50°F, after which they are ready for planting. In the Netherlands the Wedgewood iris, one of the Dutch irises, is often given two weeks at 93°F, three days at 104°F, two weeks at 63°F, and then six weeks at 48°F. Bulbs of the same cultivars from warmer climates will not require the same treatment. Ten days at 95°F, followed by the cooling treatment, is sufficient to cure these bulbs. Dutch irises have been much used out of season by florists. These bulbs can be retarded by keeping them in a temperature of 86°F. This temperature is maintained from the beginning of September until some six weeks before planting; for the last six weeks they are kept at 63°F. The schedule for such late flowering is plant in the last 10 days of June for September flowering; plant in the first week of July for October flowering; plant at the end of July for November flowering. For the six weeks immediately before planting, the bulbs receive a temperature of 63°F; from the time of harvest, a temperature of86°F. MUSCARI

These bulbs need about six weeks at 48°F from the first part of August to September.

NARCISSUS In most cases, the preparation of daffodil bulbs is accomplished by the natural heat of the soil which must be between 68°F and 72°F for at least two weeks so precooling can start in the second or third week of August. Precool the bulbs at 48°F for eight weeks. Those cultivars with colored cups require less time. As timing is critical, growers are advised to obtain exact information regarding each cultivar if they plan to precool the bulbs themselves. Daffodils being grown for very early flowering are subjected to somewhat different treatment, as warmer temperatures are required to encourage flower formation within the bulb. Bulbs for early forcing are lifted in the second week of July and, after drying and cleaning, are given four days at 94°F, followed by two weeks at 63°F. These treatments are followed by cooling the bulbs at 48°F until the first part of October, when they are planted.

TULIPS Stamens and carpels must be well formed before any cold treatment is given. This is ascertained by cutting open the bulbs and examining the development of the embryonic flowers. To make sure this stage of development is reached, it is frequently

Growing Bulbs Out of Season necessary to prewarm the bulbs. This is accomplished by giving the bulbs temperatures between 68°F and 72°F for two weeks, timing it so that the bulbs can receive eight weeks at 48°F before being planted. Tulips for very early forcing require another type of treatment. The bulbs receive one week at 94°F before two weeks at 68°F to 72°F. There are a number of variations on the warming and cooling treatments: one is a short period at 93°F for five days in midJuly, followed by two weeks at 78°F, then three weeks at 62°F. Remember that the treatment best suited to each cultivar varies; however, as a general rule, those within the same grouping (for example, Darwin tulips) require the same treatments. A grower wishing to force tulips into flower is advised to talk with the supplier and determine which cultivars are available that have received the necessary treatment(s).

Bulbs from the Southern Hemisphere The potential of producing out-of-season flowers from bulbs grown in the Southern Hemisphere, where there are a number of bulb-producing firms, has not been fully explored. It should be; however, the question of the public's acceptance of tulips and daffodils and other spring-flowering bulbs in summer or fall is another question entirely. The needed treatments and the costs involved would be offset by the cost of the freight. Since there is a six-month difference in seasons—the Northern Hemisphere's spring is the Southern Hemisphere's fall—the prospect is interesting.

Forcing Bulbs The two most important conditions in forcing bulbs are temperature and time. For the correct development of the flower buds inside true bulbs and the proper treatment of corms, tubers, and so forth, certain and definite stages of development inside the bulbs have to be reached. The complex treatments given by growers have been outlined in principle earlier in this book. These are essential to bring bulbs to the state of development which will permit them to be subjected to the cultural conditions for forcing and, most importantly, to perform well when so subjected. The principal crops forced are the daffodils, hyacinths, irises, tulips, and, to a lesser degree, the lilies. While there are similarities in treatment, they will be discussed individually in some detail.

Handling and Storage There are handling and storage conditions common to the majority of bulbs being forced. They must always be handled with care. They are living plants, even if dormant. Too much weight can squash them, causing serious damage and providing easy entry for fungus diseases which cause rotting. Remove all pack-

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ages from the containers or boxes in which they arrive and arrange them so air can circulate between them. Examine the bulbs to make sure none are damaged: any that are should be discarded. Then store them at 63°F if at all possible; however, between 55°F and 65°F is acceptable. Store lilies at 38°F; below 32°F will cause freezing of the bulbs, and temperatures above 45°F will encourage sprouting in the boxes. Lilies also differ from other bulbs in that, being made of fleshy scales, they can dry out and shrivel if exposed to drying conditions. All bulbs received from growers will have the floral buds already developed and can be treated through controlled temperature as soon as the particular program being followed commences. The exception to this is any bulbs received in August. Depending on type (see "Preparing Bulbs for Out-of-Season Flowering") these may need temperatures at 63°F to form floral buds, and the treatment may take several weeks. If bulbs of the types mentioned above are to be stored for long periods of time, say a month or more, they are best placed in trays with a wire-mesh bottom to ensure good air circulation and should be held at 63°F with as little variation as possible. Temperatures above 63°F can seriously harm them; lilies are, as mentioned above, treated differently.

HOLDING BACK FLOWERING The term/orcmgis given to describe the culture of bringing the bulbs into flower ahead of their normal flowering time. Another term, held back, describes plants being brought into flower after their normal flowering time. While not used extensively with spring-flowering bulbs such as daffodils and tulips, as these seem to have little sales appeal out of season (but this is slowly changing), it is a procedure used quite extensively for gladiolus and lilies, and to a lesser degree for anemones, ranunculus, and Dutch irises. For the majority of these, holding back is a simple operation. The bulbs or corms are stored in well-ventilated storerooms at 50°F, generally on mesh-bottomed trays. Lilies are kept at lower temperatures and should be checked periodically for sprouting. Trumpet lilies are not easy to hold back, but just want to grow, and as soon as shoots are seen emerging from the bulbs they must be planted. Asiatic hybrids can be held back for a considerable length of time, but it is best to plant no later than May or June. The lily bulbs will deteriorate by shrinking a little but will still produce a good number of flowers, although with a lower bud count than usual. A period of rooting in moderate temperatures (below 55°F) is necessary; allow temperatures above 55°F only after root formation has taken place. Where there is adequate storage space, bulbs should be planted and allowed to root well in storage before being brought into the growing areas. With careful attention to planting dates, Asiatic hybrids can be available for marketing throughout the year; however, the need for longer day length in the fall and the costs of such lighting have to be balanced against the prices obtainable in the marketplace. For such prolonged storage, larger-sized bulbs, 5-6 or 6-7 inches in circumference are preferred.

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Do not store bulbs in areas where fruits, especially apples, are kept. The ethylene gas given off by the fruit is harmful. If humidity can be controlled it should be kept between 60 and 70 percent.

cover with soil, and water in. After such watering the bulbs should be buried to their required depth; add more soil if necessary.

ROOTING BULBS SOIL MIXES Bulbs can be grown in many different kinds of soil mixes. The bulb itself contains the nutrients it needs to grow and flower. Moisture, air, and support must be supplied. A good mix is equal parts of soil, sand, and peat moss. The soil should be weed-free and not have been used for bulbs before. If in doubt sterilize the soil to ensure that no disease pathogens are present. The soil mix must drain well but retain moisture at the same time. A wide range of pH is suitable, as the bulbs will grow between 5.5 and 7.5. Highly acid or alkaline mixes cannot be used. Do not use too fine a mix because the roots need air at all stages of growth.

CONTAINERS Pots, both clay and plastic, can be used. Wooden flats, being less expensive, are preferred if the bulbs are being used for cutflower production. In all cases adequate drainage is essential. While the size of the existing hole in a clay pot is normally all right, some plastic pots may need to have additional holes cut into them. The depth should not be less than 3 to 5 inches, but deeper pots are not necessary. The exception is the stem-rooted lilies, which require pots at least 8 to 10 inches in depth. Narcissus produce more roots than the other bulbs generally forced, so they should be given containers of at least 6 inches in depth. In all instances used containers should be cleaned thoroughly; if new clay pots are used, they should be soaked prior to use and allowed to dry before filling with soil.

PLANTING IN CONTAINERS The bulbs should be planted in a loose mixture, with the top of the bulb level with the rim of the pot. Fill the containers with soil to the necessary level for the bulbs to be at the desired depth when placed on the soil. Bulbs should not touch each other but be separated by about half their width. Tulips should be planted with the flat side of the bulb facing the outside of the pot. From this side the largest leaf is produced, and better air circulation can be obtained between the stems when the plants grow. Bulbs to be used for cut flowers can be planted closer together, allowing a quarter inch between each bulb. If a particular cultivar has dense foliage, however, more space is needed. Care must be taken never to damage the basal plate of a bulb. Two problems can arise if they are pushed too hard into the soil: the first is that physical damage can result; the other is that the soil underneath the bulb can become compacted and a good root growth pattern will be discouraged because the roots then have to force their way through. The preferred method for planting is to loosen the soil mix, place the bulb in position,

Various bulbs have different requirements while rooting prior to being exposed to warmer temperatures. This is not so critical for the home gardener as for the commercial grower. A week's delay in flowering may be annoying to the home gardener but disastrous for the commercial grower. For this reason many of the latter construct special growing chambers, where the necessary temperatures can be precisely maintained. In many instances the areas are separate, with the range being at least 32° to 55°F. For the home gardener, a second-hand, home-style refrigerator will serve the purpose. Two other conditions should also be established—air and darkness. The bulbs being grown in growing chambers will need to be watered from time to time. Keep in mind when constructing the chamber that it should be easy to disinfect and easy to clean. The effectiveness of outdoor rooting sites depends on climate variations. Outdoor areas are adequate in most parts of the country, the exception being warmer regions which do not reach the low temperatures required in early fall. The schedule of forcing must take this into account. The selected site must drain well and, where possible, not have been used to grow bulbs before. The desired temperatures for outdoor rooting are the same as those for indoor controlled areas. Maintaining such temperatures is difficult and in some cases will require additional protection from cold, while others may require being protected from the sun. In a number of places, temperatures may drop, inhibiting the production of roots despite the added protection. Plants such as hyacinths and tulips require warmer temperatures prior to forcing—about 48°F—and darkness to ensure good root production in such areas. If the following temperatures can be maintained, then many bulbs can be forced satisfactorily using an outside rooting area: 50° to 55°F the first two or three weeks after planting, 48° to 50°F until the middle of November, 35° to 41°F from then to the time the bulbs are brought indoors—but never allow the temperature to drop below 32°F, protecting plants with a tarp, straw, or plastic if necessary. The outside bed where the bulbs are to be set should have a 3- to 5-inch layer of sharp sand or gravel on the bottom to ensure good drainage. The pots are then placed in position, and any air spaces between the pots filled in with sand. A layer of sand is then put over the pots to a depth of 2 or 3 inches. Three to five inches of soil is placed over the sand. It is a good idea to put salt hay or a tarpaulin over the top of the area if much rain or severe cold weather is expected. The reason for the sand on top of the pots is a practical one. When the pots are to be brought indoors, the sand separates easily from the top of the pot and the bulbs are not disturbed. If just covered with soil which becomes wet, this operation can be difficult, without doing damage to the bulbs.

Growing Bulbs Out of Season Use a soil thermometer to monitor the soil temperature and check the soil for moisture. Water if the soil becomes dry.

Flowering for Specific Dates The date at which the bulbs are required to flower determines the timing of their being planted, the length of time they are rooting, and the time they are brought into the warmer temperatures to flower. All bulbs must be well rooted before higher forcing temperatures are given. For practical reasons it is not possible to give exact starting and flowering dates. Even if the times of starting the bulbs and desired flowering were broken down into separate weeks, a grower must exercise skill and experience in bringing the bulbs to flower at the desired time. For this reason, normal flowering times are divided into three periods: early flowering, 15 December to 1 February; midseason flowering, 2 February to 15 March; and late flowering, 15 March to 15 May. The keen and experienced home gardener will be able to time, with considerable accuracy, the flowering of bulbs being grown out of season, but there is a difference in having the bulbs in flower over a period of time when compared with the pinpoint accuracy the commercial grower must achieve for a continuous supply of flowers for the market. Having the bulbs in the home to enjoy is a far cry from having to meet market deadlines. Accurate records kept over a period of years will help greatly. Reading the following schedules which a commercial grower must follow will help the home grower, as well as demonstrate what an exact science horticulture has become.

Guidelines for Commercial Forcing of Bulbs The schedules given below are meant to be a guide only to a few representative types of bulbs. Experience and availability for growing space will determine the exact dates as well as the prospective flowering dates to be targeted.

Narcissus Early Flowering About 20 August: Precool bulbs for six to seven weeks at 48°F. First week of October: Plant prepared bulbs. Keep them in the growing room or plunged outside at 48°F for five weeks, then lower the temperature to 41°F if plants are well rooted. Last week of November: Bring bulbs into the greenhouse at weekly intervals. Keep them at 60°F during the night and a little higher during the day. Midseason Flowering First week of October: Plant bulbs. Keep them in the growing room at 48°F for four weeks or until roots are well developed, then lower the temperature to 41°F.

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First week of January: Bring bulbs into the greenhouse. Keep them at 41°F if they are still growing roots. Lower the temperature to 36°F, when the bulbs begin to make top growth. Late Flowering Last week of November: Plant bulbs. Keep them in growing room for three or four weeks at 48°F, then lower the temperature to 41°F for four or five weeks, and then hold the bulbs at 35°F. Last week of February: Bring bulbs into the greenhouse at weekly intervals or as needed. Allow 24 to 26 days to flowering time.

Hyacinths Early Flowering Last week of September: Plant prepared bulbs. (While not all cultivars are amenable to such treatment and others may require less, most cultivars require treatments, even if for flowering in the latter part of the "early season.") Keep them in the growing room at 48°F. For flowering at the end of the period (mid-January on), lower the temperature to 41°F if root production is good and some growth of the shoots seen. First week of December: Bring bulbs into warmer temperatures for flowering. For the first four days, keep the temperature between 50°F and 55°F and do not water the plants. On the fifth day, raise the temperature to around 70°F and water the bulbs. As soon as color is seen on the flowers, drop the temperature to around 65°F. Midseason Flowering First week of October: Plant bulbs. Keep them in the growing room at 48°F for three weeks, then lower the temperature to 41°F. First week of January: Bring bulbs the greenhouse. Keep the temperature between 50°F and 55°F and do not water the plants, then give plants the same temperatures as early season bulbs. Late Flowering Second week of November to first week of December: Plant bulbs; for flowering at the end of the period, pot bulbs one month later. Keep bulbs at 48°F for 21 to 24 days, then lower the temperature to 35°F. Last week of February: Bring bulbs into the greenhouse and give them the same initial treatment as for other bulbs mentioned above. The temperatures in the greenhouse, however, need not be so high for forcing, 65°F at night being sufficient. If the shoots are longer than 3 or 4 inches, drop the temperatures at once to 41°F. Forcing requires constant attention to the progress of the bulbs both in the growing area and in the greenhouse.

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Tulips Early Flowering Last week of August: Precool bulbs for six to seven weeks at 41°F. This treatment is recommended for lateflowering cultivars and Darwin Hybrids, but may not be necessary for bulbs planned to flower toward the end of early season (that is, after mid-January). First week of October: Plant bulbs. Precooled bulbs and those not needing precooling can be planted two weeks earlier. For flowering in late December (including Christmas), keep planted bulbs at 48°F. For midJanuary flowering, drop the temperature to 41°F after three to four weeks. Last week of November: Bring bulbs into the greenhouse if flowering is planned for the first part of the period. For flowering in the second half of the period, bring pots in right after Christmas, always at weekly intervals. Midseason Flowering First week of September: Precool Darwin Hybrids and late-flower ing cultivars for four weeks. First week of October: Plant precooled bulbs. Fifteen days later plant bulbs not needing precooling. Keep planted bulbs in growing room at 48°F for a month. Lower temperature to 41°F when roots appear at the bottom of the pot. Second week of January: Bring bulbs into the greenhouse. Keep them at 65°F. If higher or lower temperatures are planned, adjust the time the bulbs are brought in accordingly. Late Flowering Second week of November: Plant bulbs for cut-flower production. Two weeks later plant bulbs for pot culture. Keep planted bulbs in the growing room at 48°F for three weeks, then lower the temperature to 41°F for five weeks, then hold the bulbs at 35°F. Last week of February: Bring bulbs into the greenhouse as needed. Allow three weeks to flowering time. Note that in many areas outdoor temperatures may be too low for adequate root growth. Should root development be insufficient, the bulbs should be brought into warmer temperatures, about 48° to 52°F, and kept in the dark to promote root growth. It cannot be emphasized too strongly that a good root system is essential before the bulbs are brought into the greenhouse.

SUMMARY Experience will help determine the various differences in the behaviors of bulbs. Thus the cultivars used and the temperatures at which the greenhouses are operated will govern the dates of the procedures, which may often change significantly. The above information is a guide to be changed as needed for individual growers, cultivars grown, and their production

schedules. The amount of sunlight as well as temperature will have an effect on flowering, including height of the stems.

Home Gardeners The procedures the nursery owner must follow to get the crop to harvest on time are much more complicated than those the average home gardener (should) need follow. One rule of thumb is that bulbs must be of good quality—sound, with no soft or rotted portions and the basal plate in good condition. A total of 13 to 18 weeks is regarded as the optimum time for precooling bulbs. This includes the time the bulbs spend potted up in a growing temperature, that is, the best temperature for root production. Bulbs being grown for cut flowers will produce longer stems if the period leans toward 18 weeks, and shorter stems on those with just 13 weeks. Pot the bulbs, then place them in a cool, dark location. The temperature should be below 50°F, preferably between 45°F and 48°F. The pots must be kept moist during this period. In cooler climates, placing the pots in a trench on gravel or sand and covered as described previously, is beneficial. In milder climates, an old refrigerator can be used. Keep the bulbs cool, moist, and in the dark until the roots are well formed. At no time should they be subjected to temperatures below 35°F. If it is necessary to protect the bulbs from mice and other rodents, chicken wire can be used. When the bulbs are well rooted, the pots can be brought inside the home. Given normal inside temperatures and good light, the plants can be expected to flower in about three or four weeks. To slow down the development of bulbs in a container, place the pot in lower temperatures and lower light conditions. Conversely, to speed up the process, increase the amount of light the plants receive and give them a more favorable temperature. Once a bulb has been forced in the ways described, it cannot be counted on to perform well again. For this reason the bulb should be discarded. If you have a large area where, for example, bulbs are being naturalized, plant them there. They will recover from forcing in a couple of seasons, providing the correct cultural conditions for such bulbs are given (see chapter 5 for more information). The home gardener should consider Crocus, Iris reticulata, and Muscari good forcing prospects, in addition to the bulbs regularly forced by the commercial grower. The choice of cultivars is important. Some are more reliable than others and more tolerant of the general treatment given by the home gardener. The following schedule for flowering times will be of assistance to the home gardener: to flower in January, plant in the first part of October; to flower in February, plant in the middle of October; and to flower later, plant in the first part of November.

FORCING WITHOUT SOIL AND WITHOUT COOLING Some but not all bulbs should be given cool conditions when they are being started into growth. Soil also is not necessary for

Growing Bulbs Out of Season certain bulbs; they can be grown in gravel or small stones. As has been mentioned, the bulbs have within them the nutrients they need as well as the flowers, albeit in embryo. If bulbs are to be grown without soil, they must be grown in containers that will hold water. A layer of rocks or gravel an inch deep is placed in the container. The bulbs are set into position, spaced about an inch apart. The container is then filled with more gravel or rocks so that the shoulders and necks of the bulbs are above the medium. Water is then added until it is just about, but not quite, to the bottom of the bulbs. Throughout the growth of the plants, the water is kept at this level. Topping up will have to be done from time to time. For best rooting, a temperature of around 50°F should be maintained. Lower temperatures down to 45°F would be even better. Light should be kept low, darkness being ideal. In three to four weeks the bulbs will have produced a great number of roots. The best bulbs for almost certain success are the paperwhite narcissus (Narcissus tazetta) and its yellow cultivar 'Soleil d'Or', together with the Chinese sacred lily (N. tazettavar. orientalis). All can be grown without elaborate cooling.

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Hyacinths, and they should be those that have been prepared, also can be grown in specially formed glasses. The bulb is held by the glass and water is added to just below the bulb. The container is then put in a cool, dark location until a substantial number of roots are produced. This will take anywhere from 4 to 10 weeks. As soon as the roots are abundant and the shoot is some 3-4 inches high, increase the light and temperature. This method is not only attractive but of great interest as well. The water needs to be topped off from time to time, and adding a piece of charcoal to the water will keep it sweet. Bulbs once flowered have to be discarded, as they completely exhaust themselves and their food supply when grown in water alone. There are many ways in which bulbs can be enjoyed. I would encourage the home gardener to try growing these wonderful and colorful plants and to get them into flower out of season. Even if the first attempt is unsuccessful, it will provide a good conversation piece. Should the bulb flower—and it should if quality stock was purchased and the procedures outlined above were followed—much pleasure and delight will be yours.

CHAPTER

8

Pests and Diseases Recognizing and controlling bulb pests, funguses, viruses, and physiological disorders

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ithout a doubt, bulbs should be free of pests and diseases when purchased, and after planting such a condition will be realized if good hygiene is practiced. Bulbs grown poorly, with little or no attention to correct and timely cultural practices, will not be able to maintain their vigor. Those subjected to such carelessness are much more susceptible to attack from pests and diseases. Even with good culture, several pests can be expected almost as a matter of course—the aphids and those perennial problems, the slugs and snails. Few gardens will be free of these no matter how many precautions are taken and how high the standards of cleanliness. The greenhouse horticulturist knows that whiteflies, mealy bugs, and cutworms can be a problem, and they can be bothersome to bulbous plants grown outdoors as well. Aphids, while they can cause some distortion to a bulb, are dangerous mainly because of their ability to spread virus diseases. Once a bulb has contracted a virus, it is worthy only for discard. This is especially true of lilies. Slugs and snails can wipe out seedlings and even more mature bulbs if the emerging leaves are eaten, robbing the bulb of much food. Since the foliage is the food-manufacturing plant for future seasons, the bulbs so attacked will be weak at best and thus in turn more vulnerable to other pests. The gardener should not be discouraged by the lengthy list of pests and diseases to which bulbous plants can fall prey. Seldom will all the possible enemies be present in one garden. In addition, as I have stressed, correct cultural practices will greatly reduce the number of pests and their spoiling effects. The range of products available to control pests and diseases is large. Each year new products are introduced, and each year certain products are no longer on the market. Whenever possible, spraying should be the last resort in any control program. Elimination of pests by washing plants with water and the use of

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soaps and biological controls should always take precedence over the use of chemicals. Should a pest or disease threaten to wipe out a planting, the alternatives are stark: spray or lose the plants being attacked. The gardener must make a choice. The choice today, with the increased awareness of the possible damage to both humans and the environment by the use of certain chemicals, rests with the individual. At all times, when chemical controls are being used, the label must be read carefully and the given directions followed exactly. The product must have been cleared by the proper authorities for use on the plants being sprayed, and strict attention must be given to the dilutions and strengths recommended. Always read the entire label of any product for specific application information, and follow the directions to the letter. If there is any doubt in your mind regarding the appropriateness of a product for use on any given plant, obtain further information from a fully qualified person, such as your county agricultural commissioner, extension agent, licensed pest-control operator, or a member of the staff of your local nursery.

Pests ANTS As a general rule, ants do not cause much damage to bulbous plants. They are generally found on plants where there already are colonies of aphids or other insects which exude honeydew, on which the ants feed. Should ants be seen on plants, the grower is advised to look for another pest. Ant nests can be bothersome but are unlikely to be troublesome. Eradication of the nest is the most effective control. Once the nest is located, pour boiling water directly on it to take care of the problem. Should the problem be severe, however, seek professional help.

Pests and Diseases

APHIDS One of the most common pests is the aphid, whose rate of increase is incredible. It is not uncommon for 20 generations or more to be produced in one year. Certain generations are produced parthenogenetically, that is, without fertilization of the female by the male. There are both winged and wingless forms in the life cycle of each of the many species of these insects, and they vary in color. Winged females are fertilized by males in the fall. They lay eggs, which remain dormant overwinter, emerging as nymphs in the spring. These mature, giving birth to living young parthenogenetically. The winged forms can spread rapidly. Toward the end of summer, males are produced that fertilize the females, which in turn lay the eggs that overwinter. The aphids, being sucking insects, weaken the plants by disrupting the necessary flow of food inside the plant. This can cause distortion, stunting, and loss of vigor. Leaves often will yellow when the attack is severe. The honeydew secreted by these insects is much appreciated by ants and also forms a good growing medium for certain sooty molds. The first defense should be a jet of clean water to dislodge the pests from the foliage. Ladybugs will help control minor infestations. Should a severe attack occur insecticides can be used. Always follow the instructions shown on the label and follow up with treatment to control the eggs that will have hatched after the first spraying. Several applications may be needed if the infestation is really bad. Another precaution is to check for any aphids that may be present on bulbs you are purchasing. Often a colony will be found under the tunic of a bulb and clustered around the growing point. These are not the bulbs you want to buy. If you do not discover the insects until after you have bought the bulbs, either return them for fresh ones, or dip them or dust them with a suitable insecticide prior to planting.

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caterpillar be found, the affected plants should be removed at once and discarded.

STALK BORER Stalk borer (Papaipema nebris) is not so selective as the corn borer and can be found on a great number of plants, but, as with the corn borer, the summer-flowering bulbs are the most susceptible. Dahlias, irises, and, to a certain extent, the laterflowering lilies are the most likely to be attacked. This pest is found mainly east of the Rocky Mountains in the United States. The caterpillar is an inch or somewhat longer and pale yellow with a purplish band; these colors are quite marked when the caterpillar is young, becoming fainter as it ages. Spray with a product to eradicate.

JAPANESE BEETLE While not a problem in the western United States, the troublesome Japanese beetle (Popillia japonica) is found in most regions east of the Mississippi. The grub, about J/2 inch long, overwinters in the soil. In the spring it moves toward the surface and feeds on the roots of grasses, devouring them. During early summer the adult beetle emerges and continues to feed until late summer or early fall, completely eating away buds, flowers, and, in the case of the tender stalks of dahlias and cannas, the stems as well. The beetle is visible to the naked eye, being up to l /2 inch long and bronze in color. Control of a limited attack simply requires removing the pests by hand. Traps also are a valid control, but if there is a severe attack, an effective insecticide should be used. WlREWORMS

GREEN PEACH APHID Known in Great Britain as greenfly, this pest (Myzuspersicae), unlike many aphids that can vary in color, is always green. It is larger than the majority of the common aphids, frequently being over 1A inch in size, but causes the same problems and damage. Iris, lilies, and tulips are among the bulbs most often attacked. Control methods are the same as for the other aphids.

Wireworms (Melanotus species), common throughout North America, are the larvae of a beetle. They spend their lives in the soil and sometimes in decaying or rotted wood. The larvae eat into the roots of dahlias, gladiolus, and other bulbous plants, devouring the bulb. The result is the collapse of the plant. As wireworms are seldom seen, the best method of eradicating them is to turn the soil frequently (but not too often) so they are exposed to their natural enemies; this also discourages the laying of eggs.

EUROPEAN CORN BOREr If, at the end of the season, a great number of corn stalks is left on the surface of the ground, they might well provide the necessary refuge for the European corn borer (Ostinia nubilalis) to overwinter. The caterpillar emerges in late summer or early spring and will attack plants that are similar to corn. This applies to those with a definite stalk. For this reason the most commonly attacked are dahlias and gladiolus, two of the popular summer-flowering bulbs. The larva is light pink in color and about % inch long. The egg-laying female moth, yellow-brown in color, is mostly nocturnal and therefore hard to control. Cleanliness certainly is one of the best controls, but, should the

NEMATODES There are many species of nematodes. Seldom are these pests visible to the naked eye, but they are abundant in most soils. Not all are harmful, however, some being responsible for the breakdown of organic matter in the soil. They are one of the main pests responsible for root decay, which in turn can cause deformed foliage, even causing the leaves to split and bulbs to have much browned tissue. If you have such a problem, remove the bulb with a sample of the surrounding soil and have the bulb and soil examined by the local authority. If a severe infestation exists the only recourse is soil fumigation, which should

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Chapter 8

be done by experts and should be standard procedure when bulbs are being raised commercially.

NARCISSUS FLY As its name implies, this fly attacks Narcissus; however, it can also be found at times on Amaryllis, Galanthus, and Leucojum. The adult lays eggs in the neck of the bulb when the foliage dies down. The larvae eat the bulb underground, destroying the center. If any foliage is produced the following spring, it will be at best very weak and yellow in color. The practical method of control is to keep the surface of the soil disturbed as the foliage dies, covering the hole leading to the neck of the bulbs. Any bulbs attacked should be destroyed. The soil can be dusted with a product recommended and listed as a control.

WHITEFLY Whiteflies are a common pest. They are found more often in greenhouses than outdoors in northern latitudes, but can be a problem on various bulbous plants in the warmer latitudes, especially during the summer months. They are seldom noticed unless in large numbers. The wings are covered with a powdery substance which gives them both their color and their common name. There are several genera, Trialeurodes being the most common. The adults are quite small, less then inch long. Adult females lay light yellow eggs on the undersides of leaves, while attached to the leaf surface by a stalk. During incubation the egg color may change. The time needed to hatch varies according to the temperature, from one week in very warm weather to three weeks in cooler conditions. After they hatch, the nymphs wander over the lower surface of the leaves until they select a position to which they remain fixed. At this stage they start to feed by piercing the leaf, obtaining sustenance from the sap of the plant. After three or four weeks the nymph pupates and eventually the adult emerges. During the late spring and summer months, whiteflies can be found in any of the various life-cycle stages. Overwintering is in either the nymphal or pupal stage. Innumerable generations are produced in the course of one year. The plants are weakened as the sap is removed by this pest. Yellowing of the foliage and drying of the leaves are the end results if an attack is left unchecked. Whiteflies excrete honeydew so fungi such as sooty mold can grow, which in turn limits the functions of the leaves. When plants are infested, a chemical product should be used to control, according to the directions on the label.

MEALYBUG These insects are most commonly found on bulbous plants with persistent evergreen foliage, such as Clivia. The name was given because of the waxy, white, mealy secretions that cover their bodies. Ants frequently are attracted to these secretions and

sometimes aid in the distribution of the pest by transferring them from plant to plant. The most common place to find this pest is on young foliage, especially in a confined area, such as inside a sheath at the base of the leaves. Generally, clusters of the insects are found together, and many generations are produced in one year. They feed on the plant by drawing sap, which weakens the leaves and causes distortion of the shoots in severe cases. Denatured alcohol applied to the pests by means of a cotton swab will clear away small infestations, but, in severe cases, an insecticide should be used. Plants grown in greenhouses are more likely to be attacked than those grown outdoors.

CUTWORMS The larvae of various nocturnal moths make up a group of pests known collectively as cutworms. One, the variegated cutworm (the larva of Peridroma saucia), is found worldwide. It attacks many different plants, favoring beans, cabbage, corn, and tomatoes, but it will also infest various bulbous crops. This pest cuts the stems at ground level, or devours the roots, but it also will climb the stems to feed on the buds and leaves. It spends the winter as a naked, brown pupa in the soil; adult moths emerge in the early spring; eggs are laid and, in about a week, hatch into plump, smooth caterpillars. These feed for many weeks, become over one inch long, and then burrow into the soil to pupate. Three or more generations can be expected in one year. Hand picking and destroying the caterpillars is the most effective control, but chemical controls also can be used.

THRIPS There are a number of species of thrips, generally named for the plant on which each feeds. Two are especially troublesome: the gladiolus thrips (Taeniothrips simplex) and the onion thrips (Thrips tabaci). The latter also will be found attacking dahlias and gloxinias, as well as other garden flowers. These pests are equipped with rasping mandibles that shave off the outer layers of the leaves so they can feed on the sapcontaining tissues. This causes strips of yellow-to-brown foliage, and, on gladiolus leaves, a silvery appearance. Flowers, if produced, are distorted. The onion thrips cause white blotches to appear on the leaves. The tips then turn brown and become distorted. Eventually, the whole plant will topple. Any bulb produced will be misshapen. As with most pests, thrips are kept at a minimum by the use of clean cultural procedures, including the eradication of weeds. If weeds are left to grow, the insects will feed happily on them, returning to attack their favorite crops as soon as they are planted. Because thrips are a common problem, especially on gladiolus corms, the corms should be dusted before storing and again prior to planting. Unless effective control is made, bulbs should not be planted in locations where known infestations of thrips exist or have existed. During the growing season, an insecticide to control can be used.

Pests and Diseases

MITES These ubiquitous pests are found on humans, animals, and plants, in the soil—in everything—but only a few attack bulbs. The spider mites, often called red spiders, actually can be green, yellow, and brown, as well as red. They attack a great number of bulbs. In warmer climates the early spring-flowering bulbs are not frequently infested. In colder climates, where they flower at a later time and where the temperatures rise more quickly in the spring, the range of bulbs affected can be wide. In each case the damage is the same. The mites suck the nutrients from the leaves, often destroying the tissue so that the leaves have a dry, yellowish appearance. On the underside of the leaves, webs can be seen. A good way to determine if this pest is present is to hold a piece of white paper or card under a leaf, tap it, and then examine the paper. If a number of very small spots start to move, you can be pretty sure mites are present. Hosing the foliage with a sharp jet of cold water may reduce the population, but spraying with an insecticide is a more positive control. Although the spider mite will attack cyclamen, the more likely insect to be found on this plant is the cyclamen mite. Indoors this is a particular pest as the plants will not grow, or, if attacked when of larger size, the flowers will become distorted and the plant will display symptoms much like those of a spider mite infestation. Both of these pests flourish during the dry summer months. Syringing the foliage with cold water deters them, but, if badly attacked, the plants are best discarded.

SLUGS AND SNAILS These are familiar to all gardeners. Clean cultivation assists greatly in reducing their number, but, as a precaution, suitable baits should be used as soon as the bulbs emerge from the ground in the spring. Care also should be exercised when the bulbs are in flower as snails like to climb the stems and devour the flowers. Picking these pests off the plants by hand when they emerge in the evening probably is the most effective control. A dusting of diatomaceous earth may be needed in more serious attacks.

ANIMALS A number of animals consider bulbous plants a tasty meal. Mice, moles, gophers, and other burrowing animals munch on the bulbs; rabbits, deer, and squirrels will devour the top growth. While there are a number of products on the market designed to deter such pests, the best control is a physical barrier, such as wire mesh placed around the bulbs in the ground or a suitable type of fencing aboveground to protect the aerial portion of the plants. But, as we all know, these creatures are not easily discouraged.

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Diseases Most fungus diseases flourish when there is poor air circulation and high humidity. Dirty containers, unwashed storage areas, and weeds act as hosts for the diseases, contributing greatly to the problem. Stored bulbs should be dusted with fungicide. Any plants suspected of having been infected are best discarded rather than taking a chance on growing them, with the possibility that they in turn may pass on the disease to other plants. As with insecticides, care should be exercised when purchasing any product to be used as a fungicide, making sure it has been cleared for use on the plant being treated. The directions on the labels must be read and followed carefully regarding strength of application, times and frequency of spraying, and so forth. BOTRYTIS

During the cool, damp summer weather of temperate climates and the cooler winters of subtropical climates, small yellow or orange-brown spots may be noticed on the leaves of plants. Bulbs are no exception; both the actual bulbs and the foliage are vulnerable. In a short space of time the spots become larger, until the entire leaf or surface of the bulb is covered and a gray mold becomes evident. Because of the damage to the living plant material, the plant succumbs. Should the bulb survive for another season, the foliage produced will be weaker and again succumb to attack. Bulbs showing any signs of these spots should never be planted. Their liking for shade and moisture makes the tuberous begonias among the most frequently attacked, as well as lilies, especially if planted among shrubs which reduce air circulation. These, however, are not the only bulbous plants that fall victim to botrytis; dahlias and tulips, although to a lesser extent, also are subject to attack. During the growing season, especially if the temperature is cool and moisture high, spraying with fungicides cleared for use on the particular plant being treated will control the fungus. Several sprayings generally are required.

DAMPING-OFF DISEASE Damping-off (Pythium debaryanum) is another soil-borne disease. It will attack a young seedling just at soil level, causing the stem to become pinched in appearance and to often turn black as the tissue dies. The disease is encouraged by lack of air circulation and excessive dampness, especially when coupled with low light, so that the seedlings do not grow quickly. The best control is to use sterilized soil, thin seedlings as soon as they are large enough to handle, and keep seedlings growing well, with just the right amount of water, but not too moist. Seeds can be dusted prior to sowing; young plants can be sprayed with an appropriate product. Any plants that are attacked should be removed and discarded, along with any infected soil, and all containers meticulously cleaned.

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Chapter 8

MILDEW Both downy mildew and powdery mildew attack certain bulbs; however, the latter is less common than the former. Downy mildew is like cotton in appearance and is most prevalent when the temperature is low and humidity high. There are numerous effective controls available. Powdery mildew (Erysiphe species) is very common, especially on the West Coast of the United States. It attacks a very wide range of plant material. The spores are spread by the wind and can be particularly bothersome in shaded areas. The fungus is first seen on the undersides of older leaves as small, white spots, followed by a weblike appearance that spreads to cover the entire underside of the leaf. When the attack is severe, the leaf yellows, then browns, and thus is useless to plant. The plant is weakened and performance reduced. Certain fungicides will control this disease, but more than one application generally is necessary. Follow directions on the label regarding rates and frequency of application.

ONION SMUT While more prevalent in the northern latitudes and infrequently found in warmer climates, onion smut (Urocystis cepulae) can attack ornamental onions, as well as the vegetable forms. Dark blisters appear on the young shoots and the plant is destroyed. If this disease is common in your area, avoid planting ornamental onions and be sure to discard any affected plants. Use a fungicide to control, following directions.

VERTICILLIUM WILT Verticillium wilt (Verticillium albo-atrutri) can live a long time in the soil, which is its habitat. It attacks a wide range of plant material, ranging from maple and elm trees to dahlias. Like many soil-borne organisms, it enters the plant through the roots and causes the vascular system to malfunction. The result is that the plant slowly dwindles away and dies. Verticillium also can be the cause of plants wilting under stress, such as warm spring days. Although these plants will recover in the cool of the evening, the wilting gradually increases and finally the entire plant wilts and dies. Fumigation of the soil and good rotation are means of keeping this problem in bounds.

VIRUS All plants are susceptible to attack by a virus. In tulips the symptoms are the "breaking" or mottling of the colors in the flowers; in lilies the plants are weak and flowers often aborted. In all plants attacked, the foliage is mottled and, when held up to the light, irregular streaking is seen. There is little that can be done, so all parts of the plants are best lifted and discarded. Virus diseases are spread mainly by aphids and other sucking insects that travel from plant to plant. Growers now have the means to produce virus-free plants by using the meristem or tissue culture methods of propagation (see chapter 4).

Summary With the great number of pests and diseases that can attack the bulbous plants in the garden and greenhouse, a person may easily become discouraged. There is no need for such despair. The problems found in growing bulbs in general are much more likely to be caused by incorrect cultural conditions than by the onslaught of any pest or disease. If pests or diseases attack your plants, check the actual damage that is being wrought. Aphids can be washed off with water if only a few leaves are infected. Their removal by hand might well suffice to bring the bulbous plants to the flowering stage without irreparable harm having been done. Good hygiene in the garden, the removal of debris and weeds, the correct cleaning of containers, both of wood and of other materials, can go a long way to prevent major outbreaks of devastating infestations by pests and diseases. Chemical controls often are the only remedy for plants that have been severely attacked. They should be used with discretion unless, in the case of commercial growers, financial disaster threatens. Accurate identification of the problem is necessary. Only then can correct and effective measures be taken. In all cases, as I have pointed out repeatedly, the directions on the product labels must be followed scrupulously to avoid another type of damage being done to the plants (and possibly to humans). The other caution I will stress again is that the products must have been cleared for use in the control of pests and diseases on the plants attacked.

Commercial Production The foregoing list of pests and diseases can attack commercial crops just as well as those grown by the home gardener. In the latter case the loss of a few bulbs to pests and disease will not cause a calamity—distress, perhaps, but nowhere near what a commercial grower can experience, especially financially. Many pests and diseases can affect the production of highclass commercial bulbs. Soil-borne pests such as nematodes (which can devastate a crop) and diseases should be controlled by using fumigants. A thorough soil analysis should be undertaken prior to planting and every precaution taken to ensure the soil is free from all possible pests and soil-borne diseases. Rotation and good cultural practices will keep problems to a minimum, but both in the raising of crops and in the forcing of bulbs into flower a regular spraying program must be followed. Attention must be given to the health of the bulb at all states of its development and all stages of its production. Diseased bulbs should never be planted. During the growing period any attacked bulbs should be removed and destroyed. Regular inspections must be carried out to remove any plants attacked by virus. All parts of the plants should be removed and great care used to see that no portion of the attacked plant remains in the soil or comes into contact with healthy material. Bulbs that have

Pests and Diseases been heavily bruised and physically damaged in harvesting also should be discarded. Fusarium is a special problem with tulips. Its common name, sour disease, describes one of the symptoms of attack—the bulbs smell sour. A white mold will be found growing on the skin of the bulb with soft tissue underneath. Such bulbs must be discarded; in fact, all bulbs that are soft to the touch should be discarded. Healthy bulbs are firm. Bulbs that are much lighter in weight than the others should be discarded, as invariably they have been consumed by a disease. Penicillium mold, which is blue-gray in color, is not harmful but should be controlled by dipping the bulbs in a suitable fungicide before planting. Such a mold is indicative of poor aeration in storage and, when seen, steps must be taken to correct the problem before other, more serious problems occur. Fusarium basal rot should be looked for at all stages of the bulbs' culture. The basal plates of the bulbs are attacked and they become discolored and soft. Such bulbs must be discarded and care taken not to select planting stock from such. The commercial grower must maintain a constant surveillance program of the stock and take remedial action as soon as the first signs of problems are noticed.

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STEM TOPPLE Stem topple is the name given to the collapse of the stem below the flower. It can occur before or shortly after flowering. It is brought about by the use of excessively cold treatment and temperatures above 68°F in the greenhouse. The cause is the lack of calcium being translocated up the stem to the fast-developing flowering stem above the last leaves. It can be ameliorated by using calcium nitrate at the rate of 2 pounds per 100 gallons in the irrigation water.

FLOWER BLASTING Flower blasting is the failure of the bulb to produce a good flower despite all the flower parts being present; in other words, it is aborted. Such a problem can be brought on by different events in the life of the bulb. It may be initiated as early as August or September or as late as when the flower begins to color. Causes are several: high temperatures during transportation of the bulbs, lack of aeration, or the presence of ethylene gas, which might well have been produced by bulbs infested by Fusarium. Incorrect water balance is another cause and thus it is essential that bulbs be carefully watched at all stages of growth, transportation, and storage.

Physiological Disorders These disorders are not attributed to pests or diseases but to the plants being exposed, during the growth cycle, to environmental conditions that are harmful and place stress on them. Temperatures that are too low or too high, and poor ventilation in storage, or exposure to ethylene are contributing factors. Preventive measures and attention to detail at all phases of growth will alleviate these problems. Certain problems become more apparent when the bulbs are subjected to stress such as occurs in the forcing of bulbs. The most common are discussed here.

TULIP BLINDNESS While it has been found particularly in the cultivars 'Apricot Beauty', 'Demeter', and 'Yokohama', it also can occur in other cultivars and should be watched for by forcers. The plants simply fail to produce any flower parts. The cause is not yet known but the problem seems related to the larger sizes of bulbs used for forcing, 5Vz inches and up. It is advisable to use bulbs 4% to 5Vs inches in size, not larger. In some cases storing bulbs in a refrigerator with apples or other fruit that produces ethylene gas could possibly be a cause of the problem.

SPITTING Hyacinths are susceptible to one disorder known as spitting. This is the separation of the flower stalk from the basal plates while being forced. It occurs when the bulbs have been frozen, as can occur if they are rooted in open ground and control of the temperatures received is not watched carefully. Protect such bulbs from freezing and, should they freeze, thaw them very slowly.

FLOWER ABORTION Daffodils are subject to a form of flower abortion when they are forced at too high a temperature. The problem is less likely to occur when the temperature remains below 65°F, but the exact reason for this has not yet been determined. Abortion of flowers is most common with bulbs being forced out-of-season and is the general result of incorrect rooting conditions. Most commonly, insufficient time is allowed for rooting or the temperature during this phase of culture is too high or too low. It is imperative that temperatures be watched carefully and kept within the limits mentioned in chapter 7.

CHAPTER

9

Alphabetical Listing of the Genera

T

he alphabetical list includes information on most plant genera with bulbs, corms, tubers, or rhizomes except for the groups mentioned here. Though most orchids (family Orchidaceae) have some kind of enlarged rootstock, the family is so vast and its description and culture so specialized that the reader is better served by the large number of specialist works available, such as Joyce Stewart's Orchids or the Royal Horticultural Society's Manual of Orchids (both published by Timber Press). Many gingers (family Zingiberaceae) have enlarged rhizomes, but discussion of these essentially tropical plants is outside the scope of the present work. Waterlilies and some other aquatic plants are rhizomatous, but their cultivation and the way they are handled in commerce are quite different from those of terrestrial bulbs. In addition, peonies and hostas have been omitted, although they are often included in commercial bulb catalogs because their fleshy rootstocks can be supplied bare-root at about the same time as bulbs are shipped. Knowing where to draw the line is difficult. Some species of Dicentra, for example, produce fleshy tubers on the roots, but these tubers will not produce shoots if detached from the rootstock. Similarly, a dahlia tuber without a portion of the stem with an eye, or bud, will just rot away. Should plants like these be included in a list of bulbous plants, in the broad sense? I decided to include them, along with other plants that depend to some degree on food storage in tubers produced on the roots. In the list of bulbous plants that follows, each entry is headed by the genus name and the family to which it belongs. For information on the families, see appendix A. There are also crossreferences ("blind entries") in cases where all plants in a now invalid genus have been moved to one or more other genera. The introductory paragraphs include the derivation of the genus name, distribution in the wild, brief history or other interesting information, and characteristics that distinguish the genus from closely allied genera. The common names given

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may apply to the entire genus or just to certain species. A description follows, giving the characteristics common to all (or most) species in the genus. Finally, there are suggestions on how to use the plants in the garden. The section "Culture" covers the general requirements for successfully growing the plants. Special needs may also be mentioned under the entry of a particular species. "Propagation" explains how the gardener can increase the stock by division, seed, or more specialized means. For commercially important genera, large-scale propagation is briefly discussed as well. "Pests and Diseases" notes any unusual problems one may encounter, particularly in regard to the major commercial genera. The list of species contains the following information (as far as I could determine it) for most, but not all, species in the genus. Very poorly documented species do not appear in this list, while certain genera for which good recent monographs are available are listed in their entirety. When the information on a given genus is in flux, I have tried to note this in the introductory paragraphs. The descriptions are more detailed for species more common in cultivation, available from nurseries, or highly desirable for the garden. The entries include the following details: wild origin, sometimes with habitat information; date of the earliest record of the species in the European botanical literature, whether that be the first report of its being grown in England or the date its description was published; distinctive characters of the rootstock, if any; height of the plant (usually the height of the flowering stem, except in genera where the foliage regularly exceeds the height of the flowers); distinctive characters of the leaves, if any; description of the flower; flowering season; subspecies and varieties, with their differences from the type; notable cultivars; and special cultural requirements or appropriate uses in the garden. At the end of the species list is a list of synonyms the reader is likely to encounter in twentieth-century gardening literature.

Achimenes If you do not find the species you're looking for, check this list for a cross-reference to the correct name. If a species is commonly found in horticulture under an invalid synonym, this is noted in the species entry itself. For some important commercial genera, there are additional sections on horticultural classification and standard cultivars. In some cases it is helpful to break down the species list into sections, and this is discussed in the individual entry. Finally, a word about months when the species flower in the wild. It must be remembered that such months cover the period when the species will flower in the wild, depending on elevation, proximity to the coastlines, rainfall, exposure to the sun, northern or southern slope, and so forth. Such factors have a role in when, during the time period given, the species will be in flower. The months given are to serve as a guide only, but may be of interest and assistance to those growing the species. Where species are growing in mountainous areas, only the season of flowering is given. Spring at 1000 feet will occur earlier than at higher elevations, and no doubt later than at sea level. Similarly, spring in California will not be the same months as spring in New England, but spring is spring and such information would apply to where the species are being grown. Where a species is distributed in both Northern and Southern hemispheres, only the season of flowering is given. If no season or month is given, the simple reason is I could not find any mention of such in the literature.

Achimenes—Gesneriaceae MAGIC FLOWER, NUT O R C H I D , WIDOW'S TEARS, HOT WATER PLANT, MOTHER'S TEARS

Derivation of name unknown; possibly from achaemenis ("a magic plant"), used by Pliny the Elder, or from Greek cheimano ("to go into winter quarters"), a reference to the warmth required by these plants. The genus has about 30 species, all herbaceous perennials native to Central and South America. Not all are in cultivation. The tubers or rhizomes, usually light brown, look like caterpillars, and are 2-3 in. long. The leaves (mostly toothed) are opposite or in whorls of 3 on slender stems that may reach 24 in. long. The very showy flowers are borne in the leaf axils, solitary or in clusters. The narrow corolla tube flares out to a flattened outer blossom 1-2Vi in. in diameter, with 5 lobes and 4 anthers. Most Achimenes grown in gardens are hybrids, but there are several garden-worthy species. Excellent house plants, they are well worth the extra care needed to get them off to a good start. They are perfect for hanging baskets with their delicate colors and lush foliage. CULTURE All species and hybrids must be grown frost-free, with especially warm temperatures during the growing season, spring through late summer. If night temperatures fall below 60°F, growth will be arrested. Plant in a cool greenhouse or indoors in cooler regions. The site should have filtered sunlight or light shade, never

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direct sun. Achimenes species grow well under artificial light (14-16 hours per day). Never allow them to dry out during the growing season. Plant rhizomes February through April, when warmth and light are adequate. Use a sandy soil mix with one part good topsoil or prepared planting mix, one part sharp sand, and one part sphagnum peat. Do not crowd; a good rule of thumb is one rhizome per inch of pot diameter. Cover rhizomes with 1 in. soil mix and water in. Day temperature should be 65°-75°F, night temperatures no lower than 60°F. Keep moist but do not overwater. When shoots are about 2 in. high, transplant them to permanent containers (or outdoors, in tropical areas). Make a suitable soil mix of one part well-rotted leafmold, 2 parts peat, one part good topsoil or packaged soil mix, and 2 parts sharp sand. Nip out tips to encourage bushiness. Feed regularly throughout growing period with liquid fertilizer, using half the strength recommended but doubling the number of applications. The number of flowers produced by the commonly grown hybrids diminishes toward the end of summer (in the wild, some species flower in fall). Reduce moisture so that by end of summer or early fall growing medium is dry. Lift tubers, shake off soil, and store them in dry peat or perlite, at temperatures never below 50°F, until growth cycle recommences in spring. PESTS AND DISEASES

Light misting is beneficial and helps control the most common pests, thrips and spider mites. If aphids appear, control them with insecticide or, preferably, insecticidal soap. PROPAGATION

Simply break the previous year's dormant tubers into pieces about l/2 in. long, and plant them. Also can be raised from seed, but will not reach good flowering size for at least 2 years. SPECIES

A. antirrhina. W Mexico and Guatemala; introduced 1845. Stems to 15 in. Flowers straw-yellow with reddish-brown lines on outside, tube yellowish with red dotted lines, mid to late summer. A. Candida. Guatemala; introduced 1848. Stems 6-18 in. Flowers creamy white, red at base, flecked reddish brown and yellow with red lines, fall. A. cettoana. S Mexico; introduced 1959. Stems 12 in. Flowers violet or purple-blue, summer. A. dulcis. W Mexico; introduced 1961. Stems to 24 in. Flowers milk white with yellow spot, lilac dots on throat, late summer. A. erecta. Jamaica, and Mexico to Panama; introduced 1778. Rhizomes long, thin, reddish. Stems to 18 in. Leaves dark green. Flowers small, brilliant crimson, late summer to early winter. A. fimbriata. W Mexico; introduced 1959. Stems to 4 in. Flowers white with violet markings, late summer. A. flava. W Mexico; introduced 1961. Stems to 18 in. Flowers yellow with reddish-maroon dots inside tube, mid summer. A. glabrata. W Mexico; introduced 1844. Stems to 18 in. Flowers white or lavender-flushed, yellow in throat, sometimes dotted purple, mid summer.

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Acidanthera

A. grandiflora. Mexico to Honduras; introduced 1842. Stems to 24 in. Flowers red-violet with purple-dotted white band in throat. A. heterophylla. Guatemala; introduced 1842. Rhizomes very large. Stems and leaves quite hairy. Stems to 12 in. Leaves coarsely toothed, ovate, medium green. Flowers dark reddish orange with yellow throat, late summer. A. longiflora. Panama to Mexico; introduced 1841. Rhizomes pear-shaped, scaly, white. Stems to 12 in. Leaves coarsely toothed, arranged in whorls of 3-4. Flowers numerous, usually pale to dark blue, sometimes pinkish, lavender or white; throat usually white, sometimes with spot of yellow or violet. Flowering late summer. Forms include 'Alba', pure white; 'Grandiflora', crimson; 'Paul Arnold', an older cultivar but still one of the best (Plate 86); and 'Rosea', reddish violet. A. mexicana. W Mexico; introduced 1850. Stems to 14 in. Flowers purplish or bluish, white inside, mid summer. A. misera. Guatemala; introduced 1848. Stems to 10 in. Flowers white, patches of lilac at lobes, late summer. A. patens. W Mexico; introduced 1845. Stems to 12 in. Flowers deep reddish purple, flushed yellow and dotted purple inside pale throat, late summer. A. pedunculata. Mexico to Honduras; introduced 1840. Rhizomes whitish. Stems to 36 in. Flowers scarlet or orange-red lobes blotched with crimson, yellow throat, late summer. A. skinneri. Guatemala; introduced 1848. Stems to 30 in. Flowers red or rose, throat bright yellow dotted with red, mid to late summer. A. warscewicziana. Mexico to El Salvador; introduced c. 1848. Stems to 10 in. Flowers white with purple spots on tube, summer. SYNONYMS A. andrieuxii see Eucodonia andrieuxii. A. atrosanguinea see A. antirrhina. A. bella see Eucodonia vertidllata. A. cocdnea see A. erecta. A. dolichoderia see Sinningia tubiflora. A. ehrenbergii see Eucodonia vertidllata. A. foliosa see A. antirrhina. A. ghiesbrechtii see A. heterophylla. A. gloxiniflora see A. glabrata. A. hirsuta see A. skinneri. A. ignescens see A. heterophylla. A. jauregia see A. longiflora 'Alba'. A. lanata see Eucodonia vertidllata. A. maxima see A. longiflora 'Alba'. A. pulchella see A. erecta. A. robusta see A. grandiflora. A. rosea see A. erecta. A. scheeri see A. mexicana. A. tubiflora see Sinningia tubiflora.

Acidanthera A. aequinoctialis see Gladiolus aequinoctialis, G. praecostatus. A. amoena see Gladiolus chevalieranus.

A. bicolor see Gladiolus murielae. A. brevicollis see Gladiolus gueinzii. A. Candida see Gladiolus candidus. A. capensissee Tritonia flabellifolia. A. crispa see Tritonia crispa. A. goetzei see Gladiolus curtifolius. A. gradlis see Gladiolus candidus. A. gunnisii see Gladiolus gunnisii. A. iroensis see Gladiolus iroensis. A. laxiflora see Gladiolus candidus. A. nelloisee Gladiolus gunnisii. A. pallida see Tritonia pallida. A. tuber genii see Gladiolus murielae 'Zwanenberg'. A. ukambanensis see Gladiolus candidus. A. zanzibarica see Gladiolus candidus.

Aconitum—Ranunculaceae M O N K S H O O D , WOLFSBANE

Name used by the early herbalist author Theophrastus (c. 300 B.C.) for some poisonous plant. There are about 100 species of aconite, also called wolfsbane or monkshood, all native to the Northern Hemisphere. Not all have tuberous or rhizomatous roots; there are annuals, biennials, and perennials. All aconites contain a poisonous narcotic alkaloid, either aconitine or pseudaconitine. Care must be taken that they are not within reach of animals, particularly cattle, and that the rootstocks are not mistaken for an edible root. Most species are hardy, and among them are some that provide late summer to early fall color. Most prefer light shade. The foliage is usually palmately lobed. Flowers are held in a terminal raceme and get their common name monkshood from the upper sepal, which is concave and helmet-shaped. Of the other 4 sepals, 2 are much broader than the others. There are 5 petals; of these the 2 uppermost have long claws and hooded tips, the lower 3 are small or sometimes missing. There are numerous stamens. The following list includes the more commonly cultivated species with enlarged rhizomes. CULTURE The plants, supplied as container perennials, are of easy culture. They require moisture throughout the year and perform best in light shade. They appreciate plenty of organic matter. The rhizomes should be planted 2-3 in. deep and spaced according to the eventual height of the plants. Light feeding can be given in spring, but feeding should not be heavy. Do not let the plants become dry. PESTS AND DISEASES

Few pests attack these plants, but mildew may appear on the foliage; good air circulation helps to prevent it. PROPAGATION

Lifting and dividing the plants in the early fall or early to mid spring is the best way to increase the stock. Seed should be sown as soon as possible after harvesting; stored seed germinates

Aconitum poorly and erratically. Flowering-sized plants can be obtained by the end of the 2nd season. Seed should be barely covered and given temperatures around 45°F at night. Sowing in a coldframe is preferred, especially to prevent young seedlings from being too wet in rainy periods. Seedlings should not be transplanted until the fall after germination. SPECIES A. anthora. Alps, Pyrenees, and Carpathian Mountains; introduced 1596. Roots tuberous, producing an upright, leafy stem to 24 in. Leaves are 5- to 7-lobed, each lobe subdivided into linear segments. Flowers yellowish or blue; upper sepal arched; spur has a hook; flowers are carried on S-shaped pedicels. Flowering mid summer. Var. atrovirensfrom the Pyrenees has green leaves with orange-yellow flowers; var. caeruleum from Galicia has blue-violet flowers; var. nemorosum from the Ukraine is not as tall and has leaves less finely cut and hairier then the type. A. biflorum. Mongolia and Siberia. Tubers small, round. Stems to 18 in. Flowers deep blue, late summer. A. brachypodum. W China; introduced 1906. Stems to 24 in. Flowers light blue, late summer. A. xcammarum. Group of hybrids (A. variegatum x A. napellus). Distinguished from A. napellus by having leaves with short lobes, in which the undivided area is larger than in A. napellus; stems usually branched; lateral racemes almost equal in size to the terminal raceme. A. carmichaelii. C and W China. Stems stout, often branched at base, to 6 ft. Leaves leathery, oval, generally with 3-5 lobes. Flowers deep purple inside, lighter to almost white outside, late summer. Var. wilsonii is more vigorous, somewhat taller, with longer racemes which appear earlier; its foliage is lighter green, with lobes cut almost to the midrib. 'Arendsii' denotes a group of hybrids between 2 forms of A. carmichaelii formerly distinguished as A. fischeri and A. wilsonii. Excellent border plants and good cut flowers. A. chinense. China. Stems 60-72 in. Flowers deep, bright blue, summer. A. coriophyllum. China (Yunnan). Tubers to 4 in. long. Stem hairy, often base-branching, to 36 in. Leaves rounded, 4-6 in. wide, thick and tough. Flowers in loose racemes, greenish yellow, over 1 in. long, with a large helmet, fall. A. delavayi. China (Yunnan). Stems to 12 in. Leaves deeply cut into 5 toothed lobes. Flowers 3-5 per stem, violet-blue, late summer to fall. A. dielsianum. China (Sichuan). Stems 24-30 in. Flowers deep blue, fall. A.forrestii. China (Yunnan); introduced c. 1915. Tubers 2-4 in. long. Stem thick, 24—60 in., more or less hairless. Leaves tripartite. Flowers in dense raceme, deep purple-blue, on short pedicels. Axis of flowerhead covered with spreading yellow hairs, which also occur more sparsely on the flowers. Helmet almost 1 in. long. Flowering late summer to fall. Belongs to the A. napellus group. A. funiculare. Bhutan; introduced 1916. Stems to 18 in. Flowers lavender, summer.

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A. gmelinii. Siberia; introduced 1817. Stems to 24 in. Flowers cream, mid summer. A. hemsleyanum. C and W China. Stems climbing, supported by tendrils produced on upper portion of plant. Leaves 2- to 5-lobed. Flowers dark purple, summer. A. henryi. C and W China. Stems 3-6 ft. or more. Flowers deep violet-blue, mid to late summer. Selection 'Spark' is an excellent cut flower. A. hookeri. Tibet. Tubers small, with masses of very fine roots. Stems to 8 in. Leaves few, rather fleshy, hairless or nearly so, roundish, with 3-5 lobes. Flowers blue or deep purple, summer, solitary or rarely several in a raceme. A. japonicum. Japan; introduced 1790. Stems 36-48 in. Flowers blue to violet, tinged red, mid to late summer. A. judenbergense. E Alps and Bulgaria. Stems to 36 in. or more. Flowers purple or white, summer. A. kashmiricum. Kashmir; introduced 1930. Tubers small. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers deep blue, late summer. A. latemarense. Austria. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers bright blue, summer. A. linnaeanum. European Alps. Stems to 24 in. Flowers purple or maroon to white, in crowded raceme, summer. A. napellus. HELMET FLOWER, FRIAR'S CAP, SOLDIER'S CAP, TURK'S CAP, BEAR'S FOOT, GARDEN WOLFSBANE, GARDEN MONKSHOOD. Europe, Asia, and North America, widely distributed, in moist meadows, clearings, and streambanks. Roots tuberous. Stems often base-branching, to 3 ft. or more. Leaves dark green, deeply cut, sometimes feathery in appearance. Flowers intense blue, mid summer to fall. The A. napellus complex comprises this and several other species with tuberous roots, leaves palmately cut (often into long, fine segments), helmet of the flowers is curved outward, hemispherical or arched. Subsp. napellus from England has blue-lilac flowers on 36-in. stems. Subsp. hians from C Europe is 18-24 in. tall, leaves 5-lobed, flowers violet. Subsp. lobelianum from Europe gave rise to cultivars 'Bergfurst' with dense racemes of very dark blue, and 'Gletschereis' with white flowers. Subsp. neomontanum from the European Alps has stems to 36 in. with 2-4 branches, flowers blue, white, or maroon. Subsp. tauricum from the E European Alps has rather small leaves, unbranched stem to 24 in.; cultivars include 'Blue Sceptre' with bicolored flowers of violet-blue and white, and 'Bressingham Spire' with rather pointed flowerheads of violet-blue. Subsp. vulgare from the W European Alps and Pyrenees varies from violet to blue and has leaves much divided, with almost linear lobes. Plates 87, 88. A. naviculare. India (Sikkim). Stem to 4 in. Flowers white and violet, flushed blue-purple, summer. A. noveboracense. United States (Catskill Mountains of New York to Wisconsin and Iowa). Flowers violet-blue. Similar to A. uncinatum. Plate 89. A. novoluridum. Bhutan and India (Sikkim). Rhizome with withered remnants of petioles. Stem to 30 in. Flowers dull red, summer. A. orientale. W Asia, Caucasus, and Iran. Rhizome branched. Stems 48-72 in. Flowers dark blue or white, suffused yellow, mid summer.

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Adamsia

A. orochryseum. Himalayas around Mount Everest, and Bhutan. Stems to 36 in. Flowers white with yellow and blue tints, summer. A. ouvrardianum. Southeast Asia, from China to Mekong Delta. Tubers long, ovoid to fusiform. Stems to 36 in. Flowers blue or white tinged golden yellow and blue, summer. A. paniculatum. Romania and Yugoslavia. Stems to 50 in. Flowers violet, summer. A. rostratum. Switzerland. Stems to 24 in. Flowers red to purple or white, up to 15 per stem, summer. A. rotundifolium. WC Asia. Flowers pale lilac with dark, prominent veins, summer. A. xstoerkianum. Switzerland and Austria. Natural hybrid (A. napellus subsp. neomontanumxA. variegatum). Tubers oblong. Stems to 36 in. Flowers violet or white with violet border, summer. A. uncinatum. United States (Pennsylvania to Indiana, Kentucky, Virginia, and Georgia); introduced 1768. Stems trailing, 30-50 in. long. Flowers deep blue to lilac, mid summer. A. variegatum. C and S Europe, and Turkey; introduced 1597. Stems to 72 in. Flowers violet and white, summer. A. venatorium. N Myanmar and W China. Stems to 36 in. Flowers deep violet, fall. A. vilmorinianum. W and C China. Stems to 6 ft. Flowers few, deep blue, fall. A. violaceum. Pakistan and Nepal. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers pale to dark blue, streaked white, fall. A. volubile. Mongolia, Siberia, Japan, and China. Stems twining or scrambling to 36 in. Flowers purple and green or blue tinged green, summer to fall. SYNONYMS A. anglicum see A. napellus. A. autumnale see A. napellus subsp. neomontanum. A. bicolor see A. xcammarum. A. delphiniifolium see A. napellus subsp. vulgare. A. eminens see A. napellus subsp. neomontanum. A. firmum see A. napellus. A. fischeri see A. carmichaelii. A. formosum see A. napellus subsp. hians. A. gracile see A. variegatum. A. halleri see A. napellus subsp. neomontanum. A. maximum see A. carmichaelii. A. multifidum see A. napellus subsp. vulgare. A. neomontanum see A. napellus subsp. neomontanum. A. ottonianum see A. xcammarum. A. willdenowii see A. napellus subsp. vulgare. A. wilsonii see A. carmichaelii.

Adamsia A. sciloides see Puschkinia scilloides.

Adonis—Ranunculaceae Adonis, in Greek mythology, was a beautiful youth, the lover of Aphrodite, who was killed by a wild boar; his blood is said to

have stained an "anemone," perhaps the red-flowered annual A. aestivalis, commonly called pheasant's-eye. The majority of the 20 or so species are annuals, but there are several rhizomatous perennials, only one of which—A. amurensis—is common in cultivation. They have very finely cut foliage and flowers that resemble those of the closely related Anemone. They are great little plants for the front of the border in sheltered locations where they enjoy light shade and good moisture. In the shadier part of the rock garden, they should be placed where both the flowers and the fine foliage can be enjoyed. Enthusiasts usually grow them in pots, where moisture and fertility must be carefully maintained. CULTURE Adonis are a bit tricky to establish and grow successfully. They need constantly moist but well-drained soil with a high organic content. After the foliage has died down, moisture can be reduced, but they should never be allowed to become bone dry. They tolerate sun in early spring but should be protected from direct sun in late spring and early summer; light deciduous tree cover is suitable. Adonis amurensis and A. vernalis are hardy to at least 0°F; Mediterranean species are probably somewhat less cold-hardy. The rhizomes should be planted 1 in. deep, spaced 4-6 in. apart. They should be left undisturbed. Plant either in late summer or in the spring; however, late summer planting is preferred because it allows the plants to establish a good root system before winter. PESTS AND DISEASES

Slugs and snails are strongly attracted to Adonis, and it is imperative to keep these plants protected from them. PROPAGATION

Lifting and dividing the rootstocks is the best way to propagate the species, and the only way to propagate the double cultivars, many of which are sterile. This is best done in late summer. It is essential not to let the roots become dry—a requirement that limits the commercial distribution of these plants and makes them expensive. Seed should be sown in summer as soon as it is ripe. Sow it thinly, barely cover it, and keep it evenly moist. Germination may be sparse and erratic, especially with stored seed. Keep the seedlings in their original containers until they are large enough to plant out. The plants reach flowering size after the 2nd growing season. SPECIES A. amurensis. Japan, Korea, and Manchuria, on open slopes and in scrub. Stems 3-6 in. when the flower opens, often elongating to 12-18 in. in seed. Flowers borne terminally, to 2 in. in diameter; sepals purple; 20 or more petals, longer than the sepals, bright yellow, bronzed on the reverse. Flowering very early spring, often before the snow has vanished. This species is the focus of hobbyists in Japan, who have bred and selected many cultivars, only a few of which can be obtained outside that country: 'Benten', white with fringed petals; 'Fukujukai', largeflowered, bright yellow semidouble; 'Hinomoto', green, bronze,

Agapanthus and orange-red flowers; 'Pleniflora', double yellow or greenish flowers. A. brevistyla. Bhutan, W China, and S Tibet, on open slopes. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers small, white inside, bluish outside, early summer. A. chrysocyathus. Pakistan to W Tian Mountains, W Nepal, and Tibet, on high, damp slopes. Stems to 18 in. Upper leaves sessile, triangular; lower leaves long, petiolate. Flowers golden yellow, sepals brown to lilac, summer. A. pyrenaica. Pyrenees and Maritime Alps of Europe, in alpine meadows. Stems 10-12 in. Foliage dense and mossylooking. Flowers rich yellow, to 3 in. in diameter, late spring to early summer depending on altitude. A. vernalis. Europe, from Spain to Sweden, on rocky limestone slopes. Stems 8-10 in., unbranched, elongating after flowering. Leaves palmately compound. Flowers golden yellow, early to mid spring. Plate 90. A. volgensis. E Europe, from Armenia to Hungary. Stems to 15 in., branched. Petals pale yellow, sepals lilac, spring.

Agapanthus—Agapanthaceae HARRIET'S FLOWER, LILY OF THE NILE Name from Greek agapao ("love") and anthos ("flower"). This genus is entirely from southern Africa where it has long been admired by the people of its native lands and is cultivated extensively in their gardens. Bantu peoples used it in magic and medicine: a Xhosa bride would wear pieces of the root to ensure fertility and easy childbirth, and the powdered roots were prescribed for a number of disorders. This genus of 10 species was one of the first African ones to enter Western gardens. It was recorded in the catalog of the Leiden Botanic Gardens in 1687, and in 1692 it flowered at Hampton Court in England. It has been studied by many botanists; the current classification is based mainly on the work of Frances Leighton (1965). McNeil (1972, p. 80) suggested that Agapanthus is so prone to hybridization that it should be regarded as a single, extremely variable species. Agapanthus has a rhizome and fleshy leaf bases. The species are divided into 2 main groups, evergreen and deciduous. The deciduous species generally are hardier than the evergreens. Even if the foliage is killed by frost, the rootstock often survives. The leaves of all species are glossy, straplike, linear, and arching. Most species are large, reaching to about 3 ft., but there are many dwarf selections available today. The flowers, carried on strong stalks in a many-flowered umbel, are blue, lavender, or white; they have 6 stamens and range from tubular to openly bell-shaped. Agapanthus are mostly summer-flowering, and the blossoms are long-lasting. They are excellent border plants for warmer regions. Their substantial foliage is useful there, and their blues are an ideal foil for red and yellow flowers. Tolerant of container growth, they are much used in commercial plantings. In warm Mediterranean climates like that of California, they are a staple of planting in public areas, even seen in road medians. They need

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protection where winter temperatures drop below 26°F; move containers indoors where they will receive good light. Cut flowers last well in water, and dried flower heads are also used in arrangements. CULTURE In warm regions, agapanthus are very easy to grow. When established, they can withstand long periods of drought, but for best production of flowers and foliage they should have moisture regimes similar to that in their native habitat. It is important to allow the plants to become dry between waterings. Most flower best in full sun, particularly A. praecoxsubsp. mimimus 'Adelaide'; A. praecoxsubsp. orientalis and A. inapertus tolerate some shade. In gardens, they often receive too much fertilizer and moisture during summer. Under such conditions, the foliage elongates unattractively and the flowers are not carried well above it; this ruins the most striking aspect of the plants and makes them look untidy. If in doubt, err on the drier side. They are not fussy about soil, but for best results, use leafy, well-drained soil. They grow and look well alongside a stream or pond, but the plant itself should be above the water level. Space new plantings 18-24 in. apart in the ground and a little closer together in pots; smaller species and cultivars can be spaced 12 in. apart. The rhizomes should be set so the green portion of shoot is just above soil level. Three feedings of granular fertilizer per year are plenty: early spring and early and late summer. Recommended proportions are as follows: first feeding, 14-10-10; midfeeding, 10-10-10; final feeding, 5-10-10. They grow well in containers, even if crowded, provided moisture and fertilizer are adequate; liquid organic fertilizer should be given with every other watering at half the recommended dilution, until flower heads are well formed. PESTS AND DISEASES

Few serious problems. Overcrowding can produce stem rot. Slugs and snails find the foliage attractive and are a big problem. PROPAGATION

Propagation is easy. When plants become crowded, usually after 6-7 years, lift clumps and divide them with a sharp knife or spade. Clean them, remove dead foliage, discard damaged portions, and replant. Division of evergreen species is best done at the end of their flowering period, and of deciduous species in the spring. The copiously set seed should be sown as soon as ripe and kept moderately warm. Germination occurs in 6-8 weeks. Seedlings grow rapidly and are easily transplanted. SPECIES A. africanus. AFRICAN LILY, AFRICAN BLUE LILY, CAPE LILY. South Africa (SW Western Cape), winter-rainfall area; introduced 1629. Many plants sold today as A. africanus or A. umbellatus are actually A. praecox subsp. orientalis, according to Leighton's reclassification. Stems to 24 in. Leaves 18-36 in. long, evergreen. Flowers deep blue, mid summer to early fall (December to March in the wild). Var. atrocaeruleus has dark violet flowers. Prefers acid, sandy soil and a gravel mulch. Plates 91,92.

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Albuca

A. campanulatus. BELL AGAPANTHUS. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape, highlands of KwaZulu-Natal) and Lesotho, winter-rainfall area. Stems 18-36 in. Leaves erect, 18-24 in. long, 1-11/2 in. wide, deciduous. Flowers pale to deep blue, with spreading perianth segments, mid to late summer (October to March in the wild). 'Hardingsdale' is a tall plant with bright blue flowers. Subsp. patens is the smaller subspecies and more slender, perianth segments not so flared; flowers enclosed by 2 large bracts while in bud. A. caulescens. South Africa (highlands of KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga), summer-rainfall area; introduced 1901. Stems to 36 in. Leaves 10-24 in. long, produced from a distinct stem, deciduous, broad. Stamens and style shorter than perianth segments. Flowers bright to deep blue, spring to mid summer (September to January in the wild). Subsp. angustifolius, from Swaziland and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga), has gray, narrower leaves held stiffly erect and perianth segments that are much recurved; flowers smaller than the type. Subsp. gradlis has lax, narrow leaves and flowers that are smaller than the type. A. coddii. South Africa (NW Northern Province, Mpumalanga). Stems to 42 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers mid to pale blue, mid summer (November to January in the wild). A. comptonii. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 24-48 in. Leaves evergreen. Flowers sky blue to deep blue, spring (September to October in the wild). Subsp. longitubus, to 18 in. tall, has pale blue flowers in summer (November to December in the wild) and multiplies rapidly, making it promising as a groundcover. A. dyeri. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga) and Mozambique. Stems 18-36 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers bright blue, mid to late summer (December to March in the wild). A. inapertus. DROOPING AGAPANTHUS. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga, Gauteng) and Swaziland, summerrainfall area; introduced 1893. Probably the tallest species, to 4 ft. or more. Leaves 6-8, deciduous, 18-24 in. long, 11/2 in. wide, usually carried in fans from a distinct stem 2-3 in. long. Flowers pendent, pale to dark blue, tubular, mid to late summer (November to February in the wild). 'Albus' is a rare white form. Subsp. hollandii has flowers with segments distinctly flared, dark violet-blue; its selection 'Lydenberg', to 36 in., is one of the best deciduous agapanthus. Subsp. intermedius has shorter, tubular flowers with flared segments which are joined for about half their length, with lobes only slightly recurved. Subsp. parviflorus has blue or purple flowers with narrow segments, mid summer (December to February in the wild). Subsp. pendulushas sky-blue flowers, with broad segments. A. insignis. Invalid name for a hybrid of garden origin with pale blue or lavender flowers, summer. A. nutans. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Province). Stems to 36 in. Leaves on a distinct stem, held erect or nearly so, deciduous. Flowers pale to dark blue, mid summer (November to January in the wild). Does well in shade. A. praecox. S and E South Africa, in winter-rainfall area; introduced c. 1630. Popular garden plant known as common aga-

panthus. Stems to 5 ft. Leaves to 36 in. long, 3 in. wide, evergreen; cultivars with variegated foliage exist. Most cultivated forms derive from subsp. orientalis. Flowers pale to deep blue to white, as many as 100 in inflorescence, perianth segments 2-31/2 in. long; double-flowered cultivars exist. 'Rancho Dwarf, 24 in. high with pure white flowers, and 'Peter Pan', a dwarf with fine blue flowers, are excellent selections. Subsp. minimus occurs from E Western Cape to Eastern Cape, especially near Tsitsikamma and Stormsriver; small and slender, it has clear blue flowers with a darker stripe. Selections at Kirstenbosch Botanical Garden include subsp. minimus 'Adelaide', 26 in., good for partial shade; subsp. minimus 'Storms River' with grayish-white flowers; subsp. orientalis 'Mt. Thomas', 36 in., very dark blue, compact flower heads and gray foliage; subsp. orientalis 'Variegata', foliage with white-yellow stripes; subsp. orientalis 'Weaver', many large blue flower heads in summer; subsp. praecox 'Azure', large dark blue flower heads, broad leaves, prefers partial shade. Plates 93-97. A. walshii. South Africa (Caledon area in SW Western Cape). Similar to A. africanus. Leaves evergreen. Flowers pale blue, long-tubed, pendent, mid summer (October to January in the wild). Plate 98. SYNONYMS

A. minor see A. africanus. A. orientalis see A. praecox subsp. orientalis. A. patens see A. campanulatus subsp. patens. A. umbellatus see A. africanus, A. praecox subsp. orientalis. A. weilloghii see A. inapertus.

Albuca—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) S O L D I E R - I N - T H E - B O X , SENTRY BOX, SENTRY-IN-THE-BOX

Name from Latin albucus ("asphodel") given to this genus because of its white flowers. This genus, now regarded as comprising about 50 species, occurs in Africa (primarily the southern part) and the Arabian Peninsula. Little has been written about the genus, and its taxonomy remains somewhat confused. The majority of species are found in the Western Cape and KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. Carl Peter Thunberg (1823) writes that the succulent stalk of A. major is mucilaginous and can be chewed to quench thirst. Baboons are reported to eat the bulbs of certain species, notably A. flaccida. Species range in height from 6 in. to more than 3 ft. The basal, lanceolate to linear leaves are relatively long. The scape rises above the foliage. The flowers, carried in loose racemes, have yellowish or white tepals with a dark median stripe. Most species have nodding flowers, and some have a pleasant fragrance. The outer tepals are stiffly extended outward, while the inner petals are usually held upright and close together, enveloping the anthers and stigma. Albuca species are not commonly grown, perhaps because their white-and-green flowers are not very showy, but they are easy-to-grow plants that deserve greater recognition. The flowers of low-growing species can be obscured by other plants' fo-

Albuca liage, so place them in the foreground of plantings. They do well in containers. CULTURE Bulbs should be planted from late fall to early spring, 1 in. deep and 8-10 in. apart, in sandy, well-drained soil in full sun. In containers, use a porous soil mix of organic topsoil, peat moss, and enough sharp sand to ensure excellent drainage. Every 2 weeks, give potted plants a weak feeding of liquid fertilizer after growth has commenced. Keep the soil moist, but reduce water after flowering so bulbs go dormant by end of summer. When foliage has withered, keep bulbs dry until top growth reappears. Albuca species flower in late spring or early summer. They can be grown outdoors only in warmer climates with light, infrequent frost; they prefer temperatures no lower than 45°F at night. They are good plants for the cool greenhouse. The bulbs of the taller species are quite large, so be sure the container is good-sized. Even with excellent light, the taller stems may fall over when grown indoors. All species seem easy to cultivate where temperatures are appropriate. PESTS AND DISEASES

Almost nonexistent. PROPAGATION

Separate offsets when bulbs are dormant. Plants produce a lot of viable, easily collected seed, and a good selection of species can be found in the lists of South African suppliers, botanic gardens, and bulb and alpine societies. The seed should be planted in frost-free conditions as soon as received. Seed-grown plants usually flower in their 3rd season. SPECIES A. acuminata. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape); introduced c. 1897. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers dull green with whitish margin, spring (September to October in the wild). A. aurea. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1818. Stems to 24 in. Flowers pale yellow with greenish stripe, spring (September to October in the wild). A. batteniana. South Africa (Karoo). Stems to 20 in. Petioles long, green, with white margin. Flowers spring (September to October in the wild). Plate 99. A. cirdnata. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), on sandy coastal dunes. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves 12-20 in. long, cylindrical, sparse. Flowers fragrant, various shades of green and pale mustard yellow, early summer (October to November in the wild). A. cooperi. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape, Eastern Cape); introduced c. 1897. Stems to 24 in. Flowers pale yellow-green, early to mid spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 100. A. crinifolia. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 30 in. Flowers white with reddish brown median stripe, spring (September in the wild). A.flaccida. SOLDIER-IN-THE-BOX. South Africa (Namaqualand), in stony ground; introduced 1768. Stems sturdy, to 24 in. or more. Leaves fleshy, narrow, almost cylindrical, 20-24 in. long. Flowers to 24 per stem on long pedicels, yellowish green

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with distinct green keels, spring (August to October in the wild). This attractive species has potential as a garden plant in warmer climates. A. fragrans. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 20-30 in. Flowers yellow, tinged green, mid spring (September in the wild). A. glauca. South Africa (Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers greenish white, somewhat irregular and horizontally arranged, spring (September to October in the wild). A. humilis. Drakensberg Mountains of Lesotho; introduced early twentieth century. Stems 4-8 in. Leaves 1-2 per bulb, cylindrical, 10-12 in. long. Flowers white with green stripes; inner petals have no stripes but are tipped with yellow. Flowering spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). Tolerates light frost; excellent for rock gardens in warm climates or for small containers. A. juncifolia. South Africa (Western Cape). Leaves very thin and narrow. Flowers 4-5, 2 in. in diameter, carried on curved pedicels, spring (August to September in the wild). A. longifolia. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced c. 1897. Bulb fleshy, 31/2 in. long. Stem to 24 in. Narrow leaves more than 2 ft. long. Flowers upright in many-flowered raceme, white banded with green, spring (August to September in the wild). A. major. South Africa (Namaqualand), 1767. Possibly synonymous with A. flactida but more robust, to 36 in. tall, with yellow flowers with green or brown median stripes, not as wide as in A. flaccida. Flowering spring (August to September in the wild). A. maxima. SENTRY BOX. South Africa, along W coast. Stems to 24 in. Leaves fleshy. Flowers numerous, white with green keels, spring (September to early October in the wild). A strong grower with a long flowering period. Plates 101-104. A. namaquensis. South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems to 12 in. Flowers green and white, inner tepals with yellow tips, spring (September to October in the wild). A. nelsonii. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1880. Stems to 5 ft. or more. Leaves 2 in. wide. Flowers upright, fragrant, white striped with dull red, summer (October to December in the wild). Probably the prettiest species. A. pendula. Saudi Arabia; 1991. Stems 12 in. Flowers green and white, spring to early summer. A. setosa. South Africa (Namaqualand) to Swaziland, widespread; introduced c. 1897. Stems 12-16 in. Flowers white with greenish median stripe, late winter (August to September in the wild). A. shawii. South Africa (Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 12-18 in., densely hairy, sticky. Flowers yellow with green median stripe, pendent, fragrant, late spring to summer (October to November in the wild). A. spiralis. South Africa (Western Cape, Namaqualand); introduced 1948. Stems 16 in. or more. Flowers pale yellow-green, late winter (August to September in the wild). A. wakefieldii. E Africa. Stems 6-9 in. Outer tepals green, inner tepals white with green stripe.

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Allium SYNONYMS

A. altissima see A. maxima. A. aperta see Ornithogalum apertum. A. baurii see A. setosa. A. canadensis see A. flaccida. A. elliotii see A. shawii. A. minima see A. shawii. A. minor see A. flaccida. A. pachychlamys see A. setosa. A. patersoniae see A. setosa. A. transvallinensis see A. glauca. A. trichophylla see A. shawii.

Allium—Alliaceae (Liliaceae) FLOWERING GARLIC, ONIONS Allium is the Classical Latin name for garlic. There are many important food crops in the genus: chives (A. schoenoprasum), garlic (A. sativuni), leek (A. porrum), onion (A. cepd), spring onion (A.fistulosum), and shallot (A. ascalonicum). The genus includes at least 500 species, perhaps as many as 750. The species list below is derived primarily from Mathew's A Review of Allium Section Allium (1996) and includes many species that are likely to be available only as seed from specialist collectors. Although the onions were at one time placed in the Liliaceae because their flowers have superior ovaries, some botanists feel that, because the flowers are umbels, they should be in the Amaryllidaceae, and still others assign them their own family, the Alliaceae. All species are native to the Northern Hemisphere, where they have adapted to almost every conceivable plant habitat from burning deserts to the tundra above the Arctic Circle, and from swamps to mountain screes. Dilys Davies, in her excellent book Alliums (1992), expresses the opinion that the Romans may be responsible for the wide distribution of many alliums, and that other "invasions" via the cooking pot occurred worldwide. Over the years, many plant collectors have contributed to the great number of species that are now in cultivation (Plate 11). Reginald Farrer and George Forrest collected in China, Albert von Regel and members of the Fedtschenko team collected in C Asia. The Russians Przewalski and Carl Maximowicz collected in Siberia. Allium aitchisonii commemorates SurgeonMajor Aitchison, who served on the British border commission and surveyed the flora of Afghanistan as a sideline. David Douglas and Thomas Nuttall collected in the United States and are similarly honored. Since World War II, new introductions have come from Peter Davis, Patrick Synge, Paul Furse, Brian Mathew, Brian Halliwell, and Roy Lancaster. That such great botanists occupied themselves with the genus is indicative of its importance. The bulbs vary in size, generally in proportion to the plant's overall height when full grown; all are fleshy and similar to the culinary onion. Some, such as A. giganteum, are smooth and shiny but, when cut, display the typical "onion rings." The

plants of most species have the distinctive onion smell in both foliage and bulb. The leaves may be cylindrical and hollow, or flattened. The flowers are individually rather small but are usually numerous, forming an attractive umbel which can reach considerable size, as in the case of A. giganteum. The flowers have 6 tepals which are free or slightly joined at the base. The developing umbel is enclosed in a membranous or papery spathe which splits as the flowers open. The seeds are dark and angular. Ornamental alliums are interesting garden plants. Largeflowered species and hybrids are attention-getting accents among annuals or in the perennial border. The flower heads are unusual and attractive in arrangements. The dried flowers also are excellent for that purpose, but the stalks should be quite firm before cutting. Few alliums have ornamental foliage (though A. karataviense is often grown just for its leaves), so they can be placed where they will grow up among denser plants —as they often do in nature. CULTURE It must be noted that some alliums are invasive pests that can be difficult to eradicate, once established in the garden. Particularly to be avoided are A. fistulosum, A. paradoxum, A. triquetrum, A. ursinum, and A. vineale. The larger alliums should be given rich, well-drained soil. Do not set the bulbs too deep—preferably at or just above soil level, so the sun can ripen them. Moisture requirements vary greatly depending on native habitat, but in general, those from the Himalayas and E Asia require more moisture during summer; those from Europe require adequate moisture, but tolerate some drying. Many dwarf species, especially those from W North America, require dry conditions all summer. The only species commonly grown as a pot plant is A. neapolitanum. Pot bulbs in fall in sandy soil mix and treat like forcing daffodils, keeping them around 45°F at night until well rooted, then increasing the temperature by 10 to 20 degrees to bring on flowering. PESTS AND DISEASES

Onion fly (Delia antiqua) is a serious pest of the culinary onion. It may also attack ornamental species in spring and early summer. The maggots of the flies move from bulb to bulb, reducing them to a decayed, liquid mess. The first sign of attack is foliage that turns yellow, then white, before falling over. The flies lay their eggs in the neck of the bulb or on young leaves. Within a few days, the maggots find their way into the bulbs and start their destruction. In 3 weeks the maggots are full size and pupate in a chestnut-brown puparia which remains a few inches deep in the soil. Three broods, or more in warmer climates, are produced each season, and the last overwinters in the soil. Infested bulbs should be destroyed, and in commercial plantings, any area where the pest is observed should be sterilized. The use of an insecticide is recommended if attacks on vegetable onions have been observed. Preventive sprays should be used as growth emerges in spring. Certain thrips may cause distortion of the foliage, flecking, and other unsightly problems. As soon as mottled foliage is

Allium seen, the cause should be determined and an insecticide used. This problem is more prevalent in warm conditions. Thrips tabad, though occasionally found outdoors, is more of a problem in greenhouses. Onion or downy mildew (Peronospora destructor) is more of a problem on vegetable onions but can attack ornamental onions as well. The leaves show damage at the tips, which then shrivel, making the plants unsightly. The fungus overwinters in bulbs and in the soil. If it is noticed, the bulbs should be lifted at the end of the growing season, dusted with a fungicide, and replanted in another site. The foliage may be sprayed with a fungicide during the growing season. White rot (Sderotium cepivorum), another problem of vegetable onions, may attack ornamentals. The foliage yellows in summer, the roots rot, and the bulbs are covered with white, fluffy mycelium. Affected plants should be treated with a fungicide applied to the foliage during the growing season, and the bulbs lifted and dusted before being replanted. Smut (Urocystis cepulae) causes dark, blisterlike streaks on the foliage and bulbs. This is more of a problem on young plants, and use of a fungicide as a preventive is suggested if the problem is present on nearby food crops. The soil of commercial plantings should be sterilized. PROPAGATION

The easiest way to increase alliums is from the offsets produced by larger bulbs. Some species produce bulbils in the inflorescence which can be sown in containers, covering lightly with sandy soil mix. Most reach sufficient size for planting out in a few months but may need another 1 or 2 seasons before flowering. Raising species from seed is not difficult. Seed can be sown in fall or spring. If only small quantities are to be raised, sowing in a pot is better than in the open ground. Scatter the seeds thinly and barely cover them. Keep them moist and in good light, with temperatures around 55°F at night. After germination, keep seedlings moist and well ventilated. When the seedlings are large enough to handle, they can be transplanted to other containers, spaced 2-3 in. apart. Grow them outdoors over summer. When the foliage dies down, the small bulbs can be dried off in their containers over winter and planted out the following spring; in mild climates, they may be planted in fall. Bulbs large enough for planting out can be obtained in 1 or 2 growing seasons. If large quantities are to be raised, prepare a bed outdoors in a sunny location. The soil must be free of weed seeds, because the new seedlings are hard to distinguish from grass seedlings. The soil should be augmented with sand worked into the top 1-2 in., and the seed barely covered. Keep moist and allow to become drier only when the foliage has died down. Bulbs of sufficient size can be planted at the end of the growing season. If they need to be grown on, line them out for another year's growth in a well-drained, sunny area. SPECIES A. aaseae. United States (Idaho); endangered. Stems to 2 in. Flowers deep pink, mid spring.

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A. acuminatum. United States (N California to Washington, Idaho, Colorado, and Arizona) and Canada (British Columbia); introduced 1840. Stems 6-10 in. Flowers rose purple, early summer. A. acutiflorum. S France, Corsica, and NW Italy. Stems 5-20 in. Leaves 2-4, sheath lower Vs of stem. Flowers in hemispherical umbel, purplish pink with darker midvein, summer. A. affine. S and E Transcaucasia, SC and E Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, N Iraq, and N and NW Iran. Stems 12-30 in. Leaves 3-5, sheathe lower1/3 of stem. Flowers in spherical umbel, white with green midrib or greenish white margins, summer. A. aflatunense. C Asia and N Iran; introduced c. 1900. Plants in commerce under this name are mostly forms known only in cultivation and sometimes called A. hollandicum. Stems 30-36 in. tall. Leaves 1-4 in. in diameter. Flowers in dense, spherical umbel, purple lilac, late spring to early summer. Plate 105. A. akaka. Iran; introduced 1830. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers rose, spring. Plate 106. A. albidum. E Europe and W Asia, from Balkan Peninsula to Caucasus, Iran, and Turkey. Stems 10-12 in. Flowers white, summer. A. albiflorum. Crimea and N Caucasus. Stems 14-28 in. Leaves 3-4, sheathe up to half the stem. Flowers white aging to purplish pink, late spring. A. alexeianum. Turkestan; introduced 1889. Stems 2-4 in. Flowers whitish, summer. A. altaicum. Siberia and Mongolia. Stems 12-28 in. Flowers yellowish, mid to late summer. A. altissimum. C Asia, NE Iran, and NW Afghanistan. Stems 36-60 in. Flowers pinkish purple, summer. A. amabile. China (NW Yunnan); introduced 1922. Probably synonymous with A. mairei. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers pink to magenta crimson, fall. A. amblyophyllum. Turkestan; introduced 1885. Stems to 12 in. Flowers lilac, summer. A. amethystinum. WILD LEEK, LEVANT GARLIC, KURRAT. C Europe. Stems 18-40 in. Leaves 3-7, often withered by flowering time. Flowers in spherical umbel, white to purple, late spring to early summer. Plate 107. A. ampeloprasum. WILD LEEK. S Europe, and W Asia to Egypt; introduced 1753. Stems 36-72 in. Flowers in spherical umbel, purple to whitish, late spring to mid summer. A food plant. Var. babingtonii from Cornwall and W Ireland is unusual in that bulbils in the flowerhead produce flowers, a process that can continue for several generations until the stem collapses under the weight. Var. bulbiferum from W France and the Channel Islands has many bulbils, fewer flowers. Plate 108. A. amplectens. United States (Washington to California). Stems 8-20 in. Flowers white to pinkish, spring. A. anatolicum. SW Turkey. Stems to 12 in. Flowers in spherical umbel, white, late spring. A. anceps. United States (Nevada to S Oregon). Stems 3-4 in. Flowers pale rose with purplish veins, late spring. A. angulosum. MOUSE GARLIC. Europe to Siberia. Stems 8-18 in. Flowers lilac purple or white, summer. A. anisopodium. Mongolia, lapan, and China. Stems 8-12

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Allium

in. Flowers bell-shaped, rose, late spring. Rhizomatous cluster of bulbs. A. arlgirdense. N Iraq and SE Turkey. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers white, late summer. A. artemisietorum. Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers white with reddish or green midrib, early to late spring. A. artvinense. E Turkey and Armenia. Stems 12-36 in. Leaves 3-5, sheathe lower half to % of stem. Flowers in spherical umbel, white or green flushed pink, mid summer. A. asirense. W Saudi Arabia. Stems 8-12 in. Leaves 2-4, withered by flowering time. Flowers in spherical umbel, purple with lighter margins, early summer. A. asperiflorum. Turkey. Possibly a variety of A. rotundum. Stems 8-12 in. Leaves 1-2, flat. Flowers in spherical umbel, pale pink to white, early summer. A. atropurpureum. Bulgaria, Romania, and W Turkey; introduced 1800. Stems to 3 ft., strong, do not need staking, even in exposed positions. Leaves narrow, lanceolate, 18 in. long. Flowers small, purple, early summer. A. atrorubens. W United States. Stems 3-6 in. Flowers dark red or purple, late spring. A. atroviolaceum. Europe to Afghanistan; introduced 1846. Stems to 40 in. Leaves 3-5. Flowers in spherical umbel, purple or maroon, early summer. A. backhousianum. Himalayas; introduced 1885. Stems 3648 in. Flowers white. A. baeticum. S Spain, Portugal, Morocco, Tunisia, and Algeria. Stems 12-30 in. Leaves 3-6. Flowers in spherical umbel, white or pale purple with green midrib, late spring to late summer. A. balansae. Turkey; introduced 1882. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers lilac pink, late summer. A. barsczewskii. C Asia. Stems 10-20 in. Flowers bell-shaped, pinkish lilac with darker stripes, late spring to late summer. A. barthianum. Libya. Stems to 6 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers in spherical umbel, white with green or brown midribs, spring. A. beesianum. W China (Yunnan, Sichuan). Stems to 16 in. Flowers pure deep blue, late spring. A. bisceptrum. NW United States. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers rose purple, late spring. A. bodeanum. C Asia and Iran. Stems 4-8 in. Leaves broad. Flowers lilac, starry, late spring. A. bolanderi. United States (S Oregon to N California). Stems 2-6 in. Flowers deep rose purple, early summer. Var. stenanthum is taller and has generally white flowers. A. borszczowii. Afghanistan, SW Pakistan, and Iran. Stems 4-12 in. Leaves 3-8, often longer than flowering stem. Flowers in near-spherical umbel, white or pink, with purple veins, late spring. A. bourgeaui. Greek island of Rhodes and SW Turkey. Stems 18-36 in. Flowers pale green, in spherical umbel, early summer. Subsp. creticum from Crete has purple to reddish-pink flowers. Subsp. cycladicum from Greece and SW Turkey has purple flowers in mid summer. A. brevidens. C Asia. Stems 8-12 in. Leaves 2-3, longer than

flowering stem. Flowers in spherical or subspherical umbel, white, early summer. A. breviscapum. Iran. Stems 2-3 in. Leaves narrow, hairy beneath. Flowers rose, spring. A. brevistylum. United States (Montana, Colorado, Utah). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers dark rose, spring. A. breweri. United States (California); introduced 1882. Stems 1-3 in. Flowers deep rose, mid summer. A. bucharicum. Iran, Turkey, and Afghanistan. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers white with greenish purple stripes, spring. Plate 109. A. bulleyanum. W China. Stems to 24 in. Flowers deep maroon, summer. A. burjaticum. Mongolia. Stems to 6 in. Flowers rosy white, early summer. A. burlewii. United States (California). Stems 2-3 in. Flowers pinkish purple, early summer. A. cabulicum. Afghanistan; introduced 1892. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers whitish. A. caeruleum. Siberia and Turkestan; introduced 1830. Stems to 2 ft. Leaves linear, 10-18 in. long. Flowers deep blue, mid summer. Var. bulbilliferum produces many bulbils. Plates 110,111. A. caesium. Siberia and C Asia. Stems 10-20 in. Flowers blue, fragrant, in umbels, early summer. A. callidictyon. Iraq, Iran, Turkey, and the Caucasus; introduced 1843. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers pink, late summer. A. callimischon. Peloponnese. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers papery, white with distinct brown-reddish veins, unspotted, late summer to early fall. Subsp. haemostictum from Crete, introduced 1978, has dark red spots on tepals. Plate 112. A. calocephalum. Iraq. Stems 12-30 in. Flowers creamy white; of 2 different types in same umbel. A. calyptratum. Turkey and N Syria. Stems 12-24 in. Leaves 3-4. Flowers in hemispherical umbel, white, early summer. A. campanulatum. United States (California); introduced 1880. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers bright rose, mid summer. A. canadense. CANADA GARLIC, MEADOW LEAK, ROSE LEEK. N America, east of Rocky Mountains. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers pink, lilac, or white, spring. Used in seventeenth-century vegetable gardens. Var. canadense has bulbils that replace most of the flowers and make this variety a pest in gardens. Var. fraseri has small white flowers on robust stems. Var. lavandularebears no bulbils. Var. mobilensehas pink flowers on slender stems. A. capitellatum. Turkey and Iran; introduced 1846. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers greenish white or brownish pink. A. cappadocicum. C Turkey; introduced 1882. Stems 8-12 in. Leaves 2-4, appear before flowers. Flowers in spherical or ovoid umbel, pinkish white with purplish veins, early summer. A. caput-mede. N Myanmar. Collected in 1919 by Frank Kingdon Ward, the bulbs unfortunately did not persist in cultivation. Stem strong. Flowers pendent, reddish purple. Looks in illustrations like a mophead. Well worth reintroducing. A. cardiostemon. Turkey, Iran, and the Caucasus; introduced 1840. Stems 6-16 in. Flowers blackish maroon, early summer. A. carinatum. KEELED GARLIC. W and S Europe and Turkey (Asia Minor); introduced 1753. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers pur-

Allium ple, summer. Produces bulbils mixed with flowers and is very invasive. Var. valdensium from the Maritime Alps of France has bright rose flowers, smaller than the type. Subsp. pulchellum is the most commonly grown form. Davies (1992) calls it "in all its forms one of the most pleasing alliums to grow." Stems 12-24 in. Flowers soft rose lavender on curving purple pedicels; the outer flowers are pendent, forming an elegant cascade or "fireworks" effect. After pollination, pedicels curve upward. There are numerous forms; pure white 'Album' is often grown and comes fairly true from seed. Foliage usually linear with prominent veins, though some forms have glaucous foliage; leaves usually withered by flowering time in mid to late summer. Plant in well-drained soil, where it self-sows readily. Plates 113,114. A. carolinianum. Himalayas, from C Nepal to Afghanistan. The botanist Augustine P. de Candolle described this plant under the mistaken belief that it was from "Carolina" in E United States. Stems 9-18 in. Flowers pink, sweetly scented, mid summer. A. caspium. Iran to S Russia. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers white or pinkish. A. cernuum. LADY'S LEEK, NODDING LEEK, WILD ONION. E North America, very widely distributed; introduced c. 1800. Stems 8-18 in. Leaves linear and flat, 6-10 in. long. Flowers pendent, light to deep pink or maroon, early summer. Select color forms include 'Album', white, rarely found in nature; 'Groton', light pink to white; 'Keystone', pale pink, late-blooming; 'Leo', pure white, to 24 in. tall, late-blooming. Very easily grown and tolerant of a wide range of conditions. Plate 115. A. chamaemoly. Mediterranean. Stems to 2 in. Flowers white, winter. A. chamaespathum. Greece, Crete, and Albania. Stems 8-12 in. Leaves 2-3, upper longer than the flowering stem. Flowers in spherical umbel, white or greenish, late summer to fall. A. chinensis. China and Japan. Stems 10-12 in. Flowers rose purple, fall. Similar to chives, and much cultivated in its native region. A. christophii. STAR OF PERSIA. Turkestan; introduced 1901. Stems to 24 in. Leaves 3-7, strap-shaped, 1 in. wide, 20 in. long. Flowers purple to metallic blue, early summer. Produces some of largest heads of any Allium, often 10-12 in. in diameter. Good cut flower. Plate 116. A. chrysantherum. Turkey, Iran, Iraq, and Syria; introduced 1882. Stems 12-40 in. Flowers greenish yellow or yellow with black ovary, mid to late spring. A. chrysanthum. W China. Stems 8-20 in. Flowers golden yellow to creamy white, summer. A. chrysonemum. SE Spain. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers cupshaped, yellow with greenish or reddish tint, summer. Reported to be difficult to grow. A. circinatum. Crete. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers whitish, striped pink, early to mid spring. A. cokhicifolium. Iraq, Iran, and Turkey; introduced 1859. Stems 2-8 in. Flowers whitish or green, veined, late spring. A. commututum. SE Europe, Crete, N Balkans, Sicily, Corsica, and Sardinia; introduced 1854. Stems 20-40 in. Leaves

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5-12. Flowers in spherical to hemispherical umbel, white, greenish white, or pinkish, late spring. A. condensatum. Mongolia, China, and Japan. Stems 12-30 in. Flowers bell-shaped, yellow, late summer. A. convallariodes. Iran, Iraq, and C Asia. Stems 16-24 in. Distinctly yellow bulblets. Flowers white, mid summer. A. coryi. United States (Texas). Stems to 12 in. Flowers bright yellow, late spring. A. cratericola. United States (California), in screes. Stems to 3 in. Flowers pale to dark purple, spring. A. crenulatum. United States (Oregon, Washington) to Canada (British Columbia), in mountains. Stems to 3 in. Flowers white to pink, aging to rose purple, summer. A. crispum. United States (C California). Stems 4-12 in. Flowers reddish purple, spring. A. cupanii. SE Europe, Balkan Peninsula, and Turkey; introduced 1810. Stems 5-10 in. Flowers pink or nearly white, over a long period from early summer to fall. A. cupuliferum. NE Iran, Afghanistan, and C Asia. Stems 36-40 in. Flowers pink or dark purple, late spring. Plate 117. A. curium. S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Egypt, and Cyprus. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves 2-4. Flowers in ovoid to conical umbel, purple center with white margins, spring. Var. aegyptiacum has purple flowers with white margins and purple anthers in larger umbels, inner pedicels erect. Var. negevense has pale green flowers with white margins. Var. palaestinum has green flowers with white margins. A. cuthbertii. STRIPED GARLIC. United States (Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers white, sometimes pink, late spring to mid summer. A. cyaneum. China (Gansu); introduced 1890. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers deep blue, bell-shaped, mid to late summer. Does not go dormant for long and is usually sold as a container plant. PlatellS. A. cyathophorum. China (Sichuan). Stems 8-16 in. Flowers star-shaped, blue-violet, early summer. The type is not in cultivation. Var. farreri from China (Gansu), introduced 1914, has red-purple flowers and is common in gardens. A. cyrilli. S Italy and E Greece. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white, striped green, late spring. A. darwasicum. C Asia. Stems 4-20 in. Flowers white with green midvein. A. davisiae. United States (California). Stems 8-16 in. Flowers pale pink with red midveins, late spring. A. decipiens. N Turkey and S Russia; introduced 1830. Stems 8-20 in. Flowers pale pinkish purple or whitish, early summer. A. derderianum. Iran and the Caucasus. Stems to 4 in. Flowers white with purple midveins, late spring. A. deserti-syriad. Iraq. Stems to 12 in. Leaves 2—3. Spherical umbel of white flowers, late spring. A. dichlamydeum. N Coast Ranges of the United States (California). Stems 4-12 in. Flowers bright rose purple, early summer. Plate 119. A. dictyoprasum. W Asia, from the Caucasus to the Middle East. Stems 24-60 in. Leaves 3-4, hollow. Flowers variable, greenish or brownish purple, often with white edges, early summer.

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A. dictyoscordum. Turkmenistan and Iran. Stems 18-24 in. Leaves 4-6, gone by flowering time. Flowers in spherical or hemispherical umbel, white with green midvein, late spring. A. dilatatum. SW Crete. Stems 6-20 in. Flowers white with green midveins, early summer. A. douglasii. NW North America. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers rose pink, sometimes white, summer. A. drummondii. PRAIRIE ONION. United States (Nebraska, New Mexico, Texas). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers variable, pink, white, or red, sometimes yellowish, summer. A. ebusitanum. Spain, on Ibiza island. Stems 15-24 in. Leaves 3-4. Flowers in hemispherical umbel, pale pink with darker midvein, early summer. A. ellisii. Iran and Turkey (Asia Minor); introduced 1903. Stems to 12 in. Flowers bright rose, mid summer. A. enginii. Turkey. Stems 4-8 in. Leaves 2, rarely 3. Flowers in dense, conical umbel, reddish purple, early summer. A. ericetorum. Italy. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers yellow to whitish, summer. A. erubescens. Crimea, N Iran, N Turkey, and Transcaucasia. Stems 8-16 in. Leaves 3-4. Flowers in spherical umbel, purplish pink, early summer. A. fakifolium. W United States, in screes; introduced 1882. Stems 2-3 in. Leaves sickle-shaped, fleshy, longer than scape. Flowers rose pink, summer. A. ferganicum. C Asia. Stems 4-8 in. Leaves 2-4. Flowers in spherical or hemispherical umbel, pink, late spring. A. fetisowii. Turkestan; introduced 1879. Stems to 24 in. Flowers rosy lilac, summer. A. fibrillum. United States (Oregon, SE Washington, Idaho, Montana). Stems to 4 in. Flowers white or pale rose, late spring. Unusual in that bulb splits rather than producing offset bulblets. A. filidentiforme. C Asia. Stems 20-30 in. Leaves 3-4. Flowers in ovoid to spherical umbel, greenish white, early summer. A.fimbriatum. United States (California); introduced 1928. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers rose to purple, summer. A. fistulosum. SPRING ONION, WELSH ONION, JAPANESE BUNCHING ONION. lapan, but now extinct in the wild. Stems to 24 in. or more. Flowers yellowish white, bell-shaped, summer. A food plant. A. flavidum. C Asia. Stems 8-20 in. Flowers pale greenish yellow, summer. A. flavum. E Europe to Turkey; introduced 1753. Stems 3-12 in. Flowers bell-shaped, glistening yellow, anther filaments purple or yellow, mid summer. A good rock garden plant of which several dwarf forms and color variants have been selected. Var. minus from S Europe and Turkey is a dwarf form with bright yellow flowers in spring. Subsp. tauricum from SE Europe, S Russia, and Greece has pale yellow or nearly white flowers tinted green, brown, or pink, and filaments that are purplish toward the tips. Plate 120. A. forrestii. W China (S Sichuan) and SE Tibet. Stems 4-16 ins. Flowers bell-shaped, Vi in. long, pendent, deep claret-red to ruddy purple, fall. A. frigidum. Greece and Turkey; introduced 1853. Stems 6-10 in. Flowers pink or yellowish, late summer.

A. fuscoviolaceum. E Turkey and N Iran. Stems 16-28 in. Leaves 3-4. Spherical or hemispherical umbel of dull purple flowers, summer. A. galanthum. Siberia and C Asia. Stems to 40 in. White flowers, late summer. Very similar to A. cepa. A. geyeri. W United States. Stems 3-12 in. Flowers pink, summer. A. giganteum. GIANT GARLIC. C Asia; introduced 1883. One of the most spectacular alliums. Stems to 48 in. Leaves 2 in. wide and 30 in. or longer. Flowers in very large heads, lilac blue, summer. Excellent bedding plant, especially when placed to contrast with summer-flowering annuals. Flower heads often used in dry arrangements. Plate 121. A. glandulosum. Mexico and United States (W Texas, SE Arizona). Stems 6—12 in. Flowers deep red, late summer to early fall. Bulbs produce slender rhizomes. A. gomphrenoides. S Greece. Stems 4-12 in. Leaves 2-3. Very dense umbel of campanulate flowers, pink or purple, late spring. A. gooddingii. United States (Arizona). Stems 14-18 in. Flowers pink, summer. Bulbs terminate in a thick rhizome. A. gramineum. NE Turkey and Transcaucasia. Stems 8-16 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers in spherical umbel, white or greenish, with pink midvein, late spring. A. griffithianum. C Asia, naturalized in Kashmir. Stems to 6 in. Rose flowers, spring. A. grossii. Spain, on Ibiza island; endangered. Stems 12-16 in. Flowers purple with darker midribs, summer. A. guttatum. Aegean Sea area into the Ukraine; introduced 1809. Stems 6-20 in. Leaves 2-5. Flowers in cylindrical umbel, pink or purple, tepals keeled, with oblong or round blotches of purple, green, or brown, mid summer. Most plants grown under this name are not true. Subsp. dalmaticum, from Dalmatia, Albania, Slovenia, Macedonia, Bulgaria, and NW Turkey, has flowers that vary from purple to pink, with inconspicuous green-white or brownish blotches. Subsp. sardoum, widespread in Europe from Portugal to Turkey, has white flowers with no blotch but with green (rarely pinkish) stripes. A. gypsodictyum. C Asia. Stems 8-10 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers in hemispherical umbel, pink, with darker midveins, early summer. A. haemanthoides. Turkey and Iran; introduced 1875. Stems 3-6 in. Flowers rose or purplish. Similar to A. akaka. A. haematochiton. RED-SKINNED ONION. United States (California). Stems 4-12 in. Flowers white to rose, spring. A. hamrinense. Iraq. Stems 12-28 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers in subglobose umbel, purplish pink, late spring. A. hedgei. N and NE Afghanistan. Stems 4-9 in. Leaves 1-3. Flowers in hemispherical umbel, purple-pink, spring. A. heldreichii. N Greece. Stems 10-24 in. Leaves 2-4. Flowers bell-shaped, pink with green stripe, summer. A. helicophyllum. Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkestan. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers rosy violet, summer. A. hickmanii. United States (C California), along coast. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers white to pink, late spring. A. hierochuntinum. Jordan, Israel, and Syria. Stems 4-6 in. Leaves 2-4. Flowers pink, blue-violet, or lilac, mid spring.

Allium A. hirtifolium. W and SW Iran; introduced 1840. Stems to 48 in. Flowers purple and white, spring. A. hoeltzeri. Turkestan; introduced 1884. Stems 5-7 in. Flowers white with red anthers, spring. A. hoffmanii. United States (N California). Stems 1-2 in. Flowers purplish pink, early summer. A. hollandicum. Name given to a group of cultivated plants sometimes marketed as A. aflatunense and perhaps derived from it. The cultivar 'Purple Sensation' has deep violet-purple flowers. A lovely garden plant and excellent cut flower. A. howellii. United States (C California). Stems 4-12 in. Flowers pale lilac violet to deep rose, late spring. A. hyalinum. United States (C California). Stems 4-12 in. Flowers white or pale pink, spring. A. hymenorrhizum. Afghanistan, Iran, C Asia, and W Siberia. Stems 12-36 in. Flowers pinkish purple, bell-shaped, mid summer. A. ilgazense. Turkey and Greece. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves 2-4. Flowers in globose umbel, pink, mid summer. A. inderiense. SE Russia. Stems 8-16 in. Flowers bright rose, early summer. A. insubricum. Lombardy Alps of N Italy. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers large, rose with orange anthers, summer. Similar to A. narcissiflorum. A. integerrimum. NE Greece. Possibly synonymous with A. sphaerocephalon. Stems 12-16 in. Leaves 3-4, very short. Flowers pinkish purple, campanulate, early summer. A. iranicum. Iran and NE Iraq. Stems 24-33 in. Leaves 4-6. Flowers in spherical umbel, pale pink, with hint of purple, early summer. A. jesdianum. Iraq and W Iran. Stems 20-30 in. Flowers purple to violet, early summer. A. junceum. Cyprus, Greek island of Rhodes, and SW Turkey. Stems 4-10 in. Leaves 2-4. Flowers pale purple, with segments of equal length, inner segments toothed, late spring. Subsp. tridentatum from S Turkey has rose purple flowers with outer segments shorter than inner. A. karataviense. C Asia, especially Turkestan; introduced 1878. Stems to 6 in. Leaves 4-6 in. wide, glaucous blue, lying nearly flat on the ground; the most attractive foliage in the genus. Flowers white with hint of rose, early summer. Plate 122. A. karyeteinii. Syria and S Turkey. Stems 8-24 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers in globose or hemispherical umbel, reddish purple, early summer. A. kharputense. Turkey and W Iran; introduced 1982. Stems to 10 in. White flowers, late spring. A. kunthianum. Turkey, Iran, and the Caucasus; introduced 1935. Stems 6-10 in. Flowers pale pink with purple midveins, early summer. A. kunthii. C Mexico and United States (New Mexico, Texas). Stems to 16 in. Flowers white to pink with red midribs, late summer to fall. A. kurrat. Known only in cultivation in Arabia, Israel, Egypt, and Yemen. Believed to be a cultivar of A. ampeloprasum. A. lacunosum. United States (Mojave Desert to C California). Stems to 6 in. Flowers pale rose with darker midveins, spring.

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A. ledebourianum. Siberia. Stems to 30 in. Flowers rosy-violet or pink, summer. A. lehmannianum. Aral Desert in C Asia. Stems 2-3 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers rose pink with purple midribs, white margins, late spring. A. lemmonii. United States (N California, W Nevada, SW Idaho). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers whitish to pale rose, late spring. A. libani. Lebanon and Syria. Stems to 6 in. Flowers pinkish, late spring. A. lineare. C Europe east to the Ukraine and E Russia. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers lilac purple to pink, early summer. A. longicollum. SW and SE Afghanistan. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves 3. Flowers white and green, campanulate, late spring. A. longicuspis. Turkey, Iran, and S Russia; introduced 1875. Stems 16-44 in. Leaves 4-7. Flowers in spherical umbel, white or pink, early summer. Believed to be the wild ancestor of A. sativum (garlic). A. longisepalum. E Turkey, N Syria, Iraq, and S and W Iran; introduced 1846. Stems to 14 in. Pinkish flowers, late spring. A. loratum. Kashmir. Stems to 24 in. Flowers rose pink, starry, late spring. A. macleanii. Afghanistan, W Pakistan, and Tajikistan; introduced 1882. Stems 36-40 in. Leaves broad, shiny, deep green. Flowers lilac purple, borne above leaves, late spring. Similar to A. giganteum. A. macranthum. N India (Sikkim), Tibet, and W China; introduced 1883. Stems to 6 in. Flowers mauve purple, summer. A. macrochaetum. NW Iran, Iraq, Syria, and C and SE Turkey. Stems 10-24 in. Leaves 3-4. Flowers in spherical umbel, pinkish or purplish, early summer. A. macropetalum. United States (Colorado to Arizona and Texas). Stems to 8 in. Flowers white or pink with darker midribs. A. macrum. United States (Oregon, Washington). Stems 2-3 in. Flowers white with purplish veins, spring. A. mairei. SW China (Yunnan). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers pink, rose, or red (rarely white) with darker spots and veins, late summer. A. makmelianum. C and N Lebanon, and Syria. Stems 3-10 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers in globose umbel, white, with red stripes, early summer. A. mareoticum. N Egypt. Stems 5-10 in. Leaves 2-4. Flowers in globose umbel, white, with green or pink midveins. A. margaritiferum. C Asia. Stems 20-32 in. Leaves 3-4. Flowers in subglobose umbel, silvery-lilac, early summer. A. melanantherum. Bulgaria, N Greece, E Yugoslavia, and Turkey; introduced 1883. Stems 6-16 in. Flowers pink with reddish midveins, summer. A. melananthum. SE Spain. Stems 10—32 in. Leaves 4—5. Flowers in spherical umbel, purple-black, late spring. A. membranaceum. United States (N California). Stems 6-14 in. Flowers whitish to pink, early summer. A. meteoricum. Albania, N and C Greece, and S Yugoslavia. Stems 6-10 in. Flowers pink or white with orange anthers, summer. A. mirum. Afghanistan and Iran; introduced 1964. Stems to

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Allium

6 in. Flowers in very large umbel, brownish purple or whitish, late spring. A. moly. GOLDEN GARLIC, YELLOW ONION, LILY LEEK. E Spain and SW France; introduced before 1600. Stems to 12 in. Leaves metallic blue-green, flat, 2 in. wide. Flowers bright yellow, on long pedicels, mid summer. 'Jeannine' is a robust cultivar. Excellent for naturalizing and cutting; increases rapidly. Plates 123,124. A. monadelphum. C Asia and Siberia. Stems 4-14 in. Flowers yellow, darkening to red or purple with age, summer. A. monticola. United States (S California). Stems 2-6 in. Flowers pink, early summer. A. moschatum. S Europe; introduced 1753. Stems 6-10 in. Flowers pink or white, summer. A. myrianthum. Iraq, Iran, and Turkey; introduced 1844. Stems 10-30 in. Flowers white, late spring. A. nardssiflorum. N Italy and Portugal, in mountains. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves 4-6, basal, linear, 1/8 in. wide. Flowers bright rose, early summer. For rock gardens, and often difficult to establish. Plate 125. A. neapolitanum. DAFFODIL GARLIC, FLOWERING ONION, NAPLES GARLIC. S Europe, Turkey (Asia Minor), and N Africa, in grassy areas; introduced 1788. One of the finest of the genus for its lovely white flowers and lack of strong onion aroma. Strong stems to 24 in. Flowers cup-shaped, pure white, in rather loose umbels; individual florets up to 1 in. in diameter, as many as 30 per umbel. Stamens prominent, shorter than the tepals. Leaves strap-shaped, keeled, % in. wide, 12-18 in. long. Requires winter protection where temperatures drop below 15°F. An excellent pot plant that can be forced like narcissi. 'Grandiflorum' is somewhat larger than the type. Plates 126,127. A. nevadense. W United States. Stems 3-6 in. Flowers white or pale rose, spring. A. nevii. United States (Washington, Oregon, Idaho). Stems to 10 in. Flowers light rose, early summer. Similar to A. douglasii. A. nevsehirense. C Turkey. Stems 12-32 in. Leaves 2-4. Flowers green, mid summer. A. nigrum. HOMER'S LILY. Mediterranean region; introduced 1762. Stems 20-40 in. Flowers white with green midribs to pinkish purple, spring. A. noeanum. W Iran, Iraq, Syria, and SE Turkey; introduced 1875. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers pink, late spring. A. notabile. N and E Iraq. Stems 15-30 in. Hemispherical umbel of white flowers, early summer. Leaves 3-5. A. nutans. Siberia and C Asia. Stems 18-36 in. Flowers pink or lilac, early summer. A. obliquum. Eurasia, from Romania to Siberia and NW China. Stems 18-36 in. Flowers yellow-green, spring to mid summer. A. obtusum. United States (California). Stems 2-3 in. Flowers greenish white with purple-rose midveins, late spring. A. oleraceum. FIELD GARLIC. England, and C Europe to Siberia. Stems 10-32 in. Flowers whitish tinged green, pink, or brown, late summer. A. oltense. NE Turkey. Stems 8-16 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers in spherical umbel, green with white margins, mid summer.

A. olympicum. Turkey (N Anatolia) and Greece. Stems 1220 in. Flowers lilac pink or violet red with violet anthers, mid summer. A. oreophilum. Turkestan, in mountains; introduced 1831. A dwarf onion, only 4-6 in. tall. Flowers carmine-pink, mid summer. 'Agalik' is one of several forms worth growing in the garden. 'Zwanenburg', introduced by the Van Tubergen nursery in the Netherlands, has very deep pink flowers. Plates 128, 129. A. oreoprasum. Pakistan to W Nepal and throughout C Asia. Stems 10-18 in. Flowers rose, often pale, with purple veins, early summer. A. orientate. E Mediterranean region. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers white or reddish with green midveins, late spring. A. oschaninii. C Asia and Afghanistan. Stems 24-40 in. Flowers star-shaped, white with green midveins. A. pattens. Turkey, S Europe, and Mediterranean; introduced 1762. Stems 4-16 in. Flowers white with yellow anthers, early summer. Subsp. siciliense and subsp. tenuiflorum both have pink flowers held loosely. A. paniculatum. Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Mediterranean region of S Europe; introduced 1759. Stems 8-20 in. Leaf sheath smooth. Flowers lilac pink or white, summer to early fall. Subsp. euboicum from E Greece, with yellowish or brownish flowers, frequently with streaks of red; leaf sheath ribbed below. Subsp. fuscum from Romania and Greece, with dingy white or brown flowers, sometimes with pink overlay; leaf sheath smooth. Subsp. villosulum, with brown-pink or purplish flowers; leaf sheath ribbed below. Plate 130. A. paradoxum. FEW-FLOWERED LEEK. Caucasus and N Iran; introduced 1823. Stems 6-12 in., 3-angled. Flowers white, spring. Often inflorescence contains only one flower and numerous bulbils, which scatter and make var. paradoxum dangerously invasive. Var. normalefrom N Iraq, introduced 1966, has pure white flowers in early spring and no bulbils, and is a desirable garden plant. Plates 131,132. A. parciflorum. Corsica and Sardinia; introduced 1888. Stems 4-10 in. Flowers purple, summer. A. parishii. United States (S California, W Arizona). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers pale pink, spring. A. parnassicum. S Greece. Stems 4-10 in. Flowers purplish rose, summer to fall. A. parvum. United States (Oregon, Idaho, Utah, Nevada). Stems 1-2 in. Flowers rose purple or pink with purple midribs, spring. A. pendulinum. Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, and Corsica. Stems to 18 in. Flowers white with green stripe, spring. A. peninsulare. United States (California). Stems 8-16 in. Flowers deep rose purple, spring. A. perduke. United States (Iowa and South Dakota to C Texas and New Mexico). Stems to 10 in. Flowers dark rose, spring. A. pervestitum. SW Russia to S Ukraine, in saline soil. Stems 12-32 in. Leaves 3-5. Flowers in spherical to fastigiate umbel, whitish or yellowish, sometimes tinged pink, late spring. A. phanerantherum. S Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran; introduced 1882. Stems 18-36 in. Leaves 2-5. Flowers in spherical

Allium umbel, pale green to purplish, with green or purplish veins, mid summer. Subsp. deciduum has a deciduous spathe. A. phthioticum. SC Greece. Stems 6-22 in. White flowers, late spring. A. pilosum. Cyclades, in the Aegean Islands. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers lilac, summer. A. platycaule. United States (California, Oregon, Nevada), in mountain screes. Stems 1-5 in. Flowers deep rose, summer. A. plummerae. United States (Arizona, New Mexico), in damp soils. Stems 12-20 in. Flowers white to pink, summer. A. polyanthum. SW Europe. Sometimes regarded as synonymous with A. ampeloprasum. Stems 16-32 in. Flowers pink, summer. A. polyastrum. W China. Stems to 24 in. Flowers magenta rose, summer. A. ponticum. Turkey, the Caucasus, and Transcaucasia. Stems 28-36 in. Leaves 3-4. Flowers in spherical umbel, pinkish, with darker purple veins. A. porrum. LEEK. Stems to 4 ft. or more. Flowers white or pale pink with green or reddish midrib, summer. A. praecox. United States (California). Stems 8-20 in. Flowers rose purple, early spring. A. proponticum. W Turkey; introduced 1977. Stems 16-40 in. Leaves 3. Flowers in spherical or hemispherical umbel, pink to reddish purple, early summer. A. protensum. Afghanistan and C Asia. Stem to 24 in. Flowers brown, late spring. Some plants in cultivation under this name are A. bucharicum. A. pruinatum. C and S Portugal. Stems 8-20 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers pink to reddish purple, sometimes white, late spring to early summer. Var. bulbiferum bears bulbils in inflorescence. A. przewalskianum. China (Gansu); introduced 1889. Stems 6-10 in. Flowers rosy lilac, summer. A. pseudoampeloprasum. NE Turkey. Stems 16-20 in. Leaves 4-5. Flowers in spherical umbel, pale pink, with greenish midveins, early summer. A. pseudocalyptratum. Lebanon. Stems 20-32 in. Leaves 3-4. Flowers white, campanulate, early summer. A. pskemense. C Asia. Stems 24-30 in. Flowers white, late summer. A. purdyi. United States (N California). Stems 4-12 in. Flowers rose purple, late spring. A. pustulosum. Turkey. Stems 8-24 in. Leaves 3-5. Flowers in spherical umbel, white, with green stripes, summer. A. pyrenaicum. Pyrenees of E Spain. Stems 22-40 in. Leaves 4-7. Flowers in spherical or hemispherical umbel, whitish, with green midribs, summer. A. qamdagense. Iraq and NW Iran. Possibly synonymous with A. pustulosum. Stems 12—4 in. Leaves 3—4. Flowers in hemispherical to spherical umbel, white, early summer. A. ramosum. FRAGRANT-FLOWERED GARLIC. Siberia. Stems 10-20 in. Flowers white, early summer. A. regelianum. W and C Russia. Possibly synonymous with A. sphaerocephalon. Stems 12-36 in. Flowers uniquely in verticillaster (not umbel), pink to reddish purple, summer. A. reuterianum. W and SW Turkey. Stems 4-6 in. Leaves 2.

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Flowers in spherical umbel, deep reddish purple or crimson, mid summer. A. robertianum. Turkey. Stems 18-80 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers in globose umbel, whitish green, early summer. A. robinsonii. United States (Washington, Oregon). Stems 3-5 in. Flowers pale pink with black-red anthers, spring. A. rosenbachianum. Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and C and SW Asia; introduced 1894. Most plants in cultivation under this name are other species, usually A. stipitatum. Stems to 24 in. Leaves linear, lanceolate, to 2 in. wide, 20 in. long. Flowers dark violet, with white stamens, early summer. 'Album' has silvery white flowers. Plate 133. A. roseum. ROSY GARLIC. Mediterranean Europe, N Africa, and Turkey; introduced 1752. Stems 6-22 in. Flowers bright pink, spring. Var. roseum is fertile, many-flowered, with no bulbils; its selection 'Grandiflorum' has larger flowers. Var. bulbilliferum has pink or white flowers and many bulbils. Var. carneum has pale pink flowers. Plates 134-136. A. rotundum. S Europe, W Russia, Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Iran, and the Caucasus; introduced 1762. Stems 12-32 in. Flowers bicolored; outer tepals dark purple, inner tepals paler with purple median stripe and white edges. Flowering late spring to early summer. Subsp. jajlaefrom the Crimea and the Caucasus has pink or reddish-purple flowers. Subsp. waldsteinii from NE Italy, Crimea, N Romania, Russia, and N Yugoslavia has dark purple flowers. Mathew (1996) writes: "If A. rotundum and A. scorodoprasum are to be recognized as separate species, and if A. jajlae and A. waldsteinii are to be recognized at all, then it is considered more appropriate to regard these last 2 as subspecies of A. rotundum than of A. scorodoprasum.... It is suggested that this whole A. scorodoprasum-A. rotundum alliance [is] an excellent topic for a postgraduate study." A plant known in South Africa as A. dregeanum and sometimes called the only Allium species in the Southern Hemisphere has been identified by R. Allen Dyer (1973, vol. 2) as A. rotundum Linnaeus, "an introduced species occasionally naturalized in the Cape." Plate 137. A. rouyi. SW Spain. Stems 5-10 in. Flowers yellowish, summer to fall. A. rubellum. SE Russia. Stems 6-10 in. Flowers pink or white, with yellow anthers, summer. A. rubens. Ural Mountains to E Siberia. Stems 3-12 in. Flowers rosy violet, mid summer. A. rubrovittatum. Crete and Karpathos. Stems 1-8 in. Leaves 3-4. Flowers in dense umbel, reddish purple, with pale to white margins, mid summer. A. rupestre. Crimea, the Caucasus, and Turkey; introduced 1812. Stems 4-16 in. Flowers white or pink with purple anthers, early summer. A. sabulosum. SE Russia and C Asia. Stems 6-20 in. Flowers greenish or whitish, summer. A. sanbornii. United States (N California). Stems 10-12 in. Flowers brilliant rose or cream, late summer. A. sandrasicum. Turkey. Stems 18-24 in. Leaves 2-4. Flowers in globose umbel, white and green, early summer. A. sannineum. Lebanon and N Israel, in mountains. Stems

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Allium

4-8 in. Leaves 3. Flowers in spherical or subspherical umbel, bluish violet, summer. A. sativum. GARLIC. Unknown in the wild, culinary garlic has been cultivated in Middle East since at least 3500 B.C. Stems 9-36 in. Flowers greenish white, purple or pink, summer. Var. ophioscordum has stems that loop once or twice. A. saxatile. SE Europe; introduced 1798. Stems 4-14 in. Flowers deep pink or whitish, late summer. A. scabriflorum. C and S Turkey. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers campanulate, blue, blue-violet, or deep purple, early summer. A. scabriscapum. Iran, Iraq, Russia, and Turkey; introduced 1854. Stems 5-20 in. Flowers yellow with green midveins, early summer. A. schmitzii. Portugal, and W and NE Spain. Stems 10-24 in. Flowers pink to pale purple with darker midveins, spring to summer. A. schoenoprasum. CHIVES. N Eurasia and N North America, the only species in both Old and New Worlds; long cultivated as culinary chives. Stems 8-20 in. Flowers lilac or pale purple, spring to summer. 'Forescate' is a cultivar with deep rose pink flowers. Var. sibiricum from the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, Siberia, and North America is a robust tetraploid. A. schubertii. Palestine; introduced 1843. Stems 12-24 in. Leaves distinctive in rose pink variety—wavy and 1 in. wide. Flowers white, silvery lavender, or rose, summer. A. scorodoprasum. SAND LEEK, SPANISH GARLIC. Europe and Turkey (Asia Minor); introduced 1753. Stems 16-36 in. Flowers lilac to purplish, late spring. Produces bulbils but few flowers. A. scorzonerifolium. SW Spain and Portugal. Stems to 9 in. Flowers bright yellow, early summer. Var. scorzonerifolium produces bulbils but few flowers. Var. xericense has a large umbel of up to 15 flowers, but no bulbils. A. semenowii. Russia, Kashmir, and China; introduced 1884. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers yellow, turning red, summer. A. senescens. GERMAN GARLIC, MOUNTAIN GARLIC. N Asia. Stems 3-14 in. Leaves to 1/2 in. wide. Flowers pale pink to purple, late summer. Var. calcareum has curly gray leaves. Var. glaucum has lilac flowers and curly, blue-gray leaves. Subsp. montanum from Ukraine to N Portugal has narrower leaves and pale pink to purple flowers on 14-in. stems. A. serratum. United States (N California). Stems to 12 in. Flowers pink to purplish, spring. A. sikkimense. Tibet, China (Gansu), and N India. Stems 412 in. Flowers blue-purple, summer. A. sinaiticum. Israel, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, and NE Egypt. Stems 2-4 in. Leaves 2. Flowers in spherical or hemispherical umbel, white with reddish stripe, early spring. A. sindjarense. Turkey, Syria, Iran, and Iraq; introduced 1875. Stems 4-10 in. Flowers pink to purplish with dark stripes, summer. A. sintenisii. C and E Turkey. Stems 12-16 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers pink with darker tips, early summer. A. sipyleum. Greece, Crete, and Turkey; introduced 1844. Stems 4-10 in. Flowers pinkish with darker stripes, early to late summer.

A. siskiyouense. United States (S Oregon, N California), in scree. Stems 1-3 in. Flowers deep rose, early summer. A. sosnowskyanum. Turkey. Stems 4-8 in. Leaves 2. Flowers in globose umbel, white to pale pink, early summer. A. sphaerocephalum. ROUND-HEADED LEEK. Eurasia, from Great Britain throughout Europe to Iran and N Africa, widely distributed; introduced 1594. Stems to 36 in. Leaves cylindrical, hollow, 24 in. long. Flowers purplish or pink, in very dense raceme, early to mid summer. Subsp. arvense has white tepals with yellowish or greenish keels. Subsp. trachypus resembles subsp. arvense but pedicels are minutely warty or pimply. The names A. loscosii and A. purpureum have been given to variants that produce bulbils. Appreciates summer moisture. Plate 138. A. splendens. Siberia, Mongolia, China, North Korea, and Japan. Stems 10-24 in. Flowers rose with prominent purple midvein, mid summer. A. stamineum. Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, Iran, and Iraq; introduced 1859. Stems 4-12 in. Leaves grasslike. Flowers pale pinkish purple, sometimes yellow, with darker midveins, summer. A. staticiforme. S Greece, Crete, Turkey, and Aegean Islands; introduced 1809. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers whitish or pinkish with red veins, late spring. A. stearnianum. Turkey. Stems 8-12 in., zigzagged for their lower 1/3. Leaves 1-3. Flowers in spherical umbel, deep purple, mid summer. Subsp. vanense has straight stems. A. stellatum. PRAIRIE ONION. Canada (Saskatchewan to Ontario) and C United States. Stems 12-28 in. Flowers white to purplish or rose pink, mid summer to fall. A. stellerianum. Mongolia, Siberia, and C Ural Mountains. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers yellow or pink, mid summer. A. stipitatum. C Asia, especially Turkestan and Afghanistan. Stems to 48 in. Basal leaves straplike, 2 in. wide. Flowers in large heads,lilac purple, late spring. Vigorous and an excellent cut flower. A. stocksianum. S Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Stems to 2 in. Flowers rosy violet, mid summer. A. stracheyi. N India (Kumaon in the Himalayas). Stems to 12 in. Flowers red-purple or yellowish, fall. A. strictum. C Europe and W Asia. Stems 16-24 in. Flowers rose with purple midrib, summer. A. stylosum. Turkey. Stems 14-24 in. Leaves 3-4. Flowers in cylindrical umbel, deep reddish purple, rarely white, late spring. A. suaveolens. Europe, from France to Yugoslavia. Stems 818 in. Flowers sweetly scented, pink to whitish, summer. A. subangulatum. China. Stems 10-12 in. Flowers rosy purple. A. subhirsutum. S Europe and Ethiopia; introduced 1753. Stems 8-12 in. Leaves to Vs in. wide, flat, 8-10 in. long. Flowers white, sweetly scented, late spring to early summer. Often used as cut flower and for forcing. A. subnotabile. Iran. Stems to 16 in. Flowers in subspherical umbel, white, early summer. A. subvillosum. Balearic Islands, Greece, Sicily, Spain, Portugal, and N Africa. Stems to 15 in. Flowers white, spring.

Allium A. suworowi. C Asia. Stems 12-40 in. Flowers dark mauve purple, summer. Similar to A. rosenbachianum. A. talijevii. SE Ukraine and SW Russia. Stems 16-20 in. Leaves 5-7. Flowers in hemispherical umbel, yellowish white, early summer. A. tanguticum. LAVENDER GLOBE LILY. W China. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers lilac purple with darker midribs, summer. A. tardans. Crete. Stems to 12 in. Flowers pink, fall. A. tauricola. Turkey; introduced 1882. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers violet, veined white, late summer. A. textile. W North America. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers white to pink with reddish-brown midrib, late spring. A. thunbergii. Japan and South Korea. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers rose purple, with very long stamens, fall. 'Album' has white flowers and is short. 'Ozawa' is a robust purple-flowered form. A. tolmiei. United States (Washington, Oregon, Nevada, Idaho, Utah). Stems 2-5 in. Flowers pale rose, spring. A. trachycoleum. N Iraq, S and SE Turkey, Lebanon, Israel, and Jordan. Stems 20-36 in. Leaves 5. Flowers in spherical umbel, white or greenish white, early summer. A. tribracteatum. United States (California, Oregon). Stems 2-5 in. Flowers pale rose, spring to summer. A. tricoccum. WILD LEEK. Canada (Quebec) and United States (Minnesota to Iowa and North Carolina). Stems 4-16 in. Flowers greenish white, early summer. North American counterpart of A. ursinum, also eaten as "ramps." A. trifoliatum. Mediterranean, France to Sicily, Crete, and Israel. Stems 6-18 in. Flowers white or pinkish, spring. A. triquetrum. THREE-CORNERED LEEK. S Europe; introduced 1789. Has become a rampant weed in some parts of the United States, especially where mechanical cultivation spreads the bulbs. Stems to 18 in., unique in Allium in being 3-sided. Leaves basal, linear, dark green, 10-15 in. long, to 11/2 in. wide. Flowers white with green median stripes, attractive, late spring. Prefers partial shade and moist soils. Plates 139,140. A. truncatum. N Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Syria. Stems 3652 in. Leaves 6 or more. Spherical umbel of dark purple flowers, spring. A. tuberosum. CHINESE CHIVES, GARLIC CHIVES. Asia, from India to Japan; widely cultivated. Stems 10-20 in. Flowers white, late summer. A. tuncelianum. C and E Turkey; 1983. Stems 18-36 in. Leaves 4-6. Flowers pink to mauve or white, mid summer. Close to A. sativum (garlic) and eaten in Turkey. A. turcomanicum. C Asia and N Afghanistan. Stems 12-36 in. Leaves 4-5. Flowers in spherical umbel, white or pinkish purple, late spring. A. turkestanicum. C Asia. Plants in cultivation under this name are probably all A. senescens. Stems 18-36 in. Leaves 4-6. Flowers sweetly scented, pale pink, campanulate, early summer. A. unifolium. United States (California); introduced 1873. Stems 8-24 in. Flowers pale to bright pink, late spring. Bulbs produced on short rhizomes. A. ursinum. RAMSONS, WILD GARLIC, WOOD GARLIC. Europe and Asia; long gathered for food. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white,

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spring. Strong garlic odor. Naturalizes well, even in dense shade, and can be very invasive. Likes summer moisture. A. valentinae. C Asia. Stems 14-18 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers in spherical umbel, pale yellow, late spring. A. validum. SWAMP ONION. United States (N California to Washington) and Canada (British Columbia), in wet sites; introduced 1881. Stems 12-30 in. Flowers rose to white, late summer. A. victorialis. ALPINE LEEK. E Europe and N Asia, from Germany to Siberia, the Himalayas to Japan, and the Aleutian Islands; introduced 1739. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers white, greenish, or yellowish, early summer. A. vineale. CROW GARLIC. Europe, N Africa, and W Asia, naturalized in North America; introduced 1753. Stems 12-40 in. Leaves 4-5. Flowers in spherical, ovoid, or hemispherical umbel, pinkish purple, reddish purple, or greenish white, summer. Var. capsuliferum bears only flowers. Var. compactum bears only bulbils. Var. vineale produces both. This species is a serious pest and should not be planted. A. virgunculae. Japan. Stems 6-9 in. Flowers pink, starry, late fall. A. wallichii. Himalayas. Stems 6-30 in. Flowers rose purple, late summer. Plate 141. A. wendelboi. Iran. Stems 10-12 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers in spherical umbel, whitish, mid summer. A. willeanum. Cyprus. Stems 16-30 in. Leaves 4-6 in. long, absent when in flower. Flowers campanulate, white, with green midveins, early summer. A. yosemitense. Sierra Nevada of United States (California). Stems 8-12 in. Flowers pale rose, early summer. A. zebdanense. Syria, Lebanon, and Israel; introduced 1859. Stems 10-16 in. White flowers, late spring. SYNONYMS

A. acuminatum var. bidwelliae see A. campanulatum. A. acutangulum see A. angulosum. A. aestivalis see A. commututum. A. albopilosum see A. christophii. A. album see A. neapolitanum. A. album var. purpurascens see A. subvillosum. A. alleghaniense see A. cernuum. A. alpinum see A. narcissiflorum, A. schoenoprasum. A. ambiguum see A. obtusum, A. roseum var. carneum. A. amblyanthum see A. pattens. A. ammophilum see A. albidum. A. amoenum see A. roseum var. carneum. A. ampeloprasum var. atroviolaceum see A. atroviolaceum. A. ampeloprasum subsp. bimetrale see A. commututum. A. ampeloprasum var. commutatum see A. commututum. A. ampeloprasum var. durieanum see A. baeticum. A. ampeloprasum var. lussinense see A. commututum. A. ampeloprasum var. porrum see A. porrum. A. ampeloprasum var. pruinosum see A. commututum. A. anceps var. lemmonii see A. lemmonii. A. angulosum subsp. ammophilum see A. albidum. A. angulosum var. caucasicum see A. albidum.

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Allium

A. angulosum var. flavescens see A. albidum. A. angustipetalum see A. rosenbachianum. A. antonii-bolosii see A. cupanii. A. arenicola see A. geyeri. A. aridum see A. textile. A. arvense see A. sphaerocephalum. A. ascalonicum see A. hierochuntinum. A. assimile see A. vineale. A. atriphoeniceum see A. cardiostemon. A. atropurpureum var. hirtulum see A. hirtifolium. A. atrosanguineum see A. monadelphum. A. attenuifolium see A. amplectens. A. aureum see A. moly. A. austinae see A. campanulatum. A. azureum see A. caeruleum. A. babingtonii see A. ampeloprasum var. babingtonii. A. bakeri see A. chinense. A. bauerianum see A. nigrum. A. beckerianum see A. inderiense. A. bidwelliae see A. campanulatum. A. blandum see A. carolinianum. A. boissieri see A. borszczowii. A. boryanum see A. callimischon. A. brahuicum see A. caspium. A. brevicuspis see A. erubescens. A. breweri see A. fakifolium. A. buhseanum see A. schoenoprasum. A. bulgaricum see Nectaroscordum siculum subsp. bulgaricum. A. bullardii see A. campanulatum. A. callistemon see A. flavum. A. candidissimum see A. neapolitanum. A. candissimum see A. neapolitanum. A. candolleanum see A. zebdanense. A. capillare see A. moschatum. A. carneum see A. roseum var. carneum. A. cascadense see A. crenulatum. A. caucasicum see A. paniculatum. A. cepa var. sylvestre see A. oschaninii. A. charaulicum see A. rupestre. A. chionanthum see A. zebdanense. A. chlorurum see A. tauricola. A. ciliatum see A. subhirsutum. A. cilicum see A. rotundum. A. cirrhosum see A. carinatum subsp. pukhellum. A. dusianum see A. subhirsutum. A. coloratum see A. carinatum subsp. pukhellum. A. compactum see A. vineale. A. complanatum see A. oleraceum. A. condnnum see A. obtusum. A. confusum see A. guttatum subsp. sardoum. A. continuum see A. canadense. A. contortum see A. sativum var. ophioscordum. A. controversum see A. sativum var. ophioscordum. A. coppoleri see A. pattens. A. cowanii see A. neapolitanum. A. cupuliferum var. regelii see A. cupuliferum.

cusickii see A. tolmiei. cuspidatum see A. acuminatum. cyaneum var. brachystemon see A. sikkimense. dalmaticum see A. guttatum subsp. dalmaticum. davisianum see A. phanerantherum. denudatum see A. albidum. descendens see A. amethystinum, A. sphaerocephalum. deserticola see A. macropetalum. diaphanum see A. inderiense. dictyotum see A. geyeri. dioscoridis see Nectaroscordum siculum subsp. bulgaricum. dregeanum see A. rotundum. durieanum see A. baeticum. A eginense see A. chrysantherum. A elatum see A. madeanii. A elburzense see A. bodeanum. A emarginatum see A. dictyoprasum. A equicaeleste see A. macrum. A erdelii see A. orientale. A eriophyllum see A. longisepalum. A euboicum see A. paniculatum. A exsertum see A. chinense. A fallax see A. senescens subsp. montanum. A farreri see A. cyathophorum var. farreri. A fedtschenkoanum see A. monadelphum. A fibrosum see A. geyeri. A filifolium see A. stamineum. A. fimbriatum var. purdyi see A. purdyi. A, firmotunicatum see A. atroviolaceum. A flavescens see A. albidum. A flavescens var. ammophilum see A. albidum. A flavum var. capsuliferum see A. carinatum subsp. pukhellum. A. flavum var. montanum see A. senescens subsp. montanum. A flavum var. pukhellum see A. carinatum subsp. pukhellum. A flavum var. purpurascens see A. carinatum subsp. pukhellum. A flexum see A. carinatum. A, fragrans see Nothoscordum gracile. A. fraseri see A. canadense var. fraseri. A freynianum see A. stamineum. A freynii see A. stamineum. A funiculosum see A. geyeri. A, fuscum see A. paniculatum subsp. fuscum. A, gaditanum see A. guttatum subsp. sardoum. A, glaucum see A. senescens var. glaucum. A. globosum see A. saxatile. A. gracile see Nothoscordum gracile. A. grandiflorum see A. narcissiflorum. A. grandisceptrum see A. unifolium. A, gredense see A. schoenoprasum. A. guicciardii see A. flavum. A. haemanthoides var. lanceolatum see A. derderianum. A. halleri see A. ampeloprasum. A. helkri see A. drummondii. A, hendersonii see A. douglasii. A A A A A A A A A A A A

Allium A. hirsutum see A. subhirsutum. A. hirtovaginatum see A. cupanii. A. hyalinum var. praecox see A. praecox. A. illyricum see A. roseum. A. incarnatum see A. roseum var. carneum. A. intermedium see A. paniculatum. A. jajlae see A. rotundum subsp. jajlae. A. japonicum see A. thunbergii. A. jenischianum see A. noeanum. A. kansuense see A. sikkimense. A. kaufmannii see A. monadelphum. A. kazerouni see A. jesdianum. A. komarovianum see A. thunbergii. A. lineare var. strictum see A. strictum. A. lacteum see A. neapolitanum. A. latifolium see A. akaka. A. latissimum see A. victorialis. A. lavendulare var. fraseri see A. canadense var. fraseri. A. longicaule see A. canadense. A. longispathum see A. paniculatum. A. loscosii see A. sphaerocephalum. A. lusitanicum see A. senescens subsp. montanum. A. macrochaetum subsp. tuncelianum see A. tuncelianum. A. macrorrhizum see A. hymenorrhizum. A. magicum see A. nigrum. A. mairei var. amabile see A. amabile. A. margaritaceum see A. guttatum subsp. sardoum. A. margaritaceum var. guttatum see A. guttatum. A. margaritaceum var. papillosum see A. baeticum. A. maritimum see Muilla maritima. A. marvinii see A. haematochiton. A. meliophilum see Nectaroscordum siculum subsp. bulgaricum. A. microdictyum see A. victorialis. A. mobilense see A. canadense var. mobilense. A. modocense see A. parvum. A. moly var. xericense see A. scorzonerifolium var. xericense. A. monospermum see A. amplectens. A. monspessulanum see A. nigrum. A. montanum see A. senescens subsp. montanum. A. montigenum see A peninsulare. A. multibulbosum see A. nigrum. A. murrayanum see A. acuminatum. A. mutabile see A. canadense. A. narcissiflorum var. insubricum see A. insubricum. A. nebrodense see A. flavum subsp. flavum. A. neriniflorum see Caloscordum neriniflorum. A. nigrum var. atropurpureum see A. atropurpureum. A. nigrum var. cyrilli see A. cyrilli. A. nitens see A. vineale. A. niveum see A. subhirsutum. A. nuttallii see A. drummondii. A. obtusifolium see A. carolinianum. A. occidentale see A. amplectens. A. ochotense see A. victorialis. A. ochroleucum see A. ericetorum.

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A. odorum see A. ramosum. A. oliganthum see A. schoenoprasum. A. ophioscordum see A. sativum var. ophioscordum. A. ostrowskianum see A. oreophilum. A. oviflorum see A. macranthum. A. oxyphilum see A. cernuum. A. paczoskianum see A. flavum subsp. tauricum. A. palmeri see A. bisceptrum. A. paudflorum see A. parciflorum. A. pedemontanum see A. narcissiflorum. A. peninsularevar. crispumseeA. crispum. A. pikeanum see A. geyeri. A. platystemon see A. oreophilum. A. polyanthum var. aestivalis see A. commututum. A. polyphyllum see A. carolinianum. A. porphyroprasum see A. rotundum. A. porrum var. ampeloprasum see A. ampeloprasum. A. porrum subsp. bimetrale see A. commututum. A. porrum subsp. euampeloprasum see A. ampeloprasum. A. praecissum see A. paniculatum. A. pseudocepa see A. galanthum. A. pseudoflavum see A. stamineum. A. pulchellum see A. carinatum subsp. pulchellum. A. pulchrum see A. subhirsutum. A. purdomii see A. cyaneum. A. purpurascens see A. schoenoprasum. A. purpureum see A. sphaerocephalum. A. pyrrhorhizum see A. mairei. A. recurvatum see A. cernuum. A. reflexum see A. chrysantherum. A. reticulatum see A. textile. A. reticulatum var. deserticola see A. macropetalum. A. reticulatum var. nuttallii see A. drummondii. A. reuterianum var. longicaule see A. stylosum. A. rhizomatum see A. glandulosum. A. rhodopeum see A. paniculatum. A. rilaense see A. vineale. A. rollii see A. amethystinum. A. rotundum subsp. commututum see A. commututum. A. rubrum see A. geyeri. A. rudbaricum see A. erubescens. A. rydbergii see A. geyeri. A. sabulicola see A. geyeri. A. sanbornii var. dichlamydeum see A. dichlamydeum. A. sardoum see A. guttatum subsp. sardoum. A. scaposum see A. kunthii. A. schmitzii var. duriminium see A. schoenoprasum. A. schrenki see A. strictum. A. scopulicolum see A. commututum. A. scorodoprasum var. babingtonii see A. ampeloprasum var. bflbmetora'z.

A. scorodoprasum A. scorodoprasum A. scorodoprasum waldsteinii. A. segetum see A.

subsp. jajlae see A. rotundum subsp. jajlae. subsp. rotundum see A. rotundum. subsp. waldsteinii see A. rotundum subsp. amethystinum.

84

Alophia

A. serbicum see A. pallens. A. serotinum see A. senescens subsp. montanum. A. serrulatum f. gracilior see A. erubescens. A. setaceum see A. moschatum. A. sibiricum see A. schoenoprasum var. sibiricum. A. siculum see Nectarvscordum siculum. A. sieberianum see A. neapolitanum. A. simethis see A. macranthum. A. speciosum see A. nigrum. A. sphaerocephalum subsp. curtum see A. curtum. A. sphaerocephalum var. descendens see A. sphaerocephalum. A. sphaerocephalum subsp. rollii see A. amethystinum. A. sphaerocephalum var. trachypus see A. sphaerocephalum subsp. trachypus. A. sphaerocephalum var. typicum see A. sphaerocephalum. A. sphaerocephalum var. viridialbum see A. sphaerocephalum subsp. arvense. A. stenanthum see A. bolanderivar. stenanthum. A. stojanovii see A. amethystinum. A. stramineum see A. scorzonerifolium var. xencense. A. subhirsutum subsp. trifoliatum see A. trifoliatum. A. subhirsutum var. graecum see A. trifoliatum. A. subhirsutum var. trifoliatum see A. trifoliatum. A. subhirsutum var. villosum see A. subvillosum. A. subquinqueflorum see A. rupestre. A. subvineale see A. vineale. A. sulcatum see A. neapolitanum. A. taquetii see A. thunbergii. A. tataricum see A. inderiense, A. ramosum. A. tauricum see A. flavum subsp. tauricum. A. tchongchanense see A. wallichii. A. tenellum see A. campanulatum. A. tenorii see A. roseum var. carneum. A. tenuiflorum see A. pallens. A. thomsonii see A. carolinianum. A. thracicum see A. melanantherum. A. trachypus see A. sphaerocephalum. A. tribracteatum var. andersonii see A. parvum. A. tribracteatum var. parvum see A. parvum. A. trilophostemon see A. cardiostemon. A. triquetrum subsp. pendulinum see A. pendulinum. A. triquetrum var. pendulinum see A. pendulinum. A. triste see A. rupestre. A. tristissimum see A. rupestre. A. tuberosum see A. ramosum. A. ucrainicum see A. ursinum. A. uliginosum see A. ledebourianum, A. tuberosum. A. urceolatum see A. caesium. A. vancouverense see A. crenulatum. A. vernale see A. subvillosum. A. violaceum see A. carinatum. A. virens see A. oleraceum. A. virescens see A. oleraceum. A. viride see A. dictyoprasum. A. viviparum see A. caeruleum var. bulbilliferum. A. volhynicum see A. strictum.

A. waldsteinii see A. rotundum subsp. waldsteinii. A. wallichianum see A. wallichii. A. watsonii see A. crenulatum. A. webbii see A. flavum subsp. flavum. A. weichanicum see A. ramosum. A. wildii see A. commututum. A. yatei see A. cupuliferum. A. yunnanense see A. mairei. A. zenobiae see A. canadense.

Alophia—Iridaceae From Greek a ("without") and lophos ("crest"). Alophia, a genus of about 5 species, extends from the southern United States through Mexico and Central America to Brazil (Goldblatt and Howard 1992). For a general description, see the entry on A. drummondii in the species section below. These unusual flowers should be grown in the mild-climate garden where they can be left undisturbed but easily seen when in flower. They are good in containers, but perhaps only bulb collectors would wish to give them the space. CULTURE Not hardy where temperatures drop below 25°F, but can be grown outside with protection of deep mulch. Plant in full sun, but give protection of high shade in very hot areas. Plant corms 3-4 in. deep in well-drained soil with good organic content. Space 6-8 in. apart. Plant in fall in warm areas, in spring in colder areas. Keep moist while growing; as growth slows, reduce moisture. In cold areas, lift bulbs before the first heavy frost and store over winter frost-free; replant in spring when danger of frost has passed. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Not many offsets are produced, so increase by means of seed, sown in fall when ripe, in a sandy soil mix with night temperatures around 45°F. Sow thinly so seedlings can remain in the container for one season; then transplant the small bulblets to individual containers the following spring. Grow on until they are1/2in. in diameter and then plant them in their permanent position. SPECIES A. drummondii. PINEWOODS LILY, PURPLE PLEATLEAF. United States (Louisiana, Texas), Mexico, Central America, and the Guianas in South America, often in thin pine forest with high shade. Stems 8-16 in. Leaves linear-lanceolate and pleated, mostly basal. Flowers irislike, 2 in. in diameter, at tip of stems, usually one per stem, rarely 2, enclosed in green leaflike spathes. The 3 outer segments are purple, violet, or indigo with a transverse band of deeper hue and brown spots toward the base; they are rounded at the tips, tend to curve downward, and are slightly larger than the 3 inner segments. The 3 inner segments are yellow to near white, spotted in brown; their tips are pinched in and curl upward. The 3 stamens have filaments

Alstroemeria fused at their base, anthers widely spread, style branched and deeply divided at the apex. Flowering spring to early summer. Many synonyms have been applied to this species. Plate 142. A. veracruzana. MEXICAN PINE WOODS LILY. Mexico, in pine woods. Stems to 12 in. Leaves linear-lanceolate, appearing in spring and followed by flowers' 4-6 weeks later in early summer. Flowers irislike, 2 in. in diameter, pale but distinct sky blue, outer segments larger than the inner, smooth and pointed; inner segments smaller and ruffled. All segments tend to be cupped. SYNONYMS A. amoena see Herbertia amoena. A. caerulea see A. drummondii. A. drummondiana see Herbertia lahue. A. lahue see Herbertia lahue. A. pulchella see Herbertia pulchella.

Alstroemeria—Alstroemeriaceae (Liliaceae) PERUVIAN LILY, LILY-OF-PERU Linnaeus named this genus in honor of his friend Baron Clas Alstroemer (1736-1794). There are at least 50 species of Alstroemeria in South America, with centers of distribution in Chile and the humid tropics of S Brazil, with some additional species in Argentina and Peru. The Brazilian species in particular are poorly studied; there may be 50 or more valid species in that country alone. One species, A. haemantha, furnishes an edible farina when the roots are dried and crushed. Though long known in cultivation, these South American plants have been hybridized extensively only in the last 30-40 years of the twentieth century. The reintroduction of A. ligtu by Harold Comber in the 1930s initiated the modern development of these highly decorative plants. Some breeders now lease their plants to other growers to keep tight control over their cultivars. Many of the hybrids now offered have been developed for the cutflower industry and feature dense inflorescences, bright colors (especially in the popular pink range), and stiff, upright stems; however, many of these are not very cold-hardy, having been selected for greenhouse cultivation (Plates 150152). Hybrid alstroemerias flower in the garden in mid summer and reach a height of 2 ft. or more. The thin, linear to lanceolate leaves, 2-4 in. long, are carried on the stem of the flower spike. The flowers are usually borne in corymbs and are zygomorphic, nontubular, and brightly colored. The hybrids bred for garden use need deep planting and the protection of a thick mulch where winter temperatures drop below about 15°F. Alstroemerias are ideal plants for a slope, where, once established, they will increase, especially if adequate summer moisture and good drainage are available. They are also excellent cut flowers and container plants. Some of the new, named hybrids that are good greenhouse cutflower varieties may not be suitable for gardens.

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CULTURE The white, fleshy rhizomes are brittle and must be handled with care when transplanting small masses. Once well established in favorable climates and soils, however, they can be difficult to eradicate and may be spread and increased by mechanical cultivation. Site outdoor plantings in full sun, except in very hot climates, where some shade is necessary to preserve the pastel colors of hybrids. Space new plants about 1 ft. apart and bury rhizomes 8 in. deep. They can be left undisturbed for years. Though mostly native to sandy soils, they are tolerant of a wide range of soils but need good drainage. Supply adequate moisture during the growing season. The fleshy roots can withstand drought but will perform poorly if desiccated. (Although many alstroemerias grow in apparently hot, dry sites in the wild, their rhizomes extend deep into soil where moisture persists, often "mulched" by scree and talus.) When they become overcrowded, lift, separate, and replant the tuberous roots with their crowns. A fine bed at the University of California's Berkeley Botanic Garden is rototilled, chopping up the roots; the alstroemerias seem to thrive, but such treatment is not recommended until a bed has been established for at least 7 years—and not for rare species and varieties! Container planting requires pots, at least 10 in. deep, with good drainage. Use a fast-draining soil mix, and do not allow the container to become overheated. Long stems require staking. PESTS AND DISEASES

Young shoots are a favorite food of slugs and snails. Mites attack the foliage, especially in greenhouses, and can be kept in check by frequent syringings with water or with superfine oil sprays. Aphids are a serious problem on seedlings and should be treated with systemic insecticide. Deer also eat these plants. Botrytis may damage the foliage; to prevent it, keep leaves dry or use an appropriate spray. PROPAGATION

Easily raised from seed, sown as soon as possible after ripening to obtain good germination; stored seed may remain dormant for several seasons. The seed capsules explode violently when ripe, so to collect seed, enclose them in a paper or cloth bag. Keep seedlings frost-free, feed regularly with a liquid fertilizer at half the recommended strength, and move them to larger containers when the leaves wither. Large species and hybrids can be moved to permanent locations after the 2nd season. Lift established plants in early fall as soon as the foliage yellows. Separate rhizomes with their crowns and replant them. Division can also be done in spring. Many species produce tubers at the end of thin stolons; these can be removed and planted for increase. SPECIES

A. andina. C to N Chile, along coast, in hot, dry screes. Stems 2-8 in. Leaves congested on stem, broad, flat, glaucous with yellowish margins. Flowers pale pink, with light reddish brown speckles on yellow transverse band of inner tepals. Subsp. venustula has slightly ciliate leaf margins and pale greenish yellow to lilac flowers.

86

Alstroemeria

A. angustifolia. Chile, in central valley and adjacent coastal range. Stems 3 in. or more. Leaves narrow, glaucous, twisted. Flowers numerous, soft pink; outer tepals have green or brownish, thickened tips; inner have yellow transverse band speckled dark wine-red. Subsp. velutina has velvety leaves. A. aurea. Chile and Argentina, in alpine meadows and Nothofagus woodland; introduced 1831. Stems to 36 in. or more in well-grown, established plantings; high-elevation populations shorter-growing. Flowers numerous, as many as 40-50 per stem, to 11/2 in. in diameter. Outer petals blunt, orange tinged red, with green tips; inner petals pointed, deep orange to yellow, streaked red. Leaves on flowering stem 3-4 in. long, lanceolate, gray-green beneath. Many cultivars, especially for the cutflower trade, and are offered by nurseries in a wide color range: 'Lutea' is yellow; 'Orange King' is orange-yellow with brown spots. Plate 143. A. brasiliensis. C Brazil. Stems 36-48 in. Flowers reddish yellow, spotted brown, summer. A. campaniflora. Brazil; introduced 1932. Stems to 36 in. Flowers green with dark spots, summer. A. caryophyllacea. S Brazil, in woodland; introduced 1776. Stems 8-12 in. Leaves thin, twisted. Flowers fragrant, dark red striped white, summer. A. chjlensis. CHILEAN LILY. A name of doubtful botanical standing for a plant first documented in cultivation in 1842. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers blood-red or pink, lined yellow, summer. A. crispata. N Chile. Stems 2-8 in. Leaves small, flat, downy, with wavy margins. Flowers silvery pink, inner upper tepals with deep yellow band speckled red, summer. A. diluta. C to N Chile, at low elevations. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves scalelike on flower stems, glaucous, narrow, and twisted on sterile stems. Flowers few, cream sometimes flushed lavender, crimson dashes and tips. Subsp. chrysantha has yellow or yellow and pink flowers. A. exserens. C and S Andes of Chile and Argentina, at mid elevations. Stems 3-12 in. Leaves flat, grayish. Flowers soft pink, upper inner tepals with yellow transverse bands and red dash marks, summer. A. garaventae. Chile, in central coastal range. Stems 3-10 in. Leaves flat. Flowers funnel-shaped, very pale to reddish pink, inner upper tepals stippled red at tips, outer tepals veined green, summer. A. graminea. N Chile, in scree at coastal desert oases. Stems 2-5 in. Flowers solitary, yellow and pink, upper inner tepals green-tipped and faintly speckled red. Probably an annual species. A. hookeri. Chile, in central valley and coastal ranges; introduced 1836. Stems 2-5 in., taller in cultivation. Leaves long, linear, glaucous, twisted. Flowers clear pink, summer to early fall. Subsp. cumingiana has narrowly funnel-shaped flowers, pale pink flushed red, greenish, or brownish, no yellow transverse band. Subsp. recumbens and subsp. maculata have more open flowers with dark, thickened, inrolled tips. A. kingii. N Chile, in desert. Stems 3-10 in. Leaves linear, twisted. Flowers golden yellow, unmarked except for small dark tips, summer.

A. leporina. N Chile, in desert. Stems 3-18 in. Leaves and stems densely downy. Flowers large, pale pink; inner upper tepals very long with deep yellow bands, almost unmarked, summer. A. ligtu. SAINT MARTIN'S FLOWER. Chile and Argentina; introduced 1838. Stems to 24 in. Leaves thin, narrowly linear to linear-lanceolate, 3 in. long. Flowers 2 or 3 on each ray of the umbel, quite variable in color; outer segments pale lilac, reddish, or white; inner segments usually yellow marked with purple; summer. Var. angustifolia has narrower leaves and pink flowers. Var. pulchra has larger flowers; the outer perianth segments are broadly obovate, white, sometimes faintly tipped reddish; the upper inner segments are narrow and longer, white dotted with yellow, and tipped with red or reddish purple. The yellow zone is sometimes more prominent toward the apex and can appear as a separate band of color; the name A. tricolor reflected this rather elusive character. Subsp. incarnatahas, pale to deep pink flowers with pale brownish markings. Subsp. simsii has narrowly funnel-shaped flowers of rich red-orange streaked dark burnt orange over yellow bands. Plates 144-147. A. pallida. Andes of Chile (north of Santiago) and adjacent Argentina. Stems 4-14 in. Leaves on flowering stems small, on sterile stems glaucous and twisted. Flowers white or pale to deep pink, widely open, inner segments with yellow transverse band spotted in red, mid summer. A. patagonica. Chile, Argentina, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego, on sandy slopes. Stems 2-8 in. Flowers deep yellow with dark brown spots on inner segments, borne singly or in pairs, late spring. A. paupercula. N Chile, in coastal desert oases. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers large, bright lilac, marked in deep violet, early summer. A. pelegrina. HERB LILY, INCA LILY, LILY OF THE INCAS. Chile, in coastal sands and cliffs; introduced 1754. Stems 12-14 in. Leaves lanceolate, up to 2 in. long. Flowers long, extremely varied in color from rose to lilac to yellow. 'Alba', introduced 1879, with pure white flowers. Useful in hybridizing and often planted in rock gardens. Many plants cultivated as A. gayana var. humilis are in fact this species. Plate 148. A. philippii. N Chile. Stems 3-8 in. Flowers large, rich lavender, heavily marked deep purple, summer. A. polyphylla. N Chile, on steep slopes and talus. Stems 3-10 in. Leaves broad, flat, glaucous, with yellowish margin. Flowers whitish to pale pink or lilac with yellow transverse bands or blotches, speckled wine-red, summer. A. presliana. SC Chile. Stems 5 in. or more. Leaves broad, twisted, glaucous and waxy. Flowers pale yellow or pale pink, upper inner tepals with long crimson streaks, summer. A. pseudospathulata. SC Chile, in granite grit on ridges. Flowers bright yellow, unmarked, summer. A. pulchella. BRAZILIAN PARROT LILY, PARROT LILY. N Brazil; introduced 1829. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers bright red with green tips and chocolate-brown streaks and flecks, summer. Plate 149. A. pygmaea. Argentina, Bolivia, and Peru, in rocky pasture and moorland at high elevations. Stems 1 in. or less. Leaves grayish, tufted. Flowers deep yellow with dark red spots, summer.

Amana A. revoluta. Chile, in scrub. Stems 15-30 in. Leaves glaucous, twisted. Flowers in tight umbels, pink with red speckles and pale yellow transverse bands, tepals narrow and strongly reflexed, summer. A. spathulata. Chile and Argentina, in alpine screes. Stems to 12 in. Flowers reddish with yellow blotches, summer. A. umbellata. C Chile and C Argentina, on steep talus slopes in foothills of Andes. Stems 4-30 in. Leaves thick, spathulate, glaucous. Flowers rose pink, rarely coral or white, with red flecks, summer. A. versicolor. C Chile, in foothills. Stems 3-30 in. Leaves narrow, twisted, glaucous. Flowers variable in color, pale yellowish to brownish orange with purple spots, late summer. A. werdermannii. N Chile, in coastal dunes, rare. Stems 3-6 in. Leaves succulent, glaucous. Flowers pale lavender with dark red-purple dashes and solid purple tips, entire lowermost tepal purple, summer. SYNONYMS

A. aurantiaca see A. aurea. A. bicolor see A. ligtu. A. crocea see A. pseudospathulata. A. cumingiana see A. hookeri subsp. cumingiana. A. diazii see A. exserens. A. gayana var. humilis see A. pelegrina. A. haemantha see A. ligtu subsp. simsii. A. hirtella see A. leporina. A. ligtu var. andina see A. ligtu subsp. incarnata. A. nana see A. patagonica. A. nivalis see A. pallida. A. nubigena see A. andina. A. parvula see A. umbellata. A. psittacina see A. pulchella. A. pulchra see A. ligtu. A. recumbens see A. hookeri subsp. recumbens. A. recurva see A. revoluta. A. recurvata see A. revoluta. A. rosea see A. ligtu. A. sericantha see A. umbellata. A. simsii see A. haemantha. A. tigrina see A. versicolor. A. tricolor see A. ligtu. A. venustula see A. andina subsp. venustula. A. violacea see A. paupercula.

Amana—Liliaceae (Liliaceae) The genus name is derived from the Japanese name for A. edulis. Most Western authorities who recognize Amana regard it as monotypic, but Japanese botanists (who tend toward "splitting") recognize 3 species, 2 in Japan and one in China. The discussion below reflects the Japanese approach. Amana is similar to Tulipa, and some authorities place it in that genus. Others distinguish it on the basis of its elongated style (as long as the ovary); long, narrow perianth segments; and linear, leaflike bracts on the stem about 1 in. below the flower. If there are 2

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bracts, as in A. latifolia, they are arranged opposite; if more than 2, they are equally spaced around the stem. The rootstock is a small bulb with an elongated neck and a dark brown tunic that is felted within. All species are dwarf, seldom over a few inches, and flower in late winter or very early spring. The flowers are like tulips in general appearance, except that the pointed tepals are somewhat boat-shaped and narrow, and their bases barely overlap. None are of much horticultural value. CULTURE Plant bulbs in late summer in a well-drained, sandy soil, in a sunny site. Set bulbs just over 1 in. deep and 3-4 in. apart. They require winter protection where temperatures fall below 26°F and can be grown in a cold frame. Plants should be kept moist during the growing season, and water withheld when the foliage starts to die back in late spring. Keep the bulbs on the dry side during the summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

Similar to those of tulips. PROPAGATION

Bulbs are lifted in early summer, after the foliage has died back, and offset bulblets separated from the parent bulbs. This should be done only after the bulbs have established themselves and have been growing for at least 2 or 3 seasons. Seed can be sown in summer or early fall, barely covered. Temperature should be 55°F minimum at night; warmer temperatures are not detrimental. Transplant seedlings after the first season and grow on in containers. Take care not to overwater during the summer resting period. SPECIES A. edulis. Japan and China, in grassy meadows, often along riverbanks; introduced 1903. Stems 3-5 in., one or more per bulb, with 2 or 3 green bracts to shield the flower bud; at flowering the bracts are about 1-11/2 in. below the flower. Leaves green, erect at first and then lax, sheathing the flowering stem at the base; generally only 2 produced, 6-8 in. long, 1/4 in. wide. Flowers solitary, gray-greenish white, about 11/2 in. in diameter when open; tepals about 1/4 in. wide at base, less than 1 in. long, pointed; exterior is dull purple with a narrow white margin. Flowering early to mid spring. A. graminifolia. China; introduced 1919. Very similar to A. edulis, but leaves are wider, about l/2 in.; color on exterior of tepals is more pronounced; and flowering earlier—in late winter. A. latifolia. Japan, in sunny clearings in woodland. Leaves shorter and wider than A. edulis at 3-5 in. long and l/2 in. wide. Flowers white with purple exteriors; the purple pigment appears as thin, closely spaced lines. Tepals pointed, % in. long and1/4in. wide at the base. Flowering late winter. SYNONYM A. edulis var. latifolia see A. latifolia.

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xAmarcrinum

xAmarcrinum—Amaiyllidaceae Intergeneric hybrids between Amaryllis belladonna and Crinum moorei. The cross was made independently in Europe and America around 1920. The resulting hybrid was described as xCrinodonna memoria-corsii, but not validly published, by a Dr. Ragioneri of Florence in 1921. The validly published American name, xAmarcrinum howardii (for its first hybridizer in the United States, Fred Howard of Los Angeles), is therefore the correct name. The plants are evergreen, but if exposed to light frost or even temperatures below about 45°F they lose their leaves. They are marginal in USDA zone 8, and then only with a winter mulch and the warmest possible location. The results of the cross are very uniform, and characteristics of both parents can be seen in the hybrid. Not all flowers open at once, so the flowering season can be prolonged. They are excellent garden plants where hardy and provide color late in the year CULTURE Because of their tenderness, amarcrinums are suitable in colder climates only as container plants, moved indoors for winter protection. In areas where frost is rare and not prolonged, they can be planted in sheltered spots in sun or high shade. Plant in September as soon as bulbs are obtained. Set top of bulb just above ground level in good garden soil with good drainage. Provide constant moisture, except for a period at the end of summer when they can be allowed to ripen; however, they should never be allowed to dry out completely. As soon as growth appears, keep moist but not wet. Weak liquid feedings of organic fertilizer can be given in spring when the weather is warm, but only if the soil is poor; take care not to feed too frequently or heavily. Plants should remain undisturbed unless they become overcrowded. If they are grown in containers, these must be quite large and should be set in saucers to maintain moisture.

belladonna and species or hybrids of Nerine. The Van Tubergen nursery in the Netherlands seems to have originated both the name and the original clone, xAmarine tubergenii 'Zwanenburg'; Zwanenburg is the municipality where the Van Tubergen nursery was situated. This cultivar has umbels of deep pink flowers on wiry stems, 24-32 in. tall, in early fall. In time, many similar hybrids maybe introduced. They are excellent cut flowers. The plants are cold-hardy to about 20°F in a sheltered site. Culture and propagation are as for Nerine.

xA marygia—Amaryllidaceae Name coined to cover intergeneric hybrids between Amaryllis belladonna and various species of Brunsvigia. The latter have very large bulbs, and these intergeneric hybrids also have large bulbs, intermediate between the sizes of the parents' bulbs. It is fortunate that in most, the flower form and size of Amaryllis prevails. The hybrids tolerate somewhat cooler temperatures than Brunsvigia, but cannot stand frost. They are great border plants for warmer climates, and good pot plants. Given the ease of obtaining hybrids between the 2 parents and also self crosses, back crosses, and combinations of these, it is surprising more xAmarygia have not been introduced. These plants seem well suited for the amateur hybridizer to experiment with; the results could be exciting and satisfying. CULTURE As for Amaryllis. Plant so the neck of the bulb is at or slightly above soil level. Bulbs must be handled with care to avoid bruising. In frost-free gardens, plant in a sunny location. Give adequate moisture when in growth, then allow them to dry out for a resting period in summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

Slugs and snails attack the foliage and flowering stems and may also damage the neck of the bulb.

PESTS AND DISEASES

Because of persistent foliage, protection against slugs and snails is needed. PROPAGATION

The plants are sterile and asexual propagation necessary, through the removal of offsets in late summer. It is best to leave bulbs in the ground for at least 2 seasons after planting so natural increase can occur. Lift and divide in late summer and replant at once. SPECIES xAmarcrinum howardii. Hybrid (Amaryllis belladonna x Crinum moorei). Bulbs with long necks. The foliage is similar to that of Crinum, narrowly strap-shaped, while the flowers are like Amaryllis, pink and fragrant, 4-5 in. in diameter, produced in a tightly packed umbel from late summer to early fall. The stout stems reach 30 in. Plate 153.

xAmarine—Amaryllidaceae This name, a combination of Amaryllis and Nerine, is used in catalogs for plants offered that are hybrids between Amaryllis

PROPAGATION

Must be asexual, by removal of the offsets from mature bulbs after active growth has ceased and foliage starts to die down. These will flower after 2 or 3 seasons. SPECIES xA. bidwillii (Amaryllis belladonna x Brunsvigia orientalis). Stems 18-24 in. Flowers large, deep rose with a hint of carmine; tepals rather short but wider than those of xA. parkeri. Flowering summer. When back-crossed onto Amaryllis belladonna, xA. bidwillii produces a strain known in commerce as Amaryl/zs'Multiflora'. xA. marginata (Amaryllis belladonna x Brunsvigia marginata). Stems long. Flowers wine red, summer. xA. parkeri (Amaryllis belladonna x Brunsvigia josephinae). Stems 18-24 in. Flowers 12-16 per umbel, with overlay of carmine on clear rose, base yellowish white, trumpet-shaped form closer to Amaryllis. Flowering summer. A white form is listed as 'Alba'. The original cross was made at Zwanenburg Nursery in 1892, but it was 16 years before flowers appeared.

Amaryllis

Amaryllis—Amaryllidaceae DAFFODIL LILY, PITCHER LILY, QUEEN LILY The word Amaryllis is a Greek feminine name. The genus Amaryllis is now regarded as having 2 species. Amaryllis belladonna is one of the most beautiful of all flowers. The name is still applied popularly and in commercial catalogs to the largeflowered Hippeastrum hybrids often forced for Christmas. Hippeastrum, along with such genera as Nerine, Lycoris, Sternbergia, and Crinum, was once included in this genus. Amaryllis are ideal for planting among low-growing shrubs, provided dry conditions exist there during summer. They are also excellent cut flowers, with potential for commercial production. Though they grow well in containers, they are uninteresting during their dormant period in summer. The bulbs are poisonous to livestock and humans, causing respiratory paralysis if eaten. Amaryllis belladonna has been crossed with Brunsvigia, Crinum, and Nerine to produce intergeneric hybrids. Because of the potential of these lovely flowers, more are expected to be introduced in the future. Such hybridization could be a very interesting hobby for the home gardener. CULTURE Plant bulbs in late spring with the necks just at soil level. Where winter temperatures fall below freezing and remain there for weeks, plant the bulbs much deeper, to 5 or 6 in. Even where winter temperatures reach 10°F, they can survive and grow well with deep planting and the protection of a lightweight mulch at least 3 in. deep. Plant in full sun, except in hot, arid regions, where they appreciate some shade. Ideal soil is sandy with added humus. Because bulbs should remain in place for many years, dig the area deeply and prepare a mix of equal parts of good topsoil, sharp sand, and peat moss or well-rotted compost. Do not compact the soil any more than is necessary to settle the bulbs firmly. Little feeding is required; a topdressing of 10-10-10 or similar formula applied as the flowers begin to fade and foliage emerges is beneficial. Bulbs in abandoned plantings in N California have survived and thrived because they have the exact weather formula they need—moisture in fall and spring, with a hot, dry summer. Follow this pattern when growing bulbs in other climate zones. If summer moisture is abundant, shelter bulbs with sheet of glass or plastic but allow free access of air. It is essential that bulbs remain quite dry during summer after the leaves die down. Begin watering as soon as the flower spike appears. To grow amaryllis in pots, use a very porous soil mix. Do not water until flower spikes appear, and then only a little. Give additional water when leaves appear and continue until foliage begins to die down. Then allow pots to dry out. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Parent bulbs should be allowed to grow undisturbed. Lift in spring only if you need offsets for new plantings, the preferred

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method of propagation. Seed can be taken from the pod even if not completely ripe and sown immediately. It germinates readily. Place seedling pots near the parent bulbs to facilitate the required moisture cycle. When seedlings are large enough, after the first full season, lift and plant them in desired locations. SPECIES A. belladonna. AUGUST LILY, NAKED LADIES, NAKED LILY, BELLADONNA LILY, MARCH LILY, MEADOW LILY, MEXICAN LILY,

MISERY LILY. South Africa (Western Cape), 1712. Bulbs brown, large, and rounded. Stems to 30 in. Leaves erect, straplike, green throughout winter in milder climates, then dying down. Flowers borne in an umbel of up to 10 on short stalks, large, sweetscented, broadly funnel-shaped, colored white to deep pink, mostly medium rose pink, appearing before the leaves emerge (hence the common name). Flowering late summer. Var. blanda has large white blossoms. Var. spectabilis has rose colored tepals, white on the inside. Cultivars include 'Barberton', dark rose pink; 'Cape Town', deep rose red; 'Hathor', white; 'lagersfontein', deep pink; 'lohannesburg', pale pink with lighter throat; 'Kewensis', pink with yellow throat; 'Kimberley', deep carmine red with white center; 'Major', dark stems and dark pink flowers; 'Pallida', rose pink; 'Purpurea', purple-rose; 'Rosea', white stripes on rose tepals; 'Rubra', more red than pink; 'Windhoek', lovely rose pink with white center. Plates 154,155. SYNONYMS

A. advena see Rhodophiala advena. A. aglaiae see Hippeastrum aglaiae. A. ambigua see Hippeastrum ambiguum. A. andersonii see Habranthus tubispathus. A. andreana see Hippeastrum andreanum. A. araucana see Rhodophiala araucana. A. argentina see Hippeastrum argentinum. A. atamasca see Zephyranthes atamasca. A. aulica see Hippeastrum aulicum. A. aurea see Pyrolirion aureum. A. bagnoldii see Rhodophiala bagnoldii. A. barlowii see Rhodophiala rosea. A. bifida see Rhodophiala bifida. A. blossfeldiae see Hippeastrum blossfeldiae. A. blumenavia see Hippeastrum blumenavium. A. bukasovii see Hippeastrum bukasovii. A. calyptrata see Hippeastrum calyptratum. A. Candida see Hippeastrum candidum. A. chilensis see Rhodophiala chilensis. A. coranica see Ammocharis coranica. A. cybister see Hippeastrum cybister. A. doraniae see Hippeastrum doraniae. A. dryades see Griffinia dryades. A. elegans see Hippeastrum elegans. A. elegans var. ambiguum see Hippeastrum ambiguum. A. elwesii see Rhodophiala elwesii. A. equestris see Hippeastrum puniceum. A. evansiae see Hippeastrum evansiae. A. falcata see Cybistetes longifolia.

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Amianthum

A. formosissima see Sprekelia formosissima. A. gigantea see Brunsvigia josephinae. A. hallii see Lycoris squamigera. A. humilis see Nerine humilis. A. hyacinthina see Griffinia hyacinthina. A. immaculata see Hippeastrum candidum. A. josephinae see Brunsvigia josephinae. A. lapacensis see Hippeastrum lapacense. A. leopoldii see Hippeastrum leopoldii. A. longifolia see Cybistetes longifolia. A. machupijchensis see Hippeastrum machupijchense. A. maracasa see Hippeastrum maracasum. A. maranensis see Hippeastrum stylosum. A. miniata see Hippeastrum miniatum. A. 'Multiflora' see xAmarygia bidwillii. A. oconequensis see Hippeastrum oconequense. A. organensis see Hippeastrum organense. A. orientalis see Brunsvigia orientalis. A. papilio see Hippeastrum papilio. A. pardina see Hippeastrum pardinum. A. xparkeri see xAmarygia parkeri. A. phycelloides see Phycella phycelloides. A. pratensis see Rhodophiala pratensis. A. procera see Worsleya rayneri. A. psittacina see Hippeastrum psittacinum. A. punicea see Hippeastrum puniceum. A. purpurea see Cyrtanthus elatus. A. rayneri see Worsleya rayneri. A. reginae see Hippeastrum reginae. A. reticulata see Hippeastrum reticulatum. A. rosea see A. belladonna, Rhodophiala rosea. A. rutila see Hippeastrum striatum. A. sarniensis see Nerine sarniensis. A. solandriflora see Hippeastrum elegans. A. striata see Hippeastrum striatum. A. traubii see Hippeastrum traubii. A. tubispatha see Habranthus tubispathus. A. variabilis see Crinum variabile. A. vittata see Hippeastrum vittatum. A. vivipara see Crinum defixum.

Amianthum—Melanthiaceae (Liliaceae) The name is derived from the Greek amiantos ("unspotted, immaculate") and anthos ("flower"). The single species is not a showy plant. Its cultivation is limited to botanical collections and gardens devoted to native plants within its region. CULTURE

Care must be taken to site plants where they are not accessible to livestock, because the plants are poisonous. They need good drainage but constant moisture, especially during the growing season, in a slightly acidic soil rich in organic matter. Plant bulbs 3 in. deep, spaced 12-18 in. apart, in a sunny spot. Winter protection is needed only where temperatures drop below -20°F. No fertilizer is needed.

PESTS AND DISEASES

No special disease problems are known, and the plant is toxic to insects (the species name means "fly-poison"). PROPAGATION

Offsets can be taken from bulbs, preferably in early spring. Seed is sown in spring; transplant seedlings to nursery rows when large enough to handle, or sow the seed where they are to grow permanently. SPECIES

A. muscitoxicum. FLY POISON. United States (New York to Florida, west to Missouri and Oklahoma), in low sandy ground, the edges of bogs, and open woods (usually pines). Bulb has a tunic. Leaves mostly basal, to 24 in. long, a little less than 1 in. wide; some smaller leaves grow on the stem. Stems 36-48 in. Flowers, about 1A in. in diameter, borne in a raceme; pedicels longer than the flowers. The tepals are well spread, oval, greenish white. Flowering time summer. All parts of the plant are highly toxic, hence the common name.

Ammocharis—Amaryllidaceae Name derived from Greek ammos ("sand") and charis ("beauty"), referring to the habitat and truly beautiful flowers. Many species formerly assigned to this genus have been transferred to Crinum. The best-known species remaining in the genus is A. coranica. Native people in South Africa use a thick paste prepared from its cooked bulb to repair cracks in cooking vessels. The whole plant and bulb are poisonous to livestock. The flowers of A. tinneana, however, are said to have been eaten. In the garden, they are valued primarily for their rarity, but A. coranica has merit in warm-climate borders or as a container plant. CULTURE Plants do not tolerate temperatures lower than 35°F but can be protected in marginal areas with heavy mulch. In areas of any significant frost, they are subjects for the cool greenhouse. Free drainage is necessary for these denizens of very sandy soils. They require bright sunlight and appreciate moisture from the time the foliage emerges in the spring until flowering. They are native to areas of low rainfall, and after flowering, they require little or no water. Plant bulbs in late winter or early spring with the necks at ground level. Space them 8-10 in. apart and do not disturb them for several years. Frequently plants do not flower for several seasons after being moved. Weak liquid fertilizer can be given in early spring when growth is first noticed. In containers, use a sandy, friable soil mix and give regular feedings of liquid organic fertilizer during the growing season. Plant 3 bulbs to a container about 24 in. in diameter and 12-16 in. deep. Leave undisturbed until they become crowded. PESTS AND DISEASES

No disease problems are likely if plants are allowed to become dry after the growing season has ended.

Amorphophallus PROPAGATION

The bulbs are slow to produce offsets. Seed is the best means of propagation and germinates readily. It should be sown as soon as it is ripe and the seed capsules are opening. Seed is best sown where plants are to grow, first improving the soil by adding sand and some peat. Sow seed thinly, spacing seeds several inches apart and protecting them from birds and mice. Barely cover the seeds with a sandy soil mix and keep moisture level quite high. Night temperatures around 55°F are preferred. While growing, keep moist, allowing the plants to become dry as foliage starts to die back. If not grown in their permanent location, seedlings can be transplanted to individual containers as soon as they are large enough to handle. Bulbs take several seasons to flower from seed, and those raised without transplanting flower sooner than those starting life in containers. SPECIES A. coranica. South Africa (almost everywhere except Western Cape and Namaqualand), Swaziland, Lesotho, Botswana, Angola, Zimbabwe, and Zambia; introduced c. 1800. Bulbs ovoid, enclosed in a tunic, 4-6 in. in diameter. Stems 10-12 in., leaning when in full bloom. Leaves strap-shaped, 2 in. wide and to 20 in. long, but often much shorter in the wild owing to browsing by wild animals. Flowers fragrant, up to 20 in an umbel, varying from pink to deep rose, tubular at the base, then tepals separate, flare, and reflex. Stamens prominent, extending beyond the perianth, held close to the tepals at their base, then curling upward; stigma and style extend past stamens as much as 1 in. Pedicels do not lengthen or change position when the flowers wither and seed develops. Flowering early to mid summer (November to lanuary in the wild). Plate 156. A. heterostyla. E Africa; introduced 1937. Stems rarely over 6 in. Leaves 12-15 in. long, to 1 in. wide. Flowers white with pink stripe on reverse of tepals, tubular for up to 2 in. at base, then flaring to1/2in. in diameter, borne 3-10 per umbel, late summer. A. tinneana. E and SW Africa; introduced 1899. Stems F/2-9 in. Leaves strap-shaped, 12 in. long, 1 in. wide, sometimes larger. Flowers 3-4 in. long, pink to carmine with distinct white line on inner surface of tepals, as many as 30 per umbel; perianth tube narrow, tepals reflexing at tips, late summer. SYNONYM

A. falcata see Cybistetes longifolia.

Amorphophallus—Araceae DEVIL'S TONGUE, SNAKE PALM, VOODOO PLANT

Name derived from amorphos ("shapeless") and phallos ("penis"), referring to the shape of the terminal appendix on the spadix. The genus contains about 90 species from the Old World tropics and subtropics and Australia, some with gigantic and dramatic inflorescences and extremely large cormous or tuberous rootstocks. Common names are applied to various species somewhat indiscriminately. The corms of A. paeoniifolius and A. rivieri are edible.

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A solitary leaf, which in some species is more than 10 ft. across, is produced after the flowers; the leaf may bear aerial cormlets. The petiole is erect, often marbled dull purple. The spathe (the "hood" of the inflorescence) is convolute, with wavy edges, and its lower portion may overlap; spathes are dark purple-red, dull green, or flesh-colored, paler inside. Male and female flowers are arranged adjacent on the spadix without any sterile flowers intervening; the female flowers occur below the males. The spadix, often gigantic and with an unpleasant odor, is dirty yellow. The larger species are not plants for the typical home gardener. They are striking subjects, however, for warm and subtropical areas, warm greenhouse borders, and large containers. The foul smell of the flowers in many species may deter all but the dedicated aroid collector. They are stars in botanic gardens if greenhouse space is available. They are a wonderful example of the diversity of the plant kingdom. When A. titanum flowered in a German botanic garden in 2000, more than 20,000 visitors came to see it, sparking mentions in the international news media. CULTURE These tropical plants require warm temperatures and, even when dormant, should not be subjected to temperatures below 50°F. Plant corms some 3-5 in. deep in very loose soil containing a high proportion of organic matter. Spacing depends on the eventual size of the corms, according to species. Plants need abundant moisture when in growth, whether in sun or bright shade. High atmospheric humidity is essential for good growth, as are regular feedings during the growing season. An ideal liquid fertilizer is a "tea" made by filling a sack with cow manure and suspending this in water until the water is the color of weak tea. Corms grown in containers (unless too large to handle) should be replanted each spring before growth recommences. After the plant has died down in late fall, keep drier but always slightly moist. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special pests. Disease is likely only if plants experience low temperatures. PROPAGATION

Offsets are rarely produced, but if they appear are an excellent way to propagate the plants. Hand pollination of the flowers is suggested to increase seed set. Sow seed as soon as it is ripe in a soil mix rich in organic matter. Provide night temperatures around 60°F. Grow on in individual large containers. Never allow seedlings to become dry, and keep humidity high. SPECIES A. bulbifer. SNAKE'S TONGUE. Myanmar and NE India. Tuber to 3 in. in diameter. Leafstalk to 36 in., olive green with paler spots. Leaf blade about 36 in. wide, divided into 3 sections, often with cormlets produced at the junctions of the ribs. Spathe 4-6 in. long, green, spotted rose on the exterior and reddish at the base, rose to red on the exterior; stem of inflorescence brown with grayish spots. Spadix pink and greenish. Flowering spring. Plate 157.

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Amphisiphon

A. cirrifer. Thailand; introduced 1922. Spathe 4 in. long, exterior white to greenish, interior deep purple, veined red. Spadix longer than spathe, bulbous at base. Flowering spring. A. corrugatus. SNAKE PALM. Thailand; introduced 1912. Tuber 2 in. wide, globose. Leaf solitary, produced after flowering. Leaf stalk to 24 in. long, greenish with splashes of brown and spots of the same color. Leaf blade much divided into segments to 10 in. long. Flower stalk l/2 in. in diameter, to 20 in. long, green with white blotches, spotted brown. Spathe open almost to the base, yellowish green with greenish spots, paler inside, tip green with margin purple. Spadix much shorter than spathe, female portion purple, male ochre-yellow, terminal appendix deeply corrugated. Flowering mid spring. A. dubius. India. Leafstalk 30 in. long, variegated green and yellow. Spathe 6 in. long, purplish. Spadix reddish brown, 11/2 in. long. Flowering spring. A. eichleri. Tropical WAfrica; introduced 1882. Leafstalk 12 in. long, green. Spathe 4 in. long, green without, purple within. Spadix with appendix 4 in. long, dull rose in color. Flowering spring. A. elliottii. Tropical W Africa; introduced 1894. Leaf stalk to 12 in., greenish blue with brown-orange spots. Spathe 4 in. long, tube deep red spotted green, upper portion green, marbled deep purple. Spadix shorter than spathe. Flowering spring. A. glabra. Australia (Queensland). Monocarpic, produces annual tubers, but not in the season of flowering. Leafstalk 8 in. long. Spathe white to green, 6-8 in. long. Spadix 6 in. long, deep yellow spotted black, flowers bisexual (an unusual trait for the genus). Flowering spring (August to September in the wild). A. kerrii. Thailand; introduced 1910. Leafstalk to 36 in., green, blotched greenish white. Spathe 8-10 in. long, greenish white. Spadix shorter than spathe, female flowers green, male white. Flowering spring. A. leonensis. Tropical Africa; introduced 1873. Leaf stalk to 24 in., purplish brown variegated brown or white. Spathe 8 in. long, exterior purplish brown with pale veins spotted white or yellow, interior pale rose or white. Spadix purplish brown. Flowering spring. Var. eleganshas a narrow, drooping leafstalk. Var. latifoliahas broader leaves, less divided. Var. spectabilishas a brownish-purple leafstalk with dark oblong spots. A. kopoldianus. Congo; introduced 1887. Leaf stalk to 24 in., green with violet spots at the base. Spathe 12 in. long, reddish violet. Spadix 24 in. long, with tail-like appendix. Flowering spring, or sometimes later. A. longituberosus. Thailand. Tuber 6 in. long, 1 in. in diameter. Leaf solitary, produced after flowers have faded, to 24 in. wide, much divided, on a stem 18-24 in. Flower stem 24 in. long. Spathe 4-6 in. long, pale green with darker spots outside, paler to almost white inside. Spadix a little shorter than the spathe, lower portion warted yellowish, upper portion conelike, smooth, whitish. Flowering spring. A. muelleri. Indonesia, on Java island; introduced 1875. Leaf stalk 15 ft. long or more, 3 in. thick, olive-green spotted white. Leaf blade 10 ft. wide or more. Spathe 10 in. long, brownish purple spotted white at base, white inside. Flowering spring. A. oncophyllus. India; introduced 1893. Leafstalk to 36 in.,

spotted pale green. Flower stalk 20 in. long. Spathe 12 in. long, greenish-white spots and stripes at base turning to purple spotted gold. Spadix 6 in. long, appendix cream. Malodorous. Flowering spring and early summer. A. paeoniifolius. ELEPHANT YAM, TELINGO POTATO. India, New Guinea, S and Southeast Asia, and Australasia; introduced 1817. Corm 8-10 in. thick, flattened, edible. Leaf generally solitary, sometimes 2. Leafstalk often warty, 20-30 in. long, dark green with paler spots. Leaf blade to 24 in. wide and long, divided into 3 lobes, the outer finely cut. Flower stem to 10 in. Spathe 8 in. long and 10 in. wide, green outside, spotted white inside, purplish at base, the broader portion green to purple with a wavy margin. Spadix 12 in. long, with appendix 6 in. long, spongy, deep purple. Flowering spring. A. rex. Malaya. Similar to A. paeoniifolius, but larger. Leafstalk and blade to 72 in. Spathe yellow-green, 12-18 in. wide. Spadix with appendix 12 in. long. Flowering spring and early summer. A. rivieri. DEVIL'S TONGUE, SNAKE PALM, UMBRELLA ARUM. Indonesia; widely cultivated for food; introduced to West 1858. Corm flattish, to 10 in. in diameter, edible. Leafstalk to 36 in. long, brownish green spotted white. Leaf blade much branched, 36 in. or more wide. Flower stem 24-30 in. long. Spathe 18 in. long, basal tube green spotted greenish white; as it flattens, it becomes dark purple on the inside, green outside. Spadix as much as 8 in. longer than the spathe, dark red-brown. Flowering spring. Var. konjac is the selection usually grown for food; it is reportedly frost-hardy if well mulched. Plates 158,159. A. teuszii. Tropical W Africa; introduced 1884. Leafstalk to 20 in., green. Leaf blade much branched. Flower stem 16 in. long. Spathe to 6 in. interior dark purple, exterior green, as is the spadix appendix. Flowering spring. A. titanum. GIANT KRUBI, TITAN ARUM. Indonesia, on Sumatra island; introduced 1878. Corm to 48 in. in diameter. Leafstalk 6-12 ft. or even more, pale green spotted white. Leaf blade to 15 ft. wide, much divided. Flower stem to 36 in. long. Spathe to 5 ft. long and 10 ft. in circumference, irregular margin, sometimes wavy, sometimes lobed, rich dark crimson inside, green spotted white outside. Spadix 5 ft. or more long, appendix equally as long, furrowed, dull yellow and malodorous. Flowering spring and early summer (August to October in the wild). One of the largest nonwoody plants in the world. A. variabilis. Philippines and Indonesia, on lava island; introduced 1876. Leafstalk to 15 in., variegated or green. Flower stalk 12 in. long. Spathe 5 in. long, interior white, exterior spotted, margin rose. Spadix 10 in. long, with appendix 6 in. long. Flowering spring. SYNONYMS A. campanulatus see A. paeoniifolius. A. konjac see A. rivieri var. konjac. A. 'Konjac' see A. rivieri var. konjac.

Amphisiphon—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) A monotypic genus native to South Africa in the Calvinia district of the Western Cape. It is similar to Androsiphon, another

Androcymbium monotypic genus, and closely related to Massonia. Amphisiphon and Androsiphon were separated by W. F. Barker (1936), united by Phillips (1951) and Hutchinson (1959), separated again by Jessop (1976), and reunited again by Goldblatt and Manning (2000); however, they are kept separate in this volume because their cultural requirements differ. The principle difference between Amphisiphon and Androsiphon is that the corolla of the former remains tubular for most of its length above the point of origin of the filament tube, with only minute free segments, while the corolla of the latter diverges to form prominent free lobes immediately above the point of origin of the filament tube. There is no disc in Amphisiphon, whereas the filament tube is fused to form a disc in Androsiphon. There are also differences in the characteristics of the fruit. The flowers of Amphisiphon extend farther beyond the enfolding foliage than do those of Androsiphon. Because Amphisiphon is extremely rare and endangered it is doubtful that any commercial use will be made of it, even though it would make a nice container plant. In a botanical or collector's warm-climate garden, it should be given a well-drained location in sun, where the flower can be closely examined. CULTURE Pot bulbs in August or September in an ordinary potting mix that drains well. Water in well. Growth is quickly made, and in 6-8 weeks the flowers appear. Keep moist but avoid stagnant water on the crown of the bulb by setting the bulb with its neck a little above soil level. Night temperature should be around 55°F. During winter, after flowering has finished, keep barely moist, slowly reducing water so that by spring, when the bulb becomes dormant, the soil mix is almost dry. Keep dryish but do not allow the bulb to desiccate through the summer months. Start regular watering again in late summer. After 2-3 years in the same container, repot in August. In warmer climates where they can be planted outdoors, leave bulbs undisturbed. Mild liquid fertilizer can be given when growth is starting, but do not overfeed. Feeding is more important in the years following initial potting. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Records show that these bulbs do not produce offsets readily, yet those would be the best means of propagation. At the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, a single bulb did not produce seed, even though pollinated by hand. It would appear that the plants are self-incompatible; that is, 2 clones are needed for fertilization. Given the flowering time, seed is probably best sown in very early spring, given much light, and kept on the dry side during the following summer. The habitat is very dry, with little or no rain except in winter and early spring, and even then often very little. SPECIES

A. stylosa. South Africa (Calvinia district in Northern Cape), in clay soils, in rocky grassland, rare and endangered. Bulb with thin brown scales. Stem very short. Leaves 2 or 3, dark shiny

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green, 4 in. long, opposite, rarely upright, more frequently prostrate; leaf bases sheathing the flowering stem. Flowers very bright yellow, fragrant, carried in a congested terminal raceme near ground level; pedicels very short. Stigma apical and minute; styles long (stylosa means "having long styles"). Flowers cupped between the leaves, late fall to early winter (April to June in the wild).

Anaclanthe see Babiana Anapalina see Tritoniopsis Androcymbium—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) LITTLE MEN-IN-A-BOAT Name derived from Greek andros ("man") and cymbium ("boat"). There are about 40 species, mostly in 2 widely separated but climatically similar regions: the Western Cape of South Africa, and the Mediterranean, especially the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa. Androcymbium species have small corms, generally covered with a dark brown or black tunic, and somewhat elongated, exactly like a small Colchicum corm. The plants are so low-growing (seldom more than 6 in. tall) that their typical green-andwhite flowers can easily escape notice. Frequently the bracts hide the flowers completely, so that one has to bend down and open them to get a good look at the flowers themselves (Plate 162). The most noticeable characteristic is that the leaves form a flattish rosette at ground level. The bracts, which are more upright, are variously colored, mainly white or greenish white; some species have purple venation. The flowers nestle in a cup formed by the bracts, accounting for one of their common names, men-in-a-boat. Each umbel is almost sessile and carries 2-8 flowers, most of which are about 1 in. in diameter when open. The 6 tepals, which do not join to form a tube, are distinctive in having noticeable swollen yellow glands at the base. The 6 stamens are attached to the lower part of the tepals. Each flower has 3 styles, which are free from one another. Androcymbiums provide interest to warm-climate rock gardens and borders and are well suited for areas which are difficult to water. In specialist collections, they are good plants for large pots. CULTURE All species should be grown frost-free or nearly so. Almost all species are found in sandy soils, usually near the seacoast. Plants from Mediterranean climate regions, where the sun is hot and there is little shade, require moisture during the winter months but little or none during late spring and early summer. These conditions must be duplicated in the garden if the plants are to survive: well-drained soil with more sand than humus, full sun, and a dry resting period. Corms of summer-dormant species may remain dormant for several years without showing growth; encourage them by digging them after a warm summer, crack-

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Androcymbium

ing open the tough outer tunic, and soaking the corms in water. Plant corms in fall, just below the surface of the soil, spaced 10 in. apart. They require very little care and should be watered only if there is no rain in their growing season. They do not tolerate temperatures below 35°F. Humidity should be low, so it is difficult to grow them in a greenhouse unless they are associated with other xerophilic plants. Light intensity should be as high as possible. Fertilizer is necessary only for plants in containers and should be applied as soon as growth commences. Containers for these bulbs should be at least 10 in. deep and wide enough for the leaves to spread over the surface of the sandy soil mix required. PESTS AND DISEASES

Slugs and snails may attack in the early spring as growth commences, but these pests should not be too troublesome in the hot, dry conditions the genus prefers. Rot is likely to destroy corms that are kept too moist in hot weather. PROPAGATION

There is a small natural increase by the production of cormels around the parent corm. These can be separated as soon as the foliage has died down in early to mid summer and grown on in a very sandy soil mix, barely covered, at temperatures between 55° and 66°F. Seed is sown as soon as it is ripe, in well-drained, sandy soil, low in moisture but not bone dry. The seeds ripen very quickly in hot, dry weather. As the seed capsules start to turn brown, examine them daily to see if they are beginning to open. Care must be taken when harvesting because the capsules split open from the bottom. When seedlings are large enough to handle, transplant them into other containers. As soon as the foliage starts to die down, reduce water to almost nothing and allow plants to go dormant in warmth. The following spring, if the plants have made good growth, they can be set out into the garden. If plants are to be grown for another season in containers, use pots at least 6 in. deep so there is minimum disturbance when the plants are finally put into the ground. SPECIES A. burkei. South Africa (Northwestern Province). Leaves crowded. Tepals white at base with green tips, mid winter (July in the wild). A. capense. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Karoo, Western Cape, E Little Karoo, Outeniqua Mountains, Tsitsikamma hills), just inland from the Indian Ocean, probably introduced c. 1820. Vulnerable to habitat loss. Leaves usually 3-4, to 10 in. long, broad at the base, a little over 1 in. wide, narrowing to very pointed tips; leaf edge wavy, hugging the ground. Bracts pale green, covering flowers, to 2-3 in. long, as wide or wider than leaves. Flowers cream, 6-8 held tightly together, early spring (August to September in the wild). A. ciliolatum. South Africa (Namaqualand), on Atlantic coast, in sandy soil. The habitat can be quite moist in winter and spring but experiences a dry season in summer. Leaves usually 2, lanceolate and broad with minutely fringed margins, to 6 in. long, lying on or close to the ground. Bracts 5-6 in. long,

pale green or almost white, usually 3 or sometimes 4, as broad at the base as the leaves, about 3 in. wide, opening to expose the cluster of many white flowers. Flowering winter to early spring (June to August in the wild). A. cuspidatum. South Africa (W Karoo, Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Plant prostrate. Bracts green. Flowering winter (July to August in the wild). A. dregei. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape). Plant prostrate. Bracts green. Flowering mid winter (June to August in the wild). A. eucomoides. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape, Eastern Cape), in clay soils. Size of plant varies; in better soils, it may almost double in size. Leaves light green, wavy, tending to be more upright than those of some other species, usually 2 or 3,5-6 in. long, broader at the base and tapering to a sharp point, slightly keeled. Bracts shorter and stubbier than leaves, forming a cup for pale greenish white flowers. Flowering late winter to early spring (June to August in the wild). Plate 160. A. europaeum. Spain (Cape Gata), in sandy soil or sparse grassland. Corm more elongated than in other species, with black tunic. Plants rarely exceed 2 in. in height. Leaves glossy green, 4-5 in. long, as many as 10, about l/2 in. wide at base, tapering gradually to a sharp point. Bracts somewhat paler, enclosing 1-5 or more flowers. Flowers white to pink-striped mauve, sometimes with darker speckles, larger than flowers of most other species, to 1 in. in diameter. Flowering mid to late winter. A. gramineum. N Africa. Similar to A. europaeum and perhaps a variety of it, but with narrower leaves. Molecular morphological studies by Joan Pedrola-Monfort and Juli Caujape-Castells in the 1960s revealed no difference between A. europaeum and A. gramineum. A. hierrense. Canary Islands. Bracts purple or purple-striped, 8-14 in. long. Flowers white with purple stripes at base, early spring. A. irroratum. South Africa (Namaqualand, Northern Cape). Plant prostrate. Bracts green. Flowering mid winter (July in the wild). A. latifolium. South Africa (Cape Peninsula); introduced c. 1921. Similar to A. ciliolatum, except bracts are purplish red and flowers pink, and leaf margins are not fringed. The 2 species are found in the same area. A. longipes. South Africa (Mpumalanga, Gauteng). Leaves to 12 in. long. Flowers maroon, late summer (February in the wild). A. melanthoides. BABOON'S SHOES, PYJAMA FLOWER. South Africa, Swaziland, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Malawi; introduced 1823. Close to A. ciliolatum. Leaves long and narrow. Bracts 2 in. long, white streaked green, enclosing several pale green flowers, sometimes striped white, turning pinkish with green veins. Var. striatum from South Africa (Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Northern Province) has greenish white bracts to 14 in. long and flowers in fall (July to August in the wild). Var. subulatum from South Africa (Mpumalanga) has green bracts 12 in. long and flowers in spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 161.

Androstephium A. psammophilum. Canary Islands. Flowers white, sometimes lightly striped, early spring. A. rechingeri. Greece, on Elaphonisi, a small island (12 sq. mi.) just offshore from the Peloponnese. Close in form and habit to A. europaeum; the main difference between the 2 is that the tepals of A. rechingeri are sharply pointed. In addition, its seed capsule does not split open but breaks up unevenly and irregularly. Flowering winter to early spring. SYNONYMS

A. decipiens see A. longipes. A. fenestratum see A. ciliolatum. A. gramineum subsp. psammophilum see A. psammophilum. A. leucanthum see A. eucomoides. A. natalensis see A. longipes. A. pulchrum see A. latifolium. A. roseum see A. gramineum.

Androsiphon—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) A monotypic genus first described in 1924. Androsiphon capense was formerly grouped with Amphisiphon (which see for information on differences between the 2 genera and their history). Like Amphisiphon, Androsiphon is now placed in Daubenya, but in this volume is treated separately because of its different cultural requirements. Androsiphon is uncommon in cultivation, though not unattractive, and its rarity makes it unlikely to become widely cultivated. It has potential as a rock garden plant in very warm areas; it does not tolerate frost. CULTURE Plant bulbs in late summer in a free-draining soil mix and immediately give them a good watering. Set the bulb so the neck is above the surface of the soil to prevent water from getting into the growing point; this is necessary to prevent rot. The bulbs spring into growth quickly, and flowers appear in 10-12 weeks. After the flowers have passed, gradually reduce water so that by spring, plants can go dormant. Restart the cycle in late summer. There is no need to repot until the bulbs have increased in size; according to reports in Kew Magazine (Brandham 1990), this is a very slow process. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

The best way to propagate Androsiphon is by hand-pollination crossing 2 different clones; the sole plant at Kew did not set seed, though hand-pollinated. Growth is slow, and many years may pass before a plant produces offsets. Its being in the Hyacinthaceae suggests that scoring the base of the bulb might induce it to make bulblets, but it is so rare that this experiment is not likely to be undertaken. SPECIES A. capense. South Africa (W Karoo, Western Cape), rare and vulnerable, growing in rocky grassland in clay soil. Bulb ovoid,

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looking much like a hyacinth bulb, about 1 in. in diameter. Leaves 2, up to 6 in. long and 3 in. wide, dark green, sometimes with darker green spots; bases overlap. Inflorescence rises between the leaves, consisting of 20-30 golden yellow, fragrant flowers. Flowers do not extend above the leaves, thus are not as visible as those of Amphisiphon.

Androstephium—Alliaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek aner ("man") and Stephanos ("crown"), because the stamen filaments are fused at the base to form a corona. The genus has only 2 species, both native to SC and SW United States. They are interesting to the bulb lover and should be included in gardens in their region that focus on native plants. They are best placed in a dry location, especially the rock garden, where they can remain undisturbed. The rootstock is a fibrous-coated corm. The basal foliage is linear and narrow. The leaf stalk is strong, and the funnelshaped flowers (which somewhat resemble brodiaeas) are held in a terminal umbel; below the flowers are numerous thin, transparent bracts. The flowers, which appear in spring, are funnel-shaped, with 6 tepals joined at the base. The corona that gives the genus its name is formed by the fused filaments, which have petaloid lobes between the 6 anthers. CULTURE The corms must have good drainage and prefer a sandy soil with plenty of organic matter. Plant them 6 in. deep, spaced 4-6 in. apart, in full sun. Provide moisture during the spring growing season; as soon as seed has set, diminish water. Plants can remain dry during the summer months. Corms may rot if excessively moist in summer or winter. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift corms when dormant. Clumps should not be disturbed for 2 seasons after initial planting so offsets are well formed. Sow seed as soon as it is ripe, barely covered, in a sandy mix. When seedlings are large enough to handle, pot them in individual containers. Young plants should be large enough to set out into growing positions after 2 full seasons. SPECIES

A. breviflorum. PINK FUNNEL LILY. United States (S California, Arizona, W Colorado), in sparse desert scrub in sandy soils. Stems 6-15 in. Leaves 4-15 in. long, rough-textured. Flowers white to lavender, sometimes red-purple, spring. A. caeruleum. BLUE FUNNEL LILY, BLUE BETHLEHEM LILY. United States (C Kansas, Oklahoma, E Texas), in deep sandy loam and undisturbed prairie soils. Stem leafless, strong, 4-6 in. Leaves basal, 2-4 in. long, linear, emerging in early spring. Flowers in a loose umbel, to 6 in number, blue to lilac, spring. SYNONYM A. violaceum see A. caeruleum.

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Anemone

Anemone—Ranunculaceae WlNDFLOWER, L I L Y - O F - T H E - F I E L D

Name derived from Greek anemos ("wind"); the name "anemone" for the plants called "windflowers" in English was first documented by Theophrastus (c. 372-c. 287 B.C.); however, some writers believe the name comes from Syrian namaan, a cry of lamentation for the dead Adonis, whose blood is said to have colored the scarlet anemone. The genus contains about 120 species, but many of these are not tuberous or rhizomatous and thus are not listed here. They are distributed throughout the cold and temperate regions of both Northern and Southern hemispheres. The foliage of most anemones is lobed to finely divided; many species have a whorl of leaves on the stalk just below the flowers. The colorful "petals" are actually petaloid sepals. The numerous free stamens add to the attractiveness of the flowers. The genus offers a full range of colors: white, yellow, red, pink, blue, and violet. Certain tuberous species have been selected and hybridized for the past 2 centuries, and many fine strains and cultivars are offered by nurseries. Notice that commercial varieties include both cultivars (clones), which are identical plants propagated by division, and strains, which are fairly consistent groups grown from seed. Both Saint Brigid and De Caen strains are excellent cut flowers as well as garden and container plants. Plant anemones in masses for best effect in the garden. There are few better early flowering plants for the woodland, where they can be allowed to naturalize. Plant these low growers where they can be appreciated—perhaps on a shady bank beneath high-crowned trees— but away from paths where dormant plants may be trampled. The different species vary in cold tolerance, as noted in the list below. CULTURE The tuberous-rooted species are easy to grow, preferring loose, sandy soil rich in humus, preferably leafmold. They do well in established deciduous woodland, where they enjoy the spring sun and summer shade to which they are adapted. They do not like very wet soil. Tubers purchased dry should be soaked overnight in tepid water before planting. Plant them in early fall, 1-11/2in. deep, spaced 6-8 in. apart. It can be difficult to decide how a tuber should be oriented. If crowns or remains of roots are not apparent, set the tuber on its side. If soil is not moist at planting time, water tubers to initiate growth. Maintain adequate moisture until flowering is past and foliage begins to die down. Most kinds can be left in the ground, lifted and divided only when plantings become overcrowded. Special cultural requirements are given in the species list below. PESTS AND DISEASES

Anemones have few problems, although slugs and snails attack certain species. Check plants grown in greenhouses and out of season for aphids and take appropriate control measures.

PROPAGATION

Some kinds are easily raised from seed. In general, species with seeds that are "cotton-coated" retain viability well in storage, whereas those with smooth, loose seeds do not. Sow seed in sandy mix. Seedlings may make only cotyledons the first season. They do not tolerate transplanting well so are best grown on in the containers where they were sown. The easiest method of propagation is lifting and dividing large, established plants in early fall. After foliage has died down, break up the mass of tubers or rhizomes, being sure that each division has at least one growing point. Some species form clusters of spidery rhizomes which should be separated carefully into separate ones, each with its own terminal growing point; others have extensive, branching rhizomes that can be broken at almost any point as long as each has a (usually lightcolored) growing point somewhere on it. SPECIES A. altaica. E Russia and Japan. Rhizome slender. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers white, mid spring. A. americana. North America. Rhizome slender. Leaves 5lobed. Flowers white, resembling those of A. nemorosa but smaller. A. apennina. S Europe, common in open woodland. Similar to A. blanda but larger, and stems smooth rather than hairy. Rhizome thick, almost tuberous, elongated, very dark. Stems to 6 in. Flowers carried singly, pale to deep blue, late winter to early spring. Selections include 'Albifiora', white with tinge of light blue on reverse; 'Petrovac', robust deep blue; 'Purpurea', soft rose purple; Double-flowered plants, perhaps unstable, sometimes found. Excellent for naturalizing in grass and deciduous woodland. Plant rhizomes 2 in. deep and 6 in. apart. Do not disturb once planted. A. baicalensis. E Asia. Rhizome cylindrical. Stems 6-15 in. Flowers cream, spring. A. biflora. Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and Iran; introduced 1935. Tuber thick. Stems 3-6 in. Flowers red, sometimes orange or yellow, spring. Rare in cultivation. A. blanda. SE Europe and Turkey east to Turkestan. Stems to 6 in. Tubers rounded and lumpy, dark. Flowers borne singly in late winter to early spring, usually deep blue, but pale blue, white, and pink forms occur. Var. scythinica from Turkestan has white flowers with blue exterior. Good cultivars and selections include 'Alba', white, slightly smaller than type, flowers a little larger; 'Atrocaerulea' (synonym 'Ingramii'), color varies but generally deep blue, foliage purplish green; 'Blue Star', light blue; 'Bridesmaid', large pure white, possibly same as 'Albifiora'; 'Charmer', deep pink selection of'Rosea' introduced by the Van Tubergen nursery; 'Pink Star', large deep pink; 'Radar', showy bright red with white center, difficult to propagate and expensive; 'Rosea', older clear pink cultivar; 'Violet Star', redviolet; 'White Splendor', very large, pure white, long-lasting flowers. Should be grown in light shade where summers are hot, but tolerates full sun in cooler climates. Plant tubers 2 in. deep, spaced about 6 in. apart. Plates 163-165. A. bucharica. C Asia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 8-10 in.

Anemone Flowers usually in pairs, 2 in. in diameter, red or violet, spring. Possibly a geographic variant of A. coronaria. A. caroliniana. E United States; introduced 1824. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers purple or whitish, spring. A. caucasica. Caucasus, NW Iran, and NE Turkey. Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers blue or white, late spring. A. coronaria. POPPY ANEMONE. S Europe and Mediterranean Asia; introduced 1596. A glorious sight among the ruins ofEphesus in March; sometimes thought to be the biblical lilies of the field. Tubers knobby, brown. Stems 8-12 in. Flowers solitary, scarlet, white, blue, pink, or bicolored. Color forms have been described as botanical varieties: var. coronaria, scarlet; var. alba, white; var. cyanea, blue; var. rosea, pink. In the wild, however, many intermediate color forms are found, so it is likely that these are not worthy of being separated botanically. Requires warmth, protection of frames or greenhouses in colder areas. Does well outdoors where temperatures do not fall below 20°F. Plant in late fall for spring flowering, early spring for mid summer flowering, late spring for late summer to early fall flowering. Responds well to gentle forcing for spring flowering, after which bulbs are generally discarded. Useful as cut flowers and popular with florists. Because of the great variation it is not surprising the species has been the subject of much breeding by hybridizers. Main commercial strains are De Caen, poppyflowered singles developed in Normandy and grown at Caen; and double to semidouble Saint Brigid strain raised in Ireland (Saint Brigid is a patron saint of that country), both in a range of colors and bicolors. De Caen cultivars include 'Blue Poppy', shiny tepals; 'His Excellency', bright scarlet, very large, on good stems; 'Hollandia', strain derived from 'His Excellency'; 'Mr. Fokker', blue; 'Sylphide', violet; 'The Bride', pure white. St. Brigid cultivars include 'Lord Lieutenant', bright blue; 'Mount Everest', white; 'The Admiral', cyclamen-violet; 'The Governor', vermilion-scarlet. Plates 15, 166-169. A. eranthoides. C Asia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 5 in. Leaves much divided. Flowers golden yellow, greenish outside, spring. Plate 170. A.flaccida. China, Japan, and E Russia. Rhizome thick, creeping, black. Stems 2-8 in. Leaves basal. Flowers creamy white flushed pink, late spring. A. xfulgens. S France. Natural hybrid (A. pavoninaxA. hortensis). Stems 12-15 in. Flowers scarlet to violet-red, perianth segments numerous, late spring to early summer. Prefers sun, with a little shade in hottest climates; good, rich soil. Tolerates temperatures to about 20°F. Selections include 'Annulata Grandiflora', large-flowered scarlet with cream center; 'Multipetala', with double row of sepals. The Saint Bavo strain was raised by the Van Tubergen nursery and listed by them as a hybrid between A. xfulgens and A. coronaria; however, some authorities regard them as forms of A. pavonina; the flowers are brick red, carmine red, or deep violet-blue and appear in early spring. A. glaucifolia. China (Yunnan, Sichuan). Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems to 36 in. Leaves basal, with sparse white hairs. Flowers solitary, mauve, to 4 in. in diameter, summer. A. gortschakowii. C Asia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 5 in. Flowers pale yellow, sometimes flushed red, late spring.

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A. heldreichii. Crete, in stony places. A dwarf plant. Tuber rounded. Flowers blue-gray outside, white within, early spring. Sometimes considered a geographical variant of A. hortensis. A. hortensis. C Mediterranean Europe. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 12-15 in. Flowers violet or rose, mid spring. A. lancifolia. E United States. Leaves basal, white, lanceolate. Early summer flowering. A. xlipsiensis. Hybrid (A. ranunculoidesxA. nemorosa). The best form has sulfur-yellow flowers and is probably offered as A. ranunculoides by some nurseries. Prefers light shade. A. multifida. United States and Canada. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves basal, segment 3-parted, wedge-shaped. Flowers1/2-1 in. in diameter, 5-10, red, greenish whitish or yellowish, spring. Plate 171. A. nemorosa. WOOD ANEMONE. Europe and Great Britain, in woodland, but not in the Mediterranean region; long in cultivation. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers usually white, often tinged on the exterior with pink, 1 in. in diameter, early to mid spring. Needs moisture combined with good drainage, shade (at least in the afternoon), and rich humus, and is best naturalized under trees and shrubs. Quite winter-hardy, to at least -20°F. Set the creeping rhizomes 2 in. deep and 6-8 in. apart. Selected forms with larger flowers include 'Alba Plena' (synonym 'Alboplena'), double white with a pompon of tiny petals in the center; 'Allenii' (synonym 'Allen's Form'), rose lilac on outside, light blue inside; 'Flore Pleno', a double form; 'Leed's Variety', large single white; 'Robinsoniana', delicate lavender-blue, foliage deep green tinged purple, low-growing; 'Royal Blue', violet-blue, tinged rose purple on reverse, very dark green foliage tinged purple, low-growing. Plates 172-174. A. oregana. W United States, in conifer woodland. Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems to 8 in. Flowers white, less often blue or pink, late spring. A. palmata. SW Europe; introduced 1597. Rhizome congested, spidery. Stems to 6 in. Leaves thick, shallowly lobed, reddish on underside. Flowers brilliant yellow, flushed red outside, mid spring. Selections include 'Alba', white flowers; 'Flore Pleno', double; 'Lutea', yellow. Hardy to about 20°F. A. pavonina. PEACOCK EYE. Greece and Turkey (W Asia Minor). Stems 10-15 in. Flowers white through pink to salmon, brick and dark red, violet-blue, always with white center. Flowering over a long period, mid spring to early summer. Var. ocellata has scarlet flowers. Var. purpureoviolacea has violet to pinkviolet flowers. Excellent for mild gardens (minimum temperature about 20°F); grow in rich soil and full sun. A. petiolulosa. C Asia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 8 in. Leaves basal. Flowers yellow flushed red on exterior, somewhat pendent, 1-2 in. in diameter, spring. A. quinquefolia. E United States, in deciduous woodland. Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems to 10 in. Leaves basal. Flowers white, sometimes flushed pink, spring. Similar in appearance to A. nemorosa but with leaflets in 5 segments rather than 3. Some authorities consider A. oregana a variety (var. grayi) of this species. A. ranunculoides. BUTTERCUP ANEMONE. Europe, widespread in deciduous woodland, but not in the Mediterranean

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region. Rhizome slender, spreading horizontally and rapidly in moist organic soil. Stems to 6 in. but often shorter. Flowers with few segments, bright yellow. Plant in full sun, except in hot regions. Selections are 'Flore Pleno', with semidouble flowers; 'Grandiflora', largest flowers, 1 in. in diameter; 'Superba', larger flowers than species, bronzed foliage. Subsp. wockeana is smaller. Plates 175,176. A. trifolia. Europe, from Portugal and NW Spain to C Italy, Balkans, and Hungary. Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems 6-10 in. Leaves dark green with 3 leaflets. Flowers solitary, white, occasionally flushed pink, late spring. A. tschernjaewii. N Afghanistan and C Asia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 10-12 in. Flowers whitish flushed pale purple, as are anthers; early to mid spring. A. tuberosa. SW United States, in desert chaparral. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers pale pink or orange, solitary, mid spring. Not very cold-hardy. SYNONYMS A. blanda var. parvula see A. caucasica. A. glaucophylla see A. glaucifolia. A. graeca see A. pavonina. A. xintermedia see A. xlipsiensis. A. xseemannii see A. xlipsiensis. A. stellata see A. hortensis and A. xfulgens. A. stellatavar. heldreichii see A. heldreichii.

Anemonella—Ranunculaceae Name derived from Anemone, to which it is closely related. Anemonella is distinguished from Anemone by the 1-in.-wide umbel and by the flowers which arise from the fragile-looking stems at the same point as the leaves. Anemonella has one species, A. thalictroides. Its common name, rue anemone, refers to the resemblance of the foliage to that of meadow rue (Thalictrum), and the flowers are not unlike those of some anemones. It is undoubtedly one of the plants sent to England by early settlers in North America. This is a lovely plant for woodland areas where it can enjoy organic soil and shade. It is best planted in drifts and allowed to naturalize, not underneath shrubs that cast dense shade, but rather in areas with high, open shade and dappled sunlight. Anemonella looks best when a good number are planted together—at least 15-25 plants. If that much space is not available, group them close to a path. Once established, single forms usually spread by self-sowing; doubles are sterile. This delightful little perennial deserves wider recognition and should be considered in any garden with a suitably woodsy spot. CULTURE Anemonella is quite cold-hardy. It prefers light, high shade and should not be exposed to direct sunlight all day. Soil should be rich in organic matter and well-drained; acidic soils are preferred, but not necessary as long as plenty of organic matter is present. Give plenty of moisture in spring, when the plants start into growth, and keep watered during summer. This species is not suited to hot, dry areas.

Plant dormant tubers in fall or early spring, just 1 in. or so below the soil level, and 8-10 in. apart. Once planted, they should not be disturbed. In soil of high humus content, no feeding is necessary; in poor soils, apply a topdressing of well-decayed organic matter in late fall, after growth has died down, or in spring, prior to growth's commencing. No additional feeding is necessary, but light feedings of liquid organic fertilizer can be given once the plants are established. PESTS AND DISEASES

Few pests or diseases bother these plants. Slugs and snails can be a problem among germinating seedlings. PROPAGATION

In the garden, the best means of propagation is removing tubers from established plants without actually digging the plants. In early fall or in spring, dig with your fingers around the outside of the clump and remove the outermost tubers. Replant these as soon as possible; do not allow them to dry out. If a large increase is desired, the entire plant can be lifted and the tubers separated and planted back. Flowering after this procedure may be poor until the plants have reestablished themselves, usually after at least one complete growing season. Raising plants from seed is not difficult. Seed should be harvested and sown as soon as ripe, or in early spring. It may be left in outdoor conditions, but protected from severe frost. Scatter seed in organically rich compost, barely covered. In the greenhouse, give moderate temperatures in the 45°-50°F range at night. Keep moist throughout the growing season. Sowing the seed in situ is best done in late summer, as soon as the seed is ripe. Seedlings can be grown on in containers or a shaded bed and transplanted as soon as large enough to handle. That fall or the following spring the young plants can be set out into their landscape positions, and flowering will occur in the 2nd season. SPECIES A. thalictroides. United States (Maine to NW Florida, west to Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, and Oklahoma), in open woodlands with a wide range of soils. Plant height usually 6-8 in., rarely more than 10 in. Roots tuberous, clustered near the base of the stems and quite close to the surface of the soil, brownish, ovoid, rarely more than 1 in. long and l/2 in. in diameter. Leaves smooth, light green, carried on basal stalks, arranged either in a whorl or in pairs, divided into 3 ovate leaflets which in turn have 3 rounded lobes. Flowers usually white, sometimes pink, no petals but 5-10 petaloid sepals, carried on very slender pedicels in an umbel to 1 in. wide. The numerous stamens give the flower a feathery look. Flowering mid spring. Several double, pink-flowered horticultural selections are available: 'Flore Pleno', pale pink; 'Rosea Plena', somewhat darker pink; 'Schoaff s Double Pink' and 'Cameo', more vigorous, are regarded as superior cultivars. Plate 177.

Anigozanthos—Haemodoraceae AUSTRALIAN SWORD LILY, CAT'S PAW, KANGAROO PAW Derivation of name from the Greek anisos ("unequal") and an-

Anigozanthos thos ("flower"), in reference to the unequal perianth lobes, or from the Greek anoigo ("to open, expand") and anthos, referring to the perianth, which looks like a tube that has been ripped open. There was some disagreement as to whether the name is feminine or masculine in grammatical gender, but botanical opinion has now settled on the latter. This genus of 11 species, all from Western Australia, was first described by Jacques Labillardiere in 1800. These plants are seldom perceived as "bulbs," but the rootstock is a rhizome that grows just below the surface and sometimes protrudes just above it. Normally evergreen or semi-deciduous, Anigozanthus species in their native habitat are frequently subjected to fire and drought, which cause loss of the foliage. These are very unusual-looking plants, prized for their longlasting quality as well as their exotic appearance. The strong flowerstalks frequently branch into equal parts. They arise from the axils of the leaves, which are irislike or grasslike, sheathing at the base, mostly erect but sometimes arching, linear-lanceolate or strap-shaped, tapering toward the tip, and fibrous. The color of the flowers is often produced not by the surface of the perianth segments themselves but rather by the felty, colored hairs (indumentum) that cover them; 2 of the common names refer to these fuzzy tubular flowers with their pawlike tips. The flowers are zygomorphic, held in dense clusters and subtended by slender bracts. They have a pouch at the base, then form a curving tube that narrows before expanding and splitting into 6 unequal lobes. Two lobes generally stick up, while one between these lies flat; on the lower side, the perianth tube is often split to its base. There are 6 stamens, arising from a corona and arranged in 2 ranks on opposite sides of the long split in the underside of the flower. The threadlike filament of the style extends the stigma beyond the stamens. These plants are becoming popular as commercial cutflower crops. In gardens where there is little or no frost, they attract much attention. The flowers are long-lasting, and the foliage can be an attractive feature in itself if groomed from time to time to remove tattered leaves. As they become more popular, we can expect to see hardier selections on the market. The rhizomes are easily shipped, so there is no reason why they should not be marketed and cultivated like other nonhardy bulbs, such as dahlias. CULTURE

Not suitable for areas where winter temperatures frequently fall below freezing, or where winter temperatures remain below 40°F during the day. Plant in fall in full sun, setting the rhizomes just below the surface of the soil, which should drain freely but have good organic content. The rhizomes are spreading and should be spaced 12-18 in. apart. Although more or less evergreen, they have a dormant season in winter when they require less moisture but should not become completely dry. At other times, keep them moist. In colder climates, they can be grown in the greenhouse, either in borders or in large containers. Though they do not object to being lifted and divided, it is best to allow clumps to remain undisturbed to obtain the most flowering spikes.

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PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lifting and dividing in early spring is the best method of propagation. Seed can be sown as soon as ripe, using a sandy soil mix. Transplant seedlings as soon as large enough to handle. The seedlings grow quite quickly and are ready for planting in permanent locations in 2 or 3 seasons. SPECIES

A. bicolor. LITTLE KANGAROO PAW. Western Australia. Stems 12-14 in. Leaves narrow, strap-shaped, 16-20 in. long, with bristly hairs along the edges. Flowers usually 4-10, a little over 2 in. long, dark olive-green and covered with dark indumentum, spring and early summer (August to November in the wild). Subsp. minor is much smaller, with leaves 3-4 in. long and flower stems to 6 in. A. flavidus. TALL KANGAROO PAW, EVERGREEN KANGAROO PAW, TREE PAW. Western Australia, in forests and swampy heaths; introduced 1808. Rhizomes short. Forms large clumps of leaves 36 in. or more long,l-11/2in. wide. Stems to 10 ft.; branches often downy, but not the base of the stem. Flowers in large panicles, each 2 in. or more long, short and hairy, mostly lime green or sulfur yellow but sometimes red, orange, or pink, covered with greenish yellow or red-brown hairs. Flowering spring to summer (August to February in the wild). Because of its robustness and color variation, this species has been much used in hybridizing, generally with shorter species. Hybrids include 'Mini Red', a dwarf with bright red perianth indumentum; 'Pink Joey', 20 in., smoky pink flowers; 'Werit-Woorata', 20 in., dark red flowers. A. gabrielae. DWARF KANGAROO PAW. Western Australia. Stems 6-8 in. Leaves very narrow, 4-6 in. long. Flowers green with red or yellow base, lobes much recurved, spring (September in the wild). A. humilis. COMMON CAT'S PAW. Western Australia. Stems 18-20 in., rarely branching. Leaves 8 in. long, narrow and flat, seldom persisting more than one season. Flowers 10-15, in a terminal spike, often over 2 in. long, yellow-green with yellow, orange-red, or pinkish indumentum, winter to early summer (June to November in the wild). Subsp. chrysanthus has pure sulfur-yellow flowers and is a little shorter, about 16 in. A. kalbarriensis. Western Australia. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers distinctly curved, 2 in. long, spring. Perianth lobes strongly reflexed, yellow-green with indumentum the same color, often darkening to red at base. A. manglesii. RED-AND-GREEN KANGAROO PAW. Western Australia, in sandy, gravelly coastal areas; introduced 1833. Stems 14-36 in., with red hairs at base; stem hairs higher up often fall away in clumps. Leaves in rosettes, ribbonlike, shiny green, to 18 in. long but barely Vi in. wide. Flowers large, split open nearly to the base, 4 in. or more long, curved, yellow-green with lime-green indumentum, often deepening in color to blood red at the base of the perianth, on ovary and pedicel. Flowering spring to early summer (June to December in the

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wild). Subsp. quadrans has perianth slightly constricted above lobes and reddish orange indumentum. A. onycis. BRANCHED CAT'S CLAW. Western Australia. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers yellow-green, indumentum cream-green or dull red, spring (September to October in the wild). A. preissii. ALBANY CAT'S PAW. Western Australia. Stems to 40 in. Leaves 10 in. long, narrow. Flowers in compact head, 3 in. long, curved, creamy white or yellowish green, densely covered with orange indumentum that darkens to red at base, sometimes lime to orange. Flowering spring to early summer (October in the wild). A. pulcherrimus. YELLOW KANGAROO PAW, GOLDEN KANGAROO PAW. Western Australia, in sandy heaths; introduced 1844. Stems to 36 in. Leaves very narrow, 15 in. long. Flowers golden yellow with green inner lobes, always with yellow indumentum. Perianth tube opens from the underside, allowing the 6 lobes to turn or roll back. The 6 stamens are joined to this upper section. The stigma extends well beyond the perianth tube. Flowering summer (December to February in the wild). Popular as a cut flower. A. rufus. Western Australia, in sandy heaths. Robust and clump-forming. Stems to 48 in., each one producing 2 series of paired branches, held horizontally or near upright, forming a large flowerhead with as many as 10 flowers on each terminal branch. Leaves 24 in. long, narrow, very flat. Flowers 2 in. or more long, curved, olive-green with deep red or orange indumentum, sometimes purple, rarely yellow; perianth lobes spreading and reflexed. Flowering spring to late summer (August to February in the wild). Parent of popular hybrids, much used in breeding because of its vigor, and a superb cut flower. A. viridis. GREEN KANGAROO PAW. Western Australia, in swampy areas. Small, compact plant, to 18 in. Stem arches distinctively. Leaves a little shorter than stems, narrow. Flowers yellow-green with yellow or lime-green indumentum. Flowering early spring to early summer (September to December in the wild). Anigozanthos cultivars. Many of the species cross easily with one another, and many hybrids have been named and introduced. Notable are 'Dwarf Delight' (A. onycis x A. flavidus), a small plant with orange-red flowers, and 'Regal Claw' (A. preissii x A. flavidus), dwarf with orange flowers covered with a thick red indumentum. SYNONYMS A. bicolor var. minor see A. bicolor subsp. minor, A. gabrielae. A. coccineus see A. flavidus. A. grandiflorus see A. flavidus. A. tyrianthinus see A. rufus. A. viridis var. major see A. bicolor.

Anoiganthus see Cyrtanthus Anomalesia A. cunonia see Gladiolus cunonius. A. saccata see Gladiolus saccatus. A. splendens see Gladiolus splendens.

Anomatheca A. fistulosa see Xenoscapa fistulosa. A. grandiflora see Freesia grandiflora. A. laxa see Freesia laxa. A. verrucosa see Freesia verrucosa. A. viridis see Freesia viridis.

Anredera—Basellaceae MADEIRA VINE, MIGNONETTE VINE Derivation of name uncertain, probably a personal name. For many years the sole species was A. scandens (probably identical with A. cordifolia), first described in 1789. The 9 or 10 species in the genus Boussingaultia, established in 1825, were eventually determined to be of the same genus, and under the rule of priority are now called Anredera. Some species formerly known as Boussingaultia were introduced into cultivation between 1835 and 1895; while the early named Anredera species was not introduced until 1889. All the species are tuberous-rooted climbers from South America. They are grown for their luxuriant foliage and for the fragrance of the flowers, which though individually small are freely produced. The leaves are heart-shaped, ovate or elliptic, 1-3 in. long, arranged alternately on the stems; they have an almost succulent appearance. The flowers are either bisexual or unisexual, in spikes arising from the axils of the leaves or in racemes. There are 2 bracteoles, often fused to the perianth, which has 5 segments, united at the base. There are 5 stamens. The ovary is superior, and the style simple or trifid. In warm climates, their growth is so rapid and luxuriant that the plants can become a nuisance. The ability of the most commonly grown species, A. cordifolia, to produce aerial tubers in the axils of the leaves contributes to its invasive propensities. It has become naturalized in parts of S Europe. It is a fast-growing, twining climber, suitable where winter temperatures rarely dip below 40°F. It is a good choice to cover an arbor or pergola rapidly and can bring the fragrance of the tropics into gardens in cooler climes. It is a good plant for large public conservatories, where its rate of growth can be accommodated. CULTURE The plants are not frost-hardy but can be set out in spring, lifted in fall, and overwintered like dahlias. In areas where frost arrives in September, this late bloomer should be grown in a greenhouse. Plant the tubers 4-6 in. deep in spring, spacing them 4-6 ft. apart in colder climates. In frost-free areas one tuber will no doubt suffice, or one on each side of an arbor, trellis, or pergola, and these can be planted in fall or spring. Strong support must be provided for the mass of growth. The best soil is sandy, with good organic content. Choose a sunny location. Moisture is required in early spring when growth commences, but established plants are quite drought-tolerant. In warm climates, the fast growth (often 20 ft. or more per year) should be kept under control by pruning in spring. In cooler climates, protection can be provided by a heavy mulch,

Anthericum but where the tubers might become frozen or even experience soil temperature below 40°F, they should be lifted in fall and stored in a frost-free place. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Numerous tubers are produced in the axils of the leaves. These can be removed, placed in a sandy soil mix, and grown on. Division of the rootstock in early winter in warm climates and division of tubers prior to planting in the spring when the tubers have been overwintered are other good ways of increasing the stock. Anredera species can be raised from seed, but this takes longer than from the aerial tubers. Seed should be sown in spring in a sandy mix; maintain night temperatures of 60°F and constant moisture, but not soaking. Seedlings should be transplanted when large enough to handle. When handling the brittle young tubers, take care not to damage them. SPECIES

A. cordifolia. Paraguay, S Brazil, and N Argentina. Rootstock a knobby, brittle tuber. Leaves cordate, smooth, rather fleshy; tubers produced in axils of leaves. Evergreen in warm climates, deciduous in cooler ones. Flowers fragrant, white, small (less than1/4in. long), numerous; styles divided to the base. Flowering late summer to early fall. In the tropics, widely cultivated in gardens. This is probably the only species in cultivation; plants offered as A. baselloides may be A. cordifolia but are said to differ in having entire styles. A. lachaumei. Cuba. Flowers rose. Probably a form of A. cordifolia. Widely cultivated in the tropics. SYNONYMS

A. scandens see A. cordifolia. A. spicata see A. cordifolia.

Anthericum—Asphodelaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from antherikos, the name used by Theophrastus for a wheat stalk, referring to the resemblance of the flower stalks with unopened buds to wheat. There are more than 50 species in widely scattered geographic locations, from the tropical and subtropical regions of Africa to Europe, but not many of these are in cultivation. (American species formerly included in Anthericum are now separated in the genus Echeandia.) Species of the temperate zones grow in mountain meadows, appearing after snowmelt and flowering in summer. These are fully winter-hardy and, indeed, require low winter temperatures to flourish. The rootstock is short, with large, thick, fleshy roots. The leaves are narrow and grasslike, in a basal rosette. The white flowers are carried along the stems in a raceme or panicle. They are good rock garden plants and unusual subjects for the front of the perennial border, despite the ultimate height of the flowers, since the foliage is not tall.

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CULTURE Anthericum liliago needs a cold winter to perform well. Tropical and subtropical species need warmth. All need well-drained soil and should not lack moisture during the growing season, but less water is needed after flowering. Plant in full sun with leaf bases at soil surface. Where winters are severe and snowfall scant, mulch them so roots do not experience fluctuating temperatures. In spring, as soon as growth is observed, feed with 5-10-10 fertilizer. Flower spikes begin to emerge in late spring and bloom in early summer. They can be grown in containers in a mix of good topsoil, organic matter, and a liberal amount of sharp sand. Because of the large rootball, containers should be at least 10 in. deep. Water sparingly after flowering but do not allow to dry out completely. Move containers to semishade in summer to prevent the soil from overheating. PESTS AND DISEASES

Protect tropical species against aphids, slugs, and snails; Anthericum liliago seems immune to these pests. If care is not taken when clumps are lifted, bruising can cause rotting. PROPAGATION

Sow seed of tropical species as soon as ripe; if not sown immediately, it may need a winter chilling period to germinate, which may be provided in a frost-free cold frame. Transplant seedlings as soon as they are large enough to handle. They grow strongly and can be planted out at the beginning of the next growing season. Anthericum liliago often self-sows in gardens, and seedlings can be transplanted to desired sites. Lift and divide clumps in spring or early fall, but only when necessary. They object to disturbance, and few if any flowers are produced the season following lifting and dividing. SPECIES A. angulicaule. South Africa (Northwestern Province, Free State, Gauteng, Northern Province, Mpumalanga, KwaZuluNatal) and Swaziland. Stems 12-20 in. Flowers white with green-brown stripe, spring (August to September in the wild). A. baeticum. SE Spain. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white, early summer. A. calyptrocarpum. South Africa (Gauteng) and Namibia. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white, summer (November to January in the wild). A. cooperii. South Africa (Mpumalanga, Northern Province). Stems 12-16 in. Flowers white with green keel, early summer (September to early November in the wild). A. cyperaceum. South Africa (Gauteng, Mpumalanga). Stems to 16 in. Flowers white, early fall (February to March in the wild). A. fasciculatum. South Africa, Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia, and Botswana. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white, spring (August to September in the wild). A. galpinii. South Africa (Gauteng, Northern Province, Mpumalanga), Lesotho, Swaziland, Namibia, and Botswana. Stems to 30 in. Flowers white, late winter (August to September in the wild). Var. matabelense from sandy riverbanks in Gauteng and Northern Province has glossy leaves and flowers early

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spring to fall (August to March in the wild). Var. norlindhii from Northern Province has leaves with red or white hairs and flowers mid to late summer. A. haygarthii. Swaziland and South Africa (Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 28 in. Flowers white with green stripe, spring to summer (September to December in the wild). A. krauseanum. Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa (Northern Cape, Northwestern Province). Stems to 28 in. Flowers white with pink streaks, summer (November to December in the wild). A. liliago. SAINT BERNARD'S LILY. S Europe, in mountain meadows; introduced into cultivation 1596. Common name commemorates St. Bernard of Montjoux. This is the only species usually seen in gardens. Stems to 24 in., unbranched. Leaves grasslike, narrow, to 12 in. long. Flowers white,11/2-2in. in diameter, widely open, early summer. Var. major is somewhat taller with larger flowers. Most plants and seed sold as Paradisea liliastrum prove to be this species instead. Plate 178. A. longistylum. Botswana, Swaziland, and South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal to Eastern Cape). Stems to 40 in. Leaves basal, to 20 in. long. Flowers white, early spring to mid summer (August to November in the wild). A. ramosum. Scandinavia, and W and S Europe; introduced 1570. Stems 12-36 in. Flowers white, early summer. A. transvaalense. Swaziland and South Africa (KwaZuluNatal to Free State, Northern Province). Stems to 28 in. Flowers white, spring to mid summer (August to November in the wild). A. trichophlebium. South Africa (Mpumalanga, Northern Province to Northwestern Province). Stem to 8 in., unbranched. Stem and leaves pubescent. Flowers white, numerous, in compact raceme, late spring to summer (August to November in the wild). SYNONYMS A. adscendenssee A. cooperii. A. algeriense see A. liliago. A. bulbosum see Bulbinopsis bulbosa. A. chandleri see Echeandia chandleri. A. flavescens see Echeandia flavescens. A. graminifolium see A. ramosum. A. hookeri see Bulbinella hookeri. A. liliastrum see Paradisea liliastrum. A. polyphyllum see A. longistylum. A. pretoriense see A. trichophlebium. A. subulatum see A. fasciculatum. A. torreyisee Echeandia flavescens. A. vaginatum see A. trichophlebium. A. wilmsii see A. fasciculatum.

Antholyza—Iridaceae Species which were at times included in this genus are now found in Babiana, Chasmanthe, Crocosmia, Curtonus, Gladiolus, or Tritoniopsis.

A. abbreviata see Gladiolus abbreviatus. A. aethiopica see Chasmanthe aethiopica. A. bicolor see Chasmanthe bicolor. A. burchellii see Tritoniopsis burchellii. A. cabrae see Gladiolus unguiculatus. A. caffra see Tritioniopsis caffra. A. cunonia see Gladiolus cunonius. A. degasparisiana see Gladiolus huillensis. A. djalonensis see Gladiolus unguiculatus. A. fleuryi see Gladiolus unguiculatus. A. floribunda see Chasmanthe floribunda. A. gracilis see Gladiolus watsonioides. A. intermedia see Tritoniopsis intermedia. A. huillensis see Gladiolus huillensis. A. labiata see Gladiolus unguiculatus. A. magnifica see Gladiolus magnificus. A. merianella see Gladiolus bonae-spei. A. nervosa see Tritoniopsis antholyza. A. paniculata see Crocosmia paniculata. A. plicata see Babiana thunbergii. A. priorii see Gladiolus priorii. A. pubescens see Gladiolus huillensis. A. pulchra see Tritoniopsis pulchra. A. quadrangularis see Gladiolus quadrangularis. A. revoluta see Gladiolus priorii, G. watsonius. A. ringens see Babiana ringens. A. saccata see Gladiolus saccatus. A. schweinfurthii see Gladiolus schweinfurthii. A. speciosa see Gladiolus watsonioides. A. splendens see Gladiolus splendens. A. sudanica see Gladiolus unguiculatus. A. thonneri see Gladiolus unguiculatus. A. vittigera see Chasmanthe aethiopica. A. watsonioides see Gladiolus watsonioides. A. zambesiaca see Gladiolus magnificus.

Apodolirion—Amaryllidaceae NATAL CROCUS, YELLOW BELL Name derived from Greek a ("without"), podos ("foot"), and lirion ("lily"), in reference to the stalk of the inflorescence, which is short or concealed. There are 4 species listed by the Botanical Research Institute of South Africa; some other authorities say there are 5 or 6 species, but do not list them. This genus, like many others of minor importance and little commercial value, may not receive the attention of botanists needed for a definitive answer to this question; however, many South African genera are now being looked at more closely, and perhaps Apodolirion will come under scrutiny. If so, it will probably be revised, and perhaps more closely associated with Gethyllis, from which it was separated principally because of the placement of the stamens. Apodolirion is not likely to become a household word, but specimens will be cherished by collectors of bulbous plants. The rootstocks are true bulbs, usually with a neck formed by

Arisaema the old leaf bases. The leaves are always few, often just one. The foliage is usually produced after the flowers. The flowers are solitary, and the stalk is usually shorter than the bulb neck. The perianth tube is cylindrical, somewhat dilated toward the mouth. The lobes are much shorter than the tube. There are 6 stamens; 3 arise from the throat of the perianth tube, and the other 3 from within it. The filaments are very fine and threadlike, and the anthers about equal in length to the filaments. The ovary is enclosed within the spathe and the bulb neck. The long, slender style has 3 lobes at its apex. The flowers are white, produced in mid to late summer (December to February or March in the wild). CULTURE

For gardens in warm climates or for the greenhouse. Night temperatures should not drop below 40°F. Set the bulbs in a sandy soil mix with their necks just above the soil level. Plant in spring, keep barely moist until growth is seen, then increase watering but never allow the bulbs to be in saturated soil. They need full sun. After the foliage has started to die back, decrease the amount of water, allowing the bulbs to become dry. In a warm border, leave them undisturbed. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

After foliage has died back, bulbs can be lifted and offsets removed and grown on. Allow the bulbs at least 2 seasons of growth before removing offsets. Seed can be sown as soon as ripe in a sandy, free-draining soil mix, barely covered. Pot individual seedlings when large enough to handle; grow on until the bulbs are of a size to plant out or be grown in individual containers. SPECIES A. bolusii. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), rare. Flowers white, sometimes with a hint of pink, mid to late summer (December to February in the wild). A. buchananii. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1894. Leaves produced after flowers, few, to 9 in. long. Flowers on short stalks 1-2 in. (actually the base of the perianth formed into a tube), 3-4 in. long, white tinged red, mid summer (November to December in the wild). A. lanceolatum. South Africa (Western Cape to KwaZuluNatal), rare; introduced 1790. Leaf solitary, appears after flowering. Flowers white, 1-2 in. long, stemless; perianth segments lanceolate. Flowering mid summer (December in the wild). A. macowanii. South Africa (Eastern Cape around Port Elizabeth and Uitenhage). Leaf solitary, coiled, appears after flowering. Flowers stemless, almost 3 in. long, produced mid to late summer (January to March in the wild), followed by the fruit, a long yellow berry. SYNONYMS

A. ettae see A. buchananii. A. mackenii see A. buchananii.

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Argyropsis see Zephyranthes A risaema—Araceae COBRA LILY Name derived from Greek aron ("arum") and aima ("blood red"), referring to the red-blotched leaves of many species; this blotching is also found on the peduncles. The name was established in 1831 by K. F. P. von Martius, based on 3 Himalayan species, A. costatum, A. nepenthoides, and A. speciosum, which had been illustrated and described in 1828 by N. Wallich under the genus Arum. Since that time various botanists have given attention to the genus, among them Polunin and Stainton (1984), but these primarily addressed the species of E Asia and the Himalayas, the genus's centers of distribution. Arisaemas also occur in W Asia, tropical Africa, and E North America. Arisaema is closely allied to Arum but is distinguished from it by the absence of sterile flowers on the spadix. Pradhan (1990) notes that the differential production of male and female flowers appears to depend on nutrition during the previous year. Poor nutrition results in small tubers which usually produce male flowers, while large tubers invariable carry female flowers. Under cultivation, it should therefore be possible to regulate the production of male and female flowers. The foliage of Arisaema—usually 1-3 leaves are produced— is composed of leaflets, and based on their number and configuration, the genus can be divided into 4 groups: trifoliate, digitate, pedate, and radiate. The spadix can be dioecious and unisexual, with male and female flowers borne on different plants, or monoecious and bisexual, with the female flowers carried on the lower part and the male on the upper. An interesting and often attractive feature is that the spadix in many species has a terminal appendix, curved or whiplike and extending as much as 18 in. The noticeable part of the inflorescence is the ornamental bract, known as the spathe. Its color, form, and size provide the most obvious identifying characteristics. The spathe begins with the basal spathe tube, above which is the broad flattened spathelimb or spathe-blade, and ends in an apex whose form varies greatly depending on the species. In some species, the blade does not form a hood but is held erect, with the margins inrolled. The folding of the spathe-limb gives these plants their common name, and it takes little imagination to see the resemblance between plant and reptile. The seeds are enclosed in a fleshy fruit which, in most species, turns brilliant orange when ripe—another ornamental element. Most arisaemas grow in humus-rich soil on the forest floor, often in small, isolated colonies. Though among the most attractive plants for the woodland garden, arisaemas are not yet common in cultivation. Most kinds are quite expensive as a result of the long time needed to grow them to flowering size and the fact that tubers do not tolerate dry storage well. In the late 1990s, Chinese-grown tubers began to be seen on the market, but growers have reported that many of these were misnamed—and there is a pervasive fear that Chinese plants have

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been wild-collected. To my knowledge, there have been no serious attempts at hybridizing them, but it is exciting to envisage the potential for it. The uses of the plants are several. In Kashmir and Nepal, the roots of A. tortuosum var. curvatum are fed in small doses to cattle to deworm them. The seeds are given with salt to cure colitis, and the roots of A. spedosum are pounded and applied to snakebites, perhaps a return to the Doctrine of Signatures—if a plant looks like a snake, it must cure the bite. Sherpas living in the high mountains of Darjeeling dig the tubers of A. griffithii, pound them in a cloth, and keep them in running water for several days to leach out the toxins common to this genus; the powder is then dried and used for making bread in the winter months. As ornamentals, arisaemas belong in woodland settings, especially alongside streams, where there is adequate moisture and much organic matter in the soil. Since the flowers are more unusual than beautiful, the plants' greatest merit is in their foliage. They look best growing among other foliage plants, such as Hosta, Rodgersia, and ferns, which also like moisture and shade. They are well adapted to E United States, where they enjoy the summer rain and humidity; in the western states, they should be placed in regularly irrigated sites. CULTURE Hardiness varies widely among the species; many can be grown where winter temperatures drop to — 20°F, provided the soil is not saturated, but tropical species can be grown outdoors only in frost-free areas. Determination of the hardiness of individual species is still in the experimental and anecdotal phase. Plant tubers in fall or spring, setting them 3-4 in. deep and 10-12 in. apart. Some growers like to plant the tubers 12 in. deep for winter protection in colder climates; in the wild they may reach this depth. The soil should be high in organic matter but drain well. In containers, use a mixture of equal parts organically rich topsoil, leafmold, and sharp sand. After spring potting or planting, water sparingly for a few weeks until roots develop. Then increase the amount of water and feed with a balanced organic liquid fertilizer. As soon as the flowering stem appears, stop feeding, but continue to give water until the spathe has withered and the foliage has started to turn yellow. Slowly reduce watering so that by the time the foliage has died down, the plants are somewhat dry. They remain dormant over winter. Some species normally emerge quite late in spring, causing their proprietors anxiety. It is important that the plants not be exposed to direct sunlight, especially during the warmest part of the day; they prefer the filtered sunlight they would receive on the forest floor. PESTS AND DISEASES

These plants have no significant pest or disease problems, though viral infection has been reported in A. triphyllum. PROPAGATION

Tubers can be propagated by removal of offsets (which are produced sparingly), lifting the plants in fall after foliage dies down. Many enthusiasts advocate storing both seedling and older tu-

bers over winter in barely moist peat in a cool cellar or in a household refrigerator. Prior to planting in the spring, tubers can be cut, making certain that each portion has at least one growing point, and preferably 2. After cutting, store portions in dry sand until the cut surfaces become callused. Seed set is erratic, but when it occurs, a single plant may produce several hundred seeds. These should be soaked in water and rubbed to remove as much as possible of the fleshy outer coat, which contains a germination inhibitor; wear latex gloves when handling the seed, which contains irritants. Seeds are best sown as soon as ripe in fall, lightly covered. A suitable mix contains equal parts of chopped sphagnum moss, perlite, and vermiculite. Germination in warmth takes 4-8 weeks. If the seeds have been planted 1-2 in. apart, they can be left in the seed trays for a season. After 2-3 months, fertilize the seedlings with a weak dilution of organic liquid fertilizer. During the following winter, they should be kept dry and cool but not allowed to desiccate. They can be grown on in individual pots the following season. Seedlings start to flower in the 3rd season. SPECIES A. album. Himalayas; described 1880. Spathe white. Spadix covered with long hairs. Late spring. A. amurense. N Russia, E Siberia, N China, Korea, and Japan. Leaves solitary, 8-16 in. long, leaflets 5. Spathe green, striped white, shaded purple inside. Mid spring. Very hardy. Plate 179. A. anomalum. Malaya; introduced 1890. Unlike some other species, produces leaves and flowers at same time from fleshy rootstock. Leafstalk to 12 in.; leaflets 3, more or less equal, lanceolate, 4-6 in. long. Spathe has white stripes on dark brown to greenish purple background. Late spring. Requires frost-free conditions with plenty of moisture. Plate 180. A. candidissimum. W China, on open rocky slopes and ledges; introduced 1924, lost, and rediscovered and reintroduced 1993. Tuber flattish, round. Stem 15-18 in. Flowers appear first, in early summer. Spathe white with pinkish stripes inside; outside pale apple-green, especially at base. Spadix yellowish green. Leaf large, trifoliate. Orange seeds frequently produced in late summer. Hardy, but in very cold climates with no snow cover mulch must be provided. Plate 181. A. ciliatum. China. Leafstalk 8-12 in. Spathe red-brown, striped with white inside, early summer. A. concinnum. E Himalayas to Myanmar. Tuber globose. Leafstalk 12-24 in. Female spathe green or purple, striped white vertically. Male spathe bluish purple striped white. Late spring. A. consanguineum. Himalayas, from India (Kumaon) to China (Yunnan) and N Thailand; introduced 1893. Tuber flattish and round, about 4 in. in diameter. Leafstalk 18-36 in. Spathe green, striped brownish purple. Spadix unisexual. Early summer. Widely adapted and easily grown. A. costatum. C and E Nepal, at 6000-9000 ft. Leafstalk to 20 in. Spathe dark purple with clear white stripes. Spadix appendix thin, to 18 in. long. Underside of leaflets strongly ribbed. Late spring. A. decipiens. E Himalayas. Similar to A. rhizomatum. Spathe dull purple. Mid to late summer.

Arisaema A. dracontium. GREEN DRAGON, DRAGON ROOT, NORTH AMERICAN DRAGON ROOT. E North America. Tuber oblong, about 3/4 in. thick. Spadix often more than 10 in. long, extending from spathe; both are green, or spadix may be yellowish. Leaves 18 in. long, divided, slender, pointed. Flowers nestle under them on stems 18-30 in. Leafstalk mottled white at base. Late spring to early summer. Orange-red fruits in late summer. Good plant for moist, shady areas. A. echinatum. Nepal, India (Sikkim), and Bhutan. Spathe yellowish green flushed dark purple on upper half, early summer. A. elephas. China (Yunnan); introduced 1886. Tuber flattish, 2 in. in diameter. Leafstalk to 12 in. Spathe maroon-purple with whitish stripes. Plants dioecious. Late spring. A. engleri. China. Spathe burgundy-brown with white stripes, usually folds over mouth, summer. A. erubescens. Nepal and NE India (Sikkim and Darjeeling Hills of E Himalayas). Foliage umbrella-like, 7-14 leaflets. Spathe 1-3 in. long, 1-2 in. wide, brownish pink, red, or purple; waxy covering makes it blush pink or purplish pink, late spring. A. exappendiculatum. C and E Nepal; described 1965. Spathe blade green, upright, margins inrolled. Spadix unisexual, lacking appendix. Late spring to early summer. A.fargesii. China (Sichuan); introduced 1917. Similar to A. speciosum but spadix does not extend beyond spathe. Early spring. A.fimbriatum. Malaya; introduced 1884. Leaf stalk to 18 in. Spathe brownish purple, striped whitish. Spadix tip covered with purplish threads. Summer. Var. bakerianum, introduced 1897, is not striped. A. flavum. Asia, from Yemen to the Himalayas of Afghanistan into W China, on rocky slopes and in open woodland; introduced 1896. Tuber nearly round, small. Spathe short, pale yellow-green, sometimes striped deep purple within, with green veins. Spadix monoecious. Overall height to 15 in., but varies widely. Early summer. Plates 182,183. A. franchetianum var. purpureogaleatum. Himalayas and W China. Tuber globose. Leafstalk to 15 in. Spathe deep purple with white stripes. Peduncle purple. A. fraternum. E Himalayas, Myanmar, and W China. Spathe green, late spring. Requires high humidity. A. galeatum. E Himalayas, from India (Sikkim) to N Myanmar; introduced 1879. Leafstalk to 12 in. Spathe pale green, lower part purple, striped white. Tube purple within. Peduncle pale green. Late spring or early summer. A. griffithii. Himalayas. One of the most striking arisaemas in both size (largest in the genus) and coloration. Leaves generally 2, carried well above the spathe on stems 25-30 in.; 3 leaflets with yellow, red, or purple margins, colors being more pronounced in fall. Spathe tube about 3 in. long, purple with white ribs. Spathe limb 4-8 in. wide by 4-6 in. long, curves inward and is deep violet-purple reticulated with green and white. Two lateral lobes or flaps are formed as the spathe curls over and exposes the inner surface, dull violet reticulated green. Indentation between the lobes is 2-3 in. Spathe terminates in a tail to 4 in. long. Appendix of spadix to 40 in. long, though usually less,

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often reaching the ground. Peduncle stout, with green or purple blotches. Early summer. Var. pradhanii has a purple-brown spathe, reticulated clear to creamy white, blade with chocolate purple stripes alternating with green veins. Tubers are an important winter food for the people of Sikkim in India; harvesting is allowed for only a week, fortunately monitored by the forest department. Plate 184. A. inkiangense. China. Spathe tubular, 4 in. long, white with green at base. Spadix gray-brown, tip somewhat club-shaped, 4-8 in. long. Summer. A. intermedium. Himalayas, from Kashmir to Nepal and Darjeeling. Spathe pale green or dark purple. Spadix white, appendix a long tail. Late spring. Var. biflagellatum from Darjeeling district has yellowish green spathe hood. A. jacquemontii. Himalayas, from Afghanistan to SE Tibet, in alpine and subalpine zones. Leafstalk 10-14 in. Leaf generally solitary, with 3-9 segments. Spathe greenish white, held above foliage, has a thin tail, 1-5 in. long, curving upward, early summer. Hardy and tolerant of some summer dryness. Plate 185. A. kiushianum. Himalayas, from Afghanistan to SE Tibet. Leafstalk to 15 in. Spathe dark purple marked with white inside, early summer. A. leschenaultii. India; introduced 1864. Tuber globose, 2 in. across. Leafstalk to 24 in. Spathe green with wide purple stripes, summer. A. lingyuense. China. Leafstalk to 8 in. Spathe very large, to 5 in. across, 8 in. long; exterior green and white, interior velvety purple. Appendix of spadix 12-16 in. long, almost 1 in. wide. Summer. A. murrayi. India; introduced 1847. Tuber large. Leaf stalk to 15 in. Spathe tube green, blade white. A. neglectum. Sri Lanka and India. Tuber globose. Leafstalk 8-16 in. Spathe pale green. Plate 186. A. nepenthoides. Himalayas, W China, N Myanmar, Nepal, India (Sikkim), and Bhutan; described 1824, introduced 1879. Tuber flattish, 2l/2 in. wide. Leafstalk 8-16 in. long, stalk and peduncle yellowish brown, striated red and purple. Spathe mottled brownish red or green on exterior, striped and spotted white. Plants dioecious. Spring, one of the earliest to flower. Plate 187. A. omeiense. China. Spathe white at base, darkening toward tip, or sometimes light green or greenish yellow. Side lobes distinctly protruding from mouth. Spadix deep green-brown, tapering toward tip, with appendix often 4 in. long. Summer. A. ostiolatum. E Himalayas, in a small area in Darjeeling district; described 1961. Leafstalk greenish white, 9-10 in. long. Spathe dark purple striped white; roundish opening on blade, summer. A. pangii. China, at elevations to 10,000 ft. Spathe light brown, lined with white, appears before leaves in early summer. A. petiolulatum. E Himalayas; described 1893. Tubers cylindrical, rhizomatous. Leafstalk to 16 in. Spathe purple with fine veins. Spadix unisexual, slender, longer than spathe tube, late spring. A. propinquum. Himalayas, in Nepal, Kashmir, and SE Tibet. Spathe deep purple (rarely green), blade striped with white,

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Arisaema

margins checkered with pale green. Spadix tail-like, purple. Flowering late spring. Plate 188. A. pulchrum. India; introduced 1879. Tuber globose. Leaf stalk mottled reddish or purplish. Leaf solitary. Spathe purplish, striped green or white. A. rhizomatum. NE India (Assam) and W China; described 1936. Tuber rhizomatous. Spathe lanceolate, fall. Var. nudum and var. viride are recorded. A. rhombiforme. China. Spathe brown and white striped, inflated at base but quickly narrowing. Spadix gray at tip, brown at base. A. ringens. Japan, Korea, and China. Tuber flattened. Spathe striped green and white, deeply hooded, with lobes or auricles that are purple within; blade deep purple. Leaves appear after flowering, 3-lobed, stout. Very early spring. Var. praecoxhas spathe striped green and gray without, brown and white on hood within. Var. sieboldii has plain purplish spathe. A. robustum. Japan. Spathe green with white stripes, or deep purple. Flowering early summer. A. saxatile. China (Hubei). Leafstalk 3-5 in. Spathe greenish cream to pure white; spadix yellow. Fragrant. A. serratum. Japan, Korea, China, and Kurile Islands; introduced 1899. Tuber globose. Leafstalk 24-36 in. Spathe green with white veins and stripes, early spring. A. sikokianum. Japan; introduced 1938. Leaf stalk to 18 in. or more. Leaves 3-lobed, often strikingly marked with silver. Spathe deep purple-brown outside, yellow-white within. Spadix pure white, club-shaped spadix. Late spring. A beautiful hardy plant, deservedly becoming quite popular. Plate 189. A. speciosum. Himalayas, from Nepal to W China; introduced 1872. Tuber jointed, looks somewhat like a rhizome. Leaves perhaps most attractive of the genus, typically 3-lobed with pale rose margins. Leafstalk mottled deep purple, 36 in. or more. Spathe greenish to reddish purple outside, inside more violet. Spadix variable in color, greenish purple to cream, with filament-like appendix often 15-20 in. long. Flowers carried below leaves, early spring. Grows well in mild coastal regions and in sheltered temperate locations where frost is not frequent or prolonged. Requires damp, moist conditions. Var. mirabile flowers later than type, has spadix that is thick at base. Plate 190. A. thunbergii. Japan. Spathe reddish to dark purple. Spadix wrinkled and elongated, 12-20 in. long. Spring. Var. urashima is smaller, has smooth spadix with appendix up to 24 in. long. Plate 191. A. tortuosum. Himalayas, from Kashmir to N Myanmar and SW China; described 1830. Tuber flat, round, very large (diameter of 4 ft. has been recorded). Inflorescence on short stalk before leaf emerges. Spathe green, or rarely dark purple, late spring. Leaf stalk 5-6 ft. Var. curvatum has smaller leaflets and blade of spathe purple. Plates 192,193. A. triphyllum. INDIAN TURNIP, JACK-IN-THE-PULPIT. Canada (Quebec) and E United States, in damp woodlands and almost swampy ground; introduced 1664. Tuber nearly round with lateral rhizomes. Leaves large, 3-lobed. Spadix brown. Spathe green or purplish brown, streaked or mottled with purple on inside; markings are quite variable. Overall height 12-24

in. Flowers carried below foliage from spring to early summer. Bright red fruits in late summer to early fall. Very moist conditions necessary in garden if plants are to perform well. Native Americans used them for food, cooking roots to eliminate toxins. Plate 194. A. verrucosum. W Himalayas to Bhutan. Tuber flattish. Spathe striped and mottled with purple. Spadix elongated to 12- to 18-in. thread. Late spring. Var. utilefrom India (Sikkim), E Himalayas, introduced 1880, has white spathe closely striped in purple, spadix tip 3-6 in. long. A. vexillatum. E Nepal; described 1973. Spathe constricted at throat with white margins, broadening to a kidney-shaped blade, green with purple mottling, early summer. A. wattii. NE India, rare; described 1893. Leaves 2. Leafstalk to 10 in. Spadix appendix has clublike structure at tip, late spring. A. wrayi. Malaya; introduced 1889. Leaf stalk to 18 in. Spathe pale yellowish green or lilac with darker stripes. Plate 195. A. yamatense. Japan. Leafstalk to 16 in. Spathe green, spring. A. yunnanense. China (Yunnan). Spathe green and white, mouth broadly spreading, late spring to early summer. Quite hardy. SYNONYMS A. abbreviatum see A. flavum. A. affine see A. continuum. A. alienatum see A. concinnum. A. aridum see A. saxatile. A. atrorubens see A. triphyllum. A. bakerianum see A. fimbriatum var. bakerianum. A. biflagellatum see A. intermedium var. biflagellatum. A. cornutum see A. jacquemontii. A. costatum var. sikkimense see A. propinquum. A. curvatum see A. tortuosum, A. tortuosum var. curvatum. A. dolosum see A. intermedium. A. erubescensvar. consanguineum see A. consanguineum. A. exile see A. jacquemontii. A. griffithii var. verrucosum see A. verrucosum. A. helleborifolium see A. tortuosum. A. hookeri see A. griffithii. A. hookerianum see A. griffithii. A. intermedium var. propinquum see A. propinquum. A. japonicum see A. serratum. A. mirabile see A. speciosum var. mirabile. A. ochraceum see A. nepenthoides. A. papillosum see A. leschenaultii. A. pradhanii see A. griffithii var. pradhanii. A. praecox see A. ringens var. praecox. A. purpureogaleatum see A. franchetianum var. purpureogaleatum. A. sazensoo see A. sikokianum. A. sieboldii see A. ringens var. sieboldii. A. sikkimense see A. propinquum. A. stracheyanum see A. intermedium. A. urashima see A. thunbergii var. urashima. A. utile see A. verrucosum var. utile.

Arthropodium A. vituperatum see A. consanguineum. A. wallichianum see A. propinquum. A. wallichianum var. sikkimense f. propinquum see A. propinquum. A. wightii see A. neglectum. A. wilsonii see A. elephas.

Arisarum—Araceae A plant name originally used by Dioscorides. There are 3 species, all in W Mediterranean and on nearby Atlantic islands. Peter Boyce (1990) writes that A. vulgare and A. simorrhinum grow together in SW Spain and that he observed hybrids of these species, with a large number of intermediate forms. There are similarities between this genus and Arum, but examination of the flowers shows their differences. Linnaeus described Arisarum vulgare under the name Arum arisarum, but Philip Miller in 1754 published the name Arisarum for this plant. Arisarum species have a single anther in the staminate flowers, whereas Arum species have 3 or 4 anthers. In Arisarum there are few pistillate flowers; in Arum they are numerous. In Arisarum there are no sterile flowers on the spadix, but a zone of sterile flowers occurs between the male and female flowers on the spadix of Arum. Arisarum vulgare has tuberous rootstocks, and the leaves arise directly from the rootstock. The leaf blades are sagittate. The flowers are carried above the foliage in A. vulgare, beneath it in the other species. Arisarum vulgare has leaves mottled or flecked with lighter green and purple specks on the petioles; the petioles are also flecked in A. simorrhinum, but not in A. proboscideum. In the latter 2 species, the leaves are green. It is the spathe that makes Arisarum attractive. The flowers (unlike some foul-smelling aroids) are practically without odor. Their form earns them the common names friar's cowls (from the hoodlike spathe) and mouse plants, the name given to A. proboscideum because the appendix of the spadix resembles a mouse's tail. These are ground covers for shady areas. More unusual than interesting, they deserve consideration in any eclectic garden. Arisarum proboscideum is a good woodland plant where the soil is constantly moist; the other species are better where moisture is available during their growing season but the soil dries out later—perhaps in the woodland rock garden. CULTURE The hardiest species is A. proboscideum, able to withstand temperatures to 10°F if protected with a mulch. This species likes shade and well-drained soil with good organic content. Plant the rhizomes 1-2 in. deep, 6 in. apart. Do not allow the soil to dry out. Once plants are established, leave undisturbed. Arisarum vulgare and A. simorrhinum should be grown in a cool greenhouse in frosty climates, and all species grow well in containers in a free-draining soil mix. The tubers should be kept moist and, after flowering, must be kept growing until the foliage starts to turn yellow. Once the foliage has died down, stop watering and place the pots in a warm location. Do not water until the end of summer.

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Plants should be protected from slugs and snails. PROPAGATION

Division of the rootstock when dormant is the best means of propagation. The tubers of A. simorrhinum and A. vulgare must not be allowed to dry out. Arisarum simorrhinum is best lifted and divided in May after the foliage has died down, A. vulgare best lifted in late fall. Replant as soon as possible. Arisarum proboscideum is best lifted and divided in fall after foliage has died down. From seed, the plants will reach flowering size in 2 or 3 seasons. Seed is best sown as soon as ripe in a mix of peat and sand, barely covering the seed. Keep moist, give indirect light, and grow on for a season in individual pots. SPECIES A. proboscideum. MOUSE PLANT. C and S Italy and SW Spain, in woodland where there is some summer moisture; long in cultivation. Rootstock a slender rhizome. Plant 6-8 in. tall, often much less; colony-forming, making a mat. Leaves dark green leaves, 6 in. long, 4 in. wide, with distinct, pointed lobes; leaves sagittate on petioles 10 in. long and held over the flowers. Flowers on stems of 6-10 in. Spathe a little over 1 in. long, deep maroon-chocolate brown with whitish, bulbous base veined brown. Spadix small, 1 in. or more long, whitish with white tip, entirely enclosed inside spathe; it has a slender appendix or "tail," often more than 4 in. long. Early spring. Fruits green. Plate 196. A. simorrhinum. FRIAR'S COWL. SW Spain, Portugal, Gibraltar, and Morocco. Spathe blunt, purple-brown, the tube a little shorter than the spadix and forming a cowl over the spadix, which is a little over 1 in. long. Spadix globular at the tip, giving the impression of a face inside the cowl. Leaves sagittate, light green, on stems to 6 in., held above flowers; petioles have purple spots and lines on them. Late fall to early winter. Not as hardy or demanding of moisture as A. proboscideum and tolerates more sun but needs moisture during growing season. A. vulgare. W Mediterranean, Canary Islands, and Azores, in sunny, dry locations, on limestone hillsides often beneath olive trees and pines among rocks; introduced 1596. A little taller than A. proboscideum, sometimes over 10 in. The only species in which flowers are carried above foliage. Leaves to 12 in., with sagittate or heart-shaped lobes, sometimes rounded, frequently flecked with lighter green or sometimes blotched, veined, or marbled with silver. Leaf stalks flecked or spotted purple. Spathe cylindrical, with ovate blade to 21/2 in. long with a short point at the apex, lower part green-veined over white; upper portion forms a cowl and is dark maroon. Spadix greenish or purplish, protrudes slightly from the spathe and tends to curve downward, often to a point halfway down the spathe tube. Late spring to early summer. Fruits greenish. Plate 197.

Arthropodium—Asphodelaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek arthron ("joint") andpous ("foot"), referring to the jointed pedicels. A genus of about 12 species in

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Arum

the Southern Hemisphere, in Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, New Caledonia, and Madagascar. Some species were once in Dichopogon, from which it was formerly distinguished by its uncrested stamens and its fringed filaments (they are smooth in plants formerly called Dichopogon). Arthropodium species have a rhizomatous rootstock, frequently with tuberous roots. The thin tubers last 1 or 2 seasons, but additional tubers are produced each year. Most species are tufted plants in which the foliage arises directly from the rootstock and the flowering stems have no leaves. The leaves may be narrow or lanceolate, evergreen or deciduous, sheathing at the base. The flowers are carried terminally on scapes which may branch once, twice, or many times; in certain species, rather large panicles are produced. There are 6 tepals, which open widely (some species have flowers over 4 in. in diameter). The 6 anther filaments have hairy appendages along their entire length or only part of it. These hairy filaments distinguish Arthropodium from Anthericum, to which it is closely related but which does not have hairs on the filaments. The flowers are often pendent, white or various shades of purple, blooming in late spring or early summer. None of the species is commonly grown outside its native land, but several are worth using in mild gardens or cool greenhouses. They should be grown where the unusual bearded filaments can be closely observed. CULTURE

None of the species is very hardy, though the New Zealanders can survive temperatures around 25°F. The others cannot tolerate more than 1 or 2 degrees of frost, and then only for brief periods. They prefer a soil high in organic matter, free-draining but moisture-retentive. A sunny location is best, or light shade in very hot areas. They need moisture through their flowering period in early summer, then should be gradually allowed to dry—except A. cirrhatum, which needs moisture throughout the year. In containers, set the rootstocks 2 in. deep, 8-10 in. apart. Plant in late summer or early fall. Little or no fertilizer is required. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lifting and dividing the rootstocks prior to the start of growth in spring is the best method of increase. The evergreen species can be lifted and divided early in spring or after flowering. Seed should be sown as soon as ripe, barely covered with sieved sphagnum moss, in a soil mix high in organic matter. Temperature at night should be above 55°F. Transplant seedlings into individual pots as soon as they are large enough to handle. They are large enough to plant out after 2 growing seasons. SPECIES A. candidum. New Zealand. Rootstock a short rhizome with tuberous roots. Foliage grasslike, up to 30 leaves forming a tuft. Flowering stem to 12 in. Flowers generally 2 or 3, held in the axils of the lower bracts, white, barely l/2 in. in diameter; tepals lanceolate, the exterior ones distinctly 3-nerved. Filaments have

white hairs along their entire length. Flowering summer (January to February in the wild). 'Maculatum' is a form with pinkish white flowers and purple-brown foliage. A. capillipes. Australia, in SW corner and C Western Australia, near Ashburton River, in sandy moist soils, freshwater swamps, and seasonally inundated areas that are dry during summer, when the plants are dormant. Rhizome curled, with numerous thin root tubers which survive 1-2 seasons but are produced annually. Leaves to 4 in. long, in a loose, erect rosette, bluish purple at base when young. Widely branched scapes carry terminal, solitary, pendent flowers barely 1 in. in diameter, pink with broad green midrib and undulating margins. Anthers purple to black, with prominent thin hairs at their base; these are quite attractive. Flowering summer (October to March in the wild). A. cirrhatum. ROCK LILY. New Zealand. Leaves evergreen, underside whitish. Stems to 40 in. Flowers white, summer (November to December in the wild). A. dianellaceum. FLAX LILY. Australia (Queensland), in sandy areas. Leaves broad at base. Branches slender. A. fimbriatum. FRINGED LILY. Australia (New South Wales). Leaves basal. Flowers white, heavily fringed, late spring. A. milleflorum. PALE VANILLA LILY. Australia (New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia) and Tasmania, widely distributed in hilly and rocky places. Leaves upright, grayish, and grasslike, to 10 in. long and to 1 in. wide. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers to 1 in. in diameter, 3 inner tepals much wider than 3 outer, pale lilac with distinct vanilla scent, sometimes whitish, arranged in small clusters. Filaments covered with small white hairs, looking like frost. Flowering throughout much of the year, but heaviest in late spring (September to October in the wild). Each plant bears many crisp, white, nonstarchy tubers, which were probably cooked by the Aborigines but can be eaten raw. The extended flowering period suggests the possibility of using this species in hybridizing. Plate 198. A. minus. Australia, rare in Tasmania, in moist places in mountains. Tubers edible. Stems to 12 in. Flowers fragrant, solitary, nodding stem, red-purple. Stems usually unbranched. A. preissii. Western Australia. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers blue to purple, early spring to summer (August to December in the wild). A. strictum. CHOCOLATE LILY, GRASS LILY. Australia (New South Wales). Similar to A. fimbriatum. Flowering late spring (August to October in the wild). SYNONYMS

A. paniculatum see A. milleflorum. A. pendulum (invalid) see A. milleflorum. A. relexum see A. candidum.

Arum—Araceae From Greek aron, the name used for A. dioscoridis by Theophrastus. A great number of plants now classified in other genera were formerly assigned to this genus, but "arum" remains a common name for many plants in the family Araceae. The

Arum genus now contains about 26 species, which are native to Europe (especially around the Mediterranean) and W Asia, with others in North Africa and the Himalayas. An excellent monograph of the genus was written by Peter Boyce (1993a). As in all the arum family, the inflorescence consists of a spikelike spadix, surrounded by a broad spathe. In Arum, the spadix of a single plant bears both female and male flowers, which are separated by a zone of sterile, rudimentary flowers. The female flowers are on the bottom portion of the spadix, and the males on the upper portion. The female flowers have a 1celled ovary. The spadix has a tip where sterile flowers (or no flowers) occur. The leaves are not lobed. These 2 features—unlobed leaves and the male and female flowers on the spadix with sterile flowers between—distinguish Arum from Arisaema. The leaves, like those of many other Mediterranean bulbs, are produced in the fall or winter, followed by the flowers in early spring. The tubers of Arum contain starch, unfortunately combined with acrid compounds which can be removed only by the application of heat and water or some acidic liquid. Arum dioscoridis is recorded by Theophrastus as having been eaten in ancient Greece; the leaves and roots were first soaked in vinegar. Arum italicum was used by the inhabitants of the Balearic Islands, who cooked the roots and mixed them with honey to make cakes. For several years, plants were grown on the island of Guernsey for the commercial production of arrowroot (normally obtained from a tropical Maranta species). Arum maculatum, with its thick and tuberous roots, was grown in S England for its starch. There also are records of its being cooked and eaten by the English when other food was scarce. It was cooked and eaten in Albania, and the leaves were eaten by the Greeks after being dried and then boiled. Taro (Colocasia esculenta), a staple food of many Pacific islands, was formerly included in Arum. These plants are appropriate for the woodland garden or the wild garden. Designs that feature foliage often incorporate the well-marked leaves of some forms of A. italicum. Interest in the genus is increasing among collectors, and new species (especially from Turkey) are being propagated and introduced to cultivation. CULTURE The more commonly grown arums are tolerant of a wide range of soils, and established colonies can frequently be seen in abandoned gardens. To perform well, they require a soil rich in organic matter. Both sun and light shade (especially in hot climates) are suitable; species from the Mediterranean region prefer to have more sun, and are best in warmer climates. Moisture is needed during the growing season. The tubers should not be allowed to dry out; when purchasing them, select those that are plump and firm, and discard any that are the least bit shriveled. In preparing the location for a planting, it is essential that all perennial weeds be removed because they are difficult to separate from the arums once they are entangled. Plant the tubers 3-4 in. deep and 8-12 in. apart. Established plants do not seem

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to mind being on the dry side in late summer; in Mediterranean climates like that of the U.S. West, they go dormant around mid summer and resume growth with the fall rains. No fertilizer is needed, but topdressing with organic matter each year in the fall is beneficial. Once established, leave them undisturbed. When overcrowded—the signs are smaller leaves and a drop in flower production—lift, divide, and replant them when dormant. Do not lift and divide plants in active growth because this will result in a loss of flower production until the plants are reestablished. PESTS AND DISEASES

Pests and diseases rarely pose a problem. PROPAGATION

Lifting and dividing the tubers while they are dormant is the best way to propagate the plants. Use a sharp knife to remove any signs of rot and cut the mass into pieces with growing points. Keep the tubers moist and replant as soon as possible. Plants can be raised from seed but will not flower for 3-4 years. The fleshy coating (pericarp) should be removed from the seed before sowing because it retards germination; use gloves when handling it, since it can cause skin irritation. Sow the seeds individually in small plastic pots in a soil mix with high humus content and barely cover them. Keep them moist. Germination will occur at the time the species normally comes into growth. Species from areas where they are subject to winter chill may not germinate for a year. As soon as germination takes place, the little seedling forms a small tuber. Keep the seedlings growing, feeding them periodically with weak liquid fertilizer. Plant out 3-year-old seedlings. SPECIES A. alpinum. Europe from S Spain to S Sweden, Crete, Balkan Peninsula, and NW Turkey; described 1851. Tuber vertical rather than horizontal as in A. maculatum. Spathe pale green outside, purple inside, greenish white at base, late spring. A. apulum. SE Italy. Spathe purple with green margins inside, greenish purple outside, mid spring flowering. A. balansanum. Turkey (SW Asia Minor); described 1983. Spathe green outside, pale green with purple wash inside, late spring. A. byzantinum. NE Europe and Turkey. Spathe pale green with brownish purple-stains on exterior, late spring. A. concinnatum. E Mediterranean, from Greece (Peloponnese) to SW Turkey. Leafstalks to 18 in. Spathe pale greenish with purple interior and margins, spring to early summer. A. creticum. Crete and nearby islands, and Turkey, on rocky hillsides and open meadows among low shrubs; described 1853. Tuber subglobose. Leaves with their stalks to 12 in. long, deep, shiny green, appearing in fall. Leafstalk 8-9 in., blade 4-5 in. long and 3 in. wide. Spathe bright yellow or greenish; the only Arum with a spathe that has a swollen tube. Spadix yellow or sometimes purplish, on stalks 10-15 in. tall. Pleasantly scented of lemon and freesia. Late spring. One of the best species for warmer climates, but needs protection where temperatures drop below about 25°F. Plate 199.

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A. cylindraceum. Italy; described 1844. Similar to A. alpinum. A. cyrenaicum. NE Libya and S Crete; described 1912. Spathe greenish with purple margins on exterior, interior purple with green tip, early to mid spring. A. dioscoridis. Cyprus and S Turkey to Israel. Tuber large and rounded, often over 2 in. in diameter. Leaves to 12 in. or more long, on stalks twice or more the length of the blade, emerging in winter before flowering. Inflorescence unpleasantly scented, mid to late spring, to 12 in. tall. Spathe color quite variable: almost black with yellowish markings, or light yellow to pale green. Spadix black-purple to maroon; appendix 12 in. long. There are many varieties, mostly specific to certain region. Var. cyprium has spathe-limb pale green, spadix appendage sooty purple. Var. dioscoridis has spathe-limb stained with purple, upper l/3 of spathe pale green, unspotted, and a stubby spadix appendix, 1/4 in. wide. Var. philistaeum has spathe-limb uniformly purple, spadix appendage very slim. Var. syriacum has spathe-limb pale green, unstained, with small, scattered blotches; spadix appendage purple to dull yellowish. Plate 200. A. elongatum. E Europe, Bulgaria, Greece, N Turkey, and Belarus; described 1857. Spathe brownish purple or crimson inside, green with purple margins outside, to 10 in., mid to late spring. Subsp. alpinariae from N Turkey, described 1988, has bright crimson spathe in early summer. A. euxinum. Turkey, along coast of Black Sea; described 1983. Spathe pale greenish white, stained purple at margins, late spring. A. gratum. Syria, Lebanon, and W Turkey; described 1856. Spathe pale green flushed pale purple outside, olive flushed pale purple inside. Flowers pleasantly scented, late spring to early summer. A. hainesii. E Iraq; described 1981. Spathe pale green, mid spring. A. hygrophilum. Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Jordan, and NE Morocco; introduced 1860. Spathe green or purplish, base whitish outside, deep purple inside; blade pale green with purple margin. Inflorescence to 12 in., late winter to mid spring. A. idaeum. Crete. Spathe white with dull purple margin; spadix deep purple. Inflorescence 8-12 in., late spring. A. italicum. Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, W and N Turkey, most of Europe, and Iraq, in woodland and scrub; introduced 1693. Rootstock a tuber. Leaves produced in fall or early winter, carried on strong stems 6-15 in. long. Leaf blade sagittate or cordate, often veined silver-gray, cream, or yellowish green, often marked with irregular purple-black spots, seldom entirely green. The variegated forms are often referred to by the invalid names 'Pictum' and 'Marmoratum', causing confusion with the true A. pictum and with A. concinnatum. Spathe, on a strong stem 4-8 in. tall, is 5-10 in. long, greenish white inside, greenish to yellowish outside, base often brownish purple. Spadix 4-6 in. long, dark yellow. Flowering late spring to early summer. Subsp. albispathum from the Caucasus and Crimea has spathe usually white both on exterior and interior, spadix pale yellow; late spring. Subsp. canariense from the Canary Islands and Azores has spathe-limb greenish white outside, purple inside, petiole and peduncle dark purple. Subsp. neglectum from S

Great Britain, Channel Islands, NW France (Brittany and Normandy) and down the Atlantic coast to N Spain, has spathe greenish white with brown-purple stain along external margins and midvein, distinctive foliage, first leaves in early winter oval with 2 equal triangular lobes, followed by leaves that are narrower and more sagittate. Several cultivars are in commerce: 'Cyclops', large, dark green foliage, reliable flowering; 'Spotted Jack', leaves both veined and black-spotted. Plate 201. A. kasrunicum. Iran; described 1912. Little known. One wonders if these apparent geographic variants are deserving of subspecies classification. A. korolkowii. N Iran, Afghanistan, and C Asia; introduced early 1980s. Leaves emerge in fall. Spathe bright green flushed pale purple, mid spring. A. lucanum. S Italy. Spathe pale greenish yellow, stained purplish red inside, mid spring. A. maculatum. LORDS-AND-LADIES, CUCKOOPINT. W, C, and S Europe and Great Britain, common in English in hedgerows and woodlands. Leaves 12-18 in. long, often spotted purple, to 12 in. tall. Spathe pale yellowish green inside, deeper-colored and spotted purple outside. Spadix darker yellow. Flowers in spring with fruits in late summer, not as attractive as those of A. italicum. A rampant spreader and the hardiest species in the genus. Plates 202, 203. A. melanopus. Syria and Lebanon; described 1882. Little known. A. neumayeri. Little-known species, possibly synonym of A. elongatum, A. nigrum, or A. orientale. A. nigrum. Balkan Peninsula and Greece. Tuber flattish, round, about 2 in. wide. Leaves 18 in. long; inflorescence much shorter. Spathe deep purple, a little lighter inside. Has merit in gardens when planted with other dark-colored plants. A. orientale. C and E Europe, Austria to Russia and NE Turkey. Tuber flat, round. Spathe narrow and tapering, greenish stained purple, to 12 in., late spring. Subsp. sintenisii from N Cyprus is larger. A. palaestinum. SOLOMON'S LILY. Syria, Lebanon, and Israel; introduced 1864. Tuber flat, round. Spathe purplish green outside; purplish black inside. Spadix bluish black. Inflorescence 8-12 in. Early to mid spring. Plate 204. A. pictum. Corsica, Balearic Islands, and Spain. Tuber subglobose. Leaves 6-12 in. long on stems to 10 in., deep green with yellowish veins. Inflorescence produced in fall before leaves. Spathe purple inside, lighter outside, to 10 in. Not to be confused with A. italicum 'Pictum', this species's principal merit is that it flowers in fall. A. purpureospathum. SW Crete; described 1987. Spathe deep purple with greenish base outside; purple or dull to deep bright purple inside, early spring. A. rupicola. Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Belarus to N Iran, and Middle East; introduced 1889. Tuber large, flattish, round. Spathe green with purplish margin outside, variable; greenish white stained deep purple or maroon inside. Inflorescence 8-12 in., odorless. Mid to late spring. Var. virescens from Turkey to Iran has greenish white spathe narrowly bordered purple.

Arum SYNONYMS

Note: See Boyce (1993a). A. albispathum see A. italicum subsp. albispathum, A. maculatum. A. balearicum see A. pictum. A. bulbiferum see Amorphophallus bulbifer. A. byzantinum see A. concinnatum. A. canariense see A. italicum subsp. canariense. A. conophalloides see A. rupicola. A. consobrinum see A. orientale. A. cornutum see Sauromatum venosum. A. corsicum see A. pictum. A. crinitum see Dracunculus muscivorus. A. cyprium see A. dioscoridis var. cyprium. A. detruncatum see A. rupicola. A. dioscoridis f. atropurpureum see A. dioscoridis var. philistaeum. A. dioscoridis f. confluens see A. dioscoridis var. cyprium. A. dioscoridis f. guttatum see A. dioscoridis var. syriacum. A. dioscoridis var. liepoldtii see A. dioscoridis. A. dioscoridis var. luschanii see A. dioscoridis. A. dioscoridis var. punctatum see A. dioscoridis var. cyprium. A. dioscoridis f. punctatum see A. dioscoridis var. cyprium. A. dioscoridis var. smithii see A. dioscoridis. A. dioscoridis var. spectabile see A. dioscoridis. A. dioscoridis var. syriacum f. guttatum see A. dioscoridis var. syriacum. A. dioscoridis f. viridulum see A. dioscoridis var. syriacum. A. dioscoridis var. viridulum see A. dioscoridis var. syriacum. A. divaricatum see A. italicum. A. dracunculus see Dracunculus vulgaris. A. ehrenbergii see A. rupicola. A. elongatum f. detruncatum see A. rupicola. A. elongatum subsp. engleri see A. rupicola. A. engleri see A. rupicola. A. facchinii see A. italicum. A. flavumsee Arisaema flavum. A. giganteum see A. rupicola. A. gracile see A. alpinum. A. hygrophilum var. ponticum see A. euxinum. A. hygrophilum var. rupicola see A. rupicola. A. immaculatum see A. maculatum. A. incomptum see A. euxinum, A. orientale. A. intermedium see A. alpinum. A. italicum var. amoenum see A. maculatum. A. italicum subsp. byzantinum see A. byzantinum. A. 'italicum var. byzantinum see A. byzantinum, A. cyrenaicum. A. italicum var. byzantinum f. purpureopetiolatum see A. concinnatum. A. italicum var. byzantinum f. viridipetiolatum see A. concinnatum. A. italicum subsp. concinnatum see A. concinnatum. A. italicum var. concinnatum see A. concinnatum. A. italicum var. foucaudii see A. italicum subsp. neglectum. A. italicum var. gaibolense see A. italicum.

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italicum var. hercegovinum see A. italicum. italicum var. immaculatum see A. italicum. italicum var. intermedium see A. italicum. italicum var. lanceolatum see A. alpinum. italicum var. maculatum see A. italicum. italicum var. neglectum see A. italicum subsp. neglectum. italicum var. normale see A. italicum. italicum var. sieberi see A. concinnatum. italicum var. typicum see A. italicum. italicum var. yvesiz see A. italicum. kotschyi see A. rupicola. liepoldtii see A. dioscoridis var. dioscoridis. longicirrhum see A. hygrophilum. maculatum subsp. alpinum see A. alpinum. maculatum var. alpinum see A. alpinum. maculatum subsp. angustatum see A. alpinum. maculatum var. angustatum see A. alpinum. maculatum var. angustatum subvar. alpinum see A. alpinum. A. maculatum var. angustatum subvar. gracile see A. alpinum. A, maculatum var. angustatum f. parvulum see A. italicum. A. maculatum var. attenuatum see A. alpinum. A. maculatum var. cylindraceum see A. cylindraceum. A. maculatum subsp. danicum see A. alpinum. A. maculatum var. italicum see A. italicum. A. magdalenae see A. palaestinum. A, majoricense see A. italicum. A. malyi see A. maculatum. A. marmoratum see A. concinnatum. A. melanoleucum see Zantedeschia albomaculata. A. modicense see A. italicum subsp. italicum. A. nickelii see A. concinnatum. A. nigrum var. apulum see A. apulum. A. nigrum var. petteri see A. orientale. A. numidicum see A. italicum. A. orientale subsp. amoenum see A. maculatum. A, orientale subsp. danicum see A. alpinum. A. orientale subsp. detruncatum see A. rupicola. A. orientale subsp. elongatum see A. elongatum. A. orientale subsp. engleri see A. rupicola. A. orientale var. gratum see A. gratum. A. orientale subsp. incomptum see A. euxinum. A, orientale subsp. lucanum see A. lucanum. A, orientale var. nigrum see A. nigrum. A. pentlandii see Zantedeschia albomaculata. A. petteri see A. orientale. A. philistaeum see A. dioscoridis var. philistaeum. A. phrygium see A. balansanum. A. ponticum see A. italicum. A. proboscideum see Arisarum proboscideum. A. provinciale see A. italicum. A. pyrenaeum see A. maculatum. A. rehmannii see Zantedeschia rehmannii. A. sanctum see A. palaestinum. A. spectabile see A. dioscoridis. A. spirale see Cryptocoryne spiralis. A,

A A A A A A A. A, A. A. A. A, A, A. A. A. A,

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Asarum

A. syriacum see A. dioscoridis var. syriacum. A. tenuifolium see Biarum tenuifolium. A. transsilvanicum see A. alpinum. A. trapezuntinum see A. maculatum. A. variolatum see A. nigrum. A. vernale see A. italicum subsp. neglectum. A. virescens see A. rupicola var. virescens. A. vulgare see A. maculatum. A. wettsteinii see A. concinnatum. A. zelebori see A. maculatum.

Asarum—Aristolochiaceae WlLD GINGER, ASARABACCA

A name of obscure origin and reference, taken from a Greek name used by Dioscorides: asaron, from a ("without") and seira ("cord, string, band"). This genus of the Northern Hemisphere includes 70-80 species. Asarum species are found in temperate to subtropical climates. One species is native to Europe and five to North America; the remainder occur in E Asia, with centers of distribution in Japan and China. Some Japanese taxonomists have split the species of that region into several narrowly defined genera, 2 of which are Japonasarum and Heterotropa. Certain species of E United States are placed by some botanists in a separate genus, Hexastylis, but this view is not followed in the present discussion. Asarums are commonly known in English as gingers because of their aromatic rhizomes and foliage, but they are not to be confused with the culinary ginger (Zingiber) or the tall ornamental Hedychium species known as ginger lilies. The roots of Asarum canadense have been used, dried and pulverized, as a substitute for ginger in parts of Canada. All species are low-growing, generally around 6 in. tall. Some are evergreen, others deciduous; the evergreen species tend to lose their foliage if exposed to colder conditions than those to which they are best adapted. The rootstock is a rhizome, sometimes short, sometimes long; it grows just at the surface of the soil and may become slightly exposed in older plantings. The foliage arises directly from the rhizome. The cordate leaves are mostly dark green, but in Japan—where Asarum has long been cultivated and is the focus of specialist growers—a great variety of forms with unusual leaf shapes and markings has been selected. In Japanese folklore, the plants are said to protect against earthquakes and storms, and so they are often planted in front of houses. The select forms are extremely expensive in Japan—some sell for thousands of dollars—and they have not penetrated Western horticulture to a great extent; however, the attractive foliage and curious flowers of many species are beginning to attract collectors worldwide, and the more common species are suitable for groundcover and foliage accents in woodland and other shady sites in gardens, where they are never invasive. Their present lack of popularity is due in part to their slowness of propagation and consequent high price. Attempts at micropropagation have not been successful. The flowers are produced singly, mostly in spring. In most species, they are hidden beneath the foliage. They have short

peduncles, and their colors run to dull green, purple-brown, or dull red-brown—not very showy except in 1 or 2 exceptional species—and the flowers of many are ill-scented. The perianth has 3 sepals, separate or joined to form a tube, and 3 perianth lobes, which can be erect, spreading, or reflexed. The ovary is inferior. There are 12 stamens and 6 styles, which can be separate with terminal stigmas or united with lateral stigmas. Numerous seeds are produced in a fleshy capsule. CULTURE Rich woodland soils, slightly acid with high humus content and moisture throughout the growing season, are ideal. Strong sunlight does not suit any species, but they enjoy good light; they can persist in dense shade but flourish better in high or dappled shade. Plant the rhizomes in spring, just at or just below the soil surface, spacing them 8-12 in. apart. Once they have produced roots in their new site, they can be fertilized on a regular basis with a weak solution of organic liquid fertilizer. This helps speed growth; many asarums are slow growers. Cease feeding in mid to late summer, especially in colder climates. Although the plants appreciate steady moisture, they resent standing water and stagnant soil. Established plantings should be topdressed with an organic mulch each spring. Once they are established, leave plants undisturbed. PESTS AND DISEASES

These low-growing woodland plants with their rather fleshy leaves are very vulnerable to attack by slugs and snails. Waterlogged soil invites rots which attack the rhizomes. Rare or tender species, which are often grown in containers in cool but frost-free greenhouses, must be shaded and carefully protected from slugs, their worst enemy. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide established plants in early spring or early summer. The rhizomes must not be allowed to dry out before replanting. Harvest seed, wash it carefully to remove fleshy portions, and sow it immediately, without allowing it to dry out. Use a sandy, humus-rich soil mix, barely covered with sieved sphagnum moss or very fine peat moss. Keep pots shaded, cool but not frozen, and moist. As soon as seedlings are large enough to handle, pot into individual pots, using the same mix. Grow on in shade until plants can be placed in permanent sites, usually after 2 seasons of growth. Frequently, young seedlings can be found around established plants; these can be lifted in the spring and potted. SPECIES A. arifolium. United States (Virginia to Louisiana). Leaves evergreen, to 8 in. long, as wide or even a little wider, sagittate or deltoid, on petioles 8 in. long, quite variable; often veined light green or silver. Flowers dark purple, late spring to early summer. Deserves wide cultivation. Var. ruthii, distributed from SW Virginia and Kentucky to Alabama, has a shorter calyx, flowers earlier. A. asaroides. Japan. Leaves evergreen, broadly oval, 4-5 in. long, 2-4 in. wide, with petioles 8 in. or more long. Leaf veins on

Asarum upper side are hairy; those on underside are not. Flowers carried very close to the ground, greenish brown with rounded lobes, spring. A. asperum. Japan. Leaves evergreen, oval, 3 in. long, dull green with white or gray markings. Throat of flower constricted with ridges, perianth lobes cordate, early spring. A. blumei. Japan. Leaves evergreen, about 4 in. long, 3 in. wide; hairy, especially on veins and margins, arrow-shaped or ovate with spreading lobes. Flowers greenish brown, net-veined inside, spring. A. canadense. E Canada and United States (Maine to North Carolina and Kansas), along the coast. Leaves deciduous, cordate, 4 in. long and wide. Petioles 6 in. long, covered with fine hairs. Flowers brown-purple, spring. Quite variable. Var. acuminatum has pointed leaves. Var. ambiguum has lobes slightly ascending, descending with age. Var. reflexum has leaves with the lobes reflexed. Common in horticulture in its region; forms a good mat. The rhizomes are often exposed in long-established plants, so it is sometimes known as "Canadian snake-root." A. caudatum. United States (Washington, Oregon, Santa Cruz Mountains of California, to Montana) and Canada (British Columbia), in subalpine forest and moist screes. Rhizome slender. Leaves evergreen, cordate, 4 in. long, leathery when mature, covered with fine hairs when young; later hairs are confined to the veins on both upper and lower surfaces. Petioles to 6 in. Flowers red-brown, small, late spring. A vigorous grower and excellent groundcover, tolerating deep shade of conifers and (in cool climates) full sun. Plate 205. A. caudigerum. S China. Leaves, stems, and flower all hairy. Leaves evergreen, broad, cordate. Flower green with reddish spots, lobes triangular and rounded with 1-in. tail. A. caulescens. China and Japan. Small rhizome branches repeatedly and soon forms a mat. Leaves deciduous, cordate, 2 in. long, 3 in. wide, bright shiny green when young, becoming dull when older. Flowers emerge from the junction of the paired leaves, are pale to rich pink outside, greenish at base; perianth lobes reflex to expose interior, which is speckled green and reddish purple. White-flowered forms have been found. Flowering early spring, as or just after leaves emerge. A. costatum. Japan. Leaves evergreen, oval or sagittate. Flower shiny purple inside, upright, with rounded lobes, late spring. A. crassum. S Japan. Leaves evergreen, glossy green, thick, sagittate. Flower purple with white down, lobes folded, early spring. A. curvastigma. Japan (E Honshu). A small evergreen plant. Perianth lobes triangular, wavy; style hooked. Flowering early to mid autumn. A. dimidianum. Japan. Similar to A. sieboldii, but lobes upright and pointed. A. europeaum. ASARABACCA. W Europe. Rhizome thick. Leaves evergreen, kidney-shaped, to 4 in. long, broader than long, dark glossy green with hairs on veins of upper surface. Petioles to 6 in. Flowers brownish outside, distinctly red inside, spring. Var. caucasicum has sharper tips on the leaves. A. fauriei. N Japan, in mountains. Leaves small, shiny green,

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rounded, evergreen. Flowers similar to those of A. nipponicum, but with raised ring in throat. Mid spring. A. fudsinoi. Japan, on Ryukyu Islands. Native to a mild climate, it must be grown frost-free. Rhizome much branched, forming a dense mat. Leaves evergreen and persisting for several years, cordate, longer than most other species, to 8 in. long and 41/2 in. wide, with a sharply point tip which recurves slightly. Leaf color deep green, very shiny when young, gradually becoming duller. Flowers solitary, large for the genus at 11/2 in. in diameter, pale yellow to deep green, suffused and spotted reddish purple, interior pale greenish yellow suffused purple, flowering in spring. Quickly forms a sizable clump and has great potential as a groundcover in warm climates; writers report that the foliage does not seem to be attacked by slugs and snails. A. geophilum. S China. Leaves evergreen, cordate, dark green with white veins. Flowers dark purple with white markings, 1 lobe longer than others. A. hartwegii. United States (N California, S Oregon), in coniferous forests. Rhizome stout and scaly. Leaves evergreen, cordate, pointed, hairy on the underside, usually veined and mottled silver on the upper surface. Petioles 6 in. long. Flowers brownish purple, hairy on the outside, smooth on the inside, spring to early summer. 'Silver Heart' has strikingly variegated foliage. A. hatsushimae. Japan, on Ryukyu Islands. Leaves evergreen, oval to cordate. Flowers similar to A. fudsinoi, but perianth lobes wavy. A. hayatanum. Taiwan. Leaves oval to cordate, evergreen. Flowers greenish outside, lobes purplish; margin and "pillows" (raised ridges) in throat are yellowish. A. heterotropoides. N Japan. Leaves deciduous, yellow-green. Flowers not showy, lobes recurved to tube, late spring. Reputedly difficult to cultivate. A. hexalobum. S Japan. Similar to A. asperum but with fewer ridges at throat. Mid spring. Var. perfectum has 12 stamens rather than 6 and flowers in late winter. A. himalaicum. Himalayas. Leaves deciduous. Similar to A. sieboldi. A. hirsutisepalum. Japan, on Yaku Island off tip of Kyushu. Leaves evergreen, leathery, dark green with paler blotches. Flowers large, with purple hairs and markings, late fall to late winter. Var. glabrum has broader leaves, 4-6 in. wide. A. kinoshitai. C Japan. Leaves evergreen, sagittate. Flower tube constricted at throat, with wide white cottony ring. Perianth lobes upright and pointed. A. kiusianum. S Japan. Leaves evergreen, oblong, cordate or sagittate, mottled. Flower tube long-tubular; wrinkled ring at throat; pale or dull purple lobes, mid spring. Var. melanosiphon has dark purple perianth lobes. Var. tubulosum has leaves mottled with silver and white perianth lobes. A. kumageanum. S Japan. Leaves evergreen, cordate, variegated white. Flowers slightly hairy; tube with narrow white ring at throat; lobes dull purple spotted and edged white. Late winter to early spring. Var. glabrum has wider white ring at throat, white margins attractively wavy. A. lemmonii. Sierra Nevada of United States (C California),

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Asarum

at lower elevations in moist sites. Leaves evergreen, flat, cordate to reniform. Flowers brownish purple, late spring. A. lewisii. United States (SE Virginia and North Carolina, in Piedmont). Leaves evergreen, green with red and silver spots, lighter green below. Flowers deep purple, hairy inside, to 2 in. long, mid spring. A. lutchuense. Japan, on Ryukyu Islands. Similar to A. hirsutisepalum but larger. Late winter. A. macranthum. Taiwan. Leaves evergreen, shiny, cordate, green mottled with white, 4-5 in. wide. Flowers 1 in. in diameter, purple-brown with yellow, wavy edge. A. maximum. China. One of the tallest, to 18 in. Leaves evergreen, cordate, 8 in. wide, dark green mottled gray. Flowers deep maroon, 2 in. in diameter, spring. A. megacalyx. W Japan. Leaves evergreen, sagittate. Perianth lobes dull purple, spotted white, with raised ring in throat, mid spring. A. minamitanianum. Japan, thought to be extinct in the wild. Rhizome short, repeatedly branching to form a dense mat. Leaves evergreen, glossy, variegated. Very unusual flowers: corolla lobes deep purple, long and thin, spreading to resemble starfish as much as 10 in. in diameter; 3 pointed petals in the center of the flower. Just above the constriction of the corolla tube are irregularly arranged white "pillows," each surrounded by a thin purple band. Deserves a place in any collection where truly unusual plants are appreciated. A. muramatsui. Japan (E Honshu). Leaves evergreen, shiny with prominent veins. Flowers broad and squat, with wide raised ring at throat, lobes with wavy edges, late spring. A. nipponicum. Japan (E. Honshu). Leaves evergreen, sagittate with white veins and spots. Flowers spreading and recurved, mid autumn to late winter. Var. brachypodion has cordate leaves, deeply veined; long flattened perianth lobes long; raised ring at throat. Var. kooyanum has cordate leaves, perianth lobes1/2 length of tube, held erect. Var. nankaiensebas perianth lobes pinched together at base, spreading upward. Var. rigescens from C Japan has thick cordate leaves with deep white veins; flowers small, with glossy purple, pointed lobes. A. okinawense. Japan (Okinawa) and Taiwan. Leaves evergreen, cordate, green with white spots. Flower pale yellowgreen. A. sakawanum. Japan (S Shikoku). Leaves evergreen, thick. Flower white outside, purple inside; perianth lobes long, narrow, upright. Mid spring. A. satsumense. S Japan. Similar to A. asaroidesbut lobes have wavy margins. Late spring. A. savatieri. E Japan. Similar to A. nipponicum, but flowers smaller, mid summer. A. senkaku-insulare. Japan, on Ryukyu Islands. Similar to A. dissitum. Leaves evergreen, cordate, dark green. Flowers purple-green; lobes short and oval, with ring at throat. A. shuttleworthii. United States (W Virginia, Georgia, Alabama), in woods and ravines. Rhizomes short, thick. Leaves evergreen, cordate, varying greatly in size but generally 4 in. wide and 3 in. long, dark green with silver markings on upper surface, light green below. Flowers pale brown, often spotted

dark red, spring. Selected leaf forms have been offered by growers in the U.S. Southeast. A. sieboldii. China, Korea, and Japan. Leaves deciduous, sagittate. Flower with wide throat, lobes pointed, held horizontally. Early to mid spring. A. splendens. China. Leaves evergreen, dark green veined silver, on 6-in. petioles. Flowers dark purple, 2 in. in diameter. A. subglobosum. S Japan. Flower tube globose, ring at throat, lobes somewhat wavy. A. takaoi. C Japan. Leaves evergreen. Flowers brownish purple with white dots, especially on raised ring at throat. Lobes triangular, spreading to nearly flat. Early spring. Var. dilatatum has cup-shaped flowers in mid autumn. Var. hisauchiibas narrow or incomplete ring at throat. A. tamaense. Japan (E Honshu). Leaves evergreen, sagittate with deep veins. Perianth lobes wavy, dark purple, with whitish ridged ring at throat. Mid spring. A. trigynum. S Japan. Leaves cordate, evergreen. Flowers brownish, dotted with purple, wide white cottony ring at throat. Mid spring. A. unzen. SW Japan. Leaves evergreen. Flowers attractive, purple, lobes ruffled, raised ring at throat. A. variegatum. C Japan. Similar to A. takaoibut lacks ring at throat. A. virginicum. United States (Virginia to South Carolina and Tennessee). Leaves evergreen, cordate, dark green with silver veins. Petioles to 6 in. Flowers small, 1 in., brownish purple, with white spots inside, late spring. Var. memmingeri, from mountains of E West Virginia, SW Virginia, and Georgia, has a smaller calyx and more rounded leaf. A. viridiflorum. Japan. Leaves evergreen, rounded, glaucous. Flowers pale green, similar to A. takaoi, early spring. A. yaeyamense. Japan, on Ryukyu Islands. Similar to A. hayatanum. Leaves evergreen, cordate, smooth, dark green. Flowers purple-green, lobes pointed and spreading from ring at throat. SYNONYMS

A. acuminatum see A. canadensevar. acuminatum. A. albivenium see A. blumei. A. caucasicum see A. europeaum var. caucasicum. A. grandiflorum see A. arifolium, A. shuttleworthii. A. heterophyllum see A. virginicum. A. hookeri var. majus see A. hartwegii. A. itoanum see A. lutchuense. A. japonicum see A. asaroides. A. kooyanum see A. nipponicum var. kooyanum. A. kooyanum var. brachypodion see A. nipponicum var. brachypodion. A. leucodictyon see A. blumei. A. liukiuense see A. okinawense. A. nankaiense see A. nipponicum var. nankaiense. A. parviflorum see A. canadense. A. rigescens see A. nipponicum var. rigescens. A. ruthii see A. arifolium var. ruthii. A. subrigescens see A. nipponicum var. rigescens.

Asdepias A. thunbergii see A. asaroides. A. yakusimense see A. hirsutisepalum.

Asdepias—Asclepiadaceae SlLKWEED, M I L K W E E D

Named for Asklepios, son of Apollo and Coronis and Greek god of medicine, referring to the medicinal qualities of certain species. The common names refer to the silky tufts on the seeds and to the white sap. The genus contains about 120 species, just a few of which have tuberous or creeping rootstocks. These are listed below. Many species are native to the Americas, and others to Europe and South Africa. Asdepias tuberosa and A. syriaca are reported to have been used as food by Native Americans. An American English common name for this plant is pleurisy root; the root was ground into a powder and made into an infusion for relief of colic, indigestion, diarrhea, dysentery, and acute rheumatism. The flowers are small and held in a crowded, flat-topped cyme, either terminal or produced in the axils of the leaves. There are 5 curved petals which surround the 5 stamens, the filaments of which are united into a tube that encloses the ovary, style, and stigma. Most species have a milky sap—A. tuberosa is an exception. The foliage is narrow to broadly lanceolate, depending on the species. All species are mid summer flowering, often over a considerable period. The seed pods are shaped a little like a parrot, the stalk being the beak. Though regarded by many as weeds, milkweeds are easy to grow and many are attractive in flower. Asdepias tuberosa (butterfly weed), like other less ornamental species, is an important food plant for butterflies (especially the monarch) and is often grown for this purpose. In France, the plant has long been a popular ornamental; I remember growing it in my perennial nursery just outside of Paris in the early 1950s. This genus has attracted the attention of hybridizers, and an even greater range of colors and heights should be obtainable. CULTURE All species are easy to grow in average garden soil, but they must have good drainage and plenty of moisture in spring and summer. They are intolerant of wet soils in winter. A rich, sandy loam suits them best. The species listed below are all quite coldhardy once established. They flower best in full sun, but they can grow well in light shade, though this may cause them to be etiolated and need support. They are tall-growing plants— some species reach 6 ft. or more. Normally supplied as container plants, they should be planted 2-3 ft. apart and left alone; the only cultivation needed is to keep established plants in bounds. PESTS AND DISEASES

Hardy and largely free of pests and diseases, these are plants that even "black thumbs" would find difficult to kill! Asclepias tuberosa must be protected from slugs and snails.

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PROPAGATION

Milkweeds are easily raised from seed sown in the spring, either where they are to grow or in flats. Transplant seedlings into individual containers when large enough to handle. They often flower the first year from seed, and certainly in the 2nd season. In nursery rows, space them 6-10 in. apart and lift after one season. Division of the rootstock is perhaps the easiest way to increase stock; do this in fall, or in early spring before growth begins. SPECIES A. amplexicaulis. United States (North Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, Texas, New Mexico) and N Mexico. Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems 16-36 in. Leaves 3-5 in. long, 1 in. wide. Flowers green, tinged purple, summer. A. curassavica. BLOOD FLOWER, SWALLOWWORT, MATAL, INDIAN ROOT. Subtropical and tropical South America, probably naturalized in United States (S Texas) and China. Stems 18-42 in. Flowers deep purplish red with dark yellow hoods, rarely yellow or white, late spring to mid summer. Plate 206. A. engelmanniana. United States (Nebraska to Utah, Texas, and Arizona). Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems 12-48 in. Flowers greenish white tinged purple, mid summer to fall. A. galioides. United States (Colorado and Utah) to Mexico, on ranges and dry hillsides. Rootstock rhizomatous, spreading. Stems 24-36 in. Unusual in that it has leaves arranged in whorls. Poisonous to livestock. Flowers yellow, late spring to early summer. A. lanceolata. United States (Florida to New Jersey), in fresh to brackish marshes; introduced in Midwest and Southwest. Usually tuberous. Stems to 50 in. Leaves thick, firm, with distinct midrib on underside. Flowers yellow orange to scarlet, summer. In cultivation flowers may be paler, perhaps because of lack of salts found in native habitat. Capsules to 4 in. long, swollen in the middle and slender at both ends. A. ovalifolia. Canada (Manitoba to Alberta) to United States (Wisconsin and Illinois to Wyoming and Nebraska). Rootstock a slender rhizome. Stems 10-20 in. Flowers greenish white with yellowish hoods, early summer. A. purpurascens. PURPLE SILKWEED. United States (New Hampshire to Minnesota, south to Virginia and Arkansas). Rhizome slender to stout. Stems 20-36 in. Flowers deep purplish red, late spring to early summer. A. spedosa. W North America, widespread. Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems 20-40 in. Leaves and stems downy. Flowers greenish purple, pale pink hood with incurved hooks, late spring to late summer. A. sullivantii. United States (Minnesota to Oklahoma, Missouri, and Illinois). Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems 24-40 in. Leaves smooth, oblong, caudate at the base (wrapping around stem). Flowers almost sessile, purplish to whitish, early summer. A. syriaca. C and E North America, very widespread on roadsides and in dry waste ground; introduced and widespread in Europe. Named by Linnaeus, who thought it was from the Middle East. Rootstock a creeping rhizome. Stems to 6 ft. or

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more. Leaves broad, rounded, tapering to a thick petiole. Flowers very fragrant, numerous, pink to white, summer. Capsules covered with grayish hairs. Young shoots and maturing pods used as food. A. tuberosa. BUTTERFLY WEED, PLEURISY ROOT, CHIGGER FLOWER. Canada and C and E United States. Rootstock a tuber that often becomes woody with age. Stems 30 in. to over 6 ft., often branching toward top. Leaves 3 in. or more long, often crowded on stem. Inflorescence sometimes terminal, sometimes in scattered racemes along branches. Flowers greenish orange to red, or yellow with orange, early to late summer; 2colored form has been called f. bicolor, and pale form f. lutea. Capsule to 6 in. long. Commercial seed strains include 'Gay Butterflies', mixed colors; 'Orange Flame' and 'Vermilion', dark shades. Flourishes even under adverse conditions, and is one of the most fragrant species. Plate 207.

Asparagus—Asparagaceae (Liliaceae) Name given by Theophrastus, possibly derived from Greek sparasso ("to tear"), because many species have sharp, sturdy spines on the stems. All 300 or so species are from the Old World—many from Africa, others from the eastern Mediterranean region, and still others from India, China, or Korea. Many species have thickened tubers or rhizomatous rootstocks. They are dioecious; in the case of A. officinalis, the culinary asparagus, the male plants are the heavier producers of the desired shoots. Anyone who has hiked in areas where Asparagus species are growing can attest to the strength and sharpness of the spines, which can not only tear clothing but also leave deep gashes in flesh. An unusual feature is that the "leaves" of these plants are in fact cladodes, branches modified to act as leaves for photosynthesis. The flowers are inconspicuous; ornamental species are grown for their foliage alone, though female plants also produce bright red fruits. The 2 species of most interest to ornamental gardeners are A. densiflorus, to which the Sprengeri Group belongs, and A. setaceus, the Plumosa Asparagus of florists. Many people refer to these as asparagus ferns and are surprised to learn that they are flowering plants, not ferns. Asparagus has been much used in medicine and has been eaten for millennia. In Roman times, it was not only eaten in season but was also sun-dried and later prepared by boiling. It is said that the Emperor Augustus coined the phrase "Quicker than you can boil asparagus." In South Africa, where numerous species (none of them bulbous, and several sometimes placed in the genus Protasparagus) are found growing inside hollow trees, these provided food for the early settlers. Few homes were without an ornamental asparagus in England when I was growing up, and great pride was taken in their performance; they were often exhibited at local flower shows. Many of these plants were huge and of considerable age. They have fallen a little out of favor now—a pity, since they are easy to grow and seem to enjoy being rootbound in containers. In warm climates, they are good outdoor plants and survive under remarkably adverse conditions.

CULTURE Refer to other sources for the cultivation of culinary asparagus; the cultural needs of the other species do not apply to the production of edible spears. The majority of species prefer calcareous soils and are frequently at home in areas close to the sea. Hardiness of the species varies considerably; those used to produce foliage for the florist trade are not hardy below 25°F, though they may recover after freezing to the ground at somewhat lower temperatures. Commercial production of foliage is achieved by growing in temperatures above 45°F in winter. Asparagus prefer bright indirect light, but they can take some morning sun outdoors. Use well-drained potting soil rich in organic matter to grow them in containers. In borders, soil should also be well-drained and rich in humus. Plant preferably in spring, setting the crowns 4-5 in. below the surface of the soil. Set dwarf selections like 'Myers' 24 in. apart, and taller, climbing types 36 in. apart. All but the dwarf forms of A. setaceus need some support—a shrub or trellis in the garden, wires or strings in the greenhouse. In commercial production of foliage, give regular feedings and maintain a balance between harvesting and allowing shoots to develop fully, or the plants will be weakened. In the garden, little additional fertilizer is needed. Plants should never be allowed to dry out, and ample moisture is necessary during the maximum growth period in spring and early summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

The principal pest is the asparagus beetle (Crioceris asparagi), yellow and black as an adult and gray-black and humped in the larval stage. Both adult beetles and larvae can damage plants. Physically removing these is no doubt the best control for those raising the species from seed. Chemical controls are unlikely to be needed. Rust is a problem disease. Good air circulation is the best preventative, but if plants are affected, cut down the top growth in late summer. Root rots may attack overwatered plants, but this is more a problem in edible asparagus than in ornamental species. PROPAGATION

The brittle, often transparent tuberous roots hold much moisture and food but do not have "eyes" (growing points). They support a central stem on which the growth buds are found. Division of the roots, therefore, is not a viable way to propagate asparagus, unless tubers with obvious bud-bearing stems can be removed. Sow seeds in spring, using a sandy soil mix and covering seeds l/2 in. or a little deeper. Germination is rather erratic—as fast as 4-6 weeks, or as long as several months. Seedlings are best potted into individual pots, grown on, and planted after 2 summers of growth. SPECIES A. asparagoides. South Africa. Rootstock tuberous. Climber to 20 ft. Leaves leathery, glossy, oval, 1-2 in. long, grass green. Flowers small, white, nodding, strongly fragrant, spring. Fruit a red berry. A. crispus. South Africa. Rootstock tuberous. Climber to 36

Asphodeline in. Cladodes 3-angled, carried in clusters of 3, green. Flowers fragrant, solitary, small, white with orange or reddish anthers. Fruit a pale green berry with black seeds. A. densiflorus. EMERALD FERN. South Africa. Rootstock tuberous. Cladodes in whorls usually of 2, never 1 and never more than 3. They have small blunt bases and spring back at the touch. Flowers small, white or pinkish. Fruit a bright red berry. Select variants form the Sprengeri Group, a horticultural class. Named forms include 'Myers', with stems of more or less equal length; 'Compactus', 'Deflexus', and 'Robustus'. Popular garden plants in warmer climates and much grown indoors in colder areas. Indoors, place where the attractive arching stems can be seen at their best, as on a pedestal or in a hanging basket. They appreciate moisture during the growing season, spring and early summer, but do not overwater in fall and winter. A. drepanophyllus. W and C Africa. Rootstock tuberous. Climber to 40 ft. Cladodes flat. Flowers green. Fruit a bright red berry. A. lucidus. China, Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. Rootstock tuberous. Branching climber to 40 ft. Cladodes 1-2 in. long, narrow, bright green. Flowers white, in clusters. Fruit a brown berry. A. racemosus. Southern and E Africa, and S Asia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems spineless, gray to brown, climbing 6-20 ft. Cladodes grayish green in whorls. Flowers white or pink, fragrant. Fruit a red or black berry. A. setaceus. S and E Africa; naturalized in Central America and Mexico. Often known by its former name, A. plumosus, and called plumosa fern in the florist trade. Rootstock tuberous. Climber to over 6 ft. True leaves harden into downward-pointing spines, while cladodes branch elaborately to form the flat, frontlike flat spray, usually triangular. Flowers small, terminal, white. Fruit a red berry, with 3 black seeds. Selections include 'Cupressoides', which resembles a conifer on account of its erect cladodes; 'Nanus', with compact habit; and 'Robustus', stronggrowing. Evergreen, not hardy below 35°F. In subtropical gardens, lovely climbing the bare stems of tree ferns. A. trichophyllus. Siberia and N China. Stem prickly, to 5 ft. Cladodes pointed, in whorls. Flowers white, fragrant. A. virgatus. South Africa. Rootstock rhizomatous, with fibrous roots. Stems arching, 3-6 ft. Cladodes dark green, stiff, % in. long, in whorls of 3-7. Flowers greenish white. SYNONYMS A. medeoloides see A. asparagoides. A. myersii see A. densiflorus 'Myers'. A. plumosus see A. setaceus. A. sprengeri see A. densiflorus. A. tetragonus see A. racemosus.

Asphodeline—Asphodelaceae (Liliaceae) JACOB'S ROD Name derived from Asphodelus, a closely related genus in which the 2 most familiar species of Asphodeline were formerly included. Both genera are found around the Northern Hemi-

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sphere Mediterranean area, but Asphodeline extends north into the Caucasus, whereas Asphodelus extends south toward the Himalayas. Asphodeline includes about 18-20 species, some of which are monocarpic and are not included in this volume. The perennial species have clustered yellow rhizomes, either fibrous or fleshy. The rhizomes in a single rootstock are more numerous than those of Asphodelus and less obviously swollen. The foliage is narrow (grasslike in some species), carried mostly on the lower part of the stem. The numerous flowers, carried in racemes, may be yellow, white, or pale pink, and are slightly fragrant in some species. The flowers are starry and often have contrastingly colored veins; there are 3 veins per tepal—another difference from Asphodelus, which has only 1 vein per tepal. There are 6 stamens, 3 long and 3 short; the style and stamens curve downward. Hardiness varies, but A. lutea, generally regarded as the hardiest species, is unlikely to tolerate temperatures below 10°F. Flowering mostly in early summer or late spring, they should be combined in a border with later flowering plants so that their maturing foliage is masked. They are not in the first rank of ornamental subjects and do not merit a prominent position. The clumps become larger with age, and they also self-sow readily where suited, making them good plants for naturalizing on banks. CULTURE Asphodelines are not demanding but prefer a moderately rich, well-drained sandy or loamy soil with plenty of organic matter. Moisture is required in the growing season, early spring through mid summer. A feeding of an organic balanced fertilizer in early spring produces more vigorous specimens. Plant in full sun, 12-18 in. apart. They are normally supplied as container plants and should be set at the same level as they have been growing in the pot. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide established clumps in fall or early spring. Make certain that each division has growing points. Sow seed in fall or spring, using a sandy soil mix and barely covering the seed. Seedlings can be transplanted into individual pots as soon as they are large enough to handle. Seedlings usually flower in their 3rd season and can be placed in the border after 2 growing seasons. SPECIES A. brevicaulis. Turkey (Asia Minor). Stems to 20 in. Flowers yellow with green veins, summer. Plate 208. A. damascena. Turkey (Asia Minor). Stems 18-24 in. Flowers white to light pink, summer. A. liburnica. N Mediterranean region (Italy, Crete, Greece, Bulgaria). Stem unbranched, 12-24 in. Leaves held upright, confined to lower part of stem. Flowers light yellow in raceme 6-9 in. long, with green stripes on reverse of tepals, summer. Similar to A. lutea, but not as robust and flowers paler yellow

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Asphodelus

with less prominent bracts; a more refined garden subject, but less easy to establish. Plate 209. A. lutea. KING'S SPEAR, YELLOW ASPHODEL. E Mediterranean, Balkan Peninsula, and Turkey; introduced before 1596. Stems 2-4 ft. Leaves linear, grasslike, borne almost up to the inflorescence. Flowers slightly fragrant, yellow with green median stripe, in dense raceme, late spring to early summer. Bracts brownish, about as long as tepals. Inflorescence is distinctive in early stage with yellow, green-striped buds held upright close to stem; they open over a long period as the scape elongates. 'Florepleno' has very long-lasting double flowers; 'Yellow Candle' has clear light yellow flowers with very faint median stripes. This plant was fabled to grow in the Elysian Fields, and the ancient Greeks placed the flowers on the tombs of their friends. Pythagoras mentioned the root was edible; Pliny the Elder says the roots were roasted under embers, then eaten with salt. Mashed with figs, they were reported to be a fine dish. The hardiest and most commonly grown species in the genus. Plate 210. A. taurica. Balkans. Stems 24-40 in. Flowers white with green or light brown median stripe, late spring. A. tenuior. W Asia, from Iran and Turkey to the Caucasus Mountains. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves on lower part of stem or in a basal rosette. Flowers white flushed pink, summer.

CULTURE Plant rhizomes 2-3 in. deep, 12-18 in. apart, in full sun or high shade. Soil must be well drained and of moderate fertility. They are drought-resistant when established but like moisture in early spring, when a little fertilizer can also be given. Never allow them to become completely dry while in growth, but allow them to dry between waterings. If necessary, add sharp sand to their planting site to improve drainage. Most species are hardy to at least 10°F, and A. albus to at least 0°F. In colder areas protect with a winter mulch. Asphodelus aestivus can be evergreen in milder, frost-free climates. Taller species may require support in windy areas. Plants can be grown in containers, which should be at least 12 in. deep. Use a sandy soil mix. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift established plants and divide rhizomes in early spring. Replant as soon as possible. Sow seed in fall, using a sandy mix and barely covering the seed. After germination, give seedlings good light but not direct sunlight. Transplant to individual pots when large enough to handle and keep them barely moist. Plant out in the 2nd or 3rd season; do not place very small plants in the garden.

SYNONYMS

A. balansae see A. damascene*. A. cretica see A. liburnica. A. isthmocarpa see A. damascena.

Asphodelus—Asphodelaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek asphodelos, the name of a plant of uncertain identity; Medieval Latin form, affodillus, was anglicized as affodil, which became "daffodil." The genus contains about 12 species native to S and C Europe, North Africa, and Asia from the Mediterranean to the Himalayas. A few species, not discussed here, are annuals or biennials; one of them, A.fistulosus, is classified as a noxious weed in the United States. The perennials have swollen, fleshy rhizomes. Many of them are tall (to 6 ft.) and striking in flower; A. acaulis, however, is stemless or very short-stemmed. The leaves are linear and proportionately long, flattened or cylindrical, with parallel veins. The bare flowering stems may be branched or unbranched. The flowers, carried in a dense raceme or panicle in spring and early summer, have 6 tepals arranged in 2 whorls. There are many widely open flowers to 11/2 in. in diameter, mostly white, sometimes blushed pink. The tepals, quite wide in some species, have a single midvein colored rust, pink-tan, or green. These are good plants for the perennial border; A. acaulis is appropriate for the large rock garden. Asphodelus albus is the best species to start with and the one most often seen in commerce. Those who have travelled in areas where these species are native will appreciate the culture they need, and how striking these plants appear in flower. Allow space for the foliage to develop fully, and give them excellent drainage.

SPECIES A. acaulis. N Africa. Stem absent or very short. Leaves flat, in a basal rosette. Flowers pale pink or white with light green midvein, late spring. Bracts white. Plate 211. A. aestivus. Canary Islands, N Africa, S Europe, and Turkey. Stems stout, to 6 ft. Flowers white with reddish midvein, large, numerous, produced on main stem and on lateral branches (to 12 in. long) over a long period, late spring to early summer. Bracts greenish white. Not quite as hardy as A. albus; where temperatures drop below 15°F, protect with a thick mulch. Evergreen in climates with little or no frost. A. albus. S and C Europe; introduced before 1596. Stems to 36 in., often less, branched or unbranched. Leaves grasslike, flattened, to 24 in. long. Flowers white or light rose pink with deeper midvein, late spring to early summer. Bracts white or dark brown. The hardiest species; can quickly become well established in the border. Plate 212. A. fistulosus. SW Europe, Mediterranean, and SW Asia; widely naturalized. Stems to 27 in., branched or unbranched. Leaves cylindrical. Bracts white. Flowers white to light rose pink with tan midvein, summer. Plate 213. A. ramosus. GIANT ASPHODEL. S Europe and N Africa. Stems to 5 ft. or more, with many long branches. Leaves flattened with shallow keel, to 2 ft. long. Flowers very numerous, white with purplish midvein, summer. A. A. A. A.

SYNONYMS cerasiferus see A. ramosus. delphinensis see A. albus. liburnicus see Asphodeline liburnica. luteus see Asphodeline lutea.

Babiana A. microcarpus see A. aestivus. A. tauricus see Asphodeline taurica.

Babiana—Iridaceae BABOON FLOWER Name derived from Afrikaans babiaantje ("little baboon"), apparently because baboons dig the corms of these plants for food. It is recorded that the colonists at the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa also ate the corms, after boiling them. The genus as interpreted in the late 1990s has 60-70 species, all native to subSaharan Africa, especially the eastern and southern regions. Some species with long-tubed flowers of irregular shape were formerly placed in Antholyza; in the descriptions below, references to "lower lips" are to the lower 3 tepals of the perianth lobes of these species. The fibrous-covered corms are quite small. The leaves are ribbed, tapered, pleated, and stiff, held in fans; both leaves and stems are more or less coated with short hairs. Plants seldom surpass 18 in. The flowers are brightly colored, often 2-toned; 3 to many are borne on a stem that may be branched or unbranched. They have 6 tepals and open to a diameter of 2 in.; although they open widely, they have a slightly funnel-shaped base. The flowers of many are heavily scented, a fragrance that has been claimed to be "intoxicating"—a statement often made by the censorious Victorians in regard to exotic flowers. The species vary in hardiness, but none tolerate temperatures below about 25°F. Those from Northern Cape and Western Cape in South Africa are hardier than those from Zimbabwe. Most are winter-growing and thus ideal for areas with a warm Mediterranean climate. These delightful flowers do not occupy much space, though they may self-sow enthusiastically. Plant them in small, sunny gardens for variety and winter bloom. They are also good container plants. CULTURE To extend range into colder regions, plant babianas against a warm wall in sandy soil. They revel in full sun. Where winter temperatures remain above 25°F, plant in late summer or early fall, as soon as corms become available. Otherwise, they can be grown in pots under glass. Set corms 6 in. deep in average and sandy soils, a little shallower in heavy clay soils, spaced 6 in. apart. They appreciate moisture during the growing season, but their soil should never be waterlogged. Flourishing corms can be left undisturbed for years. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift established clumps in late summer and separate the corms for replanting. Natural increase of corms is slow in most species. Sow seed as soon as ripe, or in spring, and keep pots above 35°F. Germination is usually quite rapid. After one growing sea-

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son, transplant the corms to larger containers or nursery rows. Keep moist but not too wet during growing period. Most species take 3 full seasons to reach flowering size. To keep pure species or strains when growing a number of them in a small area, exclude pollinating insects and pollinate flowers by hand. SPECIES

B. ambigua. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Flowers 4-5 per stem, zygomorphic, 2-lipped, to 3 in. long, blue to mauve, lower lobes white or pale yellow with reddish purple markings, spring (July to September in the wild). B. angustifolia. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 10 in. Flowers bright, deep blue with wine-colored suffusion, with black markings on lower tepals, late winter to early spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 214. B. blanda. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 3 in. Flowers regular, rose pink, early spring (August to September in the wild). B. cedarbergensis. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 3 in. Flowers zygomorphic, mauve with yellow markings, spring (September in the wild). B. curviscapa. South Africa (Namaqualand), introduced 1774. Stems to 10 in. Flowers magenta to purple with white markings on lower lateral lobes, spring (September in the wild). Very similar to B. velutina var. nana. B. disticha. BLUE BABIANA. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced c. 1774. Regarded by some authorities as a variety of the smaller B. plicata. Stems to 12 in. Leaves to 5 in. long, 3/4 in. wide. Flowers blue-lavender with yellow throat and sweet hyacinth fragrance, spring (July to September in the wild). B. dregei. South Africa (Western Cape). Flowers deep purple-blue, spring (August to September in the wild). B.fimbriata. South Africa (Namaqualand). Flowers mauve and yellow, spring (August to September in the wild). B. hypogaea. South Africa (Northern Province), in summerrainfall area, and in Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Namibia, in sandy and gravelly places in grassland. The most widely distributed species in the genus. Unusual deep-growing corm with long, fibrous neck and persistent withered leaves; corms eaten raw by local people. Stems to 8 in., branching below ground level. Flowers fragrant, blue mauve, often with yellow streaks on lower tepals and scattered bands of darker blue, usually late winter to early spring, but sometimes earlier or later, depending on local climatic conditions. Var. longituba has purplish blue flowers with long perianth tube. B. leipoldtii. South Africa (W Western Cape), along coast. Stems to 6 in. Flowers regular, mauve to violet with darker center, early spring (August to September in the wild). B. montana. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 3 in. Flowers mauve with yellow or purple markings, zygomorphic, winter to early spring (June to August in the wild). Similar to B. ambigua. B. nana. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 3 in. Flowers zygomorphic, blue or mauve marked with yellow, or white and purple, spring (August to September in the wild). B. odorata. South Africa (SW Cape). Stems to 5 in. Flowers

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zygomorphic, yellow, fragrant, late winter to spring (June to September in the wild). B. patersoniae. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers zygomorphic, blue with yellow markings, late spring (September to October in the wild). B. purpurea. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 4-6 in. Flowers regular, to 1 in. in diameter, mauve to pale purple-pink, fragrant, spring (August to September in the wild). B. pygmaea. South Africa (SW Western Cape), along coast, Stems to 3 in. Flowers regular, sulfur yellow with brownish maroon blotch at bottom of cup, spring (August to September in the wild). B. ringens. South Africa, along coast north of Cape Town, in sandy soil. Stems 10-12 in. Leaves rigid, ribbed, 8-10 in. Flowers sessile, crowded, bright red with greenish lower lip, late winter (June to August in the wild). Plate 215. B. rubrocyanea. WINE-CUP BABIANA. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced c. 1795. Stems to 6 in. Leaves to 4 in. long, 3/4 in. wide, pubescent. Flowers regular, fragrant; tepals strikingly bicolored (upper part deep blue, base rich crimson) in early to mid spring (August to September in the wild). One of the best species for heavier soils, since it needs moisture throughout winter. B. sambudna. South Africa (Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape); introduced 1799. Stems 6-9 in. Flowers zygomorphic, fragrant, bluish purple, lilac mauve, or purple, white at base, late winter to spring (July to September in the wild). B. sinuata. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 8-10 in. Flowers zygomorphic, blue to yellow, greenish brown at base, spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 216. B. socotrana. Yemen, on Socotra Island; introduced 1880. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers pale violet-blue, early fall. B. stricta. South Africa; introduced 1795. Stems to 18 in. Leaves to 5 in. long, 1/2. in. wide. Flowers regular, cream to crimson, lilac, or blue, early to late spring (August to September in the wild). Var. erectifolia has leaves and flower stems arranged similar to B. ambigua. Var. grandiflora, introduced 1757, has bright blue flowers marked with pink, late spring. Var. sulphurea, introduced 1795, has cream or pale yellow flowers with blue anthers and yellow stigmas, mid spring. Many selections offered, including 'Blue Gem', violet with purple flecks, 8 in.; 'Purple Sensation', bright purple with white markings, 16 in.; 'Purple Star', dark cyclamen-violet with white-striped throat, 12-14 in.; 'Tubergen's Blue', large lavender-violet with darker blotches, 12-16 in.; 'White King', white with pale blue stripes on reverse, lobelia-blue anthers, 12-16 in.; 'Zwanenburg Glory', flowers 11/4 in. in diameter, outer tepals dark lavenderviolet, inner same color with large white blotches, 18 in. Plates 217,218. B. thunbergii. South Africa (Namaqualand, SW Western Cape), in sandy soils. Stems to 18 in. but usually shorter, with 2-4 hairy, horizontal or ascending stems. Leaves narrow, covered with minute hairs. Flowers closely set on stem, to 3 in. long, bright red or pink with green patches on lip. Bracts 1 in. long, covered with silver hairs. Flowering spring (August to September in the wild). Needs good drainage. Plate 219.

B. tubulosa. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1774. Leaves 10-12 in. long, scape a little shorter. Flowers zygomorphic, white or creamy yellow, often with 3 red spots at base of outer tepals; tube the longest in the genus. Flowering late spring to early summer (September to October in the wild). Var. tubiflora from coastal sites has creamy white flowers with red markings, early spring. B. vanzyliae. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 5 in., leaves longer. Flowers zygomorphic, yellow, late spring to early summer (August to September in the wild). Name is sometimes spelled vanzylii. Plate 220. B. villosa. South Africa (SW Cape); introduced 1778. Stems to 6 in. Flowers regular, brilliant crimson or purple, anthers blackish, early to mid spring (September in the wild). Plates 221,222. B. villosula. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 2-3 in. Flowers regular, violet-blue to mauve, winter (May to July in the wild). SYNONYMS B. caerulescens see B. disticha. B. gawleri see B. sambudna. B. hiemalis see B. villosula. B. macrantha see B. pygmaea. B. plicata invalid name for B. disticha. B. pulchra see B. angustifolia. B. pygmaea var. blanda see B. blanda. B. reflexa see B. disticha. B. stricta var. villosa see B. villosa. B. stricta subsp. rubrocyanea see B. rubrocyanea. B. tubata see B. tubulosa var. tubiflora. B. tubulosa var. filifolia see B. tubulosa var. tubiflora.

Baeometra—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek baesos ("small") and metron ("measure"), a reference to the small size of the plant. A monotypic genus closely related to Onixotis and native to the Western Cape in South Africa. In the wild it is quite common and appears to spread by seed quite rapidly. The flowers are held erect, and in flower the plant is quite striking This plant would be good for the sunny border or containers, but more interesting to the collector than to the home gardener. It is reported to be poisonous to cattle. Although it is not fully hardy, it is well worth consideration in warmer climates. CULTURE Requires sun and well-drained soil. Suitable for the open garden only in warm climates; tolerates only light frost. Plant corms 2-3 in. deep, spaced 6-8 in. apart. Give adequate moisture early in spring as soon as growth commences, and little moisture after the flowers have passed. It would be worth trying it as a spring-planted bulb, lifting in late summer before the first frost and overwintering corms in a frost-free place. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems.

Begonia PROPAGATION

Offsets can be removed while plants are dormant. Sow seed in spring; give night temperatures in the 50°F range and keep moist, with bright indirect light. Transplant seedlings as soon as they are large enough to handle and grow on to flowering size, which will take 2 or 3 seasons. SPECIES B. uniflora. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1787. Rootstock a small, asymmetrical, ovoid corm covered with a brown tunic. New corms have a bulge at their base, with the tunic folded below, and the roots grow through this tunic. Stems reach 8-12 in. Leaves usually 6, clasping the stem, the lower leaves to 9 in. long, the upper leaves shorter, and the topmost only 2-3 in. long. Flowers as many as 7 per stem, borne in a simple raceme, to 1 in. in diameter when fully open. Tepals orange-red on the exterior, pure yellow inside, with a deep purple (appearing black) blotch at the base of each; tepals lie almost flat when open and are free to the base; the basal portion is so narrow that they appear almost stalked. Stamens shorter than the tepals. Flowering time is late winter to mid spring (August to October in the wild). Seed capsule is cylindrical. Plate 223. SYNONYM B. columellaris see B. uniflora.

Barnardiella see Moraea Begonia—Begoniaceae Named in honor of Michel Begon (1638-1710), a French patron of botany. There are more than 350 species, found in humid tropics and subtropics around the globe, especially in the Americas. In this genus are found many species and hybrids with luxurious growth, striking foliage, and beautiful flowers. It is possible to have begonias in flower every month of the year. The flowers can be very large, in a wide range of colors (Plate 81). They are unisexual; the male flower is showier than the female (Plate 224). The ovary is inferior, the number of stamens many, and the filaments are free or united at the base. There are 2-4 styles, and the stigmas are either branched or twisted. The fruit is a capsule, often winged, containing many minute, dustlike seeds. The list below includes only tuberous-rooted begonias, but there are other types in the genus. A good horticultural classification, grouping together types that require the same culture, has been worked out by Mildred and Edward Thompson in their excellent Begonias: The Complete Reference Guide (1981). It was based on the American Begonia Society Classifications for Show Purposes (1969). Much earlier, Liberty Hyde Bailey had arranged begonias into 4 main groups in The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (1914). The present horticultural classifications or divisions are canelike, shrublike, thick-stemmed, semperflorens, rhizomatous, rex cultorum, tuberous, and trailing-scandent.

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With one notable exception, the tuberous and rhizomatous species are found today only in botanic gardens and the greenhouses of serious collectors and hybridizers. Those offered to the home gardener are mostly hybrids. The exception is Begonia grandis subsp. evansiana. The ancestry of the tuberous begonias of gardens is complex. The first such hybrid was Begoniaxsedeni (1870). It was named for John Seden, who worked for lames Veitch of Chelsea, London, England. The firm had introduced several tuberous species, the result of numerous plant-hunting expeditions it sponsored. From one expedition in 1865-1868, Richard Pearce sent back 3 important species—B. boliviensis, B. pearcei, and B. veitchii. The exact parentage of B. Xsedeni is unknown, but it was a cross between an Andean species and B. boliviensis. Begonia davisii, from Peru, was also involved in early crosses. Veitch introduced many hybrids over the next 18 years. The importance of this work and the direct influence on today's hybrids can be seen in the foliage of tuberous begonias: the leaves of yellow-flowered cultivars and many orange ones have faint marbled and red patterns under the predominant green, a trait inherited from B. pearcei. In areas subject to frost, tuberous begonias have to be stored over winter and started into growth again in spring; however, a new strain called Non-Stop tuberous begonias is easily raised from seed each spring and is thus becoming very popular. The flowers are not very large—seldom more than 2 in. in diameter—but they are very freely produced. They are great for containers and bedding out. Tuberous begonias, in all their different forms, can be used in many ways in the garden and for short periods indoors. Pendent types are best grown where this characteristic can be seen to advantage, in an elevated position so the foliage and flowers hang over the edge of the container at or above eye level. They are very decorative in hanging baskets or containers attached to a wall. Because they need shade in hotter climates and during the hottest part of the day during summer, pendent types are well suited to containers hung from tree branches or in an arbor. Most other types are effective in beds or containers. In beds, mulch them closely to avoid splattering the leaves with soil. Potted specimens can be brought into the house when in flower, but it is best to circulate such containers often so plants do not become too leggy in low light conditions. These spectacular flowers add a touch of elegance to the formal garden, and the foliage in itself is elegant. An unusual and effective way to grow these plants is in a hollowed-out log. Drill holes in the bottom of the log to provide good drainage. The contrast of foliage and flowers against the texture of wood is eye-catching and a sure conversation-starter. Semituberous begonias, not included in this list, produce a thickened caudex (a persistent stem, partly or wholly below the soil surface). Begonia xweltoniensis, a hybrid between B. dregei (sometimes tuberous, sometimes not) and B. sutherlandii (tuberous), also produces a caudex and seems not to be able to make up its mind if it wants to be tuberous or semituberous.

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HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION

Hybrid tuberous begonias come in a variety of forms. In all, the male, or staminate, flowers are showier. On the basis of characteristics of flowers and plant habit, cultivars have been classified into 17 categories. Specialists tend to describe plants simply by their category numbers. In each group, many named varieties and seed strains are in commerce. Most are produced in Europe, especially in Belgium; there are also several firms in North America producing new varieties. 1. Large-flowered Single. Flowers self-colored; diameter usually more than 4 in.; tepals entire; cluster of stamens easily seen in center of flower. 2. Crispa. Flowers larger than those of Large-flowered Single, edges of tepals ruffled. 3. Crispa Marginata. Same as Crispa, except border of tepals is a contrasting color. 4. Cristata. Flowers large; portions of tepals crested. 5. Large-flowered Double. Self-colored, not complicated by any variation from Large-flowered Single type except flowers are double. Arrangement of tepals varies: those with center like a rosebud called "rose form," those with flowers similar to a camellia, "camellia-like." 6. Picotee. Flowers large, more than 4 in. in diameter; tepal bordered in contrasting color, which may appear only at very edge of tepal, as a definite band, or diffused into principal color. 7. Ruffled Picotee. Same as Picotee, except tepal edges are ruffled. 8. Fimbriata. Similar to Ruffled Picotee, except tepals are fringed in addition to being ruffled; overall appearance similar to that of a carnation. 9. Grandiflora-Compacta. Low-growing and sturdy, otherwise like Large-flowered Double; rarely more than 4 in. 10. Maxima. Smaller double flowers, 2-3 in. in diameter, produced in great quantities; all one color with no additional characteristics; low-growing and compact. 11. Bertinii. Single, pendent flowers with pointed tepals, numerous; stems thinner and longer rather than pendulous. 12. Bertinii Compacta. Produces both single and double flowers with no special characteristics; differs from Maxima types in that leaves are a little larger and pointed; flower stalks and stems upright. 13. Multiflora. Many double flowers; smaller than Maxima type, rarely more than 21/2 in. in diameter; well-rounded, compact plants, shorter than Maxima. 14. Pendula. Pendent leaves and flowers; grown mainly in shade, but tolerates more sun than other forms; group broken down into "small-flowered," "large-flowered," and "picotee." 15. Duplex. Flowers resemble poppies and are semidouble rather than fully double; edges of petals ruffled. 16. Marmorata. Large, double flowers of more than one color; color appears as variation in tepals with distinct pattern; edges often of darker color.

17. Narcissiflora. So called because they resemble flat-faced daffodils. An alternate system reduces these to 13 groups with somewhat clearer criteria. The following classification applies to tuberous begonias, also known as Tuberhybrida hybrids (Plates 225227). Without doubt, there will be additional changes because these plants are constantly subject to breeding. The refinements introduced in this way increase the pleasure many gardeners get from these great plants. 1. Single Group. Flowers large, tepals 4, usually flat. 2. Crispa Group. Flowers large, single, tepals frilled and ruffled. Also known as Frilled Group. 3. Cristata Group. Flowers large, single, with frilled outgrowth in center of tepal. Also known as Crested Group. 4. Narcissiflora Group. Flowers large, double, central tepals spreading erect, resembling corona of a daffodil. Also known as Daffodil-flowered Group. 5. Camellia Group. Flowers large, double, tepals regular, resembling a camellia flower, self-colored, not ruffled or fimbriate. Also known as Camelliiflora Group. 6. Ruffled Camellia Group. Same as Camellia Group (5), but flowers with tepals ruffled. 7. Rosiflora Group. Flowers large, with center resembling a rosebud. Also known as Rosebud Group. 8. Fimbriata Plena Group. Flowers large, double, tepals fringed. Also known as Carnation Group. 9. Picotee Group. Flowers large, usually double, camelliashaped with tepals edged with different shade or color, or merging with main color. 10. Marginata Group. Flowers as in Picotee Group (9), precisely edged with distinct color. 11. Marmorata Group. Flowers as in Camellia Group (5), pink marbled with white. 12. Pendula Group. Stems trailing or pendulous, flowers many, small to large, single or double. Also known as Hanging-basket Group. 13. Multiflora Group. Plants low, bushy, compact, flowers many, small, single to double. CULTURE OF TUBEROUS BEGONIAS

Most retail outlets have tuberous-rooted begonias (sometimes called Tuberhybrida Hybrids) for sale in late winter. Where January temperatures are quite mild (50°F at night), plants can be purchased and planted at that time; in cooler regions, purchase and plant them later. Make sure tubers are sound and firm to the touch, without blemishes; discard those that show signs of rot. Tubers need night temperatures of 50°-55°F to grow well. In northern regions where winter days are short, artificial light maybe needed; use Gro-Lux or other full spectrum fluorescent lamps on a 12-hour day, 12-hour night cycle. Start tubers into growth only when adequate warmth can be provided, whether in a heated greenhouse or later in a solar greenhouse or frame. Tubers take 12-15 weeks to reach flowering

Begonia

stage. Plants can be transferred outdoors when all danger of frost has passed and nights are warm. As a general guide, start tubers in January for early summer flowering, and in March for mid summer flowering. The following procedure assumes that a quantity of tubers are being started in each large container (such as a nursery flat), then moved on to the containers in which they will be maintained in the greenhouse or sold, and finally transplanted to the pots or beds where they are to flower. If you are growing only a few plants, you can simply plant them in their permanent containers at the outset. Starting containers should be clean and at least 3 in. deep, and have good drainage. Good, sterilized topsoil mixed with equal parts peat moss and sand or perlite provides a good mix that is quick-draining but moisture-retentive. Place tubers with convex side up and even with surface of soil, concave side down. Cover lightly; roots develop from many different points on the surface of the tuber. Space tubers 2-3 in. apart, slightly more for larger ones. Because growth of different varieties proceeds at different rates and some may need repotting before others, spacing is important so that the roots of those that are not yet large enough to move will not be disturbed when you remove the faster-growing ones. Keep the soil moist but not wet; never allow it to dry out completely. Buds on top of the tuber maybe visible at planting; if not, they soon appear, but growth is slow. When the shoots are 2-3 in. long, remove the tubers from container in which they were started and plant in individual pots. Usually a 4-in. pot is large enough for one tuber, but 6-in. pots are required for larger tubers. I prefer to use clay pots, which allow the roots to breathe. Plastic pots retain more moisture, so a soil mix with additional sand or perlite should be used in them. When plants are in active growth, a weekly feeding program of dilute liquid organic fertilizer should be started. When the shoots have reached 6 in., move plants into their final locations in garden or containers. Containers need not be very large; begonias do best with a restricted root run. You are unlikely to need a pot larger than 8 in. unless you wish to plant more than one tuber per pot. Use the soil mix described above, or increase the amount of topsoil or leafmold if desired. Water is important during the succeeding months of growth. Plants should become almost but not quite dry, then receive a thorough soaking. Keep water off the crowns, especially if the weather is cool. The amount of light is important, too: filtered sunlight is ideal; morning or late afternoon direct sun is all right; no direct sunlight, however, during the heat of the day. Most tubers produce more than one shoot. Short, compact types should not be touched except when cuttings are taken for propagation. The large-flowered, picotee, and grandiflora types are best restricted to the 2 or 3 strongest stems by pinching off weaker ones. The number left is determined by the size of the tuber—small ones allowed to produce 1 stem, and the largest, 3 or perhaps 4. Most home gardeners find it traumatic to pinch out the first buds because they are anxious to see the plants bloom, but this is an important cultural operation that allows

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the larger-growing begonias to produce more and better flowers. Compact types can be pinched if they become leggy; pinching of terminal growth buds in pendulous types induces branching. The number of buds removed depends on the use to be made of the plant. For summer bedding, only the first few buds are pinched off, since size is not as important as mass display; however, individual plants grown in pots to adorn a deck or patio look better with fewer but larger flowers. The first flowers should be allowed to develop only after stems have reached 10 in. or so. Most plants, except compact growers and pendant types, need some support. Insert a stake very carefully so as not to injure the tuber. Tie the stem to the stake with soft twine, being careful to avoid bruising it. In the open garden, plant begonias in beds or containers that receive good sunlight at all times, but no more than filtered sunlight at midday. Sites should be out of the wind, which can cause containers, especially moss-lined hanging baskets, to dry out quickly. Toward summer's end, when flower production dwindles, stop fertilizing. Growth then slows, and the stems and leaves turn yellow. Cut the stems to within 4-6 in. of the tuber and withhold water completely. Lift the tuber out of the soil and allow it to dry. The stems will soon separate easily from the tuber. Clean the tubers thoroughly and place them in moist, but not wet, peat or perlite. Check them from time to time while in storage to see that they are moist and healthy; do not allow them to become completely dry, or they will shrivel. Store them at 50°F, with good air circulation, until growing time comes around again. CULTURE OF BULBOUS BEGONIA

The only truly bulbous begonia is B. socotrana, the ancestor of many hybrids. It has a unique growth cycle. It breaks into growth (in the northern temperate regions) in September and grows through winter until March, then goes dormant. Little bulbs at the base of the stem survive to produce the next winter's growth. This habit has been exploited by breeders to create many fine winter-flowering hybrids. Cultivars derived from the line introduced in the nineteenth century by the Lemoine firm of Nancy, France, can be kept in flower for 12 months or more. They are suitable for hanging baskets in a loose, organic soil mix. After flowering, reduce watering in March but do not dry plants out completely. Remove the withered foliage and keep plants almost dry from May through August. Around the first of September, when basal bulbs begin to swell, raise temperatures to minimum 65°F at night and resume careful watering. Give liquid organic fertilizer when growth becomes active. Temperatures can be reduced somewhat after growth is mature and plants are flowering. Give as much sun as possible, except in areas with warm, sunny winters. In subtropical climates, plants can be set outside when in flower. PESTS AND DISEASES

Aphids are a common problem but easily controlled with an insecticide. Many products do not kill their eggs, which are laid

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in great numbers, so several applications at weekly intervals need to be made; alternatively, apply systemic granules to the soil. The presence of ants often indicates aphid infestation. Examine foliage and growing points regularly and carefully, since aphids come in a variety of colors and are difficult to see. Spider mites often go unnoticed until the damage is done. They are very small. The red spider mite produces webbing, which is more apparent, but the first evidence usually is seen as yellowish speckles on the foliage, caused by insects sucking on the underside of leaf and killing plant tissue. There are a number of miticides on the market. Combination products that control both aphids and mites are available. These broaderspectrum products are very good, but make sure they are approved specifically for use on begonias. If only 1 or 2 plants are affected, isolate or discard them, but spray all others as a precaution. Ultrafine oil sprays are the preferred non-toxic alternative for eradicating mites. Scale is most common on indoor plants but occasionally occurs on outdoor ones. Small, circular or oval, brown-black spots, resembling a turtle shell, appear on leaves, mainly along the veins. The insects under the shell move around when young, but the adults stay put and die, leaving numerous eggs underneath their bodies. These hatch, march around, find their favorite spots, and go through the same life cycle. The young feed from time to time, but the most damage is done by adults. A number of suitable insecticides is available, including oil sprays. Small infestations can be treated by wiping the scale off with a cotton swab dipped in rubbing alcohol. In the case of whiteflies, it is the young, not the adults, that do the damage. They devour the tender surface of leaves as well as sucking the sap. A regular spraying program to kill egg-laying adults (which are highly visible as they fly around), eggs, and all intermediate stages is essential for control. Yellow sticky strips which attract and entrap flying adults are a highly effective nontoxic alternative. Mildew appears as small spots on the leaves which slowly enlarge, covering tissues with gray mold and killing it. Stems may also be attacked. High temperatures and poor air circulation contribute to the proliferation of fungal problems. Treat by dusting plants thoroughly with a sulfur product. PROPAGATION OF T U B E R O U S BEGONIAS

Tuberous begonias do not produce offsets, but a tuber can be cut into sections and each part grown on to maturity (Plate 53). Only a few cuttings can be made from a single plant. Start the tuber into growth in the manner described above. Select a tuber with at least 2 buds and cut it with a sharp, clean knife into pieces, each with a bud. Dust the cut surfaces with a fungicide to prevent infection. Grow on the cut sections like regular tubers. The main disadvantage is that the scar tissue that forms to heal the cut does not produce roots, so the root system is less than that of a full-sized, uncut tuber. For this reason, it is advisable not to divide tubers into too many sections. Despite this drawback, cutting is a common method, and many fine plants are propagated in this manner. Basal cuttings taken during the growing season will form

small tubers by the end of the season. Start the tuber in the normal way. When the buds are growing well and are 3-4 in. long, remove some of them from the tuber with a sharp knife, along with a small section ("heel") of the parent tuber. Remove any leaves or tissue (other than the stem itself) that will be covered by soil. Place the cutting with its heel down, 1 in. deep in a rooting medium of equal parts peat moss and perlite. Keep moist at a temperature of 65°F. If possible, keep in a closed case where humidity remains high. For just a few cuttings, construct a plastic mini-greenhouse of polyethylene, or cover with a large glass jar; a styrofoam box such as those used for shipping fish, covered with clear plastic film such as a dry-cleaner's bag, is suitable. Keep the propagation area clean to minimize the possibility of infection. Examine cuttings regularly. Remove any foliage that drops. A month after insertion, check cuttings for root production. As soon as good root growth is observed, pot into a more nutritious mix and grow on. Remove cuttings from the high-humidity area gradually so they are weaned and become accustomed to regular greenhouse conditions. After several weeks in the greenhouse, provided outside conditions are favorable, cuttings can be grown outdoors in the usual way. Stem cuttings can be taken later in the plant's growth cycle. Side shoots are produced from the main stems. When these shoots are 3-4 in. long, separate them from the main stem, insert them in a sandy soil mix, and grow on in the high-humidity cutting environment. The most satisfactory method of raising tuberous begonias is from seed. As with any plants grown from seed, the seedlings have slight variations in color and form, but named seed strains are carefully bred to be as uniform as possible for bedding and other commercial uses. Although some plants raised from seed may be disappointing, the chances are equally good that spectacular plants will be produced. Sow in February or March at the latest. Begonia seed is very tiny—around 2 million to the ounce. Because the seeds are so small, the sowing surface must be level and firm. A mixture of sifted peat moss and a fine grade of perlite works well. It should be moist. Small pans or other shallow containers can be used; a soil depth of 1 in. is sufficient. When surface is firm, level, and moist, scatter the seed. A dusting of white sand helps to make the seed visible. Take care not to sow too thickly. Move the packet over the surface to achieve even distribution, or empty it into a laboratory scoop and distribute it from that. Do not cover the seed. Fill a larger container with a l/2 in. or so of water, just enough that after you immerse the seed pot in it, the water level in the outer container is below the surface of the soil in the seed pot. Soak the container just until the surface appears moist and remove it from the water. After moistening, cover seed pot with a sheet of clear glass or plastic and keep it at 65°-70°F. Provide full-spectrum light for 14 hours of each 24; the photoperiod length is crucial to germination. Wipe the inside of the glass each day to remove water droplets, lest these fall on the fragile seed. The most vigorous seeds germinate in approximately a week. Remove the glass to aerate during the day, but replace it during

Begonia

hours of darkness. Remove it completely when most seeds have germinated. About 3 weeks after initial germination, true leaves form, and seedlings can be transplanted. Space them about 2 in. apart; continue giving 14 hours of light daily. Feed with a weak dilution of liquid fertilizer. Lower temperatures by about 10°, to 55°F at night and 65°F during the day. Transfer seedlings to individual 3- or 4-in. pots when leaves start to touch each other. Slowly modify temperature to that of the outdoors. When danger of frost has passed and night temperatures are at least 50°F or higher, plants can be set out. Nip out all flower buds produced in early stages; those produced from the end of May to mid-June and on should be allowed to develop. Place plants to be grown indoors in 6- to 8-in. pots. By fall, small tubers will have been produced, which can be stored and planted next year as are purchased tubers. Note that tubers formed by seedlings are much more regular in appearance than those propagated from cuttings. Always keep in mind that sufficient moisture must be provided throughout the lifetime of a plant. At no time, however, should the medium become waterlogged. Give excellent drainage to ensure that the roots are getting enough oxygen. PROPAGATION OF BULBOUS BEGONIA

Propagate by cuttings of small dormant shoots in early fall, rooted in a sandy soil mix. They root quickly and can then be potted on. SPECIES

B. acaulis. New Guinea; introduced 1943. Stems to 10 in. Flowers rose pink. Ever-blooming under artificial light. B. andersonii. India; introduced c. 1949. Stems to 10 in. Flowers pink, summer. B. baumannii. Bolivia; introduced 1890. Stems to 10 in. Flowers fragrant, rose red, summer. B. biserrata. Guatemala and S Mexico; introduced 1847. Stems to 12 in. or more. Flowers rose or white, summer. B. bogneri. Madagascar; introduced 1973. Rootstock tuberous. Leaves crowded, grasslike, 4-6 in. long, very narrow, glossy on upper surface and paler underneath. Male flowers have 4 tepals, outer pair pale pink, inner pair white, 10-13 stamens united at base. Female flowers have 2 whorls of 3 tepals, the outer whorl pink and a little shorter long than the inner whorl, which is paler pink. Ideal for heated greenhouse with night temperatures around 75°F; long flowering period in fall and winter. B. boliviensis. Bolivia; introduced 1859. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers red, summer. B. bulbillifera. Mexico; introduced 1831. Stems to 12 in. or more. Flowers rose pink, summer. B. cavum. Mexico; introduced 1948. Stems to 10 in. Flowers white, summer. B. xcheimantha. CHRISTMAS BEGONIA. Hybrid (B. dregeixB. socotrana). Rootstock semi-tuberous to fibrous. Flowers pink, winter. B. cinnabarina. Bolivia and Peru; introduced 1849. Stems to 10 in. Flowers fragrant, orange-red, summer to fall. B. clarkei. Bolivia and Peru; introduced 1867. Stems to 10 in. Flowers deep rose, summer to fall.

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B. crenata. India; introduced 1791. Stems to 10 in. Flowers pink, summer. B. davisii. DAVIS BEGONIA. Peru and Bolivia; introduced 1876. Stems to 10 in. Leaves dark green above, crimson below. Flowers bright red, carried in upright panicles on bright red pedicels, summer. Male flowers have 4 tepals; female flowers 5 tepals. An ancestor of many horticultural tuberous begonias. B. dregei. South Africa; introduced 1836. Stems 12-36 in. Flowers bluish white, summer to fall. 'Macbethii' is a low-growing white-flowered cultivar. B. fimbristipula. China; introduced 1883. Stems to 10 in. Flowers fragrant, pink, summer. B.froebelii. Ecuador; introduced 1874. Stems to 10 in. Flowers scarlet, late summer to winter. B. gemmipara. Himalayas; introduced 1855. Stems to 10 in. Flowers fragrant, white, tinted rose, late summer to fall. B. gracilis. HOLLYHOCK BEGONIA. Guatemala and Mexico; introduced 1825. Tubers round and gray. Stem to 36 in., succulent, usually unbranched. Bulbils produced in axils of leaves. Leaves small and generally round but sometimes lanceolate, succulent. Flowers pink, fragrant, summer. Male flowers have 2 large and 2 small tepals; female flowers 5 tepals, a little over 1 in. in diameter. Var. martiana from Mexico, introduced 1864, has stems to 12 in. or more; flowers fragrant, rose pink. B. grandis subsp. evansiana. HARDY BEGONIA. Malaysia, China, and Japan; introduced 1804. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 36 in., branching, red, produced annually. Bulbils produced in axils of leaves. Leaves large, pointed, with heart-shaped base and shallowly lobed margins, copper-green red veins above, red beneath. Flowers fragrant, pendent, white or pink, a little over 1 in. in diameter, in an inflorescence that forks regularly many times, produced summer to fall. Male flowers have 4 tepals of unequal length; female flowers have 2 tepals and ovary is distinctly pink. Hardy to about 15°F, or colder, especially if protected with winter mulch. B. hemsleyana. China (Hunan). Stems to 18 in. Flowers fragrant, light pink, summer. B. homonyma. South Africa; introduced 1840. Rootstock tuberous or semituberous. Flowers white, spring to fall. B. ignea. Guatemala; introduced 1864. Stems to 12 in. or more. Flowers pink, summer. B. xintermedia. Hybrid (B. boliviensisxB. veitchii). Stems to 12 in. Leaves 4 in. or more long, oval to lanceolate, hairy on both upper and lower surfaces. Flowers very numerous, in pendent panicles, a little over 1 in. in diameter, bright, blood-red, summer. Bertini Hybrids (B. xintermedia x B. boliviensis) are very similar except that B. xintermedia has larger flowers and a more erect habit. 'Bertinii' is a tuberous hybrid (B. boliviensis x B. xintermedia) with pendent vermilion flowers in summer. B.josephii. Himalayas, in C Nepal, Bhutan, and India; introduced 1859. Stems to 10 in. Flowers rose red, summer. B. micranthera. Argentina and S Bolivia; introduced 1874. Stems to 12 in. or more. Flowers orange-red, summer. Var.flmbriata from Argentina, introduced 1941, has fragrant flowers. Var. foliosa from Argentina, introduced 1941, has red flowers. Var.

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Behnia

venturiifrom Argentina, introduced 1941, has apricot flowers. B. monophylla. Mexico; introduced 1859. Stems to 10 in. Flowers in summer. B. morelii. Tropical Asia; introduced 1975. Rootstock tuberous or semituberous. Flowers white or very pale pink, everblooming. B. natalensis. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1855. Semi-tuberous or tuberous. Stems to 18 in. Flowers pink tinted yellowish white, winter (April to May in the wild). B. octopetala. Peru; introduced 1788. Stems to 10 in. Flowers white, fall to winter. B. ovatifoliavaii. cretacea. Himalayas; introduced 1879. Stems to 10 in. Flowers white, ever-blooming under artificial light. B. partita. South Africa; introduced 1961. Semi-tuberous or tuberous. Flowers white, spring to fall (September to March in the wild). B. pearcei. Bolivia; introduced 1865. Stems to 10 in. Flowers orange-yellow, summer to fall. B. picta. Himalayas, in Bhutan, India, and Pakistan; introduced 1807. Stems to 10 in. Flowers fragrant, pale rose, everblooming under artificial light. B. princeae. Tropical Africa; introduced 1902. Stems to 12 in. or more. Flowers white, summer. B. pygmaea. Zambia; introduced 1961. Semituberous or tuberous. B. sikkimensis. India (Sikkim); introduced 1859. Stems to 10 in. Flowers bright red, summer. B. socotrana. Yemen, on Socotra Island; introduced 1880. Bulbous. Stems to 12 in. Flowers rose pink, profuse, winter. Much used in hybridizing. For growth cycle, see "Bulbous begonia" under "Culture" above. B. suffruticosa. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1840. Semi-tuberous or tuberous. Leaves finely toothed. Flowers white to pale pink, summer to fall. Possibly a smaller form of B. dregei. B. sutherlandii. E Africa, from KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa to Tanzania; introduced 1868. Rootstock tuberous. Stems trailing, 24-30 in. long. Leaves green with red margins and veins. Flowers yellow-orange, pendent, about 1 in. in diameter, carried in axils of the leaves or terminally, summer to fall. Male flowers have 4 tepals of unequal length; female have 5 tepals of equal length. Var. latior, introduced 1961, has shorter stems to 10 in. This species is rarely grown, but the color is extraordinary. Bulbils are produced in leaf axils after flowering; these bulbils produce tiny leaves but then stop growing, resuming the following spring. They can be collected and stored overwinter dry and frost-free, then planted in spring and given moisture. This species, if interfertile with others, has qualities that could contribute to many breeding programs. B. veitchii. Peru; introduced 1867. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 30 in. Leaves 4 in. long, cordate or reniform, dark green and almost hairless above, glaucous and hairy below, with lobed margins. Flowers fragrant, bright scarlet, summer. Both male and female flowers have 4 tepals; male flower has many stamens, up to 4 flowers in clusters, on petioles to 4 in. long. One of the parents of modern Tuberhybrida Hybrids.

B. viscida. Mexico; introduced 1969. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 12 in. or more. Flowers pale green, summer. B. xweltoniensis. MAPLE-LEAF BEGONIA, GRAPEVINE BEGONIA. Hybrid (B. dregeixB. sutherlandii). Rootstock tuberous or semituberous. Stems to 36 in. Flowers pink or white, profuse, produced early summer to mid winter. B. wollnyi. Bolivia; introduced 1909. Rootstock tuberous or semituberous. Flowers greenish white, winter. SYNONYMS Note: In older literature, hybrid classes were given Latinate names which are no longer valid. For cross-references to "groups" below, see the section above on hybrid classification. B. bicolor see B. gracilis. B. caffra see B. homonyma. B. xcamelliiflora see Camellia Group. B. capensis see B. sutherlandii. B. xcrispa see Crispa Group. B. crispamarginata see Marginata Group. B. xcristata see Cristata Group. B. diversifolia see B. gracilis. B. evansiana see B. grandis subsp. evansiana. B. xfimbriata see Fimbriata Group. B. flanaganii see B. partita. B. xfloribunda see Multiflora Group. B. xgigantea see Single Group. B. xlloydii see Pendula Group. B. macbethii see B. dregei 'Macbethii'. B. xmarginata see Marginata Group. B. Xmarmorata see Marmorata Group. B. martiana see B. gracilis var. martiana. B. xmaxima see Multiflora Group. B. Xmultiflora see Multiflora Group. B. xnarcissiflora see Narcissiflora Group. B. palmaris see B. biserrata. B. richardsiana see B. suffruticosa. B. rosiflora see B. veitchii. B. xtuberhybrida see Tuberhybrida Hybrids. B. xtuberosa see Tuberhybrida Hybrids. B. williamsii see B. wollnyi.

Behnia—Behniaceae Named in honor of W. G. Behn, a friend of Didrik Didricksen, the botanist who first collected it. The only species in the genus is a tall-growing, slender, scrambling climber, but unlike some other liliaceous climbers (for example, Gloriosa), it has no tendrils or hooks to cling onto supporting shrubs. The species is very rare in cultivation and is not likely to be of interest to any growers except botanical gardens and serious collectors. The flowers are not showy, and the large, scandent plant is not a suitable container subject. CULTURE Grow frost-free. Little known in cultivation, but given its native habitat, it should accept any reasonable soil with good organic content. Supply moisture during the growing season. Rhizomes

Bellevalia should be set 3-5 in. deep, placed near a shrub through which the plant can scramble. Give full sun, or light shade during the hottest part of the day. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Sow seed in spring and keep in temperatures above 50°F. Transplant seedlings to small individual pots when large enough to handle and plant out after 2 seasons of growth. SPECIES B. reticulata. E Zimbabwe, South Africa (Northwestern Province, Northern Province, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape), and Swaziland, in woodland, coastal bush, and forests. Rootstock a large but compact rhizome with swollen roots. Leaves shiny green, leathery, sessile on a frequently branching stem, ovate, with reticulate venation and a prominent central vein. Flowering stems arise in the axils of the leaves, are thin and often branch once. Flowers small, funnel-shaped, with 6 spreading perianth segments, carried on very thin stalks. The green or cream (sometimes lime-yellow) perianth lobes are equal and shorter than the tube. Flowering late spring to early summer. The fruit is a rounded and greenish white berry; seeds are black and fleshy.

Belamcanda—Iridaceae Genus name derived from Sanskrit mdldlkanda, a name used in N India for these plants. Belamcanda chinensis is now considered the only species. The name B. flabellata is often seen in connection with a seed strain called Hello Yellow, but it seems to differ only in flower color. The roots are said to be used as an antidote for the bite of cobras. In Asian medicine, it is used to treat coughs, sore throats, and bronchitis, but the root is toxic, and I do not recommend experimenting with it. Belamcanda is not a long-lived plant, either in the wild or in the garden, but it is easily grown from seed. Plant it to add color and interest to mixed and herbaceous borders in late summer. The individual plants take up little space and can be inserted among more permanent plantings. The seed pods are unusual material for dried flower arrangements. CULTURE Winter-hardy to about 10°F. In colder areas, lift plants and store them frost-free over winter and replant in spring, or grow seedlings annually and treat as a biennial. Plant in sandy, welldrained soil with some humus, in a warm spot. Normally obtained as a container plant, which should be planted at the same level as grown. Cover bare rootstocks with only 1 in. of soil. Best planted in fall in warmer areas, spring in colder ones. Space plants 6-8 in. apart. Keep moist during growing season. PESTS AND DISEASES

Protect from slugs and snails.

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PROPAGATION

Gather seed in fall when it separates easily from the pod. Sow it immediately if temperatures around 65°F can be maintained; however, it is more practical to sow it in spring after the weather warms. Sow outdoors in warmer areas, barely covering seed. Can be started indoors in sandy soil mix, sowing about 30 days before last frost. Young plants can then be grown individually in small pots, to be planted out after all danger of frost is past. Rhizomes can be divided in fall and planted back in milder climates, or overwintered for replanting in spring. Store frostfree in sand, just moist enough to keep rhizomes from shriveling. SPECIES B. chinensis. BLACKBERRY LILY, LEOPARD LILY. Japan, Taiwan, China, N India, and E Russia. Rootstock a slender, stoloniferous rhizome. Foliage deep green and irislike, arranged in fans; the leaves encircle the branching stem, and the lower ones are longer than those above. Flowers showy, to 2 in. in diameter, yellow to red-orange, always with deep red-brown spots (hence one of the common names), individually not long-lasting but produced in loose, branching heads of as many as 12 blossoms. Perianth segments narrow at the base, almost flat when fully open; tube very short. Flowering mid to late summer. Attractive, dark purple-black seeds, visible as the seed pods open, resemble blackberries (hence one of the common names). Plate 228. SYNONYM B. punctata see B. chinensis.

Bellevalia—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of Pierre Richer de Belleval (1564-1632), who founded the Montpellier Botanic Garden in 1593. The genus comprises about 45 species, distributed around the Mediterranean—mostly on its northern shores, but extending into Egypt—and east through Turkey and Iran, as far as Afghanistan. They closely resemble Muscari species but have flowers that are not constricted at the mouth; however, some Muscari species also have unconstricted flowers. Many species were formerly included in Muscari and may still be listed in catalogs under that name. Several others were formerly regarded as Hyacinthus. Bellevalia species have true bulbs with a tunic. The bulb produces 2 or more basal, flattened leaves, which have membranous (parchmentlike), hairy, or roughened margins. The scape is leafless, but the individual flower stalks have very small, 2lobed bracts beneath them. The flowers are campanulate, with a narrow or funnel-shaped tube, and are carried in a narrow to conical raceme (Plate 232). Most species have flowers of rather dirty-looking whitish to lavender shades which turn brown as they mature; a few, however, have more attractive bright blue flowers. The 6 stamens are inserted at the base of the tepals and fused for a slight distance at the base; the anthers in many species are dark blue. The style is single. The ribbed capsule contains dark, smooth seeds. Although there are numerous species of Bellevalia, the ma-

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jority are of little horticultural interest because of their dullcolored flowers. The only species seen in bulb catalogs of wide circulation has been B. romana. Enthusiasts treasure B.forniculata for its azure flowers, and it may become more widely available as its culture becomes better understood. Plants should be placed close to a path so they can be appreciated, in a rock garden, or in pots kept plunged in a frame and brought into a display area when in flower. They seem to be plants that look good in botanical illustrations but are a little disappointing when seen in the "flesh." CULTURE Plant in any decent garden soil, well-drained and not too rich, in full sun or light shade. Set bulbs 1 in. deep, 4-6 in. apart, in fall. Keep moist through the winter and spring, reducing water as the foliage begins to wither. They appreciate a dry summer. In containers, use a free-draining compost with good organic content, and give liquid fertilizer when plants are in active growth in spring. Once established, the bulbs should be left undisturbed until overcrowded, which will take several seasons. PESTS AND DISEASES

Generally free of pests and diseases, but the desirable B. forniculata is much sought after by slugs and snails. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate bulbs in fall. Most species multiply rather slowly. Seed can be sown as soon as ripe in fall, barely covered. Leave seedlings in their container until they go dormant, then move the small bulbs into containers with more space. They generally reach flowering size in the 4th season from sowing. SPECIES B. atroviolacea. NE Afghanistan and adjacent C Asia; introduced c. 1973. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers deep indigo blue to purple, mid spring. B. aucheri. Turkey; introduced 1939. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers brownish, late spring. B. brevipedicellata. SW Crete. Stems to 6 in. Flowers whitish, early spring. 5. ciliata. Greece, S Italy, and Turkey. Stems 6-14 in. Flowers pale purple turning greenish brown, mid spring. Very similar to B. sarmatica. Plate 229. 5. dusiana. Turkey; introduced 1843. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers near top of raceme violet; lower flowers brownish, late spring to early summer. B. crassa. NE Turkey, along Black Sea coast; introduced 1980. Flowers pale, mid spring to early summer. B. dubia. Portugal, Austria, Yugoslavia, Italy, Sicily, Greece, Crete, and Turkey; introduced 1939. Stems 12-16 in. Flowers bright steely blue or violet in bud, turning greenish to brownish, early to mid spring. B. flexuosa. Syria, Israel, and Egypt. Stems to 20 in. Flowers white with green veins (sometimes lilac) in bud, opening purple-brown. B. fomini. Transcaucasia and Turkey (SE Asia Minor); introduced 1927. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers violet in bud, opening grayish lilac with blackish lobes, mid spring to early summer.

B. forniculata. NE Turkey and Georgia, in seasonally wet meadows at high elevations; introduced 1922-1923. Stems to 8 in. Flowers bright blue, late spring. B. gradlis. Turkey; introduced 1939. Stems to 4 in. Flowers yellow or whitish in bud, turning brown, late spring. B. hyatinthoides. S Greece, under olive trees, on grassy slopes, and growing between rocks in poor soils. Stems, up to 3 per bulb, to 6 in. Leaves 4-8, produced in fall, lax, slightly channeled, glaucous on upper surface, 10-12 in. long. Flowers small, campanulate, crowded on the stem so their bases are often overlapped by the flowers above, in racemes of 15 or more, early spring. Tube very short; segments separate and recurve slightly. Tepals blue with darker midvein; anthers darker blue. Hardy to perhaps 20°F, colder with overhead protection. It differs from other Bellevalia species in having prominent teeth at the base of the anther filaments and seed of a different shape. For details, see Mathew (1995). Plate 230. B. kurdistanica. SE Turkey and N Iraq; introduced 1939. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers pale lilac turning whitish, late spring. B. latifolia. SE Turkey and N Iraq; introduced 1939. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers greenish in bud, opening white with green veins, aging to brownish, late spring. B. lipskyi. Crimea. Stems 6-14 in. Flowers deep dull purple aging to yellowish brown, mid spring. B. longipes. Turkey, Syria, Iran, and Iraq. Stems to 15 in. Flowers brownish lavender, on very long pedicels, mid spring. B. longistyla. E Turkey, Iran, and the Caucasus; introduced 1928. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers dull purple in bud, turning brownish or dirty white, late spring. B. modesta. Turkey; introduced 1980. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers cream with purple-brown shading, late spring. B. pycnantha. E Turkey, Russia, N Iraq, NW Iran, and Armenia; introduced 1935. Stems to 15 in. Leaves usually 3, the outer up to 1 in. wide and 20 in. long, glaucous above. Flowers numerous, small and overlapping, nodding, dull blue or blackish blue outside with yellow-green margin and interior, late spring. A white form is sometimes listed as 'Alba'. One of the hardiest species, to 0°F, easily grown and not unattractive if massed. B. rixii. E Turkey; introduced 1980. Stems to 2 in. Flowers small, deep violet-blue, anthers violet, late spring. Similar to B. paradoxa, which however has yellow anthers. B. romana. S Europe, from France to Yugoslavia; 1596. Stems 6-14 in. Leaves erect or nearly so, broad (almost 1 in.), to 15 in. long. Flowers numerous, campanulate, in a loose raceme, mid spring. Flowers open white, then age to brown, dull violet, or brownish green. Anthers conspicuous, blue-black. Hardy to around 0°F. Plate 231. B. sarmatica. Turkey and E Mediterranean; introduced 1927. Stems 6-14 in. Flowers purplish, turning brownish purple, late spring. B. saviczii. Afghanistan, E and S Iran, and Russia. Stems to 16 in. Flowers white, fading to gray-brown or green, late spring. B. tauri. Taurus Mountains of Cilicia region in Turkey; introduced 1939. Stems 6-14 in. Flowers brownish purple, late spring.

Biarum B. trifoliata. Italy, Balkan Peninsula, Greece, Crete, Turkey, and Egypt; naturalized in S France; introduced 1843. Stems to 6 in. Flowers dull violet or purplish, margin greenish, mid spring. B. warburgii. Syria and Israel. Stems 6-14 in. Flowers brownish purple, late spring. B. webbiana. N Italy. Stems 6-14 in. Flowers deep purplish turning brown, mid spring. SYNONYMS

B. azurea see Muscari azureum. B. spicata see B. hyacinthoides. B. trojana see B. sarmatica.

Bessera—Alliaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of Gilibald S. J. G. von Besser (1784-1842), professor of botany at Brody, a city at that time in Poland and now in the Ukraine. A small genus (the number of species is uncertain, as is the case with many other Mexican genera); only one species, B. elegans, is mentioned in the literature. The flowers have superior ovaries and have therefore been placed in the Liliaceae, but they are borne in umbels, so some writers place them in the Amaryllidaceae. The family Alliaceae has now been adopted for plants with this combination of characters. This is a collector's item at present, available only as seed from specialist suppliers and perhaps from societies' exchanges. It is suitable for gardens in the U.S. Southeast and Southwest and should be added to any collection of native plants in those regions. CULTURE Bessera elegans tolerates mild frost (to around 25°F). It needs full sun and a well-drained, organic soil. Plant corms 4-5 in. deep in spring, spacing them about 12 in. apart. Provide ample moisture while plants are in active growth, then reduce moisture as foliage withers. Keep dry during winter. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove offset cormels in fall after foliage has withered. Store them frost-free over winter and replant in spring: those over 1/4 in. in diameter can be planted out in the garden, the smaller ones in containers or nursery rows. Sow seed in spring. Keep moist until seedlings go dormant, then transplant them to larger containers and keep almost dry over winter. SPECIES B. elegans. CORAL DROPS. Mexico. Rootstock a tunicated corm, about 1 in. in diameter in mature plants. Leaves narrow, linear, basal, either U-shaped or cylindrical in cross section. The scape is hollow. Flowers bell-shaped, with a short tube and widely flaring perianth segments, not unlike the flowers of garlic. Flower color varies from scarlet to purple, usually coral-orange (hence the common name), with midveins that are green on the outside and whitish on the inside. Some writers compare the form of the flowers to that of snowdrops (Galanthus).

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Flowering mid to late summer, like a number of other bulbous plants from the Mexican "monsoon" climate regions.

Biarum—Araceae A name used by Dioscorides for a related plant. A genus of about 15 species from around the Mediterranean and the Middle East, growing in rocky places where there is an accumulation of soil. They are among the smaller members of the arum family. Biarum tubers are whitish and fleshy. The inflorescence, which usually appears before the leaves, is distinctive in that it appears stemless, as if it were sitting on the ground. Spathe colors vary according to species but are mainly white to greenish white, frequently covered with purple-maroon spots or blotches, which may be so dense that the spathe looks black. The flowers on the spadix are maroon or dark purple, with the male and female flowers separated by a series of sterile, hairlike florets. In B. auraniticum, B. davisii, and B. ditschianium, the spadix has a remarkable long appendix at the tip, and there are no sterile flowers. The fruits are white or greenish, looking for all the world like a basket of small, spherical eggs set on the ground. The majority of species have unpleasantly scented flowers, which attract their pollinators, flies and crawling insects. Flowering times vary; in the list below, the usual flowering time in cultivation is given, but exceptions are to be expected. Only one species—B. davisii—is conventionally beautiful (it also lacks the genus's typical disgusting smell, which has been compared to rotting mutton). Biarum tenuifolium increases most rapidly and may be more desirable to the novice grower of this genus. These small plants are most suitable for the rock garden; they should be planted close to the path where their peculiar forms can be appreciated. Aroid enthusiasts often grow them in containers in their collections. They look best in sites that duplicate their natural habitat—rocky, sandy places in full sun. They are rarely offered by U.S. nurseries, but a range of species is available from specialist bulb growers in Great Britain and the Netherlands. CULTURE Like other Mediterranean bulbs, biarums like winter rainfall and a long, warm, dry summer. They are frequently found at high elevations and many can withstand some frost, but where temperatures fall below 25°F, they should be protected. They prefer gritty, sandy, moderately fertile soil, perfect drainage, and full sun. Little or no moisture is needed during the summer months; winter moisture is essential. They need a very warm, dry summer dormancy to flower well. They should be planted with the tubers just 1-2 in. deep. Once established, they should be left undisturbed; flower production is increased when the tubers are crowded. Feeding is not necessary. PESTS AND DISEASES

Both flowers and leaves may be attacked by slugs and snails. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate tubers in summer while plants are dormant. Replant immediately, but do not water until early fall. Seed

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should be harvested as soon as ripe and sown in fall or stored and sown in spring. Fresh seed germinates quickly in warm temperatures, but stored seed may take 1-2 years to germinate. Grow seedlings on in the same container until the leaves wither, then transplant the tubers to larger containers for growing on. SPECIES B. arundanum. Spain. Leaves rounded. Spadix and leafstalk deep purple-black, summer. B. auraniticum. Mediterranean. Spadix yellow; spathe greenish white. B. bovei. S Turkey, Lebanon, and Israel, among sparse scrub or in bare areas; introduced 1860. Tubers subglobose. Plant height from 3 or 4 in. to almost twice that. Leaves 5-10, almost 1 in. wide and 2-4 in. long, on stalks to 6 in. Spathe dark green to dark brown, produced at ground level, usually before leaves, sometimes at the same time or even after, appears inflated near base; spathe apex varies from blunt to erect and long-tapering. No sterile flowers. Usually flowers late summer to early fall, but sometimes spring. Forma dispar, from Morocco, has a brown spathe. Plate 233. B. carduchorum. Turkey and Iran. Leaves narrowly sagittate, emerging in late summer, on stalks to 10 in. Spathe brownish purple to dull white outside, dark purple to black. Spadix purple-black, early fall. B. carratracense. S Spain (Malaga); introduced 1860. Some authorities regard it as a geographic variant of B. bovei. B. davisii. Crete and SW Turkey, on arid hillsides and in rocky crevices; introduced 1854. Leaves 3-8, to 1 in. long and l/2 in. wide, emerging after flowering. Spathe 3-4 in. long, 2-3 in. across at base, light cream or pale pinkish, spotted deep maroon, bladder-shaped with swollen, cuplike base. Spathe produced at ground level, base often just below the surface. Pointed apex of spathe forms a hood over the spadix but is open at the top. Spadix maroon above, yellowish below, barely protruding from spathe. Usually flowering fall. Subsp. marmarisense, found in 1987 on the coast of the Sea of Marmara, growing in walls, has leaves that are more rounded and larger, on petioles 3-4 in. long, and is more vigorous; spathe flask-shaped, greenish white, spotted pinkish brown, and spadix red, 4 in. long. One of the most appealing biarums because it is pleasantly scented, unlike most others. Plate 234. B. ditschianum. SW Turkey, in humus- and rock-filled "chimneys" in limestone, where they are protected against browsing by goats; introduced 1987-1988. Tuber 1 in. wide, white roots in apical ring. Leaves emerge in early winter: the first are broad and the later leaves are narrower. Spathe limb is a narrow rim of spathe tube, white outside, reddish purple inside. Spadix has distinctive dark yellow appendix with white hairs at its base. No sterile flowers between male and female. Flowering late spring to early summer, malodorous only on first opening. For details see Boyce (1995). B. eximium. C Turkey, in stony ground; introduced 1854. Plant height less than 12 in. Leaves ovate-oblong, 3-4 in. long, narrowing to the stalk, emerging in fall after flowering. Spathe quite large, longer than wide, often to 4 in. long; lower part cy-

lindrical, and upper part flattened. Spathe exterior whitish green to pure white, spotted maroon dots; interior very dark maroon. Spadix upright, thick and long, often as long as spathe. Flowering autumn. B. kotschyi. C Turkey. Similar to B. eximium, but with a narrower spathe that tends to curl over at the tip. Leaves less than 10 in., emerging after flowering. Lower part of spathe bottleshaped and closed more than in B. eximium, expanding to a distinct blade after narrowing at the neck. Flowering early fall. B. ochridense. Albania and Macedonia, in mountains around Lake Ochrid. Leaves wavy. Spathe brown, spadix darker, late summer. B. pyrami. S Turkey to Iran. Spathe deep purple blotched with orange inside, green outside; spadix black, fall. B. spruneri. Greece, in rocky ground in exposed, sunny spots; introduced 1894. Similar to B. tenuifolium, but spadix does not extend beyond spathe, there are no sterile flowers above the male ones, and flowering is in mid to late spring. Leaves spatulate to lanceolate. Spathe purple and greenish. Total height of plant 6-8 in. B. tenuifolium. C and E Mediterranean region, among rocks in full sun; introduced 1570. Increases readily by offsets. Plant height 10 in. Leaves variable in shape and size, to 8 in. long, seldom over 1 in. wide, often grasslike, sometimes with wavy edges, emerging either before or after flowering. Spathe erect and narrow, often twisted, to 6-8 in. long, pale greenish brown to chocolate brown inside, greenish outside. Spadix slender and erect, to 10 in. long, deep blackish purple; sterile flowers both above and below male flowers. Flowering mid summer to late fall. Var. abbreviatum from N Greece, Yugoslavia, and Italy differs in that lower part of spathe is white and found below ground, with upper part about 4-5 in. long, hooded and causing the blackish spadix to bend in order to emerge from the spathe cup; upper part of spathe bright green, with blackish purple interior; flowers in early fall, about the same time as leaves emerge, and is a little shorter than the type. Plate 235. SYNONYMS

B. dispar see B. bovei. B. marmarisense see B. davisii subsp. marmarisense.

Blandfordia—Blandfordiaceae (Liliaceae) AUSTRALIA LILY, CHRISTMAS BELLS Named in honor of George Spencer-Churchill (1766-1840), Marquis of Blandford and later Duke of Marlborough. The genus was introduced to England and described in the early nineteenth century. It has 4 species native to E Australia and Tasmania, where they grow in wet, sandy places or moorland up to 4000 ft. in elevation. In Australia, their common name is Christmas bells because they flower there in December; in the Northern Hemisphere, where they are rarely grown, they bloom in mid summer. The rootstock is a rhizome with fibrous roots. The deciduous leaves are linear, long, and pointed. The basal leaves sheathe the stem and reach 36 in.; in some species there are several up-

Bloomeria right stem leaves, 4-6 in. long. The basal leaves are plicate at the base, similar to those of the Dutch iris. The flowers are subtended by bracts that are narrow, pointed, and generally brownish in color. The inflorescence is an umbel or raceme of up to 15 individual flowers. The flowers, borne on recurved pedicels, reach 2 in. in length. Their colors range from red to yellow tones; some are bicolored. The flowers of some species open into a bell shape, while others remain tubular. The seed pods are held vertically, often with the remains of the withered flowers at the base. For many years, these beautiful plants were regarded as delicate and were cultivated in many countries in display greenhouses, but these plants can also be grown in sunny borders in warm climates. In colder regions, they are good container plants. They are rarely available outside Australia and New Zealand, where the 2 most commonly grown are B. grandiflora and B. punicea. CULTURE Plant rhizomes 3-4 in. deep and 8-10 in. apart in well-drained, slightly acidic soil. The plants should receive full sun, except in the hottest regions. They do not tolerate night temperatures below 35°F during their dormant season. Where winters are mild, they can be planted in sunny borders. In other climates, winter protection is needed in a cool greenhouse or coldframe, heated to keep the temperature above 40°F. Water at the first sign of growth and continue until the foliage starts to yellow in late summer or early fall. Over winter, keep them barely moist. Weak feedings, preferably of organic liquid fertilizer, can be given when growth is active. After the foliage has died back, it should be removed. They are great container plants. Pot them in fall and keep them barely moist until growth commences, then increase watering. Keep containers warm at all times and give full light once foliage appears. PESTS AND DISEASES

Should aphids attack, control them with a product cleared for use on lilies. PROPAGATION

Propagate by division of rhizomes after the growing season has ended. Offsets are also produced and can be separated. Sow seed in fall or spring, barely covering them with a sandy soil mix. Germination may be slow and erratic. The plants resent root disturbance, so it is best to sow the seeds directly into the containers where they are to be grown or to transplant them when very young. Seedling growth is slow. SPECIES B. cunninghamii. Australia (New South Wales). Stems to 30 in. Leaves1/4 in. or more wide, basal. Flowers in dense raceme, as many as 20, red-orange with yellow perianth lobes, 2 in. long, broadening quickly after perianth tube; stamens joined to lower half of tube. B. grandiflora. LARGE CHRISTMAS BELL. Australia (Queensland, New South Wales), in swampy places; introduced 1812. Stems 18-24 in. Leaves are rough on margins, 24-30 in. long, grasslike, basal. Flowers 2 in. long, in a loose spike of 7-10, tu-

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bular or campanulate; petals and sepals usually fused into a narrow tube and then flaring. Flowers have red base and yellow lobes. A form with completely yellow flowers has been called var. intermedia. Flowering summer (October to January in the wild). B. nobilis. Australia (New South Wales), in swampy, sandy places; introduced 1803. Stems to 35 in. Leaves toothed along margins, grasslike, basal, to 30 in. long. Racemes of 3-10 flowers, 1-11/2 in. long, red with yellow-tipped lobes, very narrow at base and flaring to an almost straight tube. Flowering spring to summer (November to January in the wild). Plates 236,237. B. punicea. TASMANIAN CHRISTMAS BELLS. Tasmania, on wet heaths, moors, and hillsides from sea level to subalpine zone; introduced c. 1840. Stems to 36 in., greenish brown with few stem leaves. Leaves basal and tufted, 18-36 in. long, rather coarse, narrow, with sawlike margins. Compact racemes of as many as 20 flowers, 11/2 in. long, crimson with yellow interiors and tips, tubular, narrow at the base, pendent on short pedicels, and subtended by brownish spathes. Flowering spring to autumn (September to March in the wild). Perhaps the most beautiful species, free-flowering and desirable for the garden. SYNONYMS

B. aurea see B. grandiflora. B. flammea see B. grandiflora. B. intermedia see B. grandiflora var. intermedia. B. marginata see B. punicea. B. princeps see B. grandiflora.

Bloomeria—Alliaceae (Liliaceae) GOLDEN STARS Named for H. G. Bloomer (1821-1874), a San Francisco botanist. This W North American genus has only 2 species, one of them very rare and local. The corms are covered with a fibrous coat. The few leaves produced are basal, long (12 in. or more), and narrow. The flowers are yellow and similar to those of Brodiaea, except that the perianth segments are free to the base, so that the flowers open flat. There are 6 stamens, which form a sheath around the ovary. The flowers, in umbels on long pedicels, appear in late spring or early summer. Bloomerias add interest to perennial and shrub plantings in the garden. If left undisturbed, they will multiply and give a good effect. They do well in rock gardens, but position them with care so the rather tall flower stems will not overpower neighboring plants. For garden purposes, bloomerias can be regarded as yellow brodiaeas, and combined plantings of both are effective, though bloomerias flower later than most brodiaeas. They grow well in pots and make excellent cut flowers. CULTURE Plant dormant corms in late summer in very well drained soil (or clay, where they are native) in full sun, setting them fairly deep—4 in. or even more in hot, dry climates; in the wild they may grow as deep as 12 in. in hard clay. Bloomeria crocea tolerates winter temperatures to about 20°F, but not prolonged

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Bobartia

freezing. In cold climates, best planted in spring. Protect well or lift in late summer and store over winter in colder regions. Provide adequate moisture in winter and spring, then allow to dry out. At no time should soil be waterlogged. Needs full sun. PESTS AND DISEASES

The leaf must be protected against slugs and snails or entire plant will be lost. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate corms in late summer. They increase well. Sow seed in fall and keep cool but frost-free over winter. Grow in seed pots one season, then move when leaves wither to larger containers to grow on. Seedlings flower in the 3rd or 4th year. SPECIES B. crocea. United States (S and C California), along coast, in chaparral; 1869. Leaf solitary. Flowers deep yellow, starry, with dark median lines on tepals; umbels 4-6 in. in diameter. Var. aurea, first introduced in 1869, has a corm about the size of a hazelnut, stems 6-12 in. long, and particularly bright yellow flowers. Var. montana is very similar, but petals recurve more and flowers do not have a slight cup formed by the bases of the perianth segments. Plates 238, 239. B. humilis. United States (San Luis Obispo County in California), known from only 2 colonies. Smaller in all its parts than B. crocea. SYNONYMS

B. aurea see B. crocea. B. develandii see Muilla develandii. B. maritima see Muilla maritima. B. montana see B. crocea var. montana.

Bobartia—Iridaceae Named in honor of Jacob Bobart (1599-1680), a keeper of the Oxford Botanic Garden. The genus contains about 14 species, which have creeping or short, suberect rhizomes. The genus is South African, occurring mostly in SW Western Cape. Plants have great recuperative powers, resprouting profusely after bush fires. They are also dominant in overgrazed habitats because they are unpalatable. Another unusual characteristic is the ability of these plants to flower at almost any season, often more than once in a year. Early settlers in South Africa used the reedlike foliage to make brooms and baskets. The overall appearance of Bobartia plants is rushlike. The leaves maybe sword-shaped but are more commonly cylindrical and sharply pointed. The flowering stems are also cylindrical, slender and swaying in the slightest breeze. The height of species varies from 12 in. to over 6 ft. Below the flowers is a rigid green spathe, which may extend above the topmost flower. Most species have yellow flowers, tinged or blushed with brown on the outside; B. lilacina has blue-purple or lilac flowers. The individual flowers are crowded together high on the scape and are not long-lasting; 2 or 3 open at one time. A single inflorescence may contain both mature seedpods and unopened flower buds. The flowers open fairly flat; the tepals are not joined ex-

cept at the very base, and overlap for about1/3 of their length. The usual flowering season is spring to summer, but they are often seen in flower at other seasons. Bobartias can be rather striking in a cool greenhouse. They are lent a certain charm by their rushlike foliage, which contrasts attractively with that of other plants. None of the wild species has great garden merit, but a hybridizing program could produce some interesting plants for warmer gardens. They are easy to grow on poor soil, and they possess great variety in color and foliage form. The ability to flower at different times and over a long period are characteristics that, if correctly intermingled, could result in attractive hybrids. These plants are primarily of botanical interest but may have some value in warmer gardens on poor ground, provided a summer resting period is possible. CULTURE Bobartias must be grown frost-free or nearly so and need good drainage and sun. They prefer a sandy or gritty soil and should not receive much moisture during winter as they rot when wet and cold; in Mediterranean climates, this means providing overhead cover in winter. Plant in October, setting the rootstocks 2-3 in. deep; space them 3 in. apart for the smaller species, 10 in. apart for taller ones. Leave plants undisturbed until well established. If the foliage becomes ragged, burn it off, taking care not to allow too great a buildup of heat around the tufted base of the plants—veld fires are fast-moving. Plants need a copious root-run, so containers, if used, must be large. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide clumps after flowering in late summer or early fall, replanting immediately. Divide only after plants have formed a large tuft of foliage, after about 3 seasons of growth. Sow seed in the spring and transplant seedlings into individual pots as soon as large enough to handle. They should be large enough to set out the following spring or fall. SPECIES B. aphylla. South Africa (Western Cape), in poor soils on mountain slopes bordering the Indian Ocean. Scape and leaves cylindrical, rounded, sharply pointed. Stems 12-24 in. Spathe extends well above flowers. Flowers yellow, up to 11 in a tight cluster. Long but spasmodic flowering period from winter to fall (August to April in the wild). Plate 240. B. fasciculata. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 30-60 in. Flowers yellow, late winter to late spring (August to November in the wild). B.filiformis. South Africa (Cape Peninsula, north along Atlantic seaboard), on sandy lower and midslopes of coastal mountains. Stems and leaves cylindrical, stems to 24 in., leaves a little shorter. Inflorescence secund, with 1-3 clusters of flowers per stem. Flowers clear yellow, not quite as flat as other species, retaining shallow bowl form, closing in bright sunlight and opening at twilight and on dull days. Flowering spring to summer (September to December in the wild).

Bokkeveldia B. gladiata. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 10-40 in. Leaves swordlike, narrow, not basal but arranged opposite along stem. Inflorescence flattened, with 12 or fewer groups of gray-green bracts, frequently tinged purple. Flowers borne in axils of bracts in clusters of 1-3, yellow, sometimes tinged or spotted red-brown, opening in afternoon; outer tepals a little larger than inner. Flowering spring to summer (August to December in the wild). B. gracilis. South Africa (East London area of Eastern Cape), on grassy hillsides. Stems 24-28 in. Leaves dark green, cylindrical, to 24 in. Flowers pale lemon yellow, produced intermittently throughout the year. B. indica. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Rhizome short and cormlike. Stems 10-25 in. Leaves cylindrical, trailing, often more than 40 in. long, up to 6 per plant. Spathe extends above topmost flower. Below inflorescence, 2 cylindrical bracts, expanded at the base, clasp the stem. Flowers lemon yellow; outer tepals about 1 in. long, inner a little smaller. Flowering spring to fall (October to March in the wild). B. lilacina. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 12-28 in. Flowers lilac, summer to early fall (January to March in the wild). B. longicyma. South Africa (N and E of Cape Town), in sandy lowlands. Leaves and stems cylindrical and of equal length. Inflorescence flattened, with up to 20 flowers in clusters. Flowers somewhat bowl-shaped; tepals overlap in lower l/3 and are joined at base. Flowering late winter to late spring (August to November in the wild). Mature plants form very large tufts. B. macrocarpa. South Africa (Port Elizabeth area of Eastern Cape). Stems to 40 in. Flowers yellow, late winter to late summer (August to February in the wild). B. macrospatha. South Africa (E Western Cape to S Eastern Cape). Stems 20-44 in. Flowers yellow, tepals united into a tube, late winter to late spring (August to November in the wild). B. orientalis. South Africa (Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape). Stems 16-50 in. Flowers yellow, late winter to late spring (August to November in the wild). B. paniculata. Kammanassie Mountains in South Africa (E Little Karoo of Western Cape). Stems 12-40 in. Flowers yellow, late summer (January to February in the wild). B. parva. South Africa (Western Cape); an endangered species. Stems 6-16 in. Flowers yellow, summer (November to February in the wild). B. robusta. South Africa (N Western Cape), in coastal and lower mountain slopes. Plants often over 6 ft. but usually 3-5 ft. Leaves and flowering stem cylindrical, reedlike, sharply pointed, flowers yellow, generally 8-10 crowded on stem. Usually flowering late spring or summer (August to October in the wild), but can be found in flower almost any time except winter. By far the tallest species in the genus. Plate 241. B. rufa. Hex River Mountains to Cedarberg Mountains of South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 20-36 in. Flowers yellow, early to late spring (September to November in the wild).

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SYNONYMS B. aurantiaca see Homeria flaccida. B. spathacea see B. indica.

Bokkeveldia—Amaryllidaceae Closely related to Strumaria, and by some authorities regarded as a section of that genus. The 5 species in Bokkeveldiawere separated from Strumaria by D. and U. Miiller-Doblies in 1985. D. A. Snijman (1994) includes them as a section of Strumaria. (Bokkeveldiapicta has been included in Gemmaria as well.) The differences are minor but distinct. Bokkeveldia bulbs have whitish inner tunics (rarely, yellowish). The flowers are funnelshaped, the pedicels as long as the perianth segments. The leaves, usually 2 or occasionally 3, emerge after flowering has finished. They are sheathed at the base by an undeveloped leaf, or bract, from which they emerge. CULTURE As for Strumaria. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

As for Strumaria. SPECIES B. perryae. N Bokkeveld Mountains of South Africa (NW Western Cape). Leaves 2, hairy. Flowers pink with darker stripes, late summer (February to March in the wild). B. picta. South Africa (NW Western Cape), on clay soils; vulnerable to extinction. Bulb nearly egg-shaped. Stems to 5 in. Leaves strap-shaped, 2-6 in. long, slightly glaucous. Flowers bell-shaped, generally 5-10, white with broad band of reddish brown on reverse of tepals, held more or less upright. Stamens also erect; style longer than stamens. Flowering fall (March in the wild). B. pubescens. South Africa (east of Cape Town in Western Cape), on steep clay slopes. Plants form very dense clumps. Bulb has a light brown, fibrous tunic, yellowish inner tunic, and a neck 2-3 in. long. Leaves usually 2, sometimes 4, light green, strap-shaped, to 10 in. long, upper surface covered with white hairs, base reddish, emerging after flowering. Flowers funnelshaped, late summer to fall (January to March in the wild). B. salteri. South Africa (Olifants River and Clanwilliam area in Western Cape). Bulb ovoid, with grayish brown outer tunic, white within, with a neck 21/2 in. long, twice the diameter of the bulb itself. Stem to 6 in. Leaves generally 2, lax, deep green above, light green below, 1-4 in. long, emerging after flowering. Flowers funnel-shaped, up to 14, held upright, pink with deeper color in center of tepals and reddish band on reverse, arching from base to tip. Stamens extend as far as or beyond tepals; style equal in length to stamens. Flowering late fall (March to April in the wild). This is the most attractive species. B. watermeyeri. South Africa (near Nieuwoudtville in Northern Cape). Stems 1-3 in. Leaves have blisters along the edges filled with a sticky substance. Leaves normally 2, held close to

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Bomarea

ground, 3-4 in. long, emerging after flowering. Flowers funnelshaped, up to 12, pink with darker band on reverse, on upright pedicels. Stamens extend beyond tepals. Flowering fall (March to April in the wild). Subsp. botterkloofensis, from shallow, sandy pans on the Botterkloofs Pass near Calvinia, is shorter than the type and has stamens no longer than tepals.

Bomarea—Alstroemeriaceae (Liliaceae) WHITE JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE Named in honor of Jacques-Christophe Valmont de Bomare (1731-1807) of Paris. Bomareais closely related to Alstroemeria but has a more northerly center of distribution in the highlands of tropical South America, in Central America, and in the West Indies. There are believed to be more than 100 species of the genus in this inadequately surveyed region. The rootstock is made up of slender rhizomes or fleshy roots; some species produce distinct tubers at the tips of these. The tubers of one species, B. edulis, are eaten and are known in England as white Jerusalem artichoke. The stems are long and twining, supporting the plant on shrubs and trees. The flowers, borne in clusters, are tubular (sometimes broadly so); the perianth segments may be all equal or in 2 unequal series (Plate 242). The leaves are oblong and pointed, carried on long stalks. The plants of most species can be quite large when mature. In warm climates, bomareas make attractive garden climbers. In colder areas they need winter protection but can be grown outdoors in summer, planted in large containers with a trellis for support. These lovely climbers deserve greater recognition. In subtropical gardens and display greenhouses, their large, brilliantly colored flowers make them very popular with visitors. CULTURE Most species cannot be grown where temperatures drop below 45°F at anytime, although there are a few smaller, high-altitude bomareas that can withstand occasional light frost. Plant tubers or rhizomes just below the surface of a soil high in organic matter. In large containers, plant one per 10 in. of pot diameter; in the ground, 3 can be grouped so their stems can be trained around supports in a profuse mass. They must receive plenty of water during the growing season and should never become completely dry, but watering should be restricted when plants are not in active growth. Give regular feedings of liquid organic fertilizer during the warm months. Bomareas enjoy bright light, but not hot direct sunlight. PESTS AND DISEASES

Control aphids, especially when plants are grown under glass. PROPAGATION

Divide rootstock carefully when plant is dormant. Tubers of tuberous species can be removed at almost any time and grown on. Sow seed in spring in a soil mix high in organic matter and keep at 65°-75°F. Seeds germinate in about 20 days. After germination, seedlings can be transplanted to individual pots and potted on as growth dictates.

SPECIES B. acutifolia. S Mexico; 1830. Leaves have hairs on veins of underside. Flowers have red outer segments, interior segments orange or yellow with brownish spots, spring. B. andimarcana. Andes of Peru; 1846. Climber 6-10 ft. Leaves evergreen. Flowers pale yellow and pink, tipped with green, summer. B. caldasii. N South America, especially Ecuador, in mountains; 1863. Climber to 12 ft. or more. Flowers tubular, in simple, drooping umbels of 20-60. Outer segments reddish brown to orange-red; inner segments yellow to orange, sometimes speckled with brown or green. Flowering summer. One of the more commonly cultivated species. B. cardieri. Andes of Colombia; 1876. Climber to 13 ft. Flowers pendent, bell-shaped, in loose clusters, pale pink spotted brownish mauve, summer. B. edulis. Central and South America, from Mexico to Peru, and on Cuba; perhaps spread by pre-Columbian cultivators, and introduced to Europe in 1871. Tubers grown for food. Climber to 20 ft. or more. Leaves lanceolate, to 5 in. long and 1 in. wide. Flowers in clusters, to11/2in. long; outer segments rose or yellow tipped with green, inner segments yellow or greenish, spotted rose, summer. Var. chontalensis is more vigorous and has larger flowers, bright rose, greenish yellow within. Var. ovata has wider leaves more rounded at the base, with hairs on the underside. Var. punctata has flowers with bright reddish orange outer segments, and inner segments golden yellow, spotted crimson—a particularly attractive plant. B. formosissima. Peru. Flowers have red outer segments, yellow inner segments. B.frondea. Andes of Colombia; 1881. Flowers yellow, with dark red spots on inner segments. B. multiflora. Colombia and Venezuela, in Andean valleys; 1829. Flowers 20-40 in dense umbel, outer segments orange tinged red, inner segments reddish yellow spotted claret-brown inside tube. Flowering mainly in fall, but sporadically throughout the year. B. oligantha. Ecuador; 1877. Similar to B. multiflora but has yellow inner segments and smaller umbels of 6-8 flowers. B. patacocensis. Ecuador and Colombia, in Andean valleys; 1881. Outer segments of flower orange or red; inner segments yellow or red with brown or violet spots and orange tips. Plants cultivated under this name are often B. racemosa. B. racemosa. Colombia. Stem deep red. Flowers scarlet, interior spotted brown, base yellow. B. salsilla. Chile; 1806. Climber to 6 ft. Flowers purple, tipped with green. B. shuttleworthii. Colombia (around Bogota); introduced 1881. Climber to 20 ft. or more. Leaves 5-6 in. long, ovate-lanceolate, 2 in. wide, without hairs. Flowers to 3 in. long, funnelshaped or long bell-shaped; outer segments orange-vermilion tinged green, inner segments bright yellow with red midrib and green tips with dark spots. Flowering summer. SYNONYMS B. caldasiana see B. caldasii.

Boophane B. conferta see B. patacocensis. B. kalbreyeri see B. caldasii. B. pubigera see B. andimarcana.

Bongardia—Berberidaceae Named in honor of August G. H. Bongard (1786-1839), a German botanist. A genus of only one species. The leaves arise directly from the tuber; this feature differentiates Bongardia from Leontice. It is one of several unusual tuberous members of the barberry family and grows on stony hillsides and in cultivated fields. Bongardia is hardy to at least 0°F, but it is intolerant of wet and is usually grown in the bulb frame or the rock garden. The flowers, though fairly numerous, are not showy. The foliage is quite pretty, but it is withered by the beginning of summer. It is difficult to obtain because the tubers do not multiply and all plants must be grown from seed. CULTURE

Set tubers 4-5 in. deep in a very well-drained, gritty soil with added humus. Provide a small amount of moisture in late fall through early spring. Keep plants dry during summer dormant period. If desired, transplant or repot them when dormant. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special pests. Plants are disease-free if kept dry enough. PROPAGATION

Seed is the only method of propagation. Sow in fall and water sparingly. Grow on without disturbing and set in permanent positions during their 2nd dormant season. SPECIES B. chrysogonum. W Asia, Syria, and Iran; introduced 1740. The tuber is medium brown, subglobose, and 1-2 in. in diameter. The leaf is pinnate or pinnatisect; the leaflets are sessile and have 3, 4, or 5 clefts at the tips. They are gray-green and strikingly marked with dark red chevrons or blotches. The scape is 6-12 in. tall. The deep yellow flowers, about 1/2 in. across, are borne in a branched panicle and open flat, appearing in late winter to early spring. The seeds lie within an inflated, papery capsule. Plate 243. SYNONYM

B. rauwolfii see B. chrysogonum.

Boophane—Amaryllidaceae CENTURY PLANT, SORE EYE FLOWER, CAPE POISON BULB, POISON PLANT, APRIL-FOOL LILY, RED POSY Name is derived from Greek bous ("ox") and phone ("slaughter"), referring to the plants' toxicity. Other spellings that have been used are Boophoneand Buphane. This genus of 3 species is restricted to South Africa and is found over much of that country, growing in dry grassland. The bulbs are proportionately quite large—6 in. or more in diameter—and are covered with dry scales; the upper % of the

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bulb is often above ground level. The leaves are basal, linear, and often have fluted margins; they may reach 14 in. long and almost 2 in. in width. They emerge after flowering and are handsomely arranged in a stout fan. In spring, each bulb produces a single spherical umbel, also large—over 8 in. in diameter is not uncommon. The flower stalk is short and stout. The individual flowers are borne on pedicels which are 2 in. or more long at flowering time and lengthen as the seeds ripen. The Xhosa people use the dry, outer covering of the bulbs of Boophane disticha as a dressing after circumcision and also as a poultice for abscesses and boils, and as decoration on masks. Europeans too have used the scales, moistened, as a dressing for boils, and the fresh leaves to check bleeding from cuts. The bulb was used by the Bushmen as an ingredient of arrow poisons. Smelling the sweet fragrance of the flowers and inhaling the pollen are said to cause severe headache, drowsiness, and sore eyes. Several species have been introduced to cultivation in comparatively recent times. None are frost-hardy. Boophane disticha, the most common species, deserves consideration because of its large size and long flowering period. In warm climates, they are suitable for the sunny border or a corner of the garden where they receive sun and good drainage. In colder areas, they can be grown in deep containers, protected over winter by moving indoors. CULTURE Plant so that the neck and about half of the bulb are above ground level. Space them about 12 in. apart. They need full sun, but soil type is of no great importance; they seem to do well in all types from sand to heavy clay. They prefer moisture during both the flowering season and the growth period of the leaves but can withstand periods of drought. Leave undisturbed. They require 1-2 seasons to flower after being transplanted. Plants in containers should be brought indoors when temperatures are expected to drop below 40°F. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Offset bulbs are produced in small numbers and should be removed without disturbing the roots of the parent bulbs. Seed, quite freely produced, should be sown in spring in a sandy soil mix, given night temperatures of 45°-50°F, and sparingly watered. Transplant seedlings to small individual containers and grow on for 2 or 3 seasons, until their bulbs are fairly large. Give seedlings good light but not hot direct sunlight. SPECIES

B. disticha. CENTURY PLANT, TUMBLEWEED. South Africa (all provinces except Northern Cape), Angola, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Kenya, in grassland; introduced 1774. Leaves emerge after flowers, arranged in 2 ranks as a fan, to 14 in. long, about 2 in. wide, tapering, often with fluted edges. Flowers in large umbels (over 12 in. in diameter) of 50 or more, on scape only a few inches long, late spring to early summer. Perianth segments

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Boussingaultia

pink, narrow, curled and twisted but not much reflexed. Individual flowers l/2 in. or more in diameter, with prominent orange stamens. Has an unusual means of seed distribution: the entire umbel of ripening seedpods on long pedicels separates from the stalk and is blown around the veld by the wind, scattering the seeds as it rolls. This species performs well even with little winter moisture. Plate 244. B. haemanthoides. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Karoo, around Piketberg on the west coast of Western Cape); described 1947; rare. Stem plus umbel 12-20 in. tall. Tepals cream with reddish tips, produced late spring to early summer (November to December in the wild). Plate 245. SYNONYMS B. ciliarissee Crossyne guttata. B. ciliata see Crossyne guttata. B. flava see Crossyne flava. B. guttata see Crossyne guttata. B. longipedicellata see B. disticha.

Boussingaultia B. baselloides see Anredera cordifolia. B. cordifolia see Anredera cordifolia. B. gracilis see Anredera cordifolia. B. gracilis var. pseudobaselloides see Anredera cordifolia. B. gracilis f. pseudobaselloides see Anredera cordifolia.

Bowiea—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of J. Bowie (1789-1869), a collector for the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. A genus of only 4 species, perennial scrambling climbers that grow under scrub and in the protection of rocks in many parts of South Africa and in tropical Africa as far north as Tanzania. The rootstock grows at or near the soil surface and produces an elaborately branching climbing stem. The small leaves on the stem wither after flowering has passed; apparently photosynthesis takes place primarily in the mass of green stems and in the exposed bulb scales. The flowering stem is annual and the flowers are not very attractive. The bulbs are much used in native medicine. Roasted, powdered, and infused in water, they are used as a purgative. Other maladies they are said to cure include headache and female infertility. The bulbs are said to have much the same effect as digitalis, which is a heart stimulant, causing it to beat faster. As ornamentals, they are of interest primarily to collectors of succulents and oddities. CULTURE Not hardy below 40°F and should be kept well above that if possible. Plant bulbs in a sunny, well-drained position, placing them at soil level or just below; protect them from direct sun with other plants or an adjacent rock. Provide support for the twining stems. Water is needed in winter and spring, with a dry period in late summer. No fertilizer is needed. Bulbs should be left undisturbed.

PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove offsets in fall. Sow seed in spring and water sparingly. Give seedlings good light and night temperatures around 50°F. Transplant bulblets the following spring into their own containers and grow on until about 1 in. in diameter, then plant into permanent sites. SPECIES B. gariepensis. South Africa. Bulb has fleshy scales. Stem 1218 in. Leaf solitary, seldom 2, grasslike. Flowers short-lived, often at night, tepals fused at base, spring (September in the wild). Plate 246. B. intricata. South Africa and countries to the north, in grassland, rocky places, woodland, and scrub. Bulb pear-shaped, with fleshy scales, occasionally forming a neck. Stem to 18 in., wiry, much branched, more often scrambling than erect; complex branches persist after the flowers have passed. Leaf solitary (at most), very thin, withering quickly. Flowers numerous, small; perianth segments 6, white, somewhat spreading and fused at the base, with a greenish-brown keel on the underside. Stamens short, with anthers facing inward; stigma held above the stamens, which cluster around its base. Flowering at night in spring to summer (September to October in the wild). Seed black, shiny. B. kilimandscharica. South Africa, Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Close to B. volubilis, but bulb is much smaller, only 4 in. in diameter. B. volubilis. CLIMBING ONION, ZULU POTATO. South Africa, Malawi, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. Bulb somewhat flattened, 4-5 in. in diameter, with 1 or 2 basal leaves. Stems shiny green, with many branches. Flowers glossy yellow, borne at the ends of the many branches, facing all directions, poking out through the shrubs that support the stems; tepals short, quite thick, and recurved. Flowering sporadically (sometimes more than once) during the growing season.

Bravoa—Agavaceae Named in honor of either the brothers Leonardo and Miguel Bravo, Mexican botanists, or Nicholas Bravo, a hero of the Mexican War of Independence. There are 3 or perhaps 4 species, all native to Mexico. Some authorities (especially after the work of Verhoek-Williams, 1975) place these in the genus Polianthes (tuberoses), but others separate them on the basis of flower color: Polianthes are white or greenish white, whereas Bravoa are red or orange. More work needs to be done on this group, which I am keeping separate in this volume. Most species produce their flowers in pairs on long racemes, in summer. The foliage is mostly basal, varying from grasslike to rather broad. There are also some small, sparse leaves on the stems. The perianth is a cylindrical tube terminating in very short lobes of nearly equal length. The rootstock is a tuber with attached roots, both fleshy.

Brimeura Considering the variation in color among the species, it is interesting to conjecture what hybrids could be produced, and what might result from crossing bravoas with Polianthes tuberosa, which is widely grown as a cut flower. CULTURE

In areas where frost occurs, bravoas must be grown in a cool greenhouse; otherwise, the tubers can be treated like dahlias: lifted in fall, stored over winter in a frost-free place, and replanted in the spring as soon as the ground warms. In warm climates, they can be grown in sunny, well-drained borders, but they must have plenty of moisture during the growing season and be kept on the dry side during the winter months. Set tubers 3-4 in. deep, spaced 8-10 in. apart, in rich soil with good organic content. They benefit from frequent feedings of liquid organic fertilizer during growth. They are good container plants but should not be too crowded. Only in the very hot areas should these plants be given any shade, and then only during the heat of the day. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove offsets in early fall and grow on, dividing mature plants at the same time. Seed is freely produced and can be sown in spring in a rich organic soil mix; just lightly cover the seed. They germinate readily, and seedlings can become quite large the first season. In the 2nd spring, they should be individually potted. By the following spring, the tubers will be of flowering size. SPECIES B. geminiflora. C Mexico, in damp areas; introduced 1841. Stems to 24 in., almost leafless. Leaves mostly basal,1/2 in. wide and 18-20 in. long. Flowers in pairs on very short pedicels, held horizontally or slightly pendent, 1 in. long, shades of rich reddish orange to yellowish, early to mid summer. Plate 247. B. graminifolia. C Mexico, in grassy areas; introduced perhaps c. 1840. Stems 20-24 in. Leaves grasslike and all basal. Flowers in pairs, closer to true red than B. geminiflora, mid summer. B. platyphylla. C Mexico; introduced perhaps c. 1840. Leaves prostrate or nearly so, just over 1 in. wide and 4-5 in. long. Perianth tube somewhat shorter than in other species. Distinct in that stamens are not attached toward the bottom of tepals, but closer to the mouth of the flower. Flowers dull, rather pale red, mid summer.

Brimeura—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of Marie de Brimeur, an ardent French flower gardener in the sixteenth century. For many years the species in this genus, which is native to the Mediterranean region, were included in Hyacinthus. In fact, they resemble Scilla more than Hyadnthus, but differ from both. Brimeura has a long, tapering bract subtending each flower stalk; in Hyadnthus this bract is insignificant. In Brimeura the tepals are joined into a short tube; in Scilla they are free.

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There are only 2 species in the genus. The small bulbs (about % in. in diameter) produce linear leaves, narrow and grasslike, in early spring. These are followed by the flowers in mid spring. The individual flower stalks are longer than the bracts. The small flowers are bell-shaped, carried in a raceme. The number of florets varies, from solitary in young plants to 15 on older ones. These low-growing bulbs have a place in a sunny border or rock garden. In small containers, they are dainty but not showy. They deserve a place in the garden of the bulb enthusiast. CULTURE Brimeura amethystina prefers sun, while B. fastigiata enjoys dappled shade. Plant bulbs in fall, 1-2 in. deep and 3-5 in. apart. Good drainage is essential, especially during summer where rain or irrigation occurs; like most Mediterranean bulbs, they like a dry dormancy. They are hardy to at least 20°F and withstand hot, dry summer conditions. During the growing season and throughout winter, however, they require moisture. In areas where winter temperatures regularly drop below 20°F, a mulch of leaves helps to extend their adaptability. Placement near rocks also seems beneficial: they appreciate the reflected heat. Fertilize very little if at all; the leafmold mulch is sufficient. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Sow ripe seed in fall in a sandy soil mix, barely covering the seed. After germination, keep seedlings slightly moist until the foliage withers. When fully dormant, remove bulblets and plant them in containers for growing on. When the seedlings have formed bulbs 1/4 in. in diameter, they can be planted out into their permanent locations. Well-grown bulbs multiply and form small colonies. After they have been growing in their permanent locations for at least 3 years, lift and separate the bulbs in early summer. Replant the larger bulbs, and treat the smaller ones as described for seedling bulblets. SPECIES

B. amethystina. Pyrenees of Europe, in rocky places and slopes of thin grassland; introduced 1759. Bulb ovate, to 3/4 in. in diameter. Leaves 6-8, narrow, bright green, to 12 in. long. Stems to 10 in. Flowers 5-15 in a one-sided, rather loose raceme, bright blue, nearly l/2 in. long, pendent; tepal lobes are shorter than the tube. This is the more attractive of the 2 species and the only one commonly grown. A white form, 'Alba', is common in cultivation but very rare in the wild. Plate 248. B. fastigiata. Corsica and Sardinia; introduced 1882. Stems rarely more than 4 in. Leaves usually 5, sometimes more but seldom fewer, to 6 in. long, dark green, linear, narrow. Flowers 1-10, held horizontally (rarely slightly erect) all around the stem and clustered at the top, bell-shaped, pale pink or white, 1/3 in. long; flaring tepals give flowers a starry appearance.

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Brodiaea—Alliaceae (Liliaceae) FIRECRACKER LILY, FOOL'S ONION Named in honor of James Brodie (1744-1824), a Scottish horticulturist. This is a genus of about 14 species in United States, especially California. Many species formerly included in Brodiaea have now been moved to other genera: Bloomeria, Dichelostemma, Ipheion, Leucocoryne, Muilla, and Triteleia. Many growers, gardeners, and wildflower enthusiasts have not yet caught up with the botanists and still refer to many of them— especially Triteleia and Dichelostemma—as brodiaeas. To locate their descriptions in this work, see the list of synonyms at the end of this en try. There has been much discussion as to which family Brodiaea (in the broad sense) should be placed in. The ovary in this group is superior, as in the Liliaceae, but the flowers are in umbels, as in the Amaryllidaceae. Placing them in the Alliaceae, a "split" of Liliaceae which includes other genera with umbels, seems to have solved the problem, at least for the moment. They are superficially similar in appearance to alliums, and one of their common names in California is fool's onion. Brodiaeas have corms with soft, fibrous tunics. They have 3 fertile stamens and 3 infertile staminodes (except in the very rare B. orcuttii), as do Dichelostemma and Triteleia species. The distinctive difference between these 2 genera is that the leaves of Brodiaea are rounded underneath (as are those of Muilla), while those of Dichelostemma are keeled. The inflorescence tends to be loose in Brodiaea and tighter in Dichelostemma. The leaves are linear and vary in width according to species. They are often withered by the time the plants are in full bloom. The onionlike inflorescence is carried on a slender, erect stem. The individual flowers are various shades of blue, purple, and lavender; they may be wide open and starry, or funnel-shaped with a distinct tube at the base. The fruit is an upright capsule with many black, angular seeds. Brodiaeas can be used in a number of places in the garden, as they extend the season of flowering bulbs into early summer. Loamy, well-drained soil, like that on the edge of woodlands, is ideal. They are often suggested for the rock garden, where the extra drainage preserves their health in summer-wet climates, but their tall, leafless stems can look awkward. Brodiaea terrestris is the most appropriate here, with its short stems and very showy inflorescence. Broadiaeas are not appropriate in formal settings for the same reason. They can be naturalized on slopes in thin grass, their usual wild habitat, along with other California wildflowers. Few are obtainable from commercial sources, but they are very easy to raise from seed. CULTURE Cultural requirements vary only a little from species to species. The climate of California and Oregon is ideal: brodiaeas need moisture during the winter, a little less in spring, and a dry dormancy period from early summer to mid autumn. At no time should the soil be waterlogged. They need full sun for at least part of the day, and never deep shade. Where winter temperatures fall below 20°F, protect the plants either by covering them

with a thick mulch or by lifting the corms and storing them in a frost-free area. Their lack of hardiness can also be overcome by late planting (in late November in USDA Zones 5-6, for example), which prevents them from emerging in winter. Plant corms in fall, about 5 in. deep (even though they look too small for this depth), or a little deeper in sandy soil. Mass them to make a good show. The plants do best if left undisturbed for years and should be lifted and divided only when they become overcrowded. PESTS AND DISEASES

The corms may rot if the ground is poorly drained. Small rodents have a special liking for them; cherished specimens can be surrounded with hardware cloth. Insects, slugs, and snails rarely attack the foliage or flowers. PROPAGATION

Dig established plants in late summer after the stems have withered. The corms and their offsets (numerous in some species) can be sorted by size. Replant the larger ones in the garden and set the small ones in containers or nursery rows to gain size. SPECIES B. appendiculata. United States (NC California). Stems 4-18 in. Flowers deep violet-purple, recurved at tips, late spring. B. californica. United States (N California), on well-drained soils in low-elevation grassland; introduced 1896. Stems to 28 in., the tallest in the genus. Leaves narrow, linear, 12-24 in. long. Flowers pale blue, almost white, intense blue, or pinkish, 12-25 per umbel; perianth about 1 in. long, slightly over 1 in. in diameter. Flowering early summer. Selections in pink shades have been offered commercially. B. coronaria. Canada (British Columbia) and United States (California), along coast, in clay soils, often alkaline; introduced 1806. Corm small, roundish. Stems rarely over 12 in. Leaves 2-3, linear, pointed, grooved on upper surface, 7-10 in. long. Flowers about 1 in. wide, usually 6-7 per umbel, violet to lilac; white and pinkish forms are known. A pale lavender-pink form from Lake County, California, was introduced in 1896 as B. rosea but is no longer distinguished taxonomically. Good plants for the rock garden, hardy to at least 10°F, but need a dry period in late summer. B. elegans. United States (Oregon, California). Stems to 16 in. Flowers violet to deep blue, sometimes pink, late spring to early summer. B.filifolia. United States (S California), in coastal scrub; federally listed endangered species. Stems 8-16 in. Flowers violet with green tube, early summer. B. jolonensis. United States (California, Baja California, Santa Cruz Island), along Pacific coast, in clay soils in grasslands and sparse woodlands. Stems 1-8 in. Flowers and ovary violet, late spring. B. minor. United States (California), in Sacramento and San Joaquin valleys. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers light violet-blue, early summer. B. orcuttii. United States (S California), rare, in moist areas

Brunsvigia and vernal pools; introduced 1896. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers purple-violet, late spring. B. purdyi. United States (California), in foothills of NW Sierra Nevada, often on serpentine in open coniferous woodland. Stems 4-10 in. Flowers bright blue-purple, narrow tepals, early summer. B. stellaris. United States (N California), in clearings of coastal forest. Stems 1-3 in. Flowers bright purple with white center, mid summer. B. terrestris. United States (California), along coast from San Diego north to Humboldt County, in sandy places. Stems 1-8 in. Flowers numerous, blue-violet, widely open, early summer. SYNONYMS B. aurea see Bloomeria crocea var. aurea. B. bicolor see Triteleia grandiflora var. howellii. B. bridgesii see Triteleia bridgesii. B. caerulea see Androstephium caeruleum. B. Candida see Triteleia laxa. B. capitata see Dichelostemma capitatum. B. Clementina see Triteleia Clementina. B. coccinea see Dichelostemma ida-maia. B. congesta see Dichelostemma congestum. B. coronaria var. mundula see B. elegans. B. crocea see Triteleia crocea. B. douglasii see Triteleia grandiflora. B. gracilis see Triteleia montana. B. grandiflora see B. coronaria, Triteleia grandiflora. B. grandiflora var. elatior see B. californica. B. grandiflora var. minor see B. minor. B. hendersonii see Triteleia hendersonii. B. howellii see B. coronaria, Triteleia grandiflora var. howellii. B. hyacinthina see Triteleia hyacinthina. B. ida-maia see Dichelostemma ida-maia. B. ixioides see Leucocoryne ixioides, Triteleia ixioides. B. lactea see Triteleia hyacinthina. B. laxa see Triteleia laxa. B. leachiaesee Triteleia hendersonii var. leachiae. B. lugens see Triteleia lugens. B. lutea see Triteleia ixioides. B. lutea var. anilina see Triteleia ixioides var. anilina. B. multiflora see Dichelostemma multiflorum. B. peduncularis see Triteleia peduncularis. B. porrifolia see Ipheion porrifolium. B. pulchella see Dichelostemma capitatum. B. rosea see B. coronaria. B. xtubergenii see Triteleia xtubergenii. B. uniflora see Ipheion uniflorum. B. venusta see Dichelostemma Xvenustum. B. volubilis see Dichelostemma volubile.

xBrunsdonna xB. tubergenii see xAmarygia parkeri.

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Brunsvigia—Amaryllidaceae CANDELABRA FLOWER, CAPE BELLADONNA LILY, ROYAL BRUNSWICK LILY Named in honor of the duke of Braunschweig, Germany, to whom Ryk Tulbagh (1699-1771), then governor of the Dutch settlement at the Cape in South Africa, sent bulbs of the plant. There are about 18 species. The bulbs of Brunsvigia are among the largest true bulbs produced by any plant. They frequently weigh well over a pound and can be as much as 24 in. long, with a diameter of more than 6 in. The leaves are broad, produced in pairs, and usually lie close to or flat on the ground. The umbels of up to 40 flowers are produced before the leaves, carried aloft on strong, fleshy stems. Flower colors are all in the red, pink, and purple range. The zygomorphic flowers have a distinct tube, and the tips of the petals curl back a little. They look not unlike Nerine, except that in Brunsvigia the pedicels lengthen after the flowers have passed. Brunsvigias are excellent container plants, but must be moved indoors in winter except in frost-free areas. They can be effective against house walls, where they appreciate the additional heat. They tolerate a little shade but prefer sun. Plant them only if the necessary dry resting period can be given. They have been hybridized with Amaryllis belladonna; the resulting plants are known as XAmarygia, which see. CULTURE Many species can withstand mild frost, but not below 25°F unless protected. All the plants require sunny locations, plenty of moisture during the growing season, and well-drained soil. Plant bulbs so their "shoulders" (the level at which they begin to narrow) are at soil level. Water sparingly as soon as flower stalks appear. Increase moisture when leaves emerge, then keep moist until leaves start to die back. Reduce moisture at this point so bulbs can enjoy a resting season. Containers should be large enough that bulbs can remain undisturbed for a number of years, because they take 1-2 seasons to return to flowering after being moved. This is also true of bulbs grown outdoors. Weak feedings of organic liquid fertilizer can be given, but only at the onset of growth. PESTS AND DISEASES

Bulbs are subject to rot if drainage is not excellent. Foliage is susceptible to aphids, snails, and slugs. Narcissus fly and eelworm are known to attack the bulbs. PROPAGATION

Mature bulbs produce offsets which can be separated and grown on. Offsets take 2-3 years to reach flowering size. Sow seed as soon as ripe. Obtaining flowering-sized bulbs from seed takes several years; offsets are the faster method. SPECIES

B. appendiculata. South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems 7-12 in. Flowers pink with darker veins, late summer to fall (March to May in the wild). B. bosmaniae. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape.

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xBrunsvigio-donna

Stems to 8 in. Flowers in pink shades, with darker veins, late summer to fall (March to May in the wild). B. comptonii. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems to 5 in. Flowers pink, late summer (February to March in the wild). B. grandiflora. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 20-26 in. Flowers pale to deep pink in large umbels, late summer (February to March in the wild). B. gregaria. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1822. Bulb ovoid, 2-3 in. thick; outer sheath frequently dry and brown, held loosely by membranous tunics. Stems 10-12 in. Leaves only 4, lying flat on ground, about 5 in. long, appearing after flowers. Flowers pinkish red, late summer (March to April in the wild). B. gydobergensis. South Africa (Western Cape); an endangered species. B. herrei. South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems 10-12 in. Flowers umbrella-shaped, pale pink, fall (April in the wild). Requires long, dry summer, light watering in winter; plant bulb half above soil level. B. josephinae. JOSEPHINE'S LILY. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape); introduced 1814. Bulb 5-6 in. in diameter, should be planted with only lower1/3buried. Stems 18-20 in. Leaves 3-4 in. wide, to 36 in. long. Flowers coral red (occasionally purplish), often more than 25 per umbel, on 6- to 8-in. pedicels, late summer (February to March in the wild). One of the most attractive species, and the parent of xAmarygia parkeri. Plate 249. B. litoralis. South Africa (Eastern Cape); considered vulnerable. Stems to 28 in. Leaves grayish, margins wavy. Flowers red, late summer (February to March in the wild). B. marginata. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 8 in. Flowers bright scarlet, late summer to fall (March to June in the wild). Plate 250. B. minor. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape); introduced 1822. Similar to B. gregaria and maybe a geographic variant of it. Stems 6-9 in. Flowers small, bright pink, late fall (March to April in the wild). B. natalensis. South Africa (Mpumalanga, Northern Province, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal) and Swaziland; rare. Stems to 20 in. Flowers crimson, summer (February in the wild). B. orientalis. South Africa (Namaqualand to Knysna); introduced 1752. Leaves of moderate length produced after flowers and lie flat on ground, often persisting throughout winter. Stems 12-15 in. Flowers red, on umbel often over 24 in. in diameter, largest in the genus. Flowering mid summer (February to April in the wild). Allow bulb to dry out in spring. As flowers fade, ovaries enlarge and become papery; entire umbel breaks away from stalk and is carried by wind, scattering seeds over considerable area. B. radula. South Africa (Northern Cape). Bulbs small. Stems 2-4 in. Flowers pink, winter (May in the wild). A dwarf species. B. radulosa. South Africa (Mpumalanga, Northern Province), Swaziland, and Botswana, in open, rocky grassland. Bulbs very large. Stems to 12 in. Leaves rounded at tip, prostrate, thick and tough, produced about the same time as flowers. Flowers bright pink, 10 in. across, summer (December to February in

the wild). Very rare in the wild, and, to my knowledge, has not yet been introduced to cultivation. The hardiest species (able to withstand a few degrees of frost), and regarded by some as the most decorative. Plate 251. B. striata. South Africa (Mossel Bay to Humansdorp). Stems 6-10 in. Flowers in pink shades, summer (November to January in the wild). B. undulata. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 18 in. Flowers red, summer (November to December in the wild). Dormant in winter. SYNONYMS B. ciliaris see Crossyne guttata. B. falcata see Cybistetes longifolia. B. gigantea see B. josephinae, B. orientalis. B. multiflora see B. orientalis. B. toxicaria see Crossyne guttata.

xBrunsvigio-donna xB. tubergenii see xAmarygia parkeri.

Bulbine—Asphodelaceae (Liliaceae) COMPASS PLANT Name derived from Greek bulbos ("bulb"). This genus of about 50 species is native to tropical and southern Africa and in Australia. Many species have swollen, fleshy roots that help the plants to withstand drought, while others have a large tuber. The genus is closely related to Bulbinella but is distinguished by its hairy stamen filaments and by the presence of 3 or more seeds in each cell of the seed capsule, instead of 2 as in Bulbinella (Plate 252). Bulbines have linear to lanceolate leaves, sometimes thick and succulent, mostly at the base of the plant. The flowers are small, with spreading segments, held in a terminal raceme on the fleshy stem. The bulbous members of the genus are rare in cultivation. In the rock garden or border, these plants can put on quite a display. Their thick, glossy foliage makes them appropriate for grouping with other succulents. CULTURE Suitable for outdoor planting only where frost is very light and does not linger long into the day. Elsewhere, the plants should be given winter protection, such as a cool greenhouse. They grow quite well in poor soil. They prefer sun but can stand some shade. Set the rootstocks 2-3 in. deep. Keep moist during the growing season and dry off during the period when they are not in active growth. Little or no feeding is needed. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Bulbines are easy to raise from seed, sown in the spring, either indoors or outside after danger of frost is past. Where suited, they often self-sow extensively. Seedlings can be set out the first

Bulbinella season, in pots in cold climates or in the border in warmer areas. It is possible to divide species that form offsets, but some do not. SPECIES B. abyssinica. Ethiopia. Stems 12-15 in. Flowers pale yellow, mid to late summer. B. alooides. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape); introduced 1732. Rootstock a tuber. Stems to 18 in. Leaves about half as tall as stem, fleshy, rounded, with a definite furrow on the side held next to the flowering stem. Flowers yellow, 30 or more held upright in a loose raceme, becoming pendent with age; seed pods held upright. Tepals recurve. Flowering heavily in very early summer (January to December in the wild), but can be found in flower during many months. B angustifolia. South Africa (Northern Province), in Highveld. Stems to 24 in. Flowers lemon yellow in long, cylindrical raceme, late spring to late summer (October to March in the wild). B. cepacea. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 8-16 in. Flowers yellow, fall (March to April in the wild). B. coetzeei. South Africa (Northern Province). Tuber very small. Flowers yellow, summer (November to January in the wild). B. diphylla. Pakhuis Mountains of South Africa (near Clanwilliam in Western Cape) and S Namaqualand. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers yellow, winter to spring (June to September in the wild). B.favosa. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 3-4 in. Flowers yellow with orange stripes, early winter (April to May in the wild). B.filifolia. South Africa (Northern Province). Tuber globose, crowned by a ring of erect bristles. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers yellow, mid to late summer (December to February in the wild). B. haworthioides. Pakhuis Mountains of South Africa (near Clanwilliam in Western Cape); vulnerable species. Stems to 6 in. Flowers small, yellow, loosely held, summer (October to November in the wild). B. lagopus. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal) and Lesotho. Stems to 24 in. Flowers yellow, fall to early spring (July to September in the wild). B. latifolia. South Africa (Eastern Cape to Mpumalanga). Stems to 12 in. Flowers yellow, in dense raceme, small, starry, winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). B. mesembryanthoides. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers golden yellow, winter to spring (July to October in the wild). B. narcissifolia. South Africa (Eastern Cape, Free State, Gauteng). Stems to 18 in. Leaves flattened, gray-green. Flowers yellow, early to late spring (August to October in the wild). B. praemorsa. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape). Stems 16-24 in. Rootstock tuberous. Flowers yellow, spring (September to October in the wild). B. succulenta. South Africa (Western Karoo, Western Cape). Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 6 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers yellow on reddish pedicels, spring (September in the wild).

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B. triebneri. Namibia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 12-16 in. Flowers white, spring (September in the wild). B. wiesei. South Africa (Western Cape); vulnerable species. SYNONYMS

B. asphodeloides see B. abyssinica. B. brunsvigiaefolia see B. latifolia. B. bulbosa see Bulbinopsis bulbosa. B. caespitosa see B. lagopus. B. natalensis see B. latifolia. B. tortifolia see B. angustifolia. B. tuberosa see B. cepacea.

Bulbinella—Asphodelaceae (Liliaceae) Name a diminutive form of Bulbine. This genus has about 22 species from South Africa and New Zealand. They do not have bulbs, but some have enlarged, erect rhizomes covered with fibers. The leaves are linear to filiform and basal. The flowers are carried in a simple raceme, looking like a small Kniphofia species (red hot poker); however, the colors range from white to yellow-orange, and the flowers are only about 1/3 in. across. There are often well over 100 flowers on a stem. They flower in late winter and early spring. They are distinguished from Bulbine primarily by the anther filaments: clothed with fluff or bearded in Bulbine, but smooth in Bulbinella. Bulbinellas are good plants for the sunny border with other perennials, or in front of shrubs in the shrub border. They are rarely offered by nurseries, but would normally be sold as container plants. Among the rarer and lesser-known plants, these deserve consideration as attractive ornamentals for warmer regions, especially those with wet winters and springs and dry summers. CULTURE The African species can tolerate only a few degrees of frost at the most and should be planted outdoors only in areas that are frost-free or nearly so. The New Zealand species are hardier and can be planted in the open where temperatures do not fall below 15°F. Bulbinella rossii is suitable only for climates that remain quite cool year-round. Plant in late summer, setting the rootstocks just below the surface of the soil, in sun or light shade. In cold areas, they can be planted out in spring for late summer bloom, then lifted and overwintered in a frost-free place. They need plenty of moisture in the fall and winter, but the African species prefer dry conditions in summer. The New Zealand species grow on steep slopes with seepage below and need constant moisture throughout the growing season, coupled with sharp drainage. Most species prefer slightly acid, well-drained soil. PESTS AND DISEASES

Pests and diseases rarely attack these plants. PROPAGATION

Divide rootstocks in late summer. Sow seeds in spring in a soil mix with plenty of humus, barely covering them. Transplant as

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Bulbinopsis

soon as large enough to handle and plant out after the 2nd season. Night temperatures for seedlings must be above 50°F. SPECIES B. angustifolia. New Zealand (South Island), in drier mountains. Similar to B. hookeri, but has narrower, channeled leaves. B. cauda-felis. South Africa (Western Cape, Namaqualand). Similar to B. nutansbut not so tall. Leaves present at flowering time but not always fully developed. Flowers in slender raceme, 1 /3 in. in diameter, white (pinkish in bud) or yellow, late spring to early summer (August to October in the wild). Originally, the name B. cauda-felis was applied only to the yellow-flowered plant, but the 2 are now considered conspecific. Plate 253. B. eburniflora. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems to 30 in. Flowers ivory, winter (May to June in the wild). B. elegans. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems 12-18 in. Leaves basal. Flowers yellow, late spring to summer (September to October in the wild). Plate 254. B. graminifolia. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape). Stems to 14 in. Leaves long and narrow. Flowers white, winter (May to June in the wild). B. hookeri. MAORI ONION. New Zealand, in mountains; described 1850. Stems to 20 in. Flowers bright yellow in long racemes, early summer (September to October in the wild). B. latifolia. South Africa (Namaqualand in Northern Cape to S Western Cape). Stems to 4 ft. Leaves narrower than those of B. nutans. Flowers golden yellow, winter to early spring (June to September in the wild). Var. doleritica from Northern Cape, often in seasonally wet areas, is slightly shorter and has broad, fleshy, channeled leaves and bright orange flowers. Plate 255. B. nutans. South Africa (W Western Cape, Western Karoo). Leaves basal, linear, narrow, light green, with many veins. Flowers yellow to creamy white, very small but many in a spike. The lower flowers are withered before the entire spike has developed, resulting in a long flowering period of 3-10 weeks, beginning in late winter (July to September in the wild). Stamens extend well beyond the flat perianth. Previously known as the "yellow form of B. floribunda" (an invalid name). Var. turfosicola from S Western Cape has creamy white flowers, later than those of var. nutans. Plates 256,257. B. rossii. New Zealand, on subantarctic islands; described 1848. Stems to 4 ft. Flowers yellow, in 8-in. racemes, early summer (September to November in the wild). B. triquetra. South Africa (Northern Cape to Cape Peninsula). Stems 6-18 in. Flowers yellow, winter to early spring (June to August in the wild). SYNONYMS

B. caudata see B. cauda-felis. B. floribunda see B. nutans. B. floribunda var. latifolia see B. latifolia. B. peronata see B. triquetra. B. robusta see B. nutans. B. setifolia see B. triquetra. B. setosa see B. nutans.

Bulbinopsis—Asphodelaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek bulbos ("bulb") and opsis ("with the form of), referring to the fact that it is like Bulbine, but here the anthers are attached basally and the ovules are fewer. This Australian genus has 2 (or perhaps 3) species, which occur in the states of Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, and Western Australia. Bulbinopsis semibarbata has fibrous roots, so only B. bulbosa is described below. CULTURE

Well-drained sandy soil with humus. Must have moisture during growing season. Plant 3 in. deep and 4—6 in. apart. Do not overwater or overfertilize. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Division and seed sown when ripe in sandy soil. Pot individually when large enough to handle. SPECIES B. bulbosa. E Australia. Corm cream-colored, spherical, surrounded by a ring of swollen roots. Leaves basal, fleshy, awlshaped, to 12 in. long, with a short, sheathing base. Scape to 24 in., inflorescence (lax raceme) to 6 in. Flowers yellow; perianth segments1/2in. long, held upright. Pedicels lengthen after flowers wither. Flowering spring (August to October in the wild). The leaves were cooked and eaten by the Aborigines of Victoria.

Bulbocodium—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) MOUNTAIN SAFFRON, SPRING MEADOW SAFFRON Name derived from Greek bulbos ("bulb") and kodya ("capsule"), an obscure reference. Recent authorities identify 2 species in the genus Bulbocodium, both found in Spain, the Alps, and the Caucasus. As early as 1778, Thomas Mawe, in his dictionary of gardening, listed 2 species: B. serotinum (probably the species known today as B. versicolor), which he described as a late-flowering mountain plant with rushlike leaves; and B. vernum, which he said was found in Spain and had spear-shaped leaves. At this writing, Bulbocodium is teetering on the edge of being sunk in Colchicum, as the closely related genus Merendera already has been. Bulbocodium is distinguished from Colchicum (including Merendera) by the style, which is trifid to the base in the latter and trifid only at the tip in the former. The common name invokes this plant's resemblance to the crocus. Its flowers are not very showy but provide interest in late winter. They are excellent container plants where early flowering is desired and where overhead protection can be given. Dormant corms are sold by bulb merchants in fall. In mild areas, they flower in January; in colder ones, in March and April. Leaves appear after the flowers. CULTURE Bulbocodium is quite cold-hardy (to perhaps —20°F) but cannot tolerate poorly drained or saturated soil in winter. Plant corms

Caesia in fall in any good, well-drained garden soil in sun or light shade, 3-4 in. deep. Best left undisturbed for increase. Allow to ripen in summer by withholding moisture until rains come in fall; however, they do not absolutely require a dry summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift established plants in late summer, remove offsets, and grow them on in nursery rows, planting them1/2in. deep. Hold larger corms in storage until fall, or replant immediately if site is not too wet during summer. Plants seem to benefit from being lifted and divided every 3-4 years. SPECIES B. vernum. Spain, European Alps, and Caucasus; introduced c. 1753. Corm elongate with brown tunic. Leaves small at time of flowering, continue growing as flowers fade, reaching 5-8 in. Flowers stemless, rarely more than 4 in. high; generally only one produced per corm, rarely 2-3, early spring. Tepals erect when first open but tend to become loose and more open after a short time. Flowers are various shades of rosy lavender; 'Album' is a white form. Plate 258. B. versicolor. Spain, European Alps, and Caucasus. Very similar to B. vernum, but not as large and flowers shorter at 3 in. Leaves strap-shaped, produced after flowers. According to Mathew and Grey-Wilson (1981, p. 68), flowers have rounded lobes at base of the blade of tepals instead of teeth as in B. vernum. SYNONYMS

B. autumnale see Colchicum montanum. B. ruthenicum see B. versicolor. B. trigynum see Colchicum trigynum.

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with distinct red stripes on the reverse of the tepals. The stamens are greenish, and the filaments flattened at the base. The plant is dormant during the dry season, flowering during the rainy season; as a result, populations in different parts of Australia flower during different months. The form originally described under the name B. umbellata grows in various habitats, primarily dry woodland and scrub heath. That formerly known as B. multiflora, now considered the same species, is found in seasonally moist areas and was described as a taller plant with more but slightly smaller flowers. A plant mentioned in the literature under the name B. aff, multiflora (that is, closely related to B. multiflora) was thought to be a hybrid between the 2 in the interzone between dry woodland and swampy ground. It thus appears that habitat dictates the slight differences, and that there is but one species, B. umbellata. Widely distributed in its native habitat, suggesting adaptability, Burchardia might be an interesting groundcover in warmer climates, but it probably cannot withstand frost. For best effect, plant in groups in the foreground, where the small plants can be appreciated. For the bulb fancier, its unusual flowering period gives it some value in the warm display greenhouses. CULTURE

In frost-free gardens, plant tubers 3 in. deep, 3-6 in. apart, in well-drained but moisture-retentive soil. Give adequate moisture during the growing season, then allow to become dry and dormant. Plant in sun, or light shade in hot areas. Leave undisturbed until well established. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Burchardia—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) MILKMAIDS Named in honor of Johann H. Burckhard (1784-1817), a Swiss physician and botanist who traveled through the interior of Africa, Syria, Egypt, and Arabia. Burchardia is a genus of perhaps only one species, B. umbellata, native to Australia in New South Wales, Queensland, Tasmania, South Australia, and Western Australia. A plant sometimes called B. congesta, found in Western Australia, is thought to be conspecific with B. umbellata. The cormlike rootstock produces swollen adventitious roots with tubers 2-4 in. long, replaced annually. These tubers were cooked and eaten by the Aborigines of Victoria. The leaves, 2 or 3 per plant, are narrow and grasslike, 5-10 in. long, often with purple coloration at the base. The flower stalk is 10-15 in. tall and usually unbranched; most plants produce only one stem, but older ones sometimes have 2. As many as 15 strongly fragrant flowers are borne in a terminal umbel. The pedicels are upright and spreading. The flower is flat and starry; the 3 outer and 3 inner tepals are all the same length and not joined, narrow, pointed, barely1/4in. wide and about l/2 in. long. The flowers are red in bud and open white, shading to pink with age,

Lift and divide established plants at the end of the growing season. Seed gathered in late spring can be sown in late summer in a well-drained, highly organic soil mix. Transplant individual plants into small pots when large enough to handle, or leave them in the seed pot until growth starts again in the 2nd season. SYNONYMS B. congesta see B. umbellata. B. multiflora see B. umbellata.

Caesia—Anthericaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of Federico Cesi, an Italian naturalist who lived in the first half of the seventeenth century and discovered the function of fern spores. His surname, caesius in Latin, means "bluish gray," a color common in the flowers of this genus of about 12 species—9 in Australia, 1 in Madagascar, and 2 in South Africa. The rootstock is rhizomatous, with tubers at the ends of thin roots arranged around the rhizome. The tubers survive for several years and are added to each year; young tubers are white,

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Caladium

older ones dull brown. The grasslike, tufted foliage sheaths the base of the scape. The flowers are borne in a simple raceme or in a lax, branched panicle. They are small, often widely separated on the stem, and mostly blue or white with a distinct stripe. As they fade, the tepals often twist so that the color is not distinct and the flowers look blue-gray. The perianth segments are fused at the base into a short tube. The 6 stamens are attached at the base of the tube. The stigma is very small. These plants are often found in grassland, hence their English name, grass lily; they inhabit many different soil types, from swamps to woodlands to granite outcrops. They are of no great beauty, and unlikely to be grown except in botanical gardens.

late summer (January to March in the wild), and dormant in winter, the dry season. C. vittata. Australia, widely distributed. Stems to 24 in. Flowers blue to lilac, stamens yellow, spring to summer (August to November in the wild).

CULTURE Caesias can be grown outdoors only in frost-free climates. Plant 2-3 in. deep, 6-8 in. apart, in average garden soil. After flowering, allow plants to become dry and dormant. Place in full sun, except in very hot areas, where some shade is appreciated.

From a Native American name for the plants, variously transcribed kelady or kaladi. In South America, the rhizomes of C. bicolor were eaten after being roasted or boiled; in the West Indies, the leaves were boiled and eaten as a vegetable. Some authorities identify about 16 species, but others think there are about 7. The "splitters" give specific rank to what the "lumpers" regard as varieties of C. bicolor, C. picturatum, C. schomburgkii, and other species. All species are native to tropical South America, mainly Brazil. They were introduced into Europe in the nineteenth century, when they were grown in greenhouses for their brightly colored leaves, which are readily produced from the tuberous rhizomes. They have since become popular plants for gardens in warmer climes. The majority presently grown are of hybrid origin, raised from C. bicolor and, to a lesser degree, from C. picturatum. The leaves are variously shaped—sagittate, peltate, ovate, and other forms—according to species, and they also vary remarkably in color (Plate 261). The leafstalks often are variegated as well. The spadix is divided into 3 zones: the top is grayyellow and bears male flowers; the center is whitish gray, with sterile flowers; and the lower portion produces light yellow female flowers. The spathe covering the flowers is hooded, and the lower portion is rolled. Caladiums are ideal for getting color into shady areas of gardens where summer temperatures and humidity are high. They can be grown in containers, provided there is no exposure to direct sunlight or wind. They are good for summer display in greenhouses, and they are becoming popular as a greenhouse crop, marketed from very early spring through summer as indoor plants. They maybe sold as container plants in growth but are less expensive when purchased as dormant tubers; the latter are marketed in the winter or spring catalogs of bulb suppliers, and in garden centers.

PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide established plants right after they become dormant. Sow seed as soon as it is ripe in early summer in a sandy soil mix, barely covering the seed. Keep barely moist. SPECIES C. alpina. ALPINE GRASS-LILY. Australia (Victoria, New South Wales) and Tasmania. Stem unbranched. Flowers few, yellowish green. C. calliantha. Australia (Victoria). Stems 8-10 in. Flowers purple-blue, spring. Tubers used as food by Aborigines. C. capensis. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 3 in. Flowers pale blue, summer (November in the wild). C. chlorantha. Western Australia, in dry and semi-arid mountain ranges. Flowers pale blue-lilac. C. contorta. South Africa (Western Cape, Namaqualand, Tsitsikamma in Eastern Cape), mostly in sandy soils. Stems sprawling, 16-20 in. long. Leaves grasslike, on wiry stems in tufts. Flowers lavender-blue, sometimes pinkish, with navyblue filaments and conspicuous yellow anthers. Tepals reflex. Flowering late spring to early summer (September to January in the wild, with heaviest flush in November and December). C. parviflora. SW Australia (around Perth), common in swamps, woodland, and rocky outcrops. Rhizome compact, producing tubers on thin roots. Stems numerous, much branched, to 12 in. Leaves grasslike, to 12-14 in. long, margins suffused with red. Flowers pale blue, spring to mid summer (August to late December in the wild). C. rigidifolia. Western Australia. Similar to C. parviflora, but smaller, with tubers on shorter, thicker roots. Stems to 2 in. Flowering late spring (September to October in the wild). C. setifera. N Australia, in tropical zone. Rootstock a short rhizome with tubers at the ends of wiry roots. Stem to 12 in. long, with a fewleaflike bracts. Leaves to 12 in., grasslike. Flowers small and solitary, closing at night; perianth segments translucent with white margins and green midrib. Flowering

SYNONYM C. thunbergii see C. contorta.

Caladium—Araceae ANGEL WINGS, ELEPHANT'S-EAR

CULTURE Start tubers into growth in the greenhouse. Plant in soil mix containing a liberal amount of peat moss, with adequate moisture, and keep at a temperature of 70°-75°F. As soon as shoots emerge, provide bright, indirect light for 8-10 hours a day. Transplant into individual pots, using a soil mix that retains moisture but does not impede drainage—the roots must not stand in water. Keep humidity high once growth has commenced. After a good amount of root growth has been achieved, feed with liquid fertilizer.

Caladium Plants can be hardened off and placed outside as soon as night temperatures remain above 55°F. Prepare the bed with abundant organic matter and keep it moist. High humidity is necessary; drying winds also harm the decorative leaves. Protect them from wind and direct sunlight, but make sure light is bright—not deep shade; some evening or early morning direct sun is tolerated by mature, well-grown plants. In cooler climates, plants are best started indoors in late April and planted outdoors when temperatures at night are at least 55°F. In warm, frost-free areas, they can be started into growth about 3 weeks before outside temperatures are expected to stay above 55°F. Planting prior to this harms them and results in their producing small, misshapen leaves. Plants mature in late summer to early fall. Reduce moisture at that time. When plants are quite dry, lift tubers and store them over winter in moist peat in a warm (55°F+) place. At no time should they completely dry out. PESTS AND DISEASES

If the tubers are kept too wet they will rot, so drainage is of great importance, both in containers and in the garden. Slugs and snails like the developing leaves. PROPAGATION

The clumps can be divided or larger tubers can be cut into sections, but each division must have a bud. Although plants can be raised from seed, the seedlings are quite variable and mostly not as showy as named forms. Therefore, vegetative propagation is recommended. This is best carried out in spring, just before starting them into growth. SPECIES

C. bicolor. HEART OF JESUS. Brazil, Trinidad, and Guyana; introduced c. 1864. This species exhibits innumerable variations in leaf color and pattern, and this has led to its being the most commonly used parent in the breeding of new cultivars. Tuber flattish, round. Leaves arrow-shaped or ovate, with basal lobes joined up to1/3of their length. Under ideal conditions, as in nature, leaves may exceed 30 in. in length, but they are usually 8-10 in. Leafstalk may be much longer than leaf blade but is usually less than 24 in. Spathe tube green, whitish green inside, fading to white at top and often purplish at base. A plethora of color variants have been collected in the wild, including the following, all of which, unless otherwise stated, conform to the general description above. Var. agryrospilum, leaves green with crimson center, many white spots between veins, stalk streaked white and rose. Var. baranquinii, from Brazil, leaves often more than 20 in., crimson center, green margin with scarlet veins. Var. brongniartii, from Brazil, green leaves with reddish veins on lower part, stalk variegated lilac and green. Var. chantinii, from Brazil, leaves mostly reddish along veins, with paler red hues on the blade, whitish spots between veins, violet stalk. Var. devosianum, from Brazil, green leaves spotted white, with a pronounced but narrow crimson border, violet stalk. Var. eckhartii, green leaves with a few marginal spots of rose and a few white spots in the middle, stalk purple at base fading to green. 'Hendersonii', known only in gardens, green

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leaves with red along the veins and small but distinct scarlet spots, stalk variegated green and violet. Var. kochii, also of garden origin, leaves large, more rounded, deep green with whitish spots and margin. Var. leopoldii, from Brazil, leaves with large, round, reddish blotch surrounded by a ring of another shade, margin and veins deep crimson to scarlet, stalk violet at base turning reddish above. Var. macrophyllum, from Brazil, leaves deep green with many white or rose spots, green stalk. Var. neumannii, from Brazil, leaves deep green spotted white and rose, green stalk. Var. regale, with more sagittate leaves; bright green with purple margin; white spots on leaves vary in size. Var. rubivenium, of garden origin, leaves smaller, midrib pale gray to reddish green, veins reddish or flesh-colored. Var. verschaffeltii, from Brazil, leaves green with scattered bright red spots. At various times many of these varieties (and, perhaps, cultivars) have been given specific rank. The complexity of the nomenclature applied to this variable species over the years makes it almost impossible to determine exactly what a given plant should be called. C. xhortulanum. The "fancy-leaved caladiums" grouped under this name have been raised in the Netherlands and in the United States, mostly in Florida. Their height varies from 12 to 24 in. Various crosses have been employed, but in general, those with heart-shaped leaves are derived from C. bicolor, and those with narrower leaves from C. picturatum. Caladium schomburgkii is also important in their pedigrees. The following are good, widely available clones: 'Ace of Hearts', transparent leaf, rose to crimson, with soft green margins and blood-red ribs; 'Bleeding Heart', heart-shaped leaves, rose colored with white and green margins and crimson veins; 'Candidum', white leaf with green border and dark green veins; 'Cleo', green leaf with red center and veins; 'Debutante', leaf has red center with fingers of red extending toward margin, rest of leaf white on green, with green border; 'Elizabeth Dixon', silvery white leaves, silver color breaking down toward margins, flecking the green border, and crimson veins; 'E. O. Orpet', narrow leaves, bright red flowing into narrow green border, shorter-growing; 'Frieda Hemple', bright red leaves with deeper red veins and green border, a sturdy plant that can stand a little wind; 'Jody', narrow, arrowshaped leaves, red between white veins, green border; 'Keystone', large green leaves with white spots and border of greencrimson veins, with near-white streak in center; 'Lord Derby', almost transparent leaf of good rose with green veins and border; 'Mrs. Arno Nehrling', fine, dark green leaf with network of lighter green veins and crimson major veins; 'Pothos', thick white leaves marbled with green, veins tinted purple; 'Rio', tall, many transparent leaves, rose with splashes of green in center, green margin dotted with pink; 'Roehrs Dawn', large creamy white leaves with red veins, green border; 'White Princess', pure white leaves with dark green veins and border. Plates 259, 260. C. humboldtii. Brazil; introduced 1858. Stems usually 8-10 in. Leaves oblong, with a short but slender point, light green, center and margins white. Spathe color same as C. bicolor. Leaf stalk slender and variegated. Var. myriostigma has leaves with small, white dots. One of the smallest species, and thus useful for indoor decoration.

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Caliphruria

C. lindenii. Colombia. Leaves to 24 in. long, 8 in. wide, oblong and pointed, dark green above with white midrib and white main veins. Leafstalks to 24 in., green with purple stripes, sheathing at the base. Spathe tube white-green, 6 in. long; spadix carries many white male flowers. 'Albescens' has leaves splashed white in center and on margin. 'Magnificum' has cream markings along veins and just inside margin. C. marmomtum. Ecuador. Leaves 6-8 in. long, half as wide, dark green with irregularly scattered spots of white, gray, or yellowish green. Leafstalks 12-24 in. Spathe pale green outside, even paler inside. C. medio-radiatum. Colombia. Leaves oblong, 6-10 in. long, dark green with silvery midrib and wavy margin. Leafstalk to 12 in., green marbled brown. C. picturatum. Peru; introduced 1854. Similar to C. bicolor and regarded by some authorities as synonymous with it. Tuber spherical. Leaves narrower and greener than in C. bicolor, variously colored above, paler below. Leaf stalk 20-30 in. Spathe tube ovoid, yellowish green inside, dark purple at the mouth, with a white or pale yellow-green blade. A variable species from which many varieties have been described (some are given specific rank in the older literature), and much used in hybridizing. Var. adamatinum, leaves densely spotted white along veins, leaf stalk striped rose and brownish green. Var. belleyenei, leaves more slender than type, white with green veins and green margin spotted white. Var. lemaireanum, leaves deep green, veins nearly white. Var. sagittatum, leaves long sagittate, with midlobe 6 in. long and 1 in. wide, veins spotted red. Var. troubetzkoyi, leaves deep green with pale red bands along the veins and small white or rose spots. As with C. bicolor, the nomenclature is hazy, understandable for a variable plant. C. pubescens. Peru; introduced 1908. Tuber globose, with many buds. Plant is hairy in all parts. Leaves bright green, heartshaped, 8-12 in. long. Leafstalks 6-12 in. Spathe 6 in. long, glabrous inside; spathe tube globose; blade pale green, 4 in. long, with a long, slender, white and greenish white point. Spadix to 4 in. long. C. schomburgkii. Brazil and Guyana; introduced 1858. Leaves variable, mostly elliptic-ovate, not peltate, to 6 in. long, green spotted white, with paler veins that are silvery or reddish. Leaf stalk very long, to 16 in., sheathing on the lower , total height of plant 20-24 in. Spathe tube /2 in. long, light green; blade 4l/2 in. long, whiter than spathe. This is another species in which forms have been distinguished as varieties. Var. argyroneurum, same color as type but veins and midrib silvery. Var. erythraeum, red midrib and veins. Var. pictum, white-spotted leaves, sometimes reddish between the red veins. Var. rubescens, slender leaves only 2 in. wide and 6 in. long, reddish; leafstalk dark red. Var. subrotundum, leaves rounded at base; spotted white or red. Var. venosum, leaves almost deltoid, to 10 in. long, dark green with red margin and yellowish lines; pale green stalk, sometimes spotted or lined with black. SYNONYMS

C. adamantinum see C. picturatum var. adamatinum. C. argyrites see C. humboldtii.

C. bicolor var. hendersonii see C. bicolor 'Hendersonii' C. bicolor var. marmoratum see C. marmoratum. C. esculentum see Colocasia esculenta. C. giganteum see Colocasia gigantea. C. lilliputiense see C. humboldtii. C. poecile see C. bicolor. C. sagittatum see C. picturatum var. sagittatum. C. venosum see C. schomburgkii var. venosum.

Caliphruria C. subedentata see Eucharis subedentata.

Callipsyche see Eucrosia Calochortus—Calochortaceae (Liliaceae) MARIPOSA LILY, BUTTERFLY TULIP, GLOBE LILY, GLOBE TULIP, MARIPOSA TULIP, FAIRY LANTERN, CAT'S EARS, SATIN BELL, STAR TULIP Name from Greek kalos ("beautiful") and chortos ("grass"), an apt description of some of the most underrated ornamental bulbs. All Calochortus species are native to W North America. Most of them occur in California, with others in the Pacific Northwest, the Great Basin, the Rocky Mountain states, and the Mexican states of Sonora, Chihuahua, and Coahuila. Their bulbs were used as food by Native Americans and also by the Mormon pioneers, who staved off famine with C. nuttallii, the sego lily, and later made it the state flower of Utah. There are about 70 species in the genus. The foundation of their classification was published by Ownbey (1940), who set up the 3 sections—Cydobothra, Eucalochortus, and Maripos— with 12 subsections. This has been revised by Callahan (2001), who also covers the Mexican species neglected by Ownbey. Callahan's sectional key is as follows: Section Calochortus. Capsules orbicular to oblong, 3-winged; inflorescence subumbellate; seeds irregular, not flattened or waferlike; bulb coat membranous. Section Mariposa. Capsules oblong to linear, 3-angled, upright; seeds mostly waferlike, thin, rarely thickened; bulb coat membranous. Section Cydobothra. All characters of section Mariposa except bulb coats thick, coarsely hairy, fibrous to reticulate. The common names are based on flower form—not details of the capsule, seeds, and tunic—and they illustrate the great diversity in this genus: fairy lanterns, globe tulips, butterfly tulips, star tulip, cats' ears, mariposa lilies. Mariposa, Spanish for "butterfly," refers primarily to species with upward-facing, widely open flowers, such as C. venustus and C. luteus. Fairy lanterns and globe tulips have pendent flowers with more or less incurved tepals, such as C. albus. Cats' ears are those with copious hairs over the inner surface of the tepals, such as C. tolmiei.

Calochortus The bulbs of Calochortus are small and tunicated. Some produce offsets near the base, while others bear bulbils on the stem above the parent bulb. The plants have swordlike, basal leaves; in species from warmer areas, the leaves are usually withered by flowering time in late spring to early summer. The flowers are held on thin but sturdy stems, branching in most species. The inner 3 perianth segments (the petals) are broader and larger than the outer ones (the sepals). Most species have distinct hairs in zones on the upper surface of the petals; the microscopic characteristics of these hairs and the shape of the petal markings and nectary are important in identifying species. The sepals generally have less color than the petals and are greenish toward the base. There are 6 stamens. Though very attractive in flower, Calochortus have the reputation of being difficult to grow. They perform well only in soil, temperature, and moisture conditions similar to those of their native habitats. It is surprising that hybridizing has not been done, in view of the great variation. These plants truly deserve greater attention from both breeders and gardeners. They should find a home in the gardens of those who love unusual and beautiful flowers, especially in their native regions. At present, a few species are grown in Dutch nurseries and offered through large bulb catalogs. In past decades, collectors like Carl Purdy offered bulbs dug in the wild, a practice that is now illegal. CULTURE

The most crucial need is quick drainage. Moisture is required during winter and early spring, but none during summer. Dormant plants of most species can withstand great heat during summer and may need this to stimulate flower production. An ideal location is sunny, in well-drained soil with a moderate amount of organic matter, where bulbs can be left dry during summer. Plant bulbs 4-6 in. deep in fall. If area where the bulbs are planted does not dry out, lift them after foliage has died down and replant in fall. In cold climates, digging them in late summer while dormant and holding them in storage until late November may delay the onset of growth enough to extend their range of hardiness. They are easily grown in unheated bulb frames. They are not very attractive in containers because of their tall, bare stems, but collectors sometimes grow them this way. The pots must be quite deep. The soil mix should not be rich and must provide good drainage, such as 2 parts good topsoil and one part each of grit and sharp sand. Plants grown in containers should be plunged in sand to moderate soil temperature. PESTS AND DISEASES

Incorrect cultural conditions present the greatest hazard. Moisture during summer will cause rotting of bulbs. Aphids attack seedlings and can be controlled with an insecticide. PROPAGATION

Remove offsets or bulbils and grow them on to flowering size, which will take at least 2 seasons. Seed is best sown in early fall in a sandy mix, lightly covered. Keep moist and protect seedlings, which may appear quickly, from freezing temperatures.

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Transplant after their 2nd year. Most kinds take 4-7 years to flower from seed, but this is the only way to acquire a wide range of species. SPECIES C, albus. WHITE GLOBE LILY. United States (California), in foothills of Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada, on seasonally moist slopes in shade; introduced 1832. Stems to 12 in. Basal leaf 12-24 in. long. Stem leaves lanceolate to linear, to 10 in. long. Flowers 4-8 per stem, sometimes more, pendulous, late spring. Petals 1 in. long, fringed, hairy, dull white to deep muddy pink (the latter often called var. rubellus); sepals shorter than petals. Plates 262,263. C. amabilis. GOLDEN LANTERNS. United States (California), in N Coast Ranges; introduced 1892. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers nodding, bright yellow; sepals long, held flat. C. amoenus. United States (C California), in foothills of Sierra Nevada. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers lilac pink, mid spring. C. apiculatus. Canada (British Columbia and Alberta) to United States (E Washington, Idaho, and Montana). Stems 12-18 in. Flowers straw-colored, summer. C. aureus. United States (NW New Mexico and N Arizona to S Utah). Stems 6-18 in. Flowers lemon yellow with maroon blotch at base, summer. C. barbatus. Mexico. Stems 12-36 in. Leaves linear, pointed, 9-12 in. Bulbils produced in leaf axils. Flowers nodding, deep yellow, often with purplish markings on outer surface; petal margins fringed; interior covered with hairs. Flowering late summer. Plate 264. C. bruneaunis. United States (E Sierra Nevada of California, Nevada, E Oregon, and Montana). Stems 8-16 in. Flowers white flushed lilac, median green stripe, red blotch at base, summer. C. catalinae. United States (S California coast). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers white to lilac purple, late spring. Plate 265. C. clavatus. United States (S California), in foothills of Coast Ranges and Sierra Nevada; introduced 1897. Stems branching, to 24 in. or more. Lower leaves 4-8 in. long, linear upper leaves smaller. Flowers carried upright, not opening fully, strong deep yellow with brownish anthers, sometimes brown veins and sepals, early summer. C. coeruleus. United States (California), in Sierra Nevada around 5000 ft. among pines and oaks. Stems 4-8 in. Basal leaf 4-8 in. long. Differs from C. tolmiei in that it has blue-tinted flowers and an unbranched stem. Flowers lavender-blue, purple, or whitish; petals heavily coated with long hairs, late spring. C. concolor. United States (S California, Baja California). Stems to 24 in. Flowers yellow, flushed purple when older; usually with red blotch at base; early summer. C. dunnii. United States (S California in San Diego County, Baja California). Stems to 24 in. Flowers white flushed pink, dark red blotch at base, early summer. C. elegans. United States (Oregon); introduced 1826. Stems to 8 in. Flowers greenish white, hairy, early summer. Var. selwayensis from W Montana and E Idaho is less hairy. C. eurycarpus. United States (Washington, NE Oregon,

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Calochortus

Montana); introduced 1826. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers creamy white or lilac with indigo marks, late summer. C. excavatus. United States (California), in E foothills of S Sierra Nevada. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers lavender, sometimes spotted, late spring. C. flexuosus. United States (S Utah). Flowers white flushed lilac or deep purple, late spring. C. ghiesbreghtii. Mexico and Guatemala. Flowers purplish, summer. C. greenei. United States (N California, S Oregon), in light woodland; introduced 1876; endangered. Stems to 12 in. Flowers purplish with dark crescent above gland, summer. C. gunnisonii. United States (S Dakota to New Mexico). Stems 6-15 in. Flowers light lilac, early summer. Very coldhardy if not wet in winter. C. howellii. United States (Oregon); introduced 1890. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers creamy white, summer. C. invenustus. United States (C California), in mountains. Stems 8-20 in. Flowers white, lavender to clear lilac, sometimes with purple spots, late spring to late summer. C. kennedyi. United States (Arizona, E Southern California), in desert mountains; introduced 1892. Stems 6-18 in., depending on altitude. Lower leaves 4-8 in. height, upper smaller. Flowers deep scarlet to orange (yellow in var. munzii), upwardfacing, early to late spring. Perhaps the most difficult species to grow. C. leichtlinii. United States (California, W Nevada), in Sierra Nevada. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers deep cream or white to smoky blue with bright yellow hairs, deep reddish purple blotch, late spring. C. longebarbatus. United States (SE Washington, NE Oregon), in meadows; introduced 1890. Stems to 20 in. Flowers pale to deep lilac with purple spot, long hairs, summer. C. luteus. United States (C California), in foothills of Sierra Nevada; introduced 1831. Stems 12-18 in., with few branches. Lower leaves linear, 4-8 in. long; upper reduced. Flowers to 5 per plant, clear yellow with brown blotch at base of petal; hairs on lower part of petals. Flowering late spring to early summer. A select strain, Golden Orb, is offered in catalogs and grown for the cutflower trade. Plate 266. C. lyallii. Canada (British Columbia) and United States (Cascade Range to N California). Stems 6-18 in. Flowers cream, sometimes tinged lavender-blue, purple crescent at base of petal, early summer. C. macrocarpus. United States (E Washington, E Oregon, Montana, Nevada, and NE California), on rocky slopes; introduced 1826. Stems to 36 in. Flowers lavender with very long sepals, summer. Plate 267. C. minimus. United States (N and C California), in Sierra Nevada. Stems very short. Flowers greenish white, summer. C. monophyllus. United States (California), in Sierra Nevada; introduced 1877. Stems to 10 in. Single basal leaf, 4-12 in., longer than stem. Flowers yellow with brownish spot, yellow hairs, mid summer. C. nudus. United States (N California). Single basal leaf. 4-10 in. long. Flowers white to pale lavender, late spring.

C. nuttalli. SEGO LILY. United States (E California, Oregon, Montana to Colorado and New Mexico); introduced 1869. Stems 6-18 in. Flowers white, lilac or deep yellow with maroon crescent, late spring to late summer. C. obispoensis. United States (C California); introduced 1889. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers orange to yellow, tipped reddish brown, with long dark hairs, anthers orange, late spring. C. palmeri. United States (S California), in mountains. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers white to lavender, anthers white, glands brownish; early summer. C. persistens. United States (California); introduced 1940. Stems to 4 in. Flowers purplish, yellow-haired above gland, early summer. C. plummerae. United States (S California). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers pink to dark rose, with yellow-orange hairs, late spring to early summer. C. pulchellus. United States (California), near San Francisco Bay; introduced 1832. Stems 12-15 in., branching. Stem leaves linear to lanceolate, 2-10 in. long; basal leaf 4-16 in. long. Flowers nodding, just over 1 in. in diameter, yellow; petals fringed, hairy on inner surface, late spring. Plate 268. C. purpureus. Mexico; introduced 1827. Stems to 36 in. Sepals green and purple below, yellow above; petals purple below, yellow above; late summer. C. splendens. United States (S California, Baja California); introduced 1832. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers pale lavender or pinkish lilac, late spring. C. striatus. United States (S California, SW Nevada). Stems 4-18 in. Flowers lavender with purple veins, late spring. C. subalpinus. United States (W Oregon, SW Washington), in Cascade Range, in meadows. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers creamy white, sometimes tinged lilac, with yellow center and purple crescent, summer. C. superbus. United States (California); introduced 1893. Stems to 30 in. Flowers white, cream, yellow, or lavender, with central brown or deep maroon spot surrounded by bright yellow zone, early summer. C. tiburonensis. United States (California in Marin County) described 1971; endangered species. Stems 18-24 in. Leaves bronze. Flowers yellow-green with many fine hairs, early summer. C. tolmiei. United States (SW Oregon, N California), in mountains; introduced 1898. Stems 5-12 in. Flowers creamy white flushed lilac, with purple or white hairs, late spring. C. umbellatus. United States (California, in Marin County). Stems 4-12 in. Flowers white, flushed lilac or greenish white, mid spring. C. uniflorus. United States (C California to C Oregon); introduced 1868. Basal leaf 4-8 in. long. Stems to 4 in., several flowers per stem. Flowers erect, to 2 in. in diameter, pale pink or lilac, with obscure dark spot at base of petal and only a few hairs, mid spring. Produces numerous bulbils in axils of short stem leaves. Regarded as one of the easiest of the genus to grow; hardy to at least 10°F. C. venustus. United States (S California); introduced 1836. Stems 8-24 in. Great color range: white, yellow, purple, orange,

Calostemma or red, with elaborate markings on petals. Flowers erect, more than 2 in. in diameter, inner segments hairy, often with 2 zones of color; sepals darker. Grown in the Netherlands as a cut flower; El Dorado strain features unusual colors. Sunset Shades strain has flowers in the red and orange range. Plate 269. C. vestae. United States (N California), in Coast Ranges; introduced 1895. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers white to lilac with rosy marks at base and brown blotch surrounded with yellow on petals, early summer. C. weedii. United States (S California) and Mexico, on rocky hillsides. Stems branching, 24-36 in. Single basal leaf to 16 in. long, stem leaves much reduced. Flowers large, often more than 3 in. across, upright, yellow; purple hairs on petal surface; deeper yellow blotch surrounded by thin purple line at base of petals. Flowering late spring to early summer. Var. intermedius has purplish flowers with yellow hairs, early summer. Var. vestus, reddish to purple with brown hairs, mid summer. C. westonii. United States (Greenhorn Mountains and Sequoia National Forest in California). Flowers bluish, late spring. SYNONYMS C. albusvar. amoenussee C. amoenus. C. benthamii see C. monophyllus. C. campestris see C. excavatus. C. citrinus see C. luteus, C. weedii. C. coeruleus var. fimbriatus see C. coeruleus. C. coeruleus var. maweanus see C. tolmiei. C. coeruleus var. westonii see C. westonii. C. cyaneus see C. macrocarpus. C. davidsonianus see C. splendens. C. discolor see C. bruneaunis. C. elegans var. luteus see C. monophyllus. C. elegans var. subclavatus see C. minimus. C. flavus see C. barbatus. C. lilacinus see C. uniflorus. C. lobbii see C. subalpinus. C. luteus var. citrinus see C. superbus. C. luteus var. concolor see C. concolor. C. luteus var. octatus see C. superbus. C. luteus var. vesta see C. vestae. C. luteus var. weedii see C. weedii. C. lyonii see C. catalinae. C. madrensis see C. venustus. C. maweanus see C. tolmiei. C. maweanus var. majus see C. tolmiei. C. nitidus see C. eurycarpus. C. nitidus var. aureussee C. aureus. C. nitidus var. austmlissee C. invenustus. C. oculatus see C. vestae. C. pallidus see C. barbatus. C. pulchellus var. amabilis see C. amabilis. C. purdyi see C. tolmiei. C. selwayensis see C. elegans var. selwayensis. C. shastensis see C. nudus. C. venustus var. carolii see C. vestae. C. venustus var. pictussee C. vestae.

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C. venustus var. purpurascens see C. vestae. C. venustus var. sanguineus see C. vestae. C. venustus var. sulphur-eus see C. vestae.

Caloscordum—Alliaceae (Liliaceae) Name of uncertain derivation, probably from kalos ("beautiful") and skordon ("garlic"). A genus of only one species from Asia. Caloscordum neriniflorum is not widely grown but is worthy of consideration for the sunny border in dry climates. It is hardy to at least 20°F. It should be placed among lower-growing plants to conceal and support the leafless stems. CULTURE Tolerates a wide range of soils but prefers a well-drained site in full sun. Needs moisture in spring and early summer, but tolerates drought in late summer through fall. Set bulbs 2 in. deep and 6-8 in. apart in fall or early spring. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Some bulbils are produced. Seed is produced in quantity and germinates well, affording the best means of increase. Sow in spring in a sandy soil mix, barely covering seed; keep moist, with night temperatures around 45°F. Transplant seedlings as soon as they are large enough to handle, or after foliage has died down. Seedlings may also be overwintered in their original container for spring planting; if this is done, keep plants on the dry side. SPECIES C. neriniflorum. E Siberia, Mongolia, and China. Bulb small, just over 1 in. in diameter, rounded, with a white tunic. Foliage deciduous, sparse, flat, onionlike, not smelling like onion when crushed, often withering before flowers are produced. Flower stalk to 16 in., with often 30 or more flowers in an umbel which measures about 21/2 in. in diameter. Flowers bright pink, a little less than l/2 in. across, on a pedicel about 1 in. long. Base of perianth segment whitish; stamens attached to perianth segments, thus differing from Allium but resembling Brodiaea. Flowering mid to late summer. Plate 270.

Calostemma—Amaryllidaceae Name derived from Greek kalos ("beautiful") and stemma ("crown"), either because the flowering spikes are crowned with many individual flowers, or in reference to the corona formed by the fused filaments. Natives of coastal E Australia, these 3 species flower during winter. The straplike leaves are produced after the flowers or at the same time and die down each year. They are subtropical plants, seldom if ever exposed to frost in their native habitat, so they need greenhouse culture in all but frost-free areas. They appreciate plenty of moisture in early fall as the bulbs awake from their summer rest period, continued moisture during the growing season, and drier conditions as the foliage begins to wither.

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Calydorea

The bulbs are of medium size, tunicated, and somewhat bottle-shaped, with a long, narrow, flattened neck. The funnelshaped flowers are attractive. The 6 tepals form a narrow tube above the ovary, then open out to 1 in. wide, with the 6 anthers well displayed; the filaments are flattened and form a corona in the center of the flower. The stigmas are thin, pointed, of greater length than the stamens, and protrude above the corona. As many as 20 flowers are produced in an irregularly shaped umbel. The green bracts that cover the flower buds persist, gradually turning brown as the flowers age. CULTURE In areas where frost occurs, should be grown in a greenhouse where night temperatures are not below 45°F. They like a soil mix that is sandy, with some humus. Keep moist but never wet; allow the spring-flowering C. album to become a little dry toward the end of summer. Plant bulbs so that their necks are level with the soil, spaced 8-10 in. apart in the border, where they increase if left undisturbed. They also do well in containers, but drainage must be good. They like sun, and in frost-free areas they can be planted in a sunny, well-drained border with some shade during the hottest part of the day. Established plantings appreciate light feeding during spring and early summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems, but control aphids on plants grown under glass. PROPAGATION

Offsets are the best means. Separate them from the parent bulb after flowering ceases. The seeds are very large and resemble peas; they sometimes germinate without even being in contact with soil or moisture, so should be sown as soon as ripe, covered with about 4 in. of sandy mix. Give them good light and night temperatures around 50°F. Keep them moist until they go dormant, then move into individual pots. SPECIES C. album. Australia; introduced 1824. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves only 4-6 in. long and 2-4 in. wide. Flowers pure white, spring or early summer. C. luteum. AUSTRALIAN DAFFODIL. Australia; introduced 1819. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves strap-shaped and narrow, to 1012 in. long. Flowers yellow, fall. Foliage dies down after flowers are produced; then plants should be kept on the dry side. Water again more freely when the foliage reappears in late summer. A lovely garden subject. Plate 271. C. purpureum. GARLAND LILY. Australia (New South Wales, South Australia); introduced 1819. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves strap-shaped and narrow, dying down after flowering. Flowers deep purplish pink; exterior whitish at the base, contrasting with dark green ovary. Flowering spring. Var. carneum has paler, sometimes almost whitish flowers. Plate 272.

Calydorea—Iridaceae Name derived from Greek kalos ("beautiful") and dorea ("gift"). This genus is at home in South America. Of the 12 species noted

in the literature, only 2 appear to be known to horticulture— not an uncommon condition for South American genera, which deserve evaluation and study. The rootstock is a globose corm a little less than 1 in. in diameter and reportedly edible. The leaves are narrow, linear, and longer than the flower stem; they are similar to those of Sisyrinchium, and C. xiphioides was originally described as Sisyrinchium speciosum. The flowers are fleeting, carried on stems that are leafless or nearly so. All species have blue flowers, sometimes with yellow toward the base of the tepals. The terminal flower heads are compact, often branched. Individual flowers can be over 1 in. in diameter; the perianth segments are of equal length. These are subjects only for the collector, since they are very rare; some of the species listed below may not be in cultivation at all. They look fine in a rock garden but are best cultivated in containers until sufficient stock is accumulated. CULTURE

Plant corms about 1 in. deep in well-drained soil. Moisture is required in the spring and during the growing season, but the corms should be allowed to become dry during winter. They should be grown under glass in the colder areas, or planted in spring and lifted in fall. If grown in containers, they should be allowed to dry during winter and then repotted in spring. In areas where there is little or no frost, they belong in the rock garden or in a warm border. They are short and thus must be carefully positioned to be seen. They require good light but do best with some protection from the hottest sun, as they receive in nature growing among grasses. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

The corms are said to form numerous cormels, but the rarity of the genus suggests that raising stock from seed is the best means of increase. Sow in spring in moderate temperatures and in a sandy, well-draining soil mix, barely covered. Keep seedlings moist but not wet. Transplant during their first dormancy. SPECIES C. coelestina. United States (NE Florida), in savanna and open pine woods. Stems 8-16 in. Leaves linear, pleated. Flowers bright lavender-violet, ephemeral (opening at sunrise and closing by mid morning); tepals cupped. Flowering in summer, dormant in winter. Tolerates some winter frost, at least in hotsummer areas. C. mexicana. Mexico. Stems 4-6 in. Leaves sparse. Flowers blue, summer. Plate 273. C. nuda. Uruguay, in grassy fields. Leaves narrow and linear. Flowers blue, to 1 in. in diameter or a little larger; several flowers in a branched but compact flower head. Plate 274. C. xiphioides. Chile; introduced 1836. Stems 3-9 in., with a few reduced leaves. Leaves to 9 in. long but often less. Flowers blue with yellow at the base. The most likely to be encountered in cultivation. SYNONYM C. punctata see Alophia drummondii.

Camassia

Camassia—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) CAMASS, CAMAS, INDIAN LILY, QUAMASH, WILD HYACINTH From quamash, the name for the plants in a Native American language of the Pacific Northwest. There are 6 species, all from the Americas. The single South American species is quite widespread, found in Peru, Bolivia, Chile, and Argentina. Camassia sdlloides is native to E United States. The remaining species are from NW North America. They are closely allied to Scilla, a genus not found in the Americas. Though they grow in many habitats, including plains and foothills, most Camassia species are at home near streams and in grassy swales where moisture is high during their growing season. They are very attractive plants, especially when seen flowering by the hundreds in the wild. The bulbs were a staple food of Native Americans who boiled and roasted them. When boiled for a long time, they yield a sort of molasses which was consumed on festive occasions. The leaves are long and linear, becoming lax as they age. The flowers are borne in long racemes with either upright or horizontal pedicels. In some species, the withered flowers persist on the developing seed capsule; along with the color of the flowers, this features is used in differentiating among species. The North American species are excellent plants for growing in grassland or borders, where they extend the bulb flowering season into early summer. They should be planted en masse, since 1 or 2 bulbs are not effective until they have made several years' growth. CULTURE Camassia is adaptable to most garden soils, especially if there is good spring to summer moisture. It will survive in drier areas but will not flourish. Plant bulbs in fall, 4-5 in. deep. If placed alongside a stream or pond, where they can obtain the moisture they like, the bulbs should be set above the waterline. They grow best in full sun but can tolerate light shade, especially during the hottest part of the day. All species are quite cold-hardy except for C. biflora, the South American species, which needs protection from frost. Leave plants undisturbed for years to obtain the best effect. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

The preferred method is starting from seed, which germinates readily. Sow ripe seed as soon as possible in a soil mix that provides good moisture and drainage. Seedlings develop rapidly and flower in their 3rd year. Bulbs grow to considerable size and will produce a few offsets that can be grown on to flowering size. Cultivars must be reproduced by offsets. SPECIES C. biflora. South America, in dry, rocky places; recently introduced to Great Britain. Named after its habit of producing 2 (sometimes 1 or 3) flowers per bract. Stems 18-24 in. Leaves

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narrow, basal, to 24 in. long. Flowers flattish, rarely more than [ /2 in. in diameter, white or pale pink, in loose racemes, winter. Not frost-hardy. C. cusickii. United States (Oregon); introduced 1888. Bulb very large, heavy, to 5 in. long. Stems to 30 in. or more. Leaves to 2 in. wide, 20 in. long. Flowers numerous, usually pale blue; pedicels horizontal, turning up at ends. Withered tepals do not cover developing seed capsule. Flowering early summer. Intense blue selections are 'Nimmerdor', a good cut flower, and 'Zwanenburg', introduced c. 1900 by the Van Tubergen nursery. Plate 275. C. howellii. United States (S Oregon); introduced c. 1938. Bulb rather small. Stems to 24 in. or more. Pedicels horizontal. Flowers deep blue-violet, late spring. Withering tepals cover developing seed capsule. C. leichtlinii. W United States and Canada (British Columbia), in swales and ditches; introduced 1853. Bulb l /2-1 l /2 in. in diameter. Stems to 3 ft. or more. Leaves to 1 in. wide, seldom more than 24 in. long. Pedicels intermediate between horizontal and upright. Flowers vary from white in var. leichtlinii to deep purplish blue in var. suksdorfii; withering tepals twist around developing capsule. One of best garden species, offering great variety: white forms are not uncommon in the wild and are sold as 'Alba'. 'Alba Semiplena' has greenish white, semidouble flowers; 'Atroviolacea', deep purple, one of the finest; 'Blue Danube', dark blue; 'Coerulea', vivid deep blue; 'Electra', sometimes double, rich blue; 'Plena', double creamy white to yellow. Plates 276,277. C. quamash. Canada (British Columbia) and United States (Washington south to California and east to Montana and Utah), in seasonally wet swales; introduced 1837. Important food plant for Native Americans. Bulbs reach good size in areas with adequate moisture but also persist on slopes where summer moisture is scant. Stems 12-24 in. Flower color quite variable, deep blue to pale blue and white. Withering tepals may drop away or cover capsule. Pedicels vary from horizontal to erect. Flowering mid to late spring. Very cold-hardy and easy to grow. Two cultivars are offered: 'Orion', deep blue, and 'San Juan', even deeper blue. Subsp. azurea has grayish leaves, light blue-violet flowers. Subsp. breviflora has gray-green leaves, blue to deep blue-violet flowers. Subsp. intermedia has green leaves, flowers pale blue-violet. Subsp. linearis has green leaves, deep blue-violet flowers. Subsp. maxima has grayish leaves, deep blue-violet flowers. Subsp. utahensishas gray leaves, pale blueviolet flowers. Subsp. walpolei has green leaves, pale blue or blue-violet flowers. Plates 278-280. C. sdlloides. United States (Pennsylvania and Missouri south to Georgia and Texas). Stems to 24 in. Leaves about same length, to 1 in. wide. Flowers vary from mid lavender-blue to white; withering tepals fall away from capsule. Pedicels more upright than horizontal. Flowering late spring. SYNONYMS

C. angusta see C. sdlloides. C. esculenta see C. quamash. C. fraseri see C. sdlloides.

152

Camptorrhiza

C. hyacinthina see C. scilloides. C. teapeae see C. quamash.

Camptorrhiza—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek kamptein ("to bend") and rhiza ("root"), referring to the system of venation in which the small veins join after curving near the margin of a leaf, or perhaps to the bent tuber attached to the main rootstock, an ovoid corm. The single species, native to southern Africa, is rare in cultivation and likely to remain so. CULTURE Not hardy, needing minimum temperatures around 50°F at night. Set corms in a sunny spot, just below soil level in a freedraining sandy soil with good organic content. As with most tropical plants, flowering is spasmodic, but primarily concentrated in summer. Moisture is needed during the growing season; after flowering reduce moisture and provide little during dormancy in fall and winter. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide rootstock after flowering has finished. SPECIES

C. strumosa. N South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, in woodland, shrub veld, and rocky sites. Lowest leaves sheath the stem, upper leaves are sessile. Flowers up to 12, on long pedicels, held erect on stems to 6 in. tall. Flowers small, pale mauve and green; petals not joined, recurving at the tip, with the edges curling inward. Filaments with a distinct thick bulge in the middle. Style long, with a small apical stigma. Flowering spring to late summer (October to February in the wild). SYNONYM

C. schlechteri see C. strumosa.

Canna—Cannaceae CANNA LILY Name from Greek kanna ("a reedlike plant"). There are about 9 species from tropical South America and Asia, with one species from Florida. The common name Indian shot is used because the seeds are black and very hard, resembling pellets in shotgun cartridges. Most cannas grown in gardens today are hybrids, known as C. xgeneralis cultivars. The principal parent species is C. flaccida, from Florida, but many others have been used. The seeds are used as beads in some countries. The roots of some species are used to make a form of arrowroot, known as tous-les-mois in the West Indies. Some species are fibrous-rooted; others have fleshy rhizomes covered with a dark brown skin. The stocky or stubby rhizomes have many projections, and the leading buds are rounded. The

showy part of the flowers consists not of petals or bracts but of petaloid stamens. The flowers have 3 sepals, most commonly green; 3 long petals, which are colored and not very wide; and to 5 petaloid stamens, which are broad and colored. One of these stamens forms the lower "lip" of the flower. Generally, only one stamen is fertile, and this is often petaloid on one side. There is a single, long style leading to an inferior ovary; the fruit is a 3celled capsule bearing the many hard black seeds. The largebladed, strongly veined leaves—often more than 3 ft. long— are spirally arranged around the main stem. With their bright flowers and handsome foliage, these are striking plants for the summer border (Plates 58-60). They remain attractive throughout the season. The smaller ones can be used in containers to highlight deck, patio, or entrance gardens. All types are very popular for summer bedding in public landscapes. The tougher cultivars can withstand winter temperatures down to 25°F, especially when planted near a wall. They can be seen naturalized in warm Mediterranean-climate regions in many parts of the world, as well as in the tropics and subtropics. CULTURE

These are plants from hot, humid climates, so they need warmth to thrive. Where temperatures dip more than a few degrees below freezing, the rhizomes must be lifted and stored frostfree over winter. In areas where they are marginally hardy, they can be left in the ground if well mulched. Do not plant them where shade cools the soil or where there is much winter moisture, because rhizomes must not be in cold, damp soil. The ideal site offers rich soil, with full sun and high humidity during a long warm season. Plant rhizomes as soon as danger of frost is past; in frost-free areas, plant in March. In areas with cool spring weather, plants should be started in containers in a warm greenhouse or indoors; in such cases, they need not be covered deeply. Outdoors, plant the rhizomes 4-6 in. deep and 18-24 in. apart, depending on eventual height. Feed as soon as growth appears with a complete fertilizer, and continue this once a month until flowering; this is necessary for lush growth, especially in sandy or poor soil. Plenty of moisture is needed throughout the growing season. Reduce water toward the end of summer as the foliage starts to die back. Store rhizomes over winter in a moist, frost-free place; if allowed to dry out, they wither and rot. Cannas grow well in containers, especially if only one shoot per rhizome is allowed to develop. Remove the weaker growths. More than one rhizome can be placed in a large planter. Regular feedings of liquid fertilizer should be given until plants are well into flower. PESTS AND DISEASES

Cannas are attacked by several pests and diseases, but usually the damage is not serious. Mosaic virus can cause the leaves to become randomly mottled with yellow; plants affected by this virus (spread by sucking insects) should be discarded. Slugs and snails like the fast-growing shoots, so take precautions when first setting out plants in garden, and protect plants as shoots emerge in spring.

Cardiocrinum PROPAGATION

Cannas may be propagated from seed, but to obtain plants identical to the parent, asexual propagation is necessary. Soak seeds in warm water for 24 hours before sowing, or notch the hard seed coat with a knife. Sow in late winter in a sand and peat mix and transplant as soon as germinated. Keep temperature at 65°-75°F at night. Take care when transplanting; the roots are quite brittle and break easily. They can be sown in individual pots using a richer soil mix, such as 2 parts good topsoil and one each of peat and sand. Grow seedlings at a minimum temperature of 60°F until they are large enough to plant outdoors. Rhizomes can be lifted and stored overwinter, then cut into sections in spring. Each section should have at least one prominent bud. It is best to start these in flats, watering a little until growth is made, and then increasing moisture. Place them in pots as soon as they sprout, and plant out when of sufficient size. If a porous soil mix is used, liquid feedings of fertilizer can be given as soon as new roots are produced. Temperatures from 65° to 70°F induce optimal growth. Plants like to be fed constantly, but not until growth is evident. SPECIES C.flaccida. United States (Florida, South Carolina), Antilles, and Panama; introduced 1788. A principal parent of modern garden hybrids. Stems to 6 ft. or more. Leaves 10 in. or more long, 4-6 in. wide. Flowers various shades of yellow; lip large, wavy, and floppy. C. glauca. W Indies and South America. Rhizome long, slender. Stems 48-72 in. Flowers pale yellow, summer. C. indica. INDIAN SHOT, QUEENSLAND ARROWROOT, ACHIRA, TOUS-LES-MOIS. Central America and West Indies; introduced 1570. Rhizome stout, tuberlike, edible. Stems to 10 ft. Leaves to 36 in. long and 12 in. wide, green with purple margin, undersides purplish. Flowers red, yellow, and purple, summer. 'Purpurea' is a vigorous form with purplish-bronze leaves. C. iridiflora. Peru; introduced 1816. Stems often over 8 ft. Leaves broadly oblong, 8-10 in. wide, 24 in. long. Rose-colored flowers, unusual in that petals form a slender tube and petaloid stamens have definite notch at tips. One of the earliest to flower, in early summer. C. jaegeriana. Tropical Andes. Stems to 16 ft. Leaves to 36 in. long. Flowers orange, solitary, summer. C. liliiflora. Panama and Bolivia. Stems to 12 feet. Leaves 36-48 in. long. Flowers white. C. limbata. Brazil; introduced 1818. Stems to 36 in. Flowers greenish yellow, summer. C. pedunculata. South America and West Indies. Stems 5-6 in. Flowers greenish, summer. C. speciosa. India and East Indies; introduced 1820. Stems to 6 ft. Flowers pale purple, late summer. C. tuerckheimii. Central America. Stems very tall, often over 15 ft. Leaves 36 in. long, to 10 in. wide. Flowers shades of red, summer. Canna cultivars. A number of hybrid cultivars (C. xgeneralis) are offered by nurseries. They differ in height (1 l /2-6 ft.),

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flower color, and leaf coloration. The major parent species are C. flaccida for flower size and C. indica 'Purpurea' for variegated foliage. The 4 height categories are very dwarf (18-24 in.), dwarf (25-30 in.), standard (31-48 in.), and very tall (more than 48 in.). 'Ambrosia', very dwarf, large pink flowers; 'Bengal Tiger', very tall (6 ft.), green-and-yellow-striped, maroon-edged leaves, orange flowers; 'Black Knight', standard, bronze leaves, red flowers; 'Cherry Red', very dwarf, bright red with dark leaves; 'City of Portland', standard, green leaves, rose pink flowers; 'Nirvana', very dwarf, green leaves striped with yellow, red buds, deep yellow flowers; 'Pfitzer's Chinese Coral', dwarf, green leaves; 'Pfitzer's Primrose Yellow', dwarf, green leaves; 'Pfitzer's Salmon Pink', dwarf, green leaves; 'Pfitzer's Scarlet Beauty', dwarf, green leaves; 'President', standard, green leaves, bright red flowers; 'Red King Humbert', very tall (over 6 ft.), bronze leaves, red flowers; 'Richard Wallace', standard, green leaves, bright yellow flowers; 'Rosemond Cole', standard, green leaves, red flowers with yellow edges; Seven Dwarfs strain, very dwarf, yellow, salmon, pink, red, or crimson flowers; 'Stadt Fellbach', standard, green leaves, orange flowers; Tropicanna™. orange flowers, dark leaves striped with red; 'Wyoming', standard, bronze leaves, orange-red flowers. Plates 281,282. SYNONYMS C. achiras see C. indica. C. aurantica see C. indica. C. discolor see C. indica. C. esculenta see C. indica. C. gigantea see C. tuerckheimii. C. lanuginosa see C. indica. C. latifolia see C. tuerckheimii. C. lutea see C. indica. C. musifolia see C. indica. C. xorchiodes see C. xgeneralis. C. patens see C. indica. C. sanguinea see C. indica. C. warszewiczii see C. indica.

Cardiocrinum—Liliaceae (Liliaceae) GIANT LILY Name from Greek kardia ("heart") and krinon, a kind of lily. For many years this genus was combined with Lilium. This is quite understandable as the flowers have the same shape and are very fragrant. One major difference is the shape of the leaves: heart-shaped in Cardiocrinum, but linear to lanceolate in Lilium. In the Chinese and lapanese species, the leaves are arranged in a whorl halfway up the stem; in C. giganteum they are arranged along the length of the stem. The leaves may be 1 ft. long and as wide. The bulbs are also distinctive. Those of Cardiocrinum have only a few overlapping scales. New scales are added each year, but the entire bulb dies when the plant flowers. Offsets are formed, however, during the 5-10 years before flowering, and these produce the next generation of plants. Finally, the seed capsules of Cardiocrinum have distinct "teeth" along the valves (the parts into which the mature capsule splits). The

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taxonomy of this genus is surprisingly unsettled for one so small, but Western authorities usually recognize 3 species. Only one of these, C. giganteum, is common in cultivation. Cardiocrinum is the only bulbous plant that provides material for a musical instrument. The hill people of Nepal, where C. giganteum is native, make musical pipes of the huge, hollow stems. The spires of trumpet lilies, which can exceed 10 ft. in height, are stunning when seen in flower against a solid background of evergreens, such as rhododendrons. They need a spacious setting in light woodland to develop to their full potential. They are available as dormant bulbs in fall or as container plants in spring, usually at very high prices owing to the long time required to raise them to near flowering size. Younger bulbs are less costly. It is best to plant bulbs of various ages, from 3 to 5 or more years, to keep the display going from year to year. They are quite winter-hardy but do not tolerate repeated freezing and thawing in saturated soils. They do not succeed in regions with hot summers and frost-free winters. CULTURE These are woodland and alpine meadow plants that require very rich, well-drained, evenly moist soil and dappled shade. Prepare the site by digging organic fertilizer in to a depth of at least 18 inches. Do not plant too deeply; the top of the bulb should just break the soil. Keep them moist throughout the growing season. After flowering the main bulb dies. Because offsets may be quite crowded after many years and soil fertility depleted, it is advisable to lift the plant, separate the offsets, and replant them as soon as the vitality of the planting diminishes; otherwise, leave undisturbed. In cold-winter areas, mulch to minimize damage from thawing and freezing. The leaves emerge early in spring and should be protected against damage by late frosts; an inverted paper bag set on stakes over the crown is usually sufficient. PESTS AND DISEASES

See Lilium. Cardiocrinum species are martyrs to slugs and snails and must be strictly protected against these, especially in spring. PROPAGATION

Separate offsets when parent bulb dies after flowering and replant them at once. Seed is copiously produced when several clones flower together. Sow it in fall in large containers and keep outdoors, sheltered from severe frost. Seedlings should be transplanted to nursery beds at the end of their first season and planted out 1-2 years later. Seedlings take 6-10 years from sowing to flower. SPECIES C. cathayanum. E and C China, in dense woodland; introduced 1939. Stems to 48 in., with leaves in whorl about halfway up stem, and a few smaller leaves in a random pattern above. Leaves large, 6-8 in. long and to 6 in. wide, with petioles 4-6 in. long. Flowers 1-5 per stem, funnel-shaped, held horizontally, seldom more than 4 in. in diameter, greenish white outside, creamy white inside, summer. The least common species in gardens.

C. cordatum. Japan and Sakhalin Island; introduced 1876. Stems 48-60 in. Leaves in a whorl, less often scattered over middle portion of stem, to 12 in. long, often as broad. Flowers 10-15 or more per stem, creamy white, summer; lower 3 tepals have distinct yellow band toward base, often ornamented with brown spots. C. giganteum. Himalayas, from Nepal and NE India (Upper Assam) to N Myanmar and into SE Tibet; introduced 1852. Stems tall and stout, often 4-6 in. in diameter at base, 9 ft. or more in height. Basal leaves form a rosette; others scattered up the stem. Leaves 18 in. long and almost as wide. Flowers, 6-25 per stem, narrowly trumpet-shaped, to 6 in. in diameter, very fragrant, slightly pendent, late summer; tepals tinted green when young, quickly turning pure white outside; interior pure white, flushed purplish toward base. Var. yunnanense, from W China, is only 4-6 ft. tall and has dark brown stems, and bronzetinted young foliage; flowers often retain greenish tinge even when mature. Cardiocrinum giganteum is by far the finest species. Plates 283-285. SYNONYMS

C. glehnii see C. cordatum. C. yunnanense see C. giganteum var. yunnanense.

Carpolyza—Amaryllidaceae Name derived from Greek karpos ("fruit") and lyssa ("rage"), from the peculiar mechanism of dehiscence, in which slits in the pericarp arise along the dorsal suture of each carpel. A monotypic genus which is seldom grown. The flower is so inconspicuous that one has to look carefully to find it. CULTURE Not hardy below 35°F. Plant in full sun in sandy soil, just below the soil surface. The bulbs are very small (large specimens are not more than in. in diameter). Provide moisture in winter, dry conditions at other times. No feeding is required. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Bulblets are produced and can be removed from established plants during the dormant period in late summer; these must be handled with care because they are so small. Sow seed in a sandy soil mix in early spring, barely covering it. It is best to top the pot with a thin layer of fine sand and press the seed into it, rather than covering it. Grow on in the seed pot and transplant small bulbs after 1 or 2 growing seasons. SPECIES C. spiralis. South Africa (Cape Peninsula and Little Karoo in Western Cape), in the coastal zone on slopes or in rock crevices in loam, sand, or limestone, always in areas that experience winter rainfall; described and introduced 1791. Rootstock a small, grayish-brown, tunicated bulb, with a neck to 3 in. long. Stems 3-4 in. high. Leaves 3-4, threadlike, held in a transparent sheath at their base from which they emerge, twisting and turning

Ceropegia along their length, about 3-4 in. Flowers 2-5 per umbel, starry white, 1/2 in. in diameter; the reverse of the tepals retains just a hint of the pinkish color the flower buds exhibit. Flowering winter and very early spring (May to August in the wild). SYNONYM

C. tenella see C. spiralis.

Cartonema—Commelinaceae Name derived from Greek kartos ("strong") and nema ("thread"). Some authorities place this genus in Cartonemataceae, leaving only succulent genera in Commelinaceae. Cartonema comprises 6-7 species native to Australia, primarily in tropical areas. The rootstock is composed of small tubers, which were cooked and eaten by the Aborigines. The tubers may be rounded or tubular. They are replaced annually, arranged around a compact stem. The 3-5 leaves are mostly basal, to 6-8 in. long, tapering to a fine point. Each plant produces one or more flowering stems. The stems have several leaves arranged along them; those at the top of the flowering stem resemble bracts. The outer tepals are narrow and separate; the inner 3 tepals are broader and glistening white. They are summer-flowering and dormant during the dry season, which is winter in their native region. They are often found in woodlands with adequate moisture during the growing season. Though common in S Western Australia, the genus is not of much horticultural value and is likely to remain nearly unknown in gardens. Only C. parviflorum is described below; other species mentioned in literature but about which little has been written include C. baileyi, C. brachyantherum, C. philydroides, and C. spicatum. CULTURE

Cartonema species are not hardy and must be grown frost-free. Set tubers with about 1 in. of soil over them, spaced 4-6 in. apart, in a sunny spot where they will be dry in winter. Provide ample moisture during summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Divide tubers as soon as growth dies down. Presumably they can also be grown from seed, sown as soon as ripe in moist sphagnum peat. SPECIES C. parviflorum. Western Australia, widespread, especially in savanna woodlands that are moist during spring and summer. Stems to 10 in., with numerous small leaves which are bractlike near the inflorescence. Tuber small, about the size of a hazelnut, covered with brown papery sheaths which are replaced each year. Flowers solitary, with free perianth segments, inner petals broader than outer, white or flushed yellow, glossy. Filaments short, anthers oblong. Flowering late summer (February to March in the wild).

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Ceropegia—Asclepiadaceae BUSHMAN'S PIPE Name derived from keros ("wax") and pege ("fountain"), because the flowers of some plants appear waxy. There are many species: some authorities put the number as high as 200. They are found in tropical and subtropical regions in Malaysia, Philippines, Australia, Socotra Island of Yemen, Madagascar, the Canary Islands, and South Africa. The rootstocks of this genus are varied, but none have a corm or bulb. Roughly half the South African species are tuberous, and tuberous species also occur in the Indian subcontinent and elsewhere. In certain species, such as C. africana, the forms near the coast spread by underground rhizomes, while inland forms send up sterns arise from a single caudex. Plil S. Clark of the International Asclepiad Society informs me (pers. comm.) that the caudex is derived from the hypocotyl and may swell in seedlings even before true leaves appear. Adventitious roots may develop from the caudex, but shoots arise from one point at the top. Aerial stems that grow back into the soil develop rhizomes. Creeping forms of C. linearis subsp. woodii produce stem tubers which behave like the original caudex in that stems emerge from one point on them. Sheila Collenette (1991) divides the ceropegias of Saudi Arabia into 6 groups, recognized by the vegetative characteristics. Groups 3, 5, and 6 are tuberous and are noted below. Plants of Group 3, such as C. botrysand C. tihamana, have slender, grayish stems and underground, top-shaped tubers bearing fibrous roots. Group 5 plants have soft, green, branching, deciduous stems and an underground, hemispherical, flat-topped tuber bearing fibrous roots on the basal portion. Ceropegia bulbosa falls into this group. Group 6 is typified by C. vignaldiana, having a tuberous root, lumpy, spherical or even carrot-shaped, with roots growing from upper and lower surfaces. The leaves of Ceropegia are opposite, sometimes in whorls of 3, and in the non-succulent species are well-developed. In the climbing species they are most often cordate or lanceolate, and linear or sometimes filiform in the erect non-climbing species. The flowers are unusual and attractive (Plate 286). They are carried in a flat-topped inflorescence or singly, sometimes sessile, arising from between the petioles. The 5 petals are united to form a tube, sometimes swollen at the base, then cylindrical or funnel-shaped in the center, either straight or slightly curved, with the tips remaining joined, creating a lanternlike effect on the upper part, which has also been described as forming a cage; the 5 openings allow access to pollinating insects. When the tips are not joined, they form an interesting adornment to the petals as they flare. The interior color is usually green, often with bronze or reddish markings, or the entire flower may be dark purplish green. All are summer-flowering. The common name for the genus describes the unusual form of these flowers. These are lovely and unusual plants. They are only marginally describable as "bulbs," to be sure, but they provide a challenge to the keepers of display collections, not being the easiest plants to grow. They evoke great interest even when not in

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flower owing to their unusual shape and structure. Many wise and eminent botanists have written well about this genus, and there is a need to better understand caudiciform plants. CULTURE The species are found in the wild in habitats ranging from desert to rainforest, so culture depends on specific origin. Those generally found in cultivation are more or less succulent and tender, requiring a minimum night temperature of 55°F. They are usually grown in heated greenhouses in collections of succulents. Their unusual flowers and interesting forms make them ideal for public display. They enjoy high light, filtered in summer, duplicating their natural habitats in thickets, in grassland, or among shrubs. A well-drained soil, not rich, is preferred. Moderate moisture should be available during the active growth period, but only enough to prevent shriveling until growth has started. Be careful not to overwater. PESTS AND DISEASES

Rot will occur if too much moisture is given. Mealy bugs like the cracks and crevices of certain species and should be treated with denatured alcohol, applied with a cotton swab or Q-tip. PROPAGATION

Make cuttings or separate the tubers, which sometimes form along the stems. Root these in pure sand with slight bottom heat and pot them up as soon as rooted. The plants can be layered by laying stems on the surface of a sandy soil mix; root production at the nodes can be increased by nicking the plants with a knife at the point just below a node. These rooted sections then can be removed, potted, and grown on. Seed, which is infrequently produced, should be sown just covered and kept at 60°-65°F at night, warmer in the day; keep moist and pot the individual plants as soon as they are large enough to handle. SPECIES C. africana. South Africa (Western Cape to KwaZulu-Natal), in thorn scrub. Stems sometimes trailing, sometimes erect. Rootstock a rhizome; stems sometimes produce small tubers. Leaves ovate to lanceolate. Flowers tubular, to 1 in. long, exterior tinted green with brown to violet lines toward the apex, petals joined at the tips, late summer (December to March in the wild). Plates 287, 288. C. barklyi. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Similar to C. africana, the flowers are hairy inside the slender section of the corolla tube and lobes twisted together. Plate 289. C. botrys. Saudi Arabia, N Yemen, and Somalia. Flowers creamy green spotted pale purple. Lobes unusual, interior veined red, joined at tips, extending again with filiform lobes to apex. Flower pedicel arises directly from stem or with only a short peduncle. C. bulbosa. India, Saudi Arabia, Oman, and Yemen. Stems climbing to 6 ft. Leaves succulent. Flowers pale greenish brown in clusters of as many as 8; lobes densely hairy. Flowering summer during brief rains. C. cancellata. South Africa (Western Cape). Rootstock a small tuber. Leaves ovate to linear. Flowers to 1 in. long, green with slender part of the tube hairy on inside, hairless outside;

the purple lobes join at their tips, summer (December to March in the wild). C. debilis. Tropical E Africa. Rootstock cormlike. Stem twining. Flowers purple with darker lobes, fringed with dark hairs, summer (November to January in the wild). Plate 290. C. decidua. Kenya to South Africa (Northern Province, Gauteng). Stems to 6 in. Flowers have tube swollen at base, ridge on upper ; linear purple lobes with hairs. Flowering summer (December in the wild). Subsp. pretoriensis from the Pretoria area has no ridge on tube; lobes form shallow cup; flowers greenish purple. C. linearis. South Africa (Western Cape to KwaZulu-Natal). Stems thin, twining or cascading. Leaves lanceolate to triangular-ovate, always fleshy. Flower tube a little over in. long, light green with purple stripes; lobes narrow, united toward their tips, at least twice as long as the corolla tube is wide. Flowering summer (December to March in the wild). Subsp. tenuis has lobes that are not more than twice as long as the width of the mouth. Plate 291. C. multiflora. South Africa (Free State, Northern Cape, Mpumalanga). Stems to 36 in. Greenish-white inflorescence; lobes filiform, jutting outward from the base to form a triangle with tips united. Flowering summer (December to February in the wild). Subsp. tentaculata, from Angola, Namibia, and Zimbabwe, has tips of lobes not usually united. Plate 292. C. pachystelma. Mozambique to South Africa (KwaZuluNatal, Mpumalanga) and Namibia. Rootstock a tuber to 4 in. in diameter. Stem slender, twining. Leaves broad, fleshy. Flower color varies from yellow green or white to bronze; lobes narrow and hairy, light brown below, red above. Flowering summer (October to April in wild). Plate 293. C. racemosa. Tropical Africa. Long flowers, corolla reddish brown, hairy within; lobes long with sparse hairs. C. rendallii. South Africa (Mpumalanga, Northern Province, Free State). Rootstock a large tuber. Stem twining. Flower tube white, with purple base, lobes narrow widening to form umbrella, summer (December to April in the wild). C. stentiae. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 4 in. Flowers single or few, lobes with linear tips united, summer (December to February in the wild). C. superba. Yemen and Saudi Arabia. Rootstock bunches of white fusiform roots. Flowers gray-purple with black and white bands near mouth of corolla; folded back lobes are bright green inside. Flowering summer. C. tihamana. Saudi Arabia, Sudan, and Kenya; rare. Flowers pale purplish gray on long peduncle, summer. Lobes joined at tips and form nipple. C. turricula. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers white with light reddish-brown spots, base of corolla swollen, interior of lobes white with moss-green center, edged black, olive tips united. Flowering summer (December to February in the wild). C. vignaldiana. Saudi Arabia; rare. Similar to C. bulbosa. Stems to 24 in., hard. Leaves narrow. Flowers greenish red, with narrow, hairy, green and purple lobes, summer. C. woodii. HEARTS ENTANGLED, ROSARY VINE, SWEETHEART

Chasmanthe VINE, STRING OF HEARTS. South Africa (Eastern Cape) to Zimbabwe. A popular house plant. Stems trail. Leaves small, fleshy, heart-shaped, dull purple on the underside and green above; tubers often form at the stem nodes. Flowers dull pink or light green, tube widens at junction with lobes. Flowering summer (December to March in the wild). Plate 294. C. zeyheri. South Africa (S Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Stem twining, usually leafless. Flowers pale greenish white, lobes bright green and hairy, summer (December to April in the wild). SYNONYMS

C. africana subsp. barklyi see C. barklyi. C. assimilis see C. cancellata. C. barbertonensis see C. woodii. C. euryacme see C. woodii. C. galpinii see C. rendallii. C. hastata see C. woodii. C. linearis subsp. woodii see C. woodii. C. patersoniae see C. zeyheri. C. schoenlandii see C. woodii. C. tentaculata see C. multiflora subsp. tentaculata. C. tenuis see C. linearis subsp. tenuis. C. undulata see C. pachystelma.

Chamaelirion—Melanthiaceae (Liliaceae) DEVIL'S BIT, FAIRY WAND, RATTLESNAKE ROOT

Name derived from Greek chamai ("low") and lirion ("lily"). Genus name sometimes spelled "Chamaelirium." The only species is native to North America. The plants are dioecious; the female plants taller and leafier, and the male with showier flowers. Not difficult to grow if kept well watered, and attractive in flower, this species is worth considering for plantings near water features in the garden. It is a popular subject for half-shaded borders in the mid-Atlantic United States, where it combines attractively with hostas and ferns. It is supplied as a container plant; some nurseries offer selected male plants, which are prettier in flower. CULTURE Chamaelirion requires a moist soil rich in organic matter, so it is a good plant for bogs and waterside plantings in full sun or light shade. It prefers a very humid summer and must never dry out. Set the rootstock just below the surface and space plants 4-8 in. apart. Feed in the summer growing season with a liquid fertilizer. It is hardy to around 0°F. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide in early spring before growth commences and replant immediately. Sow seed as soon as ripe in a soil mix of moist sphagnum moss, and keep in moderate heat. Seed takes to 8 weeks to germinate, and seedlings should be individually potted as soon as they are large enough to handle.

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SPECIES

C. luteum. RATTLESNAKE ROOT. United States (Florida to Arkansas north to Illinois, Michigan, and Massachusetts) and Canada (S Ontario), in moist meadows and woods with fertile soil. Rootstock a thick rhizome. Leaves to 6 in. long and 2 in. wide, in a basal rosette; the stem leaves much smaller and scattered. Inflorescence a cylindrical raceme which nearly always bends at the tip. Flowers very small but numerous, white, with narrow tepals becoming yellow with age. Male plants have stems 18-24 in., flowers with a hint of yellow pollen, stamens and filaments white, and a raceme about 5 in. long. Female plants have stems 48 in. but often shorter, flowers with rudimentary stamens, and a raceme to 10 in. long but the flowers are not as dense on the stem. Flowering late spring to early summer.

Chasmanthe—Iridaceae FLAMES Name derived from Greek chasme ("gaping") and anthos ("flower"), referring to the flowers, which are curved and hooded. The genus is restricted to South Africa, and all 3 species are commonly cultivated. Produced from subglobose corms, the plants are vigorous and need room to spread. The flowers are abundantly produced; in some species the flower spike branches. The positioning of the flowers on the stem is also unusual: the inflorescence looks flattened because the flowers either face all one way, as in C. aethiopica, or are arranged in 2 ranks facing in opposite directions. The flowers are tubular, with the lower parts pinched and much shorter than the upper parts, flaring into separate lobes at the mouth of the tube. The upper tepals form a hood over the lower ones, and to some extent sheathe the long stamens, which protrude just beyond the tip of the upper tepals. The lobes of the lower tepals often angle away from the upper tepals by as much as 90 degrees. Flowers low on the stem open long before those above, so that the upper buds often are still very small and carried closely together on the flattened flower spike while the lower flowers are fully open. The initial flowers are long past before the entire flower spike has fully developed, so the plants are in flower for a considerable time. The foliage is stiff and broad (to 2 in. wide), and swordshaped, tapering to a sharp point. Leaves are coarse to the touch. The number of leaves per corm varies, but there are usually more than 6 and sometimes as many as 8-10. Give these readily multiplying plants a spot where they can spread. They are good, long-lasting cut flowers. They should become more popular in the warmer and drier parts of the United States because they are dormant in summer (and thus resistant to summer drought). CULTURE Chasmanthe cannot withstand much cold and should be grown outside only in areas with little or no winter frost. Plant corms in fall or spring, 3 in. deep and 10 in. apart, in full sun or light shade. They are not too fussy about soil but must receive moisture during winter and early spring. Plants die down after flow-

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ering. Corms need not be lifted in frost-free areas unless they have become overcrowded; in colder gardens, treat them like Gladiolus. PESTS AND DISEASES

These plants are not usually bothered by pests and diseases, but in colder climates corms can become frost-damaged and rot sets in. If in doubt, lift and store after flowering, keeping them on the dry side. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate smaller corms and replant. Sow seed as soon as ripe. It germinates readily, and seedlings take only 1 or 2 seasons to reach flowering size. SPECIES C. aethiopica. South Africa; introduced 1759. Corm subglobose, to 2 in. in diameter. Stems to 48 in. Leaves arranged in fan, 12-18 in. long. All flowers face to one side. Top part of flower is reddish, lower part greenish orange. Stamens prominent. Flowers have distinct curve, just over 2 in. long, 12-15 per stem, fall to winter (April to July in the wild). Subsp. vittigera, with wider leaves, is recognized by some authorities. C. bicolor. South Africa. Stems 18 in. Upper perianth red, lower part of tube yellow to greenish. Flowering winter (July to August in the wild). Plate 295. C. floribunda. South Africa (S Western Cape). Corm flattened. Stem branching, to 48 in. Leaves about 14 in. long, 2 in. wide, arranged in a fan. The most floriferous species, often as many as 30 flowers per stem, 12-15 per branch. Flowers orangered, tube often with yellow stripe, winter to spring (July to September in the wild). Var. duckittii has primrose yellow flowers. Plates 296-299. SYNONYMS

C. caffra see Tritoniopsis caffra. C. fucata see C. floribunda. C. intermedia see Tritoniopsis intermedia. C. peglerae see C. aethiopica. C. praealta see C. floribunda. C. spectabilis see Gladiolus magnificus. C. vittigera see C. aethiopica.

Chionodoxa—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) GLORY OF THE SNOW Name derived from Greek chion ("snow") and doxa ("glory"), hence their common name, glory of the snow, which describes their habit of flowering—peeking above the melting snow. One of the finest early flowering bulbs, Chionodoxa comprises about 8 species native to the mountains of Crete, Cyprus, and Turkey. They are closely related to Scilla, but the perianth segments are united at the base, forming a short tube, and the flattened filaments form a cone in the center of the flower. The nomenclature of this genus has been very confused, and bulbs of a given species are likely to be offered under names other than those currently applied by botanists. This should not trouble

gardeners, however, since the problematic species are superficially similar and need the same growing conditions. The plants grow from an ovoid bulb with a thin, fragile brown tunic. The leaves are basal, and not numerous; often only 2 are produced. They are narrow, thick, stiff, and dark green. The stems are short at flowering time and elongate as the seed ripens. The flowers are borne in loose racemes in late winter to early spring; depending on the species, the number per stem ranges from 1 to more than 10. The flowers are blue (though pinkish and white forms occur), with zones of white. These are lovely early spring flowers for the rock garden or the front of the border. Most species are hardy to about 0°F. They can also be planted in containers to be brought indoors. The more commonly grown species are supplied as dormant bulbs in fall, available through mass-market catalogs. CULTURE Plant bulbs in fall, 3 in. deep in well-drained soil in sun. They must have winter and spring moisture, so humus should be added to sandy soil. Large bulbs can produce more than one flower spike; they must be left in ground for several seasons before they produce many spikes. To flourish and increase, they should not have competition from other plants. Lift and divide only when they become overcrowded and flower production is reduced. PESTS AND DISEASES

Like Scilla species, they are not troubled by insects or rodents. They may be attacked by a smut fungus, Ustilago vaillantii, which causes the anthers to turn black; infected plants should be discarded. PROPAGATION

Many offsets are produced which can be separated from the parents and planted in fall. Seeds germinate readily; sow as soon as ripe. SPECIES C. albescens. Crete. Stems 3-12 in. Flowers less than in. in diameter, pinkish or lavender, late spring. C. forbesii. SW Turkey; introduced 1871. Usually grown under the name C. luciliae, correctly applied to a different entity. A variable species. Stems to 6 in. Flowers to 12 per stem, drooping slightly, deep blue with white center, as are the filaments. Selections include 'Alba', pure white; 'Naburn Blue', dark blue with white center; 'Siehei', an exceptionally free-flowering form; 'Tmoli', bright blue, 4 in. tall. C. lochiae. Troodos Mountains of Cyprus; introduced 1953. Stems to 6 in. Uniformly light blue, no white eye, but filaments are white. C. luciliae. W Turkey; 1879. Plants grown under this name are mostly C. forbesii, but it is a valid name for the entity usually grown under the name C. gigantea. Flowers many, small, in a one-sided raceme. Large-flowered selections listed by growers under this name, but perhaps to be referred to C. forbesii, include 'Alba', large pure white; 'Gigantea', pale blue, flowers to 1 in. wide; 'Pink Giant', taller than type, dull pink; 'Rosea', pink; 'Zwanenburg', a vigorous clone. Plate 300.

Chlorogalum C. nana. Crete; introduced 1879. Stems 2-4 in. Leaves grasslike. Flowers tiny, lilac blue with white center, 1-3 per stem, late spring. C. sardensis. Turkey; introduced 1877. Stems to 4 in. Flowers deep gentian blue with small white eye, early spring. Plate 301. SYNONYMS

C. cretica see C. nana. C. siehei see C. forbesii. C. tmolusi see C. forbesii.

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outside in frost-free areas, in full sun or light shade. Plant in spring or early fall; spring is better. Keep barely moist until flower stem emerges, then increase water. Soil should be welldrained but moisture-retentive. After leaves appear, feed with a balanced liquid fertilizer. When leaves start to die back in fall, reduce water. Overwinter in a frost-free location, well aerated and nearly dry to prevent rotting. Start into growth again in spring. In containers, repot each spring in a soil mix of equal parts good topsoil, peat moss, and sand. PESTS AND DISEASES

xChionoscilla—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae)

Protect from slugs and snails. PROPAGATION

In the wild, hybrids sometimes naturally occur between species of related genera. These plants are sterile and can be propagated only by asexual means. xChionoscilla is not uncommon in gardens where both parents are grown. It is of interest to collectors and should be placed like Chionodoxa. CULTURE Same as for Chionodoxa. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Only by offsets, separated during dormancy in late summer. SPECIES xC. allenii. Naturally occurring hybrid (Chionodoxa forbesii x Scilla bifolia); described 1889. Like its parents, it flowers as soon as the snows melt. It resembles a good form of Chionodoxa forbesii, except that the perianth segments are joined at the base and the flowers may be darker blue. Plants grow to 6-8 in., with 4-7 flowers per stem, rather like a large-flowered Scilla bifolia. Plate 302.

Chlidanthus—Amaryllidaceae DELICATE LILY Name derived from Greek chlide ("luxury") and anthos ("flower"). This genus has only 2 species, one from Mexico and the other from the Andes. The tunicate bulb is small. The flowers in both species are yellow and fragrant, trumpet-shaped, produced in a few-flowered umbel. The main difference between the 2 species is that in C. fragrans, the more commonly grown, the flowers are almost sessile, while in C. ehrenbergiithey have a distinct pedicel. The flowers appear in mid summer before the leaves. This unusual plant does well in containers. It is a conversation piece for the sunny, well-drained border or rock garden, and makes an excellent cut flower. Bulbs of C. fragrans are usually sold dormant in spring, sometimes under the common name Peruvian daffodil. CULTURE These plants are not hardy and must be given protection in areas where temperatures fall below 26°F. They can be grown

Separate offsets from parent bulbs in fall or spring before growth starts. SPECIES C. ehrenbergii. Mexico. Stems to 10 in. Flowers yellow, on pedicels 1-2 in. long, mid summer. Some authorities think this is only a form of C. fragrans. C. fragrans. PERUVIAN DAFFODIL. Peru and Chile; introduced 1820. Bulb ovoid and tunicated. Stems 8-10 in. Leaves linear, dark green. Flowers few, sessile on stem, yellow, with delightful lemon scent, mid summer. Plates 303, 304.

Chlorogalum—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek chloros ("green") and gala ("milk"), an allusion to the color of the sap. A genus of 5 species native to the United States (Oregon to Baja California), growing in dry open hills and plains, among serpentine rocks, and on brushy slopes. The bulbs can be quite large, to 4 in. in diameter, often with a coarse coating of persistent fibers from previous seasons. Leaves are basal, tufted, from a few inches long to over 10 in., with distinct wavy margins; leaves on the flowering stems are much smaller and pointed. The stem branches widely, bearing numerous flowers on scattered or crowded pedicels. The flowers appear in late spring to summer and are small, pale blue, pale pink, or white, with 3 distinct veins, the tepals are held apart and are often much recurved. The stamens are inserted at the base of the tepals, and the style a little longer than the stamens, divided into 3 at the tip. Native Americans used the bulbs as a soap and also for stunning fish. Early Spanish Californians used it as a hair tonic. It is said that in the days of the California Gold Rush miners stuffed mattresses with the fibers obtained from the bulbs. Certain species are a good addition to the native border, especially C. pomeridianum; others are of dubious value as ornamentals but of interest to those who love native plants. They are appropriately planted among such Californian shrubs as Ceanothus. CULTURE

The hardiest species can take temperatures down to about 20°F range but must have a dry summer. In the wild, the bulbs often grow very deep; in irrigated gardens; however, they may be planted only 3-4 in. below the surface. Space 12-18 in. apart.

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Chrosperma

They are not demanding about soil and often grow in the wild in decomposed granite and other very poor, bricklike soils. Plant in sun, or dappled shade in hot climates. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Bulbs produce a few offsets, which can be removed at the end of the growing season. Seed is the better method of increasing the stock, and seedlings are often found in spring around mature plants. Sow seed in late summer in a well-drained soil mix, barely covering it. Place pots in a sunny area and keep barely moist until germination has occurred, then water through growing season. Pot on or place in garden when they go dormant. SPECIES C. angustifolium. United States (C to N California), in valleys of Coast Ranges, in grassland. Bulb 2 in. in diameter, covered with delicate fibers. Leaves 12-15 in. long, a little over 1 in. wide, slightly undulate, Stems 18-20 in. Flowers on short, slender pedicels, late spring; tepals white with greenish yellow midvein, oblong, a little over 1/2 in. long; stamens the same length. C. grandiflorum. United States (C California, in Tuolumne County), in Sierra Nevada, in foothill woodland. Stems 12-24 in. Tepals white with purple midvein, to 1 in. long. C. parviflorum. United States (S California), in valley grassland and coastal scrub. Stems 12-32 in. Tepals white to pink with dark midvein, diurnal. C. pomeridianum. SOAP PLANT, AMOLE. United States (S Oregon to San Diego County in California), widely distributed, in grassland and coastal scrub. Bulb very large, often 4 in. or more in diameter, covered with brown fibers that often appear on the soil surface. Leaves light green, 18-20 in. or longer, coarse and tough. Stem strong, stiff and freely branching to 5 ft. or more. Flowers white with purple or green midveins, often recurved, opening late in the afternoon (hence the species name) and closing early in the morning, pollinated by moths; stamens not as long as tepals. Native Americans used the bulbs raw to stupefy fish, or roasted as food. Var. divaricatum, found along the California coast from Sonoma to Monterey, has an inflorescence that branches widely. Var. minus, from Tehama County in NC California, is seldom more than 18 in. tall. C. purpureum. United States (California, in Monterey County), in coastal foothills. Stems 10-16 in. Tepals deep blue, recurved, early summer. SYNONYM C. divaricatum see C. pomeridianum var. divaricatum.

Chrosperma C. muscitoxicum see Amianthum muscitoxicum.

Cipura—Iridaceae Derivation of name unknown. It is doubtful that any of the 4 currently recognized species are in cultivation outside a few

botanic gardens. They are native to Central and South America, growing in grassland and scrub. The rootstock is a bulb. The flowers, carried in terminal clusters enclosed in large green spathes on a stem to 10 in., have no perianth tube. Colors range from white to pale blue or yellow. They flower from spring to early summer. The leaves are basal, 2 or 3 per plant, about 2. in. wide and proportionately short. There is generally one leaf on the scape, just below the flowers. CULTURE If obtained, these would need to be grown frost-free, planted outdoors only where night temperatures never fall below 40°F. Moisture would be needed during the growing season, with drier conditions during the plants' winter resting stage. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Propagation should be similar to that of Tigridia. SPECIES C. paludosa. West Indies and from Mexico to Paraguay and Brazil; described 1752. Bulb covered with thick, brown, papery tunic. Flowering stem to 10 in. but often much less. Leaves linear, to 2 in. wide, with distinct veins. Flowers short-lived, but several produced, 1 in. or a little more in diameter, white to pale blue with a little yellow at base of inner segments. Outer segments longer than inner, held horizontally or nearly so, with a slight upward bend at the tip; inner segments erect, partly enclosing the style and anthers. Plate 305. SYNONYMS

C. goodspeediana see C. paludosa. C. latifolia see Eleutherine latifolia. C. martinicensis see Trimezia martinicensis.

Claytonia—Portulacaceae SPRING BEAUTY Named in honor of John Clayton (1686-1773), an American botanist. This genus contains about 15 species, mostly native to North America, and a few in South America, Australia, New Zealand, and Asia. Claytonia is closely allied to Calandrinia, but Calandrinia has a variable number of stamens. Some species now in Claytonia were formerly in Montia, but these do not have enlarged rootstocks and are not discussed here. Claytonias are predominantly plants of subalpine woodland and alpine zones. About 4 species have cormous rootstocks, and one (C. parvifolia) produces stolons and bulbils in the axils of the leaves. They are admired both for their glossy, succulent foliage and their early flowers. Claytonia caroliniana and C. virginica occur in moist, leafy woodland soils in dappled sunlight, while C. lanceolata grows in a variety of soils, from dry to boggy, often at high elevations. The genus contains several species that can be expected to be extremely cold-hardy, but these are high alpine and arctic species with the specialized cultural needs common to that class: C. acutifolia, C. megarhiza, C. rosea, C.

Clivia sarmentosa, and C. tuberosa. Most of these are not discussed here because of their unsuitability to the warm temperate garden. All claytonias are low-growing, seldom more than 12 in. in flower, with no more than one pair of opposite leaves on the flowering stem. The flowers maybe solitary, or as many as 15 or 20 per stem. There are 2 persistent sepals and 5 petals which are spreading and separate, white to deep pink, with distinct pinkish veins. The 5 stamens are attached to the base of the petals, the filaments often pinkish. The style is 3-lobed at the apex. The flowers open only in sunlight, so a plant may be in flower for 3 or 4 weeks, depending on the weather. Early settlers and Native Americans used the rootstocks as food. In recent times, digging plants for sale has depleted wild populations in E North America, so it is important to ascertain that purchased plants are nursery-propagated. The woodland species make interesting plants for shady areas, especially under deciduous trees. Some other species are interesting in the rock garden or scree. They are not recommended for containers. CULTURE

Culture depends on species. Claytonia caroliniana and C. virginica prefer a soil rich in humus and light shade. Claytonia lanceolata and C. rosea need more sun and well-drained, gritty soil in a site that never becomes hot. Set dormant corms 4 in. deep, 4-6 in. apart. Provide plenty of moisture while in growth. After capsules and foliage ripen, water less, but at no time allow them to become completely dry. The eastern woodland species are hardy to at least -10°F, the boreal and alpine ones to -30°F with reliable snow cover. Once established, the plants should be allowed to grow for several seasons undisturbed. PESTS AND DISEASES

No diseases have been noted, but squirrels and other animals sometimes dig up the corms. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide rootstocks after flowering. Sow seed as soon as ripe or in fall; it requires moist chilling at 40°F or less for at least 6 weeks, either outdoors or in the refrigerator. Sow seed of woodland species in a seedbed of highly organic soil outdoors in light shade, or in flats in a layer of milled sphagnum moss over a moisture-retentive soilless mix. Barely cover the seed. Keep moist but not wet. In fall, set out small plants in their flowering positions, or keep them in containers to plant the next spring. SPECIES C. australasica. Australia and New Zealand. Stems only a few inches in height. Flowers white, spring. Appreciates damp soil. C. caroliniana. United States (North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Illinois, Minnesota). Rootstock a corm, a little over 1 in. thick. Stems 1-8 per corm, rather fragile, 10-12 in. Leaves oblong to oval, usually with a petiole, rarely sessile, to 4 in. long, 1 in. wide. Flowers 2-10 in a raceme, with petals less than 1 in. long, white or pink with deeper pink veins, early to late spring. Hardy to -10°F. C. lanceolata. United States (California to Washington, east to Rocky Mountains) and Canada (British Columbia), in moist

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woods and along streams, to 8000 ft. elevation or more. Corm small. Stems to 10 in., with leaves mostly sessile or nearly so, generally 3 but sometimes 6, ribbed. Flowers to 15 per raceme, sometimes few or solitary, white to pink with deeper pink veins, late spring to early summer. Var. sessilifolia from N California and S Oregon has very narrow leaves, often surpassing the flowers. Var. peirsonii from S California has stem leaves with short petioles which are distinctly wider below the middle of the stem. C. umbellata. United States (S Oregon, W Nevada, California), often in association with red fir (Abies magnifica). Corm globose, about 1 in. in diameter. Stems often run underground. Leaves 3-nerved, in a thick rosette close to ground, blade less than 1 in. long, petiole to 2l/2 in. long. Flowers small, white to rose, early to mid summer. C. virginica. SPRING BEAUTY. Canada (SW Quebec, S Ontario) and United States (Minnesota to Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas), in woods, thickets, and clearings. Similar to C. caroliniana but corm a little smaller and bearing more stems, as many as 40 on large plants. Leaves 6 in. long, V* in. wide. Flowers to 20 per raceme, but often only 5-8; petals narrowly oblong; stamens often longer than petals, especially in forma micropetala. C. rosea. Rocky Mountains of W North America, at high elevations. Similar to C. lanceolata but distinguished by having basal leaves, and leaves along the stem linear and not sessile. Flowers rose pink; petals have with rounded tips. SYNONYMS

C. obovata see C. umbellata. C. sessilifolia see C. lanceolata var. sessilifolia.

Clivia—Amaryllidaceae NATAL LILY, THONG LILY Named in honor of a nineteenth-century duchess of Northumberland whose maiden name was Clive. This genus of about 4 species of evergreen amaryllids is native to South Africa. Though often regarded as bulbs in the loose sense, they have rootstocks consisting mostly of the bases of the leaves, little if at all modified for storage. Their native habitats are shady areas, mostly where there is abundant winter moisture. Clivias form thick clumps and, in the wild, they can occupy considerable areas where few other plants interfere with their spread. The flowers, borne in umbels, are quite striking—large and bright, in shades of red, orange, and yellow. They are broadly tubular or funnel-shaped. The 6 stamens are attached to the throat of the tube. The dark green, strap-shaped leaves are broad and thick. The bases of the leaves are sheathed. In mild climates, these are great plants for the shady garden, suitable for planting under trees where they can be left undisturbed. They are superb container plants and can be brought indoors when in flower. Their tough constitution, evergreen foliage, and tolerance of neglect make them useful for indoor commercial plantings in offices or shopping malls. They seem to have no objection to intermittent cold drafts as long as the ambient temperature stays well above freezing.

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Codonopsis

Most clivias in cultivation have bright orange flowers. Yellow-flowered forms arise from time to time; yellow clones and even the seed of these forms command premium prices. Breeders in South Africa during the 1990s have made exciting selections of C. miniata in shades of pink, orange, and cream. CULTURE Clivias require protection from frost, though established plants may recover from brief periods of 20° to 29°F. Grow in light or dappled shade; strong sunlight scorches the foliage, but deep shade makes them flower poorly. They prefer organically rich soil with good drainage and should be left undisturbed. They seem to thrive when crowded, some of my plants have remained more than 20 years in the same containers. They are supplied as container plants. Set plants so the lighter-colored part of the lower leaves is in the soil, spacing them at least 12 in. apart. In borders, topdress with good topsoil every other year and give weak feedings of organic fertilizer in late summer until the flower stems emerge. In colder regions, grow them in a cool greenhouse, kept above 40°F in winter. Moisture should always be available, but they do not seem to mind drying out a little during early summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

Plants must be protected from slugs and snails, which eat the emerging buds. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide plants in late spring. This can be difficult because the roots intertwine in a thick mass and may have to be cut apart with a knife. Sow seed as soon as ripe, when the capsule turns dark red. Remove the fleshy layer that surrounds the seeds before placing them in a soil mix with good humus content. Keep moist at temperatures around 55°F at night, warmer during the day. Germination time varies but is generally 60-90 days. Transplant seedlings when they are 3-4 in. tall and grow them on in individual pots until 8-10 in. tall, when they can be planted out. Commercial growers also propagate selections by tissue culture. SPECIES C. caulescens. South Africa (E Mpumalanga, Northern Province). Stems stout, flattened, 18-36 in. Leaves dark green, 24 in. long or more, 2 in. wide or more. Flowers to 15 per stem, waxy, reddish orange, curve downward; tepals have dentate tips with dark green zones fading to lighter green and yellowish white. Flowering spring (October in the wild). Rare in cultivation. Plate 306. C. xcyrtanthiflora. Hybrid (C. miniata X C. nobilis), first raised 1877. Stems 18-24 in. Leaves wider than those of either parent. Flowers pendent, salmon or orange; inner perianth segments much broader than outer segments. Flowering late winter to early spring. C. gardenii. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, S Mpumalanga) and Swaziland; introduced 1862. Stems stout, to 24 in. Leaves narrow, to 24 in. long, tending to arch, deep green. Flowers downward-curving, reddish orange to yellow, 2-3 in. long, winter (July to August in the wild).

C. miniata. BUSH LILY, FLAME LILY, FOREST LILY, BENEDICTION LILY, SEPTEMBER LILY. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, S Mpumalanga); introduced 1854. Stems stout, to 24 in. or more. Leaves deep green, 2-3 in. wide, strap-shaped. Flowers more trumpet-shaped than tubular, outward-facing rather than pendent, produced in winter and long-lasting. Inner segments broader than outer ones. Throat of flowers often lighter in color, sometimes yellow. Color varies, usually bright orange, sometimes redder. The usual flowering season is spring (August to October in the wild), but my plants in San Francisco often bloom from November to May. Many fine cultivars have been raised: 'Aurea' and 'Citrina' are early yellow forms; 'Striata' has variegated leaves. The yellow forms are in great demand, and a number of such clones have been raised from seed; some have broad petals but fewer flowers, others have smaller flowers and narrow tepals. The best yellow forms are presently sold for very high prices. The names "var. flava" and "var. sulphurea" have no taxonomic standing and should not be used. This is the most commonly grown species. Plates 307-311. C. nobilis. RED BUSH LILY. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1823. Stems 24-30 in. Leaves fleshy, strap-shaped, dark green, to 36 in. long. Flowers often 50 or more (more per stem than any other species), cylindrical, pendent, and overlapping, so that inflorescence is umbrella-shaped. Tepals reddish orange, fading a little toward tips, with a green zone on the tips, darkest at the margin. Flowering spring (October in the wild). Plate 312. SYNONYMS

C. grandiflora see C. miniata. C. hybrida see C. xcyrtanthiflora.

Codonopsis—Campanulaceae BONNET BELLFLOWER Name derived from Greek kodon ("bell") and opsis ("appearance"), from the shape of the flower. There are about 30 species, most of which have somewhat tuberous rootstocks. The genus is found from Japan to the Himalayas and into Malaysia. Some species are separated by certain writers as Pseudocodonopsis, but this separation is not widely accepted. Leaves are arranged opposite or alternate on the stems, which in many species are twining or procumbent. The nodding flowers, mostly greenish or blue and elaborately veined and spotted within, are carried in the axils of the leaves on short pedicels or are solitary and terminal. The flowers are campanulate, with 5 lobes. The stamens and filaments are free from the corolla, and the stigma somewhat globose. They flower over a long period, most species in early summer. The stems and foliage wither in fall and the plant spends the winter as an enlarged, tuberlike, white rhizome. All parts of the plant smell strongly of skunk when bruised but are quite inoffensive if left alone. Codonopsis can be grown in a semishaded perennial border or woodland garden; they are often combined with rhododendrons. They are attractive when placed where the nodding flow-

Colchicum ers can be lifted to examine their internal markings, or seen from below. They should not be placed where passersby will brush against or step on the foliage and thus release its nasty smell. They are not recommended for containers. CULTURE

Hardiness of the species varies depending on their origin. The most commonly grown, C. ovata and C. dematidea, are hardy outdoors to about 0°F and tolerate wet winters; many species, however, need a rather dry winter dormancy without hard freezing, which they experience in the wild under leaf litter or snow cover. Plant tubers 4 in. deep, 12-18 in. apart, in rich, leafy acid loam in part shade, or full sun in cool-summer regions. Cover with an organic mulch for winter protection. Supply constant moisture when in growth, but soil must not become stagnant. Climbing or twining species need the support of shrubs. PESTS AND DISEASES

Some species are attacked by slugs and snails; otherwise, pests leave them alone. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide rootstocks while dormant in fall or very early spring. Sow seed in early spring in a well-drained soil mix with good humus content, barely covering seed. Transplant seedlings as soon as large enough to handle and plant out in fall, or overwinter frost-free and plant out the following spring. Seed is very easy to collect and often available, but almost as often misnamed; seeds offered under "rare" names frequently turn out to be C. ovata or C. clematidea. Codonopsis convolvulacea may be invasive from the root where well suited, and the other species may self-sow. SPECIES C. cardiophylla. Himalayas and China. Stems to 18 in., twining. Leaves gray-green. Flowers pale blue, nodding, summer. Needs full sun and organically rich, moist but well-drained soil. Plate 313. C. dematidea. N India and Kashmir, in mountain meadows. Stems 12-18 in., erect in flower, lax later. Leaves ovate, downy. Flowers short and broadly campanulate, pale blue with black and orange zones inside base of corolla. The species most often seen in gardens. C. convolvulacea. SW China and S Himalayas. Rootstock a swollen rhizome. Stems twining to 8 ft., smooth. Leaves alternate, 2 in. long, occasionally cordate at base. Flowers blue-violet, solitary on long pedicels, sometimes terminal, sometimes on short lateral shoots. Var. forrestii is a robust form with a purple zone at base of the large corolla, and mostly cordate leaves. C. macrocalyx. SE Tibet and W China. Rhizome rather elongated. Stems twining to 30 in. Leaves alternate. Flowers yellowish green with purple markings at base. C. meleagris. China (Yunnan), in openings of pine forest at 11,000-12,000 ft. Stems erect, 10-12 in., leafy, mostly at the base and almost rosettelike, leaves nearly sessile and dark green. Flowers terminal, solitary, pendent, described by their discoverer, George Forrest, as "greenish yellow, veined and marked lurid

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purplishlike." This summer-flowering species was named because of the strong likeness of the flowers to Fritillaria meleagris. C. ovata. W Himalayas. Rhizome fleshy and cylindrical. Stems to 12 in., mostly leafless. Leaves mostly basal, nearly sessile. Flowers solitary on thin, long pedicels, sky blue with deeper blue venation; base of the corolla nearly black, margined green. Flowers about 1 in. long, funnel-shaped, late summer. Many plants grown under this name are really C. dematidea. SYNONYMS C. forrestii see C. convolvulacea var. forrestii. C. vinciflora see C. convolvulacea.

Colchicum—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) AUTUMN CROCUS, MEADOW SAFFRON Name derived from Colchis, a locality in Anatolia, Turkey. This genus has its center of distribution in the E Mediterranean area and extends east into Iran and Turkestan and west into much of Europe, including Great Britain. The nomenclature of the genus has been much confused over the years, in part because the leaves are produced in spring and the flowers mostly in fall, so that comparison is difficult; moreover, the flowers fade badly when dried, so that herbarium specimens can be hard to differentiate. At this writing, a revision of the genus is in progress, so the names listed below may undergo some changes within the first decade of the twenty-first century. Note also that the genus Merendera has been placed in Colchicum. The 2 were formerly separated because the 3 styles of Merendera are free to the base. Amateur gardeners may also confuse Crocus and Colchicum, largely as a result of the latter's common names: autumn crocus and meadow saffron. The basic differences between them are easy to spot: in Colchicum there are 6 stamens while in Crocus there are 3; in Colchicum there are 3 distinct styles, but in Crocus there is just one, which may be divided into 3 at the tip; and Colchicum has a superior ovary (the tepals join the usually subterranean stem below the ovary), while Crocus's ovary is inferior. If you don't want to botanize, just look at the color: colchicum flowers are pinkish or rose lavender (though white forms exist), whereas fall-blooming crocuses are blue-lavender or white. Colchicums are very poisonous, and they have long been used in medicine. All parts of C. autumnale contain colchicine, which is still used in the treatment of gout, a use discovered by medieval Islamic physicians. The herbalist Tragus in 1552 warned against its use for this purpose, as did Dodonaeus in 1577, but the writer Hermodactyl described it as good for various ailments. Colchicum became popular as an ornamental plant during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Colchicine is used in horticulture to alter the growth pattern of plants by inducing changes in the chromosome count in reproductive cells and to produce polyploids ("tetraploids"), which typically are extraordinarily robust. Colchicum corms can be quite large, to 4 in. in diameter, and very heavy. The large corm supports the production of flowers in fall, before the roots are very active. The tunic is

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Colchicum

brown and leathery when mature and extends above the body of the corm to ground level; this "neck" provides a pathway for the emerging flowers. The corms are irregularly shaped, convex on one side and flat on the other, and a projection called the "foot" extends downward. There is a sharper projection from the upper side, sometimes hidden by the tunic; from this projection a groove runs down the corm, which is wider at the base. The bud forms at the bottom of this groove and rises to the surface through the "neck." The roots emerge from a point on the outer side of the base of the new shoot. The size of the leaves varies according to species but can reach 12 in. long and half as wide. This can present a problem in placing colchicums in the garden, because the leaves can smother low plants growing nearby. In the winter- and springflowering species, the leaves and flowers are produced at about the same time. The foliage of the autumn-flowering species is produced in spring by the same corm that has flowered. This seems to exhaust the corm, but a new corm forms to flower the following autumn. The leaves wither (rather unattractively, in the larger forms) by mid summer. The seed capsule ripens in early summer and is found in the cup formed by the innermost leaves; in some species it lies below ground level. The seed is dispersed by ants, which eat a starchy structure on the seeds and abandon the toxic fertile part at some distance from the parent plant. The flowers vary greatly in size depending on species, but those grown in gardens are large-flowered—as much as 6 in. from soil surface to the tip of the flower. Almost all are in the pink-lavender range. Some species and hybrids are tessellated, displaying a checkered pattern of light pink or white and rose or purple; these are especially interesting in the garden. The springblooming species all have small flowers and are grown only by specialist collectors; this group includes the only yellowflowered species, C luteum, and the white- and violet-striped C. kesselringii. Although sometimes suggested for planting in grass, colchicums are best situated in shrub borders to bring color at an unusual time of year. Here the leaves can grow and nourish the plants without smothering other perennials. They are not good container plants; flowers of some, although they remain tight and hold their form for a few days, soon become floppy and untidy. The smallest species are suitable for the warm rock garden. CULTURE Corms are supplied dormant in late summer. Those stored too long often flower during shipment; cut off these over-hasty flowers to prevent fungus attack. Plant corms as soon as they can be obtained. If the neck is present, place it even with the soil surface; otherwise, the "shoulder" (the broadest part of the corm) should be 2-3 in. below the surface. In hot, dry areas, give shade for the hottest part of day; otherwise, they prefer full sun in a deep, well-drained but moisture-retentive soil of moderate fertility. Choose a spot where the low-growing flowers can be seen but taller spring foliage will not cover other plants. Continue watering as long as foliage remains green; withhold water

when foliage starts to die back, usually in July. Resume watering in late summer if it does not rain; the more northerly species, such as C. autumnale, need moisture to initiate root growth at this time. Divide when crowded, usually every 3 years. PESTS AND DISEASES

The foliage is sometimes attacked by a fungal smut which causes black streaks to appear. There is no known cure, so discard affected plants and do not replant colchicums in the same spot. Remove faded flowers to forestall Botrytis disease. Corms are subject to gray bulb rot, as are tulips. Slugs and snails are quite partial to the emerging foliage and the flowers. The larvae of vine weevils may attack the corms. Treat damaged corms with bulb dust before replanting to prevent rot. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide corms after leaves die back in mid summer. Remove offsets and replant larger corms; grow on smaller offsets in nursery beds for 1-2 years. Sow seed as soon as ripe (stored seed germinates poorly) in sandy soil, covering lightly. Grow in seed pots for one year, then transplant to rows spaced 3-4 in. apart and grow on for another 2 seasons before planting out in the garden. SPECIES C. xagrippinum. Possibly of garden origin; introduced c. 1874. Probably a hybrid between C. autumnale and C. variegatum. Corm ovoid, about 1 in. in diameter. Leaves narrow, with wavy margins, sometimes glaucous, to 4 in. long, emerging in early spring. Flowers in early fall; tepals narrow, spreading, pale lilac, heavily checkered darker purple. Although sterile, it appears that more than one clone from this cross is being grown. Plate 314. C. alpinum. SE France, Corsica, Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia; introduced 1820. Flowers soft rose lilac, occasionally white, 3 in., late summer. C. androcymbioideum. Balkan Peninsula and Turkey. Flowers white or pale pink with yellow anthers. C. arenarium. Hungary; introduced 1805. Similar to C. alpinum. Flowers pale rose, 4-5 in., anthers yellow; early fall. Possibly synonym of C. umbrosum. C. atropurpureum. SW Turkey and Balkan Peninsula; introduced 1934. Similar to C. turcicum. Flowers crimson purple, 3-4 in., mid to late fall. C. atticum. S Greece and S Bulgaria; introduced 1844. Flowers white or pale pinkish purple, 11/2-2 in. in diameter, mid to late fall. C. autumnale. MEADOW SAFFRON, NAKED BOYS. Europe and Great Britain; long cultivated. Corm large, ovate. Leaves 5-8, produced in spring, about 10 in. long and 1 in. wide. Flowers pale pink and leafless (hence the common name), numerous, as many as 6 per corm, reaching 4-6 in. and soon flopping over, late summer to early fall. Cultivars offered include 'Alboplenum', robust double white; 'Album', weak-growing albino; 'Nancy Lindsay', large flowers with deep violet tube; 'Pleniflorum', double lilac pink. Plates 315,316. C. balansae. S Turkey and Greek island of Rhodes; introduced

Colchicum 1855. Flowers rosy pink, 4-6 in., anthers yellow; mid autumn. C. baytopiorum. S Turkey (Antalya); introduced 1983. Flowers medium rose lilac, 2-3 in., anthers yellow; early to mid autumn. C. bivonae. Mediterranean region, from Corsica and Sardinia to Greece and W Turkey; introduced 1821. Leaves narrow, strap-shaped, to 10 in. long. Flowers 4-7 in. high, broadly goblet-shaped, rosy lilac more or less checkered darker violet, early to mid autumn. Cultivars offered are 'Apollo', a robust grower with a white center, and 'Vesta'. Plate 317. C. boissieri. W Turkey and S Greece; introduced 1876. Corm long, slender, twisted, wormlike. Flowers pinkish lilac, to 4 in., anthers yellow; early to late fall. C. borisii. Bulgaria. Maybe C. micranthum. C. bornmuelleri. NW Turkey; introduced 1889. The plant usually grown under this name is a form of C. speciosum with yellow anthers. The true plant has smaller pinkish purple flowers to 4 in. high in early fall, with purple to brown anthers. Plate 318. C. brachyphyllum. Syria and Lebanon; introduced 1904. Flowers pale rose to white, 4 in., late winter. C. burttii. Turkey and E Aegean Islands; introduced 1977. Flowers white or pinkish lilac, 3 in., early spring. C. byzantinum. Not known in the wild; described by Clusius in 1601. Probably a hybrid derived from C. dlidcum, but name "C. xbyzantinum" is not used. Corm 3 in. in diameter, short and broad, with red-brown tunic. Leaves emerge in spring. Flowers very numerous, with 3-in. white tube and oval, 2-in.long tepals, pale lilac pink with white midline above, corresponding to distinct keel below. White styles exceed pale brown stamens; pollen deep yellow. Stigma distinctly hooked, crimson-purple. Cultivar 'Album' often flushed pink at tips, possibly deeper when exposed to colder temperatures. Flowering early fall. Sterile and must be propagated asexually. It is quite amazing that even after 400 years, this plant has retained its vigor; many modern clones of bulbous plants do not exhibit such stamina. C. callicymbium. Greece and Bulgaria; introduced 1902. Lilac purple with purple throat. Flowering fall. C. chalcedonicum. NW Turkey; introduced 1897. Flowers deep rosy purple, 3-4 in.; anthers yellow or brownish; early fall. Similar to C. lingulatum but tessellated. C. chimonanthum. NE Greece. Leaves narrow, present at flowering. Flowers white or pale pinkish lilac, winter to early spring. C. dlidcum. Turkey; introduced 1896. Very similar to C. byzantinum but flowers a little later, and leaves emerge soon after flowers. Flowers lilac pink, fragrant, of moderate size. 'Purpureum' is deeper rose lavender. C. confusum. S Greece and Corfu. Leaves 3-5, to 8 in. long, absent at flowering. Flowers mid to deep reddish purple with white median stripes, fall. C. corsicum. Corsica; introduced 1879. Flowers small, rosy lilac, late summer. Hardy to about 20°F. Plate 319. C. creticum. Crete; introduced 1939. Flowers rosy lilac, 3 in.; anthers dark purplish. Flowering fall.

165

C. cupanii. S France, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Greece, Crete, Tunisia, and Algeria; introduced 1827. Leaves 2, very narrow, emerging just after flowers. Flowers very small, usually pale pink, early fall or winter depending on population. C. dolicherantherum. Taurus and Nur mountains of Turkey. Leaves 4-6, glossy green, 10-20 in. long, absent at flowering. Flowers to 15 per corm, white, pale mauve, or rosy lilac, plain or slightly checkered, to 3 in. long, fall. C. faldfolium. S Russia, E Turkey, Syria, Iran, and Iraq; introduced 1885. Flowers white or pinkish purple, 4 in., early spring. C. fasdculare. Syria; introduced 1826. Flowers rose and white, 2 in., early spring. Plate 320. C. filifolium. W Mediterranean region, in S Europe and N Africa. Corms a little over in. long, dark brown, with long necks. Leaves linear, to 15 but often fewer, present at flowering. C. giganteum. Turkey; introduced before 1890. Very similar to C. spedosum and sometimes considered a variety of it, but flowers later in fall and has broader flowers. Flowers soft purple, 10-12 in. tall; corolla tube widens gradually, not goblet-shaped as in C. spedosum. C. graecum. Greece, in mountains from Peloponnese to Pindus. Flowers deep pinkish purple or rosy purple, funnel-shaped, plain or only slightly checkered; tepals 1-3 in. long. C. guadarramense. N Spain; introduced 1912. Flowers warm pink, to 6 in., early fall. C. haussknechtii. Iran. Flowers pinkish lilac, 3-4 in., mid fall. C. heldreichii. C Turkey, in mountain meadows. Leaves absent at flowering, 3-4, twisted and undulate. Flowers white to pale lilac pink; segments often unequal; early fall. C. hiemale. Cyprus; introduced 1897. Flowers rose, l/2—3/4 in., late fall. C. hierosolymitanum. S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel. Flowers slightly tessellated, pinkish lilac, 5 in., mid autumn. C. hissaricum. C Asia. Leaves 2, to 2 in. long. Flowers solitary, white with yellow anthers, early spring. C. hungaricum. SE Europe; introduced 1921. Flowers pale lilac to white, 1-2 in., early spring. C. imperatoris-friderid. SC Turkey. Corms very large. Leaves 4-5, absent at flowering. Flowers to 10 or more per corm, pale to purplish lilac, not checkered, fall. C. inundatum. Turkey (Konya and Antalya), in seasonally flooded meadows. Leaves absent at flowering, 4-12, slightly glaucous. Flowers pale pinkish lilac, fall. C. jesdianum. Iran; introduced 1930. Flowers whitish, in., fall. C. kesselringii. C Asia and NE Afghanistan; introduced 1880. Flowers uniquely colored white, exterior with deep purple central stripe, tepals erect, to /2 in., early spring. C. kotschyi. S Turkey, N Iraq, and Iran; introduced 1853. Flowers white or pale pink, 11/2-21/2 in., anthers yellow, late summer to fall. C. kurdicum. SE Turkey and NE Iraq; introduced 1899. Flowers pale to deep pink, 21/2-4 in. in diameter. Flowering soon after snowmelt at high elevations.

166

Colchicum

C. laetum. Caucasus. Plants in cultivation under this name have many very pale pink flowers with long, narrow tepals, 2-3 in. long, early fall. True species said to resemble C autumnale except for having shortly decurrent stigmas. Plate 321. C. Hngulatum. S Turkey and Greek island of Rhodes; introduced 1844. Flowers pale pink, 2-3 in., anthers yellow, early fall. C. longiflorum. S France and Italy. Flowers pale pink, 3 in., early fall. Similar to C. autumnale but flowers smaller, leaves shorter, plant less hardy. C. lusitanicum. Portugal, Spain, and North Africa; introduced 1827. Flowers faintly tessellated, rose, 2 in.; anthers blackish; late summer to early fall. C. luteum. C Asia, N India, Afghanistan, and SW China; introduced 1874. The only yellow-flowered species, sometimes tinged lilac. Leaves appear with flowers but continue to grow to 8-12 in. after flowers fade. Flowers 3-4 per bulb, 3-4 in. long. Hates disturbance, very susceptible to disease, and suitable only to cool-summer regions. C. macrophyllum. Greek islands of Crete and Rhodes, and W Turkey; introduced 1950. Leaves in spring, very large. Flowers pale lilac, 2-3 in., mid autumn. C. micaceum. W Turkey, in rocky places in mountains. Leaves 3 large, 1-3 much smaller, absent at flowering. Flowers small, pinkish to rosy purple with white median stripes, early fall. C. micranthum. NW Turkey; introduced 1884. Flowers pale pink, /2 in.; anthers yellow; mid fall. C. minutum. S Turkey. Corm stoloniferous. Leaves 3-4, narrow, present at flowering. Flowers very small, pale pinkish or whitish, spring. C. montanum. PYRENEES MEADOW SAFFRON. Spain and Portugal. Corm 3/4 in. long, with a neck. Leaves linear, appearing after flowering. Flowers 1-2 per corm, rose lilac or whitish, late summer to mid autumn, blooming erratically. C. munzurense. EC Turkey, in screes and on cliffs. Leaves 3, short and narrow, present at flowering. Flowers white to pale lilac purple, small, spring. C. parlatoris. S Greece. Leaves emerge after flowering. Flowers light purplish pink, to 3 in., early fall. C. parnassicum. Greece. Flowers pale lilac, slightly tessellated, 4-6 in., late summer. C. paschei. Turkey (Adiyaman). Leaves 3-4, absent at flowering. Flowers white to pale mauve, late summer. C. psaridis. SW Turkey and S Greece; introduced 1904. Flowers pale pinkish purple, 2 in., mid to late fall. C. pulchellum. Greece (Peloponnese). Leaves short and narrow. Flowers funnel- to bell-shaped, pinkish to rosy purple with white median strip on lower half of segments, early fall. C. pusillum. Cyprus, Greece, and Crete; introduced 1822. Flowers lilac pink or white, 2 in., late fall. C. rausii. NW Greece, in alpine meadows. Leaves 2-3, nearly erect, absent at flowering. Flowers slender, pale mauve to pinkish purple, early fall. C. ritchii. Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Algeria; introduced 1826. Flowers pale pink to white, in., late winter.

C. robustum. Iran to India; introduced 1872. Corm small. Leaves present at flowering, elongating later. Flowers 3-4 per corm, 2 in. in diameter, lilac, whitish, or reddish, with green anthers. Flowering spring, depending on elevation. C. sanguicolle. SW Turkey. Leaves often flushed brown-purple near base, not present at flowering. Flowers pinkish to rich rosy purple, fall. C. sfikasianum. Greece (S Peloponnese). Similar to C. Hngulatum but leaves 3-4, narrower, and capsule has point at apex. C. sieheanum. S Turkey; introduced 1926. Flowers deep purplish pink, 11/2-2 in., early fall. C. soboliferum. E Europe, Bulgaria, Turkey, Iran, Russia, and C Asia; introduced 1835. Corm very small, with stout horizontal stolons which swell at the end and produce the flowers and leaves. Flowers often only 1 in. long, white flushed pale pink or rosy lilac. Best grown in a container, placing the small corms 2 in. apart. Flowering early spring. C. speciosum. Turkey and the Caucasus Mountains; introduced c. 1850. Corm to 4 in. long, proportionately slender. Leaves to 12 in. or more, 3 in. wide, bright green, glossy. Flowers to 12 in. high with tube, slender goblet shape; color varies from pale to deep reddish violet, with paler to white throat. 'Album', strong-growing, pure white form with a soft green tube. 'Atrorubens', dark purple. Colchicum bornmuelleri, a valid name for another species, is misapplied in horticulture to forms of C. speciosum with white throat. One of the finest species for the garden, left undisturbed it makes large colonies, 1 bulb covering 1 sq. ft. in 2 seasons. Plate 322. C. stevenii. Syria, Lebanon, Israel, S Turkey, and Cyprus, introduced 1843. Flowers 1-2 in., with yellow anthers, late fall to early winter. Var. andrium, from Greek island of Andros, introduced 1949, has rosy lilac flowers a little larger than the type. Var. peloponnesiacum, from Greece (S Peloponnese), introduced 1949, has lilac and white flowers. C. szovitsii. Turkey, Iran, and the Caucasus; introduced 1834. Flowers dark purplish pink to pale purple or white, 2-3 in., late winter. C. tenorii. S Italy; introduced 1858. Flowers numerous; tepals rose lilac, slightly tessellated, narrow, upright; early fall. C. trigynum. Caucasus and Iran; introduced 1823. Corm has a black or black-brown tunic. Leaves short, linear, present at flowering. Flowers 2-3 per corm, 3 in. in diameter, mauve pink or white, early to mid spring. Plate 323. C. triphyllum. Spain, Algeria, Morocco, Turkey, and Greece; introduced 1846. Flowers 2-3 in. high, late winter, pale rosy lilac or white flushed lilac. Leaves 3, appearing with or before flowers and surpassing them by several inches. C. troodii. Cyprus, S Turkey, Syria, Israel, and Lebanon; introduced 1862. Flowers pale pink and white, 2-3 in., mid autumn. C. turcicum. NW Turkey, E Bulgaria, and Balkan Peninsula; introduced 1873. Flowers pale pink to deep magenta, 2-3 in., early fall. C. umbrosum. N Turkey, Romania, and Crimea; introduced 1829. Flowers usually soft pink, or white to deep pink, 2-3 in.; anthers yellow; early fall.

Colocasia C. variegatum. SW Turkey, Greece, and E Aegean Islands; introduced 1753. Leaves narrow, wavy, gray-green, somewhat prostrate. Flowers 3-5 in. high, heavily checkered lilac purple on near-white, with white perianth tube, mid to late fall. Protect where temperature falls below 25°F. Colchicum cultivars. The parentage of garden hybrids mostly involves C. giganteum, C. speciosum, and C. bivonae. The latter transmits tessellation to its descendants. Many clones are quite similar, but most are very worthy garden plants, flowering in early fall. Those offered include 'Autumn Queen', lilac with white throat, silvery white tessellation; 'Dick Trotter', large upright deep pink, tessellated; 'Disraeli', magenta with pale center, large; 'Gracia', light violet-purple, inner segments violet-purple with large whitish base; 'Lilac Bedder', light violet-purple with darker veins; 'Lilac Wonder', narrow, amethyst-violet tepals with white midlines; 'The Giant', 10-12 in. tall, very freeflowering violet with large white throat zone; 'Violet Queen', flowers faintly checkered with imperial purple and white lines in throat; distinctive orange anthers; 'Water Lily', large double, often with 20 tepals, lilac rose, but flowers often fall over and stock may be weakening. Plates 324-326. SYNONYMS

C. acutifolium see C. szovitsii. C. aegyptiacum see C. ritchii. C. algeriense see C. bivonae. C. ancyrense see C. triphyllum. C. andrium see C. stevenii var. andrium. C. armenum see C. szovitsii. C. balansae var. macrophyllum see C. cilicicum. C. bertolonii see C. cupanii. C. biebersteinii see C. triphyllum. C. bifolium see C. szovitsii. C. bowlesianum see C. bivonae. C. bulbocodioides see C. triphyllum. C. bulbocodium see Bulbocodium vernum. C. byzantinum var. cilicicum see C. cilicicum. C. candidum see C. balansae. C. candidum var. hirtiflorum see C. kotschyi. C. catacuzenium see C. triphyllum. C. caucasicum see C. trigynum. C. croaticum see C. hungaricum. C. crociflorum see C. kesselringii. C. decaisnei see C. troodii. C. doerfleri see C. hungaricum. C. glossophyllum see C. cupanii. C. hirsutum see C. falcifolium. C. hydrophilum see C. szovitsii. C. hygrophilum see C. szovitsii. C. illyricum see C. fasciculare. C. illyricum var. superbum see C. giganteum. C. imperator-frederici see C. kotschyi. C. imperatoris-friderici see C. kotschyi. C. latifolium see C. bivonae. C. latifolium var. longistylum see C. macrophyllum. C. libanoticum see C. brachyphyllum.

167

C. lockmanii see C. falcifolium. C. montanum see C. triphyllum. C. neapolitanum see C. longiflorum. C. nivale see C. szovitsii. C. orientale see C. turcicum. C. pannonicum see C. autumnale 'Nancy Lindsay'. C. parkinsonii see C. variegatum. C. parvulum see C. alpinum. C. peloponnesiacum see C. stevenii var. peloponnesiacum. C. persicum see C. kotschyi. C. pinatziorum see C. boissieri. C. 'Princess Astrid' see C. 'Autumn Queen'. C. 'Queen Astrid' see C. 'Autumn Queen'. C. regelii see C. kesselringii. C. serpentinum see C. falcifolium. C. sibthorpii see C. bivonae. C. syriacum see C. szovitsii. C. szovitsii var. freynii see C. falcifolium. C. tauri see C. falcifolium. C. tessellatum see C. xagrippinum. C. trapezuntinum see C. umbrosum. C. varians see C. falcifolium. C. vernum see Bulbocodium vernum. C. visianii see C. bivonae.

Colocasia—Araceae ELEPHANT'S-EAR Name said to be derived from Arabic kolkas or kulkas. This genus from tropical Asia includes 6 or 7 species, some of which are widely grown in tropical regions as food crops. The most important of these is C. esculenta, the roots of which yield the starchy paste called poi in Hawaii. In many tropical and subtropical areas, the edible tubers—called taro in Polynesia and dasheen in other regions—take the place in the diet of the potato of colder climes. The leaves may also be blanched and eaten, or cooked in soups. Some species are grown as ornamentals; their large leaves give them their common name. Cultivars have been selected for unusually marked foliage. The flowers are carried on a spadix which is divided into 3 parts: the male flowers are on the upper part, the female on the lower, and between them a zone of short, ovoid, sterile flowers. It is for the foliage, not the flowers, that the plants are grown. They are useful large-scale ornamentals in areas where summers are long, permitting the early planting they need to develop fully. They are good specimens for display under glass, and for the marshy borders of ponds and streams. CULTURE Colocasias require high heat and high humidity. They can be grown outdoors only where summers are hot and ample moisture and rich soil can be provided. Plant tubers 4 in. deep, spaced about 48 in. apart. It takes about 7 months for the plants to reach maturity. They do best when constantly inundated under 3-4 in. of water, so frequent irrigation is imperative. If the soil is poor, a balanced organic fertilizer should be worked

168

Commelina

into it at planting time. Where frost occurs, lift the tubers at the end of the growing season and keep them barely moist and warm over winter. Replant when temperatures rise to around 55°F at night, 65°-70°F during the day. PESTS AND DISEASES

Pests and diseases are not common, but the large leaves must be protected from wind, which can reduce them to tatters. PROPAGATION

Divide the tubers or cut them into sections with growing buds at the end of the growing season or just before replanting. For more detail, see Caladium. SPECIES C. affinis. Himalayas, in tropical zone. Plant height in cultivation is 20-24. in. Tubers small, rounded. Leafstalk to 14 in. long. Leaves light green on upper surface, glaucous below, with rounded blades, to 8 in. long. Spathe pale green, with 2-3 in. long, slender tip. Var. jenningsii has a purplish leaf stalk and leaves spotted deep green or blackish violet. C. esculenta. ELEPHANT'S-EAR, TARO, KALO, DASHEEN, COCOYAM. Tropical E Asia, especially India, China (Yunnan), and the Philippines, naturalized in much of the tropics; introduced 1551. The most widely grown species. Quite variable. Plant height 3-7 ft. Leafstalk 20-40 in. long. Leaf blades heart-shaped at base, to 24 in. long, dark green to bluish black on upper surface Spathe pale yellow, 12-14 in. long, base greenish to purplish, but many variations are found. Ornamental cultivars include 'Burgundy Stem', green leaves with purple overtone, stem purple; 'Euchlora', dark green leaves with purplish margins, stalks violet; 'Fontanesii', leaves purple-veined; Tllustris', leaves apple green marked with bluish black or purple. Selections most commonly grown for food are 'Globulifera', dark green leaves and leafstalks marked with maroon lines, plant to 80 in. tall or more, producing 20 or more large tubers; 'Ventura', reddish leafstalks, producing tubers of better quality but not so large as those of'Globulifera'. Plate 327. C. fallax. Himalayas, India, Bangladesh, China (Yunnan), and Thailand. Differs from C. esculenta in producing only a single tuber. More commonly grown as an ornamental. C. gigantea. China and Malaysia. Plant to 80 in. tall. Leaves whitish on underside. Spathe white. SYNONYMS C. antiquorum see C. esculenta. C. fontanesii see C. esculenta 'Fontanesii'. C. indica see C. gigantea. C. marshallii see C. affinis. C. violacea see C. esculenta 'Fontanesii'.

Commelina—Commelinaceae WIDOW'S TEARS, DAYFLOWER

Named in honor of 2 Dutch botanists, Johann (1629-1698) and Kaspar (1667-1731) Commelin. This genus, the type for its family, comprises about 100 species with an extremely wide dis-

tribution: South Africa and tropical Africa, South America, tropical Asia, Mexico, and the United States. Some species have tuberous rootstocks. Some plants offered in the United States are not correctly named; closer study of the genus is needed to determine the correct nomenclature. In the species described here, the tubers are fleshy, thick, and light brown, becoming darker with age, and many fibrous roots are produced from them. The leaves are alternate, ovate, lanceolate or linear, and mostly sessile. The flowers, which are open for only a short time, are mostly blue, sometimes yellow, or rarely white. They emerge one at a time from terminal spathes on alternate branches. The ovary is superior and 3-celled. The smallest commelinas are suitable for rock gardens, and the larger ones for borders in warm gardens. CULTURE

Supplied as container plants or as dormant rootstocks in fall. Plant in spring and lift in fall in areas with frequent or prolonged winter frost. Planted at the base of a wall in a sheltered location and given the protection of a mulch, they can withstand temperatures to 20°F. They are about as hardy as dahlias. Place tubers 2-3 in. deep in well-drained soil, spaced 6-10 in. apart. Keep moist during spring and summer but keep them on the dry side during winter. They should never be allowed to become completely dry. The plants appreciate full sun, but in the hottest areas, give some afternoon shade. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Divide the tubers when lifting them in the fall or prior to spring planting. They are easily raised from seed sown in spring under glass. Move seedlings outdoors as soon as night temperatures reach a minimum of 45°F. Seedlings can be overwintered in a frame or cool greenhouse and then transplanted to larger containers in the 2nd spring once growth has commenced. Plants should flower in the 2nd or 3rd year from seed. SPECIES C. coelestis. BLUE SPIDERWORT. Mexico; introduced before 1700. Stems to 18 in. Leaves oblong-lanceolate, 2 in. wide and 6-8 in. long. Flowers blue, often more than 1 in. in diameter, on hairy peduncles; spathe folded and pointed. Flowering early summer. Var. alba has white flowers. Var. variegata has blueand-white flowers. Plants offered under this name may actually be C. sikkimensis (which is creeping, not tuberous) or C. tuberosa. Plate 328. C. dianthifolia. Mexico and SW United States. Roots tuberous, thick. Stems 5-10 in. Leaves deep green, numerous, lanceolate. Flowers small, deep gentian-blue, numerous over several weeks in late summer. Suitable for rock gardens and containers. Plate 329. C. tuberosa. Mexico; introduced 1732. Stems 15-18 in. Leaves oblong-lanceolate; sheaths hairy. Flowers sky blue; spathes ovate-cordate, fringed with hairs. Flowering mid summer. Plants grown under this name may be C. coelestis.

Convallaria

Conanthera—Tecophilaeaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek konos ("cone") and anthera ("anther"), in reference to the 6 anthers which form a prominent cone in the center of the flowers. The genus comprises about 6 species from South America, especially Chile. The rootstocks are corms, rather large for the size of the plant—11/2in. long and 1 4 in. in diameter in C. campanulata. The corm of C bifoliahas a coarsely netted tunic that extends above the ground and surrounds the lower part of the flowering stem. The leaves are basal, and the flowers are pendent, in loose panicles. They are not very showy and are of interest primarily to bulb specialists. CULTURE These plants can be grown outdoors only where temperatures do not fall below about 35°F. They are suitable for the cool greenhouse or for a sunny border in a frost-free garden. Plant corms shallowly, with the necks at or slightly below soil level, in a sunny, well-drained spot. Space taller species 10 in. apart, shorter ones 4-6 in. apart. They require moisture in spring but should be allowed to dry off when the foliage starts to die back and be kept dry through winter. In cold areas, they can be planted in early spring after frost has passed and lifted in late summer to be stored over winter frost-free. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove offset corms from mature plants in fall or in spring before growth starts. Sow seed in spring in a sandy soil mix, barely covered. Transplant dormant seedling bulbs into individual pots in fall, or the following spring before growth starts. SPECIES

C. bifolia. Chile; introduced 1823. Corm has elaborate tunic, netted and frayed. Scape leafless, often many-flowered, from a few inches to over 12 in. tall. Leaves linear and pointed, 10-18 in. long. Perianth segments reflexed and do not form a tube except at the base; flowers deep purplish blue; cone of yellow anthers protrudes from center, a good contrast to blue perianth. Stem produces 5 or more flowers in late spring. Plate 330. C. campanulata. Chile; introduced 1823. Similar to C. bifolia except that perianth segments do not reflex and are joined in the lower to form a campanulate flower; and stem has 2-3 sessile and clasping leaves. Basal leaves linear, 2-3 per corm, 10-12 in. long; leaf bases surround base of flowering stalk. Stems usually about 10 in. Flowers 10 or more, in a branched panicle, blue to deep purple-blue, sometimes white. Panicles remain attractive for a long period in late spring. C. parvula. Stems 2-2% in. Very similar to C. campanulata and may be only a dwarf form of it. C. sabulosa. South America. Stem wiry, 10-14 in. Leaves all basal. Flowers pale lilac blue with darker blotches. SYNONYM C. simsii see C. campanulata.

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Convallaria—Convallariaceae (Liliaceae) LlLY OF THE VALLEY

Name derived from Latin convallis ("valley"), because of its preference for shady woodlands in northern temperate regions. The fragrant flowers are welcome in late spring, when it is a tradition in many European countries for young men to gather them for their girlfriends on 1 May. Some authorities recognize only one extremely variable species, C. majalis; others split it into 3 or 4 species, which may be only geographic variants. Convallaria majuscula is a name applied to populations native to SE North America; C. transcaucasica is a name for populations near the Caspian Sea, described as more compact and with a shorter, denser inflorescence. Lily of the valley is a wonderful groundcover for shady, moist spots, especially north-facing borders, but its rapidly spreading habit should be borne in mind when associating it with other plants. The foliage withers after mid summer, however, leaving a bare spot until the following spring. It is a superb cut flower, much in demand by florists for its sentimental associations and exquisite fragrance. No one who has enjoyed the fragrance of this plant will deny its beauty. CULTURE These are very hardy plants which can survive -40°F with snow cover. They must have shade to perform well. They are usually supplied as dormant pips in fall or late winter, but they are easier to establish when obtained in growth in containers, since they do not tolerate drying out in storage. Set pips 2-3 in. deep, 6 in. apart, in soil high in organic matter, such as deciduous leafmold. Keep moist from early spring through mid summer, and never allow to become completely dry. Lily of the valley can be grown in small pots, using a compost rich in organic matter, and brought into the shaded greenhouse to encourage early growth. Heat is slowly increased to 65°F at night to obtain plants in flower early in spring. Pips for forcing should be large—at least 2 years from division. In outdoor beds a mulch of leaves applied in fall is appreciated. Overwatering and excessive temperature during forcing can cause rhizomes to rot. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide the mass of rhizomes after foliage has died down. Prevent them from drying out by wrapping them in damp sphagnum moss, if they cannot be replanted immediately. Plants in growth can be dug with a ball of soil and transplanted or potted. Plants occasionally set seed, which can be sown as soon as ripe and grown in outdoor conditions or in a coldframe, but they are rarely grown from seed because vegetative propagation is so easy. SPECIES C. majalis. N temperate zone. Rootstock a horizontal rhizome, producing pips (buds) from which the flowering stems

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Cooperia

and foliage arise. Leaves 2 or 3, heart-shaped, 8 in. long, clasping the flowering stem at their base, then widening to wrap around the flower spike. Flowering stem 6-10 in. high, carrying 5-15 small, pendent, tubby bell-shaped white flowers in a onesided raceme. Var. keiski is low-growing. Var. rosea has medium pink flowers, smaller than the usual white ones. Forma picta has filaments spotted purple at the base. Named cultivars have been selected for their robust habit, especially desirable when they are grown as cut flowers. 'Aureovariegata' (synonyms 'Lineata', 'Striata', 'Variegata') has leaves striped with gold, with an unfortunate propensity to revert to plain green. 'Fortin's Giant' is a robust, tall-growing cultivar with larger leaves and a strong fragrance. 'Hardwick Hall' has bluish leaves with thin yellow margins. 'Flore Pleno' is a double form, and both white and pink are often offered. 'Prolificans' is a curious if not beautiful form in which each individual floret is replaced by a little cluster of smaller, single flowers. SYNONYM

C. montana see C. majalis.

Cooperia C. brasiliensis see Zephyranthes drummondii. C. drummondii see Zephyranthes brazosensis, Z. drummondii. C. jonesii see Zephyranthes jonesii. C. oberwettii see Zephyranthes drummondii. C. pedunculata see Zephyranthes drummondii. C. smallii see Zephyranthes smallii. C. traubii see Zephyranthes traubii.

Corydalis—Fumariaceae From Greek korydalis ("horned lark"), because the spur of the flowers resembles the spur of the lark. This genus comprises around 400 species native to temperate regions throughout the Northern Hemisphere. A few are annuals. The others may have fibrous, rhizomatous, or tuberous rootstocks. The large tuber of C. cava was boiled by the Kalmuck Tartars, furnishing a starchy substance that was a mainstay of their diet. The flowers are produced in racemes, with a bract beneath each flower. There are 4 petals, the upper and lower ones being larger, with the spur on the upper. The foliage is much divided and often glaucous, and in itself is an ornament to the garden. The non-tuberous species C. lutea and C. ochroleuca are much grown in perennial borders, especially in shade; both may self-sow invasively. The rhizomatous species C.flexuosa and C. elata from China have become popular for their blue flowers. Of the tuberous species, only the variable C. solida is at all common in horticulture; most of the others are the province of a growing number of specialist collectors, rarely offered and very expensive. This genus has just recently caught the imagination of gardeners, and it is certain that the species, selections, and cultivars of Corydalis will become increasingly popular. From 1980 to 2000, many species were introduced into cultivation from C and E Asia. Their forms, colors, and variations of size and habi-

tat preference, from woodland to mountain screes, mean that some species are suitable for almost any temperate garden. For more details, see the masterly monograph on the tuberous species by Magnus Liden and Henrik Zetterlund (1997), which will satisfy both the botanist and the gardener. CULTURE

Many of the tuberous species are native to mountains and grow in shallow soil or scree. They become dormant in early to late summer when moisture is scarce in this habitat. Such species can be accommodated in rock gardens but are more often grown in containers in the bulb frame or alpine house, where their moisture regime can be controlled. Corydalis solida is quite adaptable but must have well-drained soil and some shade. The rhizomatous species want rich, well-drained soil with plenty of leafmold, in light to moderate shade; they prefer a rather dry winter and plenty of summer water, and do best where summers are cool and winters not below 10°F. Plant tubers 2-3 in. deep in the fall. Lift and separate them only when this is necessary to increase stock. Those grown in containers should be repotted in mid to late summer, when dormant; begin watering them in September. The pots should be plunged in barely moist sand to maintain coolness in the compost; they should never become desiccated. PESTS AND DISEASES

Some species are attacked by slugs, but other than that they seem to have no pest and disease problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide rhizomatous species as soon as they enter their brief summer dormancy and replant immediately. Tuberous species mostly split, doubling their number each year; separate and replant tubers in mid summer. Seed capsules open explosively and must be gathered when barely ripe. Sow seed immediately and overwinter pots in a coldframe or cool greenhouse. Transplant rhizomatous seedlings when large enough to handle, tuberous ones in their first dormancy. Plants reach flowering size in 3 or 4 seasons. SPECIES C. afghanica. E Afghanistan. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 1-4 in. Flowers white, sometimes tinged pink, inner petals narrow, outer petals broad-lipped; curved flowers in loose raceme. Subsp. elegans has white flowers with reddish median stripe. Subsp. tenuis is few-flowered, 2-6 per stem, with finely cut, glaucous leaves. C. aitchisonii. NE Iran, C Asia, and NW Afghanistan, on stony slopes. Tuber almost round, corky. Stems 4-5 in., often shorter. Leaves glaucous, oval, in a few whorls on long stalks. Flowers 2-6 in short raceme, each a little over 1 in. long, lemon to golden yellow, often streaked with greenish or brownish veins; spur long, tapering, curved or almost straight, sometimes coiled at the apex. Stigma has large apical and small lateral papillae. Subsp. kamelinii has deep purple corolla with even darker keels. C. alaschanica. N China (Ningxia) and Nei Monggol (formerly Inner Mongolia). Rootstock tuberous. Stems 2-6 in.

Corydalis Flowers purple or blue, held horizontally. Stigma squarish, with 2 pairs of papillae. C. alexeenkoana. Transcaucasia and Georgia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers creamy white to pale yellow. Bracts divided. C. xalknii. Garden hybrid (C. bracteatax C. solidd). Flowers creamy white with pink veins. C. alpestris. Caucasus, in mountain screes. Rootstock tuberous. Stem slender, branched, creeping. Flowers white tinged purplish with blue at tips, rarely yellow. C. ambigua. E Siberia and Kamchatka. Leaves on numerous upright stems, slightly glaucous, rather small, leaflets (which distinguish it from C.fumariifolia), entire or shallowly divided into a few large teeth. Flowering stem 7-8 in., exceeding foliage. Flowers blue to purple, in racemes of 4-12, on slender pedicels; outer petals have shallowly notched limbs. Flowering spring to summer. Many plants grown as C. ambigua are in fact C. fumariifolia. Plate 331. C. angustifolia. Elburz Mountains of N Iran, the Caucasus, and Turkey, in forest and scrub. Tuber almost cormlike, 1 in. in diameter. Stem slender. Leaves green, divided into 3 leaflets which are again deeply divided. Flowers 2-10 or sometimes more per stem, white flushed lilac, rarely cream; inner petals have internal tips of dark purple, sometimes carried onto the reverse. Spur recurved, in. long. Flowering early spring. C. arctica. Siberia, United States (Alaska), and NW Canada. Stems 4-6 in., variable. Flowers white, pale blue, pale purple, or purplish violet. C. benecincta. Tibet and China (NW Yunnan), in alpine screes. Rootstock a tuber, yellow inside. Leaves gray, mottled. Flowers 5-15, fragrant, in a branched raceme, pink to pale purple or white with dark bluish purple at tips. Subsp. trilobipetala from China (NW Yunnan, Sichuan) has mauve to deep purplish blue flowers, 2-10 in an unbranched raceme; tuber not yellow inside. C. blanda. Macedonia, Albania, Montenegro, and NW Greece, in alpine meadows. Rootstock tuberous. Stems compact, 1-6 in. Leaves fleshy, glaucous. Flowers white, often lightly freckled bluish purple. Subsp. olympica from the Olympus Mountains in Greece is shorter, with 7-10 tiny flowers in dense raceme. Subsp. oxelmannii from Mount Chelmos in N Peloponnese has large, pale pink to purple flowers, in nodding, loose racemes on stems 2-5 in.; leaves glaucous, lobes finely divided or toothed. Subsp. parnassica from Mount Parnassus area of Greece has short, broad flowers, in dense racemes on stems 3-12 in.; leaves lobed, triangular, on stalks 2-6 in. C. bracteata. Altai Mountains of C Asia and Siberia. Stems to 12 in., often taller in cultivation. Leaves on long petioles, divided into 3 deeply divided leaflets. Flowers to 20 per stem, with a large winged corolla, bright yellow to cream; lower petals have a pouchlike claw. Bracts very wide, to over 1 in. It seems to demand cold winters and is not easy to grow in mild climates; given an uninterrupted winter dormancy, it is reported to flourish and self-sow. 'Marina' is a lovely selection. Plate 332. C. buschii. E Russia and North Korea, in moist meadows and glades. Tubers yellowish, thin, elongated to thick tips. Stems

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usually 4-8 in., sometimes to 12 in. Flowers purple to pinkish red, late spring. C. cashmeriana. Kashmir to SE Tibet, in screes and scrub. Tubers small, clustered. Leaves pale, glaucous. Flowers sky blue with downward-curving spurs. Difficult to grow where summers are not cool. C. caucasica. SW Georgia, in mountain forests and among shrubs. Tubers almost spherical. Stems 4-6 in., with small, leafy bracts. Leaves mostly basal, on long petioles; leaflets clearly stalked, entire or 2- or 3-lobed. Flowers generally 5 or more, borne in one-sided raceme; lilac, occasionally white; outer petals notched on the limbs; inner petals white or cream; spur rather straight. A good tuberous species to try in the open garden, and also grows well in containers. Subsp. abantensis from N Turkey has dense inflorescence, lower petal broader than in type. C. caudata. EC China. Rootstock tuberous. Stems much branched. Flowers blue to purplish blue, rarely white, late spring. Spur curving upward. C. cava. Europe and W Asia, from Scandinavia to Balkans, Portugal to N Iran. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers white, pink or purplish red to pale yellow, early spring. Bract entire. C. chionophila. Turkmenistan, NE Iran, and W Afghanistan, in subalpine zone. Stems 1-6 in. Flowers pale pink, rarely white, with purplish blotch at tips of outer petals. Size of spur variable. Subsp. firouzii from E Elburz Mountains of N Iran has sulfuryellow flowers aging to purplish, leaves and inflorescence denser than type. Subsp. parviflora from NE Afghanistan has outer petals white to pale pink, keels reddish purple, leaves fleshy and glaucous. C. conorhiza. Caucasus, in alpine meadows. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 2-6 in. Flowers purple, rarely pale yellow. C. cyrtocentra. NW Pakistan and E Afghanistan. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers lilac with darker tips. C. darwasica. C Asia, from C Tajikistan to NE Uzbekistan and SE Kazakhstan. Tuber large. Stems 1-7 in. Leaves gray. Flowers white to cream, sometimes tinged pink, lower petal with reddish-purple blotch. C. decumbens. S lapan, E China, and Taiwan. Tubers small, gray and rounded, produced in profusion. Stems 4-10 in. Flowers whitish to pale pink, marked with pale blue. C. densiflora. S Italy and N Sicily. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers whitish to pale pink with red margins, or reddish purple with pinkish veins and purplish streaks, late spring. C. diphylla. N India to W Nepal. Rootstock tuberous. Stems branched, 2-6 in. Leaves glaucous, fernlike. Flowers white or cream, with purple tips and wings, early spring. Subsp. murreana from NW India and N Pakistan has narrow, creamy white flowers with red or purple lower lips and unbranched stems. Subsp. occidentalis from Kashmir has broad flowers, white to pale pink with lips red to deep purple. C. djingensis. Tibet and China (N and W Sichuan). Rootstock tuberous. Flowers purple, spur straight. C. data. China (SW Sichuan). Rootstock a widely spreading rhizome. Stems stiff, erect, to 25 in. Flowers deep blue in ter-

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Corydalis

minal raceme, mid summer, very fragrant. Similar to C. flexuosa but more upright and a little hardier. C. emanueli. Caucasus, in mountain meadows. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers blue to bluish purple, fragrant, mid summer. Var. pallidiflora has pale yellow flowers. C. erdelii. S Turkey. Stems 2-4 in. Flowers pale pink to reddish purple, spur dark purple, keels of outer petals dark. Flowers may also be purple, deepening after fertilization. Stigma squarish, with single pair of papillae. C. filistipes. Ullung-Do Island off E Korea. Rootstock tuberous. Stems usually 6-12 in., sometimes to 20 in. Leaflets deeply divided. Flowers tiny, white to pale yellow, late spring. C. flaccida. Nepal to China (Sichuan). Rootstock rhizomatous. Leaves gray-green. Flowers tiny and variegated, purple, pink or blue. C. flexuosa. China (Sichuan). Rootstock a congested rhizome with small bulbils. Stems 6-30 in. Leaves deep green, sometimes flushed bronze or purple. Flowers smoky to sky blue. Cultivars include 'Blue Panda', sky blue; 'China Blue', smoky blue; 'Pere David', flushed purple. C. fukuharae. Japan. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers blue to purplish blue, late spring. Similar to C. fumariifolia. C. fumariifolia. E Siberia, Manchuria, and North Korea. Tuber pale gray. Stems 4-8 in. Leaves green. Flowers to 20 per stem but frequently fewer; corolla pale to bright blue, sometimes flushed purple; broad wings of outer petals darker, and inner petals white. Spur straight or a little recurved at the tip, often triangular, with a broad base. Subsp. azurea from Japan (Hokkaido) has sky-blue to bluish-purple flowers, leaflets light green, broader than type. C. gamosepala. C China. Stems 3-9 in. Flowers pink to purple, rarely blue. Similar to C. turtschaninovii. C. geocarpa. China (Sichuan), in rock crevices. Rootstock tuberous. Stems branched, 3-5 in. Flowers pink to purplish, outer petals 3-lobed. C. glaucescens. C Asia, from NW China to Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers pale pink to white streaked purple, keels purple to greenish, early to late spring. Selection 'Cream Beauty' is white with yellow. C. gorinensis. E Siberia. Stems 6-8 in. Leaves olive-green, divided into narrow, linear segments. Flowers bright golden yellow. Plate 333. C. gorodkovii. E Siberia, in mountains. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 3-8 in. Flowers white or yellow. C. gotlandica. Sweden. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers reddish purple to red, mid spring. C. gracilis. Siberia and E Russia. Stems to 8 in. Flowers cream to yellow, outer petals lemon yellow. Similar to C. bracteata. C. grandicalyx. NW South Korea. Stems 3-8 in. Flowers blue or purplish; sepals fringed. Flowering early spring. C. griffithii. Pakistan and Afghanistan. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 1-4 in. Flowers pale pink to white, darker at mouth, broad-lipped, in loose raceme. C. gyrophylla. China (NW Sichuan). Tuber rounded, crowned with scales. Stems to 4 in. Flowers purple, outer petal broad.

C. hallaisanensis. S South Korea and Cheju Island. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers pale reddish purple or bicolored with purple petals and white or bluish spur, early spring. C. haussknechtii. Kurdistan, SE Turkey, and N Iraq. Stems 4-9 in. Flowers white, cream, or lilac, inner petals blackish purple at tips. C. hemidicentra. China (NW Yunnan), in alpine screes. Tuber long. Leaves grayish green to reddish brown with blotches and streaks. Flowers fragrant, sky blue to bluish purple. C. henrikii. S Turkey. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 6-9 in. Leaves finely divided. Flowers pale pink or whitish, inner petals with dark or purple tips. C. hepaticifolia. SE Tibet. Stems branched 1-1 2 in. Flowers blue, up to 5 in a dense raceme. C. humilis. SE Manchuria, North Korea, and N South Korea. Stems 2-10 in. Flowers blue, sometimes purplish, inner petals whitish, early spring. C. humosa. China (Zhejiang). Rootstock tuberous. Stems 3-8 in. Flowers white. C. Integra. Aegean Islands, NW Turkey, and N Iraq, in rocky but moist places. Stems 8-12 in. Leaves very glaucous, mostly divided into 2 leaflets which are further divided. Flowers 15-20 per stem; corolla pink, inner petals tipped dark purple. Flowering mid spring. Aegean populations are far more robust than those from Turkey. A good garden plant. C. intermedia. Europe, from Scandinavia to Spain. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 2-4 in. Flowers reddish purple, early to mid spring. C. kiaotschouensis. EC China. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 10 in. Flowers purple, possibly blue. C. ksiaowutaishanensis. EC China. Tuber small. Stems 1-4 in. Flowers pale purple, spur straight or only slightly curved. C. kusnetzovii. Caucasus. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers white, cream, or pale yellow. Bracts entire. C. laxa. Sweden. Intermediate between C. solida and C. pumila. Flowering late spring. C. ledebouriana. C Asia, from NW China to Kazakhstan, south to Tajikistan and NE and C Afghanistan; introduced c. 1875. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers purple with pale pink or white spur, late spring. C. Hneariloba. S Japan. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 3-8 in. Buds greenish, opening pale blue and turning bright blue or rarely purple. Leaves held horizontally. C. linjiangensis. NE China, in mountains. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 2-8 in. Flowers blue. C. ludlowii. SE Tibet. Flowers sky blue to bluish purple, spur straight. Leaves entire. C. lydica. W Turkey (Anatolia), in mountains. Stems 2-4 in. Flowers creamy white aging to pink, outer petal with distinct rim. C. macrocentra. C Asia, Tajikistan, and NE Afghanistan. Tuber large. Stems branched, 1-4 in. Flowers greenish yellow or pinkish, early spring. C. maculata. South Korea. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers blue to purple, lower petal lobed, early spring. C. magadanica. Siberia, along E coast. Rootstock tuberous.

Corydalis Stems 4-8 in. Flowers white or greenish yellow, tinged brownish pink. Plate 334. C. malkensis. NW and C Caucasus. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 3-8 in. Flowers large, white, yellowish tinge in bud. C. maracandica. Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. Rootstock tuberous. Flowers pale yellow, tinged reddish pink, rarely pink. Similar to C. ledebouriana. Plate 335. C. nariniana. W Armenia and NE Turkey. Flowers robust, with carmine or purple spur, blackish-purple keels, white inner petals and wings of outer petals. Stigma squarish with single pair of papillae. C. nobilis. C Asia, in moist places. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 12-20 in. Flowers cream to pale yellow, tipped brown and dark purple; spurs greenish. Vigorous and sometimes invasive. C. nudicaulis. W Pamir Mountains of Tajikistan. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers white to cream, deep brown band around mouth, purplish tips. C. ohii. South Korea. Similar to C. lineariloba but with larger leaves and flowers. C. oppositifolia. E Turkey. Rootstock tuberous. Leaves broadly lanceolate to obovate. Flowers large, pink to red with age, outer petal with distinct rim. Stigma with 1-2 pairs of papillae. Subsp. kurdica from Kurdistan, E Turkey, W Iran, and NE Iraq has irregularly cut leaflets. C. ornata. SE Russia. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers white, blue or grayish pink, mouth edged with blue line. C. orthoceras. Japan (Honshu, Oki Islands). Stems 2-8 in. Flowers honey-scented, white, bluish and pink towards tips. C. paczoskii. Ukraine and Crimea. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 3-8 in. Flowers satiny purple, tips darker, early spring. Plate 336. C. papilligera. Japan (W Honshu). Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-9 in. Flowers blue or pinkish blue, inner petals paler. Lower petal swollen at base. C. paschei. Turkey (Anatolia). Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers pink, outer petal winged, early spring. C. pauciflora. Altai Mountains of W Mongolia, S Siberia, United States (Alaska), and NW Canada, in moist meadows. Stems 2-6 in. Flowers purple, pinkish or bluish, spring. C. podlechii. E Afghanistan. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 1-4 in. Flowers white, inner petals narrow, outer broad-lipped; curved flowers in loose raceme. C. popovii. C Asia, in W Pamir Alai, W Tajikistan, SE Turkmenistan, and SE Uzbekistan. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers large, white or pale pink to purplish pink, with maroon petal tips, early to late spring. C. pseudoalpestris. Kazakhstan and NW China. Stems 2-4 in. Flowers white shaded blue, or bluish purple; upper petal longspurred, lower petals white with small spurlike protrusion. C. pumila. Europe, from Scandinavia to Italy and N Greece. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 1-6 in. Leaves entire. Flowers white to pale reddish purple, with darker tips, early spring. C. repens. SE Siberia, Manchuria, North Korea, and N South Korea. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 3-10 in. Flowers white, pale bluish or purple, outer petals winged, mid to late spring. Plate 337.

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C. ruksansii. N Tajikistan. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers whitish or pinkish with purple midvein and inner petals with dark purple tips. Plate 338. C. rutifolia. Cyprus. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 1-8 in. Flowers whitish to pale pink with darker keels, turning reddish purple, late spring. C. sajanensis. S Siberia and C Mongolia. Stems 3-6 in. Flowers usually blue, sometimes bluish violet. Bracts veined purple. C. schanginii. C Asia, S Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, NW China, and W Mongolia; introduced 1832. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 6-16 in. Flowers pale rose, dark veined, late spring to summer. Subsp. ainae from Kazakhstan has white or pink flowers, light yellow at mouth, inner petals with dark tips. C. scouleri. NW North America, in seasonally wet, shady areas in rocky soil. Rootstock a stout, spreading rhizome. Stems to 40 in., branching. Flowers pale pink with darker spurs, early summer. C. seisumsiana. S Armenia. Stems 2-6 in. Flowers pinkish purple to creamy white, blackish purple blotch at tips. C. sewerzowii. SE Kazakhstan, NW Tajikistan, and E Uzbekistan; introduced 1880. Tuber depressed globose. Stems 2-6 in. Flowers golden yellow in dense racemes, late spring to summer. Plate 339. C. solida. Sweden and S Finland to the Urals, C Europe to N Italy, N Spain, and N Greece, perhaps introduced in part of this range. An extremely variable species. Tuber oblong-globose. Leaves 2-3 on long petioles, divided into 2 and leaflets are deeply but evenly divided. Stems to 10 in. Flowers purple, nodding, to 20 per stem, lower petals with a prominent pouch at base. Corolla quite variable in color but usually pale lavenderpink. Outer petals have broad wings; inner petals pale, marked on inner surface with dark reddish purple at the apex. Spur straight. Subsp. incisa has bracts with lobes that are again divided or toothed. Subsp. longicarpahas reddish-purple flowers with lower petals much longer than upper. Subsp. subremota has blue to bluish-purple flowers with straight, slender spur. The numerous cultivars include 'Beth Evans', soft pink with a white flush on the spur, named after the wife of Alf Evans, with whom I studied at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, in the 1950s; 'G. P. Baker', a grand plant with brilliant orange-red flowers, unfortunately often represented in the trade by inferior seedlings of muddy, pale hues; 'Nettleton Pink', a vigorous clone with rich pink flowers; 'Zwanenburg', with bright, luminous scarlet flowers, perhaps the reddest of all but still scarce. All are spring flowering and are dormant by early summer. They are easily grown in well-drained soil; hardiness varies depending on the origin of the stock, but many do well where temperatures dip to -10°F. Plate 340. C. tarkiensis. E Caucasus and S Russia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 3-8 in. Flowers purple, inner petal tips darker. C. tauricola. SE Turkey. Rootstock tuberous. Stems suberect, 4-10 in. Flowers white to pale purple, inner petals tips darker. C. ternata. Korea and SE Manchuria. Tubers small, rounded to oblong. Flowers pinkish purple in loose racemes of 7-12. C. tianzhuensis. China (Gansu, Qinghai, N Sichuan). Root-

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Corynophallus

stock tuberous. Stems 1-4 in. Flowers pale blue to purple, rarely yellow. Spur straight. Stigma with small papillae. Subsp. bullata from Bhutan to SE Tibet and China (NW Yunnan) has tiny skyblue flowers, inconspicuous among green leaves, and stigma without papillae. C. trifoliata. W China and Himalayas; introduced after 1954. Tubers small. Stems 6-9 in. Flowers violet-blue, early summer. C. triternata. Lebanon, Syria, and Israel. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers white to pale pink, keels greenish lilac, inner petals with dark brownish-purple tips. C. turtschaninovii. SE Siberia and Manchuria. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers azure blue or purplish blue. Cultivar 'Eric the Red' has bright blue flowers, foliage flushed red. Subsp. vernyi from Korea and Japan has fewer flowers, longer spur. Plate 341. C. uniflora. Crete. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 1-2 in. Flowers pale bluish to white with darker veins, rarely reddish purple, mid spring to early summer. C. ussuriensis. SE Siberia. Stems 8-16 in. Flowers fragrant, bluish with white center, spring. C. vertidllaris. Iran and Iraq; introduced 1932. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 6 in. Flowers pale pink to white, keels tipped maroon, early spring. Subsp. boissieri from Azerbaijan and N Iran has very glaucous leaves and shorter stems. Subsp. parviflora from S Zagros Mountains of Iran has smaller flowers in racemes of 7-11. C. vittae. W Caucasus and Georgia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers white or tinged purple. C. wendelboi. SW Turkey. Rootstock tuberous. Stems usually 4-8 in. Flowers white to pink, maroon, red, and purple, occasionally bicolored, early summer. Subsp. congesta from N Turkey has flowers in dense raceme, bluish purple or red; cultivars are 'Abant Wine' and 'Hotlips'. C. yanhusuo. E China. Stems 5-12 in. Flowers purple, curved upward. Medicinally used for pain and blood circulation. C. zetterlundii. Macedonia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 3-8 in. Flowers white, usually variegated with purple, with spicy fragrance. SYNONYMS

C. altaica see C. pauciflora. C. bataliana see C. djingensis. C. bulbosa see C. cava, C. solida. C. bulbosa var. remota f. ternata see C. ternata. C. cabulica see C. ledebouriana. C. chosenensis see C. buschii. C. cristata var. pseudoflaccida see C. djingensis. C. decipiens see C. pumila. C. halleri see C. solida. C. longifolia see C. schanginii. C. nakaii see C. ternata. C. nevskii see C. aitchisonii subsp. aitchisonii. C. pauciflora var. alaschanica see C. alaschanica. C. pauciflora var. alpestris see C. alpestris. C. remota see C. turtschaninovii. C. remota var. ternata see C. ternata. C. rutifolia subsp. erdelii see C. erdelii.

C. rutifolia subsp. kurdica see C. oppositifolia subsp. kurdica. C. sewerzowii var. simplicifolia see C. aitchisonii subsp. aitchisonii. C. teberdensis see C. kusnetzovii. C. transsylvanica see C. solida. C. tubero-pisiformis see C. djingensis. C. vernyi see C. turtschaninovii subsp. vernyi.

Corynophallus C. afzelii see Amorphophallus leonensis.

Corytholoma see Sinningia xCrinodonna see xAmarcrinum Crinum—Amaryllidaceae CHICKEN-GIZZARD LILY, MILK LILY, ORINOCO LILY, WINE LILY Name derived from Greek krinon ("lily"). Only a few of the 100 or more species of Crinum known are presently in cultivation. The genus occurs in nature throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the world, in SE United States, South America, India, Southeast Asia, and tropical and southern Africa. They usually grow in wet or seasonally inundated places, alongside streams and ponds. The species from South Africa are commonly grown in mild climates. All species have very large bulbs—often the size of a large grapefruit; these are rounded and have long necks, so that the entire bulb may exceed 12 in. long. There are both evergreen and deciduous species. The leaves are usually distichous and are broad and numerous, often 20 or more. The flowers also are large, borne in umbels on stout stems ranging from 24 to 48 in. tall. There are many flowers in the umbel but seldom more than 5-7 open at one time, since they open over a long period. Individual flowers may exceed 8 in. in diameter. The pedicels are either absent or short, often curved so that the flowers face somewhat down. The base of the flower is a long, narrow tube, and the tepals flare more or less widely toward the mouth. The tepals are thick, and the outer ones usually have a red to crimson midrib. Most crinums flower in late summer, but species from the tropics may be in flower for much of the year. Few crinums are very hardy, and in areas where frosts are common, they are greenhouse subjects or limited to use as container plants, brought indoors during winter. Good plants for the milder climates, they look well planted where the flowers can be seen against a background ofAgapanthus or other summer-flowering bulbs. In the herbaceous border, they should be considered only as highlights; their flowers are neither longlasting nor large in proportion to the mass of foliage. They are good in large containers, where they can be left undisturbed for a number of years.

Crinum CULTURE

Plants are normally supplied in containers. Crinums need plenty of moisture (though some tolerate periods of drought once established) and soil with a generous amount of humus, in full sun. Plant in early summer, making sure the rounded part of the bulb is buried but that the neck is aboveground. In areas where winter frosts are likely but not severe, provide overhead protection (for instance, with burlap bags) during cold spells. Feed with liquid organic fertilizer during summer until plants send up their flowering stems; then stop feeding. After they have flowered, they need less water, especially in areas where winter protection is required. PESTS AND DISEASES

Watch for basal stem rot on established plants and control with fungicides. PROPAGATION

Separate offsets from parent bulbs in May and replant parent bulbs and offsets as soon as possible. The roots of all species are fleshy and should not be broken or dried out. For this reason, offsets are best removed while quite small. Crinums produce large seeds which often germinate while still in the capsule. Sow seed while still green in a soil mix rich in organic matter, spacing seeds 3 in. apart and 1 in. deep. Keep moist and growing throughout winter, with temperatures between 50° and 55° at night. Seedlings grown this way reach flowering size in 3 seasons. SPECIES C. abyssinicutn. Ethiopia; introduced 1892. Bulb ovoid, 3 in. in diameter. Stems 12-20 in. Flowers white, summer. C. acaule. South Africa (NE KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 12-18 in. Flowers white with red keels, summer (November to January in the wild). C. album. Yemen; introduced 1892. Very similar to C. latifolium. Flowers pure white, spring-early summer. C. amabile. GIANT SPIDER LILY. Sumatra; introduced 1810. Bulb small. Stems 24-36 in. Flower tube bright red; tepal lobes white with crimson central stripe, flushed purplish red on reverse, summer. Plate 342. C. americanum. FLORIDA SWAMP LILY, SWAMP LILY. United States (Florida to Texas) and Jamaica, in marshes and swamps; introduced 1752. Bulb globose 3-4 in. in diameter. Stems 18-36 in. Flowers white tinged green or purple-crimson, crimson on reverse, produced sporadically from spring to fall. Plate 343. C. amoenum. India; introduced 1807. Stems 12-24 in. Tube greenish, tepal lobes white, summer. C. arenarium. N Western Australia; introduced 1824. Stems to 12 in. Flowers have greenish tube marked with red; tepal lobes white, green-tipped, summer (November to January in the wild). C. asiaticum. POISON BULB. China and Myanmar; introduced 1732. Stems 18-24 in. Leaves unlike other species, arranged in a rosette of 20 or more, to 48 in. long and 4 in. wide. Flowers fragrant, produced in summer, white flushed pink near margins in central part of tepals, or with outer segments green-

175

ish; filaments pink. Tepals recurved, 3-4 in. long but only 2 in. wide. Many flowers in umbel on pedicels to 3 in. long. Var. declinatum has buds curving downward, tips of tepals red. Var. procerum from Myanmar (Rangoon) has tepals shaded red at base, larger leaves than type. Var. sinicum from China has stems to 40 in., longer flowers, leaves with wavy edges. Established plants produce many flowers, giving a long flowering period. One of the finest crinums, but requires warm conditions and cannot be grown outdoors where winter temperatures fall below 40°F. C. augustum, Mauritius and Seychelles; introduced 1818. Stems to 18 in. Flowers flushed red, striped inside, fragrant, summer. C. balfouri. Yemen, on Socotra Island; introduced 1880. Stems to 18 in. Flowers white, with greenish tube, fall. C. blandum. Australia (Northern Territories). Similar to C. arenarium, but reverse of tepals red. Flowering any time, mainly spring to summer (August to November in the wild). C. brachynema. India; introduced 1840. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, tube green, summer. C. bracteatum. Seychelles, Mauritius, and India; introduced 1810. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, tube tinged green, mid summer. C. braunii. Madagascar; introduced 1894. Flowers white, flushed pink on margins, tube greenish. C. bulbispermum. CAPE LILY, ORANGE RIVER LILY, VAAL RIVER LILY. South Africa; introduced 1752. Stems to 36 in. Leaves deciduous, to 24 in. long, sharply arching so that inflorescence is well above them. Flowers in umbels of up to 20, from white to pale pink, with rose central stripe. Tepals 3-4 in. long, pedicels of equal length. Flowering late spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). Plant does not need much moisture during dormancy. Plate 344. C. buphanoides. Namibia and Botswana to South Africa (Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Northern Province). Stems to 12 in. Flowers white to pink with red keels, spring to mid summer (October to January in the wild). C. campanulatum. WATER LILY. South Africa, in seasonally inundated places. Stems to 36 in. Leaves to 48 in. long, about 1 in. wide. Flowers bright red to purple, smaller than other species at 2-3 in. long, late spring to late summer (November to March in the wild). Requires warm, very wet conditions in growing season; can be grown in shallow water during summer and taken out during winter. Plate 345. C. careyanum. Seychelles and Mauritius; introduced 1821. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, flushed red, early to late summer (November to March in the wild). C. caribaeum. West Indies. Flowers white. C. crassipes. Tropical and subtropical Africa; introduced 1887. Stems to 9 in. Flowers white with pink keel. Flowering mid summer, but sporadically at other times. C. cruentum. Mexico; introduced 1810. Stems to 24 in. Flowers peach flushed purple, lobes greenish, reverse striped green, late summer. C. defixum. E India; introduced 1810. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers white, tube greenish or flushed red, fall.

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Crinum

C. delagoense. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga), S Mozambique, Namibia, and Botswana. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white with reddish or purplish keel, late spring to summer (November to February in the wild). C. distichum. Sierra Leone. Flowers white with bright red keel. C. douglasii. Australia, on Thursday Island. Stems to 30 in. Flowers reddish purple, summer (November to January in the wild). C. erubescens. Tropical America; introduced 1780. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers white inside, flushed claret-purple on reverse, summer and sporadically at other times. C. erythrophyllum. Myanmar. Stems to 10 in. Flowers white, summer. C.flacidum. DARLING LILY. S Australia (New South Wales); introduced 1819. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers white, summer after rain (August to March in the wild). C. foetidum. Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa (Gauteng, Northern Province). Stems to 10 in. Flowers white, early summer (November in the wild). Plate 346. C. forbesianum. Mozambique, around Delagoa Bay; introduced 1824. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, flushed reddish on reverse. C. forgetii. Peru. Stems to 12 in. Flower tube green, tepals white, late summer. C. giganteum. W tropical Africa; introduced 1792. Stems 2436 in. Flowers white, summer and sporadically at other times. C. graminicola. Namibia and South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 12 in. Flowers clear pink to deep rose or white with rose pink stripes, early to late summer (November to February in the wild). C. xgrandiflorum. Garden hybrid (C. bulbispermum x C. careyanum). C. xherbertii. Garden hybrid (C. zeylanicum 'Album' x C. bulbispermum). C. hildebrandtii. Comoro Islands; introduced 1886. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white. C. intermedium. Australia, on Wai Weir Island. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers white, tipped yellow, spring to summer. C. japonicum. Japan. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers white, summer to fall. C. kirkii. Zanzibar and E Africa; introduced 1879. Stems 1218 in. Flowers white with red keels, late summer. C. kunthianum. Colombia and Central America; introduced 1890. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, late summer. C. leucophyllum. SW Africa; introduced 1880. Stems to 12 in. Flowers pinkish, late summer. C. lineare. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers flushed red on reverse, late summer (January to March in the wild). C. longiflorum. CRINUM LILY. India. Stems to 18 in. Flowers white, summer. C. lugardiae. Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga, Northern Cape, Western Cape); introduced 1932. Stems 2-12 in. Flowers white, pinkish on reverse, spring to mid summer (October to January in the

wild). Similar to C. macowaniibut has much narrower leaves. Plate 347. C. macowanii. CAPE COAST LILY, PYJAMA LILY, ABIE CRINUM. Zimbabwe and S Africa, as far south as Eastern Cape; introduced 1874. Stems to 48 in. Leaves deciduous, to 36 in. long and 3-4 in. wide. Flowers large, trumpet-shaped, white to pale pink with crimson central stripe; anthers black, a distinctive trait. Flowering summer (October to January in the wild). Fruit round and knobby, containing large, irregular seeds. Though not widely grown, deserves greater recognition in warm gardens. Plates 348,349. C. mauritianum. Mauritius; introduced 1817. Stems 36-48 in. Tepals white, tipped pink. C. mearsii. N Myanmar; introduced 1907. Stems to 5 in. Flowers white, summer. C. minimum. Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga). Stems to 8 in. Flowers white with rose midveins, spring (August to November in the wild). C. moorei. CAPE COAST LILY, INANDA RIVER LILY. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1874. Stems to 48 in. Leaves to 36 in. long, 4 in. wide. Flowers white or pale pink, spring to summer. Unlike many other species, native to forests and needs some shade in hot areas. Requires much moisture in summer but drier winter conditions. A favorite plant for the cool greenhouse. Plate 350. C. nubicum. Tropical Asia, introduced 1826. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, tube greenish. C. paludosum. Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa (Northwestern Province, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 24 in. Flowers white to deep pink, summer (November to January in the wild). C. parvum. Tropical Africa; introduced 1896. Stems 6-9 in. Flowers white, striped red, summer. The plant grown in gardens under the name C. parvum is actually Ammocharis heterostyla. C. pedunculatum. E Australia; introduced 1790. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers white, spring. C. podophyllum. Nigeria; introduced 1879. Stems 8-9 in. Flowers white. C. xpowellii. Garden hybrid (C. bulbispermumx C. moorei). Stems 24-30 in. Leaves to 48 in. long, 4 in. wide, narrowing toward tip. Flowers pure white to midpink, to 4 in. in diameter, fragrant, to 15 per stem, late summer. Hardier than either parent, tolerates a little frost and cold but should be planted against a south wall in marginal climates. One of the best for garden use and should be the first Crinum to try in the garden. Cultivars include 'Album', pure white, cultivated since 1893; 'Harlemense', pale shell-pink; 'Krelagei', deep pink, large flowers. Plates 351,352. C. xprainianum. Garden hybrid (C. moorei x C. yemense). C. pratense. India; introduced 1872. Stems to 12 in. Tepals white, tube greenish, mid summer. C. purpurascens. E Guinea; introduced 1826. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, flushed reddish purple, summer. C. pusillum. India, on Nicobar Islands. Stems to 12 in. Flowers whitish, summer.

Crocosmia C. rattrayi. SW Kenya; introduced 1904. Stems 36-48 in. Flowers white, late summer. C. samuelii. C Africa; introduced 1901. Stems to 24 in. or taller. Flowers white, summer. C. sanderianum. Tropical Africa, especially Sierra Leone; introduced 1884. Stems to 20 in. Flowers white with crimson central band, summer. C. schimperi. Ethiopia, in mountains; introduced 1894. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white, tube reddish green, mid summer. C. strictum. South America; introduced c. 1872. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white with pale green tube. C. suaveolens. Ivory Coast; introduced 1912. Stems 24-30 in. Flowers white, tube greenish. Summer. C. submersum. LAKE CRINUM. Brazil. Yellow-green tube, lobes white with pink stripes and red tips. C. sumatranum. Sumatra. Flowers white, tube greenish. C. undulatum. N Brazil and Peru; introduced c. 1875. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, tube greenish, summer. C. variabile. South Africa (Northern Cape, N Western Cape). Stems 12-18 in. Flowers white, flushed red, tube green, summer (January in the wild). C. wimbushii. C Africa, in Lake Malawi region; introduced 1898. Stems to 18 in. Flowers white, tinged pink, summer. C. woodrowii. C India; introduced 1897. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white, summer. C. xworsleyi. Garden hybrid (C. mooreix C. scabrum). C. yuccaeflorum. Sierra Leone; introduced 1785. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white with red keels, tube greenish, summer. Plate 353. C. zeylanicum. BENGAL LILY, MILK-AND-WINE LILY. India, tropical Asia, and Africa; introduced 1771. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers white with red keel, tube reddish or greenish, early spring to summer. Plate 354. SYNONYMS C. amabile var. augustum see C. augustum. C. amoenum var. mearsii see C. mearsii. C. angustifolium see C. arenarium. C. aquaticum see C. campanulatum. C. asiaticum var. bracteatum see C. bracteatum. C. asiaticum var. japonicum see C. japonicum. C. bainesii see Ammocharis tinneana. C. brevifolium see C. bracteatum. C. caffrum see C. campanulatum. C. capense see C. bulbispermum. C. colensoi see C. moorei. C. crassifolium see C. variabile. C. crispum see C. lugardiae. C. declinatum see C. asiaticum var. declinatum. C. falcatum see Cybistetes longifolia. C. heterostylum see Ammocharis heterostyla. C. humile see C. nubicum. C. jemense see C. album. C. johnstonii see C. macowanii. C. lastii see Ammocharis tinneana. C. latifolium see C. zeylanicum.

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C. loddigesii see C. cruentum. C. longifolium see C. bulbispermum. C. mackenii see C. moorei. C. makoyanum see C. moorei. C. natalense see C. moorei. C. ornatum see C. zeylanicum. C. parvum see Ammocharis heterostyla. C. pedicellatum see C. macowanii. C. plicatum see C. asiaticum. C. polyphyllum see C. lugardiae. C. procerum see C. asiaticum var. procerum. C. rhodanthum see Ammocharis tinneana. C. roozenianum see C. americanum. C. scabrum see C. zeylanicum. C. schmidtii see C. moorei. C. sinicum see C. asiaticum var. sinicum. C. tenellum see Carpolyza spiralis. C. tinneanum see Ammocharis tinneana. C. thruppii see Ammocharis tinneana. C. toxicarium see C. asiaticum. C. yemense see C. album.

Crocopsis see Stenomesson C. humile see Stenomesson humile.

Crocosmia—Iridaceae MONTBRETIA

Name derived from Greek krokos or Latin crocus ("saffron") and osme ("smell"), referring to the dried flowers, which, when immersed in warm water, smell strongly of saffron. This genus is well known because it includes the parents of the garden montbretias. Many species formerly included in this genus are now placed in the closely related genus Tritonia. In Crocosmia new corms form on stolons, while in Tritonia they are sessile. Crocosmia species have 6 perianth segments which flare widely. The perianth tube is long in proportion to the entire flower. The 6 stamens are often longer than the perianth segments. The leaves are sword-shaped, arranged in a flat fan, and have a matte surface. The flower stem rises from the rootstock among the leaves and has several shorter leaves on its lower part. The flowers are various warm colors: yellow, gold, orange, and red. Crocosmias are very easy to grow in warm temperate regions and are especially happy near the seacoast. The hardiest forms can survive without protection to about 15°F; established plants may recover from brief periods of greater cold. The modern montbretia cultivars resulted from the first cross between C. aurea and C. pottsii, made in France at the Lemoine nursery in 1880 and subsequently named C. xcrocosmiiflora. Many subsequent crosses between these species have been made, and their ease of cultivation has made them very familiar. Indeed, their invasive tendencies in certain regions have caused them to fall into disrepute among some gardeners. The common scarlet-

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Crocus

flowered montbretia has become a familiar roadside plant in many coastal regions of the world, including New Zealand and the Pacific coast of the United States. All forms make a great narrow border, for example, beside a driveway or path. They look best planted in bold groups. Once established, they demand little care and crowd out other plants. They are good in containers, especially for late summer flowering, and they provide good cut flowers. Where well adapted, they are useful for public and commercial landscape planting (Plate 67). CULTURE

Light, sandy soil with plenty of organic matter and good drainage suits these plants. They thrive in sun or light shade and should be planted where they have room to form large clumps. They should be lifted every 3-4 years to remove dead material from the center and stimulate flower production. Supplied as dormant corms in late winter, or as container plants in spring or fall. Plant corms 3-4 in. deep, 8-12 in. apart. Protect in winter with straw or other loose mulch in areas where winter temperatures fall below 20°F for very long. Supply ample moisture in spring and early summer, but plants tolerate drying in late summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift dormant plants before growth starts in spring, remove the numerous offsets, and replant, adding organic amendments if they are placed back in the same spot. True species can be raised from seed, grown frost-free; seedlings of hybrids are not identical to the parents, but good seed strains are offered. Seedlings reach flowering size in the 3rd year. SPECIES C. aurea. FALLING STARS. Tropical Africa, Swaziland, and South Africa (Eastern Cape), in forest shade; introduced 1846. Corms globose with offsets from clefts in the side, covered with a dry tunic. Leaves to 12 in. long, light green. Stems branching, usually with 4-6 leaves near base, 24-36 in. tall. Flowers orange, aging to reddish, nodding, 8 or more per branch, 2 in. in diameter, opening gradually over a long period from late summer into fall. Though hybrids are superior in many ways, C. aurea is still pleasant to grow and is best where it can spread to form a mass. C. xcrocosmiiflora. Garden hybrid (C. aureax C. pottsii); introduced 1880. Stem to 36 in. but usually less. Leaves swordshaped, coarse but not unattractive. Flowers in a zigzag, upright panicle; perianth funnel-shaped; slender tube about 1 in. long. Flowers mostly orange-scarlet, other colors in cultivars. Long flowering period, late summer into fall. Cultivars include 'Citronella', pleasant light lemon yellow, not very free-flowering; 'His Majesty', deep orange-scarlet, crimson on reverse, large flowers; 'Lucifer', stems to 48 in., true red flowers, the hardiest cultivar; 'Star of the East', pale orange-yellow flowers which show up well in shade. Plate 355.

C. masoniorum. South Africa (Eastern Cape), in mountains. Stem to 24 in. long, arching to nearly horizontal. Leaves pleated, held in a fan, 18-24 in. long. Flowers brilliant orange-red. Needs ample moisture from spring until flowering. An excellent seaside plant, not as hardy as other species flowers earlier, in mid to late summer. Plate 356. C. mathewsiana. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 60 in. Flowers reddish orange, late summer. C. paniculata. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems branched, strongly zigzagging. Flowers orange-red, mid to late summer. Perianth tube twice length of lobes. Often grown under synonym Curtonuspaniculatus. Plate 357. C. pottsii. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); introduced c. 1880. Stems branching, often over 48 in. Leaves linear, in 2 ranks, 18-24 in. long, 1 in. wide. Flowers held along one side of branch, orange-red with yellow throat, producing a flamecolored effect; mid summer. Crocosmia hybrids. 'Aurore', 1890, stems 36 in., flowers orange, fall; 'Carmin Brilliant', c. 1895, stems 24 in., flowers orange-red, summer; 'Emily McKenzie', 1954, stems 24 in., flowers orange, fall; 'Jackanapes', stems 24 in., flowers red and yellow, summer; 'James Coey', 1921, stems 24 in., flowers red, summer; 'Lady Hamilton', 1911, stems 36 in., flowers orangeyellow, fall; 'Queen of Spain', 1916, stems 36 in., flowers orange-red, summer; 'Solfatare', stems 24 in., leaves bronze, flowers clear yellow, summer; 'Vesuvius', 1907, stems 24 in., flowers red, fall.

Crocus—Iridaceae Name used by Greek and Latin authors for these plants, especially the cultivated saffron, C. sativus. The many species of this familiar genus are distributed over much of Europe, especially around the Mediterranean, in North Africa, and in Asia as far east as Afghanistan. Although they are a symbol of early spring, many species in fact flower in autumn. There are more than 80 Crocus species, and many more varieties and cultivars. More than 40 species regularly appear in bulb catalogs. Crocus corms are eaten both raw and cooked in Turkey. Saffron, the deep red style branches of C. sativus, has long been treasured as a spice, a brilliant dye, and a medicine. It is claimed to be the karkom of the Hebrews, mentioned in Song of Solomon 4:14. The word saffron comes from Arabic za'faran. The saffron crocus was formerly cultivated around Saffron Walden in Essex, England. Today, most of the supply is produced in Spain. It is expensive, for more than 4000 flowers must be gathered to obtain one ounce of saffron. The price has at times been so high that the value of the crop surpassed the value of the ground on which it was grown. This genus has enjoyed the attention of 2 superb writers. E. A. Bowles's A Handbook of Crocus and Colchicum, as complete a horticultural treatment as could be desired, was first published in 1924 and revised in 1952. Brian Mathew's The Crocus (1983), a model of the intelligent and accessible botanical monograph, sets up the current classification of the genus, although several new species have been described since its publication.

Crocus

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The form of the style varies greatly from species to species: dissected into 3 lobes, as in C. sieberi; into 6, as in C. olivieri; or very finely dissected, with numerous lobes and a feathery appearance. The character of the corm is another important identifying feature. Some have annulate tunics, which break up into rings around the entire corm; some have fibers that run parallel from top to bottom; there are shell-like tunics with overlapping scales; tunics may be coarsely or finely reticulate, or netted; or the fibers may look like closely woven cloth. Other characteristics that aid in the identification of species are whether the leaves emerge before or after the flowers, the number of leaves, and their growth habit.

Figure 9-2. Crocus corm tunics. A: annulate (C. chrysanthus); B: parallel fibers (C.flavus); C: shell-like tunic (C. laevigatus); D: coarsely reticulate (C. cancellatus); E: woven fibers (C. fleischeri); F: finely reticulate (C. sativus). Drawing by Pat Halliday.

Figure 9-1. A typical Crocus plant.

The most obvious traits, of course, are the color and marking of the tepals and the color of the anthers. Crocus flowers come in all shades of the blue-lavender to purple range, pure white, and cream through many shades of yellow to orange. Two or three species approach true blue. White forms have been found of almost all the normally "blue" species. Many species have a lighter throat, and a few have a darker zone in the throat. The 3 outer tepals are often a different shade from the inner 3 on the reverse (the outside, when the flower is closed), and in many species they are veined, striped, or feathered with deep purple outside. The most commonly planted crocuses are "Dutch" crocuses, which are large-flowered selections derived from C. vernus, and "snow crocuses," early-flowering selections and hybrids of C. biflorus and C. chrysanthus. These are reliably winter-hardy to about -10°F, or much colder with reliable snow cover. The hardiness of the other species varies greatly, and despite the claims of mass-market bulb catalogs, some of them cannot tolerate temperatures below 20°F, as noted in the species list below.

Most crocuses tolerate some water in summer, and some absolutely require it, while a few others flourish only where they have a very dry summer rest. These are ideal plants for early spring and fall color. Though the spring crocuses are better known, the autumn- and winterflowering ones deserve more recognition and a place in the garden, where they add another dimension to the fall landscape. Planted in masses, crocuses are real eye-catchers in spring; naturalized in lawns (see below) or among other early flowers, they prolong the season of color in herbaceous and shrub borders. They look well in the rock garden and fit in with its other lowgrowing plants. Many do well planted under fine-textured groundcovers, such as thyme. All kinds grow well in containers (Plates 79, 82), which can be brought into the house, especially in moderate temperatures, though the flowers flop open and soon wither in very warm rooms. If they are removed to a colder area at night, the flowering period will be prolonged. It is possible to have crocuses in flower from mid-September to March. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION

The classification of Crocus as proposed by George Maw in 1886 has been followed by all major contributors to the literature on the genus. Mathew (1983) writes that although Maw's classification, with only a few modifications, would accommodate all

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Figure 9-3. Crocus styles. A: Much dissected (C. boryi); B: Much dissected (C. vitellivus); C: Six-lobed (C. oliveri); D: Trilobed (C. sieberi); E: Trilobed (C. chrysanthus). Drawing by Pat Halliday.

new species found since his time, it is possible to group the species in a more natural way. Mathew's "Informal Key to Crocus Species" is immensely helpful because it takes into account practical features that can be seen easily. Such keys, from the gardener's point of view, are far superior to those that require dissecting plants, and one wishes that more authorities would adopt this practical approach. The series into which Mathew divides the genus are as follows. These are included in parentheses in the section on species below. 1. Subgenus Crocus. Anthers split open on side away from the style. Type: C. sativus. A. Section Crocus. Species with a basal spathe. Type: C. sativus. Series (a) Verni. Corm tunics with reticulated fibers, spring-flowering, flowers for the most part without conspicuous outer striping, bracts absent. Type: C. vernus. Series (b) Scardici. Spring-flowering, leaves have no pale stripe on the upper surface. Type: C. scardicus. Series (c) Versicolores. Corm tunics for the most part with parallel fibers, spring-flowering, flowers with conspicuous exterior striping. Type: C. versicolor.

Series (d) Longiflori. Autumn-flowering, anthers yellow, styles much divided. Type: C. longiflorus. Series (e) Kotschyani. Autumn-flowering, anthers white, styles for the most part 3-forked. Type: C. kotschyanus. Series (f) Crocus. Autumn-flowering, anthers yellow, style distinctly 3-branched. Type: C. sativus. B. Section Nudiscapus. Species without a basal spathe. Type: C. reticulatus. Series (g) Reticulati. Corm tunics for the most part decidedly covered with reticulated fibers, winter- or spring-flowering, style 3-forked or much divided. Type: C. reticulatus. Series (h) Biflori. Corm tunics split into rings at the base, either entire or with toothlike projections, leathery in texture, spring- or late-winter-flowering, style 3-forked. Type: C. biflorus. Series (i) Orientales. Corm tunics with parallel fibers or lightly reticulated, leaves numerous, springflowering, style 3-forked. Type: C. korolkowii. Series (j) Flavi. Corm tunics membranous and split into parallel fibers, spring-flowering, styles much divided. Type: C. flavus. Series (k) Aleppici. Corm tunics membranous and split into parallel fibers, leaves produced at the same time as the flowers, autumn- or winter-flowering. Type: C. aleppicus. Series (1) Carpetani. Leaf undersurface rounded with grooves, upper surface channeled, spring-flowering, style whitish, obscurely divided. Type: C. carpetanus. Series (m) Intertexti. Corm tunics fibrous with interwoven fibers, spring-flowering. Type: C. fleischeri. Series (n) Speciosi. Corm tunics split into rings at the base, leathery or membranous, leaves produced after the flowers, autumn-flowering, style much divided. Type: C. speciosus. Series (o) Laevigati. Corm tunics membranous or split into parallel fibers, sometimes leathery, leaves produced at the same time as the flowers, autumnflowering, anthers white, style much divided. Type: C. laevigatus. 2. Subgenus Crociris. Anthers split open on side next to the style. Type: C. banaticus. CULTURE

Crocuses are tolerant of a wide range of soils but must always have good drainage. Average garden soil is suitable, but sharp sand can be incorporated to lighten a heavy soil. The soil beneath the corms should be free-draining to a depth of at least 6 in. A good way to accomplish this is to remove the soil from the planting area to a depth of 6-8 in., work very sharp sand or gravel into the bottom, and mix a little with the heavy soil to bring the depth to 3-4 in. Then place the bulbs, spacing them some 6 in. apart, and cover with 3-4 in. of soil. Be sure that you

Crocus have not made a pit in heavy clay that will act like a bucket in winter! Some species like to grow quite deeply and will find their preferred depth by "pulling" their corms annually deeper into the soil. Crocuses are supplied as dormant corms in fall. The autumn-flowering species should be shipped and planted in late summer, the spring-flowering species by mid autumn. In very warm areas, Dutch crocuses and other hardy species and hybrids should be planted in late autumn after the soil has cooled. Crocuses prefer full sun; even though many perform well in part shade, they should have at least 4 hours of sun per day. To naturalize crocuses in grass, lift a section of turf, cultivate the soil below, place the bulbs, and then lay the turf back over them (Plate 55). Stop mowing as soon as the buds emerge; wait as long as possible before mowing to avoid cutting the crocus leaves, but they can be cut partway and still grow well. This kind of planting is not recommended in warm regions where the lawn grows quickly in mid winter. The best species for this use is C. tommasinianus, because its leaves lie rather flat and escape the mower. Crocuses are sometimes grown in specially designed "crocus pots" with a hole for each corm, but they perform equally well in ordinary clay pots. They are traditionally grown in "pans" or "half pots," but they probably grow better in the common deep pot. Place 6 corms in a 6-in. pot, covering them with about 2 in. of soil. Place pots in a cold place; if outside, plunge them in sand or other loose material. The ideal temperature is around 40°F. When they have made good root growth, they can be brought indoors to flower. Dutch crocuses are sometimes grown in gravel and water for indoor display. Select the largest corms and place them either in a bowl on gravel, or resting in the neck of a crocus vase so the bottom of the corm is just above the level of the water. Place pots in a cool spot until they have made root growth. Avoid high temperatures. After flowering, they may be discarded, or planted in the garden, but they will not bloom well for 1 or 2 seasons. If crocuses are to remain for a long time in the same location, fertilize with a balanced granular product in fall and spring. Incorporating bone meal into the ground at planting time is beneficial. Those grown permanently in containers should be given monthly low-nitrogen liquid feedings during their growth period. PESTS AND DISEASES

Stored corms are subject to various bacterial and fungal rots and should be checked before planting. The tunics can be stripped without harm to examine the corms. Hard rot (Septoria) causes sunken patches on the corms; dry rot (Sclerotinia) causes black patches with no shrinking; and gray bulb rot causes the corm to be covered with gray mold. Corms so attacked should be disposed of where they will not contaminate the garden. If in doubt, be on the safe side and discard them. Flowers and, less often, foliage may be attacked by gray mold (Botrytis cinerea), usually because of lack of air circulation among overcrowded plants. Control this with a recommended product.

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Mice, voles, gophers, and squirrels love crocus corms. Disappearance of these plants in the garden is usually caused by these pests. Birds may pull up the emerging flowers. PROPAGATION

The cormels produced by parent corms offer the quickest way to obtain flowering-sized stock. Lift corms after the foliage dies down, separate the small corms, and plant them back in nursery rows, 2 in. deep and 2-3 in. apart. Corms produce more offsets if they are lifted frequently. Certain species do not reproduce well vegetatively, and as a result they are rare and expensive. All the commercial cultivars, however, are prolific with their offsets. Sow seed in fall in a sandy soil mix, barely cover it, and keep it moist but not wet, in cool conditions. After germination, protect seedlings from frost. Leave them in the container for 2 growing seasons, then transplant them when dormant in late summer to larger containers to grow on, or plant them out that fall into their correct locations. Most species take 3-4 years to flower from seed. SPECIES C. abantensis (Reticulati). NW Turkey; introduced 1973. Flowers small, nearly true blue, mid spring. C. adanensis (Biflori). S Turkey; introduced 1975. Flowers pale lilac blue with white or creamy base, early spring. C. aerius (Biflori). N Turkey; introduced 1847. Flowers to 4 in., usually deep blue-violet, strongly veined darker, throat yellow; mid spring. C. alatavicus (Orientales). C Asia and W China, in alpine meadows and clearings; introduced 1877. Corm tunic dark brown, fine-fibrous. Leaves present at flowering. Flowers white, to 3 in., with blackish purple speckles or stripes on exterior of outer segments; throat bronze-yellow. Variety names applied to color forms in earlier literature reflect the normal range of variation of the type and are not recognized by Mathew (1983). Flowering mid to late winter. C. aleppicus (Aleppici). Syria, Lebanon, NE Israel, and Jordan; introduced 1873. Flowers white, usually with purple stripes, veining, or suffusion on exterior, mid to late winter. Not frost-hardy. C. almehensis (Biflori). NE Iran; introduced 1973. Flowers orange-yellow, often marked with bronze on exterior, mid spring. C. ancyrensis (Reticulati). C and N Turkey; introduced 1879. Corm pear-shaped, tunic coarsely netted. Leaves present at flowering. Flowers to 2 in., golden yellow to orange, late winter. Selection 'Golden Bunch' is very floriferous. C. angustifolius (Reticulati). CLOTH OF GOLD CROCUS. Crimea, S Ukraine, and Armenia; long in cultivation. Corm tunic coarsely reticulated. Leaves present at flowering. Flowers to 3 in., segments deep golden yellow flushed or striped mahogany on outer segments, reflexing when fully open; style 3-branched, yellow to scarlet; anthers yellow, twice as long as filaments. Flowering late winter. 'Minor' is smaller and has 3 distinct brown-purple stripes on outer segments. C. antalyensis (Flavi). S Turkey (near Antalya); introduced

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1969. Flowers large, deep lilac with yellow throat, exterior biscuit-colored with purple veining, early spring. C. asumaniae (Crocus). S Turkey; introduced 1979. Flowers white, occasionally with dark veins, mid to late fall. C. autranii (Kotschyani). Russia and Caucasus; introduced 1893. Flowers mid to deep violet with faint veining, base of segments white, throat white, mid autumn. C. banaticus(Crociris). N and W Russia and Balkans; introduced 1831. Flowers to 4 in., early to mid autumn. Inner and outer perianth segments very different in length, lilac blue to mid violet; style many-branched, lilac. The most unusual flower in the genus, easily grown. 'Albus' is a beautiful white form. C. baytopiorum (Verni). SWTurkey; introduced 1974. Flowers large, pale to mid sky blue with delicate veining, early spring. C. biflorus (Biflori). SCOTCH CROCUS. Italy, Sicily, Greek island of Rhodes, and NW Turkey, and naturalized widely in Europe; long in cultivation. Corm tunic annulate. Flowers white or lilac blue, with 3 purple or brownish-purple bands on outer segments, sometimes fine purple feathering, or unmarked with silvery or pale buff exterior, fragrant, early spring. 'Scotch Crocus' is a sterile clone long in cultivation. The species is important as a parent of hybrids (see under C. chrysanthus). Mathew (1983) recognizes 14 subspecies, including many that previously had species rank. Only a few of these are widely grown. Subsp. adamiifrom S Balkan Peninsula, Bulgaria, NW Turkey, Crimea, Caucasus, and N Iran, introduced 1831, has lilac or white flowers, strongly striped deep purple on exterior. Subsp. alexandri from Macedonia and SW Bulgaria has white flowers with broad, deep purple central zone on outer segments, a white throat, and wide leaves that are not well-developed at flowering. Subsp. crewei from W Turkey, introduced 1875, has gray-green leaves and blackish-maroon anthers. Subsp. isauricus from S Turkey, introduced 1924, has lilac or white flowers, striped or speckled on exterior with purple or gray-purple. Subsp. melantherus from S Greece has white flowers striped or speckled purple or gray on exterior, blackish anthers; flowering time is fall. Subsp. nubigena from W and SW Turkey and Aegean Islands, introduced 1843, has bluish-lilac flowers with 3 feathered purple stripes on exterior, tube with purple lines on outside, deep yellow blotches at base of segments, and blackish-maroon anthers. Subsp. pseudonubigena from SE Turkey has flowers scented of cloves, white to lilac with 3 dark stripes on exterior, sometimes merging to form one broad stripe. Subsp. pulchricolor from NW Turkey, introduced 1845, has rich blue-violet flowers, often darker at base, unstriped on exterior, large deep yellow zone in throat. Subsp. punctatus from S Turkey has small lilac blue flowers, flecked all over exterior with violet. Subsp. stridii from NE Greece, introduced 1980. Subsp. tauri from Turkey (Asia Minor), introduced 1881, has pale to midlilac flowers, without dark stripes but sometimes finely veined or feathered; throat is pale yellow. Subsp. weldenii from NE Italy, Balkans, and N Albania has white flowers without stripes and a white throat; 'Fairy' has many white flowers flushed gray-blue on outer segments. Plates 358-360. C. boryi (Laevigati). W and S Greece and Crete; introduced 1831. Flowers to 4 in., creamy white, sometimes veined purple;

throat yellow; anthers white; style orange-yellow, much dissected. Flowering mid autumn. Plate 361. C. boulosii (Aleppici). Libya; introduced 1968. Flowers white with grayish-blue stain at base on exterior; throat yellow or white. Flowering late winter. C. cambessedesii (Versicolores). Balearic Islands; introduced 1831. Flowers small, white to deep lilac, exterior striped purple, throat white, anthers yellow, mid to late fall. C. cancellatus (Reticulati). S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, and N Israel; introduced before 1841. Corm tunic coarsely reticulated. Leaves gray-green, appear after flowers. Flowers to 2 in., pale to midlilac blue; throat pale yellow; outer segments feathered with violet at base; style many-branched, orange; anthers yellow. Flowering early to late fall. Subsp. damascenusfrom Turkey to Iran and Israel has a coarsely fibrous corm tunic. Subsp. lycius from SW Turkey has white or very pale lilac flowers; style equal to or shorter than anthers. Subsp. mazziaricus from the Balkan Peninsula, Greece, and SW Turkey has white or mid to deep lilac flowers, style much longer than anthers; may have a deep purple zone at throat. Subsp. pamphylicus has white anthers. Plates 362, 363. C. candidus (Flavi). NW Turkey; introduced 1967. Flowers white; exterior speckled, veined, or feathered purple; throat deep yellow; anthers and styles yellow-orange; flowering early spring. Plants grown under the name C. candidus var. subflavus are probably forms of C. olivieri or hybrids between these 2 species (Mathew 1983). C. carpetanus (Carpetani). Spain and Portugal; introduced 1842. Flowers to 4 in., lilac to white, shaded grayish, bluish or pinkish on exterior; anthers yellow; throat white or pale yellow. Flowering mid spring. C. cartwrightianus (Crocus). WILD SAFFRON. Greece, Attica, Crete, and Cyclades; introduced 1843. Flowers pale to deep lilac purple or white, strongly veined darker; throat white or lilac; anthers yellow. Flowering mid to late fall. Generally believed to be the wild source of the saffron crocus, C. sativus. Plants marketed as C. cartwrightianus 'Albus' are often C. hadriaticus. C. caspius (Biflori). Iran and Russia around Caspian Sea; introduced 1838. Flowers white to pale lilac; throat, anthers, and style yellow. Flowering early to mid autumn. Plate 364. C. chrysanthus (Biflori). Balkan Peninsula, Greece, and Turkey; introduced before 1847. Corm tunic membranous to shelllike, annulate at base. Leaves present at flowering. Flowers fragrant, bright yellow to orange; outer segments feathered, striped, or flushed bronze or purple; anthers yellow. Flowering late winter. Some plants sold under this name are selections of the species; others are hybrids with C. biflorus. Among the scores of cultivars offered are 'Advance', pale yellow and lavender bicolor; 'Blue Bird', deep blue-lavender; 'Blue Pearl', large soft blue with bronze base and golden throat, darker violet-blue exterior; 'Blue Peter', midblue with purple exterior; 'Cream Beauty', large vigorous cream-yellow; 'E. A. Bowies', named after a legendary horticulturist who devoted much time to Crocus, deep butter-yellow with bronze feathering; 'E. P. Bowies', a little shorter than 'E. A. Bowies' with markings more pronounced; 'Eyecatcher', like a large version of C. biflorus subsp. alexandri; 'Fuscotinctus',

Crocus small-flowered deep gold with heavy brown feathering; 'Gipsy Girl', bright yellow heavily feathered with purplish brown; 'Goldilocks', deep yellow with purple base; 'Jeannine', pale yellow with light crimson feathering; 'Ladykiller', white with rich purple exterior segments; 'Mariette', large, soft yellow inside, purplish outside; 'Prins Glaus', large vigorous white, blotched purple on exterior; 'Prinses Beatrix', clear light blue exterior with darker feathers at yellow base; 'Saturnus', small dark yellow, dark purple outside; 'Skyline', pale blue-lilac with violet blotch and veining on exterior; 'Snow Bunting', very large white with lilac feathering; 'Zwanenburg Bronze', large deep gold, flushed redbrown outside. Plates 365,366. C. corsicus (Versicolores). Corsica; introduced 1843. Corm silky, finely reticulated. Leaves present at flowering. Flowers 2-4 in., bright lilac inside, exterior paler lilac, buff, or cream with heavy feathering of deep purple; throat white, flushed yellow on outside. Flowering mid spring, one of the latest. C. cvijicii (Reticulati). S Balkan Peninsula (N Greece, E Albania); introduced 1926. Flowers pale to deep yellow, cream or white; throat yellow or white, hairy; anthers orange-yellow. Flowering late spring. C. cyprius (Biflori). Cyprus; introduced 1865. Flowers 2-3 in., soft lavender with deep purple blotches; throat orange-yellow; filaments scarlet, anthers yellow. Flowering early spring. C. dalmaticus (Reticulati). SW Balkan Peninsula and N Albania; introduced 1842. Flowers to 3 in., pale to deep lilac inside, exterior buffer grayish lavender, usually veined or feathered purple at base; throat and anthers yellow, style orange. Flowering early spring. C. danfordiae (Biflori}. C and S Turkey; introduced 1881. Flowers sulfur yellow, rarely pale blue or whitish, sometimes with brown or gray stippling on exterior; anthers yellow, style orange. Flowering early spring. C. etruscus (Verni). Italy; introduced 1877. Corm tunic coarsely reticulated. Leaves present at flowering. Flowers large (to 5 in.), bright lilac blue, variably striped with deeper lilac on exterior; throat yellow; style 3-branched, orange. Flowering early to mid spring. 'Zwanenburg' is a vigorous selection of good substance. Plate 367. C. flavus (Flavi). Balkans to W Asia, naturalized in much of Europe; in cultivation for at least 400 years. Corm tunic membranous with fibrous points at apex, splitting at base into coarse parallel fibers. Leaves present at flowering, relatively wide. Flowers pale to deep yellow, sometimes striped or flushed brownish on tube and base of segments; anthers yellow; style pale yellow to orange, obscurely divided into 3 short branches. Flowering early to mid spring. The most commonly grown yellow crocus, quite variable in the wild. Subsp. dissectus has style distinctly divided into 6 or more slender branches. Old selection 'Dutch Yellow' or 'Yellow Giant', sometimes offered as C. flavus, is a sterile plant (regarded by Mathew as a hybrid between C. flavus and C. angustifolius) with very large flowers, leaves to 14 in. when mature. The older literature mentions many color forms with Latinate names, but these are within the normal range of variation for the species and do not figure in commerce today.

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C. fleischeri (Intertexti). W and S Turkey and E Aegean Islands; introduced before 1827. Corm yellowish, very small, with finely reticulated tunic. Leaves well-developed at flowering. Flowers 2-3 in., white with yellow throat, flushed purple at base, sometimes with exterior median purple stripe; anthers yellow. Flowering late winter. C. gargaricus (Reticulati). NW Turkey; introduced 1841. Flowers brilliant yellow to deep orange; anthers yellow, style orange. Flowering mid spring. C. gilanicus (Kotschyani). W Iran; introduced 1975. Flowers white with purple veins, sometimes with pale pinkish-lavender tips, mid autumn. C. goulimyi (Longiflori). Greece (S Peloponnese); introduced 1955. Corm tunic hard and shell-like, splitting lengthwise at base. Leaves appear with flowers. Flowers soft blue-lilac, broadly bowl-shaped, to 4 in. tall, mid to late fall. Produces many offsets; very beautiful but not very cold-hardy. C. graveolens (Flavi). S Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, and N Israel; introduced 1882. Flowers ill-scented, yellow, often striped or feathered brown, early spring. C. hadriaticus (Crocus). Greece; introduced before 1843. Corm tunic finely netted, silky. Leaves appear with flowers and become quite long. Flowers to 4 in., white stained brown or purple near base; throat is yellow or white; style 3-branched, orange. Flowering mid autumn. Forma lilacinusis flushed violet. Var. chrysobelonicus has pure white flowers with no markings. Plate 368. C. hartmannianus (Biflori). Cyprus; introduced 1914. Flowers small, soft lavender with purple markings; throat orangeyellow; late winter. C. hermoneus (Reticulati). Israel and W Jordan; introduced 1881. Flowers white to lilac blue with darker veining at base, early to mid autumn. C. hyemalis (Flavi). Israel to S Syria; introduced 1859. Flowers white, feathered purple; throat deep orange-yellow; mid winter. C. imperati (Versicolores). W Italy; introduced 1826. Flowers usually bright lilac purple inside, yellowish, silvery or buff on exterior, striped and feathered purple; throat and anthers yellow; style orange. Flowering early spring. Subsp. suaveolens, introduced 1977, has lightly scented, slightly paler flowers. 'Jager' is a vigorous selection with yellowish buff exterior. C. karduchorum (Kotschyani). SE Turkey; introduced 1881. Corm flattened with thin membranous tunic, lying on edge in soil. Flowers pale to midlilac blue, finely veined darker, white at base; throat white; anthers and style white. Flowering early fall. Most plants sold under this name are actually C. kotschyanus var. leucopharynx. C. kerndorffiorum. SC Turkey, in a small area in C Taurus Mountains. Flowers pale lilac blue, rarely white, throat yellow; exterior with violet-blue stripe. Flowering early spring. C. korolkowii(Orientales). CELANDINE CROCUS. Afghanistan, Pakistan, and C Asia; introduced 1880. Flowers deep golden yellow, outer segments marked or feathered brown or dark bronze; anthers yellow. Flowering early spring. 'Kiss of Spring' is nearly unmarked on exterior.

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C. kosaninii (Verm). Balkans; introduced 1976. Flowers lilac blue to midviolet, often with external dark stain or 3 dark stripes on lower part of outer segments; throat deep yellow; filaments and anthers yellow. Flowering early spring. C. kotschyanus (Kotschyani). Turkey and Russia; introduced before 1854. Corm smooth, irregular and flattened. Leaves appear after flowers, persisting through winter. Flowers to 3 in., pale lilac with darker veins, throat whitish with yellow blotches, early fall. Var. leucopharynx, a vigorous plant not now found in the wild and sometimes sold as C. karduchorum (a distinct species), has a white throat without yellow blotches at base. Subsp. cappadocicushas a glabrous throat. Subsp. hakkariensisfrom SE Turkey, introduced 1980, has pale lilac flowers with faint yellow blotches in throat. Subsp. suworowianus from Turkey and Russia, introduced 1980, has creamy white flowers, sometimes with violet veins, throat pale yellow. Most forms produce many offsets. The usual commercial clone flowers poorly; 'Reliant' is more free-flowering. Good for naturalizing in dry areas or dry open woodland. Plate 369. C. laevigatus (Laevigati). Greece; introduced before 1832. Corm completely covered by hard, smooth, dark brown tunic. Leaves appear before flowers. Flowers to 3 in., lavender-blue, outer tepals feathered deep lilac mauve; throat pale yellow. Style deep orange, many-branched and featherlike; anthers creamy white. Flowering late fall to mid winter. 'Fontenayi', the usual commercial form, is not distinct from the type but reliably freeflowering and increases fast. Hardy to about 15°F but mid winter flowers require overhead protection in most climates. Plates 370,371. C. leichtlinii (Biflori). SE Turkey; introduced 1924. Flowers pale to midblue (near true blue), lilac blue, or slate blue; throat deep yellow; style yellow to orange. Flowering early spring. C. longiflorus (Longiflori). S Italy; introduced 1843. Corm tunic coarsely reticulated. Leaves appear with or just before flowers. Flowers strongly scented, to 5 in., tepals light violet outside, more bluish inside, with darker veins and bronzing toward base. Anthers saffron-yellow; style 3-branched, usually scarlet. Flowering mid autumn. C. malyi(Versicolores). WBalkans;introduced 1871. Flowers large, white; throat and anthers yellow; style orange. Flowering early spring. C. mathewii. S Turkey; described 1994. Corm tunic with parallel fibers extending into neck. Flowers creamy white with deep violet-blue throat, mid autumn. C. medius (Longiflori). S France; introduced 1843. Corm tunic finely reticulated. Leaves appear long after flowers. Flowers to 4 in., midlilac to deep red-violet with deeper veining and white throat. Style many-branched, deep orange to scarlet. Flowering mid autumn. Plate 372. C. michelsonii (Orientales). Iran, Russia, and SC Asia, rare; introduced 1932. Flowers white, flushed blue on exterior; style whitish or pale yellow; anthers yellow. Flowering early spring. C. minimus (Versicolores). Corsica and Sardinia; introduced before 1804. Corm pear-shaped, tunic with parallel fibers. Leaves well developed at flowering. Flowers 2-3 in., light violet outside, lighter inside, with heavy deep purple stripes and feath-

ering on exterior; style deeply 3-branched, red-orange. Flowering mid to late spring. Plate 373. C. moabiticus (Crocus). N Jordan; introduced 1912. Flowers white with purplish veins; throat white flushed purple; style reddish orange, anthers yellow. Flowering late fall to early winter. C. nevadensis (Carpetani). Spain, Algeria, and Morocco; introduced 1871. Flowers cream, white, or grayish lilac with darker veining; anthers yellow; throat whitish or pale yellowgreen. Flowering late winter to early spring. C. niveus (Longiflori). Greece (S Peloponnese); introduced before 1900. Corms very large; tunic covered with parallel, netted fibers. Leaves appear with or just after flowers. Flowers very large (to 6 in.), white with orange-yellow throat and scarlet, 3branched style. Flowering mid to late fall. C. nudiflorus (Longiflori). Pyrenees of SW France, in mountains, foothills, and moist meadows; introduced before 1798. Corm small, stoloniferous; tunic with parallel fibers. Leaves appear long after flowers. Flowers elongated, large (to 6 in.), bright purple. Flowering early to mid fall. Spreads rapidly by producing corms at ends of stolons and tolerates damper conditions in summer than many other species; in warm temperate climates can be established in open grassland and is best left undisturbed. C. ochroleucus (Kotschyani). E Mediterranean, Lebanon, and S Turkey; introduced before 1859. Corm small, with thin tunic, produces many cormlets. Leaves very narrow, appear just before flowers. Flowers 2-3 in., white to creamy white with golden yellow base. Flowering late fall to early winter. Despite origin and flowering period, hardy and weather-resistant to at least 0°F if planted deeply. Plate 374. C. olivieri (Flavi). SE Europe, Balkan Peninsula, Greece, Aegean Islands, and W Turkey, widely distributed. Corm tunic membranous. Leaves often lax, present at flowering. Flowers pale lemon yellow to deep orange, often with dark brown or purplish-brown stain on tube and base of segments; style divided into about 6 branches; usually unmarked on exterior. Flowering early to mid spring. Subsp. balansae has a membranous tunic and style divided into 12-15 branches; flowers usually flushed or striped brownish purple on exterior; leaves erect; its cultivar 'Zwanenburg' remains in flower a long time. Subsp. istanbulensis from NW Turkey has a corm tunic wholly and coarsely fibrous, weakly reticulated at the apex; leaves erect; flowers large. Plates 375, 376. C. oreocreticus (Crocus). Crete; introduced 1949. Flowers midlilac to purple, exterior pale silvery to buff with dark feathering; throat lilac; style red, anthers yellow. Flowering mid autumn to early winter. C. pallasii (Crocus). S Balkan Peninsula, E Romania, Bulgaria, Crimea, Lebanon, Israel, and Turkey; introduced 1817. Flowers tall and slender, pale pinkish lilac to deep lilac blue, veined darker; throat white or lilac, anthers yellow, style red. Flowers mid to late fall. Subsp. dispathaceus from S Turkey, introduced 1924, has deep reddish-purple or mauve-pink flowers; style yellow or pale orange. Subsp. haussknechtii from W Iran, NE Iraq, and S Jordan, introduced 1977, has much deeper red style. Subsp. turcicus from SE Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon, in-

Crocus troduced 1977, has corm with extended fibrous neck and narrow perianth segments. C. paschei. Taurus Mountains of S Turkey. Corm tunic papery, splitting lengthwise at base. Flowers pale to deep lilac blue, slightly speckled near base on exterior, throat yellow surrounded by white zone, spring. C. pelistericus (Scardici). Macedonia, in moist alpine meadows; described 1976. Flowers rich deep violet, finely veined darker; throat white; anthers yellow, style whitish or orange-yellow. Flowering late spring and stays in growth through summer. C. pestalozzae (Biflori). NW Turkey; introduced 1853. Flowers small (1-2 in.), white or pale blue-lilac; throat and anthers yellow; black spots at base of filaments. Flowering late winter. C. pulchellus (Speciosi). Greece; long in cultivation. Corm small, with annulate tunic. Leaves appear with flowers. Flowers to 5 in., usually pale lilac with deeper veining; style orange; anthers white. Flowering early to mid autumn. Selections include forma albus, white; 'Michael Hoog', very large pure white; 'Zephyr', large soft lilac. Plates 377, 378. C. reticulatus (Reticulati}. NE Italy, Balkan Peninsula, Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey, and SW Russia; introduced 1805. Flowers white or lilac flowers, strongly striped purple on exterior; throat yellow or white; style 3-branched, yellow to deep orange; anthers yellow. Flowering early spring. Subsp. hittiticus from S Turkey; introduced 1975, has white or lilac flowers, striped on exterior, frequently speckled outside; anthers blackish or dark purple. C. robertianus (Reticulati). Greece; introduced 1973. Flowers pale to deep lilac blue; throat pale yellow or whitish, style deep orange, anthers yellow. Flowering mid to late fall. C. rujanensis. Serbia and Macedonia. Flowers purple with yellow throat, early spring. C. sativus (Crocus). SAFFRON. Wild origin uncertain; cultivated since ancient times. Corm large, tunic silky with densely reticulated fibers. Leaves appear just before flowers and may reach 12 in. Flowers lilac purple with deeper throat, early to mid autumn. Style branches very long, often protruding beyond the closed flower and flopping to the side; these are harvested and dried as saffron. Var. cashmirianus is probably not distinct. A sterile triploid, it requires deep planting in rich, warm soil and frequent division to flower well. C. scardicus (Scardici). S Balkans (E Albania), in drier parts of alpine meadows; introduced 1926. Flowers yellow-orange, usually purple inside and out at base of segments; anthers and filaments yellow; style orange; throat yellow or white. Flowering late spring. C. scharojanii (Kotschyani). Caucasus and NE Turkey, in moist alpine meadows; introduced 1868. Flowers 4-5 in., deep yellow, often shading to orange at tips; throat yellow; style orange, anthers cream or yellow. Flowering late summer to early fall. Intolerant of disturbance. C. serotinus (Longiflori). Spain, Portugal, and North Africa. Mathew (1983) proposes that all the autumn-flowering species from these regions (except C. nudiflorus) be considered subspecies of this, resulting in 3 subspecies distinguished by features of the corm tunic: subsp. clusii, with a finely netted tunic of slender fibers; subsp. salzmannii, with a membranous tunic

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that splits into parallel fibers; and subsp. serotinus, with a coarsely netted tunic of stout fibers. Flowers in all subspecies 2-3 in. long, pale to deep blue-lilac, often with darker veining, throat white or pale yellow; style orange, usually manybranched; fragrant. Flowering early to mid autumn in cultivation. Subsp. clusii has more numerous leaves, up to 7, often not appearing until the flowers wither. Subsp. salzmannii, found in both North Africa and Spain, sometimes produces stolons; flowers not fragrant. Subsp. serotinushas leaves visible at flowering time. Plate 379. C. sieberi (Reticulati). Crete, long in cultivation. Corm tunic fibrous, finely reticulated. Leaves present at flowering, in mid spring. Flowers to 3 in., fragrant, white interior; throat yellow to orange, glabrous. Subsp. atticus from Greece has a corm with a persistent fibrous "neck"; flowers are pale to deep lilac blue within. Horticultural selections of this subspecies include 'Bowles White', large vigorous white; 'Firefly', a vigorous selection; 'Hubert Edelsten', lilac strikingly banded and tipped deep purple and white; f. tricolor, a startlingly colored selection with a deep yellow throat, a band of bright white, and rich lilac-blue perianth blade; 'Vardousia', a vigorous clone; 'Violet Queen', small midviolet flowers. Subsp. nivalis from mountains of S Greece has a corm tunic finely or coarsely reticulated and a glabrous throat; flowers lilac blue with yellow throat. Subsp. sublimis, widely distributed in the species' northern range (S Balkan Peninsula, Greece, Crete, and nearby islands), has a finely reticulate corm tunic and pubescent throat; lilac blue flowers, often with darker tips, sometimes a white zone between the main segment color and yellow throat. Plates 380,381. C. sieheanus (Reticulati). Turkey; introduced 1939. Flowers orange; throat yellow; tube orange or purple; mid spring. C. speciosus (Spedosi}. Crimea, Caucasus, Turkey, and Iran; introduced before 1800. Corms large, with annulate rings at the base, producing many cormlets. Leaves relatively wide, appearing long after flowers and attaining 8 in. or more. Flowers to 6 in. on long tubes, narrowly goblet-shaped, pale to deep violetblue with purple veins; throat white to pale yellow; anthers yellow; style yellow to deep orange, with many slender branches. Flowering mid autumn. Selections include 'Aitchisonii', pale lavender-violet, large; 'Artabir', near-blue, inner segments lighter, tube flushed blue; 'Cassiope', very tall aster-blue with yellowish base; 'Conqueror', strong blue-lavender; 'Oxonian', good blue including tube, less vigorous than other cultivars; 'Albus', vigorous pure white. Subsp. ilgazensis from N Turkey has smaller flowers. Subsp. xantholaimos from N Turkey has deep yellow throat. One of the showiest and hardiest fall-flowering species for gardens, tolerant of summer water and increasing well by offsets and self-sowing. C. xstellaris. Garden hybrid (C. flavus x C. angustifolius), in cultivation at least since nineteenth century. A sterile cross existing in several clones (Mathew 1983). Corm tunic coarsely reticulated. Leaves present at flowering, early to mid spring. Flowers usually 2-3 in., deep golden yellow, marked on exterior with dark mahogany lines that appear almost black. C. thomasii (Crocus). S Italy and W Balkans; introduced 1826. Flowers pale to deep lilac, sometimes veined or stained

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Crocus

violet; throat pale yellow; style bright red, anthers yellow. Flowering mid autumn. C. tommasinianus (Verni). S Yugoslavia, S Hungary, and NW Bulgaria; introduced before 1847. Corm nearly spherical, with finely reticulated tunic. Leaves rather lax, well-developed at flowering in early spring. Flowers to 4 in., pale to deep lavender, often silvery on exterior, usually unmarked; throat white; style orange, divided into 3 branches much expanded and fringed at tips. Very easily grown in temperate gardens, often naturalized in grass, seeding freely. Selections include 'Barr's Purple', large rich purple-lilac; 'Pictus', tips of segments deep purple; 'Roseus', nearest to true pink in the genus; 'Ruby Giant', deep violet-purple, free-flowering; 'Whitewell Purple', reddish purple. White forms are frequent and several clones of varying quality are offered as 'Albus'. Plate 382. C. tournefortii (Laevigati). Greek islands; introduced 1831. Flowers 3-4 in., lilac, sometimes veined darker, remaining open even at night; throat yellow; anthers white; style orange, much divided. Flowering mid autumn to early winter. Plate 383. C. vallicola (Kotschyani). NE Turkey, S Caucasus, and Russia; introduced 1845. Flowers large, creamy white, often with faint purple veins; segments have long threadlike tips; throat white and hairy; anthers white; style cream to deep yellow. Flowering early fall. C. veluchensis (Reticulati). Balkan Peninsula, Bulgaria, Greece, and Albania; introduced 1845. Flowers pale silvery-lilac to deep purple; throat white, hairy; anthers yellow; style orange. Flowering mid spring. C. veneris (Aleppici). Cyprus; introduced 1842. Flowers white, usually with violet stripe or feathering; throat, anthers and style yellow. Flowering mid winter; not frost-hardy. C. vernus (Verni). Europe, from Alps to Ukraine and south to Sicily and Albania, in meadows; long in cultivation. Corm tunic fibrous, slightly reticulated. Leaves present at flowering, sometimes short, sometimes well-developed. Flowers 3-5 in., mostly purple or lilac; tube purple; style usually deep yellow or orange, divided into 3 branches very frilled at the tips; exceeding or equal to anthers. Subsp. albiflorus has smaller flowers, usually white, and style much shorter than anthers. Well adapted to temperate gardens and the source of most of the larger-flowered Dutch crocuses. Good cultivars include 'Early Perfection', purple; 'Enchantress', purple; 'Flower Record', purple, good for forcing; 'Haarlem Gem', small, purple flowers with lighter outer segments; 'Joan of Arc', white; 'Michael's Purple', derived from so-called C. heuffelianus, flowers deep purple with darker tips; 'Peter Pan', white; 'Purpureus Grandiflorus', flowers very large, purple; 'Queen of the Blues', lavender blue; 'Remembrance', silvery lavender; 'Vanguard', pale grayblue outside; 'Pickwick', white with purple stripes; 'Snowstorm', white; 'Striped Beauty', silvery with purple stripes; 'Yellow Mammoth', large yellow flowers. Plates 384-388. C. versicolor (Versicolores). Maritime Alps of SE France and NW Italy, and Monaco; introduced 1808. Flowers large, white to lilac with strong purple veining; throat pale yellow to white; anthers yellow, style orange or yellow. Flowering early spring. 'Picturatus' has rich purple stripes on exterior.

C. vitellinus (Flavi). S Turkey and Lebanon; introduced 1828. Flowers to 3 in., fragrant, bright orange, striped dark bronzepurple; anthers and throat yellow; style yellow to orange, much dissected. Flowering mid to late winter. SYNONYMS

Note: For full synonymy, see Mathew (1983). C. acutiflorus see C. vernus subsp. albiflorus. C. adamii see C. biflorus subsp. adamii. C. aerius var. cyprius see C. cyprius. C. aerius var. pestalozzae see C. pestalozzae. C. aerius var. pulchricolor see C. biflorus subsp. pulchricolor. C. albiflorus see C. vernus subsp. albiflorus. C. alexandri see C. biflorus subsp. alexandri. C. algeriensis see C. nevadensis. C. annulatus see C. biflorus. C. appendiculatus see C. vernus subsp. albiflorus. C. asturicussee C. serotinus subsp. salzmannii. C. atlanticus see C. nevadensis. C. atticus see C. sieberi subsp. atticus. C. aucheri see C. olivieri. C. aureus see C. flavus. C. balansae see C. olivieri subsp. balansae. C. biflorus var. leichtlinii see C. leichtlinii. C. biflorus var. pestalozzae see C. pestalozzae. C. biflorus var. taurica see C. biflorus subsp. adamii. C. biliottii see C. aerius. C. byzantinus see C. banaticus. C. caeruleus see C. vernus subsp. albiflorus. C. candidus var. subflavus see C. olivieri. C. capensis see Romulea rosea. C. cashmirianus see C. sativus. C. chrysanthusvar. bicolorsee C. olivieri. C. chrysanthusvar. caerulescens see C. biflorus subsp. pulchricolor. C. cilicicus see C. cancellatus. C. clusii see C. serotinus subsp. clusii. C. cretensis see C. boryi. C. crewei see C. biflorus subsp. crewei. C. crewei of gardens see C. biflorus subsp. melantherus. C. croceus see C. chrysanthus. C. xcultorum see "Dutch crocus" under C. vernus. C. dalmaticus var. niveus see C. biflorus subsp. weldenii. C. damascenus see C. cancellatus subsp. damascenus. C. dispathaceus see C. pallasii subsp. dispathaceus. C. elwesii see C. pallasii. C. fimbriatus see C. nudiflorus. C. floribundus see C. flavus. C. fontenayi see C. laevigatus. C. fulvus see C. angustifoUus. C. graecussee C. cartwrightianus. C. granatensis see C. serotinus subsp. salzmanii. C. grandiflorus see C. vernus. C. haussknechtii see C. pallasii subsp. haussknechtii. C. heuffelianus see C. vernus. C. heuffelianus subsp. tommasinianus see C. tommasinianus.

Cryptocoryne C. hittiticus see C. reticulatus subsp. hittiticus. C. ionicus see C. boryi. C. iridiflorus see C. banaticus. C. isauricus see C. biflorus subsp. isauricus. C. lacteus see C. flavus. C. libanoticus see C. pallasii. C. lusitanicus see C. carpetanus. C. luteus see C. flavus. C. maesiacus see C. flavus. C. mazziaricus see C. cancellatus subsp. mazziaricus. C. melantherus see C. biflorus subsp. melantherus. C. neapolitanus see C imperati. C. nubigena see C. biflorus subsp. nubigena. C. officinalis see C. sativus. C. orbelicus see C. veluchensis. C. orphanidis see C. tournefortii. C. palaestinus see C. hermoneus. C. pallidus see C. biflorus subsp. weldenii. C. peloponnesiacus see C. hadriaticus. C. pictus see C. vernus. C. ponticus see C. kotschyanus. C. pukhricolor see C. biflorus subsp. pulchricolor. C. purpureus see C. vernus. C. pyrenaeus see C. nudiflorus. C. recurvus see C. imperati. C. reflexus see C. angustifolius. C. reticulatus var. ancyrensis see C. ancyrensis. C. reticulatus var. aureussee C. angustifolius. C. reticulatus var. dalmaticus see C. dalmaticus. C. reticulatus var. etruscus see C. etruscus. C. salzmannii see C. serotinus subsp. salzmannii. C. sativus var. cartwrightianus see C. cartwrightianus. C. scepusiensis see C. vernus. C. serbicus see C. tommasinianus. C. sibthorpianusvar. latifolius see C. sieberi. C. siculussee C. vernus subsp. albiflorus. C. sieberi var. heterochromus see C. sieberi. C. sieberi var. orbelicus see C. veluchensis. C. sieberi var. pukhricolor see C. biflorus subsp. pulchricolor. C. sieberi var. stauricus see C. aerius. C. sieberi var. tenuifolius see C. veluchensis. C. sieberi var. veluchensis see C. veluchensis. C. sieberi var. versicolor see C. sieberi. C. spruneri see C. cancellatus subsp. mazziaricus. C. suaveolens see C. imperati subsp. suaveolens. C. sublimis see C. sieberi subsp. sublimis. C. sulphureus see C. flavus. C. susianus see C. ancyrensis, C. angustifolius. C. suworowianus see C. kotschyanus subsp. suworowianus. C. tauri see C. biflorus subsp. tauri. C. tauricus see C. speciosus. C. vallicola var. lilacinus see C. kotschyanus subsp. suworowianus. C. vallicola var. suworowianus see C. kotschyanus subsp. suworowianus. C. versicolor subsp. marcetii see C. nevadensis.

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C. versicolor var. dalmaticus see C. thomasii. C. vilmae see C. vernus subsp. albiflorus. C. violaceus see C. biflorus subsp. adamii. C. violaceus var. balansaesee C. olivien: subsp. balansae. C. visianicus see C. thomasii. C. weldenii see C. biflorus subsp. weldenii. C. zonatus see C. kotschyanus.

Crossyne—Amaryllidaceae Origin of name unknown. These species were originally placed in Boophane, to which genus they are closely related, differing by not having bracts, and by foliage not held in a fan as is the case with Boophane. The flowers are small but many, held in a rounded flowerhead. tepals much recurved, pedicels long. Shy flowering but common after fires have passed through the areas where native in South Africa. Neither of the 2 species described are commonly grown, nor are they likely to become common as the flowers are not long lasting. The foliage, which is often prostrate, has disappeared by the time the flowers are produced in late summer (March to April in the wild). Generally 4-6 leaves are produced, leathery, narrow, smooth with bristly margins sometimes (C. guttata) with maroon spots or margins. Bulbs globose, the necks being found just at or barely below soil level. The bulbs are poisonous. CULTURE

As for Boophane. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

As for Boophane. SPECIES C. flava. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Karoo, NW Western Cape), in open terrain in coarse, gravelly soil, rare; described 1981. Bulb with a well-developed neck. Leaves to 6, prostrate, light green, with soft brown hairs on margins, 15 in. long, to 2 in. wide, appearing in winter—after flowering and when rain has fallen. Flowers 200 or more in umbel, tepals1/4 in. long, yellow with brown tips; anther filaments maroon, yellowish at base; anthers maroon. Flowering fall (March to April in the wild). C. guttata. South Africa (Western Cape), in flatlands and on low hills. Leaves 4-6, to 15 in. long and often over 3 in. wide, appearing after flowering. Flowers 100 or more in umbel to 10 in. in diameter, small, with reddish or pink reflexed perianth segments and prominent stamens; pedicels long, becoming longer as seeds ripen. Flowering fall, best after fires—perhaps because it then receives more sunlight, or in response to smoke.

Cryptocoryne—Araceae WATER TRUMPET Name derived from Greek kryptos ("hidden") and koryne ("club"), in reference to the spadix which is completely hidden

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Cryptostephanus

inside the spathe. The genus comprises around 40 species, all from the tropics of Asia and Malaysia. They are rhizomatous, and many are aquatic plants—sometimes with submerged foliage—or bog plants. They require great heat and humidity. Outside their native region, they are rarely cultivated except in a few botanic gardens. There is great variation in leaf shape: cordate to elliptic, lanceolate to linear. The spadices are very slender, mostly brownish purple, and often twisted and folded, and thus not very attractive. The flowering time of these tropical plants is sporadic—often year-round, with heaviest flowering in summer. Outside the humid tropics, they can be grown in pools or "bogs" in tropical greenhouses, and in large aquariums. Cryptocoryne wendtii might be useful as a tropical aquarium plant, since it carries its leaves both underwater and on the water surface. CULTURE Require high temperatures, 65°-70°F at night and much warmer during the day. They must be constantly wet. Anchor rhizomes to the bottom of a pool, spaced 18-24 in. apart, and just nestled into the soil. Bright to moderate light is needed. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Divide rootstocks at any time. SPECIES C. affinis. WATER TRUMPET. Malay Peninsula. Plant to 30 in., often less. Roots strong, rhizomatous. Leaves lanceolate, dark green with paler veins. Spathe corkscrew-shaped, pale green outside with purple lines, very dark purple inside. C. ciliata. India and Bangladesh, in monsoon region; introduced 1823. Plants to 20 in., often less. Leaves have unequal sides, are stalked and lance-shaped, usually carried underwater, yellowish green with darker green depressed midrib. Spathe long, narrow, green or sometimes reddish brown with lighter interior, often yellow. Said to be fragrant. C. griffithii. Malaysia. Leaves small, 2 2 in. long and almost as wide. Lower part of spathe tube cylindrical, 1/2 in. long; upper part about 1 in. Spathe rose colored, deep red within. Plate 389. C. petchii. Sri Lanka. Plants to 20 in. or more. Leaves in rosette, 6-10 in. long and 1 in. or more wide. Spathe tube tubular, to 6 in. long, then flaring; upper part of spathe tapering and pointed, 4-6 in. long, olive-green to brown, interior rich, reddish or purplish brown. C. retrospiralis. Malaya and tropical India. Plants 18-24 in. Leaves to 12 in. long, narrow, rarely over in. wide. Spathe tube twisted, 8 in. long, dark green-brown; lower part narrow, upper part tapering to a point, almost hairlike. C. spiralis. India; introduced 1816. Leaves about 6 in. long, to 1 /2 in. wide. Spathe tube about 1 in. long, purple, more reddish within, much twisted in the lower part, with a straight tail above the opening. C. wendtii. Thailand. Plants 12-18 in. Leaves stout, on branching stalks, spear-shaped, 3-5 in. long and just over 1 in.

wide. Spathe to 4 in. long, brown-purplish green with twisted mouth and terminal tail. SYNONYM

C. purpurea see C. griffithii.

Cryptostephanus C. herrei see Cyrtanthus herrei.

Curculigo—Hypoxidaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Latin curculio ("weevil"), referring to the ovary which is beaked like a weevil. There are about 35 species with tuberous or rhizomatous rootstocks. Native to the tropics of Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Australia, they are mostly used as dramatic foliage plants in warm tropical and subtropical regions or display houses. The foliage is clump-forming, stalked, pleated, and frequently hairy. In the wild, they usually grow in the humus-rich soil of the rain forest, or in swampy areas. The evergreen foliage is often large, and numerous attractively variegated cultivars have been selected. The flowers, in spikes or racemes, have 6 perianth segments which are nearly equal in size and spreading; these small, starry blossoms are mostly various shades of yellow. Flowering is sporadic throughout the year. CULTURE The plants cannot withstand temperatures below 40°F. They need a soil very rich in organic matter which retains moisture well, but the rootstocks should never sit in water. They can be grown outdoors only in subtropical and tropical regions where rainfall is plentiful, or where they can be irrigated. They prefer shade and will grow in bright indirect light, but direct sunlight should be avoided. During fall and winter, when growth is less active, reduce moisture but do not dry out. Set rhizomes or tubers 4-6 in. deep, spaced 36 in. apart. They can be grown in large containers in cooler climates, moving them outdoors during the summer months and bringing them indoors when night temperatures fall below 50°F. They appreciate an organic mulch. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide rootstocks during the season of slower growth in late winter or very early spring. Separate offsets from parent plants at this time. Sow seed as soon as ripe in a soil mix high in organic matter and give nighttime temperatures of at least 55°F. The young plants should never become dry. Transplant into successively larger containers until they are big enough to plant in their permanent site. SPECIES C. capitulata. PALM GRASS. Southeast Asia, Malaysia, and Australia. Stems 4-10 in. Leaves hairy, 6 in. wide, to 36 in. long, held upright on petioles to 18 in. Flowers yellow; inflorescence 2-3 in. long.

Cyanella C. latifolia. Southeast Asia and W Malaysia. Rootstock a creeping rhizome. Leaves to 24 in. long, to 4 in. wide, hairy on underside, held upright on petioles 3-10 in. long. Flower spike at ground level; flowers yellow, small with distinct tube. C. orchioides. Japan, Australia, and New Caledonia. Rootstock an oblong tuber. Leaves 5-6 per plant, to 12 in. long, very thin textured, without hairs, folded; petioles to 6 in. long, often less, swollen at base. Flowers yellow, in a crowded inflorescence; corolla tube to 21/2 in. long, lobes almost 1 in. long. The roots are eaten in the Mariana Islands, and also used medicinally. SYNONYMS

C. ensifolia see C. orchioides. C. hortensis see C. capitulata. C. plicata see Empodium plicatum. C. recurvata see C. capitulata.

Curtonus C. paniculatus see Crocosmia pankulata.

Cyanastrum—Tecophilaeaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek kyanos ("blue") and astron ("star"). This small genus is found in the tropical parts of Africa, from Nigeria to Mozambique. Most species inhabit damp areas and therefore require the warmth and humidity of a greenhouse in cultivation. The rootstocks are corms, the flowers blue or white, the foliage thin. Some species produce only a few leaves, or just one. The individual leaves are proportionately wide, oblonglanceolate to cordate. Some authorities place this genus in Cyanastraceae, others in Tecophilaeaceae. The ovaries are inferior. The flowers are carried in a raceme or a panicle. The 3 inner and 3 outer perianth segments are similar, and there are 6 stamens. In the wild the plants are summer-flowering. CULTURE Plants require warmth, humidity, and shade. Night temperatures should not drop below 55°F. They are suitable for outdoor culture only in tropical and warm subtropical regions. Plant corms 1-2 in. deep, spaced 6-8 in. apart. The soil should be high in organic matter and should be kept moist, with only slightly less moisture during the resting period. Little or no feeding is required, but if given, should be applied as soon as growth commences. In containers, feedings of organic fertilizer are beneficial, starting when growth commences and continuing for 4-5 months. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift plants in winter and separate small offset corms from parent corms. Sow seed in warm temperatures in spring, in a soil mix with plenty of humus, barely covered. Grow seedlings on in containers for 1 or 2 seasons before planting in permanent positions.

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SPECIES C. cordifolium. Nigeria, Cameroon, and Gabon. Corms flattened, heart-shaped. Stems 10-12 in. Leaf solitary, glossy, cordate, to 6 in. wide, 3-8 in. long. Leafstalk to 8 in. long. Flowers in raceme to 6 in. long, subtended by a large green to purplishgreen bract; individual flowers just under 1 in. in diameter, blue or purplish, fragrant, late summer to late fall. C. hostifolium. Tanzania and Mozambique, in damp, shady places. Leaves several, tapered at the base and 3-5 in. wide, not fully developed at flowering time. Flowers white, smaller than in C. cordifolium, in spike to 6 in. long, summer. C. johnstonii. Tanzania and Zambia. Leaves similar to C. cordifolium. Flowers bright blue, in raceme 4-6 long, individual flowers about an 1 in. in diameter, late spring to mid summer.

Cyanella—Tecophilaeaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from the diminutive of Greek kyanos ("blue"), referring to the flowers of some species which are blue to violetblue. This genus of 8 species is native to South Africa (mostly Western Cape) and Namibia, where plants flower in spring (September to November in the wild). They are common in rocky areas, where the corms grow quite deep. The foliage varies according to species; in some, the basal leaves form a rosette on the ground and the flower spike is leafless, in others, the foliage is grasslike and tufted, with basal, erect, almost cylindrical leaves. The flowers of most species are attractive, opening flat to as much as 1 in. in diameter. Some species produce as many as 20 flowers per spike, others fewer; in C. alba the flower is solitary. The perianth segments are free to their base, the lower 3 pointing downward, the others upward. In most species the segments are all of the same size; in C. alba, the inner ones are more rounded and the outer pointed. The stamens are unusual: 5 of them are short and more or less equal in size and length, while the 6th is larger and longer and held opposite the lower perianth segment. In some species, the flowers are produced as the foliage starts to wither. The corm is used by South African natives to make a paste for the treatment of boils, carbuncles, wounds, and abscesses. The Xhosa people use C. lutea to treat infertility: it is incorporated into the patient's bedding and afterward employed in a ritual at the river. The common name given to some species is lady's hand. CULTURE Cyanellas can withstand only very light frost. They like sun and well-drained soil. Plant corms 3-4 in. deep, spaced 6-8 in. apart. Provide moisture throughout winter and early spring, with less in the late summer resting period. Where there is more than occasional light frost, grow under protection in a cool greenhouse or frame. They can be grown in containers and taken outside when all danger of frost has passed. Feed sparingly in early spring when growth commences. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems.

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Cybistetes

PROPAGATION

Lift the corms and separate the cormels after foliage has died down. Plant the cormels in nursery rows and grow on to flowering size. Sow seed in spring in a sandy soil mix, barely covered. Keep seedlings barely moist and allow to become dry when foliage dies. Transplant to individual containers for the 2nd season and plant out at the end of the 3rd season.

SYNONYMS

C. capensis see C. hyacinthoides. C. odoratissima see C. lutea. C. pentheri see C. hyacinthoides. C. uniflora see C. alba.

Cybistetes—Amaryllidaceae

SPECIES

C. alba. South Africa (Clanwilliam area in Western Cape and Nieuwoudtville in Northern Cape). Leaves numerous, grasslike, to 5 in. long, in a basal tuft. Stems to 10 in. Flowers solitary, white slightly flushed yellow, over 1 in. in diameter; outer segments pointed and almost flat, inner segments rounded at tips and rather cup-shaped and more erect. Stamens grouped in center of the flower, where orange pollen is quite visible; a 6th stamen lies above lowest perianth segment and is whiter than the perianth. Flowering late spring to early summer (July to October in the wild). A low-growing form is called C. uniflora in some literature. This is a lovely plant and well worth growing, though rare in cultivation. Plates 390, 391. C. hyacinthoides. LADY'S HAND. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape); introduced 1768. Stems to 12 in. or more, much branched. Leaves 5-8, lanceolate with wavy margins, mostly 8-12 in. long, mostly basal; 1 or 2 smaller leaves sometimes occur on scape. Flowers carried away from stem on strong pedicels in loose raceme, the lower part sheathed by a small, narrow, pointed leaf. Flowers slightly fragrant, starry, 8-10 per branch, flat when open, stamens prominent. Color pale lilac, bluish violet, or white, often with small carmine blotch at base of segments. Flowering spring to summer (August to January in the wild). Some authorities recognize 2 species, C. hyacinthoides and C. capensis, but others lump them as C. hyacinthoides. Plate 392. C. lutea. FIVE FINGERS. S Namibia, Botswana, South Africa (Northern Cape, Eastern Cape, Western Cape) and Lesotho; introduced 1788. Stem sometimes branched, 8-12 in. Basal leaves narrow with wavy edges; a few stem leaves, narrower and more sharply pointed. Flowers deep yellow, about 1 in. in diameter; exterior of outer segments strongly veined brown. Stamens 5, grouped in center of flower; a 6th longer stamen is prominent. Flowers outward-facing on strong pedicels that arch up and away from stem. Flowering early spring to early summer (September to October in the wild). Some authorities include in this species C. odoratissima, described as having deep rose flowers fading to pale blue, then yellow. Plate 393. C. orchidiformis. South Africa (Namaqualand as far south as Clanwilliam in Western Cape), in rocky areas. Leaves usually 5, slightly grayish, 5 in. long and about 1 in. wide, in a rosette lying flat on the ground or nearly so; inside this rosette may be 1 or 2 smaller, erect leaves. Stem leafless, 12-16 in., lower part green and upper purplish. Flowers as many as 16 per stem, very light mauve with darker ring of carmine mauve in center, flat when fully open, segments spaced; carried on strong arching pedicels. Flowering late winter to spring (July to September in the wild).

MALAGAS LILY, SAINT JOSEPH'S LILY Name from Greek kubistetes ("tumbler"), an allusion to the umbel which detaches and is blown around by the wind when the seeds are ripe. The only species is C. longifolia. It is separated from A maryllis because the flowers of that genus are regular, whereas those of Cybistetes are zygomorphic; and from Ammocharis for that reason and for its declinate stamens and pedicels which lengthen as the seed capsule matures. In frost-free climates, this is a good plant for a sunny mixed border where color is needed during summer. It should be planted toward the front of the border to accommodate its low stature and allow the fragrance to be enjoyed. It is a good container plant if placed where it receives light throughout winter. CULTURE Cybistetes is not frost-tolerant and in all but practically frostfree areas must be grown in a greenhouse with enough light to nourish its winter-growing foliage. Plant bulbs at the beginning of summer, after the leaves have died down, so the tops are level with the soil surface. They are not fussy about soil, as long as it drains well, and they should be planted in full sun. Provide moisture as soon as the leaves appear and throughout fall, winter, and spring. If the soil is poor, a light feeding of a balanced liquid fertilizer should be given after the flowers begin to fade, with occasional feedings during the winter and spring. Plants are dormant during early summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

Keep watch for aphids during flowering. PROPAGATION

Sow seed as soon as ripe, or the following spring, in a sandy mixture. Leave seedlings in the container for one year, then transplant and grow on for a season before planting into permanent sites. Offsets are not produced freely but, if present, they can be separated from the parent bulbs when the foliage has died down. Take care not to break the fleshy roots. Offsets flower in the 2nd season if of fair size when planted. SPECIES C. longifolia. South Africa (Namaqualand to Cape Peninsula, Stellenbosch, and Paarl); introduced 1774. Bulbs large, to 8 in. in diameter. Leaves strap-shaped, from a few inches to more than 12 in. long, prostrate on the ground, appearing after the flowers have passed in fall and persisting throughout winter and into spring, then withering. Flowers fragrant, sweet-scented, mid to late summer. Flower stalks fleshy, 9-12 in. high. The rounded umbel may have 20 or more blossoms, each consisting of 6 tepals, to 3 in. long and of equal width. In bud the flowers

Cyclamen have a pink flush, which is confined to the central rib when open; otherwise, the perianth is white. Once open, the tepals curl back at the tips and open widely, almost to the base. The stigma is longer than the stamens, which are held loosely in the opened flower. The pedicels lengthen as the flower fades, and the fruit is pendent. Plates 394, 395.

Cyclamen—Primulaceae PERSIAN VIOLET, ALPINE VIOLET Name derived from Greek kyklos ("circular"), because of the spiral twisting of the flower stalk in fruit. Cyclamen species are almost all native to the lands around the Mediterranean, yet some species can be grown outdoors in fairly cold climates. Though a relatively small genus of about 20 species it occupies an important position in horticulture. The florist varieties are excellent house plants, while the natural species are valuable in the woodland, rock garden, and shady corners where a lowgrowing plant with decorative leaves is wanted. The rootstock is a subglobose tuber, though growers often refer to it as a "corm." It does not produce offsets and increases in size throughout its lifetime; an old tuber of some species may be more than 1 ft. across, producing hundreds of flowers. The fibrous roots may emerge from the bottom, sides, or near the top of the tuber, depending on species. The leaf and flower stalks arise directly from the tuber. The leaves are mostly heart or arrow-shaped, and in many species are beautifully marked with deeper green, gray, or silvery spots or zones. The flowers are solitary, with 5 petals, always reflexed, sometimes curled, joined near the base in a short tube. Flowering time varies among the species, and it is possible to have some in flower throughout the year. The capsule is often drawn down to the soil level as it ripens by the spiraling of the stalk. The species vary quite a bit in cold-hardiness, and the range of most can be extended with a little overhead protection in winter. The hardiest, to about — 10°F (colder with deep snow cover), are C. cilicium, C. hederifolium, C. purpurascens. Cyclamen coum and C. trochopteranthum survive well into the teens. Tolerant of temperatures above 25°F are C. graecum, C. intaminatum, C. mirabile, C. pseudibericum, and C. repandum. The remainder should be grown frost-free, though they enjoy cool winters. Appellations that appear to be cultivar names (for example, 'Album', 'Silver Leaf, 'Urfa') are actually names of seed strains or simply of forms that may arise in any population of the species. Some, especially the commercial F1 strains, have a high proportion that come true from seed. Others have been circulated among gardeners so widely, often open-pollinated, that they are far from dependable in this respect. To secure special forms, one must examine the plants in growth or grow a large number from seed. Specialist growers may offer selected leaf forms and flower colors. Most of the species with pink flowers have given rise to white-flowered variants. 'Silver Leaf forms have a whitish overlay covering most of the upper surface of the leaf; in 'Pewter Leaf forms, the overlay is grayer.

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Cyclamen are excellent for woodland gardens and other shady spots. They are invaluable as ground cover at the foot of a hedge, where few other flowering plants succeed. They should remain undisturbed and allowed to increase by self-sowing; in favorable climates, this can eventually produce lovely drifts where the plants produce their best effect. They are easily grown in small containers to be brought indoors for color (Plate 80). In colder areas, many species perform well in frames protected from severe frost and snow. An outstanding description and explanation of the various cultivars, hybrids, forms, subspecies and species (along with all their synonyms) can be found in Christopher Grey-Wilson's excellent Cyclamen: A Guide for Gardeners, Horticulturists, and Botanists (1997). In the descriptions that follow, color forms that have been named as formae are not listed. 'Albidum', 'Albiflorum', 'Album', and similar names denote white-flowered variants; 'Roseum' denotes those with flowers either lighter or darker pink than the type. CULTURE OF G A R D E N CYCLAMEN

Florist cyclamen, large-flowered strains derived from C. persicum, require growing techniques far different from those of species grown in the garden and are dealt with in a separate section. Tubers maybe supplied dormant (the dormant period varies according to species) or as container specimens. Be sure that dry tubers are plump, not shriveled. It is best to keep containergrown plants in their pots until dormant, since they react badly to root disturbance. Plant tubers immediately in loose soil with a high percentage of leafmold. Cover tubers with soil or leafy compost about in. in. deep; C. persicum should have the top of the tuber at the surface, and C. purpurascens prefers deeper planting. Most species prefer shade, but C. cilicium enjoys sun, and C. graecum requires it during summer to perform well. All species appreciate moisture during autumn, winter, and early spring. If the soil is not free-draining, cyclamens may still succeed if planted in the root zone of a tree or large shrub which will help keep the soil dry. All species tolerate drier conditions in summer, but C. purpurascens should not dry out. Cyclamen coum, C. hederifolium, and C. trochopteranthum tolerate moderate summer irrigation. The other species require a dry summer dormancy but should not be "baked" or become desiccated. Leave corms undisturbed. Remove excess debris to prevent the leaves and flowers from being smothered. If organic matter is not naturally replenished each year, topdress planting site with a little leafmold. A little bone meal added to the soil and used as a topdressing each spring is beneficial. If numerous seedlings appear, remove some of them to prevent overcrowding, planting them elsewhere. PROPAGATION OF GARDEN CYCLAMEN

Propagation is from seed, sown as soon as possible after it ripens. Germination may not occur for a year, especially if the seed is not fresh. Soaking stored seed in warm water overnight before sowing may boost germination. Leave seedlings in the seed pot for one growing season, protecting them from frost,

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Cyclamen

and transplant them to individual containers while dormant. Seedlings often appear around or even on top of established tubers and can be scooped up carefully while in the single-leaf stage to be grown on elsewhere. Specialist growers occasionally propagate rare and unusual clones by cutting the dormant tubers into pieces, each with growing points. The cut surfaces must be treated to prevent infection by bacteria and fungi, and the pieces rooted in a sterile medium. CULTURE OF FLORIST CYCLAMEN

The most important point is to keep these plants growing at all times and give adequate light to prevent their becoming leggy. Night temperatures during the growing period must be below 45°F. The test of a well-grown plant is to turn the pot upside down; the leaves should be able to support the weight of plant and pot. Flowering occurs about 15-16 months after seed is sown. After flowering, keep plants moist. When leaves begin to die down, reduce water and allow tubers to rest. Repot in July and start into growth again in a cool area. In frost-free places, florist cyclamen can be set out in a shady spot with the tuber just breaking the surface. They usually flower outdoors in spring, but several that I planted under street trees in front of my house and sprayed regularly with cold water came into flower in August and lasted many months. PROPAGATION OF FOREST CYCLAMEN

Sow seed in late summer in a soil mix of 3 parts sterilized topsoil, 1 part peat moss or sterilized leafmold, and 1 part coarse sand, and keep slightly moist. Night temperatures should be around 55°F, and only a little higher during the day. Light is not needed for germination but must be given 6-8 hours per day as soon as germination begins, which should take about a month. Fresh seeds germinate well; older seeds germinate poorly and erratically. About 120 days after sowing, transplant seedlings into a richer mixture, spaced 2-3 in. apart. The tops of the little tubers should just break the surface. The objective is to keep them growing slowly, so maintain 50°F at night but drop that to 45°F as soon as plants are growing away. When the leaves are touching each other (about 60 days), move to 3- to 4-in. pots. (Some growers prefer keeping plants in flats until final potting. The disadvantage is that the roots react badly to disturbance, and the larger the plants, the more disturbance occurs. This is offset by considerable savings in labor costs.) Plants are ready to be moved into 6- to 8-in. flower pots in 60-90 days. It will now be late spring or early summer, so temperatures will be warm. Move plants to a north-facing frame or shade house with high light intensity but no direct sun. Plants will elongate if frames are too deep. Keep temperatures as low as possible. Spray with cold water in the morning and late afternoon throughout their growing period, even when in flower. Feed with liquid fertilizer toward the end of summer. Bring plants into the greenhouse in September, with night temperatures around 60°F; higher temperatures during the day will not cause problems, but do not expose plants to bright sunlight or to temperatures above 70°F. Give ample ventilation.

PESTS AND DISEASES

Several fungal diseases attack Cyclamen. Cercosporella causes leaf spot. Erwinia carotovora causes soft rot of the tuber. Botrytis cinerea is a gray mold that can be serious if good air circulation is not provided; if attack occurs, improve air circulation, keep water off foliage, and remove all diseased material. All 3 diseases can be controlled by use of fungicides, following product directions. Another disease, probably a virus, causes dwarfing and distortion. Rogue out and discard any affected plants. Mites attack the leaves but can be controlled by use of an insecticide/miticide. Larvae of vine weevil feed on the roots and tubers; control them in the nursery by sterilizing the soil. SPECIES C. africanum. North Africa, in open pine woodland and scrub. Roots produced from all parts of tuber. Leaves bright green, usually with silver-gray markings, large, 6 in. or more wide, with undulate margin, appearing after flowers and lasting through winter into spring. Flower stems to 6 in. Flowers light to dark rose, with deep carmine zone at base. Anthers yellow, with a few violet lines on the upper surface. Flowering early fall. Grow frost-free; overhead vegetation may provide adequate protection from occasional very light frost. Plate 396. C. balearicum. Balearic Islands, very rare in the wild. Leaf and flower stems creep underground before emerging. Roots emerge from base of tuber. Leaves heart-shaped, heavily silvered on upper surface. Flowers slightly fragrant, white with rose throat; mouth often more than in. wide; petals seldom more than 1 in. long; flower stems 2-4 in. high. Flowering early spring. Requires protection from frost, and shade. C. cilicium. Turkey (Anatolia); introduced 1872. Roots produced from base of tuber. Leaves generally heart-shaped, with lobes close to stalk and sometimes overlapping, margins slightly toothed. Flowers on 4- to 5-in. stems, slightly fragrant, light pink with prominent deeper rose zone at base; tube quite short; petals reflex gracefully. Flowering autumn. Plate 397. C. coum. Bulgaria, Turkey, Caucasus, Lebanon, and Israel. A widespread and extremely variable species, currently regarded as incorporating many populations formerly given species status (see Synonyms, below). Roots produced from base of thick, globose or subglobose tuber. Leaves usually rounded, dark green with dull crimson underside, plain or with silvery markings (usually slight) on upper surface. Flowers short and broad, pink to crimson with deeper-colored zone at base; anthers yellow. Flower stems 4-5 in. tall. Both leaf and flower stems creep for a short distance underground before emerging. Flowering in winter and is hardy to 0°F with snow cover; flowers can survive snowstorms. Excellent garden plants which spread extensively in favorable climates. Subsp. caucasicum from NE Turkey, the Caucasus, and Transcaucasia has pink, dark pink or white "eye" at base of petals, heart-shaped leaves with silver-gray marbling and toothed margin. Subsp. elegans from the Caspian coast of Iran has large pale pink flowers, heart-shaped leaves with scalloped margin, flowers mid winter. Plate 398. C. creticum. Crete. Similar to C. repandum, but lacks the

Cyclamen darker zone at the mouth and is a smaller plant; it also has 2 more pairs of chromosomes. Leaves ivy-shaped or oval with toothed margin, green with few markings on upper surface, dull red below. Flowers white, rose, or carmine; free portion of petals 4 times the length of the narrow tube. Flower stems 4-6 in. Flowering mid spring. C. cyprium. Cyprus. Flowers large, white with red zone at base, on 2- to 3-in. stems, fall. Grow frost-free. C. xdrydenii. Garden hybrid (C. coum x C. trochopteranthum) showing traits of both parents. Leaves quite wide, with scalloped margins. Flowers pale pink to rose or magenta pink with magenta or pink at mouth, early to mid spring. Petals suberect with toothed margin. C. graecum. Greece and W Turkey; introduced c. 1930. Roots fleshy, emerging from base of tubers and contractile, often pulling tubers to considerable depth. Leaves large, deep green, often beautifully marked silver; undersurface red, turning green as leaf matures. Leaf margin is "beaded," rough to the touch. Flowers carmine, darker at base, with distinct swellings (auricles) around mouth; not fragrant. Flower stems to 3 in. Needs warm resting period in late summer. Flowering early fall. Subsp. anatolicum from S Turkey, Greek island of Rhodes, and N Cyprus has white to deep pink flowers with carmine zone at mouth, sweetly scented; leaves can exceed 3 in. long, green with lighter central zone and lobed margins. Subsp. candicum from W Crete has whitish or pale pink flowers with dark zone at wide mouth; leaves narrow, arrow-shaped, marked with dark and light green, margins jagged or notched. Plate 399. C. hederifolium. SOWBREAD. S Europe except Greece and Mediterranean islands, and naturalized elsewhere. Roots produced from upper surface of tuber; lower surface free of roots and somewhat rounded. Leaves show great variation in shape (round, ivy- or lance-shaped), in margins (smooth to crinkled), and in marking patterns; foliage persists from early fall to early summer. Flowers white to carmine, on 3- to 6-in. stems; auricles around mouth. Flowering late summer to early fall. Spreads rapidly by self-sowing where adapted. One of the finest species and the first choice for most gardens. Var. hederifolium has dark or gray-green leaves with prominent markings and finely toothed margin; its cultivars 'Album' and 'Apollo' are noteworthy. Var. confusum from S Sicily, the Peloponnese, and Greek islands is a tetraploid with bright green, thick and fleshy leaves, margins lobed. Plates 400-403. C. xhildebrandii. Garden hybrid (C. africanum x C. hederifolium). Flowers pale to deep pink, magenta at mouth. Hardiness intermediate between that of parents. Flowering early to mid autumn. C. intaminatum. W and NW Turkey. Flowers white or pale pink with light gray veins, stems 3-4 in., mid to late fall. C. libanoticum. Lebanon. Leaves dark green with continuous white zone on upper surface and blotches of yellow-green; undersurface deep purple below; leaves usually heart-shaped but variable. Flowers very large, fragrant, pure white to rose with darker markings around mouth, on 4-in. stems. Flowering late winter to early spring, sometimes earlier. One of the loveliest species, but must be grown frost-free or nearly so. Plate 404.

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C. xmeiklei. Garden hybrid (C. creticum x C. repandum). Flowers pale to midpink, late fall to mid spring. C. mirabile. Turkey (SW Anatolia); introduced 1906. Flowers pink with red dots at base, stems 2-3 in., fall. C. parviflorum. NE Turkey; introduced 1946. Flowers small, pale or deep rose pink with purplish blotches, 4 in. long, held erect and strongly reflexed, early to mid spring. Stems 2-3 in. Var. subalpinum has larger flowers, to 1/2 in. long, petals relaxed and spreading horizontally. C. persicum. Cyprus, several Greek islands, Lebanon, Israel, and Libya; introduced 1731. Rounded tubers root from the base and must be planted just at surface. Leaves vary in size and color, generally dark green zoned with lighter green markings, almost always heart-shaped. Flowers on tall stems, 6 in. or more, often fragrant, in wide color range from white to deep purple-rose, winter to early spring. Var. persicum f. puniceum from Syria and Lebanon has red flowers; petals are twisted. Var. autumnalefrom Israel flowers in early fall. The species from which the popular florist cyclamen was developed. Must be grown frost-free or nearly so, in some shade, kept moist while in growth. Horticultural strains, or series, are classified according to size, flower, and leaf characteristics, and a series may be offered in various single colors. Offerings change from year to year; innovations include bicolors, selections for fragrance, and flowers with fringed margins, as well as "teacup" miniatures. Plates 405-407. C. pseudibericum. S Turkey, nearly extinct in the wild; introduced 1897. Tubers root from base. Leaves have serrated edge, and often yellowish-green mottling on surface; crimson undersurface. Flowers large (to 1 in. long), fragrant, deep purplish carmine with more intense color at base. Flowering early spring. Hardiness uncertain, but best planted in the open only where there is little or no frost. (Maurice Boussard tells me this species is quite hardy for him, provided snow is removed from the foliage.) Plate 408. C. purpurascens. Europe, in N Italy, the Alps, and east into Yugoslavia; long in cultivation. Leaves rounded, plain or lightly marked on upper surface. Flowers very fragrant, light to dark rose, with more intense color at base. Flowers over a long period from mid summer into fall. The hardiest species, but often difficult to establish in gardens. Requires shade and some moisture throughout the year, a little drier in fall. Subsp. ponticum from Georgia has pale or carmine-pink flowers with twisted petals, dark green leaves marked with silver. C. repandum. IVY-LEAVED CYCLAMEN. S France and Corsica to S Switzerland, Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Bosnia, and Croatia. Tuber roots from base. Leaves ivylike, somewhat elongated, mottled dark on lighter green, reddish on underside. Flowers carmine pink, with darker zone around mouth; petals rather narrow, sharply reflexed, without auricles; fragrant. Style longer than tube and quite prominent. Stems 4-6 in. Flowering mid to late spring, one of the latest species. Hardy to about 20°F. Subsp. peloponnesiacum from the Peloponnese has pink to deep pink flowers with twisted petals, magenta at mouth, and dark green leaves with silver speckles. Subsp. rhodense from the Greek island of Rhodes has white or pale pink flowers, rose pink at mouth; leaves gray-green with silvery markings. Plate 409.

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Cycnium

C. rohlfsianum. Libya. Leaves deeply lobed. Flowers pink or crimson, fall. Grow frost-free with dry summer dormancy. C. xsaundersii. Garden hybrid (C. balearicum x C. repandum). Flowers pale pink with fuschia at mouth, early to late spring. C. xschwarzii. Garden hybrids (C. libanoticum x C. pseudibericum}. Flowers white or pale pink, with magenta or purple blotch at mouth. C. somalense. Al Miskat Mountains of NE Somalia, in rock crevices; discovered 1986. Leaves heart-shaped, green with silver markings, broader than long. Flowers small, pale pink with carmine zone at base, fall. Barely in cultivation. C. trochopteranthum. SW Turkey; introduced c. 1892. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers sweetly scented, carmine, corolla lobes only half reflexed, spreading horizontally and twisted like a pinwheel, early to mid spring. Plate 410. C. xwellensiekii. Garden hybrid (C. libanoticum x C. cypriuni). Flowers fragrant, white or with pale pink flush, magenta at mouth, early fall to early winter. C. xwhitei. Garden hybrid (C. graecum x C. hederifoliuni). Flowers pale pink with darker flush near mouth or carminemagenta blotch at mouth. SYNONYMS

C. abchasicum see C. coum subsp. caucasicum. C. adsharicum see C. coum subsp. caucasicum. C. alpinum see C. trochopteranthum. C. xatkinsii see C. coum. C. caucasicum see C. coum subsp. caucasicum. C. cilicium var. alpinum see C. intaminatum. C. cilicium var. intaminatum see C. intaminatum. C. circassicum see C. coum subsp. caucasicum. C. colchicum see C. purpurascens subsp. ponticum. C. coum subsp. alpinum see C. trochopteranthum. C. elegans see C. coum subsp. elegans. C. europaeum see C. purpurascens. C. europaeum var. caucasicum see C. coum subsp. caucasicum. C. hiemale see C. coum. C. hyemale see C. coum. C. ibericum see C. coum subsp. caucasicum. C. littorale see C. purpurascens. C. neapolitanum see C. hederifolium. C. orbiculatum see C. coum. C. vernale see C. coum. C. vernum see C. coum.

Cycnium—Scrophulariaceae This obscure genus is semiparasitic. Only one species is described in the literature, C. tubulosa. Though it forms a swollen rhizome, it depends on the roots of living plants, mainly grasses, for most of its food. It appears that the rootstock serves to sustain the plant from one year to the next, while the annual grasses wither and die in the dry season. It would be interesting to see how this plant performs around pools and ponds in such regions as Southern California.

CULTURE Cycnium must be grown frost-free in full sun, in association with grasses. Set the rootstock among the roots of the grasses. Moisture must be present for most of the season but some drying in fall is not harmful. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Difficult to propagate. Seeds need much moisture and heat (55°F at night) and are best sown in damp sphagnum moss and misted daily. Seedlings should be planted in peaty soil with some small grass plants, and the pots stood in water. When of sufficient size, they can be planted out. SPECIES C. tubulosa. South Africa (E Western Cape) and tropical and subtropical Africa, in damp places and around natural pools. Flowering stems thin, erect, angled, carrying 8-12 flowers above the neighboring grasses, often to 24 in. Leaves alternate, narrow, pointed. Flowers pink with a light yellow central zone and some white suffusing into the petals. The 5 petals are joined at the base to form a tube about 1 in. long, and the segments then separate to form a flat flower. Flowering mid spring to late summer.

Cypella—Iridaceae Name derived from Greek kypellon ("cup"), referring to the form of the flowers. This is one of a group of American iridaceous genera whose botanical history is complex and likely to confuse the gardener. As presently conceived, Cypella has about 15 species, native from Mexico to Argentina, but only a half dozen of these are known to be in cultivation. They deserve to be better known in gardens because the summer-flowering species can be treated much like Gladiolus—planted in the spring, lifted in the fall, and stored over winter. In mild climates, they can be left in the ground. The bulb has dry tunics. Some species produce bulbils in the leaf axils. The leaves are few and pleated. The flowers are brightly colored but ephemeral, borne solitary on the end of the stem of in a corymbs. The 3 broad outer perianth segments are held rather flat and well separated, composing the showy part of the flower; the 3 inner segments are much smaller, erect and recurved at the tips, forming a cup. The style branches may be enlarged and petal-like. Cypellas are mainly for the gardener who wishes to grow unusual plants. They might be naturalized in open grassland, especially C. peruviana, but they would need moisture in early summer. They make unusual container plants but are little more than conversation pieces because the flowers do not last very long. CULTURE Well-drained, sandy soil with plenty of organic matter and a site in full sun suit these bulbs. Plant them 4 in. deep and 4 in. apart, in the fall in mild areas and in the spring just before the time of last frost in colder areas. They need moisture while

Cyphia forming their roots, but once flowering is over, watering can be reduced. Remove spent flowers to prevent seed formation and conserve strength for the bulbs. In containers, plant 5 bulbs in a 6-in. pot in a good, sandy soil mix. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove offsets when bulbs are lifted in fall. Store over winter and plant in spring. Species that produce bulbils can be propagated from these, gathered when ripe and planted in a sandy soil mix. The small bulbs should be allowed to root and develop some size in a cooler spot before being brought into a sunnier location to grow and flower. They frequently flower in their 2nd season. Sow seed in spring in a sandy soil mix, keep seedlings frost-free and moist, and grow on in the same manner as bulbils. SPECIES C. armosa. Argentina and Paraguay, in moist areas. Stems to 24 in. Flowers yellow; inner segments marked with dark brown and orange. C. coelestis. Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina; introduced 1838. Stems strong, unbranched, to 36 in. but usually less. Leaves few, sword-shaped. Flowers blue-gray, spotted redbrown at base of outer segments; inner segments yellow toward base; flowers open wide to 3 in. in diameter; 2 or 3 per stem. Flowering late summer. Plate 411. C. curuzupensis. Paraguay, in moist areas. Stems to 18 in. Flowers yellow marked with green. C. gracilis. Paraguay. Stems to 6 in. May be a dwarf form of C. herbertii. C. herbertii. Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil; introduced 1823. Stems 12-14 in., often branched. Leaves lanceolate, tapering to a fine point, to 20 in. long. Flowers 2-3 per branch, 2 in. in diameter, deep yellow with purple midline; inner segments upright and then curled inward, deep yellow with purplish markings. Var. brevicristata has bright lemon-yellow flowers. Flowering late summer. The most commonly cultivated species. C. herrerae. Peru. Stems 10-18 in. Basal leaves narrow; stem leaves short. Bulbils sometimes produced in leaf axils. Flowers blue; inner segments curled, with yellow crest; center whitish with red spots. Flowering fall to early winter, often around Christmas in Northern Hemisphere, and grows through winter. C. peruviana. Andes of Peru, on grassy slopes. Stems 8-16 in., unbranched. Leaves grasslike. Flowers 2-3 per stem, deep yellow spotted red-brown at base; inner segments have distinct beard. Flowering winter. Plate 412. C. rosei. W Mexico. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers light rose lilac with orange markings, late summer. Plate 413. SYNONYMS C. caerulea see Neomarica caerulea. C. drummondii see Alophia drummondii. C. goodspeediana see Cipura paludosa. C. plumbea see C. coelestis.

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Cyphia—Campanulaceae Name derived from Greek kyphos ("curved"), probably in reference to the twining stems of some species. It is a rather obscure genus containing about 60 species native to southern and tropical Africa. They are small, slender plants, mostly with pink or white flowers in summer. They grow in a variety of habitats in grassland. Over half the species occur in areas of summerrainfall. Others are found on dry hillsides in areas where there is winter rain. They are most prolific and conspicuous immediately after fire. Some species twine through shrubs. All cyphias have tubers. The flowers are not unattractive; certain species, notably C. volubilis, may deserve garden space. The foliage is linear or 3lobed, often varying on the same plant. The flowers are carried singly, well spaced along the stems. They open almost flat, with the lower parts of the petals forming a tube. The non-climbing species often finish flowering by mid summer and then go into dormancy until the following spring. The height of the climbers is 30-36 in., that of the nonclimbers often less. CULTURE Plants need protection from frost. The tubers can be lifted in fall when dormant and planted in spring after danger of frost is past. The tuber must have a portion of the stem attached to produce shoots, not unlike a dahlia, and it can be treated in the same way. Grow in well-drained, warm soil. Give moisture in spring and a dry period in late summer. Plants prefer full sun but tolerate some shade. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide tubers, making sure that each division has an "eye." Sow seed in spring in a sandy soil mix in bright light, with a night temperature around 55°F. Transplant seedlings to individual containers as soon as they are large enough to handle, and grow on in warm conditions. SPECIES C. assimilis. South Africa (Highveld region). Stems twining. Flowers pink or mauve, 2-lipped, with pinkish markings, summer (lanuary to April in the wild). C. bulbosa. South Africa (Cedarberg Mountains to Cape Peninsula in Western Cape). Stems 6-10 in. Flowers pinkish white to light purple; perianth tube over half the length of the perianth segments. Flowers in small spikes branching from the main stem, as many as 16-18 per spike. Flowering spring (August to October in the wild). C. phyteuma. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Flower lilac, appearing after fires, spring (August to November in the wild). Plate 414. C. stenophylla. South Africa (Northern Province). Flowers narrow, white to lilac, resembling Lobelia. Flowering mid spring to mid autumn (August to March in the wild), over a long period.

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Cyrtanthus

C. volubilis. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape Eastern Cape as far east as Port Elizabeth). Stems twining, 30-36 in., with inconspicuous leaves. Flowers showy, white to pink, about 1/2 in. wide, spring (August to October in the wild).

Cyrtanthus—Amaryllidaceae FIRE LILY Name derived from Greek kyrtos ("curved") and anthos ("flower"), referring to the fact that the flowers all bend downward from the top of their stalk. This is a genus of about 50 species native to South Africa and E Africa. There are both deciduous and evergreen species. These attractive plants have never caught on to any degree with gardeners in the Northern Hemisphere, possibly because they are too tender for gardens in temperate climates. They are much more popular in Australia, where bulb fanciers grow a good range of species. A number are listed by various Dutch nurseries, and they would be good additions to mild gardens. Some species can stand a few degrees of frost, but more need to be protected against freezing weather. Some of them flower in late fall and thus are not suitable for seasonal planting outdoors. The various species have evolved in a variety of climatic conditions, and some are rather adaptable; for example, C. mackenii is at home along streambeds in KwaZulu-Natal yet also grows well in drier locations. The bulbs are tunicated; those of some species grow partially exposed above ground. All stems are hollow. The leaves are narrow, sometimes grasslike, and sometimes persistent—evergreen, in some species as noted below. They appear either with the flowers or after flowering, depending on species. The flowers are borne in an umbel. They are tubular, usually flaring just a little at the mouth, but some species have spreading tepals like a crinum (Plate 426). The tube is as much as 10 times longer than the lobes in some species. The 3 outer segments curve in slightly at their tips. The stamens are inserted on the perianth tube. Certain species are fragrant, and flower colors range from red through pink to white or yellow. The fruit is an oblong capsule with many flattened black seeds. Not as widely grown as they deserve, cyrtanthus are good pot plants—especially C. obliquus, which would also be a good plant for open grassland areas where there is adequate moisture and winters are not severe. The potential of these plants for commercial production and cut flowers should be investigated more. CULTURE Cyrtanthus grow well in good garden soil, the richer the better in regard to increase and flower count. They respond well to being fed while in growth with organic liquid fertilizer. They may be supplied as dormant bulbs; the evergreen species are normally sold as container plants. Species that flower in late summer and fall should be planted in spring; plant the springflowering species in fall. Plant 2-3 in. deep, spaced 5-6 in. apart, in a sunny area (plant C. breviflorus a little deeper and 8-10 in. apart). Where the climate is marginal—that is, frost expected at

night but rarely lasting through the morning—plants should be given the protection of a wall or other sheltered location. In containers, plant in a rich but well-drained soil mix. Moisture should be adequate throughout the growing period, but more is needed while plants are making leaf growth. Cyrtanthus obliquus needs ample water at all times. Deciduous species should be kept on the dry side when dormant. Plants grown under glass need cool temperatures in winter, around 40°F at night. Repot them annually and remove offsets at this time. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

The bulbs produce numerous offsets, which can be separated and grown on. They will flower the 4th season after planting. Seed of all species should be sown as soon as ripe because it rapidly loses viability in storage. Sow in a sandy mixture and keep moist and warm, with temperatures around 60°F; provide shade until well established. Cyrtanthus breviflorus is best raised from seed. Transplant seedlings when large enough to handle; if growing large stocks, line out in nursery rows until large enough to plant out. SPECIES

C. angustifolius. FIRE LILY. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape to Port Elizabeth); introduced 1773. Stems reddish, to 12 in. Leaves deciduous, narrow, to 18 in. long. Flowers a little over 2 in. long, flaring at the mouth, up to 12 per stem, reddish orange. Flowering late summer to fall (October to May in the wild). Grow frost-free. C. attenuatus. South Africa (Free State) and Lesotho; introduced 1939. Stems 16-20 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers yellow to greenish yellow, spring (August to September in the wild). C. bicolor. South Africa (E Northern Province, Mpumalanga, N KwaZulu-Natal) and Swaziland; introduced 1896. Stems 210 in. Flowers red or yellow, usually in mid spring (October in the wild), but also throughout year. C. brachyscyphus. DOBO LILY. South Africa (S KwaZuluNatal and Eastern Cape); introduced 1888. Stems to 12 in. Leaves evergreen. Flowers bright red, spring (September to November in the wild, sometimes to April). Multiplies rapidly if given regular watering and some shade. Plate 415. C. brachysiphon. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); listed as vulnerable. C. breviflorus. YELLOW FIRE LILY. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Province, Mpumalanga), and tropical Africa, in swampy areas, coastal to 5500 ft. Bulb white, with brown tunic. Stems 6-8 in. Leaves strap-shaped, over 1 in. wide and to 12 in. long, 3-4 produced after flowers, usually deciduous but evergreen in some populations. Flowers bright yellow, late spring to summer (September to December in the wild); plants long in cultivation may flower in early summer. C. carneus. South Africa (SW Western Cape); listed as vulnerable; introduced 1831. Stems to 12 in. Flowers pink or red, paler at base, summer (December to February in the wild). C. davatus. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1816.

Cyrtanthus Stems 3-8 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers white with red, redbrown or green median stripes, late fall (May in the wild). C. coccineus. South Africa. Similar to C. sanguineus but has 2-3 suberect leaves and spotted stems. Flowers summer (January to February in the wild). C. collinus. South Africa (SE Western Cape); introduced 1816. Stems 6-10 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers bright red, summer to autumn (December to May in the wild). C. contractus. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga, Eastern Cape, coast of KwaZulu-Natal), Swaziland, and Lesotho; described 1898. Stems to 12 in. Leaves grasslike, often more than 12 in. long, appearing soon after flowers. Flowers scarlet, half nodding, to 2 in. long. Usually flowers in late spring and summer (mostly August to October in the wild) but may flower at any time of year. Plates 416-418. C. elatus. GEORGE LILY, JERSEY LILY, KNYSNA LILY, PINK GEORGE LILY, SCARBOROUGH LILY. South Africa (George, Knysna to Humansdorp) on south coast, forest margins, and mountain slopes, where it receives rainfall much of the year, with a drier period in winter. George lily (for the principal town in E Western Cape where the plant is found), Knysna lily, pink George lily, Scarborough lily (for the place in England where it was grown after a Dutch ship carrying the bulbs to the Netherlands was shipwrecked off the Yorkshire coast and many bulbs were washed ashore). Some authorities still call this Vallota speciosa, a name that seems justified, as the perianth tube is much shorter than the segments, wherein was the difference with Cyrtanthus. Bulbs large, oval, with a brown tunic. Stems to 12 in. Leaves up to 18 per plant, glossy green, strap-shaped, to 18 in. long and more than 1 in. wide. Flowers in an umbel of 5-8 on pedicels about 1 in. long. Perianth segments about equal in size, tube 1 1 /2 in. long, lobes to 4 in. long, flaring widely. Colors pink and orange-red shades, sometimes with white blotches at base of tepals; cultivated selections add light pink, dark pink, and pure white forms; soft pink form has been called var. delicata. Flowering summer (December to February in the wild); the wild pink form flowers later in the wild than the more common orange-red. The most commonly grown species. Plant with upper part of bulb above ground. Plate 419. C. epiphyticus. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1913. Stems 10-16 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers scarlet, early spring (September in the wild). C. erubescens. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), very rare; introduced 1960. Stems 8-20 in. Flowers pink, late spring to summer (October to December in the wild). C. eucallus. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga). Stems to 12 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers red, lighter in throat, summer (December to January in the wild). C.falcatus. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); described 1939. Stems spotted purple, to 18 in. high. Leaves deciduous, emerging about the same time as flowers but persisting longer into summer, broader than in many other species. Flowers among the longest in the genus, over 2 in., pendent; color reddish or pinkish flushed green, with a hint of yellow on exterior of tube. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). Plant with at least 1/3of bulb above ground. Plate 420.

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C. fergusoniae. South Africa (S Western Cape); introduced 1931. Stems 8-18 in. Leaves evergreen or deciduous, variable. Flowers bright red, summer (December to January in the wild). C. flammosus. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1990. Stems to 8 in. Leaves evergreen, 2-4 per bulb, erect or recurved. Flowers erect, solitary on stout pedicels, scarlet with cream to pale green at base and in throat. Style divided into 3, scarlet. Flowers last only 4-5 days. C. flanaganii. South Africa; introduced 1938. Stems 8-12 in. Flowers yellow, spring to summer (August to January in the wild). C. flavus. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1934. Stems 8-10 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers canary yellow, spring (September to October in the wild). C. galpinii. South Africa (Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal) and Swaziland; introduced 1892. Stems to 8 in., plant somewhat dwarf. Leaf often solitary, usually appearing after flower, to 10 in. long. Flowers solitary, seldom 2 per stem, scarlet to orange, late winter (May to August in the wild). C. guthrieae. South Africa (SW Western Cape), listed as vulnerable; introduced 1921. Stems to 4 in. Flowers bright red with golden highlights, fall (April in the wild). C. helictus. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1839. Stems 3-5 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers white with brown or green median stripes, early spring to summer (September to January in the wild). C. herrei. South Africa (Northern Cape); introduced 1932. Stems 12-16 in. Leaves evergreen. Flowers pendent, to 28 per stem, dark orange; tube red, inner lobes greenish yellow. Flowering late summer to fall (February to April in the wild). C. huttonii. South Africa (Eastern Cape, Mpumalanga, E Northern Province); introduced 1864. Stems hollow, stout, to 12 in. or more. Leaves deciduous, to 1 in. wide at base but tapering quickly, to 20-24 in. long, appearing with flowers. Flowers numerous, often more than 20 per stem, bright orange-red to deep red, yellow inside. Perianth tube short; lobes flare more widely than in many other species. Flowering summer (November to January in the wild). C. inaequalis. South Africa (SE Western Cape); introduced 1939. Stems to 12 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers coral-red, summer (November in the wild). C. junodii. South Africa (NE Northern Province, Mpumalanga); introduced 1907. Stems 10-20 in. Tube red, lobes yellow, summer (December to January in the wild). Plate 421. C. labiatus. South Africa (SW Eastern Cape); introduced 1980. Stems to 12 in. Flowers light coral red, summer (December to January in the wild). C. leucanthus. South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced 1898. Stems 6-10 in. Flowers white, often tinged yellow, summer (late January to March in the wild). C. loddigesianus. South Africa (SE Western Cape); introduced 1839. Stems 6-7 in. Flowers white, flushed cream in middle of segments, light green stripes at base. Flowering summer (October to March in the wild). C. mackenii. IFAFA LILY. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape), along the coast near streams; introduced 1868. Stems

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Cyrtanthus

to 12 in. Leaves 8-12 in. long, evergreen, produced with flowers. Flowers fragrant, white, a little over 1 in. long, narrowly tubular, 4 or more per stem. Flowers not as pendent as many other species but seldom erect—usually horizontal or slightly erect. Flowering winter to late summer (July to February in the wild). Var. cooperi has yellow or cream flowers in early to late spring (July to October in the wild); it has given a clear pink cultivar and one with orange perianth tubes and yellow lobes. Plates 422,423. C macowanii. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1875. Stems to 12 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers bright scarlet. Flowering season varies. C. montanus. South Africa (E Western Cape); introduced 1977. Stems to 4 in. Flowers red, early spring (September in the wild). C. nutans. Swaziland and South Africa (N KwaZulu-Natal), listed as vulnerable. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers pale yellow, spring (late August to October in the wild). C. obliquus. GIANT CYRTANTHUS. South Africa (KwaZuluNatal, Eastern Cape to Knysna), in veld; introduced 1774. Stems 4-12 in. Leaves evergreen, to 1 in. wide and 18 in. long. Flowers pendent, tubular, to 3 in. long, yellow at base shading into red; tips of perianth lobes greenish yellow, early spring to summer (August to February in the wild). This attractive species has been grown in Europe for many years as a pot plant. Plate 424. C. o'brienii. South Africa (Eastern Cape and Drakensberg Mountains of KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1894. Possibly a form of C. macowanii. Stems to 8 in. Leaves bright green, evergreen, to 12 in. long and less than l/2 in. wide, often appearing before flowers. Flowers scarlet, pendent, in umbel of 7-8, summer (January to February in the wild). C. ochroleucus. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1836. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers pale yellow or yellowish white, spring ( September to November in the wild). C. odorus. South Africa (Western Cape), listed as vulnerable; introduced 1818. Stems to 6 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers fragrant, dark red-maroon, fall (March to April in the wild). C. pallidus. South Africa (Western Cape), listed as vulnerable; introduced 1824. Stems to 6 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers pale red, summer to autumn (December to May in the wild). C. rotundilobus. South Africa (E Eastern Cape); introduced 1921. Stems to 5 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers scarlet, summer (December to January in the wild). C. sanguineus. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal) to tropical E Africa, now rare; introduced 1860. Stems 12-14 in. Leaves evergreen, to 18 in. long. Flowers brilliant scarlet, seldom more than 1 or 2 per stem, 4 in. long and more than 1 in. in diameter. Flowering summer to early fall (January to March in the wild). Color variations reported include one with glaucous leaves, sometimes called var. glaucophyllus. Requires ample moisture when in growth, until flowers have passed; likes full sun but needs high afternoon shade in hot areas. Plants enjoy being crowded and should be left undisturbed. C. smithiae. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1876. Stems 10-12 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers white or pale pink, striped red or red-brown, summer (December to January in the wild).

C. speciosus. South Africa (SW Eastern Cape); introduced 1942. Stems 6-7 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers creamy white, striped red or pink, green and pink at base, early summer (December to January in the wild). C. spiralis. South Africa (Eastern Cape), listed as vulnerable; introduced 1815. Stems to 10 in. Leaves evergreen or deciduous, spirally twisted. Flowers red, summer (December to March in the wild). C. staadensis. South Africa (SW Eastern Cape), listed as vulnerable; introduced 1914. Leaves evergreen. Flowers orangered, late summer (mid-February to March in the wild). C. stenanthus. South Africa (Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Free State) and Lesotho; introduced 1897. Stems 8-12 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers red or greenish red, spring to early summer (October to December in the wild). Var. major, from South Africa (Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal) and Swaziland, has yellow flowers. Plate 425. C. suaveolens. Lesotho and South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1914. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers red, scented of cloves, spring to summer (November to January in the wild). C. thorncroftii. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga); introduced 1909. Stems to 10 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers pale salmon pink, spring to winter (November to July in the wild). C. tuckii. FIRE LILY. South Africa (SE Northern Province, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape); introduced 1884. The common name refers to the plants' response to bush fires, after which they flourish and produce larger flowers. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves spirally twisted, to 18 in. long, produced with flowers. Flowers up to 10 per stem, pendent, blood-red flushed yellow at base, tubular, to 2 in. long; tube gradually widens over its entire length. Var. transvaalensis has blood-red flowers with no other color present. Var. viridilobus has green lobes. Flowering late spring (September to November in the wild). Possibly the hardiest species, growing in the wild where severe frost occurs. Selections offered include 'Alaska', white; 'Atlanta', coral-pink; 'Euterpe', small, ivory white; 'Pink Diamond', pink, throat darker than tips; 'Themis', large flowers, outside pink, inside red; 'Yellow Star', large flowers, golden yellow. C. ventricosus. South Africa (Western Cape, W Eastern Cape); introduced 1799. Stems 4-8 in. Leaves narrow, deciduous. Flowers pendent, red flushed pink, summer to fall (December to March in the wild). SYNONYMS

C. balenii see C. galpinii. C. dendrophilus see C. epiphyticus. C. lutescens see C. ochroleucus. C. luteus see C. breviflorus. C. parviflorus see C. bicolor, C. brachyscyphus. C. purpureus see C. elatus. C. uniflorus see C. clavatus.

Dahlia

Dahlia—Asteraceae Named in honor of Andreas Dahl (1751-1789), Swedish botanist and pupil of Linnaeus. The dahlia was brought to Spain from its native Mexico in the late 1780s and introduced into Great Britain in 1798. Three specimens reached Paris in 1802. There are about 30 wild species in Mexico, Central America, and Colombia, but almost all the dahlias grown today are selections and hybrids that have arisen in cultivation. Aztec gardeners were already growing variants, or perhaps hybrids, before the Spanish invaded the Americas, so the pedigrees of even the earliest introductions are quite obscure. The first 3 introduced and named were D. coccinea, with single red flowers; the invalidly named "D. rosea," a form of D. pinnata with single pink flowers; and a double purple form of D. pinnata. Europeans first cultivated dahlias in the hope of exploiting them as a vegetable or as animal fodder, but eventually judged them inedible. In fact, the flower petals can be eaten and are sometimes used to garnish salads. The tubers were used as food by Mexican Indians. They contain a starchy substance called inulin, used today in the manufacture of certain chemicals. The stems of D. imperalis, which can exceed 25 ft., were used as water pipes by the Aztecs. The fleshy roots of the Dahlia are tuberous, capable of holding considerable reserves of moisture and food for long periods. In the wild, they absorb moisture during the growing period, when rain is plentiful, and go dormant during the dry season in late summer and fall. The stems branch at the base and again above. They are produced only from the crown, which is the lower part of the flowering stem. This remains turgid during the resting period and must be protected from damage if new shoots are to develop. The flowers are carried on long stalks. Although most species in the wild produce only single flowers, some, such as D. variabilis, often have semidouble flowers. The singles are "perfect" flowers, a term used for composites that have a yellow disk of female florets in the center, surrounded by a ring of male ray florets, in which the pistils are petaloid. The protective sheath that envelops the developing ovary(ies) is formed by bracteoles, which separate the individual female florets. There is great variation in this arrangement where dahlias are concerned. In doubles, the number of male petaloid florets is greatly increased. Only rarely are disk florets entirely absent, and most flowers— even double ones—can produce at least some seeds. Dahlias are not necessarily self-sterile, but the male pollen of a flower ripens before the same flower's stigmata become receptive, so that flowers are seldom self-pollinated. The dahlia, like some other popular plants, has passionate devotees. In 1881 the British National Dahlia Society was formed to promote the breeding and competitive exhibition of these plants. Similar societies were later organized in the United States, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. Every year, many new hybrids are introduced. Purchase tubers from established firms and select the cultivars best suited

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for the site. Pay attention to height and color. Older cultivars are usually less expensive than the latest introductions. HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION

By the end of the twentieth century, there were more than 20,000 dahlia cultivars listed in the International Registry maintained by the Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) of Great Britain. The RHS, together with organizations in the Netherlands and the United States, set up a classification of the many flower forms. Both shows and catalogs employ this system. There are essentially 10 groups, though a few other classes are recognized in specific countries. Subdivisions by size vary depending on which national society's system is being used. The British size classes (according to diameter of flower) are A = Giant; B = Large; C = Medium; D = Small; E = Miniature. The American size classes are AA = Giant, over 10 in.; A = Large, 8-10 in.; B = Medium, 6-8 in.; BB = Small, 4-6 in.; M = Miniature, up to 4 in. The American system also includes classes combining flower form and size: BA = Ball, over 3.5 in.; MB = Miniature Ball, 2-3.5 in.; P = Pompon, to 2 in.; S = Mignon Single, to 2 in. Add to this the numerous colors recognized, and the complexity of classification can be appreciated. The color categories are as follows: 1, white; 2, yellow; 3, orange; 4, bronze; 5, flame; 6, red; 7, dark red; 8, light pink; 9, dark pink; 10, lavender, lilac, or mauve; 11, purple, wine, or violet; 12, blends, 2 or more colors intermingled; 13, bicolored, ground color tipped with another color; 14, variegated, several colors striped or splashed. In the U.S. system, "blends" is divided into light and dark blends, giving a total of 15 colors. The following 10 groups are recognized as the standard classification; however, I have also noted other groups recognized by certain national societies (see Figure 9-4). Group 1. Single-flowered. Open-centered flowers with 1 or 2 complete outer rows of florets surrounding a disc. Usually about 4 in. in diameter. Most cultivars in this group are ideal for summer bedding, being about 12 in. tall. Many in this group are strains raised from seed, treated as annuals. Plates 431,432. Group 2. Anemone-flowered. A dense central group of erect tubular florets surrounded by one or more rows of ray florets. Heights of 24-36 in., and individual flowers about 3 in. in diameter. Group 3. Collarette. The open disk is surrounded by a "collar," a ring of short petaloid florets, which in turn are surrounded by 1 or 2 rings of flat ray florets. These are good cut flowers and have a wide color range. They were developed in France at the beginning of the twentieth century. Height is around 44 in., and flowers 4-6 in. in diameter. Plates 433,434. Group 4. Waterlily (Nymphaea-flowered). The flowers are fully double; ray florets are flat or have slightly incurved or recurved margins. The flower appears flat or shallow. Height is around 42 in., and flowers 4-5 in. in diameter. Plate 435. Group 5. Decorative. No central disc is visible; the flower is fully double, with broad, flat or slightly involute ray flowers, often slightly twisted. Height varies from 36 in. to 10 ft., and flowers are usually very large. In the United States, this group is

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subdivided into Formal Decoratives, in which the florets are very regular, and Informal Decoratives, in which the rays are long, twisted or pointed, and irregular in arrangement. Plates 436-440. Group 6. Ball. The flowers are ball-shaped. The ray florets are blunt or rounded at the tips, and cupped for more than half their length. Often the flowers are flattened on top. Small Ball cultivars have flowers 4-6 in. in diameter; Miniature Balls are up to 4 in. in diameter. These flowers last a long time in the garden and are attractive plants. Plates 441,442. Group 7. Pompom. These are quite similar to the Ball group but even more spherical, and the florets are cupped for their entire length. Flowers are quite small, to 2 in. in diameter. These are popular as cut flowers. Plate 443. Group 8. Cactus-flowered. Flowers are fully double, with no disc showing, and have long, pointed ray florets. The margins of the petals are strongly revolute (rolled inward) for over half their length. The ends of the petals are cut or fimbriate (fringed). In the United States, the group is divided into Straight Cactus, with straight or slightly incurved or recurved rays, and Incurved Cactus, in which the pointed rays all curve towards the center of the flower. These are particularly desirable for floral art. Plates 444,445. Group 9. Semi-Cactus-flowered. Flowers have slightly pointed ray florets, broader at the base, revolute for less than half their length, either straight or incurving. Plants are generally about 40 in. tall. Plate 446. Group 10. Miscellaneous. This is a catch-all for various innovative forms. Orchid dahlia cultivars are similar to Singleflowered dahlias, except that their flat rays are revolute for at least % of their length. Star dahlias have small, incurving flowers, with 2 or 3 rows of barely overlapping, pointed rays surrounding a distinct disc. Chrysanthemum types resemble incurved, exhibition-type chrysanthemums. Peony dahlias have broad outer rays and a center that is open but partly covered by twisted, small ray florets around the disc. In the late 1990s, the American Dahlia Society adopted another group to accommodate flowers with laciniated petals, which are deeply cut into narrow, jagged segments. In this Fimbriated class, the splits (fimbriation) of the ray florets should be proportional to their length and be not less than of the length of the ray florets. The petals are twisted in the area of the split to give an overall "fringed" effect. A horticultural classification must be versatile to accommodate the emergence of distinctly new flower forms, sizes, and colors. Constant revision is necessary in all such systems. It must be remembered that horticultural classifications are a tool of devotees of a genus. They are essential and useful to the hobbyists and commercial growers, but it is dangerous to classify everything about the flowers too strictly. Almost as soon as a classification is set up, it is likely to be out of date. The governing bodies should probably meet every 5 years or so, and either change the classifications as needed or accept the standing classification for another 5-year period. The number of cultivars and forms offered today by nurseries is very great. In making selections, determine the form,

Figure 9-4. Dahlia flower groups.

Decorative dahlias, informal (left) and formal (right) Group 5

Miscellaneous dahlias, star (left), peony-flowered (below) Group 10

Semi-Cactus dahlia Group 9

Cactus dahlia Group 8

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color, and height desired. Select plants from reliable nurseries and seed firms or purchase tubers in the fall directly from growers and store over winter. Though bargain rates are often advertised, spending a little extra on quality stock from established companies helps ensure that plants are virus-free and true to name. CULTURE Dahlias are tolerant of a wide range of soils, but their site must be cultivated deeply and should have high organic content. They require full sun to grow and flower well. (Plates 61-63). The rootstocks overwinter safely in the ground where the soil temperature stays above 34°F, but it is best to lift them in the fall after the foliage has started to die back, cut off all but the bottom few inches of the stems, and store them in a frost-free place with good air circulation. Dormant tubers are normally sold in late winter and early spring. Plant them about 2 weeks before the last expected frost, setting them 3-4 in. deep. This allows 14-20 days before the vulnerable young shoots emerge. Spacing varies according to the height of the full-grown plants. Dwarf or low-growing types should be spaced 12-18 in. apart. The tallest-growing, those over 36 in., should be about 36 in. apart. The taller-growing kinds require staking, especially in windy spots. Dahlias need regular watering in summer. Plant the tubers in the center of a shallow depression or "saucer" of soil to keep water at the base of the plants above the tubers; the numerous roots stay quite close to the tuber that produces them. Small plants set closely together can be placed in a shallow trench so they can be flooded. Give weak but regular feedings of fertilizer through mid summer. A formula of 15-15-15 is suitable, applied as a liquid or in granular form. As soon as the flower buds develop, change the formula to one with less nitrogen; 5-10-15 is widely available. This will support continued but not excessive growth, so that by the time it starts to produce flower buds, the plant will be close to optimal size. The young plants of some cultivars branch naturally, but it is advantageous to pinch out the terminal growth bud when the plants are 4-6 in. tall. This encourages branching from the main stem and thus a bushier plant. Pinching is not necessary with lower-growing cultivars that branch naturally, but taller-growing ones can become gangly. Pinching also increases flower production. A 4- or 5-branched plant is ideal. To increase flower size, disbudding should begin as soon as the buds are the size of a small pea. Leave the middle bud to flower, but remove the others clustered around it by pinching them out. If you want a massed display of color rather than large flowers for exhibition of cutting, do not disbud. Dahlias continue to grow into the fall. As the days shorten, the growth rate slows. In colder areas, the first frost kills the top growth but does not harm the tuber in the soil. In warmer climates, where little or no frost is experienced, growth will halt in October or November. After the top growth is frosted or when growth stops, cut off the stalks 4 or 5 in. above the ground. Harvest the tubers before the onset of fall rains, lifting them with

care so they are not damaged. As soon as the soil clinging to the tubers has dried, clean them with a soft brush and store them in a well-ventilated, frost-free area, labeled as to size, color, and type. During the storage period, examine the tubers regularly. Any that show signs of rot or mold should be cleaned by removing diseased tissue and dusting with a fungicide. Discard severely affected tubers. Because all new shoots for the next season's growth arise from "eyes" at the base of the stem, give particular attention to this area. Without these eyes, the tuber is worthless; the tubers themselves have no buds, and growth starts only on the portion of the stem attached to the tuber. PESTS AND DISEASES

Virus diseases can be troublesome in dahlias. The viruses are spread by sucking insects. In the garden, it is advisable to discard all plants that show typical virus symptoms, such as mottled foliage and stunted and deformed growth. Control aphids and spider mites as soon as they appear; spraying with insecticidal soap may be effective. Commercial production demands more rigorous control. Regular spraying with an insecticide keeps sucking insects under control and reduces the spread of virus. Growing fields should be inspected constantly during summer and all infested plants removed at once. Particular attention should be given to the selection of tubers for propagation; only the finest plants, free from imperfection, should be chosen—tagged in flower and kept apart during the harvest. Good culture and healthy stock can largely negate problems caused by insects. The most common likely pests are aphids, controlled with insecticides or insecticidal soap; Japanese beetles, controlled by trapping and insecticides; and thrips, which cause conspicuous streaks of gray or brown in the foliage, again controlled by insecticides. In commercial production, systemic insecticides are often applied to tubers prior to planting. Wireworms occasionally attack the stems; treating the soil, tubers, and aboveground stems is required for control. Slugs and snails destroy young growth and must be strictly controlled early in the season. Earwigs are more unsightly than dangerous, but if flowers are being grown for shows or cutting, control will be necessary to prevent these pests from eating the petals. Earwigs are nocturnal and can be trapped by placing a clay pot filled with straw on top of a cane in areas being attacked to attract the pests. Remove the straw containing the earwigs in the morning and dispose of it along with the insects. Red spider mites are seldom a problem. Nematodes can cause lesions on the leaves and, in severe infestations, may distort or stunt growth; they can be controlled by soil fumigation, best done by a professional. In commercial fields, fumigation should be considered if harmful nematodes are noticed. Fungus diseases such as mildew or rust are not frequently a problem. Good air circulation reduces the likelihood of disease. Removing affected foliage is a reasonable control in the garden. Keep water off the foliage in areas where mildew is a problem on nearby plants. In commercial fields, a controlled program of fungicide

Dahlia spraying should be considered, especially if the fields do not have good air circulation. Fungus attacks are more common in summer where humidity is high. Good cultural practices can reduce problems; if disease is likely, consider leaving greater distance between the plants in the rows and between the rows themselves. PROPAGATION

Dahlias can be propagated in various ways: division, seed, cuttings, and (in commercial operations) tissue culture. Many firms offer seed, especially of the low-growing bedding dahlias in mixed colors. Sow seed in February or early March to produce flowering plants the following summer. Use a standard potting mix and space the seeds about 1 in. apart. Cover with in. of soil and water in. With night temperatures of 55°F, germination (usually high) should be complete in 21 days. As soon as the seedlings are large enough to handle, transplant them into individual containers, using a standard potting mix. Protect them from temperatures lower than 45°F at night to ensure good growth (they can survive lower temperatures, but growth will be checked). Harden them off and plant them out when all danger of frost is past and night temperatures are constantly 45°F to 50°F. In frost-free areas, day length is the governing factor; early April in the Northern Hemisphere is the approximate point at which sufficient day length ensures steady growth. Mature tubers can be propagated by division at planting time (Plate 54). It is essential that each portion of the divided plant have an "eye," a dormant bud on the stem. With a sharp knife, cut apart the portions of stem with eyes, together with the attached tubers. Sometimes more than one tuber is attached to a stem with an eye. Divisions with small tubers do not produce plants as good as those with larger tubers. Dust the cut surfaces with a fungicide and plant the divisions in well-prepared ground. For the home gardener, growing dahlias from cuttings is simple. The method used is the same as that followed by commercial growers, but the timing differs. In late winter or early spring, plant the tubers in containers with their collars exposed, using a light sand-peat mix or pure sphagnum peat. Keep warm, around 55°F at night, and moist, with good light. After a week, young shoots will emerge from the collar, the portion of the old stem immediately above the tubers. Allow these to develop until they are 3-5 in. long, then cut them away with a portion of the older tissue, which forms the "heel" of the cutting. Insert the cuttings into a sandy soil mix, either in a flat or around the rim of a pot. Bottom heat and a rooting hormone applied to the base of the cuttings speed root production. Humidity must be constantly high; for small quantities, place a plastic bag over the cuttings on a wire frame to ensure that there is plenty of air space between the cuttings and the plastic. Rooting takes 10-18 days, depending on soil temperature. As soon as the cuttings regain turgidity, remove the plastic cover for short periods to reduce the likelihood of fungal infection. After a week, the plastic can be left off permanently. As soon as growth is apparent, examine cuttings for root growth. When rooted, transplant the cuttings into individual containers,

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harden them off, and plant them outdoors as outlined for plants raised from seed. COMMERCIAL PROPAGATION

While the method of producing cuttings is basically the same for both amateur and professional, the time that production starts differs. Commercial production starts much earlier and requires a warm greenhouse or a series of heated frames in regions that are not frost-free. Top quality roots selected during the previous growing season are lifted and stored until the middle of December. They then are washed and dipped in fungicide to rid them of any fungus spores. In a well-lit area, a bench or heated frame is prepared with a bed of peat moss some 6 in. deep. The tubers are nestled into the bed with the tops exposed to avoid etiolation. The air temperature should be 60°F at night, with the beds about 5° warmer. The peat moss must be kept moist. It is important to keep records of the number of cuttings produced by each tuber. This enables the correct number of tubers to be planted to produce the number of plants needed to fill production quotas. I also found it an advantage to keep track of the number of days the cuttings took to root. I was then able to group quick rooting cultivars together, making it easier to arrange the cutting beds as all cuttings would be removed at the same time and slow rooters were not mixed in with faster rooting cultivars. In a week, shoots will start to grow from the tubers. These are gathered 2 or 3 times a week, removed with a sharp knife, cutting close to the tuber but without removing any part of it. The cuttings should be 3 in. long. Each tuber, depending on the cultivar, should produce up to 20-30 cuttings. Some cultivars, however, produce only 6 or 7. The cuttings are then prepared for insertion into the rooting medium. Dipping the ends of the cuttings in a commercial root-promoting hormone after removing any lower leaves speeds rooting. No foliage should be covered by the rooting medium. Different growers have their own favorite media, but I find that the best is pure sharp, white sand or crushed pumice, into which the cuttings are inserted to half their length. The rooting medium is placed in the bench to a depth of 8-10 in. and bottom heat given so that a temperature of 65°-75°F is maintained. The sand or pumice should not be compacted but rather fluffed up so the cuttings can be inserted without damage. After insertion, water-in and place a plastic tent over top. After a week, the flaps on the sides of the tent are lifted during the day to give ventilation. After another 3 days the flaps should be left open at night, and the tent removed completely after still another 3-4 days have passed. Night air temperature should be kept at 65°F, with maximum light at all times. Later in the season, in April or May, shade is needed at midday. About 2 weeks after being placed in the rooting medium, the cuttings should be well-rooted and can be removed for potting. Put each cutting into its individual pot containing a mixture of 7 parts top soil, 3 parts peat, and 2 parts sharp sand. The potted cuttings are placed in a frame, where a temperature of 55°F is

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maintained at night. They then are hardened off, so that by mid-May, or after the last frost, protection is no longer needed. These cuttings are sizable plants ready for sale by that time. The parent plants needed for the next season are planted in the open ground and by the end of the season will have produced large tubers. The renewal of the stock by the production of tubers from cuttings ensures the maximum production of flowers and lush foliage. SPECIES D. coccinea. Mexico; introduced 1798. Leaves pinnate or bipinnate. Stems erect, to 36 in. Flowers scarlet, sometimes with orange or yellow centers, summer. Plate 427. D. excelsa. Mexico. Stems erect, quite woody when mature, to 20 ft. Leaves often more than 24 in. long. Flowers dull, pale purple, late summer. Can be grown only in frost-free regions; stem cannot reach flowering height with short growing season. D. imperialis. TREE DAHLIA. Mexico, Guatemala, San Salvador, Colombia, and Costa Rica. Stems 6-30 ft., usually branched only at base, with swollen nodes. Leaves have 2-3 leaflets and total length to 3 ft. Flowers 6 in. in diameter, white or pink with red markings at base, late summer. The only true species much grown in gardens. Plates 428-430. D. merckii. Mexico; introduced before 1839. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers lilac, summer to fall. D. pinnata. Mexico; introduced 1798. Stems 36-60 in., sometimes more. Leaves have rounded, toothed leaflets to 10 in. long, including petiole. Flowers large, pale purple with yellow or pink centers. Much used in early hybridizing. Dahlia variabilis was a name given to a semidouble form. D. scapigera. Mexico; introduced 1838. Stems to 24 in. Flowers various colors, summer. D. tenuicaulis. Mexico. Stems branching, bushy, 12-14 ft. Flowers lilac, late summer to fall. SYNONYMS D. arborea see D. imperialis. D. gracilis see D. coccinea. D. juarezii see D. coccinea. D. rosea see D. pinnata. D. superflua see D. pinnata. D. variabilis see D. pinnata. D. yuarezii see D. coccinea.

Daiswa—Trilliaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from dai swa, a Nepalese name for the plant. The 15 or so species in the genus are closely related to Paris—so closely, in fact, that some authorities question the need to separate them. Studies by Armen Takhtajan led him to conclude there were sufficient differences to merit the division; other authorities regard the plants as at best a subgenus of Paris. Among the differences, Daiswa has a thick rhizome, while Paris has a thin, creeping rhizome. The 2 genera have their center of distribution in the Himalayas and E Asia, while their showier relatives, the trilliums, are centered on W North America.

The flowers are carried singly on erect stems, above an apical whorl of leaves. The number of leaves in the whorl varies from 4 to 12; they are often interestingly mottled or variegated, and are oval to linear, with sharply pointed tips. The flowers may have as many as 20 stamens, and thick styles. There are 4-8 sepals and an equal number of petals, which are often shorter and narrower than the sepals, giving the flower a spidery appearance. They flower in summer or late spring and are dormant in winter. These are interesting subjects for the woodland garden where prolonged, severe frosts are not experienced and summer moisture can be provided. The mottled foliage of some species is an ornament, though the flowers are primarily of botanical interest. CULTURE Daiswas need a woodsy soil rich in humus and prefer a lightly shaded spot with ample spring and summer moisture. Plant rhizomes 2-4 in. deep, spacing them 12-18 in. apart, a little more for the tallest species. Give them an organic mulch. Except for the species from the warmest areas, such as D. hainensis, they should tolerate winter temperatures down to 5° or 10°F, especially with snow cover, but the soil should not be saturated in winter. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Seed is the usual means of increase, planted as soon as it ripens and kept in cool conditions until it germinates. Seedlings develop slowly and resent transplanting, which should be done only in fall. Flowering plants can be obtained in about 5 years. It is also possible to divide the rootstock as described under Trillium. SPECIES D. birmanica. Myanmar. Stems to 24 in. Flowers purple, broad-petaled, summer. D. bockiana. China and Myanmar. Stems to 16 in. Leaves 610. Perianth parts threadlike. Stamens 10-12. Styles 4 or 5, fused into a short column. Flowering summer. D. chinensis. China, Southeast Asia, and Myanmar, in warmer regions. Stems to 36 in. Leaves 6-8 in whorl, 4 in. long and almost as wide, on 1-in. petioles. Flowers have 5, sometimes 6, sepals to 1 in. long, and 5 greenish-yellow petals, shorter than sepals, narrower at base than at tip. Stamens 10-20; ovoid ovary crowned by a ring of teeth; 4 or 5 styles joined into a short column. Flowering summer. D. cronquistii. China (Sichuan). Stems purple, to 24 in. Leaves 5 in whorl about midway on stem, mottled, with red petioles. Flowers yellow-green, edged oxblood red, on 8-in. pedicels. 5 threadlike petals bend downward, to 1 in. long; sepals l/2 in. wide. Flowering summer. D. delavayi. NW China and Vietnam. Stems 16-24 in. Leaves 6-8 in whorl, bronze-green, 4 in. long, 2 in. wide. Flowers purple; ovary 6-winged; 6 purplish brown styles united at base. Flowering early summer.

Delphinium D. dunniana. China. Stems to 36 in. Flowers greenish yellow, summer. D. fargesii. Myanmar and China. Stems to 36 in. Sepals 4-6, yellow-green; petals 3 times as long as sepals; 10-14 stamens; 5 styles, united, recurving at tip. D. forrestii. China and Myanmar. Stems to 28 in. Leaves 5 or 6 in whorl, cordate at base, to 5 in. long but often less, to 2 in. wide, on 1-in. petioles. Flowers greenish yellow; ovary purplish; sepals 1 in. long, sometimes a little more; petals often 3 times as long. Flowering summer. D. hainanensis. China. Leaves 10-20 in whorl. Petals 6, green, to 4 in. long, threadlike; 24-36 stamens, green and maroon; 6 thick styles. Flowering early summer. D. lancifolia. China (Sichuan), Tibet, and Taiwan. Stems to 24 in. Leaves 10-20 in whorl, narrow, sessile, 5-6 in. long. Sepals 4-8, yellowish green, half as long as leaves. Petals very thin, to 3 in. long. Styles, up to 10, not joined or just barely, slightly recurved. Flowering late spring. A vigorous species. D. polyphylla. Himalayas and China. Stems to 18 in. Sepals green; petals threadlike, golden. D. pubescens. China. Stems to 18 in. Leaves 6-7 in whorl. Sepals 4-6; petals green-yellow, longer than sepals; ovary purple. Flowering late spring. D. thibetica. China (Sichuan, Yunnan) and Tibet. Stems to 30 in. Leaves up to 10 in whorl, sessile, 6 in. long, narrow at base. Sepals 5, green -at base, white at tips; petals threadlike, equal to or shorter than sepals. Long stamens held stiffly upright; 5 styles, much reflexed and very thin. Flowering early summer. D. violacea. China (Yunnan). Stems to 8 in. Petals threadlike, greenish yellow; filaments yellow, longer than anthers. Leaves 4-6 in whorl, gray-green with white veins. D. yunnanensis. India, Tibet, Myanmar, and China (Sichuan, Yunnan). Stems to 36 in. Leaves 6-8 in whorl, lanceolate, with distinct petiole and parallel veins, 4 in. long, 1/2 in. wide. Sepals 6-8, green, 2 in. long; petals golden, threadlike petals, 4 in. long. Up to 16 stamens. Var. alba has a bright lemon-yellow and lime-green flower with white markings. SYNONYMS D. polyphylla var. stenophylla see D. lancifolia. D. polyphylla var. stenophylla var. thibetica see D. thibetica.

Daubenya—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of Charles Daubeny (1795-1867), professor of botany at Oxford. A genus of a single species, Daubenya has been expanded to include the monotypic genera Androsiphon and Amphisiphon, which in this volume are described separately because of their different cultural requirements. Daubenya aurea, a very attractive plant that looks much like a Massonia or Whiteheadia species, produces either yellow or red flowers (Plates 447, 448). This rare monotypic species is endangered and one of many species that, no matter how deserving, will not be well known—surely a great pity. I did, however, see this plant being evaluated as a potential commercial crop on a visit in

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1999 to South Africa. Such an introduction would secure its future. It is for the bulb fancier only and in rock gardens in nearly frost-free climates. CULTURE Plant bulbs 2-3 in. deep, 6 in. apart, in a sandy, well-drained soil in sun. Can be grown outdoors only in frost-free areas; elsewhere grow in a cool greenhouse, protected from temperatures below 40°F. In their native habitat they experience light frosts at night, cool temperatures, and bright light. Moisture is required during winter and spring, but after the foliage begins to die back, withhold water and let bulbs become dry while dormant. Daubenya aurea grows well in containers in a sandy soil mix. Little or no feeding is required. PESTS AND DISEASES

Watch out for slugs and snails, since the foliage is close to the ground. PROPAGATION

Separate offsets from parent bulbs during dormant period. Sow seed in spring, very lightly covered in a sandy soil mix, and grow under bright light; keep temperatures in the 30°F range at night. As soon as seedlings are large enough to handle, transplant to individual containers and grow on until they reach flowering size. SPECIES D. aurea. South Africa (Sutherland to Calvinia in Northern Cape), rare and endangered. Stems 3–4 in. Leaves 2, dark green, strongly veined and rounded at the tips, resting on the ground but arching a little, opposite and touching at their bases, about 4 in. long and 2-3 in. wide. Inflorescence an umbel-like corymb carrying up to 10 malodorous flowers of 2 distinct forms. Flowers of the outer ring are irregularly shaped red, yellow, or orange, with a large lower lip of 3 blunt, hooded lobes, and a minute 3-lobed upper lip; flowers of the inner ring are orangeyellow and almost symmetrical, the tepals fused into a long tube with short free lobes. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). Plants go dormant in summer. In early literature, separate names were given to yellow-flowered (D. coccined) and red-flowered (D.fulva) forms. SYNONYMS

D. coccinea see D. aurea. D. fulva see D. aurea.

Delphinium—Ranunculaceae LARKSPUR Name derived from Greek delphis ("dolphin"); delphinion is a name used by Dioscorides, and the flowers have a distinct spur, giving them a fair resemblance to a dolphin. Although there are perhaps 250 species in the genus, just a few are tuberous, and these are native mostly to dry regions; the majority have fibrous rootstocks. The genus is confined to northern temperate zones in America, Asia, and Europe, with a few on mountains in central Africa. Only the more commonly grown tuberous species

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are described below; there are others in W North America and in W and C Asia. The showy part of the delphinium flower consists of the 5 petaloid sepals and the spur behind them. The 4 little petals— a lateral pair with a short claw, and an upper pair with nectarbearing spurs—form a tuft or "bee" in the center of the flower and are often contrastingly colored. CULTURE The tuberous delphiniums are appropriate for the rock garden or other well-drained sites, especially in dry-summer regions. The smaller ones can be cultivated in large pots in a bulb frame. Delphinium tricome is more widely adapted to typical garden soils and moisture and is grown in "prairie" gardens in the U.S. Midwest, while D. leucophaeum, if available, would be suitable for the border where summers are dry. After planting, leave undisturbed. Some species perpetuate themselves by extensive self-sowing, and their individual plants are normally shortlived. PESTS AND DISEASES

Protect plants from slugs and snails, which devour the foliage and young stems. PROPAGATION

These species are propagated from seed, which should be sown as soon as possible after ripening. Keep pots in cool conditions over winter; germination normally takes place after a period of moist chilling. Transplant seedlings when large enough to handle into individual pots, overwinter where they will not freeze, and transplant to their permanent positions the following spring. SPECIES

D. fissum. Turkey and Balkan Peninsula. Roots tuberous. Stems 20-36 in. Basal leaves to 8 in. wide, palmate with many lobes. Flowers in a dense raceme, blue to lilac, 1 in. in diameter; spur is straight or almost so. Flowering summer. D. leucophaeum. United States (Willamette Valley in Oregon); endangered. Roots tuberous. Stems slender, to 30 in., leafy. Leaves 3- to 5-lobed, to 4 in. wide. Flowers, up to 12 in well-spaced raceme, have white sepals with green tips, bright violet upper petals, creamy white lower petals; spur straight or curving upward. Flowering late spring to mid summer. D. menziesii. Canada (British Columbia) and United States (Washington to California), in rocky alpine meadows. Rootstock a cluster of tubers. Stems to 20 in., often less. Basal leaves 21/2 in. wide, palmate with segments lobed. Flowers to 10 in short raceme; sepals vivid deep blue, upper petals pale blue, lower petals darker, occasionally marked with white; spur1/2in. long. Flowering spring to mid summer, depending on altitude. D. nuttallianum. Canada (British Columbia) and United States (Washington to California), in rocky places. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 2 in., often less. Flowers few, pendent; sepals bright blue to purple; upper petals white, lower translucent; spur very slender and straight,1/2in. long. Flowering summer. D. tricorne. United States (Pennsylvania to Minnesota, south to Georgia and Oklahoma). Stems to 24 in. Leaves few, much

dissected, withering early. Flowers few, blue to violet marked with white. Not an attractive plant but popular in native plant gardens in its region. D. zalil. Iran and C Asia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 30 in. Leaves palmate, much dissected. Flowers clear pale yellow, spring to early summer.

Devia—Iridaceae The sole species in this South African genus is described in depth by Goldblatt and Manning (1990) and Goldblatt (1991). Devia is distinguished from the closely related Crocosmia by differences in the leaves, the color of the perianth, and the spiral arrangement of the stamens. This plant is rare and likely to remain little known in cultivation. SPECIES D. xeromorpha. South Africa (W Karoo). Rootstock a corm with a fibrous tunic. Leaves almost cylindrical, with 2 longitudinal grooves on each surface, several per corm. Flowers in a spike with leathery bracts; inner and outer bracts of equal length. Flowers pink, regular in form or nearly so; the stamens are arranged in a spiral. The style is longer than the other perianth parts, extending beyond them, and divided into threadlike branches.

Dicentra—Fumariaceae DUTCHMAN'S BREECHES, BLEEDING HEART, LADY'S LOCKET, LYRE FLOWER The name is derived from Greek dis ("twice") and kentron ("spur"), the flowers being 2-spurred. This genus has about 18 or 19 species, some with tuberous rootstocks, and some with overwintering rhizomes. In some older literature, the genus is called Dielytra—a name that arose when someone misread Dicentra in bad handwriting! The genus is widely distributed in North America, Japan, and E Asia and contains a number of very hardy and decorative garden subjects. The flowers are beautiful and unusual. The 2 outer petals are reflexed or spreading, like little spurs, while the inner 2 petals are larger and held together over the style and anthers. This configuration produces some curious shapes, reflected in the common names. The flowers are held in terminal racemes and, depending on species, may be light to deep pink, white, or yellow (the yellow-flowered species are annual or short-lived climbers, not included here). Dicentras bloom from early spring to early summer, and some species are dormant from mid summer on. The leaves are stalked and much divided, often glaucous, and constitute another attraction in the garden. Several species are mainstays for the cool, partly shaded border and woodland garden: Dicentra eximia, D.formosa, and D. spectabilis. Dicentra cucullaria is useful in the shaded rock garden. Dicentra peregrina and D. uniflora are alpine scree plants, of interest to specialists who can cater to their strict demands.

Dichelostemma CULTURE

Normally sold as container plants, except D. cucullaria, which is supplied as dormant tubers. All species prefer a cool site in shade (D. formosa can take full sun in cool regions) and rich, deep, humusy soil. Plant 2-3 in. deep, spacing plants according to their habit; rhizomatous species spread rapidly. Hardiness varies (see list of species). The shorter-growing kinds can grow in containers. Fertilizing is not required in good soil, but liquid organic fertilizer can be applied as soon as growth is noticed in the spring. Care should be taken not to overfeed, or the plants become rank. PESTS AND DISEASES

There are no significant problems, though the Asian species may be eaten by slugs and snails; the American species seem to be unpalatable to these pests. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide both tuberous and rhizomatous rootstocks in fall or early spring before growth starts. Seed should be sown as soon as it is ripe; keep seed pots in cool conditions with ample moisture. Germination can be erratic, especially if seed is not fresh. SPECIES D. canadensis. SQUIRREL CORN. Canada (Nova Scotia south) and United States (Maine to North Carolina); introduced 1822. Rootstock a small, rounded, yellow tuber. Stems 6-12 in. Usually only one leaf produced, grayish, finely cut, always basal. Flowers fragrant, in a raceme; spurs rounded; inner petals crested, greenish white with hint of purple. Flowering mid spring. Plate 449. D. cucullaria. DUTCHMAN'S BREECHES. United States and Canada, widely distributed; introduced 1731. Rootstock a cluster of small tubers. Stems to 8 in., often shorter. Leaves numerous, glaucous. Flowers 1 in. long, white marked with yellow; spurs held at right angles to each other. Flowering mid spring. D. eximia. TURKEY CORN. United States (New York to Georgia), in mountains; introduced 1812. Rootstock a short, fleshy rhizome. Stems to 18 in. Leaves glaucous, persistent through summer. Flowers pinkish, in panicles; tips of outer petals spreading. Long flowering period, late spring to early summer. Selections and hybrids with D. formosa include 'Adrian Bloom', deep rose, large-flowered; 'Alba', white, late-blooming; 'Bountiful', deep rose; 'Spring Morning', soft pink. D. formosa. WILD BLEEDING HEART. NW North America; introduced 1796. Rootstock a fleshy rhizome, spreading widely. Leaves glaucous, basal, forming a tuft. Flowers in a raceme on leafless stem to 18 in., pale to deep pink, 1/2—1 in. long. Flowering late spring and may repeat in fall. Selections include 'Alba', pure white. Subsp. nevadensis from the Sierra Nevada of C California has outer petals cream to pink, inner white, pale yellow at tips. Subsp. oregana from NW California and SW Oregon has cream flowers, inner petals tipped pink, and is more compact than the type. D. pauciflora. United States (California), in rocky places. Stems 2-4 in. Flowers pale pink-purple, tipped darker, summer.

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D. peregrina. E Siberia and Japan, on moist alpine slopes and screes. Rootstock a short, erect rhizome. Stems and leaves to 3 in. Leaves few, very glaucous, tufted. Flowers 2-3, pink or white, proportionately large, early summer. Requires cool conditions in subirrigated scree or in alpine house; often grown by specialists in pure crushed pumice. D. spectabilis. BLEEDING HEART, LADY'S LOCKET. Siberia and Japan; introduced 1816. Rootstock a rhizome with fleshy tubers; propagated by cutting these apart into pieces with an "eye" (bud) above the tuber. Stems 18-30 in. Leaves much cut, segments ovate and wedge-shaped. Flowers pink to rosy crimson, in a graceful arching raceme; individual flowers 1 in. long. Flowering late spring to early summer. Selections include 'Alba' and 'Pantaloons', pure whites. Plates 450,451. D. uniflora. STEER'S HEAD. NW North America, in mountain screes. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers white to pink or lilac, early summer. SYNONYMS

D. oregana see D. formosa subsp. oregana. D. pusilla see D. peregrina.

Dichelostemma—Alliaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek dichelos ("bifid") and stemma ("crown"), a reference to the crown formed by the deeply divided lobes at the bases of the anther filaments. The 5 species in this genus were formerly included in Brodiaea; all are native to far W North America, where they grow in summer-dry grasslands. This genus is distinguished from Brodiaea by its keeled leaves (that is, with an angled, prominent midrib on the underside), its lack of prominent infertile staminodes, and its tight rather than loose umbels, and from Triteleia by the presence of 3 fertile stamens rather than 6. The rootstock is a spherical corm which produces sessile offsets. The linear, keeled leaves are all basal and may be withered by flowering time. They flower relatively late for West Coast bulbs and add color to the brown grasses among which they grow. One species, D. capitatum, has 6 stamens; the others have 3. The stems are erect in most species, but twining in D. volubile. This genus includes the showiest and most unusual members of the Brodiaea complex. Like other California grassland bulbs, it is suited to planting in borders and naturalistic settings in gardens where dry conditions prevail in summer. Dichelostemma capitatum and D. congestum should be cold-hardy to at least — 10°F, especially if seed is obtained from northerly populations. The other species are reliably hardy to at least 15°F but do not tolerate repeated freezing and thawing. CULTURE As for Brodiaea and Triteleia. PESTS AND DISEASES

As for Brodiaea and Triteleia. PROPAGATION

As for Brodiaea and Triteleia.

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Dichopogon

SPECIES D. capitatum. BLUE DICKS, WILD HYACINTH. Mexico and United States (S Oregon to Texas, Utah, and New Mexico), in grassland, scrub, and desert; introduced 1871. Stems 4-15 in. Flowers deep blue-purple (sometimes pinkish or white); stamens 6, fertile, a distinguishing trait. Flowering mid spring. Much confused in the literature with D. congestum. Plate 452. D. congestum. United States (C California to Washington) and Canada (British Columbia), in open woodland and grassland. Stems to 36 in. Leaves about 1/2 in. wide, to 18 in. long. Flowers to % in. long, blue-violet; tubes very short; 3 fertile stamens, and 3 outer staminodes reduced to tiny stubs. Flowering late spring to early summer. Ookow is the Native American name for this species. D. ida-maia. CALIFORNIA FIRECRACKER, FIRECRACKER FLOWER, CRIMSON SATIN FLOWER, FLORAL FIRECRACKER. Coast

Ranges of United States (N California); introduced 1870. Stems 20-36 in., often bent or slightly twisted. Leaves stiff, to 11/2 in. wide and 20 in. long. Flowers numerous in dense umbels, about 1 in. long; tube bright red, long with very short reflexed lobes green to cream. Flowering early summer. The showy flowers, an adaptation to pollination by hummingbirds, make this the most desirable species for the garden. In windy areas, may need support. Plate 453. D. multiflorum. WILD HYACINTH. United States (N California), in grassland and scrub; introduced 1892. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves glaucous, 12-36 in. long. Flowers 10-35 in dense spherical umbel, rose lavender to blue-purple, with darker midveins; tube relatively long, tightly constricted below widely flaring lobes. Flowering early summer. D. xvenustum. Naturally occurring hybrids (D. congestumx D. ida-maia). Flowers similar to those of D. ida-maiabut held more horizontally and usually bright rose purple. Usually sterile. 'Pink Diamond' is a Dutch selection. D. volubile. SNAKE LILY. United States (California), in foothill woodland and scrub, often near streams or seeps; introduced 1874. Stem twining, 3-6 ft. Leaves1/2in. wide, to 20 in. long, withered by flowering. Flowers pendent, tubular, 1 in. long, pinkish mauve, early summer. A fascinating curiosity; needs the support of a twiggy shrub and tolerates more shade and moisture than other species. SYNONYMS

D. californicum see D. volubile. D. pulchellum see D. capitatum.

Dichopogon D. strictum see Arthropodium strictum.

Dierama—Iridaceae HAIRBELL, ANGEL'S FISHING ROD, FAIRY FISHING ROD, WAND FLOWER, FAIRYBELL, GRASSY BELL, FLOWERING GRASS, WEDDING BELL Name said to be derived from Greek dierama ("funnel"), because of the shape of the perianth. The most recent account of

the genus (Hilliard and Burtt 1991) recognizes 44 species. All dieramas are native to Africa, widely distributed in Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Congo, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and South Africa. The rootstock is an annually renewed corm with a fibrous tunic. All species are evergreen, so the corm is never really in a dormant state. The leaves are long, more than 20 in. in most species, narrow, rigid, numerous, and grasslike. The foliage is often destroyed by fires in the native habitat, which do not seem to harm the corms. The outstanding feature of Dierama is the arching flower stem, which rises above the foliage, bending with the weight of the panicle of pendent flowers. The slender flower stalks move constantly in even the slightest breeze. The flowers open successively, so that the inflorescence persists over a long period. The perianth consists of 6 nearly equal segments and is shaped like a bell or elongated funnel. Flower colors are mostly very pale to very dark pink, but there are species with white, yellow, and purple to maroon flowers. These pretty plants have a number of common names. In Africa, they are known as hairbells, a reference to the hairlike flower stalks and the flowers' shape. In Europe and North America, they are called angel's (or fairy) fishing rod. Medicinal use of the corms of Dierama has been recorded in Lesotho. Dieramas are effective in the herbaceous perennial border or as isolated specimens alongside a water feature, just above the waterline where the soil is not constantly wet, so that their graceful stems and flowers are reflected in the water. They should be planted in groups. Since the foliage persists yearround, the plants are effective in isolated beds. If they are grown in containers, these must be large enough so the plants have ample room to expand. No species or hybrid is reliably coldhardy below about 15°F, and some are less hardy. They are sensitive to alternate freezing and thawing. The diversity in form and color in this genus suggests that some striking new hybrids could be developed. Their graceful stems would be in great demand by flower arrangers if a strain with numerous flowers that open simultaneously were available. No matter where I have seen them growing, they are always charming. CULTURE Dieramas need good, well-drained garden soil with ample moisture during spring and early summer; they prefer full sun, but in hot climates they appreciate afternoon shade. Plant spring-flowering species in late summer or early fall, fall-flowering species in spring. For best display, set in groups of 5-7, 3-5 in. deep and 12-18 in. apart. Plants should remain undisturbed for several years, so it is advantageous to incorporate slow-acting bone meal into soil at planting time; feed every spring as new growth is made. Plants take at least a season to settle in and resent being transplanted; lift only after they have grown in the same spot for at least 5 years. PESTS AND DISEASES

Aphids and fungal diseases may require control.

Dierama PROPAGATION

Lift plants and separate offsets; reduce foliage by half and replant immediately. This is best done right after flowering, for both spring- and fall-flowering species. Be careful not to damage the thick, fleshy, brittle roots. Sow seed of spring-flowering types in late summer, or as soon as ripe; sow fall-flowering types in spring. Use a sandy soil mix, barely covering seeds. Transplant seedlings to individual containers as soon as they are large enough to be handled. Plant out into final location when of good size. Flowering occurs after about 3 growing seasons. SPECIES D. adelphicum. South Africa (NE Mpumalanga, Northern Province). Stems 24-28 in. Flowers light mauve pink to bright magenta pink, rarely white, early summer (September to November in the wild). D. ambiguum. South Africa (S KwaZulu-Natal, N Eastern Cape). Stems 36-42 in. Flowers magenta, summer (October to November in the wild). D. argyreum. South Africa (S KwaZulu-Natal, N Eastern Cape). Stems 16-53 in. Flowers white or ivory, sometimes flushed pink or mauve at base, rarely mauve pink, late spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). D. atrum. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 30-50 in. Flowers deep maroon to purple-black, rarely lighter, summer (October to November in the wild). D. cooperi. Lesotho and South Africa (NE Free State, KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 24-55 in. Flowers bright pink or white, spring to summer (September to November in the wild). D. densiflorum. Tanzania, in mountains north of Lake Malawi. Stems 53-65 in. Flowers rose pink or pinkish purple, fall to winter. D. dissimile. South Africa (S Mpumalanga and KwaZuluNatal to N Eastern Cape). Stems 20-28 in. Flowers pale or mauve pink to bright magenta pink, spring to late summer (September to February in the wild). D. dracomontanum. South Africa (Eastern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal) and Lesotho. Stems 24-32 in. Flowers rose pink, mauve, purplish, or coral, late summer. D. dubium. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 30-60 in. Flowers dark purple-red, early spring to mid summer (September to December in the wild). D. erectum. South Africa (N KwaZulu-Natal); endangered. Stems 60-65 in. Flowers light magenta pink, late summer to fall (January to March in the wild). D.floriferum. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, S Mpumalanga). Stems 16-30 in. Flowers white to mauve or pinkish purple, early spring to early summer (August to November in the wild). D. formosum. Malawi, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and South Africa (SW Mpumalanga), in mountain grasslands. Stems 30-65 in. Flowers pale lilac to bright cerise, early summer (November to January in the wild). D. galpinii. Swaziland and South Africa (E Mpumalanga, N KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 40-60 in. Flowers light pink to light

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magenta, sometimes white, spring (August to November in the wild). D. gracile. South Africa (Northern Province, E Mpumalanga). Stems 12-30 in. Flowers light or dark lilac pink, spring (August to November in the wild). D. grandiflorum. South Africa (Port Elizabeth area in Eastern Cape). Leaves to 24 in. long. Stems thin, to 6 ft. Flowers among largest in genus, about 2 in. long, rich deep pink, tips folded and twisted. Flowering late spring to early summer (September to October in the wild). Once established, can withstand drought. D. igneum. Lesotho and South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Province, Mpumalanga). Stems to 36 in. Flowers pink mauve turning deep mauve, mid to late spring (August to September in the wild). D. insigne. Swaziland and South Africa (Mpumalanga to KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 26-30 in. Flowers pale pink to magenta, sometimes white, spring, sometimes to mid summer (October to March in the wild). D. inyangense. Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Stems 45-80 in. Flowers light to dark purple-pink, spring through late summer (October to January in the wild). D. jucundum. S Lesotho and South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 31-37 in. Flowers pale mauve, small zone of yellow surrounded by darker purple at base of petals, spring (August to September in the wild). D. latifolium. South Africa (C KwaZulu-Natal to N Eastern Cape). Stems 3-9 ft. Flowers pale to deep pink, rarely deep wine-red, spring to fall (September to February in the wild). D. longistylum. Tanzania, Malawi, and Zambia. Stems 22-47 in. Flowers pale to deep mauve pink, spring to mid summer (September to November in the wild). D. luteoalbidum. South Africa (SC KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 26-40 in. Flowers white to pale creamy white, spring (August to September in the wild). D. medium. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 36 in. Flowers rose, pale mauve to magenta pink, spring to summer (September to December in the wild). Plate 454. D. mobile. South Africa (SE Mpumalanga) to W Swaziland. Stems 30-60 in. Flowers magenta pink to deep wine red, on long peduncles, spring, sometimes to mid summer (August to November in the wild). D. mossii. Swaziland and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, NE Northwestern Province, S Northern Province), in moist places. Flowers mauve to mauve pink, spring to early summer (September to December in the wild). D. nebrownii. South Africa (E Mpumalanga). Stems 30-40 in. Flowers light pink to light mauve, spring to early summer (October to November in the wild). D. nixonianum. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 4-30 in. Flowers pale mauve, early spring (August to September in the wild). D. pallidum. South Africa (Durban area of KwaZulu-Natal); listed as vulnerable. Stems 20-40 in. Flowers creamy white to pale yellow, rarely flushed pink or violet, late spring to late summer (January to March in the wild).

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Dietes

D. parviflorum. Congo, Tanzania, and Zambia around Lake Tanganyika. Stems 16-33 in. Flowers light to dark mauve or lilac pink, spring (August to September in the wild). D. pauciflorum. Zimbabwe around Lake Inyanga, and South Africa (E Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, N Eastern Cape), in mountain marshes. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers bright pink or reddish, rarely white, spring to summer (October to December in the wild). D. pendulum. FLOWERING GRASS. South Africa (Eastern Cape from Humansdorp to Grahamstown). Stems to 6 ft. Leaves stiff, to 36 in. Flowers to 1 in. long, whitish or varying from pink to purple, with widely spreading perianth. Flowering late spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). Color forms sometimes distinguished as var. album (white flowers) and var. roseum (rosy purple). Plates 455-458. D. pictum. South Africa (E Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Free State) and Swaziland. Flowers mauve pink, magenta, or deep wine red, late spring to late summer (November to February in the wild). D. plowesii. Chimanimani Mountains of Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Stems 18-40 in. Flowers light magenta pink, spring. Flowering sporadically in the wild. D. pulcherrimum. MAGENTA WALLFLOWER. South Africa (Eastern Cape), in damp areas of open grassland; listed as vulnerable. Corms whitish, older ones with a thick tunic of dry, parallel fibers. Foliage tuft not as high as in other species, and a little wider. Stems to 6 ft. Flowers large, bright purple to rich carmine; distinctive bracts, white with some browning at base, show well against colorful perianth segments. Tepals never spread widely from their conical base (as they do in D. pendulum). Flowering late summer to early fall (December to February in the wild). The most commonly grown species and parent of many hybrids. Selections closely resembling the species are 'Heron', wine-red; 'Kingfisher', pale pinkish purple; 'Port Wine', deep wine-red; 'Skylark', purple-violet; 'Windhover', bright rose pink. Hybrids between D. pulcherrimum and D. dracomontanum are intermediate in height (4-5 ft.) and better suited for smaller gardens. Hybrid cultivars include 'Ceres', pale cobalt-violet; 'Oberon', carmine purple; 'Puck', light rose pink; 'Titania', light pink. Plates 459,460. D. reynoldsii. South Africa (C KwaZulu-Natal to N Eastern Cape). Stems 3-6 ft. Flowers deep wine-red, late spring to late summer (November to February in the wild). D. robustum. South Africa (Free State, KwaZulu-Natal to SW Eastern Cape). Stems 20-40 in. Flowers creamy white to pale pink or mauve pink, rarely darker, summer (November to January in the wild). D. sertum. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 28-48 in. Flowers creamy white to pale yellow, rarely pale pink, sporadically produced throughout much of year in the wild. D. trichorhizum. Drakensberg Mountains of South Africa (Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, N Eastern Cape) and Lesotho. Stems 4-14 in. Flowers pale mauve, pink or light purple, spring to summer (September to December in the wild). D. tyrium. South Africa (N KwaZulu-Natal, E Mpumalanga). Stems 4-6 ft. Flowers royal purple, dark reddish

magenta, or fuchsia, summer (December to March in the wild). D. tysonii. South Africa (S KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 18-34 in. Flowers light to deep bright pink, spring (August to October in the wild). SYNONYMS D. davyi see D. insigne. D. ensifolium see D. pendulum. D. longiflorum see D. pulcherrimum. D. medium var. mossii see D. mossii. D. pansum see D. igneum. D. pumilum see D. dracomontanum. D. rupestre see D. insigne.

Dietes—Iridaceae WILD IRIS Name derived from Greek di ("twice") and etes ("associate"), in reference to the genus's association with 2 other genera, Iris and Moraea. There are about 6 species, native to South Africa, Lord Howe Island in the SW Pacific, and Australia. Many authorities include these plants in Moraea, but others separate them because their rootstocks are rhizomes, not corms as in Moraea. The leaves are evergreen and sword-shaped, relatively broad and tapering to a fine point, often quite long and leathery. The numerous flowers are very iris-like in appearance but, in most species, last for only a day. The 3 outer perianth segments are broad; the 3 inner are narrower but often as long as the outer ones. The style is 3-branched and petaloid, giving a full look to the flower. The nectar guide is quite prominent. The evergreen habit of Dieteshas made these plants popular landscape subjects in warm Mediterranean-climate regions. They are sturdy plants, requiring little care, and flower profusely over a long period. CULTURE Most species must be grown frost-free; D. bicolorcan take temperatures down to 23°F, but only for brief periods. They are usually supplied as container plants and can be planted out at almost any time, though late summer is best. Plant rhizomes just below the soil surface, spacing the smaller species some 4-6 in. apart and the taller-growing ones 18 in. apart. They need full sun but thrive in almost any soil type. They require moisture in winter and spring but can survive dry summers once established. Fertilize during winter and spring; reduce watering and feeding during summer. Remove leaves that become shabbylooking. The flowering stems of D. bicolorand D. robinsoniana are perennial and should not be cut back. In colder climates, they can be grown in large containers and kept in a cool greenhouse over winter. PESTS AND DISEASES

These plants are largely free of pest and disease problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide rhizomes in late summer. Seedlings are easy to raise. Sow in a soil mix high in organic matter, with gentle heat

Dioscorea in spring. Plants suitable for planting out can be obtained in one season, 2 at most. SPECIES D. bicolor. PEACOCK FLOWER. South Africa (E Western Cape); introduced c. 1886. Stems to 24 in. or more, much branched. Leaves to 30 in. long, 2 in. wide. Flowers numerous, light cream with brown blotches at the base of the broader segments. Main flowering period is early spring, but some flowers are produced throughout summer (August to February in the wild). Plate 461. D.flavida. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga) and Swaziland. Stems to 28 in. Flowers pale yellow with orangebrown basal blotches, spring to summer (September to December in the wild). D. grandiflora. E Africa and South Africa (E Western Cape to KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 48 in. Leaves to 36 in. long, 4 in. wide. Flowers, perhaps the loveliest of the genus, pure white with large orange blotch on outer perianth segments; inner segments marked orange-brown at base; petaloid styles pinkish. Flowering mid spring to summer. Plates 462,463. D. iridioides. WILD IRIS. Subtropical Africa and South Africa (E Western Cape), along shady forest streams and also in drier areas. Rhizome creeping. Stems slender, 18-24 in. Leaves in a basal fan, to 18 in. long. Flowers bluish white with yelloworange markings on the lower segments; petaloid styles purplish and forked. Flowering late winter (August to December in South Africa; July to April in subtropical Africa) and produces some flowers throughout summer. Appears more like Iris than any other species in this genus. D. robinsoniana. Lord Howe Island off Australia; introduced 1877. Stems much branched, to 72 in. Leaves broad, to 72 in. long. Flowers white, fragrant, often 4 in. in diameter; nectar guide orange. Flowering in summer (September to January in the wild). A large plant that should be placed at the back of a border or as an isolated specimen. SYNONYMS

D. catenulata see D. iridioides. D. huttonii see Moraea huttonii. D. vegeta see D. iridioides.

Dioscorea—Dioscoreaceae YAM Named in honor of the first-century Greek physician and herbalist, Pedanios Dioscorides, author of Materia Medica, a book on medicinal herbs which was the foundation of botanical knowledge before the modern period. The genus contains about 600 species, many of great economic importance for their large, edible tubers, known as yams, which take the place of the potato in warmer regions. The Chinese yam, D. batatas, is the best known; the tubers of this plant may exceed 36 in. in length. Certain species, such as D. discolor and D. multicolor, are grown for their decorative leaves. The nomenclature employed in commerce is often confused; for example, the invalid name "D. sativa" has been used indiscriminately to cover species with edi-

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ble tubers. The list that follows includes only those species sometimes grown as ornamentals, omitting the many tropical food species and several small, unattractive species native to E United States and Europe. The stems are twining, bearing small flowers that are either monoecious or dioecious, the male flowers carrying 3 fertile and 3 infertile stamens. Many species contain compounds used in medicine; for example, diosgenin is extracted in the laboratory and converted to pregnenolone and then to progesterone. CULTURE The only remotely ornamental species that is at all cold-hardy is D. batatas, but even it should be protected in the coldest climates; the top growth is cut down by frost, but new growth emerges each spring. The other species require frost-free cultivation. All need a deep soil, rich in humus, and abundant moisture throughout the growing season. Tubers can be lifted in late summer or early fall and stored in a frost-proof area in dry sand. Replant them in spring with 3-4 in. of soil over them. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Divide tubers in spring before growth begins. Cuttings can be rooted in sharp sand in moderate to warm temperatures. Sow seed in spring, covered with % in. of sandy loam and kept moist in temperatures around 55°F at night. Transplant seedlings as soon as they are large enough to handle, allowing plenty of room for roots to develop in deep containers. SPECIES

D. aculeata. BIRCH-RIND YAM, GOA POTATO. Tropical Asia. Root sweetish, edible. Plant never flowers or fruits. D. alata. WHITE YAM, WATER YAM. India and South Pacific islands; long in cultivation. Tremendous tuberous roots, many feet long and often weighing over 100 lbs., an important tropical food crop. Stem angled. Flowers monoecious. Tubers often produced on stems. Leaves oblong or ovate, heart-shaped at base, with 7-9 veins. D. argyraea. Colombia. Leaves green, heart-shaped. Possibly a form of D. discolor. D. atropurpurea. MALACCA YAM, RANGOON YAM. Thailand and Myanmar. Tuber edible. D. balcanica. N Albania, Montenegro, Bosnia; rare. Rootstock tuberous. Stem to 24 in. Flowers green, summer. D. batatas. CHINESE YAM, CINNAMON VINE. China, Korea, Japan, and Philippines. Tubers club-shaped, 2-3 ft. long, produced deep in ground. Stem smooth, slightly angled, 6-10 ft. long. Leaves deep green, often with tubers in axils, heart-shaped at base. Flowers white, very small, fragrant, in racemes. Var. decaisneana has shorter tubers. Flowering in summer. Can be grown in colder climates, down to 0°F, but prefers warmer climates. D. bulbifera. AIR POTATO. Tropical Africa, Asia, and Australia. Small tubers sometimes form on roots; aerial tubers often weigh several pounds. Leaves alternate, heart-shaped, on long

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Dioscorea

stalks. Flowers greenish, in racemes, summer (September to February in the wild). D. caucasica. Georgia; introduced 1894. Rhizome thick, horizontal. Flowers greenish. May be used as a climber in shady areas. D. cayenensis. YELLOW YAM. Tropical South America and Africa. Tubers superficial, edible. D. cotinifolia. Swaziland, Botswana, and South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga), in deep shade. Rootstock is a cluster of fleshy tubers a little less than 1 in. in diameter and about 2 in. long. Stems twine counterclockwise for many feet through shrubs. Leaves shiny, heart-shaped, and pale green. Flowers monoecious, insignificant, summer (October to January in the wild). Native people gather the leaves to make beds on which women lie to increase their fertility. D. crinita. Swaziland and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1884. Flowers white, in numerous drooping racemes, late spring (September in the wild). D. daemona. India to Malaysia and the Philippines. Root bitter, eaten only when food is scarce. Vine 6 ft. Leaves trifoliate. Flowering winter (June to July in the wild). D. deltoidea. East Indies, India, Himalayas. Root edible. D. discolor. Ecuador and Brazil. Root tuberous. Flowers greenish and insignificant. Leaves dark green, mottled and veined silvery white, reddish purple beneath. D. divaricata. CHINESE POTATO, CINNAMON VINE. China and Philippines; introduced 1855. Leaves attractive and used as an ornamental climber. D. dumetorum. Tropical Africa. Tuber edible and used to treat diabetes, but produces burning sensation when in contact with skin. Leaves trifoliate. D. elephantipes. HOTTENTOT BREAD, ELEPHANT'S FOOT, TORTOISE PLANT. South Africa; introduced 1747. Very large tubers are baked and eaten by native people. Stems may reach 18 ft. high in one season. Flowers monoecious, greenish yellow, sometimes spotted, in racemes from axils of the heart-shaped leaves, summer (November to February in the wild). D. fargesii. W China. Tubers both aerial and root, edible. D. fasciculata. India and tropical East Asia. Vine to 6 ft. Tubers edible, resembling potatoes more than any other yam. Leaves simple. Flowers green, summer. D. globosa. India and East Indies. Tuber lobed, globose, edible. D. gracillima. Japan. Leaves heart-shaped with undulate margins. D. hastifolia. Western Australia. Trailing creeper. Tubers cultivated by Aborigines. Flowers yellow, winter to spring (May to October in the wild). D. hirticaulis. United States (New Jersey to Georgia). Stem twines counterclockwise. D. hirtiflora. Tropical Africa, in savanna. Tuber edible. D. hispida. Philippines. Tuber edible after grating, many washings, soaking and boiling; deadly if eaten raw. D. hylophila. Sub-Saharan Africa. Tuber edible. D. illustrata. Brazil; 1873. Probably a form of D. discolor. D. japonica. Japan and China. Root edible. Propagated by bulbils.

D. macrostachya. TORTOISE PLANT. Mexico and Central America. Stem vining to 40 in. Tuber grows at surface, 8 in. across, chocolate brown. Leaves light green, elongated heartshaped. Flowers monoecious, greenish yellow, summer. D. minutiflora. Sub-Saharan Africa. Tuber edible. D. multicolor. Brazil; introduced 1868. Leaves often variegated, blotched, and veined. D. nipponica. Japan (Honshu); cultivated in China and Japan. Leaves palmately lobed. Flowers greenish yellow. D. odoratissima. Sub-Saharan Africa. Tubers edible for humans. Fruit, leaves, and shoots edible for chimpanzees. D. opposita. China. Widely cultivated for herbal medicine. Flowers tiny, summer. D. oppositifolia. East Indies. Tuber edible. D. pentaphylla. Tropical Africa, India, Malaysia, and the Philippines. Tuber edible but bitter. Leaflets 5-7. Flowers yellowish white, fragrant, early summer. D. piperifolia. South America. Roots edible. D. piscatorum. Malaysia. Tubers dull red. D. praehensilis. Sub-Saharan Africa. Tubers edible. D. preussii. Sub-Saharan Africa. Tubers edible. D. purpurea. SWEET POTATO. East Indies. Tubers crimson red inside and outside. D. pyrenaica. N Spain, S France, and Pyrenees; rare. Vine to 6 in. Flowers green, summer. D. quaternata. United States (Pennsylvania to Florida, west to Missouri and Oklahoma), in woods. D. quinqueloba. Japan. Raceme loose. Flowers tiny, white, late summer to early fall. D. racemosa. Central America; 1850. Vine to 96 in. Rootstock tuberous. Flowers yellow and purple. D. retusa. South Africa; 1870. Habit twining. Flowers dull yellowish, summer (November to January in the wild). D. rubella. East Indies. Tubers large, reported to be excellent eating. D. sansibarensis. Congo. Tuber edible for humans. Bulbils produced in leaf axils. Fruit edible for baboons. D. sativa. Western Australia. Climber to 6 ft. Tuber edible if soaked and boiled or roasted. D. schimperiana. Sub-Saharan Africa. Tuber eaten in times of famine. Fruit, leaves, and shoots edible for chimpanzees. D. septemloba. Japan (Honshu). Leaves with 7 lobes. D. spicata. East Indies. Tuber edible. D. tokoro. Japan. Produces the hormone diosgenin used in steroids. D. tomentosa. DOYALA YAM. India. D. transversa. Australia (Northern Territory, Queensland, N New South Wales). Tubers irritate skin. Source of arrowroot, a starch substitute. D. trifida. South America, West Indies. Tubers small. D. triloba. Jamaica. Tuber small, 9 in. long, 3 in. wide, edible. D. villosa. WILD YAM. E United States. Leaves glabrous, slightly hairy beneath. Produces the hormone diosgenin used in steroids. Plate 464. D. vittata. Garden selection. Leaves heart-shaped, variegated red and white. Grown in warm greenhouses for foliage.

Dipcadi

SYNONYMS

D. cylindrica see D. hispida. D. decaisneana see D. batatas var. decaisneana. D. glauca see D. quaternata. D. latifolia see D. bulbifera. D. Hebrechtsiana see D. odoratissima. D. macroura see D. sansibarensis. D. malifolia see D. cotinifolia.

Dipcadi—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Name is derived from an old name for a species ofMuscari. The genus contains about 55 species native to South Africa, S Europe, and the East Indies. They grow in dry, often rocky ground. Some species were formerly placed in the genus Uropetalum. The rootstock is a bulb, generally rounded, almost spherical. The flowers are not unlike those of hyacinths and scillas, but much less attractive because of their coloring: dull blends of green, brown, buff, and yellow. For this reason, they are likely to be of interest only to the botanist and collector. The perianth is tubular at the base, flaring into lobes which reflex at the tips. The outer segments sometimes curl nearly into a circle, while the inner ones are held more erect. The flowers are pendent, in a loose raceme, and are produced in late spring or summer. The 3-5 leaves are basal, linear, and shorter than the flowering stem. CULTURE Hardiness varies according to species; D. serotinum is probably the hardiest, but even it requires protection where winter temperatures dip below 20°F. Mild Mediterranean climates are most suitable for growing these plants outdoors. Plant bulbs 1— 3 in. deep in well-drained soil in sun. Moisture is needed in winter and spring, with a definite drying period after the foliage dies in summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems PROPAGATION

Remove offsets from the parent bulbs in fall or spring and grow them on to flowering size. Sow seed in fall or spring in sandy soil, barely covered, with temperatures around 50°F at night. Grow seedlings frost-free, keeping them moist until the foliage yellows, and transplant while dormant. Flowering plants can be raised from seed in 3 years. SPECIES D. balfourii. Yemen, on Socotra island; introduced 1880. Stems to 20 in. Leaves broad, often 1 in. or more, erect. Flowers greenish yellow, 8-12 per stem, spaced over1/3of the stem, late summer. D. brevifolium. BROWN BELLS, CURLY-CURLY. Namibia and South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape), in coastal areas. Bulb almost spherical. Stems to 20 in. Leaves basal, 2-3 held almost erect, linear, 10-15 in. long. Flowers 6-8 per stem, emerald green with a hint of bronze on outer segments; perianth tube strongly constricted. Flowering spring to early summer (September to November in the wild).

213

D. ciliare. CURLY-CURLY. South Africa (Karoo region, Northwestern Province, Northern Province, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 16 in. Leaves, 5-6 per bulb, appear after flowering. Flowers tubular, brown, green or yellowish green, summer. D. crispum. Namibia and South Africa (Namaqualand, W Karoo). Stems to 12 in. Flowers brown to orange, winter (May to July in the wild). D. fulvum. S Spain, Morocco, and Canary Islands. Stems to 18 in. Flowers pink, tinged brown, fall. D. glaucum. POISON ONION. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga); introduced 1814. Stems 24-48 in. Flowers green with brownish-green margin, summer (November to May in the wild). D. gracillimum. South Africa (Mpumalanga, Gauteng). Stems to 12 in. Flowers green, sometimes tinged red, spring to late summer (September to March in the wild). D. longifolium. Tropical Africa, widespread. Stems 12-40 in. Flowers green, summer. Plate 465. D. marlothii. N South Africa. Stems to 40 in. Flowers in onesided raceme, green with golden margins, pendent; tip of flowering stem bends over. Flowering spring to fall (September to April in the wild). D. papillatum. South Africa (Northern Province, Gauteng). Stems to 16 in. Flowers green, summer (December to February in the wild). D. rigidifolium. South Africa (Mpumalanga, Gauteng). Stems to 20 in. Leaves dark green, hard, with yellow or red margins. Flowers green, summer (November to April in the wild). D. serotinum. SW Europe and North Africa. Stems to 18 in. Leaves 3-5, linear. Flower color variable, yellowish brown or greenish brown, sometimes flushed reddish. Flowers pendent, to 1 in. long, outer tepals recurving, inner tepals more erect. Flowering late spring to early summer. Plate 466. D. tacazzeanum. NE Africa, drier parts of tropical Africa; introduced 1892. Stems 6-9 in. Flowers green, summer. D. vaginatum. South Africa (Northern Province). Stems to 16 in. Flowers green, spring (October in the wild). D. viride. South Africa (Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape to KwaZulu-Natal), along coast; introduced 1865. Stems to 15 in. Leaves clasp flowering stem at base and just exceed height of stem, folding to tubular form for much of their length. Inner perianth segments fused into urn shape; lobes of outer segments much reflexed and bending to touch the pedicel. Common in the wild; the bulbs are used by native people as a medicine for babies, possibly to cure colic. Flowering early spring and intermittently in summer. D. welwitschii. Angola; introduced 1867. Stems to 12 in. Flowers green, summer. SYNONYMS D. oligotrichum see D. marlothii. D. polyphyllum see D. gracillimum. D. readii see D. ciliare. D. umbonatum see D. viride.

214

Dipidax

Dipidax see Onixotis Dracunculus—Araceae DRAGON ARUM, PURPLE DRAGON LILY Name used by Pliny for a plant with a curved rhizome; Latin for "little dragon." The most common species is called the dragon arum. There are only 3 species, 2 from the Mediterranean and one from the Canary Islands and Madeira. These were formerly classified in the genera Arum and Helicodiceros. The rootstock is a tuber. The plants are grown for their leaves, which are handsome and deeply divided, borne on interestingly marked stalks. The inflorescence has a large spathe, overlapping near the base and somewhat flattened above. The zones of male and female flowers on the spadix are adjacent, not separated by sterile flowers. All species flower in summer. The flowers are notorious for their carrionlike smell, which attracts flies, their pollinators. These are striking plants when growing among other plants that complement the bold foliage, and they look well at the edge of the woodland garden. Place them where the odor of the flowers (which lasts only a few days) and the flies it attracts will not be too obtrusive. CULTURE Plant in rich soil with plenty of organic matter and abundant moisture, good drainage, and full sun to part shade. Set tubers 5-6 in. deep and 18-24 in. apart. Plants appreciate a topdressing of organic matter every spring. They tolerate both water and drought in summer but increase more rapidly in moist conditions. Lift and divide every 3-4 years in early spring to prevent overcrowding. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Separate tubers or cut them into sections, each with a bud, and plant them back. This is best done in early spring. Sow seed as soon as harvested in a fairly rich soil mix and keep moist. Transplant when seedlings go dormant. Grow on in nursery rows or individual pots for 1-2 years. SPECIES D. canariensis. Canary Islands and Madeira. Flower stalk heavily spotted, 24-36 in. Leaves pale green, divided into 4 or 5 segments, middle ones to 6 in. long.; leafstalks to 12 in., spotted purplish where they clasp flowering stem. Spathe narrow, tube at base 2 in. long, blade to 12 in. long, white above, green beneath; yellow spadix ends in tail more than 10 in. long. Flowering mid to late summer. D. musdvorus. HAIRY ARUM, DRAGON'S MOUTH. W Mediterranean, Corsica, Sardinia, and Balearic Islands. Often grown under synonym Helicodiceros musdvorus. Leaves to 12 in. wide, irregularly divided into narrow lobes; 3 median lobes broader and deflexed, others held at angles. Leafstalks to 18 in. long, spotted at base. Spathe held below leaves, deep purple-red mot-

tled dull purple or oxblood, with red hairs; green-white streaked brown beneath; tube 6 in. long, spathe limb to 12 in., spreading, reflexed-horizontal. Spadix 6 in. long, dark green or yellow. Flowering early summer. Plate 467. D. vulgaris. DRAGON ARUM. Mediterranean region; introduced 1910. Tuber large, round. Total height of plant to 36 in. Leaves divided into several lobes, usually 5-7; base clasps flowering stem; leaf stalk pale green mottled darker green. Flower stalk whitish, mottled dull purple to black. Spathe crimson-red, very dark red, or almost black on exterior, dull green inside; spathe tube 2 in. long, striped purple at mouth; spathe limb to 12 in. long, 6 in. wide. Spadix blackish red with long appendix. Populations on Crete often have green, white, or yellow spathe. Flowering early to mid summer. Fruit is scarlet berries in late summer to early fall. The only species commonly grown. Plate 468.

Drimia—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek drimys ("acrid"), because the sap from the roots is acrid and causes inflammation of the skin. The genus includes about 15 species native to South Africa and tropical Africa, few of which are in cultivation. Obermeyer proposed that the genus Urginea should be sunk in Drimia, but that revision is not followed here. The rootstock is a fleshy, scaly bulb which produces roots from the bottom and from among the lower scales. The size of the bulb varies with the species: those of D. hyacinthoides are 3 in. in diameter, while those of D. minor are barely1/2in. in diameter. Generally, 3 basal leaves are produced, and these are soft, smooth, and linear. The flowers are held in a long raceme, often 20 or more per stem. They are produced in summer and are not long-lasting. Flower colors range from pinkish purple to yellow or white. The tepals are united at the base and the flowers do not open widely; in certain species, notably D. media, the tepals are much reflexed. The 6 stamens are attached to base of the corolla tube. This is not a genus of much horticultural potential. CULTURE Plant in free-draining sandy soil in full sun and provide moisture during spring and summer. All species probably need to be grown frost-free. Plant bulbs 2-3 in. deep, the smaller species just below the surface. Plants require a dry period at the end of summer after the foliage has died down. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Separate offsets during the dormant season. Scales can be separated and propagated as is done with lily bulbs. Sow seed in sandy soil, barely covered; keep warm and moist. Transplant seedlings as soon as growth starts in the 2nd season. SPECIES D. anomala. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal to Western Cape); introduced 1862. Stems to 18 in. One or 2 leaves, 18-20 in. long,

Drimiopsis thick and fleshy. Flowers yellow, up to 30 in loose raceme, summer. D. capensis. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape, Eastern Cape) in sandy places. Stems to 61/2feet. Flowers greenish in bud, open white, summer (December to March in the wild). D. ciliaris. South Africa (Namaqualand, Free State, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Northern Province). Stems 6-36 in. Flowers white or greenish brown to purple, summer (October to January in the wild). D. data. South Africa (Cape Peninsula to Northern Cape, Free State), in sandy areas close to coast, and Swaziland. Stems 18-35 in. or more. Leaves 2-3, basal, linear, hairy on margins, 14-18 in. long, appearing after flowering. Flowers, up to 30 in a 4-in. raceme, greenish or brownish white, sometimes pinkish; tepals fused at base, lobes much reflexed; stamens thrust well forward and held tightly together. Flowering late summer. D. haworthioides. South Africa (Karoo, Eastern Cape). Bulb to 2 in. in diameter, rests on surface of ground. Stems to 18 in. Leaves, generally 6-8, to 2 in. long, fleshy. Flowers, to 25 in raceme, small, green or green-brown with very short corolla tube. Flowering summer (November to February in the wild). When foliage withers, leafstalks continue to grow and produce at their tips clusters of bulb scales which persist for several seasons; these resemble Haworthia, hence the name. Interesting curiosities, but not beautiful. D. hyacinthoides. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Bulb large, often 3 in. in diameter. Leaves erect, usually 3, soft, green, and smooth. Stems 18-20 in. Flowers purple, often more than 30 per raceme, pendent, barely opening; outer tepals have white margins at tips, the inner a hint of white. Flowering mid summer. D. media. South Africa (Western Cape), in coastal scrub. Stems mostly 30-55 in. Leaves narrowly linear, cylindrical, rigid, 20-24 in. long, present at flowering. Flowers silver-gray with brownish-maroon stripe on back of tepals; interior of tepals darker greenish maroon on tips. Tepals stiff, much reflexed. Stamens prominent, with blue-gray filaments and black anthers. Flowering summer (January to March in the wild). D. neriniformis. South Africa (Gauteng, Mpumalanga). Stems to 18 in. Flowers white, early summer (November to December in the wild). D. robusta. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape) and Swaziland. Stems to 60 in. Flowers white flushed reddish or mauve, spring to winter (September to June in the wild). D. sphaerocephala. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 24 in. Flowers greenish or dirty white, spring and summer (October to December in the wild). D. villosa. South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced c. 1824. Stems 10-12 in. Leaves appear after flowering. Flowers pinkish; anther filaments green; late spring (September to October in the wild). Plate 469. SYNONYMS

D. alta see D. robusta. D. ensifolia see Ledebouria undulata.

215

D. forsteri see D. capensis. D. minor see Urginea minor. D. ovalifolia see Ledebouria ovalifolia. D. undulata see Ledebouria undulata.

Drimiopsis—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Name means "similar to Drimia," a related genus. There are about 7 species, 5 native to South Africa and 2 from tropical Africa. After further study, botanists may decide that there are fewer species; the literature contains many comments such as "possibly not distinct." For many years these plants were placed in the genus Resnova. They are closely allied to Scilla and Ledebouria. Growing close to the surface, the 1-in. bulb is formed of loosely held, overlapping, fleshy scales which turn green when exposed to light. The leaves are basal, generally folded and clasping below, giving the appearance of a stem. They are thin or fleshy, 1-5 per bulb, oval with heart-shaped bases. The leaf surfaces are often blotched with dark green or purple. The leaf margins are entire or minutely toothed. The flowers are small, numerous in a cylindrical raceme carried above the foliage; the pedicels are very short or absent. The usual color is greenish white, sometimes pink or purple. The 6 stamens arise from the base of the perianth segments. The segments are free but are held closely at the base to form a short tube, constricted slightly at the top before the small, spreading tips. Flowering occurs in spring, often continuing through summer (September to February in the wild). These are attractive pot plants for their spotted foliage. The flower spikes are often insignificant but noticeable when in bud. They are presently rare in cultivation. CULTURE Soil with high humus content is preferred; plants in the wild are found along stream banks and in grassland, generally in damp, shady places. Strong sun will damage the leaves. Set bulbs with the neck at soil level or just above, 6 in. apart. Keep moist as long as foliage is green; reduce water as foliage ripens but do not dry out, or the rather fleshy bulb will shrivel. Keep on the dry side while dormant. Tropical species need warmth, with temperatures around 55°F at night. No species is hardy, and they can be grown outdoors only in gardens that are frost-free or nearly so. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Separate bulblets from parent bulbs while dormant. Sow seed on sandy soil, barely cover, and place in light shade. Keep warm (55°F at night) and increase light as soon as germination occurs. The seedlings should be individually potted as soon as they are large enough to handle. SPECIES D. atropurpurea. South Africa (N KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga). Stems to 12 in. Flowers tiny, purple, spring to summer (October to March in the wild).

216

Drosera

D. burkei. Swaziland and South Africa (Northern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga), along coast, in midlands and uplands. Stems to 8 in. Leaves lie flat and often have a reddish edge. Flowers green, white, or purple, spring to summer (August to December in the wild). D. kirkii. Zanzibar. Bulb globose, 1-2 in. in diameter, with thin whitish tunic. Stems 12-24 in. Leaves 2 per bulb, narrow, lanceolate, sessile, 6-12 in. long, light green blotched with darker green, paler on underside. Flowers white, 1/4 in. long, about 30 in raceme, to 4 in. long; tips of tepals blunt. Flowering summer (October to January in the wild). D. lachenalioides. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), in uplands. Leaves fleshy, 6-8 in. long, oval, cordate at base, spotted deep green purple. Flowers slightly glossy, somewhat larger than other species, green-white when mature, whiter in bud. Flowering spring (August to September in the wild). D. maculata. Coastal South Africa (East London in Eastern Cape to KwaZulu-Natal), in damp forests and along streams. Stems 10-18 in. Leaves 2-4 per bulb, fleshy, ovate to heartshaped, on long stalks; blade grayish green on underside, brighter green above and blotched greenish purple. Flowers white in bud, greenish white when opened; buds showier than open flowers. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). D. maxima. Swaziland and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Province, Eastern Cape), usually in scrub or grassland. Bulb oblong, 2-3 in. in diameter and 3-4 in. long, with a long neck extending a little above ground. Leaves 4-5, light green spotted brownish above, purplish on underside near tips; petioles spotted purple, clasping at base. Leaves distinctly folded, oblong, and fleshy. Flowers numerous, white or mauve. Flowering stem often curls. Flowering summer (September to February in the wild). D. mucronata. Similar to D. maculata and probably just a form of that species. SYNONYMS

D. crenata see D. burkei. D. purpurea see D. atropurpurea. D. saundersiae see D. maxima. D. woodii see D. burkei.

Drosera—Droseraceae SUNDEW Name derived from Greek droseros ("dewy"), in reference to the hairs on the leaves, which are tipped by glands that exude a sticky substance to entrap insects. This genus of carnivorous plants comprises about 80 species, a few of which produce swollen basal corms. Most sundews grow in boggy places, but some Australian species are found in dry ground, where they are dormant through late summer and resume growth with the first rains. Thus, they persist through an inhospitable period when their insect prey would be scarce. The leaves are reddish and glisten in sunlight to attract insects. When an insect sticks to the viscid fluid discharged by the

glands, the 2 halves of the leaf slowly fold together; the plant's secretions break down the insect's tissues, and the leaves absorb the nutrients. Once digestion is complete, the leaf opens and the hairs are withdrawn from the insect. The flowering stems rise above the foliage rosette, bearing attractive flowers of white, pink, or purple, either terminally or several on a branching stem. There are usually 5 sepals and petals (sometimes 4 or 8). These fascinating organisms have their enthusiasts, who usually grow other carnivorous plants as well. They are best maintained in pots, placed where they can be closely observed; they are especially interesting to children. Sundews (like other carnivorous plants) are endangered by overcollecting in the wild, and those wishing to grow them should be certain the plants they are purchasing have been nursery-propagated. CULTURE Full light and frost-free conditions are needed. Set the tubers just at soil level and cover them with live sphagnum moss. Grow plants in small containers standing in a saucer of water or plunged in a tub of green sphagnum moss which is kept moist. As soon as the foliage begins to die down, give plants a rest period. Determining just when to reduce the amount of moisture calls for considerable skill on the part of the grower. It is better to reduce water too early than to give too much, which makes the plants vulnerable to rotting. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide before growth starts. Drosera binata can be propagated by root cuttings. Sow seed as soon as harvested on shredded sphagnum moss. Pot seedlings individually as soon as they can be handled. SPECIES

D. aliciae. South Africa. Leaves dark green with bright red hairs. Flowers pale pink. Plate 470. D. arcturi. ALPINE SUNDEW. Australia (Victoria, and New South Wales), Tasmania, and New Zealand. Rhizome covered with old leaves. Young leaves sessile, 2-3 in. long, linear; only half the leaf has gland-tipped hairs. Flowers 5-petaled, white, solitary, about 1/2 in. in diameter. Flowering late spring and early summer (September to October in the wild). D. auriculata. TALL SUNDEW. Australia (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria) and Tasmania. Tuber globular. Leaves rounded, hairs brownish. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers white or pale pink, spring and summer (September to November in the wild). D. binata. FORKED SUNDEW. SE Australia and New Zealand. Rootstock a short rhizome. Leaves have petioles 12-14 in. long; overall height of plant 20 in. Basal leaves more or less erect, divided partway into 2-14 lobes; each lobe has 3-4 long "tentacles" to entrap prey. Leaves and stalks of glands crimson. Flowers numerous on upright, branching stem, white, sometimes flushed pink, summer (October to December in the wild). Selections include 'Extrema', much divided; 'Giant Type', 23-24 in. tall with leaves having up to 8 lobes; 'Pink Form', pink

Duthiastrum flowers; 'T-Form', foliage forked only once with bright red "tentacles." D. bulbosa. SW Australia, in swampy areas. Tuber small, white or red, barely buried in soil, initially formed at end of radicle which emerges from seed at germination; more tubers form after contractile roots draw plant down to growth depth. Leaves 5-10, narrow, dark red, held pressed against soil. Flowers white, 5-petaled; sepals 5, fringed on the outer surface with sessile glandular hairs. Flowering winter (May to July in the wild). D. dstiflora. South Africa (Clanwilliam to Port Elizabeth). Stems 10 in. Flowers mauvish white or red, spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 471. D. erythrorrhiza. RED INK SUNDEW. SW Australia, in sandy heath, often in very large colonies. Tubers bright red (hence the common name), produced on ends of stolons or rhizomes, usually 2-5 in number but as many as 12 are not uncommon. The replacement tuber is produced inside the parent. Stem to 2 in. Leaves in a basal rosette with no clearly defined stalks; 3-5 leaves, to 1 in. wide, a little longer. Flowers white, numerous; especially floriferous after fires, summer (October to December in the wild). D. gigantea. Western Australia (Darling Botanical District). Tuber red, about % in. in diameter, kidney-shaped, growing to 8 in. deep. Stems 18-24 in., sometimes more, with branches 4—6 in. long. Leaves alternate, carried singly or in groups of 3, lobed at ends; glands short in middle of leaf, longer on lobes, fused into pairs or triplets. Flowers in terminal panicles, white, edges of petals irregularly toothed. Flowering spring to summer (August to December in the wild). Most robust Australian species. D. hamiltonii. S Western Australia, in black peat swamps. Rootstock a branched rhizome. Leaves tinted bright red. Stems to 18 in. Flowers deep pink or lilac, summer (November in the wild). D. huegelii. S Western Australia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 6-30 in. Flowers 3-10, white, sometimes pink, conical, pendent, spring (September in the wild). D. macrantha. S Western Australia. Tuber rounded, white or pink, growing 3-5 in. deep. Stems wiry, unbranched, the lower 4-5 in. leafless, climbing to 48 in. with support of glandular leaf tentacles which attach to surrounding vegetation. Leaves in groups of 3; marginal glands twice the size of those on the blade; petioles longer than leaves. Flowers in terminal panicles branched 2-5 times; petals usually white, occasionally pink or red. Styles 3, repeatedly divided. Long flowering period in mid winter to late spring to early summer (July to October in the wild). The tallest of the Australian sundews. D. macrophylla. SW tip of Australia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 2-6 in. Leaves in low rosette, sessile. Flowers 2-4, white, mid winter to spring (July to October in the wild). D. menziesii. Western Australia. Rootstock tuberous, pink. Stems climbing or erect to 40 in. Leaves in groups of 3, reddish purple. Flowers pink to deep red, spring into summer (August to October in the wild). D. platypoda. Western Australia, in sandy scrub. Rootstock tuberous, orange. Stems to 20 in. Flowers 5-10, white, spring (September to October in the wild).

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D. pulchella. S Western Australia, in seasonally dry swampland. Rootstock a short rhizome. Stems 1-4 in. Flowers pink with red markings, summer (November to December in the wild). D. pygmaea. SE Australia and New Zealand. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 1 in. Leaves in rosette become red with age. Flowers solitary, white, spring to summer (September to December in the wild). D. ramellosa. W Australia. Rootstock tuberous, orange-red. Stems to 2 in. Flowers 1-4, white, spring (September in the wild). D. regia. GIANT SUNDEW. S South Africa. Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems to 30 in. Flowers light pink to pale purple, summer (January to February in the wild). D. stolonifera. SW Australia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 2-10 in. Flowers white, early spring to summer (July to November in the wild). D. whittakeri. SCENTED SUNDEW. Australia (Victoria). Rootstock tuberous. Stems 1-2 in. Leaves in basal rosette, green to bronze. Flowers white, fragrant, winter to spring (April to July in the wild). D. zonaria. PAINTED SUNDEW. W Australia. Rootstock tuberous, red. Stems 1 in. Flowers white to pale yellow, to 2 in. across, fall to winter (March to May in the wild).

Duthiastrum—Iridaceae A monotypic genus found in many places in southern Africa. The sole species, D. linifolium, was known as Syringodea linifolia. The flowers open in the afternoon and close shortly after nightfall; it has been suggested that they are pollinated by hawk moths. Duthiastrum is closely related to Tritonia and Sparaxis, but unlike its cousins, it is not likely to become well known except to botanists and serious collectors. CULTURE Plants must be grown frost-free. They appreciate well-drained, sandy soil, not too rich, with moisture available when growth commences. Set corms 4-6 in. deep. A dry period is necessary in summer after flowering has finished and seed has ripened. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Many seeds are produced and provide the best means of propagation. Sow on sandy mix, barely covered or merely pressed into the surface. SPECIES D. linifolium. South Africa (Northern Cape, Northwestern Province, Free State) and Botswana. Rootstock a corm with a fibrous tunic, ovoid to subglobose in shape. Stem entirely underground. Leaves several, held overlapping in a fan that leans to one side. Flowers arise from between the leaves, the bracts being concealed by the leaves. Usually several flowers are produced. The 6 yellow segments are joined into a narrow tube at the base and then flare into a regularly shaped (actinomorphic)

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Echeandia

flower. Both stamens and style extend beyond the perianth, and the style beyond the stamens. Flowering occurs in late summer and fall (April to May in the wild).

Edcheandia—Anthericaceae (Liliaceae) Derivation of name not known. This genus includes a few North American species formerly placed in the genus Anthericum, which is now understood to be restricted to the Old World. All are native to the SW United States and N Mexico, growing in scrub and grassland. The rootstock is a fleshy rooted rhizome. The leaves are narrow, held in a loose basal rosette, and maybe evergreen in frostfree areas. The starry flowers, in various shades of yellow, are borne in a loose raceme. CULTURE Only 2 species are known in cultivation. Echeandia chandleri does best in frost-free conditions, but E. flavescens is a highaltitude plant that tolerates cold winters as long as it is not wet. The former grows in clay soils and tolerates irrigation in the garden; the latter should have a gritty, very well-drained soil. Both are likely to require hot summers to flourish. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Propagation is by seed, sown in fall or spring. SPECIES E. chandleri. LILY OF THE PLAINS. United States (S Texas) and NE Mexico. Stems 12-36 in. Leaves flat, prominently veined. Flowers numerous, pale to golden yellow, to 11/2 in. in diameter, fall and often at other times in frost-free regions. E. flavescens. SW United States and NE Mexico, on rocky hillsides at high elevations. Stems to 20 in. Leaves to 7 in. long. Flowers deep orange-yellow with greenish median stripe, summer to fall depending on elevation.

Eleutherine—Iridaceae Name derived from Greek eleutheros ("free"), a reference to the free filaments. This tropical South American genus, related to Tigridia, has only 2 species. Rare in American and European gardens, if grown at all, it is widespread in the tropics and is naturalized in the Philippines and Indochina. The rootstock is a bulb composed of loose red scales. The white, 1/2-in.-wide, starry flowers are produced in clusters, each subtended by a pair of short green spathes. Individual flowers last only a short time, but many appear in succession, opening in the evening. As is typical of tropical plants, flowering is sporadic throughout much of the year. The flowering stem may reach 10 in. but is often less. Each bulb produces 1 or 2 leaves, to 18 in. long and folded.

CULTURE

Eleutherines need high heat (minimum temperature 60°-65°F) and humidity, so they are suitable only for the warm greenhouse or tropical climates. Set bulbs 1-3 in. deep in a freedraining soil mix and never allow them to dry out. Plants do not have a dormant period but are somewhat inactive for a while after flowering. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Propagate E. latifolia by seed, sown in warm temperatures (60°65°F at night) in the spring; transplant seedlings as soon as they are large enough to handle. Established plants can be lifted and the smaller bulbs separated from the parent bulbs. Eleutherine bulbosa is mostly sexually sterile and must be propagated by bulblets. SPECIES

E. bulbosa. Tropical South America, from SE Brazil and Bolivia to Venezuela and W Indies. Bulb red-scaled. Stems to 18 in. Leaves 1 or 2, linear, 1 in. wide, 12-18 in. long. Flowers many, white, 1/2 in. in diameter, in clusters, short-lived but produced over much of the year, especially in spring. Plate 472. E. latifolia. Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Ecuador, and Peru. Stems to 8 in. Flowers white, usually a single cluster per stem, occasionally a 2nd, sessile auxiliary cluster produced. SYNONYMS

E. anomala see E. bulbosa. E. plicata see E. bulbosa.

Elisena E. longipetala see Hymenocallis longipetala.

Eminium—Araceae Name an ancient one, used by Dioscorides. This genus of about 7 species is distributed from the E Mediterranean to C Asia and is rare in cultivation. The rootstock is a tuber which produces 2 or 3 leaves. The leaf blades twist or curl around the midrib rather than opening out flat. The spathe is tubular at the base, which is often at or even below ground level; the spathe limb flattens out and is held away from the spadix. The erect spadix is slender and shorter than the spathe. The sterile flowers in a zone between the male and female flowers are awl-shaped, distinguishing Eminium from Sauromatum, in which they are club-shaped. The flowers have an unpleasant smell. Seed often develops below the surface of the soil, but the cluster of fruits then elongates for seed dispersal. With their rather rank smell, eminiums are essentially plants for the bulb collector and aroid fancier. The spathe of E. albertii, however, is quite attractive.

Empodium CULTURE

Most species are fairly cold-hardy, provided they are kept dry during summer and relatively dry in winter. Sun and welldrained soil are essential. Set tubers 3-5 in. deep. Water in fall and spring only. In most soils no feeding is required. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Separate offsets from the parent tubers in late summer or spring. Sow seed as soon as ripe in fall and keep in cool conditions, not too moist. Transplant seedlings during their first dormant period. SPECIES

E. albertii. C Asia, on rocky clay slopes; introduced 1884. Tuber flattish. Leaves usually twisted around the midribs, light green, blades 3-5 in. long. Spathe at ground level, 8-10 in. long, deep carmine. Spadix dark, about half the length of the spathe. Flowering early summer. Plate 473. E. intortum. S Turkey, Syria, and Iraq, in poor soils in full sun. Tuber spherical, covered with a white powder. Leaves grayish green, not twisted, lying flat on ground. Spathe forms a hood over spadix and is borne at ground level, 6-8 in. long, crisped along edges, bluish green outside with purple veining, deep crimson to near-black inside. Flowering spring. E. lehmannii. Iran. Spathe black, green below; spadix black, fruit white. E. rauwolfii. E and S Turkey and Syria. Close to E. intortum but having parallel veins, not divergent. Spathe purplish black, base squat and bright green. Spadix black. Leaves sometimes spotted white or gray-green. E. spiculatum. Iraq to Syria, south to Sinai Peninsula. Spathe purplish black, 4-8 in. long. Spadix black. Subsp. albovirenshas a greenish white spathe. Subsp. negevense from the Negev Desert has a spathe smaller than the type. Plate 474.

Empodium—Hypoxidaceae (Liliaceae) AUTUMN STAR This small genus, formerly known as Forbesia, has about 10 species distributed in various parts of South Africa, mainly in the Western Cape. The rootstock is a corm, often with a fibrous, bristly tunic, and with thin roots. Plants resemble the betterknown genus Spiloxenebut differ in that the ovary is at or just below ground level. One or more longitudinally pleated leaves are produced, usually maturing after flowering but often apparent when flowers open. These small, tufted plants bear 2 or 3 flowers per corm on pedicels that may or may not be hidden within the tubular sheaths. The flowers are starry, with 6 narrow segments, mostly yellow. The 6 stamens are held close together and erect; the filaments are short, with the anthers attached at their base and sometimes having thin, threadlike apical appendages. The flowers last for a few days, opening in midmorning and closing midafternoon. Flowering time is fall into early winter (April to June in the wild).

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Not commonly grown, these fall-bloomers deserve to be tried in rock gardens, containers or narrow, sunny borders where they can be left undisturbed. The upright flowers are quite striking. CULTURE These plants are of doubtful hardiness and should be grown only in frost-free climates or in a cool greenhouse. Set corms about 1 in. deep, spaced in clusters 2-4 in. apart. They like welldrained soil, and since they are often found growing in decayed leaves among rocks, they should have some organic matter. Keep them dry during summer, and give water as soon as growth commences; increase moisture when leaves are fully developed. As soon as foliage starts to die back, gradually withhold water and allow to go dormant. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate the young cormels, which are slow to form, after the foliage dies down; plant them 1-2 in. deep. Sow seed as soon as harvested in a sandy soil mix, and do not overwater. After a season of growth, the little corms (they are never very large) can be potted singly. Flowering will occur in the 3rd season. SPECIES E. elongatum. South Africa (Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Free State, Eastern Cape) and Lesotho. Flowers yellow. E. gloriosum. AUTUMN STAR. South Africa (Cape Agulhas to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape). Stems to 10 in. Leaves pleated, usually 2, appearing when flowers are fully open. Flowers bright yellow, with 6 narrow, pointed segments, somewhat overlapping at their bases to form a hollow at the top of the narrow tube leading to the ovary at ground level; stamens attached to base of tepals. Tepals curl inward slightly. Flowering in fall (March to June in the wild). E. monophyllum. Swaziland and South Africa (KwaZuluNatal to Eastern Cape). Flowers yellow. E. namaquensis. South Africa (Namaqualand, N of Cape Town on Atlantic coast). Leaves broad and pleated, barely apparent at flowering time. Flowers appear at ground level, forming tufted clumps. Flowers starry, bright yellow, with a sweet lemon scent, just over 1 in. in diameter. Tepals narrow, barely overlapping at the base at the top of the tube. Flowering fall (April to June in the wild). Plate 475. E. occidentale. S South Africa. Flowers yellow. E. plicatum. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal). Leaves narrow, pleated, emerging during flowering. Flowers starry, yellow; tepals pointed, curving slightly downward. Ovary underground during flowering. Stamens prominent. Flowering fall (April to May in the wild). E. veratrifolium. South Africa, along Atlantic coast (Lambert's Bay to Saldanha Bay), growing in rock crevices where leafmold accumulates. Leaves 5-8, broad, pleated, well-developed at flowering time. Flowers up to 5, on wiry stalks 6-8 in. long, yellow; tepals relatively broad. Ovary elongated, above

220

Endymion

ground on stem; tube relatively short. Flowering fall to early winter (May to June in the wild).

Endymion E. campanulatus see Hyacinthoides hispanica. E. hispanicus see Hyacinthoides hispanica. E. non-scriptus see Hyacinthoides non-scripta. E. nutans see Hyacinthoides non-scripta. E. patulus see Hyacinthoides hispanica.

Engysiphon E. brevitubus see Geissorhiza brevituba. E. exscapus see Geissorhiza confusa, G. exscapa. E. longifolius see Geissorhiza longifolia. E. longitubus see Geissorhiza exscapa. E. pictus see Geissorhiza bonae-spei. E. roseoalbus see Geissorhiza roseoalba. E. roseus see Geissorhiza tenella. E. schinzii see Geissorhiza schinzii.

Ennealophus—Iridaceae This genus of South American bulbs includes about 4 species, only 2 of which are likely to be in cultivation, and those only in a few choice collections. I am indebted to Maurice Boussard for the following information about this genus; his knowledge of genera in the Iridaceae is outstanding and readily shared with others. One of the joys of writing a book is the people with whom one comes in contact. The rootstock is bulbous. The leaves are pleated and range from 6 to 16 in. in length. The species are all from the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina, at altitudes from 6,000 to 10,000 feet. The foliage dies down at the end of summer, reappearing in the spring; flowering is in summer. The flowers of all species are various shades of blue or violet-blue. There are 6 perianth segments; the outer tepals are cupped and larger than the 3 inner tepals, which are sharply bent at the base. The 3 stamens are united; the styles are winged and crested. The flowers are not long-lasting. CULTURE Choose a sunny spot with good drainage and sandy soil. Plant bulbs 4-5 in. deep, spaced 6-8 in. apart. Plants must be kept dry during the winter resting period, and given moisture in spring and through flowering, then dried off after flowering. Their origin suggests that they can stand some frost while dormant, but it maybe necessary to protect them from winter rains to prevent them from rotting. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Separate offsets from established bulbs while dormant. Seed is freely produced and should be sown in spring in a sandy soil

mix with moderate night temperatures of around 45°F. Pot seedlings into individual containers during their first dormancy. SPECIES E. euryandrus. NW Argentina. Flowers soft lilac, 1 in. in diameter, with broad stamens which give the species its name (meaning "wide stamens"). The most frequently cultivated species. E. fimbriatus. Argentina (Jujuy, Salta). E. foliosus. Peru and Ecuador. Flowers have a distinct white blotch on the inner tepals where they bend. There are 2 varieties, possibly geographic variations: var. amazonicus from Perucho and Chachapoyas in Peru, and var. spruceanus from the Andes of Ecuador. A strong grower with larger flowers than E. euryandrus. Plate 476. SYNONYM

E. boliviensis see E. euryandrus.

Eranthis—Ranunculaceae WINTER ACONITE Derivation of name obscure. The genus consists of about 7 species native to S Europe and Asia from Turkey to Afghanistan, as well as Japan and Siberia. The tuberous rootstock is small and irregular, with a brown skin when mature. The flowers emerge before the leaves, opening near ground level and set in a whorl of sessile stem leaves; the stems elongate as the seed ripens. The basal leaves appear later; they are deeply palmately lobed and have petioles that are usually 3-5 in. long. The flowers of most species are bright yellow; they have a ring of petal-like sepals and one of petals, with numerous prominent yellow stamens. The lovely, carpeting winter aconite is often in flower even before the snowdrops and adds color to the garden early in the year. Eranthis hyemalis and E. cilicica, along with their hybrid E. xtubergenii, are the only ones generally listed in catalogs. All species are hardy to well below 0°F, especially where they have snow cover in the coldest part of winter. The plants are best grown in areas where they will not be disturbed, such as shrub borders. Light is essential, however, so planting under deciduous shrubs or trees is preferable. In old gardens, they can often be seen forming large drifts where they have seeded over the years. They look nice planted with other early flowering spring bulbs, such as Crocus and Cyclamen coum, especially under winter-flowering shrubs such as Hamamelis (witch hazel). They can be gently forced in containers. CULTURE

Supplied as dormant tubers, which should not be stored for very long. Soak them overnight in water to rehydrate them. Plant them in loose soil with plenty of humus, about 1 in. deep and about 3 in. apart, in clusters rather than in a formal pattern. Give ample moisture in fall and early spring. Leave plants undisturbed. In containers, crowd tubers together in a soil mix high in humus; equal parts of leafmold, good topsoil, and sharp sand make a good soil mix. Cover tubers with just a little soil and

Eremurus place in a cool spot. Bring indoors when buds are developed and only 1 or 2 are in flower. After flowering, water until plants go dormant, then plant out in the garden. Tubers so treated should not be forced again for several seasons. PESTS AND DISEASES

Protect emerging flowers and leaves from snails and slugs, which can soon destroy a colony. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide as soon as leaves turn yellow. Seed must be freshly harvested to germinate and can be scattered on loosened soil where plants are to grow. Otherwise, prepare a flat or pot with a loose mixture, place a layer of sifted leafmold on top, firm it lightly, and sprinkle seeds over surface. Barely cover seed by sifting small amount of leafmold over it. Keep cool and moist. Give weak liquid fertilizer to seedlings and transplant them directly to their garden site after 2 seasons in the container. SPECIES E. byunsanensis. Korea. Stems 4-12 in. Tuber spherical. Leaves dissected into pinnate lobes, bracts below flower not lobed. Flowers white; nectaries greenish yellow; anthers purplish. Flowering winter to early spring. E. cilicica. W and C Asia, from Turkey to Afghanistan; introduced 1892. Similar to E. hyemalisbut more robust. Leaves finely cut, bronzy green when young. Flowers deep yellow, shiny, on short stems, only 2-3 in. tall, late winter. Plates 477, 478. E. hyemalis. Europe, from S France to Bulgaria; long in cultivation. Some regard E. cilicica as synonymous. Stems to 4 in. Flowers bright yellow, late winter to early spring; those receiving ample early spring moisture are larger. Selection 'Aurantiaca' has bright yellow-orange flowers. E. longistipitata. C Asia; introduced 1979. Plants 2-4 in. tall. Flowers yellow, early spring. Smaller than E. hyemalis but similar. E. pinnatifida. Japan, in woodlands. Smaller and not as strong-growing as other species. Leaves bluish on undersides. Flowers white, 1 in. in diameter, spring. Sometimes placed in a separate genus, Shibateranthis. E. sibirica. E Siberia. Close to E. longistipitata, but generally only 1 leaf. E. stellata. China and E Russia. Similar to E. longistipitatabut flower stalks, have whitish hairs. E. xtubergenii. Garden hybrid (E. cilicicax E. hyemalis); introduced 1923 by the Dutch firm of Van Tubergen. Robust, to 8 in. tall. Leaves much dissected. Flowers light yellow, larger than those of either parent; appearance of plant is intermediate between parents. Selection 'Guinea Gold' is sterile, increasing only by multiplying tubers, so expensive and not suitable for naturalizing. SYNONYMS

E. keiskei see E. pinnatifida. E. uncinata see E. sibirica.

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Eremurus—Asphodelaceae (Liliaceae) FOXTAIL LILY, DESERT CANDLE, WAND LILY Name derived from Greek eremos ("solitary") and oura ("tail"), in reference to the flower spike, which towers above the foliage. Eremurus species are among the most spectacular early summer flowering plants that have a rhizomatous rootstock. They are native to W and C Asia, from Afghanistan to N India, Turkestan, Siberia, Tibet, and China. The genus includes approximately 40 species, and there are many hybrids, but only 5 or 6 species and a handful of hybrids are widely available. The rootstock is a starfish-shaped mass of thick, fleshy roots radiating from a central crown; these must be handled with great care because they are very brittle. The central bud from which the stem arises is rather large, looking much like half an egg. The tall, unbranched flower spike arises from amid a cluster of long, narrow basal leaves which may be withered by flowering time. White, yellow, or pink flowers are densely packed on the tall stem, outward-facing on short pedicels. The perianth segments of the flowers often are joined for a short distance at the base, and all open widely. Most kinds flower in late spring or early summer and become dormant by mid summer. Eremurus species are quite cold-hardy, and indeed require cold winters to grow and flower well; they are not suited to frost-free gardens. In temperate climates with winter rains, they tend to emerge too early, while there is still some danger of frost; in such cases they should be given some protection, such as a loose mulch. It is best not to plant them in spots where the early morning sun will strike them while frost persists. Because of their great height in flower, they should also be protected from strong winds. They are great accent plants, especially against a background of dark foliage. The tall flower spikes can dominate a border, so plant where they will not be out of scale with their neighbors. Eremurus stenophyllus is an excellent cut flower and much sought after by flower arrangers. CULTURE Supplied as bare rootstocks or, less frequently, as container plants. Plant in early fall in rich, extremely well-drained, sandy soil in a sunny spot. Space crowns about 36 in. apart, with central buds 2-3 in. below surface. They should be as dry as possible during the coldest part of winter and have ample moisture in spring when they emerge. After flowering, reduce water as plants go dormant. Leave plants undisturbed to bulk up. Mulch with a loose material in fall; in spring, clear away mulch from flower spike and emerging leaves to prevent rotting. Stems may need staking in windy spots. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift rootstocks very carefully after foliage has died down and separate the crowns with their roots attached. After 3 years of good growth, each plant generally provides 2 or 3 divisions. Replant as soon as possible. Sow seed as soon as ripe in fall in a

222

Eremurus

well-drained soil mix in a large container. Move seedlings on when they go dormant late in summer. Plant out after 2-3 years; they will need another 1-2 years to flower. Because the roots are so fragile, many growers plant seedlings in protected frames, leaving them undisturbed until they are large enough for sale. SPECIES E. afghanicus. E Afghanistan. Stems 40-80 in. Flowers white, late spring. E. aitchisonii. C Asia and Afghanistan; introduced 1884. Stems often more than 6 ft., as much as 10 ft. when well grown. Leaves slightly fleshy, to 36 in. long. Flowers very numerous, pale pink or white, late spring. Some authorities consider this a hybrid between E. himalaicus and E. robustus, but experimental crosses of the 2 have not produced plants like E. aitchisonii. White-flowered forms sometimes called var. albus. E. albertii. N Afghanistan. Stems 16-40 in. Flowers pink, late spring. E. altaicus. C Asia. Stems to 48 in. Flowers yellow, summer. E. anisopterus. Iran and C Asia. Flowers white to pale pink, summer. E. bucharicus. Afghanistan and C Asia. Stems to 40 in. Flowers white to pale pink, summer. E. comosus. W Pakistan to C Asia. Stems to 6 ft. Flowers dusty rose, summer. E. cristatus. W and C Tian Mountains of C Asia. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers deep magenta, late spring. E. furseorum. NE Afghanistan; introduced 1964. Stems to 36 in. Flowers white, early summer. E. giselae. N Iran. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, tinted red, early summer. E. hilariae. C Asia. Flowers white with yellow at base, summer. E. himalaicus. Afghanistan and Himalayas; introduced 1881. Stems to 6 ft. or more. Leaves strap-shaped, 12 in. or more long. Flowers pure white, starry, to 1 in. across, fragrant, in late spring. An excellent cut flower. E. inderiensis. Turkestan, Russia, Iran, and Afghanistan. Stems 36-48 in. Flowers yellow or white, spring. E. xisabellinus. Garden hybrids (E. stenophyllus x E. olgae). Commonly called Shelford Hybrids, after the garden at Great Shelford, Cambridge, England, owned by Sir Michael Foster. Original strain has orange, pink, white, pale yellow, or copperyellow flowers on stems to 5 ft. Highdown Hybrids from the same cross are orange to buff, late-flowering, and include some dwarf cultivars. Ruiter Hybrids are of medium height. All bloom in early summer. Cultivars include 'Brutus', white flowers on long spike; 'Cleopatra', orange flower with darker red midrib on exterior of tepals and orange anthers; 'Image', yellow flowers, reverse of tepals green; 'Obelisk', white flowers with green midrib on reverse; 'Parade', light pink flowers. E. kaufmannii. Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Stems 36-48 in. Flowers white with yellow base, spring. E. korshinskii. Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Stems to 48 in. Flowers brownish orange.

E. lactiflorus. C Asia. Stems to 40 in. Buds golden yellow; flowers white with yellow base, summer. E. olgae. C Asia, from Iran to Tajikistan; introduced 1881. Stems to 36 in. or more. Leaves to 12 in. long, with rough margins. Flowers pale pink, rarely white, with yellow base, mid to late summer. E. persicus. Iran and Afghanistan. Stems 12-28 in. Flowers white, tinted red. E. regelii. Tian Mountains of C Asia. Stems to 6 ft. Flowers brownish magenta with white margins, late spring. E. robustus. Tian and Pamir mountains of C Asia; introduced 1874. Stems 6-10 ft. Leaves the widest in the genus, to 4 in. wide and 48 in. long, bright green. Inflorescence very long, to 4 ft., crowded with many deep pink flowers; lowest flowers have long pedicels, upper ones a little shorter. Flowering early summer. E. sogdianus. C Asia to N Afghanistan. Stems 30-60 in. or more. Outer tepals sulfur green, inner white, summer. E. spectabilis. Turkey (Asia Minor) to W Pakistan; 1800. Stems to 32 in. Flowers pale yellow, tinted green, late spring to early summer. E. stenophyllus. Iran; introduced 1885. Stems 24-48 in., glabrous. Leaves 12-15 in. long, narrow, numerous, glabrous. Flowers bright yellow on pedicels several inches long, borne over % of the stem; flowers open slowly and last well, so that plants remain attractive for a long time in early summer. Selections include 'Highdown Gold', darker yellow flowers; 'Magnificus', brighter yellow flowers; 'Sulphureus', clear sulfur-yellow flowers. Subsp. aurantiacus from Afghanistan, W. Pakistan, and the Pamir Mountains has pubescent leaves and lower stem. Plate 479. E. xtubergenii. Garden hybrid (E. stenophyllus x E. himalaicus). Stems to 8 ft. Flowers pale yellow, late spring. E. turkestanicus. C Asia. Stems to 40 in. Outer tepals sulfur yellow with brownish stripe, inner white with sulfur-yellow stripe, summer. E. xwarei. Natural hybrid (E. stenophyllus x E. olgae) from Turkestan; introduced 1900. Stems to 8 ft. Flowers orange, early summer. Eremurus cultivars. 'Himrob' (E. himalaicus x E. robustus), stems to 8 ft., flowers light bluish pink in dense spike, late spring. SYNONYMS

E. angustifolius see E. olgae. E. aurantiacus see E. stenophyllus subsp. aurantiacus. E. bungei see E. stenophyllus. E. caucasicus see E. spectabilis. E. elwesianus see E. aitchisonii. E. griffithii see E. kaufmannii. E. korolkowii see E. anisopterus. E. robustus var. elwesii see E. aitchisonii. E. robustus f. superbus see E. 'Himrob'. E. xshelfordii see E. xisabellinus. E. spectabilis var. marginatus see E. regelii. E. tauricus see E. spectabilis. E. unaniensis see E. kaufmannii.

Eriospermum

Eriospermum—Eriospermaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek erion ("wool") and sperma ("seeds"), referring to the densely woolly seeds of these plants. Although there are reportedly 100 species in this genus, it is doubtful if any are of horticultural merit. In 1812, Ker-Gawler noted similarities with the flowers to Albuca, the tubers of Wachendorfia, and the seed of Tillandsia. These deciduous plants are found over most of sub-Saharan Africa, with the greater concentration in southern Africa, especially in the drier coastal parts of the Western Cape and Namibia. Originally placed in Liliaceae, these species have some unique features that led botanists to set up a separate family, Eriospermaceae. Those wishing to study the genus in depth should read "A Revision of the Genus Eriospermum" (1994) by Pauline L. Perry. Perry divides the genus into 3 subgenera: Eriospermum, with tepals of 2 dissimilar shapes and irregularly shaped tubers; Ligulatum, with tepals that recurve and are spreading and strap-shaped, and globose tubers; and Cyathiflorum, with cup- or wheel-shaped flowers and irregular tubers that are pure white internally. Others now consider this genus should be in Convallariaceae. As its exact position vis-a-vis family is still in doubt, I have left it in Eriospermaceae. Flowers are mostly produced in mid summer (December to January in the wild). They are whitish or yellowish, in a simple raceme of 3-100 flowers; the perianth segments are free. The fluffy, densely woolly seeds are the most noticeable feature. The height varies a little with the species, but most flower spikes reach 18 or 20 in. The flowers are often produced after the foliage has withered. The rootstocks are fleshy tubers, often large. The tuber can be important in identifying the species, varying in size from that of a pea, as in E. spirale, to over 4 in. in E. capense. The shape varies from globose to irregular. Natural increase in a number of species is by the formation of compound tubers. The tuber's skin may be thin and light, or rough and darkening with age. Generally, one rounded basal leaf, held erect or prostrate, arises from each growing point. The leaves of most species persist from fall into spring and are not green at flowering time in summer. Many species produce a sticky nectar, often in considerable quantity, at the base of the tepals. CULTURE Plants must be grown frost-free in well-drained soil and full sun. Plant tubers 1-3 in. deep. Moisture is required in spring and early summer, but after the flowers have started to fade, water should be withheld. No fertilizer is required in most soils. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Divide tubers in spring. Sow seed in spring, in moderate heat, in sandy soil mix with the seed barely covered. Keep warm and moist, but never wet. When growth starts in the 2nd spring, transplant young plants into larger containers, spaced 1-2 in.

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apart, and grow on until tubers are 1 in. or longer before planting out. SPECIES

E. abyssinicum. East Africa, from Tanzania to South Africa, common. Leaf single. Flowers 50 or more, rosy in bud, opening yellow with rose tint, on long up ward-curving pedicels, mid summer (September to December in the wild). Plate 480. E. aequilibre. South Africa (Western Cape). Leaf solitary, tubular. Flowers light green, late summer to fall. E. alcicorne. South Africa (Karoo). Stems 6-8 in. Tuber lobed. Leaf solitary, cordate. Flowers white with dark keels, summer (January to April in the wild). E. algiferum. South Africa (Western Cape). Leaf solitary, appearing after flowering. Flowers 4-8, yellow-white and speckled, winter (May to September in the wild). E. aphyllum. South Africa (Western Cape). Single leaf seldom seen except on young tubers. Flowers white to green, fall (March in the wild). E. appendiculatum. South Africa (Western Cape). Leaf prostrate. Flowers white with pale green midrib, summer. E. arachnoideum. South Africa (Namaqualand). Leaf prostrate, with cobweblike hairs on upper surface, appearing after flowering. Flowers 3-7, white with green midrib, fall (March in the wild). E. arenosum. South Africa (Western Cape), rare. Stems to 8 in. Leaf solitary, appearing after flowering. Flowers white, cupshaped with red midrib, fall (March to April in the wild). E. aribesense. South Africa (Western Cape), rare. Stems to 21/2 in. Flowers to 14, white, late summer (February in the wild). E. armianum. South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems to 4 in. Flowers white, green midrib overlaid with red, fall (March in the wild). E. attenuatum. South Africa (S Namaqualand). Stems to 3 in. Leaf erect, appearing after flowering. Flowers to 15, white, fall (March in the wild). E. bakerianum. Namibia and Botswana. Tubers dark red. Stems to 10 in. Leaves synanthous. Flowers to 16, white, with red stipples giving pink appearance, campanulate becoming recurved, summer (November to January in the wild). Subsp. rotundum has pale pink tubers. E. bayeri. South Africa (W Karoo). Leaf erect, blue-green. Flowers greenish, fall (April to May in the wild). E. bifidum. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 8-10 in. Flowers green with orange filaments, summer to fall (January to March in the wild). E. bowieanum. South Africa. Stems 4-6 in. Leaf small. Flowers white, late summer (February to March in the wild). E. bracteatum. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 10 in. Flowers 20-30, yellowish cream with maroon stippling on reverse, summer to fall (January to April in the wild). E. brevipes. South Africa (E coastal Eastern Cape); introduced c. 1880. Tuber large, irregularly shaped, fleshy. Leaf 4 in. long, nearly as wide. Flowers, 1-3, small, white with narrow green midvein, summer (January to March in the wild). This is the most interesting species because the seeds are quite attractive.

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Eriospermum

E. breviscapum. South Africa (Western Cape). Leaf prostrate, fleshy. Flowers white, late summer (February to March in the wild). E. bruynsii. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 10 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers 20-40, pale green, fall (March to April in the wild). E. calcareum. South Africa (Western Cape), rare. Flowers 4-5, yellowish white, speckled red, fall (March to April in the wild). E. capense. ELEPHANT'S EAR. South Africa (Namaqualand, Karoo, Western Cape). Stems 7-8 in. Leaf prostrate. Flowers whitish, late summer to fall (November to March in the wild). E. cecili. Inyanga Mountains of Zimbabwe. Stems to 6 in. Leaves 1-2. Flowers 8-16, yellow, summer (November to March in the wild). E. cernuum. South Africa (Western Cape). Leaf erect. Flowers white, late summer (February to April in the wild). E. cervicorne. South Africa (N Namaqualand), rare. Stems to 6 in. Leaf solitary, appearing after flowering. Flowers white with faint red striations, fall (March to April in the wild). E. citrinum. C Namibia, in woodland. Stems to 12 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers to 25, pale lemon, late summer (February to March in the wild). E. coactum. South Africa (N Namaqualand). Stems to 5 in. Flowers white, green midrib with hint of red, late summer (February to March in the wild). E. cooper. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal to Northern Province, Free State). Stems to 24 in. Flowers white to pale green with darker midrib, often with red stippling; nectar copious. Flowering spring to summer (October to December in the wild). E. cordiforme. South Africa (S Western Cape to S Eastern Cape). Stems to 18 in. Flowers creamy white, midrib broad, with red especially at tip, summer (January to February in the wild). E. corymbosum. South Africa (Eastern Cape, Northern Cape to Free State) and Namibia, widespread in sandy soils. Stems to 4 in. Flowers light yellow, summer (November to February in the wild). E. crispum. South Africa (W Eastern Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers 20-50, white with green midrib, fall (March to April in the wild). E. descendens. South Africa (Namaqualand). Tuber unusual with many outgrowths, each producing a leaf, resulting in closely packed, overlapping leaves. Stems to 6 in. Flowers cream with pale green midrib, late summer to fall (February to April in the wild). E. deserticolum. South Africa (N Namaqualand). Stems to 12 in. Flowers dull white, late summer (February to March in the wild). E. dielsianum. South Africa (Western Cape). Leaf semi-erect, pubescent. Flowers white, summer (January to March in the wild). E. dissitiflorum. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 5-7 in. Leaf erect. Flowers white, summer to fall (January to April in the wild).

E. dregei. South Africa (S Karoo, Eastern Cape). Stems 6-8 in. Leaf small. Flowers white with dark keels, late summer (March in the wild). E. dyeri. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 5-7 in. Leaf prostrate. Flowers white with green keels, late summer (March in the wild). E. erinum. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 10 in. Flowers white with olive-green midrib, late summer (February to April in the wild). Solitary leaf has small cylindrical columns (enations) on upper surface with tufts of white hairs (trichomes). E. eriophorum. South Africa (NW Western Cape). Stems 10-12 in. Flowers to 30, pale cream with red striations, early summer (November in the wild). E. ernstii. South Africa (NW Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers lemon yellow, often recurved, the only tall, yellow species. Flowering summer (January to February in the wild). E. exigium. South Africa (Western Cape), rare. Stems to 8 in. Flowers 2-14, white, sometimes marked red. E. exile. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Leaf long, narrow. Flowers yellowish white, late summer to fall (February to March in the wild). E. filicaule. South Africa (N Namaqualand). Stems to 10 in. Flowers cup-shaped, white with red streaks, late summer (March in the wild). E. flabellatum. South Africa (W Karoo). Leaf small. Flowers whitish, fall (March in the wild). E. flavum. Table Mountain of South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 4 in. Flowers bright yellow, fall (February to March in the wild). E. flexum. Namibia. Stems to 2 in. Flowers white marked red, late summer (February in the wild). E. folioliferum. South Africa (N Namaqualand). Stems to 16 in. Flowers white flecked with red, summer (December to January in the wild). E. fragile. South Africa (S Namaqualand). Stems to 5 in. Flowers pale to deep yellow, fall (March to April in the wild). E. galpinii. Namibia, N South Africa, Swaziland, and Botswana. Leaves 1-4, erect. Flowers yellow, summer (November to February in the wild). E. gladale. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 2 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers white, fall (March to April in the wild). E. graminifolium. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 6-7 in. Leaf erect, narrow. Flowers whitish with dark keels, late summer (February to April in the wild). E. halenbergense. Namibia. Stems to 5 in. Flowers to 18, cupshaped, white with green midrib, summer (December to February in the wild). E. inconspicuum. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 21/2 in. Flowers white with green midrib, fall (April in the wild). E. kiboense. Kenya on wooded slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, Tanzania, Malawi, and Zimbabwe. Stems to 20 in. Flowers to 50, white to pale green, midrib darker, summer to fall (November to March in the wild). E. kirkii. Malawi, Zambia, and Mozambique along Zambesi

Eriospermum River. Stems to 10 in. Flowers 12-15, white to pale pink, spring to summer (September to February in the wild). E. lancifolium. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 6 in. Flowers white with greenish midribs and reddish keels, late summer to fall (March to April in the wild). E. lanimarginatum. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 810 in. Flowers white with red striations, fall (March in the wild). E. lanuginosum. Cedarberg Mountains of South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 18 in. Flowers creamy yellow with red streaks, late summer (February to March in the wild). E. lavranosii. C Namibia. Leaf synanthous. Flowers 10-18, green, summer (November to December in the wild). E. laxiracemosum. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 15 in. Flowers white with red striations, summer to fall (February to April in the wild). E. macgregorianum. South Africa (NW Western Cape). Leaves clustered. Stems to 4 in. Flowers bright yellow, summer (December in the wild). E. mackenii. South Africa (Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape) and Swaziland; introduced 1871. Tuber simple, globose. Stems 8-10 in. Leaves 2-5. Flowers 30 or more, bright yellow, campanulate becoming recurved, face upward, summer (November to February in the wild). E. marginatum. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Tuber often stoloniferous. Stems to 10 in. Flowers white with red striations, summer (January to February in the wild). E. minutiflorum. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems 8-10 in. Flowers white, small, globose, fall (March to April in the wild). E. minutipustulatum. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems to 4 in. Flowers white with red stippling. Leaf solitary or clump forming, prostrate with hairs on upper surface, fall (March in the wild). E. multifidum. South Africa to (Namaqualand). Stems to 6 in. Flowers white with blue or blue-green midrib, fall (February to March in the wild). E. namaquanum. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems to 6 in. Flowers white, fall (February to March in the wild). E. nanum. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 6-8 in. Flowers yellowish with reddish keels, late summer to fall (February to April in the wild). E. occultum. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems to 24 in. Flowers white, barely opening, summer (December to February in the wild). E. ornithogaloides. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 8 in. Flowers 9-10, white, summer (November to December in the wild). E. orthophyllum. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems to 15 in. Flowers white, summer (January to February in the wild). E. papilliferum. South Africa (N Namaqualand). Leaf solitary, with many raised speckles. Stems to 15 in. Flowers to 12, white, fall (March in the wild). E. paradoxum. South Africa (Namaqualand to Karoo). Stems 6-8 in. Flowers white, fall (April to May in the wild). E. parvifolium. South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems 6-7 in. Flowers tiny, white, fall (March in the wild).

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E. parvulum. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems about 1 in. Flowers 1-3, white, fall (March in the wild). E. patentiflorum. South Africa. Stems 7-8 in. Flowers white with purple keels, fall (April in the wild). E. porphyrium. South Africa (Eastern Cape, Free State, Mpumalanga, Gauteng). Tuber often produces stolons. Stems 6-8 in. Leaf prostrate, purple beneath, appearing after flowering. Flowers to 60, cream to green, late summer to fall (February to May in the wild). E. porphyrovalve. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal to Northwestern Province). Stems to 6 in. Leaves 2 per growing point. Flowers 7-10, bright yellow with red streaks at tips. summer (December to February in the wild). E. proliferum. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1821. Stems 6-9 in. Leaves sessile. Flowers campanulate, in clusters, green and white with dark keels, late summer (February to March in the wild). E. pubescens. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1820. Tuber large, irregular, brown, inside reddish. Stems 9-12 in. Leaves solitary or clustered, on long stalk, covered with many fine hairs. Flowers 15-40, upright on long curving stalks, whitish with reddish keel, late summer to fall (February to April in the wild). Plate 481. E. pumilum. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 3-4 in. Flowers white, fall (March to April in the wild). E. pusillum. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems to 3 in. Flowers 5-7, white, cup-shaped; nectar copious, summer (December to February in the wild). E. pustulatum. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 18 in. Flowers to 25, white with brownish-green midrib, summer (November to December in the wild). E. ramosum. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems to 6 in. Leaf solitary, branched almost like a deer antler. Flowers to 8, white with red streaks, fall (March in the wild). E. ratelpoortianum. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems to 8 in. Flowers 16-20, white with broad green stripes, summer (February in the wild). E. rautanenii. Angola, Botswana, and N Namibia. Stems to 4 in. Flowers 15-35, white with faint red streaks, summer (November to February in the wild). E. rhizomatum. South Africa (S Western Cape). Rhizomes fingerlike. Stems to 18 in. Leaf held horizontally 2 in. off ground. Flowers to 45, white, cup-shaped, late summer (February to March in the wild). E. roseum. South Africa (N Northern Cape) and Namibia. Stems to 8 in. Flowers to 50, white with violet-brown midrib, summer (December to March in the wild). E. sabulosum. South Africa (Namaqualand). Leaf tiny, solitary, lobed. Stems to 3 in. Flowers 6-7, white, summer (December to February in the wild). E. schinzii. South Africa (Free State, Gauteng). Stems to 20 in. Flowers white, anthers turquoise or green, summer (December to February in the wild). E. schlechteri. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 6-8 in. Flowers yellow, fall (March to April in the wild). E. spirale. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 6 in. Leaf

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Erythronium

tiny, linear. Flowers white, small, fall (April to May in the wild). E. subincanum. South Africa (N Western Cape, S Northern Cape). Stems to 10 in. Flowers pale yellow-green flushed red, late summer (February to March in the wild). E. subtile. South Africa (N Western Cape, S Northern Cape). Stems to 8 in. Flowers 8-15, white, fall (March to April in the wild). E. titanopsoides. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems to 1 in. Flowers to 5, white, fall (April to May in the wild). E. triphyllum. Mozambique to Tanzania, Uganda, and Kenya. Leaves 1-3. Stems to 8 in. Flowers yellow and red, summer (November to January in the wild). E. tubercultatum. South Africa (Namaqualand). Leaf prostrate, nearly black. Stems to 1 in. Flowers to 8, tiny, white, late summer (February to March in the wild). E. undulatum. South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems to 12 in. Flowers to 28, yellowish white, summer (December to February in the wild). E. vermiforme. South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems to 8 in. Flowers 2-11, white, late summer (February to March in the wild). E. villosum. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape). Leaf solitary, erect, very narrow. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, summer (December to February in the wild). E. viscosum. South Africa (N Namaqualand). Stems to 8 in. Flowers very pale green, summer (December to February in the wild). E. volkmanniae. N Namibia, rare. Stems to 6 in. Flowers white, summer (December in the wild). E. zeyheri. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Leaf prostrate, fleshy. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers greenish white, summer (January to March in the wild). SYNONYMS

E. avasmontanum see E. schinzii. E. brevipedunculatum see E. rautanenii. E. brevipes see E. rautanenii. E. currori see E. rautanenii. E. latifolium see E. capense. E. microphyllum see E. ornithogaloides. E. rubromarginatum see E. rautanenii. E. sphaerophyllum see E. rautanenii.

Erythronium—Liliaceae (Liliaceae) DOG'S-TOOTH VIOLET, TROUT LILY, FAWN LILY, ADDER'S TONGUE, EASTER BELLS, LAMB'S TONGUE Name derived from Greek erythros ("red"), a color typical in E. dens-canis. There are about 20 species distributed around the Northern Hemisphere; the majority of species are native to the W United States. It is to be hoped that these lovely spring-flowering bulbs will one day be more widely grown. Few spring flowers have the beauty and grace found in Erythronium, and this is true of all the species and selections. They are not difficult to grow and they enhance the garden, in both sun and shade, with nodding flowers resembling small lilies.

The Old World species, E. dens-canis, is the one to which the common name dog's-tooth violet was given originally. It is so called not because of the shape of the flower but rather that of the bulb, which is whitish and pointed. Other common names come from their habitat, such as the avalanche lily, which appears on the mountains as the snows melt; trout lily and fawn lily, from the mottled markings on the leaves; and adder's tongue or lamb's tongue, because of the shape of the leaves. The rootstock is a true bulb, elongated or pointed and fleshy, stoloniferous in some species. The leaves emerge directly from the bulb (usually 2 per bulb) and are ovate to ovate-lanceolate (somewhat cordate in E. montanum). The leaves may be plain green, spotted (in the Old World and E North American species), or mottled (in many W American species). The single flower stalk is leafless and carries one or more flowers—seldom more than 8. The height varies according to species from about 5-14 in. The flowers have 6 perianth segments, called tepals, which reflex at the tips. Stamens and stigma are prominent. Most species flower in mid spring, the date depending largely on altitude. Erythroniums are found in all types of soil—some very poor and rocky, some rich in organic matter—but the different species have individual needs. Some W American species experience hot, dry summers and snowy winters, with late frosts after they emerge in spring. These conditions have little effect on the plants because their bulbs lie deep in the soil, and they usually enjoy the shelter of trees or shrubs, which also absorb excess water from the soil during the rainy season. They like ample moisture in fall and spring, and the E American species should not dry out in summer. Most species are hardy to at least 0°F, and some to much colder temperatures. The most adaptable species for the garden are E. americanum, E. dens-canis, E. oregonum, and E. tuolumnense; E. grandiflorum and E. montanum are very difficult to grow outside their native habitats. For the most effective presentation, plant bulbs in groups where they can be left undisturbed. They look good in front of mixed shrub borders that offer light shade, or in woodland settings. Those with spotted or mottled leaves make an attractive spring groundcover even when not in flower. In climates where they are well adapted, they should be tried on grassy slopes, and they often self-sow in gardens. Some species can stand full sun, but light shade is preferable. CULTURE Supplied as bulbs, which must never be allowed to dry out in storage. Plant in early fall, as soon as bulbs become available. Set 3 in. deep, 6 in. apart, in leafy, well-drained soil in light shade. Provide some moisture in fall and winter for root growth, more in early spring. Do not allow site to dry out completely in summer, though some W American species can withstand considerable drought. Topdress with leafmold and leave undisturbed until plants become crowded. PESTS AND DISEASES

Protect from slugs and snails. Botrytis may attack foliage in warm, humid conditions and should be controlled with good ventilation and products approved for use on lilies.

Erythronium PROPAGATION

Lift and divide crowded plants just after leaves wither in early summer, handling carefully to avoid bruising the bulbs. Replant at once. Sow seed as soon as it is ripe in a soil mix with some organic matter. Stored seed of W American species remains viable, but seed of other species must be fresh. Germination usually occurs the following spring. After germination, keep plants growing by watering regularly. Keep seedlings shaded. Place container in shady location. Seed takes sometimes 6-8 weeks to germinate. Transplant to larger containers when plants are dormant and grow on 1 or 2 seasons before planting out. Depending on species, erythroniums flower 3-5 years from seed. SPECIES E. albidum. ADDER'S TONGUE, SPRING LILY, WHITE DOG'STOOTH VIOLET. NE United States; introduced 1824. Bulb stoloniferous. Stems to 5 in. Leaves small, light green, spotted reddish brown. Flowers small, seldom opening fully, white with yellow throat, borne singly, mid spring. Plate 482. E. americanum. YELLOW ADDER'S TONGUE, TROUT LILY, AMBERBELL. Canada (Ontario) and United States (Minnesota to Kentucky and Texas), often near streams or on rocky slopes. Bulb stoloniferous. Stems to 5 in. Leaves narrow, spotted in 2 shades of purplish brown. Flowers solitary, yellow, often with dark spots at base, mid spring. Var. castaneum has dull brownish-orange flowers. Needs moist conditions throughout year and spreads rapidly in leafy soil. E. californicum. FAWN LILY. United States (NW California), in moist woodland; introduced 1904. Stems to 14 in. Leaves richly mottled with brown, on long petioles. Flowers 3 or more per stem, white or cream with ring of yellow, orange, or brown at base, mid spring. 'White Beauty' is probably a selection of this species. Plate 483. E. caucasicum. SW Caucasus. Stems 2-6 in. Leaves mottled light green and brown. Petals white, base yellow. Flowering mid spring. Sometimes regarded as a form of E. dens-canis. E. citrinum. United States (SW Oregon, NW California). Stems to 12 in., usually less. Similar to E. californicum, but flowers, 1-3 per stem, have yellow-green central zone, saccate appendages on inner tepals, and entire stigma, mid spring. In cultivation, the name is often misapplied to E. tuolumnense. Plate 484. E. dens-canis. DOG'S-TOOTH VIOLET. Europe and W Asia; cultivated since 1596. Stems to 8 in. Leaves gray-green, heavily spotted pink and brown. Flowers solitary, strongly reflexed; anthers bluish or purplish. Colors range from white through pink to deep purple, but all flowers have ring of red-purple at base. Flowering mid spring. The most commonly grown Erythronium species in Europe, it flourishes in woodland settings. Var. japonicum from Japan has deep violet flowers with darker center and shorter stems. Var. sibiricum from Siberia has yellow anthers. White-flowered forms are sometimes called var. album, and large-flowered forms var. longiflorum or var. majus. Named selections include 'Frans Hals', outer tepals imperial purple with greenish-bronze basal spot, inner tepals purple with greenish-yellow ring at base; 'Lilac Wonder', light imperial purple with chocolate-brown basal spot; 'Niveum', white flushed

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lavender; 'Pink Perfection', clear, bright pink; 'Purple King', large, rich purple, center spotted and striped soft brown with white margin; 'Rose Queen', pink; 'Snowflake', large pure white. Plates 485-487. E. elegans. Coast Ranges of United States (NW Oregon), on a few mountaintops; rare. Stems to 12 in. Leaves usually unmarked, sometimes slightly mottled light brown. Flowers 1-5 per stem, large, white to pale pink with bright yellow stripes at base; style deeply 3-lobed. Flowering mid spring. E. grandiflorum. ADAM AND EVE, AVALANCHE LILY, CHEMISE LILY, CURLY LILY. NW United States, on mountain slopes and in summer-dry woodland. Stems to 12 in. Leaves unmarked, bright green, to 6 in. long. Flowers 1-5 per stem, bright yellow; stigma 3-lobed; anthers red. Flowering mid spring. Subsp. chrysandrum has yellow anthers. Subsp. pallidum has white anthers. All 3 subspecies may grow together. Plates 488,489. E. helenae. United States (C California), on wooded slopes near coast. Stems to 15 in. Leaves somewhat mottled with brown, especially when young. Flowers 1-3 per stem, white with clearly demarcated yellow basal zone, fragrant (unique in the genus), mid spring. Does well with dry summers. E. hendersonii. United States (SW Oregon, N California); introduced 1887. Stems to 10 in. Leaves dark green, mottled brown-purple and lighter green. Flowers 3-10 per stem, lavender with darker purple at base, anthers and style purple. Flowering mid spring. Enjoys damp spring and dry summer in native habitat. E. howellii. United States (S Oregon, N California). Stems 6-8 in. Leaves mottled. Flowers 1-4 per stem, white with yellowish veins and yellow or orange markings at base, white anthers. Flowering mid spring. E. idahoense. United States (E Washington, Idaho). Stems to 10 in. Leaves unmarked. Flowers usually solitary, white with greenish to greenish yellow central zone, white anthers. Flowering mid spring. E. klamathense. United States (S Oregon, N California), in pine woodland. Stems 3-7 in. Leaves yellow-green, unmarked. Flowers usually solitary, small, creamy white with yellow throat; tepals have inflated appendages at base; yellow anthers. Flowering mid spring. E. mesochoreum. United States (Iowa and Nebraska, south to Oklahoma). Bulb stoloniferous. Stems to 4 in. Leaves narrow, unmarked or slightly spotted. Flowers solitary, small, not opening fully, white to pale lavender with yellow basal zone, mid spring. Formerly regarded as a variety of E. albidum. E. montanum. AVALANCHE LILY, GLACIER LILY, WHITE MOUNTAIN LILY. NW North America, in alpine zone near snowfields. Stems 8-12 in. Leaves unmarked, broad, narrowing abruptly at base. Flowers 1-5 per stem, open nearly flat, outward- or upright-facing, white with orange ring at base; tepals broad. Flowering early to late summer just after snowmelt, depending on altitude. Rarely successful in cultivation. Plate 490. E. multiscapoideum. United States (NW California), in foothills; introduced 1898. Bulb stoloniferous. Stems to 8 in., branching below ground level so that single bulb appears to produce multiple stems. Leaves green, heavily mottled with

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Eucharis

dark crimson. Flowers 1 per branch, white to cream with yellow zone at throat. Form known as "E. cliftonii," found in open screes, apparently belongs to this species. Plate 491. E. oregonum. United States (Oregon, Washington) and Canada (British Columbia); introduced 1868. Stems to 12 in. or more. Leaves mottled light brown and pale green. Flowers 1-6 per stem, white with yellow flush and maroon markings at base; anthers yellow, with flattened filaments. Flowering mid spring. One of the finest garden species, easy to grow and increasing well. Var. leucandrum has white anthers. E. pluriflorum. SC Sierra Nevada of United States (California), in subalpine pine forest; very rare. Leaves unmarked. Flowers 1-10 per stem, bright yellow. Flowering mid spring. E. propullans. United States (Minnesota) and Canada (Ontario); endangered. Bulb stoloniferous. Leaves spotted. Flowers tiny, rose purple, yellow at base. Flowering mid spring. E. purpurascens. United States (S Oregon, N California), in mountains; introduced 1881. Stems to 8 in. Leaves bright green, unmarked. Flowers white, aging to purplish, with yellow zone at base; anthers white. Flowering mid spring. E. pusaterii. C Sierra Nevada of United States (California); rare. Stems to 18 in. Leaves bright green, unmarked. Flowers on pedicels of unequal length, white with bright yellow center; swollen appendages on inner tepals. Flowering mid spring. E. revolutum. Coast Ranges of United States (C California north) and Canada (S British Columbia), in moist woodland and near streams; introduced c. 1895. Stems 10-12 in. Leaves mottled with brown. Flowers usually 3-5 per stem, pale to deep pink, spring. Large-flowered and deep-colored selections include 'Johnsonii' (or, invalidly, "var. johnsonii"), 'PinkBeauty', and 'Rose Beauty'. Plate 492. E. tuolumnense. C Sierra Nevada of United States (California), in foothill woodland. Stems to 14 in. Leaves yellow-green, unmarked, large, undulate. Flowers 1-4 per stem, bright yellow veined green with greenish base, opening almost flat; swollen appendages at base of inner tepals; anthers yellow. Easy to cultivate; increases rapidly. Rapid production of offsets led it to be used as parent (usually crossed with E. californicum) of most commercial hybrid clones, including 'Citronella', lemon yellow; 'Jeannine', bright sulfur yellow with brown basal ring; 'Kondo', mid yellow; 'Pagoda', pale yellow with brown basal ring, vigorous, leaves mottled; 'Sundisc', bright yellow, strongly mottled leaves. Plate 493. SYNONYMS E. californicum var. bicolor see E. helenae. E. cliftonii see E. multiscapoideum. E. giganteum see E. grandiflorum. E. hartwegii see E. multiscapoideum. E. japonicum see E. dens-canis var. japonicum. E. johnsonii see E. revolutum 'Johnsonii'. E. obtusatum see E. grandiflorum. E. parviflorum see E. grandiflorum subsp. chrysandrum. E. purdyi see E. multiscapoideum. E. sibiricum see E. dens-canis var. sibiricum. E. smithii see E. revolutum.

Eucharis—Amaryllidaceae LILY-OF-THE-AMAZON, MADONNA LILY Name is Greek for "very graceful." Only a few of the 17 or so reported species are in cultivation. They are native to warm regions of Central and South America, from Guatemala through the western Amazon and eastern Andes to Bolivia. Deciduous species are segregated by some authorities into a separate genus, Urceolina. The genus Caliphruria is now incorporated into Eucharis. The bulb is large and has a long neck. The leaves are broad. The beautiful flowers are white and very fragrant, somewhat pendent in an umbel of 8-10. Their form is unusual: the perianth forms a short tube and then separates into 6 lobes which open widely, to 5 in. across in some species. The lobes of the outer segments are narrower and longer than those of the inner segments. In the center of the flower, the broad bases of the stamens form a cup reminiscent of the cup of a narcissus. The anthers are poised on slender filaments rising up from the cup. These are elegant subjects for the warm greenhouse. They need high humidity as well as heat and can be grown with certain kinds of tropical orchids. They are also excellent cut flowers, and very fragrant—especially E. xgrandiflora, the most commonly offered species. CULTURE Supplied as container plants, or as bulbs with the foliage cut short. They must not remain long out of the soil, or they will shrivel. Grow with minimum night temperatures of 60°-65°F, day temperature 70°F or above, with high humidity and bright light. Plant bulbs when received, usually in spring, in a soil mix rich in organic matter. Allow ample root room; 6 bulbs to a 12in. pot is about right. Cover bulb with just enough soil to anchor it and hold it upright, and water in well. Keep around 70°F when first planted. When leaves are a few inches long, day temperature can be raised to 80°F. Give feeding of liquid organic fertilizer once root growth is active. Plants begin to flower in early summer; 2 crops of flowers can be produced annually. After flowering, reduce water and lower temperature, but keep humidity high during summer. Do not allow bulbs to become dry at any time. In spring, remove some of the surface soil and topdress with fresh soil. Plants grown outdoors in frost-free climates should be fed as container plants, or mulched with organic matter and left undisturbed. Bulbs do not like to be disturbed, so leave in same container for several years. PESTS AND DISEASES

Greenhouse insects such as mealy bugs and red spider mites are likely to attack plants. Control such infestations immediately. PROPAGATION

Separate offsets in spring, before growth begins. If small bulbs produce flowering stems before reaching full size, remove as soon as they are visible to strengthen the bulbs. Seed is sometimes produced, but because it requires high temperatures, high humidity, and lots of care, the gardener is better advised to purchase bulbs or increase stock by offsets.

Eucomis SPECIES

E. amazonica. NE Peru. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white, fragrant, winter. E. bakeriana. Colombia and Peru; introduced 1890. Stems to 18 in. Leaves 4-5, dark green, to 18 in. long, held close to ground, deciduous. Flowers 4-5 per stem, fragrant, white flushed green in center, semi-pendent. Flowering early summer from spring planting; established bulbs bloom earlier in year. E. bouchei. Central America. Stems to 20 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers white, green at base, unscented, early summer. Seed capsule orange, seeds black. E. xburfordiensis. Garden hybrid (E. mastersiix E. stevensii); introduced 1899. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white, winter. E. Candida. SE Colombia, N Peru, and Ecuador; introduced 1851. Stems to 24 in. Leaf solitary, broad, flat, deciduous. Flowers white, pendent, unscented, 3-4 in. in diameter, 6 or more per stem. Flowering early summer, sometimes twice a year. Plentiful water needed while in growth. E. xelemetana. Garden hybrid (E. xgrandiflora x E. sanderi); introduced 1899. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white, winter. E. xgrandiflora. AMAZON LILY, BETHLEHEM LILY, EUCHARIST LILY, STAR OF BETHLEHEM. Natural hybrid involving E. amazonica and some other species, found in Colombia; introduced 1854. Stems to 24 in. Leaves several, close to ground, to 20 in. long including long stalk, deciduous. Flowers white, slightly pendent, 5 in. in diameter, very fragrant, 5-6 flowers per stem, winter. The species most common in cultivation, a very popular florists' item in years gone by, but not so widely grown today. Selections include 'Fragrans', even more fragrant than typical form, and 'Moorei', with smaller leaves and flowers. Plants are functionally sterile. Plate 494. E. korsakoffii. Peru. Stems wiry, to 11 in. Flowers small, white, delicate, summer. E. lehmannii. Colombia; introduced 1889. Similar to E. Candida. E. sanderi. W Colombia; introduced 1885. Stems to 18 in. Leaves several, on long stalks, deciduous. Flowers 7-8 per stem, white without distinct cup in center, not very fragrant. Flowering late fall. E. xstevensii. Garden hybrid (E. Candida x E. sanderi); introduced 1883. Stems to 18 in. Flowers white, winter. E. subedentata. Colombia; introduced 1876. Stems to 18 in. Leaves leathery, oblong, with lO-in.-long petiole, deciduous. Flowers 6-8 per stem, funnel-shaped with only slightly recurved tips, to 2 in. in diameter, white; upper portion of tube urnshaped. Flowering winter. SYNONYMS E. lowii see E. xgrandiflora. E. mastersii see E. xgrandiflora.

Eucodonia—Gesneriaceae Name derived from Greek eu ("true, good") and codon ("bell"); the corolla is bell-shaped. This genus of 2 species is native to S Mexico (Michoacan, Oaxaca, Chiapas), in rocky places. They

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are usually dormant in winter. The flowers feature shades of blue or orchid pink. The elliptical leaves often have small hairs on the upper surface and are densely hairy on the underside. The plants are generally similar to Achimenes, but with a few differences. They were once placed in the same genus, but the fact that they produced infertile seed when crossed led to their being more closely examined. The leaves of Eucodonia are in pseudowhorls; those of Achimenes in equal or unequal pairs or in whorls. The flowers of Eucodonia are solitary, never in pairs or cymes as in Achimenes. Eucodonia has a chromosome count of n = 12; Achimenes, n = 11. Eucodonia is also characterized by a bifid (deeply cleft) stigma. A number of bigeneric hybrids involving this genus have been reported, but the validity of these has not yet been established. Among them are xAchiconia 'Cornell Gem' (Achimenes x Eucodonia), described as having red-purple flowers held well above glossy foliage; and xSmithicodonia 'Behavin' (Smithiantha x Eucodonia), which was exhibited by Betty Tapping at the American Gesneriad Society's 1994 convention in Toronto. These are good container plants and long in flower from mid summer into fall. They must be grown frost-free and in shade. CULTURE As for Achimenes. PESTS AND DISEASES

As for Achimenes. PROPAGATION

As for Achimenes. SPECIES E. andrieuxii. S Mexico. Stems hairy, about 3 in. long. Leaves elliptical, blue-green, to 4 in. long, 2 in. wide, with few hairs on the upper surface, dense hairs on underside. Flowers violet; throat white spotted purple; corolla tube less than 1 in. long. Selections include 'Adele', leaves dark green with white hairs above, dense red hairs below and on stem, large orchid colored flowers; 'Tinctocoma', smaller orchid flowers, stems covered with red hairs. E. verticillata. S Mexico. Plants compact. Stems to 3 in. Flowers lavender, lined and spotted reddish orange and yellow in white throat; corolla bell-shaped, 1 in. long. Selection 'Ehrenberg' has stems covered with white hairs, flowers purple with yellow throat.

Eucomis—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) PINEAPPLE LILY Name from Greek eu ("well, very, thoroughly") and comos ("hairy, leafy") means "very leafy," a reference to the tuft of leaflike bracts at the top of the inflorescence. The plants are commonly called pineapple flower or pineapple lily, for the same reason. These unusual-looking plants come from tropical Africa and South Africa and are related to Scilla and Ornithogalum. There are about 10 species.

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Eucrosia

The bulbs are large and tunicated, ovoid or globose. The basal leaves are light green, sometimes spotted reddish shades, ovate, and arching back to the ground, where they tend to rest a bit untidily. The predominantly green flowers are closely held all around the stout, strong stems, with the characteristic tuft of bracts above them (Plate 496). The stamens are stubby but prominent in the center of the flowers; the perianth segments are almost equal. The plants remain of interest for a long period. They come into flower in early summer, and even after the flowers have faded, the seedpods are attractive—the swollen green fruits of E. autumnalis are almost triangular. They are attractive in an isolated group against a background of large rocks, which brings out the subtle colors of the flowers and provides extra protection. They are excellent accent plants for the front of the perennial border or large containers. As cut flowers, they last for several weeks. CULTURE Hardiness varies among the species. Eucomis bicolor can survive 10°F if well mulched, and the other species should be tried in the open garden anywhere winter frosts are not very severe and prolonged. Their cold-tolerance seems to be similar to that of Galtonia. They grow well in any rich, well-drained soil. Plant bulbs 6 in. deep, 12-24 in. apart depending on eventual size. Plants need sun and moisture during spring and early summer. Reduce amount of water toward end of summer. Allow bulbs to remain in ground for several seasons, lifting only when they become overcrowded and flowering deteriorates. They are good container plants. It is best to plant 3-5 bulbs in one large container rather than potting them individually, especially if to be used on a patio or deck. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Dig and separate offsets in fall after leaves have turned yellow. They are easily grown from seed, sown in fall or spring in frostfree conditions. Transplant seedlings to individual pots when dormant and grow on for another season before planting out. Seed-grown plants usually flower in their 4th year. SPECIES E. autumnalis. PINEAPPLE LILY. South Africa (Eastern Cape, Northern Province, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal), Swaziland, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and tropical Africa; introduced 1760. Bulb globose. Stems to 18 in. Basal leaves 24 in. long, 2-4 in. wide, with wavy margins, lax to prostrate, may be clavate. Crown consists of 15-20 bracts, 2-3 in. wide and 2-4 in. long. Inflorescence to 12 in. long; flowers 1/2 in. in diameter, green fading to lighter yellow-green with age, summer to fall (December to February in the wild). Subsp. amaryllidifolia is 12 in. tall and has linear leaves, 20 in. long and about 2 in. wide. Subsp. clavata is more robust than the other 2 subspecies and has a cylindrical inflorescence. Plate 495. E. bicolor. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1878. Stems spotted dark brown, to 12 in. Leaves broad, dark green,

with base clasping stem. Flowers not as densely packed as in other species, edged with purple, mid summer (January in the wild). 'Alba' has greenish-white flowers. E. comosa. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1783. Stems lightly spotted purple, to 24 in. Leaves spotted purple at base and on underside, with wavy edges, 1820 in. long. Flowers have violet-purple ovaries, light green petals that recurve slightly, throwing the stamens well out in front and showing off color of ovaries. Flowering in summer (December to February in the wild). Selections with pinkish flowers have been made in New Zealand. Var. striata has purple stripes rather than spots on leaves. 'Sparkling Burgundy' has purple leaves and stem and white flowers, flushed and aging to purple. One of the most distinctive species, and the one most commonly grown. £. montana. South Africa (Northern Province, Gauteng), in rocky places. Stems to 18 in. Flowers green, mid summer (December to February in the wild). E. pole-evansii. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga) and Swaziland. Stems to 6 ft., tallest in genus. Leaves 6 in. wide, 24 in. long. Inflorescence to 24 in. long, 8-10 in. in diameter. Flowers green, widely open, mid summer (October to April in the wild). E. regia. South Africa (Namaqualand, W Karoo, Western Cape); introduced 1702. Stems to 12 in. Leaves 24 in. long, 3-4 in. wide. Inflorescence to 6 in. Flowers green, late winter to spring (August to September in the wild). E. vandermerwei. South Africa (Northern Province), in grassland. Stems to 18 in. Leaves spotted maroon. Flowers maroon; filaments greenish white. Flowering mid summer. E. zambesiaca. E tropical Africa; introduced 1886. Much like E. comosa. Leaves 18 in. long, tapering toward base. Flowers green, produced in successive flushes over a long period. SYNONYMS

E. albomarginata see E. autumnalis subsp. clavata. E. amaryllidifolia see E. autumnalis subsp. amaryllidifolia. E. clavata see E. autumnalis subsp. clavata. E. nana see E. regia. E. pallidiflora see E. comosa. E. punctata see E. comosa. E. robusta see E. autumnalis subsp. clavata. E. undulata see E. autumnalis.

Eucrosia—Amaryllidaceae Name derived from Greek eu ("good") and krossos ("fringe"); the staminal cup forms a fringe. The genus contains 7 species native to Peru and Ecuador, some formerly placed in Callipsyche. The large bulbs have a tunic and frequently produce numerous offsets. The leaves are few but large, often 4-6 in. wide; they emerge after the flowers in mid to late summer. The flowers appear in late spring or early summer and are carried in an umbel on a hollow stalk. They are pendent and funnel-shaped, with a very short tube from which the 6 stamens (one often

Eustephia shorter than the others) protrude for several inches. The style further exceeds the stamens. Eucrosia bicolor has been undergoing trials as a cut flower and landscape subject in Florida. Flowering stems appear before the leaves in early spring. As with many tropical plants, the time of flowering varies greatly, and often more than one batch of flowers is produced in a year, depending on cultural conditions. If warm temperatures and bright light are combined with careful attention to feeding and moisture, repeat blooming is almost certain. Perhaps they will become a commercial crop. CULTURE Eucrosias require temperatures that do not drop below 50°F and are suitable only for greenhouse culture in temperate regions. Set the bulbs with their tops just at or barely below soil level. They need bright light, moisture during their active growth period, and a drier resting period after it, with just enough moisture to prevent the bulbs from shriveling. They must have good drainage and prefer a sandy soil mix with plenty of organic matter. They should be lightly fed regularly with liquid organic fertilizer during their growing period. They are best planted in fall, or, in the case of E. aurantiaca, as soon as the foliage has died down. They should not be grown in full sun or the foliage will bleach or even scorch. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Separate offsets from the parent bulbs when dormant and grow on in individual containers or a flat. Sow seeds in early spring, keep temperatures around 65°F at night. The seedlings should be transplanted after the foliage has died down. SPECIES E. aurantiaca. Ecuador; introduced 1868. Bulb ovoid, to 4 in. in diameter. Stems to 30 in. Leaves few, oblong with a sharp point, 16 in. long and almost 8 in. wide, on petioles to 12 in. long. Flowers 6-14 in an umbel, deep golden yellow, rarely orange or pink; green stamens extend beyond the perianth as much as 3 in. Flowering late winter, often with another flowering in mid or late summer. A magnificent species. Plate 497. E. bicolor. Ecuador and Peru. Bulb to 2 in. in diameter, with a long neck. Stems to 24 in. Leaves 1 or 2, bright green on upper surface, paler on underside. Flowers not large, 5-10 per umbel, distinctly zygomorphic, green at base, yellow in center, lobes tipped red; stamens long and recurved, fused into a yellow or red basal staminal cup. Plates 498,499. E. eucrosioides. Ecuador and Mexico; introduced 1843. Bulbs about the same size as those of E aurantiacabut rounder. Stems to 24 in. Leaves few, 4 in. wide and 12 in. long. Flowers scarlet and green, sometimes yellowish, to 10 per umbel, early to late spring; often with a 2nd flowering in late summer. E. mirabilis. Peru; introduced 1868. Stems to 36 in. Leaves usually 2, 6 in. wide and twice as long. Flowers up to 30 per umbel, regularly arranged, 2-3 in. long, pale greenish yellow; white stamens protrude as much as 5 in. Often described as one of the most spectacular flowers in cultivation.

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E. stricklandii. Ecuador. Stems to 18 in. Leaves 1 or 2. Flowers held perpendicular to stem, tubular, red or pink; stamens not as long as in other species. SYNONYMS E. eucrosioides var. rauhinia see E. aurantiaca. E. morleyana see E. aurantiaca.

Eurycles E. alba see Proiphys alba. E. amboinensis see Proiphys amboinensis. E. australasica see Proiphys amboinensis. E. cunninghamii see Proiphys cunninghamii. E. sylvestris see Proiphys amboinensis.

Eustephia—Amaryllidaceae Name derived from Greek eu ("good") and stephos ("crown"), in reference to the crownlike appearance of the circle of stamens. This genus of about 6 species, native to Peru and Argentina, is similar in many ways to Phaedranassa but differs in having sessile leaves and winged anther filaments; the same features also distinguish it from Eucrosia. It is distinguished from Urceolina by its shorter perianth tube. The flowers are red and green, with a short, narrow perianth tube and long lobes that flare slightly into funnel-shaped blossoms carried in one-sided umbels. The leaves are linear, and the bulbs small and tunicated. All species flower in spring. Though attractive and unusual, they are very rare in cultivation. CULTURE Eustephia species must be grown frost-free. Plant bulbs in late fall (or, if necessary, in early spring), setting them 1-2 in. deep in a well-drained, organic soil mix. In containers, plant 6-8 bulbs to a 12-in. pot. Water to settle bulbs and then keep them barely moist until growth starts. Temperatures around 55°-60°F at night are recommended during the growing period. Give bright, indirect light and weak feedings of liquid organic fertilizer after growth commences; continue feeding weekly until the flower buds are visible. After plants have reached full size, stop feeding and gradually reduce the amount of moisture given to allow the bulbs to dry and enter a resting period. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove offsets from the parent bulbs during the dormant season and grow them on in flats or individual containers. Sow seed in spring in a sandy soil mix with night temperatures around 65°F. Keep moist and transplant as soon as the seedlings are large enough to handle. SPECIES

E. coccinea. Peru. Bulb ovoid, 1 in. in diameter. Stems 16-18 in. Leaves narrow and linear,1/4in. wide, 12-18 in. long, bright green. Flowers a little over 1 in. appearing before leaves, to 8-10

232

Eustylis

per umbel, on pedicels about % in. long, drooping; perianth segments have green keel on upper part and are bright red, flushed green at tips and base. Flowering late spring to early summer. E. jujuyensis. N Argentina (Jujuy). Name apparently has not yet been validly published. Stems 20-24 in. Flowers brilliant orange-red. E. pamiana. Argentina; introduced 1926. Bulb ovoid, about 21/2 in. in diameter and 3 in. long. Stems to 18 in. Leaves 6-8 leaves per bulb, 14-18 in. long, linear and narrow, covered with a red-streaked sheath at the base. Flowers a little over 1 in. long, pendent; perianth segments red at tips, lower parts purplish red, central part greenish. Inner segments are darker red at tips than outer ones, an attractive combination. Flowering in spring. SYNONYMS E. madeanica see E. coccinea. E. yuyuensis see E. jujuyensis.

Eustylis E. punctata see Alophia drummondii. E. purpurea see Alophia drummondii.

when they are above ground. In the warm rock garden, plant them in bold clusters where they can enjoy the reflected warmth of the rocks. Grow them where they can nestle among other low-growing plants. One never sees them alone in the wild; it is almost as if they wish to hide. They seem to have no objection to salt sea spray, being at home in areas exposed to the gales at the Cape Peninsula. They are easy to grow in the cool greenhouse, preferably planted in the ground rather than in containers. In a confined space, their odor may not be tolerable to those with sensitive noses, but you can enjoy looking at them without holding your breath. CULTURE Ferrarias need full sun and well-drained soil. The corms are found deep in the soil in their native habitat and should be planted 4-6 in. deep, spaced 6-8 in. apart. They require water in the early part of the year but during summer and early fall they should be dry and warm. The corms prefer to be deeply planted; containers for them should be at least 12 in. deep. Unless the soil is poor, they need little fertilizer; any given should be applied early in the year, as soon as the plants appear above ground. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Feerraria—Iridaceae Named in honor of Giovanni Battista Ferrari (1584-1655), the Italian botanist who first described this genus of 11 species. The rootstock is a corm, often much misshapen and without a tunic. The plants are native to South Africa, Namibia, and southern tropical Africa. The majority of these plants are quite dwarf. The stems are branched. There are several large basal leaves that clasp the stem and are arranged as if to protect it. These leaves are stiff and hard, usually grayish green. There are also leaves on the stem, which become gradually smaller toward the top of the stem. The visual impression is of a plant that is rugged, stiff, and strong, though small. The flowers, borne on sturdy pedicels, are quite large, often as much as 2 in. in diameter, and are produced in early to mid spring. They are mostly brown, green, or purple, usually attractively mottled or spotted. The petals are heavily crisped on the margins. The flowers are held upright. Some species have an unpleasant smell, which attracts the flies that pollinate them. I have seen these plants growing wild in SW Western Cape. They grow mostly by the sea in stony or sandy ground. Though not immediately striking, they are fascinating, and as soon as you spot one, others seem to jump out at you. The beauty of the individual flowers is remarkable. It is unfortunate that the construction for access to the lookout point, which required the installation of a cable car, destroyed the first colony of these plants that I saw, but the memory lingers on. Most species should be grown frost-free, though a few can survive occasional light frosts, provided this does not occur

Separate the small cormels from the parent corms in very early spring and grow them on in nursery rows or containers. After a season or 2, they can be planted out into flowering positions. Seed is freely produced and should be sown in spring in a sandy soil mix, barely covered. Keep seed pots warm in bright light; they germinate quickly. By the beginning of the 2nd season, plants can be individually potted. They begin to flower in the 3rd season. SPECIES

F. crispa. South Africa (Western Cape), widely distributed in dunes, sandy places, and slopes of coastal mountains; introduced 1755. Stems 2-3 per corm, to 18 in. but often much less. Leaves stout, overlapping, to 12 in. long, shorter on the stem; uppermost leaves bractlike, surrounding the flowers. Flowers 2 in. or more in diameter, velvety textured, brownish purple with greenish-white, V-shaped markings in the center; tips of segments recurve and edges are very crisped. Stigma brown, much dissected at the tip, with the lower part surrounded by a tube formed by the anthers. Flowering late spring to early summer (October to early December in the wild). Subsp. nortierii has flowers pale yellow with brown spots and edges. Plates 500,501. F. densepunctulata. South Africa (W coastal Western Cape from Lambert's Bay to Langebaan). Flowers greenish gray with purple spots and blotches in center, late fall to mid winter (May to July in the wild). F. divaricata. S Namibia and South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape); introduced 1825. Stems usually branched, 14-18 in. Leaves linear to oblong, sheathed at the base; not as much stem is hidden as in some other species. Basal leaves spread outward, not erect, bluish green. Stigma fringed, looking like a miniature shaving brush, purplish brown; tepals yellow-

Freesia ish green with triangular brown markings, crisped along edges. The lower parts of tepals are erect and form a small, deep cup; upper parts recurve to almost horizontal, and tips recurve to upright. Flowers 2 in. in diameter or a little more, remaining open only one day. Very attractive and deserves to be widely cultivated. Flowering spring (August to November in the wild). Subsp. aurea has golden-yellow flowers. F. ferrariola. South Africa (Vredenburg in Western Cape to Namaqualand), in dry, open, sandy or stony ground; introduced 1800. Stem unbranched, spotted purple, 4-6 in. Leaves 5-6, rigid, 3-4 in. long, smaller and narrower at base, about l1/2 in. wide; upper leaves a little larger, sheathing stem. Tepals dull greenish at margins, with dull blue-purple spots, curved, heavily crisped at edges. Not the most attractive species, but flowers have a sweet (not fetid) scent and last 2-3 days. Flowering winter (June to September in the wild). F. foliosa. South Africa (S Namaqualand, NW Western Cape). Stems 12-36 in. Flowers maroon to purple, early spring (August to October in the wild). F. glutinosa. Southern tropical Africa, Namibia, and Botswana; introduced 1871. Stems to 6 in. or more. Flowers brown, maroon, or deep purple, often spotted or mottled yellow or greenish, with yellow margins. Flowers summer (November to February in the wild). F. uncinata. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape), in sandy places; introduced 1825. Stems branched, 8-10 in. Leaves exceed stems (unlike leaves of other species), bluish green, linear, with rough margins, often curved, sheathed at base. Tepals heavily crisped along edges, held horizontally with edges curving down; tips curl upward, crenulated. Tepals dull blue to yellowish orange on tips and edges, remainder greenish with blue blotches—an unusual color combination. Flowers to 2 in. in diameter, spring (August to October in the wild). Thrives on sandy soil and should be considered for dune plantings in warmer climates. SYNONYMS F. antherosa see F. divaricata, F. ferrariola. F. bechuanica see F. glutinosa. F. framesii see F. uncinata. F. lugubris see Moraea lugubris. F. punctata see F. crispa. F. undulata see F. crispa. F. vandermerwei see F. crispa. F. viridiflora see F. divaricata, F. ferrariola. F. welwitschii see F. glutinosa.

Forbesia F. elongata see Empodium elongatum. F. gloriosa see Empodium gloriosum. F. monophylla see Empodium monophyllum. F. namaquense see Empodium namaquensis. F. occidentalis see Empodium occidentale. F. plicata see Empodium plicatum. F. plicata var. veratrifolia see Empodium veratrifolium.

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Freesia—Iridaceae Named in honor of Friedrich Heinrich Theodor Freese (d. 1876), a German doctor. There are about 11 species in the genus, all native to South Africa, mostly in the Western Cape. Species at one time included in Anomatheca have fibrous corms with rounded bases and a chromosome count of 11. In a paper published in 1995, Peter Goldblatt and John C. Manning merged Anomatheca and Freesia, conserving the name Freesia. The white-flowered species were introduced early into cultivation, sent to England in 1816, but it was not until the introduction of F. corymbosa in 1898 that hybridizers began to develop the hybrid freesias we know today. This variable species has yellow, rarely pink, flowers and a delightful fragrance. It was crossed with F. refracta, which had been introduced earlier, to produce the hybrid known as F. xkewensis. Hybridizing was done in England, France, Italy, and the Netherlands. The round or ovoid corms are loosely covered by a netted tunic. Several leaves are produced; these are narrow and shorter than the flower stem, arranged in a fan. The foliage continues to grow long after the flowers have finished. The zygomorphic flowers are carried on strong, branched stems, with the terminal branch much larger than the others and bearing more flowers. The hybrids generally carry more flowers in the spike than do the species, which seldom have more than 4 or 5 flowers, crowded on the stem. The flowers are all carried on one side of the stem, which bends outward just below the lowest flower, so that the flowers are held upright. The tip of the stem also bends slightly so that the flowers there are almost outward-facing. Today there are many named hybrids, all lovely plants, as well as many doubles with very large flowers; they are sold as container plants, cut flowers, and dormant bulbs for summer bedding (Plates 23-27). Freesias can withstand very little frost and need heat to grow well; therefore, they can be grown for winterand spring-flowering only where winters are mild. In other areas, they are planted in late spring for summer bloom. Florists grow them year-round in greenhouses for the cutflower and container plant markets. They make excellent house plants and are a must for warm-climate gardens, where they offer late-winter color. Where well adapted, they often increase by self-sowing. CULTURE In warm areas, plant corms in September, 2 in. deep and 3 in. apart in well-drained soil in full sun. Give liquid organic fertilizer as soon as the first growth appears above ground. Ample moisture must be available while leaves remain green; feed once a month and stop feeding when flowerbuds are visible. Decrease water when foliage starts to die down. When foliage is completely dry, withhold water entirely. In warm climates, begin watering again in late August to initiate new flowering cycle. It is not unusual for plants to die down in early summer, start into growth again in late summer, and produce another (though less prolific) display of flowers in late fall. This behavior demands extra feeding so the corms can gather strength. In colder areas, lift corms after foliage dies, store over winter, and replant in spring when danger of frost is past.

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Corms offered by Dutch growers in late winter have been lifted and stored under exact temperature controls to retard development. Plant these outdoors in a warm, well-drained spot after danger of frost is past for summer bloom. If grown indoors, corms are best planted in a deep container to allow the roots to expand—6 corms to a 6-in. pot is about right. Flats should be at least 4-5 in. deep, with corms set 2-3 in. apart. For winter and spring bloom, plant in September and bring indoors when night temperatures drop below 45°F. Keep at 50°F at night, with bright light during the day. Feed once a week and keep moist. Continue growing in same container until foliage begins to die down, then reduce water and feeding. Plants can then be set outside if no frost is expected. Planted out in the garden, bulbs may flower again if they were not grown at high temperatures indoors. PESTS AND DISEASES

Leaves can be attacked by fungus diseases if not given adequate ventilation during growing season. Aphids, mites, and thrips can be a problem, so put proper controls into effect as soon as noticed. PROPAGATION

Corms produce many offsets, which can be separated and planted back after the foliage has died down. Newly formed corms should not be transplanted until dormant. Soak seeds in warm water for 24 hours before sowing. Sow indoors at any time of year in a rich soil mix—well-rotted compost, good topsoil, and sharp sand. Give them a temperature of 65°F at night, which can be lowered when germination starts. Keep as cool as possible during summer; high temperatures cause lankiness. Give good air circulation and bright light at all times. Do not allow seedlings to dry out or have their growth interrupted by low temperatures; they must be kept growing. Plant outdoors when the foliage has died down. Do not transplant seedlings in growth. Plants usually flower in their 3rd year from seed. SPECIES F. alba. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 4-16 in. Flowers sweetly fragrant, white, outer segments sometimes flushed purple, throat with purple lines, winter to spring (July to October in the wild). Plate 502. F. andersoniae. South Africa (Northwestern Province, Northern Cape, Free State). Stems to 6 in. Flowers fragrant, creamy with yellow markings, throat yellow with purple markings, rarely maroon, late spring (September to October in the wild). F. caryophyllacea. South Africa (Western Cape from Worcester to Montagu, Caledon, Bredasdorp to coast). Stems to 4 in. Flowers white with yellow on lower 3 lobes, winter (April to June in the wild). F. corymbosa. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Leaves erect, arranged in spiral fan, 10 in. long. Stems to 12 in. Flowers golden yellow, variable; those formerly known as F. armstrongii are pale pink with yellow throat. Flowering spring. One of the most fragrant, especially in evening, but has little else to recommend it. F. elimensis. South Africa (Bredasdorp area in Western Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers, to 7 per stem, white with mauve

on reverse, yellow-orange blotches on 2 lower lateral lobes, winter (May to June in the wild). F. fergusoniae. South Africa (Western Cape from Bredasdorp north to Swellendam east to Mossel Bay). Stems 6-12 in. Flowering late winter to early spring (July to August in the wild). Plate 503. F. grandiflora. South Africa to Tanzania and Zambia, in warmer subtropical areas of the high veld; introduced 1887. Corm cylindrical. Stems to 12 in. or more, leafy, usually unbranched. Leaves 5-6, erect, sword-shaped, ¥2 in. wide, 12-14 in. long. Flowers bright red tinted orange, 2 in. in diameter; perianth tube narrow, 11/4 in. long; lower perianth segments have a darker blotch of color toward the base. Flowering mid to late summer (December to May in the wild). F. laxa. South Africa, Mozambique, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, Zambia, and Uganda; introduced 1830. Similar to F. grandiflora. Stems 10-12 in. Leaves basal, linear, 12-14 in. long, narrow and sharply pointed, held in a flat fan shape; no stem leaves or bracts; leaf bases cover the lower part of the flowering stem. Flowers up to 10, carried in an unusual way: the topmost flower, the first to open, continues the upright direction of the stem, but below this flower the stem bends and the rest of the flowers appear along it, always upright. Flowers 1 in. in diameter, typically warm red with darker blotches on the lower tepals; perianth tube 1-11/2in. long. Flowering spring and summer (October to March in the wild). Pink, white, and red-centered white forms common in cultivation and come fairly true from seed. Seeds sometimes bright red, not black as in other species. Despite its native habitat, one of the hardiest species, able to survive winter temperatures around 25°F. In warm situations, selfsows heavily. Plate 504. F. leichtlinii. South Africa (S coastal Western Cape), in sandy and stony ground. Stems to 8 in., sometimes more but often much less. Leaves erect, proportionately long. Flowers do not rise above foliage as much as in other species. Flowers very fragrant, 2 in. long, cream to purple, most commonly off-white or creamy, darker yellow-cream inside, purple flush on exterior. Flowering early to late spring (August to September in the wild), depending on temperature. F. occidentalis. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape, W Karoo), in arid foothills. Stems 6-20 in. Flowers creamy white with yellow marks on lower lobes and base, sometimes purplish. Flowering late winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). Plate 505. F. refracta. South Africa (Western Cape from Worcester south to Swellendam); introduced 1816. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers fragrant, lime-yellow, bright yellow or white, sometimes flushed dull mauve, late winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). F. sparmannii. Langeberg Mountains of South Africa (Western Cape), in foothills. Stems 6-8 in. Leaves erect. Flowers small, slender, white flushed purple on reverse, yellow-orange blotch on lowest lobe, early spring (September in the wild). F. spedosa. South Africa (Western Cape in Little Karoo); listed as vulnerable. Stems 10-12 in. Flowers very fragrant, creamy yellow, spring (September in the wild). Rare in cultivation.

Fritillaria F. verrucosa. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 3-8 in. Flowers pink, early to mid spring (August to September in the wild). F. viridis. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape) and S Namibia. Stems 4-14 in. Flowers green to brownish, fragrant in evening, mid to late winter (June to July in the wild). Subsp. crispifolia has "crisped" foliage. Freesia cultivars. The named hybrids have complex pedigrees involving F. alba, F. corymbosa, F. leichtlini, and F. refracta. Popular cultivars include the following: 'Adonis', rose double; 'Aphrodite', soft pink double; 'Apollo', white; 'Athene', white, good forcer; 'Bloemfontein', pastel pink double; 'Blue Wimple', violet-blue; 'Carmelita', golden yellow; 'Corona', yellow double; 'Fantasy', ivory double; 'Golden Crown', clear yellow double; 'Matterhorn', huge pure white; 'Oberon', flame red with yellow center; 'Pimpernel', flame-scarlet; 'Princess Marijke', flame orange; 'Riande', yellow, good forcer; 'Romany', pale mauve double; 'Rose Marie', dark pink double; 'Royal Blue', campanula blue, white throat striped violet; 'Safari', large clear yellow; 'Snowdon', pure white double; 'Stockholm', chrysanthemum red, yellow throat; 'Talisman', soft orange pink; 'Uchida', indigo with yellow throat; semidouble; 'Vienna', white double; 'Viking', pink; 'Washington', orange-red with golden center, double; 'Wintergold', golden. Plates 506-510. SYNONYMS

F. armstrongii see F. corymbosa. F. brevis see F. corymbosa. F. flava see F. speciosa. F. framesii see -F. occidentalis. F. hurlingii see F. refracta. F. metelerkampiae see F. corymbosa. F. middlemostii see F. leichtlinii. F. muirii see F. leichtlinii. F. odorata see F. corymbosa. F. parva see F. caryophyllacea. F. sparrmannii var. flava see F. speciosa.

Fritillaria—Liliaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Latin fritillus ("dice box"), referring to the tessellated pattern on the flowers of many species. This genus is widely distributed through much of the Northern Hemisphere. There are about 80 species recognized in the Western botanical literature, and a number of others have been described in China. Their centers of distribution include Europe, especially around the Mediterranean; W and C Asia in Turkey, Iran, the Caucasus, and east to Afghanistan; the Himalayas, and W China; and W coastal North America. The genus is closely related to Lilium and shares the characteristic of pendent, bowlshaped to funnel-shaped flowers, but in Fritillaria these are not often brilliantly colored. The plants are very graceful, however, and the checkering that marks many flowers is very attractive. The stems are unbranched and bear the leaves, arranged either in whorls or in pairs. In some species the leaves are attached at or near ground level and appear basal. Nonflowering bulbs

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produce single or several leaves at ground level, and these may be larger than any of the leaves on flowering plants. The leaves of most species are stiff and fleshy, and those of some are glaucous. The flowers have 6 perianth segments, equal or nearly so, called tepals. Each tepal has a nectary at the base, which may be conspicuously depressed (forming a ridge on the "outside" of the flower) or contrastingly colored. There are 6 stamens and a single style, sometimes divided into 2 at the tip and as long as the stamens. The flowers are held on individual pedicels arranged alternately along the stem (in F. imperialis and a few other species, the inflorescence is a terminal umbel). The flowers display a wide range of shapes, from narrowly tubular to almost flat, but most are bell-shaped. The fruit is a capsule (winged in some species, unwinged in others) with numerous flat, winged seeds. In some species, all parts of the plant have an unpleasant "foxy" odor, especially noticeable as the leaves emerge. The bulbs are of 2 general types. Some have a few large, fleshy scales, generally no more than 3 or 4. Others have looser scales and tend to produce numerous tiny bulblets, called "rice grains" by growers, which detach easily; this permits the plant to perpetuate itself when the main bulb is eaten by predators. Fritillaria bulbs are fragile and must be handled with care. They have no protective tunics and therefore can become desiccated quickly in storage. They have to be stored at a controlled level of humidity and wrapped during shipping so that little moisture is lost. This is usually the reason why purchased bulbs of the popular F. meleagris (a moisture-loving species) fail to grow. The subtle colors of most fritillaries are best appreciated at close quarters in the rock garden or in small-scale plantings among shrubs or under small deciduous trees (Plate 18). The crown imperial (F. imperialis) is a popular early spring subject in the perennial border. Enthusiasts cultivate the more difficult species in bulb frames and alpine houses, where their specialized moisture regimes can be followed. The majority of species can be grown outdoors in warm Mediterranean climates, but not many thrive where winter temperatures dip below 0°F. CULTURE Cultural requirements vary depending on the species and the habitat where it originates. Many species are easily grown in temperate gardens, but many others must be protected against spring frosts and winter and summer rains. Plant bulbs so that they are covered with a depth of soil equal to 3-4 times the height of the bulb, and spaced apart by about 4 times their diameter. Set out in fall as soon as bulbs become available. Good drainage is essential for most species (F. meleagris does well in damp soils). High organic content is good for most commonly grown species; give weak feedings of organic fertilizer in fall and when leaves emerge if the soil is poor. Many species typically grow in scrub, grassland, or light woodland and should be given light shade in hot areas. PESTS AND DISEASES

The most serious disease affecting these plants is Botrytis, which should be controlled with fungicides as described for Lilium. Slugs and snails are avid for the foliage and must be excluded

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where fritillaries are grown. Deer often eat the buds and seed capsules. PROPAGATION

Sow seed in late summer or fall for germination the following spring. Use a sandy soil mix, covering the seeds with a little grit. Place pots in a cool spot and keep moist. Apply a systemic insecticide to the soil to control aphids and keep water off the leaves, which are susceptible to Botrytis. Transplant young bulbs after 1 or 2 growing seasons. Grow on in containers or nursery beds until large enough to plant out. Some species flower 3-4 years after sowing; others take as long as 8-9 years. Most species produce offsets. Separate these from the parent bulbs and grow on in cool conditions until large enough to plant in permanent situations. Less moisture is needed in late summer, but do not allow bulbs to dry out completely. Rice grains take 1-2 years longer to reach flowering size than do true offsets. Fritillaries can also be propagated from scales, as are lilies (see Lilium). The number of scales taken from a bulb must be limited to avoid weakening the parent bulb. Removing rice grains, however, does not weaken the parent. SPECIES F. acmopetala. Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, and Lebanon; introduced 1874. Stems 12-30 in. Leaves narrow, to 3 in. long, alternate on stem. Flowers solitary, sometimes as many as 3, bellshaped with strongly recurved tips, olive green with reddish brown blotches or bands on outside, shining olive green within; inner segments somewhat duller in color. Flowering in mid spring. Easy in ordinary garden soils, increasing rapidly. Many plants grown under other names are in fact this species. Plate 511. F. affinis. RICE-GRAIN FRITILLARY. United States (California to Washington) and Canada (British Columbia), in open woodland. Stems to 18 in. or more. Leaves stiff, lanceolate, sometimes grayish, in several whorls. Flowers 1-12, deep to pale green, variably checkered with purple-brown, mid spring. Commercial clone 'Limelight' is light yellowish green. Two dark, very large-flowered sterile triploids from Point Reyes, California, are 'Tristulis', with short stems, and 'Wayne Roderick', with tall stems. F. agrestis. STINK BELLS. United States (C California), in grassland; rare. Stems 8-15 in. Flowers cream, spotted purplish brown inside, mid spring. F. alburyana. NE Turkey; introduced 1966. Flowers pink, lightly checkered, opening near ground level, early spring. An alpine species, very difficult in cultivation. F. alfredae. Lebanon; introduced 1930. Leaves in pair and whorl above. Flowers nearly tubular, soft green outside, yellowish green inside, mid spring. Easily grown in warm areas. Smaller than the 2 other subspecies. Subsp. glaucoviridis, from S Turkey, has stems 6-15 in. Subsp. platyptera from S Turkey and N Syria is larger than the type in all parts. F. amabilis. Japan, in woodland. Stems 2-6 in. Leaves in 2 pairs and 1 whorl. Flowers solitary, narrowly bell-shaped, cream slightly marked with green, early spring. Difficult; requires cool, moist conditions, but mild winters.

F. ariana. C Asia, NE Iran, and NW Afghanistan, in desert dunes. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers pale pink, small, nearly flat, early spring. Difficult; requires very limited moisture. F. armena. Turkey (NE Anatolia); introduced 1846. Much confused in the literature and in cultivation with F. caucasica, with which it hybridizes in the wild. Stems 2-6 in. Leaves 4-5, lanceolate, alternate. Flowers pendent to outward-facing, usually solitary, narrowly bell-shaped, dark purplish brown inside and out, mid spring. F. assyriaca. Turkey, Iraq, and Iran; introduced 1874. Stems 2-8 in. Leaves linear, alternate. Flowers usually solitary, grayish outside, greenish or yellowish inside; anthers yellow. Flowering mid spring. Subsp. melananthera is striped green and dark purple inside and has black anthers. Most plants grown under this name are actually F. uva-vulpis. Plate 512. F. atrolineata. W Iran. Stems 6-8 in. Leaves gray-green. Flowers narrow, yellowish green to green with yellow margins on outside, suffused or mottled pale brown inside, mid spring. F. atropurpurea. United States (E Oregon and E California to Rocky Mountains, south to New Mexico), in arid inland ranges. Stems 6-20 in. Flowers cream to yellow, mottled purplish brown, mid spring. Difficult outside its native range. F. aurea. C Turkey, in rocky places; introduced 1854. Stems 2-6 in. Flowers yellow, checkered red-brown, mid spring. Not too difficult given perfect drainage. Plate 513. F. biflora. CHOCOLATE LILY, MISSION BELLS. United States (California to N Baja California), in coastal scrubland and mountains. Stems to 6-12 in. Leaves shiny green, large, mostly basal. Flowers 1-12, not reflexed, dark brown, often marked with green, mid spring. 'Martha Roderick' is a robust plant with brownish-red flowers marked cream or green on exterior. F. bithynica. W Turkey and Greek islands; introduced 1874. Stems 4-8 in. Leaves fairly broad, lower usually a pair, upper a whorl of 3. Flowers bell-shaped, 1-3 per stem, soft green, mid spring. F. brandegei. United States (S California), in mountain woodlands; rare. Stems 12-36 in. Flowers small, starry, pale green with maroon blotches in center, mid spring. F. bucharica. NW Afghanistan and C Asia, on mountain slopes. Stems to 12 in. Leaves paired on lower stem, remainder alternate; prominent pair of bracts under each flower. Flowers white with green veins, numerous, early spring. Requires dry summer and protection from spring frosts. Plate 514. F. camschatcensis. BLACK LILY, BLACK SARANA. E Siberia, Japan, N Pacific islands, and United States (Alaska south to Washington), in meadows and damp hillsides. Stems 6-20 in. Lower leaves in whorls, upper alternate. Flowers 1-8 per stem, from deep maroon-purple, almost black, to brown and yellowgreen, mid spring. A double form is sometimes listed. Grows well only in cool-summer regions and must be kept moist. Plate 515. F. carica. SW Turkey and E Aegean Islands; introduced 1975. Stems 2-6 in. Leaves lanceolate, alternate. Flowers narrowly bell-shaped, bright yellow, mid spring. Easily grown in warm areas or in pots. Subsp. serpenticola from Turkey (Antalya) has broader leaves and flowers.

Fritillaria F. caucasica. NE Turkey, NW Iran, and Caucasus, in alpine meadows. Stems 4-8 in. Leaves lanceolate, alternate. Flowers solitary, narrow, dull purple with glaucous bloom, mid spring. F. chitralensis. N India and E Afghanistan; reintroduced 1970. Similar to F. raddeana, with brighter yellow flowers and broader leaves. F. chlororhabdota. Iran. Similar to F. caucasica. Flowers slender bell-shaped, dark purple with metallic sheen, mid spring. F. cirrhosa. C and E Himalayas, W Nepal, India (Sikkim), Bhutan, and SW China, in screes and alpine meadows at high elevations. Stems to 18 in. Leaves linear, lower ones opposite, upper in whorls, uppermost with tendrils on tips. Flowers usually solitary, yellowish checkered with brown-purple, to 2 in. long, mid spring. Requires dryish winter and cool, moist summer. F. collina. Caucasus, in alpine meadows. Stems 1-6 in. Flowers broad, pale yellow with reddish-brown checkering, mid spring. F. crassifolia. W Asia. Stems 4-8 in., sometimes more. Leaves 4 per stem, broad, alternate. Flowers yellow-green checkered with purple; nectary that is not raised. Flowering mid spring. Subsp. hakkarensis, from SE Turkey and NE Iraq, has shiny green leaves and flowers with acutely pointed inner tepals. Subsp. kurdica, from SE Turkey, N Iran, and N Iraq, introduced 1974, has narrower, very glaucous leaves and blunt inner tepals. Subsp. poluninii, from N Iraq and W Iran, in snowmelt screes, has small whitish, green-veined flowers. Only subsp. poluninii is difficult to grow; the other subspecies are fairly easy, given dry summers. F. davisii. S Greece (Mani Peninsula); introduced 1940. Stems 6-10 in. Lowest leaves opposite, large, at ground level. Flowers purplish brown outside, bronze-yellow inside with purplish-brown checkering, mid spring. Hardy to at least 10°F, fairly easy. F. delavayi. China (Sichuan, Yunnan) and in the Himalayas west to India (Sikkim), in snowmelt screes at high altitudes. Stems to 4 in., but flowers often appear at level of surrounding rocks. Flowers bell-shaped, gray-green to buff outside, yellowish green with reddish spots inside, mid spring. Difficult. F. drenovskii. Bulgaria and NE Greece, in scrub. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers purple to red-brown outside, greenish yellow inside, mid spring. Fairly easy in the garden. F. eastwoodiae. United States (N California, S Oregon), in rocky scrub habitat. Stems 6-14 in. Flowers small, numerous, recurved, yellow, orange, scarlet, red-purple, sometimes bicolored, mid spring. Requires dry summer. F. eduardi. Pamir Mountains of C Asia. Stems to 20 in. Flowers bright brick-red to orange, in umbel with a tuft of a few bracts above. Similar to F. imperialis but smaller and lacks offensive odor. Rare in cultivation, likes dry summer. Plate 516. F. ehrhartii. Aegean Islands. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers small, bell-shaped, nearly black with silvery "bloom" on outside, yellow-green inside, mid spring. Hardy to at least 20°F and easy given dry summer. F. elwesii. SW Turkey, in forest; introduced 1884. Stems to 12 in. Flowers 4 or more per stem, deep purple with green stripes, mid spring.

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F. epirotica. NW Greece, in screes. Stems 2-6 in. Flowers broadly bell-shaped, deep brown-purple, inside yellowish checked with purple, mid spring. F. euboeica. Greece, on Euboea Island. Stems 2-4 in. Flowers yellow, mid spring. F.falcata. United States (S California), in mountain screes. Stems to 4 in. Flowers upright-facing, cup-shaped, yellowish spotted rusty-brown, mid spring. Very difficult in cultivation. F. fleischeriana. W Turkey; introduced 1829. Stems 2-6 in. Flowers narrow, purple-brown with green stripes, mid spring. F. forbesii. SW Turkey, in pine woodland; introduced 1874. Stems to 8 in. Flowers narrow, pale yellow-green, mid spring. F. gentneri. United States (Oregon); endangered. Stems to 18 in. Flowers purplish red, checkered inside with yellow. Similar to F. recurva but tips of tepals not recurved. F. gibbosa. C Asia, from Caspian Sea to NW China, in desert scrub. Stems to 6 in. Flowers flat, outward-facing, pale pink with darker spots at center, early spring. Difficult, requiring careful control of moisture. F. glauca. SISKIYOU LILY. United States (S Oregon to N California), in mountain screes. Stems to 5 in. Leaves lanceolate, very glaucous. Flowers yellow, sometimes spotted brown, rarely entirely dark brown, mid spring. Grown commercially in the Netherlands; not too difficult given a dry summer. F. graeca. Crete and S Greece. Stems to 10 in. Leaves 5-12, glaucous, alternate above, opposite below. Flowers 1-3, deep purplish brown outside, often with bright green median stripe, and greenish inside, mid spring. Subsp. thessala, from the Balkan Peninsula and NW Greece, has broader, greener leaves, in a whorl above and broad flowers that are green lightly checkered with brown; it is hardier than the type. Both subspecies are easy to grow. Plate 517. F. gussichiae. NE Greece, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia, in woodlands. Stems to 12 in. Flowers broadly bell-shaped, pale green flushed brown, not checkered, mid spring. Easy to grow. F. hermonis. Lebanon (Mount Hermon); rare in the wild and in cultivation. Flowers bell-shaped, soft green, checkered or streaked brown or purple, mid spring. Subsp. amana, from S Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon, has stems to 12 in. and is larger than the type; it is easily grown where hardy. F. imperialis. CROWN IMPERIAL, KING'S CROWN LILY. Asia, from Turkey to Kashmir; introduced before 1590. Bulbs very large, malodorous. Stems 2-4 ft. Leaves shiny green, in whorls. Flowers pendent in an umbel below a distinctive tuft of large green bracts. Flowers large, broadly bell-shaped, bright orange with pale raised nectaries, scented of rotting meat. Flowering mid spring. Despite smelling like rotten mutton, these are very showy plants for gardens, tolerating a wide range of welldrained soils in full sun. Leave plantings undisturbed. Select bulbs and sources carefully to prevent virus problems from manifesting themselves. Selections include 'Aureomarginata', leaves margined pale yellow; 'Aurora', strong grower with orange-red flowers; 'Lutea', yellow flowers; 'Lutea Maxima', more robust yellow form; 'Prolifera', 2 whorls of flowers; 'Rubra', brownish orange; 'Sulpherino', pale orange with yellow margin. Plates 518-520.

238

Fritillaria

F. involucrata. Maritime Alps of SE France and NW Italy. Stems to 10 in. Leaves narrow, lower in an opposite pair, upper in a whorl. Flowers 1-2, pale green, sometimes with chocolatebrown or purple checkering, mid spring. Plate 521. F. kotschyana. Iran, in mountain screes. Stems to 10 in. Flowers pale yellow, checkered, striped green, early spring. F. latakiensis. S Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon; introduced 1975. Similar to F. elwesii except in details of style and more slender flower. F. latifolia. Caucasus and NE Turkey; introduced 1799. Stems to 12 in. Leaves lanceolate, alternate. Flowers solitary, broad, to 2 in. in diameter, deep purple-maroon with strong green-yellow checkering, mid spring. Many selections were once offered by nurseries, including yellow forms called var. lutea and var. aurea; not widely grown today but still fine for gardens. F. liliacea. United States (C California), in sandy soils near coastline; endangered. Stems to 12 in. Leaves mostly basal, bright green. Flowers white, flushed green or yellow in throat, shallowly bowl-shaped, early spring. Winter-growing and requires frost protection. F. lusitanica. C and S Spain and Portugal. Stems 8-30 in. Leaves narrow, alternate. Flowers green to deep purplish brown, usually striped, yellowish inside, mid spring. Easily grown. F. macedonica. E Albania and Macedonia, in subalpine meadows. Stems 2-5 in. Flowers light purple, checked with darker purple, mid spring. F. meleagris. SNAKE'S HEAD FRITILLARY, SNAKE LILY, GUINEA-HEN FLOWER, CHECKERED LILY, LEPER LILY, TOAD LILY.

Europe, from Great Britain to Russia and Yugoslavia; long in cultivation. Stems wiry, to 15 in. Leaves generally 4-6, narrow, slightly glaucous, alternate. Flowers pale pink to purple, strongly checkered inside; white forms common, showing greenish checkering. Flowering mid spring. Flourishes in damp meadows, so plant only where moisture is present throughout the year. Tolerates dappled shade and likes soil high in leafmold or other organic matter. Selections include 'Alba', white; 'Aphrodite', large white; 'Artemis', checkered purple and green; 'Charon', light purple checkered with black; 'Orion', dull purple; 'Saturnus', bright reddish violet. Plate 522. F. meleagroides. Bulgaria and Ukraine east to Altai Mountains and NW China, in damp meadows. Stems 8-24 in. Flowers very dark purple outside, greenish inside checkered purple, mid spring. F. messanensis. North Africa, Greece, Crete, S Italy, and Sicily, in open woodland; introduced 1939. Leaves linear, upper in a whorl, lower opposite. Stems to 20 in. Flowers 1-3, bell-shaped, green or brownish purple, checkered, mid spring. Subsp. atlantica, from North Africa, has shorter, broader leaves. Subsp. gracilis, from the Balkan Peninsula, has a dark purple flower, slightly checkered, and upper leaves not in a whorl. Hardy to about 15°F and should be kept somewhat dry in summer. F. michailovskyi. NE Turkey, in rocky places in mountains; introduced 1905. Stems to 9 in., usually shorter. Flowers dark purple with prominent yellow tips, mid spring. Widely offered and easy to grow in climates rather dry in spring. Plate 523.

F. micrantha. C Sierra Nevada of United States (California). Stems to 36 in. Flowers very small, greenish yellow to buff, faintly checkered, mid spring. F. minima. SE Turkey, on snowmelt slopes in mountains; introduced 1971. Stems to 4 in. Flowers yellow, unmarked, mid spring. Difficult to grow. F. minuta. SE Turkey and NW Iran, on snowmelt slopes; introduced 1859. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers brick red or orangebrown, to 1 in. long, unmarked, mid spring. F. montana. S Europe, from France to Balkan Peninsula and Greece, on rocky slopes. Stems to 14 in. Flowers green, heavily checkered deep purple or brown, mid spring. Somewhat confused in cultivation with F, nigra, a synonym of F. pyrenaica. Plate 524. F. obliqua. Greek islands. Stems to 8 in. Flowers purple-black with glaucous "bloom," sweet-scented, mid spring. F. olivieri. W Iran, in seasonally damp places. Stems to 14 in. Flowers green, flushed or lightly checkered with brown, mid spring. F. orientalis. N Caucasus, in rocky woodland. Stems to 10 in. Flowers broad, purple-brown, heavily checkered, mid spring. F. pallidiflora. C Asia, NW China, and SE Siberia, in alpine meadows. Stems stout, 10-30 in. Leaves glaucous, broad, alternate or opposite. Flowers pale greenish yellow, very lightly checkered reddish brown inside, mid spring. Extremely coldhardy and easily grown in most gardens. Plate 525. F. persica. PERSIAN LILY. S Turkey and W Iran, south to Jordan and Israel, on rocky slopes; introduced 1753. Stems to 45 in. Leaves glaucous, lanceolate, alternate, sometimes slightly twisted. Flowers numerous, more than 30 on a well-grown plant, dark plum-purple to gray-green, widely conical, mid spring. An interesting accent among other spring bulbs. Robust selections are 'Adiyaman' and 'Senkoy', named for the towns near which they were found, but many plants sold under these names are inferior seedlings. Widely offered, but persists only in well-drained soil in regions with hot, dry summers. Plates 526-528. F. pinardii. NW Turkey, Armenia, and W Iran; introduced 1846. Stems to 8 in. Flowers purple-gray outside, yellow, orange, or greenish inside, unmarked, mid spring. F. pinetorum. United States (E California, Nevada). Stems to 12 in. Flowers yellow-green, heavily mottled with purple, mid spring. Plate 529. F. pluriflora. ADOBE LILY. United States (N California), in seasonally damp clay soils. Stems to 14 in. Flowers bright pink, 1-4 or more per stem, early spring. Requires dry summer. F. pontica. N Greece and N Turkey, in open woodland; introduced 1826. Stems 15-30 in. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, lower opposite, upper in whorl. Flowers green flushed brown, bellshaped, not checkered, 1-4 on stalk, mid spring. Easily grown, hardy to about 0°F. F. pudica. JOHNNY-JUMP-UP, YELLOW BELL. United States (N California to Washington) and Canada (British Columbia), in mountain meadows, wet in spring, dry in summer. Stems to 10 in., usually less. Leaves narrow, bright green, near base of stem. Flowers conical, mostly 1-3 per stem, golden yellow, flushed

Fritillaria darker at base, aging to orange, mid spring. Requires moderately dry winter, dry summer. F. purdyi. United States (N California), in rocky places in coastal mountains. Stems 4-12 in. Leaves elliptic to broadly lanceolate, in a basal rosette. Flowers 1-4, shallow bowl-shaped, closely spaced at top of stem, pale green to white, green at base, with broad, dark red-brown median stripe and spots, early spring. F. pyrenaica. Pyrenees of S France and N Spain. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves narrow, glaucous, alternate. Flowers 1-3 per stem, dark purple-brown outside, greenish yellow or bronze and checkered inside, recurved at tips. Flowering late spring. Robust strains have been selected; easily grown and probably hardy to about 0°F. Plate 530. F. raddeana. NE Iran and Turkmenistan, in rocky places. Stems 24-30 in. Flowers in an umbel of 10-20, pale to clear yellow, large open bell-shaped, early spring. Requires dry summer and winter frost protection where snow cover is not present. F. recurva. RED BELL, SCARLET FRITILLARY. United States (Oregon, California), in coastal woodlands; introduced 1870. Stems 12-40 in. Leaves linear, glaucous, in whorls. Flowers orange to scarlet, checkered yellow inside, strongly recurved at tips, mid spring. Selection 'Mt. Hood' has brighter flowers. Var. coccinea has large, darker flowers. Requires dryish but not hot conditions in summer. F. rhodocanakis. Greece, on Hydra Island. Stems to 6 in. Flowers purplish maroon with yellow tips, unmarked, mid spring. F. roylei. W Himalayas in Kashmir, Pakistan, and Punjab area, in meadows. Stems to 14 in. Flowers yellowish green with purple markings, mid spring. F. ruthenica. Ukraine and S Russia; introduced 1826. Stems to 20 in. Flowers dark purple to blackish outside, inside yellowgreen tinge with brownish checkering, mid spring. F. sewerzowii. C Asia and NW China, on shrubby slopes; introduced 1874. Stems to 10 in. Flowers tubular at base, widely reflexed and spreading at mouth, green, yellow, or buff outside, yellowish inside, often with dark brown throat, mid spring. Plate 531. F. sibthorpiana. SW Turkey, in pine forest; introduced 1874. Stems to 12 in. Flowers bright yellow, narrow, mid spring. F. stenanthera. C Asia, in alpine meadows and screes. Stems to 12 in. Flowers 1-8 per stem in crowded raceme, well opened, pale pink with deep red base, early spring. Requires dry summer. Plate 532. F. straussii. SE Turkey and W Iran; introduced 1904. Stems to 6 in. Flowers broad, dark brownish purple or green aging to purple, mid spring. F. striata. United States (S California), in coastal foothill grassland; rare. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white flushed purplish near base, striated red inside, sweet-scented, early spring. Requires frost protection and dry summer. F. stribrnyi. W Turkey and S Bulgaria; introduced 1893. Stems to 12 in. Flowers green with purplish margins, or purple outside and green inside, mid spring. F. thunbergii. EC China and Japan. Stems to 28 in., clinging

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to shrubs by tendrils at tips of upper leaves. Flowers white, slightly checkered or veined with dull green, mid spring. Widely cultivated as a medicinal plant. Much confused in cultivation with F. verticillata, which has larger flowers. F. tubiformis. Alps of SE France and N Italy, in dry meadows. Stems to 10 in., usually shorter at flowering. Flowers large, broad, purplish outside, pale yellow inside checked with purple mid spring. Subsp. moggridgei has yellow flowers. F. tuntasia. Greece, on islands of Kyhnos and Andros. Stems to 12 in. Flowers conical, black-purple with glaucous "bloom," sweet-scented, mid spring. F. uva-vulpis. N Iraq, W Iran, and SE Turkey, in meadows; introduced 1974. Bulb produces many offsets. Stems 12-14 in. Leaves bright green, narrow, alternate. Flowers narrowly bellshaped, purplish gray outside, deep yellow inside, mid spring. Easily grown in ordinary garden conditions. F. verticillata. E Russia and NW China, in subalpine meadows and scrub. Stems to 18 in., clinging to shrubs with tendrils on leaf tips. Flowers white or yellowish, faintly checkered with green, mid spring. F. walujewii. C Asia and NW China, in mountain scrub; introduced 1970. Stems to 16 in. Leaves have short tendrils at tips. Flowers white, flushed grayish, checkered with purple inside, mid spring. F. whittallii. S Turkey; introduced 1893. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers broad, greenish checkered with brownish purple, mid spring. F. yuminensis. NE China. Stems to 14 in. Upper leaves have tendrils. Flowers numerous, widely open, pale lavender, pink, or white, unmarked, sweet-scented, mid spring. Requires moisture in late summer. F. zagrica. W Iran and SE Turkey; introduced 1881. Stems to 5 in. Flowers dark chocolate-purple, tipped and sometimes striped yellow, mid spring. SYNONYMS F. adamantina see F. atropurpurea. F. alpina see F. pinardii. F. arabica see F. persica. F. askabadensis see F. raddeana. F. bhutanica see F. delavayi. F. bornmuelleri see F. aurea. F. canaliculata see F. assyriaca. F. carduchorum see F. minuta. F. caussolensis see F. montana. F. citrina see F. bithynica. F. dasyphylla see F. bithynica. F. delphinensis see F. tubiformis. F. discolor see F. sewerzowii. F. eggeri see F. persica. F. erzurumica see F. alburyana. F. ferganensis see F. walujewii. F. fleischeri see F. pinardii. F. foliosa see F. crassifolia subsp. kurdica. F. glaucoviridis see F. alfredae subsp. glaucoviridis. F. gracilis see F. messanensis subsp. gracilis.

240

Gagea

F. gracilHma see F. atropurpurea. F. grossheimiana see F. crassifolia subsp. kurdica. F. guicciardii see F. graeca. F. haradjianii see F. alfredae subsp. glaucoviridis. F. hookeri see Notholirion macrophyllum. F. imperialis subsp. inodora see F. eduardi. F. kamtschatcensis see F. camschatcensis. F. karadaghensis see F. crassifolia subsp. kurdica. F. kurdica see F. crassifolia subsp. kurdica. F. lanceolata see F. affinis. F. libanotica see F. persica. F. macrandra see F. tuntasia. F. lutea see F. collina. F. lycia see F. acmopetala. F. minor see F. ruthenica. F. multiflora see F. micrantha. F. multiscapoideum see Erythronium multiscapoideum. F. mutica see F. affinis. F. neglecta see F. messanensis subsp. gracilis. F. nigra see F. montana, F. pyrenaica. F. nobilis see F. latifolia. F. ophioglossifolia see F. crassifolia. F. oranensissee F. messanensis var. atlantica. F. parviflora see F. micrantha. F. phaeanthera see F. eastwoodiae. F. pineticola see F. bithynica. F. pterocarpa see F. gibbosa. F. racemosa see F. montana. F. schliemannii see F. bithynica. F. sphaciotica see F. messanensis. F. subalpina see F. bithynica. F. syriaca see F. pinardii. F. tenella see F. orientalis. F. thessalica see F. graeca subsp. thessala. F. thomsoniana see Notholirion thomsonianum. F. tristis see F. obliqua. F. wanensis see F. crassifolia subsp. kurdica.

Gagea—Liliaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of Sir Thomas Gage (1761-1820) of Hengrave Hall in Suffolk, England, who botanized in Suffolk, Ireland, and Portugal. This genus, obscure to gardeners, is a large one: some authorities estimate that there are more than 100 species, while others recognize half as many. Separation of species often is based on the number of leaves produced by the small bulbs, so it appears that the conservative estimate is likely to win out. Gageas are native to most of Europe, W and C Asia, and North Africa, growing in alpine meadows and rocky places, often close to the sea. Almost all species have small, starry, bright yellow flowers; 2 species, G. graeca and G. trinervia, have white, bell-shaped flowers. Several species produce bulbils in the axils of the leaves, and sometimes individual plants produce bulbils instead of flowers (this occurs in G. fistulosa). The flow-

ers have 6 tepals, mostly yellow, greenish yellow on the reverse, and are carried upright-facing in a terminal umbel subtended by a pair of bracts, or in a raceme. There can be as many as 15 small flowers per plant. The leaves are basal, linear to narrowly lanceolate, and may be flat or cylindrical. Most species can be expected to withstand temperatures down to about 20°F, and some are likely to be quite a bit hardier, though they are so seldom grown that information on this point is sparse. Although bright, they are low-growing and small-flowered. They should be planted in large groups in a sunny location, especially in the rock garden, in combination with other low-growing spring bulbs such as crocuses and species tulips. CULTURE Not particular about soil, they should do well in sandy loam with moderate organic content, with plenty of moisture in spring, good drainage, and sun. Most species tolerate dry summers well and may even require such conditions. Plant bulbs 1-2 in. deep, spaced 3-4 in. apart. Little or no feeding is required. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Bulbils can be collected as the foliage withers and grown on in nursery rows or in containers. Separate offsets from parent bulbs while plants are dormant in summer, taking care not to damage the mass of persistent, fibrous roots. Sow seed in fall in a sandy soil mix, barely covering it, and grow in cool but frostfree conditions. The bulbs should be of flowering size in 2 or 3 seasons. SPECIES G. bithynica. Turkey. Similar to G. chrysantha. G. bohemica. Great Britain and France east to Turkey and Syria, in rocky places; introduced 1829. Stems to 2 in. Leaves 2, threadlike, prostrate. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter, bowl-shaped, tepals blunt. Flowering in spring. G. bulbifera. Turkey, Romania, and Russia east to China; introduced 1829. Stems to 6 in. Leaves 1-2. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter; tepals with green stripe on reverse. Flowering in spring. G. chanae. Similar to G. helenae but with hairy stems and gray leaves. G. chlorantha. Turkey and W and C Asia; introduced 1829. Stems to 8 in. Leaves 2. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter, spring. G. chrysantha. Turkey, Balkan Peninsula, Italy, and North Africa; introduced 1829. Stems to 4 in. Leaves 2. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter; tepals sometimes reddish brown on reverse. Flowering spring. G. confusa. E Turkey, N Iraq, W Iran, and S Transcaucasia; introduced 1904. Stems to 6 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter; tepals brown or green on reverse. Flowering spring. G.fibrosa. S Caucasus, Turkey, Aegean Islands, Greece, Rus-

Galanthus sia, Iran, Israel, and North Africa; introduced 1829. Bulbs surrounded by mass of fibrous roots. Stems to 6 in. Leaf usually solitary. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter; tepals green on reverse. Flowering spring. Plate 533. G. fistulosa. Europe, from Pyrenees to Russia, in mountain meadows; introduced 1816. Stems to 7 in. Leaves 1 or 2, hollow but fleshy. Though small, looks sturdy. Sometimes bulbils are produced instead of flowers. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter, spring. Plate 534. G.foliosa. Mediterranean region; introduced 1830. Stems to 5 in. Leaves usually 2. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter, spring. G. gageoides. Turkey, Iran, and C Asia; introduced 1932. Stems to 6 in. Leaf solitary. Tepals pale yellow. G. gladalis. Caucasus, Iran, and N Turkey. Stems to 6 in. Leaf usually solitary. Flowers bright yellow, usually solitary, about 1 in. in diameter, spring. G. graeca. Greece, Crete, and Turkey; introduced 1905. Bulbs often crowded and covered with fibrous roots. Stems to 4 in., usually with 1 or more small leaves on stem. Leaves 2-4, narrow and grasslike. Flowers white with purple stripes, narrowly bellshaped or funnel-shaped, spring. Plate 535. G. granatellii. Mediterranean region; introduced 1845. Stems to 5 in. Leaves 2. Flowers numerous, bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter, spring. G. helenae. Caucasus and Turkey; introduced 1924. Stems to 5 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter; tepals green on reverse. Flowering spring. G. juliae. Turkey and Cyprus. Similar to G. peduncularis. G. kashmirensis. Kashmir. Stems to 6 in. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter, spring. G. lutea. YELLOW STAR OF BETHLEHEM. Europe (including Scandinavia). Stems to 8 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers to 10, bright yellow; tepals flushed green on reverse, about 1 in. in diameter, spring. G. luteoides. Turkey, Caucasus, and Iran; introduced 1885. Stems to 6 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter; tepals pale yellow. Flowering spring. G. minima. E Europe, west to Switzerland and north to Norway; long in cultivation. Bulbs paired within a common tunic. Basal leaf solitary, 1-2 leaves on stem, if 2 they are opposite. Stems to 5 in., rarely more. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter; tepals long and pointed, sometimes reflexed. Flowering spring. Plate 536. G. nevadensis. Balearic Islands, Corsica, Spain, France, Portugal, and Sardinia. Similar to G. peduncularis. Flowering early summer. G. peduncularis. Bulgaria, Greece, Crete, Turkey, and Balkan Peninsula, introduced 1904. Stems to 2 in. Leaves 2. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter; tepals green on reverse. Flowering spring. G. polymorpha. Spain and E Portugal. Similar to G. foliosa. G. pratensis. Europe, Crimea, and Turkey, in grassland; introduced in 1827. Bulbs often in clusters of 2 or 3. Stems to 6 in. Basal leaf solitary, with fine hairs along margin. Flowers relatively large, bright yellow, spring.

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G. pusilla. C and S Europe. Stems to 3 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter; tepals with green stripe on reverse. Flowering spring. G. reticulata. N Africa, Turkey, Syria, Iran, and Russia; introduced 1829. Stems to 6 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter, spring. G. spathacea. Europe (including Scandinavia). Stems to 6 in. Leaves 2. Flowers bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter, spring. G. taurica. W and C Europe. Similar to G. reticulata. G. tenera. Turkey and Iran east to C Asia. Similar to G. chrysantha. G. tenuissima. Turkey. Similar to G. chrysantha. G. trinervia. North Africa and Sicily. Bulbs crowded. Flowers white, usually solitary. Similar to G. graeca but has longer style and pointed stamens. Flowering spring. G. uliginosa. Turkey, N Iraq, and Iran; introduced 1904. Stems to 2 in. Leaf usually solitary. Flowers bright yellow, usually solitary, about 1 in. in diameter; tepals brownish red on reverse. Flowering spring. G. villosa. Europe (including Scandinavia), North Africa, Turkey, and Iran; introduced 1828. Leaves 2, with hairs on margins. Flowers numerous, bright yellow, about 1 in. in diameter, spring. SYNONYMS G. amblyopetala see G. chrysantha. G. anisanthos see G. fistulosa. G. arvensis see G. villosa. G. boissieri see G. villosa. G. commutata see G. fibrosa. G. damascena see G. chlorantha. G. dubia see G. granatellii. G. joannis see G. luteoides. G. linearifolia see G. luteoides. G. liotardii see G. fistulosa. G. minimoides see G. confusa. G. pinardii see G. granatellii. G. rigida see G. fibrosa. G. saxatilis see G. bohemica. G. sintenisii see G. luteoides. G. smyrnaea see G. bohemica. G. soleiroli see G. nevadensis. G. stenopetala see G. pratensis. G. sylvatica see G. lutea. G. syriaca see G. luteoides. G. szovitsii see G. bohemica. G. tenuifolia see G. reticulata.

Galanthus—Amaryllidaceae FEBRUARY FAIR MAID, SNOWDROP Name derived from Greek gala ("milk") and anthos ("flower"), in reference to the milky white color of the flowers. This genus of 18 species is native to SW and SE Europe and W Asia as far as the Caucasus Mountains and Caspian Sea. Galanthus is related to Leucojum (snowflakes); the difference is that the inner 3 and

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Galanthus

outer 3 perianth segments of Galanthus are different lengths, while those of Leucojum are of equal length. This botanically difficult genus has recently been revised by Aaron P. Davis; his treatment in The Genus Galanthus (1999) is followed in the species list below. The bulbs are round and have brown tunics. The species are distinguished in part by their leaf characteristics, which are especially noticeable just as they emerge. Each bulb produces 3 leaves; 2 of these lengthen, and the 3rd remains short, sheathing the bases of the longer leaves and the flower stem. The leaves may be absent, 1 or 2 in. long, or nearly full-length at flowering time, depending on species. Three arrangements are noted by Davis: applanate, in which the paired leaves have flat margins and do not wrap one around the other; explicative, in which the margins are folded under; and supervolute, in which one of the long leaves is wider and partially wraps, or overlaps, the other. The flowers are white, variously marked with green. The shape of the green blotches or stripes is an important means of identification. The flower has a teardrop shape when closed in darkness or dull weather; when the sun comes out, the outer segments flare more or less widely. The 3 outer segments are longer than the inner 3. The inner segments are notched at the tip. The flowers are usually solitary, covered by a spathe in bud and drooping on a thin pedicel when fully developed. Snowdrop enthusiasts have selected and named hundreds of minutely distinct forms and hybrids, to an extent that gardeners who do not share this obsession tend to find humorous. The following list mentions only those likely to be offered in the catalogs of general bulb suppliers. The snowdrop is one of the symbols of early spring, but some species or subspecies flower in fall. They can grace the garden for many months if a wide range of species is grown. They do well in deciduous shade and are typically placed on the edge of wooded areas or in front of shady borders. They make the best impression when massed. When choosing a spot, remember that established clumps have a lot of foliage which must be left to wither in early summer. They can be grown in containers, brought indoors to enjoy in winter, and they are long-lasting cut flowers. Most species are sweetly fragrant, though this often goes unnoticed because they flower in such cold weather. For many years, millions of snowdrop bulbs were collected in the wild to be sold to gardeners. This threatened some populations so severely that the entire genus now falls under CITES restrictions. All bulbs sold must be certified as nursery propagated. CULTURE Snowdrops may be supplied as container plants in spring or as dormant bulbs in fall. In Great Britain they are often sold "in the green," dug just after flowering, but the notion that this is the best time to move them is a myth, probably started because dormant bulbs deteriorate quickly in dry storage. Bulbs purchased in fall should be stored in slightly moist peat and planted as soon as possible after digging. Plant bulbs 2-3 in. deep and 4-5 in. apart in rich, humusy soil in a cool position. Incorporate bone meal when planting,

since snowdrops do very well with its combination of micronutrients. In rich soils they need no supplemental feeding; in poorer soils, give weak feedings of organic fertilizer as the shoots emerge and topdress with leafmold in fall. Fertilize plants in containers regularly. Though tolerant of shade, they do best where they enjoy sun for at least part of the day. Never allow plants to become dry during their growing period. Leave plantings undisturbed, lifting only to increase stock. Snowdrops do not take kindly to being forced, but they can be grown in pots plunged outdoors and brought indoors just before the buds open. PESTS AND DISEASES

Young shoots are sometimes attacked by the fungus Botrytis galanthina and become covered with gray mold. This causes rot to set in, possibly destroying the bulb. Remove affected plants and destroy them. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide in late summer while dormant or, if necessary, just after flowering. Replant bulbs at once. Snowdrops often spread by seed in the garden, forming large drifts. Sow seed as soon as it is ripe; stored seed loses viability rapidly. Keep in cool conditions for germination the following spring. Give seedlings weak liquid fertilizer once a month and grow for 2 years in containers before setting bulbs out in permanent positions. Seedlings take 4-5 years to flower. SPECIES G. xallenii. Apparently a sterile hybrid of uncertain origin; introduced 1883. Leaves supervolute. Flowers with 2 -shaped green marks on inner segments, early spring. G. alpinus. Caucasus, in montane woodlands. Leaves supervolute, grayish. Stems to 9 in. Green mark near tip of inner segment is A- or -shaped. Flowering early to mid spring. This name replaces G. caucasicus, but most plants grown under that name are in fact G. elwesii. Var. alpinus has whitish bulb scales and is widespread and fertile. Var. bortkewitschianus, from one site in the Kabardino-Balkharian Republic, has yellowish bulb scales and is sterile. G. angustifolius. Kabardino-Balkharian Republic in N Caucasus. Stems 3-6 in. Leaves applanate, narrowly linear, glaucous, erect at maturity. Inner segments marked outside with green A shape at tip, inside with green mark along half or more of length. Flowering early to mid spring. G. elwesii. Bulgaria, NE Greece, E Aegean Islands, S Ukraine, Turkey, and E Yugoslavia; introduced 1875. Stems to 10 in. Leaves supervolute, gray-green, developing to over 1 in. wide after flowering. Inner segments variably marked: , , or an inverted heart near tip, sometimes a A at base which may be joined to the apical mark; green at the base and apex, but this color is variable and often will appear suffused throughout the inner segments. Plants grown under the name G. caucasicus are almost all G. elwesii; small plants with narrow, glaucous leaves grown as G. elwesii are probably G. gracilis. Plate 537. G.fosteri. NC Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon; introduced 1889. Stems to 5 in. Leaves broad, bright green, often shiny, supervo-

Galanthus lute. Inner perianth segments have 2 distinct green spots, one at apex and one at base. Early spring. Does well in dry-summer regions. G. gracilis. Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey, in mountains. Stems 3-4 in., sometimes a little more. Leaves glaucous, narrow, often twisted, applanate. Inner tepals marked on both surfaces with opposed A- to heart-shaped marks at both tip and base. Flowering late winter to early spring. Grown in gardens under the name G. elwesii subsp. minor or just G. elwesii, but distinguished by leaf shape. G. xgrandiflorus. Hybrid of uncertain origin; described 1893. One parent was G. plicatus. Not known to still exist. G. ikariae. Aegean Islands, in damp, shady places; introduced 1893. Stems 3-8 in. Leaves broad, dark matte green, supervolute, recurving when mature. Inner perianth segments have a bold mark, sometimes flat-topped, over l/2—2/3 of their length, and a similar mark inside. Confused in cultivation with G. woronowii, which has bright, shiny green leaves. G. koenenianus. NE Turkey; discovered late 1980s. Stems to 3 in. Leaves narrow, supervolute, deeply furrowed on underside (a unique trait). Inner segments have a narrow A mark near tip and small yellow or light green mark near base. Flowers said to be urine-scented. Flowering early spring. G. kmsnowii. Georgia and NE Turkey near Black Sea in deciduous forest, rare; introduced 1967. Stems 3-9 in. Leaves bright green, shiny, with 2-4 fine longitudinal furrows, often puckered, crinkles; leaves broad, to 11/2 in. wide. Inner perianth segments have a mark or 2 -shaped marks near tip, similar marks on inside. Flowering mid spring to early summer. G. lagodechianus. S Russia, Caucasus, and Transcaucasia; introduced 1967. Stems 2-8 in. or more. Leaves dark green, linear, applanate. Inner segments have a narrow - or -shaped mark near tip, similar or larger mark inside. Flowering mid spring. One of the latest snowdrops. G. nivalis. SNOWDROP. Europe from Pyrenees to Ukraine, and from Germany and Poland to S Italy; naturalized in Britain, Netherlands, and Scandinavia, and in North America; long in cultivation. Stems 3-8 in. Leaves slightly glaucous, applanate, linear, widening slightly in 1/3, erect or somewhat recurved, margins often slightly turned under. Inner segments have narrow - or -shaped mark, the ends of which are usually enlarged; inner surface has a mark extending to the base. Flowering mid to late winter, sometimes into spring, depending on variety. The most commonly grown and widely adapted snowdrop for gardens. 'Albus' has only a tiny tip of green. 'Flore Pleno' has 3-5 outer segments and 7-15 inner ones. 'Lady Elphinstone' similar to 'Flore Pleno' but with yellow-marked inner perianth segments rather than green-marked; 'Lutescens' (synonym 'Sandersii') has inner segments tipped yellow and a yellow ovary. 'Poculiformis' has inner and outer segments about equal in length and both unmarked. 'S. Arnott' (synonym 'Sam Arnott') is a robust plant with large flowers; some plants in commerce under this name are not true. 'Scharlockii' has an enlarged, leaflike spathe that looks like 2 erect leaves. 'Viridapicis' and 'Pusey Green Tip' have outer as well as inner segments tipped green. Subsp. cilicicus, from S Turkey, has

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stems 4-7 in.; leaves applanate, linear, glaucous, not twisted; and inner perianth segments marked on both sides with narrow or near tip. Plates 538-542. G. peshmenii. SW Turkey and Greek island of Kastellorhizon, in scrub and rocky places; described 1994. Stems 4-5 in. Leaves applanate, often absent at flowering time, linear, slightly glaucous with faint median stripe, recurved, prostrate, or pendent at maturity. Inner perianth segments have a A or mark near tips, mark extending nearly to base on inner surface. Flowering in fall. G. platyphyllus. C Caucasus in Georgia and Russia, in mountain meadows. Bulb large, elongated. Stems to 8 in. Leaves supervolute, broad (to nearly 2 in.), bright or dark green, often erect when mature. Tips of anthers blunt rather than pointed as in other species. Apex of inner perianth segments not notched. Flowering after snowmelt (mid spring in cultivation, summer in the wild). Best suited to cool-summer regions. G. plicatus. Romania, Crimea, and NW Turkey near Black Sea; grown since 1583, when Clusius received a bulb from Constantinople, introduced to England in 1592. Stems 6-10 in. Leaves explicative (margins folded downward), linear but fairly broad, often tapered at base, green or slightly glaucous, sometimes with broad lighter median stripe, undersides paler. Inner segments have one green mark at tip. Flowering mid to early spring. Does well in moderate shade or naturalized in grass. 'Hill Poe' is a double-flowered selection. Subsp. byzantinus has inner segments with green marks at tip and base. G. reginae-olgae. Greece, Corfu, and Sicily, in woodland; described 1876. Close to G. nivalis, but has narrower gray-green leaves with prominent glaucous median stripe. Stems to 4 in. Flowering in fall before the leaves emerge. Subsp. vernalis from Greece, Sicily, and the Balkan Peninsula flowers in late winter to early spring, when leaves are almost fully developed. G. rizehensis. NE Turkey, W Transcaucasia, and Russia (Krasnodar region); introduced 1933. Leaves applanate, linear, bright to dark green or slightly glaucous, often with narrow pale median stripe; underside shining green. Inner segments have variable mark at tips; inner surface with similar or larger mark. Flowering early spring. G. transcaucasicus. Armenia, Azerbaijan, and N Iran around the S coast of Caspian Sea. Stems to 8 in. Leaves supervolute, linear to narrowly oblanceolate, bright to dark green, with 2-4 longitudinal furrows. Inner segments with variable mark at tip, similarly marked on inside surface. Flowering mid winter to spring. G. woronowii. Caucasus and Transcaucasia, in S Russia, Georgia, and NE Turkey. Stems 2-7 in. Leaves with margins folded upward, not downward as in G. plicatus; bright green, glossy, often with 2-4 fine longitudinal furrows on upper surface. Inner segments with variable green marks, horseshoeshaped, sometimes with flat top, or split into 2 spots. Flowering late winter to spring. Common in cultivation, but usually confused with G. ikariae. Galanthushybrids. 'Atkinsii' (probably G. nivalisx G. plicatus), leaves explicative, flowers very large and long, mid winter; 'Brenda Troyle', leaves slightly explicative, flowers fragrant,

244

Galaxia

with deep green, heart-shaped mark; 'Cordelia', flowers double, with green mark at apex of each inner segment, late blooming, similar to 'Dionysus' and 'Hippolyta'; 'Dionysus', inner perianth segments doubled; 'Hippolyta', leaves explicative, flowers double with green, heart-shaped mark; 'John Gray', produces 2 flowering stems per bulb, leaves applanate, flowers held close to the soil, with green X-shaped mark, early blooming, one of the best snowdrops and easy to grow; 'Lady Beatrix Stanley', double-flowered hybrid with glaucous, supervolute leaves; 'Lavinia', double-flowered with horseshoe-shaped mark; 'Magnet' (probably G. nivalis x G. plicatus), very long pedicel is distinctive; 'Maidwell', leaves explicative, flowers with a pale shaped mark; 'Mighty Atom', several clones circulate under this name, leaves explicative, flowers large, globose, on short stems; 'Straffan', produces 2 flowering stems per bulb, leaves slightly explicative, flowering very late. Plates 543-553. SYNONYMS G. bulgaricus see G. gradlis. G. byzantinus see G. plicatus subsp. byzantinus. G. cabardensis see G. lagodechianus. G. caucasicus see G. alpinus, G. elwesii. G. cilidcus see C. nivalis subsp. cilicicus. G. corcyrensis see G. reginae-olgae. G. elwesii subsp. minor see G. gradlis. G. graecus see G. gradlis. G. xgrandiflorus see G. plicatus. G. ikariae subsp. latifolius see G. platyphyllus. G. kemulariae see G. lagodechianus. G. ketzhovellii see G. lagodechianus. G. latifolius see G. ikariae. G. latifolius f. typicus see G. platyphyllus. G. maximus see G. elwesii. G. nivalis subsp. angustifolius see G. angustifolius. G. nivalis subsp. reginae-olgae see G. reginae-olgae. G. olgae see G. reginae-olgae. G. rachelae see G. reginae-olgae. G. schaoricus see G. alpinus.

Galaxia—Iridaceae Name derived from Greek galaxios ("starry"), in reference to a galaxy of stars. This is a genus of about 14 species native to South Africa from the Western Cape and Namaqualand, first introduced into Europe in the late eighteenth century. Since 1998 Galaxia has been placed in the genus Moraea; however, I think the separation is best for horticulturists. The small corms, rarely more than 1/2 in. in diameter, are covered with a coarse, fibrous tunic. The entire plant is small—no taller or wider than 3 in. The leaves form a small rosette, usually close to the ground. Most species have yellow flowers, to 1 in. in diameter, which appear in winter and into early spring. They enjoy a mild Mediterranean climate, with plenty of moisture during the winter, a warm spring, and a dry, very warm summer. Though never likely to take the world by storm, these rather pleasant little plants deserve a place in warm gardens where

there is more than a passing interest in bulbs. They should be placed in rock gardens, in the front of sunny borders, or in other locations where they can be easily seen. Their flowering season is fairly long. They might be tried in a lawn, where their low stature would leave them unharmed by fairly high mowing; the resulting drifts of color would be an added attraction. CULTURE Set the small corms just under the surface of the soil, 1-2 in. apart, in late summer or early fall, in well-drained soil in full sun. They cannot withstand temperatures below 35°F during their winter growing period. High summer heat does not bother them. Provide moisture during winter and early spring, with less in summer, but do not dry them out completely until fall. Even in soil that is low in fertility, these plants will do well; only in the poorest soil should any fertilizer be given, and that should be a weak dilution applied in the early stage of growth. Ensure good air circulation; in the wild, they grow exposed to strong winds. Leave plants undisturbed, lifting them only to divide the corms, but keep their area weed-free, since they are so small. In cold areas, grow them in containers under glass when night temperatures fall below 45°-50°F. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate young cormels as soon as the foliage has begun to die down. Grow the smaller cormels on in flats, barely covered with a sandy soil mix, for a year. They should be big enough to plant out at that time. SPECIES G. alata. South Africa (just north of Cape Town in Western Cape), on sandy, waterlogged soils; endangered. Leaves cylindrical, held close to ground. Flowers small, yellow or white, with fringed stigmas, winter (June to August in the wild). G. albiflora. South Africa (coastal Western Cape from Langebaan south to Cape Agulhas, the southernmost point of Africa), in sandy places wet during winter. Leaves generally 2, narrow with distinct channel in center. Flowers white with yellow center, open only for one day in early afternoon; tepals overlap and flare into funnel-shaped flower with lobed stigmas. Flowering in winter (May to August in the wild). Plate 554. G. barnardii. South Africa (Caledon area in Western Cape), on clay flats and slopes. Leaves lance-shaped, channeled with wavy margins. Flowers pink to purple with darker centers, early spring (August to September in the wild). G. ciliata. South Africa (Namaqualand). Leaves green, channeled down center, margins fringed with hairs. Flowers bright yellow. G. citrina. South Africa (Nieuwoudtville in Northern Cape to Western Cape), in sandy, stony soils. Leaves linear, held close to ground. Flowers yellow, with lobed stigmas, spring to early summer (July to October in the wild). G. fugadssima. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Leaves of 2 kinds: lower leaves broad, about 1 in. long, lying flat or nearly

Galtonia so; upper leaves curled, linear, extending above flower to 21/2 in. Flowers dainty and attractive, nestled in rosettes of leaflike bracts, with several opening at a time, either white flushed pink with yellow throat, or entirely yellow, funnel-shaped with slightly curved 1 -in. tube, lobes flaring to over 1 in. in diameter. Segments held loosely,1/4in. wide, l/2 in. long. Flowers last only a day but have a sweet fragrance, spring (July to September in the wild). Plate 555. G. grandiflora. South Africa (Northern Cape); endangered. Similar to G. ovata, but flowers are larger. Flowering late spring to summer (August to October in the wild). G. luteo-alba. South Africa (Cedarberg area in Western Cape), in rocky outcrops. Leaves oval, lying on surface of soil. Flowers yellow when first open, fading quickly to white at the tips; stigmas usually fringed, spring (July to September in the wild). G. ovata. South Africa (Western Cape), in well-drained, sandy or gritty soil. Leaves ovate, lying on ground, to 1 1 /2 in. long, in a rosette. Flowers yellow, several produced but usually opening singly, winter and spring (July to September in the wild). G. parva. South Africa (Bredasdorp region of Western Cape), in clay soils; rare. Leaves lanceolate with wavy edges. Flowers tiny, marked with green, late winter to early spring (July to August in the wild). G. stagnalis. South Africa (NW Western Cape, Namaqualand), in damp places. Leaves narrow, linear. Flowers yellow, with fringed stigmas. G. variabilis. South Africa (Western Cape). Leaves narrow, linear. Flowers purple with yellow center, late spring to early summer (September to October in the wild). G. versicolor. South Africa (Western Cape), on clay flats and slopes. Leaves have wavy margins. Flowers purple to pink, usually with yellow centers; stigma lobed. Flowering spring (July to September in the wild). SYNONYMS G. graminea see G. fugacissima. G. ovata var. grandiflora see G. grandiflora. G. ovata var. purpurea see G. versicolor.

Galtonia—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of Francis Galton (1822-1911), a British scientist who travelled widely in South Africa, the home of the genus. There are 3 or 4 species, related to the hyacinth and sometimes called summer hyacinths, though they do not look (or smell) much like true hyacinths. The bulbs are large and have thin tunics. Few leaves are produced, all basal, varying in width and length according to species; they tend to be untidy after the plants have flowered. The flowers are held in a loose raceme which may exceed 24 in. The green or white flowers are pendent, carried well away from the stem on long pedicels. The pointed perianth segments are fused into a tube at the base, then separate for more than half their length. The flowers, 11/2-2 in. long, are narrowly funnel-shaped in some species, while in others the lobes flare more widely in a trumpet shape.

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These are very good additions to the summer border, where they should be planted in groups of 5 or more. The flowers remain attractive for a long period from mid-July until late August. Galtonia candicans is the only species usually grown, but G. viridiflora, the green-flowered species, is elegant in form. Galtonias grows well in large containers such as half barrels. CULTURE Because galtonias are summer-growing, they can be grown outdoors even in moderately frosty climates if they are well mulched during winter. Where temperatures seldom fall below 15°F, G. candicans and G. viridiflora are reported to do well. They require good drainage and full sun. They are supplied as dormant bulbs (usually in late winter). Plant-the large bulbs with their tops just below the surface of the soil, 18-24 in. apart. Provide plenty of moisture during spring and summer and allow them to dry out after the foliage has died back in late summer. Though the scapes attain a considerable height, no staking is needed. Weak feedings of liquid fertilizer should be given as soon as growth is seen in the spring and discontinued as soon as the flower stems emerge. These bulbs are best left undisturbed; they respond poorly to being transplanted. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Established bulbs produce only a few offsets, which do not always reestablish well if moved. Seed is the best way to increase stock. Sow seed in late summer in a soil mix that is freely draining but has enough organic matter for moisture retention. Seeds should be lightly covered with soil and kept around 55°F at night, in bright light. Keep the seedlings growing until they start to die back, usually 12-14 months after germination, when the mature plants go dormant. By then the bulbs should be big enough to plant out. Transplant with care. SPECIES G. candicans. CAPE HYACINTH, BERG LILY, SPIRE LILY, SUMMER HYACINTH. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Free State) and Lesotho; introduced c. 1860. Stems to 50 in. Leaves pale green, to 2 in. wide and 30 in. long, tapering gradually to a fine point, sometimes erect but usually recurved. Flowers slightly fragrant, up to 40 per stem, 2 in. long, pendent, white (sometimes with green tips and base), on pedicels over 2 in. long. A worthy garden plant, and the only species usually available from bulb suppliers. Plates 556, 557. G. princeps. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 36 in. Leaves similar to those of G. candicans. Flowers about 1 in. long, white to cream with greenish tint. Some authorities regard this as a smaller-growing form of G. candicans; it is not as good a garden subject and is apparently less cold-hardy. G. regalis. ROYAL BAY LILY. Lesotho and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), in crevices and ledges on vertical cliffs. Stems to 24 in. Leaves 6-9, strap-shaped, 18 in. long, dark green. Flowers 8-30 per stem; tube greenish cream; lobes white to pale yellow. Flowering summer (December to February in the wild). G. viridiflora. South Africa (SE Free State, W KwaZulu-

246

Geissorhiza

Natal) and NE Lesotho. Stems 24-36 in. Leaves pale green, broad, narrowing abruptly at tip, usually erect. Flowers pale green with white margins in racemes of 15-30.

Geissorhiza—Iridaceae WlNE CUPS, RED SEQUINS, BLUE SEQUINS

Name derived from Greek geisson ("tile") and rhiza ("root"), for the tunics enveloping the corm which resemble tiles laid on a roof. According to the 1985 revision of the genus by Peter Goldblatt, there are 82 species native to South Africa and occurring in the Northern Cape, Western Cape, and Eastern Cape. Few of these are in cultivation, and only a few more are mentioned in books on the flora of the Cape. Unlike many bulbs from this part of the world, geissorhizas frequently are found in places that are damp especially during the growing season—the margins of ponds or on marshy ground. They flower in early spring, when moisture is high. In their native land, these bright flowers are commonly known as wine cups, red sequins, or blue sequins. The flowers are similar to those of Ixia, but often larger. Hesperantha is a closely related genus, but in Geissorhiza the style branches are much shorter. In Ixia, the spathes which enclose the buds are thin and papery; in Geissorhiza they are green. Goldblatt includes in this genus species formerly separated as Engysiphon on the basis of differences in the arrangement of the stamens and styles and the length of the filaments and perianth. The corms are small, mostly less than 1/2 in. in diameter. The tunics usually are hard, even woody. The flower stems, which range in height from 4 to 12 in., emerge from the sheath formed by the leaves and carry buds protected by the green spathe. The flowers are of various shapes, from star to goblet. The flower colors, too, are varied, from single colors to tricolors with zones of white, pale blue, purple, or wine-red. The flowers are quite large relative to the size of the plants, often more than1/2in. in diameter. Some species open only 1 or 2 flowers, others 4 or 5. These are fine plants for sunny borders in warm climates, and good container plants for a frost-free greenhouse. They must be planted in bold groups to be effective. Though not well known in the Northern Hemisphere, they are highly regarded by those who grow them. Geissorhiza radians and G. aspera should be the first species tried, since they are easy to grow and very pretty. CULTURE All species should be grown essentially frost-free. In areas where there are occasional, very light frosts, plant them where the sun will not strike them while the temperature is below freezing. Plant corms in late summer or early fall, 2 in. deep and 3-4 in. apart. They like full sun but appreciate some midday shade in very hot areas. During the growing season, they must get plenty of water. Summer moisture does not harm the corms, but toward the end of summer, a drier period is beneficial. Those that grow in damp, peaty soil are noted in the list below; the remainder prefer well-drained but moisture-retentive soil. Little or no feeding is required. They should be left undisturbed; be-

cause they make growth in winter, they should not be overwintered in storage. They grow well in containers in a sandy-peaty mix. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Seed sown in late summer in a sandy-peaty mix germinates easily and often produces flowering plants by the following spring, certainly by the 2nd year. In warm areas, they can be sown outdoors in rows or in containers. Firm the soil well when transplanting young corms. Geissorhiza bolusii seems not to set seed and must be increased by vegetative propagation, through the bulbils produced in the leaf and bract axils. SPECIES G. alticola. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 8-12 in. Flowers bluish violet, summer (December to February in the wild). G. arenicola. South Africa (near Nieuwoudtville in Northern Cape). Stems 5-8 in. Flowers white or blue, spring (September in the wild). G. aspera. South Africa (Western Cape), in flat, sandy areas and on slopes; introduced 1795. Stems 6-10 in., unbranched, exceeding leaves. Leaves usually 2, like broad grass blades. Flowers 3-6, starry, bright violet-blue. Perianth segments joined only at their bases. Flowering early spring (August to October in the wild). Does not require moisture in summer but needs it in fall and winter. Plate 558. G. barkerae. South Africa (N of Cape Town in Western Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers yellow with purple center, spring (September to October in the wild). G. bolusii. South Africa (Western Cape), in mountains. Stems 1-4 in. Flowers white, late spring to summer (October to December in the wild). G. bonae-spei. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 5-8 in. Flowers pink, spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). G. bracteata. South Africa (Eastern Cape to E Karoo). Stems 2-7 in. Flowers white, spring (September to October in the wild). G. brehmii. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 8-12 in. Flowers white to cream, early spring (August to October in the wild). G. brevituba. Piketberg Mountains of South Africa (Western Cape). Flowers deep pink, spring (September in the wild). G. bryicola. Hermanus Mountains of S Western Cape. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers white, spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). G. burchellii. South Africa (SW and S Western Cape). Stems 5-8 in. Flowers purple, late spring to summer (December to lanuary in the wild). G. callista. South Africa (Caledon area in Western Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers pink darkening to magenta toward base and on reverse; anthers purple. Flowering early summer (November to December in the wild).

Geissorhiza G. cataractarum. South Africa (coastal Western Cape from Betty's Bay to Hermanus), on damp cliffs. Stems 4-12 in. Flowering late spring to summer (November to January in the wild). G. cedarmontana. South Africa (Cedarberg area in Western Cape). Stems 3-12 in. Flowers pink, stamens and style included in tube; late spring to early summer (October to November in the wild). G. ciliatula. South Africa (Cedarberg area in Western Cape). Stems 2-4 in. Flowers white fading to blue, early summer (November in the wild). G. confusa. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 8-12 in. Flowers creamy white, turning pink with age, summer (October to January in the wild). G. corrugata. South Africa (Calvinia district, W Karoo, Northern Cape). Leaves narrow, twisted. Flowers bright yellow, late winter to spring (August to September in the wild). G. darlingensis. South Africa (Darling area in SW Western Cape). Flowers cup-shaped, pale yellow with black zone in center, spring (September to October in the wild). G. delicatula. South Africa (Western Cape), on interior mountains. Stems 1-5 in. Flowers lilac purple, early spring to summer (August to December in the wild). G. divaricata. Bokkeveld Mountains of South Africa (from Nieuwoudtville to Gifberg in Western Cape). Flowers white to pale mauve marked with red on reverse, late spring (September to October in the wild). G. elsiae. Kammanassie Mountains of South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems 51/2-10 in. Flowers pinkish purple, late spring to summer (October to November in the wild). G. erubescens. Pakhuis Pass of South Africa (east of Clanwilliam in Western Cape). Stems 3-6 in. Flowers white with bright red on reverse, spring (September in the wild). G. esterhuyseniae. Winterhoek Mountains of South Africa (W Western Cape). Stems to 3 in. Flowers white; tube includes stamens and styles. Flowering late spring (October in the wild). G. eurystigma. South Africa (Western Cape), in heavy clay soils; listed as vulnerable. Leaf usually solitary. Stems 6-8 in., sometimes with a secondary branch, fewer-flowered than the main branch. Flowers on main stem up to 9, in a zigzag arrangement, cup-shaped, purple-blue on outside, inside deep crimson tipped purple-blue. Differs from similar G. radians in having only 2 colors, without a zone of a 3rd color between them. Flowering early summer. G. exscapa. South Africa (S Namaqualand, coastal Western Cape). Stems 7-12 in. Flowers ivory or cream, fading to pink; tube and segments long and slender; late spring (September to October in the wild). G.foliosa. South Africa (Swellendam to Riversdale in S Western Cape). Stems 3-8 in. Flowers lilac purple or white, spring to summer (September to November in the wild). G.fourcadei. South Africa (S Western Cape, Eastern Cape), in mountains on Indian Ocean coast. Stems to 12 in. Flowers large, pink to mauve, summer to fall (January to May in the wild). G. fulva. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 3 in.

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Flowers golden yellow, late spring (September to October in the wild). G. geminata. South Africa (SW Western Cape), around seasonal pools and occasionally in shallow water; listed as vulnerable. Stems 9-12 in. Leaves tapering, pointed, forming a cylinder around the scape. Flowers 3-5 per stem, starry, pinkish, about 1/2 in. in diameter; spathes around buds are cup-shaped. Flowering spring (August to September in the wild). G. grandiflora. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 6-14 in. Leaves sticky at base. Flowers similar to G. callista but pink, smaller; anthers and pollen yellow. Flowering summer (November to January in the wild). G. hesperanthoides. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers blue to violet, summer (November to January in the wild). G. heterostyla. South Africa (S Northern Cape, Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape). Stems 5-18 in. Flowers starry, blue to mauve (sometimes with darker violet throat), spring (August to October in the wild). G. hispidula. South Africa (Cape Peninsula to Albertina in S Western Cape). Stems 3-10 in. Flowers white to cream, late winter to early spring (August to September in the wild). G. humilis. South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced 1809. Stems 3-12 in. Flowers sulfur yellow, late winter to spring (August to October in the wild). G. imbricata. South Africa (W Western Cape). Stems 3-10 in. Flowers creamy yellow to white, starry, late spring (September to October in the wild). G. inaequalis. South Africa (Nieuwoudtville area to W Karoo in Northern Cape). Stems 3-6 in. Flowers lilac to mauve with white center, filaments unequal, spring (August to October in the wild). G. inconspicua. South Africa (W Western Cape). Stems 4-12 in. Flowers white or purple, spring to summer (October to February in the wild). G. inflexa. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 10-14 in. Leaves slender, grassy, with prominent veins, 10-12 in. long. Flowers cup-shaped, varying in color from pure carmine to pink, or white to yellow, with maroon on reverse. Red sequins is the name of a rare red form. Flowering early spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 559. G. intermedia. South Africa (SW Western Cape); rare. Stems 2-5 in. Flowers white to pale blue, late spring (September to October in the wild). G. juncea. South Africa (Western Cape), in damp, peaty soil. Stems 10-12 in., just exceeding leaves. Leaves reedlike, pointed. Flowers shallowly bowl-shaped, small, cream or pale yellow, closely set, 4-6 per stem; spathes not prominent. Flowering early spring (August to September in the wild). G. kamiesmontana. South Africa (Namaqualand); rare. G. karooica. South Africa (W Karoo). Stems 1-2 in. Flowers deep violet with yellow center, spring (August to September in the wild). G. leipoldtii. South Africa (Clanwilliam area in Western Cape). Stems 5-8 in. Flowers white to pale blue, late winter to spring (August to September in the wild).

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G. lithicola. South Africa (Kogelberg in Western Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers violet to purple, late spring (October in the wild). G. longifolia. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 5-8 in. Flowers white, spring (September to October in the wild). G. louisabolusiae. South Africa (Western Cape); endangered. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers yellow, early spring (August to September in the wild). G. malmesburiensis. South Africa (Malmesbury area in Western Cape); endangered. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers yellow, spring (September to October in the wild). G. mathewsii. South Africa (Darling area in SW Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Stems 3-7 in. Flowers violet-blue with red center, sometimes separated by a band of white, early spring (August to September in the wild). G. minuta. South Africa (Clanwilliam area in Western Cape), in mountains. Stems 1-5 in. Flowers small, white, spring (September to October in the wild). G. monanthos. South Africa (W coastal Western Cape). Stems 5-8 in. Flowers dark blue, pale yellow at base, often ringed with red or black, spring (August to October in the wild). G. nana. South Africa (Caledon to Riversdale in S Western Cape). Stems 1-3 in. Flowers small, white, spring (September to October in the wild). G. nigromontana. Swartberg Mountains of South Africa (E Western Cape). Stems 4-6 in. Flowers blue, summer (January to February in the wild). G. nubigena. South Africa (W Western Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers rosy pink, summer (December to January in the wild). G. ornithogaloides. South Africa (Tulbagh to Worcester in SW Western Cape, east to Long Kloof Mountains of W Eastern Cape). Stems 1-4 in. Flowers bright yellow, spring (August to October in the wild). G. outeniquensis. Outeniqua Mountains of SE South Africa. Stems 8-20 in. Flowers pink to purple, spring to summer (October to January in the wild). G. ovalifolia. Franschhoek Mountains of South Africa, north to Bokkeveld Mountains near Nieuwoudtville area of Northern Cape. Stems 1-3 in. Flowers white, spring to summer (September to November in the wild). G. ovata. South Africa (Western Cape), in moist rock crevices to 5000 ft. Stems to 4 in., brownish, sometimes branching. Leaves small, to 2 in. long and1/4in. wide, with blunt tips; they do not sheathe the flower stem but are distinctly attached to it. Flowers 2-4 per stem, almost 1 in. in diameter, widely open, white flushed pink, pinkish on reverse, early spring to summer (August to December in the wild). G. pappei. South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems 2-4 in. Flowers white to cream, spring (September to October in the wild). G. parva. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 1-5 in. Flowers yellow to cream, spring to summer (August to November in the wild). G. pseudinaequalis. South Africa (W coast to W Karoo in Western Cape). Stems 4-12 in. Flowers blue to violet, spring to summer (October to January in the wild).

G. purpurascens. South Africa (Piketberg to Stellenbosch in SW Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Stems 7-12 in. Flowers purple to mauve, late spring (September to October in the wild). G. purpureolutea. South Africa (W coastal plain of Western Cape). Stems 1-6 in. Flowers cream to yellow, center dark brown or purplish, early spring (August to September in the wild). G. pusilla. South Africa (Cape Peninsula). Stems 3-12 in. Flowers blue to mauve, spring (August to October in the wild). G. radians. WINECUPS. South Africa (Western Cape), in damp areas among grasses; introduced 1790. Stems 4-8 in. Leaves narrow, grasslike, with tapering points, clasping stem at base. Flowers goblet-shaped, over 1 in. in diameter; tepals purple-blue below, above red at base, purple-blue at tips, separated by a thin white zone on exterior and tip of interior. On the inside of the segments a thin, white band separates this color from the red eye of the lower portion of the segments. Overlapping perianth segments make flowers appear substantial. Does well in containers. Flowering winter (July to August in the wild). Plate 560. G. ramosa. South Africa (Western Cape), on mountain slopes. Stems 8-18 in. Flowers bluish purple, spring to early summer (October to January in the wild). G. roseoalba. South Africa (Little Karoo). Stems 6-8 in. Flowers white with pink on reverse, early spring (August to September in the wild). G. schinzii. South Africa (Caledon area in SW Western Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers pink, spring (August to October in the wild). G. scillaris. South Africa (Caledon to Cedarberg in Western Cape). Stems 5-14 in. Flowers white to light blue, spring to summer (August to November in the wild). G. scopulosa. Hex River Mountains of South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 2-8 in. Flowers violet blue, early summer (November in the wild). G. setacea. South Africa (Cape Peninsula NE to Gouda in Western Cape). Stems 1-3 in. Flowers white or creamy yellow, winter (June to August in the wild). G. similis. South Africa (Cape Peninsula NE to Wellington area in Western Cape). Stems 5-12 in. Flowers white, spring (August to October in the wild). G. splendidissima. South Africa (Nieuwoudtville area of Northern Cape); listed as vulnerable. Stems 3-8 in. Flowers glossy dark blue violet, sometimes with black center, early spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 561. G. subrigida. Bokkeveld Mountains of South Africa (Nieuwoudtville area of Northern Cape). Stems 5-12 in. Flowers blue violet, early spring (August to September in the wild). G. sulphurascens. Bokkeveld Mountains of South Africa (Nieuwoudtville area of Northern Cape). Stems 5-8 in. Flowers creamy white, early spring (August to September in the wild). G. tabularis. Table Mountain of South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 10-14 in. Flowers white to purple, early summer (October to December in the wild). G. tenella. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 4-12 in., sticky. Leaves 2 or 3. Flowers white or pink with pink-veined

Geranium reverse, late spring to summer (October to December in the wild). G. tulbaghensis. South Africa (Tulbagh area in SW Western Cape). Stems 2-6 in. Flowers white, center maroon or brown, spring (August to September in the wild). G. umbrosa. South Africa (Cape Peninsula north to Cedarberg). Stems 5-12 in. Flowers white or cream, spring to early summer (October to December in the wild). G. unifolia. South Africa (Cedarberg area in Western Cape). Stems 2-4 in. Flowers white, spring (October in the wild). SYNONYMS

G. dregei see G. bolusii. G. grandis see Gladiolus grandiflorus. G. hirta see G. inconspicua. G. humilisvar. bicolorsee G. hispidula. G. humilisvar. hispidula see G. hispidula. G. inflexa var. erosa see G. inflexa. G. ixioides see G. leipoldtii. G. juncea var. pallidiflora see G. scillaris. G. lewisiae see G. monanthos. G. mathewsii var. eurystigma see G. eurystigma. G. monantha see G. eurystigma. G. montana see G. ramosa. G. quinquangularis see G. inflexa. G. rochensis see G. radians. G. rochensis var. spithamaea see G. eurystigma. G. rogersii see G. heterostyla. G. rosea see G. heterostyla. G. rupestris see G. bolusii. G. secunda see G. aspera. G. sulphurea var. sulphurea see G. purpureolutea. G. teretifolia see G. brehmii. G. violacea see G. inconspicua.

Gelasine—Iridaceae Name derived from gelasinos ("laughing one"), but just what this has to do with the plants is difficult to imagine. This is a genus of about 4 species of South American cormous perennials, but only one, G. elongata, is known in cultivation or described in the accessible literature. Gelasine coerulea is mentioned by one author as having a habit and color similar to G. elongata, but not as robust. Gelasine elongata is reasonably cold-hardy, surviving in the open garden to about 15°F with good drainage. It is surprising that it has not become more widely cultivated; the color and apparent ease of culture should make it desirable. CULTURE

Plant corms in early spring, 3 in. deep and spaced 12 in. apart, in well-drained soil with good moisture retention, preferably in a warm, protected area. In cold climates, the corms are best lifted in the fall and stored over winter in a frost-free place to be replanted the following spring. In warmer climates, they can be left in the ground. Moisture is required during the growing and flowering period in spring, and full sun is best.

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PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Corms produce a fair number of cormels, which can be separated and planted out during the dormant period in early fall. Sow seed in fall or spring, in moderate temperatures with good light. Plants grown from seed usually flower in the 3rd year. SPECIES G. elongata. South America; introduced 1838. Leaves pleated, green with a hint of blue; basal leaves 3-4, folded along their length, 24 in. long. Flowering stem 24-30 in. Flowers deep, intense blue, over 1 in. in diameter, sometimes almost 2 in., lasting barely a day but numerous so the plants are attractive for as long as a month. Many individual flowers are borne at the ends of 3 long branches of the central scape; at the base of each branch is a small, leaflike bract. The stamens are inserted at the base of the short perianth tube and are united at the top into a cylindrical column. This surrounds the style, which is divided into 3 lobes at the apex. The color of the flowers also is present in the anthers and style, the only relief from the intense blue being the pollen and the white petal bases. Plate 562. SYNONYMS

G. azurea see G. elongata. G. punctata see Alophia drummondii.

Gemmaria G. chaplinii see Strumaria chaplinii. G. discifera see Strumaria discifera. G. gemmata see Strumaria gemmata. G. karooica see Strumaria karooica. G. karoopoortensis see Strumaria karoopoortensis. G. leipoldtii see Strumaria leipoldtii. G. massoniella see Strumaria massoniella. G. mathewsii see Strumaria mathewsii. G. merxmuelleriana see Strumaria merxmuelleriana. G. pulcherrima see Strumaria pulcherrima. G. unguiculata see Strumaria unguiculata. G. villosa see Strumaria villosa.

Geranium—Geraniaceae CRANESBILL Name derived from geranos ("crane"), alluding to the long beak of the fruit; the name geranion was used by Dioscorides for these plants. There are more than 300 species in this cosmopolitan genus, but only a few have rhizomatous or tuberous rootstocks; the remainder are fibrous-rooted perennials, annuals, and subshrubs. These are rosette-forming plants with leafy flowering stems that branch or fork. The leaves are palmate, often deeply lobed, with toothed margins. The flowers, generally produced in pairs, have 5 sepals and 5 petals, overlapping and equal in size. There are 10 stamens, more or less united at the base, held in 2 whorls,

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the outer whorl located opposite the petals and the inner one opposite the sepals. After pollination, the base of the style grows, forming the long beak for which the plants are named. This beak slowly dries and splits into 5 strips, which curl and fling the seeds away from the plant, acting like a spring. This genus has been enjoying a great deal of popularity in the perennial garden, and rightly so, for the plants are of easy culture, robust (though sometimes invasive), and almost all attractive. Most of the bulbous species die down after flowering and remain dormant through summer. The species with tuberproducing stolons and long rhizomes should be planted only where their ineradicable habit will not interfere with other plants. The Mediterranean clump-forming species are better behaved and are excellent for introducing bright spring color to dry shade; their foliage makes a good groundcover through winter but is dormant in summer. CULTURE Usually supplied as container plants; G. tuberosum may be offered in bulb catalogs. Plant in full sun to light shade, in welldrained soil with plenty of organic matter. Set the tubers or rhizomes 2 in. deep, 10-14 in. apart. Left alone, they can form large colonies. Cut back the withered foliage to keep plants tidy. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide in fall or spring and replant as soon as possible. Seed is freely set and should be gathered by placing a bag over the capsules to prevent seeds from being dispersed. Sow seed in fall and grow in cool but frost-free conditions through winter. Seedlings that appear around parent plants can be lifted and grown on. SPECIES

G. clarkei, Kashmir. Rootstock a creeping rhizome, propagated by breaking off pieces. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves deeply and narrowly cut with sharply pointed segments that have been compared to snowflakes. Flowers numerous, upright-facing, cup-shaped; color varies from violet purple to white with mauve-pink veins. Flowering early to late summer. Selections include 'Kashmir Pink', soft pink; 'Kashmir Purple', deep violet purple, very vigorous; and 'Kashmir White', white with flatter flowers. G. kishtvariense. Kashmir; introduced 1978. Rootstock sometimes described as a creeping rhizome, but other descriptions indicate it spreads by stolons. Basal leaves deeply divided into 5 broadly toothed lobes, light green, wrinkled on the surface. Upper leaves 3-lobed. Flowers numerous, produced throughout summer, bright pinkish purple with fine purple veins, and a small white V marking and tufts of hairs at the base of the petals. A rather bushy, bristly, and hairy plant preferring shade and woodland conditions. G. macrostylum. NE Mediterranean in Greece, Balkan Peninsula, Albania, and C and W Turkey. Tubers small and easily dispersed by cultivation. Stems to 15 in. Leaves deeply and finely cut into 5 or 7 segments, each deeply toothed. Flowers

light or pale mauve pink, veined or feathered with darker violet; petals deeply notched. A form with lavender-blue flowers is reported. Flowering early spring and is dormant in summer. G. malviflorum. S Spain and Morocco. Tubers connected by narrower stolons. Leaves the largest of the tuberous species, withering after flowering in spring and emerging in fall. Basal leaves to 6 in. wide, deeply cut into 7 divisions. Upper leaves smaller and almost sessile. Flowers saucer-shaped, violet blue with deeper veining, over 11/2in. in diameter. It is reported that this species tends to flower in alternate years. Not very hardy and should be grown outside only where few frosts occur. G. orientalitibeticum. Tibet and SW China. Tubers small, many produced on long stolons. Stems to 8 in. Leaves small, rounded, attractively variegated with light green, cream, and red. Flowers flat, 1 in. in diameter, deep pink with white, hairy center. Often recommended for rock gardens, where it should not be planted owing to its invasive habit. G. pylzowianum. W China, in mountains. Tubers small, numerous. Stems to 10 in. Leaves small with narrow wedgeshaped lobes, deeply cut and toothed. Flowers few, broad, trumpet-shaped, rose pink with green center; anthers cream and blue. After flowering, goes dormant until the following spring. G. tuberosum. Mediterranean region and east to Iran. Stems 8-16 in. Leaves dark green, very finely cut and feathery; upper leaves sessile and in pairs. Flowers to 11/2 in. in diameter, bright rosy purple with darker veins, deep blue anthers, and crimson stigma; petals notched and widest at tips. Cultivar 'Leonidas', from Greece, is somewhat more robust and larger-flowered. Leaves appear in fall and wither soon after flowering in late spring. Plate 563. SYNONYM

G. stapfianum see G. orientalitibeticum.

Gethyllis—Amaryllidaceae Name from Greek diminutive of gethuon ("leek"). There are about 32 species in this genus, all native to South Africa. The flowers are fragrant and nearly all white, yellowish, or pink, and some leaves have hairs. The plants are all dwarf, lack an aerial stem, and are from 3 to 6 in. tall at flowering. They bloom in late spring to early summer, and the leaves emerge later. Each bulb produces a single flower, which has a long perianth tube and perianth lobes which flare to as much as 3 in. in diameter. The segments are recurved and pointed, and often have a stripe of carmine on the reverse along the midrib. They are not unlike crocuses in appearance. The stamens lie close to the tepals. The leaves are linear, mostly spirally twisted, sometimes hairy, sometimes without hairs. They are sometimes sheathed at the base and usually are produced in pairs. No stems are produced. The fruit, which ripens 7-9 weeks after the flowers, is sweetly scented, fleshy, and edible (Plate 566). South African children eat the fruits or press them dry and give them to their mothers to use like lavender, to scent handkerchiefs or linen cabinets. The fruit (especially that of G. spiralis} is also sold to infuse in

Gladiolus brandy, a tonic used to treat colic and flatulence. I have not sampled this—yet. The common name is kukumakranka, one of the few native plant names used by South Africans of European descent. Brian Mathew wrote (1997) that these plants are "not impressive but fascinating," a sentiment with which I agree. Suited to sunny, well-drained borders in warm climates. They should be planted where the fragrance of the fruit and the flowers can be appreciated. They are good pot plants for the cool greenhouse. CULTURE

Most species prefer, as in the wild, a sandy soil with good drainage; some, however, grow naturally in clay. They like dry conditions as the fruit is produced in summer. They are suitable for outdoor planting only in frost-free regions with dry summers; in other areas they should be grown under glass. Plant the bulbs 1-2 in. deep. Water after the foliage starts to emerge; these plants are native to areas with winter rain, and the foliage appears at that time and has withered by the time the flowers appear. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove offsets from the parent bulbs after the foliage has died down. Sow seed in spring in moderate heat, 50°-55°F at night, in a sandy soil mix, and give good light. Seedlings should be transplanted into individual pots as soon as they are large enough to handle and should be grown on for 2 years before being planted out. SPECIES G. afra. South Africa (Western Cape), in sandy soils; introduced 1820. Leaves 12-20, narrow and linear, twisted, in pairs, appearing after flowering. Flowers white with carmine stripe on the reverse above perianth tube, where the pointed tepals reflex. Stamens 12, held close to tepals; style longer than stamens. Fruit yellowish, club-shaped. Flowering late spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 564. G. britteniana. South Africa (Clanwilliam area in Western Cape). Leaves twisted, enclosed at base with spotted sheath. Flowers white to pink, summer (December to January in the wild). G. campanulata. South Africa (near Nieuwoudtville in Northern Cape), on dolomite outcrops. Bulb onion-shaped. Leaves numerous, thin, wiry with short straight hairs, withered by flowering and emerging with fall rains. Flower tuliplike, white or cream with golden anthers, 1 in. or a little more in diameter. Flowering summer (November to January in the wild). G. ciliaris. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1788. Leaves fringed with hairs, twisted. Flowers similar to G. campanulata. Fruit bright reddish orange. Flowering late fall to winter (June to July in the wild). G. lanuginosa. South Africa (Namaqualand and W Karoo), in clay and shale. Leaves strap-shaped, spirally twisted, with

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straight hairs, produced after flowers and withered again by next flowering. Flowers starry, with rounded tepals, very sweetly scented, white flushed pink or pale pink; anthers short, clustered in center of flower; style longer, bent to one side. Flowering summer. Plate 565. G. multifolia. South Africa (Worcester area in SW Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Leaves twisted. Flowers pale pink, late spring to early summer (November to December in the wild). G. spiralis. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1780. Leaves twisted, linear, smooth. Flowers similar to G. lanuginosa but plant reportedly taller, to 9 in. Flowering winter (June to July in the wild). G. undulata. South Africa (W Western Cape). Leaves with wavy margin. Flowers large, white, summer (December to January in the wild). G. verrucosa. South Africa (S Western Cape). Leaves silvery. Flowers white, summer to fall (December to May in the wild). G. verticillata. South Africa (Piketberg, W Karoo, and Namaqualand). Leaves few to many, narrow, wiry, coiled, not present at flowering. Flowers fragrant, white, widely opened; tepals curve and twist at ends. Many anthers crowded together in center of flower; style upright, with a large stigma. Flowering mid summer (November to February in the wild). G. villosa. South Africa (W Karoo), on clay soils; introduced 1787. Bulb pear-shaped. Leaves few, spirally twisted, strapshaped with straight hairs, produced after flowering. Flowers clear pink or white, barely scented, widely open goblet form; tepals pointed, slightly incurved at tips; anthers and style have a definite list to one side. Flowering early to mid summer (October to December in the wild). SYNONYMS

G. pusilla see G. afra. G. unilateralis see G. spiralis.

Gladiolus—Iridaceae CORN FLAG, CORN LILY, SPEAR LILY, SWORD LILY

Name is Latin for "little sword" and was used by Pliny; it alludes to the shape of the leaves. There are as many as 250 species and thousands of named hybrids of these lovely flowers. The genus has 2 regions of distribution: one in South Africa and tropical Africa, and the other in Eurasia from SW Europe and the Mediterranean coastal regions east to C Asia. Few of the wild species are grown today, but the varicolored hybrids are known the world over (Plate 13). For comprehensive treatments, see Gladiolus in Tropical Africa (Goldblatt 1996) and Gladiolus in Southern Africa (Goldblatt and Manning 1998). Several groups of plants formerly segregated in other genera are now included in Gladiolus. The former Anomalesia species have bright, zygomorphic flowers with long tubes, hooded upper segments, and exserted stamens, apparently adaptations to pollination by sunbirds. About 10 species arrived from the former genus Antholyza, which also sent members to Babiana, Chasmanthe, Crocosmia, Curtonus, and Tritoniopsis. The spe-

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Gladiolus

cies formerly in Homoglossum are tubular at the base and have nearly equal perianth segments, the uppermost of which is not hooded. The following general description applies to all Gladiolus species. The base of the stem is swollen, forming a corm. The leaves are always sword-shaped. Those of many hybrids are coarse to the touch. The flower spike is often one-sided. The flowers are more or less zygomorphic. The tube formed by the perianth segments is curved. In many species, the flowers open wide; in garden hybrids, they are not as open and are more crowded on the stem. The seed capsule is 3-celled, containing numerous seeds. Only one species—G. permeabilis subsp. edulis—has any value as an edible plant. According to E. Lewis Sturtevant in Edible Plants of the World (1972), the corms taste like chestnuts when roasted. They are also said to be eaten by baboons. Seven South African species figure in the pedigrees of the modern hybrids: G. cardinalis, G. carneus, G. cruentus, G. dalenii, G. oppositiflorus, G. papilio, and G. tristis. Each contributed desirable qualities. For example, G. primulinus (now grouped in G. dalenii, which contains many different flower colors) contributed a pure yellow color which added much to the genetic mix. Furthermore, it flowers in summer on tall spikes, while the other species are spring-flowering. Gladiolus papilio contributed the bold blotches or dark color on the lip of the flower. The history of the hybrid gladiolus is long and interesting. The first was G. xcolvillei, named in 1823 for James Colville, a nurseryman from Chelsea in London. A cross between 2 South African species, G. cardinalis and G. tristis, it inaugurated a series of early flowering plants that were popular as cut flowers and for forcing. Two that are still listed in catalogs are G. ackermanii and 'The Bride'. New varieties are offered every year, frequently under the name G. nanus. The species used to create the large-flowered hybrids are many. Louis Van Houtte used G. cardinalis and G. psittacinus (now known as G. dalenii) for hybrids offered under such names as G. xdtrinus, with yellow flowers, and G. xbrenchleyensis, light red. More hybrids came from Max Leichtlin in Germany. In 1878, Victor Lemoine, of the famous nursery in Nancy, France, introduced the robust G. xlemoinei, early flowering with blossoms as large as 6 in. in diameter, the result of a cross between G. xgandavensis and G. purpureo-auratus. Breeding continued apace, taken up by many horticulturists in Europe and America. One important new input was provided by G. primulinus (sometimes called G. nebulicola, and now included in G. dalenii) from Zimbabwe, where it grows near Victoria Falls. I have seen and photographed this graceful plant in its native habitat—pale lemon, hooded and ruffled flowers, but not too sturdy. It is easy to see why the classification of the many modern hybrids is difficult. The following system, developed by the North American Gladiolus Council, is generally accepted throughout the world. Most garden cultivars are classified as Grandiflora types, which have long, dense spikes of funnelshaped flowers with ruffled, thick segments. Authorities group the cultivars by flower size, color, and intensity of color or

markings; each of these 3 traits is assigned a number, and the result is a trinomial designation for each cultivar. Flower size, the first number, relates to the flower diameter in inches when fully opened: 1 = miniature (<2 1 /2 in.); 2 = small (21/2-33/8 in.); 3 = medium (31/2-43/8 in.); 4 = large (41/2-53/8 in.); 5 = giant (51/2in. or more). The 2nd number, color, is coded as follows: 0 = white or green, 1 = yellow (or cream), 2 = orange (or buff), 3 = salmon, 4 = pink, 5 = red, 6 = rose, 7 = lavender, 8 = violet (or blue), 9 tan, smoky, or brown. The 3rd number measures tone or intensity of color in even numbers from 0 to 8; 0 = pale, 2 = light, 4 = medium, 6 = deep, and 8 = other (that is, black). If there is marking, stippling, streaking, or blotching on the flower, the tone is raised to the nearest odd number, from 1 to 9. As an example, 'Lemonade', a bright yellow, has the classification 414. The flower size is large (4), the color is yellow (1), and the intensity is medium (4). 'Mardi-Gras', ruffled yellow with cherry-red center, is classed 415: large (4), yellow (1), and medium intensity raised to 5 because of the cherryred center. In addition to the trinomial code, gladiolus are further classified by height and bud count: giant and large = 55-75 in., 2027 buds with 8 or more open; medium = 40-45 in., 19-23 buds with 6-8 open; small and miniature = 36-40 in., 12-17 buds with 5-6 open; and miscellaneous, those that do not conform to these types. Hybrids of species that are now included in the G. dalenii group are classified as Primulinus Hybrids. They have flower spikes with 14-19 loosely held, funnel-shaped flowers with plain edges. The upper segments form a hood over the wider side segments; the flowers alternate up the stem and each is held separately. The Orchidiola Hybrids, mostly grown in the cutflower industry, were hybridized in Israel by crossing G. tristis with cultivars of G. xgrandiflorus. Ranging in height from 34 to 56 in., they are hardy to about 20°F. Also called fall gladiolus, the dainty 2-3 in. flowers—mostly self colors—bloom in winter and spring. The spikes consist of 9-14 flowers, with as many as 7 or 8 open simultaneously. They last almost 2 weeks in water, and their slender stems make them easy to arrange. Some good garden cultivars are unclassified and therefore are not included in gladiolus shows. Unclassified Gladiolus are spring-flowering, mainly interspecific hybrids of South African species. Included here are the Nanus Hybrids, developed in the Channel Islands, and the G. xcolvillei cultivars. Flowering stems, 24-30 in. tall, carry 6-7 small flowers, to 2 in. wide. Ever popular in gardens and as cut flowers, hybrid gladiolus are striking accents among summer-flowering annuals and useful additions to perennial borders. Their proportions make them difficult to integrate tastefully, but choosing cultivars with smaller flowers and placing them in groups among other tall plants helps. They do well in containers, but must be carefully selected for this purpose because plants can become quite heavy when in full bloom. For long-lasting cut flowers, cut stems as soon as the first buds show color; their own foliage is a good complement to the flowers. The wild African species, though not as floriferous and showy as the hybrids, are of interest to

Gladiolus bulb fanciers in warm climates, and the little Eurasian gladiolus are charming in rock garden and meadow features. CULTURE "The root consists of 2 bulbes, one set upon the other; the uppermost in the spring is lesser . . . the lower greater which shortly after perisheth." Thus the bulb is described of Gladiolus in Gerard's Herball of 1597—a good picture of the annually renewed corm. Gladiolus are easy to grow. They prefer sandy, rich soil with good drainage and plenty of sun. They are supplied as dormant corms, which can be planted at any time of year when frost is not likely; several crops or seasons of flowers can be obtained by successive planting. They flower about 80-90 days from planting—120 days if planted in frost-free climates during the months from October to March. Tall, large-flowered hybrids may require staking, especially in windy areas. April or May is the usual planting time in most areas. In warm regions with little or no frost, gladiolus can be grown year-round, planting in succession for a continuous crop of flowers. In regions with a short growing season, it is advantageous to start plants in pots in the greenhouse and transplant them carefully to the garden after the soil warms in spring. Set the corms of large-growing hybrids at least 4-6 in. deep, about 6-10 in. apart; miniature hybrids and species may be planted less deeply. In colder areas, lift the corms after flowering when the foliage starts to die down, clean them, and store them in a well-ventilated place where the temperature is around 50°F. Some nurseries offer winter-hardy glads, hybrids only 18 or 20 in. tall; these can be planted in fall for spring flowering in areas where the soil does not freeze deeply. The Eurasian species are much hardier than the African ones, though by no means as showy. They can be grown in any good garden soil; some tolerate heavy, damp soils. They increase rapidly from offsets and seed and need not be lifted in winter. PESTS AND DISEASES

Dry rot (Stromatinia gladioli), also known as stromatinia neck rot, attacks the leaves. The inner leaves yellow, starting at the tips. The parts of the outer leaves that are underground and just above ground turn brown; browning continues to the entire leaf. Sclerotia, light yellow pustules, can be seen, generally starting at the base; the roots are also affected, with pustules turning black. Discard diseased bulbs. If the attack is not too severe, treat with a fungicide at recommended dilution. The fungus can persist on corms left in the ground. Botrytis rot (Botrytis gladiolorum) appears in moist, cool conditions. The first sign is light-colored blotches on the leaves, which soon turn darker and spread, killing the tissue. All parts of the leaves are affected, especially the base. Good air circulation helps prevent it. Destroy all infested leaves. Treat corms with fungicide; follow directions on label. Fusarium rot (Fusarium oxysporum), also called fusarium yellows, is to be suspected when plants produce leaves but little root activity occurs. The outer leaves turn yellow, then brown,

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beginning at the tips; yellow streaks appear on the inner leaves. Treat corms with fungicide; follow directions on label. Rust (Uromyces transversalis) is most common in warm, humid conditions. Yellow spots develop on the leaf surface. It may not affect the flower spikes, which can be harvested, but waste foliage must be discarded. Fungicides can be effective if applied as soon as spots are seen. Thrips (Taeniothrips simplex) cause damage to both leaves and flowers, most noticeable on the foliage, where damage occurs first. They are identifiable as silver-gray spots that darken as the insects spread. Leaf tissue is eaten away and the plant just looks sick. Flower damage is seen as areas devoid of color, with a generally dry look to the flowers. In severe cases, flowers fail to open. Treat with insecticide. Treat corms before planting with insecticidal powder if they are thought to be infected. The corn borer, the larva of the pyralid moth, eats into the plant, feeding on leaves and stalks. Leaves turn yellow at tips; in severe cases flowers wither. Little white grubs, about1/4in. long, can be seen if infested plants are cut open. Do not plant corms where corn has been grown previously. If attack cannot be controlled by removing infested plants, spray with an insecticide, following directions carefully. With all these problems, it might seem that Gladiolus is not worth raising. Nothing could be further from the truth. Purchase stock from reliable suppliers, rotate the spots in which plants are grown, and clear away debris that might harbor the various pests and diseases. Keep a sharp eye out for the symptoms before they have a chance to develop fully. PROPAGATION

Gladiolus are easy to raise from seed, which germinates readily. Seedlings may flower the next year. Sow seed thinly in March in a sandy soil mix, barely covering it. Germination is best with night temperatures around 45°-50°F. Give seedlings as much light and free air circulation as possible after germination. Thin them if necessary, harden them off gradually, and place pots outside in a sunny spot. Keep moist, reducing water in late summer. When leaves wither, harvest the small corms and store them over winter. Plant out in spring in the garden or in nursery rows. The many cormels produced around the large corms can be removed and lined out in spring to be grown on. They reach good size by fall, when they should be lifted. Replanted the following spring, they will flower that summer. The amateur hybridizer can see satisfying results in a short time because gladiolus increase so easily and rapidly. The corms are not expensive. They are offered in various sizes; all will bloom, so unless you want extra-sturdy stalks or material for forcing, the smaller-sized corms are adequate. SPECIES G. abbreviatus. South Africa (Western Cape); rare. Stems 12-15 in. Leaves narrow, 10-12 in. long. Perianth tubular for its entire length, fire red, including the bracts below the flower. Flowers 5-8, early spring (August to September in the wild), later if spring-planted. G. abyssinicus. Ethiopia and W Saudi Arabia. Stems 18-26

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in. Upper segments red, lower greenish with yellow tips; throat yellowish. Flowering after rainy season. G. actinomorphanthus. Congo. Stems 12-20 in. Flowers yellow or cream, in rainy season, spring. G. acuminatus. SW South Africa. Stems 12-22 in. Flowers pale yellow, spring (September to November in the wild). G. aequinoctialis. Sierra Leone and Cameroon. Stems 36-48 in. Flowers white, purple vein on lower segments, spring to early summer (October to December in the wild). G. alatus. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems zigzag, to 12 in. Leaves 3-4, narrow, stiff. Tube strongly bent. Upper 3 perianth segments salmon pink, sometimes a little lighter; lower segments much narrower, yellow or greenish yellow with tips same color as upper segments. Flowers slightly hooded, lightly fragrant, spring. Var. pulcherrimus is a short-growing form; var. speciosus has deep salmon-pink flowers, bright yellow on the back of the upper perianth outer lobes. G. albens. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems to 20 in. Flowers cream to white, slightly fragrant, fall (March to May in the wild). G. amplifolius. W Angola; rare. Stems 20-28 in. Flowers purple, lightening to cream in throat; dark purple spade-shaped mark on lower outer segments. Flowering summer (December to January in the wild). G. angustus. LONG-TUBED PAINTED LADY. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1756. Stems 20-40 in. Flowers white to yellow with heart-shaped purple mark in centers of 3 lower segments. Flowering late spring (October to November in the wild). Plate 567. G. antakiensis. S Turkey and Lebanon; introduced 1804. Stems 12-30 in. Flowers pink to reddish pink, late spring. G. appendiculatus. South Africa (Mpumalanga, KwaZuluNatal) and Swaziland. Stems 14-24 in. Flowers white, fall (April to May in the wild). G. aquamontanus. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 36 in. Flowers pale mauve pink, early summer (November to late December in the wild). G. arcuatus. South Africa (Namaqualand, Northern Cape) and Namibia. Stems to 14 in. Flowers lilac or purple, yellow or lime green at base of lower segments, late winter to early spring (June to August at low elevations in the wild, August to September at higher elevations). G. atropictus. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 24 in. Flowers violet, fragrant; lower 3 segments pale yellow feathered with dark violet. Flowering winter (mid-July to mid-August in the wild). G. atropurpureus. South Africa (Northwestern Province, Northern Province) to C Africa. Flowers pale lilac or light blue with darker blotches, summer (December in the wild). G. atroviolaceus. Greece, Turkey, Iran, and Iraq; introduced 1889. Stems to 36 in. Leaves 2, rarely over 12 in. long. Flowers, usually 6-10 in one-sided spike, very dark purple or violet, late spring. Likes dry conditions in late summer. G. aurantiacus. South Africa (Mpumalanga, KwaZuluNatal) to Swaziland; introduced 1894. Stems to 36 in. Leaves arranged in fan, appear after flowers. Flowers orange-yellow,

spring (September to November in the wild). Var. aurantiacus has flowers tinged red. Var. rubrotinctushas flowers thickly dotted with red. G. aureus. GOLDEN GLADIOLUS. South Africa (Cape Peninsula), apparently extinct in the wild. Perhaps represents a transitional stage between Gladiolus and the plants formerly included in Homoglossum. Stems to 12 in. Leaves 8-10 in. long, sword-shaped. Flowers pure yellow; tube long, not much curved; segments flare back close to base and are much more rounded at tips than in other species. Flowering late spring to early summer (September in the wild). G. balensis. SE Ethiopia; 1983. Stems 20-24 in. Flowers white, upper segments with pink midribs, lower segments outlined with yellow. Flowering fall to winter (May to June in the wild). G. bellus. S Malawi, in mountains. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers white, lower segments with red mark and throat with red streaks. Flowering fall (March to June in the wild). G. benguellensis. Angola to W Zambia and S Congo. Stems 14-24 in. Flowers scarlet or rarely yellow, lower segments with white stripe. Flowering summer (December to February in the wild). G. bilineatus. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 8-16 in. Flowers white to pink, fall (March to April in the wild). G. blommesteinii. South Africa (W Western Cape). Stems 14-22 in. Flowers blue, mauve, pink, or white with fine maroon stripes, late winter to spring (August to October in the wild). G. bojeri. Madagascar. Flowers small, star-shaped, pale lemon yellow, solitary on nodding stem. G. bonae-spei. FLAMES. South Africa (Cape of Good Hope); introduced 1795. Corm medium-sized. Stems 12-24 in. Leaves 4-6, linear, rigid, 8-10 in. long. Flowers 2-6 on (usually onesided) spike, flaring into cup shape; tube about 11/2 in. long; upper and lower segments similar in shape, so flower has a definite cuplike mouth. Flowering winter (June to July in the wild), or summer when spring-planted. Var. bonae-spei has red flowers with golden interior. Var. aureum has golden flowers with base of tube red and flush of red on interior. Var. merianellum has red or orange-red flowers. Plates 568, 569. G. boranensis. S Ethiopia and SE Sudan. Stems 16-22 in. Flowers pink, throat paler. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). G. brachyandrus. Malawi (Shire Highlands); introduced 1879. Stems to 24 in. Flowers bright light scarlet, spring (October in the wild). G brachyllus. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems 24-32 in. Flowers pink, lower segments with white stripe, spring (October to November in the wild). G. brevifolius. South Africa (Cape Peninsula and W Western Cape). Stems 10-24 in. Flowers pink, sometimes brown or gray, with yellow marks, late summer to fall (March to May in the wild). Var. minor is shorter, with pink to mauve or white flowers. Var. obscurus from Western Cape has pale pink flowers. Var. robustus has sturdy stems over 24 in. G. brevitubus. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 10-14 in. Flowers pale scarlet, late spring (November in the wild).

Gladiolus G. buckerveldii. Cedarberg Mountains of South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 24-36 in. Flowers apricot, summer (December to January in the wild). G. bullatus. CALEDON BLUEBELL. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 12-14 in. Flowers lilac to blue, interior lighter and speckled with yellow, spring (August to October in the wild). G. caeruleus. South Africa (W coastal Western Cape). Flowers light blue, lower segments with yellow zone spotted brown, winter (August in the wild). G. calcaratus. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Flowers white aging to pink, summer (January to March in the wild). G. calcicola. SE Ethiopia (Harar). Stems 12-28 in. Flowers pale salmon with darker midrib, autumn. G. camilae. E Congo; rare. Stems 14-28 in. Flowers pale pink, outer lower segments marked with purple and yellow. Flowering summer (November to January in the wild). G. canaliculatus. Tanzania. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers blue, summer (December in the wild). G. candidus. E Africa. Stems to 36 in. Flowers cream or yellow, summer. Var. candidus from Kenya and Tanzania, in lowlying areas east of highlands, has a purple blotch in the center of the flower. Var. alatus from highlands of Kenya, N Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Somalia has white, cream, pale yellow, or greenish-cream flowers with small reddish brown blotches at base of 3 upper segments. G. cardinalis. BLUE AFRIKANER, WATERFALL GLADIOLUS. South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced 1789. It grows along stream banks (hence the common name); it is also known as Nuwejaarsblom (New Year's flower) as it flowers just before the new year. Stems to 24 in. Leaves 4-6, wide, sword-shaped, to 20 in. long. Flowers cardinal red, to 3 in. in diameter, often with white blotch on lower segments. One of the few species that likes a little shade; much used in hybridization. Requires moisture throughout growing season and is relatively cold-hardy. Flowering summer (December in the wild). G. carinatus. MAUVE AFRIKANER. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 12-18 in. Leaves 3, linear, upper ones to 18 in. long, others a little less. Flowers 2-9 per spike, fragrant, mauve to blue with yellow band spotted and streaked purple on lower segments, early spring (August to September in the wild). Its fragrance has been transmitted to some of its hybrid offspring. G. carmineus. HERMANUS CLIFF GLADIOLUS. South Africa (Cape of Good Hope). Stems 10-14 in. Flowers deep pink to carmine; white marks on lower perianth segments. Flowering late summer to fall (February to April in the wild). Plates 570,571. G. carneus. PAINTED LADY. South Africa (SW and S Western Cape); introduced 1774. Found in various soils from rocky to very sandy, and not difficult to grow. Stems 20-40 in. Leaves 4. Flowers to 10 per stem, white to pale pink to purple; lower perianth segments marked with darker blotches. Flowering spring to early summer (September to December in the wild). Forma albidus, the one usually seen in cultivation, has purple flakes on lower segments. Forma erubescens is suffused with bright carmine. Forma excelsus is a stouter plant. The name G. carneus originally was applied to the pinkish form, and the other color

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forms were long known as G. blandus. The name G. carneus was also once applied to G. cuspidatusvar. ventricosus. A form once called G. callistus is pale pink with a purple spot in the throat. Plate 572. G. caryophyllaceus. LARGE PINK AFRIKANER. South Africa (W Western Cape); introduced 1795. Stems to 20 in. Leaves 4-6, sword-shaped, short, hairy. Flowers 6-8 per spike, 2-3 in. in diameter, pink, rose, or cyclamen-purple, often with deeper shade in center; more upward-facing than many other species; strong fragrance reminiscent of carnations, making it popular with breeders. Flowering early spring (August to October in the wild). Plates 573, 574. G. cataractarum. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 28 in. Flowers large, pink; lobes of lower segments streaked red. Flowering late summer (February to mid-March in the wild). G. ceresianus. South Africa (W Karoo). Stems to 12 in. Flowers brownish purple with dark veins, spring (August to October in the wild). G. chelamontanus. Angola. Stems 18-28 in. Flowers pink to light purple; lower segments yellow beneath. Flowering fall (April to June in the wild). G. chevalieranus. W Guinea. Stems 16-24 in. Flowers yellowish green. Flowering June in the wild. G. Xcitrinus. Early garden hybrid, not be confused with G. trichonemifolius, now very rare. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers pale yellow flushed purple on reverse, early summer. G. xcolvillei. Garden hybrid (G. cardinalisx G. tristis); introduced 1823. Stems to 18 in. Narrow leaves sometimes occur on stem. Flowers few, bright red, early summer. The same cross has produced many hybrids that are often listed incorrectly as G. nanus or G. colvillei. Among them are 'Albus', white with yellow stripe on lower segments; 'Roseus', soft pink; 'Ruber', carmine red; 'The Bride', pure white, a very old hybrid and very good. Nanus Hybrids are often called "Baby Gladiolus" or "Winter Hardy Gladiolus." G. communis. SAINT JOHN'S LILY. Spain, Italy, North Africa, Corsica, and Malta, in fields and stony ground; introduced 1629. Stems to 24 in., usually less. Leaves 3-5, in a basal fan. Flowers to 15 per spike, bright burgundy red, 2-3 in. long, facing in 2 or 3 directions but not all around the stem. A white form is recorded. Flowering late spring to early summer. Subsp. byzantinusis sometimes listed as 'Byzantinus' along with "Baby Gladiolus" hybrids; its lobes have lighter marks. Plates 575,576. G. comptonii. South Africa (Clanwilliam in Western Cape); introduced 1941. Stems 24-32 in. Flowers bright yellow, rust or purple streaks on lower segments, winter (July in the wild). G. crassifolius. Malawi south through Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Swaziland, and NE South Africa to Lesotho. Flowers pink, red, orange, mauve, purple, or white; dark blotch on lower side lobes. Flowering late summer to fall (February to April in the wild). G. crispulatus. South Africa (Western Cape); rare. Stems to 16 in. Flowers deep pink, summer (November to December in the wild). G. cruentus. RED GLADIOLUS. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1868. Stems to 36 in. Leaves 12-18 in. long. Flowers

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scarlet, often 5 in. in diameter, with white markings on lower segments. Flowering mid to late summer (January to March in the wild). Dormant during winter. Relatively cold-hardy. G. cunonius. South Africa (Cape Peninsula); introduced 1756. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves to 12 in. long, narrow. Leaves and stem somewhat glaucous. Flowers 8-10 per spike, to 11/2 in. long, coral-red; uppermost perianth segment bordered by the 2 wings formed by the other 2 upper segments. Flowering early to mid spring (September in the wild). Plate 577. G. curtifolius. S Tanzania and N Malawi. Stems 10-16 in. Leaves very small. Flowers cream to pale yellow, summer (November to January in the wild). G. curtilimbus. Congo. Stems 10-16 in. Flowers cream to pale pink or mauve, spring to summer (October to December in the wild). G. cylindraceus. South Africa (W Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers pale pink, summer (December to January in the wild). G. dalenii. PARROT LILY. South Africa (Cape of Good Hope) to Ethiopia, widely distributed, in regions of summer rainfall. Corm 2 in. in diameter. Stems strong, 4-5 ft. Leaves usually 4, narrow, to 30 in. long. Flowers often more than 20 per 2-sided spike, yellow, orange, red, pink, or purple, often striped and mottled with another color. Upper 3 segments form a hood; uppermost is much larger than the other 2 upper segments. Lower 3 segments narrower, often with a patch of yellow at the tips, not as pronounced on the lowermost segment. Flowering late summer. Much used in hybridizing. 'Hookeri' is a tall cultivar with large flowers of clear orange or red and yellow, upper lobes held more upright than in type. A pale yellow form from Zimbabwe was long grown as G. primulinus. A form once known as G. cooperi, from South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), has yellow flowers with red stripes on the upper segments. Subsp. andongensis has all upper segments approximately the same length. Subsp. welwitschii from SW Angola has a central upper segment shorter than the laterals. Plate 578. G. debeerstii. NE Congo. Stems 16-28 in. Flowers pale pink, with purple and yellow nectary mark. Flowering summer (November to January in the wild). G. debilis. PAINTED LADY. South Africa (W Western Cape); introduced 1820. Stems to 18 in. Leaves usually 3, stiff, 8-10 in. long. Flowers pale pink or off-white, marked with rose stripes and blotches on lower segments. Flowering early spring (September to October in the wild). Var. variegatus from S Western Cape has large whitish-pink flowers with dark maroon markings, yellow throat. Plates 579,580. G. decoratus. Mozambique to Malawi, NE Tanzania, and Zanzibar. Stems 18-32 in. Flowers orange-red to dark red with white or yellow midrib and marks, summer (December to February in the wild). G. delpierrei. South Africa (Cedarberg in Western Cape). Stems 16-18 in. Flowers creamy white, with red and yellow markings on lower lobes, summer (January in the wild). G. densiflorus. South Africa (Mpumalanga) and Swaziland. Flowers 15-30 per spike, small, white or gray densely spotted maroon, late summer to fall (February to April in the wild).

G. deserrticola. South Africa (Namaqualand in Northern Cape). Stems to 8 in. Flowers dark blue, late winter (mid-August to mid-September in the wild). G. dichrous. SE Uganda, Sudan, and W Kenya. Stems 18-36 in. Flowers white, lower segments greenish, upper flushed red; northern populations reddish or orange. Flowering spring to summer. G. dolomiticus. South Africa (Northern Province). Stems 30-36 in. Flowers pale pink with yellow blotch, fall (March to April in the wild). G. ecklonii. South Africa (E Cape to KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1862. Stems 12-26 in. Flowers white, densely speckled pink, purple, or deep maroon, summer (December to March in the wild). Subsp. rehmannii from South Africa (Gauteng, Northwestern Province, Northern Province) and Botswana has whitish, pink to pale mauve flowers with yellow on lower side lobes. Subsp. vinoso-maculatus from the Pretoria area has 6-12 translucent white flowers with faint red spots along midribs of lobes, 3 large red blotches on upper lobes in throat. G. elliotii. NW South Africa to Botswana and Zimbabwe. Stems to 30 in. Flowers white to light mauve with dense maroon, purple, or pink spots; lower lobes with yellow blotch. Flowering summer (November to May in the wild). G. emiliae. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 8-24 in. Flowers deep brownish orange to yellow with purple speckles, late summer to fall (February to April in the wild). G. engysiphon. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 2024 in. Flowers white, with deep maroon or red markings on lower segments, late summer (March in the wild). G. equitans. NW South Africa. Stems 5-14 in. Flowers pale pinkish salmon, lemon-yellow markings on lower segments, spring (August to October in the wild). G. erectiflorus. EC tropical Africa. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers cream to light pink or purple, veined darker; lower segments with cream midrib or yellow mark. Flowering winter to early spring. G. exilis. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 12-28 in. Flowers blue marked with yellow or white; minute purple marks in lower throat. Flowering fall (April to May in the wild). G. fenestratus. Angola. Stems 14-20 in. Flowers pink, outer lower segments with yellow mark, edges reddish, fall (April to May in the wild). G. ferrugineus. South Africa (Northern Province). Stems to 24 in. Flowers white, cream, pearl gray, or pink, summer (November to December in the wild). G. filiformis. South Africa (Northwestern Province). Stems to 20 in., Flowers blue to mauve, summer (December in the wild). G. flanaganii. Lesotho. Stems to 24 in. Flowers dark crimson, lower segments red with white stripe, summer (November to early January in the wild). G. flavoviridis. Zimbabwe. Stems 22-32 in. Flowers greenish yellow, summer (January to March in the wild). G. floribundus. South Africa (S Western Cape); introduced 1788. Stems 8-18 in. Flowers creamy white with purple stripe on each segment, late spring (September to November in the

Gladiolus wild). Subsp. fasdatus has pink or mauve flowers, dark red at throat, with diamond-shaped marks on lower segments. Subsp. miniatus has cream to salmon-pink flowers with dark stripes down center of segments, blooming in early spring. Subsp. rudis has creamy white flowers with yellow splotches on lower perianth segments. G. fourcadei. South Africa (S Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Stems 20-40 in. Flowers red or yellowish green, early summer (September to November in the wild). G. fredericii. S South Africa. Stems to 18 in. Flowers pale blue, deeper stripe on each segment, spring (October to November in the wild). Possibly only a variety of G. permeabilis. G. xgandavensis. Early garden hybrid (G. daleniix G. opposiflorus), raised in Belgium c. 1837. Height and color vary. Flowering summer. G. garnieri. Madagascar. Stems to 38 in. Flowers clear orange-pink, with yellow center, blooming in rainy season. G. geardii. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 32-50 in. Flowers pinkish purple, early summer (November to December in the wild). G. gracilis. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1800. Stems to 24 in., slender but strong. Leaves more cylindrical than in other species. Flowers to 30 per spike, blue (the main attraction of this species) but sometimes washed out, pale, or pinkish. Flowers mid spring (September in the wild). May need staking in exposed locations. Plate 581. G. gracillimus. Malawi, Tanzania, and Zambia. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers light blue or lilac with darker diamond mark on lower segments, or uniformly purple, or yellow to greenish with dark yellow marks. Flowering summer (November to December in the wild). G. grandiflorus. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 20 in. Flowers cream, white, or pale pink, early spring (August to mid-October in the wild). G. grantii. EC Tanzania. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers white or cream, aging to salmon pink; lower segments marked with yellow. Flowering summer (December to February in the wild). G. gregarius. Tropical Africa, from Senegal south to Angola and east to S Tanzania. Stems 10-30 in. Flowers purple with cream throat, lower lobes with dark purple blotch. Flowering January to March in tropics, June to October in W Africa. G. griseus. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 32 in. Flowers mauve to gray, fall to winter (May to mid-July in the wild). G. gueinzii. South Africa (S Western Cape, Eastern Cape to S KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 8-20 in. Flowers pale lilac, maroonbordered, cream spear-shaped marks on lower segments, spring (October in the wild) G. gunnisii. Somalia, Eritrea, and S Ethiopia, in mountains. Stems 10-14 in. Leaves long and linear or reduced to sheaths of the flowering stem. Flowers white or pale yellow, December to January in Somalia, May to June in Ethiopia. G. guthriei. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems drooping, 12-36 in. Flowers funnel-shaped, clove-scented, pale salmon to dull brick red, lower lobes marked with yellow; frilly margin colored gold or black. Flowering fall (May to June in the wild).

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G. halophilus. SE Turkey, Iran, and Iraq; introduced 1854. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers bright pink to red-purple, mid spring. G. harmsianus. W Angola. Stems 32-48 in. Flowers white marked with pink, late summer (February to April in the wild). G. hirsutus. South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers mauve to pink; lower perianth segments streaked and spotted purple, winter to spring (July to October in the wild), rarely fall flowering. Plate 582. G. hollandii. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga), Swaziland, and Mozambique. Stems 24-26 in. Flowers pale pink streaked or speckled maroon or red, late summer to fall (February to April in the wild). Plate 583. G. horombensis. Madagascar. Flowers yellow with green in throat, outward-facing, many in dense spike. G. huillensis. Angola, Zambia, and W Congo. Stems 12-40 in. Flowers red with yellow marks on lower lobes and throat, summer (November to December in the wild). G. huttonii. FLAMES, RED AFRIKANER. S South Africa (near George in E Western Cape), in open grassland. Stems slender, 18-20 in. Flowers red streaked yellow (hence the common name), held loosely so segments separate sharply above the tube. Upper 3 segments much larger than lower; lower segments have yellow streaks. Bracts surrounding lower part of the tube clasp it tightly. Flowering late winter to early spring (August to September in the wild). Best suited for warm climates. Plate 584. G. hyalinus. South Africa (W Cape Peninsula to Namaqualand). Stems 12-18 in. Flowers translucent greenish yellow, lower segments pale yellow, streaked yellowish brown near center, fall to winter (May to July in the wild). G. illyricus. W Europe, North Africa, Mediterranean region east to Caucasus and Turkey (Asia Minor); occasionally naturalized in S England. Stems to 18 in. Leaves very narrow and short. Flowers to 10 per spike, purple-red with white markings on lower segments, late spring. Var. anatolicus has narrower segments. Var. reuteri from the Iberian Peninsula is a more slender plant. G. imbricatus. SE Europe and Turkey; introduced 1820. Stems 12-32 in. Flowers pale carmine to reddish violet or purple, streaked deep purple and white, early summer. Var. crispiflorus from S Russia is smaller than type. Var. galiciensis from NW Spain is smaller, more erect. G. inandensis. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 20 in. Flowers white to cream, early summer (October to mid-November in the wild). G. inflatus. TULBAGH BELL. W South Africa, in mountains. Stems 10-18 in. Flowers rose pink to lilac, with yellow or white spear marks on segments and dark border, spring (August to November in the wild). G. inflexus. South Africa (Bredasdorp area in Western Cape). Flowers lilac with deeper tips, lower lobes spotted, throat cream, winter (June to August in the wild). G. insolens. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 20 in. Flowers bright scarlet, summer (December to January in the wild). G. intonsus. Tanzania, Malawi, Congo, and Zambia. Stems

258

Gladiolus

20-30 in. Leaves densely hairy. Flowers white or cream, flushed pink, light purple or pink; yellow marks on lower segments. Flowering fall (March to April in the wild). G. involutus. South Africa (SW Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers white, striped with red-brown, center lower segments marked with yellow and red, spring (September to October in the wild). G. iroensis. Central African Republic, in marshes around Lake Iro. Herbarium specimens are very poor; not described. G. italicus. FIELD GLADIOLUS. S Europe to Turkey (Asia Minor), S Russia, C Asia, and Afghanistan. Stems to 18 in. Leaves 4-5, in a fan. Flowers lilac flushed red, loosely arranged and facing various directions on spike, early summer. Plates 585, 586. G. jonquilliodorus. South Africa (Cape Peninsula). Stems 16-26 in. Flowers creamy white to pale yellow, streaked maroon, summer (December to February in the wild). G. juncifolius. E Zimbabwe and W Mozambique. Stems 10-14 in. Flowers pale pink or lilac, lower outer segments with yellow band and dark pink tips, winter to early spring (July to October in the wild). G. kamieshergensis. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems to 34 in. Flowers pale lilac with purple dots, spring (late September to October in the wild). G. kotschyanus. E Turkey, Iran, and Iraq; introduced 1854. Stems 12-34 in. Flowers deep violet, paler at apex, late spring. G. lapeirousioides. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1970; endangered. Stems 5-7 in. Flowers pale lilac, splotches of maroon edged gold on lower segments, spring (September in the wild). G. laxiflorus. Angola to N Malawi and S Tanzania. Stems 16— 28 in. Flowers pink to purplish, lower segments without marks or with yellow at tips, late spring (October to November in the wild). G. ledoctei. Congo. Stems 14-18 in. Flowers pale lilac, pink, cream, or yellow; lower segments blotched with pale blue to purple or yellow. Flowering late summer to fall (February to April in the wild, often extended). G. leonensis. Loma Mountains of Sierra Leone. Corm with fibrous coat. Flowers pure white, unmarked; perianth tube to 51/2 in. long, flushed purple. Flowering April to June in the wild. G. leptosiphon. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 12-18 in. Flowers cream with purple marks, spring (September to November in the wild). G. xlewisiae. South Africa (Western Cape). Natural hybrid (G. tristisx G. caryophyllaceus). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers cream shading to yellow base; upper segments with mauve stripe. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). G. liliaceus. LARGE BROWN AFRIKANER. E coastal South Africa (Clanwilliam in Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape), in sandy soils; introduced 1749. Stems to 24 in. Flowers usually 6 per stem, widely open and slightly upward-facing, fragrant at night, 3-4 in. in diameter, brown to pale yellow with light green throat, sometimes with a brown or crimson median stripe or apical blotch; at night flowers appear bluish mauve. Flowering spring (August to November in the wild).

G. linearifolius. Congo. Stems 10-12 in. Flowers possibly red, spring. G. lithicola. SE Ethiopia. Stems 5-10 in. Flowers light purple, summer to fall. G. longicollis. HONEY FLOWER. South Africa (Eastern Cape, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga), Lesotho, and Swaziland. Stems 12-22 in. Flowers creamy yellow, with darker central stripes, late spring (October to November in the wild). G. longispathaceus. S Ethiopia. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers bicolored, red with yellow lower segments; bracts long and reddish. Flowering summer. G. loteniensis. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 32 in. Flowers pale lilac, summer (December to mid-January in the wild). G. lundaensis. Angola and Congo. Stems 15-24 in. Flowers purple or white, lower segments with darker purple marks, late spring (October to November in the wild). G. macneilii. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 34 in. Flowers cream to pale salmon, late summer (March to April in the wild). G. macrospathus. Burundi; 1981. Stems 18-44 in. Flowers pale purple to mauve, tips darker, lower outer segments with dark purple diamond marks at tips. Flowering spring. G. maculatus. SMALL BROWN AFRIKANER. S and SW South Africa (Cape Peninsula to Grahamstown). Stems to 28 in. Flowers creamy yellow to pink, with dark brown or maroon spots or stripes, fall (April to June in the wild). Subsp. meridionalis has pink-red funnel-shaped flowers and is shorter. G. magnificus. Namibia, Angola, and Zimbabwe. Stems 3050 in. Flowers red with yellow at throat and on lower lobes, sometimes with dark maroon blotch on lower lobes, summer (January to February in the wild). G. malvinus. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 28 in. Flowers pale mauve, spring (October to early November in the wild). G. manikaensis. SW Congo; 1984. Stems 14-24 in. Flowers white to pale lilac, spring to summer (October to December in the wild). G. marlothii. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 24 in. Flowers pale lilac to blue, spring (September to October in the wild). G. martleyi. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 8-12 in. Flowers white to pink, with maroon-bordered yellow blotches on lower segments, fall (April to May in the wild). G. meliusculus. South Africa (near Darling area in SW Western Cape), in moist sandy areas. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers pink to salmon, upper segments wide, lower narrow with black and greenish yellow marks, early spring (September in the wild). G. melleri. Angola, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe; introduced 1913. Stems 12-16 in. Flowers reddish orange to deep salmon, rarely white, late winter to spring (August to November in the wild). G. mensensis. Eritrea; rare. Stems 10-20 in. Flowers pink or white, spring. G. meridionalis. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Stems to 24 in. Flowers pale to deep pink or cream, fall (April to June in the wild).

Gladiolus G. microcarpus. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 36 in. Flowers bright pink marked with white, summer (December to January in the wild). G. microspicatus. S Congo, Burundi, and NE Zambia. Stems 10-14 in. Flowers light or dark purple, throat cream; lower segments with yellow splotches; summer to fall (January to March in the wild). G. mirus. Gabon, Cameroon, Nigeria, and Ivory Coast. Stems 16-32 in. Flowers reddish or pink, lower segments with yellow mark outlined with purple. Flowering summer in western part of its range, spring in eastern part. G. monticola. South Africa (Cape Peninsula). Stems 7-20 in. Flowers very pale pink with yellow marks, summer (January to March in the wild). G. mortonius. South Africa. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers white with fine rose stripes, early spring (September in the wild). G. mostertiae. Bokkeveld Mountains of South Africa (Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers pale pink; lower segments white marked with yellow-green, forming 2 lips, late spring to summer (November to December in the wild). G. muenzneri. N Malawi, SW Tanzania, N Zambia, and SE Congo. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers white to yellow, sometimes flushed pink or mauve, rarely pink or orange, summer (December to January in the wild). G. murielae. Ethiopia, Tanzania, Malawi, and Mozambique; introduced 1896. Widely grown under synonym Acidanthera bicolor. Corm globose. Stems to 36 in. Leaves sword-shaped. Flowers white, long-tubed, 3 in. or more in diameter, with distinct purple spot at base of segments; flowers carried in 2 ranks, usually 6-8 per stem. Fragrant at night, reportedly to attract long-tongued hawk moths. Flowering late summer. 'Zwanenburg' is a lovely cultivar once known as Acidanthera tubergenii. Plate 587. G. mutabilis. SE South Africa (Little Karoo to Port Elizabeth). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers very pale lilac, lower perianth segments streaked yellow and maroon or brown, winter (July to August in the wild). G. negeliensis. S Ethiopia; 1982. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers white to pale pink, midribs pink, lower segments marked with greenish to yellowish band. Flowering spring. G. nerineoides. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 14 in. Flowers deep orange-red to pink, summer (January to March in the wild). G. nigromontanus. Swartberg Mountains of South Africa (S Western Cape); rare. Stems to 16 in. Flowers white marked with red, late summer (March in the wild). G. nyasicus. North of Lake Malawi in S Tanzania and N Malawi. Stems 16-24 in. Flowers pale yellow to creamy white, upper petal arched, sometimes flushed red, summer (December to February in the wild). G. oatesii. Zimbabwe. Stems to 20 in. Flowers off-white to pale mauve, late spring to summer (October to December in the wild). G. ochroleucus. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems to 24 in. Flowers pale salmon with white markings in throat, yellowish

259

on reverse, fall (February in the wild). Var. macowanii has deep salmon pink flowers with darker stripes on lower segments and is shorter, flowering summer (December to April in the wild). G. odoratus. South Africa (W Western Cape). Stems 12-36 in. Flowers creamy yellow, heavily striped and speckled purple, fall (May to June in the wild). G. oliganthus. Tanzania. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers pale yellow to creamy white, summer (December to February in the wild). G. oligophlebius. Malawi to W Tanzania and N Zambia, widely distributed. Stems 16-32 in. Flowers pink, lower segments marked with white to yellow, outlined with red or purple, summer (December to January in the wild). G. oppositiflorus. TRANSKEI GLADIOLUS. South Africa (Cape region to Eastern Cape); introduced 1892. Stems to 24 in. Leaves 3-4, to 18 in. long. Flowers often more than 30 per spike, small, white or pale pink with maroon stripe in lower segments, winter (June to July in the wild). Subsp. salmoneus, from South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal to Eastern Cape), has bright salmon flowers with red streak in center of lower segments, late summer (February to March in the wild). G. orchidiflorus. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Leaves 3-4, basal, linear, to 12 in. long. Flowers fragrant, pale green to amber, with maroon stripe on the upper side segments, maroon mixed with lime-green on lower segments. Flowering fall (March to April in the wild). Plate 588. G. oreocharis. W South Africa, on mountain peaks. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers white to pink or mauve with yellow markings, summer (December to January in the wild). G. ornatus. PINK BELL. South Africa (Cape Peninsula). Similar to G. blommesteinii. Stems 10-24 in. Flowers red-purple, lower perianth segments marked with white spears bordered deep purple, early spring (August to October in the wild). G. overbergensis. South Africa (Stanford to Cape Agulhas in S Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Stems 14-22 in. Flowers orange to red, spring (September to October in the wild). G. pallidus. Angola. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers rose purple, spring (September to November in the wild). G. paludosus. South Africa (Mpumalanga), in wet places. Stems to 20 in. Flowers mauve to pink, spring (October to midNovember in the wild). G. palustris. W Europe (including Scandinavia) to Balkans. Stems 12-20 in. Flowers reddish purple, early summer. Plate 589. G. papilio. South Africa, Lesotho, and Swaziland, in damp places; introduced 1866. Corm stoloniferous, increasing rapidly into large colonies. Stems strong, to 36 in. or more. Leaves 4-5, to 36 in. long and no more than 1 in. wide. Flowers somewhat bell-shaped, to 30 per stem, yellowish green with purple margin, sometimes extending over most of flower, summer (November to February in the wild). Likes moisture throughout growing season. Relatively hardy. Widely used in breeding and one of the parents of the Butterfly Hybrids. G. pappei. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers deep to pale pink, late spring to summer (mid-October to mid-December in the wild).

260

Gladiolus

G. pardalinus. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems 14-22 in. Flowers pale yellow with purple lines, late spring (mid-October to mid-November in the wild). G. patersoniae. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems to 24 in. Flowers pale to deep blue or slate-blue, early spring (midAugust to mid-September in the wild). G. paudflorus. N Tanzania and Kenya north to Ethiopia. Stems 32-40 in. Flowers creamy white, sometimes flushed orange or pink, purple midrib on lower segments. Flowering fall (April to June in the wild). G. pavonia. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 32 in. Flowers pale pink; upper segments dusted with red. Flowering early summer (November in the wild). G. permeabilis. SMALL AFRIKANER. South Africa (George in Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape), along the S coast. Stems to 24 in. Flowers cream, pink, or mauve with dark central veins, lower perianth segments with yellow bands, early spring (August to September in the wild). Subsp. edulis, from most of South Africa (except SW Western Cape) and Botswana, is taller than the type and has small, white, gray-blue, mauve, or yellow flowers with tips drawn out into long points; flowering late summer to fall (February to April in the wild). G. persicus. Iran. Flowers dark violet, late spring to early summer. G. phoenix. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 30 in. Flowers deep pink, lower segments splashed with white, summer (November to early December in the wild). G. pillansii. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 10-24 in. Flowers fragrant, blue-gray to pink, lower perianth segments blotched maroon and yellow, fall (March to May in the wild). Var. roseus from Cape Peninsula has pale pink flowers with perianth lobes widened at tip, 3 lower lobes with yellow band. G. praecostatus. Mount Koire in Guinea, in rock crevices. Stems 8-24 in. Leaves basal, 16 in. long, ribbed. Flowers 3-6, rose turning purplish with age; perianth tube to 5 in. long. Flowering mid to late summer. G. pretoriensis. South Africa (Gauteng). Stems to 25 in. Flowers pale lilac to pinkish, late summer (mid-January to February in the wild). G. priorii. South Africa (Cape Peninsula), in scrub on mountain slopes. Stems to 20 in. Leaves and stems glaucous. Tube curves gracefully and segments open almost flat; upper segments much larger than lower. Flowers light red with white markings in throat, more prominent on lower segments. Flowering late fall (May in the wild). G. pritzelii. Bokkeveld Mountains of South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 12-14 in. Flowers clear yellow, lower perianth segments streaked maroon, spring (August to October in the wild). G. puberulus. Congo. Stems 30-50 in. Flowers creamy white, sometimes flushed pink, or pink to purple, with yellow band on lower segments, fall (March to May in the wild). G. pulcherrimus. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 16 in. Flowers salmon pink, early spring (August to mid-October in the wild). G. puligerus. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 20 in.

Flowers pale lemon yellow flushed reddish brown, spring (September to November in the wild). G. pungens. N Congo, rare. Stems 24-28 in. Flowers white to pink, purplish throat and base, spring. G. pusillus. S Zambia and adjacent Congo. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers yellowish, white, or light pink; lower segments with yellow blotch sometimes outlined in green, spring (November to December in the wild). G. quadrangularis. South Africa (NW of Cape Town in Ceres area of Western Cape), in damp places in foothills; rare and endangered. Stems to 30 in. Leaves stiff, erect. Flowers 5-9 on a one-sided spike, red with hint of purple, or pinkish, long-tubed, just over 1 in. long; segments very pointed, 3 outer segments flaring almost to flat but slightly recurved, inner barely reflexed. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). G. quadrangulus. South Africa (Cape Peninsula north to Malmesbury in Western Cape). Stems 8-14 in. Flowers white, streaked violet, spring (August to October in the wild). G. xramosus 'Robinetta'. Garden hybrid (G. cardinalisx, G. oppositiflorus seedling); introduced 1839. Stems to 36 in. or more. Leaves 24 in. long, sword-shaped. Flowers currant red, numerous, on strong spikes, summer. G. recurvus. South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced 1758. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers yellow, thickly dotted blue, aging to blue, winter (June to October in the wild). G. richardsiae. Tanzania. Stems 18-22 in. Flowers white, summer (January in the wild). G. robertsaniae. South Africa (Free State). Stems to 16 in. Flowers white flushed violet, spring (October in the wild). G. robiliartianus. S Congo. Stems 10-16 in. Flowers pale blue, lilac, or pink, lower segments lighter with blue or purple diamond marks near tips, summer (December to January in the wild). G. robustus. Baviaanskloof Mountains of South Africa (S Eastern Cape); rare. Stems to 60 in. Flowers pink with darker markings, summer (November to January in the wild). G. rogersii. RIVERSDALE BLUEBELL. South Africa (W Western Cape, Little Karoo). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers blue to light mauve or pink, lower perianth segments with yellow and purple markings, winter to spring (July to November in the wild). G. roseolus. Togo, Nigeria, and N Cameroon. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers white with pink flush to rosy pink, sometimes with minute red specks, spring. G. roseovenosus. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 20 in. Flowers creamy pink, lower segments striped red, late summer to fall (February to April in the wild). G. rupicola. SW Tanzania to SE Kenya. Stems 20-30 in. Flowers bright red to deep pink, with cream midribs and base, flowering May to September or November to February in the wild, depending on location. G. saccatus. Namibia and South Africa (Namaqualand); rare. Stems to 36 in. Leaves narrow and linear, 12-16 in. long, with 3 prominent ribs. Flowers seldom more than 10-12 per spike, deep red; "sack" in lower part of upper perianth segment is darker with hint of green. "Wings" are not as prominent as those of G. cunonius, making the pinching of the corolla tube

Gladiolus more noticeable. Flowering winter to very early spring (March to May in the wild). Plate 590. G. salmoneicolor. Congo. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers salmon to pale pink, summer (December to January in the wild). G. salteri. South Africa (Namaqualand in Northern Cape). Stems to 8 in. Flowers pale pink, spring (August to mid-September in the wild). G. saundersii. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1870. Stems to 24 in. Leaves long, rigid. Flowers to 12, loosely held on spike, bright vermilion or salmon red; lower segments have white or cream blotches spotted red. Flowering late summer (January to March in the wild). Relatively hardy. G. scabridus. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 36 in. Flowers bright pink, summer (December to late January in the wild). G. schweinfurthii. Eritrea, Ethiopia, N Somalia, and W Kenya; introduced 1894. Similar to G. abyssinicusbut not as robust. Stems to 15 in. Flowers bright red fading to yellow at base, late summer. G. scullyi. South Africa (SW Western Cape, Namaqualand). Stems 12-14 in. Flowers greenish cream to yellowish, tips marked with mauve, spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 591. G. sempervirens. CLIFF GLADIOLUS. South Africa (E Western Cape). Corm stoloniferous. Stems to 36 in. Leaves evergreen. Flowers 6-8 per spike, bright red, widely open except for the central upper segment, which curves over the stamens; white stripes on lower segments. Flowering late summer to fall (March to May in the wild). Not very hardy but tolerates a little frost because the accumulation of older leaves protects the corm. Needs moisture throughout the year. G. serapiiflorus. Zambia. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers yellow, outer lower segments darker or brownish, summer (November to December in the wild). G. serenjensis. C Zambia. Stems 6-10 in. Flowers pink, summer (December in the wild). G. sericeovillosus. South Africa (Eastern Cape to Northern Province, Mpumalanga); introduced 1864. Stems 36-72 in. Leaves broad. Flowers pale mauve, lower perianth segments with faint yellow-green markings, late summer (April to May in the wild). Subsp. calvatus, from South Africa (Mpumalanga) to Zimbabwe, has pale green to cream flowers spotted red or maroon; upper and lower perianth segments unequal; stems shorter; linear leaves taller than the flower spike. G. serpenticola. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems 30-48 in. Flowers pale pink to nearly white, late summer (February to late March in the wild). G. splendens. South Africa (W Karoo). Similar to G. cunonius but taller, 20-40 in. Flowers bright red; lower lobes small, lime green; midlobe of lower lip longer. Flowering winter to early spring (March to May in the wild). G. stefaniae. South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems 12-26 in. Flowers red to bright pink, with white streaks in center of lower segments, fall (March to April in the wild). G. stellatus. South Africa (Swellendam in Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers white,

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with pink streaks in center of segments, spring (August to November in the wild). G. stenolobus. W Tanzania. Stems to 30 in. Flowers reddish purple, late summer (February in the wild). G. stenosiphon. SW Angola. Stems 32-42 in. Flowers white, outer lower segments with violet midribs, fall (April to May in the wild). G. stokoei. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 10-12 in. Flowers scarlet, fall (March to April in the wild). G. subcaeruleus. South Africa (Caledon area in SW Western Cape). Stems 10-12 in. Flowers pale blue to white, with yellow band on lower lobes, marked with mauve or brown specks, fall (April to May in the wild). Plate 592. G. sudanicus. SE Sudan and W Ethiopia; rare. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers pink, with yellowish-green midrib and red outline on lower segments, summer. G. sufflavus. Bokkeveld Mountains of South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 16-28 in. Flowers greenish yellow, veined with brown on exterior, late winter to early spring (August to September in the wild). G. sulcatus. SW Tanzania. Stems 8-16 in. Flowers dark pink to scarlet, with yellow triangle edged with darker pink or red on lower segments, fall (March to May in the wild). G. symonsii. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 16 in. Flowers bright pink to pale rose, with white throat, summer (December to January in the wild). G. taubertianus. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 18 in. or more. Flowers pale mauve to slate blue, late winter (August to mid-September in the wild). G. tenellus. South Africa (Piketberg to Bredasdorp in Western Cape), in marshy areas; rare. Stems to 20 in. Leaves 3, cylindrical, 12-14 in. long. Flowers funnel-shaped, sulfur yellow, fragrant at night; segments spread to star shape; upper segments creamy yellow, lower marked with pale maroon lines. Flowering winter to early spring (July to October in the wild). G. teretifolius. South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems to 24 in. Flowers red to orange, tube long and curving, winter (May to September in the wild). G. trichonemifolius. South Africa (Stellenbosch area in Western Cape); endangered. Stems 5-12 in. Flowers pale yellow with maroon throat, long rounded segments, late winter to early spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 593. G. triphyllus. S Turkey and Cyprus; introduced 1806. Stems 5-14 in. Flowers pale to deep pink, spring. G. tristis. MARSH AFRIKANER. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1745. Stems to 40 in. but usually around 24 in. Leaves 3-4, more or less cylindrical. Flowers 3 in. in diameter, up to 15 per spike, rarely more, very fragrant at night, early summer (September to November in the wild). Var. tristis has green and brown flowers; var. concolor, the one usually grown, has very pale yellow flowers. A popular garden plant, tolerant of light frost, it appreciates moisture throughout the year. Plates 594-596. G. tshombeanus. S Congo. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers light blue with purple blotches, or dark purple, summer (November to December in the wild).

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Gladiolus

G. uitenhagensis. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems to 24 in. Flowers mauve, early spring (September in the wild). G. undulatus. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced c. 1759. Stems to 36 in. Flowers to 8 on a zigzag spike, slender, cream to greenish white or pink; segments very wavy, hence the name. Flowering summer (November to December in the wild). A good cut flower. Not very hardy and needs moisture through the growing season. A red form was described as G. blandus carneusin the Botanical Magazine in 1801. G. unguiculatus. WC Africa to Mozambique and South Africa (Northern Province). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers creamy white to light purple, blooming during rainy season, spring to early summer (October to December in the wild). G. uysiae. South Africa (W Karoo to Bokkeveld Mountains of Western Cape). Stems 4-12 in. Upper perianth segments salmon to maroon streaked white, center lobe held erect; lower perianth segments yellow with green band. Flowering early spring (August to September in the wild). G. vaginatus. SW to S South Africa. Stems 12-14 in. Flowers white or pale mauve, lower perianth segments finely dotted with brown lines, orange in throat, fall (February to May in the wild). Plate 597. G. vandermerwei. South Africa (Western Cape); endangered. Stems 8-20 in. Leaves stiff, lanceolate, 10-18 in. long. Flowers 1-6 per stem, bright shiny red; tube 1 in. long; lobes very short, the uppermost flaring slightly while the lower are held at right angles to the tube. Flowering early spring (September in the wild). G. varius. South Africa (Mpumalanga) and Swaziland. Flowers clear pink with deep pink streaks in lower segments, summer to fall (January to May in the wild). Var. micranthus has flowers white flushed pink or lilac with yellow or lilac central stripe on lower lobes. G. vernus. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Flowers to 20 per stem, pale magenta, pink or mauve, winter to spring (July to November in the wild). G. vigilans. South Africa (Cape Point in Western Cape). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers pink, white blotches edged in deep pink on lower segments. Flowering early summer (October to November in the wild). G. violaceo-lineatus. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 18-28 in. Flowers very pale lilac, lower segments white to yellow with dark purple streaks of tiny dots, spring to summer (September to early November in the wild). G. virescens. South Africa (Western Cape to Eastern Cape). Stems 5-10 in. Flowers yellow closely striped with brown, spring (August to October in the wild). G. viridiflorus. SW South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems 5-20 in. Flowers yellow-green, with yellow blotches bordered purple on lower segments, fall to winter (May to July in the wild). G. vittatus. SW Africa; introduced 1760. Stems 12-15 in. Flowers white to pink, with red or lilac median stripes, spring (September to November in the wild). G. watermeyeri. South Africa (W Western Cape). Stems 5-14 in. Flowers white to gray; upper perianth segments redveined; center lobe hooded; lower perianth segments deep yel-

low with white tip. Flowering winter (July to September in the wild). G. watsonioides. Kenya and N Tanzania, in mountains; introduced 1886. Stems 24-36 in., sometimes with 2 small stem leaves. Leaves usually 4, stiff, erect, 12-18 in. long. Flowers bright scarlet with yellow at throat, 2-4 in a one-sided spike. Tube about 11/2 in. long; lobes pointed, about 1 in. long, flaring slightly. Flowering early spring (August to October in the wild), but may also flower at other times of year. Var. minor from Mount Kilimanjaro and Aberdare Mountains of Kenya is less than half the size of the type. G. watsonius. South Africa (Piketberg to Cape Peninsula in Western Cape); introduced 1880. Leaves narrow, stiff. Flowers bright red, to 3 in. long, closely placed and almost overlapping on stem. Segments broad, pointed, overlapping, all the same size and shape. Flowering winter to early spring (June to September in the wild). A fine cut flower and one of the more freeflowering species, easy to grow; prefers clay soils heavier than most species. Plate 598. G. wilsonii. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems to 24 in. Flowers fragrant, white to cream, flushed pink, spring (October to mid-November in the wild). G. woodii. NE South Africa and Swaziland. Stems to 18 in. Upper perianth segments usually golden brown; lower perianth segments usually yellow, but sometimes pale blue, maroon, yellow or deep red. Flowering spring to summer (October to December in the wild). G. zambesiacus. S Malawi. Stems 18-30 in. Flowers pink to mauve, white at throat and on lower segments, late summer to fall (March to April in the wild). G. zimbabweensis. E Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Stem 614 in. Flowers light blue-gray, lower segments marked with purple, summer (January to April in the wild). Gladiolus hybrids. So many hybrids are listed today that selection is often difficult. 'Candy Stripe' is just one example of a cultivar with the qualities looked for in new introductions: good and unusual color, great texture to the flowers, many flowers open while the lower ones are still attractive, vigor, and good placement of the flowers on the stem. Plates 599-601. SYNONYMS

G. alatus var. namaquensis see G. equitans. G. albidus see G. carneus. G. aleppicus see G. atroviolaceus. G. anatolicus see G. illyricus var. anatolicus. G. bicolor see G. virescens, Sparaxis villosa. G. biflorus see G. quadrangulus. G. blandus see G. carneus. G. blandus var. mortonius see G. mortonius. G. bolusii see G. inflatus. G. buchananii see G. zambesiacus. G. byzantinus see G. communis subsp. byzantinus. G. callianthus see G. murielae. G. citrinus see G. trichonemifolius. G. confusus see G. hyalinus. G. crispiflorus see G. imbricatusvar. crispiflorus.

Gloriosa G. cuspidatus see G. undulatus. G. cuspidatus var. ventricosus see G. carneus. G. diterlenii see G. crassifolius. G. dracocephalus see G. dalenii. G. dregei see G. orchidiflorus. G. dubius see G. italicus. G. edulis see G. permeabilis subsp. edulis. G. fasdatus see G. grandiflorus. G. flavescens see G. tristis. G. floribundus subsp. milleri see G. grandiflorus. G. grandis see G. liliaceus. G. hastatus see G. floribundus subsp. rudis. G. hirsutus roseus see G. bonae-spei. G. huttonii var. zitzikamense see G. huttonii. G. linearis see G. quadrangulus. G. ludwigii see G. sericeovillosus. G. ludwigii var. calvatus see G. sericeovillosus subsp. calvatus. G. macowanianus see G. carneus. G. macowanii see G. ochroleucus var. macowanii. G. maculatus subsp. eburneus see G. albens. G. masoniorum see G. ochroleucus. G. microphyllus see G. inandensis. G. microsiphon see G. inandensis. G. milleri see G. grandiflorus. G. miniatus see G. floribundus subsp. miniatus. G. namaquensis see G. equitans. G. natalensis see G. dalenii. G. pageae see G. dalenii. G. pilosus see G. hirsutus. G. platyphyllus see G. dalenii. G. praecox see G. watsonius. G. primulinus see G. dalenii. G. prismatosiphon see G. carneus. G. psittacinus see G. dalenii. G. pulchellus see G. virescens. G. punctatus see G. recurvus, G. griseus. G. punctulatus see G. hirsutus. G. punctulatus var. autumnalis see G. hirsutus. G. purpureoauratus see G. papilio. G. quartinianus see G. dalenii. G. rehmannii see G. ecklonii subsp. rehmannii. G. rudis see G. floribundus subsp. rudis. G. sabulosus see G. gueinzii. G. salmoneus see G. oppositiflorus subsp. salmoneus. G. scapholchlamys see G. grandiflorus. G. segetum see G. italicus. G. socium see G. grandiflorus. G. spathaceus see G. bullatus. G. speciosussee G. alatusvar. speciosus. G. stanfordiae see G. ochroleucus. G. stenophyllus see G. inandensis. G. symmetranthus see G. xcitrinus. G. tabularis see G. monticola. G. templemanii see G. virescens. G. triangularis see G. ochroleucus. G. trichonemifolius see G. tenellus.

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G. trichostachys see G. woodii. G. tristis var. liliaceus see G. liliaceus. G. tristis var. permeabilis see G. griseus. G. tysonii see G. dalenii. G. ukambanensis see G. candidus. G. ukambanensis var. alatus see G. candidus. G. variegatus see G. debilis var. variegatus. G. varius var. elatus see G. hollandii. G. venustussee G. scullyi. G. villosus see G. hirsutus, Sparaxis villosa. G. vinoso-maculatus see G. ecklonii subsp. vino so-maculatus. G. vinulus see G. vittatus. G. viperatus see G. orchidiflorus. G. vomerculus see G. floribundus subsp. rudis.

Gloriosa—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) GLORY LILY, CREEPING LILY, CLIMBING LILY, FLAME LILY, MALABAR GLORY LILY, MOZAMBIQUE LILY Name derived from Latin gloriosus ("full of glory"), a very good name for these plants which produce lovely cut flowers much in demand among florists. They are grown in quantities in greenhouses and sold by the blossom. Various authorities through the years have recognized as many as 30 species, but D. V. Field (1973) of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, has made a good case for there being only one species, the aptly named G. superba. The traits said to distinguish the various "species" included flower color and the presence or absence of tendrils on the leaves, but Field finds the variations are likely to be merely geographic. I have seen gloriosas growing in very poor soil along the roads in South Africa and in Kruger National Park, climbing up shrubby plants, finding a way to hold their flowers in the sunlight. These climbing plants support themselves with tendrils at the tips of the leaves. Other forms sprawl along the ground, not showing even a vestige of a tendril; but under cultivation, the same plants may climb to 8 ft. or more. I have not read an explanation as to why tendrils are or are not produced; I wonder if the presence of shade from the nearby shrubs may stimulate their growth. These are excellent plants for the cool greenhouse and longlasting cut flowers. They must be grown in large containers to leave room for expansion. A gloriosa adds an exotic touch to the mild-climate garden, where it is more useful as a specimen than as a mass of color. CULTURE

Gloriosas can be grown outdoors only where there is no danger of frost, but they perform well in the cool greenhouse. Started in pots and planted outdoors in late spring, they flower in summer but must be taken indoors before frost strikes. Plant tubers 1-2 in. below the surface in a well-drained, sunny spot. Give moisture to get them growing, after which they tolerate drier conditions. They receive summer rainfall in their native habitat, so they grow and flower best where they are moist through the growing period. In winter, keep them dry.

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Gonatopus

In containers, give them porous soil with ample organic matter mixed with sand and good topsoil. Some liquid fertilizer boosts growth in spring. Provide support on which the plants can scramble upward. Store tubers between 40° and 50°F. If the storage temperature drops below 40°F for more than 60 days, the number of shoots produced will be reduced. If stored above 60°F but below 90°F, tubers produce more shoots but not as many flowers. Temperatures above 90°F are harmful to the dormant tubers. PESTS AND DISEASES

Aphids can be a problem on plants grown under glass. PROPAGATION

The best means of increase is lifting and dividing the rootstock. Sow seed and give night temperatures around 65°F. Flowering plants can be raised from seed in 2 years. SPECIES

G. superba. Africa and India; introduced 1690. Tubers long, fleshy, white, multiplying quickly. Leaves with tendrils. Stems light green, looking fragile though they are not. Stamens prominent in the center of strongly reflexed tepals. A peculiar characteristic is that the stigma bends at a right angle as it leaves the ovary. Perianth segments yellow, orange, red, or bicolored with zones of these colors; often crinkled along the edges, and, even when fully reflexed, the tips sometimes curl back. All parts of the plants are poisonous. Selections (some of them formerly described as species) include 'Abyssinica', with long, tendrilbearing leaves and deep yellow flowers; 'Carsonii', taller-growing than most others, but often lacking tendrils, and with reddish-purple, yellow-margined flowers; 'Citrina', with brilliant citron-yellow flowers marked with crimson; 'Rothschildiana', introduced 1904, a popular form, bright red flowers with crinkled edges, yellow margins, and a yellow basal zone that disappears as the flower ages, borne on stalks to 4 in. long (Plate 604); 'Simplex', introduced 1823, leaves with tendrils and stems to 4 ft., perianth segments narrow at each end and wider in the middle, crimson with yellow at the base, tips less curled but still wavy along the margins; 'Verschuurii', crimson with yellow edges and margins. Plates 602, 603. SYNONYMS

G. abyssinica see G. superba 'Abyssinica'. G. carsonii see G. superba 'Carsonii'. G. rothschildiana see G. superba 'Rothschildiana'. G. simplex see G. superba 'Simplex'. G. verschuurii see G. superba 'Verschuurii'.

Gonatopus—Araceae Name derived from Greekgonat ("knee") and pous ("foot"), in reference to the leaf of G. boivinii. This obscure genus of about 5 species is native to eastern tropical and subtropical Africa, found in Congo, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The rootstock may be either tuberous or rhizomatous. Each produces a single, much-

divided leaf. At the base or in its center, the leafstalk has a structure called a pulvinus, a series of cells with the ability to move water into or out of a fluid-filled cavity, thus altering the position of the leaf. Gonatopus is considered a relic of the ancient African flora that has survived climatic changes that have made many other genera extinct. Gonatopus is the only genus in the arum family with unisexual flowers that have free perianth segments. The flower stem is cylindrical and carries a rounded spathe, erect at the tip and overlapping and clasping the stem at the base. On the spadix, the male flowers are carried above, the female below, with a few sterile flowers in between. The spadix is the same diameter as the stem that supports it. The male flowers have 4 perianth segments and 4 stamens; the filaments are fused into a tube, and the pollen is extruded in strands. The female flowers also have 4 segments. The plants bloom in summer. The fruit is a 2seeded berry. CULTURE These plants are unlikely to appear in cultivation outside botanic gardens, where they should be grown in a warm greenhouse, and given a deep root-run in humusy soil and shade. Give moisture during the growing period, but keep slightly drier during winter. The rhizomes or tubers, which produce roots on the upper side, should be just covered with leafmold. Portions of the rootstock are sometimes seen at or just above ground level in established plants. Growth starts in spring, with flowering in mid summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Pieces of larger rootstocks can be removed and grown on. The seeds can be sown as soon as ripe, barely covered in a soil mix which is high in humus. Temperatures at night should be around 60°F. After germination, pot the seedlings into individual pots and plant out the 2nd year. SPECIES

G. angustus. South Africa (Mpumalanga), in deep forest; very rare. Rootstock a large horizontal tuber with roots on upper side. Leaf solitary, compound, with blade 8-9 in. long. Spathe to 5 in. long, cream, faintly striped, rolled or twisted; lower part is overlapping, clasping the stem; tip pointed and erect. Stem to 5 in., swollen at base of spathe. Spadix bears male, female, and sterile flowers, all creamy white. Flowering summer (November to December in the wild). G. boivinii. South Africa (N KwaZulu-Natal), in forests. Rootstock a tuber, usually globose, with roots only from upper side. Stems to 4 in. Spathe grayish white, overlapping at base, pointed and erect at tip. Female flowers on lower part of spadix are distinctly thicker than male flowers on upper part with sterile flowers between them. At fruiting stage, the upper portion of the spadix withers. G. clavatus. E tropical Africa. Leaves to 14 in. Spathe 2 in. long, 12 in. wide, held upright just above ground level. G. marattioides. E tropical Africa. Rootstock a horizontal rhi-

Gymnospermium zome. Spathe 1 in. long, appears with base of leaf at ground level. G. petiolulatus. E tropical Africa. Leaf blades obovate, to 5 in.

Griffinia—Amaryllidaceae Named in honor of William Griffin (d. 1827), who introduced these plants into cultivation. The 6 or 7 species are native to warm areas of Brazil. The bulbs are quite large in some species, of moderate size in others, and are grayish-brown color and similar to those of Hippeastrum. The plants flower in spring and early summer. The flowers of all are in the blue-lilac range, often fading to white, loosely held in umbels of 6-10; the pedicels curve as though from the weight of the flowers. The upper perianth segments are broader than the lower ones, and all the segments are free to the base, or nearly so. The lowermost segment points directly downward, and the 2 flanking it are at or near right angles to it. There are 6 stamens (occasionally 5), and there is often only one seed per locule. The foliage of most species has lattice-like veining; the leaves are quite wide, ovateoblong, with a distinct stalk. In tropical gardens griffinias might add the blue color range to shaded areas. They are useful for borders in the warm greenhouse. These rather lovely flowers deserve to be more widely grown and to have their potential as interior plants in heated buildings explored. CULTURE These tropical plants must be grown in a warm greenhouse with temperatures constantly above 55°F, or outside in areas where night temperatures do not fall below 50°F. They require a welldrained, organically rich soil mix and bright but indirect light. During their growing season, give them plenty of moisture, but keep them on the dry side during their resting period. Light feedings of liquid fertilizer are appreciated when the bulbs start into growth and should be discontinued when the plants come into flower. Plant bulbs with the neck just at the soil level or slightly above it. Space the taller-growing kinds 10-12 in. apart, the shorter ones a bit closer. In containers, they require repotting every 2 or 3 years.

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G. hyacinthina. Brazil; introduced 1815. Bulb smaller than that of G. dryades. Leaves stalked, with lattice-like veining; blade ovate to oblong, to 8 in. long. Stems 20-24 in. Flowers to 10 in umbel, 3 in. in diameter; upper segments broader, blue shading to white at base; lower segments blue, spring and early summer. 'Maxima' has larger flowers, to almost twice the size of the type; white at base of upper segments is more pronounced, and upper portion of segments is deeper blue. 'Micrantha' has small flowers, barely 1 in. in diameter, and smaller leaves; flower color is closer to the type. G. intermedia. Brazil. Bulb ovoid, longer than that of G. hyacinthina. Stems to 12 in. Leaves oblong, narrowing at the base into the stalk, to 10 in. long. Flowers to 10 per umbel, with segments to 2 in. long which form a small tube at the base. Flowers lilac, usually pale. The plant appears less robust than the other species. G. liboniana. C Brazil; introduced 1843. Bulb small, about 1 in. in diameter. Stems 10-12 in., slightly flattened with 2 distinct "edges." Leaves not stalked, 4-5 in. long. Flowers 6-8 per umbel, pale lilac; perianth segments 1 in. long or a little more, perianth tube scarcely present. G. ornata. Brazil; introduced 1876. Bulb large, sometimes over 4 in. in diameter. Stems 14-18 in., slightly flattened but "edges" not as sharply defined as in G. libonia. Leaves have distinctively recurved margins. Flowers 20 or more per umbel, about 2 in. in diameter, light blue turning white with age. Umbel loose, often over 8 in. in diameter. G. parviflora. Brazil; introduced 1815. Bulb ovoid, 3 in. or more in diameter. Stems to 12 in. Leaves usually 3-4, sometimes 2. Leafstalk equals length of oblong blade, about 6 in.; blade has lattice-like veining; lower portion of leaf blade seems to extend down stalk. Flowers to 15 in a fairly compact umbel, blue with a hint of violet, with some white along central vein. Ovaries become quite large as flowers fade. Plate 605. G. rochae. Brazil. Bulb globose, just over 1 in. in diameter. Leaves 3 or 4, bright green. Stems to 8 in. Flowers 6-8 per umbel, held horizontally or upright, bright lilac, just over 1 in. long; tube very short. SYNONYM G. blumenavia see Hippeastrum blumenavium.

PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove offsets in very early spring and grow them on in individual containers or in greenhouse beds. Sow seed in spring in a peaty soil mix, barely covered. Keep a minimum night temperature of 65°F, with constant moisture and high humidity. Transplant seedlings as soon as large enough to handle. SPECIES G. dryades. S Brazil; introduced 1868. Bulbs large. Stems to 18 in. Leaves stalked, with distinct lattice-like veining; blades 6-10 in. long. Flowers to 10 in loose umbel, 3-4 in. in diameter, lilac purple with white toward base, becoming lighter with age. Flowering early summer.

Gymnospermium—Berberidaceae Name derived from Greek gymnos ("naked") and sperma ("seeds"). This genus of perhaps 4 very similar species is native to E Europe and west to C Asia. It is closely allied to Leontice and sometimes submerged in that genus. Both genera are tuberous and assigned to different families by different authorities. Leonticeis the more decorative, but Gymnospermium seems to be easier to grow. The rootstock is a globose tuber. The flowers appear in very early spring in a terminal raceme. The 6 sepals are petaloid and bright yellow, usually flushed brown or red on the lower surface. The actual petals are very small, shorter than the 6 stamens. The flowers thus look something like barberry flowers.

266

Gynandriris

The seeds are large and bottle-shaped, with fleshy structures which attract ants. The rather elegant, glaucous leaves arise high on the flowering stem, just below the raceme, and are divided into several leaflets. The plants go dormant by early summer. Mostly of botanical interest, these plants can be placed in the rock garden in fairly dry climates. They are easily grown in the bulb frame, but their large foliage has to be kept off neighboring plants. They are quite cold-hardy, provided the soil is not too wet in freezing weather. Gymnospermium albertii is the most commonly grown species (Plates 606,607); a few others are occasionally offered by seed collectors. This may be a genus waiting in the wings for discovery, especially for rock gardens in arid regions. CULTURE In their native habitat on rocky or scrubby hillsides, these plants emerge right after the snow melts. Grow them in full sun in a soil that is free-draining, not rich in organic matter, and quick to warm up in early spring. A Mediterranean moisture regime suits them: fall and spring rains, but not too damp in the coldest part of winter, and quite dry in summer. Plant tubers about 4 in. deep. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

The tubers do not multiply vegetatively. Seed is freely produced (but must be harvested quickly, since it drops off almost as soon as ripe) and germinates readily. Sow it in early fall in a sandy soil mix, covering it with grit. Keep cool but do not allow to freeze and thaw repeatedly. Germination occurs in spring, but stored seed may not germinate for several years. Leave the seedlings undisturbed until their leaves yellow, then transplant the small tubers to their permanent position. SPECIES

G. alberti. LION'S TURNIP. C Asia, in mountains. Stems reddish, to 8 in. at flowering, taller in fruit. Tuber rounded and slightly compressed; roots emerge around the sides. Leaves glaucous, pinnately divided into 5 leaflets. Flowers yellow with reddish-brown streaks on reverse of sepals, 12-15 in a dense raceme. G. altaicum. Black Sea region. Very similar to G. albertiibut leaflets less rounded, almost oblong, and ovary is not stalked.

Gynandriris—Iridaceae Name from Greek roots meaning "female," "male," and "iris," presumably because there are 3 stamens closely associated with 3 style branches. There are 9 species in this genus. One, G. sisyrinchium, native to the Mediterranean region, was known for many years as Iris sisyrinchium. The difference between this genus and Iris is in the rootstock: that of Gynandriris is a corm surrounded by a netted, fibrous tunic. The 2 Mediterranean species are not very showy and are grown mostly for botanical interest. The other species are South African, and some are quite attractive. They are similar in general appearance to Moraea and are included in that genus by botanists.

The flowers have no tube; the part that looks like a tube is in fact a tubular continuation of the ovary. This remains on the plant after the segments fall and becomes quite prominent, sticking up above the papery spathes. The perianth segments (the "falls") are broad and colorful; there are 3 enlarged style branches, also colorful. The flowers do not last long, often opening in the afternoon or early evening and finished by the following morning. The leaves are grasslike and channeled; in G. pritzeliana the leaves are coiled in corkscrew fashion. Gynandriris grow well in poor, rocky ground and like warm, moist winters and hot, dry summers. Gynandriris sisyrinchium is hardy outdoors to about 20°F, but the other species should be grown frost-free. They may become invasive by seeding in warm-climate gardens. The fleeting nature of the flowers leaves them out of the first rank of flowering bulbs. CULTURE Plant corms of South African species 1 in. deep in well-drained, gritty soil, in full sun. Give water in winter and spring but dry off in summer. Where summer rainfall is expected, protect plants against it with some sort of shelter. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift in fall and separate offset corms. They are easily raised from seed, sown in sandy soil in early spring. Keep in high light with night temperatures around 50°F. Grow seedlings on until dormant, then move dormant corms to permanent position. Flowering plants can be obtained in the 3rd year from sowing. SPECIES G. anomala. S and SW South Africa. Stems to 12 in. Flowers pale blue with white patch, summer (September to October in the wild). G. australis. S South Africa. Stems 3-10 in. Flowers pale blue with white patch, summer (September to November in the wild). G. cedarmontana. South Africa. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers white, summer (September to October in the wild). G. hesperantha. W South Africa. Stems 16-24 in. Flowers violet, summer (October to November in the wild). G. monophylla. E Mediterranean (Greece, Libya, Egypt). Similar to G. sisyrinchium but only 2 in. tall and has only one leaf. Flowering mid to late summer. G. pritzeliana. South Africa. Stems 5-14 in. Flowers lavender blue or violet, late spring to summer (August to September in the wild). Plates 608,609. G. setifolia. South Africa, in poor soils. Stems 2-8 in. Leaves 3 or 4,12-14 in. long. Flowers bluish white, with yellow blotch, often with white border, on falls. Flowering fall (March to April in the wild). Plates 610,611. G. simulans. South Africa (Northern Cape, Free State, Mpumalanga, Northern Province), Lesotho, Botswana, and Zimbabwe. Stems 10-14 in. Flowers pale blue speckled with darker spots, yellow spot at the base of falls, summer (September to October in the wild). Plate 612.

Habranthus G. sisyrinchium. BARBARY NUT, SPANISH NUT. Mediterranean region, from Portugal and North Africa east through C Asia to Pakistan; introduced 1854. Corm subglobose, with coarsely netted tunic. Stems 18-20 in. Leaves 3-4, often as long or longer than scape, arching up and away from scape. Flowers emerge from papery spathe, blue or violet, often with yellow or white patches on falls. Flowering mid to late spring. Plate 613. SYNONYMS

G. apetala see Moraea cooperi. G. dadostachya see G. simulans. G. longiflora see Moraea longiflora. G. rogersii see G. setifolia. G. spiralis see Moraea spiralis. G. stenocarpa see Moraea cooperi. G. torta see G. pritzeliana.

H

abranthus—Amaryllidaceae

RAIN LILY Name derived from Greek habros ("delicate, graceful") and anthos ("flower"). There are about 10 species of Habranthus, all of them from South America in Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay. One species, H. tubispathus, also occurs wild in Texas, but it is not certain whether it is native or an early introduction there. Habranthus species are very similar to (and often confused with) Zephyranthes, with which they can be crossed to produce fertile hybrids. The differences are that the flowers of Zephyranthes are radially symmetrical (all the segments similar in shape), and those of Habranthus are zygomorphic (with distinctively shaped upper and lower segments); and that seeds of Habranthus have an oblique wing, lacking in Zephyranthes. Habranthus differs from Hippeastrum in usually having solitary flowers (rarely 2), and in having a single bract that covers the flower's petiole (in Hippeastrum the spathe is divided into 2 equal parts). Habranthushas 6 stamens of unequal length, generally 4 different lengths. The plants are small with rather slender, hollow stems and narrow, strap-shaped leaves. The flowering stems spring up in response to rains, hence the common name. These are graceful plants, not very hardy but well worth growing in warmer gardens or in cool greenhouses. They adapt well to life in pots and can be grown on windowsills where they get high light and warm temperatures, both day and night. In the United States, they are popular garden subjects in the coastal Southeast. CULTURE

In climates where frost occurs, grow these plants under glass with night temperatures around 45°F in winter. Plant in a freedraining soil with good organic content, 2-3 in. deep. Provide ample moisture while growth is active, but keep on the dry side while dormant. In the warmest regions, plant anytime bulbs are available, even while in growth. Otherwise, plant autumn-

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flowering species in spring and give them the most water in late summer, and plant spring-flowering species in fall, giving them the most water in late winter. Bulbs can be lifted and stored over winter, but this is not as satisfactory as growing them in containers, protected against low temperatures and undisturbed over winter. They flower best when crowded. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift when dormant and remove offsets, which are numerous in some species, few in others. Seed is copiously set and should be harvested as soon as the capsule shows signs of splitting; otherwise it will disperse widely and come up all over the greenhouse. Sow seed as soon as ripe on the surface of a sandy soil mix in gentle heat (50°F at night) and keep moist; germination takes only 2-3 weeks. Grow on frost-free, feeding monthly with weak liquid fertilizer, and transplant seedlings after they go dormant. Plants flower 3-4 years after sowing. SPECIES H. brachyandrus. S Brazil; introduced 1890. Bulb ovoid. Stems slender, to 12 in. Leaves produced before flowers. Flowers pale or bright rose pink, veined red and deepening to claretred (almost black) toward base. Flowers 3 in. long and as wide, late summer or early fall. H. concolor. MAN ANITAS. Mexico; introduced 1837. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves appear after flowering. Flowers yellowish green or creamy white, base of throat lime green, summer. H. gracilifolius. Uruguay and Argentina; introduced 1821. Stems 5-9 in. Leaves 4-5, to 18 in. long, appearing after flowering. Flowers often 2 per stalk, pale pink or white with deeper veining, about 2 in. long and wide, bell-shaped, with short tube. Flowering late summer or early fall. One of the hardier species, to perhaps 20°F. Var. boothianus has clear pink flowers and glaucous leaves. H. howardii. NE Mexico. Flowers yellow. Leaves broader than most other species. Flowering fall. H. immaculatus. C Mexico (Guanajuato). Flowers large, white with yellow throat, spring. H. jundfolius. Argentina. Stems to 10 in. Flowers white, flushed pink, tube reddish green, fall. H. longipes. Uruguay; introduced 1898. Stems to 12 in. Flowers pale red. H. martinezii. Mexico. Stems slender, 6-12 in. Flowers white with yellowish green throat, reverse of segments tinted pink, fall. H. mexicanus. C Mexico. Stems 10-22 in. Flowers pure white or veined pink, rarely pink, early summer. H. oaxacanus. Mexico (Oaxaca). Stems 12-26 in. Leaves appear after flowering. Flowers rose, early summer. H. plumieri. W Indies. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers pink, early spring. H. robustus. Argentina and S Brazil; introduced 1828. Bulb globose, with dark brown tunic. Stems to 12 in. Leaves narrow, to 12 in. long, arching away from stem. Flowers large, 2 per stem, 3 in. long and wide, bright pink with darker veining and

268

Haemanthus

green throat, late summer. An excellent pot plant indoors or in a cool greenhouse, and hardy outdoors to about 25°F. Plant shallowly, with neck of bulb at ground level. H. tubispathus. Argentina and Uruguay; introduced 1829. Often grown under synonym H. andersonii. Bulb globose, with dark tunic. Stems reddish, to 8 in. Leaves lax, usually not present at flowering, emerging later. Flowers solitary, upwardfacing, about 11/2 in. long, narrowly trumpet-shaped, coppercolored on exterior, golden yellow within. The single flower seems to pop out of the ground in late spring or early summer, often just after a good rain, especially if the winter has been dry. Plants may rebloom in fall. Color forms (which come more or less true from seed) include 'Aureus', with golden flowers; 'Cupreus', copper-colored; 'Roseus', pinkish. Var. texanus, the only U.S. representative of the genus, maybe native to Texas or a very early garden escape. Hardy outdoors to about 20°F, if not too wet in winter. Plate 614. H. versicolor. Brazil; introduced 1821. Bulb oblong, with dark tunic. Stem to 6 in., with petiole another 1-2 in. Leaves 10-12 in. long. Flowers solitary, 1 in. long, deep rose in bud, aging to white, with rose color eventually confined to tips and base of segments. Segments have thin green median stripes; stamens and style white. Flowering late fall after dry period in late summer. Grow frost-free. H. vittatus. Mexico (Oaxaca). Stems 7-8 in. Flowers white with reddish stripes. SYNONYMS

H. advenus see Rhodophiala advena. H. andersonii see H. tubispathus. H. andicola see Rhodophiala andicola. H. bagnoldii see Rhodophiala bagnoldii. H. cardinalis see Zephyranthes bifolia. H. estensis see H. gracilifolius. H. hesperius see Rhodophiala advena. H. miniatus see Rhodophiala advena. H. phycelloides see Phycella phycelloides. H. pratensis see Rhodophiala pratensis. H. roseus see Rhodophiala bifida, R. rosea. H. texanus see H. tubispathus.

Haemanthus—Amaryllidaceae TORCH LILY, PAINT BRUSH, SHAVING BRUSH, MARCH FLOWER, SNAKE PLANT, BLOOD FLOWER, FIREBALL LILY, FOOTBALL LILY From Greek haema ("blood") and anthos ("flower"), a reference to the color of the flowers of certain species. Haemanthus contains at least 50 species, all from South Africa and Namibia, but, unfortunately, only a few are in cultivation. Their common names are many, nearly all of them referring to the distinctive flower heads. Since around 1970, species formerly in this genus that have leaves on the stem are now assigned to another genus, Scadoxus. The inflorescence is a globose umbel, surrounded by 6 large bracts (spathe valves) which maybe white, pink, or red. The ac-

tual perianths of the individual flowers are small, usually less than 1 in. long, and are less conspicuous than the 6 stamens that protrude from each flower, tipped with golden pollen—the brushes or torches referred to in some of the common names. The leaves in most species are over 2 in. wide and bright glossy green, marked with red in some species; in this genus all leaves are basal. The stout stem may also be reddish or spotted; it is full of sap, surprising in view of the parched ground where these plants grow in the wild. The stems are rather brittle and must be carefully handled. The bulbs are very large, and they may grow with their necks above ground; though they are stated to be poisonous, they are used medicinally by native people for headaches. I have seen Haemanthus growing in South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga); the plants like to hide a little from the sun, growing in the shade of shrubs or low trees, in ground that becomes baked in the summer months. This gives a clue to their cultural requirements. They cannot tolerate much frost—a few degrees, perhaps, but certainly not enough to freeze the soil surface. The best species to try in colder areas would be those that are dormant during winter. They are ideal for mild climates and are excellent pot plants, remaining in flower for a long time. CULTURE The plants are found in the veld in South Africa, where the tall grass provides a little shade. They also enjoy the light shade and dry soil under shrubs and are often seen growing near large rocks. Particularly in hot regions, they should be planted in light shade. In areas where they are borderline hardy, they should be planted in full sun in a protected area. The soil need not be rich, but it must be well-drained. Place the bulbs among other plants that do not require moisture at the time when the bulbs are resting. Plant them with their tops at or just above soil level; in heavy soils, it is best to leave the necks above ground. The bulbs send out very long roots, and if left in the ground they produce offsets, so a very large hole should be dug for them at planting time. They must have a dry period after the foliage dies down; the season depends on when the particular species produces its leaves. In containers, give them ample room; a single bulb to an 8to 10-in. pot, or better, 3-5 in a 24-in. pot so the bulbs have a good soil depth into which they can send their fleshy roots. They like to remain undisturbed in containers for a number of years and seem to appreciate crowding. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Offsets, though not freely produced, become numerous if the plants are left undisturbed for several years. Remove offsets when the plants are just coming into growth and replant them at once. Seed is freely produced and flowering-sized bulbs can be obtained in about 3 years. Sow seed in the spring, cover lightly with a sandy soil mix, and give a little heat while germinating. If artificial heat is not available, delay sowing until the sun is warm and place seed pots in a protected, sunny area. Keep

Haemanthus the seedlings growing. When they go dormant, announced by the yellowing of the foliage, they should be allowed to dry out. Move them to individual pots when completely dormant. Start them into growth in their normal growing season by providing moisture. Keep moist throughout their growing season. SPECIES H. albiflos. South Africa (E Western Cape and up coast to KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga), on shady riverbanks and in coastal sands; introduced 1791. Stems to 18 in. Leaves leathery and prostrate, with a few small white hairs on margins; under glass, leaves often are evergreen. Bracts below umbel are white to greenish; stamens bright orange. Fruits are red berries, in themselves pretty. Flowering late summer to fall (April to May in the wild). H. allisonii. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga); introduced 1894. Stems 6-9 in. Bracts brownish; flowers white, early spring (September in the wild). H. amarylloides. South Africa (Northern Cape, W Western Cape, Namaqualand to Clanwilliam); listed as vulnerable. Stems to 12 in. Leaves emerge after flowering and persist until fall. Bracts pink, narrow, mainly late summer or autumn (February to April in the wild). One of the hardiest species. Subsp. polyanthus from Namaqualand has erect leaves, 6-13 in. long, and light pink bracts. Subsp. toximontanus, limited to one colony on the Gifberg Plateau in Western Cape, is only 3 in. tall and has rose pink bracts. H. avasmontanus. Namibia; very rare. Flowers white, late summer (February in the wild). H. barkerae. South Africa (Calvinia district of Northern Cape). Stems 4-5 in. Leaves strap-shaped to elliptic, 7-8 in. long. Bracts pale to deep pink, fall (March to April in the wild). H. brevifolius. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 5-8 in. Bracts pale pink, late summer (February in the wild). H. canaliculatus. South Africa (Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Stems to 8 in. Bracts scarlet, rarely pink, mid to late summer (December to March in the wild). H. carneus. South Africa, widely distributed, especially in Mpumalanga; introduced 1819. Stems 6-12 in. Bracts pale pink, summer (November to March in the wild). H. cocdneus. APRIL FOOL, CAPE TULIP, KING OF CANDIA, MARCH FLOWER. South Africa (Western Cape, Northern Cape, W Eastern Cape) and S Namibia; introduced 1731. Stems stout, fleshy, orange-red, 9-10 in. Leaves 2, to 36 in. long and to 6 in. wide at base, growing through winter and withering in early summer. Bracts scarlet, fleshy, larger than the umbel. Stamens lighter red, with orange pollen. Flowering late summer to early fall (December to April in the wild). H. crispus. South Africa (NW Western Cape, Namaqualand in Northern Cape). Stems 4-6 in. Leaf margins wavy. Bracts pale scarlet or light pink, fall (March to April in the wild). H. deformis. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, N Eastern Cape); introduced 1869. Stems to 3 in. Bracts white, anthers pale yellow, winter to spring (May to October in the wild). Plates 615,616. H. graniticus. South Africa (Namaqualand in Northern

269

Cape). Leaves 2, shiny, 5-11 in. long. Bracts deep red to pale carmine, winter to spring (March to October in the wild). H. humilis. South Africa, widespread. Stems 1-10 in. Leaves appear and wither with or after flowers. Bracts rosy pink to white, fading to pink, late summer (January to March in the wild). Subsp. hirsutus, from KwaZulu-Natal to Northern Province, has very hairy leaves and stem and is a little larger than the type. H. lanceifolius. South Africa (Namaqualand in Northern Cape). Stems to 7 in. Bracts pale pink or white aging to pale pink, fall (March to April in the wild). H. montanus. NE South Africa (Gauteng, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape). Bracts white, anthers yellow, spring to fall (October to December in the wild). H. namaquensis. Namibia and South Africa (Namaqualand in Northern Cape); rare. Stems to 6 in. Bracts and filaments scarlet, fall (March to April in the wild). H. nortieri. South Africa (W Western Cape); rare. Stems to 12 in. Leaves sticky and rough, solitary (rarely 2), held erect in warm areas but prostrate in cooler areas. Bracts red, fall (February to April in the wild). H. pubescens. South Africa (Namaqualand, W coastal Western Cape). Stems to 11 in. Leaves and scape covered with tiny white hairs. Bracts scarlet, rarely pink, fall (March to April in the wild). Subsp. arenicolus from Namibia and South Africa (Namaqualand) has leaves glossy above, hairy beneath. Subsp. leipoldtii from NW Western Cape has glossy leaves with hairs only on margins. H. pumilio. South Africa (Western Cape); endangered. Stems 2-7 in. Leaves narrow, erect, 2-5 in. long. Bracts light pink to rosy pink, fall (March to April in the wild). H. sanguineus. South Africa (from Clanwilliam in Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape). Stems crimson. Leaves appear after flowers fade, to 12 in. long, with purple margins and purple flecks on underside. Bracts scarlet, filaments rose pink. Flowering summer (February to March in the wild). Though smaller-flowered than many other species, an attractive plant for the sunny border. Plates 617, 618. H. unifoliatus. South Africa (Namaqualand in Northern Cape). Stems to 7 in. Bracts scarlet, white at base and tips, fall (March to April in the wild). SYNONYMS

H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H. H.

albomaculatus see H. albiflos. baurii see H. deformis. carinatus see H. cocdneus. coarctus see H. cocdneus. concolor see H. cocdneus. hirsutus see H. humilis subsp. hirsutus. incarnatus see H. sanguineus. insignis see Scadoxus puniceus. kalbreyeri see Scadoxus multiflorus. katherinae see Scadoxus multiflorus subsp. katherinae. lindenii see Scadoxus lindenii. lynesii see Scadoxus multiflorus. mackenii see H. deformis.

270

Haemodorum

H. magnificus see Scadoxus puniceus. H. mannii see Scadoxus multiflorus subsp. longitubus. H. moschatus see H. cocdneus. H. multiflorus see Scadoxus multiflorus. H. natalensis see Scadoxus puniceus. H. nelsonii see H. humilis. H. orientalis see Brunsvigia orientalis. H. pole-evansii see Scadoxus pole-evansii. H. puniceus see Scadoxus puniceus. H. rotundifolius see H. sanguineus. H. rouperi see Scadoxus puniceus. H. sacculus see Scadoxus multiflorus. H. splendens see H. cocdneus. H. tenuiflorus see Scadoxus multiflorus. H. tigrinus see H. cocdneus. H. undulatus see H. crispus.

Haemodorum—Haemodoraceae BLOODROOT, BLOOD LILY The name is derived from Greek haima ("blood") and down ("gift"), referring to the beautiful orange-red color of the bases of the stem and leaves. Haemodorum is related to the betterknown genus Anigozanthus. Most of the 21 species are Australian; one is from Malaysia. The rootstock is a bulb, somewhat like that of Narcissus in appearance but more elongated. The flowers are dark brown to black, borne on a usually unbranched spike which in some species reaches 6 ft. in height. They are held in clusters of 2 or 3 and have 6 perianth segments, the outer larger than the inner ones. The 3 stamens are inserted at the bases of the inner segments, which are split a little to expose the linear orange anthers. The leaves, generally on the lower part of the flowering stem, are cylindrical and sheathing at the base. CULTURE Haemodorum is often found in poor soils but requires plenty of moisture in late winter and early spring. Set tubers 2 in. deep; space tall-growing species 18 in. apart, shorter-growing ones 12 in. apart. As soon as growth is seen, provide moisture and keep moist until flowering has finished. After this, plants should be given a dry dormant season in late summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems.

H. spicatum. SW Australia. Bulb ovoid, about 1 in. in diameter, perennial with seasonal additions; occasionally produces bulbil in the axils of the leaves on the periphery of the bulb. Stems to 6 ft., rarely branched, with a few leaves on the lower 1/3. Perianth segments 6, free, dark brown with hint of red; stamens 3, anthers orange. Flowering spring to summer (October to January in the wild). Forms extensive stands in poor soils in native habitat.

Hannonia—Amaryllidaceae This monotypic genus is found in North Africa. The only species, H. hesperidium, is described by L. S. Hannibal (1967) as "one of the most primitive amaryllids in existence." The absence of any membrane or cup precludes including this plant in Narcissus or Pancratium. Perhaps because of the arid conditions in which this plant grows, the perianth segments, stamens, and style are reduced to a minimum. It is doubtful if many are in cultivation, and only the most dedicated bulb fanciers would grow it. CULTURE

Poor soil, summer heat, moisture at the end of summer, and setting the bulbs just below the surface are likely to suit this plant. It might withstand a little frost provided it was protected from excessive moisture. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

The hard, black seed should be sown barely covered, in sharp sand in the spring. It should not be given any special treatment except warmth, light, and just a little moisture. SPECIES

H. hesperidium. Morocco, along the Atlantic coast. Plants 34 in. tall. Stem solid, 2-edged, producing 2 or 3 flowers. Leaves grasslike, following flowers. Flowers short-lived, white, with thin perianth segments which fuse at the base to form a very short tube,1/8inch long, then flare and spread widely to about 1 in. in diameter. The segments are keeled on the exterior and have a very narrow pale green midrib. The filaments are white, and the anthers half the length of the segments. Flowering late summer in immediate response to the first rains. The plants soon complete their growth phase and go into a long dormancy.

PROPAGATION

Lift and divide rootstock when dormant. Sow seed in spring in a sandy mix and give seedlings plenty of moisture and full sun. Pot into individual containers when large enough to handle. Plant out at the end of 2nd season. SPECIES H. sparsiflorum. SW Australia, in woodland and scrub, especially on riverbanks. Bulb ovoid, less than % in. in diameter, often found in clumps of 5-15 in the wild. Stems to 24 in. Flowers dark red, summer (November to December in the wild).

Haylockia H. pusilla see Zephyranthes pusilla.

Helianthus—Asteraceae SUNFLOWER Name derived from Greek helios ("sun") and anthos ("flower"). This large genus of 70 or more species includes the well-known

Helonias sunflowers. Many of the species are annuals or herbaceous perennials, but a few produce rhizomes or tubers. Among these is an important food plant, the Jerusalem artichoke. A few species with significant tubers or large rhizomes are listed below, but there are many others with slender rhizomes. The plants have simple leaves, opposite and often becoming alternate on the upper part of the stem, or alternate from top to bottom. The veins of the leaves mostly branch from the base of the midrib. The edges of the leaves are toothed and are often coarse to the touch, generally dull dark green. The flowers are yellow, sometimes brownish purple or red, made up of sterile ray florets, and a central disk containing perfect florets. They flower from late summer into the fall and thus are good additions to the large herbaceous border that can take their tall, expansive clumps. In the landscape, they are good for large plantings and naturalizing. They also are good cut flowers. The Jerusalem artichoke is grown for its nutty-tasting tubers but should not be planted where its invasive habit will become a problem. CULTURE

Supplied as container plants or bare-root. Tuberous sunflowers are vigorous and thrive in ordinary garden soil. They appreciate moisture in summer while making their growth. Good drainage is essential for these species, though others in the genus prefer damp conditions. When established, plants are drought-tolerant. Plant tubers 4 in. deep, lower-growing plants 12-19 in. apart, taller-growing 19-24 in. apart. Be careful not to overfeed or much foliage will be produced at the expense of flowers. When the stems mature, cut them back to the ground. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift plants in fall after flowers have finished, and divide or cut the rhizomes or tubers apart. Sow seed in spring in ordinary potting soil, covering the seed 1/4 in. deep. Keep moist and warm; germination is rapid. Pot seedlings into individual containers and plant the following fall or spring. SPECIES H. xlaetiflorus. Garden hybrid (H. pauciflorus x H. tuberosus). Rootstock a rhizome. Stems to 6 ft. or more, sometimes covered with hairs, sometimes without hairs. Leaves to 12 in. long, lanceolate and generally tapered at each end, sometimes sessile, sometimes with a petiole. Flowers yellow, usually with yellow disk but rarely brown to purple disk, 4 in. in diameter. Flowering late summer to early fall. 'Semiplenum' is a semidouble form with flowers more orange. H. mollis. ASHY SUNFLOWER. United States (New England to Georgia, west to Texas). Rootstock a rhizome. Stems to 6 ft., covered with stiff hairs. Leaves opposite, 6 in. long, base sometimes cordate, especially in lower leaves. Flowers entirely yellow, late summer. H. pauciflorus. United States. Rootstock a rhizome. Stems to 6 ft. Leaves 9 in. long, lance-shaped, alternate, sometimes without serrations, with or without petioles. Ray florets yellow; disk

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mostly red-purple but sometimes yellow. Flowering mid summer. Hardy to -30°F. A vigorous plant that spreads quickly and needs to be given plenty of room or restricted. H. tuberosus. JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. E Canada to SE United States. In the common name, the word Jerusalem is from girasole, Italian for "sunflower." Rootstock an edible tuber. Stems to 9 ft. Leaves almost 12 in. long, hairy on upper surface, very coarse to the touch, edges toothed, held opposite on the lower part of the stem but alternate above. Flowers yellow, fall. Most easily harvested when grown in sandy soil.

Helicodiceros H. musdvorus see Dracunculus muscivorus.

Helonias—Melanthiaceae (Liliaceae) SWAMP PINK Name is derived from helos ("swamp"), the natural habitat of this monotypic genus from the eastern seaboard of the United States. The plants are cold-hardy to below 0°F, but because of their specialized habitat requirements they are rarely seen in gardens. Helonias is a legally protected plant, and purchased stock must be certified as nursery-propagated. It is of interest for bog gardens, to which it adds the charm of color and fragrance. CULTURE Plant in slightly acidic soil (pH 6-6.5), rich in organic matter, and very moisture-retentive, ideally on the edge of a pond, in sun or high shade. Supplied as container plants. Set rootstock at a depth so that the leaves rest on the surface of the soil, spacing plants 12-18 in. apart. Give weak feedings of liquid fertilizer in summer after flowering has finished, and never allow the plants to dry out. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide the rootstock in spring before growth commences. Replant immediately. The freely produced seed (which may not be fertile if obtained from single plants grown in isolation) should be surface-sown in fall on a layer of shredded sphagnum over a soil mix rich in humus. Keep moist at all times. Transplant carefully after one year of growth. SPECIES

H. bullata. E United States, generally in sphagnum peat bogs. Rootstock a tuberous rhizome. Stems to 36 in. but often shorter, hollow, leafless but clothed with thin, small, papery bracts. Leaves basal, lanceolate, evergreen, 3-10 in. long, forming a rosette from which the flowering stem rises. Flowers pink, as many as 30 in a compact raceme, fragrant, about 1/4 in. in diameter, spring.

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Heloniopsis

Heloniopsis—Melanthiaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from its resemblance to Helonias (opsis means "like, appearance"). This genus is regarded by some authorities as monotypic, and by others as comprising 4 species. Heloniopsis orientalis is the only species cultivated. It is easy to grow in the shady border and is hardy to at least 0°F with the protection of a mulch or snow cover. It is a plant of subtle attractions, suitable in combination with ferns and hostas. It is tolerant of hot, humid summers. The Japanese regard it as a harbinger of spring because it is so early to flower. CULTURE Soil must be high in organic matter and moisture-retentive but not heavy. Place in high shade and ensure ample moisture throughout the summer. Supplied as container plants. Set rhizomes just below the surface of the soil, 8-10 in. apart. Liquid fertilizer should be given in the first season, but once established plants can exist without supplemental feeding. Protect them from cold winds that burn the foliage. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide established clumps in fall and replant immediately. Sow seed in fall or spring, barely covered; keep moist, in bright light but not direct sunlight, with a night temperature around 45°-50°F. Pot seedlings into individual containers as soon as they are large enough to handle. SPECIES Heloniopsis orientalis. Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, in moist mountain woodlands and slopes. Rootstock consists of short, thick, vertical rhizomes. Leaves basal, evergreen, lanceolate, sometimes flushed brown near tips. Flowers 2-10, dull reddishviolet fading to pale purple, drooping, bell-shaped, and numerous, few, or solitary. They consist of 6 perianth segments joined just at the base, with 6 stamens with versatile blue anthers; the stigma is purple. Flowering time is spring. Var. breviscapa has flowers 1/2 in. long and pale pink, on pedicels, more upright than fully pendent. SYNONYMS H. breviscapa see H. orientalis var. breviscapa. H. japonica see H. orientalis.

Hemerocallis—Hemerocallidaceae (Liliaceae) DAYLILY, ORANGE LILY, SAINT MICHAEL'S LILY, TAWNY LILY Name derived from Greek hemera ("day") and kallos ("beauty"), an apt name for these great garden plants because the flowers last only 1-2 days. There are about 15 species from E Asia and C Europe. The majority have fibrous roots, more or less thickened; a few are distinctly tuberous. Over the years the

genus has received much attention from hybridizers, and few true species are found in gardens today. The foliage is basal, grasslike, and up to 4 ft. long in the more robust plants. The flower stems are sturdy and carry the flowers well above the foliage. Most attain about 3 ft. in height, but a few reach 6 ft. The genus can be divided into 2 groups: plants with an open, branched inflorescence, and those in which the flowers are held close together with a distinct, broad bract below them. The flowers are trumpet-shaped; the 6 perianth segments form a narrow tube at the base and then flare, with the inner segments often wider than the outer ones. The most common colors are yellow, orange, or reddish purple. Though the individual flowers are not long-lasting, they are produced in succession in such quantity that the plants bloom over a fairly long period. The flowers of some species and hybrids open at night and persist into the following morning, remaining attractive longer in cloudy weather. In Asia the flower buds are gathered, pickled in salt, and used in soups. In China, the young leaves of H. minor are eaten and are said to have an intoxicating and stimulating effect. The flowers also are prepared as a relish and eaten with meat. Few plants are so easy to grow or tolerate such a wide range of garden conditions. Daylilies can be used in borders (Plates 68, 69), in combination with other perennials, as bold beds in lawns, or as groundcover (for example, to line driveways). Many species and some hybrids are sweetly fragrant. About their only flaw is that individual flowers last such a short time. A vast and ever-expanding range of hybrid cultivars offers plants in colors, sizes, and climatic adaptations to suit almost any garden. Hybridizing daylilies has long been a popular pursuit among both professional horticulturists and amateur breeders, with the result that more than 20,000 cultivars have been registered—far too many to describe here. They are classified as low, medium, or tall (with subdivisions of these), depending on the height at which the flowers are carried. Miniatures are plants with small flowers, under 3 in. in diameter. Expanding the color range is the main focus of hybridizers, and it now includes every shade of yellow and orange, cream and nearly pure white, purplish reds, pinks, and all with various contrasting color zones. Some hybrids have narrow segments and "starry" flowers, while others have broad, overlapping segments; the inner and outer segments may be extremely different in size. Some are selected for crinkled or ruffled margins. Hybridizers also concentrate on increasing bud count (often listed in catalogs) and obtaining plants whose flowers stay open longer. In addition to these features, catalogs state whether plants are evergreen, semi-evergreen, or deciduous; deciduous varieties are more suitable for colder climates. Growers may also mention varieties that flower well where summer nights are cool, an important concern for gardeners in the West and at higher elevations; the majority of American daylilies are hybridized in the Midwest and East, where they experience humid and therefore warm nights in summer.

Hemerocallis CULTURE

Daylilies tolerate almost any garden soil and grow well in light shade but prefer full sun. When established, they withstand dry conditions, but they perform better if summer moisture is provided. They are supplied as bare-root divisions in late summer or fall, bare-root in spring, or as container plants. These can be planted at almost any time of the year. Set them so the base of the leaves is at the soil surface. Spacing is determined by the ultimate size of the plants; some of the newer hybrids are lowgrowing and should be planted about 1 ft. apart; the tallergrowing hybrids and species can be 1 1/2-3 ft. apart. Leave plants undisturbed until flower production diminishes, then lift and divide them, replanting them in soil freshly amended with organic matter. In poor soils, give a spring feeding of a slowrelease balanced fertilizer. PESTS AND DISEASES

These plants are remarkably free from pests and diseases. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide established plants in fall or spring; in colder climates, spring is the better time. The divisions can be pulled apart quite easily. For nursery production, plants can be lifted and divided annually, or every other year. Species are easily grown from seed, but seed set by isolated clones may not be fertile. Hybrids will not come true from seed. SPECIES H. altissima. China; introduced c. 1930. Stems to 6 ft. Leaves strap-shaped, 48-60 in. long and a little over 1 in. wide. Flowers fragrant, pale yellow, 4 in. in diameter, opening at night; perianth tube a little over 1 in. long. Flowering late summer into early fall. H. aurantiaca. S China or Japan; long in cultivation in Asia, introduced to Europe about 1870. This plant is self-sterile and some believe it is a hybrid. Rootstock somewhat rhizomatous. Stems to 36 in. Leaves to 36 in. long, 1 in. wide, with a distinct keel, evergreen in mild climates. Flowers 15 or more per stem, rather clustered, starry, to 4 in. in diameter, intense orange, sometimes flushed purple. Perianth tube 1 in. long or a little less. Flowering summer. Much used in early hybridizing. 'Major' has slightly larger flowers, usually flushed purple, is more vigorous than the species but is not quite as hardy. H. xbaroni. This name is often regarded as a garden name for H. 'Chicago Petticoats'. H. citrina. C China; introduced 1895. Stems to 4 ft. Leaves dark green, often exceeding 4 ft. long. Flowers 30-40 per main stem, opening in evening and lasting through the night, very fragrant, light lemon yellow; segments stiff and narrow, perianth tube over 1 in. long. Flowering mid summer. Var. vespertina from Japan has up to 75 light yellow flowers, opening in evening, on stems to 6 ft. tall. H. darrowiana. Sakhalin Island, off the coast of Siberia; described 1969. Flowers 2, tiny, yellow, 21/2 in. in diameter, to 11/2 in. long. H. dumortieri. Japan, Korea, and E Siberia; introduced 1832. Stems unbranched, to 18 in. Leaves to 18 in. long, forming a

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dense clump. Flower buds dark brown when unopened. Flowers 6-8 in a tight cluster above broad, pointed bracts, deep yellow-orange, rather flat, a little over 3 in. in diameter, with a tube about 1/4 in. long, late spring. A rather attractive plant, especially valuable for its early flowering. H. esculenta. Sakhalin Island and Japan (Hokkaido to Kyoto); introduced c. 1935. Stems to 36 in. Flowers orange. H. exaltata. W coastal Japan, on the small island of Tolii Shima; introduced 1934. Stems branching, to 48 in. or more. Leaves to 2 in. wide and 30 in. long, but compact and tidy. Flowers slightly fragrant, bright orange, about 4 in. in diameter, as many as 12 per stem, early summer. H.forrestii. China (NW Yunnan); introduced 1906. Sometimes regarded as a variant of H. plicata. Stem usually unbranched. Leaves 18 in. long, 1/2 in. wide. Flowers 8-10 per stem, orange or reddish orange, funnel-shaped, on short pedicels. The plant is rather untidy looking and the flowers are not well above the foliage. 'Perry's Variety' (H.forrestiixH. middendorffii) was produced by Amos Perry in 1946. H. fulva. Asia, probably in Japan, but very long in cultivation and naturalized in many parts of the world, including Europe and the United States. Rhizomes vigorous and spreading. Stems branching, 48-72 in. Leaves 36 in. long, to 1 in. wide. Flowers numerous, 4-5 in. in diameter, 5 in. long, with tube about 1 in. long, dull orange-red or orange-buff with brown flush in the throat and a central apricot band in each segment. The common daylily of old gardens, rarely if ever setting seed. Selections include 'Europa', the most common form, and 'Flore Pleno', commonly known as double golden crown, with double flowers to 6 in. in diameter. Both are old introductions and have produced forms with variegated leaves; the double variegated form is called 'Kwanso'. Var. angustifolia, perhaps incorrectly associated with this species, is found from Siberia to India; it has orange flowers with red halos, stems to 2 in., and leaves 12-18 in. long. Var. maculata has soft copper flowers with a darker zone in the center. Var. rosea from China, introduced around 1930, was the first pink cultivar; its flowers are narrower and recurve slightly just above the perianth tube. Var. disticha from S China has reddish-orange flowers with orange median stripes and throat, yellow tube. Var. littorea from Japan (coastal Honshu) has red-orange to orange-yellow flowers, inner segments with dark brown zone, midribs lighter. Var. longituba from Japan has orange-yellow flowers on long stems. Var. pauciflorafrom Japan (Honshu) has 1-2 flowers, sometimes 3, and is one of the few naturally occurring triploids. Var. sempervirens from Japan (Ryukyu Islands) flowers very late. H. graminea. Siberia, in mountains of upper Amur River to Lake Baikal; introduced before 1795. Stems to 30 in. Flowers orange with yellow throat, brown on reverse. H. hakunensis. South Korea. Stems 33-40 in. Flowers 1-4, orange. H. lilio-asphodelus. ASPHODEL LILY, LEMON LILY, CUSTARD LILY. Probably native to China; introduced before 1576. Rootstock rhizomatous and rapidly spreading. Stems to 36 in., with short branches. Leaves to 24 in. long, almost 1 in. wide. Flowers 8-12 per stem, trumpet-shaped, clear lemon yellow, strongly

274

Hepatica

scented, to 4 in. in diameter; they open at night and last 20-76 hours. Flowering late spring. Var. major has slightly darker foliage, and more reflexed perianth segments which are often wavy along the edges. H. xluteola. Garden hybrid (H. aurantiaca 'Major' x H. thunbergii). There are several clones, all of which develop dense clumps of foliage to 30 in. long with flower stems to 36 in. Flowers to 5 in. in diameter, golden yellow to apricot yellow. H. middendorffii. Siberia, Japan, China, and Korea; introduced 1860. Resembles H. dumortieri but carries flowers well above foliage in mid summer. Stems unbranched, 18-24 in. Leaves 18-20 in. long, 1 in. wide, forming a dense clump. Flowers bowl-shaped, clear glowing orange, fragrant, nearly sessile above broad bracts. Var. major, sometimes listed as 'Major', has more numerous and somewhat larger flowers and stronger, more erect stems. H. minor. N China, Siberia, Korea, and Japan; introduced c. 1748. Leaves grasslike, to 20 in. long, in a compact tuft. Flowers carried above foliage, usually 5 or fewer, fragrant, clear yellow with a hint of brown on exterior, a little over 2 in. in diameter. Flowering late spring. The parent of some modern low-growing or dwarf hybrids. H. multiflora. China (Hunan); introduced 1925. Closely related to H. micrantha and H. plicata. Stems much branched, taller than foliage. Leaves dark green, wiry, turning reddish brown in fall, 30 in. long, about 1 in. wide. Flowers small but numerous (often 30 or more) per stem, brownish red on exterior, clear yellow on interior, seldom more than 3 in. in diameter; inner perianth segments quite narrow. The densely branched inflorescence makes this an attractive plant. It is the last of the daylilies to bloom in late summer or early fall. H. nana. China (Yunnan); introduced 1914. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves to 15 in. long, 1/2 in. wide. Flowers 3 per stem, funnelshaped, bright orange inside, reddish brown outside, fragrant, about 3 in. in diameter, early summer. H. xochroleuca. Garden hybrid (H. thunbergii x H. citrina). Flowers fragrant, sulfur yellow, 3-4 in. in diameter, starry, mid to late summer. Various hybrids from this cross are sometimes found in the literature as species: H. Xmuelleri is a vigorous plant with flowers 6 in. more in diameter, stems to 48 in. and branched. 'Baroni' or H. xbaroni, somewhat confused in the literature, probably belongs here too. H. pedicellata. Sakhalin Island, off the coast of Siberia. Stems to 22 in. Flowers orange-red. H. plicata. China (NW Yunnan) and NE India (former Khasia States area); introduced 1916. Very similar to H. forrestii and regarded by some authorities as a form of it. Leaves narrower, 1/4 in. wide and 20 in. long, folded. Flowers golden yellow, usually solitary, summer. H. taeanensis. Korea; described 1997. Stems slender, usually 1-branched. Leaves to 15 in. long, smooth. Flowers 2-5 per stem, small, orange, yellow, or rarely pale yellow; tube short, green tinted orange; inner and outer tepals almost equal; anthers dark purplish brown. H. thunbergii. N China, Korea, and Japan; introduced c. 1873. Rhizomes vigorously spreading. Stems to 36 in. or more,

branching near the top. Leaves 30 in. long, almost 1 in. wide. Flowers 3-15 per stem, fragrant, open at night, greenish yellow with a hint of apricot, 3 in. in diameter; segments recurve; flowers held more erect than in many other species. Flowering mid to late summer. H. yezoensis. Japan (Hokkaido). Stems to 34 in. Flowers lemon yellow, tube greenish yellow to purplish brown. Hemerocallis hybrids. More than 40,000 daylilies are registered with the American Hemerocallis Society! Among them are 'Bald Eagle'; rich crimson flowers; 'Beautiful Morning', pale yellow with peach-colored tips; 'Eenie Weenie', a dwarf, with light yellow flowers, very early; 'Falcon', deep red flowers; 'Mary Todd', buff flowers, early; 'Satin Clouds', cream flowers with a bright yellow center; 'Sombrero Way', dark peach-colored flowers with ruffled edges; and 'Stella de Oro', golden yellow flowers, midseason, a favorite daylily of landscape architects. Plates 619-629. SYNONYMS

H. coreana see H. thunbergii. H. crocea see H. fulva. H. disticha see H. fulva var. disticha. H. flava see H. lilio-asphodelus. H. littorea see H. fulva var. littorea. H. longituba see H. fulva var. longituba. H. lutea see H. lilio-asphodelus. H. micrantha see H. hakunensis. H. rutilans see H. dumortieri. H. sempervirens see H. fulva var. sempervirens. H. vespertina see H. citrina var. vespertina.

Hepatica—Ranunculaceae Name derived from Latin hepar ("liver"), referring to the shape of the leaves; according to the Doctrine of Signatures (which identified medicinal plants by their "signature," or resemblance to a particular body part), it was used in the treatment of liver diseases. There are about 10 species, but only one has a short, thick, rhizomatous rootstock; the others have fibrous roots. These are classic plants for the woodland rock garden and can also be cultivated in cold frames or the alpine house, provided they are kept shaded and cool. They are increasingly popular in Europe, and their commercial potential as container plants has not yet been fully explored. CULTURE Hepaticas need rich, peaty or loamy soil, in shade at least during the afternoon; they also need to be kept moist but never soggy at all times of year. Drainage must be good to prevent root rot. They are supplied as container plants, or bare-root in fall. Set the rhizomes 2-3 in. deep, 6-7 in. apart. The plants are small and cannot compete with aggressive neighbors. Topdress with leafmold in fall. Light feedings with organic liquid fertilizer are beneficial as leaf growth commences in spring. Growers recommend 4 feedings, about 4 weeks apart, starting in February.

Hermodactylus

PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide plants in late spring after flowering, or in fall. Seed must be fresh to germinate, so sow it as soon as it ripens in early summer. Germination occurs during winter, and the seedlings make only cotyledons the first year, so the seed should be planted thinly in containers large enough to accommodate 2 years of growth. Self-sown seedlings often appear around established plants. SPECIES

H. nobilis. Europe. Rootstock short, thick, rhizomatous. Leaves 3-lobed, green on the upper surface, purplish below, persisting through winter with new leaves emerging right after flowering in mid spring. Flowers up to 1 in. in diameter, with 6-7 showy sepals, no petals. Boss of stamens in flower center. Bracts 3, in a ring below the flower. The most common flower color is light blue, but dark blue, white, and pink flowers occur in the wild populations. These are distinguished by cultivar names in the nursery trade, though various clones may fall under a single name: 'Alba', white; 'Caerulea', deep blue; 'Marmorata', with white-mottled leaves; 'Rubra', deep pink. There are also a few double and semidouble forms in cultivation, which are much coveted by enthusiasts. Var. japonica from Japan has leaves with pointed rather than rounded lobes, often marbled. Many forms have been selected in the Japanese nursery trade, where some are sold at astonishing prices. SYNONYMS

H. japonica see H. nobilis var. japonica. H. triloba see H. nobilis.

Herbertia—Iridaceae Named in honor of William Herbert (1778-1847), dean of Manchester University in England and a distinguished botanist especially famous for his knowledge of bulbous plants. Herbertia is a small genus allied to Tigridia and Alophia. The 6 species are native to South America, and one, H. lahue, is also found in North America. The rootstock is a corm. The flowers are made up of 6 segments, but the 3 outer segments are the showy part, quite large and held flat, almost at right angles to the stem or slightly reflexed. The flowering stems are strong but wiry, usually to about 12 in. The flowers are blue or violet, sometimes marked with another color at the base. The style is prominent and is divided at the top into 3 lobes. The flowers are not long-lasting but open in succession, usually one at a time on each stem. Herbertia flowers are pretty and have an attractive color, but they are not large enough to make an impact in the border. They are interesting container plants but not spectacular; the flowers are small in proportion to the foliage. CULTURE Herbertia lahue can be grown outdoors where winter temperatures remain around 25°F; the cold-hardiness of the other spe-

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cies is not documented. In colder regions, the corms can be lifted in the fall and stored over winter in nearly dry sand in a frost-free place. Plant corms in spring after the ground has warmed, in any good garden soil and full sun. Set them 2-3 in. deep, 4-6 in. apart. Provide moderate moisture during spring and early summer, reducing it when the bulbs have finished flowering and the foliage has died down. They can be grown in containers in a sandy soil mix. Leave potted bulbs undisturbed for a number of years, changing only the top inches of soil. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift established plants in late summer or fall and separate the numerous offset cormels. Sow seed in spring in a sandy soil mix. In temperatures of 50°-55°F, germination is rapid. Seedlings can be placed in individual containers and grown on through summer, stored frost-free over winter, and planted or repotted in spring. After the 2nd year of growth, they can be planted out the following spring. They flower in 2-3 years from seed. SPECIES H. amatorum. Uruguay, in grassy fields; introduced 1903. Stems 12-18 in., sometimes branched. Leaves to 8 in. long, less than l/2 in. wide. Outer perianth segments dark blue with yellow blotches at the base; inner segments short, darker purple-blue; diameter of flower 2-3 in. Flowering early summer. H. amoena. Argentina and Uruguay. Stems to 12 in. Flowers violet, early summer. H. lahue. S Chile and Argentina. Stems 3-6 in. Outer segments long, wedge-shaped, dark to light blue; inner segments tiny, triangular. Flowering spring. H. platensis. Argentina. Stems to 48 in. Flowers light china blue, winter. H. pulchella. S South America to S Brazil; introduced 1827. Stems to 12 in. Leaves 9-12 in. long, narrow. Outer segments held flat, pale blue with white blotches at base and flecked with purple. Inner segments small, dark purple. Anthers yellow; stigmas reddish. Flowering spring. The most common species in cultivation. SYNONYMS

H. caerulea see Alophia drummondii. H. drummondiana see Alophia drummondii. H. drummondii see Alophia drummondii. H. lahue subsp. caerulea see Alophia drummondii. H. watsonii see Alophia drummondii.

Hermodactylus—Iridaceae SNAKE'S HEAD IRIS, WIDOW IRIS Name derived from Greek Hermes (a deity) and dactylos ("finger"), a reference to the fingerlike, tuberous rootstock. There is only one species, and it is closely related to Iris, from which it is distinguished by having an ovary with one rather than 3 locules.

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Herpolirion

A well-grown clump ofHermodactylusis not unattractive in a sunny spring border. It can be naturalized in grass, for instance on a slope where few other ornamental plants can be grown. The flowers last well when cut and are useful in modernistic and Japanese floral designs. CULTURE Hermodactylus is hardy to around 5°F but must be protected from spring frosts, which can damage the emerging leaves and flowers. About the only other demands it makes are for welldrained soil and full sun. Set roots about 3 in. deep, 8-10 in. apart. Moisture in the spring is needed, but little is needed during the summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems.

PROPAGATION

At the end of summer, lift and divide the mat of rhizomes. Sow seed in spring in a peaty mix, barely covered, and keep cool but frost-free. Transplant into individual containers when large enough to handle. Plant out the 2nd year. SPECIES H. novae-zealandiae. W and SE Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand, in damp alpine meadows and bogs from low elevations (in the high southern latitudes) to above 4000 ft. Leaves short, glaucous, grasslike, and 1-2 in. long. Flowers waxy white or pale blue,1/4-1/2in. in diameter, opening wide. The petals arch gracefully. The 6 tepals are of equal length, 14 in. wide, and not joined; in the center are the yellow stamens. Flowering time is summer (December to February in the wild).

PROPAGATION

Lift and divide established clumps in late summer and replant as soon as possible. Sow seed in fall in a sandy mix. Grow seedlings frost-free for 2 years, giving weak liquid fertilizer while in growth. Plant out in their 3rd year. SPECIES H. tuberosus. Mediterranean region, in grassland and scrub; naturalized in many parts of Europe, including Britain. In cultivation since before 1600. Rootstock a long, irregularly shaped tuber which produces a flowering shoot from its tip as well as a subterranean side shoot which flowers the following year. In this way, the plant can creep into fresh soil with more nutrients as the older root dies. Flowering stem has several gray-green sheathing leaves which may be 18 in. long or more; they continue to grow after flowering. Flower solitary, emerging from large, light green spathes which often extend above the flower. Flower color variable but never bright: greenish, gray, or dull violet, with dark brownish-purple markings at the tips of the falls. Style arms ("claws") and standards (inner segments) usually light yellowish green. The ripe seed pods are pendent. Flowering mid to late spring. Plate 630.

Herpolirion—Doryanthaceae (Liliaceae) SKY-LILY Name derived from Greek herpo ("to creep") and lirion ("lily"). The sole species in the genus is a little, mat-forming plant with a creeping rhizome, which looks like stars dotting the alpine grasses among which it grows. Both leaves and flowers are held close to the ground. CULTURE Most suitable for cool-summer climates, and hardy to around 20°F, or somewhat lower with snow cover. Plant 1-2 in. deep, 4-6 in. apart, in peaty, gravelly soil where a steady supply of moisture can be maintained through summer, with somewhat drier conditions in winter. PESTS AND DISEASES

Protect from slugs and snails.

Hesperantha—Iridaceae Name derived from Greek hesperos ("evening") and anthos ("flower"), because the flowers usually open in the late afternoon or evening. Hesperantha is a fairly large genus of about 75 species, all native to sub-Saharan Africa. Not many of these are in cultivation, and only H. vaginata and H. coccinea are sometimes listed in catalogs. Hesperantha is closely related to Geissorhiza and now includes the genus Schizostylis. Most Hesperantha species have corms; the species formerly regarded as Schizostylis has fleshy rhizomes, an adaptation to a streamside habitat also found in Lilium. The leaves vary in number from 3 to many, generally basal, grasslike, and up to 12 in. long. The flowers are not large, but several to many are produced in a loose raceme on strong stems, about 10 in. tall in most species. The short perianth tube is straight or lightly curved. The segments are all similar in size and shape and separate widely above the tube, so that the flowers are either flat or shallowly bowl-shaped, facing outward or upward. The anthers are much longer than the filaments; the stigma is divided into 3 long branches which extend prominently from the tube. The flowers of many species start to open in the late afternoon and close before dawn, and many are quite sweet-scented. These are good container plants for the cool greenhouse and must be protected from frost while in leaf. In mild climates, they are useful in the sunny, well-drained border and should be placed where night-blooming habit and fragrance can be appreciated. In a sheltered site, the more commonly grown species tolerate temperatures down to 28°F. CULTURE Plant corms 2 in. deep, 6-8 in. apart, in early fall. At no time do they need very high temperatures, but a dry period is necessary after the foliage has died down. Species from areas of winter rainfall should be kept moist throughout winter, with temperatures above 40°F at night. The soil mix must be free-draining; the bulbs must never remain cold and wet. Species from summer-rainfall areas require dry conditions in the winter when they are dormant.

Hesperantha PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate the freely produced cormels in late summer. Some species produce bulbils in the axils of the leaves, and these can be removed and sown like seeds. Seed is copious, and seedlings often flower in their 2nd year. Sow seed in spring, grow on until the foliage dies down. In early fall, repot into larger containers. Grown for another season, the plants might flower in these pots, and if they do not they will be big enough to plant that fall to flower the following year. SPECIES

H. acuta. South Africa (W Karoo). Stems 4-12 in. Flowers white or yellow, winter (July to September in the wild). H. bachmanii. South Africa (Namaqualand to Eastern Cape near East London), in damp clay soils. Stems to 12 in., wiry and zigzagging. Leaves basal, rarely over 10 in. long, without bulbils. Flowers white, well-spaced, outward-facing, strongly recurved, opening in afternoon. H. baurii. E South Africa, Lesotho, and Swaziland; introduced 1936. Stems to 10 in., often less. Leaves 4 or 5, narrow, erect. Flowers 4-6 per stem, pink, flat, outward-facing, very sweetly fragrant, summer. H. bicolor. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Corm small, flattened. Stems to 3 in. Flowers white, shaded pink, early spring. H. brevifolia. South Africa (W Western Cape). Stems 6-16 in. Flowers white, spring to early winter (October to December in the wild). H. bulbifera. South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems to 24 in. Leaves usually 4, grasslike, 12 in. long, often with bulbils in axils. Flowers white, usually clustered 4-5 at top of stem, about 2 in. in diameter. Anthers twice as long as filaments, bearing light yellow pollen. Flowering fall to winter (May to July in the wild). H. Candida. South Africa (Northern Province). Stems 8-10 in. Flowers white to pale pink, fall (March to April in the wild). H. cedarmontana. Pakhuis Mountains of South Africa to Piketberg in Western Cape. Stems 5-10 in. Flowers white, spring (September to October in the wild). H. coccinea. COFFEE LILY, CRIMSON FLAG, RIVER LILY, SCARLET RIVER LILY. E South Africa, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe, by streams, often on shallowly submerged rocks or bars; introduced 1864. Rootstock a fleshy rhizome, not a corm. Stems to 20 in. Leaves long and grasslike, sheathing base of stem. Flowers satin-textured, pale scarlet, narrowly tubular at base, opening flat; pointed tepals produce a starry form. Stamens attached in throat. Produces a fewflowersin spring, but the main flowering time is late summer to fall (November to April in the wild). In my garden I have found established plants flowering in April and May. Garden selections include 'Alba', white flushed pink; 'Mrs. Hegarty', rose pink; var. major, larger flowers of clearer red; 'Oregon Sunset', orange-red, providing excellent color into early November, spreading to form large colonies; 'Rosea', rose pink; 'Sunrise', pink; and 'Viscountess Byng', pale shell pink, flowering into November, and named after a great rock gar-

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dener who could not get it to flower in the dry climate of Essex. Plates 631-633. H. cucullata. South Africa (Nieuwoudtville to W Karoo). Stems 4-12 in. Flowers white with red or brown on reverse, winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). H. elsiae. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 10-12 in. Flowers bright pink, summer (December in the wild). H. erecta. South Africa (W coastal Western Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers creamy white, tepals narrow, winter to early spring (August to September in the wild). Similar to H. falcata. H. falcata. South Africa (Giftberg in Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers white within, brownish red on reverse, spring (July to October in the wild). H. fibrosa. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers white to pale purple, winter to early spring (July to October in the wild). H. glareosa. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal) and Lesotho. Stems to 8 in. Flowers bright pink, late summer (January to March in the wild). H. humilis. South Africa (Western Cape, Northern Cape). Stems to 3 in. Flowers pink to red, winter (July to September in the wild). H. hygrophila. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal) and Lesotho, often in marshy ground. Stems to 24 in. Outer bracts green often tipped reddish. Flowers white, rarely cream, late summer (February to March in the wild). H. juncifolia. South Africa (Agulhas Peninsula in S Western Cape); endangered. Stems to 8 in. Flowers white, early spring (September to October in the wild). H. latifolia. Kamiesberg Mountains of South Africa (Namaqualand), widespread. Stems 10-12 in. Flowers cerise, spring (September to October in the wild). Plate 634. H. longicollis. Zimbabwe, Botswana, and Malawi. Stems 10-12 in. Perianth tube with a definite curve; tepals wine red to white; flowers few, early spring (August to September in the wild). H. longituba. South Africa (Karoo, Free State) and Lesotho, widespread; introduced 1877. Stems to 12 in. Inner segments white, flushed reddish brown to pink on reverse, winter to early spring (September in the wild). H. marlothii. South Africa (Northern Cape, W Western Cape). Stems 10-12 in. Flowers white, winter to spring (July to October in the wild). Plate 635. H. montigena. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 6 in. Flowers white, red on reverse, spring (October to November in the wild). H. muirii. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers creamy white to pink, spring to summer (October to March in the wild). H. pallescens. South Africa (NW Western Cape); endangered. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers creamy yellow, spring (August to September in the wild). H. pauciflora. South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems 6-8 in. Flowers rosy pink to purple, rarely yellow, spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 636.

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Hesperocallis

H. pilosa. South Africa (Western Cape, Northern Cape); introduced 1811. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves hairy, narrow. Flowers white, speckled red without; those in Nieuwoudtville area are mauve to pink. Flowering spring (August to September in the wild). H. pulchra. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal to Eastern Cape). Corm small, white, flattened. Stems to 24 in. Flowers bright pink, summer. H. radiata. South Africa and Swaziland, widespread; introduced 1794. Stems to 24 in. Leaves 5-6, linear, dark green. Flowers white or greenish white, flushed brownish on reverse; bowl-shaped but reflexed when fully open, pendent, 10-15 per stem. Flowering late summer and occasionally in winter or spring. H. rivulicola. Bokkeveld Plateau of South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers white inside, brown with reddish vein on reverse, spring (September in the wild). H. saldanhae. South Africa (Saldanha Bay on W coastal Western Cape); now believed extinct. Stems 6-10 in. Flowers white, early spring (August in the wild). H. similis. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga), in mountain grassland. Stems to 18 in. Flowers 2-6 per stem, pink or light purple, fall (March to May in the wild). H. spicata. South Africa (W Western Cape); introduced 1787. Stems to 6 in. Flowers whitish within, reddish brown without, spring (August to October in the wild). Subsp. graminifolia has greenish-white flowers in fall. H. vaginata. South Africa (Nieuwoudtville in Northern Cape); introduced 1936. Stems to 12 in., but variable. Leaves grasslike, basal, sickle-shaped. Flowers bright to dark yellow, 2 in. or more in diameter, held almost erect, spring (August to September in the wild). Var. metelerkampiae has yellow flowers with brown in throat and on tips of petals. Var. stanfordiae has erect, canary-yellow flowers that open from noon to sunset. Plate 637. SYNONYMS

H. angusta see H. bachmanii. H. bracteolata see H. pilosa. H. buhrii see H. cucullata. H. cinnamomea see H. spicata. H. graminifolia see H. spicata subsp. graminifolia. H. inflexa see H. vaginata. H. kermesina see Geissorhiza inflexa. H. lactea see H. baurii. H. linearis see H. falcata. H. lutea see H. falcata. H. metelerkampiae see H. vaginata var. metelerkampiae. H. pallida see H. falcata. H. pearsonii see H. latifolia. H. pentheri see H. falcata. H. puberula see H. pilosa. H. rupestris see H. baurii. H. schlechteri see H. baurii. H. stanfordiae see H. vaginata var. stanfordiae. H. subexerta see H. baurii.

H. trifolia see H. falcata. H. tugwellae see H. acuta. H. tysonii see H. radiata.

Hesperocallis—Agavaceae (Liliaceae) DESERT LILY, AJO LILY, LILY-OF-THE-DESERT Name derived from Greek hesperos ("evening, west") and kallos ("beauty"), referring to the homeland of this beautiful North American flower. There is one species only. CULTURE Even in its homeland, attempts to grow this lovely plant usually meet with failure. It is intolerant of cool, wet conditions. Collectors not living in desert regions might attempt it in a deep sand bed under glass, as large cacti are sometimes grown. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Seed, sometimes offered by local collectors, germinates readily in late winter or early spring, sown on pure sand and kept moist and frost-free. Seedlings must be kept moist and growing for at least 2 years, without letting them go dormant, to form a bulb large enough to endure dormancy. Flowering in cultivation is not recorded, but it would probably take 8 years or more. SPECIES H. undulata. United States (Arizona, Mojave Desert of California), Baja California, and Mexico (Sonora), in deep, sandy soils at low elevations; described 1882. Basal leaves gray-green, 8-20 in. long and 1/2 in. wide, with very wavy margins (hence the species name). Leaves present at flowering time, which is in spring if triggered by winter rains. In rainless years, the bulbs may remain dormant. Inflorescence a raceme, with 8 flowers on a tall stem, up to 4 ft. high in large plants. Flowers fragrant, funnel-shaped, not unlike the Easter lily in appearance, white with a silvery gray or greenish median stripe on the exterior. The bracts are papery and greenish white. The large, pale bulbs, to 3 in. long, are edible and were a staple in the diet of the native people. The bulbs grow very deep, at least 2 ft, and they have been found almost 20 ft. deep, probably buried by windblown sands.

Hesperoscordum H. maritimum see Muilla maritima.

Hessea—Amaryllidaceae Named in honor of Paul Hesse, an eighteenth-century botanical traveler. This genus of South African plants is closely allied to Carpolyza, Kamiesbergia, Namaquanula, and Strumaria. (Some authorities consider Kamiesbergia and Namaquanula to be subgenera of Hessea.) Many of the species were originally

Hessea placed in the genus Periphanes. D. A. Snijman of the Compton Herbarium, National Botanical Institute of South Africa, discusses these genera in "Systematics of Hessea, Strumaria, and Carpolyza" (1994), which is strongly recommended to those wishing to understand the complexities of these genera. The principal differences among the 3 genera are as follows. In Carpolyza, flowers are regular, leaves well-developed at flowering time, scape slender and spirally twisted, reddish brown at base, otherwise stiff and green; flowers 1-5 pure white or flushed pink. The number of flowers, twisting scape, and color of flowers mark the difference between the other 2 genera. In Hessea the perianth segments are not equal, but in Strumaria they are equal. In Hessea subgenus Kamiesbergia, the inner and outer stamens are dissimilar when they dehisce, and the inner filaments are club-shaped at their tips. In Hessea subgenus Namaquanula, the filaments have hooks that are turned or face the axis (center) of the flower, the inner surface of the filaments is covered with unbranched hairs, and the anthers are attached differently. In Hessea the leaves are not present at flowering; in cultivation they are sometimes visible, but not fully developed. In Strumaria the foliage is present at flowering. The number of flowers produced by Hessea varies from 6 to 30, frequently held on long pedicels. The many-flowered umbels are not unlike those of alliums. The bases of the previous season's leaves form a long neck on the bulb, which is separated from its offsets by the sheathing bases of the foliage. The flowers appear in late summer or fall and are dark to light pink, sometimes with a deeper median stripe (Plate 639). The tepals are somewhat concave, with crinkly edges. The filaments of the 6 stamens bend at right angles outward from the tube so that the anthers look like black dots in the centers of the tepals. The stems of most species are about 6 in. tall. Flowering time is late fall (May in the wild), with some species earlier or later. These little plants should be grown essentially frost-free, though some species may tolerate occasional light frost. In mild climates, they are suitable for the rock garden. They are extremely rare in cultivation, but seed is sometimes offered by South African suppliers, and they may have potential as small ornamentals for poor soils. CULTURE

Plant in full sun where they can be kept dry in summer. Set the bulbs with their necks just at ground level or a little above it. Give water sparingly as the flower stem emerges, and increase it as the flowers fade and the foliage emerges. The bulbs should be planted closely, about 4-6 in. apart. Free drainage is essential, and soil of moderate fertility is appreciated. They are good container plants for the cool greenhouse or bulb frame, with night temperatures around 40°F in winter. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Some species produce bulbils in the leaf axils below ground level, and these can be removed after the foliage has died down and grown on. Sow seed in spring, using a sandy soil mix and

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barely covering the seed. Temperatures should be about 45°F at night. Keep seed barely moist and keep the seedlings on the dry side after they have stopped growth for the season. SPECIES H. breviflora. South Africa (north of Cape Town into Namaqualand), in sandy places. Bulb tunic feltlike; neck may extend to 5 in. Leaves barely visible at flowering, narrow, shiny green, generally 2, 3-10 in. long. Flowers to 55 but often fewer in a dense umbel, slightly fragrant, pale pink, often with deeper median stripe. Edges of tepals are wavy and curl inward. Wine-red anthers open to expose yellow pollen. Flowering late fall (April to June in the wild). H. dnnamonea. South Africa (W and SW Western Cape), on sandy flats; listed as vulnerable; introduced 1790. Bulb tunic light or dark brown, fibrous; bulb neck to 6 in. long. Leaves 2, appearing after flowers, dark green and reddish at base, shiny, to 8 in. long, narrow. Flowers broadly funnel-shaped, white to pink with deeper median stripe and wavy margins. Stamens shorter than tepals; filaments curve from their base so anthers are held close to tepals. Extended growing season lasts until early summer (May to August in the wild). H. incana. South Africa (Namaqualand); listed as vulnerable. Bulb tunic parchmentlike, dark brown; neck less than 4 in. long. Fleshy scape generally leans to the north (toward the sun). Leaves appear after flowers, generally 2, sometimes 3, medium green flushed red at base, to 8 in. long and 1/4 in. wide. Flowers to 70 in compact, crowded umbel, starry, pink with deeper median stripe, opening flat or a little recurved, winter (July to August in the wild). Perhaps the hardiest species, often covered with snow for brief periods when in flower. H. monticola. South Africa (W Western Cape), in mountains. Stems 3-9 in. Flowers white to pink, with pink or red midvein, margins wavy, late summer to fall (March to May in the wild). Plate 638. H. pilosula. South Africa (Springbok in Northern Cape). Flowers light pink, center white or dark pink, fall to winter (May to June in the wild). H. pusilla. Bokkeveld Mountains of South Africa (Northern Cape), in deep white sand. The smallest of the genus, flower head only 1-2 in. in diameter, containing about 10 small flowers, pale pink with deeper median stripes. Stamens equal to tepals or a little shorter; anthers wine red opening to show light yellow pollen. Flowering fall (mid-April to May in the wild). H. spedosa. South Africa (Western Cape) to S Namibia. Flowers white, sometimes pink, fall (March to May in the wild). H. stellaris. South (Western Karoo, Little Karoo). Stems to 6 in. Flowers purplish, with numerous fine hairs on tips of tepals, fall to winter (April to July in the wild). H. undosa. South Africa (Giftberg Mountains in Western Cape). Flowers pink, center and reverse reddish, winter (June to July in the wild). H. zeyheri. South Africa (Namaqualand, W and SW Western Cape), in sand among rocks. Stems to 8 in. Leaves strap-shaped. Flowers well-spaced, very pale pink, funnel-shaped, with crinkly margins. Tepals well separated, arched. Stamens held

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Hexacyrtis

erect. Included by Snijman in H. breviflora. Flowering fall to winter (April to June in the wild). SYNONYMS H. bruce-bayeri see Namaquanula bruce-bayeri. H. chaplinii see Strumaria chaplinii. H. crispa see H. cinnamonea. H. dregeana see H. breviflora. H. filifolia see Tedingea tenella. H. gemmata see Strumaria gemmata. H. karooica see Strumaria karooica. H. leipoldtii see Strumaria leipoldtii. H. longituba see H. breviflora. H. mathewsii see Strumaria mathewsii. H. pulcherrima see Strumaria pulcherrima. H. rehmannii see Nerine rehmannii. H. spiralis see Carpolyza spiralis, Tedingea tenella. H. tenella see Tedingea tenella. H. unguiculata see Strumaria unguiculata. H. weberlingiorum see H. stellaris.

Hexacyrtis—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) A monotypic genus from South Africa. I am indebted to Patricia Stuart Lorber, curator of the Bolus Herbarium, University of Cape Town, for information on this obscure plant. She passed on a note from Mrs. Bolus suggesting that it be given the specific name holmesii, after the locomotive engineer, Mr. Holmes, of the Luderitz train. He spotted it in the distance and kindly stopped the train for the traveling botanists to collect samples. Indeed, a look back at more unhurried times! If these plants could be spotted from a moving train at a reported distance of 200 yards, they must be fairly striking and perhaps well worth growing. CULTURE It is doubtful that this species is in cultivation. If seed could be obtained, the plant should be grown frost-free with perfect drainage in a sandy soil, and given moisture in fall and winter, with dry conditions after the foliage withers. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. SPECIES H. dickiana. South Africa (Namaqualand) and Namibia, reportedly in "drift sand." Rootstock a deep-seated, globose corm covered with fibers, producing spongy roots which pierce the tunic. The 6 or so leaves are held in one plane, sheathing the stem at the base and alternately arranged, linear, with a distinct groove in the center. The unbranched flowering stem is surrounded at the base by old leaf bases, giving the impression that the corm has a long neck. Herbarium records state that the stems reach 15 in. The flower head is terminal, divided into 2 or more subsidiary shoots, each bearing a 2- to 6-flowered umbel. The reddish-brown flowers, paler in the center, are pendent and bell-shaped with 6 free, spreading segments; at the base they form a short tube with enlarged side lobes. The 6 stamens arise

from below the ovary; short filaments surround the style, which has 3 long stigmatic branches.

Hexaglottis—Iridaceae Name derived from Greek hex ("six") and glotta ("tongue"), referring to the 6 spreading lobes of the style. This genus of about 6 species has been included in Homeria and, since 1998, in Moraea. Natives of South Africa, Hexaglottis species are found in areas of winter-rainfall, growing in well-drained soil. The rootstock is a corm with a tunic of dark, coarse fibers. The flowers are yellow, in clusters at the top of a thin stem, and are produced in spring (September to November in the wild). The perianth segments are free to the base. The short filaments of the stamens are flattened and joined at the base. The height of the flowering stems seldom exceeds 24 in. and usually is less. The leaves are narrow and sometimes loosely spirally curling; usually 1 leaf is produced, sometimes 2, rarely more. Plants are not very showy, and it is doubtful that many are grown. CULTURE Plants cannot tolerate frost or soil temperature below about 35°F, so they are best suited to warm climates or the cool greenhouse. Plant corms 2-3 in. deep and 6-10 in. apart in a sunny spot. Provide moisture in winter and throughout the growing period, reducing it as the flowers start to appear. In cold areas, lift corms at the end of summer and store them frost-free for replanting in spring. In containers, drainage must be excellent. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate corms in late summer. The seed is very fine and should not be covered but sprinkled onto a thin layer of sand over a well-drained soil mix. Seedlings should be grown in their seed pots for 2 years. The time from seed to flowering size is about 3 years. SPECIES H. brevituba. South Africa (Namaqualand in Northern Cape). Stems 16-22 in. Flowers pale yellow, spring (September to October in the wild). H. lewisiae. South Africa (Cape Peninsula through S Western Cape to W Eastern Cape); endangered. Stems to 24 in., often less. Leaves solitary, rarely 2, thin, inrolled, 18-24 in. long. Flowers fragrant, golden yellow with thin green dotted midvein, a little over 1 in. in diameter; segments narrow, less than1/4in. wide; tips often a little inrolled. Flowering early summer (October to November in the wild). Subsp. secunda, from NW Western Cape to Springbok in Northern Cape, opens its flowers briefly near sunset. Plate 640. H. longifolia. South Africa (Cape Peninsula, SW Western Cape), in moist areas. Stems 24-60 in. Flowers pale yellow, late spring (October to November in the wild). Name confusingly applied to a plant described as "having a perianth tube" and synonymous with Moraea flexuosa and Homeria flexuosa, but more likely just a synonym of Hexaglottis lewisiae.

Hippeastrum H. namaquana. South Africa (N Namaqualand in Northern Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers yellow, spring (September to October in the wild). H. riparia. South Africa (NW Western Cape), on streambanks. Stems 18-36 in. Flowers fragrant, deep yellow, late spring (October to November in the wild). H. virgata. South Africa (Port Elizabeth west to Cape Peninsula and north to Namaqualand). Similar to H. lewisiae, but fruits are hidden and flowers pressed against stem; leaves usually 3, cylindrical, 18-20 in. long. Subsp. karooica from moist mountains of SC Northern Cape, is a more robust plant with 4 or 5 leaves. Plate 641. SYNONYM

H. flexuosa see H. lewisiae.

Hexastylis H. arifolia see Asarum arifolium. H. shuttleworthii see Asarum shuttleworthii. H. virginica see Asarum virginkum.

Hippeastrum—Amaryllidaceae AMARYLLIS, KNIGHT'S STAR LILY Name apparently derived from Greek hippe- ("horse") and aster ("star"), but the allusion is obscure. This genus contains about 80 species, all native to South America. They were formerly classified as Amaryllis, and this is still their popular name among gardeners and the general public. A number of species that have at times been assigned to Hippeastrum are now placed in Rhodophiala; these have narrow, often glaucous leaves and small, long-necked bulbs. Breeders have developed many lovely Hippeastrum hybrids which are popular indoor plants, brought into flower at Christmastime. The exact parentage of the modern hybrids is uncertain. The bulb of most species is quite large and globose. The flowers are funnel-shaped and borne in an umbel on a stout, cylindrical, hollow, leafless stem which may be coated with a waxy "bloom." The number of flowers per stem varies but is generally more than one, and large bulbs may produce more than one flowering stem. The 3 inner perianth segments are often narrower than the 3 outer ones. The stamens also are of unequal length and have the peculiar habit of bending down and then curving upward. The stigma remains below the stamens and usually is much longer, often equal to the length of the perianth segments. The flowers are typically large—over 4 in. long and as much as 8-10 in. in diameter in the largest hybrids. The leaves generally appear after the flowers or are partly developed at flowering; they are bright or dark green, broadly strap-shaped and somewhat fleshy. The hybrids are grown more often than the species (Plates 28-30, 71). In warm climates the species can be grown outside, and indeed the hybrids also can be, provided that night temperatures during the growing season do not drop below about 40°F. The range of cultivars offered is large and always chang-

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ing, so no descriptions are given here; however, the 3 important categories are large-flowered singles, large-flowered doubles, and miniatures. The miniatures, such as 'Scarlet Baby', have some of the grace of the species and should be planted several to a container for the most decorative effect. The only true species usually seen in general bulb catalogs is H. papilio. I have seen new low-growing hybrids with many but smaller flowers in a South African nursery and these no doubt will be introduced in the near future. CULTURE Modern hybrids grown for Christmas flowering have to be cultivated indoors to get them to flower on time. The very large bulbs should be planted in a soil mix consisting of equal parts of good topsoil, peat moss or leafmold, and sharp sand, with about l /3 of the bulb above the soil level. The soil must be well firmed around the bulbs so that the weight of the flowers will not dislodge them. Bulbs that have been exposed to warmth before planting take about 55 days from planting time to flowering. It is an advantage to give the pots a little bottom heat while the roots are forming, a period of about 21 days. During this time, a temperature of about 55°F at night should be maintained. The bulbs should be kept moist, not wet; more liberal watering can begin when the flower stem emerges. When the stem is several inches high, move the plants into full sun. You can delay the buds opening by lowering the temperature. After flowering, cut off the flowers, but leave the stem since its photosynthetic activity helps nourish the bulb. The foliage now makes its growth, and during this time a weekly feeding of organic liquid fertilizer can be given for 6-8 weeks. The plants should show signs of the foliage maturing in late July and should then receive less water. By the beginning of August, stop watering completely and allow the bulbs to ripen in full sun for a minimum of 6 weeks. Topdress or repot them and start them into growth again as required. The leaves often stay green if watering continues; then the bulbs do not go dormant, and the chance of flowering the following year is greatly diminished. There are no completely hardy species; however, some will take a few degrees of frost if planted in a sheltered, sunny spot and mulched during the winter. They are suitable for gardens only in Mediterranean or subtropical climates. Plant them in fall. Once in position, the bulbs should be left undisturbed until they become overcrowded, which takes at least 5 years. PESTS AND DISEASES

Thrips may attack plants grown in a greenhouse. Red spider mites and mealy bugs also can be a problem, indoors or out, and control must be put into effect as soon as any signs of attack are seen. Examine bulbs for mealy bugs, which often are harbored in the scales. Spotted wilt is a fungus disease that causes yellow or whitish spots on the leaves. Any foliage with such markings should be removed and the bulbs destroyed if disease is severe. Many problems in the greenhouse are caused by too dry an atmosphere; spider mites and thrips are not a problem if hygiene and humidity are maintained. Controls used as soon as any damage is seen generally can eradicate the problem. Flower

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buds can be easily damaged by products used to control pests and diseases. PROPAGATION

Sow seed as soon as ripe in a light soil mix. Seeds germinate quickly in temperatures of 60°-65°F at night. When the seedlings have leaves 4-6 in. long, transplant them into 4-in. pots. Keep them watered and growing; only if the foliage yellows should water be withheld. The bulbs can be brought into flower in these pots, but it will probably be necessary to repot them in their 2nd season and allow them a period of dormancy before being brought into flower. Offsets are produced by mature bulbs and can be separated after the foliage dies and grown on. When separating them, be careful not to damage the persistent roots, and examine the bottoms of the bulbs to make sure that they are sound. Vegetative propagation is the only way to obtain flowers identical to those of the parent. SPECIES H. xacramannii. Garden hybrid (H. aulicum x H. psittacinum)\ introduced before 1870. Stems to 24 in. Flowers rich red, summer. H. aglaiae. Argentina and Bolivia. Flowers creamy yellow with greenish-yellow reverse. H. ambiguum. Argentina, Peru, Brazil, and Ecuador. Flowers white with rose stripes. H. andreanum. Colombia; introduced 1876. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers pale red with dark red stripes, summer. H. angustifolium. Brazil, in wetlands. Flowers red. H. argentinum. Argentina and Bolivia. Similar to H. candidum. Stems 12-30 in. Flowers white with wavy margins and long narrow tube. Plates 642, 643. H. aulicum. LILY OF THE PALACE. Paraguay to C Brazil. Stems to 18 in. Leaves strap-shaped, produced after flowers. Flowers 2-4 per stem, scarlet with green throat, 5-6 in. long, winter. H. blossfeldiae. Brazil. Stems 12-15 in. Flowers soft orange with greenish-yellow star in throat, late summer. H. blumenavium. Chile; introduced 1866. Stems 9-10 in., rose pink at base, green above. Leaves 6 in. long, 2 in. wide. Flowers pendent, 4-5 per stem, 3 in. long, white with pale rose streaks, late summer. H. breviflorum. Argentina; introduced 1836. Flowers white, flushed yellowish green on reverse, with central red streak surrounding a white midvein, spring (August in the wild). H. bukasovii. Peru. Stems to 16 in. Flowers red with white or greenish-yellow tips and greenish-white star in throat. H. calyptratum. Brazil; introduced 1816. Stems to 24 in. Flowers pale greenish yellow, netted with darker green veins, spring. Not fragrant, and said to be pollinated by bats. H. candidum. Argentina; introduced 1929. Flowers white, yellow in throat, spring. H. cybister. SPIDER AMARYLLIS. Bolivia; introduced 1840. Stems to 24 in. or more. Flowers crimson, tip and exterior greenish, pale stripes within, spring. Plate 644. H. doraniae. Venezuela. Stems to 12 in. Flowers light pink streaked white, green at base.

H. elegans. South America; introduced 1839. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers sulfur yellow or cream, throat greenish or purple. H. evansiae. Bolivia. Stems to 8 in. Flowers yellow or greenish yellow, throat light green. H. forgetii. Peru; introduced 1909. Stems to 24 in. Flowers dull crimson, green at base, winter. H. xjohnsonii. Garden hybrid (H. reginaexH. vittatum); introduced 1799. Bulb to 3 in. in diameter. Stems to 24 in. Leaves produced mostly after flowers, 24 in. long, strap-shaped. Flowers deep red with white median stripes, 4 in. long and a little more in diameter, spring. Easy in the cool greenhouse. H. lapacense. Bolivia. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white streaked and keeled red, green at base. H. leopoldii. Peru; introduced 1869. Flowers bright red with white margins and streaks, greenish-white throat, early summer. H. machupijchense. Peru. Stems to 10 in. Flowers pale green with red margins on exterior; interior dark red with pale green throat and streaks. H. maracasum. Brazil. Stems to 26 in. Flowers brick red with darker netlike veining, green throat. H. miniatum. Peru; introduced 1832. Stems to 12 in. Flowers deep red, throat green with cream star, mid summer. H. oconequense. SE Peru. Stems to 4 in. Flowers red, brown at base on reverse. H. organense. Brazil; introduced 1830. Flowers crimson with yellowish-green streaks, early summer. H. papilio. BUTTERFLY AMARYLLIS. S Brazil. Stems to 24 in. Leaves evergreen. Flowers cream to pale green with conspicuous reddish-brown veins and streaks; upper 3 tepals heavily marked in center with veins toward margin. Flowering spring. Plate 645. H. pardinum. Peru; introduced 1866. Stems to 18 in. Flowers cream, heavily spotted crimson, late spring. H. petiolatum. Argentina. Stems to 8 in. Flowers scarlet. H. psittacinum. S Brazil. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers green, striped scarlet, late spring. H. puniceum. BARBADOS LILY, EQUESTRIAN STAR-FLOWER. Tropical America, Mexico, and West Indies to Chile and Brazil; introduced 1698. Stems to 12 in. Leaves to 20 in. long, 2 in. wide, mostly produced after flowers. Flowers scarlet; bright orange with white, orange with green, and double selections are grown. Flowering late winter to spring. H. reginae. MEXICAN LILY. Mexico, Brazil, Peru, West Indies, and W Africa; introduced 1725. Stems to 12 in. Flowers bright scarlet with greenish-white star in throat, summer. H. reticulatum. S Brazil; introduced 1677. Stems to 12 in. Flowers soft pink and white to maroon, with crimson netlike veining, late spring. Var. striatifolium has white flowers with lilac-purple to cerise-pink veining. H. striatum. Venezuela and Brazil. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers bright red to orange with green throat, spring to early summer. Var. crocatum has rosy pink flowers. Plate 646. H. stylosum. Guiana and Brazil; introduced 1821. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers pale brownish pink with deeper veins and speckles, summer.

Homeria H. traubii. Peru. Stems to 10 in. Flowers rose with greenishwhite base. H. vittatum. Peru. Stems to 36 in. Flowers white with scarlet stripes, summer. Hippeastrum hybrids. A wide range of colors is available, from pure white to bright red. 'Masai' has white flowers with red stripes. Plates 647-658. SYNONYMS

H. advenum see Rhodophiala advena. H. alberti see H. reginae. H. andicolum see Rhodophiala andicola. H. araucanum see Rhodophiala araucana. H. bagnoldii see Rhodophiala bagnoldii. H. barbatum see H. puniceum. H. bifidum see Rhodophiala bifida. H. brachyandrum see Habranthus brachyandrus. H. chilense see Rhodophiala chilensis. H. condense see H. organense. H. crocatum see H. reginae. H. elwesii see Rhodophiala elwesii. H. equestre see H. puniceum. H. fulgidum see H. reginae. H. ignescens see H. puniceum. H. immaculatum see H. candidum. H. morelianum see H. aulicum. H. phycelloides see Phycella phycelloides. H. pratense see Rhodophiala pratensis. H. procerum see Worsleya rayneri. H. pulverulentum see H. reginae. H. pyrrochroum see H. puniceum. H. rhodolirion see Rhodophiala rhodolirion. H. robustum see H. aulicum. H. roseum see Rhodophiala rosea. H. rutilum see H. striatum. H. solandrifolium see H. elegans. H. spathaceum see H. puniceum. H. stenopetalum see H. reginae. H. subbarbatum see H. reginae. H. texanum see Habranthus tubispathus.

Homeria—Iridaceae APRICOT TULIP, CAPE TULIP Often said to be named in honor of Homer, the Greek epic poet, but more likely derived from Greek homereo ("to meet together"), because the filaments are united in a sheath around the style. This genus comprises about 32 species, all native to South Africa and extending into Namibia, Botswana, and Lesotho. Though not long-lasting, the flowers are so numerous that the plants are attractive for a long time. Not all the species have been introduced into gardens; most are known only in the wild. Homeria, like many other South African iridaceous genera, was merged with Moraea. The rootstock is a corm. The basal leaves are usually solitary, but sometimes 2 or 3 are produced, and the flower stem also

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carries several leaves. The 6 similarly shaped perianth segments that make up the flowers are not fused but come together at the base to form a cup. They then spread out flat. The stamens are erect. The corms can be stored for many months, which is convenient because they can be planted in spring to flower in summer in cold climates, or can remain in the ground in places where little or no frost is expected. They are good bulbs for the sunny border where their unusual form and colors can be appreciated. They are light and airy in effect, and also make good container plants. In favorable climates, they naturalize rapidly by self-sowing. Some species (for example, H. collina) tolerate temperatures down to about 20°F in the open garden, but others need frost-free winters; experiments should be made in marginal areas. CULTURE Plant corms 1 in. deep in well-drained soil, spaced only 3-4 in. apart. The small plants are effective only if massed. Give moderate moisture during their growing season and allow them to dry out after flowering. They tolerate either full sun or light shade. In warm areas, plant in fall; in colder climates, plant in spring and lift late in summer or early fall, before the first frosts arrive. Store corms dry over winter at about 40°F and replant in spring. Not all stored corms may flower the 2nd year, but some will. They also can be grown in a cool greenhouse, planted several to a small container; keep moist until well after flowering, but allow the stems and leaves to ripen before dormant storage. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift in the fall and separate the corms, storing them as you would Gladiolus. Sow seed in a sandy soil mix and grow on with monthly feedings of weak liquid fertilizer. Flowering plants can be raised from seed in 3 years. SPECIES

H. autumnalis. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers yellow, fall (April to June in the wild). H. bifida. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems to 30 in. Flowers salmon or yellow, early spring (August to September in the wild). H. bolusiae. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 6-16 in. Flowers yellow, early spring (August to September in the wild). H. brachygyne. South Africa (NW Western Cape). Stems 3-10 in. Flowers pink, winter (July to September in the wild). H. britteniae. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Stems 8-16 in. Flowers yellow to cream, spring (September to October in the wild). H. bulbillifera. South Africa (coastal Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers creamy yellow, sometimes with dark lines at base of tepals or dark yellow splashes, spring. H. cedarmontana. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 40 in. Flowers yellow, spring (August to October in the wild). H. collina. South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced 1793. Corm has dark, coarse, fibrous tunic. Stems to 18 in.

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Leaves thin and arching, often lax. Flowers numerous in long succession, about 2 in. in diameter, light salmon orange to deep yellow. Flowering in spring from fall planting, later in summer from spring-planted corms. Hardy to about 20°F. Plates 659, 660. H. comptonii. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 8-10 in. Leaves to 12 in. long. Perianth segments widely separated, lemon yellow in center, salmon pink along edges. Flowering spring to early summer (August to September in the wild). Plate 661. H. cookii. South Africa and Lesotho, widely distributed. Stems 8-12 in. Flowers yellow, spring (August to October in the wild). Plate 662. H. elegans. South Africa (SW Western Cape); endangered; introduced 1797. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers bright yellow with scattered green splashes; 3 of the tepals maybe of another color, usually pale orange. Flowering early spring (August to October in the wild). H. flaccida. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1810. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers numerous, soft orange to peach-pink, early spring (August to October in the wild). Plate 663. H.flavescens.South Africa (NW Western Cape). Stems 5-12 in. Flowers yellow, early spring (September in the wild). H. fuscomontana. South Africa (NW Western Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers light yellow, early spring (September in the wild). H. galpinii. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers yellow, fall to winter (March to August in the wild). H. longistyla. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers yellow or pink, spring (August to October in the wild). H. marlothii. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 20-30 in. Flowers yellow or salmon pink, winter to spring (July to October in the wild). H. miniata. RED TULIP. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape); introduced 1825. Stems to 24 in. Flowers yellow, salmon pink, or white, spring to early summer (August to October in the wild). H. minor. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 4-12 in. Flowers yellow or pink, spring (August to September in the wild). H. ochroleuca. South Africa (Western Cape), widely distributed. Stems to 30 in. Flowers salmon pink and yellow or golden yellow, spring to summer (June to November in the wild). Plate 664. H. odorata. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems 12-18 in. Flowers pale yellow, early spring (August to September in the wild). H. pallida. YELLOW TULIP. South Africa (mainly Karoo and Free State), Namibia, and Botswana. Stems to 24 in. Flowers light yellow, spotted crimson at base, sweetly scented. Leaves and fruit poisonous. Flowering late spring to summer (September to December in the wild). Plates 665,666. H. patens. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 10-18 in. Flowers yellow or orange, early spring (August to September in the wild). H. schlechteri. South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems to 8 in.

Flowers yellow, spring to early summer (August to October in the wild). H. spiralis. Bokkeveld Mountains of South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers salmon, early spring (August to September in the wild). H. tennis. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 3-8 in. Flowers pale yellow, early spring (August to October in the wild). H. tricolor. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers salmon with yellow center, spring (September to October in the wild). H. vallisbelli. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers yellow or pink, winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). SYNONYMS

H. albida see H. miniata. H. bicolor see H. flaccida. H. breyniana see H. collina. H. breyniana var. aurantica see H. flaccida. H. collina var. aurantiaca see H. flaccida. H. collina var. ochroleuca see H. ochroleuca. H. flexuosa see Hexaglottis longifolia. H. framesii see H. minor. H. glauca see H. pallida. H. herrei see Moraea spiralis. H. humilis see H. pallida. H. lilacina see Moraea polyanthos. H. lineata see H. miniata. H. lucasii see H. ochroleuca. H. maximiliani see Rheome maximiliani. H. metelerkampiae see H. elegans. H. mossii see H. pallida. H. papillosa see H. brachygyne. H. pillansii see H. cookii. H. pura see H. pallida. H. rhopalocarpa see H. minor. H. rogersii see Moraea crispa. H. salmonea see H. bifida. H. simulans see Moraea elsiae. H. speciosa see Moraea speciosa. H. townsendiae see H. pallida. H. umbellata see Rheome umbellata.

Homoglossum H. abbreviatum see Gladiolus abbreviatus. H. aureum see Gladiolus aureus. H. fourcadei see Gladiolus fourcadei. H. guthriei see Gladiolus overbergensis. H. hollandii see Gladiolus huttonii. H. hollandii subsp. zitzikamense see Gladiolus huttonii. H. huttonii see Gladiolus huttonii. H. merianellum see Gladiolus bonae-spei. H. merianellum subsp. aureum see Gladiolus bonae-spei. H. muirii see Gladiolus teretifolius. H. priorii see Gladiolus priorii.

Hyadnthoides H. quadrangulare see Gladiolus quadrangularis. H. revolutum see Gladiolus watsonius. H. schweinfurthii see Gladiolus schweinfurthii. H. vandermerwei see Gladiolus vandermerwei. H. watsonioides see Gladiolus watsonioides. H. watsonium see Gladiolus watsonius.

Hyadnthella—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Name a diminutive of Hyacinthus; these dwarf plants resemble the closely related hyacinths. The 17 species of this genus were formerly included in Bellevalia or Hyacinthus. All species are native to the Mediterranean region, SE Europe, and W Asia. They are found growing in rocky, stony areas among scrub where they enjoy excellent drainage. They tolerate full sun in temperate climates, but in the wild they are often shaded by rocks and shrubs. They are rarely more than 4 in. high, though elongating somewhat as the seeds ripen. The rootstock is a globose bulb with a powdery coating under its membranous tunic. The rather broad but sharply pointed leaves have raised, fibrous veins. The leaves are all basal; usually only 2 are produced, occasionally 3. All species have flowers of light or dark blue; white forms are sometimes seen. The flowers are narrowly bell-shaped, almost tubular, with the anthers held just inside the mouth. All species flower in late winter or early spring, with the dense racemes beginning near ground level. Though little known among gardeners, these are excellent subjects for the rock garden. The only species commonly offered is H. pallens (invariably listed under its synonym H. dalmatica), but others can be grown from seed obtained from specialist suppliers or rock garden societies. Their short, thick spikes of colorful flowers are very charming, and the leaves are neat and unobtrusive. Most species can be expected to survive some frost, probably down to about 20°F in the open garden, or colder in the bulb frame. CULTURE Plant bulbs in fall in very well-drained soil, in a sunny spot in the rock garden or bulb frame where they can be given a dry summer dormancy. Plant 2-3 in. deep and 2-3 in. apart. Water during fall and early spring, but leave the bulbs dry for the rest of the year. Leave them undisturbed in the ground; in containers, repot every 3rd year. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Sow seed in early fall in a sandy mix. Raise seedlings in pots for one season and transplant to larger containers after they go dormant. Flowering plants can be raised from seed in 3-4 years. The bulbs produce few offsets and are best increased from seed. SPECIES

H. acutiloba. Turkey; introduced 1981. Stems to 2 in. Flowers pale to bright blue, late winter to early spring.

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H. atchleyi. Greece. Flowers bright blue, late winter to early spring. H. atropatana. Armenia. Flowers pale blue, late winter to early spring. H. campanulata. Turkey; introduced 1981. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers pale blue, late winter to early spring. H. glabrescens. SW and SC Turkey; introduced 1981. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers deep violet blue, late winter to early spring. H. heldreichii. Turkey; introduced 1931. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers deep violet blue, sessile, late winter to early spring. H. hispida. Turkey; introduced 1931. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers deep blue, late winter to early spring. H. kucophaea. SE Poland to Balkans. Flowers pale blue, late winter to early spring. H. lineata. W Turkey, in dry regions; introduced 1887. Stems to 4 in. Leaves grayish, with raised veins. Flowers in dense racemes on 1/4-in. pedicels, 1/4 in. long, usually light blue, sometimes darker, almost purplish blue, late winter to early spring. Plate 667. H. micrantha. Turkey; introduced 1931. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers tiny, pale blue-white, sessile, late winter to early spring. H. millengenii. Cyprus. Flowers pale blue, late winter to early spring. H. nervosa. SE Turkey, Israel, Jordan, Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon; introduced 1931. Stems to 4 in. Leaves erect, 1 in. wide. Flowers pale blue, sessile, late winter to early spring. H. pallasiana. SE Russia. Flowers pale blue, late winter to early spring. H. pattens. SW Yugoslavia. Stems 3-4 in. Leaves linear-lanceolate. Flowers numerous, pale to mid blue,1/4in. long, late winter to early spring. 'Alba' is white-flowered. 'Grandiflora' is a vigorous commercial clone which produces offsets. H. persica. NW Iran. Flowers pale blue or lilac pink, late winter to early spring. H. siirtensis. E Turkey; introduced 1973. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers pale blue, late winter to early spring. SYNONYMS

H. azurea see Muscari azureum. H. dalmatica see H. pallens.

Hyadnthoides—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) BLUEBELL Name means "resembling Hyacinthus." The 3 species in this genus have had several names over the years: Scilla, Agraphis, Endymion, and now Hyadnthoides, which is the oldest name and thus has historical precedence. The common name of the most familiar species, however, is constant: English bluebell. May it be forever unchanged! The plants are a lovely sight in the English countryside in April and May. The true bulb is composed of tubular scales and has the unusual characteristic of being renewed annually. The flowers are borne in an erect raceme on pedicels of moderate length, with 2 bracts below each flower. They are bell-shaped and blue laven-

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der, though white and pink forms are common in gardens too. The leaves are narrowly strap-shaped and shiny green. These are ideal plants for open woodland, where the drifts of flowers look splendid in spring. They are often used as a border for spring-flowering shrubs such as rhododendrons and azaleas. They can be planted in full sun but should have some shade in regions where spring days can be hot—not only for the health of the plants but also because sunlight makes the flowers look paler and less attractive. Always plant them in large quantities, not a few at a time, and leave them undisturbed for years. Many plants in commerce and in old gardens are hybrids (known as H. xmassartiana) between H. hispanica and H. nonscripta, the Spanish and English bluebells. Some of these robust hybrids are fertile and spread widely by self-sowing. They usually have purple-blue flowers on tall stems; the pedicels and flowers are more drooping than those of H. hispanica, but they are not on one side of the stem, as in H. non-scripta. CULTURE Bluebells love open, deciduous woodlands with leafy, humusrich soil and light shade in spring, when they are in flower, followed by deeper shade as the trees leaf out. Plant bulbs at least 4 in. deep; in light soil, 6-8 in. deep. Set them 4-6 in. apart; they will multiply quite quickly and indeed can become almost a weed. They are tolerant of a wide range of moisture regimes, but gardeners in dry-summer areas will have greater success with H. hispanica. All species are hardy to at least 0°F. PESTS AND DISEASES

These plants are remarkably free of pest problems; however, this is one of the few bulbs that is transplanted, as it were, by gophers, rather than eaten. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate established bulbs in late summer; be prepared for some digging as they can be as deep as 6-12 in. Sow seed as soon as it is ripe, in a humusy soil mix. Place pots in shade, keep watered, and grow seedlings on until the little bulbs are big enough to plant out. To get larger bulbs more quickly, sow seed thinly in rows, about 1/2 in. deep, and grow for 2 seasons; keep them moist during the growing season and decrease watering in late summer. SPECIES

H. hispanica. SPANISH BLUEBELL. Iberian Peninsula. Stems 8-20 in. Leaves fleshy, strap-shaped, produced with flowers and elongating after flowers fade, to 24 in., about 1 in. wide. Flowers to 15 or more per stem, bell-shaped, nearly % in. long. Anthers blue. Flowering spring. Cultivars include 'Alba', white; 'Arnold Prinsen', robust pink; 'Blue Bird', early flowering dark blue; 'Blue Queen' lighter blue, later flowering; 'City of Haarlem', soft violet; 'Excelsior', violet-blue with marine-blue edge; 'Rose Queen', clear pink; 'Sky Blue', late-flowering dark blue; 'White Triumphator', robust white. Plates 668-670. H. italica. ITALIAN BLUEBELL. SW France, N Italy, Spain, and Portugal; introduced by 1605. Stems 4-12 in. Leaves usually 48, 6-8 in. long,1/4--1/2in. wide. Flowers to 20 per stem, lightly fragrant, to1/2in. in diameter, pale to deep blue, spring. Lower

flowers have longer pedicels than the upper, producing a coneshaped raceme. The least commonly grown species, with a smaller and airier inflorescence. Plate 671. H. xmassartiana. Hybrid (H. hispanica x H. non-scripta), common in gardens and naturalized in Britain, Europe, and North America. Height variable. Leaves often broader than those of either parent. Raceme not usually one-sided. Flowering spring. H. non-scripta. ENGLISH BLUEBELL. W Europe and Britain, in open woodland; long in cultivation. Stems to 18 in., bending over at the tip. Flowers fragrant, usually carried on one side of the stem, usually midblue, spring. Pink ('Rosea') and white ('Alba') forms are also grown. Plates 672-675.

Hyacinthus—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) HYACINTH Name derived from the classical Greek name for the flower, which was said to have sprung from the blood of the dead Hyakinthos, a youth accidentally slain by Apollo. This genus has been much subjected to revision. At one time there were about 30 species, but there are now only a handful. By far the most important is of those is H. orientalis, from which are derived the many hyacinth cultivars we enjoy in our gardens and homes. Most species formerly in this genus are now in either Bellevalia, Brimeura, or Hyacinthella. Bellevalia differs from Hyacinthus in that the anthers are inserted near the lobes of the tepals, while in Hyacinthus the anthers are inserted well within the tube. Brimeura has much smaller flowers than Hyacinthus, and the bracts that subtend the pedicels are long and tapering, while they are almost unnoticeable in Hyacinthus. Hyacinthella is a genus of dwarf plants with leaves which have noticeable raised veins. The South African genus Galtonia was originally described as Hyacinthus. The bulbs of Hyacinthus have papery tunics and are flattened spheres or ovate. Prolonged contact with the bulbs can cause skin irritation, generally noticed around the fingernails, so those with sensitive skin should wear gloves when handling them. All flower in early to mid spring. The flowers are bell-shaped, nearly tubular, carried in a raceme on a stout stem. The stamens are attached to the tube, except near the tip. The stigma and style are short. The leaves are thick and broadly linear. Hyacinths are much used in the florist trade because they are easy to force and grow and have a good "shelf life" while in flower. Home gardeners can force them for the holiday season or plant them in the garden to bloom in early spring. Outdoors they are good bedding plants, lasting a long time (Plates 5, 64, 65); however, the bulbs, which are relatively difficult to propagate, are rather expensive. Small groups of bulbs should be planted where the fragrance can be enjoyed, perhaps by a door or window. Bulb catalogs often list 2 or 3 different sizes of bulbs at different prices. For outdoor planting, smaller bulbs may be adequate, but the largest should be purchased for forcing indoors.

Hyacinthus CULTURE

Plant outdoor bulbs in fall—early October in regions where frost is experienced, early November in warmer areas. In very warm areas, plant in early December. Set the bulbs in sandy soil with 3-5 in. of soil over them (8 in. in warmest areas) and spaced 6-9 in. apart. Choose a well-drained, sunny spot; wellrotted compost or manure may be dug in before planting. Severe frost in late spring can damage the flowers, so protection should then be provided. To improve flowering in subsequent years, lift the bulbs after the foliage has died back. Dry the bulbs and store them in a wellventilated area, on racks or in paper sacks with holes. Subject the bulbs to temperatures of 40°F for 6-8 weeks before replanting. In gardens where they are well suited, however, hyacinths can remain in the ground and flower for many years, increasing slowly but steadily, though their flower spikes will not be as large and dense as those produced by commercially grown bulbs. Purchase "prepared" bulbs, sold with that description, for early forcing in containers. Bulbs that are not prepared can also be forced but take several weeks longer to develop their roots. To force hyacinths, see the introductory chapter on "Preparation of Bulbs for Forcing." (The commercial forcing of hyacinths is discussed in another chapter, which the home gardener is advised to read as a supplement.) Prepared bulbs are planted in September for Christmas bloom and require to 10-12 weeks for good root development. This occurs at a low temperature, supplied in the florist trade by growing rooms, or at home by plunging the pots into sand or some other medium outdoors. Bulbs grown in containers can be close together but should not touch one another or the sides of the container. After root development is complete and you can see the flower stem in the neck of the bulb, bring the pots into a warmer place with subdued light. When the flower stem has grown about 2 in., raise the temperature to around 65°F and give more light. During the entire growth period, the plants should be kept moist, but good drainage is essential. By choosing a good range of prepared bulbs—earlier- and later-flowering cultivars—you can have hyacinths in flower for a long time. After being forced, the bulbs should be discarded or planted outside in the garden, where they will flower again in 1-2 years. They should not be forced a 2nd time. Hyacinths also can be grown without soil, with the roots in water alone, in a vase designed specifically for this purpose. Some pieces of charcoal in the water are helpful but not essential; they help keep the water sweet and stop slime from forming on the glass. The water should be just below the bottom of the bulb, never touching it. Place the bulbs in a dark place at a low temperature and keep them there until the vase is filled with roots and the flower stems have emerged. Then give subdued light for a week or so, then full light and temperatures around 65°F. Add water to the vase as needed. Bulbs forced in this way are exhausted after flowering and should be discarded. PESTS AND DISEASES

Yellows (Xanthomonas hyadnthi) causes the bulbs to rot before or soon after they are planted. If you cut across an affected bulb,

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you will be able to see yellow spots on the closely packed scales; if you cut it lengthwise, you can see yellow stripes. Oozing slime from these areas causes the entire bulb to rot. Such bulbs must be discarded. Gray bulb rot, caused by the fungus Sderotium tuliparum, is common in tulips and also may attack hyacinths. For treatment, see the section on diseases in Tulipa. Soft rot (Erwinia carotovord)-, another bacterial disease, has an even quicker effect on the bulbs. Growth stops and all growing points shrivel and die. In a few days the bulbs are an evilsmelling mess. All affected bulbs must be discarded. Overwatering and the use of high-nitrogen fertilizers and manures contribute to the problem. Bulbs also are susceptible to soft rot if they are brought into too high a temperature when being forced. Although the average home gardener is unlikely to encounter the problem, it points out the need to observe exact temperature requirements when forcing the bulbs commercially. Good hygiene and careful examination of stocks throughout the growing season are essential in commercial production. A blue mold, caused by Penidllium, sometimes is seen on bulbs in storage. This is not serious unless the basal plate is attacked. Drying the bulbs in a well-ventilated area, dusting prior to planting, or spraying in the storage areas and providing good ventilation during storage will cure this mold. Bulbs that have been attacked and turn soft, or in which the basal plate is damaged, must be discarded. Aphids can be a problem but are controlled by pesticide, both in storage and in the field. PROPAGATION

The bulbs produce only a few offsets. Propagators use 2 methods of inducing offset formation. The easier way is to slice into the bottom of the bulb, making either a cross or 3 long slits; the other method, called "scooping," is to cut out a cone-shaped piece from the bottom of the bulb. The cut bulbs are placed on wire trays in conditions of controlled temperature and humidity. Numerous bulblets form at the base of the bulb scales or along the cuts. The bulbs with their bulblets attached are planted in late fall. By spring, they are growing well and producing much grassy foliage, but few flowers. In early summer, the bulbs are lifted and the bulbils removed. They are replanted in fall, then lifted and replanted repeatedly until they reach commercial size. This process takes 3-4 years. Tissue culture is now employed and is much quicker but expensive. The cost of hyacinth bulbs is always higher than that of many other spring-flowering bulbs owing to the amount of handwork involved. Seed germinates readily, but it takes about 6 years to produce flowering plants and as much as another 12-15 years to have enough stock for commercial sale. Tissue culture speeds this process. SPECIES H. litwinowii. Turkey, N Iran, and W and C Asia; introduced early 1970s. Stems to 6 in. Flowers pale blue with darker stripe on each segment, early to mid spring. Has fewer but broader leaves and narrower tepals than H. orientalis.

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Hydro some

H. orientalis. COMMON HYACINTH. E Mediterranean, from NW Syria and Lebanon to S Turkey; long in cultivation. The species from which the common hyacinth is derived, but the wild plant is quite unlike the cultivars on the market today. Stems to 12 in. Leaves 4-6, almost 1 in. wide, bright green, with distinct hooks at the tips. Flowers to 15 widely scattered on the stem, may be white, yellow, mauve, or blue lavender; extremely fragrant, almost 1 in. long; tepals open wide to an almost starry flower. Flowering early to mid spring. The selection 'Gipsy Queen' has salmon-orange flowers. Subsp. chionophilus from Turkey has broader leaves, perianth lobes the same length as tube. Roman hyacinths, sometimes called "var. albulus," are smaller-flowered; the true plant may no longer be in cultivation. Multiflora hyacinths produce several few-flowered stems from one bulb. Plate 676. H. transcaspicus. Turkmenistan and NE Iran. Flowers violet-blue, with a cylindrical perianth tube longer than the lobes. Flowering early to mid spring. Hyacinthus cultivars. 'LTnnocence', pure white flowers; and 'Marconi', deep pink flowers. Plates 677,678. SYNONYMS

H. amethystinus see Brimeura amethystina. H. azureus see Muscari azureum. H. candicans see Galtonia candicans. H. dliatus see Bellevalia ciliata. H. corymbosus see Periboea corymbosa. H. dalmaticus see Hyacinthella pallens. H. dubius see Bellevalia dubia. H. fastigiatus see Brimeura fastigiata. H. kopetdaghi see H. transcaspicus. H. lineatus see Hyacinthella lineata. H. pouzolzii see Brimeura fastigiata. H. princeps see Galtonia princeps. H. revolutus see Ledebouria revoluta. H. romanus see Bellevalia romana. H. saviczii see Bellevalia saviczii. H. spicatus see Bellevalia hyacinthoides. H. tabrizianus see H. litwinowii.

Hydrosome H. leopoldiana see Amorphophallus leopoldianus.

Hymenocallis—Amaryllidaceae SPIDER FLOWER, BASKET FLOWER, SUMMER DAFFODIL Name derived from Greek hymen ("membrane") and kalos ("beauty"), in reference to the membrane that unites the stamens and forms the cup, or corona. There are 30-40 species in the genus, all native to the tropical and subtropical Americas, from S United States to the warmer reaches of the Andes. Species formerly in the genus Ismene are now placed in Hymenocallis. The flowers of Hymenocallis closely resemble those of Pancratium, a genus of the Mediterranean region, but in Pancratium the flowers are striped with green and the outer perianth seg-

ments are shorter and wider, not twisting and curling as in Hymenocallis. Hymenocallis narcissiflora was long known as Ismene calathina, and when incorporated into Hymenocallis, it became H. calathina. The earliest name for this species, however, was found to have been Pancratium narcissiflorum, so today the name, based on historical priority, is H. narcissiflora. The popularity of these plants as greenhouse subjects since Victorian times has led to their having several English common names. In the wild, most species are found in grassy areas and among rocks. The evergreen species come from regions that receive rainfall throughout the year; the deciduous species are from regions that are drier in winter. A group of species from SE United States are aquatic, growing in lakes, streams, and seasonally inundated river margins; these can be cultivated only in habitats matching their native ones—they do not take well to containers. They are, however, tolerant of lower ambient temperatures than any other members of the genus. The bulbs are globose and rather fleshy. The leaves vary in number from a few to many; they are strap-shaped and sheathing at the base. In some species this sheathing arrangement gives the impression of a false stem, which may reach a height of 12 in. The flowers, sweetly fragrant in most species, are carried in umbels on a strong, frequently 2-edged, stem. The 6 perianth segments are fused at the base to form a long, narrow tube, usually green, sometimes paler. The perianth lobes flare outward and often twist and curl. The cup in the center of the flower is made up of a membrane that unites the lower parts of the stamens, which are usually white. The stamens are erect and spreading where not joined by the membrane. The margin of the cup formed by the membrane is variously entire, lobed, or cut, depending on the species. The style is long and projects above the other flower parts. The flowers are striking and make an unusual summer display. Though not a "must" for every garden, they will appeal to those who like to grow something different and have the facilities to maintain them. They perform well in containers, which can be moved in and out as climatic conditions require. If you have a greenhouse border, choose the larger-flowered kinds, which are mostly fragrant, and the species from higher altitudes of Peru. The latter can grow well even if temperatures drop below 35°F at night during winter. They are excellent plants for well-lighted interiors such as foyers or atriums, provided they do not suffer from cold winds or drought. They are good for indoor decoration in office buildings and hotels, but they should be planted with other types of plants for best effect, even though the evergreen species are still attractive when not in flower. As cut flowers, they are spectacular but cannot be relied on to last very long. CULTURE Hymenocallis amancaes, H. narcissiflora, and H. pedunculata, all from Peru, are the hardiest species. They can be grown outdoors in areas that are nearly frost-free, but they should be given the added warmth of a south-facing wall. The other deciduous species can be planted out in spring to flower in summer. All the evergreen species need night temperatures of at least 50°F

Hymenocallis throughout the year; warmer temperatures will not bother them; they also need moisture at all times, especially during the warmer months. Give bright filtered light, not direct sunlight. The deciduous types need a dry resting period after the foliage has died down. None should be exposed to more than brief, very light frost. Rotting will occur if too much moisture is given to the deciduous kinds during winter dormancy. Evergreens should not be grown in waterlogged soil. Plant the bulbs 2-4 in. deep; space the taller species farther apart than the short ones. They all like well-drained soil rich in organic matter, so a suitable compost is equal parts of topsoil, leafmold or peat moss, and sharp sand. These plants need at least 3 or 4 hours of sun per day during the growing season. Those that are planted in spring for summer flowering should be lifted in fall and stored barely moist in a sandy soil mix in a well-protected area, with night temperatures around 40°F. They can be planted out again when the days are warm and night temperatures remain above 40°F. If the soil is rich in organic matter, little or no feeding is required. For container plants, give weak feedings of liquid organic fertilizer every 2 weeks once active growth is taking place. Feeding should cease after flowering, but evergreen plants being grown in temperatures in the 70°F range can receive feedings until fall. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

The bulbs form small offsets which can be removed and replanted, but this natural increase is slow, taking about 3 years to produce a flowering plant. The paucity of offsets keeps the price of these lovely bulbs high. Seed is the best method of increasing stock, except in the case of hybrid cultivars. Gather seed when ripe and store it until the following spring. Sow in a sandy soil mix, barely covered, and keep warm, with night temperatures around 55°F. As soon as they are large enough to handle, the seedlings should be potted up individually and grown on. Keep evergreen species growing in warm temperatures, night minimum 65°F. Allow deciduous species to go dormant at the end of summer or in early fall. Young plants can be set outside during the summer but should not be exposed to cool winds. After 2 growing seasons, the new plants can be set in their permanent positions. SPECIES H. amancaes. Peru, in rocky places; introduced 1808. Stems to 20 in., more commonly 12-14 in. Leaves deciduous, dark green, strap-shaped, 10-12 in. long, 1-2 in. wide, forming a false stem to 9 in. high. Flowers very fragrant, to 2 in. in diameter, yellow (in all other species flowers are white or pale green), 1-8 per stem, summer. Perianth tube to 3 in. long, lobes to 2 in. long. Plate 679. H. arenicola. Bahamas; introduced before 1872. Stems 16-22 in. Flowers white, summer. H. caribaea. CARIBBEAN LILY. West Indies; introduced before 1701. Stems 18-24 in. Leaves numerous, evergreen, strap-

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shaped and narrowed at base, 12-20 in. long, 3 in. wide. Flowers 8 or more per stem, white, sessile. Perianth tube 1-2 in. long, lobes 3-4 in. long; margins of staminal cup erect and funnelshaped. Stamens longer than cup by 1/2 in. or more. Flowering early summer. H. caroliniana. SE United States, in shallow water. Stems 26-28 in. Flowers white, 5-10 per stem, summer. H. concinna. Mexico; introduced before 1732. Stems 8-12 in. Flowers white, summer. H. cordifolia. Mexico and Venezuela; introduced 1899. Stems to 17 in. Flowers white, summer. H. deflexa. Peru. Stems 2-edged. Flowers 3-4 per stem, white; staminal cup funnel-shaped, to 3 in. long, summer. H. duvalensis. United States (E Florida, SE Georgia), in moist woodlands. Stems short. Leaves narrow. Flowers 2 per stem, with narrow staminal cup, summer. H. eucharidifolia. Mexico; introduced before 1884. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, late spring. H. expansa. West Indies; introduced before 1941. Stems 1632 in. Flowers pale green, late fall. H. xfestalis. Garden hybrid (H. longipetalax H. narcissiflora). Stems to 28 in. Flowers white, winter. H. floridana. United States (E Florida), aquatic. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers white, early summer. H. fragrans. West Indies; introduced 1730. Stems to 18 in. Flowers white, summer. H. galvestonensis. United States (E Texas to W Florida), in rich woodland. Stems not 2-edged. Leaves glaucous, deciduous, withering before flowering. Flowers white, spring. H. glauca. Mexico; introduced before 1837. Stems to 14 in. Flowers white, mid summer. H. harrisiana. Mexico, on grassy slopes, often above 6000 ft.; introduced before 1840. Leaves deciduous, 3-5 per bulb, 8-12 in. long but often shorter at flowering. Flowers white, 3-4 per stem, fragrant; perianth segments narrow and curling, giving flower a spidery appearance. Perianth tube 4-5 in., lobes 2-3 in. Flowering early summer. H. latifolia. United States (Florida) and West Indies, in coastal dunes and swamps; introduced before 1768. Stems 2436 in. Flowers white, summer. H. liriosome. SE United States, usually in shallow water. Stems 12-34 in. Flowers white with yellow center, very fragrant, spring. H. littomlis. Mexico and Guatemala, and widely naturalized in the tropics; introduced before 1752. Stems to 20 in. or more. Leaves evergreen, bright green, 2 in. wide, strap-shaped and narrowed at base. Flowers 6-12 per stem, white, sessile, fragrant. Perianth tube usually 5 in. long, sometimes longer. Segments held close to staminal cup at their base; lobes 5 in. long; staminal cup 11/2 in. high; stamens 21/2 in. long. Flowers in mid summer but needs considerable heat throughout the year for good growth and flower production, with minimum night temperatures above 55°F during winter. Widely cultivated and one of the few species listed in commercial catalogs. Var. acutifolia has shorter leaves and flowers; var. dryandri has a short tube. Plate 680.

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Hypoxis

H. longipetala. Peru. Stems to 36 in. Flowers greenish white, narrow, to 4 in. long, spring to summer. H. xmacrostephana. Garden hybrid of unknown parentage; introduced before 1879. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers white. H. nardssiflora. BASKET FLOWER, PERUVIAN DAFFODIL, SPIDER LILY, WHITE SPIDER LILY. Peru, in fields and rocky places, often above 8000 ft.; introduced 1796. Stems 18-20 in. Leaves few, deciduous, 12-20 in. long, to 2 in. wide, forming a false stem 6-9 in. tall, sometimes as tall as 12 in. Flowers 2-5 per stem, white, fragrant. Perianth tube and narrow lobes both about 3 in. long, greenish; staminal cup 2 in. high and wide, with narrow green bands. Flowering summer. Can be grown outdoors where winter temperatures do not drop below 35°F. H. ovata. West Indies; introduced before 1752. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers white, fall. H. palmeri. ALLIGATOR LILY. United States (Florida), in swamps and wet flats. Stems to 10 in. Flowers yellow-green to white, solitary, sessile, summer. H. pedalis. South America; introduced before 1821. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white, summer. H. rotata. SE United States, aquatic; introduced 1790. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers white, summer. H. schizostephana. Brazil; introduced c. 1894. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, summer. H. speciosa. West Indies; introduced before 1759. Stems 12-16 in. Leaves evergreen, to 24 in. long, 6 in. wide. Flowers 5-7 per stem, white, fragrant. Perianth tube 3 in. long, lobes up to twice as long. Staminal cup funnel-shaped, 1-2 in. long; filaments to 2 in. Flowering summer. Requires tropical conditions, with temperatures above 55°F at night in winter. Listed occasionally in commercial catalogs. H. xspofforthiae. Garden hybrid (H. amancaesxH. narcissiflora). Named for the home of W. Herbert, eminent nineteenthcentury student and hybridizer of bulbous plants. Flowering summer. 'Sulfur Queen' is light yellow. H. tenuiflora. Guatemala to Ecuador. Stems to 20 in. Flowers greenish white, spring to summer. H. tubiflora. N South America; introduced 1803. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white, summer. H. virescens. Peru; introduced before 1837. Stems usually 18-20 in., sometimes to 24 in. Leaves deciduous, forming a false stem about 6 in. tall, strap-shaped or sword-shaped above, 9-18 in. long, 1-2 in. wide. Flowers fragrant, on short pedicels, 2-6 per stem. Perianth tube 2 in. long, deep green; lobes to 2 in., white with green flush on reverse. Staminal cup funnel-shaped with spreading lobes to 2 in. long, greenish white with white tips. Lobes sometimes green with white margins. Flowering mid summer. SYNONYMS

H. H. H. H. H. H.

acutifolia see H. littoralis. adnata see H. caribaea. americana see H. littoralis. amoena see H. ovata. andreana see Lepidochiton quitoensis. borskiana see H. tubiflora.

H. calathina see H. nardssiflora. H. caymanensis see H. latifolia. H. choretis see H. glauca. H. dliatus see Bellevalia dliata. H. crassifolia see H. arenicola, H. latifolia. H. deleuillii see H. expansa. H. dillennii see H. concinna. H. dubius see Bellevalia dubia. H. guianensis see H. tubiflora. H. horsmannii see H. glauca. H. humilis see H. palmeri. H. keyensis see H. latifolia. H. lacera see H. rotata. H. macleana see H. virescens. H. mexicana see H. harrisiana. H. moritziana see H. tubiflora. H. ocddentalis see H. caroliniana, H. rotata. H. pedunculata see H. virescens. H. quitoensis see Lepidochiton quitoensis. H. senegambica see H. littoralis, H. pedalis. H. spicata see Bellevalia hyadnthoides. H. tenuifolia see Lepidochiton quitoensis. H. undulata see H. tubiflora.

Hypoxis—Hypoxidaceae (Liliaceae) YELLOW STAR, YELLOW STAR GRASS, LITTLE STARS, STAR GRASS Name derived from Greek hypo ("below") and 0x75 ("sharp"), alluding to the sharp points of the inferior petals. It is a genus of many species, distributed worldwide—in the United States (Maine to North Dakota, south to Florida and Texas); in the tropics of the Americas, Asia, and Africa; and in Australia, Madagascar, and South Africa. For the most part, they grow in grassland where, unless the yellow flower is visible, they easily go undetected. A number of authorities write that it is difficult to find criteria to distinguish the various species and that the genus needs revision. For many years it was in the Amaryllidaceae but was separated primarily because the inflorescence is a raceme, rather than an umbel. Some species have been used medicinally to improve the immune system. The rootstocks are either corms of rhizomes, very fleshy and yellow when cut. The stems are often flattened. The leaves of almost all species are grasslike, often hairy. The starry flowers are yellow, white, and pink, some with an iridescent, peacockblue eye; frequently the reverse displays a different hue. The 6 perianth segments are almost equal and spread wide. The majority are summer-flowering, often late in the season. Common names usually refer to the grasslike foliage and flower color. Not many Hypoxis species are of horticultural importance. They are more for the collector of bulbs than for the average gardener. Rock gardens and dry, sunny borders are suitable locations. CULTURE Hypoxis hirsuta is widely distributed in E North America and is

Hypoxis quite hardy. Species from warmer climes are less so; however, all but the species from the tropics should survive outdoors where the ground does not freeze in winter. In colder areas the corms or rhizomes must be lifted at the end of summer, stored over winter, and replanted in spring. In warm areas they should be planted in fall and given ample moisture during winter, when they begin to grow. Plant corms or rhizomes 2-4 in. deep, spaced 6-8 in. apart for the dwarf species, a little wider for the taller-growing ones. They like bright light but a little dappled shade, as they would experience growing among tall grasses. They require moisture in winter, spring, and early summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

No known problems. PROPAGATION

Seed is freely produced. Sow it in spring in a sandy, porous mix, with temperatures around 45°-50°F at night. Broadcasting seed in the area where the plants are to grow also is successful, but because the foliage is much like grass, weeding can be a problem. SPECIES H. acuminata. South Africa, in the Highveld. Stems to 24 in. Leaves spirally arranged, rushlike, often in tussocks. Flowers 2-6 per stem, exterior tepals a little more pointed than interior, yellow, spring (August to December in the wild). H. alba. South Africa (Western Cape), in damp, marshy ground. Stems to 2 in. Leaves 1 in. long. Flowers white with purplish reverse; short perianth tube with starry lobes. Flowering late fall (May in the wild). H. angustifolia. Tropical Africa to South Africa (Eastern Cape) and Madagascar. Stems 6-10 in. Flowers yellow, winter to early summer (June to November in the wild, depending on latitude). Var. argentea from South Africa has thin, narrow leaves silky on both surfaces; it flowers from October to April in the wild. Var. buchananii is a large, shade-loving plant with longer leaves of very thin texture and longer pedicels. Var. sericea has leaves not as firm and less silky; it flowers in February in the wild. H. aquatica. South Africa (Namaqualand to Cape Peninsula to Swellendam), common in ditches, pools, and damp areas. Stems to 16 in., often branched. Leaves 4 or 5,2-3 in. taller than stem, sheathing base of stem, reedlike, light green. Flowers 4 or 5 per stem, white, green on reverse, 1 in. in diameter; pedicels sheathed by leafiike bracts. Flowering winter to spring (August to October in the wild). H. argentea. SMALL YELLOW STAR, STAR OF BETHLEHEM. South Africa (E Western Cape), in coastal grassland. Corm tunicated. Stems 8-10 in. Leaves numerous, fibrous. Flowers numerous, produced over a long period, opening only in the sun, spring (June to November in the wild). The Xhosa people use the oil from the corms to treat chafes on horses; in periods of poor harvest, the corms are dried and pounded into meal. Var. sericea is not as stout as the species and flowers in summer (February in the wild). H. canaliculata. South Africa (Cape Peninsula). Stems 6-8

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in. Leaves narrow, flattened, 8-10 in. long. Flowers solitary, bright yellow to orange with dark maroon or brown eye, tepals spread to over 1 in. in diameter. Flowering spring (August to October in the wild). Plate 681. H. capensis. STAR LILY, WHITE STAR GRASS. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1752. Leaves narrow, curving outward away from flowers. Flowers upright, starry, tricolored, white, yellow, or pink often with iridescent purple-green and deep maroon or chocolate central zones. The yellow form is very similar to H. canaliculata. Flowering late winter (July to October in the wild). Plate 682. H. colchicifolia. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal to Eastern Cape); introduced 1884. Stems to 12 in. Flowers bright yellow within, greenish yellow and hairy without, spring to summer (August to February in the wild). Plate 683. H. costata. South Africa (Northern Province). Stems 8-12 in. Flowers yellow, summer (November to December in the wild). H. curculigoides. South Africa (Western Cape). Each corm produces several stems with solitary flowers. Similar to yellow form of S. capensis in flowering time, habit, and color but lacks central eye and tepals tend to overlap at base. Plate 684. H. cuspidata. South Africa (Clanwilliam area in Western Cape). Stems to 3 in. Flowers yellow with brownish-purple reverse, winter to spring (July to October in the wild). H. decumbens. Argentina and Peru. Flowers bright yellow, 1 in. in diameter, with pointed tepals. Flowering over long period, late spring through summer. Forms a mound of grasslike foliage which spreads slowly, not invasive and not particular as to soil type. Prefers sun but does quite well in shade. Hardy to 10°F. H.filiformis. N and E South Africa, Lesotho, and Swaziland. Flowers yellow with green stripe on exterior, spring (September to November in the wild). H. flaccida. South Africa (Western Cape, W Eastern Cape). Stems to 10 in. Flowers 1-3 per stem, yellow, opening in afternoon, winter to spring (July to November in the wild). H.floccosa.South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 2-8 in. Flowering summer to fall (January to April in the wild). H. galpinii. South Africa (N area, Eastern Cape) and Swaziland. Leaves slightly hairy. Flowers bright yellow, spring to summer (October to December in the wild). H. gerrardii. South Africa (Northern Province), in grassland. Stems 4-8 in. Leaves linear, strongly veined. Flowers yellow, spring to summer (October to December in the wild). H. glabella. W Australia. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers yellow, winter to spring (July to September in the wild). H. hemerocallidea. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Province, Mpumalanga); introduced 1862. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves in 3 ranks, stiff and broad, produced before flowers. Flowers golden yellow, 5-13 per stem, 2 in. in diameter, spring to late summer (September to March in the wild). The showiest South African species, with potential for the garden. Plate 685. H. hirsuta. SAND LILY, YELLOW STAR GRASS. United States (Maine to North Dakota, south to Florida and Texas); introduced 1752. Stems 3-8 in. Leaves basal, grasslike, somewhat

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Hypoxis

hairy, to 12 in. long, 3-4 to many. Flowers almost 1 in. wide, several in a loose raceme, late spring through summer, depending on habitat; those from warmer climates flower earlier. H. hygrometrica. GOLDEN WEATHER GLASS. E Australia and Tasmania. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers bright yellow, greenish yellow on reverse, opening only in sun, summer (February to March in the wild). H. interjecta. South Africa (Gauteng). Stems to 6 in. Leaves produced after flowers. Flowers 2-4, yellow, surrounded by hairy bracts in bud, spring to summer (September to December in the wild). H. iridifolia. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga) to Victoria Falls area of Zimbabwe, in open grassland and rocky places in foothills. Rootstock rhizomatous, yellow inside. Leaves strap-shaped, basal, to 15 in. long, appearing before flowering. Stems to 12 in. Flowers 3-7 per stem, flat-faced, shiny lemon yellow with green, hairy reverse, late spring to mid summer (August to December in the wild), frequently before summer rains in Zimbabwe. Plates 686,687. H. kraussiana. South Africa (Northern Province). Leaves 10-15. Flowers yellow, outer segments very hairy, early summer (November in the wild). H. leptantha. W Australia. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers yellow, winter to spring (July to September in the wild). H. leptocarpa. SE United States. Stems to 12 in. Flowers bright yellow, early summer. H. limicola. South Africa (Northern Province). Outer leaves often prostrate, very thin. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). H. longifolia. South Africa (Algoa Bay in Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape); introduced 1871. Stems 10-18 in. Flowers golden yellow, greenish on reverse, spring (August in the wild). H. maximiliana. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape), in damp areas. Stems 10-12 in. Leaves numerous, narrow, linear, to 10 in. long. Tepals pure yellow inside, green on reverse. Flowers 3-5 per stem, open flat, with bases of tepals overlapping, spring (September to October in the wild). H. membranacea. South Africa (Western Cape, Northern Province, KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 4-6 in. Flowers cream to white, spring to early summer (October to December in the wild). H. micrantha. United States (Texas to Florida and Virginia), in pine bogs. Stems 1-6 in. Flowers 1-3 per stem, tiny, yellow, late spring to late summer. H. minuta. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 1-2 in. Leaves to 3 in. Flowers white, 1/4in. in diameter, solitary, spring (September in the wild). H. multiceps. South Africa (E Western Cape to KwaZuluNatal), in grassland. Corm covered with fibrous leaf bases. Stems 6-10 in., flattened, hairy. Leaves basal, not fully developed at flowering time, linear, hairy on both surfaces, arranged in a triangular fashion, curling backward, to 12 in. long. Flowers about 5 per stem, bright yellow, pale green and hairy on reverse, late spring to summer (October to January in the wild). The most common of many species in its habitat and region.

H. neliana. South Africa (Northern Province), in grassland. Stems to 8 in. Leaves held erect. Flowers yellow, spring (October in the wild). H. occidentalis. W Australia. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers bright yellow, light green on reverse, winter to spring (July to October in the wild). H. ovata. South Africa (Namaqualand, W Western Cape). Leaves broad. Flowers yellow or white, sometimes reddish on reverse, winter to spring (July to October in the wild). H. parvifolia. South Africa (Northern Province). Stems 2-3 in. Flowers 1 or 2 per stem, early spring (September in the wild). H. parvula. South Africa (Northern Province). Stems 3-5 in. Flowers usually solitary, yellow, summer (December to January in the wild). H. patula. South Africa (Northern Province). Leaves 4-6 in. long, narrow, with 8-10 veins. Flowers few, spring (October in the wild). H. rigidula. South Africa (N area, Eastern Cape), Swaziland, and Lesotho. Leaves narrow, pleated, to 20 in. long. Flowers bright yellow, hairy on reverse, spring (September to October in the wild). Var. pilosissimahas much longer hairs and flowers in summer (October to January in the wild). H. rooperi. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal) and Lesotho, in rocky areas. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves arching, keeled, neatly arranged in ranks of 3. Flowers yellow, to 2 in. in diameter, 10 or more per stem. Flowering early to mid summer (November to December in the wild). The showiest South African species, with good potential as a garden plant. The fibrous leaves are used as binding material by the native people. H. schlechteri. South Africa (S Northern Cape, Western Cape). Stems 1-2 in. Leaves few, narrow. Flowers 1 in. in diameter, yellow with no eye, winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). H. serrata. South Africa (Namaqualand to Worcester in Western Cape). Stems to 8 in. Leaves toothed. Flowers white or yellow, with prominent yellow anthers, winter to spring (May to October in the wild). H. setosa. South Africa (E Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Stems 3-6 in. Leaves often more than 1 in. wide, 5-8 in. long, held close to the ground. Flowers bright yellow, 2-4 per stem, summer (January to April in the wild). Springs into flower after grassland burning when the grass is still short. H. stellipilis. South Africa (SE Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape). Stems 8-12 in. Leaves hairy underneath. Flowers yellow, summer to fall (November to April in the wild). H. trifurcillata. FAIRY STARS. South Africa (Little Karoo in Western Cape to Eastern Cape), under shrubs and on forest margins. Corm small, with a brown tunic. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers 1-2 per stem, yellow with no dark eye. Lower part of scape and leaves surrounded by a brown, papery sheath. The flowers open around noon and close at sunset. Flowering fall to winter (April to June in the wild). H. villosa. WINTER GOLDEN STAR. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal), on level land near the coast. Stems 12-15 in. Leaves numerous, hairy, clasping the lower part of

Iphigenia the stem and persisting for almost a year before the plant goes into a brief dormancy in late summer/early fall. Flowers 3-5 per stem, opening in sequence, yellow, green on reverse, remaining closed during cloudy weather and thus inconspicuous. Flowering fall (March to April in the wild). SYNONYMS H. baurii see Rhodohypoxis baurii. H. biflora see H. angustifolia. H. elata see H. hemerocallidea. H. erecta see H. hirsuta. H. latifolia see H. colchidfolia. H. mexicana see H. decumbens. H. neocanaliculata see H. canaliculata. H. nitida see H. iridifolia. H. obtusa see H. iridifolia. H. oligotricha see H. colchidfolia. H. platypetala see Rhodohypoxis baurii var. platypetala. H. stellata see H. capensis.

Ipheion—Amaryllidaceae Derivation of name unknown. This is a genus of plants that have wandered among several genera. The best-known species, I. uniflorum, has been known as Brodiaea uniflora, Milla, and Triteleia. All the latter genera are North American, while Ipheion is temperate South American (Argentina, Uruguay). Ipheion has a true bulb, whereas the others have corms. There are perhaps 10 species of Ipheion, though I. uniflorum is the only one commonly grown; I. sellowianum is becoming more common in the collections of bulb fanciers. Some authorities place this genus in Alliaceae; others in Amaryllidaceae. The bulbs are white and make numerous offsets. The leaves are linear, flat, and pale green. The flowers are sweetly fragrant, but the rest of the plant smells of garlic. The flower stems, often more than one per bulb, usually carry solitary blossoms, though sometimes 2 are produced. The flowers are borne on a 1-in. pedicel enclosed by a papery bract. There is a short perianth tube, and the lobes open flat. The stamens are within the tube. Colors in the genus include white, various shades of lavender and violet, and yellow. Ipheion uniflorum is well-placed on the sunny side of a wooded area. It is rather invasive in mild-climate gardens and is good for filling in among shrubs that are not too dense and shady. Once established, the clumps can smother weeds. The blue flowers are a fine contrast among rhododendrons. They are not showy enough to warrant their use as container plants. In my garden I plant groups of 3-5 wherever I fancy, and then am delightfully surprised when they appear. CULTURE The following remarks apply to I. uniflorum; the other species are likely to require frost-free conditions, or nearly so. The commonly grown species is one of the easiest bulbs to grow where it is hardy. Where frost hardens the ground and temper-

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atures sink into the teens, the protection of a mulch is needed. The leaves emerge in fall, so the plant is not suitable for regions with long, cold winters. It likes well-drained soil, with dappled shade during the hottest part of the day. Plant bulbs in fall, 2 in. deep, spaced 3-5 in. apart. Flowering season depends on climate: winter in warm sites, and as late as spring at the cold end of its range. Lift and divide clumps only when they become overcrowded. Moisture is needed in spring and early summer; during the late summer and fall, little or no water need be given. A general fertilizer, applied in spring as soon as the leaves show, speeds growth. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

The bulbs produce large quantities of offsets which can be separated in late summer or early fall. They do not have a deep dormancy and should not be kept out of the ground very long. Seed is rarely set in cultivation; perhaps the clones grown are selfsterile. If obtained, seedlings should be grown in a cool greenhouse, protected from frost. SPECIES

I. porrifolium. Chile; introduced 1874. Stems to 6 in. Flowers white streaked violet, green on reverse, early summer. /. sellowianum. N Argentina, Uruguay, and S. Brazil. Stems to 8 in. Flowers bright yellow with purple median strips on reverse, spring. I. uniflorum. SPRING STARFLOWER. Argentina; introduced 1836. Stems to 6 in. Flowers light to deep violet, rarely white, winter to spring. Selections include 'Alberto Castillo', white; 'Froyle Mill', violet; 'Rolf Fiedler', large, intense lavender flowers; 'Violaceum', almost white flowers with deep blue midrib; 'Wisley Blue', large pale blue. Plates 688-691.

Iphigenia—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) Named after the daughter of Agamemnon in Greek myth. This is a genus of little horticultural interest, consisting of some 15 species. Iphigenia indica is widely distributed in the monsoon area of Southeast Asia. One species occurs in New Zealand, in the warmest part of the North Island. Species also occur in the tropical regions of Botswana, the NE provinces of South Africa, and Madagascar. The rootstock is a corm with a thin, dark tunic. Few leaves are produced, 6-8 in. long; the lower leaves are sheathing at the base, and the remainder spirally arranged on the stem. The inflorescence contains 3-10 flowers on strongly curved pedicels. The 6 perianth segments are not joined. The stamens have very short filaments and are inserted below the ovary; the style is short. The very small flowers are upward-facing, starry, and in most species reddish or purple. CULTURE These plants require tropical conditions of high humidity and night temperatures around 60°F. A free-draining, sandy soil with plenty of organic matter should suit them. Plant bulbs just

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Ipomoea

below the surface of the soil with the necks exposed, 4-6 in. apart, in light shade. They flower in late spring or early summer and need moisture at this time, but they should be dried off after flowering. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

To increase stock, lift and divide corms after flowering. SPECIES 7. bechuanica. NE tropical South Africa into Botswana. Lower leaves sheathing, upper sessile. Flowers pinkish, 3-10 per head, segments spreading and recurved, mostly in spring and summer. I. indica. Tropical India, China (Yunnan), Philippines, and N Australia. Stems 3-10 in. Leaves few, to 8 in. long. Flowers purplish to red, few to many per stem on pedicels 1-2 in. long, early summer.

Ipomoea—Convolvulaceae MORNING GLORY Name derived from Greek ips ("a worm"), used by Linnaeus for Convolvulus, and homoios ("resembling"). The species of this genus number between 400 and 500, the majority from tropical or subtropical regions, and some from E United States. Some have become invasive weeds in mild climates, while others are cultivated for their attractive though ephemeral flowers. Only a few species have tuberous rootstocks, and these are described here. The flowers are produced in the axils of the leaves, generally with a short tube widening into a funnel or bell shape. The flowers of the tuberous species are purple or white with a hint of purple. All are fast-growing climbers or sprawling plants, generally weak-stemmed. Ipomoea batatas, the sweet potato, has great economic importance in the tropics, especially in New Guinea and Central America. Grown in areas of moderate rainfall (30-50 in. a year) and warm night temperatures, 7. batatas produces good crops. Flowering is induced by short day length (less than 11 hours), but tuber production seems not to be related to flowering. The tubers have purple, red, or yellow skins and flesh that may be orange, yellow, or white. These are vigorous plants, and the sweet potato is well worth growing because the tubers make good eating. All species should be planted only if you have lots of room. They are good climbers for display houses because they are easy to grow, fastgrowing, and have interesting flowers. CULTURE

Where there is no danger of frost, the plants can be grown permanently outdoors, in well-drained sandy loam. Set the tubers 5 in. deep and 24-30 in. apart. In cooler climates, they should be grown under glass with a minimum night temperature of 50°F,

or planted outside after danger of frost is past. Grow in tubs filled with well-drained soil high in organic matter. Organic fertilizer is beneficial to all species during their growing season. Moisture is essential, and the higher the humidity the better, especially if tubers are being produced for food. The plants appreciate sun, and support for the plants' top growth should be provided. Prune in late winter or early spring, thinning out old, tangled growth. The tubers mature about 200 days from planting, the exact time depending on the cultivar. Tubers can weigh as much as 2 pounds, and as many as 45 can be produced by a single plant. Storing the tubers is tricky: they need up to one week at 80°F with 90-95 percent humidity. After that, the humidity can be lowered to 90 percent and the temperature to 60°F for 5 months. Tubers bruised during harvest are likely to spoil, so careful handling is essential. PESTS AND DISEASES

Plants are subject to red spiders and whitefly, especially if humidity is low. Spraying with warm water will help keep these pest in check. Storage demands care to prevent rotting; tubers should be examined frequently during storage and any blemished ones discarded. PROPAGATION

Propagation is best accomplished by seed sown in individual pots in spring. Soak the tough-coated seeds for 12 hours in warm water or nick them with a knife before planting. Temperature should be around 60°F at night. Soft or semihard stem cuttings can be taken in late summer, overwintered under glass, and planted out in spring. SPECIES 7. batatas. SWEET POTATO. Tropical South America, long in cultivation there before the European invasion—when first discovered by the Spanish, there were already several cultivars. Peter Martyr in 1514 mentions 7. batatas being cultivated in Honduras and gives the names of 9 cultivars. In 1526, Oviedo mentions that sweet potatoes had been taken to Spain. Rootstock tuberous, fleshy and succulent, purplish-skinned. Stems and leaves also purplish. Leaves heart-shaped or oval. Flowers not present in all clones; few-flowered at best. Flowers tubular, to 3 in. long, lavender to purple, darker inside, rarely white. Popular cultivars include 'Boniato', dry-fleshed, medium sweet; 'Bush Porto Rico', red-orange flesh, sweet and compact-growing; 'Jewell', deep orange with rich flavor, stores well and is the most widely grown commercial cultivar. 7. cairica. Tropical and subtropical Africa, introduced widely in other tropical areas. Rootstock tuberous. Stems prostrate or climbing. Leaves 5-lobed. Flowers few or many in inflorescence, red, purple, or white; tube purple inside. Pedicels to 1 in. long; flowers funnel-shaped, to 2 in. long. One of the hardiest species, withstanding a little frost. 7. pandurata. WILD SWEET POTATO VINE, WILD POTATO VINE, MAN OF THE EARTH. United States (Connecticut to Florida), along the coast. Rootstock tuberous. Stems prostrate or climbing to 30 ft. Leaves 6 in. long, oval, sometimes 3-lobed.

Iris

Flowers 1-5 per inflorescence, to 4 in. in diameter, funnelshaped, white with distinct purple flush at base, summer.

Iridodictyum see Iris Iris—Iridaceae FLAG, SWORD LILY Name used by Theophrastus for these plants; Iris was the Greek goddess of the rainbow, an apt name for a genus in which almost the entire color spectrum can be found. It contains more than 300 species, all native to the Northern Hemisphere, and thousands of cultivars have been hybridized in some groups. The genus gives its name to its family, Iridaceae; the many other genera in the family differ from Iris in that they do not possess a perianth tube, the perianth segments being inserted directly on the ovary or on a beaklike extension of it. It is worth mentioning that Dietes and Moraea, irids (members of Iridaceae) native to southern Africa, are commonly known as irises, but they lack a perianth tube. The family Iridaceae is divided into 3 main tribes. The first has style branches opposite the stamens and not alternately with them, as in Crocus, and is again divided into 2 divisions. In one division, the stigma is a transverse lip overtopped by style crests; to this division belongs Iris. In the other division, the stigma terminates the style branch. The division in which Iris belongs is again subdivided into plants whose inner segments are con-

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volute, and those with unrolled segments. In the latter subdivision are Iris, Hermodactylus, and Moraea. Hermodactylus differs from Iris in that its ovaries are one-celled (3-celled in Iris). In Iris, the perianth tube branches into inner and outer series of 3 segments each. The outer segments are called the "falls," and the inner ones the "standards." These segments surround the style column, which also branches into 3. Each branch bears on its underside the stigmatic lip, usually near the tip; above the lip, it splits into 2 stigmatic crests. These style branches are usually arched and concave, as if protecting the anthers that lie beneath them. In some sections of the genus, a "beard" of many fine hairs occurs on the central upper part of the falls. Most species have a contrastingly colored blotch near the base of the falls; it is called the "signal patch" and is believed to guide pollinating insects to the hidden anthers. The leaves are generally sword-shaped, except in the Reticulata irises, and almost always stiff. Dykes, in The Genus Iris (1974), states: Nature has provided us with one infallible sign, which will show us whether an iris is a native of a dry or a wet soil. This will be seen if leaves of I pseudacorus are held to the light side by side with a leaf of a pogoniris, for instance I. germanica [a tall bearded iris]. The latter will appear a uniform green but the former will show a number of minute blackish spots, which on microscopical examination prove to be due to the fact that at these points the vertical channels in the tissue of the leaves are blocked by growths of apparently the same structure as that which

Figure 9-5. Parts of an Iris flower.

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Iris

surrounds the passages. The increased thickness of the structure at these points produces the appearance of the black spots— This character... gives us a guide as to the choice of soil and position, for the presence of these minute black spots always denotes a plant that is native of marshy ground. Irises are great garden plants (Plate 31). Not demanding about soil, they have a wide range of applications in garden and greenhouse. The bulbous irises are great cut flowers and are grown for that purpose commercially. In the rock garden, the smaller kinds such as Reticulatas are at home. Bearded cultivars can be used as an iris border or mixed with other perennials (though never in competition with them) in the herbaceous border, and Siberian irises are mainstays of the cool-climate perennial garden. The evergreen Pacific Coast irises are good groundcover plants in climates where they do well. Many irises, especially the bulbous kinds and dwarf bearded irises, grow well in containers in a coldframe and can be brought indoors while in flower. The genus as a whole does not perform well in shade, but its members do look good on the sunny edge of the woodland. They are good for narrow borders at the base of a wall, enjoying the reflected heat. The genus is so huge and varied that at least a few representatives should be included in virtually any garden in the world. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION

With such a large number of species, botanists have found it useful to subdivide the genus. Brian Mathew's excellent book, The Iris (1989), remarks, "The methods of grouping vary somewhat and it is probably true to say that there are nearly as many different classifications as there are botanists who have studied the subject." The early classifications included that of William Dykes and that of G. I. Rodionenko (1962) of the Komarov Botanical Institute, St. Petersburg. Rodionenko separated the Juno irises into their own genus of that name, placed the Reticulata irises in a new genus, Iridodictyum, and elevated section Xiphium into the genus Xiphium. Many writers in the former Soviet Union and its allied nations still use Rodionenko's classification, but American, British, and other European authorities do not. Lee W. Lenz revised the California irises and, with Alva Day, published "The Chromosomes of the Spuria Irises and Evolution of the Garden Forms" in 1963. In their excellent Iris of China (1992), James W. Waddick and Zhao Yu-Tang introduce a new section, Ophioris, into which they place Iris anguifuga. All in all, Mathew's 1989 classification, based on the work of G. H. M. Lawrence (1953) and on Rodionenko (1962), with consideration of subsequent work, is of the greatest general use and is followed in the list below. In the species list that follows, the subgenus, section, or series (the highest subdivision, in each case) appears in parentheses immediately following the species name. The sections on culture and propagation also refer to the larger classes in this system. The most obvious division of the genus is into those with bulbs, and those with rhizomes or fibrous roots. There are only 3 botanical sections of truly bulbous irises. Those commonly

known as Reticulata irises, Mathew's subgenus Hermodactyloides, also differ from all other irises in their leaves, which are square or almost cylindrical in cross section, whereas those of the other sections are flat (though sometimes very narrow). They are small plants, flowering early in spring and fully dormant in summer (Plate 725). The Juno irises, subgenus Scorpiris, have a bulb with thick, fingerlike, fleshy roots which act as auxiliary storage organs, and very small standards; their leaves are set alternately in a "stacked," clasping arrangement reminiscent of corn leaves (Plate 720). Subgenus Xiphium, sometimes called Spanish irises, have bulbs with thin, fibrous roots, usually replaced annually; the Dutch iris of florists belongs to this group. All these irises are sold as dry, dormant bulbs in fall. Intermediate between bulbous and nonbulbous irises is subgenus Nepalensis, which has a combination of small rhizomes, swollen, tuberlike storage organs, and fibrous roots. The nonbulbous irises are divided first into those with beards on the falls, which make up subgenus Iris, and those without obvious beards, in subgenus Limniris. Mathew breaks each of these into a number of sections: section Iris (Dykes's Pogon iris) has species with branching stems and seeds without fleshy appendages (arils), including the familiar bearded irises of gardens; section Pseudoregelia, aril irises with unbranched stems and dark-mottled flowers in shades of bluepurple; section Regelia, nonbranching aril irises with unmottled flowers and beards on both falls and standards; section Hexapogon, similar to Regelia but with more bracts and flowers per stem; section Psammiris, small nonbranching aril irises with beards only on the falls; and section Oncocydus, aril irises with large solitary flowers, often elaborately veined and spotted, with beards on the falls. Only section Iris is well represented in gardens; the others have very specialized cultural requirements. Hybrids have been produced between certain of these sections, especially between Oncocydus and Iris (called Arilbreds) and between Oncocydus and Regelia (called Regeliocyclus or, less often, Oncogelia); these hybrids are often more adaptable in cultivation than their Oncocydus parents. Most bearded irises are sold as bare-root rhizomes in late summer. Mathew's subgenus Limniris (Dykes's Apogon irises) lack beards, though some display a minute pubescence of unicellular structures on the centerline of the falls. Its members are found over the entire range of Iris, from the Pacific coast of North America to China and Japan, across Siberia, and south to Florida, Hong Kong, and North Africa. Mathew distinguishes 2 sections, Lophiris (Dykes's Evansia irises) and Limniris (all the other beardless species). The Lophiris, still commonly known as Evansias, have longitudinal ridges or crests, often with a sawtoothed appearance, on their falls; they are sometimes called "crested irises." They have an interesting distribution with centers in SE Asia and EC United States, with one species in Oregon. Several are popular garden plants: I cristata, the common American species; I. tectorum, the Japanese roof iris; and /. confusa, a useful plant in mild climates. They have rather small rhizomes on or near the soil surface. They are normally supplied as container plants. Section Limniris is vast and has been divided by Mathew into

Iris

a number of series. Some of these contain only one or a few species: Foetidissimae, with only I. foetidissima, grown for its ornamental fruits; Syriacae, 4 desert species with spiny, bulblike, vertical rhizomes; Tripetalae, 2 species, one of which (I. setosa) is very widespread and variable; Vernae, only/, verna; Prismaticae, only I. prismatica; Unguiculares, 2 species (both quite choice); Ruthenicae, a problematic group of perhaps only one variable species; Ensatae, one species (I. lactea, not I. ensata!}; and Longipetalae, I. missouriensis, and the possibly synonymous I. longipetala. Descriptions of the larger series follow. Spuria irises (series Spuriae) are distinguished by their capsules, which have 2 ribs at each of the 3 corners, and seeds with a loose, shiny coat. They are limited to the Old World. The species range from about 10 in. to 5 ft. in height. Most have stiff, erect, sword-shaped leaves. They display quite a range of flower colors and have been hybridized to some extent to produce attractive blends of brown, orange, yellow, and blue. The most familiar garden plant in the group is I. orientalis, better known by its synonym I. ochroleuca. Most are unfussy garden plants, supplied as bare-root rhizomes in late summer. Louisiana irises is the name given by fanciers to the swamp irises of SE United States (series Hexagonae; Plates 721-724). These big, rapidly spreading plants have leaflike (rather than papery) spathes and big, corky seeds that are distributed by floating. They have a remarkable color range, including the nearest approach to true red in the genus. In gardens where their needs for abundant moisture, summer heat, and plenty of space can be accommodated, they can make spectacular plantings. They are sold as rhizomes packed in a damp medium, or as container plants. Mathew's series Laevigatae includes /. pseudacorus from Europe, I. ensata (Japanese iris) and I. laevigata from E Asia, and I. versicolor and I. virginica from E United States. They are sometimes collectively called water irises because of their preference for ditches, marshes, wet meadows, and riparian zones. They can be grown in borders if kept steadily moist. They are usually supplied in containers but maybe shipped bare-root in a damp medium. The Siberian irises (series Sibiricae) also like damp conditions, but not as wet as the 2 preceding groups. The series contains about 10 species from cold and temperate regions of Asia. They have 3-cornered capsules (sometimes nearly round) with D-shaped to nearly cubical seeds. The leaves are deciduous and narrow. Those grown in gardens are mostly hybrids; they are essential in colder climates for their hardiness, adaptability, and resistance to the slugs and diseases that destroy so many of their showy relatives. Growers ship them as bare-root divisions (called "fans") in late summer or fall. Pacific Coast irises (series Californicae) come from the far W United States, mostly in Oregon and California. They resemble Siberian irises but prefer drier conditions and are less cold-hardy. Most are evergreen. Here too the hybridizers have been busy, creating a wide range of large-flowered cultivars. These irises seem not to be well adapted to climates with wet summers. They are exacting in regard to division and are often sold in containers.

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HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF HYBRIDS

Iris societies exist in many countries and sponsor journals, shows, meetings, registries, and awards. In the United States there are specific groups dedicated to Pacific Coast, Japanese, Siberian, Spuria, and Louisiana iris breeding. Because the categories set up by these societies are used in catalog descriptions, it is useful to review them here. Arilbred is a term for hybrids between plants of section Iris (bearded iris) and others of sections Oncocydusor Regelia. The bearded iris contributes ease of cultivation, and the others add interesting color patterns. Regeliocyclus hybrids are crosses involving the sections Regelia and Oncocydus. They are not too difficult to grow, given perfect drainage, and have flowers in interesting blends of violet, blue, and brown. They are found primarily in the catalogs of specialist bulb suppliers. Selections likely to be offered include 'Ancilla', 'Dardanus', and 'Vera'. Cal-Sibes result from crossing Pacific Coast irises with compatible Siberian irises. They tend to be hardier and more adaptable than Pacific Coast irises. Pacific Coast hybrids (or PCIs) are hybrids between species in series Californicae. Their hardiness and adaptability vary. Some of the best stem from the cross I. douglasiana x I. innominata. Dutch irises primarily involve I. xiphium var. praecox and I. tingitana. They are grown in great quantities as cut flowers and are good garden plants in mild climates (Plates 76, 718, 719). They can also be grown in cold climates if planted in spring for summer bloom, but bulbs grown this way are usually good for only one flowering. Bearded irises, in the horticultural sense, are those in section Iris, sometimes called German irises or simply flags (Plates 10, 713-717). Hybridizing has been active since the nineteenth century, and the number of cultivars registered each year is staggering: in 1995, for example, the registrar of the American Iris Society processed more than 1100 cultivars from all over the world. In 1920 the British Iris Society and Royal Horticultural Society devised a horticultural classification which formed the basis (with modifications necessitated by innovations in form and color) for the present-day system. An interlocking system involving both height of flowering stem and size of flower is used. The groups are as follows: Miniature Dwarf Bearded (MDB). Plant height to 8 in.; flowers 2-3 in. wide, early to mid spring. Standard Dwarf Bearded (SDB). Plant height 8-16 in.; flowers 2-4 in. wide, mid to late spring. Intermediate Bearded (IB). Plant height 16-27 in.; flowers 3.5-5 in. wide, late spring to early summer. Miniature Tall Bearded (MTB). Plant height 16-27 in.; flowers 6 in. wide and tall, early summer. Border Bearded (BB). Plant height 16-27 in.; flowers 4-5 in. wide, early summer. Tall Bearded (TB). Plant height over 27 in.; flowers over 6 in. wide, early summer. The seasonal order of flowering follows this list, the Miniature Dwarf Bearded being the first and the Tall Bearded the last, but

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there is some overlap between the Miniature Tall Bearded and Border Bearded and between the Border Bearded and Tall Bearded. Other terms used in catalog descriptions of bearded irises refer to the color of the flowers. Plicata indicates a marking pattern in which the margins are a contrasting color and the falls and standards often dotted or feathered with the darker color. Variegata refers to an iris with yellow standards and dark, usually reddish brown falls. Blend is a combination of blue and yellow. Amoena irises have colored falls and white standards, while a reverse amoena has colored standards and white falls. Bicolor irises have falls and standards of different colors, while bitone irises have standards and falls of 2 values of the same color, for example, light and dark blue. Blue bitones are sometimes called neglectas. Bearded irises come in a great array of colors, often highlighted by contrasting beards. Those described as "red" are not true red, but mostly maroon; however, a few pinks approach "pure" pink. Bud count (the number of flowers per stem) and branch count are important because the number of flowers open at one time creates the border display. Some bearded iris cultivars have been selected for their habit of reblooming in fall (called "remontant"). This rebloom is not entirely reliable in all climates, but it can be boosted by giving a little extra fertilizer and water during summer. CULTURE One thing that is common to most irises is the preference for full sun, though there are a few woodland species, noted in the list that follows. The following recommendations are organized according to the various groups. Most bearded iris cultivars are very cold-hardy, to at least -20°F, lower with deep snow cover. They do not perform well in tropical or subtropical regions. Plant rhizomes in late summer, no later than early September to ensure flower production the following year. Prepare ground well with a little organic matter and some lime if the soil is acidic. Set rhizomes at least 12 in. apart (8 in. for dwarf cultivars), with their roots firmed in and the top of the rhizome exposed to the sun. The site must be well drained with good air circulation, and no other plants must encroach on the irises; they need an area of bare ground around them. Be sure the rhizomes do not get covered with mulch or debris. If the soil is rich in organic matter, fertilizer is not needed, especially in the first season of growth. In poorer soil, feed with a balanced fertilizer in early spring. Divide and replant them every 3rd year, discarding the withered old rhizomes in the center of the clump. Do not cut the leaves short after flowering; rather, allow them to complete their natural growth cycle before tidying up the plants. Plant Dutch iris bulbs in fall in mild climates, or in spring where winter temperatures often go below 10°F. Set them 3 in. deep and 4 in. apart; a little deeper if the soil is sandy. They prefer a rich but well-drained soil. Successive plantings can be made to produce a continuous supply of cut flowers. They do best if lifted and stored dry for 6-8 weeks after the stems wither. They can also be grown massed in large containers, but must

have very bright light to prevent them from getting floppy. They prefer a dry summer dormancy. The other commonly grown Xiphium iris is I. latifolia, curiously known as English iris (it comes from Spain); it has similar requirements and is even hardier than Dutch iris. Set Reticulata iris bulbs 2-3 in. deep, 2-3 in. apart, in very well-drained, gritty soil in a site where they can dry out in summer. They are most suitable for rock gardens. Those usually grown in gardens tolerate winter temperatures down to about 10°F, or colder with snow cover. Oncocyclus and Regelia irises are suitable for cultivation in the open garden only in arid to semiarid climates; they do well, for example, in the U.S. Southwest. Some are not very coldhardy, though others come from cold steppe or alpine habitats. Specialist growers keep them in bulb frames or cold greenhouses, or they lift them each year after flowering, store them in dry sand, and replant them in late fall. Louisiana irises are best suited to hot, humid climates. They require rich soil that is quite moist at all times, but they do not necessarily want to be submerged. The rhizomes should never be allowed to dry out during transplanting. Give them plenty of room, because they travel horizontally at a rapid pace. The water irises do not need aquatic conditions, but the rich soil they prefer must never dry out. They have rapidly running rhizomes like the other damp-loving species. In aquatic situations, Japanese irises can be planted directly in the bottom of natural shallow pools, or in large containers sunk just a few inches below the water surface. They also grow well in constantly moist soil near water features. Iris pseudacorus is a large, vigorously expanding plant best suited to the shallow parts and banks of natural ponds. It should not be planted in free-flowing watercourses in areas where it is not native, since it may become invasive and choke out native plants. Both these groups tolerate ambient temperatures to about -20°F, especially where they are growing below the water surface. Siberian irises are mostly quite cold-tolerant, though their pedigrees may include species of varying hardiness. Many withstand temperatures to -40°F. They are very adaptable and prefer a slightly acid loam. Set the divisions (fans) with the green base of the leaves level with the soil surface and the roots well spread. Mulch to hold soil moisture, which should be steady through the summer. Feed annually in spring with a balanced fertilizer. Divide plants after flowering or in fall when they become crowded and flower production decreases. Spuria iris hybrids and the more commonly grown kinds are hardy to about -30°F. They need well-drained soil of average fertility and tolerate summer drying. Most are quite tall and slender in profile and should be placed toward the back of the border; they are uninteresting except in their brief flowering period. The rhizomes run horizontally and do not need dividing very often, but if desired, this can be done in late summer. The crested or Evansia irises vary in hardiness as noted in the species list. Many are woodland plants, but they need some sun to flower well. Give them well-drained soil with plenty of humus. All except I. tennis require summer water. They can be divided after flowering.

Iris Pacific Coast irises require excellent drainage and rather dry summers. Most grow naturally in acidic soils. Some tolerate shade, but they flower better in sun. Most species and hybrids are dependable to about 10°F, colder with snow cover. They resent transplanting when mature, so they are best established as young container-grown specimens. Clones are divided and transplanted immediately in late fall, after root growth has commenced in response to fall rains. Pseudoregelia irises grow mostly in areas that are snow-covered and therefore dry in winter, often at very high elevations. In regions with open winters, they are safest in a bulb frame. They require plenty of moisture in spring through early summer, then dryness throughout their long dormant period. Juno irises are treated like dryland bulbs, given the perfect drainage of the raised bed or rock garden. They should be planted with the neck of the bulb just at the soil surface. Take great care not to break or detach the fingerlike roots; though the plant can grow on without them, it will not be as strong for several years. Iris bucharica, I. magnifiea, and I. vicaria do fairly well in the open garden in climates with moderately cold winters, as long as they are not too wet. The other species are grown mostly in bulb frames outside arid regions. Give them biweekly feedings of a balanced liquid fertilizer during their growth period in spring. PESTS AND DISEASES

Aphids are often found on iris foliage and should be controlled with insecticides; they spread virus diseases, which can be disastrous, particularly in commercial operations. The iris borer, the larva of a moth, is a serious pest of rhizomatous irises in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. It lives in the rhizome and devours it from within. Growers combat it through clean cultivation, digging affected rhizomes and manually removing the borers, or applying systemic insecticides. Damaged rhizomes should be treated with a fungicide to prevent opportunistic infection. The other pest problem suffered by irises is slugs and snails, which dine primarily on the flower stems and flowers of bearded irises and must be controlled with during the flowering season; they usually do not eat the foliage. Virus disease, known as "mosaic" or "stripe," causes mottling of the leaves in Dutch iris. Virus disorders are rare in rhizomatous irises but can occur. Removing affected plants is essential, as is control of aphids, which spread the viruses from plant to plant. On bulbous irises, a blue or green mold or bulb rot, Penicillium, is mainly a storage problem. It attacks bulbs stored in damp and poorly ventilated areas, often beneath the tunic; the bulbs become soft and the basal plate often rots away. Affected bulbs must be discarded. Improved storage conditions and dusting with fungicide are appropriate controls. Ink spot or bulb scab, a disease of Reticulata irises caused by the fungus Drecholes iridis, manifests itself in blackish stains on the outer tunic and sunken areas on the bulbs tissue below; it eventually eats into the bulb and causes it to rot away. Good hygiene, good ventilation, and dry storage help to prevent the problem, but it is so widespread in commercial stocks that it is

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often difficult to obtain healthy bulbs for the garden. Obviously affected bulbs should be discarded, and others dusted or soaked in a fungicide. On rhizomatous irises, bacterial soft rot (Erwinia carotovora) can be a problem. The symptom is leaves yellowing at the tips as the rot attacks the rhizome and leaf bases. Eventually the rhizome is reduced to a wet, evil-smelling pulp. Removal of affected portions with a knife and dusting with fungicide are effective controls. Rhizomes planted too deeply or in excessively wet situations often are attacked. Another rhizome rot is caused by Botrytis convoluta, which often follows after rhizomes have been bruised in handling and in careless harvesting. Damaged portions should be cut out with a knife, and the use of a fungicide is recommended. Leaf spot on bearded iris is evident on the leaves as dark brown spots surrounded by yellow margins. They enlarge rapidly and turn gray with age. This often appears after flowering and, though a problem in damp locations, it is not too serious. A spray fungicide should be applied as soon as signs are seen; if noticed prior to flowering, immediate control is a must. Rust appears on the leaves as yellowish-brown pustules. Control it by spraying with an approved product. If the attack is not severe, removal of the affected leaves often suffices, especially in the home garden. Commercial growers and iris hobbyists use regular spray programs (and sometimes soil sterilization) as preventive measures for these and other diseases. The downside of this is that newer bearded iris cultivars may not be well adapted to the less chemical-intensive conditions of the average home garden, where many quickly succumb to disease. Most of these diseases are a serious problem only on bearded irises; Siberian and other rhizomatous groups are much tougher. PROPAGATION

Lift bulbous irises after the foliage withers and separate the offsets to grow on. Reticulata irises in gardens tend to split up into numerous offsets, and these can be difficult to bring back to flowering size in unsuitable climates; deep planting is sometimes recommended to prevent this behavior. Rhizomatous irises are propagated by lifting and dividing them in mid summer after flowering, every 3-4 years in the garden and more frequently for commercial production. Use a fork to lift the entire clump, with its roots. Remove the younger divisions from the outside of the clump, being sure that each division has a growing point; on bearded iris, this may be apparent just as the tips of the next year's leaves. Cut the leaves back to 4-6 in. long and trim roots longer than about 5 in.; clean off any dead foliage. If replanting is to be done within 2 or 3 days, the divisions can be stored in a cool area. If they are to be left unplanted longer, heeling them into damp sand is advisable. Replant these divisions in freshly prepared soil and discard the old woody or hollow rhizomes, which will not produce healthy growth. Commercial growers divide plants into as many pieces as possible, but in gardens it is better to keep the divisions larger to get good-looking plants the next year. Production of young plants from seed is not difficult in most

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sections. Some species reach flowering size quickly. The dryland species, however, may not even germinate for 3 years or more; washing them in many changes of water before sowing may speed germination. The seed is easily harvested from the conspicuous pods, which can even be cut while still green and then allowed to ripen in a warm, dry room. Sow seeds thinly in a sandy soil mix and cover about 1/2 in. deep. Plant seed in early fall and keep cool and moist but not frozen through winter, plunged outdoors or in a coldframe. Generally, when growth is noticed on mature plants, the seeds also germinate. Some seeds may germinate the same year as sown, while others from the same plant take several years. The seeds can remain sound for long periods. After germination, protect the seedlings from frost. For commercial seedbeds in open ground, work in some sand in the top inch or so. Sow seeds thinly so they can remain in place for 2 seasons. Protect against frost heaving, which can damage the tender roots. Water as long as the leaves are green. Bulbous species raised from seed should be lifted as soon as the leaves have died down and stored in sand. They can be sown in September in rows for growing on and harvested when of flowering size. Transplant seedlings of rhizomatous irises when they have 3 or 4 leaves and are about 3 in. tall. All of them, even Pacific Coast irises, transplant easily at this stage and can be grown on in individual pots or nursery rows. SPECIES 7. acutiloba (Oncocydus). Transcaucasia; introduced 1831. Stems to 8 in. Falls and standards creamy white with brown veining, early summer. Subsp. lineolata, from Transcaucasia, NW and NE Iran, and Turkmenistan, is white to straw yellow, veined, dotted, or lined brownish. Forms without markings are also known. I. afghanica (Regelia). NE Afghanistan, on mountain slopes; described 1972. Stems 7-12 in. Falls cream yellow, veined purple-brown with purple signal patch; beard of long, dark hairs; standards pale yellow with greenish beard; late spring. I. aitchisonii (Scorpiris/Juno). Pakistan and Afghanistan, in grassy places damp in spring, dry in summer; introduced 1898. Stems to 24 in. Leaves 12-18 in. long at flowering. Flowers 1-4 per stem, tube 1-11/2 in. long, falls 1/2 in. wide, deep yellow or violet with yellow haft (central ridge); standards small, reflexed, colored similarly to falls. Flowering spring. I. alberti (Iris). Turkestan, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan; introduced 1877. Stems to 20 in., purplish at base. Flowers pale lavender-purple or yellowish, late spring. Var. erythrocarpa, vigorous form from Uzbekistan, flowers later than type. Var. chrysantha is yellow-flowered. I. albicans (Iris). Yemen and Saudi Arabia; introduced 1858. Stems to 18 in. Flowers white, beard white tipped yellow, late spring. Widespread in Islamic countries, where it is planted in cemeteries. Var. madonna from Yemen, pale blue-violet. I. albomarginata (Scorpiris/Juno). Tian Mountains of Kyrgyzstan; introduced 1889. Stems 2-15 in. Flowers 2-5 per stem, blue with yellow patch around white crest, mid spring.

7. alexeenkoi (Iris). SE Transcaucasia. Similar to I. pumila. Stems 8-12 in. Flowers solitary, dark violet. I. anguifuga (unclassified). China (Anhui, Hubei, Guangxi); introduced in 1990s. Stems 12-20 in. Flowers violet; falls marked with brown lines and dots, standards with bluish brown lines. Flowering early spring. Of unknown wild origin but long cultivated as a medicinal herb and snake repellent. Plant is completely dormant in summer; nothing remaining above ground, new growth appears in late summer or early fall. I. antilibanotica (Oncocydus). Middle East; introduced 1936. Stems to 24 in. Falls deep plum with black patch; standards reddish violet; beard yellow; late spring. 7. aphylla (Iris). C and E Europe to Caucasus; introduced 1753. Stems to 12 in. Flowers dark lilac; beard white tipped blue, base yellow; early summer. Var. coerulea, light blue; var. hungarica, taller than type, well branched; var. virescens, grayish flowers. 7. aschersonii (Syriacae). S Turkey. Very similar to I. masia. I. assadiana (Oncocydus). Syria. Stems to 6 in. Flowers dark maroon, mid spring. 7. astrachanica (Iris). Ural Mountains to Volga River. Name applied by Rodionenko to dwarf bearded irises in this area, possibly hybrids between 7. pumila and 7. scariosa. I. atrofusca (Oncocydus). Israel (east of Dead Sea); introduced 1893. Stems 12-15 in. Falls dark purple-brown; standards paler, wine red; beard yellow tipped brown. Yellow forms are frequent. Flowering late spring. 7. atropatana (Scorpiris/Juno). Transcaucasia; described 1936. Very similar to 7. caucasica. Stems to 10 in. Flowers yellow. 7. atropurpurea (Oncocydus). Israel, in coastal sand belt; introduced 1889. Stems to 8 in. Leaves glaucous, to 6 in. long. Flowers solitary, purplish black, falls 2 in. long,11/2 in. wide, with distinct yellow spot; beard yellowish, tipped with black; standards erect. Flowering late spring. Var. eggeri has brownish-purple flowers. 7. attica (Iris). Greece to Caucasus; introduced 1859. Sometimes considered a synonym or variety of 7. pumila. Stems to 4 in. Falls yellow with brownish or purplish blade, or bluish purple; beard yellow; mid spring. Plates 16,692. 7. aucheri (Scorpiris/Juno). SE Turkey, W Iran, N Syria, and N Iraq, in rocky places; introduced 1890. Stems 10-20 in. Leaves light green, to 10 in. long. Flowers sweetly fragrant; standards pale blue or bluish white; falls with darker, radiating, purple lines and small yellow beard. Flowering early spring. 7. aurantiaca (Oncocydus). Syria. Stems to 24 in. Falls and standards orange-yellow spotted brown; signal patch maroon or reddish; beard yellow with purple tips; late spring. Var. unicolor lacks spots and signal patch. 7. xautosyndetica. Garden hybrids between 7. hoogiana and a tetraploid bearded iris. Falls violet; standards lilac, tinged brown. 7. babadagica (Iris). E Caucasus. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers light violet to purple violet; falls veined violet-brown at throat; beard whitish, tinged violet. 7. bakeriana (Hermodactyloides/Reticulata). Turkey and Iran; introduced 1887. Stems to 6 in. Leaves 2, to 6-8 in. long, nearly cylindrical with 8 longitudinal ribs. Flowers solitary, light blue,

Iris

with deep-purple blotch on falls; commercial stock may have yellow crest. Flowering late winter. I. baldschuanica (Scorpiris/Juno). NE Afghanistan and S Tadjikistan. Similar to I. rosenbachiana. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers dull lilac to dark purple; falls with orange border. A yellow form veined light purple is reported. Flowering early spring. /. barnumae (Oncocydus). SE Turkey, NW Iran, and NE Iraq; introduced 1888. Stems to 12 in. Flowers purple-violet with darker veining; signal patch small, darker purple; standards lighter than falls; beard yellow, tipped purple; late spring. Forma protonyma from W Iran has smaller flowers; falls brownish purple; standards purple-violet. Forma urmiensis from NW Iran and SE Turkey has lemon-yellow flowers without dots or veining; beard yellowish orange; signal patch dark yellow; standards paler than falls; late spring. Subsp. demavendka from Elburz Mountains of N Iran has blue-violet flowers and narrow whitish beard, stems to 15 in. I. xbarthii. Hybrid (I. pumila and I. aphylla). I. xbarthiiformis. Hybrid (I.pumilaxl. aphylla). I. belouinii (Iris). Morocco between Fez and Meknes, reputedly similar to I. germanica but leaves absent in winter. Probably a synonym ofI, germanica (Mathew 1989). I. biliottii (Iris). Black Sea coast near Trabzon. Flowers purple, falls slightly redder, haft of falls white, veined brown-purple. Probably a synonym of I germanica (Mathew 1989). I. xbinata. Hybrid (I. aphylla x I. pumila). I. bismarckiana (Oncocydus}. N Israel; introduced 1890. Stems 12-15 in. Falls ash gray with darker veins and signal patch; standards sky blue veined with black. Flowering late spring. I. bloudowii (Psammiris). S Siberia, Turkestan, and N China; introduced 1830. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers light yellow, mid spring. I. boissieri (Xiphium). N Portugal; introduced 1876. Stems to 12 in. Falls blue-purple with red-purple veins; upper part of standards purple, lower part reddish; beard yellowish; early summer. I. bolleana (Scorpiris/Juno). Taurus Mountains of S Turkey. Allied to I. persica. Flowers pale yellow with purple signal patch. I. xborzae. Hybrid (I. variegata x I. albicans). I. bostrensis (Oncocydus). S Syria. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers yellow-green or light brown with dark brownish-purple veins and spots; beard yellow with purple tips; signal patch deep maroon; crests pale yellow. Flowering mid spring. I. bracteata (Californicae). United States (S Oregon), in open pine woodland; introduced 1888. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers bright yellow; falls with brown-purple veins; late spring. I. brevicaulis (Hexagonae). United States (Louisiana, Texas, Mississippi); introduced 1902. Stems to 36 in. Flowers rich lavender; falls white at base with yellow median band, haft veined pale green; early summer. Var. boonensis is white-flowered. The following selections were formerly identified as species. 'Brevipes' has pinkish-lavender falls with lilac veining, standards light violet to light blue-violet. 'Flexicaulis' has zigzag stem, dark violet falls, violet standards, both narrow. 'Mississippiensis' has semicircular falls, lavender to lavender-violet with olive-brown veins; standards lavender to lavender-violet with white base.

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I. bucharica (Scorpiris/Juno). C Asia, on stony and grassy slopes; introduced 1902. Stems to 18 in. Leaves shiny green, 8-12 in. long, to 2 in. wide. Flowers to 7 per stem, slightly fragrant; falls golden yellow or creamy white, with large, apical, golden blotch, to 1 in. wide; standards white or light yellow. Flowering early spring. A robust plant, good for the rock garden. Plate 693. I. bulleyana (Sibiricae). W China; introduced 1910. Stems 15-18 in. Falls cream with bright purple veins and blotches; standards lilac; early summer. Forma alba is a white form from China (Yunnan). I. bungei (Limniris/Ruthenicae). Mongolia, China (Shanxi, Gansu, Ningxia), and Nei Monggol (formerly Inner Mongolia). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers violet, late spring. I. cabulica (Scorpiris/Juno). Afghanistan. Stems to 4 in. Standards pale lilac, striped with yellow and violet; falls marked with black; early spring. I. camillae (Oncocydus). E Transcaucasia and Azerbaijan. Stems 12-15 in. Flowers violet-blue or bright yellow; beard yellow; spring. Forma caerulea has pale blue flowers; forma lutea, pale yellow. Forma pallida has white standards, falls densely veined with brown, dark violet signal patch. Forma speciosissima has bluish standards, bronze falls with dark veins, yellow beard, and blackish signal patch. Forma spectabilis has white standards, cream falls with chocolate brown veins, large blackish-brown signal patch. Forma sulphurea has blue standards, golden yellow falls with reddish-purple signal patch. I. carterorum (Scorpiris/Juno). E Afghanistan. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers yellowish with black spots on falls, mid spring. I. cathayensis (Limniris). China (Anhui, liangsu, Hubei). Stems 12-18 in. Flowers violet, mid spring. I. caucasica (Scorpiris/Juno). Turkey and Iran, in scree; introduced 1806. Stems to 6 in. Leaves 5-7, well-developed at flowering, grayish green, 4-6 in. long; forms from NE Turkey have fine long hairs on leaf margins. Forms from NE Turkey and S Iran have pale yellow flowers with deeper yellow ridge on falls; forms from N Iran have greenish-yellow flowers with deeper yellow crest and dark blotch on fall. Var. multiflora produces 10 or more flowers per stem. Forma caerulescens from Azerbaijan has pale violet-blue flowers. Subsp. turcicus is less compact than the type. I. xcavarnae. Hybrid (I. variegata x I. pallida). I. cedretii(Oncocydus). Lebanon. Stems 12-16in. Standards white, thickly veined and spotted maroon; falls with dark maroon signal patch; spring. I. chrysographes (Sibiricae). W China (Sichuan, Yunnan), Myanmar, and Tibet; introduced 1911. Stems 15-18 in. Falls deep violet with golden veins; standards deep violet; early summer. Var. rubella ('Rubellum') is a red-violet form from SW China. I. chrysophylla (Californicae). United States (S Oregon); introduced 1897. Stems to 9 in. Leaves turn golden in late summer. Flowers pale yellow to near white or faintly blue, usually with darker veins. /. clarkei (Sibiricae). Himalayas of India (Sikkim) and Bhutan; introduced 1892. Stems to 24 in. Falls blue-purple marked

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Iris

with white and yellow; standards reddish purple; summer. I. collettii (Nepalensis). N Myanmar, Thailand, and China (Yunnan); introduced 1903. Stems to 2 in. Flowers lavender, late spring. I. confusa (Lophiris). W China. Stems to 36 in. Flowers mauve with yellow flush and orange spots on crest, mid spring. I. cristata (Lophiris). Appalachian and Ozark mountains of E United States, in open woodland; introduced 1756. Stems to 8 in., often less. Flowers pale to deep lilac, rarely white; throat and crest deep yellow; late spring. I. crocea (Spuriae). Kashmir; introduced 1847. Stems 38-48 in. Flowers golden yellow with frilled edges, early summer. I. curvifolia (Psammiris). China (Xinjiang); described 1982. Similar to I. bloudowii. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers yellow veined brown; yellow beard on midrib of falls; late spring. I. cydoglossa (Scorpiris/Juno). Afghanistan, in riparian areas; introduced 1958. Stems to 12 in. in the wild, to 36 in. in cultivation. Leaves usually 6, narrow, to 12 in. long. Flowers to 8 per stem, with narrow falls, 6 in. in diameter, clove-scented, lilac. Flowering late spring to early summer. The only Juno that requires some moisture in summer. Plate 694. I. cypriana (Iris). Cyprus. Flowers very large. Probably a synonym of I. germanica (Mathew 1989). I. damascena (Oncocyclus). Syria. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers white, densely veined and spotted purple on standards, purplebrown on falls; signal patch small, dark purple; early to mid spring. I. danfordiae (Hermodactyloides/Reticulata). E Turkey; introduced 1889. Stems to 4 in. Leaves short at flowering time, later to 12 in. long. Flowers solitary, compact, rounded, bright yellow, slightly fragrant; standards much reduced; haft of falls dotted with bright yellowish green or orange. Flowering late winter. Notorious for "splitting" into many tiny, nonflowering bulblets; commercial stock is a sterile triploid, probably selected for this form of increase, and does better with deep planting. I. darwasica (Regelia). Turkestan, Uzbekistan, and NE Afghanistan; introduced 1884. Stems to 12 in. Flowers greenish with claret-purple veins; beard blue; mid spring. I. decora (Nepalensis). WC Himalayas to China (Yunnan); introduced 1828. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers pale lilac, flushed yellow on haft, mid summer. I. delavayi (Sibiricae). China (Yunnan); introduced 1895. Stems 36-48 in. Flowers violet, white streaks on falls, early summer. I. doabensis (Scorpiris/Juno). Afghanistan; introduced 1972. Stems to 4 in. Flowers bright yellow; crest deep yellow with greenish lines. I. dolichosiphon (unclassified). Bhutan, China, and SE Tibet; introduced 1984. Flowers uniform deep violet at maturity, early summer. I. douglasiana(Californicae). CALIFORNIA IRIS. United States (Santa Barbara in California to Oregon), along Pacific coast; introduced 1873. Stems often branching, to 24 in., often less. Leaves tufted, dark, evergreen, to 8 in. long, rigid, thick, strongly ridged. Flowers 3-4 per stem, usually light blue lavender but may be white, cream, yellow, or light blue to dark purple. Falls

have a slight ridge in the middle and 4 parallel darker lines. Tolerates more summer moisture than many Pacific Coast irises. Flowering late spring. Important in hybridizing. I. drepanophylla (Scorpiris/Juno). SC Asia, NE Iran, and Afghanistan; introduced 1887. Stems 4-15 in. Falls yellow-green with yellow crest, margins turned down; standards hairlike; early spring. Subsp. chlorotica has silvery green falls with pale yellow crest. I. dykesii (Sibiricae). Origin uncertain, possibly a hybrid. Flowers deep violet with golden midvein on lower half of falls. The plant originally described may not now be in cultivation. I. edomensis (Scorpiris/Juno). Jordan. Stems short. Flowers whitish spotted purple, early spring. I. ensata (Laevigatae). CELESTIAL IRIS, JAPANESE IRIS. Japan, N China, Korea, and Russia; introduced 1857. Stems 24-36 in., often branched. Leaves to 24 in., stiff, erect. Flowers usually 2 per branch. Wild forms have falls 3 in. long, standards a little shorter, and are usually deep red-purple. Flowering mainly in early summer, but season maybe prolonged. Hundreds of selections raised in Japan and elsewhere, many with 6 or 9 wide, ruffled falls; color range includes white, all shades of red-purple and blue-lavender, bicolors, strongly veined and spotted falls. Very showy flowers (some selections to 10 in. across), especially when well cultivated, lovely near or in shallow water. Plates 70,695. I. falcifolia (Iris). C Asia. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers lilac-violet veined darker; beard whitish; early spring. I.farreri (Limniris). China (Yunnan). Stems to 14 in. Flowers grayish white, early summer. I.fernaldii (Californicae). United States (Santa Cruz to Lake County in California). Stems 8-18 in. Flowers creamy yellow, often veined or flushed purple, mid spring. I.filifolia (Xiphium). Spain and NW Africa; introduced 1869. Stems slender, to 18 in. Leaves 6 or more, narrow, to 12 in. long, mottled with deep purple, most noticeable on outer leaves. Flowers 2 per stem, bright deep purple; blade of fall round, with bright orange blotch. Var. latifolia has broadly linear leaves. Flowering late spring. I. foetidissima (Foetidissimae). ROAST BEEF PLANT, STINKING IRIS. Great Britain, SW Europe, and North Africa; introduced 1753. Stems 12-36 in., usually about 24. Leaves dark, evergreen. Flowers insignificant, bluish lilac, early summer. Shade-tolerant; grown for foliage and ornamental fruits: ripe capsule splits to display scarlet seeds in fall. Yellow-flowered forms have been called var. citrina (from S England) and var. lutescens (from Algeria). I. formosana (Lophiris). Taiwan. Very similar to I. japonica, but lilac-blue flowers are larger. I. forrestii (Sibiricae). China (Yunnan); introduced 1909. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers lemon to golden yellow with brownpurple veins on haft, late spring to early summer. I. fosteriana (Scorpiris/Juno). NE Iran and NW Afghanistan; introduced 1884. Stems 6-8 in. Falls pale yellow; standards bright purple; early spring. I.fulva (Hexagonae). United States (Mississippi Valley); introduced 1812. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers bright reddish brown; falls velvety on keel; spring.

Iris I. xfulvala. Garden hybrid (I. fulva x I. brevicaulis). Flowers purple-red. I.furcata (Iris). N Caucasus and SW Transcaucasia. Similar to but smaller than I. aphylla. Flowers violet, late spring. I. galatica (Scorpiris/Juno). Turkey; introduced 1905. Stems 2-5 in. Flowers purplish yellow or silvery violet, early spring. I. gatesii (Oncocydus). PRINCE OF IRISES. Turkey (Asia Minor); introduced 1889. Stems to 30 in. Leaves pale green, 12 in. or more long, 1 in. wide. Flowers very large, falls and standards often over 4 in. wide, usually solitary; standards silvery or grayish, lined and dotted soft violet; falls brownish purple on cream ground. Flowering late spring. /. germanica (Iris). COMMON IRIS. Mediterranean region, wild origin uncertain; long in cultivation. Name germanica sometimes erroneously applied to all non-aril bearded iris and their hybrids. All known forms have been found in cultivation or are probably escapes; no wild specimens are known. Stems 24-36 in., branching. Leaves sword-shaped, 18 in. or more, 1-11/2 in. wide. Flowers 1 on each of 2 branches, fragrant; falls bright purple, reflexed at midpoint, yellow beard; standards erect, often slightly paler than falls. 'Florentina' has white flowers with traces of blue and is said to be the fleur-de-lis of French heraldry; it is also known commonly as the Florentine iris. Many plants identified by some authorities as separate species are likely to be local forms ofI, germanica. I. giganticaerulea (Hexagonae). United States (Louisiana, Texas, Mississippi), in wet places. Stems to 60 in. Falls violetblue; haft greenish with yellow blotch; standards violet-blue; style arm white or greenish white. Flowering mid spring. Var. citricristata is lemon yellow on central ridge of haft and surrounding area. Var. elephantina has yellowish-white flowers, haft lemon yellow, veins yellowish green. I. goniocarpa (Pseudoregelia). W China, S Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, and India, in mountain grassland. Stems 4-10 in. Flowers violet, with deep purple mottling on falls, late spring. Var. grossa from China (Sichuan, Yunnan) and Tibet is larger in all parts. Var. tenella from China (Qinghai) is more delicate. I. gracilipes (Lophiris). Japan; introduced 1859. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers pinkish lilac, veined violet; falls have white zone and orange crest; late spring. I. graeberiana (Scorpiris/Juno). C Asia. Stems seldom over 12 in., often less. Leaves erect, spreading, 7-8 in. long, usually shorter at flowering. Flowers 4-6 per stem, mauve, cobalt blue at tips, whitish with blue veins in central part. Flowering late spring. Plate 696. I. graminea (Spuriae). C and S Europe to Caucasus; introduced 1597. Stems to 12 in. Flowers scented of plums, lilac; throat veined blue-purple on white; haft dull yellow. Flowering late spring. Var. achtaroffiihas yellowish-white flowers. Var. pseudocyperus from Romania and Czechoslovakia is larger than species, flowers unscented. /. grant-duffii (Syriacae). Israel, Syria, Lebanon, and E Turkey; introduced 1882. Stems 6-12 in. Falls yellow; haft and standards yellowish white, veined lilac; violet specimens also known. Flowering mid spring. /. griffithii (Oncocydus). Afghanistan and NW India; intro-

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duced 1892. Stems 6-14 in. Flowers purple-violet, mid spring. I. grossheimii (Oncocydus). S Transcaucasia. Stems to 5 in. Flowers wine-red to dark brown, veined dark cinnamon brown; standards larger than falls. Possibly of hybrid origin. /. xguertleri. Natural hybrid (I. pumilaxl. aphyllavar. hungarica). I. hartwegii (Californicae). Sierra Nevada of United States (California), in foothills; introduced 1876. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers light yellow, late spring. Subsp. australis, from mountains of S California, has purple to bluish-violet flowers. Subsp. columbiana, from C California (Tuolumne County), has pale yellow flowers with gold veins. Subsp. pinetorum, from N California (Plumas County), is similar. I. haussknechtii (Scorpiris/Juno). Nur Mountains, part of Taurus Mountains in S Turkey. Allied to I. persica. Flowers silver-gray or greenish yellow with reddish brown-purple markings on falls, spring to early summer. I. haynei (Oncocydus). Mount Gilboa in Israel. Stems to 28 in. Flowers fragrant, to 8 in. in diameter, purple with brownishpurple veins and dots, mid spring. I. henryi (Iris). China (Hunan, Hubei, Sichuan). Stems 6-10 in. Flowers blue or violet; falls mottled yellow. Flowering mid spring. I. hermona (Oncocydus). Mount Hermon in NE Israel. Falls pale yellow with brownish-purple veins and signal patch; standards cream with less purple coloring. Flowering early spring. I. heweri (Regelia). NE Afghanistan. Stems 4-6 in., rarely to 12. Falls dark purplish blue veined purple; standards purple; beard lilac. Flowering mid spring. I. hexagona (Hexagonae). SE United States; introduced 1788. Stems 36-48 in. Flowers lilac, summer. /. heylandiana (Oncocydus). Iraq. Stems to 15 in. Flowers whitish, veined and dotted heavily with brownish violet; signal patch brownish; beard yellowish white. I. hippolyti (Scorpiris/Juno). Uzbekistan in Kyzyl Kum Desert. Flowers pale violet with yellow area on falls, spring to summer. I. histrio (Hermodactyloides/Reticulata). S Turkey, Syria, Israel, and Lebanon; introduced 1873. Stems to 10 in. Leaves short at flowering, later to 12 in. long. Flowers solitary, late winter. Falls pale blue with darker purple spots and yellow median line; standards lilac blue. Likes to be baked dry in summer and is not very cold-hardy. Var. aintabensis is shorter, flowers pale blue with white signal spots. Var. atropurpurea from Turkey is uniform purple, no yellow on falls. Var. orthopetala has standards that curve inward. /. histrioides (Hermodactyloides/Reticulata). Turkey; introduced 1892. Stems to 10 in. Leaves very short at flowering. Flowers blue, to 3 in. across. 'Major' has deep blue falls with white spots. Var. sophenensishas narrow segments, deep violetblue with yellow ridge on falls. 'Angel's Eye' (synonym 'Angel's Tears') has lovely pure blue flowers. Plate 697. I. xhollandica. Name sometimes applied to Dutch iris (/. xiphium x I. tingitana). I. hoogiana (Regelia). Turkestan; introduced 1913. Stems 18-24 in. Leaves dark blue-green. Flowers 2-3 per stem, soft

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lavender-blue with deep yellow beard, fragrant. Flowering late spring. Forma alba, found in Tajikistan, has white flowers, sometimes flushed pale blue; somewhat shorter than type; 'Bronze Beauty', vigorous clone with standards light heliotropeviolet, falls dark violet, both flushed cinnamon brown near margins. Forma purpurea has deep purple flowers. I. hookeriana (Pseudoregelia). Kashmir to W Tibet; introduced 1887. Stems to 5 in. Flowers bluish purple; styles blue; late spring. Fragrance similar to lily of the valley. Note that "I. hookerana" is an invalid name for a form of I setosa. I. humilis (Psammiris). E Europe, Russia, C Asia, Mongolia, and N China; introduced 1808. Stems 2-4 in. Flowers yellow with brownish-purple veins on falls; beard yellowish brown or orange; spring. Only member of this section much grown; requires dry conditions. I. hymenospatha (Scorpiris/Juno). S Iran. Stems to 5 in. Flowers creamy white with greenish tinge, thickly veined in violet, late winter. I. hyrcana (Hermodactyloides/Reticulata). N Iran near Caspian Sea. Similar to I. reticulata. Flowers various shades of blue; yellow crest; late winter. I. iberica (Oncocydus). Caucasus, E Turkey, Iran, and Armenia; introduced 1808. Stems 18-24 in. Falls white with heavy dark purplish-brown veining; standards white or pale lilac; late spring. Subsp. elegantissima has cream falls spotted and veined maroon; standards white, lightly veined at base. Forma splendens has flowers 6-7 in. across. Subsp. lycotis from Caucasus south to W and S Iran has gray flowers, stained brown and heavily veined dark brown, purple or maroon-black. Color variants that have been given names in some treatments include var. heterochroa, falls brownish cherry, standards lighter; var. magnifica, dark cherry-red base color; var. panthera, dark spots on lighter base; var. pardus, standards veined, falls spotted. I. imbricata (Iris). Turkey and N Iran; introduced 1845. Stems 12-20 in. Flowers yellowish green veined with brown on haft, late spring. I. innominata (Californicae). United States (Oregon); introduced 1935. Stems to 6 in. Flowers yellow to gold, veined light brown, sometimes white or lavender, late spring. I. issica (Scorpiris/Juno). E Turkey. Flowers bright straw yellow, spring. I.japonica (Lophiris). ORCHID IRIS. Japan and China; introduced 1794. Stems to 24 in., with erect branches. Leaves held in fanlike tuft, sword-shaped, dark green. Flowers lavenderviolet, about 1 in. in diameter; falls cut irregularly, spotted yellow and white in center; petaloid crests fringed. Intolerant of temperatures below 35°F. Forma pallescens has white flowers, falls with pale yellow mottling or pale yellowish-brown lines on midrib. A form with cream-variegated leaves is known as 'Folia Variegata'. Long-blooming, good in subtropical climates. Plate 698. I. juncea (Xiphium). S Spain, Sicily, and North Africa; introduced 1789. Stems 12-16 in. Flowers deep yellow with faint brown veining, early summer. Var. mermieri, flowers sulfur yellow; var. numidica, lemon yellow; var. pallida, soft yellow, large. I. junonia (Iris). Turkey; introduced 1854. Stems 8-24 in.

Flowers yellow, whitish, or lavender; beard white tipped orange. Similar to I. germanica and probably a synonym (Mathew 1989). I. kashmiriana (Iris). Kashmir and Afghanistan; introduced 1875. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white; beard white tipped yellow. Flowering early summer. I xkazachensis. Natural hybrid (I. acutiloba subsp. lineolata xI.paradoxa). I. kemaonensis (Pseudoregelia). Himalayas; introduced 1887. Name also spelled kamaonensis and kumaonensis. Stems 6-10 in. Falls purple, mottled lilac; standards paler; beard white sometimes tipped yellow. Flowering late spring. I. keredjensis (Oncocydus). Iran. Similar to I. barnumae. I. kerneriana (Iris). N and C Turkey; introduced 1884. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers various shades of yellow, late spring. I. kirkwoodii (Oncocydus). Turkey and Syria; introduced 1972. Stems 20-30 in. Falls whitish with purple veins and spots; dark purple signal patch; beard of long purplish or brownish hairs; standards bluish, spotted and veined purple; late spring. Var. marcrotepala from N Syria has larger falls, purple or gold beard. Subsp. calcarea from N Syria has pale green falls, dotted and veined with dark purple-red; beard and velvety signal patch maroon; standards bluish, veined purple. I. kobayashii (Limniris). China (S Liaoning). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers blue with yellow markings, late spring. I. xkochii. Natural hybrid (possibly /. germanica x I. pallida subsp. cengialtii). Lake Como in N Italy. Stems to 24 in. Flowers dark violet; beard bluish-white tipped yellow. I. xkoenigii. Natural hybrid (probably I. paradoxa x I. iberica). I. kolpakowskiana (Hermodactyloides/Reticulata). S Russia, C Asia, and Turkmenistan; introduced 1877. Stems 3-4 in. Falls dark purple at tip with yellow ridge on cream ground; standards light lavender. Flowering early spring. I. kopetdagensis (Scorpiris/Juno). NE Iran, NW Afghanistan, and Kopet-Dag mountains (Turkmenistan); introduced 1960s. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers pale greenish yellow with greenish veins; golden crest. Flowering mid spring. I. koreana (Iris). Korea and NE Manchurian Plateau. Flowers yellow. Similar to I. minutoaureabut taller and more robust. I. korolkowii (Regelia). Turkmenistan; introduced 1874. Stems to 18 in., leafy on lower part. Leaves linear, to 18 in. long. Flowers 21/2 in. in diameter, creamy white flushed brown; standards to 11/2 in. wide, a little wider than blade of falls. Flowering late spring. 'Concolor' has uniform purple flowers; 'Violacea', deep purple veining and blotches. Forma leichtliniana is cream with black veins and dark signal patch; forma venosa has prominent veining. I. kuschakewiczii (Scorpiris/Juno). C Asia. Stems 3-4 in. Falls pale violet; signal patch maroon; standards darker. Flowering mid spring. I. kuschkensis (Regelia). NW Afghanistan. Stems 12-20 in. Flowers purple-bronze, veined darker; beard purple. Flowering mid spring. I. lactea (Ensatae). C Asia, Mongolia, China, and Tibet. Stems to 20 in. Flowers milky white, to 4 in. wide, late spring. Var. chi-

Iris

nensisfrom China, Russia, Korea, Tibet, and India has pale blue, blue, or violet flowers, deeply colored and veined. Var. chrysantha from Tibet has yellow flowers. I. lacustris (Lophiris). United States (Great Lakes area); endangered; introduced 1818. Stems 3-5 in. Flowers pale lilac with deep yellow crest; smaller than similar I. cristata. Flowering summer. I. laevigata (Laevigatae). E Asia, China, and lapan; introduced 1837. Stems to 24 in. Flowers blue; cultivars in white, yellow, and pinkish are grown. Flowering early summer. I. latifolia (Xiphium). ENGLISH IRIS. Pyrenees and NW Spain, in moist alpine meadows; introduced 1570. Stems to 24 in. Leaves stiff, keeled, shiny dark green, emerging in spring before flowering. Flowers 2-3 per stem, opening in succession, to 5 in. in diameter, usually deep purple-blue with large golden blotch on fall. Standards erect, shorter than falls; blade of fall nearly round, tapering to haft. Flowering early summer. Several good color forms are offered, including pure white 'Mont Blanc'. /. latistyla (Nepalensis). Tibet. Flowers violet, late spring. /. lazica (Unguiculares). Black Sea area of Turkey and Caucasus; introduced 1895. Stems to 10 in., lower than leaves at flowering. Leaves evergreen. Flowers violet; falls paler or whitish in center; crest yellow. Flowering early to mid spring. I. leptophylla (Nepalensis). China (Gansu, Sichuan). Stems to 6 in. Flowers violet, fragrant, mid spring. /. leptorrhiza (Scorpiris/Jund). Pamir Mountains of C Asia. Stems to 4 in. Flowers greenish violet, spring to summer. I. lineata (Regelia). C Asia, Tajikistan, and NE Afghanistan. Similar to I. darwasica. Stems 6-14 in. Flowers brownish violet, greenish-yellow base color, veins brownish purple; beard bluish, spring. I. linifolia (Scorpiris/Juno). C Asia and E Afghanistan; introduced 1905. Stems 2-6 in. Flowers pale greenish yellow with dark yellow crest, late spring. I. loczyi (Limniris). NE Iran, Afghanistan, Russia, and C Asia to N and C China; described 1891. Stems 6-12 in. Standards bluish purple, falls cream with purple veins, late spring. I. longipetala (Longipetalae). United States (San Francisco south to Monterey in California), along coast; introduced 1862. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers white, veined violet; falls have bright yellow keel. Flowering late spring. I. longiscapa (Pseudoregelia). C Asia in Kara-Kum and Kyzl Kum deserts. Stems 13-20 in. Leaves straight, narrow. Flowers 3-5 per stem, violet, spring. /. lortetii (Oncocydus). Borderland of Israel, Syria, and Lebanon; introduced 1890. Stems to 18 in. Leaves about 12 in. long at flowering, elongating later. Flowers solitary; falls creamy white spotted crimson, with dark red signal spot; standards white to grayish, spotted and veined with pale lilac; both often more than 3 in. wide. Maurice Boussard notes, "There is a place where, for years, one has more chances to get a bullet than to find out any rhizome: so overcollecting has ceased and wild populations are thriving and increasing again" (Boussard et al. 1997). I. ludwigii (Spuriae). Altai Mountains in C Asia. Leaves 8-10 in. Flowers violet, nearly stemless, late spring.

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I. xlurida. Natural hybrid (I. pallida x I. variegata) from E Europe; introduced as I. lurida in 1758. Stems to 18 in. Upper part of falls reddish purple, lower part yellow veined with purple; standards brownish purple; haft yellowish with brownpurple markings; beard bright yellow. Flowering mid spring. /. lutescens (Iris). NE Spain, S France, and Italy; introduced 1837. Stems 3-10 in. Falls blue, purple, yellow, or white, flushed and veined brown; beard bright orange-yellow. Flowering mid spring. I. maackii (Laevigatae). China (Liaoning, Heilongjiang). Flowers yellow, late spring. I. macrosiphon (Californicae). BOWL-TUBED IRIS, GROUND IRIS. United States (California, Oregon). Stems 6-8 in. Flowers large, deep golden yellow, cream, pale lavender or deep bluepurple, late spring. I. magnifica (Scorpiris/Juno). C Ash, on rocky slopes. Similar to I. vicaria. Stems to 36 in. Leaves light, shiny green, to 24 in. long, 2 in. or more wide. Flowers large, to 7 per stem, produced in leaf axils; pale violet with lighter blade and yellowish blotch surrounding the white crest; standards pale lilac. Cultivated forms include near-white. Var. samariaefrom Palestine's West Bank has pale pinkish-purple falls speckled darker; standards cream with purplish or brownish veins and spots. Plate 699. I. mandschurica (Psammiris). Manchuria, Korea, and E Russia. Stems 4-7 in. Flowers yellow; falls veined with maroon. Flowering late spring. I. maracandica (Scorpiris/Juno). Pamir-Alai mountains of S Uzbekistan. Stems to 7 in. Flowers pale yellow, falls with dark yellow crest. Flowering early spring. I. mariae (Oncocydus). SE Turkey (Asia Minor), lordan, and Israel. Stems 6-10 in. Falls deep purple at base and along middle, lower part dotted dark purple; standards lilac pink with deep pink lines. Flowering early spring. /. marsica (Iris). Apennines of Italy. Stems to 32 in. Flowers violet; falls with veining on haft; beard white or yellow. Flowering late spring. I. masiae (Syriacae). SE Turkey, N Iraq, and Syria; introduced 1902. Stems 20-30 in. Flowers violet-blue; falls veined. Flowering mid spring. I. meda (Oncocydus). C Iran; introduced 1888. Flowers lilac purple or greenish yellow with brown patch and veins; beard yellow. Flowering late spring. I. melanosticta (Syriacae). S Syria. Similar to I. masia. Flowers yellow with thick black lines on blade of falls, early to mid spring. I. mesopotamica (Iris). SE Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, and Israel; introduced 1913. Stems 36-48 in. Bracts thin-textured, green, with pale, papery tips. Flowers lavender-blue; falls darker than standards; beard white tipped yellow. Flowering late spring. Probably a synonym of I germanica (Mathew 1989). I. microglossa (Scorpiris/Juno). Afghanistan; introduced 1958. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers pale blue to white, crest pale yellow. Flowering mid to late spring. I. milesii (Lophiris). Himalayas, at lower elevations; introduced 1881. Stems to 36 in., branching. Flowers numerous, small, pale reddish lilac with dark veins and blotches, crest or-

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Iris

ange-yellow. Flowering early summer. Hardy to about 10°F. I. minutoaurea (Iris). Japan; introduced 1879. Stems to 3 in. Flowers yellow; falls with brownish edges. Flowering mid spring. I. missouriensis (Longipetalae). ROCKY MOUNTAIN IRIS, WESTERN BLUE FLAG. Canada (British Columbia to Alberta) and United States (Washington to N Mexico, Arizona), in seasonally damp grassland; introduced 1880. Stems to 24 in. Flowers pale blue to blue-violet, veined dark violet; falls with bright yellow keel; yellow and white forms also known in the wild. Flowering early summer. Var. arizonica has white or lavender flowers heavily veined purple. Var. pelogonus has deep or pale lavender flowers and is shorter-growing. I. monnieri (Spuriae). Possibly a natural hybrid (I. orientalis x I. xanthospuria). Stems 36-48 in. Flowers lemon yellow, early summer. I. xmonspur. Garden hybrid (I. monnierixl. spuria). I. munzii (Californicae). Sierra Nevada of United States (California in Tulare County). Stems to 30 in., the largest in the series. Flowers pale lavender, violet or purple, sometimes near true blue, early to mid spring. Not very cold-tolerant. I. narbutii (Scorpiris/Juno). C Asia. Stems to 6 in. Falls yellow, standards bright purple, summer. I. narcissiflora (unclassified). China (Sichuan). Stems 8-10 in. Flowers yellow; standards held horizontally at flowering, style arms flat. Flowering mid spring. I. narynensis (Scorpiris/Juno). Tian Mountains of C Asia. Stems to 4 in. Falls pale violet with darker blade and lighter edge, crests white. Flowering early spring. I. nazarena (Oncocyclus). Israel. Rhizome stoloniferous. Standards white, veined and speckled with blue. Flowering spring. I. nectarifera (Oncocyclus). S Turkey and N Syria; introduced 1980. Stems 10-20 in. Flowers white or pale yellow; falls closely veined and flushed purple; standards veined purple but not as heavily as falls; beard yellow. Flowering mid spring. Var. mardinensis has shorter tube, narrower leaves. I. xneglecta. Hybrid (I. variegataxl.pallida). I. xnelsonii. Natural hybrid (probably I. fulva, I. giganticaerulea, and I. brevicaulis). United States (S central Louisiana in Abbeville Swamp). Stems 28-42 in. Flowers purple-red, rarely yellow. I. nicolai (Scorpiris/Juno}. NE Afghanistan and Pamir-Alai mountains of C Asia. Stems to 7 in. Flowers slate blue to white with purple blotch on falls, early spring. I. nigricans (Oncocyclus). SE Israel and Jordan. National flower of Jordan. Stems to 12 in. Leaves sickle-shaped, sheathing lower part of stem. Falls very dark red, almost black, with black veins, dots, and signal patch; beard dark purple; standards whitish, very heavily veined with dark purple. Flowering mid spring. I. nusairiensis (Scorpiris/Juno). Syria. Stems to 4 in. Flowers white or blue with purple veins around yellow crest, mid spring. Plate 700. I. odaesanensis (Iris). Mount Odae in Korea. Stems to 8 in. Flowers white, mid spring.

I. odontostyla (Scorpiris/Juno). Afghanistan. Stems to 5 in. Flowers grayish or silvery violet; style branch lobes toothed, spring to summer. I. orchioides (Scorpiris/Juno). NW Afghanistan and Turkestan, in rocky places; introduced 1880. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves broad at base, sheathing the stem. Flowers 3 or more per stem, 2-3 in. across; falls bright yellow with greenish-brown patches on either side of crest. Flowering mid spring. Two formas are known: a white one, f. alba, and a pale yellow, f. sulphurea. I. orientalis (Spuriae). NE Greece and Asiatic Turkey; introduced 1788. Stems to 60 in. in robust clones. Flowers white with yellow center band on falls; standards white with orange center. Flowering early summer. Prefers damp soils. I. palaestina (Scorpiris/Juno). Syria, Lebanon, and Israel; introduced 1884. Stems very short. Flowers greenish, yellowish, or blue, veins darker. Flowering winter. I. pallida (Iris). DALMATIAN IRIS. C and E Europe; introduced 1789. Stems 24-36 in. Spathes papery. Flowers pale lilac blue to violet, very fragrant, late spring. 'Aurea Variegata' has yellow-striped leaves. Subsp. cengialtii from N Italy and NW Yugoslavia has rich violet flowers and is shorter-growing. Var. illyrica is intermediate between the 2 subspecies and has blue flowers with yellowish-orange beards. Plates 70, 701, 702. I. xpal-tec. Garden hybrid (I. pallidaxl. tectorum). I. pamphylica (Hermodactyloides/Reticulata). S Turkey (NE of Antalya); introduced 1961. Stems 7-12 in. Falls deep purplebrown, yellow blotch in center spotted purple; crest yellow-orange; standards pale blue to green, purple-brown at base. Flowering late spring. I. pandurata (Pseudoregelia). NW China (Gansu, Qinghai); described 1880. Similar to I. tigridia; rootstock longer with many lateral roots. Flowers reddish purple, late spring. I. paradoxa (Oncocyclus). Georgia, Armenia, Russia, and N Iran; introduced 1817. Stems 2-6 in. Leaves emerge in fall and grow through winter. Falls very small, pale purple covered with dense black-purple hairs along middle and veined black-purple along edges; standards very large, bluish white, veined and dotted deep violet-blue. Flowering mid spring. Forma atrata has blackish-violet flowers. Forma choschab from Turkey, introduced 1901, has white standards veined dark violet, falls blackish violet. Forma mirabilis has golden falls with orange beard, standards pale yellow or pale blue. A startling sight in flower, requiring overhead cover but otherwise not difficult. I. parvula (Scorpiris/Juno). Pamir Mountains of C Asia. Stems to 4 in. Flowers pale greenish yellow with darker green veins, late spring. I. perrieri (Iris). French Alps. Stems to 12 in. Flowers purpleviolet. Similar to I. aphylla. I. persica (Scorpiris/Juno). S Turkey, NE Iraq, N Syria, and Lebanon; introduced 1753. Stems to 4 in. Flowers silvery gray with purple, greenish, or brownish-yellow veining, early spring. I. petrana (Oncocyclus). Jordan. Flowers fragrant, dark lilac with blackish signal patch, mid spring. Similar to I. nigricans. I. phragmitetorum (Sibiricae). China (Yunnan). Stems to 20 in. Flowers dark blue with veins radiating from white spot in center of falls; mid spring.

Iris I. planifolia (Scorpiris/Juno). S Spain, North Africa, Sardinia, Sicily, Greece, and Crete; introduced 1789. Stems 4-6 in. Bluish violet with darker veining, sometimes white and blue spotted area around yellow crest; winter. The only European Juno. I. platyptera (Scorpiris/Juno). Afghanistan and Pakistan. Stems 3-5 in. Flowers purplish or brownish violet with yellow crest, early spring. I. polysticta (Limniris). Tibet and China (Sichuan, Yunnan). Stems 12-14 in. Flowers yellow with purple-brown reticulated veining, early summer. I. pontica (Spuriae). Romania, W Ukraine, and Caucasus; introduced 1906. Stems to 2 in. Leaves 8-16 in. Flowers purple, veined darker with white or yellowish markings, late spring. I. popovii (Scorpiris/Juno). Pamir Mountains of C Asia. Stems to 4 in. Flowers blue to light violet. /. porphyrochrysa (Scorpiris/Juno). Afghanistan; introduced 1969. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers golden-yellow with brown tube and brown suffusion, crest yellow. I. postii (Scorpiris/Juno). Iraq, Syria, and Jordan. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers pale lilac, spotted and veined dark violet or brownish violet, early spring. I. potaninii (Psammiris). W China, E Tibet, Mongolia, India, and C Asia. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers sulfur yellow; beard yellowish or whitish. Flowering late spring. Var. ionantha has violet flowers. I. prismatica (Prismaticae). Canada (Nova Scotia south) and United States (Maine to South Carolina), along Atlantic coast; introduced 1813. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers small, lilac, late spring. I. proantha (Lophiris). EC China. Stems 3-5 in. Flowers pale violet; falls with horseshoe-shaped mottled pattern; midrib with yellow crest. Flowering mid spring. Var. valida is larger in all parts, to 11 in. I. pseudacorus (Laevigatae). FLEUR-DE-LIS, YELLOW FLAG. Europe, Britain to W Asia, in ponds, ditches, and other wet places; introduced 1753. Stems 24-70 in. Flowers bright yellow with brown or violet markings on falls, and darker yellow zone, late spring to mid summer. Selections grown include 'Alba', white; 'Bastardii', pale yellow without darker blotch; 'Golden Fleece', golden yellow; 'Variegata', leaves longitudinally striped when young. Plates 703, 704. I. pseudocaucasica (Scorpiris/Juno). N Iraq, Armenia, N Iran, and Turkey; introduced 1916. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers yellow or pale blue to greenish, late spring. /. pseudopumila (Iris). S Italy, Sicily, and Malta; introduced 1827. Stems 1-10 in. Flowers purple, yellow, or white, early spring. I. xpseudopumilioides. Hybrid (I. pumilaxl. aphylla). I. pumila (Iris). SE Europe, Russia, and Turkey (Asia Minor); introduced 1596. Stems 4-5 in. Flower color varies with locale: yellow, purple, red-purple or blue. Beard cream or pale blue. Flowering mid spring. Name often applied erroneously to hybrid dwarf bearded irises. Var. elongata is taller. I purdyi (Californicae). United States (N California, from Sonoma to Humboldt counties); introduced 1886. Stems 6-14 in. Flowers creamy yellow veined with brown-purple, often with light lavender at base, late spring.

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I. purpureobracteata (Iris). E Turkey; introduced 1982. Stems 12-20 in. Flowers pale lavender with falls suffused blue, or pale yellow with greenish-brown veining; beard yellow; bracts purple. Flowering late spring. I. quinghainica (Limniris). China (Qinghai). Similar to /. loczyi. Flowers violet or blue, early summer. I. regelii (Limniris). Turkmenistan. Stems 2-3 in. Similar to I. tenuifolia. I. regis-uzziae (Scorpiris/Juno). Israel and S Jordan. Stems to 4 in. Flowers light blue, lilac, or transparent yellowish green, winter to early spring. I. reichenbachii (Iris). Balkan Peninsula, Bulgaria, N and C Greece, and SW Romania; introduced 1858. Stems 2-12 in. Flowers violet, purplish brown, or yellow with darker veins, late spring. Var. tenuifolia is yellow with bluish falls. I. reticulata (Hermodactyloides/Reticulata). Caucasus, Turkey, N Iraq, and Iran; introduced 1808. Stems 6-8 in. Leaves 24, square in cross section with 4 ribs, as high as flowers at flowering time but up to 12 in. later. Flowers solitary, deep blue mauve; falls with raised orange ridge bordered in white; standards erect. The best-known and easiest garden plant in its section, good for gardens and containers. Many selections are offered; some are hybrids with /. histrioides. Var. cyanea has flowers of various blue shades; var. krelagei, red-purple; var. purpurea, purple. Plate 705. I. revoluta (Iris). S Italy on Gulf of Taranto. Stems to 24 in. Flowers deep violet, falls curled; beard yellow. Flowering spring. I. xrobusta. Hybrid (L versicolorx I. virginica). I. rosenbachiana (Scorpiris/Juno). Turkestan, Pamir-Alai mountains, and N Afghanistan; introduced 1886. Stems to 4 in. Flowers variable, usually deep purple with yellow-orange crest, sometimes pale mauve with darker purple tips, yellow, pinkish yellow, or white. Flowering late winter. Var. albo-violacea almost white with large violet blotch on blade, rich yellow sheen. I. rossii (Lophiris). N China (Liaoning), Korea, and Japan. Stems to 4 in. Flowers violet, spotted and veined violet on hafts of falls, mid spring. I. xrothschildii. Hybrid (I. variegata x I. pallida). I. ruthenica (Ruthenicae). E Europe through C Asia to China and Korea; introduced 1804. Stems 1-12 in., surrounded by sheathlike leaves. Falls cream with violet margins and veining; standards and styles deep violet. Flowering late spring. Var. brevituba from China (Xinjiang) and Siberia has shorter perianth tube. Var. nana from N China and Tibet is only 2 in. tall. L xsambucina. Naturalized hybrid (L variegata x I. pallida) in N Italy, Balkans, and Iberian Peninsula. Stems to 24 in. Flowers violet or blue, veins dark; standards paler; beard orange. Flowering early summer. I. sanguinea (Sibiricae). Russia, Mongolia, Manchuria, Korea, and Japan; introduced 1604. Plants grown under this name are mostly hybrids with I. sibirica. Stems 20-30 in., more in robust variants. Leaves erect, equal to or longer than flowering stems. Flowers red-violet; hafts yellow or orange, finely veined with purple. Selected forms include 'Alba', white; 'Kobana', narrow white flowers; 'Snow Queen', ivory; 'Violacea', deep purpleviolet with larger standards. Var. yixingensis, introduced from

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Iris

China in 1982, has dark violet flowers. Forma albiflora from China (Heilongjiang) has white flowers. /. sari (Oncocydus). C and S Turkey; introduced 1876. Stems 8-12 in., with 2 small leaves on stem. Leaves to 6 in a tuft, about 9 in. long at flowering, to l/2 in. wide. Flowers solitary; falls to 3 in. long, 11/2 in. wide, blade lanceolate, wavy or toothed at the margin, creamy yellow or dull white (rarely bluish) with light brown or dull purple markings; signal patch reddish brown or reddish purple; standards wider, round with short haft, almost entirely suffused with reddish brown. Flowering late spring. I. scariosa (Iris). Russia, from Urals east to Tian Mountains; introduced 1820. Stems to 6 in. Flowers red-purple; falls darkly veined; beard yellow and white; mid spring. I. schachtii (Iris). Turkey; introduced 1960. Stems 4-9 in. Flowers greenish yellow, purple, or yellow with brownish veins, late spring. I. schelkownikowii (Oncocydus). Azerbaijan and Russia. Stems 3-8 in. Perianth segments pointed. Flowers fragrant, violet or brownish; beard yellow; mid spring. I. schischkinii (Scorpiris/Juno). Transcaucasia. Stems 8-12 in. Flowers yellow, mid spring. I. serotina (Xiphium). SE Spain; introduced 1861. Stems to 24 in. Flowers violet-blue with yellow line down center of falls, late summer. /. setosa (Tripetalae). E Siberia, N Japan, N Canada to Labrador, and United States (Alaska, Maine). Stems 6-24 in. Flowers bright purple, early to mid summer. Subsp. canadensis from Quebec, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia is 6-10 in. tall, with lavender-blue flowers. Forma pallidiflom has larger, bluishwhite flowers. Forma zonalishas leaves with yellowish-white or white transverse stripes. Subsp. hondoensisfrom Japan is 28-30 in. tall. Subsp. interior from Alaska and NE Siberia is tall-growing with short, papery bracts. Var. arctica from coastal Alaska has purple flowers marked white and is short. Var. nasuensis from Japan has large flowers with standards only % in. long and is up to 40 in. tall. Forma alpina from Siberia is short-growing. Forma platyrhyncha from coastal Alaska and Aleutian Islands has standards as large as falls. Forma serotina from Siberia has stemless, solitary flowers. I. sibirica (Sibiricae). N Italy east to Russia W of Lake Baikal; introduced 1596. Stems 24-48 in. Flowers blue-purple, lavender, or gray with darker veins, brownish at base, early summer. Name often applied erroneously to hybrids of this and other species in its series. Plate 706. I. sichuanensis (Nepalensis). China (Gansu, Sichuan). Similar to I. leptophylla. Stems 5-8 in. Flowers violet; beard yellowish; mid spring. I. sicula. Possibly a synonym of I. pallida, or hybrids between I. pallida and I. germanica. I. sikkimensis (Pseudoregelia). India (Sikkim). Possibly a hybrid between /. kemaonensis and I. hookeriana. Stems 4-6 in. Falls dark violet, mottled; standards pale mauve; beard white tipped orange; mid spring. I. sintenisii (Spuriae). S Italy, Balkan Peninsula, and Turkey, introduced 1874. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers deep violet-blue; falls veined and dotted purple on white ground; late spring. Subsp.

brandzae from NE Romania has leaves narrower than the type. I. sofarana (Oncocydus}. Lebanon; introduced 1899. Stems 12-16 in. Falls creamy white with many dark purple veins and spots; blackish-purple signal patch is rounded; beard dark purple; standards lighter than falls; late spring. Subsp. kasruwana has standards almost as darkly veined as falls; blotch pearshaped. Forma franjieh is white with yellow veins and spots. I. songarica (Limniris). Turkey, Iran, Russia, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Mongolia, and NW China; introduced 1841. Stems 10-20 in. Flowers silvery violet, lightly spotted and veined, early summer. I. speculatrix (Chinensis). SE China; introduced 1875. Stems 8-10 in. Falls pale lilac with yellow ridge on white patch surrounded by darker purple; standards lilac gray; late spring. I. sprengeri (Oncocydus). Turkey; introduced 1904. Stems 8-12 in. Flowers very pale yellow, strongly veined and streaked reddish brown or purplish brown; falls have dark purple spot; beard yellow; late spring. /. spuria (Spuriae). SALT MARSH IRIS. C Europe, widespread; introduced 1753. Stems to 24 in., rarely branched. Leaves unpleasantly scented when crushed, to 12 in. long, l/2 in. wide. Flowers in terminal clusters, sessile, pale lilac, veined violet; falls with yellow median stripe. Blade of falls rounded; keel from base of blade down haft bright yellow; haft faintly streaked purple on white ground. Standards shorter than falls, bright lilac. Flowering early summer. Var. danica from the Danish island of Saltholm enjoys wetter conditions than the type. Var. subbarbata from S Germany, Austria, Hungary, and Serbia sometimes has flowers of pure azure blue. Subsp. carthaliniae from S Caucasus and Georgia has sky-blue or white flowers, veined darker. Subsp. demetrii from Transcaucasia and Azerbaijan has violet-blue flowers with dark veins on tall stems. Subsp. halophila from S Romania, Ukraine, Moldavia, W Siberia, and N Caucasus has pale to rich yellow flowers. Subsp. maritima from Spain, France, and Portugal has cream flowers with lilac-blue veins on 12- to 20-in. stems. Subsp. musulmanica from Turkey, Iran, and the Caucasus is bluish violet or creamy white; sometimes bicolored. Subsp. notha from the N Caucasus is violet-blue or bright blue with single golden signal patch. Subsp. sogdiana from NE Iran to Mongolia is 4-14 in. tall, pale violet. Plate 707. I. xsqualens. Hybrid (I. variegata x I. germanica) found in Germany and S Alps. Stems 24-35 in. Falls purple-violet, veined brownish; standards with pale violet cast. Beard yellow. I. staintonii (Nepalensis). Nepal; described 1974. Stems 1-3 in. Flowers pale violet without crest, lasting less than a day, flowering early summer. I. stenophylla (Scorpiris/Juno). Turkey; introduced 1900. Stems 2-5 in. Flowers deep purple or violet-blue, often with blotches of blue-black on falls; crest orange, surrounded by whitish zone; late winter. Subsp. allisoniihas flowers bluer than the type. I stocksii (Scorpiris/Juno). Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and Pakistan; introduced 1884. Stems 3-8 in. Flowers pale purple with darker purple veining; falls with pale yellow crest; early spring.

Iris

I. stolonifera (Iris). Turkey and Turkestan; introduced 1884. Rhizome spreading, red-skinned. Stems 12-24 in. Leaves dark blue-green. Flowers 1-3 per stem; standards white, shaded light violet and broadly edged with light chocolate-brown; falls edged chocolate-brown, shading into bright lilac in center; beard creamy white or bluish. Flowering late spring. Selections include 'George Barr', with broader chocolate-brown edges on standards and lilac falls with very narrow chocolate edge, white toward center, brown veining, sky-blue beard; 'Zwanenburg Beauty', light blue-violet flushed bronze. I. suaveolens (Iris). NW Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, and Yugoslavia; introduced 1853. Stems 2-6 in. Flowers purple or yellow; beard yellow; early spring. /. subbiflora (Iris). SW Spain, Portugal, and Morocco; introduced 1596. Stems 8-12 in., with small clasping leaves. Flowers rich violet, mid spring, often reblooming in early fall. Var. lisbonensis has longer spathes and tube, leafless stem. I. subdecolorata (Scorpiris/Juno). Uzbekistan. Stems to 3 in. Flowers dull greenish or violet-tinged with 2 dull violet veins, early spring. I. susiana (Oncocydus). MOURNING IRIS. Wild origin uncertain, probably Lebanon; not presently known in the wild; introduced 1573. Stems to 18 in. Flowers solitary; falls and standards similar in size and shape, blade round, to 3 in. wide, narrowing to wedge-shaped haft; whitish ground tinged lilac and veined brown-black; beard broad, brown-black; signal patch purple-black; standards erect, spotted lighter lilac. Flowering late spring. I. swensoniana (Oncocydus). S Syria. Stems to 16 in. Falls deep purple veined darker; standards lighter; signal patch blackish maroon; beard yellow with purple tips; crests orange streaked purple. I. tadshikorum (Scorpiris/Juno). Pamir Mountains of C Asia. Stems to 3 in. Flowers pale violet, late spring. I. taochia (Iris). NE Turkey; introduced 1928. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers purple to deep violet or yellow to golden; white beard tipped yellow. Flowering late spring. I. tectorum (Lophiris). JAPANESE ROOF IRIS. C and SW China, Tibet, and Japan, widely cultivated; introduced 1872. Flowers bright lilac; falls mottled purple; crest white and lilac; white forms common in cultivation. Flowering late spring to early summer. I. tenax (Californicae). Canada (S British Columbia) and United States (Washington to S Oregon); described 1829. Stems 6-10 in. Leaves deciduous. Flowers mostly lavender to purple, sometimes yellow or white, mid to late spring. The hardiest Pacific Coast iris. Subsp. klamathensis has creamy apricot to buffyellow flowers. I. tenuifolia (Limniris). Turkestan, Kazakhstan, Tibet, Afghanistan, and W China; introduced 1773. Stems to 4 in. Flowers bluish lilac to violet, falls creamy white with violet veins. Flowering mid spring. /. tennis (Lophiris). United States (NW Oregon in Clackamas County); listed as vulnerable. Stems to 10 in. Flowers white with pale yellow crest, faint lavender veins. Flowering late spring.

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I. tenuissima (Californicae). Sierra Nevada of United States (N California). Stems to 12 in. Flowers creamy white with brownish or lavender veins, early summer. I. xthompsonii. Natural hybrid (I. douglasiana x I. innominata). I. tigrida (Pseudoregelia). SE Russia, Mongolia, and NW China. Stems 1-3 in. Flowers violet; falls with purple to white mottling; yellow beard; blue and yellow forms reported. Flowering late spring. Var. fortis from China (Jilin, Shanxi) and Nei Monggol (formerly Inner Mongolia) is taller than type, 4-8 in. I. timofejewii (Iris). Daghestan, in the E Caucasus. Stems 410 in. Flowers deep reddish to blue violet; beard white with purple tips. Flowering mid spring. I. tingitana (Xiphium). Morocco and Algeria; introduced 1852. Stems to 24 in. Flowers pale to deep blue or violet-blue, early spring. Var. fontanesii is violet blue. Var. mellori is purple, to 36 in. I. tridentata (Tripetalae). United States (North Carolina to Florida). Stems 12-14 in. Falls violet with dark purple veins, blotch at base of yellow on white; standards violet; flowers fragrant. Flowering late spring. I. trojana (Iris). W Turkey. Stem with 2 or 3 long branches. Flowers with reddish purple falls and blue-purple standards. Probably a synonym of I. germanica (Mathew 1989). I. tubergeniana (Scorpiris/Juno). Uzbekistan; introduced 1899. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers dark yellow with orange crest, late winter. I. typhifolia (Sibiricae). China (Jilin, Liaoning) and E Nei Monggol (formerly Inner Mongolia). Stems 20-24 in. Flowers violet, center of falls mottled with small, light brown spots. Flowering late spring. /. unguicularis (Unguiculares). ALGERIAN IRIS. Mediterranean region, in Algeria, Tunisia, W Syria, and S and W Turkey; introduced 1785. Stems to 10 in. Leaves narrow, evergreen. Flowers pale to rich lavender, very sweetly scented; crest orange. Subsp. carica f. angustifolia has small lilac-blue flowers, center of falls and base of standards white. Subsp. cretensis from Crete and S Greece has small flowers, standards purple-blue, falls white veined violet and striped orange in center, flowering mid spring. 'Walter Butt' is pale lavender, large-flowered, blooming mid winter. Hardy to about 10°F, but forms that bloom in mid winter need overhead protection. Plates 708, 709. I. uniflora (Ruthenicae). NE China, Korea, adjacent Russia, and E Siberia. Stems to 4 in. Flowers solitary, violet with white markings on center of falls, sometimes whitish or reddish purple. Flowering late spring. Var. caricina is a dwarf form. I. variegata (Iris). C and SE Europe; introduced 1597. Stems 6-18 in. Falls white or yellowish heavily veined with brownpurple; standards yellow; beard yellow. Flowering late spring. Iris reginae and I. rudskyi are probably variants of I. variegata. I. vartanii (Hermodactyloides/Reticulata). Israel; introduced 1885. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers pale lavender or white; crest pale yellow; falls with darker veins, standards veins fainter; scented of almonds. Flowering mid winter. I. ventricosa (Limniris). NE China, Mongolia, and SE Russia. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers violet, marked lighter, late spring.

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Iris

I. verna (Vernae). E United States; introduced 1748. Stems to 6 in. Flowers fragrant, violet-blue; haft orange, dotted brown, pubescent. Flowering early to mid spring. I. versicolor (Laevigatae). BLUE FLAG. Canada (Labrador to Winnipeg) and E United States; introduced 1732. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers lavender, violet, blue-violet, red-purple, rarely white. Falls have central yellowish blotch surrounded by white zone veined with purple. Standards slightly smaller than falls. Flowering late spring. Var. arkeonensis is blue with violet spots. Var. kermesina (or 'Kermesina') is reddish purple. 'Rosea' is pink. Plates 710, 711. I. vicaria (Scorpiris/Juno). C Asia; introduced 1936. Stems 820 in. Falls light bluish violet marked with darker lines; crest white or yellow on yellow blotch; standards pale violet veined darker. Flowering early to mid spring. I. xvinicolor. Hybrid (I. fulva x I. giganticaerulea). Stems to 40 in. Flowers wine-red. 'Chysophoenicia' is purple with yellow zone near base, shorter. 'Lilacinaurea' is dark lilac. I. virginica (Laevigatae). EASTERN BLUE FLAG, SOUTHERN BLUE FLAG. Atlantic coast of United States (Virginia to Florida). Stems 24-36 in. Flowers blue, lavender, lilac, or white with lavender or blue lines; falls with bright yellow hairy spot. Standards and falls almost equal. Flowering late spring. Var. shrevei from S Canada and United States (Ontario and Great Lakes south through Mississippi Valley into Texas and Alabama) has branched stem, sweet fragrance. I. warleyensis (Scorpiris/Juno). Pamir Mountains of C Asia; introduced 1901. Stems 8-16 in. Flowers dark violet to pale lilac with darker violet tips on falls, margined white; crest whitish or yellowish on yellow patch. Flowering early to mid spring. I. wattii (Lophiris). Tibet and China (Yunnan). Stems to 36 in. Flowers soft lavender; haft of falls spotted violet-blue; crest yellow or orange. Flowering mid spring. I. vvedenskii (Scorpiris/Juno). Pamir Mountains of Turkestan. Stems 2-4 in. Standards pale yellow, falls darker yellow with orange crest. Flowering late spring. I. wendelboi (Scorpiris/Juno). SW Afghanistan. Stems 3-6 in. Flowers dark violet; crest golden yellow. Flowering early to mid spring. I. westii (Oncocyclus). S Lebanon. Stems to 12 in. Falls pale yellow with large purple blotches and veins, brownish signal patch, purple beard; standards pale lilac, veined and spotted darker. Flowering late spring. I. willmottiana (Scorpiris/Juno). Pamir-Alai mountains of C Asia; introduced 1899. Stems to 9 in. Leaves usually 8, deep green with white, horny edge, 6-8 in. long. Flowers deep lavender to bright blue or white; the white signal patch blotched or veined blue. Flowering mid spring. Forma alba has pure white flowers with orange patch. I. wilsonii (Sibiricae). W and C China; introduced 1909. Stems to 24 in. Flowers yellow; falls striped and spotted brownish purple. Flowering late spring. I. winkleri (Hermodactyloides/Reticulata). Tian Mountains of Russia; described 1884. Flowers bluish violet. I. winogradowii (Hermodactyloides/Reticulata). S Caucasus, in alpine meadows; introduced 1927. Stems to 6 in. Flowers pale

yellow, scented of elder; falls marked with green, median rib orange. Flowering early spring. Difficult to transplant; must not dry out. /. xanthochlora (Scorpiris/Juno). NE Afghanistan; introduced c. 1960. Stems 3-6 in. Flowers yellowish green; crest deep yellow. Flowering late spring. I. xanthospuria (Spuriae). C and S Turkey; introduced 1982. Stems 20-40 in. Flowers deep yellow, spring. I. xiphium (Xiphium). SPANISH IRIS. Spain, Portugal, and S France; introduced 1596. Stems to 24 in. Leaves 4-6, 12 in. or more long, deeply channeled. Flowers 1-2 per stem, blade of falls 1 in. wide, light to deep purple with deep yellow band almost to tip; standards wide and erect, generally deeper-colored than falls. Flowering late spring. Var. praecox is earlier flowering; this variety, crossed with I. tingitana, gave rise to the Dutch irises, which flower in early summer. Plate 712. I. yebrudii (Oncocyclus). Syria. Stems 6-7 in. Falls pale yellow with brownish-purple dots and veins; signal patch deep purple; beard purple; standards white with violet-purple dots. Flowering late spring. Subsp. edgecombii has pale yellow or greenish falls with red-purple dots and veins, maroon-purple blotch, purple beard tipped yellow, standards white marked with maroon-purple. I. zaprjagajewii (Scorpiris/Juno). Pamir Mountains of C Asia. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers white, crest yellow. Flowering mid spring. I. zenaidae (Scorpiris/Juno). Tian Mountains of Russia. Flowers violet-blue, falls heavily spotted violet; crest violet or white. Flowering spring. Ins hybrids. 'Frank Elder' (/. histrioidesx I. winogradowii), with unusual coloring; 'George' (I. histrioides x I. reticulata), often listed as a selection of I. histrioides; '{Catherine Hodgkin' (/. histrioidesx I. winogradowii), with unusual coloring; 'Sindpur' (I. aucherixl. galatica; formerly I. persica was thought to be the pollen parent), stems to 4 in., flowers pale azure flushed sea green, orange crest on purplish blotch, early spring; 'Warlsind' (I. warleyensisx I. bucharica), introduced 1896, stems 8-12 in., standards deep blue, falls purple with large yellow blotch, edged deep blue, mid spring. Plates 720, 725. SYNONYMS I. acuta see I. sibirica. I. aequiloba see I. pumila. I. aintabensis see I. histrio var. aintabensis. I. alata see I. planifolia. I. albida see I. orientalis. I. almaatensis see I. subdecolorata. I. xalto-barbata see tall bearded garden irises. I. amabile see I. macrosiphon. I. amabilis see I. macrosiphon. I. amasiana see I. danfordiae. "I. amoena" invalid name for bearded iris with white standards and colored falls. I. angustifolia see I. sibirica. I. arctica see I. setosa var. arctica. I. arenaria see I. humilis. I. arizonica see I. missouriensis var. arizonica.

Iris I. assyriaca see I. aucheri. I. athoa see 7. reichenbachii. I. atracoeruka see I. sibirica. I. atropurpurea var. gileadensis see 7. atrofusca. I. atropurpurea var. purpurea see /. bostrensis. I. aurea see /. crocea. I. australis see 7. germanica. I. balkana see 7. reichenbachii. "I. barbata" invalid name for all tall bearded irises. I. bartonii see /. kashmiriana. I. basaltica see I. susiana. I. beecheyana see I. douglasiana. I. belouinii see I. germanica. I. benacensis see 7. aphylla. I. benjaminii see I. bismarckiana. "I. biflora" invalid name used for I. aphylla, I. pumila, I. subbiflora. I. biggerii see J. haynei. I. biglumis see I. lactea. I. biliottii see 7. germanica. I. bituminosa see Moraea bituminosa. I. bohemica see I. aphylla. I. bornmuelleri see /. danfordiae. I. bosniaca see 7. reichenbachii. I. brachycuspis see I. setosa. I. brandzae see /. sintenisii subsp. brandzae. I. brevicuspis see I. setosa. I. brevipes see I. brevicaulis 'Brevipes'. I. brevituba see I. ruthenica var. brevituba. I. caerulea see I. albomarginata. I. caeruleo-violacea see 7. masiae. I. Carolina see I. virginica. I. carthaliniae see I. spuria subsp. carthaliniae. I. caucasica var. linifolia see I. linifolia. I. cavalariei see 7. speculatrix. I. cengialti see I. pallida subsp. cengialtii. I. chalcedonica see /. susiana. I. chamaeris see I. lutescens. I. chinensis see I. japonica, I. tectorum. I. chrysantha see I. barnumae f. urmiensis. I. chysophoenicia see I. xvinicolor 'Chysophoenicia'. 7. citrina see I. tenuissima. I. coerulea see /. albomarginata. I. colchica see 7. graminea. I. cretensis see I. unguicularis subsp. cretensis. I. crispa see Moraea gawleri. I. croatica see 7. germanica. I. cuprea see 7. fulva. I. cypriana see 7. germanica. I. dacica see 7. aphylla. I. daenensis see 7. spuria subsp. musulmanica. "I. daesitiatensis" invalid name. 7. dahurica see 7. humilis. I. dalmatica see 7. pallida. I. demavendica see 7. barnumae subsp. demavendica. I. demetrii see 7. spuria subsp. demetrii.

I. dengerensis see 7. narbutii. I. desertorum see 7. spuria subsp. halophila. I. dichotoma see Pardanthopsis dichotoma. I. dierinckii see 7. spuria. I. diversifolia see 7. boissieri. I. dragalz see 7. variegata. I. duclouxii see 7. collettii. I. duthiei see 7. kemaonensis. I. elegantissima see 7. iberica subsp. elegantissima. I. eleonorae see 7. galatica. I. elizabethae see 7. sprengeri. I. ensata see 7. lactea. I. ensata var. chinensis see 7. /actea var. chinensis. I. erirrhiza see 7. sibirica. I. erratica see 7. lutescens and 7. pseudopumila. I. eulefeldii see 7. scariosa. I. ewbankiana see 7. acutiloba subsp. lineolata. I. extremorientalis see 7. sanguinea. I. fibrosa see 7. raec/a. 7. fieberi see 7. aphylla. I. fimbriata see 7. japonica. I. flavescens see 7. variegata. I. flavissima see 7. humilis. I. flexicaulis see 7. brevicaulis 'Flexicaulis'. 7. florentina see 7. germanica. I. foliosa see 7. brevicaulis. I. fomini see 7. acutiloba. I. fontanesii see 7. tingitana var. fontanesii. I. fontanesii var. mellori see 7. tingitana var. mellori. I. fragrans see 7. lactea. I. fugax see Moraea tricolor. I. fumosa see 7. aucheri. I. georgiana see 7. virginica. I. gigantea see 7. orientalis. I. glauca see 7. pallida. I. glaucescens see 7. scariosa. I. glockiana see 7. suaveolens. I. gormanii see 7. tenax 7. gracilis see 7. goniocarpa. I. graminifolia see 7. kerneriana. I. grijsi see 7. speculatrix. I. gueldenstadtiana see 7. spuria subsp. halophila. I. halophila see 7. spwria subsp. halophila. I. halophila var. sogdiana see 7. spuria subsp. sogdiana. I. hauranensis see 7. atrofusca. I. heldreichii see 7. stenophylla. I. helena see 7. acutiloba subsp. lineolata. I. helenae see 7. mariae. I. himalaica see 7. clarkei. I. hispanica see 7. xiphium. I. hissarica see 7. narbutii. I. hookeri see 7. setosa subsp. canadensis. I. humboldtiana see 7. tenuissima. I. hungarica see 7. aphylla. I. iberica subsp. bellii see 7. Iberica subsp. lycotis. I. iliensis see 7. lactea var. chinensis.

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Iris

I. illyrica see /. pallida var. illyrica. I. imberbis see I. juncea. I. italica see I. lutescens. I. jordana see 7. atrofusca. I. junonia see I. germanica. I. kaempferi see I. ensata. I. kamaonensis see I. kemaonensis. I. karategina see I. lineata. I. kasruwana see I. sofarana subsp. kasruwana. I. kingiana see /. kemaonensis. I. klattii see I. spuria subsp. musulmanica. I. kumaonensis see I. kemaonensis. I. lamancei see I. brevicaulis. I. lamprophylla see 7. graminea. I. landsdaleana see 7. purdyi. I. leichtlinii see 7. stolonifera. I. lepida see I. variegata. I. leucographa see 7. variegata. I. lilacina see 7. spuria. I. liladnaurea see 7. xvinicolor 'Lilacinaurea'. 7. lineolata see 7. acutiloba subsp. lineolata. I. lisbonensis see 7. subbiflora var. lisbonensis. I. loessicola see 7. atrofusca. I. longipedicellata see 7. orientalis. I. longispatha see 7. /actefl var. chinensis. I. lupina see 7. sari. 7. lycotis see 7. iberica subsp. lycotis. I. macedonica see 7. reichenbachii. I. macrosiphon var. purdyi see 7. purdyi. I. maculata see 7. heylandiana. I. madonna see 7. albicans. I. majoricensis see 7. albicans. I. mangaliae see 7. variegata. I. manissadjianii see 7. san. 7. maricoides see Gynandriris sisyrinchium. I. maritima see 7. sibirica, I. spuria subsp. maritima. I. marschalliana see 7. pontica. I. medwedewii see 7. paradoxa f. choschab. I. mellita see 7. suaveolens. I. melzeri see 7. aphylla. I. minuta see 7. minutoaurea. I. mississippiensis see 7. brevicaulis 'Mississippiensis' 7. montana see 7. missouriensis var. pelogonus. I. moorcroftiana see 7. lactea. I. musulmanica see 7. spuria subsp. musulmanica. I. mutila see Moraea tripetala. I. nana see 7. ruthenica. I. nazarensis see 7. bismarckiana. I. nepalensis see 7. decora. I. nertschinskia see 7. sanguinea. I. notha see 7. spuria subsp. notha. I. nudicaulis see 7. aphylla. I. obtusifolila see 7. imbricata. I. ochroleuca see 7. orientalis. I. odoratissima see 7. pallida. I. olbiensis see 7. lutescens.

I. orchioides see 7. bucharica. I. orchioides var. coerulea see 7. vicaria. I. palestina var. caerulea see 7. postii. I. pallidiflora see 7. setosa subsp. canadensis f. pallidiflora. I. pallasii see 7. /actea. 7. pallasii var. chinensis see I. lactea var. chinensis. I. pallido-coerulea see 7. pallida. I. palustris see 7. pseudacorus. I. panormitana see 7. pseudopumila. I. pavonia see Moraea neopavonia. I. pelogonus see 7. missouriensis var. pelogonus. I. persica var. bolleana see 7. bolleana. I. persica var. isaacsonii see 7. hymenospatha. I. persica var. issica see 7. issica. 7. persica var. magna see 7. haussknechtii. I. persica var. mardinensis see 7. haussknechtii. I. persica var. purpurea see 7. galatica. I. persica var. sieheana see 7. haussknechtii. I. persica var. stenophylla see 7. stenophylla. I. persica var. tauri see 7. stenophylla. I. pineticola see 7. humilis. I. pinetorum see 7. hartwegii subsp. pinetorum. I. plumaria see Moraea lugubris. I. polakii f. barnumae see 7. barnumae. I. polakii f. protonyma see 7. barnumae f. protonyma. I. polonica see 7. aphylla. I. portugalica see 7. subbiflora. I. pratensis see 7. sibirica. I. prilipkoana see 7. spwrm subsp. demetrii. I. pseudacorus var. manshurica see 7. maackii. I. pseudocyperus see 7. graminea var. pseudocyperus. I. pseudorossii see 7. proantha. I. pseudorossii var. valida see 7. proantha var. valida. I. purpurea see 7. galatica. I. reginae see 7. variegata. I. reticulata var. bakeriana see 7. bakeriana. I. robinsoniana see Dietes robinsoniana. I. rhaetica see 7. xsqualens. I. ricardii see 7. mesopotamica. I. rosenbachiana var. baldschuanica see 7. baldschuanica. I. rosthornii see 7. tectorum. I. rubescens see 7. fulva. 7. rubromarginata see 7. suaveolens. I. rudskyi see 7. variegata. I. ruthenica f. uniflora see 7. uniflora. I. scorpioides see 7. planifolia. I. shrevei see 7. virginica var. shrevei. I. sieheana see 7. haussknechtii. I. sindjarensis see 7. aucheri. I. sisyrinchium see Gynandriris sisyrinchium. I. skorpilii see 7. reichenbachii. I. sogdiana see 7. spwrza subsp. sogdiana. I. sophenensis see 7. histrioides var. sophenensis. I. spathulata see 7. spuria. I. spuria subsp. ochroleuca see 7. orientalis. I. statellae see 7. lutescens.

Ixia I. stenogyna see /. spuria subsp. halophila. I. stricta see /. sibirica. I. stylosa see I. unguicularis. I. subbarbata see I. spuria var. subbarbata. I. subdichotoma see Pardanthopsis dichotoma. I. sulcata see I. decora. I. sulfurea see I. imbricata. I. suphurea see I. imbricata. I. susiana f. sofarana see I. sofarana. I. susiana f. westii see I. westii. I. suwarowi see I. darwasica. I. svetlanae see I. maracandica. I. sylvatica see I. graminea. I. szovitsii see /. acutiloba. I. talischii see I. imbricata. I. tauri see I. stenophylla. I. taurica see I pumila. I. thoroldi see I potaninii. I. tianschanica see I. loczyi. I. tigridia (Dykes) see /. pandurata. I. tolmeiana see /. missouriensis. I. tricuspis var. minor see Moraea unguiculata. I. triflora see I. lactea, I. sibirica. I. trigonocarpa see I. sibirica. I. tripetala see I tridentata, Moraea tripetala. I. trojana see I. germanica. I. tuberosa see Hermodactylus tuberosus. I. 'Turkey Yellow' see /. xanthospuria. I. urmiensis see I. barnaumae f. urmiensis. I. urumovii see I. sintenisii. I. vaga see /. stolonifera. I. varbossiana see /. germanica. I. villosa see Moraea villosa. I. violacea see /. spuria subsp. musulmanica. I. virescens see I. variegata. I. watsoniana see I. douglasiana. I. xiphioides see /. latifolia. I. yedoensis see I. setosa. I. yunnanensis see I. decora. I. zonalis see /. setosa subsp. canadensis f. zonalis.

Ismene see Hymenocallis Isophysis—Iridaceae BLACK MOUNTAIN IRIS, TASMANIAN GEM, TASMANIAN EDELWEISS Name is derived from Greek iso ("equal") and physis ("form"). It is a genus of only one species from the Sentinel Range on the west side of Tasmania. It is becoming increasingly rare owing to the devastation of its habitat by sheep, goats, and other introduced animals. Most authorities place it in Iridaceae, but some place it in Liliaceae because of its superior ovary; however, other morphological traits and its DNA sequences indicate that it is an irid, perhaps quite a primitive one. The plant was first named

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Hewardia by W. J. Hooker in 1852, but this name had already been used in 1841 for a genus of ferns, so a new name had to be established for this irid. This rare plant is only for the intrepid bulb fancier, but if brought into flower in cultivation, it would no doubt inspire those who saw it to try growing it. CULTURE Clive Innes suggested that plants be grown in a mixture of equal parts sterilized loam, peat, thoroughly decomposed leafmold, and sharp washed quartzite-sand. He also recommended growing plants in a bright light but not direct sun, at a minimum temperature of 10°C (50 F). Isophysis is probably suited to climates with mild winters and cool summers, with moisture much of the year. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

According to Ron Crowden, retired from the University of Tasmania, fresh Isophysis seed germinates in one month, with scarification or other special treatment; if seed is stored for a couple of months, however, germination is delayed, and after 3 months is practically zero. The challenge he now faces is growing the seedlings. Isophysis cannot be propagated by dividing or cutting the rhizome. Tissue culture is being experimented with to preserve these endangered plants in gardens. SPECIES I. tasmanica. Tasmania, at altitudes above 750 ft., in fairly level areas with rocky outcrops. Rootstock a woody rhizome. Leaves basal, flat, lanceolate, 8 in. long, a little over 1 in. wide. Flowers starry, regular in form, 2-3 in. in diameter, deep purple to burgundy red, or rarely yellow, borne on 8-in. stems. Tepals 6, sharply pointed, usually reflexed. Stamens thrust forward, slightly curved, barely longer than the style which is divided at its apex into 3 large lobes. Ovary conical, connected at the base to the perianth. Flowering summer (November to January in the wild). Plates 726, 727.

Ixia—Iridaceae WAND FLOWER, CORN LILY Name derived from Greek ixia, said to be a plant with flowers of various colors. One common name refers to the thin, wiry stems which wave in the wind, and the other name probably refers to the stem with its buds which resembles a stalk of corn. The genus has some 50 species. All are native to S South Africa, especially SW Western Cape. All species have small corms with fibrous tunics. The offset cormlets may be sessile, or at the ends of stolons. The flower stems are either simple or branched. The leaves are narrow, sword-shaped, and tough, held erect or nearly so; generally there are only 3-5 leaves per corm, and a few small leaves on the flowering stem. The stems range from a few inches to over 20 in. in height.

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Ixia

Most species produce many flowers per stem, often more than 20. The flowers are showy, and, depending on the species, appear from spring to early summer. All have a fairly long, slender perianth tube. The lobes flare to produce a saucer-shaped, bowl-shaped, or flat flower. There are 6 perianth segments, or tepals, and 3 stamens. The stamens arise from the perianth tube and are shorter than the segments but prominent. The tube is usually darker than the lobes, so that a dark zone appears in the center of the flower. Many selections and cultivars feature a 3rd zone of color between this dark center and the main color of the lobes; such flowers are called "tricolored" in catalogs, but this kind of coloration is not often seen in the wild plants. It is not surprising that this genus has attracted the attention of hybridizers. Some well-established cultivars are 'Afterglow', orange with dark red center, reverse shaded rose; 'Blue Bird', white with deep blue center and reverse; 'Giant', white with purple center and tips; 'Hogarth', large creamy yellow with purple center; 'Marquette', bright yellow with purplish-red center and tips; 'Nelson', white with deep red center; 'Rose Emperor', rose pink with deeper center; 'Uranus', deep yellow with dark red center. These bright, lovely flowers are most effective when grown in bold masses in the garden. A well-drained, sunny location is suitable, and as long as the soil is not too poor, they perform well (Plates 32, 33, 77, 742). As container plants, they provide excellent color, in flower for a month or more. Bold plantings give a blaze of color in late spring and early summer, continuing after the late tulips. They multiply easily, and once a bed is established, the gardener will not need to purchase more corms. I have seen beds of these plants accidentally rototilled, and the following year the number of flowers was startling. Anyone who likes bright, cheerful colors should try ixias, and for gardens in a Mediterranean climate, I rate them a "must." Indoors, they must be given the brightest light possible. CULTURE Except in very hot climates, ixias should be grown in full sun. Where temperatures are often above 90°F, afternoon shade preserves the delicate colors of the flowers. The hardiness of the species and hybrids varies, but most can be expected to survive where winter temperatures rarely fall below 25°F. In colder climates, they can be grown in a cold greenhouse with night temperatures above 35°F. Though tolerant of hot summer temperatures, the corms do not need these to flower and are quite content as long as they are protected from frost. The corms are available from bulb suppliers in both fall and late winter. In mild areas they can be planted out in fall, set 1-2 in. deep in well-drained soil, spaced 3-4 in. apart and in bold groups—at least 15 or 20 corms. Allow them to become dry at the end of summer, but in fall and winter they need plenty of moisture. In cool climates where the ground does not freeze deeply, they can be protected against mild frosts by a mulch. In colder regions, they can be lifted and planted in containers, kept just frost-free over winter, or stored dry for a few months like gladiolus corms. They do not need fertilizer unless the soil is very poor.

Ixias are good container plants. Though some growers hold them for spring planting in colder areas, it is better to plant them in fall and protect them in a frame or cold greenhouse. PESTS AND DISEASES

These plants are tough and have few pest or disease problems, but since they grow through fall and winter, protection against slugs and snails is needed. PROPAGATION

The corms produce many cormels, which are easy to raise to flowering size. Separate them while plants are dormant and plant them in fall in a sandy soil mix with enough organic material to retain moisture. Barely cover the cormels and give them the same temperature and moisture conditions as adult corms. After one year, all but the smallest will reach flowering size and can be planted out. Sow seed in fall and leave seedlings for one year in the seed pot. Plant out those that are large enough and grow the others on in containers or nursery rows. Most flower in their 3rd year. SPECIES I. bellendenii. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 18-24 in. Flowers cream, pinkish on reverse, spring (October in the wild). I. brunneobracteata. Bokkeveld Mountains of South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems 10-18 in. Flowers cream, light pink on reverse; bracts dark brown; spring (September to October in the wild). I. campanulata. South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced 1778. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers dark purple lilac to dark crimson, spring (October to November in the wild). Plate 728. I. capillaris. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape); introduced 1774. Stems 8-18 in. Flowers lilac, blue, or white, sometimes with green center, winter (July to September in the wild). I. cochlearis. South Africa (Stellenbosch in Western Cape). Stems 8-16 in. Flowers rose or salmon with darker midvein, late spring (November in the wild). I. collina. South Africa (SW Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers pink, early spring (August to September in the wild). I. curta. South Africa (W coast of Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Flowers large, orange to deep yellow with red, brown or greenish center, spring (September to October in the wild). I. dubia. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers deep yellow to orange, often with dark brown or purple eye, reddish on reverse, spring to summer (October to December in the wild). I. erubescens. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 5-12 in. Flowers pink, spring (August to September in the wild). I. flexuosa. South Africa (Cape Peninsula to Riversdale in S Western Cape). Stems 14-26 in. Flowers pink, mauve, or white with purple veins, sometimes with yellow center, spring (August to September in the wild). I. fucata. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 6-16 in.

Ixia Flowers white to pale pink, spring to summer (September to November in the wild). /. gloriosa. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 16-26 in. Flowers pink to deep pink with purple-black center, early spring (August to September in the wild). I. latifolia. South Africa (Western Cape to W Karoo and Namaqualand); introduced 1774. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers pink to purple, spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). Plate 729. I. leipoldtii. South Africa (S Western Cape); endangered. Stems 5-10 in. Flowers white with maroon-red center, early spring (September in the wild). /. longituba. South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems 14-28 in. Flowers pink to white, early summer (September to November in the wild). Plate 730. I. lutea. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 12-18 in. Flowers red to purple with large purple-black blotch in center, spring (September to October flowering in the wild). I. maculata. AFRICAN CORN LILY. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1780. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves usually 4, strongly veined. Flowers numerous in dense spike, yellow or orange with coral-red flush on reverse; center markings purplish brown. Flowering early spring over a long period. Var. nigro-albida has white flowers with black center; var. ochroleuca, cream with large reddish-black spots; var. ornata, white flushed purple, crimson in center. Plates 731, 732. I. metelerkampiae. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 28 in. Flowers pink to lilac with darker purple central zone outlined with white, summer (November to December in the wild). I. micrandra. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 10-24 in. Flowers pink to white, late winter to early spring (July to August in the wild). I. monadelpha. South Africa (SW Cape). Stems to 12 in., often branched. Leaves among the widest in genus. Flowers few but showy, blue or violet, sometimes with violet and green spots; central zone tan or darker blue. Var. columnaris has no central zone and is solid claret-red; var. grandiflora, large flowers with lilac and blue markings; var. latifolia, blue flowers with brown markings; var. purpurea, smaller plants with bright red flowers with darker bluish centers; var. versicolor, bright yellow with black centers, sometimes extending as rays into the lobes. Some authorities elevate these varieties to species rank. Flowering in spring (September to October in the wild). Plates 733-735. I. odorata. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1757. Stems 12-25 in. Leaves arranged in a fan, basal, pointed, 10-12 in. long. Flowers numerous, fragrant, bowl-shaped, bright yellow, sometimes flushed red on reverse; central zone dark brown to black. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). I. orientalis. South Africa (S Western Cape to Outeniqua Mountains and Tsitsikamma in SE and E Little Karoo). Stems 16-28 in. Flowers cream or mauve, spring (September to October in the wild). I. paniculata. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1774. Corm large, often over 1 in. in diameter. Leaves only 2. Stem branched, 18-30 in. Flowers creamy white with reddish

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central zone; perianth tube often 21/2-3 in. long. Flowering spring to early summer (October to December in the wild). Plate 736. /. patens. South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced 1779. Stems 8-18 in. Flowers pink, red, or white; center paler or darker, sometimes with white or green mark; spring (September to October in the wild). I. pauciflora. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 9-15 in. Flowers cream or pink to violet, early spring (August to September in the wild). I. paucifolia. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 20 in. Flowers white or cream, spring to summer (September to November in the wild). I. polystachya. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1757. Stems to 24 in. Leaves basal, 1/4 in. wide, glabrous. Flowers white to pale mauve or pale pink, with greenish central zone, spring to summer (October to November in the wild). Unlike most ixias, prefers moist sites and shade; may be useful in areas of high summer rainfall. Var. flexuosa has reddish flowers; var. lutea has deep, clear yellow flowers on stems to 12 in. Plates 737-739. I. pumilio. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 6 in. Flowers red, early spring (August to September in the wild). I. rapunculoides. South Africa (W Karoo to Namaqualand in Western Cape). Stems 18-20 in. Flowers pale blue to mauve, early spring (August to September in the wild). I. rouxii. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 15-20 in. Flowers white, pink, or green with dark center, spring to summer (October to November in the wild). I. scillaris. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape). Stems 10-20 in. Flowers pink to magenta, occasionally white or mauve, with green center, early summer (September to November in the wild). I. splendida. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers pale pink, spring to summer (October to November in the wild). I. stohriae. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers pink or white, spring (September to October in the wild). I. stolonifera. South Africa (Montagu area in SW Western Cape). Stems 10-20 in. Flowers mauve with darker purple center, early spring (September in the wild). I. stricta. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 14-22 in. Flowers pink, summer (November to December in the wild). I. tenuifolia. South Africa (W coast of Western Cape). Stems 6-15 in. Flowers rich yellow, orange, salmon, or red, center darker, spring (September to October in the wild). I. trifolia. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 6-10 in. Flowers carmine to cyclamen pink with yellow center, winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). I. trinervata. South Africa (Caledon area in Western Cape). Stems 8-16 in. Flowers bright to deep pink or mauve, early spring (September in the wild). I. vanzijliae. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 6-16 in. Flowers pink to mauve with darker center, early spring (August to September in the wild).

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Ixiolirion

I. versicolor. South Africa (SW Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Stems 6-14 in. Flowers white or purple with dark center, spring (October in the wild). I. vinacea. South Africa (Tulbagh area in SW Western Cape). Stems to 18 in. Flowers red with dark center, early spring (August to September in the wild). I. viridiflora. South Africa (Western Cape); listed as vulnerable; introduced 1780. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves basal, narrow, linear-swordlike, arranged in a fan. Flowers numerous, bluegreen, 2 in. in diameter; central zone deep purple or maroon, almost black. This species has caught the attention of gardeners because of its unique flower color. Though rare in the wild, it is not uncommon in gardens and bulb catalogs. Efforts to capture its color in hybrids have not succeeded. Var. amethystina has white to bluish flowers. Flowering late spring (September to October in the wild). Plates 740, 741. SYNONYMS

I. anemonaeflora see Sparaxis bulbifera. I. aristata see I. campanulata, I. longituba. I. aulica see I. latifolia. I. aurantiaca see I. polystachya var. lutea. I. capillaris aulica see I. latifolia. I. capitata see I. monadelpha. I. coelestina see Sphenostigma coelestinum. I. columellaris see /. monadelpha var. columnaris. I. conferta see I. lutea. I. crateroides see I. campanulata. I. crispa see I. erubescens. I. erecta var. lutea see I. odorata. I. framesii see I. tenuifolia. I. grandiflora see I. monadelpha var. grandiflora, Sparaxis grandiflora. I. incarnata see I. latifolia. I. latifolia see /. monadelpha var. latifolia. I. leucantha see /. polystachya. I. longifolia see I. paniculata. I. maculata var. amethystina see I. viridiflora var. amethystina. I. maculata var. viridis see I. viridiflora. I. rosea see Romulea rosea. I. scariosa see I. latifolia. I. sordida see Sparaxis fragrans. I. speciosa see I. campanulata. I. spectabilis see I. viridiflora. I. uniflora see Sparaxis grandiflora. I. versicolor see I. monadelpha var. versicolor.

Ixiolirion—Amaryllidaceae BLUE ALTAI LILY, IXIA LILY, LILY-OF-THE-ALTAI, SIBERIAN LILY, SKY-BLUE LILY Name derived from Greek ixos, the name used by Theophrastus for birdlime, referring to the sticky sap, and lirion ("lily"). Some authorities recognize as many as 4 species in this genus, but others consider it monotypic. It comes from the warmer parts of C Asia, growing in rocky and grassy habitats. In flower, the plants

resemble the blue Triteleia species of W North America. The white bulb is small, rarely more than1/2in. in diameter, and consists of a few scales. The flowers, in various shades of blue-purple, are borne in loose umbels or short racemes of as many as 15. Each flower is about 1 in. long and as wide at the mouth. The perianth segments are separate but are held in a funnel shape, recurving at the tips. The stamens are shorter than perianth segments; the yellow pollen contrasts well with the violet-blue perianth. The leaves are narrow, sheathing the base of the stem; generally only 3 or 4 leaves are present. They may emerge in fall and persist through winter. The flowering stems may reach 18 in. but are usually about 12 in. Flowering occurs in late spring to early summer. Ixiolirion can be planted in the front of sunny borders or in protected pockets in the rock garden, though the plants are rather tall and slender for the latter use. Left undisturbed, they multiply slowly. They are good cut flowers. Though not popular bulbs, they deserve a place in hot, dry gardens and are often found in bulb catalogs. CULTURE

Ixiolirion plants are hardy to about 5°F, but their leaves emerge in winter and can be damaged by frost, so they are best suited to mild climates. Supplied as dormant bulbs in fall. Plant bulbs 6 in. deep and 6-10 in. apart in late summer or early fall. They require full sun and well-drained soil, with moisture from late fall through early spring. They must experience a hot, dry summer dormancy to flourish; the bulbs are likely to rot if damp in summer. They grow in poor soils in the wild, so they require little or no feeding in the garden. In cold climates, bulbs can be lifted in late summer, held over winter in a dry, frost-free place, and replanted in spring so that growth emerges after danger of frost has passed. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

The bulbs do not offset much. Seed is freely produced and can be sown in fall or spring, barely covered in a free-draining soil mix. Germination occurs in 30-90 days. Grow seedlings in the same container until they go dormant, giving occasional weak liquid feeds, and transplant to larger containers or nursery rows after leaves wither. They reach flowering size after 2-3 years. SPECIES I. kolpakowskianum. Turkestan; introduced 1878. Stems to 12 in. Leaves grasslike. Flowers pale blue-lavender or white, long and narrow. Perhaps a variant of I. tataricum. I. ledebourii. SW and C Asia. Similar to I. tataricum and sometimes considered a subspecies of it. Flowers consistently bright violet. I. tataricum. BLUE LILY. W and C Asia, on rocky hillsides and grassy slopes, often at high altitudes; introduced 1821. In treatments which regard the genus as monotypic, this is called subsp. montanum. Stems to 18 in., usually less. Leaves basal, generally 3-8. Flowers in an umbel, violet-blue, with 3 darker veins in

Kniphofia each tepal. Tepals to 2 in. long, spreading, sometimes recurved. Plate 743. SYNONYMS

I. montanum see I. tataricum. I. pallasii see I. tataricum. I. tataricum subsp. ledebourii see I. ledebourii.

K inugasa—Trilliaceae (Liliaceae) Name is the Japanese designation for the plant, a compound of kinu ("silk") and gasa ("umbrella"), referring to the whorls of leaves. A monotypic genus. Kinugasa japonica is rare in cultivation in the West. The plant is very erect in appearance, and is a subject for the woodland garden in mild temperate climates, along with other Trillium relatives such as Paris. CULTURE Plant in light shade in a moisture-retentive soil rich in humus, with rain or irrigation throughout the year, a little drier in winter. If available, likely to be supplied as a container plant. Set the rhizomes 3-4 in. deep and 12-18 in. apart. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide rootstock in spring as soon as growth is observed. Replant immediately, never allowing it to dry out. Seed loses viability rapidly in storage so must be sown fresh, after removal of the fleshy coat, and kept moist in cool but frost-free conditions. SPECIES

K. japonica. Japan (Honshu), in mountain forests. Rootstock a spreading, short, and thick rhizome. Stem to about 24 in. Leaves arranged on the stem in whorls of 8 or more, elliptic to obovate, narrower toward the base than at the apex. Flowering stalk 3 in., arising from the center of the top whorl of leaves. Flowers consist of 8-10 white, petaloid sepals, 1-2 in. long and spreading; the true petals are minute or absent, and white. In the center are 16 or more stamens almost 1 in. long. The ovary is green and stubby, with the apex depressed to form an offwhite disc; the white styles are joined into a column, recurved at the tip. Fruit fleshy and edible.

Kniphofia—Aloeaceae (Liliaceae) RED-HOT POKER, TORCH LILY, POKER PLANT, TRITOMA Named in honor of Johannes Hieronymus Kniphof (17041763), professor of medicine at Erfurt University and author of Botanica in Originali or Herbarium Vivum, which was illustrated by coating dried plant specimens with printer's ink and pressing them on paper. One species illustrated was Aloe uvaria, which later became the type species of the genus that bears his name, as Kniphofia uvaria. (English speakers often render the

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name "niffofia," but the correct pronunciation is something like "k'nip-hoffia.") There are about 65 species, mostly from Africa, particularly South Africa; 2 species are from Madagascar, and one from Yemen. Many species are worthy of a place in the garden, but few are commonly grown. The rootstock is a mass of short, thick rhizomes with crowns at soil level or just below it. The leaves are linear to swordshaped or strap-shaped, quite grassy in some species and broad and fleshy in others. The leaves of most species are V-shaped in cross section (that is, keeled). The flowers are carried, usually above the level of the leaves, in spikelike racemes resembling the fireplace pokers alluded to by one of the common names. The individual flowers are tubular and to 2 in. long. Colors include white, various shades of yellow, orange, pinkish orange, and red, and green. In some species and hybrids, the individual flowers change color as they mature, so that the inflorescence appears bicolored, with the first-opening, paler flowers below. Depending on the species, the number of flowers varies from a few to several hundred. Those lowest on the stem open first; they are usually held vertically in bud, out ward-facing in the early stage of flowering, drooping later. (They are adapted to bird pollination, and in the Americas are favorites of hummingbirds.) The flowering period thus extends over a considerable time. Different species flower in spring, summer, or fall (mostly November to March in the wild), and some hybrids flower twice—heavily in early summer, and lightly in late summer. Few if any are fragrant. There are both evergreen and deciduous species and hybrids. These robust and variable plants have given rise to numerous hybrids. Generally these are classified as dwarf (under 30 in.) or tall (up to 6 ft.). The color range includes white, yellow, orange, and red, with some bicolors. Most of the named clones on the market were bred in England and Ireland and should be tried in colder climates; those most often listed are 'Little Maid' (dwarf cream) and 'Primrose Beauty' (tall yellow). There are also hybrid seed strains, such as 'Border Ballet', selected for size and a wide color range. They flower in the 3rd year from seed, and the gardener who has room for a nursery row can soon select clones well adapted to local conditions. Kniphofias are mainstays of the perennial border. The largegrowing kinds, such as the common red hot poker of English gardens, need plenty of space, but there are many smaller strains and cultivars available. Both species and hybrids exhibit a range of cold-hardiness, but only a few can persist where winter temperatures regularly fall below 15°F. Recent interest in hybridizing them in North America—they have long had the attention of British growers—may result in the introduction of more winter-hardy cultivars. Some of the most publicized British cultivars, such as 'Little Maid', are of marginal hardiness (to 0°F), but similar, hardier plants can be selected for colder gardens. The flowers are used in arrangements, but they last much longer in the garden. CULTURE Kniphofias require full sun and a free-draining soil with plenty of humus. Normally supplied as container plants, they can be

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Kniphofia

planted in spring or fall, setting them at the same level as they have been growing and spaced according to their eventual proportions: about 18 in. apart for small kinds, and 2-3 ft. apart for larger ones. They must be kept moist while the leaves remain green, though established plants of many species and hybrids can withstand considerable drought in summer. If seed is not required, spent flowering stems should be cut down at the base. Leave plants undisturbed until they become crowded and flower production declines, then lift and divide them, replanting them in amended soil. No feeding is necessary, but a spring application of balanced fertilizer is appreciated. Staking is not normally required. In cold areas, protect plants with a loose mulch in winter, removing it in spring. The smallest kniphofias can be charming in containers, provided they have enough room for their roots to spread out. Container-grown plants should not be allowed to freeze, or the rootstocks will die. PESTS AND DISEASES

These are tough plants, rarely bothered by disease or pests, but the crowns may rot in cold, wet winters. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide plants in fall in moderate climates, in spring in colder regions. Replant immediately; do not allow the rootstocks to dry out. Seed is freely set by many garden plants, and seed companies offer strains selected for color and size. Sow seed in fall or spring in a sandy soil mix. Germination is usually rapid. Transplant seedlings to individual containers as soon as they are big enough to handle. Plant out in flowering sites after 2 years of growth. Cultivars will not come true from seed and must be propagated by division. SPECIES K. acraea. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 20-24 in. Flowers greenish yellow in bud, opening yellow, late summer (March in the wild). K. albescens. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga), often above 6000 ft., in thick grassland. Stems stout, to 24 in. Leaves spreading and recurved, dull green to slightly glaucous, narrow, to 36 in. long. Flowers greenish white in bud, sometimes tinged pink, opening white or cream. Stamens longer than perianth; stigma remains projecting from withered flower. Flowering mid to late summer (January to March in the wild). K. angustifolia. South Africa (N Eastern Cape). Stems 16-28 in. Flowers white to yellow or coral red, usually late summer (January to March in the wild). Plate 744. K. baurii. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal), on moist grassy slopes and along streams, often at 2000-4000 ft. Stems to 4 ft. or more. Leaves erect, keeled, about 8-10 per crown, rather soft, glaucous, to 24 in. long. Inflorescence often broader than long. Flowers dull red in bud, opening greenish yellow. Flowering time variable, normally spring (September to November in the wild), sometimes mid summer (December to February in the wild). Relatively hardy.

K. brachystachya. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal) and Lesotho. Stems 10-28 in. Flowers light yellow to purplish brown, summer (November to January in the wild). K. breviflora. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Free State); introduced 1897. Stems 16-32 in. Flowers white (in KwaZuluNatal populations) or yellow (Free State), greenish yellow flushed red in bud, late summer (January to March in the wild). K. bruceae. South Africa (SE Eastern Cape). Flowers orangered in bud, opening pale yellow, narrowly funnel-shaped, fall (April to May in the wild). Used to create late-blooming hybrids, K. xpmecox. K. buchananii. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), at 1000-4000 ft., in grassland and among rocks. Stems to 30 in. or more. Leaves narrow, to 24 in. long. Inflorescence dense at the top, well-spaced below. Flowers red in bud, late summer (February to March in the wild), sometimes earlier or later. K. caulescens. South Africa (Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape) and Lesotho; introduced 1862. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers coral-pink to flame red in bud, opening creamy white to greenish yellow, flushed peach, mid to late summer (January to March in the wild). K. titrina. South Africa (SW Eastern Cape); introduced 1892. Stems 16-28 in. Flowers red or yellow in bud, opening yellow to greenish yellow or white, usually red at tips, late summer to fall (March to May in the wild). K. coddiana. South Africa (E Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 16-28 in. Flowers red in bud, opening yellow to orangeyellow, early spring (August to October in the wild). K. coralligemma. South Africa (E Northern Province). Stems 24-48 in. Flowers creamy white with coral tips, or orange-scarlet in bud opening pale orange, late summer to fall (February to April in the wild). K. crassifolia. South Africa (E Northern Province). Stems to 12 in. Flowers cream. K. drepanophylla. South Africa (S KwaZulu-Natal, N Eastern Cape). Stems 10-20 in. Flowers greenish yellow tipped red in bud, opening lemon yellow, early spring (August to October in the wild). K. ensifolia. South Africa (Northwestern Province, Free State, Gauteng, E Northern Cape, Mpumalanga). Stems 24-48 in. Flowers reddish in bud, opening white, greenish white, or cream, early summer (October to December in the wild). Subsp. autumnalis from Free State sometimes has yellow flowers, fall (February to March in the wild). K. evansii. Border of W KwaZulu-Natal and Free State in South Africa with Lesotho. Stems 20-30 in. Flowers yellowish orange to scarlet in bud, opening deep purple, summer (January to February in the wild). K. fibrosa. South Africa (S KwaZulu-Natal, NE Eastern Cape). Stems 12-14 in. Flowers pale yellow, late summer (February to March in the wild). K. flammula. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); listed as vulnerable. Stems 20-34 in. Flowers flame to scarlet in bud, opening orange-yellow flushed salmon, summer (November to January in the wild). K. fluviatilis. South Africa (Northern Province to S Kwa-

Kniphofia Zulu-Natal and C Northwestern Province). Stems 18-24 in. Flowers dull orange-red in bud, opening light orange-yellow, golden or greenish yellow, early summer (November to December in the wild). K.foliosa. Ethiopia; introduced 1880. Stems to 36 in. Flowers bright yellow, sometimes flushed red-orange, spring. K. galpinii. Swaziland and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, SE Mpumalanga); introduced 1930. Stems 12-14 in., rarely to 40 in. Flowers orange-red to red in bud, opening yellow to orange, late summer (January to March in the wild). Most plants grown under this name are K. triangularis. K. gradlis. South Africa (N Eastern Cape, S and E KwaZuluNatal). Stems 10-30 in. Flowers whitish flushed pink, yellow or orange in bud, opening white to creamy yellow, summer (December to April in the wild). K. hirsuta. Lesotho and South Africa (Eastern Cape); listed as vulnerable; introduced 1966. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers orange to salmon pink in bud, opening dull greenish yellow, summer (December to January in the wild). K. ichopensis. South Africa (SW KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 2036 in. Flowers pale yellow flushed red in bud, opening cream to greenish yellow (rarely salmon), summer (December to March in the wild). K. insignis. Ethiopia; introduced 1924. Stems to 36 in. Flowers pink in bud, opening pink to white, spring. K. isoetifolia. Ethiopia. Flowers cream, yellow, salmon, or red; flowers open from top of inflorescence downward, spring. K. kirkii. Tanzania; introduced 1887. Stems to 48 in. Flowers reddish orange to salmon, winter. K. latifolia. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); endangered. Stems 24-40 in. Flowers red in bud, opening greenish-yellow flowers, spring (October to November in the wild). K. laxiflora. South Africa (N Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, S Mpumalanga). Stems 16-36 in. Flowers open pale yellow, greenish yellow, salmon, orange, or coral-red, darker in bud, late summer to fall (February to May in the wild). K. leucocephala. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); endangered. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers pale coral in bud, opening yellow, summer (December to January in the wild). K. linearifolia. South Africa, E Zimbabwe, and Swaziland, widespread at 1000-6500 ft. in marshy places, streambanks, and mountain grasslands. Stems stout, to 5 ft. Leaves to 4 ft. long, erect when young, then bent, substantial, with distinct keel. Inflorescence to 6 in. long, long-lasting. Flowers red in bud, opening yellow. Some South African populations in KwaZulu-Natal are green in bud, opening greenish yellow. Flowering mid to late summer (January to March in the wild). Possibly the finest species. K. littoralis. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 8-24 in. Flowers red in bud, opening pale yellow to light green, spring (August to October in the wild). K. multiflora. South Africa (E Northern Province, E Mpumalanga, NW KwaZulu-Natal) and W Swaziland; introduced 1899. Stems 30-60 in. Flowers greenish to yellowish orange in bud, tips red, opening white to pale yellow, late summer to fall (February to April in the wild).

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K. northiae. South Africa (SW KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape) and Lesotho; introduced 1889. Stems to 30 in. or more. Leaves gray-green, not keeled, to 5 in. wide at base, evergreen. Flowers reddish pink in bud, opening white to yellow, summer (December to February in the wild). K. pallidiflora. Ankaratra Mountains in Madagascar; introduced 1887. Stems 12-20 in. Flowers white, funnel-shaped on long pedicels, fall. K. parviflora. South Africa (Eastern Cape, S KwaZuluNatal). Stems 10-32 in. Flowers creamy yellow or yellowish green, late summer (January to March in the wild). K. paudflora. South Africa (Durban area in KwaZulu-Natal), now believed extinct in the wild; introduced 1860. Stems 12-20 in. Flowers deep yellow in bud, opening lighter yellow, spring to early summer (October to November in the wild). K. porphyrantha. South Africa (Northwestern Province, Free State, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, NW KwaZulu-Natal) and Swaziland. Stems 16-24 in. Flowers orange with yellow tips in bud, opening lemon yellow, late spring to mid summer (October to January in the wild). K. praecox. South Africa (S Eastern Cape); introduced 1862. Stems 4-6 ft. Flowers red in bud, opening red to yellow, summer (December to January in the wild). K. xpraecox. Garden hybrid (K. uvaria or K. linearifolia x K. bruceae). K. pumila. Ethiopia; introduced 1774. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers dull red to yellow, opening from top down, summer. K. rigidifolia. South Africa (E Mpumalanga). Stems 20-36 in. Flowers red in bud, opening yellowish green to greenish, spring (October to November in the wild). K. ritualis. Lesotho and adjacent South Africa (Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape). Stems 16-36 in. Flowers reddish in bud, opening greenish yellow, late summer (January to March in the wild). K. rooperi. South Africa (E coastal Eastern Cape, S KwaZuluNatal). Stems 24-55 in. Flowers reddish in bud, opening orange-red to yellowish green, winter to early spring (June to September in the wild). K. sarmentosa. South Africa (W Karoo, Western Cape). Stems 16-36 in. Flowers reddish in bud, opening salmon to buffwhite, fall to winter (June to October in the wild). K. schimpferi. Ethiopia. Stems 16-36 in. Flowers yellow to orange or red, late spring to summer. K. splendida. Swaziland and South Africa (Mpumalanga, Northern Province). Stems 4-8 ft. Flowers yellow or greenish yellow with orange to red tips in bud, opening yellow, late summer (February to March in the wild). K. stricta. Lesotho and South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 12-28 in. Flowers orange to coral red in bud, opening yellow or greenish yellow, mid to late summer (January to March in the wild). K. tabularis. South Africa (SW Western). Stems 24-48 in. Flowers red in bud, opening yellow, late spring to summer (October to January in the wild). K. thodei. Lesotho and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 12-28 in. Flowers dull red with white tips in bud, opening

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white, sometimes flushed reddish brown, mid summer (January in the wild). K. triangularis. South Africa (Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape) and Lesotho. Stems 12-24 in. Leaves narrow, margins toothed. Flowers coral, orange, salmon, or orangeyellow, mid summer to fall (January to April in the wild). Subsp. obtusiloba from KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga has smooth leaf margins, flowers fading purplish brown. K. typhoides. South Africa (N KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, NE Free State), mostly at 4000-5500 ft. in black clay. Stems to 30 in. or more. Leaves to 24 in. long, bending near the tips. Flowers uniquely colored, brown, so the long, narrowly cylindrical inflorescence resembles a cattail (Typha, hence the name). Flowers seldom become pendent even when withered. Flowering mid to late summer (February to March in the wild). K. tysonii. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, N Eastern Cape). Stems to 6 ft. Flowers orange-red to pinkish red in bud, opening greenish yellow, late summer to fall (February to April in the wild). Subsp. lebomboensisfrom KwaZulu-Natal and Swaziland has short green flowers with long stamens. K. umbrina. Swaziland; endangered. Stems to 36 in. Flowers purplish brown in bud, opening reddish brown and fading blackish, late summer (February to March in the wild). K. uvaria. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape, Eastern Cape), in marshy places and beside streams from sea level to 4000 ft.; introduced 1707. Stems to 36 in. Leaves keeled, tough, often slightly toothed near tips, to 30 in. long. Inflorescence usually globose or slightly oblong. Flowers brilliant scarlet or greenish tinged red in bud, opening orange or greenish yellow. Flowering freely after bush fires; it is now known that the smoke, not the high temperature, causes the increase in flowering. Flowering time variable, in the wild depending on fires, but usually late spring into summer (October to December in the wild) or fall (April to May). An early introduction, at first regarded as a conservatory plant but soon common in borders, it is an ancestor of many hybrids; the species name is sometimes erroneously applied to various old garden hybrids. Plates 745, 746. SYNONYMS

K. alooides see K. uvaria. K. burchellii see K. uvaria. K. carinata see K. pumila. K. composa see K. pumila. K. elegans see K. coddiana, K. schimpferi. K. leichtlinii see K. pumila. K. longicollis see K. rooperi. K. macowanii see K. triangularis. K. natalensis see K. laxiflora. K. nelsonii see K. triangularis. K. obtusiloba see K. triangularis subsp. obtusiloba. K. praecox subsp. bruceae see K. bruceae. K. rivularis see K. ensifolia. K. rufa see K. angustifolia. K. sparsa see K. gradlis. K. tuckii see K. ensifolia. K. woodii see K. gradlis.

Koellikeria—Gesneriaceae Named in honor of a Professor Koelliker of Wurzburg, who wrote A List of Wild Plants of Zurich. There are only 2 or 3 species in this genus of the warmer regions from Peru and Bolivia north to Costa Rica. They have scaly rhizomes. The leaves are opposite, soft and downy with attractive silver dots, often with flushed reddish. Above the leaves rise numerous stems carrying very small but numerous flowers. The corolla is tubular, flaring into 5 lobes; the lower 3 lobes are longer and larger than the upper 2. The 4 anthers are united. It is reported that the flowers have a coconut fragrance. They are sometimes grown in warm greenhouses or terrariums for their decorative leaves, and might be suitable for small summer bedding areas on the north side of a house in a warm climate. CULTURE Temperatures must be kept above 50°F at night. Treat the plants like Achimenes, using a light, free-draining, humusy soil. The rhizomes can be started into growth indoors about 4 weeks before outdoor night temperatures are consistently above 50°F. When plants are 2-3 in. tall, they can be planted outdoors in warm gardens. Space the plants 3-5 in. apart. They prefer bright light, but not direct sunlight. Feed lightly after new growth is visible. At the end of summer, allow plants to dry out and lift the rhizomes. Store them in barely moist peat for replanting the following spring. In the warm greenhouse or house, keep plants barely moist and avoid wide temperature fluctuations. PESTS AND DISEASES

Protect against whitefly and other pests that attack gesneriads. PROPAGATION

Divide rhizomes at the end of the growing season. Seed is rarely offered, but if you have some, follow directions for raising Achimenes. SPECIES K. argyrostigma. Peru. Stems to 12 in., covered with soft hairs. Leaves crowded toward top of stem, velvety green with white spots. Inflorescence terminal, upright; flowers tiny, spotted red on cream or white background, exterior covered with minute hairs, interior surface glabrous, throat purple. K. erinoides. Costa Rica and Venezuela. Stems to 6 in. in leaf, 12 in. in flower. Leaves 4 in. long, 2 in. wide, silver-spotted, with reddish, hairy veins. Tube red on upper side, white on underside; the lower lobes much longer than upper; yellow spot or blotch in throat. 'Red Satin' has darker, redder leaves with silver spots.

Kohleria—Gesneriaceae Derivation of name not known. This genus of 50 or more species comes from tropical Central and South America. There are several species with scaly rhizomes, and 4 of these are well worth growing for their attractive flowers. The plants are erect, with hairy stems and oval, opposite, usually hairy leaves. Appearing from summer into fall, the flowers are solitary, or appear to be

Lachenalia because their stalks arise in bundles from the same point on the stem. The drooping, tubular flowers have 5 lobes and are often different colors inside and out; the lobes turn back to reveal the interior of the tube, and in some species only the upper lobes recurve. The 4 stamens are inserted at the base of the corolla tube. The flowers may be yellow, red, or orange, sometimes with a hint of purple. The plants are dormant for a brief period after flowering. They are pleasant house plants with long-lasting flowers but can be grown outdoors only where night temperatures remain above 50°F. It is to be hoped that there will someday be hybrids tolerant of cooler temperatures. CULTURE Temperatures above 50°F at night are essential. Use a loose soil mix with plenty of organic matter. Set rhizomes 2-3 in. deep, 35 in. apart in fairly shallow containers. Plants in growth should be given ample moisture but allowed to become almost dry between waterings. Place in good light for at least 12-14 hours a day to keep plants compact and promote flowering. PESTS AND DISEASES

Red spider mites can be a problem if the humidity is low. PROPAGATION

Take tip cuttings when plants are in full growth in summer and root them in sharp sand with bottom heat. Transplant into individual containers when rooted. After growth has ceased in fall, divide rhizomes; however, new growth often starts before all the old growth has withered. SPECIES

K. amabilis. Colombia. Leaves dark green, often with silver markings; underside lighter green, often flushed red with purple-brown veins. Flowers pendent, in upper axils or terminal shoot, on pedicels almost 3 in. long. Tube swollen below throat, often 1 in. long, deep rose with orange-red stripes; lobes lighter pink with maroon spots and bars. Flowering throughout the year, mostly in summer. K. bogotensis. Colombia. Stems erect to 18 in. Leaves dark, velvety green with pale green or white markings, often flushed brownish; underside often reddish. Flowers solitary, sometimes in pairs, on pedicels 2 in. long. Corolla tube 1 in. long, swollen below throat, red fading to yellow at base and yellow with red spot below. Lower lobes yellow with red spots; upper lobes smaller, red, without spots. K. digitaliflora. Colombia. Stems to 24 in. Leaves scalloped, hairy, often over 7 in. long, 3 in. wide. Flowers in stalked clusters, tubular, hairy; tubes pink and white; lobes purple with green spots. Flowering summer into fall. K. eriantha. Colombia. Stems have reddish hairs. Leaves to 5 in. long, with red hairs on edges. Flowers often solitary, often in clusters of 3-4, dark red to orange-red with yellow-spotted lobes. Usually flowering from summer into fall, but can bloom almost year-round. A lovely species, very strong-growing and the parent of many hybrids and selections. Cultivars include 'Bach', orange tube and red lobes spotted darker red; 'Dido', pinkish-orange flowers with yellow throat and bronze, graygreen leaves, compact grower; 'Jester', amethyst violet with

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darker spots; 'Hanna Roberts', large creamy yellow flowers with light maroon spots; 'Red Rider', bright red flowers with deeper red spots.

Kolpakowskia K. kolpakowskianum see Ixiolirion kolpakowskianum.

Korolkowia K. sewerzowii see Fritillaria sewerzowii.

Lachenalia—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) WILD HYACINTH, CAPE COWSLIP, LEOPARD LILY Named in honor of Werner de Lachenal (1736-1800), professor of botany in Basel, Switzerland. There are more than 100 species and several named hybrids. The flowers resemble hyacinths; however, Lachenalia species have fewer flowers, fleshier stems, and leaves that are generally more succulent. All species are native to South Africa, particularly in and around the Cape Peninsula. The bulbs are rarely more than 1 in. in diameter, are fleshy, white, and tunicated, producing many fibrous roots. The thick leaves, usually 2 per bulb, are mostly upright and can be linear or almost cylindrical, enveloping the base of the scape. They frequently have spots or raised dots called pustules. The leaves in most species are 8-10 in. long, rarely as long as 12 in. The flowers are held in a spike or raceme of as many as 20. The flowers are tubular to bell-shaped, with 6 tepals that are free but closely held, so that the flower appears to be made up of 2 tubes, one inside the other. The outer tepals are shorter than the inner ones, and the entire flower is only about 1 in. long. The flowers may be a single color or may have transverse zones of different colors; some species are sweetly scented. The capsules are 3-celled, with many shiny black seeds. The time of flowering varies considerably, from early fall until early summer (March or early April to mid-December in the wild). In their native habitat they receive little or no rainfall during summer and are dormant then. Over the years, a large number of hybrids have been raised by various firms, notably Van Tubergen of the Netherlands. The parents most often used are L. aloides and L. bulbifera. A wide color range of Lachenalia is now available (Plate 761). Lachenalias are excellent pot plants. They should be placed close together and look best in shallow containers or fern pans. The flowers are long-lasting, often to 6-8 weeks, each bulb producing as many as 3-4 spikes. Lachenalia bulbifera and some others can be grown in hanging, moss-lined wire baskets. A few bulbs can be placed point downward in the bottom of the basket; the basket is then filled with well-drained potting soil and another layer of bulbs placed just below the soil surface. They can be planted outdoors in frost-free areas, given some sun but

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sheltered from the hottest rays during late morning and early afternoon. In cool coastal climates, full sun is better. They look best when planted toward the front of a border. They are sometimes grown commercially as cut flowers. CULTURE These winter-growing bulbs do not tolerate frost, though they can be grown where infrequent, very light frosts occur if placed in a protected spot and mulched. They are excellent for the cool greenhouse. Use a well-drained soil rich in humus. Plants require little or no water when dormant, but plenty of moisture when in active growth, until the leaves start to turn yellow. Then reduce watering, and withhold it entirely when the leaves are withered. The bulbs can be left in the ground where they will be dry; otherwise, lift and store them in barely moist peat and sand. Replant in late summer and start watering as soon as growth is seen. In containers, plant bulbs about 2 in. deep, 1-2 in. apart, 6 bulbs per 6-in. pot or, if the bulbs are large, 6 per 10-in. pot. The bulbs do not respond to being forced but can be brought into flower earlier in the greenhouse than in open ground. Cooler night temperatures prolong the life of the flowers. Water container plants well, then allow them to become almost dry before watering again. PESTS AND DISEASES

A form ofFusarium attacks the roots and the base of the bulb. This is most common when plants are grown with inadequate drainage. The first sign is a pinkish discoloration on the roots and base of the bulb. Affected bulbs should be discarded. Pests include the usual aphids, slugs, and snails. PROPAGATION

Separate offsets, produced in moderate numbers, when bulbs are dormant. Offsets usually flower after one year, but the smallest may take 2 years. Therefore, separate the sizes in different containers for the most consistent floral display. Sow seed as soon as it is ripe, or in late summer, in a welldrained soil mix, barely covered. Water well and then keep barely moist until germinated. Night temperatures near 65°F are best. Keep moist until leaves wither, then keep on the dry side but not so dry the bulbs shrivel. Plants raised from seed frequently produce flowers the following season. SPECIES L. alba. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems 4-14 in. Flowers white, sometimes with red, green, or blue keels, spring (August to October in the wild). L. algoensis. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1870. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers greenish yellow, late winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). L. abides. South Africa (W Western Cape); introduced 1774. Flowers have 3 zones of color, which accounts for the plant often being incorrectly listed in catalogs as L. tricolor. Stems to 10 in. Leaves 2, broadly lanceolate, dark green with purple spots. Number of flowers per spike varies from 10 to more than 20. Flowers pendent, inner segments green tipped with bur-

gundy, outer segments deep rose or crimson tipped with yellow. Flowering winter (July in the wild). 'Pearsonii' has brightorange flowers edged with claret red. Var. aurea has bright golden-orange flowers; its selections include 'Gigantea', with large flower spikes; 'Nelsonii', unspotted leaves, flowers not as bright orange as var. aurea, tinged green. Var. luteola has flowers tinted yellow; var. quadricolor, red base, then a zone of greenish yellow, outer segments tipped green, inner reddish purple; var. vanzyliae from Western Cape is 2-10 in. tall, with bluish-green flowers. Plates 747-751. L. ameliae. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 5 in. Flowers pale yellow to green, sometimes with purple median stripe, early spring (August to September in the wild). L. anguinea. South Africa (W coast of Western Cape). Stems 4-16 in. Leaves banded with transverse reddish markings, hence the name, meaning "snakelike." Flowers white with green tips, winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). L. arbuthnotiae. South Africa (coastal Western Cape). Stems 7-16 in. Flowers yellow, outer segments flushed green, spring to early summer (August to October in the wild). L. bachmanii. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers white with red keel, spring (August to September in the wild). L. barkeriana. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape). Leaves 3-9, narrow. Flowers in 1/2 in. high cluster at ground level, greenish white flushed red, fall to winter (May to July in the wild). L. bolusii. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape). Stems 4-14 in. Underside of leaf banded maroon. Outer segments pale bluish green to cream, inner reddish at tips, early spring (August to September in the wild). L. bowkeri. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 4-10 in. Flowers greenish with brown or purple tips, early spring (August in the wild). L. buchubergensis. South Africa (Northern Cape) and SW Namibia. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers few, greenish blue, winter (July in the wild). L. bulbifera. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 6-15 in. or more. Leaves erect, linear-lanceolate, rarely spotted purple. Flowers 18-25 per stem, pendent, coral red edged with green or purple. Inner and outer segments often equal or nearly so. Flowering late winter. This large-flowered species, the showiest of the genus, enjoys some popularity as a cut flower and is a good container plant. Plates 752, 753. L. xcammii. Garden hybrid (L. abides var. aurea x L. bulbifera) with flower like L. abides var. aurea, habit of L. bulbifera. L. capensis. South Africa (Cape Peninsula) Stems 6-10 in. Flowers creamy white with yellow tips, fading to brownish pink, late spring (September to October in the wild). L. carnosa. South Africa (Namaqualand in Northern Cape). Stems 4-10 in. Flowers greenish white with maroon to magenta tips, spring (August to September in the wild). L. comptonii. South Africa (Karoo). Stems 2-8 in. Leaves covered with long white hairs. Flowers white with green keel and purple filaments, late spring (September to October in the wild).

Lachenalia L. concordiana. South Africa (Northern Cape); rare. Stems 2-8 in. Flowers pale yellow and green, spring (September in the wild). L. congesta. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems 3-6 in. Flowers white with green tips, winter to early spring (June to August in the wild). L contaminata. WILD HYACINTH. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 8-10 in. Leaves grasslike. Flowers widely open rather than tubular, waxy white; tips often light brown. Flowering late spring (August to October in the wild). L. dasybotrya. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape). Stems 2-4 in. Flowers white with greenish or brown markings, spring (August to October in the wild). L. dehoopensis. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 3-6 in. Flowers creamy with red tips, spring (August to September in the wild). L. duncanii. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 6-7 in. Flowers cream with green markings, spring (August to September in the wild). L. elegans. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 7-9 in. Outer segments rose with bright blue at base and brown tips; inner white with pink at tip, spring to early summer (October in the wild). Var. flava, introduced 1989, has yellow and green flowers, maroon at tips, flowering winter (July to August in the wild). Var. membranacea has yellow and green flowers, brown at tips, early spring (August to September in the wild). Var. suaveolens has pink flowers with bluish base and maroon tips, white margins, spring (August to September in the wild). L. esterhuysenae. Cedarberg Mountains of South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 6-18 in. Flowers white with light green markings, early summer (October to December in the wild). L.fistulosa. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1918. Stems to 8 in. Flowers lilac and white, fragrant, late spring (September to October in the wild). L. framesii. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 3-6 in. Flowers greenish yellow with bright purple tips, winter (July to August in the wild). L. giessii. SW Namibia. Stems 2-6 in. Flowers white with green or reddish markings in a crowded, outward-facing inflorescence, early spring (August to September in the wild). L. gillettii. South Africa (NW Western Cape). Stems 5-8 in. Flowers flushed lilac, tipped green on outer segments and magenta on inner, early spring (August to September in the wild). L. glaucophylla. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems 3-10 in. Flowers cream with green markings, late spring to early summer (October in the wild). L. haarlemensis. South Africa (W Eastern Cape). Stems 5-8 in. Flowers greenish gray, filaments mauve, spring to early summer (September to October in the wild). L. hirta. South Africa (Northern Cape to Western Cape). Stems 4-12 in. Leaves narrow with hairy margins. Flowers pale yellow with greenish-blue base and brown tips, early spring (August to September in the wild). Var. exserta from NW Western Cape has stamens prominently exserted. L. isopetala. South Africa (Northern Cape); introduced 1804. Stems to 8 in. Leaves 8 in. long. Flowers purplish brown flushed

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red, late spring to summer (October to November in the wild). A white form is known. Plate 754. L. juncifolia. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 3-9 in. Flowers white flushed pink, with darker pink, purple, or green markings, spring to early summer (August to October in the wild). Var. campanulata from W coast of Western Cape is taller, has white flowers with rose markings. L. karooica. South Africa (SW Free State to NW Eastern Cape). Stems to 8 in. Leaves 1-2, blotched with maroon, brown, or darker green. Flowers white to greenish white, fading to purplish, anthers maroon. Flowering late winter to early spring (June to September in the wild). L. klinghardtiana. Namibia. Stems to 6 in. Flowers greenish white, brown markings at tips and sometimes purple spots, winter (July in the wild). L. kliprandensis. South Africa (SW Northern Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers white with brownish-green mottling and magenta tips, early spring (August to September in the wild). L. latifolia. South Africa (S Western Cape, city of George). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers white with turquoise to purple suffusion and tips, spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). Plate 755. L. latimerae. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 6-10 in. Flowers pale pink to lilac with brownish spot at tips and greenish apical swellings, winter to early spring (July to August in the wild). L. leomontana. South Africa (Swellendam in Western Cape); rare. Flowers white with green apical swellings, late spring to summer (October to November in the wild). Plate 756. L. liliiflora. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers white with green apical swellings and dark magenta tips, late spring to summer (October to November in the wild). L. longibracteata. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 3-14 in. Flowers dull bluish green with brown or green apical swellings, winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). L. macgr ego riorum. South Africa (Nieuwoudtville area of Northern Cape); rare. Stems 7-14 in. Outer segments white with maroon stripes, inner segments maroon, late spring to early summer (October to November in the wild). L. margaretae. South Africa (Clanwilliam area of Western Cape). Stems to 5 in. Flowers white with brownish-purple markings, spring to summer (October to December in the wild). L. marginata. South Africa (Clanwilliam area of Western Cape). Stems 4-12 in. Single ovate leaf with wavy margin. Flowers white or yellow, with pale blue base, winter (July to August in the wild). Subsp. neglecta has smaller but more numerous flowers in dense inflorescence, leaf held erect. L. martinae. South Africa (Clanwilliam area of Western Cape). Stems 4-10 in. Single leaf with wavy margin. Flowers white, inner segments brown at tips, constricted near mouth, winter to early spring (July to August in the wild). L. mathewsii. South Africa (W coast of Western Cape); endangered. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers bright yellow, bell-shaped, green at tips, early spring (September in the wild). L. maximiliani. South Africa (Clanwilliam area of Western

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Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers white flushed blue, greenishbrown apical swellings fading to pinkish purple, winter (July to August in the wild). L. mediana. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 16 in. Leaves 2. Flowers greenish white with blue basal blotch and green or purple tips, spring (August to September in the wild). Var. rogersii has flowers variable from blue to pink, single leaf with wavy margin. L. minima. South Africa (S Namaqualand); endangered. Stems to 6 in. Flowers pale yellow with green markings, fading to red, winter (June in the wild). L. moniliformis. South Africa (SW Western Cape); endangered. Stems 5-6 in. Leaves many, grasslike with maroon bands. Flowers bluish white with reddish brown markings, spring (September in the wild). L. montana. Coastal mountains of South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems 4-14 in. Flowers cream, marked green to reddish brown, late spring to summer (October to December in the wild). L. muirii. South Africa (W Western Cape). Flowers bluish white with maroon keels and apical swellings, early summer (October to December in the wild). L multifolia. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 8 in. Leaves yellowish green, grasslike. Flowers creamy white with green markings, spring (September to October in the wild). L. mutabilis. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape); introduced 1825. Stems 8-10 in. Leaves and stems deep green, with reddish apical swellings. Flowers at top of stalk are sterile, bluish; those lower on stem are coppery green. Flowering late winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). Plate 757. L. namaquensis. South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems to 8 in. Outer segments blue to magenta with maroon tips; upper inner segments white with maroon tips; lower inner segments deep magenta. Flowering spring (August to October in the wild). L. namibiensis. SW Namibia. Stems 2-4 in. Flowers white with pinkish-green apical swellings and deep pink keels, early spring (August in the wild). L. neilii. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems 5-12 in. Flowers in dense raceme, greenish white with blue bases, spring (August to October in the wild). L. nordenstamii. SW Namibia. Stems 2-5 in. Flowers brownish with maroon stripe, filaments maroon, winter (June to July in the wild). L. orchioides. South Africa (SW Western Cape), 1752. Stems 3-16 in. Flowers greenish yellow or cream, pale blue at base, spring (August to October in the wild). Var. glaucina, commonly called opal lachenalia, has 30 or more flowers per stem, blue mauve; inner segments are lighter than outer. One of the few species with scented flowers. Plates 758, 759. L. orthopetala. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 10 in. Flowers white, sometimes flushed red, anthers red, spring (September to October in the wild). L. pallida. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 4-12 in. Flowers cream to yellow with green or brown apical swellings, fading to reddish, spring (August to October in the wild). I. patula. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 1-6 in. Flow-

ers white to pale pink, with brownish-pink apical swellings outside and dark pink median stripes on inner segments, spring (September to October in the wild). L. pearsonii. Namibia. Stems 2-4 in. Flowers white with brownish-blue tips, mid summer (January in the wild). Name sometimes erroneously used for L. aloides 'Pearsonii'. L peersii. South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems 6-14 in. Flowers white with pink tips fading to deeper pink, outer segments often green or greenish brown tipped. Flowers carnation-scented. Flowering late spring to early summer (October to November in the wild). L.perryae. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 5-12 in. Leaf usually solitary, yellowish green with darker bands. Outer segments pale blue with green or brown apical swelling, inner segments whitish with green keels, late winter to spring (July to September in the wild). L. physocaulos. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 5-12 in. Flowers whitish with bluish base and pale magenta markings, spring (August to September in the wild). L. polyphylla. South Africa (SW Western Cape); endangered. Stems 2-7 in. Leaves many, grasslike. Flowers white with green or dull pink markings, spring (September to October in the wild). L. polypodantha. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems to 6 in. Flowers white with green markings, early spring (August to September in the wild). L. purpureocaerulea. South Africa (Darling area in SW Western Cape); endangered; introduced 1789. Stems 6-9 in. Flowers purplish blue, late spring to early summer (October to November in the wild). L pusilla. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to l J /2 in. Leaves prostrate in rosette. Flowers many, white, in dense cylindrical raceme at ground level. Flowering fall (April to June in the wild). L. pustulata. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1799. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers whitish or yellowish, flushed red, green, or bluish, spring (August to October in the wild). L. reflexa. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 2-3 in. Flowers yellowish, aging to reddish, late winter to early spring (June to August in the wild). L. rosea. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 6 in. Flowers beige to pink, shaded to cyclamen pink or ice-blue base, shading to pale rose at tips, spring to mid summer (August to December in the wild). L. rubida. South Africa (S Namaqualand to George in E Western Cape); introduced 1803. Stems to 9 in. Leaves spotted. Flowers red. One of the earliest species to flower, in late summer into winter (March to July in the wild). 'Punctata' and 'Tigrina' have flowers intensely spotted ruby red on pale yellow. 'Warei' has long flowers with green-tipped outer segments, yellow midzone, and bright red base; inner segments yellow green with reddish-brown margin. Plate 760. L. salteri. South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems 6-14 in. Flowers cream to reddish purple with blue base, spring to early summer (October to December in the wild). L. sargeantii. South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems 8-12 in.

Lapeirousia Flowers creamy yellow with green apical swellings, pink at base, early summer (November in the wild). L. schelpei. South Africa (SW Northern Cape). Stems 4-9 in. Flowers white with green markings, winter (June to July in the wild). L. splendida. South Africa (NW Western Cape). Stems to 10 in. Flowers lilac to white with pale blue base, winter (July to August in the wild). L. stayneri. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 5-12 in. Flowers cream with reddish apical swellings and blue base, early spring (August to September in the wild). L. trichophylla. South Africa (Namaqualand to NW Western Cape). Stems to 8 in. Outer segments white to pale pink, inner segments pale yellow, spring (August to September in the wild). L. undulata. South Africa (Namaqualand in Northern Cape). Stems 4-12 in. Flowers greenish white to brownish, fall to winter (May to June in the wild). L. unicolor. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1810. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers white, lilac to violet, fragrant, numerous, late spring to early summer (September to October in the wild). L. unifolia. South Africa (Namaqualand to SW Western Cape). Stems to 6 in. Leaf solitary, rarely 2,8 in. long and l/2 in. wide, grooved and banded at base. Flowers variable, generally light blue tipped with pale green and maroon; inner segments white. Flowering late spring (August to October in the wild). Var. wrightii has light blue flowers tipped with pink. Var. schlechteri from Western Cape has suberect pale blue flowers and mottled leaves. L. variegata. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 4-16 in. Flowers greenish with spots of green, blue, or purple, spring (August to October in the wild). L. ventricosa. South Africa (Western Cape). Bulb small. Stems 8-18 in. Flowers white to yellow with blue base and brownish or green markings, top flowers often sterile, spring (August to September in the wild). L. verticillata. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems 4-10 in. Flowers in whorls of 3; outer segments pale blue, inner segments white with purple margin; spring (September in the wild). L. violacea. South Africa (Namaqualand, NW Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Leaf solitary; bracts pale green, cup-shaped. Flowers greenish or bluish, shaded pale green to purple, on very long pedicels. Flowering winter to spring (July to September in the wild). Var. glauca has pale magenta flowers with blue base. Scented of coconut. L. viridiflora. South Africa (W Western Cape); endangered. Stems to 8 in. Flowers green to bluish green, winter (May to July in the wild). L. whitehillensis. South Africa (S Northern Cape, adjacent Western Cape). Stems 6-14 in. Flowers cream with reddishbrown markings and bluish base, early spring (September in the wild). L. youngii. South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers pinkish with dark pink markings, winter to spring (July to November in the wild).

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L. zebrina. South Africa (Karoo). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers cream with greenish or brownish tinge, spring (August to October in the wild). Var. densiflora has flowers held closer to stem to form dense, narrow spike. L. zeyheri. South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems to 8 in. Flowers white with reddish or greenish markings, aging to reddish pink, spring (September to October in the wild). Lachenalia cultivars. 'Burnham Gold', the hybrid most often seen, flowers deep golden, on tall spikes (10-15 in.), last well as a cut flower. SYNONYMS

I. convallariodora see L. fistulosa. L. glaucina see L. orchioides var. glaucina. L. glaucina var. pallida see L. orchioides. L. lanceaefolia see Ledebouria revoluta. L. maculata see Ledebouria revoluta. L. massonii see L. trichophylla. L ovatifolia see L. carnosa. L. pendula see L. bulbifera. L. roodeae see L. splendida. L. schlechteri see L. unifolia var. schlechteri. L. subspicata see L. bowkeri. L. succulenta see L. patula. L. tricolor see L. aloides.

Lapeirousia—Iridaceae SMALL RED IRIS Named in honor of Baron Philippe de la Perouse (1744-1818), a Pyrenean botanist; long wrongly ascribed to J. F. G. de la Peyrouse (1741-1788), French circumnavigator. The name has also been spelled Lapeyrousia. There are about 40 species in this genus which extends from South Africa to the Arabian peninsula. Certain species once placed here were moved to Anomatheca, based on the shape and form of the corm and the chromosome count, but since 1995 have been merged with Freesia. The corms of Lapeirousia are woody and have a flat base. The leaves are not unlike those of an iris, but they often form a cup circling the flowering stem at the base and clothing it. The perianth tube is straight, about 2 in. long, with lobes opening into dainty, flat-faced flowers, usually 5-6 to a stem. The flowers often seem to arise from the axils of the leaves because the scape is so short, though it often branches. All species are dwarf, seldom over 6 in. tall. Though not hardy, lapeirousias are quite attractive and suitable for the rock garden or the forefront of a sunny border with excellent drainage. They look good with a background of rocks, and appreciate the reflected heat. CULTURE In areas where only infrequent light frosts occur, lapeirousias can be grown outdoors in a sheltered, sunny spot; where frost is common, in a greenhouse. Plant corms of spring-flowering species in late summer or early fall, summer-flowering species in spring. Set them 3-4 in. deep in sandy soil with good drainage,

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4-6 in. apart. Give water during the growing season but only as needed; keep them on the dry side. Overwatered plants may rot. When the leaves begin to turn brown, withhold water to allow the plants to go dormant. In cold areas, the corms can be planted in containers in mid spring and grown under glass in full sun. A feeding of weak organic liquid fertilizer can be given as soon as growth is 1-2 in. high. During winter, corms in containers must be kept from freezing. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

The corms produce a number of cormels that can be removed when the plant is dormant. These can be grown on in containers but should not be watered except when in growth. Sow seed in a sandy soil mix, barely covered, in early spring. In warm climates, seed can be sown as soon as available, and sowing in shallow drills outdoors is possible provided that it is in a protected area. Water only to keep the seedlings moist, never wet. Transfer to individual containers or into nursery rows after the first season and grow on. The corms are never large, and those 1/4 in. in diameter are suitable for planting out. SPECIES

L. abyssinica. Ethiopia, in rocky areas. Stems 4-8 in., usually unbranched. Flowers purple-blue, not quite 1 in. long. Leaves stout, 4-5 in. long, held erect. Flowering late summer. L. anceps. South Africa (S Namaqualand, Western Cape), in sandy places; introduced 1824. Stems to 12 in., branched. Leaves strongly ribbed, to 6 in. long. Flowers usually 6-8, with long tube and slender lobes, white to pale pink, sometimes lilac, with distinct red markings on lower 3 tepals and in throat. Flowering late winter to early spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 762. L. arenicola. South Africa (Namaqualand), in sand. Stems 4-6 in., branched and 2-winged. Single basal leaf, 6-8 in. long, linear. Flowers 1-3, cream flushed pinkish, or pink, with red spot at base of smaller segments, spring (September in the wild). Perianth tube often over 1 in. long. L. bainesii. Tropical Africa. Similar to L. erythrantha. Stems to 24 in. Flowers pale pink marked with pink or red at base, tube ll/2 in. long, fall (May in the wild). L. corymbosa. South Africa (Western Cape), in sandy-clay soils on lower slopes; introduced 1791. Stems branched, to 6 in. Leaves usually 4, lowest one curving strongly away from stem. Flowers blue or yellow, with a white star outlined in blue in center. Perianth tube barely over 1 in. long. Flowering late spring to summer (September to November in the wild). Plate 763. L. divaricata. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Dwarf form to 3 in. tall, with one short, narrow basal leaf, 2-3 very short stem leaves, unbranched stem. Flowers white with a few red markings at the base of lower 3 segments, late winter to early spring (August to September in the wild). L. erythrantha. Namibia, Malawi, Zambia, Congo, Zim-

babwe, and Mozambique. Stems to 18 in., flattened. Leaves usually 3 or 4, about half the length of stem. Flowers numerous, violet blue with white or crimson markings. Slender perianth tube is slightly curved. Anthers may be white, red, blue, or purple. Flowering summer. L.fabridi. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape), in sandy soils. Stems much branched, flattened with 2 toothed wings, to 12 in. Basal leaf linear, ribbed; bracts on stems short. Flowers large, 10 or more per stem, pale pink or cream to yellow marked with light red on lower 3 lobes, throat yellow. Perianth tube slender, to 2 in. long; flowers over 1 in. in diameter. Flowering early spring to summer (August to December in the wild). Plate 764. L. falcata. South Africa (SW Western Cape), in mountains. Stems to 4 in. Flowers pink to mauve, late spring (October in the wild). L.fatigiata. South Africa (Western Cape). Leaf usually solitary. Flowers yellow with brown or purple markings. Flowering late spring to early summer (August to September in the wild). L. jacquinii. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape), in moist, sandy areas. Stems 6-8 in. in the wild, taller in cultivation, branched, flattened and triangular. Basal leaf to 6-8 in. long; many leaflike bracts on stem. Flowers arise from axils of bracts, to 10 per stem, violet; lower segments often marked with cream just above tube. Perianth tube often over 2 in. long, slender. Tepals often curved at tips. Forms large colonies in the wild. Flowering winter to spring (July to September in the wild). One of the most striking species. L. littoralis subsp. caudata. South Africa (Northwestern Province, Northern Province). Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, yellowish green, or light purplish brown, summer (December to March in the wild). L. masukuensis. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga) and Mozambique. Stems to 24 in. Flowers greenish or bluish violet, marked red or purple on lower segments, summer to fall (December to May in the wild). L. micrantha. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 14 in. Flowers small, fragrant, cream to maroon, late spring (October in the wild). L. neglecta. South Africa (Western Cape). Tall-growing. Flowering late spring to summer (September to December in the wild). L. odoratissima. Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Zambia to Tanzania, in poor, sandy soils. Stems 4-6 in. Leaves tufted, erect, 4-5 in. long. Flowers sweetly fragrant, white, to 3 in. in diameter; perianth tubes to 5 in. long. Flowering summer (January to February in the wild). A lovely sight with the short-stemmed flowers carpeting the ground. Comes from a summer-rainfall area and needs water when in flower. Temperatures in this region are often 90°F during the day and only a little less at night. L. oreogena. South Africa (W Karoo in Northern Cape), on clay slopes. Stems to 4 in., branching at ground level. Leaf solitary, basal, 3 in. long. Flowers numerous, violet to black marked with cream. Tube long and slender; tepals much broader toward apex; white splashes on lower part of tepals. Flowering spring (August to September in the wild).

Larentia L. plicata. South Africa, widespread. Stems to 2 in., branched. Leaf solitary; bracts numerous, giving the impression of a low, tufted plant. Flowers fragrant, pale blue or creamy white with dark blue throat, late winter to early spring (May to September in the wild). Found in both winter- and summer-rainfall areas. L. pyramidalis. South Africa (S Namaqualand to Little Karoo), in clay soils on lower slopes. Stems 4-10 in. Leaves basal, narrow. Name describes the inflorescence, which features a "pyramid" of blue-green bracts. Many fragrant flowers per stem, white, cream, blue, or pink with splashes of pink or maroon. Uppermost segment held erect, somewhat hooded; lower 3 almost horizontal. Flowering late winter to spring (July to October in the wild). L. sandersonii. South Africa (Northwestern Province, Northern Province, Mpumalanga, Gauteng); introduced 1892. Similar to L. erythrantha. Stems 12-14 in. Flowers showy, blue, summer (January to March in the wild). L. schimperi. Ethiopia south to Namibia. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, summer. Plate 765. L. silenoides. South Africa (Namaqualand), in mountains in coarse granitic sand and in crevices of granite outcrops. Stems 4-6 in. or less, often branched from base. Solitary basal leaf to 5 in. long; pale green bracts on stem broader and much shorter. Flowers upright, to 7 per stem, with slender, cream perianth tubes to 2 in. long; lobes magenta to cherry red with cream and dark red markings on base, often a darker blotch on 3 lower segments. Flowering spring (September in the wild). Plates 766, 767. L. spinosa. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 10-12 in. tall, cylindrical, branched almost from the base. Leaves 7-9 in. long with a few stem leaves. Flowers white, perianth tube shorter than that of L. divaricata. Flowering late winter to early spring (August to September in the wild). L. tennis. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stem thin. Leaves narrower than those of L. divaricata. Flowering late winter to early spring (August to September in the wild). L. violacea. South Africa (N Western Cape). Stems to 4 in. Flowers violet with cream markings, early spring (August to September in the wild). SYNONYMS

L. caespitosa see L. plicata. L. caudata subsp. burchellii see L. littoralis subsp. caudata. L. compressa see L. fabricii. L. cruenta see Freesia laxa. L. cyanescens see L. schimperi. L. denticulata see L. fabricii. L fissifolia see L. pyramidalis. L. fistulosa see Xenoscapa fistulosa. L. grandiflora see Freesia grandiflora. L. heterophylla see L. plicata. L. juncea see Freesia verrucosa. L. laxa see Freesia laxa. L. leptostachya see Radinosiphon leptostachya. L. rhodesiana see L. erythrantha. L speciosa see L. silenoides.

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L. viridis see Freesia viridis. L. welwitschii see L. erythrantha.

Lapiedra—Amaryllidaceae Origin of name not known. This is a monotypic genus. Lapiedra martinezii is a small plant, only 6-10 in. in height. It is essentially a collector's item, suitable for the bulb frame or rock garden in a hot, dry position. It is rare and should be treated with great care. CULTURE Plant bulbs 2-3 in. deep, 6 in. apart, in well-drained soil in full sun in spring. Little or no moisture should be given in early summer; when growth appears, keep it barely moist. In its native habitat it is warm and dry during its dormant period in spring and early summer, gathering its strength to flower in response to fall and early winter rains. Once planted it should be left undisturbed, whether in the open ground or in a pot. Plants are reported to be hardy to about 20°F, but their winter-growing cycle suggests that they are best suited for frost-free gardens or the bulb frame. If kept dry in winter, they can withstand lower temperatures. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

The bulbs are shy-flowering unless left undisturbed, so it is best to leave the few offsets with the parent bulbs. Sow seed in spring in a sandy soil mix, barely covered. The next spring, pot the small bulbs individually. After 2-3 more years, they will be large enough to be planted in their permanent sites. SPECIES

L. martinezii. S Spain and North Africa, in well-drained, rocky places, often in crevices. Rootstock a bulb with a papery, dark brown tunic, about 2 in. in diameter when mature. Leaves (usually 2) generally present when seedpods ripen but scarcely above ground at flowering time; leaves thick, 1/2 in. wide, dark green, slightly gray in the center, held erect until mature. Flowers almost 1 in. in diameter, white, fragrant, borne on an umbel 4-5 in. in diameter, and enclosed in papery, brownish bracts, which gradually shrivel as the seedpods ripen. Pedicels almost 1 in. long. Perianth segments free to the base, held flat when the flowers open, with greenish median stripes visible on both sides. Stamens bright yellow, quite prominent, held above the tepals but spread away from the stigma. There are as many as 10 flowers per umbel, which open in succession over several days. Flowering late summer. Plate 768.

Larentia L. rosei see Cypella rosei.

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Lathyrus

Lathyrus—Leguminosae EARTH CHESTNUT, TUBEROUS PEA, EARTH-NUT PEA Name is the Classical Greek word for some kind of pea or bean, applied by Theophrastus to this genus. Among the more than 100 Lathyrus species are the lovely sweet pea and many plants grown as food crops or green manures. One species, L. tuberosus, is tuberous. For the bulb grower, this is just a novelty. It is easy to grow, perhaps on an arch or trellis between the vegetable garden and ornamental garden. CULTURE Plant in spring in rich garden soil with plenty of organic matter, in full sun with plenty of moisture. Set tubers 3 in. deep, 24-36 in. apart, more closely if a trellis is to be covered. They do not transplant easily when large and are best planted out when young, from individual pots. No fertilizer is needed if the soil is rich. At the end of the summer, cut back stems, lift tubers, and store them for replanting in spring; plants can become a tangled mess if this is not done. PESTS AND DISEASES

In humid weather mildew can attack, so space the vines on their supports to allow good air circulation. Thrips and aphids may require control. Root rots can destroy the base of the stems; for this reason, sterilized soil should be used for seedlings. PROPAGATION

Lift young tubers at the end of the growing season. Sow seed in spring after soaking it in warm water for 24 hours. Sow 3 seeds per 4-in. pot and thin out the weaker 2 seedlings. Plant when danger of frost is past, though the plants can withstand light frost. In the greenhouse, seed can be sown in fall and given night temperatures of 45°-50°F. SPECIES

L. tuberosus. Europe, widespread except in the far north and far south. Rootstock creeping, producing edible tubers. Stems climb 4-5 ft. or remain prostrate. Leaves terminate in a 3pronged tendril, with 2 leaflets about 2 in. long and l/2 in. wide, oblong with parallel veins. Flowers rose pink, fragrant, 2-7 per raceme, on long stalks. Flowering summer, over a long period.

Ledebouria—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of K. F. von Ledebour (1785-1851) of Dorpat, who studied Russian flora. For a time these African and Indian plants were included in Scilla, but they are now regarded as a separate genus, partly on the basis of their distribution and partly because most of them have leaves that are spotted or striped with purple or dark red. John P. Jessop, a South African botanist, wrote about the genus Ledebouria in 1970 and grouped many species together, recognizing only those listed below in this entry. The plants have true bulbs which grow at or a little above ground level. They are often found in hard soils or between

rocks, in full sun or in sandy, sparse grassland. Leaf size and number of leaves vary according to species. The leaves clasp the stem at the base. The small, starry or bell-shaped flowers are borne in a raceme in spring or early summer. The number of flowers per stem ranges from 8 to 100 or more. They are interesting to grow, not just for their flowers but even more for their foliage. They are suitable for rock gardens in warm climates, and they do very well in containers. CULTURE

All species should be grown frost-free. They need full sun to develop the leaf color, and well-drained soil. Plant bulbs at ground level, only deep enough to hold them upright, and leave them undisturbed. Weak fertilizer can be given as soon as growth commences but should not be continued after the flowering stem emerges. Take care not to get fertilizer on the leaves. Keep evergreen species barely moist throughout the year, allowing them to dry out between waterings; deciduous species can be dried off during their dormant period. In containers, they should be planted closely in a sandy, humus-rich soil mix. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Numerous offsets are produced and can be separated during dormancy (in deciduous species) or in spring. Seed is a better means because the bulbs do better if undisturbed; however, L. ovalifolia grows on the surface and forms clusters of bulbs which can be divided easily in spring. Sow seed in spring in sandy soil and provide night temperatures around 45°F. Pot individual plants when they are large enough to handle, preferably at the beginning of the growing season. Seedlings reach flowering size in 2-4 years. SPECIES L. apertiflora. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, E Northern Province, Mpumalanga). Bulbs often pink on top. Stems 8-9 in. Leaves 4-7, 8-14 in. long, less than 1 in. wide. Flowers purple with green margins and reverse, 50-150 per stem, early spring to summer (October to January in the wild). L. concolor. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 3-4 in. Leaf margins undulate. Flowers green, late spring to summer (October to January in the wild). L. cooperi. SOUTH AFRICAN SQUILL. South Africa (NE Eastern Cape), Swaziland, and Lesotho, in sandy grassland. Bulb rounded, with light brown, papery tunic. Stems to 6 in., shorter at beginning of flowering, mottled with red. Leaves 3-4, light olive green, narrow, with several longitudinal red-brown stripes, erect when young, lax with age, deciduous. Flowers numerous, about V4 in. in diameter, on downcurved pedicels; tepals pale mauve, often with green midvein; filaments bright purple, anthers yellow. Flowering summer (September to February in the wild). Mature bulbs may produce 2 flower stems, the 2nd smaller and later. One of the hardiest species, it can be grown outdoors where light frosts occur during its dormant period in winter. L. floribunda. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpuma-

Leontice langa), on rocky outcrops, often in crevices; introduced 1862. Bulb to 4 in. in diameter. Stems to 18 in., as many as 4 per bulb, often leaning or curving. Leaves broad, tapering, fleshy, clasping stem and arching away, marked with irregular purple blotches. Flowers numerous, tiny, cream and green with more or less prominent purple blotches on exterior; tepals reflexed, stamens and styles exserted. Flowering early to mid summer (October to December in the wild). In the wild, leaves from previous seasons often remain, providing a place for seeds to germinate, and clumps of bulbs may be quite large. Plants from the southern part of the natural range (East London district) seem to have more purple-crimson in tepals; anthers often turquoise. L. graminifolia. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal). Bulbs less than 1 in. in diameter. Leaves 10-20, narrow, spirally twisted. Flowers green, flushed purple, 30-70 per stem. L. hypoxidioides. South Africa (Western Cape). Bulb neck pink at tip. Leaves 2-4,6 in. long, covered with white silky hairs. Flowers 75-150 per stem. L. inquinata. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga). Leaves glaucous, unspotted, 6 in. long. Flowers 50-150 per stem, pink mauve, spring to mid summer (September to January in the wild). L. luteola. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga, N Free State, NW KwaZulu-Natal). Bulb has scales with many threads, inner scales yellowish. Leaves spotted or marked, 3 in. long. Flowers 30-60 per stem, mauve-brown inside, green outside, spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). L. marginata. South Africa (Eastern Cape to Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Province, Mpumalanga) and Lesotho. Bulb pink on top, dark and glossy. Leaves 4-10, prominently veined, to 6 in. long. Flowers mauve to greenish, spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). L. ovalifolia. South Africa (Western Cape, SW Eastern Cape), in hard-baked ground. Bulbs tiny. Stems to 4 in. Leaf solitary, oval, prostrate, maroon on underside and green with maroon markings above. Flowers on short pedicels, minute, with reflexed tepals; filaments purple at base, white above, with greenish anthers. Flowers erect or nearly so when first open, pendent later. Flowering late summer to early fall (March in the wild). L. ovatifolia. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Province, Mpumalanga), Lesotho, tropical Africa, and Sri Lanka. Leaves 2-5, prostrate, 10 in. long. Flowers 50-150 in dense spike, winter to fall (July to March in the wild). L. revoluta. South Africa (Caledon to Karoo in Western Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Province, Mpumalanga) and India. Bulb to 3 in. long, outer scales dark and glossy, flushed pink, often speckled. Leaves 4-8, prostrate, to 6 in. long. Flowers to 100 per stem, mauve or greenish, spring to late summer (September to February in the wild). Plate 769. L. socialis. South Africa (Eastern Cape, Western Cape); introduced 1862. Stems 2-3 in. Leaves 2-3, rarely 5, green with pinkish or violet mottling below, upper surface silvery, 3-5 in. long,1/4-1/2in. wide. Flowers to 25 per stem, usually greenish

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with white margins, erect, spring (September to October in the wild). L. undulata. South Africa (Namaqualand to SW Western Cape). Bulbs to 2 in. long, outer scales dry and truncate at apex, or tapering into a neck as long as or longer than body of bulb. Leaves 2-6. Flowers greenish, early summer (September to November in the wild). L. viscosa. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga). Bulbs and leaves sticky. Stems to 8 in. Flowers purple and green, summer (January in the wild).

Leontice—Berberidaceae Name derived from Greek lean ("lion"); the leaves were imagined to have the shape of a lion's paw-print. This is a small genus of 4 or 5 species native to Turkey and Greece. The rootstocks are tuberous rhizomes. The leaves, sometimes produced after the flowers, are rather thick, dissected, and often grayish. There are few if any stem leaves, except for bractlike leaves at the base of the pedicels. The flowers are yellow, carried in a coneshaped raceme, generally 6-10 in. in height, in early spring. Leontice is difficult to grow in climates much different from that of its home. The large, leafy plants are not well suited to the confines of any but the largest rock garden, a site that is otherwise appropriate. Serious collectors should try them in the bulb frame or in dry borders under glass. Outdoors, they may do well in the U.S. Southwest. CULTURE Most species are probably hardy to 20°F or somewhat lower, but they should not be wet in freezing weather. Plant the rootstock at soil level or slightly below, in full sun and a very welldrained, gritty soil. Moisture should be given in fall and spring, and the plants kept dry after the leaves have withered in summer. No feeding is required. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Seed is the only method of propagation. Sow in fall, if possible, or as soon as seed is received, in a sandy, well-drained soil mix and keep in cool but frost-free conditions in a cold greenhouse or frame. Germination is hypogeal—a root is produced in fall, and cotyledons in spring. Seedlings should be left undisturbed for at least one year, and transplanted if necessary while dormant. SPECIES L. armenaica. Syria and Jordan to Iran, and S Caucasus. Stems to 8 in., stout, unbranched. Leaves basal, grayish, thick. Flowers held on strong pedicels, much longer on lower part of stem than on upper; topmost flowers held upright. Flowers cup-shaped, soft yellow, rather thin or papery, early spring. L. darwasica. Uzbekistan. Stems to 12 in. Flowers yellow, spring. L. leontopetalum. Bulgaria, Greece, Israel, and North Africa. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves blue-green, thick-stalked, pinnate,

330

Leopoldia

terminal leaflets cleft; stem leaves subtend pedicels. Flowers yellow, opening flat; tepals crimped, folding inward in center and flattening out at rounded tip, early spring. Subsp. eversmannii, from E Turkey, Iraq, Iran, C Asia, and Afghanistan, has narrower, less rounded leaflets. Plate 770. SYNONYMS L. alberti see Gymnospermium alberti. L altaica see Gymnospermium altaicum. L. chrysogonum see Bongardia chrysogonum. L. odessana see Bongardia chrysogonum.

Leopoldia L. comosa see Muscari comosum. L. gussonei see Muscari gussonei. L. latifolia see Muscari latifolium. L. longipes see Muscari longipes. L. massayana see Muscari massayanum. L. pinardii see Muscari pinardii. L. tenuiflora see Muscari tenuiflorum. L. tubergeniana see Muscari tubergenianum.

Lepidochiton—Amaryllidaceae Name derived from lepis ("scale") and chiton ("covering"), a reference to the thin seed coat; some authorities give the genus as Leptochiton ("thin covering"). This genus contains 2 or 3 species native to Peru and Ecuador. Only one, L. quitoensis, is probably in cultivation. The genus is closely related to Hymenocallis, but has solitary flowers and is not evergreen (Hymenocallis has more than one flower and plants are sometimes evergreen). As in Hymenocallis, the bases of the 6 filaments are fused into a staminal cup, which is deeply cut between the filaments. This equatorial plant may flower at almost any time of year, but in cultivation in the Northern Hemisphere it usually does so in early summer. It is a lovely plant for the warm display greenhouse, and it would be a showpiece in the frost-free garden. CULTURE These plants can be grown outdoors only in frost-free climates. Good container plants, they should be grown in a free-draining soil mix with plenty of humus. They appreciate light feedings as the new leaves emerge, with an organic, balanced fertilizer. Set the bulbs with the shoulder just at or a little above soil level. At the end of the growing season, decrease water but do not let the bulbs dry out completely. In colder climates, store bulbs over winter in temperatures of 45°-50°F at night. PESTS AND DISEASES

As for Hymenocallis. PROPAGATION

Remove offsets in spring, just before growth commences. Sow seed in a sandy mix and give night temperature around 55°F. Seedlings grow quickly; transplant into individual pots as soon

as large enough to handle. Keep growing without allowing them to go dormant for 2-3 years. SPECIES L. quitoensis. Peru and Ecuador. Bulbs large, globose. Stem seldom higher than 15 in., often much less. Leaves 5-9, present at flowering. Bracts below the flower, 3 in number, narrow, lance-shaped. Flower large, sessile, goblet-shaped, fragrant, inclined to curve downward. Perianth tube as much as 8 in. long, with lobes spreading to an equal diameter. Tepals white or yellow, green in the throat, with a distinct keel on the segments. Style very long, often exceeding 8 in., far longer than the stamens. Flowering summer.

Leucocoryne—Alliaceae (Liliaceae) GLORY OF THE SUN Name derived from Greek leukos ("white") and koryne ("club"), an allusion to the form of the staminodes. They flourish in brilliant sunlight (hence the common name). There are about 12 species, all native to Chile. Only one is in general cultivation— L ixioides. The flowers resemble those of the North American genus Brodiaea, and several species of Leucocoryne were originally described under that name. The small (to 2 in. in diameter), ovoid bulbs are covered by a brown tunic. The grasslike leaves range from 6-12 in. long and are often maturing or even withering by flowering time. Leucocoryne species start into growth very early in the year and flower in late spring and early summer. The individual flowers are large and loosely held on long pedicels in an umbel, seldom more than 12 per stem. The distinguishing characteristic of the flower is the presence of 3 short, fertile stamens and 3 long, sterile staminodes. The lower part of the tepals is fused into a narrow tube where the short fertile stamens are found. The lobes separate above the mouth of the tube and flare widely. Flower colors include white, usually veined or flushed blue-purple, and various shades of blue-purple. In their native habitat they grow at elevations up to 3000 feet and receive rainfall (sometimes very little) during winter, with very dry summers. Being early growers from low elevations, they cannot be planted outside where winter temperatures dip below 25°F, and even there they should have the protection of a mulch or a south-facing wall. They do well in bulb frames. The flowers are long-lasting when cut. The interested gardener is advised to start with L. ixioides, the most readily available and easiest to cultivate. There are many bulbs deserving closer attention, but Leucocoryne species are leading candidates for hybridization efforts, considering their fragrance and length of time in flower. The genus could be exploited in the cutflower trade, where its tolerance of cool temperatures would help defray the ever-increasing costs of heating greenhouses. CULTURE In areas where there is little or no frost from mid-January on, plant bulbs outdoors in full sun and in well-drained soil that

Leucojum warms quickly. Elsewhere, grow in deep pots in a cool greenhouse or bulb frame. Plant bulbs in fall, 3-4 in. deep in any freedraining soil mix in deep pots. Water in well, then keep barely moist until leaves appear; then water a little more, but never allow bulbs to sit in cold, wet soil. As soon as danger of frost is past, containers can be moved outdoors to a sunny spot. Weak feedings of organic fertilizer can be given in early spring if the soil is poor. After flowering, cease watering. Repot in late summer or early fall. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

A few offsets are produced and can be separated in late summer or early fall. Sow seed in fall in a well-drained soil mix, barely covering the seed. Grow seedlings frost-free with good air circulation and full sun, or a little shade in the hottest climates. Transfer seedlings when dormant to larger containers and grow as described for adult bulbs. Flowering generally occurs 3-4 years after sowing. SPECIES L. alliacea. Chile. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers white, flushed green; tepals narrow; late spring to early summer. L. angustipetala. Chile. Stems 8-12 in. Flowers white, tepals narrow; late spring to early summer. L. appendiculata. Chile. Flowers white; staminodes yellow tipped with purple; late spring to early summer. L. conferta. Chile. Stems 6-12 in. Perianth segments white, narrow; staminodes white; late spring to early summer. L. coquimbensis. Chile. Stems to 12 in. Leaves very narrow, to 10 in. long, sheathing lower part of the scape. Flowers sweetly fragrant, to 10 per umbel, very pale to rich blue or violet. Perianth tube about1/2in. long, greenish white within; flowers 1 in. in diameter. Staminodes bright yellow. Flowering for up to 8 weeks in late spring to early summer. L. ixioides. Chile. Introduced 1826. Stems 10-20 in. Leaves narrow, grasslike, to 12 in. long. Flowers white to pale blue-purple, very fragrant; staminodes white. Flowering late spring to early summer. The most common species in cultivation, sometimes offered as var. odorata, a questionable distinction based on the length of the pedicels. Plates 771, 772. L. macropetala. Chile. Stems to 10 in. Flowers to 12 per umbel, pure white, rather starry with sharply pointed tepals; staminodes bright yellow. Flowering late spring to early summer. L. paudflora. Chile. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers white with purple veining; staminodes white. L.purpurea. Chile. Introduced 1894. Stems 10-12 in. Leaves grasslike, 10-12 in. long. Flowers often fewer than 8, sometimes as few as 2 or 3 per umbel, light purple with black-purple patches and streaks, darkening with age. Flowers to 21/2 in. in diameter; staminodes yellow with purple tips. Flowering late spring to early summer over a long period. L. violascens. Chile. Flowers large, purple to violet; staminodes orange. Flowering late spring to early summer.

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Leucocrinum—Anthericaceae (Liliaceae) SAND LILY Name derived from Greek leukos ("white") and krinon (a kind of lily). This is a monotypic genus. The common name refers to the habitat. These are unusual subjects for the rock garden. They have been grown successfully outside their native region in deep beds of pure sand which offer space for the extensive root system. They are very cold-hardy, to at least -20°F. CULTURE Requires deep, perfectly drained, sandy soil and full sun, with moisture from early spring until the end of flowering, infrequent watering in summer, and dry, cold winters. Plant rhizomes with 1-3 in. of sharp sand or grit over them, 4-6 in. apart. No feeding is necessary. Leave plants undisturbed. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Sow seed in early fall as soon as ripe, on the surface of a sandy soil mix, very loosely covered with grit. Keep barely moist. Seed germinates the following spring. Transplant into individual deep pots or permanent sites when large enough to handle. SPECIES L. montanum. United States (E Oregon to Nebraska, south through Rocky Mountains to New Mexico). Rootstock a rhizome which produces fleshy roots and tufted narrow leaves that are surrounded at their base by membranous bracts. The white, fragrant flowers arise in clusters from the center of the leaf rosette; the inflorescence is actually an umbel, but the stalks are entirely underground, as are the ovaries and developing seed capsules. The flower, about 1 in. wide, is composed of a slender perianth tube and 6 flaring lobes. The 6 stamens are attached near the mouth of the perianth tube; the style is very thin and slightly 3-lobed. Flowering is in spring.

Leucojum—Amaryllidaceae LODDON LILY, SNOWFLAKE

Name derived from Greek leucoeion ("white eye"), a name used by Hippocrates. There are about 9 species and several subspecies and varieties, all native to central Europe and the Mediterranean region. The genus is closely related to Galanthusand quite similar in appearance; the easiest way to distinguish between the 2 is to remember that Leucojum (which begins with an "L") has perianth segments of equal length, so the petals are "level." In Galanthus, the inner and outer perianth segments are unequal. For further reading, see Frederick Stern's Snowdrops and Snowflakes (1956). The flowers, 1-5 per stem, are pendent on slender pedicels; they are bell-shaped, and the tips of the tepals are often green or yellow-green. Most flowers in this genus are white, hence the common name; L. roseum has pink flowers, and L. autumnale

332

Liatris

may be pinkish toward the base. The leaves are all basal, from quite narrow to 1/2 in. wide. The flower stalk rises above the leaves. Some species flower in mid to late spring, and the others in early to mid autumn. Of the species common in gardens, only L. autumnale prefers dry soil; the others appreciate typical border soil with plenty of moisture. L. vernum naturalizes well in grass, if adequately moist. The small Mediterranean species, mostly the province of bulb specialists who often grow them in pots, do best in sandy soil, rather dry but not baked in summer. Hardiness varies depending on species: L. vernum and L. aestivum tolerate temperatures down to 0°F, especially if well mulched; L. roseum and I. longifolium should be grown frost-free; and the others tolerate winter temperatures around 25°F, especially if protected from excessive moisture during cold periods. CULTURE Plant bulbs in fall, placing them toward the front of the border where they can be left undisturbed. Set 1-2 in. deep. Supply moisture to all species in fall and spring; L. vernum should never be allowed to dry out. These plants love a woodland setting with filtered sunlight, but they also do well in full sun in all but the hottest climates. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate offsets in early fall before root growth starts; divide fall-blooming species in mid summer. The seed retains viability in storage, unlike Galanthus seed. Sow seed in fall, barely covered, and grow seedlings frost-free. Transfer bulbs when dormant to larger containers or nursery rows. SPECIES L. aestivum. SUMMER SNOWFLAKE, LODDON LILY, MEADOW SNOWFLAKE. Europe (including SE England) and W Asia to Iran; long in cultivation. Bulb large, ovoid, with a brown tunic. Stems to 20 in. Leaves linear, 3/4 in. wide, with blunt keel. Flowers 1 in. in diameter or a little larger, bell-shaped, white with green marking at tip of each tepal. Flowers usually 5-6 per stem, seldom more than 8, spring. 'Gravetye Giant' is a robust, freeflowering clone. Possibly the hardiest species, producing a great number of offsets. Plate 773. L. autumnale. S Europe (including Spain, Portugal); introduced 1629. Bulb globose; tunic brown, membranous. Stems 4-8 in., wiry, sometimes red. Leaves few, very narrow, often appearing after flowering. Flowers white, often flushed and veined pink, 3–4 per stem. Flowering late summer to early fall. Needs sun and excellent drainage. Plates 774, 775. L. longifolium. Corsica. Stems to 8 in. Flowers white, mid spring. L. nicaeense. FRENCH SNOWFLAKE. Maritime Alps of S France; endangered. Stems to 6 in. Flowers white, slightly flushed green near base, late spring to early summer. L. roseum. ROSE SNOWFLAKE. Corsica and Sardinia; introduced 1820. Leaves threadlike, 4-5 in. long. Flowers solitary,

fragrant, pale to midpink. Similar to L. autumnalebut smaller in all parts. Requires frost-free conditions; good in pots. L. tingitanum. Morocco; introduced 1878. Stems 8-18 in. Leaves channeled. Flowers white; tepals broad with pointed tips, early spring. L. trichophyllum. THREE-LEAVED SNOWFLAKE. Spain, Portugal, and Morocco; introduced 1820. Stems to 10 in. Leaves 3, threadlike, lax and curling. Flowers white, late winter to early spring. Requires hot, dry summer. L. valentinum. C Spain, NW Greece, and Ionian Islands; introduced 1914. Stems to 6 in. Leaves very narrow, appearing after flowering. Flowers pure white, late summer to early fall. L. vernum. SPRING SNOWFLAKE, WHITE EYES. C Europe, in damp places; introduced 1596. Bulb rather elongated, fleshy, with thin, brown tunic. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves to 10 in. long, 3/4 in. wide, shiny, green. Flowers slightly fragrant, white with green markings on tips of tepals, usually solitary, seldom more than 2 per stem. Flowering late winter or early spring. Naturalizes easily and should be left undisturbed. Forms with yellow or yellow-green tips have been called var. carpathicum. Var. vagneri is a more robust plant, often with 2 flowers per stem. Plate 776. SYNONYMS

L. carpathicum see L. vernum. L. fontianum see L. tingitanum. L. grandiflorum see L. trichophyllum. L. hernandezii see L. aestivum. L. hiemale see L. nicaeense. L. pulchellum see L. aestivum.

Liatris—Asteraceae GAYFEATHER, BLAZING STAR, BUTTON SNAKEROOT Derivation of name unknown. There are about 35 species, all from Canada and the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. They grow wild in prairies and open forest glades; most prefer rather stony soils, but a few are plants of ditches and streambanks. They are excellent garden plants and good cut flowers, grown primarily as container plants by perennial nurseries. They flower late in summer and often into fall. The rootstock may be flattened and tuberlike, or a corm covered with fibrous roots, hard but susceptible to rot in poorly drained soil. The stems are stiffly erect, clothed with numerous narrow, alternate leaves for most of their length. The basal leaves are usually much longer than the stem leaves. The dense terminal spike of flowers is unusual in that the individual flowers open in succession from the top down. Unlike many composites, Liatris do not have showy ray florets; the conspicuous parts of the flower are the tubular disc florets, which may be purple, deep rose, or white. The number of disc florets in a "flower," called a "capitula" in composites, varies according to species; more florets create a fuller, showier display. The inflorescence appears feathery, hence the common name gayfeather. These are useful border plants, prized for their late summer flowering. They are easy to grow and soon form clumps of con-

Liatris siderable size. In recent years, they have become a standard florist's flower, available from growers much of the year, sturdy and long-lasting; their color range, however, is neither extensive nor subtle. Most species are very cold-hardy, tolerating winter lows to — 30°F, though those from the southern part of the genus's range are more tender. CULTURE Any good garden soil suits these plants, but good drainage is essential for all but L. spicata and L pycnostachya, which tolerate damp soils. Usually supplied as container plants, which may be planted at any time, but best in spring. All do best in full sun. Set rootstocks 3-5 in. deep, spacing the taller-growing species, such as L. spicata, 8-10 in. apart. Water well throughout the growing season, less during their winter dormant period. No feeding is necessary. Prolong flower production by cutting off spent flower spikes. Plants can be grown in large containers such as wine barrels but do not perform well in small or shallow containers. PESTS AND DISEASES

Mice may damage the rootstocks, which can be protected with wire mesh. Poor drainage can cause root rot. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide clumps in fall or early spring; in colder climates, spring is better. Sow seed in fall or spring in a sandy soil mix, lightly covered. Keep moist in a sheltered spot outside; seed will germinate in spring. Transplant seedlings to nursery rows or 4in. pots when about 3 in. tall, spacing them 3-4 in. apart. Grow on until they are large enough to be moved to their permanent position. SPECIES L. acidota. United States (E Texas), growing in standing water. Stems 8-40 in. or more. Florets pink, starry, 5 per capitula, mid summer to late fall. L. angustifolia. United States (Texas to Iowa and Nebraska). Similar to L. punctata. L. aspera. United States (North Dakota to Louisiana and Texas); introduced 1805. Stems to 48 in. but often less, usually one per crown, more in well-established plants. Basal leaves to 6 in. long, almost 1 in. wide; stem leaves mostly linear, either sessile or with distinct petioles. Inflorescence cylindrical, carrying 20-40 well-spaced purple flowers. 'Benkii' is a white form. Flowering late summer. L. borealis. NE United States. Stems 12-40 in. Flowers reddish to white, late summer. L. xcreditonensis. Garden hybrids (L. ligulistylisx L. squarrosa). L. cylindracea. Canada (Ontario) and United States (New York to Arkansas to Minnesota), in stony ground. Rootstock a rounded corm. Stems slender, 18-20 in. Basal leaves are long, narrow, rather stiff, 3- to 5-veined. Flowers in a raceme of 4—20, each with 30 or more narrow florets less than1/2in. long, summer. L. elegans. United States (N Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas to Virginia and Florida). Stems to 36 in. or more. Inflorescence to 12 in. long, somewhat pyramidal; florets rose purple, mid summer to early fall. Hardy to about 0°F.

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L. gracilis. United States (S and C states of Atlantic coast). Stems to 40 in. Flowers purple, fall. L. graminifolia. United States (New Jersey and Pennsylvania to Alabama), along Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Stems to 48 in. Flowering early to mid autumn. L. helleri. United States (North Carolina). Stems to 8 in. Flowers purple, late summer. L. ligulistylis. Canada (Alberta, Manitoba) and United States (Wisconsin to N New Mexico). Stems 24-36 in. or more. Flowers crimson in bud, opening rosy purple, mid to late summer. L. microcephela. S Appalachian Mountains of United States. Stems to 24 in. Flowers rosy purple, summer. L. mucronata. United States (Texas to Missouri and Kansas). Similar to L. punctata. L. novae-angliae. Maine south to West Virginia and west to Michigan and Arkansas. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers reddish purple, rarely white. L. punctata. SNAKEROOT. United States (New Mexico and Texas to Nebraska and W Iowa), and Canada (Alberta, Manitoba), on dry prairies and plains. Rootstock cormlike. Stems several, to 30 in. Leaves numerous, overlapping, upright. Inflorescence dense, 4- to 8-flowered, with long, leafy bracts below. Flowers purple, rarely white, late summer to fall. L. pycnostachya. BUTTON SNAKEROOT. United States (Wisconsin, Minnesota, and South Dakota to Kentucky, Louisiana, Florida, Oklahoma, and Texas), in damp prairies; introduced 1732. Stems 1 to many, to 48 in. Leaves linear, to 12 in. long, decreasing in size up the stem. Flowers crowded in very dense spikes, mostly sessile, red-purple. Flowering mid summer to mid autumn. 'Hubrichtii' is a white form. Hybridizes readily with L. aspera; crossed with L. squarrosa to produce L. Xridgwayi. L. regiomontis. United States (SW Virginia to Georgia). Stems to 40 in. Flowers green to purple, late summer. L scabra. United States (Ohio to Alabama and Oklahoma). Similar to L. scariosa. L. scariosa. United States (Pennsylvania south to N Georgia), in mountains. Stems to 60 in. Flowers purplish or white, late summer. L. spicata. United States (Florida and Louisiana to Long Island, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Wisconsin) and Canada (Ontario), in meadows, borders of marshes, and damp slopes; introduced 1732. Stems numerous, to 36 in. Leaves to 15 in. long, a little less than 1 in. wide. Inflorescence dense, cylindrical; flowers rose purple, showy. 'Albus' and 'Floristan' are white forms. 'Blue Bird' has vivid blue-violet flowers. 'Kobold' has bright violet flowers and is shorter than type. Several seed strains offered, including 'Picador' with color range from white through violet. L. squarrosa. HARDY AMARYLLIS, MIRACLE LILY. United States (South Dakota to Tennessee and Texas). Stems 24-36 in. Flowers bright purple, mid to late summer. L. squarrulosa. United States (Louisiana, Texas, Mississippi). Stems 24-36 in. Flowers purple, early fall. L. turgida. United States (Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina). Similar to L. graminifoliabut hairs present on lower

334

Lilium

leaves and at base of stem. Stems to 60 in. Flowering mid to late summer. L. xweaveri. Garden hybrid (L. asperaxL. punctata). SYNONYMS

L. callilepis see L. spicata. L. glabrata see L. squarrosa. L. montana see L. spicata. L. pumila see L. spicata.

Lilium—Liliaceae (Liliaceae) LILY Name is the Latin word for these plants, related to Greek leirion, used by Theophrastus for the Madonna lily. This genus of 100 or more species is distributed throughout the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Lilies have deservedly been called the aristocrats of the plant world. They are grown in gardens almost everywhere and marketed by the millions as bulbs, flowering container plants, and cut flowers (Plates 39–42, 78). The true bulbs have fleshy scales which overlap loosely or tightly. There is no tunic. The flowering stems are erect and the leaves are arranged on the stem either scattered or in one or more whorls. Some species produce bulbils in the leaf axils. The flowers of most lilies are large, and some are fragrant. They are borne in a raceme (in a few species, in an umbel) on pedicels, usually long, and can be either erect (upright-facing), horizontal (outward-facing), or pendent. The 6 similar perianth segments, called "tepals," may be free or joined to form a tube or trumpet. Each tepal has a nectary gland at the base. The 6 stamens generally have slender filaments tapering from the base, and the style is usually quite long, often protruding from the mouth of trumpet-shaped flowers. The ovary is 3-celled and contains many flat, winged seeds. The flower form differs according to species: those with long tubes are called "trumpets," and those with free, strongly recurved tepals are called "turk'scaps." Flowers may also be vase-shaped, nearly flat, or bowlshaped. This almost clinical description of lily flowers cannot do justice to their beauty. It is no wonder that lilies have been treasured for millennia. In ancient Greece, the Madonna lily (L. candidurri) was admired for its beauty but also, surprisingly, as a food. It was the flower of Aphrodite, the goddess of love; the Romans considered it an emblem of the goddesses Diana and Venus and used it in their ceremonies and festivals. In the Christian era, the Madonna lily became associated with the Virgin Mary and was nurtured in the gardens of monasteries. Its beauty and symbolic value made it worthy of inclusion in these gardens, even though there was seldom room for any plant that was not also considered useful. After the Middle Ages, travelers began to bring many exotic plants, including lilies, to Europe. The lily became the heraldic symbol of the house of Bourbon, and the English botanist John Parkinson (1596-1629) described L. chalcedonicum as the red martagon of Constantinople. Lilies were also brought from the New World, as evidenced by Parkinson's description of L.

Figure 9-6. A typical lily plant.

Lilium canadense in Paradisus Terrestris, published in 1629. With increased exploration and trade, lilies were introduced from many European outposts and colonies, as well as from China, Japan, and W North America. The most significant introductions were made by E. H. Wilson (1876-1931), director of Harvard University's Arnold Arboretum. Soon after 1900 he introduced L. davidii, L. regale, and L. sargentiae. Lilium regale in particular spurred greater interest in lilies; here was a huge, strongly fragrant trumpet flower that was relatively easy to grow and propagate. By the 1860s, L. auratum, the gold band lily of Japan, was grown in North America and England. The large flowers and almost overpowering fragrance made it an instant success. Such was the demand that importation reached tremendous levels. Unfortunately, though the bulbs were at first gathered carefully from the wild, the same care was not taken in transporting them. Commercial bulb farms producing L. auratum were established, but they shipped bulbs with the roots removed, and inadequate knowledge of how to grow these lilies resulted in stock of poor quality. As a result, the gardening public came to believe lilies were difficult to grow; perhaps it was hard for people to believe that flowers of such great beauty were not temperamental. By the twentieth century, bulb growers around the world were producing and hybridizing lilies, but sales were not high. Fortunately, one man—Jan de Graaff (1910-1989)—realized the potential for commercial lily production. In the early 1930s in Gresham, Oregon, de Graaff started to grow lilies on a large scale. With careful attention to the health of the stock, constant selection, and a studied program of hybridization, by the 1940s he had developed a good stock. In the 1950s, de Graaff s company, Oregon Bulb Farms, was offering bulbs of top quality and many new cultivars. The Asiatic hybrids known as Mid-Century hybrids, especially the cultivar 'Enchantment', made inroads into the mass market (Plate 800). Today this cultivar and other Asiatic hybrid lilies are grown all over the world as cut flowers, pot plants, and garden flowers (Plates 800-806). Oregon Bulb Farms also raised strains of colored trumpet lilies such as 'Golden Splendor' and 'Pink Perfection' (Plate 810). By the 1960s, large quantities were being exported from Oregon to Europe, and by the 1970s, Dutch bulb growers started to grow their own. Earl Hornback and Harold Comber, working for de Graaff, were pioneers in lily hybridizing. After de Graaff s retirement in 1969, another Oregon Bulb Farms' hybridizer, Edward McRae, continued to develop his own lines of breeding. (McRae's book Lilies: A Guide for Growers and Collectors, published in 1998, is required reading for anyone interested in this genus.) Today, the finest hybrids ever offered of these lovely plants are on the market. Modern technologies such as embryo culture enable hybridizers to raise lilies from crosses that were impossible just a few years ago, and to produce striking new types of lilies such as the Orienpets. Many names have been assigned to cover the offspring of specific crosses. The better-known interspecific hybrids are included in the list below. Though many of these may no longer

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be in cultivation, they have played a role in the development of more complex hybrids and are often mentioned in garden literature. They gave a foretaste of what treasures lay ahead. Most of today's cultivars are far removed from simple crosses between 2 species. Lilies can be used in a myriad of ways. As container plants, the shorter-growing ones add beauty to decks and patios. With the right selection lilies can be enjoyed in flower for many months. In the garden, they can be placed among shrubs to prolong the interest of a border all through summer. They complement the perennial border, and some are well adapted to the margin of the woodland. They can be forced into flower as pot plants and can be marketed throughout the year. They are superb cut flowers. Lilium is a very versatile genus, and few spots in the garden would not be improved by their presence. The individual bulbs often cost more than many other bulbs, but it must be appreciated that lilies will return year after year and natural increase will take place; in this light, these bulbs are a good investment. Few if any bulbous plants match them for grace and beauty. Wherever elegance is needed, lilies fill the bill. The ever-widening range of colors, the many different flower forms, and the strength of the latest hybrids are sure to help lilies take their place, after many lean years, in the forefront of bulbous plants. HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION

With scores of species and thousands of cultivars, a horticultural classification of lilies is necessary. Earlier systems adopted by the Royal Horticultural Society and the North American Lily Society are now somewhat outdated. The following system, developed by a committee of the latter society, is easy to understand, logical, and practical. This horticultural (not botanical) classification should be accepted and used for registration, show, and cataloging purposes. It separates the genus into 10 divisions based on species ancestry, with subdivisions based on flower form. 1. Asiatic Hybrids. Derived from L. amabile, L. bulbiferum, L. callosum, L. cernuum, L. concolor, L. dauricum, L. davidii, L. lancifolium, L. lankongense, L. leichtlinii, L. pumilum, L. wilsonii. 1A. Upright-facing. IB. Outward-facing. 1C. Down ward-facing. 2. Martagon Hybrids. Derived from L. hansonii, L. martagon, L. medeoloides, L. tsingtauense. 3. Candidum Hybrids. Derived from L. candidum, L. chalcedonicum, L. monadelphum. 4. North American Hybrids. Derived from any American species (in practice, primarily from L. bolanderi, L. humboldtii, L. kelloggii, L. pardalinum, and L. parryi). 5. Longiflorum Hybrids. Derived from L. longiflorum (mostly crossed with Asiatic hybrids). 5A. Upright-facing. 5B. Outward-facing. 5C. Down ward-facing.

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6. Chinese Trumpet and Aurelian Hybrids. Derived from Chinese species with purple bulbs (L. henryi, L. leucanthum, L. regale, L. sargentiae, L sulphureum). 6A. Upright-facing. 6B. Outward-facing. 6C. Downward-facing. 7. Oriental Hybrids. Derived from L. alexandrae, L. auratum, L. japonicum, L. nobilissimum, L. rubellum, L. speciosum. 7A. Upright-facing. 7B. Outward-facing. 7C. Down ward-facing. 8. Orienpet Hybrids. Derived from crossing species and hybrids from Division 6 with those from Division 7. 8A. Upright-facing. 8B. Outward-facing. 8C. Downward-facing. 9. Species. All true species and their forms. 9A. L. martagon form with reflexed flowers, such as L. cernuum, L. chalcedonicum, L. davidii, L. duchartrei, L. hansonii, L. martagon, L. monadelphum, and L. wardiibut excluding those of American origin. 9B. Upright flowers, such as L. bulbiferum, L. dauricum, and L. tsingtauense. 9C. American origin. 9D. Forms and polyploids of L. formosanum, L. longiflorum, L. philippinense. 9E. Bowl-shaped or trumpet flowers, such as L. candidum, L. regale, L. sargentiae, L. sulphureum, but excluding those mentioned in 9D. 9F. Asiatic species with short trumpet or slightly recurved pendent flowers, such as L. bakerianum, L. nepalense, L. primulinum. 9G. Forms and varieties of I. auratum and L speciosum. 9H. Asiatic lilies, usually dwarf, close to Nomocharis, such as L. henrici, L. mackliniae, L. nanum, L. sheriffiae. 10. Miscellaneous Hybrids. All hybrids not provided for in any previous division. One problem I see with this classification is the difficulty of drawing the line between outward-facing and downward-facing flowers. Few lilies are strictly outward-facing; the flowers of most tilt at various angles, which can be influenced by environmental conditions as well. In my opinion, there should be just 2 subdivisions, upright-facing and outward- and downwardfacing (that is, not upright). Over the years, many botanists have proposed classifications of the genus Lilium. Few of them had as great a love of plants and as much knowledge, from both practical and academic perspectives, as Harold Comber. I had the privilege of working with him, and after his retirement from the Oregon Bulb Farms, of spending many happy hours in the company of this superb plantsman. His species classification, published in 1949, has only 7 sections:

1. Martagon Section. L. distichum, L. hansonii, L. martagon, L. medeoloides, L. tsingtauense. 2. American Section 2A. L. bolanderi, L. columbianum, L. humboldtii, L. kelloggii, L. rubescens, L. washingtonianum. 2B. L. maritimum, L. nevadense, L. occidentale, L. pardalinum, L. parryi, L. parvum, L. roezlii. 2C. L. canadense, L. grayi, L. iridolae, L. michauxii, L. michiganense, L. superbum. 2D. L. catesbaei, L. philadelphicum. 3. Candidum Section. L. bulbiferum, L. candidum, L. carniolicum, L. chalcedonicum, L. monadelphum, L. polyphyllum, L. pomponium, L. pyrenaicum. 4. Oriental Section. L. auratum, L. brownii, L. japonicum, L. nobilissimum, L. rubellum, L. speciosum. 5. Asiatic Section 5A. L. davidii, L. duchartrei, L. henryi, L. landfolium, L. lankongense, L. leichtlinii, L. papilliferum. 5B. L. amabile, L. callosum, L. cernuum, L. concolor, L. pumilum. 5C. L. bakerianum, L. mackliniae, L. nepalense, L. ochraceum, L. sempervivoideum, L. taliense, L. wardii. 6. Trumpet Section 6A. L. leucanthum, L. regale, L. sargentiae, L. sulphureum. 6B. L. formosanum, L. longiflorum, L. neilgherrense, L. philippenense, L. wallichianum. 7. Dauricum Section. L. dauricum, L. maculatum. Comber's and other classifications may have to be revised in view of DNA studies and other methods now available to taxonomists, but there is no substitute for the vast observational knowledge and sound logic of people like Harold Comber. The passion for plants seen in the pioneers of lily growing has been seldom equaled, and never surpassed. Modern hybridizers have focused on refining the lilies of Division 1A, the upright-flowering Asiatics. They are widely grown as cut flowers and pot plants and are also good in the garden. This combination of characteristics has led to almost an overabundance of this division. There has been a concomitant decrease in the number of Chinese trumpet hybrids (Division 6) and of those in other divisions where breeders cannot achieve the startling new colors, bicolors, and forms possible in Asiatic lilies. This book does not list cultivars, since the inventory changes so rapidly. Most clones and strains offered by reputable growers can be depended on for vigor, good foliage, and excellent flower texture. When selecting varieties for the garden, look for such comments as "vigorous increaser" and "disease resistant." The more expensive kinds are not necessarily the best—only the newest or the hardest to propagate. CULTURE Above all, remember that lilies do not like wet feet; they must have good drainage. The bulbs are never completely dormant. There is always some activity going on inside the bulb: verna-

Lilium tion and the formation of buds, or the transfer of food from the scales to the growing points of root and stem. The most important part of the bulb is the basal plate, to which the scales are attached. The scales themselves are modified leaves that are used for storage. Lily bulbs must be handled with care because they do not have protective tunics and the brittle, often loose scales are easily broken. This is especially true of species that produce stoloniferous roots, which can form new bulbs along their length, often at some distance from the original parent. Plant most lily bulbs at a depth that corresponds to twice the height of the bulb; thus, a bulb that is 4 in. from top to bottom should be planted with 8 in. of soil over it. A notable exception is L. candidum, which should always be planted close to soil level, only l/2-l in. deep. Lily bulbs are available in fall, and bulbs held in storage under controlled conditions can be purchased in spring. Early fall is the best planting time, as soon as the bulbs are available. Spring planting can alter the flowering time, especially in the first year, but this is not important if no special timing of bloom is desired. Lilies like to have their feet in the shade and their heads in the sun. The shade can be provided by shrubs or leafy perennials. Some lilies with delicately colored flowers, such as pinks and light yellows, hold their color better if given some shade in hotsummer regions. The soil should be quite rich in humus, welldrained, and worked to a good depth—12-14 in. is ideal. The spacing of bulbs depends on the type being grown. Tall-growing trumpet lilies and certain Oriental hybrids that reach well over 6 ft. once established should be set 24 in. apart. The lowergrowing types, such as Asiatic hybrids, should be 10-12 in. apart. Certain lilies, particularly the Oriental hybrids (Plate 809), produce numerous stem roots between the top of the bulb and the soil surface. Such roots may be produced above the soil level, but this is not likely if the bulbs are planted deeply enough. If such roots appear, place additional soil around the stems to cover them. As soon as the lilies appear aboveground in spring, feed with a balanced (10-10-10) fertilizer. Another application can be given in 6-8 weeks, but fertilizer should not be applied after flower buds are visible. Lilies must have moisture throughout their growing season, applied in sufficient quantity to reach the deep-seated roots. Many lilies require no support, but the tallest may need staking in windy spots or when the stems are unusually tall, as may occur when clumps are left undisturbed. The stems are unlikely to break, but the weight of the flowers will bend them over. Most lilies produce only one stem per bulb. If this is damaged, the whole flowering season is lost, and the bulb is weakened because the leaves are the "food factory" for the following year. Almost all lilies are cold-hardy and can be left undisturbed for a number of years. Eventually, however, the number of flowers will decrease as the bulbs become overcrowded, as they produce smaller offsets as part of their natural growth cycle. At this time, it is necessary to lift and divide the plants.

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Lift bulbs in late summer or early fall as soon as the leaves turn yellow. Lilies that flower early in the year, such as the Asiatic hybrids, can be lifted earlier than Oriental hybrids, which flower in late summer. Lift with care, separate the bulbs, and replant those of good size; the smaller ones can be planted in nursery rows. Check the bulbs before replanting them and discard diseased or damaged ones. Pay particular attention to the basal plate: if this is damaged, the bulb will not grow, or at best grow poorly. The areas where diseased bulbs have been growing should not be replanted with lilies for a couple of seasons. Lilies do well in containers, but these must be deep, especially for stem-rooted types. Use a good, friable, well-drained soil mix and plant to the same depth as in the ground. Lilies grown in containers can be planted closer together than in the ground, 6 in. apart for most kinds. Stand the containers in a cool spot so root growth can proceed. As soon as the shoots have reached 3-5 in. in height, place the containers in better light, and move them into full sun after a week or 2. The pots and soil, however, should be shaded during the growing season, if possible, so that the sun does not heat up the soil in the plants' root zone. Feed as soon as the shoots appear, applying dilute liquid organic fertilizer weekly. Stop feeding as soon as the buds are visible. Keep the containers moist but never sopping wet. Lilies in large containers do not need to be lifted every year. Instead, you can remove the soil down to the tops of the bulbs, working carefully so as not to damage the bulbs. Replace the material removed with fresh soil. This operation should take place in lanuary in warmer climates and as late as March in cooler ones. About every 3 years, the bulbs should be removed and all the soil replaced. After the bulbs have finished flowering, either in containers or in the ground, remove the portion of the stem that has flowered, but keep as many leaves as possible. This saves the plants from putting their strength into seed production, and they will store the energy for next year. When cutting lilies for arrangements, remove only as much of the stem and leaves as needed. Some leaves must remain to nurture the bulb. The flowers can be cut as soon as the first bud shows good color and is just starting to open. The remainder of the flowers will open in due time while in water. Cut stems can be placed in cold storage at a temperature around 40°F. Packed securely into boxes with waxed paper, they can be shipped great distances. Even if they have not been in water for several days, once the stems are recut and placed in water, preferably warm, the flowers will open without any problem. No leaves should be immersed in the water, because they will rot and have an evil smell. Lily pollen stains clothing and other surfaces. Allow it to dry, then brush it off; attempting to remove the stain before it dries will only compound the problem. PESTS AND DISEASES

Aphids are a serious problem not so much because of the physical damage they do but because they can spread viruses. Simply washing plants with soapy water often discourages these pests, but severe infestations require the use of an insecticide. Ascer-

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tain that the product used will not harm lilies, then follow label directions regarding dilution and frequency of spraying. Botrytis is a severe problem. The fungi responsible are B. elliptica and B. cinerea. The evidence of attack varies according to the growing period. The most serious attacks occur when the shoots have just emerged and are 2-6 in. high. The top portion of the plant turns brown and withers, destroying the entire year's growth. The bulbs will probably survive but will be weakened. In commercial plantings prevention requires regular application of a suitable fungicide, starting with emergence. The less serious form of Botrytis attack appears later on the leaves. The first signs are pale elliptical blotches. These enlarge and turn brown, and the entire leaf may wither. Naturally, the plant is weakened. The fungus also may attack the flowers, causing brown spots and possibly destroying the entire flower or bud. The fungus is promoted by humid conditions and poor air circulation. Regular spraying with a fungicide is essential in field production; in gardens, spraying as soon as the first sign is seen will keep the problem under control. Clean cultivation always reduces the severity of attacks. The bulb mite Rhizoglyphus echinopus is generally a secondary pest attacking the bulbs, gaining entrance through some mechanical injury. It is most likely to be present in warm climates, such as that of Australia. The mites appear as pale yellow or pinkish dots between the scales. The gardener should discard affected bulbs or, if they are valuable, dust them with flowers of sulfur; commercial growers often dip the bulbs for an hour in water at 111°F. Damping-off disease attacks seedlings at ground level and causes them to topple over. Good air circulation and the regular use of fungicide control the problem. The disease may attack the basal plates of bulbs, especially young bulblets, causing the plant to turn brown. Affected bulbs must be discarded. Fasciation is not a disease, but a physiological deformation of the plant in which stems become flattened and flowers distorted, often with extra petals. The problem seems to be more common in rich soil and among the Asiatic hybrids, though any type can become fasciated. Bulbs can return to their normal habit the year after producing fasciated stems. No treatment is necessary. Nematodes are small, wormlike, soil-dwelling organisms which can devastate a crop. They damage the basal plates of the bulbs and allow soil-borne fungal diseases to wreak havoc. Fumigation of fields before planting is essential in commercial production. Symptoms of attack include stunted growth and loss of flower production, leaves yellowing and becoming chlorotic, and overall weak appearance. When bulbs are lifted, root galls are likely to be seen. In many cases, attacked areas in fields are separated by some distance; perhaps the particular soil conditions in those areas are conducive to the proliferation of the pests. There are many types, including root-knot, meadow or lesion, dagger or stunt, and foliar nematodes. The last can swim up a film of moisture on the stems and infest the leaves. Soil sterilization by steam or chemical means is the usual control. These treatments are not usually practical in gardens, so if nematodes are a problem, avoid the affected areas for bulb planting.

Slugs and snails damage lilies primarily as the young shoots emerge from the soil. Shoots are tender and attractive food for these pests. Slug and snail bait should be applied as a precautionary measure. Attacked by various species of Penidllium, the surface of stored bulbs develops a green mold. Use of dry packing material and making certain the outer surface of the bulbs themselves is dry when packed practically eliminates the problem. If it is severe, dusting the bulbs with a fungicide is effective. Thrips cause scarring of the leaves and, if severe, can ruin a crop. They eat the surface of the leaves. Dusting bulbs with an insecticide after lifting or spraying field-grown bulbs with an insecticide helps to control the problem. If a regular insecticidal program for the control of aphids is instituted, this also will take care of the thrip problem. In the case of the commercial grower, it cannot be stated too strongly that selecting clean and healthy planting stock, constant removal of sick plants, a sound program of water treatment, spraying and general good hygiene, and the fumigation of fields will keep problems to a minimum. Growers should work out their program with an agricultural chemical supply company that has a complete line of products to prevent serious losses. If the home gardener were to study the complete list of pests and diseases that can attack any garden plants, the number of problems would be overwhelming. However, the controls employed by competent growers mean that stock offered to gardeners is usually fairly clean. Agricultural inspectors do an excellent job in ensuring that pests and diseases are kept under control and not exported. PROPAGATION

Lilies can be propagated by scales (Plates 43–45), seed, natural production of stem and root bulbs, bulbils in the axils of the leaves, and tissue culture. Most cultivars and species take 3 years to flower, but some may produce a single flower in their 2nd year of growth. Gardeners are most likely to increase their plants by simply lifting and dividing the naturally increased bulbs, or by seed. Growing lilies from seed is a good way to obtain virus-free stock, provided the resulting seedlings are not planted near infected lilies. Flowering plants can be raised in 3-4 years from seed. Two different habits are exhibited by lilies in germinating—hypogeal (below ground), and epigeal (above ground). Both of these may be further subdivided into immediate or delayed germination. Hypogeal types do not produce a cotyledon that emerges above the ground. Rather, the food from the seed is transferred underground to a point between the true seed leaves that emerge above the soil and the root tip. This point becomes the miniature bulb, and the transference of the food is made before the seed leaves are produced. If the growth cycle is continuous, the name given is hypogeal immediate. If a cold, or incubation, period is necessary after the initial germination, it is known as hypogeal delayed. Epigeal types send a cotyledon above the ground. The seed

Lilium containing the endosperm, which nourishes the developing seedling, is either attached at the end of the cotyledon or discarded and left below ground. Just above the root tip a small node is apparent, which then becomes the bulb. When this has absorbed sufficient strength, true leaves are produced. Epigeal immediate types may be sown as soon as ripe, but this is not always practical. Epigeal delayed types require a definite cold period before germination will occur. Fortunately, epigeal and hypogeal germination do not require different procedures. It is advantageous to sow all types of lily seed in the spring, when growing conditions are best. This can be done either in a greenhouse or outdoors in specially prepared seedbeds. The seeds of Asiatic and trumpet lilies are epigeal germinators. The hybrids of L. sargentiae, such as 'Pink Perfection', 'Golden Splendor', and 'Black Magic', are delayed types. While the seed of all of these can be stored in the freezer to preserve viability, it is essential that the trumpet types descended from L. sargentiae receive at least 3 months of chilling before they are sown. In the spring, when the weather is warm and as soon as the ground can be worked, the seeds can be sown. They must be protected against late spring frosts and scorching sun during the summer and must be kept moist at all times. The exotic hybrids, those between L. auratum and L. speciosum or those descended from these species, belong to the hypogeal delayed group. Lilium browniiand those descended from L. dauricum are hypogeal immediate germinators. After winter storage, the immediate types can be sown in the spring, at the same time as the epigeal types. The hypogeal delayed types are stored in the freezer until May, when the seed is mixed with vermiculite and incubated. During that month the temperature should be maintained at 50°F; this is raised in June to 60°F and in July to 70°F. The latter temperature is maintained until 3 months before sowing, which is usually done the following spring. For this final 3-month period, the seedlings, which now will have developed a small bulb, must be kept at 34°F. They then can be sown in rows or broadcast, together with the vermiculite, in prepared seedbeds. With this method some flowers will be seen the 2nd season and flowering-sized bulbs will be produced by the end of the 3rd season. Like the other types, the seedlings must be protected against frost and too-strong sunlight. After 1 or 2 seasons in the seedbeds, the plants are lifted and replanted so they can be cultivated in rows to bring them to flowering and commercial size. Any bulbs that have reached commercial size can be sold. Although the treatments described may seem time-consuming, they provide a high germination percentage and will lessen the time needed from seed to flowering bulb. A gardener without experience in raising lilies from seed may be confused by the different treatments needed to ensure good germination. Nothing is more gratifying and encouraging than a successful crop! For first-timers, I suggest trying epigeal germinators first. The seed, after being harvested, is put into a sack and placed in the freezer. In the spring, after a minimum of 3 months in the cold, the seed can be sown.

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A sterile container, at least 6 in. deep with a goodly number of drainage holes in the bottom, is lined with 1 in. of gravel. The seed-sowing mix, which should be fluffy, is added to a depth of 4 in., which is then covered by a1/4-in.layer of milled sphagnum moss. The seeds are placed at 1 in. intervals on the surface of the moss and covered with another1/4in. of the milled sphagnum. The container is set in a pan of water to a depth that will let the water rise up through the container until the surface is moist. It is then lifted out of the water and the excess moisture allowed to drain. The container is then covered with plastic and placed in a warm location. In a little more than 2 weeks the seeds should begin to germinate. Remove the cover as soon as several seeds have germinated. The container should be moved to a spot where it can receive good, bright, but indirect, light. After most of the seeds have germinated and the seedlings are 1 in. or so high, weak feedings of liquid fertilizer can be given. When all danger of frost has passed and the temperature at night is above 40°F, the seedlings can be hardened off. That is done by placing them in a wind-free location outdoors and protecting them at night with a plastic covering. The plastic is lifted during the day and replaced again at night. After a while, the sides of the covering are lifted during the night for a week and then the covering removed entirely, to be used only if an unexpected frost should occur. In areas of little or no frost, the seed should be sown in March so that light and temperature are conducive to steady growth and the hardening-off period is not so critical. In no case should seedlings that have received protection of some sort be subjected to a great variance of conditions until hardening-off has taken place. After the seedlings have reached 4-5 in. in height, they can be transferred to final growing locations or placed in individual containers, using a stronger soil mixture, but always with good drainage. If seedlings have been spaced too closely together, replanting or transplanting is essential. Care must be taken not to damage the fragile roots when separating the seedlings from one another. This is one of the reasons a fluffy soil mix is an advantage, making it easier to remove the young plants. SPECIES L. alexandrae. Japan (S Ryukyu Islands). Stems to 36 in. Flowers white with pale green at base, sometimes pale pink, held horizontally or suberect, early summer. Fairly hardy if well mulched. L. amabile. KOREAN LILY. Korea; introduced 1912. Stems slender, to 48 in. Leaves scattered, usually more abundant on upper part of stem. Flowers pendent, deep red, 6-8 in a wellspaced raceme. Fragrance quite strong, regarded as unpleasant by some. Plants increase readily from stem bulblets; seed production easy. Var. luteum has clear, lemon-yellow to orange tones. Very free-flowering from even small bulbs; a clump of 5-7 makes a splendid display in early summer. Prefers full sun, except in very hot climates, and withstands drought once established. L. amoenum. W China (Yunnan); introduced 1936. Stem to 12 in., stem-rooting. Leaves few, scattered. Flowers 1-3 per

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stem, bowl-shaped, slightly pendent, delicate but intense pink, mid to late summer. Tepals about 11/2 in. long, with reflexed tips. Plant the small bulbs closely, 8-12 in. apart. Resembles a smaller version of I. rubellum, and at one time confused with L. bakerianum var. yunnanense. L. arboricola. N Myanmar, growing as an epiphyte on trees; introduced 1953. Stems 30–48 in. Flowers light green, martagon form, late summer. L. auratum. GOLD BAND LILY. Japan; introduced 1862. The amount of gold in the flowers maybe very little, or quite a wide band; sometimes the band is red, and these forms are commonly mistaken for hybrids. There are 2 principal forms. Var. platyphyllum is taller and more vigorous, and the form usually grown. Stems usually 3-7 ft., over 10 ft. under ideal conditions, with as many as 25 flowers. Leaves broad, often more than 2 in. wide, and to 8 in. long. Flowers 8-10 in. in diameter, downward- and outward-facing on strong pedicels, bowl-shaped; tips of the tepals recurve; tepals spotted crimson or brown dots. At the base of the tepals are contrastingly colored papillae, stubby attachments protruding from the surface; in the center is a channel, often darker, which leads to the nectaries. Var. praecox flowers a little earlier and is not so tall, but its flowers are about the same size. Lilium auratum is perhaps the loveliest lily of the genus, with great form and texture, wonderful fragrance, vigorous and easy. It passes many of its fine traits on to its progeny and is a parent of many superior hybrids. Color forms identified as varieties include var. pictum, with a median band that is yellow in the center of the tepal and crimson on the upper portion of each tepal; var. rubrovittatum, with a well-defined bright crimson median band; var. rubrum has a crimson central band; var. virginale, pure white with just a hint of yellow in a thin central band; var. tricolor, robust, with large flowers with yellow band and no brown dots. 'Flore Pleno' has double flowers. Plate 777. L. Xaurelianense (L. henryix L. sargentiae). Introduced 1932. Stems to 96 in. Flowers yellow-orange fading to pale yellow, mid summer. L. bakerianum. Myanmar (Shan State); introduced 1891. There are 5 geographic variants. The type, L. bakerianum var. typicum, is most common in cultivation. Stems 24-36 in., running horizontally underground before emerging. Leaves scattered, to 4 in. long,1/2in. wide. Flowers fragrant, pendent 1 or 2 from smaller bulbs, 7-8 from larger ones; Tepals 2-3 in. long, light greenish white spotted red inside, recurved at tips. Though reputed to be hard to grow in most areas, performs well if given a little winter protection. Var. aureum has golden-yellow flowers, speckled purple on the entire inner surface. Var. delavayi has greenish-yellow to olive-green flowers with reddish spots on interior surface. Var. rubrum has rose or reddish flowers with darker spots. Var. yunnanense is shorter, with white flowers speckled with rose on lower parts of tepals. L. bolanderi. Siskiyou Mountains of United States (N California, S Oregon), on steep slopes; introduced 1889. Bulb has very narrow scales. Stems to 36 in., usually less. Flowers to 9 per stem, usually fewer, bell-shaped, not reflexed, outward-facing or slightly pendent, brick or wine red on outside, pale crimson

inside; inner surface prominently spotted red, yellowish toward base. Flowering mid summer. Needs to be dry but not baked in late summer. L. brownii. S and C China; introduced 1835. Bulb has numerous scales, some jointed. Stems 3-4 ft. The originally introduced clone from Guangzhou has trumpet-shaped flowers, white inside and rosy purple to brown outside, sometimes flushed green; flowering mid summer. Var. australe, the Hong Kong lily, is a vigorous plant, 5-6 ft. tall, flowers white, green to brown on reverse; flowering late summer; not very cold-hardy. Var. viridulum is widespread in C China and has pale yellow to white flowers flushed green within, marked with green and rose purple without; flowering late summer; hardy. L. bukozanense. Mount Buko in Japan (near Tokyo), on cliffs. Stems lax, to 24 in. Flowers orange-red, spotted, early summer. L. bulbiferum. FIRE LILY. Europe in Pyrenees, Italy, Switzerland, S Germany, and east to Yugoslavia; introduced 1820. Stems 36-48 in. Bulbils produced on upper part of stem in leaf axils. Leaves short, thick, dark green. Flowers 15-20 per stem, upright-facing, bright golden orange, 4-5 in. in diameter; inner portion of tepals spotted dark maroon. Pedicels stout, covered with down. Var. chaixii is a dwarf form from Maritime Alps of S France. Var. croceum from S Germany, N and C Italy, S France, and Corsica has bright orange flowers and does not produce stem bulbils. Var. giganteum from N Italy is 5-6 ft. tall, with orange-yellow flowers. Plate 778. L. xburbankii (L. pardalinum x L. parryi). Stems 36-72 in. Flowers yellow with brown spots, summer. L. xburnhamense (L. neilgherrense x L. wallichianum). Introduced 1936. Stems 36-72 in. Flowers white, late summer. L. callosum. SLIMSTEM LILY. E Russia, Manchuria, Korea, Japan, and Taiwan; introduced 1859. Stems 12-36 in. Flowers red or orange-red with black dots, turk's-cap form, late summer. Var. flaviflorum from Okinawa has yellow flowers. L. canadense. MEADOW LILY. Canada (Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia) and United States (Maine, North Carolina); introduced c. 1629, the first North American lily brought to Europe. Bulb oval, producing 1-2 in. long stolons with new bulbs at ends. Stems to 6 ft. Leaves to 6 in. long and 2 in. wide, arranged in whorls; upper part of stem often has a few scattered leaves. Flowers to 20 per stem, bell-shaped, pendent, 3-4 in. in diameter; tepals reflexed midway, lemon yellow with dark purple spots; pedicels horizontal. Prefers light shade; found in the wild on woodland fringes. Var. cocdneum is dark red. Var. editorum from the Appalachian Mountains of United States inhabits drier sites, has broader leaves, red flowers, and slightly narrower tepals. Var. flavo-rubrum is deep orange, yellow within throat, distinctly spotted. Var. immaculatum is yellow, unspotted. Plates 779-782. L. candidum. ANNUNCIATION LILY, BOURBON LILY, MADONNA LILY, SAINT JOSEPH'S LILY. E Mediterranean (Greece, Lebanon, Israel, Turkey); long cultivated and naturalized throughout S Europe and as far east as Afghanistan. This species is widely associated with religious feasts and symbolism, as its common names indicate. ("Lilium candidum" is also an invalid

Lilium synonym of L. longiflorum.) Bulb white or yellowish, growing near surface. Basal leaves emerge in summer and persist through winter, mature 9-10 in. long and to 2 in. wide; also a few scattered leaves on scape. Stems 24-60 in. Flowers to 20 per stem, held close to stem on sturdy pedicels, pure white, to 5 in. in diameter, sweetly fragrant; tepals flare about midway and overlap at base. Flowering early summer. Var. cernuum from Turkey has starry flowers with tepals barely overlapping. Var. salonikae, wild form from W Greece, is small-flowered and, unlike many cultivated forms, is fertile. Selected forms include 'Aureo-marginatum', leaves with prominent yellow margin; 'Plenum', double-flowered, tall; 'Purpureum', flowers and bulbs streaked purplish red; 'Variegatum', leaves with yellowish-white blotches. Unlike other lilies, bulbs should be planted shallowly, barely covered with soil, in late summer. Cascade is a fine seed strain; however, much imported stock is of poor quality. I have seen bulbs imported from Europe that have nearly disintegrated, but the species is so vigorous that they recovered and flowered well. Susceptible to Botrytis but good air circulation and sun help to prevent this. Foliage should not remain wet in spring. Plates 783-785. L. catesbaei. LEOPARD LILY, PINE LILY, TIGER LILY. United States (Florida, Louisiana, North Carolina, South Carolina), in acidic swamp soils; introduced 1788. Bulb small, with blunt, slender, erect, loosely held scales. Stems 12-24 in. Leaves scattered, lower leaves 4 in. long, progressively smaller toward top. Flowers upright-facing, usually solitary, 4-6 in. in diameter; tepals narrow, to 4 in. long, yellow bordered scarlet, base spotted maroon and incurled almost into a tube. Flowering late summer. Var. asprellum from Missouri, Alabama, and Florida has stems to 48 in. Var. longii from Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama is shorter. Difficult in cultivation and probably not too cold-hardy. L. xcentigale (L. leucanthum var. centifolium x L. regale). Introduced 1920. Stems 48 in. or more. Flowers white, mid summer. L. cernuum. NODDING LILY. Korea and Manchuria. Bulbs just over 1 in. in diameter, scales held tightly, white, ovoid. Many stem roots produced and, though small, bulbs should be planted at least 4 in. deep. Stems to 36 in. but usually less. Leaves sparse at bottom and top of stem, largest and longest leaves concentrated in middle. Flowers to 12 per stem, fragrant, pendent, turk's-cap form, pale purple heavily marked with carmine. Flowering early summer. Readily raised from seed, often flowering in the 2nd year. Var. candidum from Diamond Mountains of North Korea has white flowers, faintly purplespotted at base. L. chalcedonicum. RED MART AGON, SCARLET TURK'S CAP LILY. Greece; introduced c. 1600. ("Lilium chalcedonicum" is also an invalid synonym of L. carniolicumvar. carniolicum.) Bulb yellowish, fairly large, ovoid, about 3 in. in diameter and length. Stems to 48 in. Leaves scattered, numerous; lower leaves horizontal, upper leaves held close to stem. Flowers to 10 per stem, turks's-cap form, brilliant red, sometimes spotted, glistening as if lacquered. Flowering early summer. Prefers warm, somewhat alkaline soil and should be left undisturbed. The seed parent of

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L. xtestaceum. Var. maculatum has scarlet flowers spotted black and is taller. Plate 786. L. dliatum. NE Turkey, along Black Sea. Stems 24–60 in. Leaf margins hairy. Flowers cream or pale yellow, with dense brownish-purple spots at base, early summer. L. columbianum. COLUMBIA TIGER LILY, OREGON LILY. United States (N California to Washington) and Canada (British Columbia); introduced 1872. Bulbs small, often growing 8 in. deep in the wild. Stems to 5 ft., sometimes more. Flowers golden yellow to dark orange with numerous dark purple spots or blotches, small, turk's-cap form, to 30 per stem on long pedicels. Flowering late spring to early summer. L. concolor. MORNING STAR LILY, STAR LILY. C China (Hubei, Hunan, Yunnan); introduced 1806. Bulb ovoid, about 1 in. long, white turning pinkish when exposed to light. Stems to 36 in. Leaves scattered, 3 in. long and1/2in. wide. Flowers unspotted, brilliant scarlet, slightly fragrant, to 10 per stem; tepals 11/2 in. long, opening flat, tips recurving a little; bases forming a bowl. Filaments and anthers scarlet. Flowering late spring. Var. coridion has bright yellow flowers with a few carmine spots. Var. mutsuanum has scarlet flowers spotted deep red at base. Var. pulchellum is robust, with vermilion to apricot or orange-red flowers. Var. partheneion is red, streaked green and yellow, heavily spotted black. Var. stictum is scarlet spotted black. L. xdalhansonii (L. hansoniix L. martagonvar. cattaniae). Introduced 1890. Stems 48-60 in. Flowers maroon and orange, heavily spotted purple, early summer. L. dauricum. Siberia from Altai Mountains to Kamchatka, Mongolia, Korea, and Japan (Hokkaido); introduced 1745, one of the first Asiatic lilies grown in Europe. Stems 12-30 in.; stemrooting. Leaves scattered, to 6 in. long and 1 in. wide. Flowers upright-facing, scarlet or light red with brown spots; tepals recurve slightly, 2 in. long. Flowering early summer; extremely cold-hardy. Not commonly grown now, it enjoyed great popularity in Europe for many years and still exists in old gardens. Var. luteum has yellow flowers dotted with dark carmine spots. 'Brenchleyense' is crimson with black dots. E. H. Wilson designated forms with horizontally running stems as L. dauricum and those with the stem rising straight as subsp. thunbergianum. Recognized today in addition to the type are var. alpinum, a dwarf form 4-8 in. high, and var. luteum, with unspotted yellow flowers. L. davidii. W China (Sichuan, Yunnan). Bulb has few scales, often flattened. Stems to 48 in. or more, often running horizontally below ground. Leaves scattered, horizontally held, tips curving upward. Flowers 40 or more per stem, turk's-cap form, orange-red heavily spotted black, 3 in. in diameter, pendent on long pedicels. Flowering mid to late summer. The plants like full sun and are stem-rooted. The profuse flowers make it well worth growing. Much used in hybridizing; the seed parent of the Fiesta Hybrids. Var. unicolorhas stems to 36 in. and unspotted flowers. Var. willmottiae is 48-84 in. tall with deep orange flowers, spotted black. 'Macranthum' is tall, bright orange. L distichum. KOCHANG LILY. Korea, Manchuria, and E Russia; introduced 1936. Stems 12-36 in. Flowers pale orange-red with dark spots, mid summer.

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Lilium

L. duchartrei. W China, in damp areas on forest margins and meadows, often at 8,000-11,000 ft.; introduced c. 1910. The species name honors French lily enthusiast Pierre Etienne Duchartre (1811-1894), whose Observations on the Genus Lilium is a classic. Bulbs about 11/2in. long. Stems wander underground before emerging as far as 12 in. from bulb; stem-rooting and produceing numerous stem bulblets. Stems to 36 in. rarely to 60 in. Leaves to 4 in. long,1/2in. wide, scattered. Flowers fragrant, to 12 per stem on stiff ascending pedicels, pendent, about 2 in. in diameter, turk's-cap form, white spotted and streaked deep purple, aging to reddish purple. Flowering mid summer. L fargesii. C China. Stems 8-24 in. Flowers greenish white, speckled with rose. L. formosanum. Taiwan, from sea level to 9800 ft.; introduced c. 1880. Bulb nearly globose, 11/2 in. in diameter, often larger bulbs in cultivation. Leaves glossy, to 8 in. long, narrow, l /2 in. or less wide, densely clothing entire stem. Flowers trumpet-shaped, very fragrant, white, pendent. Populations at lower elevations are up to 72 in. tall and produce to 8 flowers per stem, pure white, to 10 in. long. Those from the highest populations, known as var. pricei, are only 12-24 in. tall and have flowers to 5 in. long, tepals with red reverse and rich red keel. Intermediate forms occur between these extremes. No form is long-lived, and all are susceptible to virus. Type flowers late summer; var. pricei flowers mid summer. L. georgei. Myanmar. Stems 10–18 in. Flowers bluish purple, summer. L. grayi. Allegheny Mountains of United States; introduced 1888. Stems 30-48 in. Flowers deep reddish orange, mid summer. L. hansonii. Ullung-Do and Takeshima islands, off E Korea, and Diamond and Negita mountains of mainland Korea; introduced 1870. (Sometimes grown under name "L. avenaceum," an invalid synonym of L. medeoloides.) Bulb rounded to ovoid, with many small, loosely attached, yellowish scales which turn purplish when exposed to light. Stems to 48 in. or more; stem-rooting. Leaves in whorls, a few scattered above the top whorl. Flowers to 12 per stem, pendent on upward-arching pedicels, orange with a hint of yellow, spotted brown, mostly on the lower % of the tepals. Tepals very thick. Flowering early summer. Perfectly at home in most gardens and should be left undisturbed for years. Tolerates light shade for part of the day. Parent of many hybrids with L. martagon, notably the Backhouse Hybrids. L. henrici. China (NW Yunnan, W Sichuan); introduced 1893. Stems 24-48 in. Flowers white to pink, crimson inside, mid summer. L. henryi. C China (Hubei, Jiangxi, Guizhou); introduced 1889. Commonly called orange speciosum lily because of the similarity between its flower shape and that of red-flowered L. speciosum. Bulb to 6 in. long and often more in diameter, whitish-purple color most pronounced at tips of scales, a trait often passed to progeny. Produces many stem bulblets, and some forms also produce bulbils in leaf axils. Stems rarely more than 36 in. in the wild, to 8 ft. in cultivation; stem-rooting. Leaves mostly lanceolate but broader and shorter just below inflores-

cence, a characteristic not typical of Asiatic lilies. Flowers 2-4 in the wild, 10-40 in cultivation, pendent, bright orange with numerous dark carmine spots and prominent papillae on lower part of reflexed tepals, to 3 in. long and 3-4 in. in diameter. Pedicels often have lateral branches; terminal flower opens first, lateral later. Flowering late summer. Augustine Henry (18591930) introduced it after finding it growing in Ichang Gorge. Var. citrinum, of garden origin, 1936, has lemon-yellow flowers with brown spots. L. xhollandicum. UMBEL LILY. Exact parentage uncertain, probably L. bulbiferum x L. xmaculatum. Flowers upright-facing, bright yellow, orange, or red, on short, sturdy, erect pedicels. Flowering early summer. Many cultivars introduced in 1920s, now superseded by modern cultivars. L. humboldtii. Sierra Nevada in United States (C and N California), in open woodland; introduced 1872. Stems to 48 in., often more. Leaves usually arranged in whorls, sometimes scattered, to 5 in. long and 1 in. wide. Flowers many (rarely to 70) in pyramidal raceme, pale to rich orange, marked with large maroon dots, to 4 in. in diameter; tepals 3-4 in. long, recurving in turk's-cap form. Requires a little shade in hot regions; easier to grow than other American dryland species, given dry soil; flowering mid summer to late fall. Var. bloomerianum is a shorter plant found in S California (San Diego County). Var. ocellatum from S California has orange-red flowers with maroon spots, margin red. L. ximperiale (L. regalex L. sargentiae). Introduced 1916. Stems 36-48 in. Flowers white, mid summer. L. xintermedium (L. concolorvar. pulchellum x L. pumilum). Introduced 1940. Stems to 30 in. Flowers deep red, early summer. L. iridollae. POT-OF-GOLD LILY. United States (S Alabama, NW Florida); introduced 1947. Stems 36-60 in. Flowers yellow, spotted in brown, late summer. L.japonicum. BAMBOO LILY. Japan; introduced 1873. ("Lilium japonicum" is also an invalid synonym of L. brownii var. viridulum, L. longiflorum, and L. wallkhianum.) Often grows among bamboo. Stems 24-30 in., rarely more; stem-rooting. Leaves sparse, scattered. Flowers shell pink, funnel-shaped, to 5 flowers per stem, 3-4 in. in diameter; tepals to 6 in. long. Requires a cool root-run and good drainage; must lie in wet soil in winter. Susceptible to viruses. Plate 787. L. kelleyanum. United States (California); introduced 1903. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers orange to yellow, spotted at base, mid to late summer. L. kelloggii. United States (NW California, SW Oregon), in dry gravelly clays on ridges; introduced 1902. Stems usually 2–4 ft., rarely to 7 ft. Leaves 4 in. long, 13/4 in. wide, in whorls, rarely scattered. Flowers to 20 per stem, sometimes more pendent, turk's-cap form, opening white and aging through pink shades to purple, spotted pink to brown; tepals 2 in. long. L. kesselringianum. Caucasus, NE Turkey, and S Russia; introduced 1911. Stems to 24 in. Flowers cream or straw-colored, spotted brown. L. xkewense(L. henryix L. leucanthumvar. chloraster). Introduced 1900. Stems less than 30 in. Flowers white, mid summer.

Lilium L. lancifolium. TIGER LILY, DEVIL LILY. Japan; introduced 1804. Often grown under synonym L. tigrinum, and once confused with L. spedosum. Stems to 60 in., blackish, coated with light gray or white hairs like cobwebs; stem-rooting. Shiny dark purple bulbils produced in leaf axils, often 3 per axil. Flowers bright orange, sometimes with pinkish tinge, heavily spotted dark purple, to 4 in. in diameter, pendent; tepals strongly reflexed. Strong, horizontal pedicels often carry secondary flowers. Var. flaviflorum is yellow with deep purple spots. Var. fortunei is orange-red. Long in cultivation; bulbs harvested for food in Asia. Vigorous grower and appreciates mulch to preserve soil moisture, or summer irrigation. Thrives even in poor soils but responds well to fertilizer. Selections include 'Flore Pleno', a double form; 'Foliis Variegatis' with variegated leaves; and 'Splendens', a stronger grower with fire-red flowers spotted in black. Plate 788. L. lankongense. W China (N Yunnan). Bulb about 1 in. long, ovoid; produces stolons to 12 in. long or more before sending up flowering stem. Stems 3-4 ft. Leaves to 4 in. long, very narrow, rather sparse. Flowers 15–20 per stem, pendent, turk's-cap form, 2 in. in diameter, fragrant, soft pink deepening with age, more or less heavily spotted along margins; tepals narrow, to 2 in. long. Flowering mid summer. Spreads rapidly by stolons; in Oregon I have seen a rather narrow bed of this lily double in width in 2 years. Thrives in full sun in average soil with adequate summer moisture. L ledebourii. Azerbaijan and NW Iran; introduced 1852. Stems to 36 in. Flowers scented of vanilla, pale greenish yellow spotted brownish red, late spring. L. leichtlinii. Japan; introduced 1867. Stems 24-48 in. Flowers pale yellow, dotted and flushed purple, late summer. Var. maximowiczii from Korea and Japan has stems 48-72 in. and flowers orange-yellow or orange-red, spotted purple-brown. L leucanthum. China; introduced 1894. Early stocks were confused in cultivation with L. sargentiae; the type has recently been reintroduced from China. Stems 3-4 ft. Leaves 1/2 in. wide, 4 in. long, scattered. Flowers 3-5 per stem, fragrant, funnelshaped, white with yellow throat and narrow greenish median band on reverse, trumpet-shaped; tepals to 6 in. long, outer segments l1/2 in. wide, inner segments twice as wide, tips recurved. Flowering mid summer. Two varieties are more common in cultivation. Var. centifolium from W Gansu has stems to 10 ft. tall, up to 17 outward-facing flowers; throat golden yellow, reverse with rose purple keel and suffused green and light purple; Black Dragon strain is selected from this variety. Var. chloraster has stems to 3 ft. tall and flowers with green keel both inside and on reverse. L. longiflorum. EASTER LILY. S islands of Japan; introduced 1819. Bulb round, white or yellowish, 21/2 in. long; many commercial forms are larger. Stems to 36 in., shorter when forced in pots. Leaves shiny green, to 7 in. long and almost 1 in. wide. Flowers to 9 per stem, very fragrant, pure white, outward-facing, funnel-shaped; tepals 5-7 in. long, slightly recurved at tips. If planted in the garden, it will reach to 36 in. Flowering late summer; plants in flower for Easter are forced. Hardy outdoors to about 25°F. 'Albo-marginatum' has bluish-green leaves with

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white margins. Var. eximium has recurved tepals, flowers longer and narrower than type. Var. insulare has flowers held horizontally. Var. nobile from E Asia has greenish to pure white flowers. Var. takeshima from Japan has purple-brown stems, exterior of flowers flushed purple. Var. vittatum from E Asia has leaves edged reddish brown, margin silvery. Var. wilsonii is shorter than type and flowers longer. Plate 789. L. lophophorum. China (Yunnan) and SE Tibet, in mountains; introduced 1925. Stems 4-18 in. Flowers solitary, pendent, pale yellow, spotted maroon; tepals curve inward and almost touch. Flowering mid summer. L. mackliniae. N Myanmar, in high mountains. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves to 2 in. long, very narrow. Flowers 2-3, rarely more, bell-shaped, pendent, pale pink, 2 in. in diameter, mid summer. Requires cool conditions and often short-lived in gardens, so should be grown from seed. L. maculatum. Japan (Honshu), in coastal sands and cliff areas and in alpine meadows. ("Lilium maculatum" is also an invalid synonym of L. hansonii.) Stems 1-3 ft. Leaves large, broadly lanceolate, glossy green, scattered. Flowers large, goblet- to bowl-shaped, in umbel of 3-12, typically orange-red with scattered dark spots. Flowering mid to late summer; coastal forms bloom earlier. 'Asano' has dark apricot flowers with darker spots. Var. flavum has yellow flowers with darker yellow midribs. Apparently the plant widely grown in the West as L. wilsonii, originally introduced to England mixed in with a shipment of I. auratum in the late nineteenth century, is a late-flowering form of L. maculatum which has dark apricot flowers with prominent golden-yellow midrib. Plate 790. L. xmarhan (L. hansoniixL. martagonvar. album). Flowers orange-yellow with red spots, summer. L. maritimum. COAST LILY. United States (San Francisco to N Mendocino County in California); introduced 1891. Stems 18-36 in. Flowers dark red, spotted maroon, early summer. L. martagon. MARTAGON LILY, TURK'S-CAP LILY. Eurasia, from Portugal to Siberia east of Lake Baikal; long cultivated and possibly naturalized in parts of its present range, introduced 1596. Bulb ovoid, scales yellow. Stems sturdy, to 6 ft. Leaves arranged in whorls but occasionally scattered, 6 in. long and 2 in. or more wide. Flowers to 50 per stem, pendent; tepals reflexed midway, pale to deep dull pink, variably spotted brownish violet, 1 1 /2 in. long, thick, with a distinct raised keel on reverse; stamens prominent. Var. albiflorum from Europe has white flowers spotted pink. Var. album has light green stems, and pure white, unspotted flowers. Var. alternifolium from Switzerland has scattered leaves, not in whorls. Var. carneum from Austria has unspotted, flesh-pink flowers. Var. cattaniae from Dalmatia has very large, mahogany red or deep burgundy flowers. Var. caucasicum from Abkhazia and Transcaucasia is 2l/2—8 ft. tall, with rose lilac, broadly trumpet-shaped flowers and a stout, hairy stem. Var. daugava has hairy stems, pale purplish-red flowers with darker spots. Var. flavidum from Bavaria has yellowish flowers, sometimes lightly spotted purple. Var. hirsutum from S Alps in Europe has purplish-pink, spotted flowers, hairy stems, leaves downy beneath. Var. pilosiusculum from Siberia to Mongolia has wine-red, spotted flowers, hairy on reverse. Var.

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Lilium

plenum is a double-flowered form from Sweden. Var. sanguineopurpureum from Albania has red-purple, spotted flowers. Easy to grow in good soil in light shade; useful in light woodland, borders, and among shrubs. Plate 791. L. medeoloides. WHEEL LILY. China, Korea, Japan, and E Russia; introduced 1865. Leaves in up to 4 whorls. Stems 12-24 in., rarely to 60 in. Flowers apricot to scarlet; sometimes spotted black, mid summer. L. michauxii. CAROLINA LILY. United States (S Virginia to Florida); introduced 1803. Stems 12-42 in. Flowers bright orange-red with yellow throat, or yellow, mid to late summer. L. michiganense. United States (Michigan, Minnesota, Indiana, Iowa, Missouri, and Kentucky) and Canada (Ontario to Manitoba); introduced 1874. Stems 24-60 in. Flowers orangered, heavily spotted reddish maroon at base, early summer. L. monadelphum. CAUCASIAN LILY. Caucasus, on forest margins and slopes; introduced 1804. Bulb yellowish, outer scales much shorter than inner. Stems to 48 in. Leaves scattered, to 5 in. long and 1 in. wide. Flowers to 40 per stem, pendent, fragrant, lemon-yellow spotted on margins, but variable in color; stamens fused into a tube around the ovary. Flowering in late spring. Prefers light shade and humus-rich soil; ideal for open clearings in woodland. Should be left undisturbed; often remains dormant for a season after being transplanted. L. nanum. Himalayas, from N India to Tibet; introduced 1853. Stems 6-16 in. Leaves scattered, linear. Flowers purplerose, pendent, usually solitary, late spring to early summer. Var. brevistylum from W China and Tibet has yellow flowers flushed purple. Var.flavidum from Tibet, China (Yunnan), and Myanmar has golden-yellow flowers spotted or flushed crimson. L. nepalense. Nepal, Bhutan, and adjacent India in the Himalayas. ("Lilium nepalense" is also an invalid synonym of L. primulinumvar. burmanicum.) Stems to 4 ft. Leaves lanceolate, 5l/2 in. long,11/4in. wide sparse and scattered on stem. Flowers 7 or more per stem, bowl-shaped, to 6 in. in diameter, pendent; tepals green, dark red-purple in throat, to 6 in. long, 2l/2 in. wide. Flowering late spring. Var. concolor from Bhutan and NE India (Assam) is entirely yellow. Reputedly tender, but I have grown it without difficulty through winters to 15°F. Protect in colder areas in a cool greenhouse. Bulbs produce stolons to 24 in. long, with bulblets along them; this exhausts the bulb and reduces flower production. It occurs most often where conditions are excellent for growth; with poorer soil and drainage, or in containers, plants do not produce stolons at all, or they are much shorter. Planting among rocks, in biodegradable pots plunged in the soil, or in a small raised bed favors flower production over stolon formation. L. nobilissimum. Japan, on Kuchi-no-shima Island in Ryukyus, on steep cliffs; introduced 1893. Stems 3-4 ft. Leaves scattered, to 5 in. long, 1 in. wide. Flowers pure white, trumpet-shaped, held upright, to 6 in. long; tepals free; style curves, stigma is brownish (not large and green as in similar L. longiflorum). Flowering mid summer. Requires very sharp drainage, alkaline soil, and cool but frost-free cultivation. A focus of hybridizing efforts to breed upright-facing Oriental lilies. L. occidentale. EUREKA LILY. Coastal United States (N Cali-

fornia, S Oregon); endangered; introduced 1897. Stems 24-72 in. Flowers orange-red, tips crimson, black spots at base, early summer. L. oxypetalum. Himalayas of N India and Nepal; introduced 1840. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers solitary, greenish yellow, early summer. Var. insigne has purple flowers marked with green, more robust than type. L. papilliferum. LIKIANG LILY. China (Yunnan); introduced 1946. Stems to 24 in., usually shorter. Leaves scattered, to 4 in. long, very narrow. Flowers 1-3 per stem, small, deep crimson to near-black; tepals recurve from base in martagon form. Emerges and flowers late. L. paradoxum. SE Tibet. Stems 8-18 in. Flowers solitary, dark purplish red, early summer. L xpardaboldtii (L. humboldtiix L. pardalinum). Introduced 1925. Stems 48-60 in. Flowers rich orange-red, spotted crimson, mid summer. L. pardalinum. LEOPARD LILY, PANTHER LILY. United States (S California to S Oregon), in mountain forests near streams; introduced 1875. ("Lilium pardalinum" is also an invalid synonym of L. kelleyanum.) Bulbs elongated into stout, branching rhizomes covered with thick, brittle scales, white or yellowish, turning pink when exposed to light. Stems to 80 in., usually less. Leaves in whorls, less often scattered, sometimes almost a spiral arrangement. Pedicels S-curved; lower pedicels arranged in whorls, subtended by a shorter whorl of leaves. Flowers pendent, 3-4 in. in diameter, brilliant red or orange-red, with wide yellow or pale orange zone in throat, heavily spotted crimsonbrown; tepals variably recurved, usually to turk's-cap form. Flowering mid summer. Many geographic variants, perhaps because clones spread widely owing to rhizomatous habit; increases rapidly given cool, loose, well-drained soil and plenty of moisture, with sun on upper parts of plants. Var. angustifolium has narrow leaves. Var. fragrans from S California is sweetly scented (type is scentless) and may be a hybrid with L. parryi. 'Red Giant', often grown as var. giganteum, from N California, is 5-7 ft. tall with very large, exceptionally brilliantly colored flowers. L. xparkmanii(L. auratumxL. speciosum). Introduced 1865. Stems 48-60 in. Flowers crimson inside, margin white, green at base, late summer. L. parryi. LEMON LILY. United States (San Bernardino Mountains of S California, and Arizona); described 1876. Stems 24-48 in. Leaves in whorls, a few scattered above and between pedicels. Flowers 16 or more per stem, clear lemon yellow with maroon spots, sweetly fragrant, held almost horizontally on upwardly angled pedicels, funnel-shaped, 3 in. in diameter; stamens and stigma prominently exserted; tepals to 4 in. long, recurved at tips. Var. kessleri from Little Rock Creek in Arizona to San Gabriel Mountains of S California has flowers spotted maroon and is a robust form. Should be planted early in fall so root growth is made during cooler months; requires perfect drainage and dry conditions from mid summer to first frost. A parent of the Bellingham Hybrids, a group of American hybrids with flowers bicolored yellow and red, and with deep brown spots. Plates 807, 808.

Lilium

345

in. wide. Flowers shiny bright red with small black spots, turk'scap form, to 10 flowers per stem, about 1 in. in diameter, illscented. Flowering early summer. L. primulinum. OCHER LILY. W China (Yunnan), N Myanmar, and Thailand; introduced 1890. Closely allied to L. nepalense. Stems 4-8 ft. Leaves lanceolate, 2-3 in. long. Flowers pale yellow, turk's-cap. Var. burmanicum has greenish-yellow turk's-cap flowers, purple in throat. Var. ochraceum has small, much reflexed flowers, wine-purple with greenish-yellow tips. All varieties are rather tender. L. pumilum. CORAL LILY. North Korea, Manchuria, and Mongolia; introduced 1816. ("Lilium pumilum" is also an invalid synonym of L. callosum.) Stems wiry, 24-30 in. Leaves very narrow, clustered in middle of stem with a few leaves above and RED LILY, WOOD LILY, GLADE LILY, FLAME LILY, HUCKLEBERRY below. Flowers pendent, brilliant red, sometimes sparsely spotLILY, FLAME LIPS. United States (E slope of Rocky Mountains to ted black, just over an inch in diameter, flattened turk's-cap confluence of Ohio and Missouri rivers); introduced 1754. The form, to 20 per stem. Flowering early summer. Variant color many common names refer to the great variation found in form forms include 'Golden Gleam' and 'Yellow Bunting'. Plates 793, and habitat. Bulbs produce short stolons, with new bulbs pro794. duced alongside old ones. Stems 3-4 ft. Leaves held horizonL. pyrenaicum. Europe, Turkey, and Caucasus, in woodland tally in whorls, to 4 in. long, l/2 in. wide. Flowers in an umbel of and meadows; naturalized in Britain; long in cultivation. ("Lil2-5, cup-shaped, orange to deep red with deep maroon spots, ium pyrenaicum" is also an invalid synonym of L. ledebourii.) upright-facing. Tepals distinctively narrowed at base. Flowering Stems to 48 in., often less. Flowers 12-15 per stem, pendent, illearly to mid summer depending on elevation and latitude. scented, pale yellow with very dark spots, 1 1 /2 in. in diameter; Some of the color variants have been named. Var. andinum, tepals 2 in. long, recurved to turk's-cap form. Flowering late distributed to the west of the type from Missouri River to Britspring to early summer. Easy to grow, liking a little shade in hot ish Columbia, has scattered linear leaves. Color variants ranging areas. Many plants formerly regarded as separate species are from pale yellow to deep purplish red have been found and innow classified as varieties or subspecies of L. pyrenaicum. Var. troduced to cultivation. Plate 792. albanicum from Albania and N Greece has 1-4 amber yellow L. xphildauricum (L. dauricum x L. philadelphicum). Introflowers with red pollen. Var. bosniacum from Bosnia has orduced 1932. Stems 36–48 in. Flowers red suffused gold at base, ange-red flowers. Subsp. carniolicum, from the Balkan Peninsplashed purple, early summer. sula, has red or orange flowers tinged green outside, with dark L. philippinense. N Philippines; introduced 1873. Stems to purple lines inside. Var. jankae has red stems, yellow flowers, 36 in., usually less. Leaves scattered, to 6 in. long, very narrow. green at base, spotted brown-purple in throat. Var. rubrum has Flowers usually 3–4 (rarely to 30) per stem, fragrant, narrowly orange-red flowers spotted brown. Subsp. ponticum, from the trumpet-shaped, to 10 in. long, pure white inside, flushed red Caucasus, has golden-yellow flowers spotted purple at base. and green on reverse. Flowering late summer. Requires frostVar. artvinense, from the mountains of Turkey, is deep orange free cultivation and grows well in containers. Can flower in 6 with sparse leaves. Plate 795. months from seed. L. regale. REGAL LILY. China (W Sichuan); introduced 1912. L. pitkinense. United States (Sonoma County of C California), Stems 4-6 ft.; stem-rooting, with many stem bulblets. Leaves in one site; endangered. Probably a stable natural hybrid of L. scattered, dark green, 5 in. long, 1/4 in. wide. Pedicels concenpardalinum and some other species. Stems 36-72 in. Flowers red trated near top of stem, decreasing in length toward top to prowith purple-black spots and yellow basal zone, early summer. duce a pyramidal inflorescence. Flowers fragrant, to 30 per stem L. poilanei. NW Vietnam and Laos; introduced 1934. Stems but usually fewer, trumpet-shaped, to 6 in. in diameter; tepals 36-72 in. Flowers pale yellow with red midline, summer. to 6 in. long, flaring midway, white within, throat strong yelL. polyphyllum. W Himalayas, Afghanistan to India, at 6000low, reverse rose purple along midrib. Perhaps the finest trum12,000 ft.; introduced 1873. Stems to 8 ft. in the wild, usually pet lily, still offered in catalogs, holding its own against many half that in gardens. Leaves in whorls or scattered. Flowers 10striking cultivars; excellent cut flower; deserves to be in every 15 per stem in cultivation, twice that in the wild. Flowers pengarden worthy of the name. The "crown" of flowers atop the dent on arching pedicels, pale greenish yellow spotted lilac, 2-3 stem makes it truly regal-looking. It grows well in a wide range in. in diameter, trumpet-shaped with strongly reflexed tips. of soils, but drainage must be perfect. Plate 796. Flowering mid summer. In the wild the roots go as deep as 36 L. rhodopaeum. Bulgaria and Greece. Stems 30-42 in. Flowin.; long, narrow bulbs should be planted at least 10 in. deep in ers orange-yellow, unspotted, early summer. friable soil rich in humus. L. rosthornii. China (Sichuan, Hubei); introduced 1891. L. pomponium. Maritime Alps of S France, on steep limeStems to 48 in. Flowers orange with many dark carmine spots, stone slopes; long in cultivation. Stems 12-18 in., rarely to 24 in., purplish green. Leaves twist away from stem, to 5 in. long, 1/2 late summer. L. parvum. SIERRA LILY. United States (California in Sierra Nevada and Oregon in Cascade Range), at high elevations near streams or in snowmelt areas; introduced 1872. Stems slender but strong, 3–4 ft. in the wild, to 6 ft. in gardens. Leaves in whorls or scattered. Populations from around 4000 ft. have clear yellow flowers; color varies through shades of orange with rising elevation; flowers are deep red at 10,000 ft. Flowers 15 or more per stem, 2 in. in diameter, ll/2 in. long, bell-shaped and recurved at tips; purplish crimson spots usually confined to middle of tepals. Flowering early summer. Forma crocatum has pure orange-yellow flowers spotted in crimson; var. holladayi has pink flowers. Enjoys much moisture during the growing season. L. philadelphicum. WILD ORANGE LILY, ORANGE CUP LILY,

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Lilium

L. rubellum. Japan (N Honshu); introduced 1898. Stems 2030 in.; stem-rooting. Leaves bright green with distinct petiole, rather sparse, scattered. Flowers to 10 per stem, clear pink, sometimes spotted maroon at base, trumpet- or bell-shaped, 3–4 in. long. Flowering late spring and may be damaged by late frosts. Slow grower but worth a place in the garden; much used in hybridization. L. rubescens. CHAPARRAL LILY. United States (California in Coast Ranges from Santa Cruz County to Siskiyou County, and S Oregon); introduced 1873. ("Lilium rubescens" is also an invalid synonym of L. kelloggii.) Closely allied to L. washingtonianum but smaller in all parts. Stems 24-72 in. Flowers open white or pale lilac, spotted purple, and age to pale pink. L. sargentiae. W China (Sichuan), in grass and low scrub; introduced 1905. Stems 48-60 in., purplish. Bulbils produced in leaf axils. Leaves scattered, to 8 in. long, almost 1 in. wide. Flowers 15-20 per stem, strongly fragrant, trumpet-shaped, to 6 in. long, white inside with yellow throat; exterior suffused with green and reddish-brown, especially along keel. Tepals recurve at tips to display distinctive purplish anthers. Flowering mid summer. Strong grower, but susceptible to Botrytis in humid conditions and hardy to only about 10°F. Crosses easily with other trumpet lilies and has been used in hybridizing with great success. L. sempervivoideum. SW China (Yunnan). Stems 6-9 in. Flowers pendent, white, lightly spotted purple. L. sherriffiae. E Himalayas in Bhutan and Nepal. Stems to 36 in. Flowers dark purple to chestnut-brown, interior netted with golden yellow, summer. L. souliei. W China, SE Tibet, and NE India (Assam); introduced 1925. Stems 9-18 in. Flowers deep crimson, early summer. L. speciosum. JAPANESE LILY, RUBRUM LILY. Japan, China, and Taiwan; introduced 1832. Stems to 7 ft. but usually less; stem-rooting. Leaves scattered, 6-7 in. long and often more than 2 in. wide. Strong pedicels may carry secondary and even tertiary flowers. Flowers pendent, sweetly fragrant, to 6 in. in diameter, rose to carmine with white margins, with many deep pink spots and papillae, and apple-green nectary channels near base; tepals wavy at margins, strongly recurved and twisted, almost meeting at tips. Stamens prominent, arching gracefully and circling the slightly longer style. Flowering late summer. Commercial selections include 'Red Champion' and 'White Champion'. Var. magnificum has rose pink flowers with crimson spots, white margins, stems to 84 in. Var. punctatum is white, suffused pink. Var. roseum is pink. Var. rubrum, the most commonly grown form, has a dark purple stem and carmine flowers; popular selections are 'Grand Commander' and 'Uchida'. Var. tametomo is pure white. Speciosum means "goodlooking," "showy," "splendid," or "brilliant"—all adjectives that this lily deserves. Much used in hybridizing, passing on both fragrance and color, and important in cutflower trade. Plant 9-10 in. deep so stems can support the weight of the flowers. L. stewartianum. SW China (Yunnan); introduced 1922. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers olive yellow heavily spotted deep maroon to chestnut brown, summer.

L. sulphureum. SW China (Yunnan) and Myanmar; introduced 1889. Stems 36-72 in. Several forms exist: one has a deep yellow throat, creamy white at tip of segments, exterior flushed pink; a 2nd has a yellow throat, upper part of tepals pure white, exterior mostly green, and a 3rd has tepals yellow, anthers purplish yellow, pollen orange-brown. Flowering late summer. L. superbum. AMERICAN TURK'S CAP LILY, SWAMP LILY, WILD TIGER LILY. United States (Massachusetts to Florida, west to N Alabama and S Indiana), in marshes, acid-soil slopes, and damp meadows; introduced 1738. ("Lilium superbum" is also an invalid synonym of L. speciosum.) Stems marked with purple, to 8 ft. but usually less. Leaves lanceolate, in whorls, and single leaves subtending petioles. Flowers to 40, well spaced in pyramidal raceme, orange shading to crimson at tips, heavily spotted maroon near base; apple-green nectary channels at bases of tepals form a star. Color variable, including pure yellow with red tips, pure red, more or less spotted. Tepals recurved and twisted, to 4 in. long; outer tepals have a raised rib with 2 ridges; flowers 3-4 in. in diameter, pendent, carried on S-curved pedicels. Flowering late summer. Easily raised from seed. L. taliense. Tali Range of W China (NE Yunnan); introduced 1935. Bulb produces short stolons from which stems rise. Stems 36-48 in. Leaves scattered, 4-5 in. long, 1/4 in. wide. Pedicels strong, 3 in. long lower on stem, even shorter above. Flowers 10-12 per stem, sweetly fragrant, pendent, turk's-cap form, white, with purple spots concentrated along margins; glistening, purple nectary furrows. Flowering early summer. Some authorities claim this lily can reach 60 in. and have more than 20 flowers, but this can be expected only of extremely well-grown and long-established plants. Plate 797. L. xtestaceum. NANKEEN LILY. Garden hybrid (L. candidum x L. chalcedonicum). Introduced 1843. Stems 48-60 in. Flowers pale yellow with red spots, early summer. Still widely grown. Plate 798. L. tsingtauense. NE China and Korea; introduced 1863. Stems to 36 in.; stem-rooting. Leaves scattered on lower part of stem, then arranged in 1-2 whorls, with a few more scattered leaves between whorls and inflorescence. Flowers orange, irregularly spotted reddish, shallowly bowl-shaped, slightly upright-facing, 2 in. in diameter; tepals thick, just over an inch long; filaments and pollen orange. Flowering mid summer. Not much grown but I like it; it would add much color to woodland areas but has the reputation of being short-lived. Plant 4-5 in. deep and provide plenty of moisture during summer. Hardy, disease-tolerant, a rugged little species. Var. carneum is a reddish form without spots. Var. flavum has yellow flowers with dark red spots. L vollmeri. United States (NW California, SW Oregon), near water but with good drainage. Best described as a shorter-growing version of L. pardalinum. Bulb a creeping rhizome covered with yellowish scales. Stems to 36 in. Leaves narrow, to 7 in. long, sometimes in whorls but usually scattered. Flowers pendent, orange, turk's-cap form, 2-3 in. in diameter. Flowering early summer. L. wallichianum. S Himalayas in Nepal, Bhutan, and NE India (Assam), at 3000-4500 ft. Bulbs purple, often grown 8-10

Lilium in. deep in the wild. Stems 36-72 in.; stem-rooting, producing stem bulbils; stem often travels horizontally below ground to emerge some distance from bulb. Flowers 1-3 per stem, outward-facing, trumpet-shaped, flaring rather abruptly at the mouth, very fragrant; tepals recurved and twisted, giving it a rather untidy look. Emerges in late spring to early summer and flowering in late summer to early fall. Rather tender and should be grown under glass where ground freezes. Var. neilgherrense from Nilgiri Hills of S India is white with yellow throat, cream on exterior, shorter, late-flowering. Plate 799. L. wardii. SE Tibet; introduced 1925. Bulb to 2 in. in diameter, spotted red and turning deep purple when exposed to light. Stem often travels horizontally underground, producing numerous bulblets; rises 48-60 in. Pedicels long, well spaced. Flowers to 40 per stem, fragrant, bell-shaped, pale rose to deep pink, 2 in. or more in diameter; tepals recurved. Flowering mid summer. A lovely lily, well worth space in even a small woodland garden. L. washingtonianum. Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range of United States (C California to Washington) to near Canadian border, on steep, forested slopes; introduced 1872. Bulb shortly rhizomatous, with white scales 2 in. long and pointed, fragile if exposed to light and air. Stems 4-7 ft. Leaves in whorls. Flowers 2-20 per stem, fragrant, trumpet-shaped, opening white and gradually aging through pink to purple. Flowering mid summer, earlier or later according to altitude and latitude. Var. minus rarely exceeds 48 in. Var. purpurascens opens pink and ages deep purple. Difficult to grow outside its native habitat, requiring extreme drainage and dry conditions in late summer. L. wigginsii. Siskiyou Mountains of United States (S Oregon, N California). Stems to 48 in. Flowers yellow with purple spots, summer. L. xanthellum. China (Sichuan); described 1980. Flowersyellowish green. Var. luteum has flowers spotted purple. SYNONYMS

L. albanicum see L. pyrenaicum var. albanicum. L. album see L. candidum. L. angustifolium see L. pomponium. L. apertum see Nomocharis aperta. L. apertum var. thibeticum see Nomocharis saluenensis. L. armenum see L. monadelphum. L. artvinense see L. pyrenaicum subsp. ponticum var. artvinense. L. atrosanguineum see L. maculatum. L. aurantiacum see L. bulbiferum. L auratum var. parkmanii see L. xparkmanii. L. avenaceum see L. medeoloides. L. belladonna see L. japonicum. L. bloomerianum see L. humboldtii. L. bloomerianum var. ocellatum see L. humboldtii var. ocellatum. L. brownii var. chloraster see L. leucanthum var. chloraster. L. buschianum see L. concolorvar. pulchellum. L. californicum see L. pardalinum. L. carneum see L. tsingtauense var. carneum.

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L. canadense var. humboldtii see L. humboldtii. L. canadense var. minus see L. columbianum. L. canadense var. parvum see L. parvum. L. canadense var. puberulum see L. humboldtii. L. canadense var. rubrumsee L. canadense var. coccineum. I. canadense var. walkerisee L. columbianum. L. carniolicum see L. pyrenaicum subsp. carniolicum. L. carniolicum var. jankae see L. pyrenaicum var. jankae. L. carolinianum see L. catesbaei, L. michauxii. L. cathayanum see Cardiocrinum cathayanum. L. cattaniae see L. martagon var. cattaniae. L. caucasicum see L. martagon var. caucasicum. L. centifolium see L. leucanthum var. centifolium. I. chaixii see L. bulbiferum. L. chinense see L. davidii var. willmottiae. L. chloraster see L. leucanthum var. chloraster. L. colchicum see L. monadelphum. L. cordatum see Cardiocrinum cordatum. L. croceum see L. bulbiferum var. croceum. L. dahuricum see L. dauricum. L. delavayi see L. bakerianum. L. duchartrei var. forrestii see L. lankongense. L. duchartrei var. lankongense see L. lankongense. L. duchartrei var. wardii see L. wardii. L. elegans see L. maculatum. L. euxanthum see L. nanum var. flavidum. L. excelsum see L. xtestaceum. L. farreri see L. duchartrei. I. fauriei see L. amabile. I. flaviflorum see L. callosum var. flaviflorum. L. flavum see L. pyrenaicum. I. formosum see L. dauricum, L. leucanthum. L. forrestii see L. lankongense. I. fortunei see L. maculatum. L. georgicum see L. pyrenaicum subsp. ponticum var. ponticum. L. giganteum see Cardiocrinum giganteum. L. glehnii see Cardiocrinum cordatum. L. graminifolium see L. cernuum. L. harrisianum see L. pardalinum var. giganteum. L. harrisii see L. longiflorum var. eximium. L. howellii see L. bolanderi. I. humile see L. bulbiferum. L. inyoense see L. kelleyanum. L. isabellinum see L. xtestaceum. L. jankae see L. pyrenaicum subsp. carniolicum var. jankae. L. japonicum var. alexandrae see I. alexandrae. L. japonicum var. brownii see L. brownii. L. japonicum var. nobilissimum see L. nobilissimum. L. japonicum var. rubellum see L. rubellum. L. japonicum var. verum see I. brownii. L. lanciflorum (of gardens) see L. speciosum. L. latifolium see L. bulbiferum. L. linifolium see I. pumilum. L. longiflorum var. alexandrae see L. alexandrae. L. longiflorum var. chloraster see L. leucanthum var. chloraster.

348

Liriope

L longiflorum var. formosanum see L. formosanum. L. lowii see L. bakerianum. L. mairei see L. concolor. L. makinoi see L. japonicum. L. makoi var. alexandrae see I. alexandrae. L. makoi var. rubellum see L. rubellum. L. martagon var. dalmaticum see L. martagon var. cattaniae. L. maximowiczii see I. leichtlinii var maximowiczii. L. montanum see L. philadelphicum. L. myriophyllum see L. sulphureum. L. neilgherrense see L. wallichianum var. neilgherrense. L. nevadense see L. kelleyanum. L. ocellatumsee L. humboldtiivar. ocellatum. L. ochraceum see L. primulinum var. ochraceum. L. ochroleucum see I. nepalense. L. palibinianum see I. cernuum. L. pardalinum var. alpinum see L. parvum. L. parviflorum see L. columbianum. L penduliflorum see I. canadense. L. peregrinum see L. candidum var. cernuum. L. philippenense var. formosanum see I. formosanum. L. platyphyllum see L. auratum var. platyphyllum. L. ponticum see L. pyrenaicum subsp. ponticum. L. xprinceps see L. ximperiale. L. pulchellum see L. concolor var. pulchellum. L. pulchrum see L. canadense. L. punctatum see I. polyphyllum. L. pyrenaeum see I. pyrenaicum. L. roezlii see L. pardalinum var. angustifolium, L. vollmeri, L. wigginsii. L. rubrovittatum see L. auratum var. rubrovittatum. L. xsargale see L. ximperiale. L. shastense see L. kelleyanum. L. sinicum see L. concolor. L. superbum var. pardalinum see L. parvum. L. sutchuenense see L. davidiivar. willmottiae. L. szovitsianum see L. monadelphum. L. tenuifolium see I. pumilum. L. thunbergianum see L. maculatum. L. tigrinum see L. lancifolium. L. umbellatum see L. xhollandicum, L. philadelphicum var. anrfmwm.

L. wallichi superbum see L. sulphureum. L. warleyense see L. davidii var. willmottiae. L. washingtonianum var. rubescens see I. rubescens. L. willmottiae see L. davidii var. willmottiae. L. wilsonii see L. maculatum. L. yunnanense see L. bakerianum var. yunnanense.

Liriope—Convallariaceae (Liliaceae) LlLYTURF

Named after the nymph Liriope, mother of Narcissus. There are 5 species in this E Asian genus. The rootstock, depending on species, is fibrous, rhizomatous, or tuberous, producing nar-

row, evergreen, tufted leaves and spikes of small, subtly colored flowers. It is closely allied to Ophiopogon, which has stolons and an inferior (or partially so) ovary, whereas the ovary of Liriope is superior. Liriopes form dense clumps, and the flowers are carried above the leaves. The flowers are white to dark mauve, densely set in an elongated spike. They have 6 tepals which are not joined. Most gardeners grow liriopes not for their flowers but for their leaves. The plants make a good groundcover in light shade, provided they receive plenty of moisture during the growing season in summer. They do best in climates where summers are hot and humid and may dwindle in cool-summer regions. They are hardy to about 5°F but should be protected against drying winds, which can damage the evergreen leaves. They seem to prefer a slightly acidic soil, making them good companions for rhododendrons and camellias. They add a little color to shady areas and remain neat throughout the year without much attention. They are often used as a low border (for example, along a walk), but they look better planted in a curving mass. They are standard material in gardens with an Asian theme. CULTURE Supplied as container plants, or bare-root with leaves trimmed. Plant at the same depth as they have been growing. Space lowergrowing kinds 6 in. apart, larger ones 12 in. apart. Site in light shade, especially in afternoon, in a moisture-retentive soil rich in organic matter; adding decomposing leaves to the surface of the soil is beneficial. Protect plants against harsh winter winds. Fertilize in early to mid spring and do not allow plants to dry out in summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

Snails and slugs can be a problem, and proper controls should be used if damage is apparent. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide plants in spring; in areas with little or no frost, they can also be divided in fall. Plants often set fruits (clusters of berries), but they are so easily propagated by division that growing from seed is rarely undertaken. SPECIES L. exiliflora. Japan and China. Rootstock a rhizome, sometimes producing short stolons. Stems and leaves 12-18 in. Leaves dark green. Flowers pale violet, in clusters of 5, carried well above leaves. 'Silvery Sunproof ('Ariake Janshige') has leaves striped with silver, sometimes gold. L. graminifolia. China, Vietnam, and Japan. Plants grown under this name are mostly L. muscari. Stems 8-12 in., erect, dark purple. Leaves 12 in. long, blunt-tipped, with thin, translucent lobe at base. Flowers pale violet, in clusters of 3 or 5, almost campanulate; tepals free almost to base; long-blooming. Forms a close carpet. A form with narrow leaves is known as 'Minor'. L. muscari. China, Taiwan, and Japan. Rootstock a thick, dark tuber. Stems sturdy, to 18 in. but often less, often purplish and branched toward apex. Leaves opposite in tufts, to 18 in. long, to 1 in. wide but often narrower, with 10 distinct veins on

Lloydia underside, usually greenish violet. Flowers white to lilac, violet, or dark mauve. The most commonly grown species, with much variation. Forms with richly colored flowers above variegated leaves are especially striking. Cultivars include 'Big Blue', flowers blue; 'Gold Banded', leaves edged with gold, blades dark green; 'Grandiflora', to 20 in., leaves arching, flowers lavender; 'Lilac Wonder', flowers lilac; 'Majestic', dark violet flowers; 'Monroe White', flowers white; 'Silvery Midget', 8 in. high, leaves variegated with white. L. spicata. China and Vietnam. Stems to 10 in., erect, light mauve-brown. Leaves very narrow, to 12 in. long, arching. Flowers pale mauve, almost white, with a distinct tube. Cultivars include 'Alba', white-flowered, and 'Silver Dragon', leaves striped silvery white. One of the hardiest species. SYNONYMS L. gigantea see L. muscari. L. gigantea var. densiflora see L. muscari. L. muscari var. densiflora see L. muscari. L. muscari var. exiliflora see L. exiliflora. L. platyphylla see L. muscari.

Litanthus—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Origin of genus name unknown. The single species in this genus is distributed through much of South Africa. The plants are very small, seldom more than 3 in. tall. It is unlikely that this insignificant plant will inspire many gardeners to grow it. CULTURE

Provide sandy soil with excellent drainage and full sun. Plant bulbs 1 in. deep, closely spaced. Provide moisture while leaves are green; after they wither, plants can be dry. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Propagation is by seed, sown on a sandy soil mix as soon as it is ripe. It germinates readily and the small bulbs can be planted into permanent positions after one year. SPECIES L. pusillus. South Africa, in sandy soils, on rock crevices. Bulb globose, white, compact. Leaves narrow, produced after flower (s) from a separate bud next to the scape, only a few in number. Flower 1 or rarely 2, white to very pale pink, nodding, tubular, with 6 rounded lobes. Stamens 6, inserted below the throat. Anthers facing inward; style cylindrical. Flowering summer (December to March in the wild).

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of Gloriosa and Sandersonia, but the mature plants are distinct. Littonias are rambling or semi-climbing plants which support themselves with tendrils at the ends of the leaves. In the wild they are understory plants in forests and among scrub. Only one species is cultivated. In warm climates, littonias can be planted among low-growing shrubs or trained on trellises or other supports. These unusual plants might also be tried in hanging baskets. CULTURE Plants must be grown frost-free. Plant tubers in early spring, 2 in. deep in rich soil with abundant organic matter. Site in a sunny spot with light shade in the hottest part of the day, where the plants can find some support on low-growing shrubs or a fencepost. Provide ample moisture during the growing season, but decrease watering as the foliage withers and withhold water during dormancy. If grown outdoors where winters are wet, the tubers should be lifted, stored in moist peat moss, and replanted in early spring. Balanced organic fertilizer should be given monthly until flower buds appear. Littonias can be grown in the cool greenhouse, but the containers must be deep, and the plants supported with a tomato cage or similar arrangement. PESTS AND DISEASES

Tubers may rot if kept too wet during the winter dormant period or when first starting into growth. Aphids attack young shoots but are easily controlled by the appropriate insecticide. PROPAGATION

Separate tubers when plants are lifted at the end of the growing season. Sow seed in spring in a moisture-retentive but welldrained soil mix. Germination is not rapid. Keep pots barely moist and increase moisture after seedlings are growing well. The following spring, the small tubers can be transferred to individual pots, and, after the 2nd season, planted out or grown on in larger containers. During winter dormancy, the young plants should not be allowed to dry out completely but kept slightly moist and cool, at about 45°F. SPECIES L. modesta. South Africa and Swaziland; introduced 1853. Rootstock a small tuber. Leaves shiny green, in whorls at the base of the stem, opposite or scattered on the upper part; each leaf ends in a tendril. Flowers bell-shaped, bright golden yellow, with segments 11/2in. long, carried on short pedicels arising from the leaf axils. Sterns 3-5 ft. long, producing 6-8 flowers. Flowering early spring (August to September in wild). The seed pods are also attractive. Var. keitii is similar but more vigorous and produces a few more flowers. Plates 811,812. SYNONYM

Littonia—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) CLIMBING CHRISTMAS BELL Named in honor of Samuel Litton, professor of botany in Dublin during the mid-nineteenth century. There are about 8 species in the genus, native to Arabia, tropical and E southern Africa. The developing buds of these plants are much like those

L. rigidifolia see L. modesta.

Lloydia—Liliaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of Edward Lloyd (1660-1709), keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, who discovered L. serotina on the mountain slopes of northern Wales. There are about 10 or

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Lycoris

12 species in this genus, but the cosmopolitan L. serotina is the only one mentioned in most horticultural literature. The genus is distributed in the high altitudes and latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere and is closely allied to Tulipa. The bulbs are small and slender, covered with a fibrous tunic; some produce stolons. The leaves are very narrow and slightly rounded at the tip, 10-12 in. long in most species. Most bulbs produce 2–4 basal leaves and 2 or more shorter, slightly wider stem leaves. The flowers are usually solitary (sometimes 2) and appear in early to mid summer. They open almost flat in warm sunshine but are often seen semi-closed and bell-shaped. They vary in size depending on species and population, from about 1/2 in. long to 1 in. Flower colors are white or yellow with conspicuous veining, especially on the inner surface of the tepal. Each tepal has a pitted gland near the base. CULTURE Notoriously difficult to grow in lowland gardens, lloydias may be tried in scree or crevice settings in the rock garden where they can be kept very cool in summer. They grow in full sun in the wild, but part shade would be needed in most temperate gardens. The recommended soil is a mixture of grit, peat, sand, and humus, kept slightly moist in the growing season and dry in winter. A solid winter dormancy under snow cover maybe necessary. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Sow seed as soon as it is ripe. Plunge seed pots in a cold area over winter. Germination is uncommon but may occur the following spring. Keep seedlings cool and moist and transplant with great care in late fall, while dormant. SPECIES L. delicatula. Bhutan. Flowers held upright; perianth segments narrow, with subacute apex; nectaries conspicuous, early to mid summer. L flavonutans. Himalayas in Nepal and Tibet, on open slopes. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers bright yellow with green veining outside, reddish base, early to mid summer. L. longiscapa. Himalayas and W China. Much like L. serotina but with distinct purple or red-orange veins and basal flush, early to mid summer. L. serotina. ALP LILY, SNOWDON LILY. Eurasia, Canada, and United States, at high altitudes and latitudes, in rocky alpine meadows, rock outcrops, and peaty scrub. Stems 4-10 in. Flowers white to cream, faintly veined purplish, early to mid summer. L. yunnanensis. China and Bhutan. Similar to L. serotinabut style much longer and outer perianth segments narrower, early to mid summer. SYNONYM L. graeca see Gagea graeca.

Lycoris—Amaryllidaceae AMARYLLIS, HURRICANE LILY, MAGIC LILY OF JAPAN, MYSTERY LILY, RESURRECTION LILY, SPIDER LILY, YELLOW SPIDER Named after a Roman actress, the mistress of Mark Antony. Estimates of the number of species in this genus range from 8 to 17. All are native to China and Japan. In appearance they resemble the closely related Nerine. There are about 8 species in commerce. Given the color range in the genus, new color forms may arise through hybridization. Lycoris, commonly known as spider lilies, flower in late summer or early fall, and the leaves emerge after the flower stalks (Plate 817). The flowers are funnel-shaped and can be rather irregular in shape; in some cases they are zygomorphic. The perianth segments are more or less recurved; if recurved, the stamens are very prominent. The leaves are straplike and in some species have a pale line in the center. The bulbs are not unlike large narcissus bulbs, with a short neck and membranous tunic. In warm-climate gardens, lycoris are good plants for the border where they can be left undisturbed. They are especially popular in the U.S. Southeast, where they are sometimes called hurricane lilies because their flowering coincides with the hurricane season. They add late-summer color to supplement perennials that are spring- or summer-flowering. If they are grown in this way, however, care must be taken to keep them dry until they start into growth; this can be facilitated by growing them in pots and plunging them in position at the right time. CULTURE

Lycoris albiflom, L. radiata, and L. sanguinea need to be grown frost-free. The other species are slightly hardier but cannot withstand severe frost and should be protected where winter temperatures drop below about 25°F. They are supplied as dormant bulbs in fall or late winter. Plant bulbs as soon as available, covering them with 1-2 in. of soil, so that after the soil settles, the neck will be at the surface. The soil should be well-drained but moisture-retentive. Space the bulbs 8-10 in. apart. Place in full sun, preferably where no summer watering will be done, since the bulbs must be dry while dormant in early summer. As the flowering stem emerges from the soil, increase the amount of moisture given so that the bulbs are not completely dry. When the leaves emerge, again increase water if winter rains do not occur; watering should continue so the bulbs are never without moisture until the leaves begin to die back. As they wither, withhold moisture. A balanced fertilizer can be given as soon as the leaves emerge and again when they are full-grown. The 2nd fertilizer application should be higher in phosphates and potash than the first feeding. If the bulbs are being grown in containers, good depth is essential: 3 bulbs can be grown in a 12-in. pot. Water and feed with an organic liquid fertilizer, as for plants in the open ground. Bulbs that are overwatered are likely to rot.

Maianthemum

PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

It must be remembered that, although the leaves die back, the fleshy roots are never completely dormant. If the bulbs have to be lifted, take great care to ensure minimal damage to the roots. Lycoris are best left undisturbed. They can be propagated by lifting and separating offsets after the leaves wither; replant at once. Sow seed in a sandy soil mix in late summer, keeping it moist and shaded with night temperatures above 55°F. The small bulbs formed after one growing season can be individually potted or grown on in nursery rows. Do not plant them too deeply, just under the surface of the soil. After 2 growing seasons they should be of sufficient size to plant in final locations or large containers. SPECIES L. xalbiflora. WHITE SPIDER LILY. Japan. Old hybrid of uncertain parentage. Stems 18-24 in. Leaves straplike, l/2 in. wide, with pale center line, 20-24 in. long. Flowers 3-5 per stem, creamy white, 2 in. long; tube less than half the length of tepals; tepals recurve. Flowering fall. L. anhuiensis. China (Jiangsu, Anhui). Leaves emerge in spring, green with whitish median stripe. Flowers yellow. L. argentea. N Myanmar. Leaves glaucous. Flowers blue mauve with dark keels. L. aurea. GOLDEN HURRICANE LILY, GOLDEN LILY, GOLDEN SPIDER LILY. China, Taiwan, and N Myanmar; introduced 1777. Stems to 24 in. Leaves strap-shaped, almost 1 in. wide, slightly bluish with paler median stripe. Flowers 5-6 per stem, irregular in shape, golden yellow; segments recurved at tips, margins very wavy. Flowering late summer. The most commonly grown species. Var. angustipetala from China (Gansu, Hubei) has narrower tepals. Plates 813, 814. L. caldwellii. China. Stems 14-20 in. Leaves emerge in spring. Flowers pale yellow, late summer to early fall. L. chinensis. China and South Korea. Leaves emerge in spring. Flowers yellow. L. elsiae. Japan (S Kyushu). Flowers pale salmon aging to flesh pink, with darker pink median bands. Possibly a hybrid (L. traubiixL. sanguined). L. guangxiensis. China (Guangxi). Leaves emerge in spring. Flowers yellow with reddish median stripes on interior. L. xhaywardii. Hybrid (L. sprengerix L. radiatavar. pumila). Stems 12-18 in. Leaves emerge in fall. Flowers reddish violet, tipped bluish, late summer to early fall. L. xhoudyshelii. An old Chinese hybrid of uncertain parentage. Stems 20-24 in. Leaves emerge in fall. Flowers white aging to pinkish, sometimes with reddish median stripes, late summer. L. incarnata. China and Japan. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves similar to those of L. aurea but brighter green. Flowers 10-12 per stem on short pedicels, white aging to light rose, to 3 in. wide, fragrant; tube short; lobes not reflexed or wavy. Flowering late summer. L. longituba. China (Jiangsu, Anhui). Leaves emerge in spring, green with whitish median stripe. Flowers white to pink (pale yellow in var. flava}.

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L. radiata. PINK SPIDER LILY, SPIDER LILY, RED SPIDER LILY. China and Japan; introduced 1758. Stems to 18 in. Leaves narrow, strap-shaped, green with lighter median stripe, 18-20 in. long. Flowers 4-6 per stem, pink to deep red or scarlet, nodding, irregular; lobes much reflexed and wavy on margins. Common name derives from the long, exposed stamens. Flowering late summer. Forma alba has white flowers with a hint of yellow at base. Forma variegata, introduced 1889, has red flowers edged with white. Var. pumila is similar but smaller, diploid (type is triploid). Var. kazukoana from Japan has pale red to whitish flowers with smaller, less recurved tepals. Plate 815. L. sanguinea. Japan and China; introduced 1898. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves seldom more than l/2 in. wide, without median stripe. Flowers blood red, more erect than in other species, 4-6 per loose umbel, about 2 in. in diameter; tube very short. Stamens do not exceed length of flowers, so this species is not so "spidery"-looking. One of the earliest to flower, in mid summer. Var. kiusiana has tepals with recurved tips and protruding stamens. Var. koreana has smaller flowers than type. L. shaanxiensis. China (Shaanxi). Leaves emerge in spring. Flowers white with red keels. L. sprengeri. Japan. Stems to 18 in. Leaves almost 1 in. wide, without median stripe. Flowers rose pink, somewhat purplish, regularly funnel-shaped; tube short; lobes flare to 2-3 in. in diameter. Flowering mid to late summer. L. squamigera. HARDY AMARYLLIS, MAGIC LILY, MIRACLE LILY, NAKED LADY, RESURRECTION LILY. E China, Japan, and Korea; introduced 1888. Stems to 24 in. Leaves 5-6, produced in spring, 12 in. long, 1 in. wide. Similar to L. sprengeri, but flowers larger and more bluish pink, late summer. The hardiest species. Plate 816. L. straminea. China. Stems 20-24 in. Flowers straw-yellow, late summer to early fall. L. traubii. Taiwan and S Japan. Leaves emerge in fall. Flowers rich orange-yellow with darker orange median stripes. SYNONYMS L. africana see L. aurea. L. ambrosiacum, an invalid name. L. alba see L. radiata f. alba. L. koreana see L. sanguinea var. koreana. L. sewerzowi see Ungernia trisphaera. L. terracianii see L. radiata f. variegata.

IvLaianthemum—Convallariaceae (Liliaceae) MAYFLOWER, FALSE LILY OF THE VALLEY, HEARTLEAF LILY Name derived from Greek maios ("May") and anthemon ("blossom"), in reference to the plant's spring flowering. This is a genus of perhaps 3 species, although some botanists believe there is only one, with some geographic variation. It is found in northern temperate regions, including Europe, E and W North

352

Manfreda

America, and Siberia. (A revision by G. H. Weber sinks the genus Smilacina in Maianthemum, but this change is not reflected in the present volume.) Maianthemum is an unusual member of the Liliaceae in that it has 4 tepals and 4 stamens, while other members of the family have 6 of each. The small white flowers, often 20 or more per stem, are carried on an erect, slender, often zigzagging scape. The leaves are heart-shaped, quite similar to those of lily of the valley (Convallaria); there are usually only 2 per stem, 1-3 in. long and wide. The slender rootstock is a running rhizome, and plants often form extensive mats in damp, shady places. Though attractive, the flowers last only for a brief period. The leaves persist from early spring until fall if kept moist. Maianthemum should be considered only as woodland groundcover among other plants with good-looking foliage, such as large-growing ferns. It is a rapid spreader where well suited and ought not to be placed where it will overwhelm smaller plants. It takes several years to settle after transplanting and should be planted where it can be left undisturbed. CULTURE These are very cold-hardy plants, easy to grow given cool shade and summer water in a humus-rich acidic soil. Not common in commerce, but most likely to be supplied as container plants. Plant in fall, 1-2 in. deep and 4-6 in. apart. No feeding is necessary provided there are fallen leaves to renew the fertility of the soil. PESTS AND DISEASES

Plants have no disease or insect problems. PROPAGATION

Propagation is by division of the rootstock in early fall. SPECIES

M. bifolium. FALSE LILY OF THE VALLEY, TWO-LEAF LILY. Eurasia, Canada, and United States, in northern temperate zone. Stems 4-8 in., often zigzag. Leaves heart-shaped on petioles, usually 2 or 3 per crown, to 3 in. long and wide. Flowers to 15-20 or more per stem, small, white, fluffy-looking. Fruit a small berry, with 1-2 seeds, mauve- or reddish-spotted. Flowering late spring. Plates 818, 819. M. canadense. TWO-LEAVED SOLOMON'S SEAL. Canada (Labrador to Ontario) and United States (Maine to Georgia and Iowa). Somewhat larger than M. bifolium but otherwise identical, and regarded by some as a geographic variant of it. M. dilatatum. W coastal North America. A stronger plant, to 14 in., but otherwise similar to M. bifolium. SYNONYM M. kamtschaticum see M. dilatatum.

Manfreda—Agavaceae Named in honor of Manfred de Monte Imperiale, who wrote about the medical uses of herbs. There are as many as 18 or 20 species in this genus native to Mexico and SE United States, but few are in cultivation. Though related to Agave, Manfreda spe-

cies have bulbous rootstocks and do not form woody stems. Somewhat surprisingly, they are also closely allied to the far more attractive Polianthes (tuberose). The leaves are deciduous, and those of many species are fleshy. Some species are quite attractive for their leaves alone, but all are of more interest to the collector than to the average gardener. The bulbs consist of rosettes of fleshy scales. The leaves are mostly in a basal rosette; some species have small leaves on the stem. The flowers are produced from mid to late summer and are tubular, mostly sessile on a tall, straight or arching stem; the perianth segments are joined into a narrow tube at the base and are more or less reflexed at the mouth, from which the stamens barely protrude. The flowers are about 1 in. long, rarely more, and straight rather than curving. The plants produce large quantities of seed. Plant height varies but is mostly 18-24 in. Though not of much horticultural merit, manfredas can be planted in the sunny border or large rock garden in their native region or other warm areas. They are more interesting as foliage plants than for their small, dull-colored flowers. Some species are likely to require frost-free conditions, but M. virginica is hardy to about 10°F. CULTURE

Manfredas require full sun, well-drained soil, and moderate moisture, especially in the early phase of growth. Supplied as container plants. Plant in spring at the level they have been growing, and leave undisturbed. PESTS AND DISEASES

Diseases and insects are unlikely to trouble them, but they are often browsed by rabbits. PROPAGATION

Some offsets can be removed from the mature bulbs in early spring. Sow seed in spring in sandy soil mix, barely covering the seed. Transplant seedlings to individual pots as soon as large enough to handle. SPECIES

M. brachystachya. Mexico Qalisco). Flowers greenish, with exserted stamens. M. longiflora. United States (SE Texas) and N Mexico. Stems 24-30 in. Leaves 6-7, to 10 in. long, fleshy, 3/4 in. wide, green and spotted darker green; a few small bractlike leaves on scape. Flowers dull orange-red, sometimes pinkish, 1-2 in. long, tubular for % of their length and then lobed. Flowering summer. M. maculosa. United States (Texas). Stems 3-4 ft. Leaves narrow leaves, to 12 in. long, marked with brown or dark green on lighter green; margins toothed. Flowers to 25 per stem, sessile, tubular, opening purplish or greenish, aging to pinkish, fragrant; tube about 1 in. long, lobes a little shorter. Stamens a little longer than perianth. Flowering summer. M. singuliflora. Mexico. Stems to 36 in. Leaves green, narrow, fleshy. Flowers purplish green on short pedicels, just over 1 in. long and slightly curved, summer. M. variegata. Mexico. Stems to 36 in. Leaves to 2 in. wide, 18 in. long, fleshy, bluish green marked with purplish-green blotches. Flowers bright green flushed purplish brown, lx/2 in.

Mastigostyla long, tube and lobes about equal; stamens prominent, over 2 in. long. Flowering summer. 'Gigantea' is apparently a stronggrowing selection. M. virginica. United States (West Virginia, Texas, Florida). Stems to 72 in., but usually less. Leaves fleshy, to 24 in. long, dark green with reddish markings. Flowers to 30 per stem, fragrant, greenish yellow, 2 in. long; tube much longer than lobes. Stamens prominently exserted. Flowering late summer. The hardiest species. M. undulata, listed in catalogs, may be a foliage variant of this species.

Massonia—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) ABRAHAM'S BOOK, BUTTONHOLE FLOWER, PINCUSHION Named in honor of Francis Masson (1741-1805), a Scotsman sent to South Africa by Joseph Banks, president of the British Royal Society. This genus now numbers only 8 species; some plants formerly in this genus have been reclassified and moved to Polyxena. Few are in cultivation; they are not showy and are essentially curiosities for the bulb specialist. They are native to many parts of South Africa, almost always growing in poor soil in areas with hot, dry summers. Most species flower in late fall or early winter. Massonias are easily identified by their 2 very broad leaves, which lie flat on the ground; the flower stems arise between them in fall and early winter. The flowers are mostly white, borne in an umbel, often sessile or nearly so. The stamens are exserted and the filaments more conspicuous than the perianth segments, resembling a sea anemone. The rootstock is a scaly corm. CULTURE Massonias must be grown frost-free in sandy, well-drained soil and full sun. Set bulbs 2-3 in. deep. Because of their large leaves, the plants should be spaced at least 10 in. apart. After they have flowered and the foliage starts to die down, they must be given a dry, warm resting period. It may be necessary to withhold water to induce dormancy. PESTS AND DISEASES

Leaves should be protected from slugs and snails. PROPAGATION

Young plants often appear beside established ones and can be separated during the dormant period. Sow seed on the surface of a sandy soil mix, water very sparingly, and keep night temperatures around 55°F. Transplant seedlings when dormant to individual pots or spaced about 6 in. apart. SPECIES M. angustifolia. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1775. Stems 3-6 in. Leaves upright, to 4 in. long, almost 1 in. wide. Flowers to 6 per stem, white, about 1 in. long; perianth segments reflex for about half their length. Flowering fall (April in the wild). Plates 820, 821. M. comata. South Africa (Northwestern Province), in grassland. Stems to 6 in. Leaves lance-shaped or ovate, 2 per bulb. Flowers whitish to purplish, fall (April in the wild).

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M. depressa. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape, Eastern Cape), in winter-rainfall area in sandy flats. Leaves thintextured, grayish, to 7 in. long and almost as wide, ovate. Flowers 2-3 in. in diameter, enclosed in green bracts, cream-colored or pink to red with yellow stamens, winter to early spring (June to August in the wild). Plates 822, 823. M. echinata. South Africa (W Karoo in Northern Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape); introduced 1889. Leaves ovate, prostrate, 2 in. long, often hairy on margins. Flowers 5-20 per stem, yellow or white fading to pink, scented of almonds; segments reflexed. Flowering late fall to winter (May to July in the wild). M. jasminiflora. South Africa (Free State) and Lesotho; introduced 1894. Leaves ovate, 2-3 in. long. Flowers to 15 per stem, fragrant, white to purplish pink tipped green. Anthers may be blue, green, dark purple, or black. Flowering late fall (May in the wild). M. muricata. South Africa (Western Cape). Introduced 1790. Stems 3-5 in. Leaves rounded, 4 in. long. Flowers white, fall (May in the wild). M. pustulata. South Africa (Western Cape, Namaqualand, Eastern Cape); introduced 1790. Stems 2-3 in. Leaves ovate, 6 in. long, 3-4 in. wide, often finely toothed on margins. Flowers 15-25 per stem, white, pink, yellow or flushed green; anthers yellow or reddish. Flowering winter to spring (June to September in the wild). M. pygmaea. South Africa (W Western Cape, Namaqualand). Leaves prostrate, fleshy. Flowers pink or white, fall (April to May in the wild). SYNONYMS

M. amygdalina see M. echinata. M. bolusiae see M. echinata. M. bowkeri see M. jasminiflora. M. brachypus see M. depressa. M. Candida see M. echinata. M. ensifolia see Polyxena ensifolia. M. heteranda see M. pygmaea. M. latifolia see M. depressa. M. longifolia var. Candida see M. echinata. M. odorata see Polyxena ensifolia. M. sanguinea see M. depressa. M. scabra see M. echinata. M. violacea see Polyxena ensifolia.

Mastigostyla—Iridaceae This genus of 4 or 5 species of cormous plants is native to the Andes of Peru. Only recently have these Tigridia-like plants come to the attention of horticulture. Like those of tigridias, the individual flowers are not long-lasting, but a number of flowers open in succession. They bloom in the wild in late summer. The flower colors are in the blue-violet range; the outer perianth segments are larger than the inner ones and open flat. In the taller-growing species, M. major, which reaches 20 in., the flowers are 2 in. or more in diameter; in M. hoppii, which

354

Medeola

reaches about half that height, they are a little over 1 in. Reportedly the flowers are fragrant, and up to 5 are produced per stem. Usually 2 leaves are produced. Few people have seen these plants in cultivation but their descriptions suggest they might be worth considering for warmer gardens. CULTURE The plants must be grown frost-free, with full sun and moisture in early spring. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems.

Minnesota), in moist woodlands. Rootstock a tuberous rhizome, 3 in. or more long and 1 in. wide. Leaves light green, on an erect stem in 2 whorls, turning reddish in late summer. Lower whorl has 6-10 leaves, rarely more, 2-5 in. long; upper whorl has only 3 leaves, which are shorter. Flower stalk about 30 in., carrying one flower, or rarely 2 or 3 in an umbel, often bending so flower is held below the upper leaves. Flower1/2in. long, with 6 recurving, pale greenish yellow tepals. Stamens 6, prominent, with style curving sharply away from the center of the flower. Fruit a blackish-purple berry, much appreciated by birds. Flowering late spring.

PROPAGATION

Seed obtained from botanic gardens or South American collectors is likely to be the only way of acquiring them. Most South American irids are easily grown from seed in a cool greenhouse. SPECIES

M. hoppii. Peru. Corm has a papery tunic. Stems perhaps to 10 in. Leaves basal. Flowers pale mauve but somewhat variable, late summer to fall (February to March in the wild). M. major. Andes of Peru. Stems to 20 in. Leaves clasp stem. Flowers to 5 per stem, fragrant, medium blue; outer perianth segments have white lines and yellow zone toward base, late summer (February in the wild)

Medeola—Trilliaceae (Liliaceae) INDIAN CUCUMBER ROOT Named in honor of the mythical sorceress Medea, because the plant was reputed to have great medicinal virtue. The genus contains only one species, and it is native to the Atlantic seaboard of North America. Used by Native Americans as food, it is said to taste something like a cucumber. The plant is now becoming rare. Suitable for the woodland garden where it can be kept moist all summer, it is a lovely plant if you have room, but not one that will catch the attention of anyone but the connoisseur. It is quite cold-hardy and tolerant of hot, humid summers. CULTURE Soil must be rich in organic matter, with dappled shade and moisture throughout the year. The rootstocks should be planted 3-4 in. deep and 10-12 in. apart. If the soil is rich, no feeding is necessary; if poor, give organic liquid fertilizer early in the year. The soil should not be compacted but kept light and friable. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Divide the rootstock in early spring after the foliage has died down. Seed probably loses viability rapidly in storage and should be sown fresh after removing the fleshy coating. Germination is likely to be best in outdoor conditions. SPECIES M. virginiana. Canada (Ontario, Quebec, and Nova Scotia) and United States (Maine to Florida, Alabama, Louisiana, and

Melasphaerula—Iridaceae Name derived from Greek melas ("black") and sphaerula ("little ball"), referring to the small black cormlets surrounding the parent corm. This genus contains only one species. It grows in scrub and shady places, often with ample winter moisture, and always in well-drained soil. Though this plant cannot withstand much frost, it deserves to be grown in warm gardens. It is good in borders in light or partial shade, duplicating its natural habitat. CULTURE Requires warmth and is best grown in sheltered spots even in warm climates; appreciates indirect bright light but not much direct sun. Any fairly fertile garden soil is suitable, but good drainage is essential. Plant corms 1 in. or so deep in fall or early spring. Moisture is needed in the initial stages of growth, but dry conditions are preferred when the flowers appear. Should provide a dry resting period in late summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Numerous cormels are produced by established plants, and these can be separated and grown on. Sow seed in early spring in a sandy, moisture-retentive soil mix and give moderate heat, about 45°F at night. Corms reach flowering size in 2 or 3 seasons. SPECIES M. ramosa. W South Africa and S Namibia; introduced c. 1880. Rootstock a rounded corm, flattened at the base, less than 1/2 in. in diameter, covered with a tough, blackish papery tunic. Leaves narrow, linear, arranged in a fan at the base of the flowering stalk. Stem 8-18 in. tall in the wild, rather delicate looking, often much branched. Flowers 3-7, zygomorphic, 1 in. in diameter, carried on almost threadlike pedicels which twist and turn. Perianth segments very pointed, purple at the base, elsewhere whitish or cream with a dart of purple spreading from the base to midway. This is a somewhat variable species, and often the purple color is confined to the veins. The individual flowers are long-lasting from late winter into spring (July to October in the wild), depending on the location. Plate 824.

Microseris

Merendera M. aitchisonii see Colchicum robustum. M. androcymbioides see Colchicum androcymbioideum. M. attica see Colchicum atticum. M. brandegiana see Colchicum atticum. M. bulbocodium see Colchicum montanum. M. caucasica see Colchicum trigynum. M. eichleri see Colchicum trigynum. M.filifolia see Colchicum filifolium. M. hissarica see Colchicum hissaricum. M. linifoliasee Colchicum filifolium. M. manissadjiania see Colchicum trigynum. M. montana see Colchicum montanum. M. navis-noae see Colchicum trigynum. M. persica see Colchicum robustum. M. pyrenaica see Colchicum montanum. M. raddeana see Colchicum trigynum. M. rhodopea see Colchicum atticum. M. robusta see Colchicum robustum. M. sobolifera see Colchicum soboliferum. M. trigyna see Colchicum trigynum.

Micranthus—Iridaceae Name derived from Greek mikros ("small") and anthos ("flower"). Micranthus is a genus of 3 species native to W South Africa, growing in sandy or clay areas. The flowering stems are often branched, carrying many small, blue flowers—as many as 100 is not unusual—with a hint of white at the base, subtended by small brownish bracts. The flowers are arranged in opposite ranks, not all around the stem. Flowering occurs in late spring and early summer. The leaves are sword-shaped, very narrow, and up to 20 in. long; in one species, M. tubulosus, they are round in section and hollow. The rootstock is a corm. These are fine plants for warm, sunny borders, where the blue-andwhite flowers provide a haze of color in late spring. CULTURE Micranthus cannot tolerate temperatures below 28°F. Plant corms 2 in. deep in a sunny spot in well-drained soil, spaced 68 in. apart. Water during the growing season, with a dry period during late summer. In colder climates, the corms should be planted in spring and lifted before the onset of cold weather, to be stored frost-free over winter. In containers, they need a sandy soil mix with good drainage. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove cormels while plants are dormant, store them over winter, and sow them in spring; in 2 years they will reach flowering size. Bulbils are sometimes produced on the stem and should be treated like cormels. SPECIES M. alopecuroides. South Africa (SW Western Cape), in sandy

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soils; introduced 1774. Stems to 20 in., sometimes branched. Leaves usually 3, to 12 in. long, tending to sheathe flowering stalk at base. Often the lower flowers are replaced by bulbils. Flowers pale dark blue above conspicuous brown bracts, very numerous, about1/4in. long and wide, summer (October to December in the wild). M. junceus. South Africa (Bokkeveld Mountains in Northern Cape to Western Cape at Riversdale). Similar to M. alopecuroides but flowers are a little larger and paler blue, appearing almost white in bud, and fragrant. Stems to 18 in. Leaves cylindrical. Bulbils often produced in axils of lower leaves. Flowering summer (November to February in the wild). Prefers moist areas. M. tubulosus. South Africa (Gifberg to Cape Peninsula). Stems 20-24 in., unbranched. Leaves hollow. Flowers dark blue, larger than those of M. alopecuroides, flatter-faced, and not so numerous; largest flowers of the genus. Flowering summer (November to December in the wild). Plate 825. SYNONYM M. plantagineus see M. alopecuroides.

Microseris—Asteraceae DAISY YAM Name derived from Greek mikros ("small") and seris ("chicory, lettuce, endive"). This genus contains about 17 species curiously distributed in W United States, Chile, New Zealand, and Australia. Most are annuals; a few are perennials with fibrous roots, sometimes with rhizomelike caudices. Two have actual tubers: M. lanceolata and M. scapigera. The tubers emit a white latex when cut. They enlarge during the growing season and produce leaves and flowers the following year, and one or more tubers to flower in subsequent years. During the summer the plants are dormant. Native people ate the tubers, either raw after being peeled, or roasted in fiber baskets; they are said to be "rather sweet with some seasonal bitterness." Australasian botanists disagree about the status of these 2 species; some authorities regard them as synonymous. They are not very likely prospects as ornamentals but might be grown as curiosities in botanic gardens. CULTURE Plants must be grown frost-free or nearly so. Plant tubers with the crowns just below soil level, 6 in. apart, in full sun. Moisture is needed during winter and spring; as the leaves begin to wither, reduce moisture. Must have excellent drainage at all times and remain dry during summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Sow seed as soon as it is ripe on a sandy soil mix, barely covering the seed. Transplant seedlings to small pots when large enough to handle. Plants may go dormant soon after germina-

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Milla

tion but should be encouraged to reach sufficient size for transplanting before doing so. SPECIES M. lanceolata. Australia. Similar to M. scapigera. M. scapigera. New Zealand, in saline habitats and on rubblestrewn hillsides. Tuber ovoid, 1/2 in. long, almost l/2 in. in diameter, the end tapering to a fine root. Leaves erect or flat, 10-30 per crown, to 8 in. long and1/4in. wide, with entire edges that become toothed or shortly lobed with age. Flowers 1 in. in diameter, like a dandelion but rather flatter, with the inner ranks of rays a little darker than the outer, as well as shorter and notched at the end. Flowering stems to 12 in., sometimes taller, slender. Buds pendent, but open flowers are held upright. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). Plate 826.

Milla—Amaryllidaceae LITTLE STARS Named in honor of Julani Milla, a gardener at the court of Madrid in the eighteenth century. Milla is a genus of the Americas, from Guatemala through Mexico north to Arizona in the United States. The Mexicans call them little stars or star-lilies. There are not many species, 6 at most, and few are in cultivation. They are seldom if ever offered in catalogs—a pity, since they are summer- or early fall-flowering and add a distinctive touch to the summer garden. Some authorities place this genus in Alliaceae; others in Amaryllidaceae. The flowers are upright-facing with long, narrow tubes formed by the ovary and the base of the 6 equal tepals. The perianth lobes open flat and starry above a constriction at the top of the tube, through which the anthers are barely visible. Flower colors are pink, blue, or white with green stripes. Many have a lilylike fragrance. The number of flowers varies but is usually 5-8, sometimes more, arranged in an umbel on long pedicels. The leaves are narrow and cylindrical. The corm is small and covered with a brown tunic. It is unfortunate that these flowers are not in general cultivation. They would be excellent additions to warm-climate gardens, especially in S California and the arid Southwest. CULTURE Millas are suitable only for areas where winter temperatures do not long remain around 25°F. They are good cool greenhouse plants where winters are severe and frost arrives early. Plant corms in early spring, covered with 1 in. of soil and spaced 6-10 in. apart. They appreciate sun, rich soil, and good drainage, but moisture must be available during the growing season. When the foliage withers, reduce water. Rot can be a problem if too much moisture is present during the dormant season. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Separate offset corms when plants are dormant. Sow seed in spring in a very sandy soil mix. The plants should be grown in

the seed container for the first season, lifted and separated when the leaves die, and the small corms then grown on in shallow nursery rows or placed in individual containers. They will flower the following year. SPECIES M. biflora. MEXICAN STAR OF BETHLEHEM, STAR LILY, WHITE STAR LILY. United States (Arizona), Mexico, and Guatemala; introduced 1832. Stems to 18 in. Leaves slender, grasslike. Flowers up to 7 per stem, fragrant, sessile but appearing stalked because of the 3- to 5-in. long tube; tepals open flat to 2 in. in diameter. Flowers white with green median stripes, anthers yellow, tube green. Flowering late summer. Plate 827. M. bryanii. Very similar to M. biflora, except that flowers are borne on short pedicels. M. magnifica. Mexico. Stems to 20 in. Leaves cylindrical. Flowers very fragrant, 15-30 in umbel, white inside, greenstriped outside; anthers blue, filaments white, pollen white. Flowering late summer. M. mortoniana. Mexico. Similar to M. magnifica, except flowers are light blue, about 1 in. in diameter, and seldom more than 10-15 per stem. Flowering late summer. SYNONYMS M. caerulea see Androstephium caeruleum. M. macrostemon see Nothoscordum gracile. M. uniflora see Ipheion uniflorum.

Montbretia M. crocata see Tritonia crocata. M. crocosmiiflora see Crocosmia xcrocosmiiflora. M. flava see Tritonia securigera. M. laxifolia see Tritonia laxifolia. M. pottsii see Crocosmia pottsii. M. securigera see Tritonia securigera. M. strictifolia see Tritonia laxifolia. M. watermeyeri see Tritonia watermeyeri.

Moraea—Iridaceae BUTTERFLY, BUTTERFLY IRIS, LITTLE OWL, PEACOCK FLOWER, PEACOCK IRIS, FORTNIGHT LILY Named in honor of Robert More, a British botanist in the eighteenth century. Moraea is the Southern Hemisphere's counterpart to the Northern Hemisphere's Iris. Several characteristics distinguish them: Moraea has fibrous-coated corms, and Iris generally has bulbs or rhizomes; the perianth segments of Moraea do not join into a tube at the base, whereas those of Iris do; and the 3 inner segments of Moraea flowers are much smaller than those of most Iris species. Dietes, a South African and Australian genus, is very similar to Moraea, except that it is rhizomatous. There are about 150 species of Moraea. In 1998 Galaxia, Gyandriris, Hexaglottis, Homeria, and Roggebeldia were sunk into Moraea, raising the total to 196 species; however, in this

Moraea volume they are kept separate. Flower colors are extremely varied, even within the same species, and a number of hybrids have been raised. The brilliance of the flowers and their eyelike markings gave rise to one of the common names. The flowers of some species last only briefly—often only a day—but the many blossoms on one stem present an outstanding, ongoing display. Some Moraea species come from tropical Africa, but the majority are from the Western Cape of South Africa. It is important to know their origin. Those from the eastern part—the Indian Ocean side—receive their rainfall in summer (November to March in the wild). They flower during summer and, because they are dormant during winter, are hardier than species from the western side. Those from the Atlantic coastal areas receive rainfall during winter and flower in winter or early spring. All types perform well in frost-free areas of the United States. Where there is little or no frost, all species from the Cape can be grown, but where frost occurs, only those from the eastern side should be attempted. All Cape species need to be grown in the cool greenhouse, where winter temperatures regularly drop below about 23°F. The corms of M. fugax are edible and were eaten by early inhabitants of W South Africa. They were stewed in milk, roasted, or boiled, wrote Carl Peter Thunberg in Flora Capensis (1823). The taste is said to be similar to that of potatoes. Moraeas are unquestionably beautiful. One has only to peruse "The Moraeas of Southern Africa" (1986) by Peter Goldblatt, with watercolors by Fay Anderson, to appreciate just how lovely some of the species are. The ease of growing most species is well known, but unfortunately, so is their lack of hardiness; however, this is true of many other plants that grace temperate-zone summer gardens. The colors are superb, and hybridizers could have a field day with them, perhaps eliciting colors not presently seen in the species. Heights vary, as do foliage arrangements and textures. Dwarf species are attractive in shallow containers. Some even make good cut flowers. I hope I can live to see the day when moraeas occupy the position in our gardens they so eminently deserve. There is a world of excitement and pleasure awaiting those who undertake breeding these plants. Many gardeners live in Mediterranean climates, and I hope they will grow these fine species, or at least look at Goldblatt's book and Anderson's paintings to appreciate how wonderful these plants are. CULTURE Moraeas tolerate a wide range of soils. During dormancy, corms require drier conditions. During growth, they should be supplied with adequate moisture—just moist, not wet. The foliage of many species and hybrids remains evergreen in cultivation where the plants receive steady moisture and warmth, and in such cases the dormant period occurs after flowering finishes. They like sun and increase rapidly where suited. Wet, cold conditions encourage mildew to form on the leaves and may cause corms of winter- and early spring-flowering species to rot. Plant corms of winter-flowering species in fall, summerflowering in late winter or early spring. Height of mature plant determines where to place them. Low-growing types are best in

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groups, while larger ones can be set 2 or 3 together in the mixed border. Plant corms 2 in. deep; space from a few inches to more than 12 in. apart, depending on eventual size. Once established, leave plants undisturbed; lift and divide only when clumps become too large and crowded. In poor soils, apply a general fertilizer as soon as fresh growth is produced and flowering stems appear. Moraeas grow well in large containers in a porous soil mix. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Older corms produce many small corms. Separate these after flowering, when growth has diminished. Grow offsets in small containers or in nursery rows for 2 years, after which they should be large enough to plant in garden or in greenhouse. Sow seed of winter-flowering species in late summer, summer-flowering in early spring. Use a well-drained soil mix, barely cover the seeds, and keep them moist. Transplant after one season of growth into larger containers, spacing seedlings 2-3 in. apart. After 2 years they will be large enough to set out in garden or larger containers, and should flower the next year. SPECIES M. albicuspa. Drakensberg Mountains of South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape) and Lesotho. Stems to 24 in. Flowers large, white to cream with yellow nectar guides; inner tepals reduced; mid to late summer (January to March in the wild). M. algoensis. South Africa (Port Elizabeth, along coast of Algoa Bay to Worcester). Stems 8-16 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers pale to deep blue-violet with yellow or cream marks, mid winter to early spring (luly to September in the wild). M. alpina. Drakensberg Mountains of South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape) and Lesotho. Stems 2-5 in. Similar to M. stricta, flowers blue to violet with yellow-orange nectar guides, spring to summer (October to December in the wild). M. alticola. Drakensberg Mountains of South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal) and Lesotho; introduced 1973. Stems to 36 in. Flowers pale yellow with darker stain, summer (November to January in the wild). M. amissa. South Africa (Malmesbury in Western Cape); endangered. Stems to 12 in. Flowers violet-blue with white nectar guides outlined in purple, spring (October in the wild). M. angusta. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 8-16 in. Flowers pale yellow with brown to purplish markings, early spring (August to November in the wild, later at higher elevations). M. anomala. South Africa (Western Cape), on clay soils. Stems 8-16 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers yellow with dark yellow guides, spring (September to November in the wild). M. ardesiaca. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 28 in. Flowers blue to purple with yellow markings, often brown on reverse, late spring to summer (November to January in the wild). M. aristata. South Africa (Cape Peninsula); introduced 1766; endangered. Stems to 18 in. Flowers pure white or faintly blue,

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Moraea

with much deeper blue spot at base of each outer petal, spring (September in the wild). Plate 828. M. atropunctata. South Africa (SW Western Cape); endangered. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers cream, red-brown on reverse, with yellow markings and densely spotted red-brown or blue, early spring (August to September in the wild). M. barkerae. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 6-18 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers pale salmon to pink with purple markings, early spring (September to December in the wild, depending on elevation). M. barnardii. South Africa (Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Stems to 8 in., unbranched. Leaf solitary. Flowers white with purple veins; inner tepals absent, unique in genus. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). M. bellendenii. South Africa (Western Cape to Eastern Cape), found in both clay and sandy soils. Stems 18-36 in., branched. Leaf solitary. Flowers yellow, speckled in center, spring (October to November in the wild). M. bipartita. South Africa (Eastern Cape, Little Karoo). Stems to 12 in. Flowers pale blue or deep purple, with white or yellow nectar guides, spring (August to October in the wild). Plate 829. M. bituminosa. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 10-18 in. Leaves 2, one of them basal, twisted, to 24 in. long. Flowers bright yellow, ephemeral, spring (October to December in the wild). M. bolusii. South Africa (N Namaqualand). Stems 3-8 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers pale yellow and white, with deeper yellow nectar guides on outer tepals, spring (September to October in the wild). M. brevistyla. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Free State) and Lesotho. Stems usually branched, 6-12 in. Flowers small, white, sometimes flushed pale bluish lilac; nectar guides on outer tepals yellow. Flowering summer (late November to March in the wild). M. bubalina. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems 10-30 in., with 2 basal leaves, one on flowering stem. Flowers buff to light brown; in lower portion of tepals a series of yellow bands forms a circle, with green and yellow stripes below it. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). M. caeca. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 8-16 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers lilac purple with yellow or black nectar guides; filaments united in lower part; spring (September to October in the wild). M. calcicola. South Africa (Western Cape); endangered. Stems 12-18 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers clear blue, with light fragrance, spring (September in the wild). M. carnea. Drakensberg Mountains of South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Free State), generally above 6000 ft. Stems to 20 in. Flowers pale yellow or pinkish with pink or brown veins, early summer (November to December in the wild). M. carsonii. Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, and Uganda; introduced 1937. Stems to 12 in. Leaves usually 2, rarely 3. Flowers blue-violet with yellow-purple spotted blotches, fall (February to April in the wild, December to January in tropical Africa). M. ciliata. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape); introduced 1587. Stems to 8 in., often less, un-

branched. Leaves several, erect or curved, usually thinly haired, margin often fringed or wavy. Flowers white, blue, yellow, or pale brown, with yellow markings, to 2 in. in diameter, fragrant, ephemeral, late winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). Suitable for pot culture. M. cooperi. South Africa (Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Stems to 10 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers pale yellow with fine purple veins; tepals united in a very short tube at base. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). M. crispa. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape, Karoo, Free State). Stems to 8 in. Flowers blue, rarely white, nectar guides yellow, late spring to summer (October to December in the wild). Flowers open for a few hours in late afternoon. M. debilis. South Africa (Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Stems to 16 in., slender. Leaf solitary. Flowers purple, threadlike inner tepals, fading to pale mauve, spring (September to October in the wild). M. deserticola. South Africa (S Namaqualand), in very dry areas; described 1967. Stems to 18 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers pale blue or white, with pale blue reverse, winter (June to August in the wild). M. dracomontana. Drakensberg Mountains of South Africa (Free State), at high altitudes. Stems to 12 in. Leaf tightly inrolled. Flowers blue to purple with yellow nectar guides, summer (November to January in the wild). M. elliotii. E South Africa, Swaziland, Zimbabwe, and Malawi. Stems to 20 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers blue-violet with yellow nectar guides, spring to late summer (August to March in the wild). M. elsiae. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 8-16 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers bright yellow; inner tepals a little smaller than outer; summer (November to December in the wild). M. exiliflora. South Africa (Western Cape); described 1982. Stems 10-12 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers white, sometimes with pale purple flush, spring (October in the wild). M. falcifolia. South Africa (Western Cape, Namaqualand). Stems 2-3 in. Leaves in rosette. Flowers white to cream with purple and yellow markings, fall to winter (May to August in the wild). M. fergusoniae. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 8 in. Leaves basal, 3-6. Flowers white to cream, rarely blue, winter to early spring (July to August in the wild). M. flexuosa. South Africa (N Namaqualand). Stems to 4 in. Leaves 3-5. Flowers deep yellow with paler border, nectar guides speckled green, winter to early spring (July to August in the wild). M.fugax. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape); introduced 1792. Corm often grows deep. Stems 6–32 in. or more. Leaf solitary, keeled, trailing, 6-8 in. longer than stem. Flowers white, greenish, pale blue, yellow, or mauve, to 6 per stem; only one opens at a time, in afternoon, fragrant. Flowering late spring to early summer (August to November in the wild). Var. longifolia has a longer leaf. Subsp. filicaulis, from Namaqualand and N Western Cape, is 2-5 in. tall, with 2 leaves and flowers smaller than type, white to cream, sometimes tinted pink or bluish purple to deep violet. Interest in plant is due mainly to its

Moraea local use as food, rather than beauty of flowers. Plates 830-832. M. galpinii. South Africa (Mpumalanga) and Swaziland. Stem unbranched, to 12 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers bright yellow, early spring (August to October in the wild). M. garipensis. S Namibia (Orange River). Stems to 18 in. Leaves mostly basal. Flowers yellow, open briefly in late afternoon, very fragrant, winter (July in the wild). M. gawleri. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape). Stems to 18 in. Flowers yellow to pale brick red, often with dark veins; tepals often reflexed, style branches erect and thrust forward. Flowering winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). M. gigandra. South Africa (Atlantic coast of Western Cape); endangered. Stems 18-24 in. Leaves solitary, hairy. Flowers flat, 2-3 in. in diameter, pale lilac (rarely white), with orange center often tinged or blotched with green and surrounded by dark blue or peacock blue zone, a most attractive flower. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). 'Purpurea' has large lilac flowers with deep blue blotch with black margin. One of the most colorful and largest-flowered of the genus, but quite tender. Cultivated in Australia where it grows very well. M. gradlenta. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 20-30 in., much branched. Leaf solitary. Flowers pale mauve, strongly fragrant, spring (September to November in the wild). M. graminicola. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 24 in. Flowers pale yellow to gray, veined mauve, spring (August to November in the wild). Subsp. notata has pale yellow to cream flowers. M. graniticola. Namibia, in Namib Desert. Stems to 2 in. Leaves 2. Flowers blue-violet, spring (September to October in the wild). Very rare, discovered 1982, appearing much like Crocus, with much of stem below ground. M. hexaglottis. Namibia; described 1983. Stems to 4 in. Flowers violet-blue, open briefly in late afternoon, spring (September to October in the wild). M. hiemalis. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 10-18 in. Flowers yellow with dark veins, winter (July to August in the wild). M. huttonii. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga) and Lesotho, often close to streams. Stems to 40 in. Flowers yellow with dark brown to purple blotch on style crests, fragrant, spring to early summer (October to December in the wild). M. inclinata. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape). Stem to 30 in., leaning. Leaf solitary, on stem just below point where it branches into 3. Flowers blue-violet, outer tepals with yellow nectar guide; tepals recurve, crests upright. Flowering summer (February to March in the wild, earlier at lower elevations). M. inconspicua. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Stems 12-18 in. Flowers dull yellow with brown markings on lower tepals, which are much reflexed, spring to early summer (September to December in the wild). M. incurva. South Africa (Western Cape); endangered. Stems slender, to 16 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers violet-blue, with yellow nectar guides on outer tepals; edges of inner tepals curve in-

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ward. Flowering early summer (October to November in the wild). M. indecora. South Africa (Namaqualand). Corms often grow to 8 in. deep in poor ground. Stems branched, 12-24 in. Leaves 3-6 on stem. Flowers pale yellow, with red pollen, spring (September to October in the wild). M. insolens. South Africa (Caledon area in Western Cape); endangered. Stems to 14 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers orange or pale yellow with broad markings at base of larger segments, confined to midrib on smaller, and central circle of yellow with black zones above and below. Flowering spring (September in the wild). Plate 833. M. inyangani. E Zimbabwe. Stems to 12 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers pale yellow, spring (September in the wild). M. linden. South Africa (Western Cape); endangered. Stems to 18 in., branched. Leaves 2-3, basal, large. Flowers pale yellow, early summer (October to December in the wild). M. longiaristata. South Africa (Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Leaf solitary. Flowers cream to white, speckled blue at base, spring (September to mid-October in the wild). M. longiflora. South Africa (Namaqualand); listed as vulnerable. Stems branched at ground level, to 2 in. or a little more. Flowers yellow; outer tepals have a transverse row of dots midway, golden yellow zone below. Tepals joined to form a short tube. Flowering spring (October in the wild). M. loubseri. South Africa (Western Cape); endangered. Stems to 8 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers blue-violet, with central zone of black pubescence and deep blue nectar guides, early spring (August to September in the wild). M. lugubris. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape). Stems to 6 in. Leaves 2 or more. Flowers bright blue to slate blue, spring (August to November in the wild). M. lurida. South Africa (Western Cape South Africa). Stems to 12 in., much branched. Leaf solitary. Flowers unpleasantly scented, dark maroon or entirely or partly yellow or cream; tepals form a cup, lobes almost at right angles. Flowering spring (October to November in the wild). M. macgregorii. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems branched, to 10 in. Flowers pale lilac with golden nectar guides on outer segments, spring (October in the wild). M. macronyx. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems unbranched, 8-10 in. Leaves 3. Flowers fragrant, pale yellow marked with white, spring (September to early October in the wild). M. margaretae. South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems branched, to 6 in. Leaves 2-3, sheathing stem. Flowers pale yellow with dark veins, appearing brown, spring (September to October in the wild). M. marionae. Swaziland and South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 12 in. Leaf solitary, withered by flowering. Flowers white to pale blue, veined lilac, spring (August to October in the wild). M. modesta. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga) and Lesotho. Stems 4-8 in. Leaf often not present at flowering. Flowers white to pale mauve veined or flushed purple, late spring (late September to November in the wild).

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Moraea

M. moggii. South Africa (Eastern Cape, Northern Province, Mpumalanga). Stems to 24 in. Flowers bright yellow, cream, or white with purple veins on outer tepals, late summer (December to May in the wild). Subsp. albescens is white, sometimes yellow, later flowering. M. muddii. Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems 14-30 in. Flowers small, cream to yellow with copper-colored nectar guides, spring to summer (September to December in the wild). M. namaquamontana. South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems to 14 in. Flowers pale yellow flushed orange, early spring (September in the wild). M. namibensis. S Namibia, in Namib Desert. Stems branched, to 16 in. Leaf solitary, basal. Flowers white or pale blue, spring (August to October in the wild). M. natalensis. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, E Mpumalanga). Stems to 18 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers bluish lilac to lilac, summer (December to January in the wild). M. neglecta. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems unbranched, 8-16 in. Flowers deep golden yellow with black dots as nectar guides, late spring (September to November in the wild). M. neopavonia. South Africa (Atlantic side of Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Stems 16-20 in. Leaf solitary, hairy. Flowers generally orange-red, with greenish black to blue central zone, flat when open, 2-3 in. in diameter; lower segments rounded, inner segments much reduced and held vertically. Flowers open 2 or 3 at a time, spring (September in the wild). Relatively hardy; one of the peacock moraeas; a good cut flower. Much hybridized with M. villosa and many varicolored forms have been introduced. M. neopavonia 'Lutea' (synonym M. tricuspis 'Lutea') of gardens has bright yellow flowers and is slightly taller than species. Plate 834. M. nubigena. South Africa (Western Cape), on moss-covered rocks above 4000 ft. Stems to 2 in. at flowering, elongating in fruit. Leaf solitary, succulent. Flowers deep blue with small yellow stripes as nectar guides on outer tepals, spring (late September in the wild). M. papilionacea. South Africa (Atlantic side of Western Cape); introduced 1795. Stems 6–8 in., shortly branched. Leaves in basal rosette. Flowers held close to stem, usually yellow with salmon-pink markings or salmon with yellow, spring (August to October in the wild). Var. maythamiaehas pale yellow flowers. Tender; best grown in small containers. M. polyanthos. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 12-14 in. Leaves 2-3. Flowers numerous, lilac to dark purple or white, fragrant, early summer (August to November in the wild). M. polystachya. South Africa, widely distributed; discovered 1773. Corm deep-seated, covered with network of dark brown, rigid fibers; can remain dormant for years if conditions are unfavorable. Stems 12-24 in. Leaves often more than 36 in. long. Flowers mostly in blue range, lilac to light blue, with yellow nectar guides on outer tepals; flowers large in compact inflorescence, subtended by papery brown bracts. Flowering fall to early winter (March to July in the wild). Great range attributed to fact that the entire plant is toxic to mammals and thus not

eaten; leaves and corms are harmful even in a dry state, but buds are eaten by birds without harm. M. pseudospicata. South Africa (Northern Cape). Corms often 8 in. deep. Stems to 16 in. Leaf solitary, basal, twisting, narrow. Flowers pale blue mauve, flushed deeper from center of tepal toward tip, with yellow blotches on lower part, opening briefly in late afternoon, summer (November to March in the wild). M. pubiflora. Swaziland and South Africa (E Mpumalanga). Stems 16-30 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers white, outer tepals and nectar guides on inner tepals speckled green and brown, summer (December to March in the wild). M. ramosissima. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape), in damp, shady places; introduced 1792. Stems 20-24 in., many-branched, forming a candelabra-shaped inflorescence. Flowers bright yellow with deeper yellow nectar guides on outer tepals, numerous but short-lived, spring to summer (October to December in the wild). Requires somewhat more moisture than many other moraeas. Plates 835, 836. M. reticulata. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems to 30 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers bright yellow with orange nectar guides, late summer to fall (March to May in the wild). M. revoluta. Angola. Stems 20-36 in. Flowers bright yellow, late summer (February to March in the wild). Closely related to M. spathulata. M. rigidifolia. Namibia, in Namib Desert. Stems branched, to 5 in. Flowers blue mauve with cream nectar guides, early spring (August to September in the wild). M. robusta. South Africa (Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 16 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers pale yellow to almost white, outer tepals wide, early summer (October to November in the wild). Plate 837. M. saxicola. South Africa (W Northern Cape, W Western Cape). Stems branched, 8-16 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers cream, white or pale blue, nectar guides yellow to orange, spring (September to October in the wild). M. schimperi. Zimbabwe, Angola, Zambia, and Mozambique north to Ethiopia, also Nigeria and Cameroon—widest range of all species. Stems 8-18 in., stiff, unbranched. Leaf solitary, not as tall as stem. Flowers purple-blue with yellow nectar guides on outer tepals; inner tepals erect. Flowering late spring into summer. Succession of flowers is attractive for several weeks. Though a tropical species, relatively hardy, withstanding a few degrees of frost; an excellent garden plant but needs ample summer moisture. Plate 838. M. serpentina. South Africa (Namaqualand, Clanwilliam, Bushmanland, Karoo). Stems to 8 in. Flowers white to yellow, sometimes flushed mauve or pink, late winter to spring (September to October in the wild). Plate 839. M. spathulata. South Africa (Port Elizabeth to Northern Province and Mpumalanga), E Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, along rivers and streams, sometimes almost in water; introduced 1875. Stems to 36 in., slender. Leaves 1-2, flat, basal. Flowers 2-3 in. in diameter, bright yellow with darker markings, early to mid summer (November to February in the wild). Common in cultivation; said to be poisonous to cattle. Subsp. autumnalisis an early-flowering. Plates 840, 841.

Moraea M. speciosa. South Africa (Karoo, interior Western Cape). Corm nearly 2 in. in diameter. Stems to 30 in. Leaves several, lower ones basal, often almost 2 in. wide. Flowers bowl-shaped, numerous, pale blue, held erect on opening then becoming pendent; yellow nectar guides on all tepals; crests absent. Flowering winter (June to September in the wild). This plant deserves a place in our gardens. M. spiralis. South Africa (N Namaqualand); 1976. Allied to M. rigidifolia (Goldblatt 1991). Rootstock a corm with a dark, fibrous tunic. Stem to 3 in. tall. Leaf 4-5 in., solitary, narrow, cylindrical, grasslike, spiraling (hence the species name). Flowers starlike, blue, about 1 in. wide, sessile except for the terminal flower. Outer tepals not as wide or long as inner ones; style branches crestless, filaments united at the base, spathes pale brown. Flowering in spring (September in the wild). Rare and not of much beauty. Unlike other moraeas, this one does not have petaloid style branches or paired crests. M. stricta. South Africa (Eastern Cape), Lesotho, and E tropical Africa to Ethiopia. Stems 6-10 in. Flowers pale lilac to bluish violet with yellow- or orange-spotted nectar guides, winter to early summer (July to November in the wild). M. thomasiae. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers pale yellow with dark veins; lower part of tepal narrow, giving flower a "pinched" look. Flowering early spring (August to mid-September in the wild). M. thomsonii. South Africa (E Mpumalanga), Tanzania, and N Malawi. Stems to 12 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers pale bluish lilac, early spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 842. M. tortilis. South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems to 6 in. Leaves basal, coiled like a corkscrew. Flowers violet to white with small yellow nectar guides, late winter to early spring (September to October in the wild). M. tricolor. South Africa (Western Cape). It is easy to understand why the name tricolor is applied to this plant, which is by some authorities known as M. ciliata var. barbigera. Stems to 6 in. Leaves erect, usually 3 sheathing base of stem. Flowers yellow, pink, rarely red, or light purple; yellow nectar guides often edged with crimson. Flowering winter to early spring (July to mid-September in the wild). A delightful little species. Plate 843. M. tricuspidata. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Stems to 24 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers white to cream, speckled brownish at center, spring to early summer (October to November in the wild). Plate 844. M. trifida. Lesotho and South Africa (Eastern Cape, SE Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 18 in., usually unbranched. Flowers cream yellow with brown and green markings, inner tepals twisted, held erect, summer (November to March in the wild). M. tripetala. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape). Stems to 18 in. Leaf usually solitary. Flowers pale to dark blue or purple, with white or yellow nectar guides, late winter to early summer (August to December in the wild). Plates 845, 846. M. tulbaghensis. South Africa (Western Cape); listed as vulnerable. Stems to 15 in. Leaf solitary, narrow, basal. Flowers deep orange, nectar guides edged with metallic blue-green, early spring (September in the wild).

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M. unguiculata. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape, Northern Cape); introduced 1802. Stems slender, to 20 in. Flowers whitish, cream, yellow-brown, pale to deep blue, or violet, spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). M. unibracteata. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 12 in. Leaf solitary, erect, a little taller than stem. Flowers pale yellow with green veins, deeper yellow nectar guides on outer tepals, spring to early summer (October to November in the wild). M. vallisavium. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 14 in. Leaf solitary, on lower part of stem. Flowers yellow, claws with dark speckles, summer (December to January in the wild). M. vegeta. South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced 1768. Stems branching, 6-12 in. Leaves both basal and on stem. Flowers buff with yellow markings at base, edged with maroon, spring (September to October in the wild). One of the few moraeas that prefer a little shade. M. venenata. S Namibia and South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems to 10 in. Leaves 3-6. Flowers large, blue-violet, nectar guides yellow or orange on outer tepals, fall to winter (April to July in the wild). Very toxic. M. verecunda. South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems to 8 in. Leaf solitary. Flowers narrow, blue-violet with deep yellow nectar guides on inner and outer tepals, segments fused at base into short tube, early summer (October to November in the wild). M. villosa. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 18 in. Flowers mauve-purple or pink with blue blotch surrounded by orange zone, or pale mauve, cream, yellow or orange, early spring (August to September in the wild). Closely allied to M. neopavonia. Subsp. elandsmontana has bright orange nectar guides edged in blue. Plate 847. M. viscaria. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 20-24 in. Flowers white with dark lines, outer segments much reflexed, early summer (November to December in the wild), sometimes earlier. M. worcesterensis. South Africa (Western Cape); endangered; described 1983. Stems to 10 in. Flowers dark purple with darker midveins and yellow nectar guides on all tepals, early spring (September in the wild). SYNONYMS M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M. M.

amabilis see M. tripetala. apetala see M. cooperi. arenaria see M. serpentina. barbigera see M. tricolor. baurii see M. huttonii. bellendenii subsp. cormifera see M. tricuspidata. bicolor see Dietes bicolor. Candida see M. aristata. catenulata see Dietes iridioides. ceresiana see M. unguiculata. ciliata see M. tricolor. ciliata var. barbigera see M. tricolor. collina var. ochroleuca see Homeria ochroleuca. collina var. rectifolia see M. gawleri. culmea see M. trifida.

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Muilla

M. decussata see M. gawleri. M. diphylla see M. fugax subsp. filicaulis. M. duthieana see M. tricolor. M. edulis see M. fugax, M. namibensis. M. erici-rosenii see M. natalensis. M. filicaulis see M. fugax subsp. filicaulis. M. fimbriata see M. fergusoniae. M. galaxioides see M. fakifolia. M. galpinii subsp. robusta see M. robusta. M. glaucopis see M. aristata. M. grandiflora see Homeria collina. M. iridioides see Dietes iridioides. M. iriopetala see M. lugubris. M. juncea see M. vegeta. M. juncifolia see M. elliotii. M. macra see M. elliotii. M. mira see M. lugubris. M. mossii see M. stricta. M. parviflom see M. natalensis. M. pavonia see M. neopavonia. M. pavonia var. lutea see M. bellendenii. M. plumaria see M. lugubris. M. polyanthos (of gardens) see M. bipartita. M. polystachya var. brevicaulis see M. venenata. M. pubiflora subsp. brevistyla see M. brevistyla. M. punctata see M. tripetala. M. ramosa see M. ramosissima. M. rivularis see M. huttonii. M. robinsoniana see Dietes robinsoniana. M. rogersii see M. trifida. M. sisyrinchium see Gynandriris sisyrinchium. M. sordescens see M. vegeta. M. spathacea see M. galpinii, M. spathulata. M. stenocarpa see M. cooperi. M. stewartae see M. elliotii. M. sulphurea see M. gawleri. M. tennis see M. unguiculata. M. toxicaria see M. venenata. M. tricuspis var. lutea see M. bellendenii. M. tristis see M. vegeta. M. trita see M. stricta. M. undulata see M. gawleri. M. violacea see M. elliotii, M. unguiculata. M. viscaria var. bituminosa see M. bituminosa. M. zambeziaca see M. schimperi.

Muilla—Alliaceae (Liliaceae) Name is Allium spelled backwards; closely related to that genus, but lacks the onion odor. This is one of a group of W North American genera, the best-known of which is Brodiaea. It has 6 fertile stamens, as do Triteleia and Bloomeria, but is distinguished from these 2 by its rounded leaves lacking a keel on the underside. Muilla is a genus of about 5 species, native to desert regions of the United States (S California, Baja California, and Nevada).

The corms have fibrous to membranous coats and produce a few narrow leaves. The flowers are borne in an umbel. The 6 perianth segments are very shortly united and are white, yellow, or greenish with darker midribs. All species flower in early to mid spring. These are plants for the devoted collector and might be placed in the dry rock garden or bulb frame. They are not of much ornamental value. They are almost unknown outside their native haunts. CULTURE

As for Allium. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Propagation is by seed, sown as early as possible in fall and kept cool but frost-free over winter. SPECIES M. develandii. United States (SW San Diego County in California and N Baja California), in scrub grassland. Stems to 12 in. Flowers 20-30 per umbel, yellow with green midveins; filament appendages entire. Flowering early to mid spring. M. coronata. Mohave Desert of United States (S California). Stems 6-8 in. Leaves 8-10 in. long, rough-textured. Flowers small, 3-10 per umbel, blue-white inside, greenish outside; anthers yellow, filaments petaloid. Flowering early to mid spring. M. maritima. Coast Ranges of United States (S California, Baja California), in rocky or grassy places. Stems to 18 in. Leaves to 18 in. long. Umbel to 2 in. in diameter; flowers 4–40 or more, small, greenish white, each 1/2 in. in diameter; pedicels about 1 in. long; anthers purple, blue, or green. Flowering early to mid spring. Populations in N coastal Baja California formerly known as M. serotina have rougher-textured leaves. M. transmontana. United States (S California). Stems 6-20 in. Leaves 8-24 in. long, rough. Flowers 10-30 per umbel on pedicels 1 in. long; perianth segments white, aging to purplish; filament bases dilated to form a cuplike structure. Flowering early to mid spring. SYNONYM M. serotina see M. maritima.

Muscari—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) GRAPE HYACINTH Name derived from Latin muscus ("musk"), because of the scent of certain species. There are 30 or more species, all native to the Mediterranean and W Asia. The more familiar ones are commonly known as grape hyacinths, because the inflorescence resembles a little cluster of grapes. Muscari has been at the center of a good deal of botanical shuffling. Certain species once included in Muscari that have more tubular flowers, not constricted at the mouth, are now in the genus Bellevalia. A few species in which the buds have projections around the apex and the bulbs have perennial, fleshy

Muscari roots were known as Muscarimi for a while but are now back in Muscari. Some species that have tufts of long sterile florets at the top of the inflorescence were in the genus Leopoldia for a while, but these are now Muscari again. One or 2 species formerly segregated as Pseudomuscari on the basis of their unconstricted, more bell-shaped perianth are also Muscari. Some botanists classify these various groups as subgenera of Muscari, and these classes are given in parentheses in the species list below. There have also been some revisions regarding the proper entities to which certain well-known species names should be assigned, and not many commercial suppliers have caught up with these yet; however, the distinctions are not important to most home gardeners. The bulb is globose and fleshy, sometimes with a thin tunic. Some species spawn a great number of bulblets. The leaves are narrow and linear, generally 1-4 per bulb, and basal. They often appear in fall, followed by the flowers in spring, and continue to grow after flowering, withering into dormancy for only 2 or 3 months in summer. The flowers are carried on a simple, leafless scape in crowded racemes. The small perianth is composed of 6 fused lobes, which may be constricted at the mouth. In many species, the florets at the top of the stem are different from those below, perhaps as a device to attract pollinators; the difference may be one of color (dark vs. light), of form (as in the ribbonlike sterile florets of the Leopoldia group), or of both. Not many bulbs are as easy to grow as muscari. Many species multiply rapidly and are quite capable of becoming invasive, though the better-behaved species are good for rock gardens. Grape hyacinths should be planted in large masses to make an impact in the garden (Plates 72, 73, 75). They add the blue that is often lacking in spring borders to complement other springflowering bulbs. A famous planting is the "river" of muscari in the Keukenhof Gardens near Lisse in the Netherlands, where they are combined with red and yellow tulips and daffodils in an eye-catching display each spring (Plate 3). They should be planted among shrubs and trees where they can remain undisturbed, though once they are established, no amount of disturbance is likely to eradicate them. They are also very effective massed in containers, even hanging baskets. Some are excellent, fragrant cut flowers. CULTURE Muscari species thrive in wide range of soils. The hardiness of the species varies, but the commonly grown ones can withstand temperatures to at least –10°F, though the fall-growing foliage maybe damaged below about 15°F. They do well in sun or dappled shade. Plant in fall as soon as bulbs are available. Set bulbs 2-3 in. deep, deeper in very sandy soil. Space 4-5 in. apart, or closer in temporary plantings. Every 2-3 years, topdress with good topsoil and some bone meal in early spring. Grape hyacinths can be grown indoors in fairly shallow containers but must be kept for 1 or 2 months in cool temperatures to promote root growth. After flowering, leaves elongate and can become untidy; raking so leaves lie in one direction improves the situation. As soon as leaves wither, rake them off. Muscari prefer to be on the dry

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side during summer, but little seems to harm them. When beds become overcrowded, lift bulbs in mid summer, cultivate the soil, add amendments, and replant, using the surplus bulbs in other areas. PESTS AND DISEASES

No pests feed on grape hyacinths; the only common disease is fungal attack subsequent to severe frost damage. PROPAGATION

The more commonly grown kinds make numerous offsets, which can be lifted and separated after the leaves wither in mid summer. The offsets may be lined out in nursery rows to gain size, or planted in their permanent sites immediately. They reach flowering size in only 1-2 years. Seed is freely produced and germinates readily. Sow in fall and grow seedlings on in flat or pot for a year, then transplant into other containers or line out in nursery rows. Seedlings will flower in 3 seasons. Seed is the best way of increasing stock of species, particularly in Muscarimi group, that do not offset freely. SPECIES M. argaei (Muscari). Wild origin unknown. Stems 4-8 in. 'Album', form usually grown, has dense racemes of white flowers, late spring. Plate 848. M. armeniacum (Muscari). Balkans to Caucasus; introduced 1878. Stems 6-8 in. Leaves to 12 in. long, narrow, channeled, 4-8 per bulb. Flowers in long racemes, deep purple-blue with white rim, fragrant, mid spring. Commonly grown, rapid increaser; excellent cut flower. Selections include 'Blue Spike', long-lasting, soft blue double flowers; 'Cantab', pale blue flowers; and 'Early Giant', large, deep purple-blue flowers. Plates 849-851. M. aucheri (Leopoldia). Turkey; introduced 1871. Stems 2-8 in. Flowers indigo blue with white rim, late spring. Plate 852. M. azureum (Pseudomuscari). E Turkey and Caucasus, often at high elevations; introduced 1859. Stems 4-6 in. Leaves short at flowering, later 10-12 in. long, gray-green. Flowers bright blue with narrow, dark blue median stripe, in compact raceme. Flowering early spring. Very hardy and easy to grow; likes welldrained soil and tolerates full sun or light shade, thus ideal for planting in drifts in shrub borders. Selections include 'Album', white-flowered; 'Amphibolis' (or 'Amphybolis'), light blue, slightly larger flowers. The plant grown as M. coeleste is thought to belong here. M. botryoides (Muscari). France and Italy; long in cultivation. Stems 4-10 in. Leaves 2-4, narrow, rather stiff. Flowers small, closely held, sky blue with white rim, mid to late spring. 'Album', white form, more common in gardens than the type; 'Caeruleum', bright blue; 'Carneum', pinkish; 'Pallidum', pale blue. Var. botryoides has oblanceolate leaves, looser raceme. Var. heldreichii from Balkans and Alps has a more compact raceme. Var. kerneri has narrower leaves, denser raceme. Var. longifolius has leaves much longer than scape. Plates 853, 854. M. bourgaei. Turkey, in mountains; introduced 1871. Stems 2-6 in. Flowers bright blue with white rim, late spring.

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Muscari

M. caucasicum. Turkey and N Iran; introduced 1871. Stems 6-14 in. Flowers violet with cream rim, late spring. M. chalusicum (Pseudomuscari). Iran; introduced 1967. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers clear light blue, early spring. Plate 855. M. commutation. C and SE Europe; introduced 1836. Stems 3-12 in. Flowers deep violet-black, spring. M. comosum (Leopoldia}. TASSEL HYACINTH. Mediterranean region; introduced 1596. Bulb pinkish. Stems 8-12 in. Leaves broader than those of most other species. Upper flowers purple, sterile, ribbonlike; lower flowers greenish brown, fertile. Flowering mid to late spring. 'Epirus Giant' from Greece is 24-30 in. tall with 20 in. raceme; 'Plumosum' (feather hyacinth) has all sterile flowers, mauve. Muscari charellii is a name sometimes applied to slender forms of this species. Plates 856, 857. M. cydadicum (Muscarimia). Greece, Crete, and Cyclades. Stems 3-12 in. Lower flowers fertile, greenish brown with deep yellow rim; upper flowers sterile, pale violet, mid spring. M. gussonei (Leopoldia). Italy and Sicily; introduced before 1900. Stems 6-8 in. Lower flowers fertile, brownish with yellow rim; upper flowers sterile, bluish; mid spring. M. inconstrictum (Pseudomuscari). Cyprus and Iraq. Stems 7-12 in. Flowers deep violet to blue-black, early spring. M. latifolium (Muscari). Turkey; introduced 1858. Stems 6-12 in. Leaf solitary, oblanceolate, narrow at base, erect. Fertile lower flowers violet, sterile upper flowers bright blue. Flowering late spring. Interesting, but leaf tends to overshadow flowers. Plates 858, 859. M. longipes (Leopoldia). S Caucasus, C and E Turkey, N Iraq, and Iran; introduced 1853. Stems to 24 in. Pedicels 3–4 in. long. Lower flowers fertile, bright purple turning brownish, greenish or yellowish; upper flowers sterile, bright violet-blue; mid spring. Var. deserticolum is restricted to coastal Israel. M. macrocarpum (Muscarimia). Greece and Turkey; introduced 1827. Stems to 10 in., often leaning. Flowers yellow with brownish rims, very fragrant, mid spring. Plate 860. M. massayanum (Leopoldia). Turkey; introduced 1931. Stems to 12 in. Flowers pinkish turning greenish yellow, late spring. M. microstomum (Muscari). Turkey (Asia Minor); introduced 1966. Stems 3-10 in. Flowers blue with white rims, late spring. M. mirum (Leopoldia). W Turkey. Leaf broad, gray-green, solitary. Fertile flowers brownish with yellow-green lobes; sterile flowers violet. Flowering spring. M. muscarimi (Muscarimi). SW Turkey and adjacent Greek islands, in rocky places; 1596. Stems to 6 in. Leaves 4-6, linear, to 8 in. long. Upper flowers soft lilac, lower ones cream with brownish rim, very fragrant. Flowering late spring. Plants grown as M. ambrosiacum are apparently a slightly different selection of this species, usually with whiter flowers. Plate 861. M. neglectum (Muscari). North Africa, Europe, and W Asia; widely distributed, long in cultivation. Stems to 6 in. Leaves narrow, to 12 in. long. Upper flowers midblue, sterile; lower flowers fertile, deep blue, almost black, with white rim at mouth. Flowering early spring. Forms once known as M. atlanticum and M. racemosum have deeper blue flowers; those called

M. pukhellum or M. elwesii are shorter, narrow-leaved forms; M. compactum has shorter stems and leaves. Very easy to grow; spreads rapidly. Amount of foliage is out of proportion to size and quantity of flowers. Plate 862. M. pollens (Muscari). C Caucasus and E Turkey. Stems 4-10 in. Flowers pale blue with white or cream rims, mid spring. M. pinardii (Leopoldia). Taurus Mountains of S Turkey. Similar to M. comosum and regarded by some authorities as synonymous with it. Stems to 10 in. Lower flowers fertile, grayish flushed light blue; upper flowers sterile, violet blue. Flowering spring. Plate 863. M. sandrasicum (Pseudomuscari). SW Turkey, at high elevations. Stems to 4 in. Flowers to 22 per stem, slightly constricted at mouth, bright blue with white lobes; few or no sterile flowers at tip of raceme. Flowering spring. M. spreitzenhoferi (Muscari). Crete. Stems 6-10 in. Flowers yellowish brown, late spring. M. tenuiflorum (Leopoldia). C Europe, Turkey, and Ukraine; introduced 1841. Stems 2-6 in. Lower flowers fertile, light brown or ivory, rim blackish; upper sterile flowers violet; late spring. M. tubergenianum (Leopoldia). N Iran; introduced 1940. Stems to 6 in. Leaves shorter than scape. Upper flowers sterile, clear blue; lower flowers fertile, dark blue with white rim. Flowering mid spring. Possibly a selection of M. aucheri. M. weissii (Leopoldia). Aegean Islands, Crete, and S Turkey; introduced 1878. Stems 3-10 in. Lower flowers fertile, brownish or greenish, with deep yellow rims; upper flowers sterile, violet. Flowering early to mid spring. SYNONYMS

M. ambrosiacum see M. muscarimi. M. atlanticum see M. neglectum. M. atropatanum see M. tenuiflorum. M. bushiricus see M. tenuiflorum. M. coeleste see M. azureum. M. colchicum see M. armeniacum. M. compactum see M. neglectum. M. concinnum see M. armeniacum. M. conicum see M. armeniacum. M. creticum see M. weissii. M. cyaneoviolaceum see M. armeniacum. M. elwesii see M. neglectum. M. forniculatum see Bellevalia forniculata. M. graecum see M. comosum. M. grossheimii see M. armeniacum. M. haradjanii see M. tenuiflorum. M. heldreichii see M. botryoides var. heldreichii. M. holzmanii see M. comosum. M. iranicum see M. tenuiflorum. M. kerneri see M. botryoides var. kerneri. M. leucostomum see M. neglectum. M. lingulatum see M. aucheri. M. luteum see M. macrocarpum. M. micranthum see M. armeniacum. M. mordoanum see M. neglectum.

Narcissus M. moschatum see M. muscarimi. M. polyanthum see M. armeniacum. M. praecox see M. aucheri. M. pulchellum see M. neglectum. M. pycnanthum see Bellevalia pycnantha. M. racemosum see M. neglectum. M. sosnovskyi see M. armeniacum.

Myrsiphyllum M. declinatum see Asparagus crispus.

N aegelia N. cinnabarina see Smithiantha cinnabarina. N. zebrina see Smithiantha zebrina.

Namaquanula—Amaryllidaceae Named for Namaqualand, a region in southern Africa. This monotypic genus is considered vulnerable to extinction. Some authorities include it in Hessea (see Snijman 1994 for details). It is a diminutive plant. Despite its frail flowers, the plant has the overall look of a strong grower owing to the short, straight scape and the upright flowers on stout pedicels. This is a plant only for the botanic garden or confirmed collector. CULTURE

As for Strumaria. PESTS AND DISEASES

As for Strumaria. PROPAGATION

As for Strumaria. SPECIES N. bruce-bayeri. Namibia, in well-drained soil in full sun. Rootstock a small bulb, about 1 in. in diameter, covered by a tan, rather brittle tunic; neck of bulb 3 in. long. Stem stout, 4-6 in. tall. Leaves generally 2-3, narrow, 6 in. long, fleshy, rather sticky, with a distinct twist or curl toward the tip, absent when the plant is in flower. Flowers pale pink, with tepals almost transparent, as many as 17 per umbel, funnel-shaped, held on sturdy pedicels. Stamens much longer than the tepals; style shorter than the stamens. Flowering time summer (late February to March in the wild).

Narcissus—Amaryllidaceae DAFFODIL Name is the Classical Greek name for the plants, used by the physician Hippocrates and possibly related to narke ("numbness, torpor"; the plants are said to have narcotic properties), but associated in myth with the beautiful youth, Narcissus, who

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fell in love with his own reflection in a pool and was transformed into a nodding flower. The genus is native to Europe, North Africa, and the Near East. Species and hybrids of Narcissus have been cultivated for centuries and have become naturalized in many parts of Europe, so it is often difficult to determine the origin of a taxon. The problem is especially acute in S France and NW Italy. Geographic areas given in the descriptions below are those now generally accepted. The number of species in Narcissus is controversial. There is a "lumping" view, typified by Flora Europaea (vol. 5,1980) and John Blanchard's Narcissus (1990), which recognizes about 50 species, some of which have numerous varieties. The "splitting" view, espoused mostly by botanists in Spain (where many variant forms and natural hybrids are found in the wild), recognizes 70 or more, with new species described almost every year. The species list below includes the "split" names, which the reader may encounter in catalogs and seed lists, but indicates their probable affinity with broader, "lumped" species. There are also thousands of named cultivars of these popular bulbous plants. The long history of Narcissus in cultivation and the tendency of both wild and garden plants to hybridize freely often make it difficult to determine which name should be applied to a given plant. For this reason, horticultural discussions are often couched in terms of the categories described in the section on "Classification" below. The complex variations of forms and shapes of the perianth segments have led some authorities to propose splitting the genus Narcissus into several genera. Modern work on genetic and other molecular aspects have also prompted revisions and undoubtedly will continue to do so. The most active scholar in this arena since the early 1950s has been A. Fernandes (1951). The English popular name for these plants, daffodil, is believed to be derived from Old English affodylle, in turn from Low Latin affodillus, Latin asphodelus, and Greek asphodelos, the name now applied to another genus, Asphodelus. The history of this usage is unclear; perhaps the Classical word was adopted in the Middle Ages for an assortment of bulbous plants. All daffodils are members of the genus Narcissus and can properly be called narcissus (the plural narcissi sometimes appears in print but is rare in present-day colloquial usage); conversely, daffodil is applied to all members of the genus in the horticultural literature and specialist fanciers. To many gardeners, however, daffodil means "trumpet daffodils" like the old cultivar 'King Alfred', whereas narcissus means "varieties with several small, fragrant flowers per stem," such as paperwhites. Another common name, jonquil, is applied in some English-speaking regions to N.jonquilla, but in-SE United States it is the general term for what others call "daffodils." Narcissus bulbs range in size from 1A in. to more than 4 in. in diameter. All have brown tunics. Those of some species have a distinct neck, but in others this is reduced. The leaves, which arise from the bulb, are linear, rushlike, or strap-shaped. The stems are always unbranched, more or less flattened, and leafless. The flowers, either solitary or borne in an umbel, are white or pale to deep yellow, sometimes bicolored. The position of the flowers is usually slightly pendent but ranges from fully up-

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right to quite drooping. In bud, the flowers are surrounded by a membranous spathe. The distinctive form of the daffodil flower arises from its having 2 prominent structures. The 6 perianth segments or tepals—3 outer, slightly larger ones and 3 inner ones—are fused at the base into a tube and then separate and spread to form the corolla, the wide, flat part of the flower. At the mouth of the tube raised structures, normally fused, extend from the upper surface of the tepals to form the corona, also called the "trumpet" or "cup" depending on its proportions. The corolla and corona maybe the same color, or contrasting colors. Sometimes the corona has zones of red or green, and these have been exploited by hybridizers in the quest for new color forms. The 6 stamens and the style with its 3-lobed stigma extend from the tube but usually not beyond the rim of the corona. The uses of daffodils are legion. Few bulbs are as adaptable to so many locations (Plate 3). In the woodland they can be naturalized; in the garden they can be used in conjunction with spring-flowering annuals; in shrub borders and other permanent plantings they add spring color. Excellent cut flowers, they can be lined out in nursery rows. They can be forced or otherwise grown in containers (Plate 84). Species, especially the smaller ones, are ideal for the rock garden and sunny corners of borders, both annual or perennial. The careful selection of early, mid season, and late-flowering types can produce a very long flowering period. Not all daffodils are suited to all climatic regions. In warm Mediterranean climates, the most persistent flowering is obtained from the tazetta and hoop petticoat divisions, which do not flourish where winter temperatures often drop below about 25°F. The trumpet and large-cupped daffodils do best in regions with a decidedly chill winter and may dwindle where they do not experience this; however, they can still be grown in warm regions as bedding plants for one season and then discarded. As cut flowers, almost all types of daffodils are superb. Their different sizes and color combinations are most pleasing, and by including fragrant cultivars in bouquets, you can bring the breath of spring indoors. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION

No classification can define with precision the place of every species and hybrid, but the following classification, that of Flora Europaea, is widely employed: 1. Section Jonquillae. Flowering in spring, rarely autumn; narrow leaves; flowers solitary or in umbels, 2-5, rarely more, single color, usually yellow, rarely green; perianth segments upright or deflexed, usually wide; corona small to fairly large, usually wider than long. Species: N. fernandesii, N. gaditanus, N. jonquilla, N. requienii, N. rupicola (the closely related N. caldcola, N. cuatrecasasii, and N. scaberulus), N. viridiflorus (fall-flowering), N. willkommii. 2. Section Narcissus. Flowering in spring to early summer; leaves flat, usually fairly wide; flowers solitary, bicolored; perianth segments upright or slightly deflexed; corona small. Species: N. poeticus.

Figure 9-7. Parts of a Narcissus flower.

3. Section Serotini. Flowering in autumn; threadlike leaves not present at flowering time; flowers solitary, bicolored; short corona. Species: N. serotinus. 4. Section Tapeinanthus. Flowering in autumn; flowers usually solitary, yellow; corona short, almost rudimentary. Species: N. humilis. 5. Section Tazettae. Flowering in spring, rarely autumn; leaves flat or canaliculate; flowers in umbels, same or bicolored; corona fairly short. Species: N. corcyrensis, N. dubius, N. elegans, N. papyraceus, N. tazetta. 6. Section Ganymedes. Flowering in spring; leaves flat; subcylindrical, fairly narrow flowers, solitary or in umbels of 2-6; concolorous perianth segments; narrow corona, medium-sized, obconical, campanulate to subcylindrical, about as wide as long or slightly wider. Species: N. triandrus. 7. Section Bulbocodii. Flowering in winter or spring; leaves narrow, semicylindrical; flower solitary; concolorous, narrow perianth segments; corona large and obconical. Species: N. bulbocodium, N. cantabricus, N. hedraeanthus. 8. Section Pseudonarcissi. Flowering in spring or early summer; leaves flat, usually fairly wide; flowers usually solitary, rarely in umbels of 2–4; perianth segments rarely deflexed, narrow; corona large, more or less cylindrical, at least as long as wide. Species: AT. asturicus, N. bicolor, N. cydamineus, N. lagoi, N. longispathus, N. minor, N. obvallaris, N. pseudonarcissus. Catalogs of reputable firms undoubtedly endeavor to give the correct names for the bulbs listed. Growers, however, are not botanists, and even the botanists have a hard time with the nomenclature of the genus Narcissus. Readers who wish to grow species daffodils should familiarize themselves with the synonymy noted in the species list below. Blanchard's book is an invaluable guide through this jungle of names. Specialist growers can usually furnish additional information regarding the

Narcissus plants they sell; however, catalogs have the purpose of selling bulbs. Not all the customers are knowledgeable or even interested in botanical distinctions, and most large firms are unable to accommodate and keep abreast of the constant changes in nomenclature, so they use older names well-established in horticulture. As an example, one authority grouped 16 species together, then a few years later restored several of these to species rank. You can imagine the problems this would present to a commercial establishment—especially if, in response to the first change, they had mixed all these bulbs together. HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION

Horticultural classifications should be revised every 5-10 years and adapted as necessary to accommodate the latest hybrids, unless they can be accommodated by existing horticultural classes. For garden purposes, the horticultural classification formulated by the Royal Horticultural Society (RHS) in conjunction with the American Daffodil Society (ADS) and modified in 1999 is probably the most logical and understandable. It accommodates species and natural hybrids as well as cultivars. The changing interests of hybridizers require revision of horticultural classifications from time to time. Bob Spotts (pers. comm.), president of the ADS, writes, The RHS has decided there were enough N. bulbocodium hybrids existing and emerging to warrant a division for them. Therefore they moved "Species and Wild Forms" into a new Division 13. Division 10 was then changed to "Bulbocodium Hybrids." In a separate move, the RHS decided that there were 2 quite distinct forms of split-cup daffodils and divided Division 11 into collar and papillon forms. The following is the classification presented by the RHS, with descriptive additions by the ADS in italics. Thanks to the RHS and ADS for their permission to reprint these. 1. Trumpet Daffodils of Garden Origin. One flower to a stem; corona (trumpet or cup) as long as or longer than the perianth segments (petals). 2. Large-cupped Daffodils of Garden Origin. One flower to a stem; corona (cup) more than 1/3, but less than equal to, the length of the perianth segments (petals). 3. Small-cupped Daffodils of Garden Origin. One flower to a stem; corona (cup) not more than 1/3 of the length of the perianth segments (petals). 4. Double Flowers of Garden Origin. One or more flowers to a stem, with doubling of the perianth segments or the corona (clustered cup) or both. 5. Triandrus Daffodils of Garden Origin. Characteristics of N. triandrus clearly evident: usually more than one pendent flower to a stem; perianth segments often reflexed and of silky texture. 6. Cyclamineus Daffodils of Garden Origin. Characteristics of N. cyclamineus clearly evident: usually one flower to a stem; perianth segments reflexed; flower at an acute angle to the stem, with a very short pedicel; corona straight and narrow. Some exceptions exist.

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7. Jonquilla Daffodils of Garden Origin. Characteristics of the N. jonquilla group clearly evident: usually 1-3 flowers to a rounded stem in cross section; leaves often rushlike, narrow, dark green; perianth segments spreading not reflexed; flowers usually fragrant. 8. Tazetta Daffodils of Garden Origin. Characteristics of N. tazetta group clearly evident: usually 3-20 flowers to a stout stem; leaves broad; perianth segments spreading not reflexed, rounded and often somewhat crinkled; flowers sweetly fragrant and short cupped. 9. Poeticus Daffodils of Garden Origin. Characteristics of N. poeticus group without admixture of any other: usually one flower to a stem; perianth segments pure white (sometimes stained with the corona color at the base); small corona usually disc-shaped, with a green or yellow center and a red rim; flowers fragrant. 10. Bulbocodium Hybrids. Small flowers resemble a "hoop petticoat" form. 11. Split-corona Daffodils of Garden Origin. Corona split rather than lobed and split for at least 1/3, usually for more than l/2, its length. 11A. Collar Daffodils: Split-corona daffodils with the corona segments opposite the perianth segments; the corona segments usually in 2 whorls of 3. 1 IB. Papillon Daffodils: Split-corona daffodils with the corona segments alternate to the perianth segments; the corona segments usually in a single whorl of 6. 12. Miscellaneous Daffodils. All daffodils not falling into any of the above divisions. 13. Species, Wild Variants, and Wild Hybrids. All species and wild or reputedly wild variants and hybrids, including those with double flowers. It is not the purpose of any horticultural classification to produce a complex system to fit all needs. It is a guide used, for example, in flower-show schedules, catalog descriptions, and specifications of new introductions. The value of such a classification can be determined by how widely it can be used with only minor changes. The beauty of the current classification is that it provides a basis for discussion and is amenable to modification. Daffodil cultivars are recognized after being described following a set system and registered in the International Register of Daffodil Names. The person applying for registry either identifies the division to which the plant belongs or submits a description with measurements so this can be decided by the registrar. The description begins with the division number, followed by a coded color description employing the following color categories, all applying to hybrids: W, white or whitish; G, green; Y, yellow; P, pink; O, orange; R, red. The first part of the code describes the color of the corolla, or perianth; if it contains more than one color, 2 or 3 letters are used, moving from the margin toward the center. The corona is divided into 3 zones, the eye-zone, midzone, and edge or rim, color-coded in that order. For example, 'Dutch Master', a typical yellow trumpet daffodil, is coded 1Y-Y; 'Cheerfulness', which has a white

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corolla and yellow corona, is 4W-Y; and 'Cantabile', with white corolla and green, red-rimmed cup, is 9W-GR. If this classification system seems unwieldy, just visit a daffodil show and the hundreds of cultivars on display. It will then be easier to understand why horticultural classifications are essential: cultivars with similar characteristics are displayed and judged against others with similar characteristics. Without the classification, chaos would result. Those who have attended discussions about showing flowers can appreciate the endless hours that would be occupied in often pointless argument. HYBRIDS Catalogs often use such categories as Trumpet Daffodils, Poeticus or Tazetta Narcissi, Butterfly or Orchid-flowered Narcissi; or they may follow (but not always to the letter) the horticultural classification of daffodils described above. A brief guide to terms used in commerce follows. Pink daffodils are largecupped or trumpet flowers with salmon- or peach-pink coronas and cream or white corollas. (For best pink color the plants should be in partial shade. Cut only when fully open because color is not at its best until flowers are fully developed.) Trumpet daffodils have one flower per stem, with a trumpet or corona as long or longer than the perianth segments (Plates 897, 898). Large-cupped narcissus also have one flower per stem, and the cup or corona is more than1/3,but less than equal to, the length of the perianth segments (Plates 888-893). Small-cupped narcissus have one flower to a stem, but the cup or corona is not more than1/3of the length of the perianth segments. Double narcissus have double flowers. Tazetta narcissus have several small, fragrant flowers per stem (Plate 894). Poeticus narcissus exhibit characteristics of any of the N. poeticus group. Butterfly (orchid-flowered) narcissus have flowers with a corona split for at least1/3of its length. Triandrus hybrids are cultivars with N. triandrus among their ancestors, mostly shortstemmed, multiflowered, with reflexed corolla (Plates 895, 896). Cyclamineus hybrids are cultivars with N. cyclamineus among their ancestors, typically medium-sized, early-flowering plants with more or less strongly reflexed corolla (Plates 883-887). Jonquilla hybrids are cultivars with N. jonquilla in their ancestry, typically small-growing, fragrant, multiflowered, with slender stems. Each year many new cultivars are offered for sale (Plate 882). Only serious fanciers buy the newest ones, because their price is high and often they are only slight improvements on the cultivars that have been grown longer. All too frequently, such new introductions do not stand the test of time; though one may be the 'King Alfred' or 'February Gold' of the future, there is great charm and beauty in the cultivars already proven. CULTURE Information on forcing daffodils can be found in chapter 7, and that on naturalizing them in chapter 6. Daffodils like the sun; they do not perform well in deep shade, but many persist and flower well in the company of deciduous trees and shrubs. In areas where winter temperatures below 0°F usually occur, daffodils should be planted as soon as the bulbs are available in

late summer or early fall. In regions where little or no frost occurs, they should not be planted until the soil has cooled, generally in late October or early November. If the bulbs have to be stored until then, keep them dry and at a temperature around 45°F, with good air circulation. Never store them near a furnace or other source of heat. Plant bulbs so that the depth of the soil above them equals twice the height of the bulb. For many garden cultivars, this means at least 5-6 in. of soil over the bulbs. In very heavy soils, slightly shallower planting is advisable, and in light, sandy soils, deeper planting is not detrimental. Bulbs can be set quite close together, with as little as 4 in. between them, and smaller varieties even closer. If the bulbs are to be left undisturbed for a number of years, however, they should be farther apart. To plant the smaller kinds, remove all soil from the planting area to a depth of 10 in. or so and fork over the bottom of this area; scatter bone meal or bulb fertilizer over the surface and rake it into the top inch of exposed soil. Set the bulbs into the soil with only light pressure to seat them. Replace the soil that was removed to cover the bulbs to the required depth. Water them in thoroughly to eliminate any air space left between the bottom of the bulb and the soil. To plant bulbs individually, dig a hole with a trowel or bulb planter and loosen the bottom, mixing in bone meal or proprietary bulb fertilizer. Set the bulb, fill in, and water. The bulbs should not become dry after planting; if no rain is forthcoming, irrigation will be necessary. Most daffodils, however, cannot tolerate sitting in water and require well-drained soil. Some, such as N. pseudonarcissus and N. cyclamineus and their hybrids, do well in spots that are wet in winter but drier in summer. If the bulbs are to be naturalized, they should be set in a random pattern. One technique is to throw a bucket of bulbs onto the surface and plant them where they fall. Do not do this if the bulbs are likely to be bruised, but they can fall on grass or cultivated ground without damage. The outline of the group should be free-form—the shape of a cloud, not a square or circle. Naturalized plantings can be made up of a mixture of early, mid season, and late-flowering types, but they look best if only 1 or 2 varieties are in flower at a given time. Narcissus are quite tolerant regarding soil chemistry, preferring acid to neutral soils from pH 5.5 to 7. As soon as the foliage emerges above ground in spring, apply a general fertilizer in the range 10-10-10. This should be watered into the ground if the weather is dry. Be sure that no fertilizer adheres to the leaves, since it can burn them. Remember that the leaves manufacture food for the current growth and to store for succeeding seasons. For this reason, the less foliage removed, the better. Practicality dictates when the leaves are removed after flowering, but it is best to allow it to die down completely. You can remove it once it has all started to turn yellow, but on no account cut off green foliage. The practice of "tidying" the plants by braiding or bundling the leaves is also harmful. If you can't stand the way they look after flowering, gather the leaves in your hand and smooth them neatly to one side; at this point they are lax enough to lie where you put them, but they are still manufacturing food and supporting

Narcissus growth. Though not essential, removing the developing seed pods after flowering is also beneficial. A dry resting period is needed in late summer to allow the bulbs to ripen and initiate the next season's flowering (Plate 56). If left in wet soil, however, dormant bulbs are susceptible to rotting and other disease problems. In wet-summer climates, growers may wish to lift their more valuable daffodils and store them until fall. It may also be necessary to lift bulbs if they are to be alternated with summer bedding plants. When lifting the bulbs, handle them with care to avoid bruising. Allow them to dry in the shade, remove dirt and dry leaves, and store the bulbs in a well-ventilated place at temperatures ideally between 45° and 60°F until replanting in late summer or fall, depending on region. If temperatures are too high, bulbs become desiccated. DAFFODILS IN CONTAINERS

Certain daffodils have the ability to produce flowers without being planted in soil. The best-known are the N. tazetta types commonly known as paperwhites, Chinese sacred lily, or good luck lily. Use a shallow bowl without drainage holes, about 4 in. deep. Fill it halfway with pea gravel. Set the bulbs on this; they can touch one another. Add enough water so that it is close to but not quite touching the bases of the bulbs. Then add enough pea gravel, or more decorative stones, to hold the bulbs upright. Set the filled container where the temperature is around 45°F most of the time. This promotes root growth. No light is necessary; the darker the area, the better. Check periodically to maintain moisture. Within 3-4 weeks, root production will be advanced enough that you can bring the plants into light and warmer temperatures (about 55°F at night, 65°F during the day, is preferred). About 8-10 weeks after being brought into light and warmth, the daffodils will flower. If the temperature is too warm, especially before root growth is well along, the bulbs may produce too much foliage and weak stems, and the whole container will be an unsightly, floppy mess. It may be necessary to support the foliage and stems by placing a cane in the center of the container and circling the plants with string. This is not always easy because the depth of the gravel does not allow much weight to be placed on the cane. To prepare for this, drive a nail through a wide, thin scrap of board and place it on the bottom of the container with the nail point upward. Set the hollow part of the cane onto the nail. The support will not be unsightly if it is not used but will be in place should the need arise. After flowering, the bulbs should be removed from the gravel. In warm regions where tazetta narcissus are hardy, they can be planted in the garden at the normal depth of twice the height of the bulb. Bulbs grown in water, however, are unlikely to produce flowers the following season, a factor to bear in mind when deciding if the effort of replanting is worthwhile. Any type of daffodil can be grown in a container in any welldrained potting soil. All require a cool period for root growth and development of sturdy stems. When they are brought indoors, the cooler the temperature, the longer lasting the flowering period will be. After flowering has commenced, the plants

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can be placed in a cooler spot at night to prolong the life of the flowers. Fanciers of species narcissus often grow the smaller species in pots in bulb frames or alpine houses. These are delightful additions to spring flower shows. The height of the pot should be proportional to the height of the flowering stem for best effect. PESTS AND DISEASES

Bulb rot or basal rot is quite common in stored bulbs, especially when the storage area is too damp or lacks good air circulation. The fungus responsible is Fusarium oxysporum f. narcissi, which is soil-borne. The most common sign is a chocolate or reddishbrown spot near the neck of the bulb which proceeds downward to the base. The bulbs are soft to the touch. All bulbs showing these symptoms should be destroyed. If planted in wet soil, even slightly infested bulbs will quickly rot away. If the infestation is not severe and the bulb is planted in light, welldrained soil, it most likely will flower; however, if in doubt, do not plant such a bulb. Storage rots also can be caused by Penicillium, a green mold, again encouraged by damp and poorly ventilated storage conditions. It is not likely to spread in the field, but the bulb will rot if the attack is severe and wet, cold conditions persist. Gray bulb rot or crown rot (Sderotium rolfsii) causes a soft rotting of the bulb, usually at the nose "crown" and the soft young stem. The bulb is quickly destroyed and the stem rarely emerges above ground. Sclerotia, brownish-black bodies, appear on the bulb and can spread in the soil. Removal of affected bulbs is essential, and ground in which bulbs are to be grown should be sterilized if this disease is noted. Tip burn disease causes the tips of the leaves to die, and brown spotting occurs on both leaves and stems. The fungus responsible is Stagonospora curtisii. Though this is not a serious problem if the bulbs can be kept growing well, spraying with a fungicide may be necessary if the attack is severe. White mold, caused by the fungus Ramularia vallisumbrosae, attacks the foliage. Leaves lighten and become covered with white mold. Spraying with a fungicide may be necessary, but if the disease is not severe, removal and destruction of affected foliage at the end of the season will keep the problem under control. Overcrowding contributes to the problem, and lifting and dividing is suggested. Certain cultivars are more susceptible than others; the most susceptible may require spraying every 10-14 days to control the problem. Smoulder, caused by the fungus Sclerotinia narcissicola, can be a problem in cold, wet seasons. It causes a black rot at the base of the leaves, as if the areas had been burned. Twisting and distortion of foliage and flower stems can result. Crusty, flat sclerotia form on the bulbs just below the outer scales and can become active if storage conditions are incorrect for a prolonged period. Fire, caused by Sclerotinia polyblastis, first shows itself as light brown spots on the flowers. In moist conditions, the entire flower can be destroyed. If the disease is uncontrolled, the leaves are attacked and display grayish-yellow, dark red-brown blotches. Sclerotia form on the dead leaves and the soil can be-

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come contaminated. The problem can be controlled by spraying when the plants just emerge from the ground, repeating every 10 days or as often as called for on the label of the product being used. Generally, spraying should stop as soon as the flower buds emerge from the foliage sheath. At least 9 distinct viruses have been detected in Narcissus. Three of them have been shown to be transmitted by nematodes: arabis mosaic, tomato black ring, and tobacco rattle. Other viruses include yellow stripe and green stripe, names that describe the symptoms shown by the affected plants. These viruses are distributed by aphids and other sucking insects. The foliage and flower stems become striped or spotted, a symptom generally seen in the earlier months, to disappear with warmer weather. Mottling of leaves and loss of flowers are other symptoms of viral attack. Not all infected daffodils exhibit symptoms. For this reason, tissue culture, in which plant cells are examined in the laboratory for viral infection, offers the best hope of obtaining "clean" stock. Roguing in the field in the cooler months when the symptoms are easier to spot is essential. Nematodes and aphids must also be carefully controlled. These controls are imperative in the commercial production of the crops. Stem and bulb eelworm (a nematode, Ditylenchus dipsaci) is the cause of brown ring in Narcissus bulbs. These rings are easily visible if the bulb is cut in cross sections. Later the bulbs become soft; when the leaves are invaded, speckles appear which contain the eelworms. Distortion of the foliage and flower stalk occurs, with loss of flower production. The eelworm is small, about1/20in. long, and swims with an eel-like motion. Dip the bulbs when completely dormant in water at a constant temperature of 111°F for 3 hours to kill this pest. Infested ground should be avoided for 4-5 years and all crop residue removed. Other crops attacked, such as Allium, Chionodoxa, Frageria (strawberries), Gladiolus, and Scilla must be kept out of the area. Fumigation of the soil maybe required. Narcissus bulb and leaf nematode (Aphelenchoides subtenuis) is evident when plants develop yellowish leaves and outer bulb scales blister and turn dry, gray or brown after storage. Rotate crops and control the pest with 120°F hot-water treatment for 45 minutes, or 130°F for 25 minutes in early fall. Root lesion nematode (Pratylenchus penetrans) enters through wounds and is associated with root rot (Cylindrocarpon destructans). Fine-rooted cultivars are more susceptible. Prevent wounding of bulbs. Soil sterilization also helps combat this nematode. Narcissus bulb fly (Merodon equestris) can be a serious problem, but control with insecticides has reduced the devastation once caused by this pest. The adult is a 2-winged fly, varying from white to brown. It also attacks Amaryllis, Galanthus, Galtonia, Habranthus, Hyacinthus, Leucojum, Scilla, and Vallota. The maggot is about1/2in. long; only one per bulb is normally found. Merodon larvae have 2 small, dark, hornlike projections at their rear ends. (Eumerus strigatus, small narcissus fly, also may be noticed but is less serious; the larvae have brownish-red projections.) In May and June the adults can be seen flying over daffodil beds and laying their eggs either on the soil or in the

decaying foliage. The spaces left by the dying foliage allow the maggot to get into the bulb. The maggot descends and enters the bulb through the basal plate and feeds on the bulb, hollowing it out. It then exits the bulb and pupates in the soil. Established plantings should be examined for attack and chemical controls put into effect. Bulb scale mite (Steneotarsonemus laticeps) is microscopic and lives and feeds between bulb scales. Lack of vigor, poor flowering, and premature loss of foliage are symptoms of attack, commonly noticed when the bulbs are forced. Hot-water treatment at 111°F for ll/2 hours controls it. Bulb mite (Rhizoglyphus echinopus) also is controlled by immersion at 111°F for11/2hours. A common pest, it is rounded, of pinhead size, and shiny creamy white. It is a secondary pest and damages the bulbs by gaining entry while they are under attack by other pests or injured. In gardens, the most noticeable pests of daffodils are slugs and snails, which eat the buds and flowers. Bait should be placed around plantings before the flower stems get very tall. Although this list of pests and diseases seems extensive, good hygiene will decrease the likelihood of serious attack, especially when coupled in commercial production with the regular use of hot-water treatment and a sound spraying program. Generally, home gardeners can be assured of good flower production from purchased bulbs, since growers are careful about the quality of those offered for sale. If any of the above problems are noticed, however, it is best to seek the help of a specialist and put control measures into effect. Any product used should have EPA approval for the intended use, and directions should be followed to the letter. PROPAGATION

Lift established bulbs and separate the offsets after the foliage has withered. The offsets can be lined out in nursery rows in the next planting season. The smallest offsets should reach flowering size in 2 years; larger offsets may produce flower stems after one year, but this is best removed to build up the strength of the bulb. A point to remember is that the sap of daffodils can cause skin rashes. If large quantities are to be harvested, wear rubber gloves to avoid such problems. In the wild, Narcissus species multiply mostly by seed. Seed from hybrids will not produce plants identical to the parents, and if many species are grown together, they may also hybridize through insect pollination. Sow seed in fall and keep pots moist and cool. Protect seedlings against frost. Transplant the seedling bulbs after one summer's growth into larger containers or nursery beds. Small species such as N. rupicola typically flower in the 3rd year from seed. Commercial production is most commonly done in field rows, allowing for mechanical cultivation between the rows, or in beds 3-4 ft. wide (Plate 22). Harvesting the bulbs in both cases is done by a machine which moves along the bed or row. The bulbs are either dropped on the surface or move on belts in front of workers who stand on the machine and gather the crop into containers. Rough grading can take place in the field, but

Narcissus final grading, including separating into small and large planting stock, is normally done in a shed where workers, standing on either side of a conveyor belt, select and place the various size grades into separate containers. Some planting stock has begun to be produced by tissue culture. This method results in plants free of virus diseases. The process is simple but requires a sterile setting and controlled climatic conditions. Propagation stock is selected from the best possible specimens; the most vigorous and apparently diseasefree may be tagged in the field. Under aseptic conditions, the bulb is dissected until only the basal plate remains. This is then cut into portions about 2 mm square and placed on agar or a similar nutrient medium in a test tube. At all times the air, tools, and tissue are kept as sterile as possible. The growing cultures are tested for viruses and only healthy tissue used. Even in bulbs that contain a virus, some cells can often be found that are virus-free. The very tiny mass of cells, given the correct light and temperature conditions, grows into new bulblets. After a certain amount of growth, the natural requirement of vernalization has to be met. The growth cycle is then reestablished and the young, "clean" plants grown on to suitable size in sterile conditions. They are then turned over to the commercial grower. Such stock is most commonly grown in isolation and becomes the breeding or production stock for general commercial production. With this method growers can "clean up" their stock and thus provide bulbs of the highest possible quality to the public. Many large bulb producers have their own laboratories. Others use commercial production labs that cater to the nursery profession. SPECIES N. xabilioi. Natural hybrid (N. jonquillax N. bulbocodium). N. albimarginatus. Morocco; described 1989. Related to N. rupicola. Stems 3-10 in. Flowers golden yellow, corona with white rim. N. xandormnus. Natural hybrid (N. poeticusxN. pseudonarcissus subsp. nobilis). N. xaranensis. Natural hybrid (N. poeticus x N. pseudonarcissus subsp. pallidiflorus). N. assoanus. RUSH-LEAVED JONQUIL. S France, S and E Spain, and Portugal. Stems 6-8 in. Leaves less than 1/8 in. wide. The flowers almost 1 in. in diameter, solitary or in pairs; corolla segments 1/4–l/2 in. long, bright yellow; corona cup-shaped, very short, bright yellow. Flowering mid spring. Var. praelongus has upward-facing flowers, while the type has flowers held horizontally. N. asturiensis. ASTURIAN DAFFODIL. N Portugal and NW and C Spain, on higher slopes of mountains; introduced 1885. Bulb small. Leaves 2-3, erect, spreading, 5-6 in. long, often less,1/4in. wide., it reaches only 4 in. Flowers solitary, usually pendent, deep golden yellow; rim of corona somewhat frilled. Corona about1/3in. long, with a distinct constriction in the middle and flaring at base and top. Flowering late winter to early spring. A perfect miniature trumpet daffodil. Stem rather weak and rain may flatten flowers, so overhead protection is advisable.

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N. atlanticus. Atlas Mountains of Morocco; introduced 1936. Stems to 8 in. Similar to N. rupicola but leaves broader, bulb larger, and flowers creamy white, winter. N. xbakeri. Natural hybrid (N. bulbocodium x N. pseudonarcissus). N. xbernardii. Natural hybrid (N. pseudonarcissus subsp. major x N. poeticus). N. bicolor. Pyrenees and Corbieres mountains, in meadows. Stems 12-16 in. Leaves 12-14 in. long,1/2in. wide, flat. Corolla whitish or pale creamy yellow; corona golden yellow, to11/2in. long; stamens attached at base of tube. Flowers solitary, horizontal or slightly upward-facing. Flowering mid spring. A seedling raised by John Horsfield in 1845 from N. bicolor, with pointed white tepals and a chrome-yellow trumpet, was invalidly named N. horsfieldii; although lovely, it is susceptible to Fusarium. N. xboutignyanus. Natural hybrid (N. pseudonarcissus subsp. moschatus x N. poeticus). N. broussonetii. Morocco; introduced 1887. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white; corona absent. Flowering late spring. N. bulbocodium (Bulbocodium). HOOP PETTICOAT DAFFODIL. Spain, Portugal, SW France, and N Africa, in scrub and rocky ground; introduced 1629. Stems 4-10 in. Leaves dark green, to 20 in. long but usually much less, very narrow, 2-4 per bulb. Corolla much reduced; corona very large, varying in shape: globular, narrowly goblet-shaped, wide open and flaring, or nearly trumpet-shaped. Flowers usually solitary but up to 8 per stem in commercial selections, pale to deep yellow, often flushed green on reverse of corolla segments. Stamens strongly upcurved, usually contained within the corona but sometimes protruding a little. Flowering early to mid spring. Much subject to taxonomic splitting, but most authorities acknowledge the following 2 subspecies and varieties. Subsp. bulbocodium has more or less erect leaves; tube and perianth tinged green; corona regularly obconical, not narrowed at the rim. It has 2 varieties. Var. citrinushas pale lemon-yellow flowers, corona 1 in. in diameter at rim; perianth segments narrow, rayshaped, with green stripe at base on exterior; stems to 6 in. Var. conspicuus has deep yellow flowers, variable in size and shape and somewhat, stems 4-6 in. Subsp. obesus has very narrow leaves, mostly procumbent; corona slightly narrowed at rim. Plates 864-866. N. xbuxtonii. Natural hybrid (N. abscissusxN. assoanus). N. calcicola. W Portugal. Stems to 6 in. Very similar to N. rupicola but has 2-4 flowers per stem, mid to late spring. N. canariensis. Canary Islands. Stems to 18 in. Flowers white, late winter. N. cantabricus (Bulbocodium). WHITE HOOP PETTICOAT DAFFODIL. S Spain and N Africa, in scrub. Stems 1-8 in. Leaves 1-5, very narrow, 7-10 in. long. Flowers white, almost translucent. Corolla much reduced; corona to 1 in. long, funnelshaped with conspicuously expanded and recurved rim. Flowering mid winter to early spring. Var. cantabricus has no pedicel; tube green at base and white above; style and filaments white. Var. foliosus from Morocco has up to 6 leaves. Var. kesticus usually has 2 leaves. Var. petunioides from Algeria is pure white, co-

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rona nearly flat and pleated. Subsp. monophyllus usually has a solitary leaf. Subsp. tananicus from Morocco has up to 5 leaves. Grow frost-free or nearly so, but needs bright light to stay compact. Plate 867. N. xcarpetanus. Natural hybrid (N. bulbocodiumvar. graellsiixN. bulbocodiumvar. nivalis). N. Xcarringtonii. Natural hybrid (N. scaberulus x N. triandrusvar. cernuus). N. xcazorlanus. Natural hybrid (N. bulbocodium x N. triandrus). N. cordubensis. Spain. Stems to 8 in. Flowers yellow with green tinge at base, mid spring. N. cuatrecasasii. S Spain. Similar to N. rupicola but flowers larger, darker. N. cyclamineus (Cyclamineus). NW Portugal and NW Spain, in damp mountain pastures and along riverbanks; introduced 1885. Stems 4-8 in. Leaves bright green, 6-10 in. long, 1/4 in. wide. Flowers rich, bright yellow, solitary on sharply downcurved pedicels. Corona to % in. long, narrowly tubular, margin slightly expanded and frilly. Corolla segments % in. long, completely folded curve back to cover the pedicel—as E. A. Bowles (1985) wrote, "like the laid back ears of a kicking horse." Flowering early spring. Good for the damper places in the garden. Much used in hybridizing with trumpet daffodils, and early-blooming, graceful cultivars like 'February Gold' (Plate 85), 'Jenny', 'Jetfire', and 'Peeping Tom' have inherited reflexed perianth and moisture-tolerance but are much larger and easier to establish than N. cyclamineus itself. N. dubius (Tazetta). S France and NE Spain. Sometimes regarded as a hybrid between N. papyraceus and N. requienii. Stems to 8 in. Leaves 5-10 in. long, flat. Flowers white; corona 1/4 in. long, wider than long; corolla segments1/4in. long, broadly oval. Flowering late winter. Smallest species in its section. N. elegans. S and W Italy, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and N Africa; introduced 1841. Stems to 8 in. Leaves to 10 in. long,1/4in. wide, appearing with or after flowering. In some years no leaves are produced, in other years no roots. Flowers white, fragrant, in umbels of up to 7; corona very shallow, dull orange; corolla segments to 1 in. long, narrow and oblong. Flowering mid autumn. Plate 868. N. xeystettensis. Natural hybrid of uncertain parentage, long in cultivation. Stems to 12 in. Flowers creamy yellow, double. N. fernandesii. Portugal and Spain. Stems to 8 in. Flowers deep yellow, corona darker, very fragrant, 1-5 per stem, early spring. N. gaditanus. S Spain and S Portugal. Stems 6-8 in., often less. Leaves very narrow, often procumbent. Flowers bright yellow, to 1 in. in diameter, in umbels of 2-5, sometimes more, rarely solitary. Corolla segments just under l/2 in. long, reflexed; corona cup-shaped. Flowering mid spring. N. xgracilis. Natural hybrid (N. jonquilla x N. poeticus) from S. France. Stems to 12 in. Tube yellow-green; corolla bright yellow, corona deeper yellow; late spring. N. hedraeanthus. Sierra de Cazorla of SE Spain. Stems to 5 in. Flowers pale yellow with green base, late spring.

N. hellenicus. Greece. Tube green; corona pale yellow with crimson rim, late spring. N. humilis. SW Spain, Algeria, and Morocco. Stems to 6 in. Leaf usually solitary, narrow, to 8 in. long, produced in spring; flowering bulbs may not produce a leaf that year. Flowers minute, yellow, held upright on narrow pedicels; perianth segments barely1/4in. long; corona consists of 6 small scales barely Vio in. long. Flowering mid to late fall. Plate 869. N. xincomparabilis. Natural hybrid (N. poeticusxN. pseudonarcissus). Probably arose in S France; widely grown. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves to 12 in. long, flat. Flowers solitary, slightly fragrant; corolla segments11/4in. long, to % in. wide, pale yellow; corona 1/2—\ in. long, almost as wide, deep orange-yellow. N. xincurvicervicus. Natural hybrid (N. fernandesii x N. triandrusvar. cernuus). N. xintermedius. Natural hybrid (N. jonquilla x N. tazetta). W Mediterranean region (SW France, NE Spain); elsewhere an escape from cultivation. Stems to 16 in. Flowers fragrant, in umbels of 3-6. Corolla segments bright yellow,1/2–3/4in. long; corona slightly deeper yellow,1/4in. long, about1/4in. wide. N. xjohnstonii. Natural hybrid (N. pseudonarcissus x N. triandrusvar. cernuus?). Spain and Portugal; introduced 1886. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers pale lemon yellow, mid spring. N. jonquilla (Jonquilla). JONQUIL. C and S Spain and S and E Portugal; long in cultivation. Bulbs small, dark brown. Stems to 12 in. Leaves dark green, rushlike, to 12 in. or more. Flowers rich golden yellow, in umbels of up to 6, to 2 in. in diameter. Corolla segments to % in. long; corona shallowly cup-shaped, seldom over1/4in. long, often over l/2 in. in diameter. Flowering mid spring. Long grown for its fragrance and has become naturalized widely in S Europe. Best where winter temperatures stay above 15°F. 'DickcisseP has bright yellow flowers. 'Flore Pleno' or 'Plenus' is a double form known as Queen Anne's double jonquil. Var. henriquesii from C Portugal has 1-2 flowers on 2-in. pedicels held horizontally, segments spreading and not overlapping, margins incurved. Plates 870-873. N. longispathus (Pseudonarcissus). SE Spain, near or even in mountain streams; introduced 1948. Stems to 12 in. or more. Leaves to 24 in., l/2 in. wide. Flowers solitary or in pairs, upward-facing on 3- to 4-in. pedicels, yellow. Corolla segments to 11/4 in. long, flat or slightly twisted; corona just over 1 in. long and slightly deeper yellow. Spathe 3-4 in. long, a distinguishing feature. Flowering early spring. N. macrolobus. Pyrenees. Stems 6-10 in. Similar to N. pseudonarcissus, but a valid form. N. xmedioluteus. PRIMROSE PEERLESS. Natural hybrid (N. poeticus x N. tazetta). S France, naturalized in many parts of Europe. Stems 10-24 in. Leaves to 30 in. long, generally less,l/2 in. wide, flat, glaucous. Flowers fragrant, 1-3 but usually 2; corolla segments rounded, to 1 in. long; corona shallow, bright yellow,1/4inch long,1/2inch wide, with crinkled margin. N. minor (Pseudonarcissus). Pyrenees and N Spain, in mountain grassland and scrub, naturalized in SE France. Some authorities regard it as a hybrid between N. pseudonarcissus and N. asturiensis. Stems 6-7 in. Leaves to 8 in. long,1/4in. wide. Flowers solitary, pendent or horizontal. Corolla segments to 1 in.

Narcissus long, sometimes twisted, pale to deep yellow; corona almost 1 in. long, deep yellow, slightly flared at mouth, with lobed or dentate rim. Flowering early spring. Forms with greenish tube have been called N. pumilus. 'Cedric Morris' has pale yellow flowers. Plate 874. N. xobsoletus. Natural hybrid (N. viridiflorus x N. elegans). N. obvallaris. TENBY DAFFODIL. Wales, widely naturalized elsewhere. Stems 10-12 in. Flowers solitary, clear yellow, late winter. Sometimes considered a subspecies of N. pseudonarcissus. N. ochroleucus. S France. Stems 12-18 in. Corolla white; corona lemon yellow; late winter. Not recognized in Flora Europaea. N. xodorus. CAMPERNELLE JONQUIL. Hybrid of garden origin (N. pseudonarcissus x N. jonquilla), found over much of S Europe. Stems to 16 in. Leaves to 20 in. long, strongly keeled, bright green. Flowers 1-4, fragrant, bright yellow. Corolla segments just over 1 in. long and l/2 in. wide; corona to 1 in. long, wider than long, lobed on margin. Plate 875. N. pachybolbus (Tazetta). Algeria and Morocco. Bulb large. Stems 12-20 in. Leaves 7, 18 in. long, 1 in. wide, bright green, slightly twisted. Flowers 3-17 per stem, l/2 in. in diameter, white. Perianth tube rises about1/2in. above corolla segments; corona entire. Flowering late winter. N. papyraceus. PAPERWHITE. Mediterranean region and SW Europe, including Algeria, Morocco, Yugoslavia, and Greece. Similar to N. tazetta but very fragrant flowers are more numerous (to 20). Leaves and scape glaucous. Flowers to 13/4 in. in diameter; corolla pure white corona, usually crenulate. Flowering mid winter to early spring. Subsp. panizzianus from SE France, N Italy, Portugal, and SW Spain has flowers to 1 in. in diameter with pointed tepals, green leaves, compressed and 2-edged scape. Subsp. polyanthus from S France, naturalized in Spain and Italy, has corona with entire margin, green leaves, scape almost cylindrical. Much used for forcing and in the perfume industry. Hardy outdoors to about 15°F. Plate 876. N. patulus. S France, Italy and adjacent islands, and S Balkans. Dwarf habit. Flowers white; corona lemon. Flowering spring. Not recognized in Flora Europaea. N. poeticus. POET'S NARCISSUS, PHEASANT'S EYE NARCISSUS, WHITSUN LILY. EC France south to C Spain, S Italy, and NW Greece, in mountain meadows. Stems 8-16 in. Leaves 8-16 in. long, to 1/4 in. wide, usually 4 per bulb, flat. Flowers fragrant, usually solitary. Perianth segments 3/4-l l/2 in. long, white or pale cream; corona l/2-l in. long, disc-shaped to cylindrical, yellow with red rim. Flowering late spring, about the latest daffodil in the garden. Subsp. poeticus, found throughout the range except in E central Europe, has leaves to l/2 in. wide, perianth segments about 1 in. long, without a distinct claw at the tip; corona more or less discoid, to3/4in. in diameter, anthers held at 2 different levels. Var. majalis from Riviera and Provence has whitish zone between center of corona and scarlet rim. Var. physaloides, from S France in deciduous forest, has spathes inflated in bud stage; flowers fragrant, pure white, 2 in. in diameter; corona small, greenish yellow with crimson rim. Subsp. radiiflorus from SC Europe and W Balkan Peninsula has leaves only1/4in. or a little wider; perianth segments 1-11/4 in. long, with more or less dis-

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tinct claw; corona shortly cylindrical with all stamens exserted; forms with red corona sometimes called var. poetarum. Var. stellarishas starry, greenish-white flowers. Dwarf variants with small flowers from the borderland of Switzerland, France, and Italy, intermediate between the 2 subspecies, have been called var. verbanensis. Plants from N Greece, called var. hellenicus, resemble subsp. poeticusbut have smaller flowers and often wider leaves. Var. recurvus is a name given to plants with recurving corolla segments (variable in most populations), corona with green center and red rim above yellow cup. Plates 57,877-879. N. pseudonarcissus (Pseudonarcissus). LENT LILY, LENT DAFFODIL, WILD DAFFODIL, TRUMPET NARCISSUS. W Europe and Great Britain, in woods, meadows, and rocky ground; long cultivated and widely naturalized elsewhere, including other continents. Each authority interprets this complex species differently. W. H. Pugsley recognized 27 other species within section Pseudonarcissi. Fernandes sank 19 of these into N. pseudonarcissus in 1951, then in 1969 restored 16 of them to species rank. Flora Europaea (1980) gives 7 subspecies of N. pseudonarcissus and 5 closely related species, and this treatment is used here. Stems 6-20 in. Leaves usually glaucous, 4-20 in. or more long, 1/4-3/4 in. wide. Flowers all white, white and yellow, or all yellow in shades from pale to deep gold, usually solitary, uncommonly in umbels of 2–4. Corolla segments 1-2 in. long; corona 3/4-2 in. long, margin fringed to 6-lobed. Flowering early to mid spring. Subsp. major from Spain, Portugal, and S. France has leaves 8-20 in. long, to3/4in. wide; flowers held horizontal to suberect; perianth segments twisted, to11/2in. long, medium to deep yellow; corona equal to corolla, deep yellow, margin more or less flaring. Subsp. moschatus from the Pyrenees is 6-10 in. tall; flowers usually pendent; corolla segments white to cream, twisted, curved inward around corona; corona white to pale yellow, margin barely expanded. Subsp. nevadensis from the Sierra Nevada in S Spain has flowers horizontal to slightly erect, often in umbels of 2-4; corolla segments pale yellow, not twisted; corona medium to bright yellow, margin slightly expanded. Subsp. nobilis from N Portugal and NW and NC Spain has leaves to % in. wide; flowers horizontal or upward-facing; corolla segments to ll/2 in. long, pale yellow, usually twisted; corona to \1/2 in. long, deep yellow, margin expanded. Subsp. pallidiflorusfrom Pyrenees and Cantabrian Mountains of Spain has leaves seldom more than l/2 in. wide; flowers horizontal or drooping; corolla segments to13/4in. long, cream to pale yellow, more or less twisted; corona of similar length, slightly deeper colored than perianth, margin expanded and usually recurved. Subsp. portensis from N Portugal and NW and C Spain has leaves 3-5 in. long, less than 1/4 in. wide; stems to 10 in.; deep yellow flowers, horizontal or slightly drooping; corolla segments not twisted, to 11/4 in. long; corona slightly longer, margin not expanded. Subsp. pseudonarcissus, found throughout range of species except Portugal and S Spain, has leaves 5-14 in. long, about l/2 in. wide; flowers horizontal or drooping; corolla segments to \1/2 in. long, whitish to light yellow, more or less twisted; corona of equal length, pale to deep yellow, usually darker than corolla, margin not markedly expanded or lobed. Plate 880.

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Narcissus

N. xpujolii. Natural hybrid (N. dubiusxN. assoanus). N. xrogendorfii. Natural hybrid (N. elegansxN. tazetta). N. romieuxii (Bulbocodium). North Africa. Stems 3-4 in. Leaves very narrow. Flowers large, lemon yellow to pale sulfur yellow. Corolla segments narrow, almost equal in length to corona; corona widely flaring. Flowering mid to late winter. Var. mesatlanticus has pale yellow flowers. Subsp. albidus has upward-facing, pale lemon to white flowers on very short stems; its var. zaianicus is similar but has shorter tepals. Hardy in the open to about 25°F but best grown under glass owing to early flowering period. Plate 881. N. xrozeiri. Natural hybrid (N. bulbocodium x N. triandrus var. cernuus). N. rupicola. C Spain and N Portugal. Stems to 6 in. Leaves to 12 in. long, with 2 distinct keels on convex side. Flowers solitary, bright golden yellow, sometimes fragrant, 3/4 in. in diameter; pedicels absent or very short. Corolla segments1/4-1/2in. long; corona cup-shaped, about 1/2. in. wide, sometimes 6-lobed. Flowering late spring. Subsp. marvieri has greener leaves and larger, darker yellow flowers. Subsp. watierifrom Morocco has glaucous leaves and white flowers on short pedicels. N. xrupidulus. Natural hybrid (N. rupicola x N. triandrus var. cernuus). N. scaberulus. NC Portugal. Stems to 4 in. Leaves threadlike, usually prostrate and curved. Flowers tiny, 1-3 per stem, deep orange-yellow, corona rim deeper yellow. Flowering early to mid spring. Perhaps the smallest of all daffodils. N. serotinus. Mediterranean region (Greece, Israel, S Italy, Libya, Morocco). Stems to 10 in. Leaves very narrow, not present at flowering. Flowers solitary, very fragrant. Corolla white; corona minute, golden yellow to orange, mid autumn. N. xstenanthus. Natural hybrid (N. bulbocodium x N. pseudonarcissus). N. tazetta. BUNCH-FLOWERED NARCISSUS, POLYANTHUS NARCISSUS, PAPERWHITE, CHINESE SACRED LILY, GOOD LUCK

LILY. Mediterranean region, especially S Portugal, Lebanon, and Iran, in meadows, pastures, and cultivated fields. Stems stout, 16-18 in. Leaves glaucous, erect, keeled. Flowers to 15 per umbel, very fragrant. Corolla segments l/2—l in. long, yellow; corona yellow or orange, shallowly cup-shaped, barely1/4in. long, twice as wide. Cultivated for centuries; there is great variation in leaf size and flower color. Subsp. aureus from SE France, NW Italy, and Sardinia, naturalized elsewhere, has bright or golden yellow corolla, deep yellow or orange corona. Subsp. corcyrensis from S Europe (regarded by authorities as a hybrid between N. tazetta subsp. italicus and N. serotinus) has a starry corolla with narrower, reflexed outer segments and solitary flowers. Subsp. italicus from N and E Mediterranean has cream or yellow corolla, bright yellow corona. Subsp. tazetta from W Mediterranean has pure white corolla, bright to deep yellow corona. 'Canaliculatus', of garden origin, is a lateblooming dwarf form 6-8 in. tall, with white corolla and bright yellow corona. Hardiness varies among varieties and clones, but most are hardy to about 20°F in the open. N. xtenuior. Natural hybrid (N. jonquilla x N. poeticus). S France. Stems to 12 in. Tube yellow-green; corolla pale yellow;

corona deeper yellow. Same parentage and possibly same plant as N. Xgracilis. N. tortifolius. Spain. Stems 8-12 in. Leaves 2-3, twisting. Flowers 5-16 per stem, white. Once thought to be a naturally occurring hybrid or form of N. dubius, but now recognized as a species. N. triandrus. ANGEL'S TEARS. Spain, Portugal, and NW France, in hedgerows and rocky places. Stems to 10 in., usually less. Leaves narrow, dark green, 6-12 in. long. Flowers pendent, white, cream, or clear yellow. Corolla segments1/4-3/4in. long, strongly reflexed; corona cup-shaped, as wide as deep, 1/4— l /2 in. long. Flowering mid spring. 'Albus', common in cultivation, is a color variant that occurs in many wild populations. The species has been long in cultivation and is quite variable; used in hybridizing to breed multiflowered, low-growing plants with reflexed corollas. N. viridiflorus. AUTUMN DAFFODIL. Spain near Gibraltar, and Morocco. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves to 12 in. long, very narrow, appearing after flowering. Flowers 2-5 per umbel, dull green, very fragrant. Corolla segments to % in. long, narrow, somewhat reflexed; corona shallowly cup-shaped, to 3 times wider than long, deeply 6-lobed. Flowering mid autumn. Grow frost-free. N. willkommii. SW Spain and Portugal. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers deep yellow, mid to late spring. SYNONYMS N. abscissus see N. bicolor. N. albescens see N. pseudonarcissus subsp. moschatus. N. albicans see N. pseudonarcissus subsp. moschatus. N. alpestris see N. pseudonarcissus subsp. moschatus. N. aureus see N. bulbocodium, N. tazetta subsp. aureus. N. barlae see N. papyraceus subsp. panizzianus. N. bertolonii see N. tazetta subsp. aureus. N. xbiflorus see N. Xmedioluteus. N. bulbocodium subsp. romieuxii see N. romieuxii. N. byzantinus see N. tazetta. N. calathinus see N. Xodorus. N. campernellii see N. Xodorus. N. canaliculatus see N. tazetta 'Canaliculatus'. N. capaxplenus see N. xeystettensis. N. cavanillesii see N. humilis. N. cernuus see N. pseudonarcissus subsp. moschatus. N. clusii see N. cantabricus. N. confusus see N. pseudonarcissus subsp. major. N. constantinopolitanus see N. tazetta. N. corbularia see N. bulbocodium. N. corcyrensis see N. tazetta subsp. corcyrensis. N. cupularis see N. tazetta subsp. aureus. N. cypri see N. tazetta. N. exsertus see N. poeticus subsp. radiiflorus. N. gayi see N. pseudonarcissus. N. graellsii see N. bulbocodium. N. hispanicus see N. pseudonarcissus subsp. major. N. horsfieldii see N. bicolor. N. italicus see N. tazetta subsp. italicus. N. jonquilloides see N. willkommii.

Nectaroscordum N. juncifolius see N. assoanus. N. juncifolius subsp. rupicola see N. rupicola. N. laticolor see N. tazetta subsp. italicus. N. xleedsii see N. xincomparabilis. N. lobularis see N. minor, N. obvallaris. N. majalis see N. poeticus. N. major see N. pseudonarcissus subsp. major. N, marvieri see N. rupicola subsp. marvieri. N. maximus see N. pseudonarcissus subsp. major. N. minimus see N. asturiensis. N. minutiflorus see N. gaditanus. N. moschatus see N. pseudonarcissus subsp. moschatus. N. nanus see N. minor. N. xnelsonii see N. xincomparabilis. N. nevadensis see N. pseudonarcissus subsp. nevadensis. N. nivalis see N. bulbocodium. N. nobilis see N. pseudonarcissus subsp. nobilis. N. obesus see N. bulbocodium subsp. obesus. N. obliquus see N. tazetta subsp. italicus. N. orientalis see N. tazetta. N. ornatus see N. poeticus. N. pattens see N. assoanus. N. pallidiflorus see N. pseudonarcissus subsp. pallidiflorus. N. panizzianus see N. papyraceus subsp. panizzianus. N. papyraceus subsp. pachybolbus see N. pachybolbus. N. parviflorus see N. minor. N. poetarum see N. poeticus subsp. radiiflorus var. poetarum. N. xpoetazsee N. xmedioluteus. N. poeticus subsp. angustifolius see N. poeticus subsp. radiiflorus. N. polyanthus see N. papyraceus subsp. polyanthus. N. portensis see N. pseudonarcissus subsp. portensis. N. provincialis see N. minor. N. pseudonarcissus subsp. obvallaris see N. obvallaris. N. pulchellus see N. triandrus. N. pumilus see N. minor. N. pusillus see N. gaditanus. N. radiiflorus see N. poeticus subsp. radiiflorus. N. recurvus see N. poeticus var. recurvus. N. requieniisee N. assoanus. N. stellaris see N. poeticus subsp. radiiflorus. N. subalbidus see N. tazetta subsp. italicus. N. tazetta subsp. papyraceus see N. papyraceus. N. tenuifolius see N. bulbocodium. N. tortuosus see N. pseudonarcissus subsp. moschatus. N. triandrus var. albus see N. triandrus. N. triandrus var. pulchellus see N. triandrus. N. verbanensis see N. poeticus subsp. radiiflorus var. verbanensis. N. watieri see N. rupicola subsp. watieri.

Nectaroscordum—Amaryllidaceae Name derived from nektar, the drink of the Olympian deities in Classical myth, and skordion ("garlic"). This genus is very closely related to Allium, in which its 2 or 3 species were for-

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merly placed. The separation is based on the number of nerves (veins) in the outer tepals—one in Allium, but 3-5 in Nectaroscordum. In addition, Nectaroscordum ovaries have numerous ovules, and the pedicels are swollen at the apex. All the species are from the E Mediterranean region. The rootstock is a true bulb which is ovoid. The leaves are strapshaped, with a keel on the underside, and emerge in spring, often maturing by flowering time. The flowering stems generally are about 24-30 in. tall. The pendent, bell-shaped flowers, produced in early to mid summer, are held in loose umbels on arching pedicels. The plants have a typical onion smell when crushed. These plants are easy to grow, thriving in almost any type of soil and loving a hot summer, yet winter-hardy to at least 0°F. Only N. siculum is at all common in gardens; its popularity was stimulated by the usefulness of its flowers in floral art. The dry flowerheads are sometimes used in dry arrangements as well. These plants are best used in close-set groups in the sunny border, where their subtle colors are effective among gray foliage. They can become invasive by self-sowing, so the flowerheads should be removed before the seed ripens. CULTURE Set bulbs 2 in. deep, 10 in. apart, in any well-drained garden soil in full sun. Moderate moisture is needed in spring and early summer, and a dry period after flowering is beneficial but not necessary. Leave plants undisturbed; flowering is much better after at least 3 years in one place. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

The bulbs multiply rather slowly and can be lifted in late summer while dormant and separated for replanting. Sow seed in fall in a sandy mix. Transplant seedlings after their leaves wither into a larger container or nursery bed. Young bulbs will be ready to plant out after 2 years and will flower in another year. Seed can also be sown in well-cultivated soil where the plants are to grow. SPECIES N. siculum. SICILIAN HONEY GARLIC. S France, Italy, and Sicily. Bulb white, ovoid, to 1 in. in diameter. Stems to 30 in. Leaves 3/4 in. wide, to 15 in. long, basal, keeled. Flowers bellshaped, l/2 in. long, to 30 per umbel, green with purple and white margins, sometimes reddish. Subsp. bulgaricum from Bulgaria and W Turkey, introduced 1873, is the form usually seen in gardens; its flowers are white or cream, flushed graygreen at base, rose pink within. Plates 899-901. N. tripedale. N Iraq and W Iran. Stems 2-24 in. Flowers white with deep pink median band,3/4in. long, early summer. Slow to increase. SYNONYMS

N. bulgaricum see N. siculum subsp. bulgaricum. N. dioscoridis see N. siculum subsp. bulgaricum.

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Nemastylis

Nemastylis—Iridaceae Name derived from Greek nema ("thread") and stylos ("column," "style" in botanical sense), in reference to the very slender style branches. The genus includes some 5 species native to the United States, Mexico, and Guatemala. The genus Nemastylis is closely related to the genus Alophia. In the latter, the 3 outer segments are rounded and larger than the inner segments; the outer segments curl down or are flat; the inner segments are cupped, crimped, and often spotted; and the stamens are not united and are pressed down against the style. In Nemastylis, however, all the perianth segments are more or less equal in size and form, and the stamens are sometimes united. The bulb is tunicated. The leaves are narrow and sheathing at the base. There are 2 or 3 flowers, and they are covered while in bud by green, leafy spathes. The most common flower color is blue, but a few are yellow. The flowers are very beautiful but ephemeral, often lasting only a few hours; some open in the morning and fade in the afternoon, while others open in the afternoon and fade before nightfall. For this reason, they are rarely grown. They are of interest primarily to the collector or to native-plant enthusiasts in their own region. CULTURE Nemastylis cannot be grown outdoors where winter temperatures drop much below 26°F. Plant bulbs in fall, 3-4 in. deep. Space the taller species about 18 in. apart, lower-growing plants 6-8 in. apart. Give ample moisture during the growing season, then a dry resting period. Weak feedings of liquid organic fertilizer can be given when plants are in active growth. They need full sun or bright indirect light. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove small offsets from the parent bulbs during the dormant season. Sow seed in spring in temperatures of 45°F at night, using a sandy soil mix with plenty of organic matter. Seedlings can be transplanted as soon as they are large enough to handle, or, if sown thinly, allowed to go dormant and transplanted the following spring to individual containers until large enough to plant out. The mature bulbs are not large. SPECIES N. brunea. Mexico. Stems to 12 in. Leaves 6-8 in. long. Flowers brownish purple; filaments united at base into a tube. Flowering late spring. N. floridana. United States (Florida), in swamps, marshes, and damp woodlands. Bulbs3/4in. in diameter. Stems 18-60 in., branched when tall. Leaves 18-24 in. long, narrow, swordlike. Flowers 2-3 flowers per spathe, to 21/2 in. in diameter, bright violet with white center, open in afternoon and close at nightfall. Flowering late summer to early fall. N. geminiflora. PRAIRIE IRIS, PRAIRIE LILY. United States (S Mississippi Basin of Louisiana and Texas, E Oklahoma, Arkansas, Mississippi, S Missouri, W Alabama); introduced 1875.

Stems 6-12 in. Leaves 6-12 in. long, linear, pointed. Flowers 1-3 per stem, light blue to dark purple-blue, open in morning and fade in early afternoon; perianth opening flat, to 2l/2 in. in diameter; tepals of equal size; stigma and anthers golden. Flowering late spring. Plate 902. N. tennis subsp. pringlei. Mexico and United States (E Texas, Arizona). Stems to 12 in., unbranched, often with a single leaf on stem. Leaves 6-8 in. long, sword-shaped, narrow. Flowers pale blue, fragrant, 2-3 per stem, spring. SYNONYMS

N. acuta see N. geminiflora. N. coelestina see Sphenostigma coelestinum. N. pringlei see N. tennis subsp. pringlei. N. purpurea see Alophia drummondii.

Neobakeria N. N. N. N.

angustifolia see Massonia angustifolia. comata see Massonia comata. heterandra see Massonia pygmaea. namaquensis see Massonia angustifolia.

Neodregea—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) This genus contains only one species, and it is found in South Africa along the Garden Route between the mountains and the Indian Ocean. CULTURE It is unlikely that this plant is in cultivation. The corms grow only l/2 in. or so below the surface. Moisture should be given in late fall, winter, and into spring. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

If someone should wish to grow this species and obtain the little corms or seed, I suggest sowing them in a dry, sunny spot in rather poor soil. SPECIES N. glassii. South Africa (Cape Town to Grahamstown), in areas with winter-rainfall. Rootstock an irregularly shaped corm, producing a lateral stolon at its base and from which the roots emerge in a fan shape. Leaves 3; lowest one on the ground, its base loosely clasping the short stem. Middle leaf is smaller than lowest one and located opposite it; 3rd leaf is almost bractlike and just below the first flower. Flowers 1-3, with yellow and narrow tepals, only about 2 in. above ground, very early spring (July in the wild).

Neomarica—Iridaceae The genus was first called Marica, but this name had already been used for a distinct group of plants, so it was renamed with the prefix neo ("new"). It comprises about 15 species, mostly

Nerine from tropical South and Central America. Most of these brightflowered plants are not well known, but a few are widely grown. The rootstock is a slender rhizome. The leaves are prominently veined or ribbed, held in a compressed fan united at the base. The erect or arching stem holds a terminal cluster of flowers and a single terminal leaf, as well as 1-4 long-stalked axillary bracts. In some species, new plantlets form in the axils; the stem bends down after flowering and the plantlet roots and grows. The 3 outer perianth segments are much larger than the 3 inner ones, ovate or lanceolate, and widely spreading; the much smaller inner segments are erect and reflex at the tips. The flowers of some species are sweetly fragrant, ephemeral but produced successively over several weeks. They are decorative plants for tropical greenhouses and do well as house plants if given bright light. CULTURE These tropical plants require warmth, with night temperatures around 60°F, and high humidity. Use a good loamy soil mix, moisture-retentive but not waterlogged; drainage must be good. Neomaricas prefer bright light, even full sun. Give moderate moisture during the growing season; when growth slows in fall, reduce watering but do not dry out completely. Topdress annually with organic matter. Plant rhizomes near the soil surface, 12-18 in. apart. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Divide rhizomes at any time, but late summer is best time. In species that form plantlets on scapes, root these by pinning them down, still attached to the parent plant, in a pot of soil. Plants appreciate bottom heat. Sow seed in spring in an organically rich soil, covered1/2in. deep; keep moist and provide bottom heat. Pot seedlings into individual containers when large enough to handle and grow on until a good root system has formed. SPECIES N. brachypus. West Indies. Leaves sword-shaped, 2 in. wide, 18-20 in. long, pointed. Flowers 3 in. in diameter, white with distinct yellow bands and a red-brown base. Flowering sporadically, mostly in early summer. N. caerulea. TWELVE APOSTLES. Brazil. Stems 20-24 in. Leaves to 5 ft. long, narrow. Flowers the largest in the genus, 4 in. or more in diameter, numerous, fragrant. Outer perianth segments lilac to pale blue; inner segments deep blue. Claws and bases of the blades yellow-white, and banded brown and orange-yellow. Flowering mostly in summer. N. gracilis. APOSTLE PLANT, WALKING IRIS. S Mexico to N Brazil. Stems to 18 in. Flowers white to pale yellow with violet zone at base, summer. Plantlets form below inflorescence after flowering. N. longifolia. Brazil. Stems 12-36 in. Leaves 12-14 in. long, 1 in. wide. Flowers 2 in. in diameter, yellow with brown bands. N. northiana. Brazil. Stems to 24 in. Leaves 20 in. long, 2 in. wide, with conspicuous ribs. Outer perianth segments white to

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pale yellow with crimson base; inner segments curved, stained violet to blue at apex, veined red at base. Flowering late spring to early summer.

Neopatersonia—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) This is a small and obscure genus of 3 species, now placed by certain authorities in Massonia, but kept separate in this volume. The genus is native to South Africa and Namibia. The rootstock is a true bulb, with or without a tunicated neck. There are 1-3 leaves; in N. falcata the leaves are linear with a distinct curve, hence its name. The flowers are borne in a raceme of few to many, held on a cylindrical stem on pedicels that are longer than the spreading or semi-erect bracts. The perianth segments are fused at the base, and the lobes form a wide, flat or reflexed flower. The filaments are triangular, united at the base and fused to the perianth segments. The anthers face inward. The styles are short and divided into 3 curved stigmatic branches. Flower color is mostly white, often with a hint of green, rarely red. CULTURE Plants can be grown outdoors only where temperatures remain above 40°F at night. Plant bulbs in fall just at soil level, in full sun and sandy, well-drained soil. Moisture is needed during winter, but not much in late spring and during summer. No fertilizer is needed. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

These species are rare in cultivation, if grown at all. Propagation would be by seed or presumably by offset bulbs. SPECIES N. falcata. Namibia and South Africa (N Namaqualand). Leaves sickle-shaped. Flowers white with hint of green, spring (October in the wild). N. namaquensis. South Africa (Namaqualand). Leaves linear to lanceolate, somewhat succulent. Flowers white, spring (October in the wild). N. uitenhagensis. South Africa (Western Cape near Robertson to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape). Stems 6-8 in. Leaves lanceolate. Flowers white with hint of green, or rarely red, spring (October in the wild).

Nerine—Amaryllidaceae CRAPE FLOWER, JAPANESE SPIDER LILY Name said to be derived from Nereis, a sea nymph in Greek myth; various pronunciations are heard among gardeners, including "nuh-reen-eh," "nur-eye-nee," and "neh-reen." This is a genus of about 25 species, only a few of which are widely grown. They are all native to southern Africa. The genus is closely related to Amaryllis, Brunsvigia, and Lycoris. The bulb is tunicated. The inflorescence is an umbel of 2 or more flowers, which have 6 narrow petals, joined just at the

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Nerine

base. The flowers are borne on individual pedicels, carried erect or horizontally, seldom pendent. The flowers are mostly zygomorphic, with 1 or 2 tepals curving more than the others. The stamens, often curved, extend well beyond the perianth. The leaves are threadlike, linear, or strap-shaped, appearing with or after flowering. There are a great number of garden hybrids between N. bowdenii and N. sarniensis, the Guernsey lily. The latter plant has an interesting history. In 1659, a ship of the Dutch East India Company was en route to the Netherlands when it was wrecked in the English Channel off the coast of the island of Guernsey. Among its cargo were crates of bulbs being shipped from the Cape Peninsula. The bulbs were washed ashore, took root in the sand, and were eventually dug by the inhabitants for their gardens. Because the ship had sailed from the Far East, it was first supposed that the bulbs were from Japan. It was more than a century before botanists realized that their native habitat was in South Africa, when the bulbs were discovered growing on the slopes of Table Mountain in SW Western Cape. For many years the descendants of the shipwrecked bulbs provided the Guernsey islanders with cut flowers which they marketed in Great Britain. These plants were very popular in the nineteenth century, and enthusiasts applied species names indiscriminately to hybrid clones and to variants. The species list below includes many of these with their synonymy and parentage. This type of naming is no longer permitted under the international code governing botanical nomenclature. Nerines offer unusual-looking flowers in bright colors. They look good planted among shrubs to extend the flowering season into late summer and fall. In the mixed border they are best planted in bold groups. The smaller-growing species are excellent container plants. CULTURE Nerine bowdenii and its hybrids are the most cold-tolerant, withstanding temperatures down to about 20°F; other species should be grown frost-free or nearly so. They can also be grown in a cool greenhouse or in containers moved indoors during cold weather. They require considerable summer heat to flower well and do best where summers are hot, with warm nights. Plant in spring. Many authorities recommend that they be planted with their necks just level with the soil, but others recommend planting 6 in. or more deep. I recommend that they be planted with their necks at soil level in containers, but with 3 in. of soil over them outdoors in mild climates, deeper where frost may occur. They grow well in any free-draining, reasonably rich garden soil. In containers, use a similar soil mix. They need full sun and should be spaced about 10-12 in. apart. As the flower stem lengthens, gradually increase watering. Apply light feedings of a balanced liquid fertilizer every 2 weeks. As leaves develop, maintain moderate moisture levels, but stop feeding when the leaves are mature. Cease watering when the leaves start to yellow. When they have completely died down, the bulbs should be allowed to become almost dry, but not desiccated. The bulbs are best left undisturbed until they become

overcrowded and the size and number of flowers decrease. They should then be lifted and divided as soon as the foliage has died back. PESTS AND DISEASES

The foliage should be protected from slugs and snails. PROPAGATION

Lift bulbs when dormant and separate offsets, which are usually numerous. The smaller ones can be lined out in nursery rows and grown on, planted not as deep as the larger bulbs. Nerines also can be raised from seed, which should be sown as soon as ripe, barely covered. A well-drained soil mix should be used, but the seedlings should never be allowed to dry out. After one season of growth, they can be transplanted to open ground in mild areas or placed in individual pots, protected from low temperatures. They will reach flowering size after 3 years. SPECIES N. xamabilis. Garden hybrid (N. pudica x N. humilis). N. angustifolia. South Africa (Eastern Cape to KwaZuluNatal, Mpumalanga); introduced 1862. Stems 18-24 in. Leaves very narrow, to 10 in. long, present at flowering. Flowers 12-15 per umbel, rose pink; tepals undulate, just over 1 in. long. Flowering late summer; dormant in winter. N. appendiculata. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); introduced before 1894. Stems to 24 in. Flowers pale pink, summer. N. xatrosanguinea. Garden hybrid (N. sarniensisx N. humilis). N. bowdenii. Drakensberg Mountains of South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1889. Stems to 24 in. Leaves glossy, dark green, emerging before flowering and dying back in the winter. Flowers 10-15 in loose umbel, carmine pink with darker median band; tepals 2-3 in. long, with wavy edges and tips curled back. Flowers appear in fall (March to April in the wild) and can withstand a little frost. One of the most striking nerines, but its popularity in gardens may be due as much to its hardiness as to its colorful flowers. Flowers open very wide; this characteristic and its hardiness have resulted in its being much used in hybridizing. Var. wellsii has a solitary flower. The name N. veitchiiwas applied to a horticultural selection from the species with paler flowers. 'Alba' is white with a hint of pink; 'Cherry Ripe', glossy red; 'E. B. Andersons Hybrid', true pink; 'Fenwick's Variety', deeper pink than the species; and 'Pink Triumph', salmon pink. Plates 903, 904. N. xcaerulea. Garden hybrid (N. sarniensisx N. pudica). N. xcami. Garden hybrid (N. sarniensisx N. undulata). N. Xcarminata. Garden hybrid (N. sarniensisx N. pudica). N. Xcinnabarina. Garden hybrid (N. sarniensisx N. humilis). N. xelegans. Garden hybrid (N. sarniensis x N. humilis). Name also has been applied to N. xo'brieni. N. xerubescens. Garden hybrid (N. humilisx N. undulata). N. filifolia. South Africa (Eastern Cape to E Northern Province and Mpumalanga); introduced 1879. Bulbs tunicated, small. Stems slender, 6-15 in. Leaves threadlike, nearly evergreen. Flowers clear pink, 5-10 per umbel; tepals wavy, 1 in. long; ovary hairy. Flowering late summer (February to April in

Nerine the wild). Does not require a prolonged rest period. This dwarf plant should be grown in bold clumps in the open garden and is ideal for containers. Plate 905. N.fletcheri. Bigeneric hybrid (N. bowdeniix Amaryllis belladonna), raised before 1932. The characteristics of the Amaryllis parent are not exhibited in the offspring. N. fothergillii. South Africa; 1788. Bulb tunic red-tinged. Stems to 22 in. Leaves 6-8, with bases sheathing up to 15 scarlet flowers. Tips of tepals recurved, deep purple anthers just protruding, style quite threadlike. Flowering late summer to fall (February to March in the wild). N. frithii. South Africa (Western Cape, Free State, Gauteng, Northwestern Province, Northern Province). Stems to 16 in. Flowers pink; appendages of filaments form cup with fringed rim. Flowering spring (September to April in the wild). N. gaberonensis. Botswana and South Africa (Northwestern Province to Northern Cape). Stems to 10 in. Flowers deep pink, late summer (February to March in the wild). N. gracilis. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 10 in. Flowers pink or white flushed pink, late summer (February to March in the wild). N. xhaylockii. Garden hybrid (N. sarniensisxN. humilis). N. humilis. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1795. Stems stout, to 36 in. Leaves 3-5, strap-shaped, 4-20 in. long,1A in. wide, produced with flowers. Flowers to 20 per umbel, pale rose pink or white; petals over 11/2in. long, much recurved. Flowering early spring (September to early October in the wild). A parent of numerous hybrids. The name N. excellens was applied to a selection of this species with tepals 2 in. long. N. huttoniae. South Africa (Eastern Cape in Great Fish River Valley from Cradock to Committees), in sandy loam amid acacia scrub. Stem arises outside leaves. Leaves 7-10, produced with flowers, 1/2 in. wide, 12 in. long, tip withering quickly. Flowers 25-70, usually around 40 per stem; tepals curve upward, pink, narrow, widely spaced; filaments shorter than tepals, red with small lateral appendages at base; anthers reddish black turning black. Umbel appears to have 3 separate axes, each opening from the base up and giving the impression of random opening throughout the umbel. Prefers high temperatures with low humidity and long resting period. Flowering late summer (February to March in the wild). N. krigei. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga), in cooler areas. Stems 12-15 in. Leaves ¥2 in. wide, 5-10 in. long, distinctively twisted, emerging late spring and dormant in winter. Flowers reddish rose, 10-15 per umbel, mid summer (January to February in the wild). One of the hardier nerines. Plate 906. N. laticoma. Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa (Northern Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers pale pink to pinkish mauve, sometimes with red-pink ribs or tinted yellow, summer (January to February in the wild). N. xmansellii. Garden hybrid (N. sarniensisxN. humilis). N. masonorum. TRANSKEI LILY. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems to 6 in. Leaves 4-5, 10-18 in. long, almost evergreen. Flowers pale pink, sometimes darker, with crinkled edges, to 15 in loose umbel. Flowering summer (November to January in the wild). Good container plant.

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N. xmitchamiae. Garden hybrid (N. sarniensisxN. undulata). N. Xo'brieni. Garden hybrid (N. sarniensisxN. pudica). N. pancratioides. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1891. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers to 20 per umbel, often fewer; tepals held closely near base in funnel form, spreading at tips, about an inch long. Flowering late summer (February to March in the wild). N. platypetala. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 16 in. Flowers pink, summer (January to March in the wild). N. pudica. South Africa (SW Western Cape), widely distributed; introduced 1868. Stems slender, to 12 in. Flowers to 8 but often less, held horizontally, white with one or more red streaks, late summer (April to May in the wild). Var. elwesii has broader leaves, more compact umbel, the color diffused over the segments, giving a pale rose color with darker stripe(s) in center of segments. N. xpulchella-undulata. Garden hybrid (H. humilis x N. undulata). N. rehmannii. South Africa (Mpumalanga, Gauteng, Northern Province). Stems to 10 in. Flowers white, summer (January to March in the wild). N. xroseo-crispa. Garden hybrid (N. humilis x N. undulata). N. sarniensis. GUERNSEY LILY. Table Mountain of South Africa (SW Western Cape), and other sites, in cloud belt; introduced 1634. Stems stout, to 24 in. leaves 3-5, strap-shaped, about 12 in. long, produced after flowering and persisting through winter, withering in spring. Flowers to 20 per umbel, upward-facing, white to rose and deep carmine; surface iridescent, highly reflective; stamens and anthers prominent, golden yellow. Flowering late summer or early fall (March to May in the wild). The name N. corusca was applied to a select form. Flowers are orange-scarlet, shaded red. The parent of numerous hybrids, including 'Ancilla', carmine red with pink on lower tepals; 'Bettina', rose pink with darker vein; 'Blush Beauty', stems to 40 in., flowers pale pink; 'Fothergillii Major', dazzling vermilion-scarlet, large umbels; 'Guy Fawkes', light cerise. Variants found in the wild and in cultivation have been named. Plates 907,908. N. xspoffbrthiae. Garden hybrid (N. sarniensisxN. undulata). N. xstricklandii. Garden hybrid (N. sarniensis x N. pudica). N. undulata. South Africa, widely distributed; introduced 1767. Stems 8-18 in. Leaves usually 4, to 18 in. long,1/2in. wide, appearing after flowering. Flowers 10-15 per umbel, clear rose pink; tepals spread widely from base, about an inch long. The name N. alta was applied to a taller-growing (24-36 in.) variant of this species. Plates 909,910. N. xversicolor. Garden hybrid (N. sarniensisxN. undulata). SYNONYMS

N. N. N. N. N. N. N.

allenii see N. sarniensis. breachiae see N. humilis. corusca see AT. sarniensis. crispa see N. undulata. curvifolia see N. fothergillii. duparquetiana see N. laticoma. elwesii see N. pudica var. elwesii.

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Nomocharis

N. excellens see N. humilis. N. falcata see N. laticoma. N. filamentosa see N. filifolia. N. flexuosa see N. humilis. N. flexuosa var. angustifolia see N. angustifolia. N. fothergillii see N. sarniensis. N. insignis see N. sarniensis. N. lucida see N. laticoma. N. marginata see Brunsvigia marginata. N. meadowbankii see N. sarniensis. N. moorei see N. sarniensis. N. peersii see N. humilis. N. plantii see N. sarniensis. N. profusa see N. sarniensis. N. pulchella see N. humilis. N. pumila see N. sarniensis. N. rosea see N. sarniensis. N. tulbaghensis see N. humilis. N. veitchii see N. bowdenii. N. venusta see N. sarniensis.

Nomocharis—Liliaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from nomos ("pasture") and charts ("grace, "charm"), an apt name for some of the most beautiful plants in the lily family. There are about 7 species, native to the mountain slopes and forests of Tibet, Myanmar, and W China. The genus is very close to Lilium, and several species first classified as Nomocharis now are included in that genus. Nomocharis species have fleshy, cushion-shaped swellings (nectary glands) near the base of the inner perianth segments (tepals), a feature not present in Lilium. The bulb has fewer scales than a typical lily bulb but is otherwise similar; like many lilies, Nomocharis species produce stem roots above the bulb. The flowers are also lilylike but are flatter when open; they are either pendent or outward-facing. The stems bear dark green lanceolate leaves, either scattered or in whorls, and 1-3 leaves subtending each flower pedicel. The tepals are more or less similar and equal in size, although sometimes the inner ones are broader; all are free to the base. The genus has been divided into 2 groups based on the shape of the stamen filaments and the crested appearance of the nectary glands at the base of the petals. The filaments of N. aperta and N. saluenensis taper gradually from base to apex, and the glands are only slightly raised; N. basilissa, N. farreri, N. meleagrina, and N. pardanthina have distinct, crested nectary glands and filaments with swollen bases. The predominant flower colors are pink and white, often elaborately spotted darker red. The inner tepals may be fringed on the edges. Most species reach 24-36 in., and all flower in early summer. Few flowers are as beautiful as a well-grown Nomocharis. They are suited to the woodland garden and well-irrigated, peaty beds in the rock garden, and they add a great deal of color and interest to earlier-flowering Rhododendron plantings.

CULTURE Though Nomocharis species are not easy to grow, the beauty of their flowers is worth every and any effort. They can be grown well only in regions with cool summers, and even there they usually need high shade. They do best in a very peaty soil, such as the raised peat beds of the Edinburgh Botanic Garden. Plant bulbs in fall or early spring, about 4 in. deep to accommodate the stem roots. They can be spaced quite closely, 6-10 in. apart, as they seem to like one another's company. The soil should be rich in organic matter and very well drained. They should be barely moist in winter and have ample moisture from mid spring through fall. The bulbs should be left undisturbed; they increase very little. They can be short-lived where not perfectly adapted, and so seed should be sown whenever available. PESTS AND DISEASES

Nomocharis is susceptible to most lily diseases, especially Botrytis, and must be protected scrupulously from slugs and snails. PROPAGATION

There is not much natural increase by offsets, though Nomocharis can be propagated from scales as are lilies. The best propagation method is by seed, which germinates readily. Sow seed in fall or late winter in a well-drained, peaty soil mix. A suitable mix is 1 part sandy loam, 2 parts peat moss, 1 part shredded sphagnum moss, and 2 parts sharp sand. The seed mix is not as critical as that in which they are grown later. Some growers leave the seedlings in their original container and just plant the entire contents of the container (the container ball), with a minimum of disturbance to the roots of the young plants. The other method is to transplant the young seedlings into slightly deeper containers as soon as they are big enough to handle. Grow on in a cool, shady but bright spot. The following January, shake the bulbs out of the soil and plant them about 1 in. deep in larger containers. They will be big enough to plant out the following spring and usually flower in 4 years from seed. SPECIES N. aperta. China (SW Sichuan, NW Yunnan), at 10,000 ft. and above; introduced 1928. Stems to 24 in. or a little more. Leaves quite lilylike, opposite on lower part of stem, solitary on upper part. Flowers usually 4-5, on long, nearly horizontal pedicels, to 4 in. in diameter, nodding, clear pink to rosy purple with variable degree of dark spotting and darker blotch at base of tepals (distinguishing it from N. saluenensis); stamens exserted. White forms have been found in the wild and in gardens. Perhaps the easiest species to grow. Plate 911. N. basilissa. Border between Myanmar and China (Yunnan). Leaves whorled or alternate. Flowers bright salmon red, summer. Once introduced by Reginald Farrer but now lost to cultivation, a pity given its unusual color. N. farreri. NE Myanmar; introduced 1919. Sometimes considered a variety of N. pardanthina, but is more robust, with longer, narrower tepals and leaves up to twice as long. Stems to 36 in. Flowers to 20 per stem, saucer-shaped, delicate pink blotched maroon at base. N. xfinlayorum. Garden hybrid (N.farrerix N. pardanthina).

Notholirion Stems to 30 in. Flowers 2-7 per stem, white to pink, spotted maroon on lower half, tepals wide-spreading. N. forrestii. China (Yunnan, Sichuan) and Myanmar. Stems 12-40 in. Flowers pink to red, finely spotted purple near base, spots increasing in size to blotches in upper part of tepal. N. meleagrina. China (NW Yunnan, W Sichuan) and SE Tibet. Stems 18-22 in. Leaves in whorls. Flowers rose, blotched with red-purple. N. xnotabilis. Garden hybrid (N. saluenensis x N. farreri). Stems to 18 in. Flowers to 2 in. in diameter, white to mauve, spotted maroon on lower half, crimson basal blotch on outer segments and black nectar guides. N. pardanthina. W China; introduced 1916. Stems usually 24-36 in. Leaves in whorls. Flowers about 15 per stem, sometimes up to 24, pink, nodding to erect; inner segments slightly larger than outer, fringed, heavily spottedT near base. In some plants the spotting is confined to a small central ring. Forma punctulata from Yunnan has spots only at the base. A lovely species even in this genus, and one of the longest cultivated. N. saluenensis. China (Yunnan), Tibet, and N Myanmar, at high elevations; introduced 1921. Stems to 36 in. Flowers to 4 in. in diameter, not as flat as in many other species; tips of tepals recurve slightly. Flowers 4-5 per stem, outward-facing or slightly pendent, light to dark rosy purple, with green zone in center of flower surrounded by a whitish zone. N. synaptica. NE India (Assam). Flowers white with purple tint and maroon spots; basal blotch deep purple, fringed yellow. SYNONYMS

N. N. N. N. N. N. N. N.

euxantha see Lilium nanum var. flavidum. henrici see Lilium henrici. leucantha see N. pardanthina. lophophora see Lilium lophophorum. mairei see N. pardanthina. nana see Lilium nanum. oxypetala see Lilium oxypetalum. souliei see Lilium souliei.

Notholirion—Liliaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek nothos ("false") and leirion ("lily"). Of the 4 or 5 species known, only N. thomsonianum and N. bulbuliferum are commonly grown. The genus is distributed primarily in the Himalayas in W China, Tibet, Nepal, and N Myanmar, with an apparent outlier in Iran. These plants are closely related to Lilium and Fritillaria. As in the genus Cardiocrinum, the bulb of Notholirion is monocarpic, dying after flowering but replaced by a profusion of young plants produced at the base of the parent bulb. The bulbs differ from those of Lilium in having only a few scales and a dark brown, ridged tunic. The basal leaves are long and narrow and emerge in fall or early winter; there are also short leaves on the scape. Flowering is in spring or summer, depending on the species. The large, narrowly trumpet-shaped flowers are mostly in rather unusual shades of lavender, sometimes with

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gray or buff overtones and are often tipped in green. The stigma is 3-lobed. Because their leaves are green in winter, these plants are best suited to milder climates. They are easily grown in a cool greenhouse or bulb frame, where most species tolerate some freezing as long as the leaves are not wet. Though their monocarpic habit means that flowering is not entirely predictable from year to year, they are so unusual and beautiful that the serious collector will not want to omit them. CULTURE

PLlants require very well-drained soil with moderate to rich organic content. Give high shade in hot regions, full sun in cool climates. Plant bulbs in late summer, 3 in. deep, 12-18 in. apart; foliage rosette is large and spreading. Water immediately to initiate root growth. Keep moist through winter until early summer; after the leaves wither, a drier period is appreciated, and indeed required for flowering in some species. Taller-growing species may require staking, especially in exposed spots. Notholirion can be grown in large, deep containers, plunged to moderate soil temperature. PESTS AND DISEASES

Protect plants against slugs and snails, which leave the foliage alone but attack the flowering stems. PROPAGATION

The easiest method is to collect the great number of young bulblets produced at the base of the mature bulb. These can be planted in nursery rows or containers and transplanted in about 2 years. In the open ground, a number of bulbs of fair size may form close together, but unless needed in another area they are best left in situ. Sow seed in fall or late winter in a sandy, welldrained soil mix with good moisture retention, barely covered. SPECIES N. bulbuliferum. W China, Nepal, and Myanmar, at high elevations. Stems to 36 in. Flowers 25-30 in a loose raceme, outward-facing on short pedicels, lavender, tips of tepals green; tepals recurved and flaring. Flowering mid to late summer. N. campanulatum. Tibet and Myanmar. Stems to 48 in. Leaves to 12 in. long. Flowers produced from axils of stem leaves, bell-shaped, cerise-crimson, tepals tipped with green. Flowering mid summer. Likes cool, moist conditions. N. koeiei. W Iran. Stems to 24 in. Flowers to 25 per stem, crowded, somewhat up ward-facing, 2 in. long, pinkish purple; tepals flared but not recurving; distinctive yellow anthers. Flowering early summer. In its habitat has hot, dry summers and thus is suited to warm, dry climates with little or no summer rain. N. macrophyllum. Himalayas in Nepal, Tibet, and Bhutan. Stems rarely over 18 in. Basal leaves to 1 in. wide, 12-18 in. long. Flowers 1-7 per stem, pink flushed lavender, held horizontally or nodding; tepals not tipped green. Flowering late spring. N. thomsonianum. ROSE-COLORED LILY. Afghanistan; introduced 1844. Stems to 36 in. Flowers to 25 in dense spike, lavender flushed buff-pink, narrowly trumpet-shaped, scented, carried horizontally or slightly erect; tepals recurve and stamens

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Nothoscordum

are quite prominent. Flowering mid to late spring. Requires warm, dry summer dormancy. Plate 912. SYNONYM N. hyadnthinum see N. bulbuliferum.

Nothoscordum—Amaryllidaceae FALSE GARLIC Name derived from nothos ("false") and skordion ("garlic"); plants of this genus are much like Allium but do not have an oniony smell in the flowers or leaves. Nothoscordum also differs from Allium in that the perianth segments are joined at the base, and in certain species they are fused about halfway. There are 15 or 20 species, all native to the Americas. The bulbs have tunics, but these are loose and may not be obvious at certain stages of the annual cycle. The leaves are linear and flat, and flowers are held in an umbel. This genus, like many others in the amaryllis family, has gone through many taxonomic changes. One species, N. neriniflorum, regarded by some as the only one worth growing, is now Caloscordum, the name under which it was first described; it is an Asian plant. The members of this genus are familiar to gardeners: N. bivalve and N. gracile are vicious weeds which spread by farreaching stolons and seed, coming up in the midst of choicer plants and infesting wide areas. They should not be planted unless strictly confined, even though the latter has pleasantly scented flowers. The only desirable species likely to be in cultivation at this writing is N. ostenii, a rare bulb cherished by collectors and grown in frost-free greenhouses. CULTURE

Nothoscrodum bivalve is hardy to about -10°F, but its wintergrowing foliage can be destroyed by hard frost, probably a fortunate trait. Nothoscordum gracile is hardy to about 0°F. It will grow in almost any conditions, and should it be wanted for its fragrant flowers, it should be confined to containers and not allowed to go to seed. All species do well with moisture throughout the year, though they tolerate dry summers too. The South American species, if obtained, should be planted 2-3 in. deep in containers or in a frost-free, well-drained area. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems.

brown streaks on reverse. Despite its origin, quite hardy and very invasive. N. ostenii. Uruguay. Stems to 6 in. Flowers sweetly fragrant, yellow, 1-3 per stem. N. striatellum. Chile. Flowers greenish yellow. SYNONYMS

N. aureum see Bloomeria crocea var. aurea. N. fragrans see N. gracile. N. inodorum see N. gracile. N. macrostemon see N. gracile. N. maritimum see Muilla maritima. N. neriniflorum see Caloscordum neriniflorum. N. striatum see N. bivalve.

O

Odontostomum—Tecophilaeaceae Tecophilaeaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek odon ("tooth") and stoma ("mouth"), in reference to the stamens inserted at the perianth throat, alternating with short staminodia. The sole species is native to the United States. This far from showy plant may be of interest to growers planning a drought-resistant garden in dry-summer regions. It is essentially an item of botanical interest. CULTURE Set corms 3-5 in. deep, 3-5 in. apart in very well drained soil. Moisture is required in fall and spring, and a hot, dry dormant period in summer. Plants tolerate temperatures perhaps as low as 10°F before leaves emerge in spring; where frost is heavy or prolonged, they should be grown in a bulb frame or cool greenhouse. Containers must be deep. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Corms produce a few large offsets, which can be separated and planted where wanted in late summer. Sow seed in fall or spring in cool temperatures and protect seedlings from freezing. Transplant seedlings to larger containers during their first dormancy and grow on to flowering size. Seedlings flower in 3-5 years.

PROPAGATION SPECIES

As is obvious, increasing these species presents no difficulties. The rarer and more desirable ones can be grown from seed, sown in fall and grown frost-free. SPECIES N. bivalve. SE United States. Stems to 8 in. Leaves strapshaped, 6-8 in. long. flowers whitish, small, late spring to early summer. N. gracile. Mexico into South America, widely naturalized in California and parts of Europe; introduced 1770. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves strap-shaped, light green. Flowers 8-12 per umbel, fragrant, funnel-shaped, whitish or lilac with purplish

O. hartwegii. United States (N California, in foothills of the Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges), usually in heavy clay and rocky soils which are baked dry from mid summer to fall. Rootstock a corm, globose, about 1 in. in diameter, growing deep in the ground. Leaves basal, few, erect, sheathing the flowering stem; about l/2 in. wide and up to 6 in. long. Flowering stem leafless, up to 18 in. but usually much shorter, usually branched, carrying many flowers on very short pedicels. Flowers about 1/4 in. in diameter, with 6 white, reflexed tepals; perianth tube equal to the diameter of the flower. Flowering time late spring to early summer. Plate 913.

Onixotis

Oenostachys O. zambesiacus see Gladiolus magnificus.

Olsynium—Iridaceae Derivation of name unknown. This genus includes one North American species and several from S South America and the Falkland Islands that have been separated from Sisyrinchium on the basis of several botanical characteristics; in particular, the stems of Olsynium are round, while those of Sisyrinchium are flattened and winged. Sisyrinchium species are essentially fibrous-rooted (though the roots may arise from a short rhizome), and are not included in this work. The rootstock of Olsynium is a cluster of fleshy storage roots, adapted to carrying the plants through dry summers. The very narrow leaves are basal and sheathe the stem. The starry flowers are mostly upward-facing and open widely, except in the North American O. douglasii, the flowers of which remain cup-shaped. Colors include white, yellow, pink, and violet. Many species inhabit places that are moist in spring and dry out severely in summer. The most appropriate place for Olsynium is the rock garden, though most species are tall in flower. Only O. douglasii and O. junceum are much grown; the former is sometimes exhibited as a pot specimen in England. They are small, slender plants and should be planted in large groups for best effect. CULTURE Most of the Andean species can tolerate temperatures down to about 20°F; O. douglasii is hardy to at least 0°F if kept dry, not wet, in winter. All experience very hot summers but are dormant after mid summer. Provide excellent drainage and withhold water from mid summer to mid autumn; water sparingly in fall, keep somewhat dry during the coldest part of winter, and quite moist from early spring to early summer. Plants do well in deep containers but most are not particularly decorative as pot subjects. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift established plants when dormant in late summer and separate the spiderlike crowns. Sow seed in fall in cool, moist conditions and keep seedlings frost-free after germination. The seed is easily collected and germinates readily. Plants usually flower in the 3rd year from seed.

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facing, borne in an umbel surmounted by a leafy spathe. Flowering early spring. O. frigidum. Chile. Stems to 4 in. Leaves brownish at base. Flowers yellow, darker on reverse, late summer. O. junceum. Chile and Argentina. Stems 10-14 in. Leaves very narrow, shorter than stem. Flowers starry, pink to rosy lavender, numerous, early summer. O. philippii. Chile. Stems to 8 in. Flowers 3-10, white with purplish midveins, mid summer. O. scirpoideum. Chile and Argentina. Stems to 36 in. Leaves few, withering by flowering time. Spathe very long. Flowers deep pink, paler in center, early spring to mid summer.

Onixotis—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) Derivation of name unknown. This genus contains species formerly placed in Dipidax; the change was published in 1950 by R. S. Adamson in Flora of the Cape Peninsula. Its 3 species are native to South Africa from Namaqualand in the Western Cape into the Little Karoo, extending north to Port Elizabeth on the Indian Ocean in the Eastern Cape. Onixotis triquetra grows near water or even periodically submerged, while O. punctataprefers granite slopes or well-drained clay soils which become baked during summer. The rootstock is a corm. In one species, O. triquetra, the leaves are rushlike and the scape is enveloped in a sheath formed by one of the leaves. In O. punctata, the leaves clasp the stem but do not cover it entirely. The flowers, borne in terminal spikes, are white or white marked with pink or maroon, and are often over an inch in diameter. Each stem can bear 15 or more flowers, opening in succession over a long period (O. punctata has fewer flowers). The flower forms an open cup shape at the base; there is no perianth tube, the segments being separate. Onixotis species are appropriate planted around the edges of ponds or other damp places, in full sun or light shade. The flowers last quite a long time and make these plants quite attractive. CULTURE Plants are not hardy below about 35°F. They require ample moisture while in growth and have no objection to very wet conditions during winter. Set corms 2-3 in. deep, 4-6 in. apart, depending on the ultimate height of the species grown. Soil should be high in organic matter; in sandy soils, a little fertilizer can be applied as soon as growth is seen in the spring. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. SPECIES

O. chrysochromum. C Chile, in mountains. Stems to 3 in. Leaves dark green, shorter than stem. Flowers large, deep orange, summer. O. douglasii. W Canada and W United States, in subalpine meadows. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves bractlike, sheathing stem at base. Flowers the largest in the genus, purple to pink (rarely white or bicolored), satiny, bell-shaped, pendent or outward-

PROPAGATION

Cormels can be removed in spring and grown on in moist soil. Sow seed in spring, barely cover, and use a moisture-retentive soil mix. Temperature for germination should be around 55°F at night. Transplant seedlings as soon as they are large enough to handle into individual containers or spaced 2-3 in. apart in larger containers. Seedlings will flower in 2-3 years.

384

Ornithogalum

SPECIES O. punctata. South Africa (Cape Peninsula, Namaqualand). Stems 6-12 in. Leaves clasp the stem at the base and then grow outward, broad at the base and tapering to a point, light graygreen; 2 lower leaves basal, upper leaf placed halfway up stem, sheathing it. Flowers 10-15 per stem, maroon to white, deeper color in center, sessile, rather flat and slightly upward- and outward-facing, less than an inch in diameter. Yellow stamens quite prominent. Flowering very early spring (August to September in the wild). O. stricta. South Africa (Namaqualand to Cape Peninsula), in pools and marshes. Stems taller than in O. punctata. Leaves 3, 2 just below the flowers and one basal. It is a larger plant than O. punctata. Flowers sessile, starry, crowded together yet each distinctly visible, often 20 or more per stem, light pink with maroon ring in center. Flowering early to mid spring (August to October in the wild). Plate 914. O. triquetra. STAR-OF-THE-MARSH, WATER FLOWER. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape), widely distributed along Indian Ocean coast, always close to, or in, water. Bulbs deeprooted. Stems to 18 in., slightly shorter than foliage. Leaves dark green, rushlike, solitary or few, clasping stem and curling away, erect, to 18 in. long. Inflorescence subtended by a leaflike bract. Flowers to 25 per stem, close together, sessile or nearly so, 1 in. or a little more in diameter, shallowly bowl-shaped, white sometimes suffused pinkish, with a definite carmine zone at base. Ovary superior, carmine. Tepals frequently persist as ovary swells, giving a prominent carmine center to the flower. Some color variation occurs, and some plants' flowers approach light purple. Flowering spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 915.

Ornithogalum—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) PREGNANT ONION, SNAKE FLOWER Name derived from Greek ornis ("bird") and gala ("milk"), and used by Dioscorides. The genus contains about 120 species, not many of which are important in the bulb trade. The exception is O. thyrsoides, or chincherinchees, grown in quantity for cut flowers. Ornithogalums are found in the temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and Africa but are not native to the New World. Many of the species are quite hardy, and O. umbellatum is found in much of Europe, including Great Britain. The common name for O. umbellatum, star of Bethlehem, is often applied by American gardeners to O. thyrsoides—no doubt because it is easier to pronounce and spell than "chincherinchee." The rootstock is a globose bulb with a white or brown tunic. Except in a few species from South Africa, the flowers are white with a green median stripe on each tepal. The colored species from South Africa are in the orange-red-yellow range. The flowers are borne in a corymb or raceme; in some species, the inflorescence appears at ground level amid a rosette of leaves. The tepals are of similar size and shape, free to the base and spreading widely to produce starry flowers. The filaments are flat, almost petaloid in some species. The leaves are basal and

linear, often past their peak when the flower spike matures. This genus deserves to be more widely grown, and commercial firms looking for good cut flowers might profit from breeding new hybrids. The seed germinates readily and the results of crossing can be seen in 3 years, a distinct advantage over many other bulbous plants. I saw new hybrids in South Africa being increased by meristem culture. This increases the likelihood that exciting new colors will soon be introduced. One cultivar being propagated in South Africa, probably a hybrid between a species from Namaqualand and O. thyrsoides, is a lovely clear yellow and exceptionally vigorous. Stems of O. thyrsoides can be cut in tight bud and shipped great distances; they even have survived the sea journey from South Africa to Europe, a period of several weeks. In addition to their usefulness as cut flowers, ornithogalums are also fine plants in the garden (Plate 34). The hardy species can be naturalized in grass and may be seen as garden escapees to the wild in various parts of the United States. The South African species are especially good for planting among shrub borders in mild climates. The dwarf species are good container plants and interesting in rock gardens. CULTURE The species from South Africa are less hardy than those from Europe and Asia; if species require protection, this is noted in the descriptions below. The former have requirements much like those of gladioli: they can be grown outdoors and left in the ground in areas where frost is rare and light, or lifted and stored during winter in colder climates. They need well-drained soil, ideally a sandy loam. Adequate moisture must be available while the leaves are growing. Plant bulbs 2-3 in. deep, in bold groups for best effect. For cutflower production, space them 45 in. apart in rows. In the border, give them more room, 10-12 in. apart for the taller-growing species, 4-6 in. for the small ones. Fertilizer is not needed but will do no harm. Plants can be left undisturbed until they become so crowded that flowering diminishes. PESTS AND DISEASES

The only problem likely to be encountered is bulb rot resulting from poor drainage. PROPAGATION

Bulbs produce many offsets, which may be dug and separated after the leaves and stems have withered. Smaller bulbs can be lined out in nursery rows, where they will grow to flowering size in 1-2 years. Sow seed as soon as available, or store it in the refrigerator for sowing in late winter. Use a well-drained soil mix and transplant the seedlings after they go dormant the first year. They will flower in 3-4 years. In commercial production, tissue culture can be used to increase choice clones. SPECIES O. amphibolum. Bulgaria, Romania, and SW Russia. Similar to O. orthophyllum. O. apertum. South Africa (W Karoo to Oudtshoorn in Western Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Leaves curled around base. Flowers

Ornithogalum yellow with broad green median stripe, early spring (August to September in the wild). O. arabicum. Mediterranean region; introduced 1629. Stems 20-30 in. Leaves to 1 in. wide, 15 in. long. Flowers often over 2 in. in diameter, pure white with distinctive black ovary; flowers lower on stem have longer pedicels, resulting in a flattened inflorescence. A cultivar of the species, 'Mount Everest', is pure white. Var. corymbosum is very free-flowering. Hardy outdoors to about 25°F. Plates 916, 917. O. arcuatum. Iran; introduced 1964. Stems to 24 in. Flowers on short pedicels, white with broad gray-green median stripe, late spring. O. armeniacum. Turkey; introduced 1879. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white with broad green keel, early to mid spring. O. atticum. S Greece. Stems 4-8 in. Similar to O. montanum. O. bicornutum. South Africa (W Karoo). Stems 4-8 in. Leaves appear after flowers. Flowers white, summer (October to December in the wild). O. brevipedicellatum. N Iran and adjacent Russia; introduced 1873. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers white with narrow green median stripe, late spring. O. capillare. South Africa (Gauteng, Mpumalanga). Stems to 6 in. Flowers white, late spring (November in the wild). O. chionophyllum. Greece and Cyprus. Stems 2–4 in. Flowers white with broad green median stripe, mid spring. O. comosum. S Europe and E Mediterranean; introduced 1596. Stems 3-6 in. Flowers greenish white, late spring. O. conccordianum. S Namibia and South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Leaves curled around base. Flowers yellow with broad green median stripe, early spring (August to September in the wild). O. concinnum. Portugal. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white with no green stripe, early to late spring. O. conicum. South Africa (Northern Cape through Western Cape) to Lesotho; introduced 1796. Stems 18-30 in. Flowers to 50 in dense raceme, pure white, often nearly 2 in. in diameter. Flowering late spring to early summer (October to December in the wild). Grow frost-free. O. constrictum. South Africa (W Karoo), in clay soils. Stems 8-16 in. Leaves appear after flowers. Flowers white, summer (December to February in the wild). O. costatum. Greece (Peloponnese). Similar to O. tenuifolium. O. creticum. Crete. Tepals greenish yellow. Similar to O. pyrenaicum. O. cuspidatum. Turkey (Asia Minor); introduced 1843. Stems 3-5 in. Flowers greenish white, early spring. O. diluculum. South Africa (interior Western Cape). Stems to 10 in. Leaf solitary, produced after flowering. Flowers yellow with broad green margins, early spring (September in the wild). O. divergens. S Europe. Similar to O. refractum but lower stem is longer and green stripe on tepals is broader. O. dregeanum. South Africa (SW Western Cape), in sandy, wet soils. Stems to 20 in. Flowers white, summer (December to January in the wild). O. dubium. YELLOW CHINCHERINCHEE, YELLOW CHINK. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Stems 8-12 in.

385

Leaves short, broad, in a basal rosette. Flowers to 25 per stem, golden yellow to deep orange, sometimes white, with near-black central zone; lower pedicels longer than upper, resulting in a flat raceme. Flowering early to mid spring. Requires a rather dry dormancy in late summer. Commonly used in hybridizing with O. thyrsoides. The Xhosa people use the roots of this plant to treat children for worms. Best grown frost-free. Plates 918-920. O. esterhuyseniae. South Africa, from Hex River to Hottentots Holland Mountains (Western Cape), in wet places at high elevations. Stems 20-28 in. Flowers small, white, summer (December to February in the wild). O. exaratum. E Greece, on Euboea Island. Similar to O. divergens but leaves appear in spring, not fall. O. exscapum. Albania, Corsica, Spain, Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, and Yugoslavia; introduced 1824. Stems to 2 in. Flowers white, numerous in an umbel, mid spring. O. fimbriatum. Yugoslavia, N Greece, and Bulgaria; introduced 1801. Stems 2-5 in. Leaves hairy on margins. Flowers white with broad green median stripe, sometimes nearly all green on reverse, mid spring. O. fimbrimarginatum. South Africa (Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape), widespread. Stems 10-18 in. Flowers white with dark center, early spring to summer (September to January in the wild). O. fischeranum. SW Russia. Similar to O. narbonense. O. glaucophyllum. Turkey; introduced 1875. Stems to 1 in. Flowers white, green on reverse, early spring. O. graminifolium. South Africa (Clanwilliam in Western Cape to KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1794. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers white to yellow or pink, summer (December to March in the wild). Plate 921. O. hispidum. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape). Stems to 18 in. Flowers white, late spring (August to November in the wild). O. inclusum. South Africa (Clanwilliam area in Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers, white, spring (August to September in the wild). O. juncifolium. South Africa (Northern Province to Eastern Cape), in dry flats or rocky slopes. Stems 8-12 in. Leaves many, slender. Flowers white with faint green stripe on reverse which darkens with age, summer (November to March in the wild). O. lanceolatum. Turkey to Lebanon. Stems absent or only l/2 in. Flowers white with broad green median stripes, appearing at ground level, mid spring. O. latifolium. Turkey (Asia Minor). Stems to 24 in. Leaves to 2 in. wide, quite fleshy. Flowers white, on long pedicels, late spring. O. longibracteatum. SEA ONION, FALSE SEA ONION, GERMAN ONION, ONION LILY. South Africa (Mossel Bay in Western Cape) to tropical Africa. introduced 1774. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers white and green, very numerous, late spring to late summer (November to March in the wild). Plate 922. O. maculatum. South Africa (Namaqualand to Paarl), often growing on rocks. Stems usually 4-8 in., sometimes to 20 in. Flowers yellow, orange, or orange-red; outer segments usually marked at tips with black or yellow. Flowering late spring to

386

Ornithogalum

early summer (September to November in the wild). Var. splendens is 12-18 in. tall with fewer but larger flowers. O. magnum. Caucasus Mountains, in Georgia. Stems to 36 in. Flowers in upright raceme, large, white with green stripe on reverse; lower pedicels longer than upper. Flowering early summer. Plate 923. O. monophyllum. South Africa (Mpumalanga) and Swaziland. Stems to 10 in. Flowers white, spring (September to November in the wild). O. montanum. SE Europe, from Italy to Greece and Turkey, and SW Asia; introduced 1824. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers white with a broad green stripe on reverse, late spring. O. multifolium. South Africa (Namaqualand to Swellendam in E Western Cape); introduced 1878. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers bright orange-yellow, late spring to summer (October to December in the wild). O. nanodes. South Africa (Namaqualand to W Karoo). Stems to 2 in. Flowers white with light brown keels, late spring to summer (October to December in the wild). O. nanum. Italy and Balkans. Stems to 2 in. Flowers white with broad green median stripes, early to mid spring. O. narbonense. Mediterranean region, Turkey, and Iran; introduced 1810. Stems 12-18 in. Flowering late spring. Leaves greenish gray, basal, linear, 18 in. long, channeled, thick. Flowers numerous, pure white or cream with wide, green midrib on reverse, seldom over 1 in. in diameter. Hardy to at least 10°F. O. niveum. South Africa (Cape Peninsula); introduced 1774. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers white flushed green, summer (December to February in the wild). O. nutans. SILVER BELLS. S Europe, and widely naturalized elsewhere. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves 12-18 in. long. Flowers 3-12 per stem, white with green midrib on reverse; pedicels short; raceme often somewhat one-sided. Flowering late spring through early summer. Prefers shade and will naturalize in woodland. Var. boucheanum is taller. Plate 924. O. oligophyllum. Balkan Peninsula and Turkey; introduced 1884. Stems to 6 in. Leaves few, short, about 1/2 in. wide. Flowers to 5 per stem, about 1 in. in diameter, white with green reverse, early spring. Probably hardy to about 0°F. Plate 925. O. oreoides. Romania. Similar to O. atticum. O. ornithogaloides. South Africa (Eastern Cape) to Malawi, widespread on riverbanks. Stems 5-10 in. Leaves long, cylindrical. Flowers white, summer (November to February in the wild). O. orthophyllum. S France to N Iran; introduced 1830. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers white, reverse almost entirely green, on long spreading or ascending pedicels. Flowering mid to late spring. O. paludosum. South Africa (Caledon in Western Cape to KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga), in mountains and marshy areas. Stems to 24 in. Flowers white, early summer (October to November in the wild). O. pilosum. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers white, early summer (October to December in the wild). O. polyphyllum. South Africa (Namaqualand to Clanwilliam). Stems 10-24 in. Flowers very fragrant, white or rarely yellow, with green keel, spring (August to October in the wild).

O. ponticum. Crimea. Similar to O. narbonense. 'Sochi' is a robust form with pure white flowers. O. prasinantherum. Greece (Peloponnese). Similar to O. narbonense. O. prasinum. Namibia and South Africa (Northwestern Province, Gauteng, Free State, Mpumalanga); introduced c. 1812. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers green or green with white stripes, spring or early summer. Plate 926. O. pruinosum. South Africa (Namaqualand). Stems to 20 in. Flowers fragrant, white with faint green stripes, spring (Sep' tember in the wild). O. pyramidale. Mediterranean region, from Balkans and Romania into C Europe; introduced 1752. Similar to O. nutans, but slightly taller, 18-24 in., and later blooming. Leaves often withered by flowering time. Flowers to 30 per stem. O. pyrenaicum. MATH ASPARAGUS, PRUSSIAN ASPARAGUS. Caucasus to S Europe; introduced 1878. Stems 12-14 in. Flowers not opening fully, pale greenish yellow inside, green outside, late spring. Var. flavescens is yellowish outside. O. refractum. SE Europe; introduced 1820. Stems 2-4 in. Flowers white with narrow green stripe on reverse, late spring. O. reverchonii. SW Spain. Stems stout, 15-40 in. Leaves broad, lax, gray-green, appearing in fall. Flowers white to cream, large, bell-shaped, faint green stripes on reverse, mid spring. O. rogersii. South Africa, in wet areas in mountains. Stems 3-6 in. Flowers white, ovary green, stamens yellow, summer (December in the wild). O. rupestre. South Africa (Northern Cape, W Western Cape); endangered. Stems to 2 in. Flowers yellow or white, flushed pink, late spring (September in the wild). O. sardienii. SE South Africa (Little Karoo). Stems 6-10 in. Leaves succulent, hairy. Flowers upward-facing, white, early to late summer (December to March in the wild). O. saundersiae. GIANT CHINCHERINCHEE. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, E Northern Province, and Mpumalanga) and Swaziland; introduced 1896. Stems to 36 in. or more. Leaves sword-shaped, 24 in. long. Flowers ivory with conspicuous green-black center. Lower pedicels long, upward-growing, producing a flat inflorescence. Not hardy but can be lifted and overwintered dry in a frost-free place. Flowering late summer from spring planting. Deserves to be more widely grown, an excellent garden plant and good cut flower. O. secundum. South Africa (Namaqualand, W Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Leaves broad, dry by flowering. Flowers yellow with green keels, spring (August to November in the wild). O. seineri. Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa (Northwestern Province, Gauteng, Northern Province, Mpumalanga, Free State). Stems to 16 in. Flowers white with green keel, summer (November to February in the wild). Plate 927. O. sintenisii. N Iran and Russia near Caspian Sea, in woodland. Stems 2-3 in. Flowers to 25 per raceme, white with broad dark green stripe on reverse, spring. O. sororium. Crimea; introduced 1875. Stems 8-12 in. Flowers white, late spring. O. sphaerocarpum. SE Europe and Balkans; introduced 1878.

Ornithogalum Sometimes regarded as a variety of O. pyrenaicum. Stems 20-36 in. Flowers greenish white or transparent, late spring. O. suaveolens. Namibia and South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape, Eastern Cape). Stems 12-24 in. Flowers yellow at margins with broad green median stripe, spring (September to November in the wild). O. subcoriaceum. W South Africa (Nieuwoudtville in Northern Cape to Gydo Pass). Stems to 8 in. Leaves few, broad. Flowers white, spring (September to October in the wild). O. subcucullatum. Sierra de Credos of Spain. Similar to O. concinuum but taller, to 20 in. Flowers pure white, late spring. O. tenuifolium. Southern and tropical Africa; introduced 1823. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers white at margins with broad green median band, summer (November to March in the wild). Subsp. aridum from South Africa (Northern Province, Karoo, Eastern Cape, Free State, Northern Cape) flowers summer (September to February in the wild) and has bulb with a neck. Plate 928. O. thermophilum. South Africa (Namaqualand, W Western Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Leaves 2-4, appearing after flowering. Flowers white with orange keels, summer (December in the wild). O. thyrsoides. CHINCHERINCHEE, WONDER FLOWER. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape); introduced before 1757, long in cultivation for cut flowers. Bulb relatively large, greenish. Stems to 24 in. but often much shorter, depending on clone. Flowers pure white sometimes with dark center; prominent yellow stamens; many cup-shaped flowers densely carried on short raceme, or more widely spaced on taller stems. Grow frost-free; can be treated like gladiolus, planted in spring to flower in late summer, lifted, and overwintered dry. In mild gardens, bulbs left in the ground multiply quickly. Appreciates summer moisture but needs free-draining soil. Var. aureum is a possibly invalid name given to shorter-growing types with golden yellow flowers. Var. album is pure white; var. flavescens, saffron yellow; var.flavissimum, deeper yellow. The onomatopoetic common name (rendered "tinkerintees" by Thunberg) imitates the sound produced when the stems are rubbed together; another name, viooltjie, means "little violin." Peduncle, leaves, and flowers are toxic to grazing animals, but most mortality arises when parts of the plant are accidentally included in cut forage; in the fields the stock seem to avoid eating any part of the plants. Plates 929-932. O. umbellatum. STAR OF BETHLEHEM. Europe, Great Britain, Turkey (Asia Minor), and North Africa; naturalized in parts of Canada and the United States. Stems 6-8 in. Leaves 6-9, 6-12 in. long. Flowers 6-20 per stem, white, with green stripes on reverse, almost unnoticeable flowers are wide open. Flowers open late in the day and close at night. Flowering late spring. A good plant for the wild garden but can be quite invasive through selfsowing. Plates 933, 934. O. unifolium. Namibia and South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers buff white to pale yellow, spring (September to November in the wild). O. visianicum. W Yugoslavia. Similar to O. pyrenaicum but tepals white on reverse.

387

O. vittatum. South Africa; introduced 1802. Stems 6-9 in. Flowers yellow with green reverse, early summer (October to November in the wild). O. xanthochlorum. South Africa (Namaqualand, Clanwilliam). Stems to 24 in. Flowers greenish, subtended by bracts, spring (August to September in the wild). O. zebrinellum. South Africa (Namaqualand to Hex River Mountains, W Karoo). Stems to 24 in. Basal part of leaves striped, sheathing stem. Flowers white, late summer (February to March in the wild). SYNONYMS

O. aloiforme see O. graminifolium. O. annae-ameliae see O. monophyllum. O. attenuatum see O. graminifolium. O. aurantiacum see O. multifolium. O. aureum see O. dubium. O. balansae see O. oligophyllum. O. barbatum see O. suaveolens. O. brevifolium see O. juncifolium. O. breviscapum see O. suaveolens. O. caudatum see O. longibracteatum. O. chlorathum see O. nutans. O. ciliatifolium see O. hispidum. O. collinum see O. tenuifolium. O. comptonii see O. juncifolium. O. corymbosum see O. arabicum. O. dichotomum see Thysanotus dichotomus. O. distans see O. hispidum. O. ecklonii see O. tenuifolium. O. flavescens see O. dubium, O. pyrenaicum. O. flavissimum see O. dubium. O. florescens see O. dubium. O. gracile see O. paludosum. O. gussonei see O. tenuifolium. O. inandense see O. graminifolium. O. inconspicuum see O. tenuifolium. O. kochii see O. tenuifolium. O. lacteum see O. conicum. O. leptophyllum see O. juncifolium. O. longiscapum see O. graminifolium. O. miniatum see O. dubium. O. odoratissimum see O. polyphyllum. O. oliganthum see O. juncifolium. O. pretoriense see O. tenuifolium. O. pyrenaicum var. sphaerocarpum see O. sphaerocarpum. O. revolutum see O. thyrsoides. O. roodiae see O. suaveolens. O. schlechterianum see O. niveum. O. sibthorpii see O. nanum. O. subulatum see O. juncifolium. O. thunbergianum see O. maculatum. O. triniatum see O. dubium. O. virens see O. tenuifolium. O. zeyheri see O. ornithogaloides.

388

Ornithoglossum

Ornithoglossum—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from ornis ("bird") and glossa ("tongue"). This genus of about 8 species is distributed primarily in South Africa and extends into tropical Africa. The principal species, O. viride (commonly called poison onion) grows in grassland and is widely distributed. The rootstocks are corms, often with a long, sheathed neck below ground. These produce sheathing leaves, the lower much larger than the upper. From the axils arise long petioles which recurve at the tips to carry the pendent flowers. The narrow perianth segments are not joined and reflex when the flower is fully open; the flowers are quite "spidery" in appearance. There are 6 stamens which arise from the base of the perianth segments and spread wide, almost forming a flat plane. The 3 styles also spread wide. Both the leaves and the pedicels bearing the flowers are arranged in 2 opposite ranks on the scape. The flowers are outward-facing and zygomorphic, with most of the perianth segments clustered on the upper half. It is unlikely that these insignificant plants will ever become common in gardens or commerce. They are of interest primarily to bulb collectors and botanic gardens. They are very easy to grow, but most are dwarf and the flowers not very large. However, the long flowering period might make this a plant to consider for the rock garden where not too much water is given during the summer. CULTURE All species should probably be grown frost-free, though their rarity in cultivation has not permitted much testing. Set corms 4 in. deep and 6-10 in. apart in well-drained, sandy soil in full sun. While species are found in both summer- and winter-rainfall areas, they grow in the drier parts of both regions. Moisture should be provided when the plants are in active growth, but when flowering has finished keep them on the dry side. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate cormels after the foliage has died back. Sow seed as soon as ripe in a very sandy soil mix, barely covered. Transplant when corms have formed. Grow on in containers. Plant out the 2nd year, or harvest the corms, hold them over winter, and plant in spring. SPECIES

O. calcicola. Namibia and South Africa (Mpumalanga to Free State, Northern Cape). Stems 12-18 in. Flowers yellow to greenish yellow, 5-20 per stem, summer (December to March in the wild). O. dinteri. South Africa (Northwestern Province). Stems to 20 in., sometimes branched. Leaves 2-5. Flowers green, purple or brown, 2-25 per stem, summer to fall (January to April in the wild). O. gracile. South Africa (near Stellenbosch in Western Cape). Stems to 4 in. Leaves lanceolate, with undulate margins. Flow-

ers usually 4-5 per corm, greenish, fall (April to May in the wild). O. parviflorum. South Africa (Clanwilliam area to Namaqualand and Karoo), in areas with winter rainfall and very hot, dry summers. Stems 2-8 in. Leaves lanceolate. Flowers brownish-purple or green and maroon, winter to late spring (June to October in the wild). O. undulatum. South Africa (all provinces except KwaZuluNatal); introduced c. 1825. Stems short. Leaves lanceolate, bluegreen, boat-shaped, with margins either flat or crisped, and very poisonous to livestock. Flowers white to pink with purple or maroon tips; perianth segments clustered on upper side of pendent flowers. Flowering late fall to early winter (April to luly in the wild). O. viride. POISON ONION. Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa (Eastern Cape, Western Cape, Northern Cape, Free State), in tall grassland; introduced 1788. Stems to 10 in. Flowers 10-12 per corm, often fewer, green in bud, opening greenish, with almost black tips and often dark base. Stamens long, gracefully curved. Flowering winter to spring (June to September in the wild). Narrow-leaved forms sometimes called var. angustifolium. O. vulgare. Namibia and Botswana to South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga, Free State, Northern Cape). Stems to 28 in. Flowers reddish brown to purplish black, spring to summer (September to lanuary in the wild). O. zeyheri. South Africa (Namaqualand, NW Western Cape, W Northern Cape). Stems 1-2 in. Leaves 2. Flowers 3-10 per corm; tepals erect, spreading, not recurved, greenish, purplish at tips and base. Flowering fall (May in the wild). SYNONYMS

O. glaucum see O. vulgare. O. glaucum var. grandiflorum see O. dinteri.

Oxalis—Oxalidaceae SORREL Name derived from Greek oxys ("sharp") and hals ("salt"), referring to the taste of the plant's acidic sap. The English common name is related to sour. Oxalis is a very large genus, estimated by different authorities to contain 500-800 species. A few of these are native to the northern and southern temperate zones, but the majority are found in South Africa and tropical and subtropical South America. Most of the species are not bulbous, and many of them are invasive plants that can become pests in the garden, seeding rapidly and difficult to eradicate. There are, however, a number of charming, more or less wellbehaved species in commerce. Most species are low-growing. The deciduous leaves are palmately compound, resembling clover, with 3 or sometimes more leaflets. They often droop and fold up at night or on very hot days. Flower colors include yellow, pink, orange, red, white, and lavender. The flowers open only in the sunshine. They have 5 overlapping sepals which are twisted spirally in bud. The open flower is broadly funnel-shaped to flat, with a cup in the center. There are 10 stamens in 2 series of 5 each.

Oxalis The kernel of the bulb is fleshy and rich in fine-grained starch which animals like to eat. The Xhosa people grind the bulbs for medicinal use to cure tapeworm in children. The leaves of Oxalis can be used to remove ink stains from clothes; they also have been eaten as salads in various countries but are reported to be harmful if eaten in large quantity. Except for the high-alpine species, which can be a challenge to grow at all, any oxalis introduced to the garden should be treated as a potential invader and tried initially in some confined space, such as a hanging basket, window box, or other container, set over pavement. The seeds are dispersed explosively and can spread rapidly over a large area. Nonetheless, oxalis are splendid when massed at the front of a low border or in a wall. Easy to grow, they are good plants for the low-maintenance garden, but most go dormant for part of the year and cannot be relied on for foliage effect year-round. CULTURE As might be expected in such a widely distributed genus, there is a great range of cold tolerance; however, most South African species do not flourish where temperatures drop below 25°F. The high-elevation Andean species are fairly cold-tolerant but should not be wet in winter. Well-drained soil is best; oxalis can grow in quite poor, sandy soil but does not perform well in heavy clay. Plant bulbs 1 in. deep and 3-4 in. apart in a sunny spot, except for woodland species. Oxalis can survive very dry conditions in summer but does better with a little moisture at all times. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

The prolific production of offset bulbs makes any other form of propagation unnecessary, but seedlings can be raised if desired. Sow seed in spring in cool, frost-free conditions. Even small offsets will flower after one season's growth. Preventing multiplication is more of a problem than propagation is. SPECIES

O. acetosella. United States, Canada, Europe, and Asia. Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems to 3 in. Flowers white with purple veins. Plate 935. O. adenophylla. S Chile and Argentina, in moist screes to 8000 ft. or higher; introduced 1905. Often marketed as "pink buttercups," though not related to buttercups (Ranunculus). Tubers small, elongated, covered with a mass of fibers made up of bases of old leaves. Stems 2-4 in. Leaves in compact rosettes, glaucous, with many leaflets. Flowers 1 in. in diameter, one per stalk, pale to deep lilac pink, paler near base, dark purple center spots at base. Likes full sun and very gritty, well-drained soil. Hardy to at least -10°F if not too wet in winter. Flowering late spring to early summer. Plate 936. O ambigua. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 4-5 in. Flowers solitary, white with yellow throat, reverse light pink, summer (October to December in the wild). O. annae. South Africa (Karoo to Port Albert, Namaqualand, Clanwilliam, Calvinia in Northern Cape). Rootstock cor-

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mous. Stems to 3 in. Flowers copper-pink or yellow, with funnel-shaped tube, late winter to early spring (July to August in the wild). O. arenaria. Chile and Argentina; introduced 1875. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 15 in. Flowers purple, paler on reverse, spring to early summer. O. articulata. Paraguay; introduced 1870. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 8 in. Flowers bright mauve pink, fall. O. bifida. South Africa (Ceres to Cape Peninsula). Stems to 4 in. Flowers pinkish with darker shading, fall (March to October in the wild). Needs partial shade. O. bifurcata. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 1-3 in. Flowers pink, spring (September in the wild). O. bowiei. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Often grown and incorrectly called "O. purpurata bowiei," but flowers much larger than those of O. purpurata. Flowers rosy red to pink with yellow-green throat, fall (March to May in the wild). Plate 937. O. brasiliensis. Brazil; introduced 1829. Leaves 3-4 in. high. Flowers at soil level, 11/2in. in diameter, crimson-red with yellowish throat. Flowering late spring to early summer. Spreads to form a carpet. Grow frost-free. O. comosa. South Africa (Namaqualand). Rootstock cormous. Stems 8-16 in. Flowers pale rose with short yellow tube, spring to early summer (August to October in the wild). O. corymbosa. S and E Asia, South America, and Pacific islands; introduced 1826. Rootstock a scaly rounded bulb with many small bulbils. Stems to 10 in. Flowers bluish violet with paler base, spring to summer. O. depressa. South Africa (from Western Cape to Mpumalanga) and Zimbabwe, growing among rocks. Rootstock a small tuber with a shell-like coat. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers solitary, carried well above leaves, pink to rose violet with yellow throat; white form known in the wild. Flowering late summer to winter (April to August in the wild) but often earlier in cultivation. Easy to grow in a sunny, sandy place, even in S England. Said to be hardy to at least –10°F. O. drummondii. Mexico. Bulb with papery scales. Flowers purple in umbel of 3-10, spring to summer. O. elegans. Peru; introduced 1848. Bulb ovoid. Stems to 12 in. Flowers purple with deep purple ring in throat, summer. O. enneaphylla. SCURVY GRASS. S Chile, S Argentina, and Falkland Islands; introduced 1876. Rhizome vertical, branching, slender with thick fleshy scales. Stems 1-4 in. Flowers fragrant, white to rose lavender with prominent deep purple veining, summer. Selections include 'Alba', white; 'Minutifolia', dwarf form; 'Rosea', light pink; 'Ruth Tweedie', shell-pink; and 'Rubra', red-violet. O.fabifolia. South Africa (Western Cape). Bulb ovoid. Stems to 6 in. Flowers yellow, summer (November to December in the wild). O.flava. South Africa (Namaqualand to Riversdale in Western Cape); introduced 1775. Bulb reddish brown. Stems to 3 in. Flowers yellow, white or mauve, winter (April to June in the wild). O. grandifolia. Venezuela. Bulbs very small. Stems to 12 in. Flowers small, white with reddish spots, early summer.

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O. hirta. South Africa (from Bokkeveld Mountains to Cape Peninsula in Western Cape). Tubers brown, about the size of a large kernel of corn. Stems to 12 in., usually trailing, sometimes erect. Leaves hairy beneath, glabrous above, with 3 sessile leaflets. Flowers produced in leaf axils at top of stems, on peduncles that hold them away from leaves; usually purple-pink with yellow, sometimes mauve or white. Flowering late winter to late spring (April to September in the wild). Var. fulgida has purple flowers; var. rubella, deep red. Var. canescens has rosy-purple flowers with short tube and hairy leaves and stems. Var. intermedia has purple flowers, linear leaves. Var. polioeides has bluepurple or rarely white flowers, erect, hairy stem. Var. secunda has reddish-purple flowers with long tube, stem not erect. Var. tenuicaulis has yellow or white flowers, tube shorter than petals. Var. tubiflora has rosy-purple flowers, erect stem. Good plant for hanging baskets. Probably hardy to about 25°F. O. laciniata. S Chile and S Argentina. Rhizome fleshy, pinkish, elongated. Stems branching, 2–4 in. Flowers violet-blue or crimson with darker veining, or white with green throat, summer. O. lasiandra. Mexico; introduced 1840. Stems 12-14 in. Bulbs numerous, small. Flowers purplish crimson, summer to fall. O. lasiopetala. Brazil. Rhizome tuberous. Stems 3-10 in. Flowers pale violet to deep rose, spring to summer. O. latifolia. Mexico to Peru, and naturalized in much of South Africa. Bulb rounded, pale brown. Stems to 8 in. Flowers purple, mauve, or violet, spring to summer. O. livida. South Africa (Clanwilliam to Bredasdorp in Western Cape). Bulb flat and ridged. Stems to 5 in., often branched. Flowers lilac to white, not wavy, fall (April to June in the wild). O. lobata. Chile; introduced 1823. Tuber small, woolly. Stems to 4 in. Leaves bright green with 3 leaflets, emerge with flowers in fall, go dormant in mid winter, emerge again in spring and go dormant again in mid summer. Flowers fragrant, clear yellow, late summer to early fall. Best with overhead protection in all but frost-free regions. O. luteola. South Africa (Bokkeveld Mountains to Albertinia in Western Cape); introduced 1823. Bulb with brownish, gummy tunic. Stems to 2 in. Flowers deep yellow, late fall to early spring (May to August in the wild). Plate 938. O. melanosticta. South Africa (W Karoo to Montagu in Western Cape). Stems to 1 in. Flowers yellow, late summer to winter (April to August in the wild). O. monophylla. South Africa (Clanwilliam to Cape Peninsula); introduced 1795. Stems to 4 in. Flowers white to pale purplish with yellowish tube, fall (April to August in the wild). O. obliqua. Mexico. Stems to 12 in. Flowers pale purple, spring. O. obliquifolia. South Africa, Swaziland, and Lesotho. Stems to 8 in. Flowers pink to mauve with yellow throat, summer (November to March in the wild). O. obtusa. South Africa (Namaqualand and W Karoo to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape). Stems to 1 in. Flowers pale yellow or apricot-pink, often with deeper reddish veining and yellowish base, winter to spring (June to October in the wild). Numerous color forms are grown.

O. oregana. REDWOOD SORREL. United States (Monterey County in California to Washington), in moist shade. Rhizome scaly, horizontally creeping. Stems 2-8 in. Flowers white to rose pink, late spring. O. pollens. Uruguay. Rhizome dark brown, vertical. Stems to 5 in. O. pes-caprae. BERMUDA BUTTERCUP, ENGLISH-WEED, WOOD SORREL. South Africa (Western Cape, Namaqualand) and Namibia; introduced 1757. Bulbs scaly, quite small. Stems 10-12 in. Leaves bright green, cloverlike, often with brown spot on leaflet, emerging in late fall. Flowers bright yellow, numerous, 3-20 per stem, late winter or early spring (May to October in the wild). A serious pest in milder climates, difficult to eradicate; it is banned from commerce in the United States as a noxious weed. In Africa, the leaves and flowers are cooked in goats' milk to make a tasty porridge. Plate 939. O. polyphylla. South Africa (Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape). Stems 2-12 in. Flowers reddish purple, lilac, or white, throat yellow, fall (March to June in the wild). Var. pentaphylla from Cape Peninsula has purplish or rosy flesh-colored flowers, pale brown bulb with rhizome. O. purpurata. South Africa (Namaqualand to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape). Fleshy underground stolons bear apical bulbils. Stems 8-12 in. Leaves long-stalked with 3 leaflets, hairy on margins and underside. Flowers to 5 per stem, purple to violet with small yellow eye, tubular or bell-shaped. Flowering mid to late summer (September to November in the wild). Not very frost hardy but often used as a house plant. Var. anthelmintica, introduced 1893, has smaller flowers, stems 4-6 in. tall, and leaflets more widely spaced. O. purpurea. South Africa (Namaqualand to Cape Peninsula); introduced 1812. Bulb blackish, globose to ovoid. Stems 1-2 in. Flowers reddish purple with yellow tube; pink and white forms also grown. Flowering autumn to late winter (April to August in the wild). Plates 940,941. O. pusilla. South Africa (Langebaan to Cape Peninsula). Bulb 1A in. long, tunic dark and smooth. Flowers light pink with yellow throat, winter (May to July in the wild). O. regnellii. Peru, Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Argentina. Rhizome brownish, tuberculate. Stems to 10 in. Leaves green mottled with purple. Flowers pale pink to white, spring to summer. Var. triangularis has burgundy-red, triangular leaves and pink flowers. O. rubra. Argentina and S Brazil. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers red, with obscure stripes, summer. O. semiloba. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga to Eastern Cape). Stems 8-16 in. Flowers in umbel, bright pink to shiny red with yellow throat, summer to fall (December to March in the wild). O. smithiana. South Africa (from George in Western Cape to Mpumalanga), Lesotho, and Swaziland, in grasslands. Stems to 5 in., erect. Leaves on long stems, leaflets deeply lobed. Flowers usually rosy, sometimes pale blue to lilac, with yellow eye, solitary, bell-shaped. Flowering late summer to winter (March to May in the wild). O. tenuifolia. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Bulb rounded

Pamianthe to ovoid. Stems 5-8 in. Flowers white with purple margin; tube sulfur yellow. Flowering winter (May to August in the wild). O. tetraphylla. GOOD LUCK LEAF PLANT, IRON CROSS PLANT, LUCKY CLOVER, LUCKY LEAF, FOUR-LEAVED CLOVER. Mexico.

Bulb roundish, black or dark brown, scaly, to 11/2 in. in diameter, edible. Stems 10-12 in. Leaves cloverlike with 4 red-spotted leaflets. Flowers in an umbel, lilac pink, rose, or reddish, with greenish-yellow throat. Flowering mid to late summer. 'Alba' is a pure white form; 'Iron Cross' has cross-shaped brown markings on leaves. O. trilliifolia. United States (N California to Washington). Rhizome vertical, scaly. Flowers white to pale pink, summer. O. tuberosa. Colombia; introduced 1853. Rhizomes swollen to tubers at tips, tubers scaly, edible. Stems to 12 in. Flowers yellow, spring to summer. O. versicolor. South Africa (Clanwilliam to Hermanus in Western Cape); introduced 1774. Bulb black, rounded. Stems 2-8 in. Flowers white or purplish white, margin violet, tube yellowish. Flowering winter to late spring (May to November in the wild). Var. flaviflora has yellow flowers. O. violacea. VIOLET WOOD SORREL. United States; introduced 1772. Bulb round with brown scales. Stems to 8 in. Flowers pinkish purple, summer. SYNONYMS

O. abyssinica see O. purpurata. O. acutiuscula see O. hirta. O. aemula see O. purpurea. O. amoena see O. polyphylla. O. amplifolia see O. drummondii. O. asinina see O. fabifolia. O. atrata see O. obtusa. O. bachmannii see O. hirta. O. balsamifera see O. luteola. O. bella see O. annae. O. binervis see O. latifolia. O. bipunctata see O. corymbosa. O. bowieana see O. bowiei. O. brevicaulis see O. hirta. O. breviscapa see O. purpurea. O. canescens see O. hirta var. polioeides. O. cathariensis see O. regnellii. O. cernua see O. pes-caprae. O. ciliariflora see O. obtusa. O. commutata var. pusilla see O. depressa. O. convexula var. dilatata see O. depressa. O. crassipes see O. hirta var. tenuicaulis. O. crenata see O. tuberosa. O. cuprea see O. obtusa. O. dammeriana see O. depressa. O. debilis see O. corymbosa. O. decipiens see O. purpurea. O. deppei see O. tetraphylla. O. elongata see O. versicolor. O. filicaulis see O. bifida. bifida. O. filifolia see O. polyphylla.

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O. fimbriata see O. obtusa. O. flabellifolia see O. flava. O. floribunda see O. articulata. O. fortipes see O. hirta var. tenuicaulis. O. framesii see O. obtusa. O. fulgida see O. hirta var. fulgida. O. galpinii see O. smithiana. O. gracilicaulis see O. smithiana. O. grandiflora see O. purpurea. O. hirtella see O. hirta. O. humilis see O. purpurea. O. inops see O. depressa. O. intermedia see O. latifolia. O. laburnifolia see O. purpurea. O. lacunosa see O. obtusa. O. libyca see O. pes-caprae. O. loddigesiana see O. tenuifolia. O. lupinifolia see O. flava. O. macrostylis see O. hirta var. tubiflora. O. mairei see O. pes-caprae. O. martiana see O. corymbosa. O. membranacea see O. obtusa. O. multiflora see O. hirta. O. otaviensis see O. depressa. O. patula see O. tenuifolia. O. pectinata see O. flava. O. pentaphylla see O. polyphylla var. pentaphylla. O. punctulata see O. versicolor. O. purpurata var. bowiei see O. bowiei. O. reptatrix see O. hirta. O. rosacea see O. hirta var. canescens. O. rubella see O. hirta var. rubella. O. rubroflora see O ambigua. O. sanguinea see O. purpurea. O. secunda see O. hirta var. secunda. O. strictophylla see O. purpurea. O. thunbergiana see O. tenuifolia. O. tubiflora see O. hirta var. tubiflora. O. tubiflora var. canescens see O. hirta var. polioeides. O. tubiflora var. minor see O. hirta var. tubiflora. O. tubiflora var. robusta see O. hirta var. tubiflora. O. tubiflora var. secunda see O. hirta var. secunda. O. varabilis see O. purpurea. O. venusta see O. purpurea. O. vespertilionis see O. drummondii, O. latifolia. O. vigilans see O. bowiei.

Pamianthe—Amaryllidaceae P Named in honor of Major Albert Pam, with suffix -anthe ("flower"); in 1928 Pam was the first to flower P. peruviana in England. Native to moist tropical forests of Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru, this is a genus of perhaps 2 or 3 species, but only P. peruviana is in cultivation. It was found at about 6000 ft. eleva-

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tion, growing in a sandy soil. It was thought at first to be a species of Ismene, and is obviously related to Hymenocallis and Pancratium, but its false stems and folded leaf bases distinguish it from both. Its great fragrance makes Pamianthe a magnificent warm greenhouse subject, and a spectacular garden plant in very warm climates. It is a striking cut flower; it seems a shame, however, to chance harming the bulb by cutting the flower stem too close to the bulb. CULTURE

Pamianthe should be grown outdoors only where winter temperatures stay above 50°F and summer humidity is high. In late fall, the plant goes into a resting period, but because the foliage is evergreen, it should always have some moisture. Bulbs are best planted October to December, 12 in. apart, 3-4 in. deep, with the neck at soil level or a few inches above it. Plants require good, rich loam and good light but not direct sun. Adequate moisture is needed during spring and summer, with a little less in October to December. When growth starts in the new year, a liquid fertilizer can be given. Plants grown in containers require soil with a high organic content. Small plants are easier to establish than large ones. PESTS AND DISEASES

Due to the sheathing form of the evergreen leaves, mealy bugs can be a problem. Control mild cases with rubbing alcohol; in more severe cases use an insecticide. PROPAGATION

Seed can be sown as soon as ripe; it takes about one year to mature on the plant but then it quickly germinates. Sow it in an organic soil mix, keep it moist, and transplant seedlings when they are large enough to handle. Offsets can be taken during the slow growth period in November to early December. When stolons form new plants, these can be detached and provide a good method of propagating this lovely plant. SPECIES

P. peruviana. Peru. Bulb globose, tunicated, with scales that elongate to form a false stem. Spreads by stolons. Leaves evergreen, sheathing the scape to a considerable height before angling away; leaves with a rounded keel, about 12 in. long, but the total length including the sheathing portion is often much longer. Stem to 24 in. in height, with 3-4 flowers. Perianth segments green on lower parts, forming a 4-in. long, narrow tube; outer segments flare out, become broader, and eventually diminish to a point. Lobes pure white with a yellowish-green median stripe. Inner segments 3 in. long, forming a bell-shaped corona with pointed tips. Corona 2 in. across, with greenishyellow median stripes. Flowers fragrant, late winter to early spring. Plate 942. SYNONYMS P. andreana see Lepidochiton quitoensis. P. quitoensis see Lepidochiton quitoensis.

Pancratium—Amaryllidaceae MEDITERRANEAN LILY, SEA DAFFODIL, SEA LILY Name derived from Greek pan ("all") and kratos ("strength"), the name given to this plant by Dioscorides. This is a small genus, found around the Mediterranean, in the Canary Islands, in tropical Africa south to Namibia, and in tropical Asia. Of the dozen or so species, only 3 are generally cultivated in mild temperate regions, and only P. maritimum, often found growing in sand dunes along coastal S Europe, is offered in commerce. Sea daffodil is a better description of the flower than sea lily. The slightly poisonous bulbs are among the largest (often over 6 in. in diameter) produced by bulbous plants. The strapshaped leaves are quite wide and either evergreen or deciduous, depending on species. The fragrant flowers, borne in an umbel, are white, shaped much like a large trumpet daffodil. The perianth begins in a funnel-shaped tube and then flares widely. The stamen filaments broaden at the base and form an inner cup, or corona. The tepals usually are flared, narrow, and pointed, the inner ones much shorter than the outer. The fruit is a smooth, round capsule. These are great plants in milder climates, among shrubs in a sunny border to extend the period of interest, and especially in spots where the fragrance can be enjoyed. Pancratium must have good drainage, so do not plant in the garden where there will be too much water during the dormant period. Pancratiums are good container plants for the deck or patio in colder climates, but they need protection against temperatures below freezing. Move containers indoors or into a cool greenhouse during cold weather. They are not difficult to grow in the garden where hardy, but they need a lot of heat to flower. CULTURE The Mediterranean species are hardy to about 10°F but do not flourish in cool climates; they need a hot summer to induce flowering. The other species can be grown outdoors only in areas with little or no frost. The plants do best against a sunny wall, with a dry period in late summer. They need very well drained, sandy soil and full sun in all but the hottest, driest climates, where they tolerate some shade during the height of the day. Plant bulbs in spring with 2-3 in. of soil over the top, about 12 in. apart. The less transplanting done, the better it is for these plants, since the roots are fleshy and must be handled with great care. As soon as the leaves emerge, increase watering and give weak feedings of fertilizer. Keep moist and do not allow to dry out while active growth is taking place. Water is not essential after flowering and after the deciduous leaves begin to wither. Evergreen species should be given just enough moisture during this period to keep the leaves from flagging. Containers must be large and deep to accommodate the bulb and the offsets that will form around it. Plants should remain undisturbed for several years. PESTS AND DISEASES

Plants need protection from slugs and snails during the winter and early spring when grown in milder climates.

Paradisea PROPAGATION

Repot container plants at the onset of the dormant, or slowgrowth, season, when offsets can be taken. Be sure to treat the large bulbs gently to avoid bruising and breakage. Offsets will reach flowering size in 3 years. Sow seed in spring; it requires night temperature of at least 55°F to germinate. Use a light, sandy soil mix and water sparingly until germination has occurred. Seedlings should be planted individually as soon as large enough to handle. SPECIES P. canariense. Canary Islands; introduced 1815. Bulb globose, medium-sized. Stem flattened, to 24 in. Leaves deciduous, strapshaped, slightly glaucous. Flowers to 12 per stem, white, slightly scented, 3 in. in diameter. Flowering late summer to early fall. Tolerates occasional light frost but is much better suited to warmer areas. P. illyricum. CORSICAN LILY. S Europe, Corsica, and Sardinia, in rocky places; introduced 1615. Stems to 18 in. Bulb very large, pear-shaped to globose, covered with purple-black scales. Leaves broad, strap-shaped, deciduous, with prominent veins, slightly glaucous. Flowers to 15 per stem, white, yellowish in bud, fragrant, long-lasting; corona much longer than perianth. Flowering late spring. Slightly hardier than other species and has a good chance of surviving occasional night frosts if planted at the base of a south-facing wall. Plate 943. P. maritimum. MATTHIOLE LILY, SEA LILY, SEA DAFFODIL, SPIDER LILY. Mediterranean coast, S coast of Black Sea, and Atlantic coast of Portugal, mostly in sand dunes or among rocks; introduced 1759. Bulb large, globose, with pale scales and very long neck. Stems to 24 in. Leaves persistent but not truly evergreen, strap-shaped. Flowers white with green median stripe on reverse; corona long and toothed. Flowering late summer. The most commonly grown species, it can survive winter temperatures down to 10°F with perfect drainage but does not flower in colder climates; best for a very warm site in regions where winter temperatures remain about 25°F. Plates 944, 945. P. trianthum. Tropical Africa; introduced 1894. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers 1-3 per stem, white, spring to summer. P. verecundum. Bangladesh. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white within, green without, tube greenish, summer. P. zeylanicum. Sri Lanka; introduced 1762. Stems to 12 in. Flowers solitary, white, summer. SYNONYMS

P. amboinense see Proiphys amboinensis. P. aurantiacum see Stenomesson aurantiacum. P. australasicum see Proiphys amboinensis. P. calathinum see Hymenocallis narcissiflora. P. caribaeum see Hymenocallis caribaea. P. carolinianum see P. maritimum. P. coccineum see Stenomesson coccineum. P. expansum see Hymenocallis expansa. P. flavum see Stenomesson flavum. P. fragrans see Hymenocallis ovata, H. speciosa. P. guianense see Hymenocallis tubiflora. P. latifolium see Urceolina latifolia.

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P. littorale see Hymenocallis littoralis. P. macrostephanum see Hymenocallis xmacrostephana. P. mexicanum see Hymenocallis concinna. P. narcissiflorum see Hymenocallis narcissiflora. P. parviflorum see Vagaria parviflora. P. recurvatum see Stenomesson recurvatum. P. rotatum see Hymenocallis rotata. P. speciosum see Hymenocallis speciosa. P. variegatum see Stenomesson variegatum. P. viridiflorum see Stenomesson viridiflorum.

Paradisea—Asphodelaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of Count Giovanni Paradisi (1760-1826), of Modena, Italy. Closely related to Anthericum, this genus is regarded by some authorities as having only one species, P. liliastrum; others believe there is a 2nd species, P. lusitanicum. The latter may be only a tall form of the former. Paradisea is distinguished from Anthericum by its upward-curving stamens; those of Anthericum are short and straight. Though mentioned in the botanical literature as early as 1629, this plant has never been widely grown. Many plants sold under this name prove to be Anthericum liliago or some other Anthericum species; Paradisea is not quite as adaptable as A. liliago. Nonetheless, it deserves a place in gardens for its early summer flowers. It adds a different form to the border during summer. It does not do well indoors but it can be used as a cut flower. If grown in containers, plants should be plunged outside and brought into the house only when in bud, and taken out after the flowers have faded. CULTURE Paradisea is hardy to about 0°F, and probably colder with reliable snow cover or a deep mulch. It is unlikely to flourish in climates with very hot summers and warm winters. Supplied as container plants, they may be planted in fall or spring; fall is better if they can be set out while the ground is still warm. Plant at the same level they were growing in the pot, 12-24. in. apart, in high shade (full sun in cool-summer regions). Take care not to damage the roots. The plant grows well in a wide range of soils and appreciates a topdressing of well-rotted compost in fall after it has become established. Keep moist while the foliage is green. Remove faded flowers unless seed is required. Leave plants undisturbed as long as possible. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide in early spring or just after flowering. Replant divisions at once. Sow seed in fall or early spring in a moistureretentive but well-drained soil mix. Transplant seedlings as soon as they are large enough to handle. They will flower in about 3 years. SPECIES P. liliastrum. PARADISE LILY, SAINT BRUNO'S LILY. S Europe, in alpine meadows. Rootstock a cluster of short, fleshy rhi-

394

Paramongaia

zomes, with a mass of fleshy roots. Stems usually reaching 24 in. Leaves narrow, gray-green, sharply pointed, keeled, basal, to 24 in. long, emerging in spring, dying down in fall. Flowers white, almost transparent, with a green spot at the tip of each tepal, fragrant, shallowly trumpet-shaped, about 2 in. in diameter, held in a loose, usually one-sided raceme, as many as 15 or 20 per stem. Stamens upward-curving, extending slightly beyond the perianth. Plate 946. P. lusitanicum. Stems usually taller than those of P. liliastrum. Flowers smaller. SYNONYM

P. liliastrum subsp. lusitanicum see P. lusitanicum.

Paramongaia—Amaryllidaceae Named for Paramonga, the locality in Peru where it was first collected. Believed to be a monotypic genus until a 2nd species was found in Bolivia, it closely resembles Hymenocallis, Pamianthe, and Pancratium, but is separated because its seeds are flat and not swollen, and its bulb lacks a neck. Though not many flowers are produced—generally one per bulb, sometimes 2— their color and fragrance make this a very beautiful plant. Although Paramongaia is presently rare in cultivation, it has a place in warm-climate gardens or in the heated greenhouse. CULTURE Must be grown frost-free and does best with daytime temperatures around 70°F year-round. Plant in summer about 8 in. deep, in well-drained but moisture-retentive soil in a bright but not hot spot, or in a large container. Provide ample moisture during the growing season and allow it to dry out a little when dormant. Feed regularly during the growth period. Plants grown in containers should remain undisturbed and become pot-bound to promote flowering, but they must not be kept too moist. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Sow seed in spring, barely cover, and keep at temperatures of 55°-60°F at night. Seedlings should be transplanted as soon as they are large enough to handle. Grown on in warm temperatures, they will reach flowering size in 3-4 seasons. Offsets are also produced, and these can be separated from the parent bulbs at repotting time, before growth commences. Grown on in warm temperatures, they will reach flowering size earlier than plants raised from seed. SPECIES P. superba. Bolivia near La Paz. Similar to P. weberbaueri and perhaps a subspecies of it, but has shorter, narrower leaves without a distinct keel, longer style, and larger stigma. Flowers suberect; outer perianth segments 1 in. wide, inner segments 11/2 in. wide. P. weberbaueri. Peru, on steep hillsides in rocky soil. Bulbs quite large, to 4 in. in diameter. Basal leaves, 8, deciduous, gray-

green, about 24-30 in. long, and 2 in. wide. Stem 18-30 in. tall. Flowers deep yellow, very fragrant, often 6 in. in diameter; perianth segments 6, about 1 in. wide and 3-4 in. long, joined into a tube for % of their length. Flowering late summer. Plates 947, 948. 948.

xPardacanda—Iridaceae Name a combination of Belamcanda and Pardanthopsis, the genera reported to be involved in the breeding of this group of garden hybrids. Pardacanda, when self-pollinated, produces viable seed; this is a rare (and as far as I know, the only) case of a self-fertile bigeneric hybrid—the equivalent of a fertile mule. The bloodlines of this cross are complicated. Belamcanda flabellata was crossed with B. chinensis, and the resulting seed was offered as "Avalon Hybrids" by the George Park Seed Company. (Some authorities regard these 2 species of Belamcanda as a single species.) Samuel N. Norris purchased some Avalon Hybrids and crossed them with Pardanthopsis dichotoma (synonym Iris dichotoma), a plant rather similar to Belamcanda. The resulting hybrids were named xPardacanda norrisii and described as a bigeneric hybrid by Lee Lenz (1972). These plants are not as popular as their beauty merits, perhaps because they tend to be short-lived. The color combinations are often remarkable. I hope that they will be examined and their true identity established. CULTURE Hardy to 10°F, or a little colder with winter mulch. Supplied as container plants or grown from seed. Plant rootstocks 3 in. deep in ordinary well-drained soil in full sun. Moisture should be available during spring and early summer; less is needed when plants begin to flower. Once established the plants are droughttolerant, and hot weather is never a problem. PESTS AND DISEASES

Like Pardanthopsis, xPardacanda must be carefully protected from slugs and snails. PROPAGATION

Seed germinates readily and seedlings flower in their 2nd year. Sow seed as soon as available, using a sandy soil mix. Line out seedlings in nursery rows or place in individual containers when large enough to handle. The rootstocks can be lifted and divided in fall in milder climates, or in early spring in colder ones. SPECIES xPardacanda norrisii. Rootstock a small rhizome, colored somewhat like the skin of a white potato. Leaves about 1 in. wide, sword-shaped, erect, and arranged in a fan clasping the stem at the base. Flowers display a wide range of colors—blue, purple, yellow, red, and orange—with contrasting darker spots and zones (usually yellow) at the base. Perianth segments 6, broad, rounded but narrow at the base, held close but not touching or overlapping. Stamens and style quite prominent. Flowering summer.

Paris

Pardanthopsis—Iridaceae Name is derived from Greek pardos ("panther"), anthos ("flower"), and opsis ("appearance"). The sole species in this monotypic genus is a plant introduced in 1773 as Iris dichotoma, but separated in 1972 by Lee Lenz and known as Pardanthopsis dichotoma. It resembles Iris, but the flowering stem is much branched; many flowers are produced in succession but are not long-lasting, fading quickly and twisting as they fade. If not pollinated, the flower immediately breaks off just below the ovary; in Iris, the flower shrivels without falling. It closely resembles Belamcanda chinensis and produces fertile hybrids when crossed with it (see xPardancanda). Jim Alston, director of research at the Park Seed Company, discussed this unusual case with me, and we both believe that xPardancanda norrisii is not a bigeneric cross but a hybrid between 2 species of one genus— which would be called Belamcanda, since that name has historical priority. No hybrids between Pardanthopsis and Iris have been recorded. It is an ideal question for taxonomists to study. These plants are welcome additions to the sunny border, providing interest late in the season. The flowers do not last long, but many are produced. The plant itself is not long-lived, seemingly exhausting itself in flower production. Plant where both the late summer flowers and the blue-green foliage edged with white can be appreciated. CULTURE Hardy to around -5°F, Pardanthopsis needs well-drained soil with ample moisture during the growing season; keep it drier as it enters dormancy. Plant rhizomes 3-5 in. deep, 6-10 in. apart, in full sun. Weak feedings given on a regular basis during growth and at the beginning of the flowering frenzy will help offset the plant's habit of exhausting itself with flower production. Though flowering late, it starts into growth early in spring and can be harmed by late spring frosts, against which protection is beneficial. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems.

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color across the width of the segment, and, unlike the case in Iris, this color does not follow the veins. Flowering in late summer. Cold-hardy.

Pardanthus P. chinensis see Belamcanda chinensis.

Paris—Trilliaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Latin par ("equal"), because of the regularity of the leaves and flowers. This genus has 4 or 5 species, native to Europe, Great Britain, and E Asia. The closely related genus Daiswa is regarded by some authorities as a subgenus of Paris. Paris has a creeping rhizome and black fruit, while Daiswa has a short, thick rhizome and seeds with fleshy scarlet coats. Paris species are not spectacular plants but were once much used in medicine. Herb paris (P. quadrifolia) is a narcotic; it is recorded that large doses produce vomiting, vertigo, delirium, convulsions, and profuse sweating. In small doses, it was used in the treatment of bronchitis, rheumatism, colic, and palpitation of the heart; a cooling ointment was made from the seeds; and the juice of the leaves was used for infected wounds and for topical application to tumors and inflammations. Literature records its being used as an aphrodisiac, and the seeds and berries are said to act something like opium. The rootstock is a creeping rhizome. From it arise stems 15-20 in. tall. Beneath the solitary terminal flower is a whorl of leaves; usually only one whorl is present, with 4-12 leaves. The flower is solitary, with 4-6 broad green sepals and an equal number of thin, narrow petals, yellow or yellowish. There are 4-10 stamens, often the most colorful part of the flower, and 4 styles, slender and free from one another. The fruit is fleshy and purple-black. Flowering occurs in spring or early summer. All parts of the plants are poisonous. Paris is not showy, but many gardeners like the plants for their rather bizarre yellow-green flowers and elegant foliage. They are refined subjects for the collector's woodland garden.

PROPAGATION CULTURE

Seed is freely produced. Sow it as soon as harvested using a sandy but moisture-retentive soil mix, barely cover. Germination is rapid. Transplant the seedlings as soon as they can be handled. Some plants will flower the following year, and all will flower in 2 years. Because they are short-lived, division of the rootstock is not as good a method of production. SPECIES P. dichotoma. Siberia, N China, and Mongolia. Rootstock a small rhizome with rather thick, swollen roots. Stem can reach 36 in. but is often shorter, branches freely. Leaves quite irislike, 1 in. wide and 12 in. long, generally 6-8 held in a fan. Flower 2 in. in diameter, opening in the afternoon and fading quickly, strikingly colored—purplish spots and bands on greenish white or light yellow; deep purple with a white splash dotted with purple; or blue with darker or lighter spots. There are bands of

Most species are hardy to about 5°F. The native habitat is damp, shady woodland, and the plants enjoy soil rich in organic matter. They need shade and ample moisture in spring and summer, with drier conditions in winter. Set rootstocks 4-5 in. deep, 10 in. apart. They are not good container plants. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide rhizomes in fall or early spring. Seed loses viability in storage. Sow seed as soon as ripe in fall in a peaty soil mix. In early summer, pot individual seedlings into small containers and grow on to plant out the following spring. Seed can also be sown in situ as long as the soil is loose and friable; cover it with a thin sprinkling of leaf mold.

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Patersonia

SPECIES P. bashanensis. W China. Similar to P. quadrifolia but has longer leaves only half as wide. P. incompleta. Turkey and Caucasus. Rhizome slender, creeping. Stems to 12 in. Leaves in a whorl of 6–12, ovate to lanceolate with 3 prominent veins, bases narrowing into thin petiole, pale green, 2-4 in. long. Flower has 4 sessile green sepals, 1-2 in. long, widespreading; no petals; 8 stamens; 4 styles much longer than stamens. Flowering spring to early summer. P. quadrifolia. HERB PARIS. Europe to Siberia and temperate E Asia. Stems thin, to 12 in. Leaves usually 4 (sometimes to 12) in a whorl just under flower. Sepals 4, narrow, lance-shaped; petals 4, green or greenish yellow, thin and threadlike. Filaments short, anthers held upright and curling outward at apex; styles shorter than stamens. Flowering spring to early summer. P. tetraphylla. Japan. Often grown as P. quadrifolia or P. yakusimensis. Rhizome slender, creeping. Stems to 15 in. Leaves sessile in a whorl of 4-5 just below flower, prominently veined, oblong, 4 in. long, 1 in. wide. Sepals green, reflexed; petals absent. Stamens 8–10; styles 4, longer than stamens. P. verticillata. E Asia, Siberia, and Caucasus. Stems 12-15 in. Leaves 5-8, in a whorl about 6 in. below flower. Sepals 4, green; petals 4, yellow, 1 in. wide, 1 in. long, reflexed. Stamens 8-10, a little longer than petals. Ovary purple-brown; styles 4, recurved, short. Fruit a purple-black berry. Flowering late spring. SYNONYMS P. apetala see P. incompleta. P. cronquistii see Daiswa cronquistii. P. dahurica see P. verticillata. P. delavayi see Daiswa delavayi. P. hamifer see Daiswa landfolia. P. henryi see Daiswa delavayi. P. hexaphylla see P. verticillata. P. japonica see Kinugasa japonica. P. lancifolia see Daiswa lancifolia. P. obovata see P. verticillata. P. octyphylla see P. incompleta. P. polyphylla see Daiswa polyphylla. P. polyphylla var. thibetica see Daiswa thibetica. P. quadrifolia var. setchuanensis see P. bashanensis. P. thibetica see Daiswa thibetica. P. violacea see Daiswa violacea. P. yakusimensis see P. tetraphylla. P. yunnanensis see Daiswa yunnanensis.

Patersonia—Iridaceae WlLD IRIS, BUSH IRIS, SILKY PURPLE FLAG, LEAFY PURPLE FLAG

Named in honor of William Paterson (1755-1810), lieutenant governor of New South Wales, founder of Launceston, and an early botanical collector in Australia. There are about 20 species; 17 are native to Australia, and the others are from Borneo and the Philippines. The rootstock is a short rhizome. The foliage is clustered at

the base, arranged on both sides of the stem in fans. The number of flowers per stalk varies according to species, from few to many. They are held in a terminal cluster enclosed by 2 bracts and are either blue or purple, except for P. xanthina, which has yellow flowers. The short-lived flowers are regular in form, the outer 3 tepals broad and spreading, the inner 3 small and erect or absent. The filaments are joined into a tube; the style is threadlike, with 3 narrow petaloid branches at the base. Plants flower in spring or summer. These perennials are suitable for borders in warm climates. The blue and purple flowers are attractive but do not last long. They are suitable for the cool greenhouse. CULTURE

Patersonias can be grown outdoors only where there is little or no frost, and where temperatures in winter mornings soon rise above 32°F. They need a well-drained, light soil with plenty of organic matter. They prefer full sun or at least bright light. Plant them 3-4 in. deep, 10–12 in. apart. They need ample moisture during their growing period from spring through summer. Leave undisturbed except when propagation is desired. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide when plants go dormant in fall. Sow seed in fall in a light, sandy soil mix, barely covered. Transplant seedlings when large enough to handle and plant out in the 2nd year. The plants may flower that year, certainly the following. SPECIES P. babianoides. Western Australia. Several seasons' tubers in basal-like arrangement. Leaf solitary, rarely 2, erect or arched, attached to previous season's tuber. Flowers 1-3, with slender tube, bright yellow spring (October in the wild). P.fragilis. SHORT PURPLE FLAG, FRAGILE IRIS. Australia (New South Wales) and Tasmania, usually in damp sandstone or granitic soils. Stems to 20 in. Leaves basal, rigid, narrow, linear, deep grooves. Flowers in clusters above 2 large brown sheathing bracts, purple, to 1 in. in diameter, with 3 broadly spreading lobes and 3 yellow-tipped stamens. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). P. glabrata. WILD IRIS, LEAFY PURPLE FLAG. Australia (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria), in sandy coastal soils. Stems to 12 in. Leaves long, narrow, clasping base of stem. Flowers blue or purple-blue, to 1 in. in diameter, borne singly or in clusters of 2-3 held above 2 large, brown, hairy, sheathing bracts. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). P. graminea. S Western Australia (Irwin District), in sandy soil. Stems 10-18 in. Flowers violet, spring (September to October in the wild). P. inaequalis. S Western Australia, in cool coastal areas with a growing season of 6-7 months. Stems 10-12 in. Flowers violet, mid summer (December in the wild). P. juncea. S Western Australia (Stirling and Warren districts). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers violet, spring (August to December in the wild).

Pelargonium P. lanata. S Western Australia (Eyre and Stirling districts). Stems 8-18 in. Flowers violet, spring (October to November in the wild). P. limbata. S Western Australia (Irwin District). Stems 12-18 in. Flowers violet-blue, spring (September to November in the wild). P. longifolia. DWARF PURPLE FLAG. Western Australia. Stems 6-7 in. Flowers light purple; 3 outer perianth segments somewhat concave; 3 inner segments very small; yellow stamens quite prominent. P. longiscapa. LONG PURPLE FLAG. Australia (Victoria, South Australia) and Tasmania. Stems to 16 in. Leaves in dense clump, shorter than stems. Flowers blue-purple, spring. P. macrantha. S Western Australia (Darling District). Stems to 12 in. Flowers violet, spring. P. maxwellii. S Western Australia (Eyre District). Stems to 6 in. Flowers violet, spring. P. occidentalis. S Western Australia. Stems 12-24 in. Leaves to 16 in. long. Flowers deep blue to mauve or purple, 1 in. in diameter, spring (July to December in the wild). P. pygmaea. S Western Australia (Darling and Warren districts). Stems 2-6 in. Flowers violet, spring (October in the wild). P. rudis. HAIRY FLAG. S Western Australia (Irwin, Avon, and Darling districts). Stems 12-20 in. Bracts covered with long hairs. Flowers deep purple, spring to early summer (October to January in the wild). P. sericea. SILKY PURPLE FLAG. Australia (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria), in coastal sandy soils. Stems to 12 in., covered with fine silky hairs. Bracts dark, hairy. Leaves dark gray-green, to 1 in. wide, hairy on margins. Flowers which wilt by the afternoon are the largest in the genus, violet-blue; outer perianth segments broad and distinctly concave. Flowering spring. P. tasmanica. Tasmania. Flowers blue, edged with lighter blue, dark central vein; stamens 3, much spread; stigma white. Flowering late spring (September to October in the wild). Plate 949. P. umbrosa. S Western Australia (Warren, Stirling, and Eyre districts). Stems 10-20 in. Flowers blue-violet, late spring to summer (September to December in the wild). P. xanthina. YELLOW FLAG. S Western Australia (Darling and Warren districts), in poor, swampy soils. Stems to 26 in. Flowers yellow, almost 2 in. in diameter; 3 outer perianth segments broad; horizontally held inner segments narrow, very short. Flowering spring. SYNONYMS

P. glauca see P. fragilis. P. media see P. glabrata. P. umbrosa 'Xanthina' see P. xanthina.

Pauridia—Hypoxidaceae (Liliaceae) Derivation of name unknown. The genus comprises 2 species native to South Africa. The better-known species is P. minuta; the other species is noted in the literature but information on it

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is scant. Plants form colonies in moist, stony ground. This is a genus only for the collector, possibly suited to the frost-free rock garden in well-drained, moist areas in full sun. CULTURE Plants must be grown frost-free. Set the tiny corms just below the surface in a well-drained spot with ample moisture and full sun. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Seed is very small and should just be scattered onto a peaty soil mix and not covered. Requires temperatures around 50°F at night for germination, and should be sown in spring. Allow the little plants to develop where sown. Some offset cormels are produced, but these are small and difficult to handle. The best means of establishing this plant is to sow it in a container, then plunge the entire root ball into the soil without disturbance to the plants. SPECIES P. longituba. South Africa (Western Cape, along the coast from Vredenburg to St. Helena Bay), among granite boulders. Plant height 4 in. Perianth tube longer than lobes. P. minuta. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Plant height only 2 in. Corm 1/4 in. in diameter, with a flat base. Leaves 4-8, light green, and variable in width and length. Flowers starlike, barely 1/4 in. in diameter, pure white or with a hint of pink on the reverse, produced in the leaf axils. Stamens 3 stamens, arising from the perianth throat; stigma 6-lobed. Flowering late summer to fall (April to June in the wild).

Pelargonium—Geraniaceae CRANESBILL Name derived from Greek pelargos ("stork"), referring to the plant's fruit, which resembles a stork's beak; cranesbill is one common name given to plants in the geranium family. There are about 250 species of Pelargonium. The majority are at home in South Africa, but some species also are found in New Zealand and Australia. In the Northern Hemisphere, they occur in W Asia. The most important species in gardens, and those that have tuberous rootstocks, are native to South Africa. The genus is of great horticultural importance because it contains the well-known P. domesticum, commonly known as Martha Washington geranium, and P. xhybridium (mostly hybrids with P. zonale), commonly known as geraniums or zonal geraniums. Neither of these is tuberous. It is interesting to consider why certain species in this genus have developed tubers either underground, or at or just above ground level. In their native habitat, the plants are subject to very hot, dry weather during summer, and foliage and flowers would soon be destroyed by the heat. (It is perhaps for this reason that, of the 250 or more genera with bulbous rootstocks, more than 30 percent are native to South Africa.) Tubers are

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Pelargonium

woody, and the plants can remain dormant for long periods; in times of drought, years may elapse before the tubers reinitiate growth. Tuberous pelargoniums are only for the collector. Even the species with 2-petaled flowers are very beautiful; the stamens are long and of the same color as the petals. Though not easy to grow, these plants are worth the great care they need (yet in the wild they take care of themselves, a lesson for us all). In warm areas with dry summers, they can be grown in sunny, welldrained rock gardens. It is suggested to protect them until sufficient stock has been built up before testing this hardiness. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION

Over the years, many noted botanists have addressed this genus. Linnaeus, however, did not distinguish the genus Pelargonium, describing its species under Geranium. Nicolaas Laurens Burman (1733-1793), a Dutch botanist and physician, described several species of Pelargonium and likewise placed them in Geranium. Antonio Jose Cavanilles, a Spanish botanist, divided the genus Geranium into 2 sections. He placed the species with zygomorphic flowers in section Pelargonium, and then subdivided the section on the basis of leaf characteristics. A total of 71 species were described and illustrated in his work Monadelphiae Classis Dissertationes Decem, published in 1787. It was the French botanist Charles-Louis L'Heritier de Brutelle (1746-1800) who first separated Pelargonium as a genus. His Compendium Generalogium, written in 1789, was unpublished, but the manuscript was acquired by Augustin Pyramus de Candolle (1778-1841), who divided Pelargonium into 12 sections in his Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis, published in 1824. Several other botanists described various species, but it was Reinhard Kunth (1874-1957), a German botanist and professor in Berlin, who set the foundation for today's classification of the genus; in his Das Pflanzenreich (1912), Kunth recognized 15 sections of Pelargonium. Today revisions continue. J. J. A. van der Walt (1977,1981) and P. J. Vorster (1998) have worked extensively at Stellenbosch University on the South African species and have written 3 volumes on the genus. Diana Miller, a botanist who is keeper of the herbarium at Wisley, combined the many recent studies into Pelargoniums: A Gardener's Guide to the Species and Their Hybrids and Cultivars (1996), a good reference detailing the current 14 sections. The following sections contain plants with tuberous rootstocks.

Seymouria have now been absorbed into Hoarea; these have only 2 petals. Section Jenkinsonia. Named in honor of Robert H. Jenkinson, a well-known collector of Geraniaceae. Flowers are distinctly zygomorphic, 2 upper petals larger than lower petals. Section Ligularia. A diverse section containing plants with a combination of characteristics: branched or much branched; subsucculent stems, usually woody at the base; leaves usually pinnately divided, rarely entire; petals subequal and spathulate; 7 fertile stamens. Only one species has a tuber. Section Peristera. Mostly annuals or short-lived perennials with small flowers and straggly stems; only one has tubers. Leaves pinnately lobed or pinnately divided; flowers relatively small. Section Polyactium. Tubers large, usually woody, but not all species in this section are tuberous. Flowers starlike, flatfaced, with long spurs, in many-flowered inflorescence; petals more or less of equal size. Leaves are usually present at flowering, and flowers are usually night-scented. Many of these plants are extremely pretty. Section Reniformia. Formerly included in section Cortusina, these plants are native to areas where rain falls during summer and sometimes in winter. Evergreen, often with scented leaves. CULTURE The tuberous species cannot withstand any frost. They need minimum night temperatures of at least 40°F, though it is possible colder temperatures would not harm them while they were dormant. They are rare plants, however, and one should not risk harming the tubers unless one has plenty of stock. Good drainage is imperative to prevent rotting. Moisture is needed during the growing season but must be given sparingly, and from mid summer on, almost no watering should be done. A good soil mixture would be 7 parts good topsoil, 3 parts peat moss, and 5 parts sharp sand. Set tubers at ground level. After flowers have been produced and the top growth has died down, let the withered leaves remain until they drop from the plant. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Section Cortusina. Flowers with similar petals; some plants with tuberous roots. Stems thick and semi-succulent, covered with persistent stipules or petioles. Species native to desert areas. They flower at various times of the year and are seldom without at least one flower. The rootstock of some species is distinctly tuberous, enabling the plants to survive burning or severe drought. Section Hoarea. About 48 species; named in honor of Sir Richard Colt Hoare. Stemless plants, usually with a single tuber, but sometimes as many as 3. Flowers have 5 fertile stamens and usually 5 petals. Leaves usually wither as flowers appear. Five species formerly included in section

Divide the tubers, cutting them if necessary; however, it may take several years before the plants are large enough to allow this type of propagation. Certain species do set enough seed to increase the stock. Sow seed in spring on fine, sharp sand, barely if at all covered. Keep barely moist. Plants should be transplanted as size allows and grown on in individual containers. SPECIES

P. anethifolium (Polyactium). South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape). Many small tubers and one larger tuber. Stems partly underground. Leaves deciduous, dark green flushed red, very finely compoundly divided, on petioles 1-3 in. long. Flow-

Pelargonium ers yellow-green to pink with wine markings; upper petals slightly overlapping. Stamens 7 of which 4 are long, 2 short, and 1 intermediate. Flowering spring to early summer (October to December in the wild). Tubers transplant easily and grow well in sandy soil; requires moisture in winter and very dry conditions in summer. P. antidysentericum (Jenkinsonia). S Namibia and South Africa (Namaqualand, interior Western Cape), in regions with low winter rainfall. Tuber semisubterranean, huge, to 6 ft. in diameter. Stems to 40 in., with recurved evergreen spines. Flowers purplish pink or white with purple veins, fall (March to May in the wild). Subsp. inermehas deciduous, membranous spines. Subsp. zonale has leaves with markings, paler flowers. P. appendiculatum (Hoarea). South Africa (W Western Cape), rare; described 1800. Stems 12-24 in. Leaves hairy, with large, sharp stipules. Flowers cream to pale yellow, winter to spring (July to October in the wild). P. asarifolium (Hoarea). South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced c. 1820. First described as a distinct genus, Seymouria. Tubers to 3 in. long,1/2in. in diameter; generally 2 or 3 produced; from their junction the leaves and scape arise. Stems often branched, with bracts grouped where side shoots emerge. Leaves round or heart-shaped, 2 in. long and almost as broad, bright green on upper side, covered with gray hairs on underside, withered by flowering time. Flowers dark red to deep purple. Petals 2, reflexed sharply in middle; long red-purple stamen filaments form a column. Flowering mid summer to fall (December to June in the wild), over 5-6 months, during the hottest season; seed is scattered and ready to germinate with the advent of winter rains. P. attenuatum (Hoarea). South Africa (Western Cape). Leaves hairy. Flowers pale yellow. P. auritum (Hoarea}. South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape from Clanwilliam to Port Elizabeth); introduced 1788. Tuber globose. Stems 3-8 in. Flowers dark purple with white base, spring to early summer (September to December in the wild). Subsp. carneum has white or pink flowers with red streaks. Plates 950, 951. P. barklyi (Ligularia). South Africa (NW Western Cape). Tuber large, held vertically, producing annual branches. Stems purplish, hairy, to 18 in. Leaves very hairy, especially on purplish underside, rounded with heart-shaped base. Flowers to 5 per umbel, light cream, unmarked. Stamens 7, of which 2 are long, 2 a little shorter, 1 short, and 2 almost sessile. Flowering early spring (August to September in the wild). P. bowkeri (Polyactium). South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal) and Lesotho; described 1862. Stems 6-14 in. Flowers light yellowish green, veins and bases purplish; petals deeply fringed. P. caffrum (Polyactium). South Africa (south coast from Knysna to Grahamstown); described 1835. Tuber large and hard. Stems to 20 in. Flowers light yellowish green to purplish, spring to late summer (October to March in the wild). P. caledonicum (Hoarea}. South Africa (near Caledon in Western Cape); discovered 1932. Rootstock consists of several hard tubers with brownish-black, almost barklike skin. Stems to

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2 in. but often less. Leaves produced with flowers, pinnate, erect, about 2 in. long, 1 in. wide, rich green. Flowers almost sessile, light pink with deep red veins, in clusters of 1-3 per stalk. Stamens 5, one shorter than the others. Flowering summer (December to February in the wild). A rare plant, but does well in cultivation. P. chelidonium (Hoarea}. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1779. Flowers stemless, pink, pale purple spotted at base. P. dipetalum (Hoarea). South Africa (Betty's Bay to Kewbooms River in Western Cape); described 1792. Tuber short, cylindrical. Flowers deep pink, summer (January to March in the wild). P. echinatum (Cortusina). CACTUS GERANIUM, SWEETHEART GERANIUM. South Africa (Namaqualand, W Karoo to Clanwilliam in Western Cape), on stony slopes, usually under the shelter of other plants or large rocks; described 1795. Leaf stems spined, thick, fleshy, to 24 in., with small stem leaves. Basal leaves larger, heart-shaped with 3-7 lobes; underside grayish green, upper side darker green. Flower stems thin, without spines, carrying umbel of 3-8. Flowers white, pink, or purple with darker markings on upper 2 petals and occasionally on lower petals. Anthers 6 or 7; in some flowers one filament is very broad and sterile. Flowering early spring (July to November in the wild). P. ellaphieae (Hoarea/Seymouria). South Africa (Western Cape); described 1912. Tuber cylindrical. Flowers dark winered, summer (November to January in the wild). P. endlicherianum (Jenkinsonia). Syria and Turkey, in rocky places. Rootstock an underground rhizome producing a very short stem above ground and a rosette of leaves. Basal leaves nearly circular with 5 shallow lobes, a little over 2 in. in diameter, downy. Flowers purplish pink; upper petals recurved, lower minute or absent. Flowering summer. Hardy to about 15°F if not wet. P. ensatum (Hoarea). South Africa (Namaqualand); described 1824. Tubers 1-4, stacked in soil. Flowers white, summer (December in the wild). P. fissifolium (Hoarea). South Africa (Western Cape, W Karoo); described 1806. Flowers creamy yellow with deep red spots, spring to summer (September to October in the wild) P. fumariifolium (Hoarea). S Namibia and South Africa (Namaqualand to W Karoo); described 1912. Tubers large, ovoid to cylindrical, appearing above soil. Flowers creamy yellow with purple streaks, summer (October to December in the wild). P. grenvilleae (Hoarea). South Africa (Namaqualand); described 1824. Flowers pale rose with carmine spots and lines. P. heckmannianum (Polyactium). Tropical E Africa; described 1909. Stem very short. Flowers dirty yellow, appearing throughout the year. P. heterophyllum (Hoarea). South Africa (SW Western Cape); described 1786. Tuber oval or semi-rounded. Flowers white or pink spotted purple, summer (November to March in the wild). P. incrassatum (Hoarea). TURNIP GERANIUM. South Africa (Namaqualand, W Western Cape); introduced 1794. Rootstock tuberous, shaped like a turnip, branched or unbranched. Stems

400

Pelargonium

8-10 in., often more than one per plant. Leaves basal, tufted, with a silvery sheen, a little over 2 in. long and half as wide, usually with 5 notched lobes; lower 2 lobes narrower than the middle pair and top lobe. Flowers to 40 per stem, bright red; the 2 upper petals much wider than lower petals, forming a definitely irregular flower. Flowering early spring (August and September in the wild), dormant during hot dry summer. It grows well in containers. P. ladysmithianum (Hoarea). South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); described 1927. Tuber ovoid. Upper petals rosy-purple; lower petals paler. Flowering spring (September in the wild). P. leipoldtii (Hoarea). South Africa (Namaqualand to interior Western Cape); described 1912. Tuber cylindrical. Flowers white with wine-red markings, spring (August to October in the wild). P. lepturn (Hoarea). South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced 1928. Leaves large. Flowers white, pale yellow, or pale pink, summer (January to February in the wild). P. lobatum (Polyactium). South Africa (SW and S Cape), in sandy flats. Tuber often with numerous smaller tubers which can be removed for propagation. Stems branched, often at ground level, 20-24 in. Leaves very large, finely hairy, often over 1 ft. in diameter, generally 3-lobed, heart-shaped at base; when crushed, emit a cinnamon odor. Flowers to 20 per stem but usually fewer, most fragrant at night, dark purple to almost black with greenish-yellow margin and base. Filaments 10, only 6 carrying anthers. Flowering late spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). Plate 952. P. longifolium (Hoarea). South Africa (Western Cape); described 1759. Tuber cylindrical or ovoid. Stems to 10 in. Flowers white, yellow, or pink, marked dark purple, appearing throughout the year. P. luridum (Polyactium). South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape), Zambia, Swaziland, Malawi, Mozambique, Congo, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe; possibly the widest distribution of any tuberous pelargonium. Tuber woody. Stems to 36 in. Leaves change shape as summer progresses: first leaves are shallow-lobed, often over 1 ft. long, with petioles often more than 14 in. long; those produced later are much more dissected and the segments much narrower. Flowers 5-50 or more per stem, pink, white, greenish yellow, or yellow; red forms have been noted in certain populations. Petals often multicolored. Filaments 10, only 7 carrying anthers. Grows in moister natural habitat than many other species in this section. Flowering spring to early fall (September to April in the wild). The Zulu people use an infusion of the root medicinally; young men rub their faces with a mixture of the powdered root and hippopotamus or python fat to charm the opposite sex. P. luteolum (Hoarea). South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape, Eastern Cape); described 1912. Stems 3-6 in. Flowers pale yellow with dark red markings, summer (January to May in the wild). P. luteum (Hoarea). South Africa (W Karoo in Northern Cape); described 1806. Tuber round to oblong. Flowers yellow, outer petals with 2 carmine lines.

P. magenteum (Cortusina). South Africa (Bottekloof Pass in Northern Cape to Little Karoo in Western Cape), in dry areas l /4–/2/2 in. in diamand rocky outcrops. Shrubby to 36 in. Leavesi l/4– eter, gray-green. Flowers in umbels of 2-9, deep pink, with dark spots at base of petals. Flowering winter to spring (May to October in the wild). P. minimum (Peristera). Namibia and South Africa (interior Western Cape, Free State, S Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal), in winter- and summer-rainfall areas. Roots produce long-lived tubers. Stems seldom more than 3–4 in., above ground, produced annually, withering in dry season. Leaves grayish green, opposite, finely cut. Flowers tiny, 5-8 per umbel on short pedicels; petals 5, recurved, white to pale purple, unmarked. Flowering spring to late summer (October to March in the wild). P. moniliforme (Hoarea). South Africa (Namaqualand, interior Western Cape); described 1843. Tubers rounded, connected by thin, tough tissue. Stems to 2 in. Flowers creamy white to yellow with red blotch, late spring (September to October in the wild). P. multiradiatum (Polyactium). South Africa (Clanwilliam to Cape Peninsula in Western Cape). Tubers very large. Stems short. Flowers deep purple with pale yellow edges, summer (December to January in the wild). P. namaquense (Hoarea). South Africa (Namaqualand in Northern Cape) and Namibia; described 1912. Tuber round or oblong. Flowers bluish pink or rose, veined lilac purple, early spring (August to September in the wild). P. nervifolium (Hoarea). South Africa (W Karoo); described 1790. Tubers small, oval-cylindrical. Flowers white to pale yellow, veined red. P. oblongatum (Hoarea). South Africa (Namaqualand), where climate is hot and dry with little rain, which falls mostly in winter. Tuber oblong, seated vertically with only the uppermost surface above ground, to 7 in. long, about l/2 in. in diameter; skin flaking, light brown. Stems hairy. Leaves usually caudate, on hairy petioles. Flowers yellow; 3 lower petals narrow, pale yellow; upper 2 petals broader, with carmine-red veining on lower 2/3. Flowering early spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 953. P. pinnatum (Hoarea). South Africa (Western Cape); described 1753. Tuber globose or cylindrical. Flowers white, yellow, or pink, finely lined, early spring to late summer (September to March in the wild). P. pulverulentum (Polyactium). South Africa (Eastern Cape to KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1822. Tuber elongate with cracked barklike skin. Flowers black or maroon with pale yellow margins, spring to summer (September to February in the wild). Plate 954. P. punctatum (Hoarea). South Africa (Bokkeveld Mountains in Northern Cape to Cedarberg Mountains in W Western Cape); described 1800. Stems 11/2–4 in. Flowers pale yellow with red dots, early summer (October to November in the wild). P. quercetorum (Jenkinsonia). NE Iraq and SE Turkey. Similar in appearance and hardiness to P. endlicherianum. Leaves deeply lobed. Flowers fuchsia pink. P. radulifolium (Polyactium). South Africa (Clanwilliam in 1

1

Periphanes Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape) along coast and inland, to 4000 ft. elevation in fynbos. One large and many smaller tubers. Stems to 20 in. Leaves thick, light green, very curly, on hairy petioles. Flowers to 20 per stem, yellow or pink with maroon to deep purple markings. There are 7 fertile stamens, 4 long, 2 short, and 1 intermediate. Flowering early spring to fall (August to February or even May in the wild). P. rapaceum (Hoarea). South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape, Eastern Cape); introduced 1788. Tuber turnipshaped, to 4 in. in diameter. Mature tubers often produce more than one flowering crown as well as smaller underground tubers which encircle the parent plants. Stems often branched, taller than foliage. Leaves to 18 in. long, pinnate and much dissected, with many leaflets crowded on midrib. Leaves produced directly from tuber and often wither before flowering. Flowers 15 or more per stem, pink with red venation, pale cream, or clear primrose yellow. Lower petals are held closely together and hide the stamens; upper 2 petals bend back sharply so that the flower resembles that of a pea. Flowering summer (November to January in the wild). Spectacular plants. Native people roasted the tubers in hot ashes and ate them. Plates 955,956. P. reflexum (Hoarea). South Africa (Nieuwoudtville area in Northern Cape); described 1803. Flowers pink or white marked with red, spring to summer (September to February in the wild). P. reniforme (Reniformia). South Africa (Eastern Cape), along Indian Ocean. Shrubby to 36 in. but usually less. Older stems quite woody; younger ones soft, downy. Leaves finely lobed, heart-shaped, with velvety hairs which are often matted. Flower stems branched. Flowers to 10 per umbel, pink to magenta. Flowering in most months. The Xhosa people use the tuberous roots as a cure for diarrhea and dysentery and to treat liver problems in sheep. Plate 957. P. schizopetalum (Polyactiuni). South Africa (Eastern Cape)i; introduced 1821. Tuber oblong. Stems to 20 in. Flowers pale yellow to yellow-green with red or purple stripes, petals deeply fringed, late spring to summer (October to February in the wild). P. ternifolium (Hoarea/Seymouria). South Africa (SW Western Cape). Tuber round to oblong. Flowers white to pink, marked with purple, spring to fall (August to March in the wild). P. triphyllum (Hoarea). South Africa (Western Cape); described 1786. Tuber small, oval to cylindrical. Flowers rose with 2 carmine lines and dots. P. triste (Polyactiuni). South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape); introduced 1632. Flowers dull brownish purple or yellowish, early spring to summer (August to February in the wild). Plates 958, 959. SYNONYMS

P. aconitophyllum see P. luridum. P. amatymbicum see P. schizopetalum. P. arachnoideum see P. asarifolium. P. barbatum see P. longifolium.

401

P. bijugum see P. reflexum. P. dliatum see P. longifolium. P. depressum see P. longifolium. P. flabellifolium see P. luridum. P. flavum see P. triste. P. heckmannianumvar. melananthum see P. auritum. P. heradeifolium see P. lobatum. P. hibridaefolium see P. radulifolium. P. hirsutum var. carneum see P. auritum subsp. carneum. P. hollandii see P. pulverulentum. P. longiscapum see P. luridum. P. marginatum see P. ellaphieae. P. peucedanfolium see P. anethifolium. P. rehmannii see P. luridum. P. roseum see P. incrassatum. P. schlechteri see P. luridum. P. zeyheri see P. luridum.

Periboea—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Named after one of Neptune's wives, Periboea. This genus, first separate and later sunk in Polyxena, was resurrected by MiillerDoblies (1997) and sunk again by Goldblatt and Manning (2000). It is closely related to Hyadnthus, Massonia, and Polyxena and has only 3 species. The filaments in Periboea are not exserted as in Polyxena, but now regarded as Polyxena! I wish botanists would make up their minds! Such changes are to be expected as greater scrutiny is given to such genera. The only well known species is P. corymbosa; little is known of P. oliveri and P. paudfolia. CULTURE As for Polyxena. PESTS AND DISEASES

As for Polyxena. PROPAGATION

As for Polyxena. SPECIES P. corymbosa. South Africa (Western Cape, from Clanwillam to Cape Peninsula). Bulb tunicated. Stem only 2 in. tall. Leaves 2 or 3, fleshy, narrow, channeled, to 5 in. long, held semierect or prostrate. Flowers little, upward-facing, a rich carmine color but paler on the exterior of the segments. Perianth segments 6, united at the base to form a short whitish tube; filaments held inside tube. Flowering early winter to early spring (May to August in the wild). Plates 960, 961.

Periphanes P. dnnamomea see Hessea cinnamon. P. dregeana see Hessea breviflora. P. gemmata see Strumaria gemmata. P. karooica see Strumaria karooica. P. leipoldtii see Strumaria leipoldtii.

402

Petamenes

P. spiralis see Tedingea tenella. P. stellaris see Hessea stellaris. P. strumosa see Tedingea tenella. P. unguiculata see Strumaria unguiculata. P. zeyheri see Hessea zeyheri.

Petamenes P. abbreviatus see Gladiolus abbreviatus. P. aethiopica see Chasmanthe aethiopica. P. bicolor see Chasmanthe bicolor. P. caffra see Tritoniopsis caffra. P. cunonia see Gladiolus cunonius. P. floribunda see Chasmanthe floribunda. P. intermedia see Tritoniopsis intermedia. P. peglerae see Chasmanthe aethiopica. P. saccatus see Gladiolus saccatus. P. schweinfurthii see Gladiolus schweinfurthii. P. spectabilis see Gladiolus magnificus. P. splendens see Gladiolus splendens. P. vittigera see Chasmanthe aethiopica.

Petronymphe—Alliaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek petros ("rock") and nymphe ("nymph"). The only species in this genus is native to Mexico. CULTURE The plants are not hardy, withstanding minimal frost. In colder climates they should be treated like gladiolus, lifted in fall and replanted in spring. Plant in well-drained, sandy soil, not too rich in humus and in full sun. Set corms 2-3 in. deep, 10 in. apart. Once established, they need little moisture, but in the first season provide moisture as long as the foliage is growing. After flowering, allow to dry out. In cold climates, lift corms in late summer and store overwinter to replant in spring. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove cormels and grow them on, or sow seed in spring. Seedlings may flower in the 2nd season after germination. SPECIES P. decora. Mexico. Rootstock a corm covered with a membranous tunic. Leaves linear, up to 24 in. long, with 5-7 keels. Flowering stem leafless, to 24 in. tall, slender, arching near the tip. Flowers loosely arranged on thin pedicels in an umbel of up to 14, with 3-4 spreading bracts just below the flowers. Perianth tube as thin as the pedicel at the point of attachment, expanding into a tubular flower J/2 in. in diameter, 2 in. long, pale yellow with green lines. Perianth segments spread at the mouth of the tube into rounded lobes 1/4 in. long. Stamens 6, within the tube; filaments pale yellow with blue-violet anthers.

Phaedranassa—Amaryllidaceae QUEEN LILY Name derived from Greek phaidros ("gay") and anassa ("queen"); also the name of a nymph, Phaidranassa. Although these plants are not lilies, their common name is queen lily, a tribute to their beauty. The 7 species are native to the lower slopes of the Andes in Peru, Colombia, and Ecuador. Though rare in cultivation, they have spectacular flowers and should be more commonly grown, especially where winters are warm and not too rainy. The globose bulb has a thin brown tunic. The leaves are narrow or broadly oblong, depending on species. The brightly colored perianth tube is tipped with green. The flowers, tubular or funnel-shaped with narrow, spreading lobes, are carried to a height of 12-24 in., as many as 12 in an umbel. They appear in late spring or early summer. The pendent blossoms have 2 bracts below them. The pedicels bend in a graceful arc, and the stamens and style extend beyond the tepals. The stalk is hollow. CULTURE Phaedranassa species are considered completely tender, but they may be able to withstand a little frost if they are not too wet during winter. They do best, however, with minimum temperatures around 45°F in winter. Plant bulbs in fall, 2-3 in. deep with the necks at soil level, spacing them 10-12 in. apart, in well-drained soil with good organic content. Supply ample moisture during the growing season. Frequently the leaves are produced after flowering, so be sure moisture is provided as long as foliage remains green. Stop watering in early fall and keep the bulbs drier during the winter resting period. In warm regions where they can be grown outdoors, select a spot with somewhat heavier but still free-draining soil. Weak feedings of liquid organic fertilizer are beneficial during active leaf growth. Easily grown in large containers. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove offsets during the resting period and grow on in nursery rows until big enough to set in permanent locations. SPECIES P. carnioli. Peru and Costa Rica; introduced 1868. Stems to 24 in. Leaves erect, with a long stalk; combined length to 24 in. Flowers to 12 per umbel on arching pedicels, 2 in. long, tubular, pendent; green at base and mouth, bright crimson between. Flowering late spring. Plate 962. P. cinerea. Ecuador. Stems 10-30 in. Leaves 2, to 18 in. with long petioles. Flowers coral pink with white base and green tips, summer. P. dubia. Peru; introduced 1844. Stems to 18 in. Leaves narrow, oblong, stalked. Flowers about 2 in. long, cylindrical, pendent, purple-rose tipped with green; lobes pointed and recurved. Var. obtusa has rounded perianth lobes. P. lehmanii. Colombia; introduced 1854. Stems 18-24 in.

Pillansia Leaf solitary, dark green on upper side, glaucous on underside. Flowers usually 3 per umbel, brilliant scarlet, somewhat shorter and more flaring than those of other species. Flowering early summer. Needs very warm conditions during winter, 60°F or above. P. schizantha. Ecuador; introduced 1880. Stems 18-24 in. Leaves produced with flowers in early fall. Tube short, green; lobes bright red shading to salmon at tips. P. tunguraguae. Ecuador. Stems to 20 in. Flowers coral red with green tips, summer. P. viridiflora. Peru; introduced 1877. Stems to 12 in. Leaves lanceolate, to 10 in. long, stalked, bright green. Flowers greenish yellow. Plate 963. SYNONYMS

P. chloracra see P. dubia. P. eucrosioides see Eucrosia stricklandii. P. obtusa see P. dubia var. obtusa. P. rubroviridis see Eustephia coccinea. P. ventricosa see P. dubia.

Phalocallis see Cypella Phycella—Amaryllidaceae Derivation of name unknown. This genus includes about 7 species native to the Andes, mostly in Chile. It is closely related to Hippeastrum and Rhodophiala. The 4-6 leaves are strap-shaped and narrow, often only l/2 in. wide, and appear with the flowers. The flowers, carried above the foliage in umbels of 3-12 on hollow stems, are funnel-shaped with a short tube that curves downward. There are 2 series of 3 stamens each, the filaments attached to the bases of the 6 perianth segments. The stigma may be divided at the apex into 3, rounded, or orbicular. The flowers are frequently 2-toned, with the base and part of the corolla tube yellow and the lobes red. The Spanish common name is ananuca. CULTURE

Phycella species must be grown frost-free. They can be grown in containers and moved to a cool greenhouse when outdoor temperatures drop below about 40°F. They need a soil with good drainage and plenty of organic matter. Plant bulbs with the neck just above soil level, spaced 8-10 in. apart, or closer in containers. Provide ample moisture from spring through summer and into early fall; withhold water in late fall and winter, giving only enough to keep the bulbs from becoming desiccated. Some liquid fertilizer can be given but should be discontinued when flower buds are formed. During winter, the bulbs should be kept warm. Repotting can be done in spring, making certain no fleshy roots are damaged. They require bright light but not direct sun in the warmest climates. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems.

403

PROPAGATION

Separate offsets from established bulbs in spring. Sow seed in fall or spring, barely covered with a sandy soil mix, and keep night temperatures around 55°F. Transplant seedlings into individual containers as soon as large enough to handle and move to successively larger pots until about 2 in. in diameter, flowering size. Planting out is best done in spring at the beginning of their 3rd year. SPECIES P. bicolor. Chile. Stems to 18 in., cylindrical, slender. Leaves strap-shaped with blunt tips, tapering toward base, to 18 in. long. Flowers to 9 per umbel; perianth segments to 2 in. long, yellowish green at base, bright red above. Stamens 6, unequal in length, held within tube; style exserted. Flowering late summer to fall. Plate 964. P. colonum. Chile. Similar to P. bicolor, but leaves shorter and narrower. Flowers tubular, flaring only at tips, deep red with yellowish base, not as pendent as in P. bicolor; lower lobes not as recurved as upper. P. phycelloides. Andes of Chile; introduced 1830. Stems to 10 in. Leaves 12 in. long, narrow, rather glaucous. Flowers 3-6 per umbel, held erect; perianth segments 3 in. long, bright red with hint of yellow at base. Tube 1 in. long; stamens visible but not exserted; style exserted. Flowering late summer. P. scarlatina. Chile. Similar to P. phycelloides and perhaps a variety or forma of it. Flowers scarlet faintly suffused with yellow, especially at base. Upper perianth segments somewhat recurved, lower are not. Stamens unequal, style not as long as stamens.

Pillansia—Iridaceae Named in honor of Neville S. Pillans (1884-1964), a botanist and plant collector who worked at the Bolus Herbarium in Kirstenbosch, Cape Town, South Africa. The one species, an evergreen plant, is rather rare in cultivation; in the wild it is seldom seen in flower except after a fire, when large colonies burst into bloom. The area where it grows receives winter rainfall, so bush fires occur only once or twice a decade. It was formerly thought that the heat generated by the fire was needed to trigger flowering, but it has now been shown that it is smoke that causes the plants to flower. Near Hermanus in South Africa, I saw many pillansias in full flower several weeks after a fast-moving fire had passed through. The orange flowers were a wonderful sight against the charred grasses and scrub. Though rare in cultivation, Pillansia might be a useful plant to grow on grassy slopes that are subject to burning. It is worth introducing, especially in California, where climatic conditions should be ideal for it. CULTURE Plants must be grown frost-free. Plant corms 3-4 in. deep in well-drained soil in full sun, spacing them 4–6 in. apart. Plant in fall where there is little or no frost, and in spring in colder climates. Keep moist, but in mid summer reduce watering to allow the corms to become dormant. Where ground tempera-

404

Pinellia

tures fall below 30°F, lift corms in fall and store over winter. Scorching the surface of the soil with a flame-gun weed destroyer to get rid of weeds or dead vegetation during winter might induce flowering in response to the smoke, duplicating the conditions that stimulate it in the wild. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove cormels from dormant corms and grow on in sunny nursery rows, covering them with only 1/2–l in. of soil. SPECIES Pillansia templemanii. South Africa (False Bay area east of Cape Town to Hermanus), on well-drained, stony and sandy slopes within sight of the ocean; 1915. Rootstock cormous. Leaf solitary, erect, 24 in. or more long,1/2in. wide, sword-shaped, heavily ribbed, medium green and 24 in. or more long. Flower spike to 40 in., branched. Flowers bright orange-red, 1 in. in diameter, carried in a pyramidal, compact inflorescence of 20 or more. The pedicels are 1 in. or more long; the perianth segments are fused into a tube,1/2in. long, at the base of the flower; the styles are 6-branched; and the inner tepals are narrower than the outer ones but of equal length. Many secondary buds are produced, and the plants remain in flower for a long period in spring. Flowering generally early spring (October to November in the wild). Plates 965, 966.

Pinellia—Araceae Named in honor of Giovanni Vincenzo Pinelli (1535-1601) of the Botanic Garden in Naples, Italy. This genus of perhaps 4-6 species is native to China and Japan. The plants are tuberous; the flowers, produced in mid to late summer, are not particularly attractive. The spadix is slender and longer than the spathe, bearing male flowers with 2 stamens, and female flowers with a single ovule, the 2 sexes separated by a membrane. The spathe is green or purplish green. The leaves maybe simple or compound, dark shiny green, produced at the same time as the flowers. Although these plants are not beautiful, they have a place in the wild or woodland garden. Where well adapted, however, they can be invasive. They are primarily of interest to aroid fanciers. CULTURE Most species are hardy to about — 10°F, especially where winters are fairly dry and they have the cover of leaf litter or snow. Plant tubers 2 in. deep in a soil rich in organic matter, preferably in dappled shade. Moisture is needed throughout the spring and summer growing season. In very cold areas, mulch to prevent frost heaving. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide the tuberous rootstocks in spring before growth is much advanced. Few seeds are produced and are best sown as soon as ripe in a sandy-humusy soil mix, kept moist.

SPECIES P. cordata. China. Leaves green veined in cream; petioles short, purple. Spathe 1 in. long, green with purple veins; spadix extends almost 3 in. past spathe. Flowers pleasantly scented, summer. Plate 967. P. integrifolia. E China and Japan. Tubers small, rather flat. Leaves on slender stalks 2-6 in. long, blade to 3 in. long. Stems 6-8 in. Spathe just over 1 in. long; greenish spadix has an S-shaped appendage, 2 in. long or less. Flowering mid to late summer. P. ternata. E China and Japan. Tubers little over l/2 in. wide, often produced on stem at or just below soil level. Leafstalk 6-8 in. long; leaf blade in young plants is simple and ovate, in older plants trilobed. Stems seldom over 8 in. Spathes narrow, cylindrical, green or purplish; spadix slender, about 4 in. long, protruding from spathe by 2 in. or more. Flowering late summer. P. tripartita. S Japan. Tuber globose, 1 in. in diameter. Leaf stalk to 12 in. long; leaves trilobed, broad, and 6 in. long. Spathe pale green, tubular for about 11/2 in., blade of equal length, waxy; spadix 7-10 in. long, very slender. Flowering mid to late summer. Quite a striking plant with its remarkably long spadix. SYNONYM

P. tuberifera see P. ternata.

Placea—Amaryllidaceae Name derived from the Spanish name for these plants. This genus is native to Chile. The literature usually mentions that there are about 5 species, but I have found descriptions only of the 4 listed here. T. Harper Goodspeed, in Plant Hunters in the Andes (1941), remarks that he came across plants with smooth, brown stems, crowned with flowers. They were large, shell pink trumpets held so strongly in horizontal position that they jerked stiffly back and forth when the quick-thrusting breezes from the snow fields overhead slipped around the protecting boulders, to blow across their delicately colored surfaces. From time to time ... I tried to dig Placea "bulbs," but was not well rewarded for a lot of hard work. Like Rhodophiala, these plants send their roots deep in search of moisture. The flowers, borne in an umbel, are funnelshaped with a short tube. The leaves are linear, keeled, and graygreen; the flowering stems are brown. Plants flower in mid to early summer. Though related to Hippeastrum, they have a central cup out of which the stamens and style protrude. Frost-free culture is usually recommended for Placea, but in their native habitat they encounter occasional light frost. The foliage tends to grow in winter and might be damaged. If a gardener in, say, central California should acquire a good stock of bulbs, it would be worth trying them outdoors year-round, giving them extremely good drainage and perhaps the protection of a south-facing wall. Where winter temperatures remain above 20°F, one could try them in a bulb frame. They are, how-

Polianthes ever, fine pot plants, remaining in flower for a long time, and it is a pity that they are not grown commercially as pot plants. They are rare in cultivation and unlikely to become widely available. CULTURE In containers, plant bulbs with their necks just below the surface in a very well drained, gritty soil mix. Outdoors, plant them deeper, perhaps 4 in. below the surface, with plenty of grit and sand beneath them. Plant in late summer or early fall, in full sun. Plants come into growth early in the year and moisture must be present at that time. After flowering, reduce water until the bulbs become dormant; during the resting period, give them only enough water to prevent shriveling.

405

PROPAGATION

Remove offsets when bulbs are dormant; grow on in a sandy soil mix, in containers, or in a sunny border in warm climates. Sow seed thinly in spring. Leave seedlings in the containers until the foliage dies down, then move them into individual pots in a sandy soil mix with good organic content. SPECIES P. horsmannii. Colombia; 1883. Bulb round, with a long neck. Leaves 2 or 3, up to 12 in. long and 3-4 in. wide, blunt at the apex, with the underside darker green than the upper surface. Flowers white, shaped like a small trumpet lily, zygomorphic, with one petal pointing downward, the others upward. As many as 12 flowers are carried in an umbel. Flowering summer.

PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Offsets produced on established bulbs can be removed and grown on. This should be done while the bulbs are dormant. Sow seed in fall and keep in a greenhouse with night temperatures around 55°F. Provide moderate moisture and good light. Seedlings can be transplanted to individual containers until big enough to plant in permanent positions. SPECIES

P. amoena. Chile. Flowers rosy pink with prominent yellow stamens. P. arzae. Chile. Bulb to 3 in. in diameter. Stems to 18 in. Leaves 2, gray green, 7-10 in. long, 1/4 in. wide. Flowers 2-5 per umbel, white or cream with strong crimson veining; corona red. Flowering mid spring. The most common species. P. grandiflora. Chile; introduced 1869. Similar to P. arzae but flowers are larger, white with reverse of tepals striped crimson. Stems to 12 in. Leaves usually 3, about 18 in. long. Remains in bud for a long time and flowers also are long-lasting. Flowering mid spring. P. ornata. Chile; introduced 1840. Stems to 10 in. Leaves 2, shiny green, keeled. Flowers numerous, often 9-10 per umbel, white on exterior, bright vermilion inside; corona white at base, vermilion above. Flowering mid spring.

Plagiolirio n—Amaryllidaceae Name derived from Greekplagios ("oblique") and lirion ("lily"). The sole species in this genus is from South America. CULTURE Plagiolirion must be grown frost-free. Plants require bright, indirect light and night temperatures around 55°F. Plant bulbs in winter or early spring, setting them 1 in. deep in a free-draining, rich soil, spaced 4–6 in. apart. Keep dry until growth is observed, and then increase watering. Keep plants moist until flowering is through and foliage starts to die down, then reduce watering and keeps the bulbs dry over winter. Take care not to overwater. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems.

Polianthes—Agavaceae POLYANTHUS LILY Name probably derived from Greek polios ("gray") and anthos ("flower"). The genus was formerly in the family Amaryllidaceae. Red- and orange-flowered species often included in Polianthes are, in this work, described in Bravoa. All 13 species of Polianthes are native to Mexico. This genus contains one of the plants longest cultivated for cut flowers—the tuberose, P. tuberosa, which was known to Clusius in the sixteenth century; the double form was recorded in the early eighteenth century. It is native to Mexico but has not been found in the wild; it was among the many flowers grown by the Aztecs (who flavored their chocolate with it) and taken to Europe by the Spanish conquistadores. The rootstock is a short rhizome comprised of thickened roots with bulb-like bases. The flowers are carried in a terminal raceme, in pairs in the axils of bracts. They are tubular at the base and flare near the tips. The flowers of most species are heavily scented and produced in mid to late summer. The leaves are basal and strap-shaped. Though grown mostly for cut flowers, tuberoses are also good summer border plants. Place them where the fragrance can be enjoyed. They can be planted in shrub borders in mild climates and left undisturbed for many years. They can also be grown in containers but may require support. CULTURE At least some species tolerate occasional light frost, perhaps to 25°F. In mild areas they can remain in the ground to multiply. In colder zones, they can be grown in containers and moved into protected areas during the winter. They are usually offered for sale in late winter or spring and can be treated as summer bedding plants, being replaced each year. For outdoor planting, good garden soil and full sun are required. Set rhizomes 3 in. deep and 8-10 in. apart. For cutflower production, they can be planted 4-6 in. apart in rows 24 in. apart. Plant in spring when the ground is warm and night temperatures are above 55°F. Where nights remain colder later than May, start plants indoors in pots and transplant carefully to outdoor sites. The soil should be moist at planting time, but little water

406

Polygonatum

need be given until the leaves emerge. Then keep plants moist and feed with organic liquid fertilizer every 2 weeks. The flowers appear in late summer; after they are finished, stop feeding and reduce watering. When the leaves have withered, lift the rhizomes for winter storage if required. Tuberose plants flower every other year: once a crown has flowered, it splits, and another season of growth is required before flowering. If plenty are planted, however, there will be some that do not reach flowering size the first year, and these will flower the next year. They must have high summer heat to mature. In containers, plant 3 rhizomes in an 8-in. pot, or 6-8 in a 12-in. pot. Use a well-drained soil mix rich in humus; keep soil on the dry side until the leaves appear. These plants are excellent for the cool greenhouse, and with staggered planting times, they can be brought into flower throughout much of the year. For winter flowering in greenhouses, the temperature should be above 50°F at night. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide clumps after they have flowered. Grow small rhizomes on in nursery rows, planted close together. SPECIES P. durangensis. Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico. Stems to 20 in. Flowers white, late summer. P. gracilis. SC Mexico; introduced 1879. Thought by some authorities to be the species from which P. tuberosa was selected. Stems to 24 in. Leaves narrow, basal, to 18 in. long. Flowers white, waxy, fragrant, late summer. P. montana. Sierra Madre Occidental in Mexico. Stems to 47 in. Flowers in 12 pairs, white, late summer. P. nelsonii. Mexico (Durango). Stems to 20 in. Flowers white, late summer. P. palustris. Sierra Madre in Mexico. Stems to 20 in. Flowers white, scented, late summer to fall. P. pringlei. Mexico (Guadalajara City). Stems to 20 in. Flowers white, late summer. P. sessiliflora. Mexico (San Luis Potosi); introduced 1878. Stems to 20 in. Flowers white, late summer to fall. P. tuberosa. TUBEROSE. Wild origin uncertain; introduced 1629. Stems to 36 in. Leaves basal, narrow, to 24 in. long, sheathing stem. Flowers borne in pairs, to 30 per stem, very fragrant, white, waxy, curved at base, opening to 2 in. in diameter. Most common form in commerce is 'The Pearl', a sweetly scented double-flowered form. Individual flowers last a long time before dropping; buds open in succession over a long period. Though not as popular with florists, the single variety 'Mexican' is also worthy of garden space. Plate 968. SYNONYMS P. geminiflora see Bravoa geminiflora. P. graminifolia see Bravoa graminifolia. P. maculosa see Manfreda maculosa. P. platyphylla see Bravoa platyphylla.

P. runyonii see Manfreda longiflora. P. variegata see Manfreda variegata. P. virginica see Manfreda virginica.

Polygonatum—Convallariaceae (Liliaceae) SOLOMON'S SEAL Name derived from Greek poly ("many") and gonu ("joint, knee"), a reference to the many-jointed rhizome. This genus of about 30 species is distributed throughout the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere in North America, Europe, and Asia. Most species are woodland plants. The common name refers to the rhizome which is thought to resemble a star of David in cross section. The rootstock is a thick rhizome which runs just under the soil surface. The stems are gracefully arched, with pendent flowers, greenish white, white, yellow, or rarely pink. The flowers arise from the axils of the leaves, solitary or a few in loose racemes or subumbels. They are cylindrical, with a waxy texture, and hang from one side of the stem, appearing in late spring. The leaves of some species are arranged in whorls, and those of others opposite or alternate. The shape of the leaves also varies and maybe oval, lanceolate, or linear. The fruit is fleshy, usually black. These plants are a must for the cool woodland garden; they are always clean-looking. There is a range of sizes in the genus, and so the gardener can select a species appropriate for almost any woodland setting. Solomon's seal is grown not for its nearly hidden flowers but for its architecturally beautiful stems and foliage. It takes a few years for a plant to form an effective clump, but once this is achieved, it is likely to be permanent. Garden stocks have been confused and hybridized for many years, so the species names applied to commercial offerings are often incorrect. CULTURE Polygonatum species prefer woodland settings with high, not deep, shade. The soil should be high in organic matter, but the plants do not demand acidic soil. Hardiness varies depending on species, but many tolerate winter temperatures as low as — 30°F, especially with snow cover. Supplied as container plants year-round, or as dormant rhizomes in fall or early spring. Set rhizomes 3-5 in. deep in loose, humus-rich, woodland soil, 2-3 ft. apart for large species, closer for small ones. Plants soon form good-sized colonies. Provide ample moisture through spring and summer; established plants tolerate some drying in late summer. In humus-rich soils, no fertilizer is needed. These plants are not well suited to containers because they need a cool root run. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide rhizomes in mid to late fall or just as growth commences in spring. Sow seed as soon as ripe in fall and keep in cold conditions over winter; germination occurs in spring.

Polyxena Stored seed may fail to germinate. Transplant seedlings to individual pots or nursery rows the following fall when they go dormant. Grow on in shade. Seedlings will flower after 3 or 4 seasons. SPECIES P. biflorum. SMALL SOLOMON'S SEAL. E Canada and United States (Connecticut to Florida). Stems arching, to 40 in. or more. Leaves alternate, sessile, 5 in. long. Flowers greenish white, in clusters of 1-3. Very cold-hardy. P. commutatum. GREAT SOLOMON'S SEAL. E United States, SC Canada, and Mexico. Stems 2-5 ft. Leaves alternate, to 6 in. long, 4 in. wide. Flowers greenish, almost 1 in. long, 3-8 per cluster. Excellent for parks and large gardens. P. falcatum. Japan and Korea. Stems to 30 in. Leaves alternate, sickle-shaped. Flowers white, cylindrical,1/2in. long. This name is often misapplied in gardens to P. humile. P. hirtum. Europe and Russia. Stems to 48 in. Flowers white with green tips, 1-5 per cluster. P. hookeri. E Himalayas and China. Stems to 4 in. Leaves alternate, oval, 1/2 in. long. Flowers solitary, about l/2 in. long, purple or pinkish, sometimes greenish white. Prefers sunny but cool conditions and limy soils; suitable for rock gardens but spreads rapidly. P. humile. Similar to P. hirtum but flowers 1-2 per cluster. P. xhybridum. Garden hybrid (P. multiflorum x P. odoratum) usually called P. multiflorum (or P.japonicum) in gardens. Intermediate between the parents and perhaps the most commonly grown. Stems 20-30 in. Leaves broadly lanceolate. Flowers large, creamy-white in groups of 4, almost 1 in. long. Vigorous, forming large colonies in bright shade. 'Flore Pleno' is a double-flowered cultivar; 'Variegatum' (synonym 'Striatum') has creamy white stripes on leaves. Plate 969. P. multiflorum. Europe, Mediterranean region, and Asia from Turkey to the Himalayas and Siberia, in deciduous woodland. Stems to 30 in., rounded, arching. Leaves alternate, to 6 in. long. Flowers in groups of 2-5, white, constricted in the center and tipped with green, which makes the white appear very clean. Stamens close to mouth of perianth. P. odoratum. ANGLED SOLOMON'S SEAL. Europe and Mediterranean region, east to Siberia. Stems arching, to 30 in. Leaves alternate, clasping stem and facing outward. Flowers slightly fragrant, white, almost 1 in. long, cylindrical, green-tipped; sometimes perianth segments flare at mouth. Var. pluriflorum 'Variegatum' has white blotches and stripes on leaves; new shoots emerge reddish pink, striped white. Var. thunbergii is a little taller, to 36 in., with leaves 6 in. long. Plates 970, 971. P. pubescens. E Canada and United States (Maine to Georgia and Iowa). Similar to P. odoratum, but flowers yellow-green; tepals held closely at base then spreading. P. roseum. W Siberia to C Asia. Flowers rose, erect, 1-2 per cluster, cylindrical with flaring tips, summer. Very hardy. P. sibiricum. Himalayas to Siberia. Stems to 36 in. Leaves in whorls. Flowers greenish white or purplish. P. stenanthum. Japan and Korea. Flowers white, cylindrical; tepals free and drooping, over 1 in. long.

407

P. stewartianum. Europe to temperate Asia. Similar to P. verticillatum but flowers purple-pink. Leaves in whorls. P. verticillatum. WHORLED SOLOMON'S SEAL. Europe, temperate Asia, and Afghanistan. Stems 10-36 in. Leaves whorled or sometimes opposite. Flowers white with green lobes, bellshaped, solitary or in clusters of 3. SYNONYMS

P. canaliculatum see P. biflorum. P. giganteum see P. commutatum. P. japonicum see P. odoratum. P. latifolium see P. hirtum. P. macranthum see P. stenanthum. P. macrophyllum see P. verticillatum. P. officinale see P. odoratum. P. vulgare see P. odoratum.

Polyxena—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Named for Polyxenus (Priam), the last king of Troy. This is a genus of 2 or perhaps 3 species, all native to W South Africa and flowering in winter and early spring. They grow mostly in open, sparse grassland near the coast. These plants are rare in the wild and very rare in cultivation, and information on them is scarce. A fuller description can be found Miiller-Doblies (1997), which discusses the relationship of Polyxena to Periboea. The flowers look much like those of hyacinths but with longer stamens, but the genus is more closely related to Massonia, differing primarily in that the leaves of Polyxena are narrower, pointed, and erect. A number of species in this genus have sometimes been placed in Massonia. Polyxena plants are dwarf, seldom over 6 in. tall. The small bulb produces 2 or 3 linear leaves, sometimes almost 1 in. wide. The leaves are generally 4-6 in. long and tend to be fleshy. The upward-facing pink, mauve, or white flowers are held in a loose raceme and are about 1 in. long. The lower part of the perianth is tubular; the segments are separate and reflexed in the upper half. When first open the flowers appear almost flat-faced and are quite noticeable despite their small size. This is a genus only for the collector. Polyxena species can be grown in the rock garden, in containers, or perhaps between paving stones. CULTURE Polyxena species must be grown frost-free. They need welldrained soil in full sun. Set the little bulbs 1 in. deep and 2-3 in. apart. Moisture is needed in early spring, with little or none after the foliage dies back. They do well in containers and in colder areas should be grown in a cool greenhouse. Use a sandy soil mix and place bulbs 1-2 in. apart in pots or shallow (3-4 in. deep) pans. The bulbs can be lifted in fall and stored frost-free over winter, but because they are so small and rare, it is better to keep them in containers. PESTS AND DISEASES

Fleshy-leaved species must be protected against slugs and snails.

408

Prochnyanthes

PROPAGATION

Remove offsets from well-established plants in late summer. Seed is rarely produced but can be sown in spring in a sandy soil mix, barely covered. Provide night temperatures around 55°F and bright, indirect light; grow on in pots. SPECIES P. corymbosa. South Africa (Clanwilliam area to Peninsula). Stems 3 in. Leaves 2-3, 5 in. long. Flowers pink to white, fall to winter (April to June in the wild). P. ensifolia. South Africa (Western Cape); 1790. Stems 1-2 in. Leaves 2-3, erect, 4-5 in. long, with pointed tips. Flowers small, waxy, white, pink or mauve, with hyacinth-like fragrance, held between leaves and almost sessile. Flowering fall to winter (April to June in the wild). SYNONYMS P. angustifolia see Massonia angustifolia. P. corymbosa see Periboea corymbosa. P. odorata see P. ensifolia. P. pygmaea see P. ensifolia.

Prochnyanthes—Agavaceae Name derived from Greek prochon ("ewer") and anihos ("flower"), referring to the water-pitcher shape of the flower. Some authorities recognize 3 species, but the differences may not warrant separation, in which case there is only one species, P. viridescens. The genus is widespread in Mexico and is similar to Polianthes, except that the staminal filaments are inserted below the bend in the perianth tube (above, in Polianthes). The leaves are wider and the scape taller. The flower color renders this plant of only botanical interest. CULTURE As for Polianthes. It must be grown frost-free. PESTS AND DISEASES

As for Polianthes. PROPAGATION

As for Polianthes. SPECIES P. bulliana. Appears to be just a shorter and fewer-flowered form of P. viridescens. P. viridescens. Mexico, in grassy areas. Leaves to 2 in. Scape 48 in. tall or more. Flowers dull greenish brown, carried in a raceme of as many as 25 or more. Perianth forming a curving tube, expanding into an almost bell-like flower, up to 2 in. long and almost as wide, late summer.

Proiphys—Amaryllidaceae EUCHARIST LILY Name derived from Greek proi ("early") and phyo ("to bring forth"), referring to the premature germination of the seed. There are 3 species, all Australian. In a 1912 flora of Manila,

Philippines, E. D. Merrill described P. amboinensis (synonym Eurycles amboinensis) as indigenous and "spreading to northern Australia," but it is more likely that this frequently cultivated species came to the Philippines from Australia; the species name means "native to Amboina," an Indonesian island north of Australia in the Banda Sea where this species is probably also an escape from gardens. All species in the genus were formerly classified in the genus Eurycles. The bulb is tunicated. The plants may remain evergreen but usually are briefly deciduous during the dry season. The leaves are few and basal, expanding after flowering to a shovel-like shape; the midvein is prominent, and the upper side of the long petiole is channeled. The flowers are carried in an umbel and are almost spherical in bud. They are tubular at the base; above the tube, the 6 segments separate but are not reflexed. The filaments of the 6 stamens are more or less united at the base, forming a distinct cup. The 2 or 3 bracts subtending the umbel are up to 1 in. long, narrow and pointed, turning brown when the flowers open. The scape is upright, reaching almost 2 ft. The handsome, pure white flowers give these plants their common name. Proiphys species are attractive even when not in flower and thus are excellent for borders in tropical regions and for greenhouses elsewhere. They are good container subjects. Proiphys cunninghamii is perhaps the hardiest of the species and can be grown outdoors during summer as long as night temperatures remain above 55°F. CULTURE There is no definite dormant period, but plants are sometimes briefly deciduous after flowering, especially if dried off. Lift, divide and replant the bulbs at that time, but they perform well for many years without being disturbed. Bulbs obtained without their foliage should be set at soil level with the top of the bulb slightly exposed. They appreciate ample moisture when in growth but should be on the dry side after flowering. Plant in soil with high organic content. During the growing season, weak feedings of organic fertilizer can be given, starting 4-6 weeks after flowering, or in early spring as the days lengthen. No species flourishes if temperatures drop below 55°F, and P. alba requires a minimum temperature of 60°F. To grow Proiphys species in pots, plant one bulb per 8-in. container. This is best done in fall, allowing the plants to make good root growth before flowering from late spring into summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide bulbs after flowering. Few offsets are produced, however, and division is suggested only every 5 years or so. Sow seed in spring in a sandy soil mix and keep night temperatures around 60°-65°F, daytime around 70°F; bottom heat is advisable. The seed germinates on top of the soil, producing a primary root and 2 secondary roots which pull the seed upright and anchor it. Then a true leaf emerges from the upper point; the cotyledon remains within the endosperm throughout ger-

Pseudogaltonia mination. Slowly the seedling is pulled down into the soil by the contractile roots, eventually reaching a depth of 4-6 in. when mature. Seedlings must have plenty of light and a humid atmosphere, protected from drying winds. Grow on in individual containers in a rich, well-draining soil mix of loam, leafmold and sand. SPECIES P. alba. Australia (Queensland). Bulbs to 11/2 in. in diameter. Leafstalk to 18 in. long, leaf blade to 5 in. wide and 12 in. long, dark green, elliptic to ovate, pointed at tip. Flowers white, in umbels of up to 30 flowers but generally fewer, prior to leaves. Perianth tube to 1/2 in. long; lobes to 1 in. long, often less. Flowering summer (November to December in the wild). P. amboinensis. EUCHARIST LILY, CARDWELL LILY. Australia (Queensland, N New South Wales), naturalized in Malaysia and the Philippines; introduced 1759. Bulb tunicated, to 31/2 in. in diameter. Stems to 36 in. Leaves to 12 in. long and almost as wide; petiole longer than blade, sometimes almost twice as long; dark green blade has 12-15 veins on either side of midrib. Bracts, generally 3, sometimes 4, the longest in the genus, to 4 in. long. Flowers white, to 24 per umbel but often fewer; perianth to 3 in. long, almost half of that the tube; filaments united at base to form a toothed cup. Flowering primarily in summer (November to December in the wild), but also sporadically from spring into fall. P. cunninghamii. BRISBANE LILY. Australia (Queensland). Bulbs to 2 in. in diameter. Stems to 24 in. Leaf blade oblong, ovate to heart-shaped, to 10 in. long; petiole fleshy, about as long as blade. Flowers white, to 12 per umbel, over 11/2 in. in diameter; base of perianth a tube to 1/2 in. long, then segments flare. Cup formed by bases of filaments is yellowish. Flowering summer (November to December in the wild). Prefers moist but well-drained soil; occurs on wild in rocky slopes in and near rainforests.

409

in their 2nd season. The roots are fleshy, so it would be best to plant the entire soil ball to minimize disturbance. SPECIES

P. densiflora. Many fleshy roots. Stem 18-20 in., often shorter. Leaves tufted, stiff, appearing in late spring or early summer before the flowers. Flowers tubular, 2 in., yellow, held erect and close together; lower flowers opening first and overlapping the bases of the upper flowers. Stamens contained within the tube.

Pseudogaltonia—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Name refers to the similarity of this monotypic genus to Galtonia. Pseudogaltonia is not as attractive as Galtonia, from which it differs in the position of attachment of the stamens; in Pseudogaltonia they are attached to the throat of the flower and exserted, while in Galtonia they are arranged in 2 whorls and not exserted from the tube. Pseudogaltonia has some merit for frost-free gardens. CULTURE

Pseudogaltonia clavata must be grown frost-free, in temperatures above 45°F in winter. Plant bulbs in fall with the top just at ground level, in well-drained soil in a sunny spot. Winter moisture is essential, but the soil should not be waterlogged. Leaves appear in early spring and the flower spike appears at the same time or a little earlier. Keep moist until late summer, then reduce watering so plants can go into a short dormancy. In the greenhouse, these strong growers can be planted in a border; they only do well in the largest containers. Give weak feedings of liquid organic fertilizer in the first part of the growth cycle, until the flower spike is well formed; stop feeding as soon as the first flowers open. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Pseudobravoa—Agavaceae Name refers to the similarity of this monotypic genus to Bravoa. Native to Mexico, the one species is P. densiflora, an apt name because the flowers are quite tightly held in the axils of the bracts. Though not unattractive, this plant is very rare in cultivation. It would be suitable for dry sunny borders in warm climates. CULTURE Plants must be grown frost-free in full sun, in dry, well-drained soil. Plant in early spring with 1-2 in. of soil over the bulbs and give some moisture when growth begins. Keep slightly moist until the flowers have passed and the foliage starts to die back, then provide a dry dormancy. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Separate offsets before growth commences in spring. Sow seed in spring in a sandy soil mix, barely cover. Transplant seedlings

Lift and separate bulblets as soon as the foliage dies down. Unless propagation is required, plants should be left undisturbed for a number of years. Sow seed as soon as ripe in a sandy soil mix, barely covered; keep just moist, with night temperature around 65°F. Transplant seedlings to small pots as soon as they are large enough to handle. SPECIES

Pseudogaltonia clavata. Namibia, late 1800s. Bulb large, sometimes over 6 in. in diameter, covered with a fibrous coat; scales at the apex are bristlelike. Leaves up to 10, in a rosette, dark green, lanceolate, strap-shaped, short at flowering time, elongating thereafter to 12 in. and 31/2 in. wide; leaves continue to grow and remain green until mid to late summer. Flowers white suffused with green, funnel-shaped, carried on 1-in. pedicels; perianth segments united at the base. Scape may reach 24 in. and have as many as, but often fewer than, 60 flowers. Plate 972. SYNONYMS

P. subspicata see P. clavata. P. pechuelii see P. clavata.

410

Pseudomuscari

Pseudomuscari see Muscari Puschkinia—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) LEBANON SQUILL Named in honor of Count Apollo Apollosovich MussinPushkin (d. 1805), a Russian botanist who collected plants in the Caucasus. This genus is generally regarded as monotypic, the sole species being P. scilloides; however, it has a wide range with the expected geographic variants, and the probably synonymous P. libanotica may be listed separately in catalogs. Puschkinia is closely related to Scilla and Chionodoxabut is separated from them by its corona which is made up of the fused filaments, and by its flowers which do not open flat. It was introduced under the name Adamsia. This plant is good for areas where it can be allowed to selfsow, which it does quite readily. It should be planted en masse for a good early spring display. Rock gardens and wild gardens are both suitable sites, in full sun or partial shade. Puschkinia scilloides grows well among deciduous shrubs. It is a good container plant but does not respond well to forcing outside the normal flowering season; looks best planted closely in a shallow pan. CULTURE Most forms are hardy to about — 20°F in well-drained soil and may dwindle in warm areas where they do not experience a sharp winter chill. Soil should be well enriched and moistureretentive, but never waterlogged. Plant bulbs 2 in. deep in fall, 4-6 in. apart. Foliage continues to grow after flowers have passed and should be allowed to mature fully. After leaves have died down, bulbs can be a little drier, but never completely dry. In containers, place 5-6 bulbs in a 6- to 8- in. pot. Allow a rooting period of at least 3 months with temperature of 40°F or lower before bringing them into warmer conditions. They can be left in a container for at least 2 seasons. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Though best left undisturbed, the small, tunicated bulbs produce a few offsets which can be removed from established plants after the leaves wither. One season will bring the larger offsets to flowering size. Sow seed in fall or spring. Seedlings require at least 2 seasons to reach flowering size. Small bulbs can be grown on in nursery rows or in a container, barely covered. SPECIES P. scilloides. STRIPED SQUILL. Turkey, Caucasus, Iran, Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon, at high elevations, often over 10,000 ft.; introduced 1805. Leaves shiny, green, usually 2, basal, 4-6 in. long, present at flowering in early spring. Flowers on short pedicels on a brownish, leafless scape, 4-8 in. high at maturity but usually much shorter at flowering time; at low elevations, the flowers may start opening before they clear the soil. There are 6-8 flowers per stem, pale to midblue, with a darker blue stripe

down the center of each segment. They are about 1 in. in diameter or slightly less; in the center is a corona formed by the filaments. The form most common in the bulb trade (usually listed as P. scilloides var. libanotica) has smaller, pale blue flowers with blunt corona lobes. In the wild, white forms with stripes are found, and may be offered as P. scilloides 'Alba' or P. libanotica var. alba. Plates 973, 974. SYNONYMS

P. hyancinthoides see P. scilloides. P. libanotica see P. scilloides var. libanotica. P. sicula see P. scilloides.

Pycnospatha—Araceae Name derived from the Greek pyknos ("dense") and spatha ("spathe"). This genus consists of 2 species with tuberous rootstocks. It is doubtful if either one is in cultivation. Pycnospatha arietina was described by Peter Boyce (1993b), who noted that the plant is rarely collected and to his knowledge had been cultivated only twice, at Kew and at Munich, and "Regrettably neither plant has survived." The other species, P. palmata, was collected in Laos by the Mekong Expedition (1866-1868). Pycnospatha arietina from Thailand has much-divided leaves; those of P. palmata are simple. Pycnospatha arietina also has an inflorescence twice the size of that of P. palmata. At one time there was thought to be a 3rd species, P. sorensenii, but it is now included in P. arietina, though the leaf is less divided. CULTURE Should they be brought into cultivation, these tropical plants would demand constant warmth, constant high humidity, and a compost rich in organic matter, with ample water during the growth phase. Bright light, but not direct sunlight, is recommended. The plants are reported to go dormant when dry, and at this time temperature should be kept around 65°F. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Propagation is presumably by separation of offsets in spring, or by seed sown as soon as ripe and kept moist. SPECIES P. arietina. SE Thailand. Rootstock a tuber with brown exterior and lighter interior. In the wild the leaves emerge after flowering, but in cultivation they were produced at the same time. Stem base clasped by a rudimentary leaf, pale green to whitish. Leaves to 48 in., initially not as divided as the leaves that follow; stalks with prickles. Spathe about 2 in. long; lower margins do not overlap; limb curls over at apex. Exterior of spathe pale gray with dense purple speckles, interior deep purple. Spadix pale grayish white; flowers bisexual, crowded on spadix, with style extending beyond stamens. P. palmata. Mekong area of Thailand and Vietnam; known only from type collection, c. 1866-1868. Leaf lobes simple; flowers half the size of those of P. arietina.

Ranunculus SYNONYM

P. sorensenii see P. arietina.

Pyrolirion—Amaryllidaceae Name derived from Greekpyr ("fire") and lirion ("lily"), referring to the color of the flowers. Reportedly there are about 4 species, but some authorities place these in Zephyranthes, to which they are closely related. The difference is that in Pyrolirion the spathe is split into 2 free segments, and the style is split into 3 deep branches. These plants are native to the Andes of Bolivia and Peru. Only P. aureum is apparently in cultivation, and it is said to be difficult to flower. The solitary flowers, produced in spring, are held erect. The perianth has a narrow, cylindrical tube, with lobes above it flaring outward and recurving a little. The tepals are quite pointed. The leaves are dark green, with a shallow channel in the center, and often curved at the tip. The number of leaves varies, and the plant may appear tufted owing to the foliage produced by smaller bulbs growing alongside the parent. CULTURE Pyrolirion species must be grown frost-free in full sun, with good drainage and protection from excessive rain throughout the year. They require moisture during the growing season but need to be dry toward the end of summer. In warmer climates they may be planted in a warm, sunny border not subject to overhead irrigation. Plant bulbs in fall, set 1 in. deep, 3-4 in. apart. The soil should contain humus, but good drainage is essential. Plants grow well in pots wintered in a greenhouse and placed outside after all danger of frost is past. The bulbs are best left undisturbed for a number of years. They do not readily flower in cultivation. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate bulbs after the foliage has died down. Seed is rarely set in cultivation because of the shy flowering. If available, it should be sown in spring, with night temperature of 55°F, and barely covered. The seedlings should grow on for 1 or 2 seasons in the container with protection from excessive moisture. After the 2nd season, the bulbs can be moved to individual pots or planted out. SPECIES P. aureum. GOLDEN FLAME LILY. Bolivia and Peru. Stems 10-12 in. Leaves dark green, curving at tip, channeled in center. Flowers sessile among leaves, rich golden yellow, 3-4 in. long; upper parts of perianth segments recurve to produce an almost flat flower. Flowering spring. This is the only well-known species and is sometimes placed in Zephyranthes; however, the spathe is free and style split into 3 spatula-shaped branches. Plate 975. P. flavum. Peru. Stems to 12 in. Leaves 1 or 2, dark green, reflexed at tip. Flowers yellow, sessile; perianth tube funnel-

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shaped; narrow segments to 4 in. long, flaring widely. Style linear; stigma with 3 broadening, slightly hairy lobes. Sometimes cultivated under name P. aureum. SYNONYM P. tubiflorum var. aureum see P. aureum.

Radinosiphon—Iridaceae A monotypic genus closely allied to Gladiolus and Lapeirousia, and native to sub-Saharan Africa. The sole species, R. leptostachya, is rarely if at all found in cultivation, and there is little written about it. It is a diminutive plant. CULTURE Radinosiphon leptostachya should be grown frost-free in sandy, well-drained soil and full sun, with moisture during spring and summer when in flower. It should be kept dry during winter. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Sow seed as soon as ripe in a sandy soil mix. Remove offsets after flowering. SPECIES R. leptostachya. South Africa (Mpumalanga) to Swaziland, Zimbabwe, and Malawi, in mountainous areas. Rootstock a corm covered with a fibrous tunic. Stem 20 in., erect, usually branched. Leaves sword-shaped, softer and more pliable than those of the typical Gladiolus, with raised midrib and margins. Flowers zygomorphic, facing in one direction, pink or purple. The perianth has a long tube, widening gradually, and longer than the lobes. The perianth lobes are unequal, with the upper 3 larger; the lower 3 have darker median stripes and form a lip. The style is divided into 3 short, threadlike branches. The stamens curve downward. Flowering is in summer (December to March in the wild). SYNONYM R. lomatensis see R. leptostachya.

Ranunculus—Ranunculaceae ASIATIC CROWFOOT, BUTTERCUP Name used by Pliny is derived from Latin rana ("little frog"), referring to the fact that many species grow in damp places. It is estimated that there are between 250 and 400 species of Ranunculus, but only a few are tuberous. Flower colors of the tuberous kinds include white, yellow, and red, and cultivars of many colors are available in single and double forms (Plates 35-38). Geophytic ranunculus may have compact, irregular tubers or spiderlike clusters of cylindrical, swollen rhizomes. The flowers are borne either in panicles or solitary and terminal. Most have 5 petals, though some have fewer; double forms may have as many as 30.

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Ranunculus

The commercial forms, known as "florist ranunculus," are good cut flowers and can also be used in bedding schemes and to add color to perennial borders (Plate 66). They are not longlasting in flower, and provision should be made for other plants to take their place once they have passed their peak. The small species of Ranunculus listed below are suitable for rock gardens in warm regions. Ranunculus ficaria is an invasive weed, but forms selected for unusual flowers or foliage can be grown where they can be confined. HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION

All the modern strains widely used in gardens and the cutflower trade are derived from one species, R. asiaticus. This species is native to Anatolia (also known as Asia Minor) in Turkey and has been cultivated there for centuries. Florist ranunculus can be divided into 4 main groups: French, peony-flowered, Persian, and turban. French ranunculus, developed in France in the late nineteenth century, have been improved by many different breeders. Their flowers are semidouble and multicolored, with a black blotch in the center, and appear in early summer. Peony-flowered ranunculus are more free-flowering and a little taller than French types, with large semidouble or double flowers and a longer flowering period. Persian ranunculus, long grown in both Turkey and Europe, have either single or double flowers in a wide range of colors, but are smaller than other types. Turban ranunculus have also been long in cultivation, having been brought into European gardens by Clusius toward the end of the sixteenth century; this is the hardiest group, and most strains offered are fully double, with very large flowers in a wide range of colors. All 4 main groups are derived from the Persian and turban types, but the strains now offered are more correctly called peony or Persian types. These distinctions are horticultural, not botanical. The large-flowered double ranunculus strains come in a wide range of colors, and these healthy, sound stocks are excellent both for gardens and cut flowers. The 2 best strains currently available are Tecolote from California and Hadeco from South Africa (Plates 977,978). Those offered by firms in Japan and Israel are not as good, often containing singles. The Tecolote strain is offered in a picotee mixture and in separate colors and bicolors. The separates are grown from seed and show slight variation; for example, those offered as "pink" vary from dark to light pink. Some Dutch firms offer French types in a good range of colors with mainly semidouble flowers. 'Giant of Angers' is a reselected mixture of French ranunculus containing more red flowers. Peony-flowering mixed colors contain large, mostly double or semidouble flowers, often as much as 4 in. in diameter. CULTURE Where winter temperatures fall below 15°F, florist ranunculus are best planted in spring when the ground warms and the danger of heavy frost is past. In warmer areas, they can be planted in fall to flower the next spring and summer, and successive plantings can be made to prolong the season. In all areas, the plants like full sun. They need moderate moisture when in growth, but too much water causes yellowing of the foliage. This is not

much of a problem in sandy soils, but care must be taken if plants are being grown on heavier soils. The tubers are quite small and have "claws" on the underside. It is best to soak the tubers in water for 3-4 hours before planting. Set them with about 1 in. of soil over them, spacing them 8-10 in. apart. Some gardeners like to place a little sand over the tops of the tubers and then cover this with soil. In most soils this is not necessary. It is essential that the soil be moist at planting time, then kept barely moist, and the amount of water given increased as the foliage emerges. In very heavy soils, raised beds of good, free-draining soil offer the best conditions. Once the plants have finished flowering, the foliage dies down. The tubers can be dug and stored frost-free, but this may not be worth the effort, considering their low cost. In warmer climates, tubers can be left in the ground. In that case, plants should be given a balanced fertilizer in fall as soon as growth is seen. Plants in containers should be started out of direct sun and in cool conditions so that a good root system can develop. PESTS AND DISEASES

Mildew can appear if the foliage is wet from overhead watering, especially when coupled with poor air circulation and humid weather. PROPAGATION

Sow seed in spring in containers or in open ground in prepared seedbeds. The seed should be barely covered and kept moist but not wet. Germination percentage is usually high. The seedlings can be left in open beds outdoors for lifting at the end of the season; however, raising florist ranunculus from seed often results in a poorer range of colors and flower forms than can be obtained with purchased tubers. SPECIES R. acontifolius. Europe. Stems 12 in. Leaves lobed. Flowers white, spring. Plate 976. R. asiaticus. Turkey (Asia Minor); introduced 1596. Stems 10-15 in. Leaves lobed and deeply cut, somewhat glaucous. Flowers red, pink, salmon, orange, white, or yellow, normally single but double forms are much grown. Flowering late spring. The parent of the florist ranunculus. R. brevifolius. Italy and Balkans. Similar to R. thora but smaller in all parts. Basal leaves gray. Flowers 1-2, yellow, spring to summer. R. bulbosus. Europe, Asia, and North Africa. Tuber connlike. Stems to 12 in. Flowers yellow, spring to summer. Subsp. gallecicus from Spain and Portugal has stems to 24 in., flowering early to mid spring. R. bullatus. S Europe; introduced 1640. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers golden yellow, fragrant, fall to spring. R. ficaria. LESSER CELANDINE, SMALL CELANDINE, PILEWORT. SW Asia to Scandinavia, naturalized in North America. Tubers fingerlike. Stems 2-6 in. Leaves kidney-shaped. Flowers normally shiny yellow, early spring. Selections include 'Albus', white; 'Aurantiaca', orange-yellow; 'Brazen Hussy', purple foliage; 'Grandiflorus', large flowers; 'Plena', yellow double. Spreads rapidly and is a common weed in lawns.

Rheome R. illyricus. S Europe; introduced 1596. Stems to 18 in. Lower leaves entire, lance-shaped, narrow; upper leaves lobed, lobes sometimes divided. Flowers numerous, pale yellow. Flowering late spring. R. kochii. S Transcaucasia, N Iran, S Turkey, and N Iraq, in dry, rocky places. Flowers bright yellow, to 2 in. in diameter, early spring. Requires dry summer dormancy. R. kotschyi. Mediterranean region and Middle East, in mountains. Flowers yellow, very early spring at time of snowmelt. R. lyallii. MOUNT COOK LILY, MOUNTAIN LILY, NEW ZEALAND BUTTERCUP, SHEPHERD'S LILY. New Zealand, in mountain streams and seeps on steep, rocky slopes from 2000 to 4000 ft. in elevation; introduced 1879. Rhizome large and vigorously spreading. Stems to 36 in. Leaves thick, leathery, to 12 in. in diameter, held high like umbrellas on long stalks. Flowers white, to 4 in. in diameter, number of petals variable, summer (January to March in the wild). This magnificent plant is very difficult to grow outside its native habitat. R. millefoliatus. Mediterranean region. Tuber short. Stems to 12 in. Flowers yellow, spring to summer. R. monspeliacus. W Mediterranean region of Europe. Tuber fingerlike. Stems 16-20 in. Flowers golden yellow, spring. R. psilostachys. Balkan Peninsula and W Turkey. Stems to 12 in. Flowers yellow, spring. R. rupestris. Morocco. Tuber fingerlike. Stems to 8 in. Flowers large, bright yellow, early spring. R. thora. S Europe, from Spain to Balkan Peninsula, in mountains; introduced 1710. Stems to 9 in. Flowers yellow, late spring. R. weberbaueri. Andes of Peru, in damp places. Rhizome thick. Stems to 6 in. Flowers cherry red to pinkish green, spring to summer. SYNONYMS

R. broteri see R. bulbosus subsp. gallecicus. R. fumariifolius see R. millefoliatus. R. nyssanus see R. psilostachys. R. spicatus see R. rupestris.

Resnova R. lachenalioides see Drimiopsis lachenalioides. R. maxima see Drimiopsis maxima. R. pilosa see Drimiopsis maxima. R. schlechteri see Drimiopsis maxima. R. transvaalensis see Drimiopsis maxima.

Rhadamanthus—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) This genus of about 11 species is native to South Africa and Namibia; it is rare in cultivation and not often seen in the wild. The rootstock is a true bulb made up of loose scales. The scape and leaves arise from separate buds. The number of leaves varies from one to many; they are sheathing at their base. The flowers are carried in an unbranched raceme, sometimes all on one side of the stem. The scape is cylindrical, smooth, and leafless. The

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petioles may be long; the open flowers usually droop, but the buds are upright, as are the seedpods. The flower is bell-shaped; the 6 segments are usually fused at the base, with spreading or incurved lobes above. The filaments are inserted at the base of the perianth segments; the anthers are unusual in that they open through a pore or a slit that reaches halfway down the anther. CULTURE Rhadamanthus should be grown frost-free or nearly so. They need well-drained soil with plenty of humus, and full sun. Plant with the tip of the bulb 1-2 in. below the soil surface. Most species require moisture during winter and into spring; the exception is R. montanus, which prefers less moisture at all times. After blooming, the foliage develops, and water should be supplied until it matures. Then slowly reduce the amount of water and leave plants dry from late summer into fall. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Separate bulblets produced around mature bulbs in fall and grow on in nursery pans. Sow seed as soon as ripe, barely cover using a soil mix that drains freely. As soon as the plants are large enough to handle, pot into individual containers using a sandy soil mix. Seedlings will flower in their 3rd year. SPECIES R. albiflorus. South Africa (around Swellendam in E Western Cape), on slopes. Stems to 8 in. Flowers white, nodding, with distinct brown keel, mid summer (December in the wild). R. convallarioides. South Africa (Western Cape to Namaqualand), in warmer areas. Stems 5-10 in. Flowers pendent, light brown, spring to summer (October to December in the wild). Add sharp sand to soil mix. R. montanus. South Africa (E Western Cape, arid parts of Great Karoo), on mountain slopes. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers pendent, pink to brownish, summer to early fall (November to February in the wild). R. platyphyllus. South Africa (Western Cape to Free State) and Namibia, in sandy areas with ample winter moisture. Stems rarely over 6 in. Flowers pendent, reddish brown to pink, summer (November to January in the wild). R. urantherus. SE South Africa (Little Karoo around Oudtshoorn), in dry areas. Stems to 8 in., often less. Flowers pendent, light brown, fall to early winter (March to April in the wild).

Rhamphicarpa see Cycnium Rheome—Iridaceae Name is a semi-anagram ofHomeria; this genus was established by Peter Goldblatt to accommodate certain plants formerly placed in Homeria. The separation is based on a combination of cytological and morphological traits, and on the fact that the species involved do not hybridize with species ofHomeria. The

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Rhexia

2 have different basic chromosome numbers (6 in Homeria, 10 in Rheome). The genus is rare or absent in cultivation. As related genera are more closely examined, we can expect such additional changes in the nomenclature. The rootstock is a corm almost 1 in. in diameter, with a brown tunic which is at first entire and later splits at the base; around this are numerous cormels. Generally 2 leaves are produced, held well above the ground, though the lowest becomes long and trailing. The flowers are held in a crowded terminal cluster and are various shades of yellow. The anthers are erect; the style forks twice at the apex. Flowering is in spring to early summer (August to October in the wild). CULTURE

Rheome should be hardy to around 25°F, especially with the protection of a south-facing wall and a winter mulch. Where winters are colder, corms are best lifted, stored over winter, and replanted in spring. Plant corms 2–4 in. deep in a soil rich in humus, in full sun. Provide moisture as soon as growth is seen, and reduce it after flowering so that by the end of summer the plants are enjoying a dry resting period. PESTS AND DISEASES

PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Divide the rootstock in spring. Easily raised from seed sown in spring in a sandy soil mix. Plants can be transplanted into borders in early summer or sown in situ. SPECIES R. virginica. Canada (Nova Scotia to Ontario) and United States (Maine to Florida, west to Missouri), in wet sand and gravel as well as peaty soils. Leaves narrow, opposite, toothed, with bristles. Flowers rose pink to purplish petals, up to 11/2 in. in diameter; perianth segments 4, broad, recurving as the flower ages. Stamens 8, with rounded filaments, and with curved anthers attached near but not quite at the ends of filaments. Upper filaments shorter than lower filaments, thrusting the anthers forward so their bright, golden-yellow pollen contrasts with the petals. Style below the stamens, curving upward at the apex, barely surpassing the stamens. Stems 4-sided, much branched into a flat-topped inflorescence carrying the flowers to a height of 12-24 in. Fruit an urn-shaped capsule with 4 points. Flowering summer to early fall.

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Separate the cormels from the base of the corm in fall. Sow seed as soon as ripe in warm temperatures, around 50°F at night. Use a sandy soil mix, barely covering the seed. Transplant when large enough to handle into individual small containers. In warm climates sow seed in situ. To promote self-sowing, sprinkle sand around the plants when seed is falling. SPECIES R. maximiliani. South Africa (east of Pakhuis Mountains in Western Cape). Stems to 6 in. Leaves clustered above ground on stems. Flowers rich yellow, spring to early summer (August to October in the wild). R. umbellata. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 6-18 in. Flowers pale yellow, spring (September to November in the wild). Grows in wet, sandy soil.

Rhexia—Melastomataceae MEADOW BEAUTY, DEER GRASS Name derived from Greek rhexis ("rupture"), and was used by Pliny for some unknown plant. There are 10 species in this genus, but only one, R. virginica, has a tuberous rootstock. Most members of the family are tropical, but R. virginica is from North America's Atlantic seaboard to the Midwest. This unusual plant is suitable for borders and other moist spots in full sun. It is very cold-hardy and of botanical interest as well. CULTURE Rhexia needs moisture, full sun, and a sandy soil with good organic content. Plant tubers 1-2 in. deep, 10-15 in. apart.

Rhodohypoxis—Hypoxidaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek rhodos ("pink") and hypoxis, because the flowers resemble pink versions of the usually yellow Hypoxis. Some authorities hold that R. baurii is the only species, while others say that R. rubella is a separate species. Brian Mathew, in Dwarf Bulbs (1973), considers them to be separate species, based on the narrower leaves of R. rubella and a seed capsule that is pushed up when ripening, as opposed to R. baurii. A 3rd (or 2nd, as the case may be) species, R. milloides, is mentioned in the literature. In Plants of Southern Africa: Names and Distribution (Arnold and de Wet 1993), reference is made to R. deflexa, R. incompta, and R. thodiana. These are rare, not in cultivation, and perhaps even extinct in the wild. Natives of South Africa, Rhodohypoxis species are found in the Drakensberg Mountains at elevations of 4000 ft. and higher. They grow in grassy areas in peaty soil, often where there is ample moisture. Coming from high elevations, they are relatively winter-hardy, as long as they are kept on the dry side. They flower from spring through summer and sometimes into fall. The light brown to yellow rootstock is cormlike and about ¥2 in. in diameter. The plants are very dwarf, seldom reaching more than 3 in. The flat, narrow, hairy leaves are produced in early spring and sheathe one another at the base as they rise from the rootstock. The white forms seem to produce fewer leaves than the pink and red ones. The flower stems are hairy. Flower color ranges from white through shades of pink to deep wine-red. Each plant produces a number of flowers. These are great little plants for the rock garden and sunny borders where adequate moisture is present. Due to their short stems, these showy flowers should be planted where their

Phodophiala beauty can be easily seen and appreciated. Rock gardeners often grow them in troughs. CULTURE Rhodohypoxis species can be grown permanently outdoors where winter temperatures remain above 20°F, especially where winters are dry. The protection of a mulch extends their range a bit. Otherwise, they should be grown permanently or wintered over in containers, to which they are well adapted. Plant in fall about 1 in. deep and 3-5 in. apart in peaty, well-drained soil in sun. In hot regions some shade is suitable. They should be kept dry during the winter but require ample moisture during spring and summer. Do not allow the soil to become waterlogged. Plant in bold masses and leave undisturbed. Plants grown in containers should be kept on the dry side in winter, but never completely dry, with temperatures above 30°F so they will stay dormant. Little or no feeding is required, but as soon as growth is noted in spring, a weak application of organic fertilizer can be given. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate the rootstock by cutting it, if necessary. Sow seed in spring in a sandy, peaty soil mix, barely covering the seeds. Give plenty of light and night temperatures around 45°F. Seedlings can be overwintered in the containers in which they germinated, kept at a low temperature and barely moist. When growth recommences in spring, the plants can be individually potted and planted out if of good size. They should be repotted if necessary and then planted out in the 2nd year. SPECIES R. baurii. RED STAR. Drakensberg Mountains of South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal) and Lesotho; introduced 1877. Rootstock cormlike, light-colored, cylindrical. Leaves 6-10, flat, pointed, very hairy, about 3 in. long. Flowers solitary on stiff, hairy pedicels, to 11/2 in. in diameter; color varies from white to deep pink and red. Capsules develop just below the flat flowers. Stamens hidden. Flowering summer (November in the wild). Var. confecta has flowers white to red, often aging to red. Var. platypetala occurs in drier sites, and has white to pale pink flowers and broader leaves. Numerous cultivars and strains have been selected and are offered as dormant rootstocks or container plants. Plate 979. R. milloides. Drakensberg Mountains of Lesotho and South Africa. Rootstock stoloniferous. Leaves erect, glossy green. Flowers spring (November in the wild). R. rubella. Drakensberg Mountains of Lesotho and South Africa. Sometimes regarded as a garden form of R. baurii, but has no hairs on the scape, which is mostly underground, and leaves are narrower, more cylindrical, and less hairy than those of R. baurii. It also appears that the flower stalk is actually an elongated tube, as the seed pod (ovary) is below ground, being pushed up only as far as ground level when ripening. Flowers various shades of pink, late spring to early summer (November in the wild).

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Rhodohypoxis cultivars. Many are offered in catalogs. 'Apple Blossom' has flowers 1 in. in diameter, pale pink with darker center. Plate 980.

Rhodophiala—Amaryllidaceae This genus of about 30 species was created to accommodate those species formerly in Hippeastrum that have narrow leaves. Some species were formerly placed in Habranthus as well. Rhodophiala is native to temperate South America, primarily in Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay, growing in grassland and on mountain slopes. Given dry conditions, many of the species mentioned below are hardier than any species of Hippeastrum. The bulbs are small, often elongated, with a distinct fibrous neck. The leaves are narrow, usually lax, and often glaucous. The hollow, leafless stem bears one flower or an umbel of several. The flowers are narrowly to broadly trumpet-shaped. The perianth segments are fused at the base into a tube and separate into lobes longer than the tube; the 2 series of 3 segments each are of different widths. The flowers come in various bright colors—pink, red, yellow, magenta, and bicolors. The species most likely to be grown are R. advena, R. bifida, R. elwesii, and R. pratensis, but other species have even showier flowers. They should be tried in gardens in mild temperate climates with dry summers. Most are small enough for the rock garden. They are easily grown in the bulb frame. CULTURE Hardiness probably varies according to elevation of origin; most species should survive temperatures above 25°F if not too wet. In the normal growth cycle, most species are dormant in late summer and produce leaves with the onset of fall rains; flowering follows in early to mid summer, often after the leaves have withered. Set dormant bulbs with their tops 4-6 in. below the surface in very well drained sandy soil with a moderate amount of humus, in full sun. Provide moderate moisture fall through spring, and very little in summer. No fertilizer is needed; these are plants of poor, sandy soils. Rhodophiala species can be grown in containers, but these must be quite deep. Do not allow soil of container-grown plants to freeze. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Most species make a few offset bulbs which can be separated during the dormant period. Seed is copiously set and should be sown in fall in a gritty mix, barely covered. Keep moist and cool, but with plenty of light; protect seedlings from frost. Keep seedlings in growth as long as possible without allowing them to go dormant; in the 3rd year, they can be dried off and transplanted to permanent sites or containers. SPECIES R. advena. Chile. Bulb ovoid to globose, with dark tunic. Stems to 15 in. Leaves strap-shaped, 12 in. long, produced after flowering. Flowers 2-6 per stem, bright red with yellow-green

416

Rigidella

central bands, held horizontal or slightly erect, about 2 in. long, with narrow tepals. Flowering mid summer. Tolerates a little frost but foliage should be protected; best in a cool greenhouse. Plate 981. R. andicola. S Chile, in volcanic soils at higher elevations. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers to 3 in. long, brilliant violet, summer. JR. araucana. Chile and Argentina. Stems to 12 in. Flowers 1-2 per stem, red or yellow, yellow forms sometimes with red basal zone, early summer. R. bagnoldii. Argentina and Chile. Stems to 12 in. Flowers yellow, flushed red, summer. R. bifida. OXBLOOD LILY, SCHOOLHOUSE LILY. Argentina and Uruguay; introduced 1825. Stems to 12 in. Flowers bright vermilion, spring. R. chilensis. S Chile. Stems 6-10 in. Leaves 2. Flowers bright red or yellow, spring. R. elwesii. S Argentina and Chile; introduced 1903. Stems to 12 in. Flowers pale yellow, claret in throat, mid summer. R. laeta. C Chile, in coastal mountains. Stems to 14 in. Flowers red to purple, widely open, late spring (November in the wild). R. pratensis. Chile; introduced 1840. Stems to 12 in. Leaves present at flowering. Flowers 3-5 per stem, scarlet with yellow at base, early summer. R. rhodolirion. Andes of Chile, in rocky places. Stems 4-10 in. Flowers white or pink with darker veins and greenish-yellow throat. R. rosea. Chile; introduced 1831. Stems 18-24 in. Flowers rose, tube green, late summer.

Rigidella see Tigridia Roggeveldia—Iridaceae This monotypic genus is mentioned by Peter Goldblatt (1979, 1991), who noted that the simple floral morphology corresponds closely to that of Bobartia, but the corm and single leaf place Roggeveldia in the tribe Homeriinae. He believes it is probably closely allied to the Moraea crispa complex, and the chromosomal cytology of Roggeveldia also corresponds closely to this complex. Roggeveldia is a rare plant, probably not grown in any garden. CULTURE Unknown. PESTS AND DISEASES

Unknown. PROPAGATION

Unknown. SPECIES R. fistulosa. South Africa (W Great Karoo, Southern Karoo, Kamiesberg Mountains in Namaqualand, Western Cape). Rootstock a corm that roots apically and has a coarse, fibrous tunic. Leaf solitary, smooth, cylindrical, usually hollow. Inflo-

rescence fan-shaped, terminal. Flowers starry, blue, with unequal tepals and with short, erect claws; stamens free and diverging. Style threadlike, with branches extending beyond the stamens.

Romulea—Iridaceae Named for Romulus, legendary founder and first king of Rome. This genus of about 90 species is closely related to Crocus, from which it is distinguished by having true stems supporting the flowers (in Crocus, the perianth tube arises directly from the corm). Some species were originally described as Trichonema, no longer a valid genus name. Romulea has 2 centers of distribution: W Europe, from Great Britain to the Mediterranean, and South Africa at higher elevations. Many of the species are very similar, and few are widely grown. The South African species are especially colorful and deserve more attention; they are not as hardy as the European species and most must be grown frost-free, or nearly so. All Romulea species are low-growing, seldom taller than 6 in. The corm has a shiny brown tunic and a characteristic small "foot," like a reduced version of the foot on a Cokhicum corm. The leaves are few (1-6, usually 2) and, unlike those of Crocus, do not have a white central stripe. The upward-facing flowers, which last 4-5 days, open only in bright sunlight and close in late afternoon—another reason these spring-flowering bulbs are best suited to mild regions with warm, sunny spring days. They have 6 tepals of similar size and shape. Colors include white, pink, purple, red, blue, and yellow, often with zones of 1 or 2 contrasting colors in the center. These are good plants for the rock garden and the front of the border, especially in mild areas. They are useful container plants and should be kept somewhere warm and sunny to prolong flowering. CULTURE Most of the Mediterranean species are hardy to about 20°F. The hardiness of the African species has not been thoroughly tested, but high-elevation species should tolerate temperatures about that low. Low-elevation species probably need to be grown frost-free. The plants make their growth in winter and flower in spring or early summer. Plant corms in early fall, 2 in. deep and 3-4 in. apart. They like sun and a well-drained sandy soil, moderately rich in humus. For best effect, plants should be massed. Romuleas need moisture during winter and early spring. After they have flowered, they need less water and can be left on the dry side. Water again in fall when bulbs begin to make root growth. In containers plants can be set closer together. Given night temperatures around 40°F and bright light, they will develop well. Because they close early in the afternoon, they do not make good house plants. Growing them under artificial light might extend the time the flowers stay open. They should be left undisturbed for 3-4 years. PESTS AND DISEASES

Slugs and snails may eat the flowers, but not the leaves.

Romulea PROPAGATION

Offsets can be removed from mature plants when they become crowded. Seed is freely produced; sow in spring in a light soil mix, barely covered. Germination may be slow. The emerging leaves are easy to mistake for grass, so it is best to use sterilized soil. Leave seedlings in the same container for one growing season and move on after the foliage has died down. They should reach flowering size in 2-3 years. A flowering-sized corm is about the size of a pea. SPECIES R. albomarginata. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1956. Plant height to 4 in. Flowers white to bright magenta pink with dark veins in throat, orange-yellow central zone, spring (August to October in the wild). R. amoena. South Africa (S Northern Cape); introduced 1907; listed as vulnerable. Plant height to 6 in. Flowers carmine red, with dark markings and cream central zone, spring (August in the wild). Plate 982. R. aquatica. South Africa (W Western Cape), in seasonal pools; introduced 1938; listed as vulnerable. Plant height 5-12 in. Flowers white or cream, light yellow at base, spring (August in the wild). R. atrandra. South Africa (S Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape); introduced 1934. Plant height 2-3 in. Flowers magenta rose with dark blotches, base yellow or orange with dark streaks, winter to spring (July to October in the wild). Var. esterhuyseniae has paler flowers. Var. lewisiae has pale lilac to white flowers with 3 dark veins on reverse. R. atroviolacea. Corsica. Flowers deep violet-purple, early spring. R. austinii. South Africa (W and S Great Karoo); introduced 1932. Plant height to 3 in. Flowers yellow often blotched with brownish black, winter (May to July in the wild). R. autumnalis. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1931. Plant height to 4 in. Flowers pink, pinkish purple, or white, with yellowish central zone veined purplish, late summer to fall (April to May in the wild). R. barkerae. South Africa (Cape Columbine and Saldanha); introduced 1967. Plant height to 1 in. Flowers white, black blotch in throat outlined in yellow, winter (July in the wild). R. biflora. South Africa (W Western Cape); introduced 1909. Plant height 1-7 in. Flowers deep rose or bright pink with dark blotches in throat; segments have spots on both sides; central zone golden. Flowering spring (July to September in the wild). R. bulbocodium. S Europe; introduced 1739. Plant height to 4 in. Leaves narrow, rarely over 6 in. Flowers 11/2 in. in diameter, blue-violet with yellow center, tips sometimes marked with green, spring. Var. crocea has yellow flowers. Var. leichtliniana has white flowers with yellow central zone. Var. subpalustrishas flowers tinted purple with white throat. Var. dusiana has larger, bright violet flowers; 'Knightshayes' may be a selection from this variety. Plate 983. R. camerooniana. South Africa (NE Western Cape) to Kenya, widespread; introduced 1894. Plant height to 5 in. Flowers pink, purplish, or white, central zone greenish yellow, summer (De-

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cember to March in the wild). Relatively hardy. Var. gigantea, found in South Africa (from Free State to KwaZulu-Natal) and Kenya, has bright yellow central zone, larger plants. R. cedarbergensis. South Africa (around Clanwilliam); introduced 1972. Plant height to 7 in. Flowers white or pale pink; central zone golden; reverse striped bluish purple. Flowering winter to spring (late July to September in the wild). R. titrina. South Africa (Namaqualand); introduced 1892. Plant height 5-10 in. Flowers canary yellow, winter to early spring (August to September in the wild). R. columnae. Europe, Great Britain, and North Africa; introduced 1818. Plant height to 2 in. Flowers white or pale lilac with darker veins, yellow at base, early spring. R. crocea. Lebanon and Turkey, in sandy coastal areas; introduced 1854. Plant height to 6 in. Flowers yellow with purple vein on reverse, early spring. R. cruciata. South Africa (W and SW Western Cape); introduced 1790. Plant height 3-5 in. Flowers lilac pink to magenta pink, often with blue central zone, early spring (July to September in the wild). Var. intermedia has magenta-pink flowers with violet blotches in throat. R. dichotoma. South Africa (coastal S Western Cape); introduced 1784. Plant height to 8 in. Flowers pink or salmon pink; central zone greenish or yellow-green with purplish veining, spring (September to October in the wild). R. diversiformis. South Africa (Northern Cape); introduced 1952. Plant height to 1 in. Flowers buttercup yellow, spring (September in the wild). R. elliptica. South Africa; introduced 1972; listed as vulnerable. Plant height to 6 in. Flowers bright golden yellow, uniformly green outside, late winter to spring (August in the wild). R. eximia. South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced 1909; listed as vulnerable. Plant height to 5 in. Flowers rose to dark rose, with maroon blotches at base; central zone yellowish; outer tepals irregularly marked on exterior. Flowering spring (August to September in the wild). R. fibrosa. South Africa (S Western Cape, W Eastern Cape), in mountains; introduced 1928. Plant height to 9 in. Flowers magenta to pale pink, with violet-blue blotch in throat; central zone yellow with orange markings; reverse of outer segments reddish purple, veined violet. Flowering summer (October to December in the wild). R. flava. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1791. Plant height 6-12 in. Flowers sulfur yellow, cream, or white, winter to early spring (June to September in the wild). Var. minor is smaller. Var. viridiflora has blue or white flowers, stem elongated. Var. hirsuta has blue, violet-blue, pink, or white flowers, very short stems. Plate 984. R. flexuosa. South Africa (W Western Cape); introduced 1882. Plant height 1-10 in. Flowers white; central zone dull; reverse marked with pink, purple-brown or green. Flowering summer (December to February in the wild). R. gaditana. Spain and Portugal. Flowers pinkish lilac to violet with green exterior, early spring. R. gigantea. South Africa (S coastal Western Cape, Eastern Cape); introduced 1907. Plant height to 20 in. Flowers white,

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Romulea

bluish white, or lilac; reverse marked green or purplish; spring (September to October in the wild). R. gracillima. South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced 1892. Pale pink with red lines in throat, 4 in., spring (September in the wild). R. grandiscarpa. Canary Islands. Plant height 6-8 in. Flowers violet. A rare species. Plate 985. R. hallii. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1968. Plant height to 6 in. Flowers pale blue with violet and black blotches; base yellow-orange with dark veins and lines; winter (May to July in the wild). R. hantamensis. Hantam Mountains of South Africa; introduced 1910. Plant height 1-2 in. Flowers bright magenta with zones of purplish black and white, with darker veins; reverse striped purple. Flowering spring (September in the wild). Plates 986,987. R. hirsuta. South Africa (W Western Cape); introduced 1791. Plant height to 31/2in. Fine hairs on leaves. Flowers dark rose pink, apricot pink, or rose magenta with dark blotches in throat; central zone golden; spring to early summer (August to October in the wild). Var. cuprea has pale apricot flowers with dark blotches. Var. zeyheri from SW Western Cape, introduced 1892, has dark rose pink or apricot pink flowers, usually with dark blotches in throat, central zone orange-yellow. R. hirta. South Africa (W Karoo, S Northern Cape); introduced 1900. Plant height 4-12 in. Leaves 4-winged (X-shaped in cross section). Flowers pale yellow; pale reddish-brown or greenish-brown zone above throat. Flowering spring (August to October in the wild). R.jugicola. South Africa (S Western Cape); introduced 1972; listed as vulnerable. Plant height to 9 in. Flowers orange-yellow; reverse of outer segments reddish brown or greenish brown. Flowering spring (August in the wild). R. kamisensis. South Africa (Namaqualand); introduced 1968. Plant height to 2 in. Flowers magenta purple with violet blotches and stripes, spring. R. komsbergensis. South Africa (interior Western Cape); introduced 1952. Plant height 4-5 in. Flowers rose magenta with blue band; central zone butter-yellow with brown base; outer segments with purplish markings. Flowering spring (September in the wild). R. leipoldtii. South Africa (W Western Cape); introduced 1865. Plant height 2-14 in. Flowers white, central zone orangeyellow, spring (September to October in the wild). R. ligustica. N Italy, Corsica, and Sardinia. Plant height to 2 in. Flowers lilac and white with yellow throat, early spring. R. Hnaresii. Sicily, Balkan Peninsula, W Turkey, and Greece; introduced 1839. Plant height to 2 in. Flowers dark purple to violet, throat striped violet, early spring. R. longipes. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1898. Plant height to 14 in. Flowers cream, pale yellow, greenish yellow, or pale apricot; central zone yellow; segments veined greenish brown on reverse. Flowering spring to early summer (July to November in the wild). R. luteoflora. South Africa (Northern Cape, Western Cape); introduced 1952. Plant height 4-12 in. Flowers buttercup yel-

low with dark reddish-brown blotch in throat, winter to spring (July to September in the wild). Var. sanisensis from Lesotho is smaller. R. macowanii. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1876. Plant height to 5 in. Flowers golden-yellow, often orange at base; brownish purplish on reverse, spring (September in the wild). Var. alticola from South Africa (Kwa Zulu-Natal) and Lesotho may be taller. Var. oreophila from South Africa (NE Eastern Cape) and Lesotho is a higher-altitude form. R. malaniae. South Africa (interior Western Cape); introduced 1952. Plant height 5-10 in. Flowers pale yellow with brown markings, early spring (August in the wild). R. membranacea. South Africa (S Northern Cape); introduced 1972; listed as vulnerable. Plant height 3-5 in. Flowers golden yellow, spring (August to September in the wild). R. minutiflora. South Africa (S Northern Cape, Eastern Cape); introduced 1882. Plant height 2-8 in. Flowers pale mauve or lilac, rarely white, winter to spring (July to September in the wild). R. monadelpha. South Africa (S Northern Cape); introduced 1892. Similar to R. sabulosa. Flowers deep claret-red with black blotch, spring (September in the wild). R. montana. South Africa (S Northern Cape, NW Western Cape); introduced 1907. Plant height 3-12 in. Flowers buttercup yellow, marked with brown, winter to spring (July to September in the wild). R. monticola. South Africa (S Northern Cape, Giftberg in W Western Cape); introduced 1924. Plant height 4-10 in. Flowers golden yellow with dark veins, spring. R. multifida. South Africa (Roggeveld Escarpment in Northern Cape); introduced 1952. Plant height to 8 in. Flowers yellow with brown blotches, spring (August to September in the wild). R. multisulcata. South Africa (S Namaqualand, Bokkeveld Mountains in Northern Cape, Giftberg in Western Cape), in seasonally flooded areas; introduced 1972. Plant height to 12 in. Flowers white to yellow with brown undersides, spring to early summer (August to October in the wild). R. neglecta. South Africa (Namaqualand); introduced 1801; listed as vulnerable. Plant height 6–12 in. Flowers rosy magenta, spring (September in the wild). Plate 988. R. nivalis. Syria and Lebanon. Plant height to 5 in. Flowers white tipped lilac, throat yellow, late spring. R. obscura. South Africa (Western Cape), in sandy areas. Plant height to 3 in. Flowers rose pink, throat has greenish-yellow center with dark blotch above. Outer tepals have stripes or irregular markings on reverse. Flowering spring (August to September in the wild). Var. campestris has apricot-yellow flowers with dark markings in throat. R. pratensis. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Plant height to 4 in. Flowers rose to white, winter to spring (July to September in the wild). R. ramiflora. W Mediterranean and S Europe; introduced 1827. Plant height to 6 in. Flowers pale to deep lilac, sometimes with darker veining and yellow throat, spring. R. requienii. Corsica, SC Italy, and Sardinia. Plant height to 4 in. Flowers dark violet, throat sometimes white, early spring.

Roscoea R. revelieri. Corsica and Italy. Flowers violet, pedicels reddish, outer segments deeper purple, early spring. R. rosea. South Africa (S Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape); introduced 1818. Plant height 6-8 in. Leaves narrow, 10-12 in. long. Flowers 11/2 in. in diameter, satiny pink to purple with maroon blotches above yellow central zone. Flowering winter to early spring (July to November in the wild). Relatively hardy. Var. australis has pale lilac-pink flowers. Var. elegans has white flowers with yellow throat, outer segments red, red-purple, or red-green on outside. Var. reflexa has magenta to pink-lilac flowers, occasionally white, throat orangeyellow often with violet-blue zone. Plate 989. R. sabulosa. South Africa. Leaves narrow, up to 8 in. long. Each corm produces as many as 3 flowers as large as 3 in. in diameter. Central zone almost black, surrounded with yellow; remainder of tepal bright red. Flowering spring (August to September in the wild). A purple-red form may be offered under invalid name "R. sabulosa f. trichonema." Plate 990. R. saldanhensis. South Africa (SW Cape); listed as vulnerable. Plant height to 4 in. Flowers deep golden yellow marked with green lines on reverse, spring (August to September in the wild). R. saxatilis. South Africa (W Western Cape). Plant height 410 in. Flowers magenta pink, spring (September to October in the wild). R. schlechteri. South Africa (S Northern Cape and as far south as Caledon in Western Cape). Flowers pale lilac to light cream with orange or yellow central zone; outer segments marked on reverse with stripes or blotches. Flowering winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). R. setifolia. South Africa (S Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape as far east as Port Elizabeth); introduced 1932. Plant height 3-12 in. Flowers apricot yellow, winter to spring (July to September in the wild). R. sinispinosensis. South Africa (W coastal Western Cape). Plant height to 3 in. Flowers white, early spring (August in the wild). R. sladenii. South Africa (Gifberg in Western Cape). Plant height 3-4 in. Flowers white and yellow, early spring (August to September in the wild). R. sphaerocarpa. South Africa (interior Western Cape). Plant height short. Flowers yellow, early winter (June in the wild). R. stellata. South Africa (W Western Cape). Plant height to 3 in. Flowers purple to violet, fall to winter (May to July in the wild). R. tabularis. South Africa (Western Cape), in damp flats; introduced 1907. Plant height to 3 in. Flowers bluish with yellow center surrounded with white, winter to early Spring (July to October in the wild). Plate 991. R. tempskyana. Greece (including island of Rhodes), Israel, SW Turkey, and Cyprus; introduced 1897. Plant height to 3 in. Flowers dark purple, early spring. R. tetragona. South Africa (S Northern Cape, W Western Cape). Plant height 3-11 in. Leaves hairy, 4-winged (X-shaped in cross section). Flowers brownish violet to lilac, rose, or pink, spring (August to September in the wild).

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R. tortilis. South Africa (W Western Cape). Plant height 2-5 in. Leaves twisted. Flowers red, winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). R. tortuosa. South Africa (Namaqualand, SW Cape, W Karoo); introduced 1877. Plant height 2-10 in. Flowers pale to bright yellow with spade-shaped dark blotch or dark veins, winter to spring (June to September in the wild). Subsp. aurea from Karoo, introduced 1869, has butter-yellow flowers without dark marks. R. triflora. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Plant height to 31/2 in. Flowers golden yellow, spring (August to October in the wild). Similar to R. hirsutabut leaves hairless. R. unifolia. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1987; listed as vulnerable. Flowers reddish orange, spring (September in the wild). R. vinacea. Pakhuis Pass of South Africa (Western Cape). Plant height to 3 in. Flowers violet-blue, early spring (August in the wild). R. viridibracteata. South Africa (W Western Cape). Plant height to 4 in. Flowers yellow, early spring (August to September in the wild). R. vlokii. South Africa (Western Cape). Plant height to 8 in. Flowers pink with orange center, winter to early spring (July to August in the wild). SYNONYMS

JR. atrandra var. luteoflora see R. luteoflora. R. aurea see R. tortuosa subsp. aurea. R. bulbocodioides see -R. flava. R. clusiana see R. bulbocodium. R. Corsica see R. ligustica. R. duthieae see R. tabularis. R. grandiflora see R. bulbocodium. R. longifolia see JR. rosea. R. longituba see R. macowanii. R. longituba var. alticolasee R. macowanii var. alticola. R. oliveri see R. neglecta. R. similis see R. flava var. viridiflora.

Roscoea—Zingiberaceae Named in honor of William Roscoe (1753-1831), founder of the Liverpool Botanic Garden in 1802. There are perhaps 18 species, native to the Himalayas and China, but only a handful are in cultivation. The majority of genera in the ginger family are from tropical and subtropical regions, but the more or less hardy roscoeas are gaining popularity. Those most frequently grown are R. cautleoides, R. purpurea, and R. scillifolia. Planthunting expeditions in China's Yunnan and Sichuan provinces are expected to introduce more species in short order. The overall height of the plants is seldom more than 12 in. The rootstock is a cluster of fleshy roots radiating out from a central crown. The basal leaves are lanceolate or oblong, sheathing the stem, which also has leaves at its nodes. The orchidlike flowers emerge out of the funnel formed by the leaves, singly or in dense heads, and open in succession. The flower has 3

420

Ruscus

petals, the posterior petal much wider than the other 2 and sometimes inrolled to form a cowl; the other 2 petals are held semierect or horizontally to each side of it. The largest element of the flower is the lip, which is a broad, often notched staminode. Flower colors include purple, red, pink, and yellow. The summer-blooming plants are quite tidy in growth and look like a miniature fountain, the flowers being the cascade. A curious feature is that a plant's flowers tend to become larger over the years as the plant matures. These are exotic-looking plants that always delight the gardener. The ideal site is open shade along the edges of a woodland. The roscoeas should be placed close to paths so they can be appreciated. They are suitable for shady rock gardens. They fit into even small gardens, never spreading much but making sturdy clumps. Roscoea may someday attract hybridizers to produce plants with new colors or combinations of them. CULTURE Most species are hardy down to about 0°F with the protection of a mulch. They are normally supplied as container plants (rarely, bare-root in fall) and should be planted in spring at the level at which they have been growing. They require a highly organic soil with ample moisture throughout the growing spring and summer season and should not be too wet in winter. Most species do best in shade, at least during the hottest part of the day. Plants typically emerge quite late in spring. Once they have appeared, give weak feedings of a balanced liquid organic fertilizer. Roscoeas are rarely grown as container plants, but they do well in deep pots kept in a cool position where the rootball will not get too hot. PESTS AND DISEASES

Slugs and snails must be kept from the young foliage. The areas where roscoeas like to grow are havens for these pests. PROPAGATION

Divide established plants in early spring before growth emerges. Sow seed in fall or spring in a friable soil mixture, barely covered. Germination is quite rapid, and seedlings may attain flowering size in the 2nd or 3rd year. Young plants should be grown in shade and protected from freezing. SPECIES R. alpina. Himalayas of Kashmir and Nepal. Many plants grown under this name are actually R. sdllifolia. Stems 4-8 in. Leaves to 4 in. long. Flowers white, pale pink, or dull purple, to 2 in. long, opening one at a time in early summer. R. auriculata. Nepal and India (Sikkim). Stems to 18 in. Flowers bright purple, summer to early fall. R. capitata. Himalayas. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers more than one, white or pale pink, early summer. R. cautleoides. China, in clearings between rhododendrons and pines; introduced 1912. Stems to 12 in. or more. Leaves folded, swordlike, rich green, erect. Flowers light yellow in cultivated forms, also white and purple in the wild, with brownish bracts, 2-3 in. long, summer. An especially attractive species. 'Beesiana', a hybrid with R. auriculata, has pale yellow flowers streaked mauve. Plate 992.

R. humeana. China (Yunnan); introduced 1916. Stems to 6 in. Leaves 6-8, upright, to 8 in. long. Flowers deep purple, summer. The base of the flowers often is hidden in the foliage so that the plant appears compact and stocky. An even dwarfer form is known as 'Bees Dwarf. Named in honor of David Hume, a gardener at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, who died in World War I; this was the first in a series of plants named for staff members who died in that war. Sent to Scotland by George Forrest in 1904, R. humeana flowered in 1912, and in 1916 Sir William Wright Smith, the Royal Botanist, named it. (My diploma from the Botanic Garden was signed by Sir William.) R. procera. Himalayas. Stems to 12 in. Leaves dense, hiding lower part of flowers. Flowers numerous, petals white, lip purple. Flowering mid to late summer. R. purpurea. W China; introduced 1820. Not as stocky as R. procera; stems to 8 in. Leaves tend to spread apart more than in other species. Flowers entirely purple. 'Red Gurkha', found in Nepal in 1992, has rich red flowers in fall. Crosses involving R. purpurea frequently result in flowers of mixed coloring. R. schneideriana. China (Yunnan). Formerly regarded as a variety of R. cautleoides, but distinguished by having a hooked stigma and flowers that do not elongate on the peduncle. Leaves 4-6, in a rosette. Flowers dark to pinkish purple or white. For details, see Jill Cowley (1994). SYNONYMS

R. cautleoides var. schneideriana see R. schneideriana. R. chamaeleon see R. cautleoides. R. intermedia see R. alpina. R. longifolia see R. alpina. R. purpurea var. procera see R. procera. R. yunnanensis see R. cautleoides.

Ruscus R. reticulatus see Behnia reticulata.

S

Labiatae Salvia—Labiatae

SAGE Name derived from Latin salvare ("to save, heal") and was used by Pliny the Elder for these plants. Many salvias, including culinary sage, have aromatic foliage and are believed to have medicinal properties. This is a very large genus of 900 or more species, but only about 5 of them have bulbous (rhizomatous or tuberous) rootstocks, in the broad sense. The genus also contains annuals, shrubs, and biennials, but all the tuberous species are herbaceous perennials. The leaves are sometimes sessile, sometimes petiolate, opposite, and simple. The flowers are zygomorphic, terminal or axillary, held in a raceme, spike, or panicle. The corolla tube is often flat or curved, the upper hooded lips sometimes blunt, sometimes with 3 lobes or teeth of unequal size. The lower lip

Sandersonia has 3 lobes; the outer 2 are often much reduced; the center lobe is notched. There are 2 stamens and sometimes 2 staminodes; the style is 2-lobed or branched, the ovary superior. The stems are square in cross section. Many salvias are handsome garden plants, but the species described below are not the most attractive ones; nonetheless, they can contribute to a perennial border. In addition, their flowers last well in water. CULTURE Hardiness of the tuberous species varies. The most commonly grown species, S. patens, is hardy to about 20°F and can be dug in fall and stored like dahlia tubers. Tuberous salvias thrive in ordinary garden soil of only moderate fertility, but it must be well-drained. They need moisture in early spring but can be harmed by overwatering, especially in late summer and fall. They cannot tolerate cold, wet winters. Set rootstocks 2 in. deep, 8-10 in. apart, in full sun. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Take cuttings when new growth is 4-6 in. long and root them in sharp sand, then place them in individual pots or line them out for planting the following spring. Sow seed in fall or spring, under glass in colder climates. Use a sandy soil mix and pot seedlings as soon as they are large enough to handle. Most species flower the 2nd year from seed. SPECIES S. arizonica. United States (Arizona, Texas). Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems to 24 in., branched. Leaves 2 in. long, 1 in. wide, with a short petiole, ovate or deltoid, coming to a sharp point. Flowers to 6 per raceme, on short petioles; corolla blue, 1/3in. long; upper lip half as wide as lower lip. Flowering summer. S. patens. Mexico. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 18 in. Flowers gentian blue, summer. Selections include 'Alba', white; 'Cambridge Blue', light blue; 'Chilcombe', mauve. S. prunelloides. Mexico. Rootstock tuberous. Stems to 16 in. Leaves 1-2 in. long, oval or rhomboid. Flowers 3-6 in a whorl; corolla 1 in. long, bright blue. Flowering late summer into fall. S. uliginosa. Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems to 6 ft., branched. Leaves to 4 in. long, 1 in. wide, sessile or with a short petiole. Flowers small, to 20 per branch, blue, on very short pedicels, summer to fall. S. verbenaca. VERVAIN, WILD CLARY. Europe and W Asia, naturalized in many areas, often on poor soil. Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems to 24 in., often branches. Leaves 4 in. long, almost as wide, sessile or with short petioles, oval or oblong. Flowers 1-5 per raceme, blue, lavender, or lilac; corolla short; upper lip has 3 teeth, lower lip has more prominent teeth. Flowering late summer and into the fall. A weedy species that should not be planted. S. yunnanensis. China (Yunnan). Rootstock rhizomatous, producing tubers with scarlet skin. Stems 10-12 in. Leaves 2 in. long, 1 in. wide, with short petioles, sometimes divided. Flow-

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ers 3-6 per spike, blue to violet with distinct pubescence on exterior; bracts shorter than pedicels. Flowering summer.

Sandersonia—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) CHINESE LANTERN, CHRISTMAS BELLS, ORANGE BELLS Named in honor of John Sanderson, who first collected this plant in 1852. Sanderson was honorary secretary of the Horticultural Society of KwaZulu-Natal, where the sole species is native. Sandersonia resembles Gloriosa in growth, but the flowers are not at all similar. The perianth segments are slightly pinched at the mouth (hence the common name of Chinese lantern), and flowering time in the wild is at Christmastime (hence the other common name). Sandersonia must be grown frost-free and is an excellent container plant in colder climates, if the pot is brought indoors and protected from frost during the plant's dormancy from early fall until mid spring. In warmer climates it can be grown in the open ground, staked so the flowers can be seen to advantage. CULTURE Plant tubers in late winter, in a soil mix rich in humus, about 3 in. deep. Place in full sun in all but the hottest regions, where it appreciates light afternoon shade. Soil must be free-draining but moisture retentive. The roots tend to go quite deep, so the soil should be improved to a depth of 18 in. or a deep container should be provided. Give ample moisture at planting time, with increasing moisture as the foliage develops. Leave plants undisturbed for 4-5 years. Stake plants to keep stems erect and show off flowers. In fall the plants should be drier, but never without a little moisture in the soil. In a cold greenhouse, plants can perform well for many years. In colder climates, plant tubers a few weeks before the last spring frost and lift at the end of summer or in early fall before the first frost. Lift with great care to avoid damaging brittle tubers. It is best to grow plants in a container plunged in the border for the summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

Aphids often infest plants, especially under glass, and foliage may succumb to Botrytis if air circulation is poor and foliage is wet. PROPAGATION

Lift established plants and separate tubers in early fall. Sow seed in spring in moderate heat with night temperatures above 45°F. When large enough to transplant, seedlings can be potted into individual containers and grown on. Seedlings reach flowering size in 3–4 seasons. SPECIES

S. aumntiaca. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), in moist areas among grasses; rare. Rootstock a tuber, fleshy, small, fingerlike, quite brittle. Stems thin, wiry, scrambling or semi-erect, to about 24 in. Leaves bright green, to 3 in. long, lanceolate, tapering to a fine point which may extend into a tendril to help the plant scramble through shrubs. Flowers large, bright orange, bell-shaped, pendent on short, curving pedicels arising

422

Sanguinaria

from the axils of the upper leaves. Perianth segments 6, fused; stamens hidden inside the flower. A spur which points toward the mouth is found on the exterior of the flower near the base of each segment; this is the pitted channel from the nectary gland inside. Flowering mid summer (December to January in the wild). Plate 993.

in the southern part of the range. A beautiful, many-petaled double form called 'Flore Pleno' or 'Multiplex' is probably grown more than the typical plant. 'Peter Harrison' has white flowers with a pink flush. Flowering early spring (March to May in the wild). Plates 994-996.

Saniella—Hypoxidaceae (Liliaceae) Sanguinaria—Papaveraceae BLOODROOT, RED PUCCOON Name derived from Latin sanguinarius, referring to the bright orange-red latex exuded from broken roots and stems. This latex was once thought to be effective in stopping blood flow and was used both as a dye and insect repellent by Native Americans. In French-speaking Canada, where it is native, the sole species in this genus is commonly called sanguinaire or sangdragon. I had some difficulty getting this plant established when I lived in Oregon. I think I tried to take too much care of it, and it did not appreciate the protection of a wall and exposure to early morning sun, preferring a cooler spot. It is a good plant for woodland areas, shaded rock gardens, and the alpine house. CULTURE Hardy to at least — 30°F if protected with a loose mulch of leaves in fall. Plant rootstock 2-3 in. deep in moisture-retentive soil augmented with organic matter. Apparently not fussy about the pH of the soil, it is found naturally in both acid and neutral soils. Moisture is needed from early spring through summer, and dappled but not dense shade. Bloodroot can be naturalized under deciduous trees. Plants may be difficult to establish and should be left alone to form large colonies. Topdress in spring with compost if natural leaf litter is not present. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Divide rhizomes in late summer or early fall when leaves have died back. Replant divisions at once or keep them in moist peatmoss or leafmold and plant in early spring prior to growth commencing. Seed must be sown as soon as it is ripe. Sow in situ or use a very peaty soil mix, barely covering the seed. Leave seedlings in place until small rhizomes have formed. SPECIES S. canadensis. Canada (Quebec to Manitoba) and United States (Maine to Pennsylvania, Alabama, Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas), widespread in woodland, in highly organic soils. Rootstock a thick, forked rhizome. Leaves pale green, deeply lobed, heart- or kidney-shaped, broad when mature but never as tall as the scape, which reaches 8 in. Flower solitary, petals 8-12, white, sometimes with a faint flush of pink, lasting for several weeks. Stamens about 24; style short. A pink form is sometimes given the name forma colbyorum in honor of Earl H. Colby. Var. rotundifolia has rounded leaves which are glaucous on the underside, and its rhizomes are a little shorter; it is found more

This monotypic genus is native to southern Africa. It was discovered in 1973 and described by O. M. Hilliard and Brian Burtt in 1978. The flowers have been described as "crocuslike." Brian Mathew (1997) writes: "As far as I know, it has not been tested for hardiness out in the open garden but it is an interesting plant for pot or pan cultivation in an unheated greenhouse." Related to Rhodohypoxis, it might have commercial potential, but it is unlikely that it will ever be grown except by devoted bulb collectors. CULTURE Saniella should be grown frost-free or nearly so. Coming from areas where winter rains prevail, it requires ample moisture in spring and into summer, and full sun. Drainage must be good, but the soil should contain sufficient organic matter to retain moisture through flowering. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate cormels from established plants. Seed might be another method of propagation. The seed would require a sandy, organic soil mix. SPECIES S. verna. South Africa (Eastern Cape) and Lesotho, at rather high elevations; described 1978. Rootstock fleshy and underground, described by Mathew as a corm. Leaves dark green, basal, arising from the rootstock and held erect in a tuft, sheathing at the base, rather fleshy, very narrow with a distinct channel in the center. Flowers small, long-tubed, solitary, white with prominent yellow stamens. Perianth segments 6; stamens 6, with short filaments, anthers attached at the base; ovary inferior ovary; capsule subterranean. Flowering late spring or early summer; dormant during winter.

Sauromatum—Araceae Name derived from Greek sauros ("lizard"), referring to the interior markings of the spathe. The 4 or 5 species of Sauromatum are native to tropical Africa, from Sudan to Malawi and Zambia, and to subtropical Asia. Only one species is widely grown: S. venosum, from the Himalayas and S India. It is not of great beauty but is unusual because the big tuber can produce the very large inflorescence without being planted in soil. To flourish, however, it has to be planted in a tropical environment with high humidity and heat. The rootstock is a flattened tuber. The inflorescence appears before the leaves. The spathe is very long and mottled; the

Scadoxus spadix is club-shaped, with male flowers at the top, female flowers below, and rudimentary sterile flowers between them. The genus is related to Eminium, but in Eminium the sterile flowers are awl-shaped, not club-shaped. The solitary leaf has a long stalk. Duane Campbell, a garden columnist from Towanda, Pennsylvania, brought to my attention the ability of the plant to give offbeat, a fascinating phenomenon. (For more information on this process, called thermogenesis, see Bown 2000: 57-60.) Campbell sent me a plant which has thrived in my San Francisco garden, though it would get much larger in a warmer climate. CULTURE Sauromatum requires warmth year-round and may be grown outdoors in climates like that of southern Florida, or in a warm greenhouse. Bright light, but not direct sunlight, is best. Set the tubers 3-4 in. deep in a well-drained soil rich in humus. Provide ample moisture as the spathe emerges and keep moist until the leaf has died down. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Propagation is by offsets produced from the mature tuber. SPECIES S. nubicum. E and W Africa. Probably a geographic variation of S. venosum with a broader leaf segment and narrower spathe blade. S. venosum. MONARCH OF THE EAST, VOODOO LILY, RED CALLA. Himalayas and S India; introduced 1815. Sometimes confused in commerce with the hardy Dracunculus vulgaris. Tuber rounded, to 6 in. across or more. Leaf stalk to 18 in. long, thick at base, often brown-spotted. Leaf solitary, round, deeply divided into 8- to 10-in. segments, which are sometimes further divided. Peduncle short; spathe up to 24 in. long; tubular lower part hides the female flowers, then splits and unfolds with the sharply pointed spathe curling back and twisting, displaying mottled interior of spathe, purplish and green with darker purple blotches. Flowers stink like decaying flesh. Flowering late spring or early summer. Var. pedatum has a green, unspotted leafstalk and shorter spathe, yellowish and purple. Plate 997. SYNONYM S. guttatum see S. venosum.

Scadoxus—Amaryllidaceae TORCH LILY, PAINT BRUSH, SHAVING BRUSH, FIREBALL LILY, FOOTBALL LILY, SNAKE LILY

Name derived from Greek skiadion ("parasol") and doxa ("glory"). This genus includes about 10 species which were formerly included in Haemanthus but are now separated because of their growth habit: Haemanthus has 2 large leaves which lie flat on the ground, while Scadoxus has several leaves sheathing one another, forming a false stem. Scadoxus now includes the

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more attractive species. Three of these are found in most parts of South Africa, and 7 more obscure species in tropical Africa. The bulbs are large and fleshy; they require a definite dormant period and do not like to be disturbed. The roots are brittle, thick, and fleshy. There are up to 12 leaves, tapered at the base and held on spotted sheaths. The flowers are carried in umbels on succulent stalks and, like those of Haemanthus, are pink or scarlet, sometimes marked with white. The bracts are often brightly colored. The 6 tepals of the flower are very small, but the colorful stamens are crowded together and have the form of a shaving brush; the inflorescence can hold as many as 100 flowers. The genus has been given the same common names as Haemanthus. CULTURE Scadoxus must be grown frost-free and not exposed to temperatures below 45°F. The plants require a soil that is well-drained and rich in humus. They must receive ample water in the growing season and be dry during their dormant period. Though tolerant of full sun, they often are found in the wild in the shade of shrubs. Plant bulbs with the neck just at or a little above soil level. Take care not to break the fleshy roots, spreading them out in the planting hole. Little fertilizer is needed if the soil is rich; however, if plants have been growing in the same spot for several years, weak feedings of liquid organic fertilizer can be given every 2-3 weeks. Bulbs planted in the open ground should be spaced about 12 in. apart and look best in groups of 3 or 5. Pots should be at least 10 in. in diameter. Plants may flower only in alternate years. PESTS AND DISEASES

Protect against slugs and snails, which devour the fleshy stems. PROPAGATION

As for Haemanthus. SPECIES S. cinnabarinus. W Africa; 1855. Stems to 12 in. Bracts red, spring. Plate 998. S. lindenii. Congo; introduced 1890. Bracts scarlet, spring. S. multiflorus. BLOOD LILY. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga), Swaziland, and S tropical Africa. Stems to 24 in. Leaves 7-10, to 18 in. long, very wide at the base, elongating after flowering. Flowers deep scarlet, umbel to 10 in. in diameter. Flowering in summer, dormant in winter. A very attractive species, preferring some shade. Subsp. katherinae, from South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal), is commonly known as Catherine wheel or blood flower; the tallest subspecies, it has scarlet flowers with very prominent stamens. Subsp. longitubus from W Africa is the shortest subspecies and has flowers with perianth tube up to 1 in. long. Plates 17,999-1001. S. pole-evansii. Zimbabwe; introduced 1962. A large plant similar to S. multiflorus subsp. katherinae but with fewer flowers, more salmon pink. S. puniceus. ROYAL PAINT BRUSH. E and S Africa. Stems to 16 in. Leaves on elongated stem, present at flowering, to 24 in. long. Stamens bright orange-scarlet tipped with golden anthers; floral bracts reddish brown. Flowering late spring. 'Alba' is an

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Schickendantzia

uncommon white form. A pink form exists. A form once known as Haemanthus natalensis differs in having salmon-pink stamens. Plates 1002-1005.

Schickendantzia S. pygmaea see Alstroemeria pygmaea.

Schizobasopsis S. cuscutoides see Bowiea intricata. S. flagelliformis see Bowiea intricata. S. macowanii see Bowiea intricata.

Schizocarphus S. nervosus see Scilla nervosa.

Schizostylis S. coccinea see Hesperantha coccinea.

Scilla—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) SQUILL Name said to mean "to wound, harm" and was used by Hippocrates for a plant whose roots contain a violent poison. The Greeks and Romans used the name for the plant now known as Urginea maritima. Scilla is a large genus of about 100 species; it used to contain even more, but many have been transferred to new genera. The species are distributed throughout the Old World in tropical and temperate areas, from South Africa to the Mediterranean, Europe, Great Britain, and Asia. Southern Hemisphere plants with attractively striped or blotched foliage are now placed in the genus Ledebouria; the Spanish bluebell and English bluebell are now Hyacinthoides. Other close genera are Chionodoxa and Puschkinia, from which Scilla is distinguished by perianth segments that are free rather than fused and by stamen filaments that are free and not expanded. Scilla species may flower in spring, summer, or fall, but those most common in gardens are all spring blooming. The tunicated bulb is composed of numerous free scales which are renewed annually. The flowers are small and starry, few to many in a raceme. The leaves are linear to lanceolate and are all basal. There should be a place for some species of Scilla in any garden. In warmer climates, S. peruviana and S. natalensis are good border plants. Scilla siberica is the most popular one in coldwinter regions and is a good companion to early daffodils. The smaller species are appropriate for the rock garden. Most should be planted in large groups for best effect. Some scillas can be a bit invasive owing to the production of many offsets and to self-sowing. CULTURE Hardiness varies widely. In general, the South African species should be grown frost-free. The European and W Asian species

are mostly hardy to about 10°F but their winter-green foliage cannot tolerate being frozen while wet. Scilla siberica is hardy to about -20°F, especially with a mulch or snow cover; almost as hardy are S. bifolia, S. liliohyacinthus, S. litardieri, S. miczenkoana, and S. scilloides. Plant S. peruviana and S. natalensis with the top of the bulb at or above soil level, the other species 3-4 in. deep, a little deeper in sandy soil. Space plants according to stem height, 3–4 in. for short ones, 12 in. for tall ones. The soil should be fastdraining, with ample humus. Light shade is suitable for most species in hot regions, and full sun in cool ones. Moderate moisture is needed during spring and until the foliage withers. Summer-flowering species need moisture after flowering. Once established, the plants are best left undisturbed. Many scillas are excellent container plants; this is the best way to grow South African species in areas that are not frost-free. Few scillas are difficult to grow, and special requirements are noted in the list of species. PESTS AND DISEASES

Bulbs can suffer from several kinds of rot if stored in poorly ventilated conditions. Foliage may be attacked by sooty molds where air circulation is poor. The plants are not palatable to animals, but slugs may eat the flowers. PROPAGATION

Lift established plants and separate offsets during the dormant period in summer; some species produce few offsets, others many. Sow seed in fall or spring, barely covered with a sandy soil mix, and keep the soil moist. Leave seedlings undisturbed for 1-2 years. Time from sowing to flowering varies among species but is typically 3-5 years. SPECIES S. amoena. BYZANTINE SQUILL. Origin uncertain, perhaps a selection of S. bithynica; long in cultivation. Each bulb can produce several stems, to 6 in. Leaves 4-5, midgreen, 6-8 in. long, upright when young. Flowers 3-5 per stem, blue, starry, to 1 in. in diameter, late spring to early summer. Easy to grow; prefers light soils, and can increase very rapidly. Plate 1006. S. armena. S Transcaucasia and NW Turkey. Stems to 4 in. Flowers light blue, late spring. S. autumnalis. Europe, Great Britain, North Africa, and W Asia; introduced 1753. Stems 3-6 in. Leaves narrow, 3-5 in. long, appearing after flowering. Flowers small, numerous, purplish blue, late summer to fall. Selections include 'Alba', white; 'Praecox', larger and more vigorous; 'Rosea', pinkish. S. bellii. E Iran; introduced 1884. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers brownish blue, spring. S. berthelotii. Tropical Africa; introduced 1862. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers pale lilac, spring. S. bifolia. S Europe and Turkey; introduced 1753. Stems 2-4 in., elongating in fruit. Leaves usually 2, sometimes 4. Flowers to 8 per stem, 1 in. in diameter, outward- or upward-facing, usually bright blue, sometimes paler. Flowering early spring. Color forms often listed under such names as var. rosea or var. alba. A fine early bulb, in its native habitat flowering soon after

Scilla

the snow melts, and quite hardy. Plant in cool spots in hot-summer climates. Plates 1007,1008. S. bithynica. Turkey (NW area, Asia Minor) and Balkan Peninsula; introduced 1846. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers purplish blue, early spring. S. buchananii. Mozambique; introduced 1893. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers green with purple filaments, fall (May in the wild). S. cilicica. Cyprus, SE Turkey, south to Israel; introduced 1908. Stems to 8 in. Flowers cobalt blue, spring. S. cupanii. Sicily; introduced 1834. Stems 3-6 in. Flowers purple, late spring. S. furseorum. NE Afghanistan. Stems to 4 in. Flowers blue mauve with green stripe, mid spring. S. griffithii. NW Pakistan and Afghanistan. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers bluish lilac, spring. S. hohenackeri. CASPIAN BLUEBELL. N Iran and Russia; introduced 1962. Stems 4-8 in. Leaves appear in fall. Flowers pale blue, lavender, or white, early spring. S. humifusa. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1881. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers green suffused with red, spring. S. hyacinthoides. Mediterranean region (Portugal to Israel), Iraq, and SE Turkey; introduced 1585. Stems 12-36 in. Flowers pale lilac blue, mid to late spring. S. indica. Japan, Korea, and China; introduced 1816. Stems 2-6 in. Flowers greenish purple, early summer. S. lanceolata. South Africa; introduced 1774. Stems 4-5 in. Flowers greenish purple, spring (September in the wild). S. latifolia. Canary Islands; introduced 1777. Stems to 12 in. Flowers lilac, late spring. S. laxa. South Africa; introduced 1891. Stems to 3 in. Flowers green, spring. S. ledieni. W Africa; introduced 1889. Stems to 3 in. Flowers greenish, spring. S. leucophylla. Iran; introduced 1893. Stems 5-8 in. Flowers bright purple tipped green, spring. S. Ulio-hyadnthus. France and N Spain. Stems to 6 in. Flowers bright blue, late spring. S. lingulata. Algeria and Morocco; introduced 1887. Stems 2-4 in. Flowers blue, white, or lilac, spring. S. litardieri. S and W Yugoslavia; introduced 1827. Stems 3-12 in. Flowers bluish lilac, late spring. S. macowani. South Africa; introduced 1873. Stems to 6 in. Flowers greenish, spring (September to October in the wild). S. melaina. Turkey; introduced 1976. Stems 5-8 in. Flowers bright blue, spring. S. messeniaca. S Greece; introduced 1897. Stems to 6 in. Flowers 7-20 per stem, pale blue, mid spring. S. miczenkoana. Iran and Caucasus; introduced 1931. Name also spelled S. mischtschenkoana. Each bulb produces 3 or 4 stems to 6 in. tall. Leaves broader than those of many springflowering scillas. Flowers 3-5 per stem, flat-faced, light blue with darker median stripe, late winter or early spring. Plates 1009-1011. S. monophyllos. Portugal, W Spain, and Morocco; introduced 1821. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers bright blue, late spring. S. natalensis. BLUE SQUILL, TALL SQUILL. South Africa (Kwa-

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Zulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, Free State) and Lesotho, often among rocks; introduced 1862. Bulb very large, with purplishbrown tunic; plant with upper 1/3 above soil level. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). Stems often over 36 in. Leaves develop after flowering begins, often 4 in. wide or more, up to 18 in. long, green on upper surface, sometimes flushed purple on underside. Flowers to 100 on long horizontal pedicels in well-spaced, pyramidal raceme, powder blue to lavender blue. Lower parts of segments fused into a narrow tube, separating to a flat-faced flower. Var. sordida has leaves tinged brown, more slender scape. A striking plant, ideal species for setting between boulders; grow frost-free. Prefers full sun, welldrained soil, and ample moisture when in growth. Plates 14, 1012-1014. S. nervosa. South Africa (Eastern Cape through KwaZuluNatal, Free State, Northern Province, Mpumalanga) to Tanzania; introduced 1870. Bulb pear-shaped, with many dense, fibrous tunics, often 2-3 in. in diameter. Stems 18-20 in., several per bulb. Leaves to 6, bright green, pinkish purple at base, basal, erect, to 1/2 in. wide, 10 in. long, with thickened margins. Flowers 1/4 in. in diameter, to 100 per raceme, whitish with a hint of green. Flowering mid summer (January in the wild). Not an attractive plant, but so widespread that it might be considered for grassy hillsides where little else of interest grows. Plates 1015, 1016. S. odorata. Spain and Portugal; introduced 1818. Stems 6-9 in. Flowers sky blue, fragrant, late spring. S. paui. Spain; introduced 1928. Stems to 6 in. Flowers blue striped with violet, late spring. S. persica. SE Turkey, Iraq, and W Iran; introduced 1897. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers bright blue, spring. S. peruviana. CUBAN LILY, PERUVIAN LILY. Portugal, Spain, and Italy; introduced 1607. Said to have received its name because Clusius was told that it was brought on a ship named Peru. Stems to 12 in., elongating during flowering period. Leaves nearly evergreen, in a basal rosette, to 11/2 in. wide, 12 in. long. Flowers to 100 in dense raceme, deep violet blue; inflorescence to 6 in. in diameter, with lower flowers on pedicels 1 1 /2 in. long, upper pedicels very short. In seed, pedicels almost double their length. Flowering late spring. Occurs in the wild at low elevations and thus is not fully hardy, requiring protection where temperatures drop below 24°F, but I have seen it in English gardens, where it seems quite at home. Excellent container plant for colder regions, wintered under glass and brought outside after last frost. Plant bulb with the neck at soil level. Selections include 'Alba', white flowers; 'Elegans', red flowers; var. glabra, lilac flowers and smooth leaves. Plates 1017-1019. S. puschkinioides. Russia and C Asia; introduced 1881. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers pale blue to almost white with darker median strip, mid spring. S. ramburei. North Africa, Portugal, and SW Spain. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers bluish lilac, spring. Similar to S. verna but more robust. S. rosenii. NE Turkey and Russia; introduced 1849. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers pale blue with white center, early spring. An alpine species, requires a cool position. Plate 1020.

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Simethis

S. scilloides. China and Japan. Stems 6-8 in. Leaves reddish when young. Flowers bright rose lavender, early fall. Plate 1021. S. siberica. SiBERIAN SQUILL. Iran, Turkey (Asia Minor), and Caucasus; introduced 1796. Stems to 8 in., frequently more than one per bulb. Leaves 4-6, narrow, bright green, to 8 in. long. Flowers to 6 per stem, brilliant blue, often facing one direction, somewhat pendent, to 1 in. in diameter. Flowering mid spring. Var. taurica has darker blue flowers that appear slightly earlier than the type. The species is very popular in gardens, especially the cultivar 'Spring Beauty'. Excellent for shrub border where it has cool conditions; quite cold-hardy but intolerant of hot summers. Plate 1022. S. verna. SPRING SQUILL. Europe and Great Britain, along seacoasts. Stems 3-5 in. Leaves narrow, often curled. Flowers very small, 2–12 per stem, lilac blue, late spring or early summer. S. versicolor. South Africa; introduced 1872. Stems to 12 in. Flowers whitish, flushed green, spring. S. villosa. Morocco; introduced 1831. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers blue, spring. S. winogradowii. NE Turkey and Caucasus. Stems to 6 in. Flowers bright blue with darker stripe, mid spring. SYNONYMS

S. adlamii see Ledebouria cooperi. S. albanica see S. bithynica. S. albescens see Chionodoxa albescens. S. amethystina see S. litardieri. S. amoena var. siberica see S. siberica. S. apertiflora see Ledebouria apertiflora. S. baurii see Ledebouria cooperi. S. bella see Ledebouria cooperi. S. campanulata see Hyacinthoides hispanica. S. cernua see S. siberica. S. chinensis see S. scilloides. S. cicatricosa see Ledebouria ovatifolia. S. climatocarpha see Ledebouria ovatifolia. S. collina see Ledebouria ovatifolia. S. concinna see Ledebouria cooperi. S. concolor see Ledebouria concolor. S. cooperi see Ledebouria cooperi. S. dubia see S. bifolia. S. ecklonii see Ledebouria undulata. S. elevans see Ledebouria ovatifolia. S. ensifolia see Ledebouria undulata. S. floribunda see Ledebouria floribunda. S. galpinii see Ledebouria cooperi. S. gerrardii see S. nervosa. S. guttata see Ledebouria ovatifolia. S. hispanica see Hyacinthoides hispanica. S. hispidula see S. nervosa. S. hughii see S. peruviana. S. hypoxidioides see Ledebouria hypoxidioides. S. inquinata see Ledebouria inquinata. S. italica see Hyacinthoides italica. S. japonica see S. scilloides. S. kraussii see S. natalensis.

S. lanceaefolia see Ledebouria ovatifolia, L. revoluta. S. linearifolia see Ledebouria apertiflora. S. livida see Ledebouria floribunda. S. lorata see Ledebouria apertiflora. S. microscypha see Ledebouria floribunda. S. nelsonii see Ledebouria undulata. S. nivalis see S. bifolia. S. non-scripta see Hyacinthoides non-scripta. S. nutans see Hyacinthoides non-scripta. S. ovalifolia see Ledebouria ovalifolia. S. ovatifolia see Ledebouria ovatifolia. S. paucifolia see Ledebouria socialis. S. pearsonii see Lachenalia pearsonii. S. pendula see Ledebouria floribunda. S. polyantha see Ledebouria floribunda. S. prasina see Ledebouria undulata. S. pratensis see S. litardier. S. rautanenii see Ledebouria undulata. S. rigidiflora see S. nervosa. S. sandersonii see Ledebouria cooperi. S. serotina see Dipcadi serotinum. S. sicula see Puschkinia scilloides. S. sinensis see S. scilloides. S. socialis see Ledebouria socialis. S. spathulata see Ledebouria floribunda. S. stenophylla see Ledebouria graminifolia. S. subglauca see Ledebouria cooperi. S. subsecunda see Ledebouria floribunda. S. tricolor see Ledebouria floribunda. S. tubergeniana see S. miczenkoana. S. uluensis see S. bifolia. S. undulata see Ledebouria undulata. S. undulatifolia see Ledebouria undulata. S. violacea see Ledebouria socialis. S. xanthandra see S. bifolia. S. zebrina see Ledebouria floribunda.

Simethis—Asphodelaceae (Liliaceae) KERRY LILY Named in honor of Simethis from Ovid's myth Metamorphoses. The sole species is a rare plant in Ireland despite its common name. It was also found in Dorset, England, where it was possibly introduced. Formerly included in the genus Anthericum, it was separated because of differences in habit and stamens. This plant is uncommon, which is possibly its greatest attraction. It might be useful for growing in rocky and stony areas where few other plants are happy. CULTURE Hardy to about 0°F, Simethis does well in poor, sandy soil in full sun. Rootstocks should be set just below soil level, taking care not to break the rather fleshy, brittle roots. Water in after planting and keep moist until established, after which the plants need little or no care.

Sinningia PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Sow seed in a general soil mix or in situ when ripe. Mature plants can be lifted and divided. SPECIES S. planifolia. SW Europe and North Africa, in heaths and open waste areas. Rootstock a short rhizome with fleshy roots. Stem leafless, less than 12 in. tall, branching toward the top, with a bract under each branch, the lower being linear and leaflike. Leaves 6-24 in. long, narrow, grayish, curled, with a papery, transparent sheath at the base. Flowers held erect in a loose terminal panicle; perianth segments 6, oblong, opening to form a cuplike flower, white inside and purplish outside, the color becoming more intense near the tips. Stamens shorter than the perianth segments, bent outward; filaments white, woolly. Style unbranched. Flowering early summer (May to June in the wild).

Sinningia—Gesneriaceae GLOXINIA, SATIN FLOWERS Named in honor of Wilhelm Sinning (1794-1874), head gardener at the University of Bonn. This is a genus of perhaps 40 species native to Central and South America, with a few in Mexico and the majority in Brazil and Argentina. Only a few species are of much horticultural value: S. cardinalis, S. pusilla, and S. speciosa, the well-known gloxinias, grown for their colorful flowers and widely used as indoor pot plants. Some species were formerly listed under Gesneria, Rechsteineria, and Corytholoma. Gesneria now contains only shrubby species, the remainder having been moved to Sinningia. Rechsteineria and Corytholoma are now submerged in Sinningia, as is xGloxinera, the result of crossing Rechsteineria with Sinningia. The rootstock is tuberous, often woody, especially in the more shrublike species. The leaves are opposite, usually large, and often crowded at the base of the stems; the stem leaves are smaller. The showy flowers are held on pedicels of various lengths produced from the leaf axils, either solitary or in small clusters. The perianth is tubular, generally broad at the base and even wider at the mouth. The 5 lobes generally flare at right angles to the tube. The margins, especially in cultivars, can be ruffled or fringed. The overall impression is of a bell-shaped flower.

Modern cultivars are derived principally from S. speciosa, which has drooping purple flowers and bears little resemblance to its descendants. Seedling variants have been selected and intercrossed to produce the wide range of forms and colors now available. Sinningia guttata (introduced 1844) was used in early efforts to increase the color range, but there is little mention of this species in the modern literature. The name "gloxinia" was given to the popular florist varieties in 1866, when Louis Van Houtte, a Belgian nurseryman, introduced a cultivar named after his wife, Gloxinia Mina. Its drooping flowers were bright

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carmine with white edges; the pendent habit did not display the beauty of the large flowers, so 'Gloxinia' was crossed with seedlings of a form known as 'Fyfiana', which had erect but small flowers of pink, pale blue, or white with spots of color in the throat. The results of this crossbreeding produced the race of plants from which the modern hybrids developed. Another trait that emerged was thick, velvety foliage. Hybridizers have created plants which, with careful attention to planting dates, can be obtained in flower throughout much of the year. The other commonly grown species, though not as popular as the large-flowered hybrids, is S. pusilla, which produces pinkish-purple, tubular flowers from a rosette of basal leaves. Unlike the offspring of S. speciosa, these plants do not have a dormant period. Many S. pusilla selections are only a few inches in plant diameter, with flowers about l/2 in. long, and can be grown in the smallest containers. Hybrids of S. speciosa are most commonly used as flowering house plants. Few plants give as much color and look as elegant as the modern hybrids. They are of relatively easy culture as long as temperature and light levels are correct. They can be brought into flower without resorting to the use of black plastic to shorten day length, as is done with florist chrysanthemums; they require no pinching to make them bushy, or disbudding to produce larger flowers. Perhaps in time we shall have cultivars more amenable to growing outdoors, but this will require much work. Species such as S. pusilla are more of a novelty, but many people enjoy the challenge of growing these tiny but attractive plants. Other species are only for tropical climates. CULTURE

All sinningias must be grown in warm temperatures, above 55°F at night. They need moderate moisture during their growing season; if possible, keep the water off the foliage. Well-drained soil, bright, indirect light, and feedings of organic liquid fertilizer during the growing season are their other needs. After flowering is past and foliage starts to yellow, gradually reduce watering and allow tubers to become almost but not completely dry. Give little or no water until growth appears, then increase watering again. At no time should the plants be exposed to direct sun. Handle the foliage carefully because it breaks easily. Temperatures can be lowered during flowering to prolong the life of the flowers. Plants should not become rootbound in any pot except that in which they are to flower. Humidity is required, but young plants also need good air circulation. PESTS AND DISEASES

Many fungus diseases can be avoided by ensuring air circulation by adequate spacing, careful attention to watering, and good drainage. Virus diseases may cause distortion and mottling of foliage and distortion or aborting of flowers. Plants attacked by virus should be destroyed. Fungicides should be used if fungus diseases are a problem. PROPAGATION

Seed is the best way to raise a large stock. The seed is very fine. Make the first sowing in February on a soil mix composed of

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Sinningia

fine peat moss and fine sand, with, if available, an equal part of sterilized leafmold. The mixture should be sieved and well mixed to a very fine texture. Fill pots and flats, then firm and water. Allow the surface to become fairly dry before scattering the seed as thinly as possible on it. Water in with a gentle mist so as not to wash the seed around. Keep at 65°-70°F at night, 70°75°F during day, in low light. As soon as the seedlings appear, increase to bright indirect light and ensure good air circulation to avoid fungus problems. As soon as seedlings are large enough to handle, transplant them to individual small pots and keep in a warm, fairly humid atmosphere. After a few months, pot on into the pots in which they will flower. Summer is the normal flowering season, but timing the sowing dates can provide a succession of plants in flower. Allow 5-6 months from sowing to flowering, less for seed sown in the warmer months, more for seed sown in winter. Most major seed houses list a number of strains under such names as 'Giant Double', 'Giant Single', 'Gigantea Strains', 'Dwarf Hybrids', or 'Multiflora', in various single colors or mixed colors. Most strains produce plants with 20 or more flowers, often over 5 in. in diameter, which form a crown above the foliage. To propagate plants vegetatively, barely bury tubers in peat moss in warmth and take cuttings when the young shoots are 2-3 in. long. The cuttings root easily in pure sand. As soon as they are rooted they should be transplanted into the soil mix described above. Commercial potting soil can be used, but a mixture of peat and sand is adequate as long as fertilizer is given. Tubers can also be divided and started into growth in early spring. Barely cover the tubers: just press them into the soil gently. To propagate by leaf cuttings, remove a leaf with a piece of the leaf stalk and insert the stalk into sand or very sandy soil. The stalk will root and a tuber will form, which will flower the following season. Leaves can be placed flat on sandy soil and cuts made across the main veins. Roots will form at the cuts, and both small tubers and plantlets will develop. These can be treated as cuttings. The tubers should not be removed from the soil mix until the old leaf has rotted away. At all times provide warmth and bright, indirect light. SPECIES S. aggregata. Brazil; introduced 1816. Stems to 24 in. or more. Flowers yellow spotted orange. Leaves have a strong odor. S. cardinalis. Tropical Central America; introduced before 1850. Stems 6-8 in. Leaves green, variegated darker green around veins, hairy. Flowers almost continuously, scarlet, covered with white hairs. Hybrids include 'Innocence', pure white, a lovely cultivar that enjoys humid tropical conditions; 'Splendens', bright red with heart-shaped leaves. Dwarf hybrids are smaller, with trumpet-shaped flowers ranging from carmine red to purple. S. claybergiana. Brazil; introduced 1835. Stems to 60 in., with light green markings. Leaves round, toothed. Flowers cherry red.

S. condnna. Brazil; introduced 1860. Stems very short. Stems, stalks, and veins red. Leaves small, hairy, round. Upper tepals purplish, lower tepals yellowish, spotted purple within tube, summer. S. discolor. Brazil; introduced 1965. Similar to S. spedosa. Flowers lavender blue. S. eumorpha. Brazil. Stems short, reddish, hairy. Leaves green, rather hairy. Calyx reddish green, corolla white or tinged lavender, tube has yellow band spotted red. S. hirsuta. Brazil; introduced 1824. Stems short. Leaves covered with white hairs, deeply veined red, reddish beneath. Flowers lilac-white with violet tube, spotted violet within, early summer. S. leucotricha. Brazil; introduced c. 1954. Stems to 10 in. Leaves and stems densely covered with white hairs. Flowers tubular, rosy coral, hairy, spring and summer. Tubers to 12 in. in diameter, sprout without soil. S. macropoda. S Brazil; introduced 1906. Stems to 24 in., hairy, with red lines. Leaves rounded, velvety, bright green. Flowers vermilion red, nodding, early spring. S. pusilla. Brazil. Stems very short. Leaves ovate to suborbicular, erect, hairy above, red-veined beneath. Flowers crimson marked with dark purple. Selections include 'Snowflake' with fringed white flowers; 'White Sprite', pure white, flowering endlessly in humid tropical conditions. S. regina. Brazil; introduced 1903. Stems to 6 in. Leaves velvety, veined whitish above, reddish beneath. Flowers trumpetshaped, pale violet with yellow band, spotted purple within. S. richii. Mexico. Tubers small, globose. Stems to 4 in. Flowers white with red-purple lines. S. spedosa. FLORISTS' GLOXINIA. Brazil; introduced 1815. Stem short. Leaves oblong to ovate, to 8 in. long, 5-6 in. wide, with satiny hairs; green above, underside sometimes reddish. Some authorities divide this species into 3 groups: (1) wild forms with drooping flowers, small and mostly violet or reddish, rarely white; (2) those with drooping flowers but a greater color range; and (3) florist types with erect flowers and a wide range of colors, many with interesting markings and color mixtures. Commercial seed of double forms produces more than 50 perecent but never 100 percent doubles. S. tuberosa. Brazil. Leaves green, hairy, ovate, to 18 in. long, 12 in. wide. Flowers reddish, throat yellowish. S. tubiflora. Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay. Stems to 24 in. Leaves green, crenate. Flowers white, fragrant. S. velutina. Brazil (near Rio de Janeiro); introduced 1826. Stems to 18 in. Leaves green, veined purplish. Flowers pale green. S. vertidllata. Brazil. Stems to 24 in., reddish, hairy. Leaves sharply toothed. Flowers numerous, red with splashes of purple. S. xyoungeana. Garden hybrid (S. spedosa x S. velutina). Stems 12-18 in., purplish. Leaves crenate, whitish green beneath. Flowers bell-shaped, deep violet or purple, yellowish at base and spotted yellow in throat. Sinningia cultivars. 'Doll Baby' (S. pusilla x S. eumorpha), leaves olive green veined with bronze, flowers long-lasting,

Sparaxis about 3 in. across, lavender-blue with purple eye and yellow throat, flowering mostly in summer, loves humid tropical conditions; 'Longiflora' (S. cardinalisx S. eumorpha), leaves large, fleshy, hairy, flowers tubular in pyramidal inflorescence, rose at base with lobes and throat pink to white; 'Rex' (S. eumorpha x S. macropoda; synonym xGloxinera), trumpet flowers scarlet-red, freely produced. Plate 1023.

Sisyrinchium S. spedosum see Calydorea xiphioides.

Smithiantha—Gesneriaceae TEMPLE BELLS This genus of about 4 species is native to Mexico. The rootstock is a scaly, tuberlike rhizome. The plants are far from hardy, preferring temperatures near 55°F at night. The opposite, hairy leaves are oval, heart-shaped at the base with toothed edges. They are held on hairy petioles and form a mound, from the center of which the scape emerges, bearing the flowers in a terminal raceme. The 5 perianth segments are fused into a tube for most of their length; the lower lobes are horizontal, the upper lobes curl back. Flowers are carried at a 45° angle. There are 4 stamens hidden inside the corolla tube and attached to the bases of the segments. These are attractive container plants for brightly lit areas. The flowers are long-lasting. They add much to the cool greenhouse and display houses of private or public gardens. Grow outdoors only in subtropical or tropical regions. CULTURE Best grown in containers, 3 tubers to a 10-in. pot. Place tubers 1 in. deep in a soil mix rich in organic matter, moisture retentive but well-drained. Give bright indirect light, not direct sun, and high humidity. Plant in spring and give minimum night temperatures of 55°F. Keep moist, not wet. When growth emerges, feed every 2 weeks with liquid fertilizer but keep this off the foliage. Stop feeding when flowers appear. Keep moist until the foliage starts to mature, then gradually reduce moisture to allow the plants to become dormant. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

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lobes not quite as recurved as in other species. Free-blooming in summer and into fall. S. zebrina. Mexico (Veracruz). Stems to 30 in. Leaves velvety, 7 in. long and almost as wide, dark green with purple or brown along veins. Corolla tube scarlet on exterior with yellow band on underside, yellow spotted red on interior. Upper lobes orange-yellow, lower lobes lighter yellow. Smithiantha cultivar. 'Orange King', a strong-growing plant, perhaps a selection of S. cinnabarina, with stems to 24 in., leaves emerald green, velvety with purple markings along veins, flowers tubular, orange-red on exterior, lobes yellow inside, spotted with tiny red dots.

Solanum—Solanaceae NIGHTSHADE Name is an ancient Latin one for a plant of the nightshade family. This genus of more than 900 species is distributed worldwide in both tropical and temperate zones. Many species are annuals or fibrous-rooted perennials; others are trees, shrubs, or climbers. Only one species is well known for its tubers, and this one is of great economic importance, the potato, S. tuberosum. The potato probably reached Europe in 1570. It was sent in 1588 to Clusius, who is rightly regarded as the father of the bulb industry in the Netherlands. It was a long time before this plant was accepted in Europe as a food item. Its tolerance of many soil types made it popular once its qualities were known. CULTURE Soil must be well-drained. An acidic soil is best for control of scab. PESTS AND DISEASES

Wireworms eat through the tubers, and leaf hopppers, aphids, and potato weevils attack the foliage. An insecticide can control these pests. Blight and scab are controlled by fungicides. PROPAGATION

Plant tubers or pieces of tubers that have at least one "eye" (bud). SPECIES

S. tuberosum. South America. Tubers small or large. Flowers about 1 in. in diameter, flat-faced, with segments overlapping, borne in terminal corymbs. Stamens 5, forming a cone of anthers which are open at the tip. Perianth segments blue, ovary superior. Flowering June to July. Fruit a berry. Plate 1024.

Divide tubers in early spring before growth starts. SPECIES S. cinnabarina. Mexico. Stems to 24 in. Upper surface of leaves and petiole covered with red to purplish-red hairs. Leaves to 6 in. long and almost as wide, dark green, variegated with purple, especially along veins. Flowers bell-shaped; corolla tube about 1 in. long, lobes l/2 in. long. Tube deep red with hint of orange, interior pale yellow. Flowering late summer to fall. S. multiflora. Mexico. Stems to 30 in. Leaves velvety hairy, dark green. Flowers 11/2 in. long, tubular, white or pale yellow;

Sparaxis—Iridaceae HARLEQUIN FLOWER, WAND FLOWER Name derived from Greek sparasso ("to tear"), referring to the lacerated spathes that surround the flowers. This is a genus of about 14 species and includes the former genera Streptanthera and Synnotia. The genus is divided into 2 sections: Sparaxis, with 8 species, and Synnotia, with 6. Sparaxis has regular flowers while Synnotia has a zygomorphic perianth with an enlarged

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Sparaxis

upper segment. See Goldblatt (1992) for details of the relationship between Sparaxis and Synnotia. All species are native to South Africa. This genus includes some of the brightest bulbous flowers, in their native land known as harlequin flowers or wand flowers. The rootstock is a corm with a fibrous tunic. The pale green, flat, stiff, and rather tough leaves are held in a fan at the base of the scape. The flowers are quite large, many on the stem, which is sometimes branched; each flower has a separate spathe. A wide range of colors exists, especially among the many hybrids. The center of the flower is cup-shaped, and the tepals spread to a diameter often exceeding 3 in. There are 6 perianth segments, more or less equal. The stamens are short, arising from the base of the cup. All species flower in spring or early summer. These are superb plants for the garden where the temperatures are mild in winter. They are excellent in containers and make great cut flowers, as they are long-lasting. These plants have not enjoyed the popularity they deserve. With their various color combinations, they are bright, cheerful plants of easy culture that deserve to be more widely grown in any sunny, well-drained border, among rocks and other areas where they can remain dry in late summer. They are good pot plants for the cool greenhouse in cooler areas and ideal plants for planting in stone walls. CULTURE Sparaxis species prefer full sun and well-drained, loamy soil, although they tolerate a wide range of soil types. Plant corms in fall, 2 in. deep and 3-4 in. apart, in bold groups of 25 or more. In areas where winter temperatures drop below 25°F, plant corms in containers and keep them cool but frost-free, or plant in spring for summer bloom. Bulbs can withstand a few degrees of frost if not prolonged. Provide water from planting time until the foliage matures. After flowering, the soil should become dry so that the corms ripen. During this late-summer dormancy, corms must be quite warm and dry. They can stay in the ground for years, until they become overcrowded. PESTS AND DISEASES

These tough plants are seldom attacked by pests or diseases. The most common problems are caused by too much water during summer or by planting them in heavy soil with poor drainage. PROPAGATION

Lift established plants after the leaves wither and separate cormlets. Sow seed in late summer or spring in a sandy, well-drained but moisture-retentive soil mix, barely covered. Some seedlings may flower the first year; all will flower the next. Outdoors the seed can be broadcast over the bed and barely covered. SPECIES

S. auriculata. Gifberg Mountains of South Africa (near Klawer in Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers pale yellow, tip of uppermost tepal violet, center of lower tepals deep yellow, early spring (August in the wild). S. bulbifera. South Africa (SW Western Cape), in areas that become marshy during winter rains. Stems to 12 in., often branched, seldom more than 3 branches. Leaves slender, sword-

like, to 10 in. long. Flowers white or ivory, sometimes pale yellow, early to late spring (September to October in the wild). Bulbils produced in axils of leaves. Provide extra winter moisture in arid regions. S. caryophyllacea. South Africa (north of Clanwilliam in Western Cape), in mountains. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers sweetly scented, large, pale yellow, shading to violet on upper half of uppermost tepal; throat yellow. Flowering early spring (August to mid-September in the wild). S. elegans. South Africa (S Northern Cape); introduced 1825; listed as vulnerable. Stems 10-12 in., unbranched, up to 5 produced from one corm. Leaves slender, swordlike, in a basal fan, to 8 in. long. Flowers 1-3 per stem, about 11/2 in. in diameter, salmon pink or white with purplish center, the white sometimes flushed blue. Anthers curled and twisted around style. Selections include 'Coccinea', glowing orange-red flowers with nearblack center; 'Zwanenburg', maroon-red flowers with yellow centers. Variable and much used in hybridizing. Flowering late spring. Plate 1025. S. fragrans. South Africa. Stems to 18 in., often less. Leaves 6-10, 8 in. long, often curved. Flowers to 6 per stem; tube yellow, purple, or black; lobes cream to yellow. Stamens white or light yellow; style long. Flowering late winter or early spring (August to September in the wild). S. galeata. South Africa (Olifants River Valley in Western Cape); introduced 1786. Corm tunics accumulate in a mass, rising to ground level. Stems 6-10 in. Leaves in basal fan, shorter than scape; some stem leaves present. Flowers heavily scented, violet or yellow, or lower segments yellowish and upper white, flushed red. Flowering spring (August to September in the wild). S. grandiflora. South Africa (Cape Town area); introduced 1758. Stems to 12 in., more in cultivars. Leaves usually 2, narrow, rarely more than l/2 in. wide, to 8 in. long, carried close to scape. Flowers maybe plum-colored, the largest in the genus— often 3 in. in diameter, mid to late spring (August to September in the wild). Subsp. acutiloba produces sprays of upright, clear yellow flowers, somewhat earlier. Subsp. fimbriata reaches 18 in., has pale yellow to cream flowers with black blotches at base, outer tip of exterior segments brown. Subsp. violacea has purple or white flowers. Plates 1026,1027. S. maculosa. South Africa (Worcester to Villiersdorp in Western Cape); discovered 1988. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers bright yellow with dark maroon heart-shaped mark, early spring (September in the wild). S. parviflora. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 10-12 in., often branched. Leaves 7-9, shorter than stem. Flowers tiny, yellow to cream flushed light purple, early spring (mid-August in the wild). S. pillansii. South Africa (Bokkeveld Plateau to Calvinia in Northern Cape), in heavy clay which is often waterlogged. Stems 8-24 in., unbranched. Leaves 8-10, narrow, swordlike, 12 in. long. Flowers 4-9 per stem, about 1 in. in diameter; lobes rose pink with dark purple zone above yellow tube. Anthers slightly twisted, purple-red or brown on white filaments. Style white with maroon branches. Flowering spring (October to November in the wild).

Sprekelia S. tricolor. South Africa (S Northern Cape); listed as vulnerable; introduced 1789. Stems 10-12 in., up to 5 produced by one corm. Leaves generally 4-5, stiff, in a fan,1/3in. wide and 6-8 in. long. Flowers 2-5 per stem, spectacularly colored orange, with deep yellow centers outlined with black, late spring (September to October in the wild). 'Fire King' has brilliant scarlet flowers with yellow centers and flowering later. Horticultural selections (sometimes given invalid names such as alba maxima) are often taller than wild forms and have more and larger flowers. These are excellent cut flowers. Plants listed as S. tricolor 'Mixed' are selections chosen for wide color range and long flowering period as well as vigor. Spar axis tricolor has been much used in hybridizing. Plate 1028. S. variegata. South Africa (Western Cape), in sandstone rocks; introduced 1825. Stems to 20 in. Leaves 7-8, swordshaped, 6-7 in. long, 1 in. wide, in a basal fan. Flowers to 7 per stem, 2 in. long and just over 1 in. in diameter; uppermost segment deep purple, 2 segments flanking it are white with a hint of purple at base; lower 3 segments white, sometimes yellow, with purple streaks. Bracts toothed. Flowering early spring (August to September in the wild). Subsp. metelerkampiaeis shorter at 6-8 in., flowers smaller, not as bright, except for a bright orange spot on the lower segments. Plate 1029. S. villosa. South Africa (Cape Peninsula to Citrusdal). Flowers yellow to cream, early spring (August to September in the wild). Plate 1030. SYNONYMS

S. albiflora see S. bulbifera. S. violacea see S. grandiflora subsp. violacea. S. wattii see S. variegata.

Sphenostigma—Iridaceae Genus name from Greek sphen ("wedge"), referring to the wedge-shaped stigma. Few if any species of this genus are in cultivation and there is scant information about it. It is distributed in the United States (Florida), Mexico, and South America. The rootstock is either cormous or bulbous, the foliage is narrow and linear, and there is generally a leaflike bract below the inflorescence. The several flowers have equal perianth segments and are mostly blue. Some species have flowers over 2 in. in diameter. The height of the plants ranges from 4 in. to over 24 in. They flower mainly in late summer. The distribution suggests that these plants would need to be grown frost-free. Blue is always welcome in the late-summer garden, so they might be worth a try. While apparently not difficult to grow, the flowers are so short-lived that Sphenostigma is more of botanical interest than a "must" for the garden. The plants would be suitable for the rock garden, the front of the border, or containers. Only S. coelestinum is known to be in cultivation. CULTURE Plant corms 1-3 in. deep in a sunny spot and provide moisture during the growing season. Sphenostigma coelestinum is said to require well-drained sandy soil with high organic content, preferably with a pH around 5.5. Temperatures should not

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drop below 50°F, even in winter. When the plants go dormant in fall, water should be withheld and given again when growth starts in spring. Perhaps the corms could be overwintered like gladioli for spring planting. If being grown in containers, the bulbs should be left in the container and stored over winter, kept dry but not desiccated. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Sow seed in spring in a sandy soil mix with some organic matter, barely covered. Night temperature should be around 55°F. Bright, indirect light is needed as soon as the seed germinates. When seedlings are large enough to handle, they should be transplanted to individual containers. They will flower in the 3rd year. Established plants can be lifted and divided in spring just before growth commences. SPECIES S. coelestinum. BARTRAM'S IXIA, ENCHANTING VIOLET-LILY. United States (NE Florida), among grasses and pines. Stems 18-24 in. Leaves narrow, linear, to 6-8 in. long. Flowers violet with white eye, 2-3 in. in diameter, open early in the morning and close by noon. Flowering late summer or early fall. S. lehmanii. Colombia. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers 11/2 in. in diameter, late summer. S. longispatha. Mexico, among pines. Stems to 8 in. Leaf solitary, erect, basal. Flowers deep blue, over 1 in. in diameter, late summer. SYNONYM

S. mexicana see Calydorea mexicana.

Spiloxene S. alba see Hypoxis alba. S. aquatica see Hypoxis aquatica. S. canaliculata see Hypoxis canaliculata. S. capensis see Hypoxis capensis. S. curculigoides see Hypoxis curculigoides. S. cuspidata see Hypoxis cuspidata. S. flaccida see Hypoxis flaccida. S. maximiliana see Hypoxis maximiliana. S. minuta see Hypoxis minuta. S. ovata see Hypoxis ovata. S. schlechteri see Hypoxis schlechteri. S. serrata see Hypoxis serrata. S. stellata see Hypoxis capensis. S. trifurcillata see Hypoxis trifurcillata.

Sprekelia—Amaryllidaceae JACOBEAN LILY, SAINT JAMES LILY, ORCHID LILY, AZTEC LILY, MEXICAN SCARLET LILY Named in honor of J. H. von Sprekelsen (d. 1764), a botanist of Hamburg, Germany, who sent the plant to Carl Linnaeus in

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Stenanthium

1758. Sprekelia is quite similar to Hippeastrum but differs in 2 major respects: the flowers are solitary, and the perianth segments are irregular. The sole species in the genus is native to Mexico. Sprekelia is an excellent and unusual container plant, great for the cool greenhouse and for gardens in frost-free climates. CULTURE Sprekelia must be grown frost-free or nearly so; plants tolerate brief periods of frost down to 29°F. Plant bulbs in fall or early spring with the top barely exposed, in well-drained soil. Give little moisture until the flower stem emerges; then increase watering and keep moist until the foliage has started to die down. In mild areas with heavy winter rains, give well-ventilated overhead protection to avoid excess water collecting around the bulb. Lift or repot bulbs in late summer after the foliage has died down. During winter, keep plants in containers nearly dry. Prolonged dryness harms the bulb; more harm can be done, however, if the bulb is kept too wet. PESTS AND DISEASES

Rotting of the bulb is the most common problem, caused by inadequate drainage and too much moisture during winter dormant period. PROPAGATION

Remove offsets from parent bulbs, lift or repot in August. Sow seed in a friable soil mix and keep moist but not wet. Increase watering as growth progresses, until the leaves wither. The small bulbs form after one season and can be potted individually in late summer, or overwintered and then potted in very early spring before growth commences. SPECIES S. formosissima. Mexico. Bulb quite large, with a tunic. Stems sturdy, 12-18 in. high, one per bulb or more from large bulbs. Leaves narrow, straplike, with a sharp point, produced with or after the flowers. The uppermost perianth segment is very wide; the 2 segments to either side of it are narrow and strap-shaped; the lowest segment is 2-lipped; and the other 2 lower segments curl toward the base and form a tube. Flowers deep crimson, attractive for a long time; stamen filaments deep crimson. A white form exists; the name 'Karwinskii' has been given to a form with crimson flowers bordered in white. These forms are rare. 'Orient Red', with white stripes on the keels of the red petals, 'Peru', dark red, and 'Superba' were developed for container growing. Plate 1031. SYNONYMS S. cybister see Hippeastrum cybister. S. formosissima var. karwinskii see S. formosissima 'Karwinskii'.

Stenanthium—Melanthiaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek stenos ("narrow") and anthos ("flower"), because the panicles and perianth segments are both narrow. This genus of 5 species is native to the United States,

Canada, and Mexico, and is also reported as being from Sakhalin Island off the coast of Siberia. The tunicated bulb produces an erect stem with narrow leaves on the lower part and a racemose or paniculate inflorescence. The bell-shaped flowers are narrow and nodding, white, coppery, greenish, or purple; the lower 2/3 of the tepals are fused into a tube, and the tips shortly reflexed. This is a subtle rather than showy genus, suited to informal planting in woodland, protected from wind. CULTURE Plant bulbs in spring, 1-2 in. deep in well-drained soil with high organic content. The eastern species needs moisture during summer; the western one can dry out slightly, but not completely. All species should tolerate temperatures down to at least 0°F but must not be frozen in wet soil. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Sow seed in fall and keep in cool conditions for germination in spring. Seedlings should be allowed to grow for one complete season before being transplanted to individual containers. They can be planted out the 3rd fall. Bulbs lifted in fall can be separated and the offsets planted either at once or in spring. SPECIES S. gramineum. FEATHERBELLS, FEATHERFLEECE. United States. Leaves 12-18 in. long. Flowers greenish white, lowest flowers on scape often sterile, mid summer. Var. gramineum, from Florida to Texas, Missouri, and Virginia, has stems 24-26 in and flowers Vs in. wide. Var. robustum, distributed from SE Pennsylvania to the District of Columbia and west to Indiana, is the tallest-growing Stenanthium, to 6 ft.; lower leaves long, upper shorter; flowers numerous on branching stem, J/2 in. in diameter. Plate 1032. S. occidentale. United States (N California to Washington, Montana) and Canada (British Columbia, Alberta). Bulb ovoid. Stems 12-24 in. Leaves as long as stem or longer. Flowers pendent on curving pedicels, greenish bronze or coppery brown with purple edges near tips, early to mid summer. Plate 1033. SYNONYMS

S. angustifolium see S. gramineum. S. robustum see S. gramineum var. robustum.

Stenomesson—Amaryllidaceae Name derived from Greek stenos ("narrow") and mesos ("middle"), from the shape of the perianth. This is a genus with strikingly colored flowers, native to the Andes of Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, where the plants grow in poor, stony ground at altitudes to 10,000 ft. or more. There are perhaps 20 species, but many of these show considerable variation, and authorities disagree on the exact number of species. Plants introduced from South America are not as well classified as those from other parts of the world. I feel this is because British plant hunters,

Stenomesson who studiously and carefully classify their introductions, collected from the other parts of the world. The round bulb has a distinctively rounded neck and maybe 3-5 in. in diameter. Small offsets are freely produced at the base. The leaves are flat and straplike, often as long as 18 in., and arching in most species; they may emerge either before or after the scape, but they always are longer than the scape at maturity and continue to grow after the flowers have finished. The flowers are tubular to bell-shaped, in a variety of bright colors. They are pendent and borne 6-8 in an umbel. They vary in length from 1 in. to more than 5 in. There is a distinctive green blotch on the perianth segments just below the tips. The stigma protrudes from the open flower; teeth or lobes at the bases of the filaments form a cup, and the filaments themselves are flattened. In the Northern Hemisphere, plants usually bloom in spring. With their bright flowers early in the year, Stenomesson makes a good display in a partly shaded border in warm climates, or in the cool greenhouse. CULTURE All species must be grown frost-free or nearly so, but they should not be too warm; excessive heat is reported to reduce flowering. Though found in rocky places with poor soil in the wild, Stenomesson species are just as happy in good soil in full sun. Plant bulbs in late summer with their necks at or just above soil level, 10-12 in. apart in well-drained soil. In the hottest areas, some shade should be given in the middle of the day. Containers should be deep and at least 10 in. in diameter. Keep soil moist but not wet. As soon as the flower stem emerges, watering can be increased and weak feedings of liquid organic fertilizer given. Temperature also can be increased to speed flower development. Maintain moisture until mid summer and then reduce gradually. After the foliage dies down, the bulbs can be lifted, offsets removed, and the parent bulbs replanted. PESTS AND DISEASES

The plants sometimes are attacked by a virus that causes the foliage to become spotted. Eventually large areas of the leaf turn yellow and die. The control of aphids and other sucking insects is essential, and infested plants should be destroyed. Mealybugs can nestle in the tops of the bulbs and in the necks. At planting time these parts should be checked carefully, especially if the bulbs have been in storage. Insecticides cleared for use on ornamental plants should be used. PROPAGATION

Remove bulblets at the end of the growing season and treat the same as mature bulbs. Sow seed when ripe, usually in mid summer. Keep seedlings moist and growing as long as possible without allowing them to go dormant. When they do, transplant them to larger containers or nursery rows. Take care not to damage the roots or to plant too deeply. Seedlings may not flower for 5 years or more. SPECIES S. aurantiacum. N Peru and N Ecuador; introduced 1843. Stems to 12 in. Leaves strap-shaped, to 12 in. long, emerging

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after flowers. Flowers 2-4 per umbel, bright scarlet or cinnabar red, pendent; bracts shorter than pedicels. Flowering late spring. S. coccineum. Andes of Peru; introduced 1850. Stems to 12 in. Leaves 4-5,12 in. long, appearing after flowers. Flowers 8-10 per umbel, bright crimson, 11/2 in. long; tube and flaring lobes about the same length. Flowering spring to summer. S. croceum. Peru; introduced 1820. Stems to 12 in. Flowers golden-yellow, spring to summer. S. curvidentatum. Peru. Stems to 12 in. Flowers bright yellow; staminal cup with 2 teeth between filaments. Flowering spring to summer. S. flavum. Peru; introduced 1824. Bulb relatively small. Leaves strap-shaped, 12 in. long, 1 in. wide. Flowers bright yellow, 4-6 per umbel, tubular, 11/2-2 in. long. Var. latifolium has an entire tooth between each filament. S. humile. Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina; introduced 1841. Stems to 18 in. Flowers scarlet, early spring. S. luteum. Peru. Stems to 8 in. Flowers yellow. S. miniatum. Peru and Bolivia; introduced 1836. Stems to 12 in. Leaves usually 1 or 2,9 in. long, strap-shaped, narrowing to petiole at base, pointed at tip, appearing after flowers. Flowers to 2 in. long, red or orange, constricted toward mouth and then flaring; stamens and stigma extend well beyond perianth. Flowering spring. Plate 1034. S. pearcei. Andes of Bolivia; introduced 1872. Stems to 24 in. Flowers primrose yellow, flushed green on exterior, late spring. S. recurvatum. Peru. Stems 12-24 in., Flowers reddish yellow, spring. S. variegatum. Andes of Ecuador, Peru, Chile, and Bolivia; introduced 1878. Stems 24-30 in. Leaves 4-8, glaucous, to 2 ft. long or more, generally produced after flowers. Flowers Vi in. wide, usually red, tubular, curving downward, early summer. Var. fulvum has tawny flowers and scape with persistent bracts. Var. trichromum has scarlet flowers, green below the middle. Var. versicolorhas scarlet flowers overlaid with white. Some authorities regard this species as synonymous with S. luteo-viride; however, the latter is described as having greenish-yellow flowers with distinct green keels, and as being shorter than others in this group. Some authorities also combine S. incarnatum and S. variegatum. Plate 1035. S. viridiflorum. Peru; introduced 1839. Stems to 36 in. or more. Flowers green, spring to summer. Var. angustifolium has stamens shorter than perianth segments. Var. elwesiihas staminal cup deeply cut. SYNONYMS

S. acaule see S. humile. S. fulvum see S. variegatum. S. hartwegii see S. aurantiacum. S. incarnatum see S. variegatum. S. latifolium see S. flavum var. latifolium. S. luteoviride see S. variegatum. S. luteum see S. flavum. S. pauciflorum var. curvidentatum see S. curvidentatum. S. suspensum see S. aurantiacum. S. vitellinum see S. flavum var. latifolium.

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Sternbergia

Sternbergia—Amaryllidaceae AUTUMN DAFFODIL Named in honor of Count Kaspar Moritz van Sternberg of Prague (1761-1838), the author of Revisio Saxifragarum (1810). It is a genus of about 8 species native to the Mediterranean and Middle East, often growing in rocky places. The flowers at first glance resemble those of Crocus, but Sternbergia is in the amaryllis family and has 6 stamens, while Crocus, in the iris family, has only 3. In fact, Sternbergia is closely allied to Narcissus (hence its common name). All but 2 species are fall-flowering, and all but S. Candida have yellow flowers. They are small plants, rarely more than 6 in. high. It has been suggested that S. lutea is the biblical "lily of the field." The bulb is poisonous if eaten. Sternbergias have dark, tunicated bulbs, to 2 in. in diameter, which produce rather lax, narrow leaves. The flowers are usually solitary, but the bulbs offset and form clusters, so the floral display can be quite showy. Some species open their flowers nearly at ground level, others on a relatively short aboveground stem. The 6 perianth segments are fused at the base into a narrow tube, short or long depending on species. The seeds are either dark brown or black. The identification of the spring-flowering species is simple: S. Candida has white flowers, and S. ftscheriana yellow ones. Among the fall-flowering species, in S. lutea and S. sicula the flowers appear with the leaves, while S. clusiana and S. colchiciflora flower before the leaves emerge. Sternbergia colchiciflora has very narrow flowers opening at ground level; the others have short aboveground stems. There are no finer golden-yellow flowers in fall. Sternbergias are in the front of the border, provided they receive a hot, dry summer dormancy there. They are expensive to purchase, however, since they do not increase rapidly, and the entire genus is CITES listed as endangered—the result of overcollecting bulbs from the wild for sale by Dutch nurseries. CULTURE Sternbergias are native to areas where summers are hot and dry and require the same conditions in gardens. The more commonly grown species are hardy to about 0°F if not too wet in winter, but they will not flower without summer heat. In cool regions, plant them at the base of a south-facing wall or grow them in containers in a bulb frame. Plant bulbs in late summer in well-drained soil of moderate fertility, in full sun. Set bulbs about 6 in. deep, about 4-6 in. apart. Fall and winter moisture is necessary, but plants should be dry from late May until late September. Fertilizer is not necessary for plants grown in the open ground; in pots, give liquid fertilizer when foliage is in growth. Leave bulbs undisturbed until overcrowded, then lift and separate during the dormant period. PESTS AND DISEASES

Rotting of the bulbs caused by poor drainage is the most likely problem. Narcissus fly and other pests of daffodils also attack Sternbergias.

PROPAGATION

Separate offsets after the foliage has died down. Sow seed in late summer and keep moist but not wet, cool but frost-free. Once germination occurs, keep seedlings in bright light but do not allow them to freeze. Seedlings will flower in 4-5 years. SPECIES S. Candida. SW Turkey, in cedar forest; introduced 1979; endangered. Stems 8-10 in. in seed. Leaves strap-shaped, graygreen, % in. wide, 6-10 in. long. Flowers fragrant, to 3 in. long, pure white with transparent veins, opening wide; perianth segments barely overlap at the base and form a tube. Flowering early spring. Probably hardy to about 15°F if dry. S. clusiana. Jordan, Israel, and Turkey to Iran; introduced 1825. Stems below ground level. Leaves 5-12, gray-green, to 1 in. wide, appearing after flowering and unaffected by frost. Flowers golden yellow, to 3 in. long, early to mid autumn. S. colchiflora. SE Spain, Italy, and Balkans, east to Iran and Caucasus; introduced 1816. Stems below ground level. Leaves narrow, deep green or grayish, present at flowering and elongating later. Flowers pale yellow, sweet-scented, narrow, just over 1 in. long, late summer to early fall. Plate 1036. S. fischeriana. WINTER DAFFODIL. Syria, Caucasus, Iran, Iraq, and east to Kashmir; introduced 1868. Bulb large, may produce more than one flower. Stems 4-6 in. Leaves linear, present at flowering, to 6 in. long. Flowers golden yellow, funnel-shaped, to 2 in. long, early spring following snowmelt. S. lutea. LILY-OF-THE-FIELD, MOUNT ETNA LILY. Spain to Iran and C Asia; introduced 1596. Bulb similar to a Narcissus bulb, with dark tunic. Stems 3-8 in. Leaves 4-6, present at flowering and elongating later, 6-10 in. long, J/2 in. wide. Flowers rich golden yellow, egg-shaped, to 2 in. long and as wide. The most commonly grown Sternbergia, perhaps the best of fallflowering bulbs. 'Angustifolia' has narrower leaves. Plate 1037. S. pulchella. Syria. Possibly a variant of S. colchiciflora. Leaves present at flowering, late summer to early fall. S. sicula. S Italy, Sicily, Greece, and W Turkey; introduced 1845. Stems 2-4 in. Leaves narrow, dark, present at flowering. Flowers clear yellow, to 11/2 in. long, early fall. Var. graeca has narrower leaves. 'Dodona' has prostrate, narrow leaves and more funnel-shaped flowers. Plate 1038. SYNONYMS S. aurantiaca see S. lutea. S. lutea var. angustifolia see S. sicula. S. lutea var. graeca see S. sicula. S. lutea var. sicula see S. sicula. S. macrantha see S. clusiana. S. schubertii see S. sicula. S. spaffordiana see S. clusiana. S. stipitata see S. clusiana.

Strangweja S. spicata see Bellevalia hyacinthoides.

Strumaria

Streptanthera S. cuprea see Sparaxis elegans. S. elegans see Sparaxis elegans.

Strumaria—Amaryllidaceae Name derived from struma ("cushionlike swelling"), because the style is swollen in the middle. This genus of South African bulbs grows in areas of winter rainfall, in the southern part of the country. The exact number of species is uncertain; many authorities list 10 or 12, while D. A. Snijman (1994) lists 23. Species formerly assigned to Gemmaria on the basis of their starlike flowers and their leaves, which are prostrate, hairy, or dotted with minute pustules (confined to young leaves), are now placed in Strumaria. The stout-necked bulbs have fibrous outer tunics and inner tunics that may be white, yellow, or rarely purple. The leaves are arranged in 2 ranks, with the flowering stem emerging from the center; the leaves are surrounded at the base by another, barely developed leaf and look quite like they are emerging from a sock. The flowers, either erect or drooping, are regular and vary from funnel-shaped to starry. They maybe white, pink, or rarely yellow, often with a deeper color in the center or a green band on the reverse. The 6 tepals are not joined. There are 6 stamens, the filaments sometimes joined for half their length. Flowering time in the wild is April and May. The flowers are long-lasting. In an alpine house, these little plants, grown on a bench so they could be admired at close range, could be star attractions. They are likely to be found only in the collections of bulb fanciers. CULTURE All species must be grown frost-free. Strumarias grow in fall and winter with a dormant period in summer. They appreciate full sun or high dappled shade and well-drained, sandy soil. Plant the bulbs just below the surface of the soil; in species with distinct necks, the neck should be above the soil level. Once established, the bulbs should be left undisturbed and seem to grow best when crowded, so space them only 3-5 in. apart. Container culture is best in cooler climates. They are not tallgrowing and can be displayed on a bench. Provide water in late fall and keep moist but not wet until the foliage starts to wither. Then water should be slowly reduced to allow the bulbs to go into dormancy in late spring or early summer, and remain dormant until fall. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Sow seed as soon as it is ripe in a sandy soil mix, just pressed into the surface. Temperature should be maintained between 45° and 50°F, which is not difficult because the seed ripens in late winter to spring. Seedlings reach flowering size in their 3rd or 4th year. Some natural increase can be obtained when bulbs

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are lifted, but it is best to leave the bulbs undisturbed and rely on seed to increase the stock. SPECIES S. aestivalis. South Africa (near Loeriesfontein in Western Cape), in the shade of rocks in gravel over clay. Stems 3-6 in. Leaves 2, hairy, absent at flowering, 3-10 in. long. Flowers 1020 per stem, funnel-shaped, white with pink band on reverse, heavily scented, mid summer (January in the wild). S. barbarae. Namibia, on limestone screes. Bulb neck to 3l/2 in. long, bulb only 1 in. in diameter. Stems to 10 in. Leaves 2-4, arranged in a fan. Flowers to 12 per stem, pendent, almost trumpet-shaped, white flushed pink at base, strongly fragrant; tepals in 2 overlapping whorls; stamens a little shorter than the tepals. Flowering after onset of fall rains (April in the wild), earlier when cultivated and irrigated. S. bidentata. SW Namibia. Stems to 6 in. Flowers white, sometimes flushed pink, fall (March to April in the wild). S. chaplinii. South Africa (SW Western Cape), in granite outcrops along the coast; endangered. Bulbs have a brown, fibrous, outer tunic and neck over 1 in. long. Leaves strapshaped, appearing after flowers, generally 2, prostrate, 1-3 in. long, covered with white hairs. Bracts 2, papery, about 1 in. long, with purplish veins, enclosing buds. Flowers to 14 per stem, starry, upward- and outward-facing on long, stiff, wiry pedicels. Tepals white with reddish or brownish stripe on reverse; stamens shorter than tepals, broadened at the base and spreading just above the tepals. Flowering fall (March to April in the wild). S. disci/era. South Africa (NW Western Cape). Stems to 5 in. Leaves with long soft hairs. Flowers white with olive green stripe, vanilla-scented, fall (March to May in the wild). S. gemmata. South Africa (S, SE, and E Western Cape), in semi-arid areas. Stems to 12 in. Leaves 2, appearing after flowering, prostrate, 2-4 in. long, covered with soft hairs or sometimes with hairs only on margins. Flowers to 14 per stem, pale lemon yellow, starry; stamens equal to tepals. Flowering mid summer to fall (February to April in the wild). S. hardyana. S Namibia, in sand along seasonal watercourses. Stems 4-12 in., arching near top. Leaves 3-4 in erect fan, produced after flowers, 2-4 in. long, flushed red near base. Flowers funnel-shaped, cream to white, sometimes flushed pink; fragrance described as coconut-like. Tepals in 2 whorls, slightly spreading; stamens slightly longer than tepals. Flowering fall (March to April in the wild). S. karooica. South Africa (Little Karoo, S Northern Cape). Bulbs have cream to brown fibrous covering. Stems 2-3 in. Leaves 2, appearing after flowers, 1-2 in. long, elliptical, narrowing at base, prostrate. Flowers up to 14 per stem, starry, pink; pedicels straight or curving upward so flowers are held erect. Stamens equal to or a little shorter than tepals. One of the most attractive species. Flowering late summer to fall (March to April in the wild). S. karoopoortensis. South Africa (Karoo in N and C Western Cape). Stems to 7 in. Leaves are largest of the genus, 2 in. wide and to 10 in. long. Flowers to 16 per stem, widely spread in

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Stylidium

flower head, starry, white with deep pink median stripes; stamens same length as tepals. Flowering late summer (March in the wild). S. leipoldtii. South Africa (Lambert's Bay, N of Cape Town in Western Cape); endangered. Leaves 2, dark green, shiny, 2-6 in. long, 1 in. wide, margin fringed with white hair, appearing after flowers. Stems 2-6 in. Flowers to 15 per stem, held upright on long pedicels, white with green streak on reverse; tepals longer than stamens. Flowering late summer to fall (March to April in the wild). S. massoniella. South Africa (W Bushmanland into Namaqualand in Northern Cape), in sandy places; rare, perhaps extinct in the wild. Bulb long-necked. Leaves 2, arching to prostrate, margins hairy. Stems to 5 in. Flowers to 14 per stem in rather dense inflorescence, held upright on long straight pedicels, pale pink with green stripe on reverse; stamens equal to tepals or a little shorter, style much longer than either. The arched leaves, appearing out of the long neck of the bulb, are the distinguishing characteristic. Flowering fall (April to May in the wild). S. mathewsii. South Africa (SW coastal Western Cape), in limestone flats; rare and endangered. Bulb small, rounded, with 2-in. neck. Leaves 2, narrow, appearing after flowers. Flowers starry, light pink or white, with deeper pink in center, to 18 per stem, held upright on long, curved pedicels. Stamens shorter than tepals. Flowering late fall (May in the wild). S. merxmuelleriana. South Africa (Springbok in Northern Cape), in sandy soils; listed as vulnerable. Stems to 4 in. Leaves 2, appearing after flowers, usually close to ground but rarely upright, barely 1 in. long. Flowers to 12 per stem, pale pink, held upright on straight pedicels; stamens equal to tepals. Flowering fall (April in the wild). S. phonolithica. SW Namibia. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers white to pink, late fall (May in the wild). S. pulcherrima. South Africa (NW Western Cape), on slopes in loamy soils; listed as vulnerable. Stems very thin, 2-4 in. Leaves 2, appearing after flowers, 6 in. long, narrow and twisted toward tips. Flowers to 20 per stem, starry, white marked with crimson in center of tepals and at tips. Stamens hooked at the base, almost meeting the stigma, anthers held just above tips of tepals. Flowering late fall (May in the wild). S. truncata. South Africa (NW Western Cape), in open areas. Stems to 18 in., arching at top. Leaves to 6 in a fan, appearing after flowering, arise from a bractlike sheath (cataphyll) which is red-brown when young, soon fading to brown. Flowers to 20 per stem, white to pink, on straight or recurved pedicels. Tepals free, spreading slightly; stamens longer than tepals; anthers cream to pink, pollen cream. Flowering late fall to early winter (April to June in the wild). The northernmost populations are similar to S. hardy ana. Plates 1039,1040. S. unguiculata. South Africa (NE of Clanwilliam near Doornbosch in Northern Cape); rare and listed as vulnerable. Stems 3-12 in. Leaves 2, appearing after flowers, to 8 in. long, 2 in. wide, narrowing at base. Flowers to 24 per stem, widely spaced; lowest pedicels held horizontal to ground with tips turning to hold flowers upright. Tepals white with red median stripe on

reverse; stamens spreading, equal to tepals. Flowering fall (April to May in the wild). S. villosa. South Africa (Springbok in Northern Cape). Stems to 5 in. Leaves have soft white hairs. Flowers white to pink with pink stripe, fall (March to April in the wild). SYNONYMS S. angustifolia see S. truncata. S. liliifolia see Tedingea tenella. S. linguaefolia see S. truncata. S. perryae see Bokkeveldia perryae. S. picta see Bokkeveldia picta. S. pubescens see Bokkeveldia pubescens. S. rubella see S. truncata. S. salteri see Bokkeveldia salteri. S. spiralis see Carpolyza spiralis. S. tenella see Tedingea tenella. S. watermeyeri see Bokkeveldia watermeyeri.

Stylidium—Stylidiaceae Name derived from Greek stylos ("column") with diminutive suffix -idium; the stamens and styles are joined in this genus and family. There are more than 100 species, but the majority are not bulbous. There are about 5 species from Australia with cormous or tuberous rootstocks. Four of these are extremely small, and one has a flowering stem that may reach 36 in. in height. The flowers are borne in a corymb, raceme, or panicle. The corolla lobes are unequal in size; the labellum ("lip") is smaller and turned down, or nearly as large as the others and turned up. The other 4 segments are paired, with one pair turned up, the other down. The stamens and style are joined and bent; they have a triggerlike mechanism sensitive to touch. The flowers are not showy, and the genus offers little of interest for the ornamental garden. CULTURE Stylidium must be grown frost-free. Well-drained sandy loam with ample organic content is best for these plants. Moisture is needed during growth, followed by a dryer dormant period in summer. Plant the rootstock as deep as it is tall, in some cases barely covered. Flowering time in the native habitat is September to October or even November. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Offsets may be separated after flowering has finished, but seed is the best way to increase the stock. Sow in a sandy soil mix in spring. After 2-3 years, seedlings can be planted out. SPECIES S. caricifolium. S Western Australia (Avon, Stirling, and Eyre districts), in eucalyptus woodland. Rootstock a mass of thin, threadlike white tubers Vs in. wide and to 4 in. long. Stems hairy on upper half, to 12 in. long. Leaves in a rosette, mostly erect, 6 in. long, Vi in. wide; at the base are numerous reddish, sheath-

Syringodea ing scale-leaves, to half as long as other leaves. Flowers to 20 per stem, whitish yellow, 1 in. in diameter, pink with wavy edges; column green and red; petals oblong with rounded tips. Flowering early spring (September in the wild). S. carnosum. S Western Australia (Darling and Eyre districts), in gravelly soil in woodland. Rootstock a white, cylindrical corm, to 1 in. wide, 2 in. long. Stems 12-36 in. Leaves in compact rosette, less than l/2 in. in diameter, very short. Flowers numerous, white, on short pedicels; petals paired on either side of flower, oval; anthers black. Flowering late spring to early summer (September to November in the wild) and is especially abundant after bush fires. S. crassifolium. S Western Australia, in moist, sandy heaths and swampy areas. Rootstock a mass of yellow, cylindrical tubers, thin, to 8 in. long. Leaves fleshy, erect when young, held in a rosette, 4 in. long,1/4in. wide, narrower near base and tips. Flowers similar to S. carnosum but lobes shorter than corolla tube and pink to white, 1/2 in. long; anthers black. Flowering spring to summer (September to November in the wild). S. petiolare. S Western Australia (Darling and Irwin districts). Corm Vio in. in diameter, seated1/4in. deep and forming large colonies. Stems 4-6 in. Leaves 5-8 in compact, flat rosette. Flowers 3-15 per stem, with tiny corolla tube, petals white and paired vertically. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). S. pulchellum. Western Australia (Swan Coastal Plain), in seasonally wet areas. Similar to S. petiolare. Leaves 5-8 leaves in a tiny rosette. Flowers to 15 in a loose panicle on petioles 1A in. long, white with red markings in throat; labellum narrow and pointed; column a little longer than petals. Flowering late spring (October to November in the wild).

Synnotia S. bicolor see Sparaxis villosa. S. galeata see Sparaxis galeata. S. metelerkampiae see Sparaxis variegata. S. parviflora see Sparaxis parviflora. S. variegata see Sparaxis variegata. S. variegata subsp. metelerkampiae see Sparaxis variegata subsp. metelerkampiae. S. villosa see Sparaxis villosa.

Sypharissa S. exuviata see Tenicroa exuviata. S. filifolia see Tenicroa filifolia. S. fragrans see Tenicroa fragrans. S. multifolia see Tenicroa multifolia.

Syringodea—Iridaceae Name derived from Greek syringodes ("like a small pipe, fistula"), a reference to the long, slender perianth tube. There are 8 species of these small plants, all native to South Africa, where

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they grow in heavy clay or sandy soils in short grassland, or in stony places and hillsides. The very small corm, perhaps 1A in. in diameter, has a thin neck and is covered with a dark brown, papery tunic. Threadlike, straight or curling leaves about 2 in. long lie flat on the ground. The flower stalk is entirely underground. The flowers look like miniature crocuses, in shades of blue and purple with yellow stamens. They open to 1 in. in diameter. The perianth lobes are often cleft; the perianth tube is 11/2 in. long, with the ovary below the ground. The flowers are short-lived and appear in spring or late summer, seeming to pop up immediately after a rain. In some species only one flower is produced; in others, several. Rock gardens in warm climates are good homes for these little bulbs. In regions that are dry in late summer, the bulbs can be tucked into odd spots in the sunny garden. CULTURE

Set corms l-1/2 in. deep, just below the surface of the soil, which must be well-drained. Heat does not bother these plants —they experience temperatures around 100°F, in full sun, in their native habitat—but they cannot withstand frost. In areas where frost occurs, they should be grown in shallow containers. A distinct warm, dry dormant period is needed in summer. The best planting time is February when temperatures are rising. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

The corms are so small that offsets are too tiny to handle easily. Seed is easier. Sow seed when it is ripe in a sandy mix, barely covered. Place in a sunny spot with night temperatures around 50°F. Keep moist but not wet. Grow on in the seed container until large enough to handle and then plant out in final site. SPECIES S. bifucata. South Africa (Eastern Cape, Free State, Mpumalanga); introduced 1876. Leaves 2-8 in. Flowers pale to bright violet or sometimes white, throat orange yellow, spring to summer (September to December in the wild). S. concolor. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1892. Leaves 5-8 in. Flowers pale violet, lilac, or almost white, darker violet in throat, spring to summer (September to December in the wild). S. derustensis. SE South Africa (Little Karoo); introduced 1974; listed as vulnerable. Leaves 2-3 in. Flowers pale violet or white, fall (May to June in the wild). S. flanaganii. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1893. Leaves 1-5 in. Flowers violet with yellow throat, fall to early winter (April to June in the wild). S. longituba. South Africa (Namaqualand, Nothern Cape, Western Cape), in heavy clay or sand. Leaves several, narrow, curly, prostrate. Flowers solitary, pale bluish purple or violet, variously colored in throat; segments spreading flat above tube. Flowering winter (April to July in the wild). Var. longituba has a yellow or orange-yellow throat. Var. violacea has a violet or

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Tacca

white throat and sometimes a median band of the same color. Plate 1041. 5. pulchella. South Africa (Eastern Cape); introduced 1873. Leaves 4-6, arched and curved, 4-6 in. long. Flowers pale purple, flat when fully open; perianth tube 1-2 in. long; lobes cleft. Flowering fall (April to May in the wild). S. saxatilis. SE South Africa (Little Karoo); introduced 1974. Leaves 2-3 in. Flowers rose lilac to pale violet, early winter (May to June in the wild). S. unifolia. South Africa (S Northern Cape, interior Western Cape); introduced 1882. Leaves 2-5 in. Flowers pale violet, violet-blue or white, fall to winter (May to June in the wild). SYNONYMS

S. bicolor see S. bifucata. S. filifolia see S. longituba. S. latifolia see Hesperantha latifolia. S. leipoldtii see S. longituba. S. Unifolia see Duthiastrum linifolium. S. luteo-nigra see Romulea macowanii. S. minuta see Pauridia minuta.

± acca—Taccaceae Name derived from the Indonesian name for these plants, taka. The genus comprises about 10 species native to tropical Southeast Asia and West Africa in evergreen monsoon forests; they have escaped from gardens and become naturalized in other tropical areas. The rootstock is a cylindrical rhizome or tuber, marked with scars where the old leaves were attached. The rhizomes are usually not branching. The tubers are starchy and edible. The leaves arise directly from the rootstock and range from 20 to 40 in. long, sometimes entire and sometimes lobed. They are green to gray-green, dull on the underside, glossy on the upper surface. The petioles can exceed 36 in. in length; the lower part is purple-green, channeled and sheathed at the base. The inflorescence is carried above the foliage, rising from the rootstock or from the leaf axils, with few to many bracts just below the flowers. The leaflike bracts are 5-6 in. long, white, green, or purple and veined in black. In addition, there are bizarre filiform (threadlike) bracts up to 10 in. long, white, yellow-green, violet-green, or dark brownish purple. These are pendent and equal in number to the flowers. The flowers are bell-shaped and nodding, with 6 perianth segments arranged in 2 whorls. Flower colors include white, pale green, dark purplish brown, violet-brown, and red. The fruit is berrylike and fleshy, green, dark purple, pale yellow, or orange. These are decorative plants for the display hothouse and might be used outdoors in hot, humid tropical gardens. The best-known species is T. chantrieri, popularly called the bat plant for its weird inflorescence. CULTURE Taccas need hot days and night temperatures around 60°F, a

soil rich in humus, and copious moisture year-round, both at the roots and on the foliage. Grow them in bright light but not direct sunlight and in constantly high humidity. The exception is T. leontopetaloides, which requires a dry resting period of about 2 months after growth slows in late summer. Set the rootstock at soil level, 3 plants to a container 36 in. in diameter. A soil mix of well-rotted organic matter and coarse bark is suitable. Feed regularly with organic liquid fertilizer, and an occasional foliar feeding can also be beneficial. Repot every 2-3 years. PESTS AND DISEASES

Without constant high humidity, the plants may be attacked by spider mites. Use a miticide to control. Botrytis can be a problem, especially if the foliage is bruised; cut off damaged leaves at the base. PROPAGATION

Cut the rootstock into sections, each with an "eye" (bud), or remove divisions from established plants. Sow seed on the surface of milled sphagnum moss, transplanting seedlings to individual pots when large enough to handle. They can be expected to flower in the 3rd year from seed. SPECIES T. chantrieri. BAT PLANT, CAT'S WHISKERS, DEVIL FLOWER. Thailand. Rootstock an erect rhizome. Stems 20-24 in. Leaves dark green on upper surface, paler beneath, to 18 in. long. Leaflike bracts below flowers in 2 opposite pairs, green to black filiform bracts to 10 in. long, olive green to maroon or nearblack violet. Flowers maroon to near black, in clusters. Fruit showy, shiny green to deep red. T. integrifolia. BAT PLANT. Tropical Asia (E India, S China, Indonesia). Rootstock a cylindrical rhizome. Stems to 36 in., dark brown or reddish. Leaves on petioles to 15 in. long, tapering to a point, gray-green. Bracts to 6 in. long; outer 2 opposite, green to dark purple; inner 2 thinner, white, green, or purple, veined black. Filiform bracts to 8 in. long, pale green flushed violet, darkening as flowers age. T. leontopetaloides. INDIAN ARROWROOT. Africa to E Pacific on Easter Island. Rootstock a tuber. Leaves few, palmately lobed. Flowers evenly spaced on stem well above foliage, generally in one plane around stem. T. plantaginea. Tropical Asia, E India, and Indonesia. Similar to T. integrifolia except leaf bases are wedge-shaped along petiole and inner bracts are arranged at right angles to each other. SYNONYMS T. artocarpifolia see T. leontopetaloides. T. aspera see T. integrifolia. T. borneensis see T. chantrieri. T. choudhuriana see T. chantrieri. T. cristata see T. chantrieri. T. dubia see T. leontopetaloides. T. gaogao see T. leontopetaloides. T. involucrata see T. leontopetaloides. T. laevis see T. chantrieri.

Tedingea T. lancaefolia see T. chantrieri. T. landfolia see T. chantrieri. T. macrantha see T. chantrieri. T. maculata see T. leontopetaloides. T. oceanica see T. leontopetaloides. T. paxiana see T. chantrieri. T. pinnatifida see T. leontopetaloides. T. pinnatifolia see T. leontopetaloides. T. quanzensis see T. leontopetaloides. T. roxburghii see T. chantrieri. T. samoensis see T. leontopetaloides. T. sumatrana see T. integrifolia.

Tapeinanthus T. humilis see Narcissus humilis.

Tecophilaea—Tecophilaeaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of Tecofila Billiotti, the daughter of a Professor Colla of Turin, around 1830. The genus was first placed in the family Amaryllidaceae but became the type of the Tecophilaeaceae, created in John Hutchinson's split of Liliaceae and Amaryllidaceae. There are only 2 species (or perhaps just one), both native to Chile. One (Tecophilaea cyanocrocus) is believed to be extinct in the wild as a result of overcollecting and overgrazing. The rootstock is a nearly spherical corm covered with a pale fibrous tunic. The crocuslike flowers may be pure deep blue, purple, lilac, or white; the darker forms often have white in the throat. Veining is especially visible toward the base where the color is paler. The flowers open to a wide bowl form above a short perianth tube. The lobes of the tepals are much longer than the tube and have a small but distinct notch at the tips. There are usually 2 or 3 leaves per corm, basal, spreading, and sheathing the short scape at the base. Tecophilaea cyanocrocus is a very interesting garden plant for warm Mediterranean climates. Few bulbous plants display its powerful gentian blue color. The plants are slow to increase; therefore, they are often grown in pots in the bulb frame or alpine house. One hears, however, of extensive colonies in favored gardens. CULTURE Plant corms 2-4 in. deep, 6-8 in. apart, in very gritty soil. Moderate moisture is needed during fall and winter, and should be reduced after flowering. Containers should be larger and deeper than the small size of the corms would seem to require, and should be plunged to moderate temperature and moisture. Tecophilaea violiflora must be grown frost-free, as in a cool greenhouse. Tecophilaea cyanocrocus is a little hardier, tolerating temperatures down to about 20°F before emergence, but its early emerging foliage should be protected from frost and winter wet. It maintains its compact and floriferous character best if grown as hard as it can tolerate. Both species require a warm, dry summer dormancy.

439

PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove the sparsely produced cormels from the parent corms after the foliage withers and replant them in a very sandy soil in containers. In 2-3 years they should reach flowering size of Va% in. in diameter. Hand pollination maybe necessary to ensure seed production. The seeds stay viable for a year or more if stored dry. Sow seed in fall or early spring and keep cool but frost-free, and barely moist. Grow seedlings in full light, watering carefully, and allow to go dormant in late summer. Corms reach flowering size in 3-4 years. SPECIES T. cyanocrocus. CHILEAN BLUE CROCUS, CHILEAN CROCUS. C Chile, on stony slopes; probably extinct in the wild; introduced 1872. Stems to 4 in. Leaves 1-3, linear, rather fleshy. Flowers solitary, broadly goblet-shaped, more than 1 in. in diameter, intense deep blue with small, whitish central zone; perianth segments broad; perianth tube small, narrow. Flowering early to mid spring. 'Leichtlinii' has lighter blue flowers with much more white in the throat. 'Violacea' is bright violet. White forms have been reported. Cultivated stocks are so mixed that seed of any form is likely to produce flowers with various depth of blue color and extent of white eye. Plates 1042,1043. T. violiflora. Chile, on grassy hillsides in coastal foothills. Stems 10-12 in. Leaf solitary, basal, to 1 in. wide, 8-10 in. long. Flowers 6-8 per stem, purple, lilac, blue, or white, smaller than T. cyanocrocus, tepals narrower; flowers borne on long pedicels. Flowering late winter to early spring (August to September in the wild).

Tedingea—Amaryllidaceae This monotypic genus belongs to the complex that also includes Carpolyza, Hessea, and Strumaria, and its sole species is included in Strumaria by some botanists. CULTURE

As for Strumaria. PESTS AND DISEASES

As for Strumaria. PROPAGATION

As for Strumaria. SPECIES T. tenella. South Africa (W Western Cape). Leaves generally well-developed at flowering, a rarity in these genera, as many as 6 are produced in succession, each 8-12 in. long, narrow, shiny green with red at the base. Flowers starry, white to light pink, scented, up to 21 per straight pedicel. Stamens as long as tepals; filaments bending away from the center of the flower. The base of the stigma is swollen but a distinct stigma is seen. Flowering is in fall and can extend into winter (April to July or August in the wild). Subsp. orientalis, from South Africa (SE

440

Tenicroa

Free State), always has white flowers, and the stigma is part of a swelling or mounding and is not as distinct as in the type; flowering time is from late summer to early fall (February to March in the wild).

Tenicroa—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) This genus from South Africa (SW Western Cape, Namaqualand, Northern Cape), and S Namibia contains about 5 species. They are closely related to Drimia; the separation is based on the presence of a much reduced bract which forms a neck and protects the shoots as they emerge from the globose bulb. Other characteristics of the genus are stout filaments closely surrounding the ovary, anthers attached at their base, and straight styles that extend beyond the perianth. These characteristics are somewhat variable, but the membranous bract or scarcely developed leaf is a constant feature. The small flowers face outward. They have 6 separate, boatshaped tepals, often with a median streak of color. The inflorescence is a raceme of as many as 20 flowers, depending on species. Though individual flowers are not long-lasting, they are numerous, so the flowering period is fairly long in spring or early summer (September or October in the wild). The flowers are pleasantly fragrant. The leaves are slender, sometimes withered at flowering time, and sometimes enclosed in a papery sheath at the base. These are not unattractive plants but are likely to interest only the bulb fancier. They should be grown where their fragrance can be appreciated. CULTURE Tenicroas must be grown frost-free but do well in containers, enabling them to be grown in cool climates. They prefer sandy, well-drained soil with moisture during winter. Set the bulbs just under the surface, 3-5 in. apart, in a sunny spot. After flowering, the bulbs should become dry. Leave them undisturbed except for propagation. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Several small bulblets are produced around the base of mature bulbs and can be separated after flowering. Sow seed as soon as ripe, using a sandy soil mixture. Germination may not occur until the following spring. Place seedlings in individual containers as soon as they are large enough to handle. SPECIES

T. exuviata. South Africa (Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape to Namaqualand); introduced 1795. Bulb long, striped, 1 in. in diameter, with outer scales. Stems usually 8-10 in. but can reach 36 in. Leaves 2-4, slender, about 2 in. long. Flowers 10-20 in dense raceme, white with purplish keel, spring (September to October in the wild). Plate 1044. T. filifolia. South Africa (N and W of Cape Town); introduced 1820. Stems stout, to 12 in. Leaves rounded, half to almost as long as stem. Flowers numerous in slender raceme,

outward-facing 12 in., white with crimson median band, or purplish, fragrant, spring to summer (September to December in the wild). Plate 1045. T. fragrans. South Africa (Namaqualand), in sandy places; introduced 1791. Stems 20-24 in., flushed reddish brown. Leaves many, shorter than flowering stem, enclosed at base in papery banded sheath. Flowers fragrant, to 1 in. in diameter, whitish flushed maroon on reverse; keels maroon or greenish. Flowering spring (September to November in the wild). Plate 1046. T. multifolia. South Africa (N of Cape Town, W Karoo), in clay flats. Stems brownish red. Leaves numerous, much shorter than stem, often twisted and forming a hummock. Inflorescence somewhat spherical, dense. Flowers 18-20 per stem, sweetly scented, white flushed maroon on reverse, Vi in. in diameter; tepals somewhat narrower than in other species. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). T. nana. South Africa (Western Cape); described 1981. Leaves to 20, wiry, sometimes absent at flowering. Flowers short-lived; tepals free, reflexed, purplish pink with green-and-white zone at base. Flowering summer (November to January in the wild).

Thereianthus—Iridaceae Name derived from Greek thereios ("summer") and anthos ("flower"). This South African genus contains about 7 species which are similar to Watsonia except that the stems are unbranched, and the flowers are arranged spirally and emerge from hard, persistent, brown bracts. The nomenclature and variations within this genus were last examined in 1941. It is possible that the number of species will be reduced upon reevaluation. Though of some beauty, the plants are uncommon or indeed unknown in cultivation. All species are native in SW Western Cape, some favoring well-drained soils and others places that are wet at least part of the year. The rootstock is a corm. The blue-purple flowers open flatfaced, about 1 in. in diameter. The tepals are well separated but joined at the base into a short to long, narrow tube. The stamens form a cone, with the 3-branched style arching away from the center, often 1/2 in. beyond the stamens. The number of flowers varies between 7 and 20 but is often less. The plants bloom in late spring to summer (September to February in the wild). All species are low-growing, seldom above 20 in. and often much less. The leaves may be cylindrical or flat but are always sparse and clasping the stem at their bases. Some species are attractive and useful for areas that are seasonally wet or even inundated. Thereianthus bracteolatus is a good rock garden plant. CULTURE Thereianthus must be grown frost-free. Set corms 2-3 in. deep, 6-8 in. apart. In mild climates, plant in fall and keep moist during winter; where winters are severe, plant in spring and do not let the plants dry out. The exception to this is T. bracteolatus, which prefers well-drained soil with ample moisture during the early stages of growth. All plants require full sun.

Thysanotus PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate cormels when plants are dormant in early fall. Sow seed in spring, with night temperatures around 55°F and constant moderate moisture. After the first season the young plants can be lined out in nursery rows and grown on. In 2-3 seasons the corms will be of sufficient size to plant in permanent locations. SPECIES

T. bracteolatus. South Africa (Cape Peninsula to Olifants River in Western Cape), in well-drained soils. Stems to 12 in., sturdy, unbranched. Basal leaves 5 or more, cylindrical but somewhat flattened, tapering to a sharp point, 6 in. long, sometimes withered by flowering. Stem leaves 1-3 in. long, more persistent. Flowers 7-14, arranged spirally on stem, each about 1 in. in diameter, bluish purple; perianth tube short, with segments opening wide. Hard, brown bracts protect developing buds. Flowering spring to early summer (September to November, sometimes into January in the wild). Plate 1047. T. ixioides. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Similar to T. bracteolatus except that flowers are fewer and more cup-shaped when open, white. Leaves sparse, reedlike. Flowering spring (October to November in the wild). T. juncifolius. South Africa (SW Western Cape), in wet areas. Leaves rushlike, often longer than stem, to 24 in., often erect. Flowers bluish lilac, summer (November to February in the wild). T. longicollis. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 6-10 in. Leaves rushlike. Flowers white, with long tube, summer (November to January in the wild). T. minutus. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 12-18 in. Leaves cylindrical, basal, held close to ground. Flowers cupshaped, purple, late spring to summer (November to January in the wild). T. racemosus. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 6-10 in. Leaves linear. Flowers blue with very short tube, spring to summer (October to December in the wild). L spicatusvar. linearifolius. South Africa (SW Western Cape), in sandy or seasonally marshy areas. Solitary, narrow, sharply pointed basal leaf and 3 progressively shorter stem leaves. Height, color, and form of inflorescence similar to T. bracteolatus. Flowering late spring to summer (November to January in the wild). SYNONYM

T. lapeyrousioides see T. minutus.

Thysanotus—Asphodelaceae (Liliaceae) FRINGE FLOWER, FRINGE LILY Name derived from Greek thysanos ("fringed") and otos ("ear"), because the larger (inner) perianth segments are always fringed. This is a genus of about 47 species, all native to Australia. The

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rootstock can be fibrous, a rhizome, or a tuber. Though attractive, the flowers are not long-lasting, and the plants are rarely cultivated. The flowering stems are sometimes branched, mostly leafless or with leaves reduced to bracts. The leaves are linear, clasping the stem at the base. There are 6 perianth segments; the 3 larger are fringed and not joined; the outer segments are much smaller. There may be 3 or 6 stamens. Flower colors are all in the blue-mauve-violet range, and flowering time is winter to summer (June to March in the wild). CULTURE Thysanotus must be grown frost-free. The plants need welldrained sandy soil and moisture during winter and spring, followed by a dry summer. Plant rootstocks 1-2 in. deep, 10 in. apart. Many species are found in association with Eucalyptus, so they are probably quite tolerant of poor soil. Plants prefer sun but tolerate partial shade. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Divide established rootstocks during the dormant period. Sow seed in a sandy mix and provide temperatures around 55°F at night. Keep seedlings growing as long as possible but allow them to become dry when foliage starts to die down. Do not allow rootstocks to desiccate. SPECIES

T. anceps. S Western Australia. Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers blue-violet, summer (December in the wild). T. arbuscula. Australia, widespread. Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems 12-18 in., erect. Foliage all scales. Flowers blue-violet, summer (October to March in the wild). T. arenarius. Western Australia. Stems prostrate, 20-36 in. long. Flowers pale blue, summer (October to January in the wild). T. baueri. MALLEE FRINGE LILY. Australia (Victoria). Similar to T. tuberosus but has narrower leaves, tubers at the end of roots. Tubers were eaten by the Aborigines. T. brevifolius. Western Australia. Stems to 4 in. Flowers pale lilac, early summer (November in the wild). T. chensis. Australia (Northern Territory). Flowers blueviolet, late winter (August in the wild). T. cymosus. SW Western Australia. Stems 10-12 in. Flowers rich blue, spring (October in the wild). T. dichotomus. Australia (Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia). Rootstock a rhizome reaching 2 in. in diameter. Stems sometimes branched. Leaves 5-10, basal, to 6 in. long. Flowers 1-3, purple; larger segments fringed; inner segments narrow, not fringed; anthers twisted. Flowering summer. T. gageoides. SW Western Australia. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers blue, winter (June to August in the wild). T. juncifolius. Australia (Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia). Stems to 24 in. Flowers blue to purple, spring to summer (August to October in the wild).

442

Tigridia

T. multiflorus. FRINGED LILY, MANY-FLOWERED FRINGE LILY. Australia (New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia), mostly in coastal habitats or nearby mountains. Stems to 18 in. Leaves linear, few to 30 or more. Flowers to 20 or more in an umbel, blue-violet or mauve; 3 larger segments fringed; stamens 3. Flowering early spring to mid summer (August to December in the wild). Plate 1048. T. patersonii. TWINING FRINGE LILY. Australia (Victoria, Western Australia). Roots tuberous, white and thin, normally 2-10, to 1 in. long, growing 11/2 in. deep, often in thickets of Acacia, into which it climbs with many branched, wiry stems. Leaves basal, short-lived; plant depends on green stem with numerous scale leaves for photosynthesis. Flowers ephemeral but borne in a long succession on short lateral stems, violet to pinkish; inner segments long-fringed; 6 stamens, 3 of them larger. Flowering winter to early summer (July to November in the wild). T. pseudojunceus. S Western Australia. Stems 12-15 in. Leaves rushlike. Flowers blue-violet, spring to summer (August to November in the wild). T. rectantherus. South Australia. Stems 8-12 in. Flowers pale blue, early summer (November in the wild). T. scaber. South Australia. Stems 12-15 in. Flowers violet, spring (September to October in the wild). T. sparteus. Western Australia. Rootstock rhizomatous. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers blue-violet, summer (December to March in the wild). T. speckii. Western Australia (Austin Botanical District). Tubers white,1/4in. wide, l/2 in. long. Stems 1-2 in. Leaves 2-6, linear, 1 in. long. Flowers to 10 per stem; inner segments free and fringed, pale mauve; outer segments narrow, smaller, paler. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). T. spiniger. SW Western Australia. Stems branched, 15-20 in. Flowers violet, spring (September to November in the wild). T. tennis. SW Western Australia. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers pale blue, spring (September to October in the wild). T. thyrsoides. Western Australia. Flowers blue with white margins, spring (September to October in the wild). T. tuberosus. FRINGED VIOLET. Australia, in grassland. Rootstock tuberous. Stems erect, much branched, 18-20 in., with few or no stem leaves. Leaves in rosette, to 8 in. long. Perianth segments 6; 3 larger ones purple, fringed; 3 smaller ones narrower, pointed, darker; bases of segments darker than remainder. Stamens 6, 3 longer than other 3. Flowering spring and summer (August to November in the wild). T. vernalis. SW Western Australia. Rootstock tuberous. Stems 4-10 in. Flowers mauve, spring (October in the wild). SYNONYMS

T. divaricatus see T. dichotomus. T. elatior see T. tuberosus. T. elongatus see T. dichotomus. T. flexuosus see T. dichotomus. T. multiflorus var. prolifer see T. multiflorus. T. proliferus see T. multiflorus.

Tigridia—Iridaceae MEXICAN DAYLILY, MEXICAN SHELL FLOWER, PEACOCK FLOWER, TIGER FLOWER, FLOWER OF TIGRIS, SACRED AZTEC LILY, SACRED TIGER LILY, SHELL FLOWER Name derived from Latin tigris ("tiger"), in reference to Felis onca, the (spotted) jaguar, which early Spanish botanists confused with the Felis tigris, the (striped) Asiatic tiger; Tigridia flowers have a profusely spotted central cup. This is a genus of about 23 species native to South and Central America. Many are not in cultivation but are described in a monograph by Elwood Molseed (1970). The corm is ovoid and covered with a coarse tunic. The leaves are swordlike and usually few, from 3 to 5, sometimes more. Generally, the flower spikes, which vary in height according to the species, are just surpassed by the tops of the foliage, but the flowers are never hidden. The exceedingly colorful flowers, held in a spathe, are short-lived, lasting only one day, but the plants are free-flowering, with the numerous buds opening after each other for several weeks. Flowers vary in size from 1 in. to more than 4 in. in diameter. The common name el cacomite refers to the mealy quality of the bulbs. The flowers are distinguished by having their parts in 3s: 3 large segments forming a triangle, and 3 smaller segments forming a distinct cup in the flower center. The 3 outer perianth segments are larger and seem to float on the stem. The lower parts of these segments form a cup, much spotted. Where the segments bend to give a flat flower appearance, albeit with a cup, the spots stop and the bright colors of the broad segments take over. Between the spots and the solid color there is generally a clear, light color which forms the background for the spots, with a dab of this lighter color extending briefly into the solid color. The inner segments also are spotted, often with a background of a darker hue, and the spots overlap the cup. These inner segments have a definite waist, are most commonly blunt, and lie between the larger segments, with the exceptions of T. flammea, T. immaculata, T. inusitata, and T. orthantha where segments are short, ovate, and held erect. The stamens and stigma, with the filaments joined in a long tube, are held erect in the center of the flower. Summer-flowering. At one time 4 species from Mexico and Central America with erect seed pods were separated into the genus Rigidella. These have small, rounded bulbs; a rarely branched stem; and sparse foliage, often more than 36 in., coarse, dark green. The flowers are similar to those of other Tigridia species, except that the petals are recurving instead of widespreading (that is, the 3 outer segments reflex to give an impression of a 3-sided cyclamen-type flower, cup-shaped at the base). The inner segments are short, ovate, and erect, thus differing from other Tigridia species in which they are fiddle-shaped and spreading. The several flowers in a spathe, all in the red range, are short-lived and sometimes erect or sometimes pendulous. The filaments are formed into a long tube that surrounds the slender style, which is prominent in the open flowers. In the wild, the flowers are pollinated by hummingbirds.

Tigridia Tigridias are ideal for summer color in all sunny borders. They should be planted among other plants whose foliage will cover the rather sparse Tigridia foliage and with some lowergrowing plants in front to cover the lower parts of the stems. The background fill adds much to the appreciation of the bright flowers. With their ease of culture it is surprising tigridias are not more widely grown. They always cause exclamations of "Ooh!"and"Aah!" CULTURE

Plant bulbs in spring, 3-4 in. deep and 6-10 in. apart. This applies to all climates. In cold climates, bulbs should be planted after the danger of frost has passed; they should be lifted after the foliage dies down, in late summer or early fall, or grown in a greenhouse. In warmer areas, where there is little or no frost, they can be left in the ground. They can remain outdoors where temperatures stay above 22°F, if they are heavily mulched and given the protection of a south-facing wall. The soil must be well-drained and in full sun. In containers, these bulbs should be planted in moderately rich soil, again with good drainage. Adequate moisture should be provided during the growing season. After the foliage starts to turn brown, reduce the amount of water gradually. Before being placed in storage, the bulbs must be dried. They should be stored in a frost-free area, with temperatures around 55°F, and with good air circulation. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Sow seed in spring in a sandy soil mix in bright light, with a night temperature of 55°F. After germination, seedlings must be kept moist and in bright light. When the foliage dies back, the bulblets can be lined out in nursery rows in spring after the last frost, or in April in warm climates. Small quantities can be grown on in large containers; place the bulbs 1/2 in. deep in a rich soil mix. Seedlings flower in 2-3 years. Offsets can be separated during the dormant season and grown on. Treat the smaller ones like seed stock; the larger ones can be planted out to flower. SPECIES T. atrata. S Mexico; introduced 1843. Stems to 24 in. Flowers deep purple with pale green spots, mid spring. T. bicolor. Mexico. Stems to 18 in. Leaves narrow, swordshaped, sparse (2-3 per corm), slightly taller than scape. Flower cup purplish brown; outer perianth segments yellow; summer. T. chiapensis. Mexico (Chiapas). Stems to 16 in. Leaves sparse, narrow, pointed, 16-20 in. long. Flowers to 2 in. in diameter; cup yellow spotted purple; outer segments white; summer. Requires summer moisture. T. curvata. Mexico; introduced 1843. Stems to 12 in. Flowers yellowish spotted purple, mid spring. T. dugesii. Mexico. Stems to 6 in. Flowers yellow spotted red, 11/2in. in diameter, summer. T. durangense. Mexico. Stems to 6 in. No stem leaves. Flow-

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ers lavender, spotted and streaked white, margin bright golden yellow, summer. T. ehrenbergii. Similar in habit to T. galanthoides, but flowers are yellow spotted purple. T.flammea. Mexico, in rocky places; introduced 1839. Stems to 36 in. Basal leaves usually 3, rich green, pleated, swordshaped, short at flowering, later elongating to 36 in.; stem leaves much shorter. Flowers to 15 per stem, enveloped in membranous spathe, pendent, ephemeral, bright orange-red; outer segments have black basal markings and are strongly reflexed; inner segments yellow, no longer than the point where outer segments recurve. Filaments cover style; length from base of flower to end of style more than 2 in. Individual flowers last only a few hours, but open in succession. Flowering summer. T. galanthoides. Mexico. Stems to 24 in. high, often branched. Larger perianth segments not as pointed as in some other species, light pink or white with red or deep pink veining. Often opens more than one flower at a time, summer. T. immaculata. Mexico and Guatemala, in moist areas. Leaves fully developed at flowering, to 30 in. long. Flowers similar to T. flammea but smaller and lack black markings, summer. T. inusitata. Mexico, in damp, rocky areas above 6000 ft.; described 1971. Stems to 36 in. Basal leaves usually 2; one stem leaf. Flowers irregular, with reflexed segments all held to one side; thus the stamens are displaced and pollination, by hummingbirds, is facilitated. Flowers bright red, upward-facing, to 31/2 in. long from base to tip of style; inner segments within cup formed by bases of outer segments. Flowering summer. T. lutea. Chile and Peru, in mountains; introduced 1843. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers pale lemon yellow marked with deeper yellow, summer. T. meleagris. C Mexico and Guatemala, in mountains. Stems 10-20 in. Flowers pinkish marked with darker blotches, tips yellow, summer. Plates 1049,1050. T. mexicana. Mexico. Stems branched, to 12 in. Flowers yellow, spotted reddish brown, cup shallow. T. multiflora. N and C Mexico, in mountains. Stems to 20 in. Flowers brownish orange to purple, mid summer. T. orthantha. Mexico and Guatemala, in cloud forest. Leaves basal, pleated, fully developed at flowering, to 36 in. long or more. Flowers regular, upward-facing; yellow cup extends beyond reflexed outer segments. Probably needs more moisture than other species. Flowering summer. Plate 1051. T. pavonia. Mexico; introduced 1796. Stems usually 18-20 in. Leaves sword-shaped, 10-12 in. long; the few stem leaves arranged in a fan. Flowers yellow, white, red, or orange, usually with purplish spots or blotches in cup. The most common species in gardens, sold for summer bedding. Selections include 'Alba Grandiflora', white with dark red spots; 'Alba Immaculata', white without spots; 'Aurea', dark golden yellow with red spots; 'Canariensis', creamy yellow with carmine splashes; 'Liliacea', reddish purple variegated white. Flowering mid to late summer, depending on planting time. Tigridia pavonia has been crossed with T. orthantha. The resulting sterile plant has an upright inflorescence, with reflexing, scarlet outer segments. While the smaller inner segments are larger than those of the

444

Trifurcia

species, they are flattened at the tips and positioned between the outer segments. These inner segments are yellow, and the cup formed in the flower center is blotched scarlet and yellow. The hybrid vigor of this cross results in the production of many small bulbs, so that vegetative propagation is an effective way of increasing the stock. Plates 1052,1053. T. seleriana. Mexico and Guatemala. Stems to 4 in. Flowers lavender, mid summer. T. vanhouttei. S and C Mexico; introduced 1875. Stems to 24 in. Flowers dark purple with yellowish center, early summer. T. violacea. Mexico (Yucatan); introduced 1838. Stems 7-12 in. Flowers violet to bright purple-red shaded yellowish to white and spotted purple, mid summer. SYNONYMS T. buccifera see Alophia drummondii. T. coelestina see Cypella coelestis. T. conchiflora see T. pavonia. T. grandiflora see T. lutea. T. herbertii see Cypella herbertii. T. pringlei see T. pavonia. T. purpurea see Alophia drummondii. T. undulata see Ferraria crispa.

Trifurcia T. amatorum see Herbertia amatorum. T. caerulea see Alophia drummondii. T. lahue see Herbertia lahue. T. pulchella see Herbertia pukhella.

Trillidium T. govanianum see Trillium govanianum. T.japonicum see Kinugasa japonica.

Trillium—Trilliaceae (Liliaceae) AMERICAN WOOD LILY, WAKE ROBIN, WOOD LILY Name derived from Greek tris ("thrice"), because both the leaves and flowers are tripartite. This is a genus of about 44 species, most of which are native to E North America, with a few species in W North America and in far E Asia. The North American trilliums are divided into 2 groups: those with sessile flowers are in subgenus Phyllantherum, and those with stalked (pedicellate) flowers are in subgenus Trillium. The Asiatic trilliums are all pedicellate. Trilliums are among the finest woodland plants, a symbol of spring to Americans. The species have their own common names, but wake robin is used for many of them. An excellent book on the genus is Trilliums, by Fred and Roberta Case (1997). The rhizome is cylindrical, often knobby, very tough, generally dark, and maybe more than 1 in. in diameter. The 3 broadly ovate leaves are held horizontally in a whorl near the top of the stem. They may be either petiolate or sessile. The flowers range

in size from about 1 in. to more than 4 in. in diameter and are solitary, held above the leaf whorl. They may be sessile or may have a short pedicel. In some species the flowers are upwardfacing, and in others pendent. The sessile types usually have leaves mottled light and dark in an irregular pattern, making them even more ornamental. Only one set of leaves and a single flower are carried on a stem, but a large rhizome may produce more than one stem. The 3 outer segments (the sepals) are always green and pointed. The 3 inner segments (called petals) are more conspicuous and may be white, pale yellow, purple, or reddish, sometimes erect and sometimes spreading horizontally. There are 6 stamens; the style is cleft or 3-branched from the base. Flowering is in early spring to early summer. Most trilliums grow wild in the humus-rich soil of moist woodlands, and all are great garden plants. They should be planted in bold groups, and always in shade. They are ideal among azaleas and low-growing rhododendrons because they like the same conditions. They should be placed close to paths. Those with upward-facing flowers must be viewed from above, and those with pendent flowers are pleasing on a high bank. Trilliums tolerate gentle forcing, as long as shade and moisture are provided and temperatures are near 55°F at night. It is essential that a good root system be allowed to develop before plants are brought into warmer temperatures. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION

Sessile species: T. albidum, T. angustipetalum, T. chloropetalum, T. cuneatum, T. decipiens, T. decumbens, T. discolor, T. foetidissimum, T. gracile, T. kurabayashii, T. lancifolium, T. ludovicianum, T. luteum, T. maculatum, T. parviflorum, T. petiolatum, T. recurvatum, T. reliquum, T. sessile, T. stamineum, T. underwoodii, T. viride, T. viridescens. Pedicellate species: T. catesbaei, T. cernuum, T. erectu, T. flexipes, T. grandiflorum, T. nivale, T. ovatu, T. persistens, T. pusillum, T. rivale, T. rugelii, T. simile, T. sulcatum, T. undulatuniy T. vaseyi. Asiatic species, all pedicellate: T. apetalon, T. camschatcense, T. hagae (including T. channellii), T. smallii, T. tschonoskii. CULTURE The species vary in hardiness depending on their origin; those from E Asia and the U.S. Southeast may not tolerate temperatures below about 10°F, but those from the U.S. Northeast are extremely cold-hardy. Northern species may require cold winters to flower well. Plant rhizomes in late summer or fall in friable loam with a high organic content. Western and some eastern species prefer acidic soils, but the commonly grown T. grandiflorum does better in lime soils. Plant them 4 in. deep, 8-12 in. apart. The smaller species can be set closer together. Most require moderate moisture throughout the year, but the western U.S. species tolerate dry summers if well mulched and shaded. All do best in dappled shade and may even flower well in deep shade; in cool-summer climates, however, they may flourish in full sun.

Trillium In soils with plenty of leafmold, no additional fertilizer is required. Fertilizer given should be acidic, of the kind used for camellias and rhododendrons (among which trilliums are often planted). A leaf mulch, such as they receive in their native habitat, is appreciated. Trilliums should be left undisturbed. If lifting is necessary, it should be done as soon as the foliage has died down. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide established plants in late summer or early fall as the foliage begins to die down. Seed must be sown as soon as it is ripe; stored seed of most species is unlikely to be viable. The young plants reach flowering size in 3-7 years. A peaty soil mix should be used and the seeds barely covered and kept moist in moderate light. If sown thinly in containers, the seedlings can be left until the following spring and then transplanted to a shaded nursery row. If seed is being sown directly outdoors, the soil must be amended with peat or other organic matter. After being grown on for a year, the seedlings can be lifted and given more room in shaded beds. SPECIES T. albidum. United States (N California to C Oregon). Stems to 18 in. Leaves and flowers sessile. Flowers white to cream flushed soft pink, scented of roses, early to mid spring. T. xamabile. Natural hybrid (T. smalliix T. kamtschaticum). Flowers dark purple with mauve pedicels, spring. T. angustipetalum. United States (California in C Sierra Nevada and San Luis Obispo area). Stems 6-24 in. Leaves and flowers sessile. Flowers maroon, stamens mauve, ovary deep purple, early spring. T. apetalon. N lapan, Sakhalin Island off the coast of Siberia, and Kurile Islands. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers pedicellate; sepals reddish brown to green marked purple; petals absent. Flowering mid to late spring. T. camschatcense. S tip of Kamchatka Peninsula and Sakhalin Island to N lapan, NE China, and Korea. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers pedicellate, white, mid to late spring. T. catesbaei. United States (North Carolina to Georgia, west to Alabama and Tennessee). Stems 8-20 in. Flowers pedicellate, rose pink or reddish, rarely white, late spring. T. cernuum. BASHFUL BEN, GROUND LILY, NODDING WOOD LILY. E Canada and E United States; introduced 1758. Stems to 24 in., often less, usually 2-3 per rhizome. Leaves nearly sessile, 2-6 in. long, broadly rhomboidal, abruptly narrowing to the tip. Flowers small, drooping on weak pedicels, white, rarely pink; petals to 1 in. long. Var. macranthum has larger flowers and is found farther west than the type. Flowering mid spring. Plate 1054. T. channellii. lapan (E Hokkaido). Some authorities maintain this is a hybrid, distinguished from the very similar T. hagae by the fact that it is a highly fertile tetraploid. Flowers pedicellate. T. chloropetalum. United States (N California). Stems to 12 in. Flowers sessile; petals usually green or greenish yellow,

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sometimes white with dark purple veining, often aging to purplish, early spring. Var. giganteum from San Mateo, Santa Clara, San Francisco, and Napa counties in California has white to deep red or purplish-red flowers and is more robust. T. cuneatum. United States (Mississippi to Kentucky and North Carolina). Stems 4-12 in. Leaves mottled. Flowers sessile, reddish brown, early to mid spring. Var. luteum has yellow or greenish yellow flowers. T. decipiens. United States (Alabama, Georgia, NW Florida). Stems to 18 in. Leaves richly mottled. Flowers sessile, maroon to brown, late winter. T. decumbens. United States (NW Georgia, N Alabama, S Tennessee). Stems decumbent. Leaves mottled. Petals maroon, twisted, early spring. T. discolor. United States (Blue Ridge Mountains of North and South Carolina, and Georgia). Flowers sessile, light yellow, sometimes greenish; the smallest of the yellow trilliums. Flowering late spring. T. erectum. RED TRILLIUM, STINKING BENJAMIN, STINKING filLLIE, BIRTH-ROOT, SQUARE ROOT, LAMB'S QUARTERS, PURPLE

TRILLIUM, AMERICAN TRUE LOVE, WET DOG. Canada (Quebec to Ontario) and United States (Michigan to Pennsylvania, Tennessee, and Georgia); introduced 1759. Stems to 12 in., often more than one per rhizome. Leaves sessile, broadly rhomboidal and narrowing abruptly. Flowers pedicellate, usually reddish, rarely white, yellow, or green, 1 in. long,11/2in. in diameter; pe-1 duncles to 3 in. long, bent sharply just above base of flower, giving it a slight cant. Flowering mid to late spring. Selections include 'Albiflorum', white stained green; 'Luteum', green-yellow below, blood-red above. Var. album from the Great Smoky Mountains has white flowers. Plates 1055-1057. T.flexipes. United States (Minnesota to Alabama and Pennsylvania). Stems 8-20 in. Flowers pedicellate, creamy white, mid spring. T. foetidissimum. United States (Louisiana). Stems 3-12 in. Flowers sessile, petals narrow, pink to reddish purple, early to mid spring. Forma luteum, yellow to yellowish green. T. govanianum. Himalayas of Nepal and Pakistan, in forests. Sometimes placed in a monotypic genus, Trillidium, because the 6 narrow perianth segments are all very similar, whereas in other species the outer ones are leaflike. Stems to 8 in. Tepals pointed, narrow, light green, often purple near base, inner 3 a little narrower than outer. Ovary prominent and pinkish; 6 stamens short and sturdy, purplish; anthers creamy yellow. Fruit reddish to deep purple. Flowering spring. T. gracile. United States (E Texas, Louisiana). Stems 6-14 in. Flowers sessile, petals narrow, dark maroon to pale purple, mid spring. Forma luteum, yellow to yellowish green. T. grandiflorum. GREAT WHITE TRILLIUM, SNOW LILY, TRINITY LILY. E North America, often in limestone areas; introduced 1799. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers pedicellate, white, rarely pink, funnel-form with arching peduncles, almost outward-facing, often more than 3 in. in diameter when fully open; petals to 2 in. long. Possibly the finest species of the genus. Selections include several double forms, sometimes called 'Flore Pleno'; 'Roseum' (or forma roseum), clear pink; forma parvum, smaller flowers

446

Trillium

fading to violet-pink; forma variegatum, white-margined leaves. Flowering mid to late spring. Plates 1058-1060. T. hagae. Japan (N and NE coasts of Hokkaido); described in 1980s. This species apparently exists in 2 genetically distinct forms, identical in outward appearance: a sterile triploid cross between T. camschatcense and T. tschonoskii which should be known as T. xhagae, and a fertile plant, T. hagae. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves sessile. Flowers pedicellate; petals white, ovate or rounded; stamens shorter than style. Flowering late spring. T. kurabayashii. United States (Sierra Nevada, NW California, SW Oregon). Stems 10-30 in. Flowers sessile, large, reddish purple, early to mid spring. Forma luteum, yellow to yellowish green. T. lancifolium. SE United States. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves narrow. Flowers sessile, reddish brown with slender, twisted petals, spring. T. ludovidanum. United States (C Louisiana, Mississippi). Stems to 10 in. Flowers sessile, pale green, veined darker, purple at base, mid spring. T. luteum. United States (E Tennessee, Georgia, North Carolina, Kentucky). Stems 5-16 in. Flowers sessile, greenish yellow, lemon-scented, mid spring. T. maculatum. United States (Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama). Stems to 16 in. Leaves heavily mottled. Flowers sessile, purple-maroon, with spatula-shaped petals, early spring. Forma luteum, soft lemon yellow; forma simulans, greenish yellow with purple base. T. nivale. SNOW TRILLIUM. United States, often on exposed hillsides. Similar to T. rivale. Stems to 6 in. Flowers pedicellate, pure white, early spring. T, ovatum. WESTERN WHITE TRILLIUM. United States (California to Washington, Montana) and Canada (British Columbia to Alberta), in mixed conifer woodland; introduced 1810. Similar to T. grandiflorum, but petals spread from base, and plant is not as erect. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves rounded, 2-6 in. long. Flowers with pedicels about 1 in. long; petals oval, white aging to pale rose. Flowering early to mid spring. Forma hibbersonii from British Columbia is about 1A smaller, rose aging to white-stained pink. Plate 1061. T. parviflorum. United States (NC Oregon to SC Washington). Stems to 12 in. Flowers sessile; petals narrow, white, sometimes veined purple. Flowering early to mid spring. T. persistens. United States (NE Georgia, NW South Carolina); endangered. Stems 4-10 in. Leaves persist until fall. Flowers pedicellate, small, white aging to reddish purple except for small creamy triangle at base, mid spring. T. petiolatum. ROUNDLEAF TRILLIUM. United States (E Washington, E Oregon, W Idaho). Stems very short. Leaves rounded on very long petioles, above flower. Flowers sessile; petals dark red brown, sometimes yellow, 2 in. long, held at ground level, mid spring. T. pusillum. United States (North Carolina to Tennessee and Alabama), in swamps. Stems to 8 in. Flowers pedicellate, white aging to pink, margin wavy, spring. T. recurvatum. United States (Illinois and Indiana south to Louisiana and Mississippi). Stems 6-18 in. Flowers sessile,

brownish purple to yellow, sometimes purple at base and yellow at tips; sepals green, held down against stem. Flowering late spring. Forma foliosum, flower parts replaced with leaves; forma luteum, purple base and yellow tips or faded color; forma petaloideum, sepals petal-like; forma shayi, clear yellow or greenish yellow. T. reliquum. United States (S Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama), in disjunct areas; endangered. Stem decumbent. Flowers sessile, brownish maroon to greenish purple or streaked yellow, early to mid spring. Var. luteum, yellow or yellowish green. T. rivale. United States (NW California, SW Oregon), near streams, usually above 1000 ft.; introduced 1913. Stems 2-8 in. Leaves in a whorl about 3 in. in diameter. Flowers pedicellate, white or pinkish, spotted purple at base, 1/2 in. in diameter, early to mid spring. Suitable for growing in a shallow container. 'Purple Heart' has a solid purple central zone and purple spots fading to white margin. T. rugelii. United States (North Carolina to Alabama and Tennessee). Similar to T. cernuumbut more robust. Stems 6-16 in. Flowers pedicellate, nodding; petals white, rounded, strongly recurved; anthers prominent dark purple. Flowering mid spring. T. sessile. TOAD TRILLIUM, TOADSHADE. E and NC United States; introduced 1759. Sterns 10-12 in. Leaves about 3 in. long and as broad, mottled light and dark green. Flowers sessile, dark crimson; petals11/2in. long. Most attractive when planted in bold groups. Forma viridiflorum has smaller yellow flowers. Plates 1062,1063. T. simile. United States (Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia). Stems 12-14 in. Flowers pedicellate, large, creamy white, mid spring. T. smallii. Japan and S Sakhalin Island. Stems 6-18 in. Flowers pedicellate; petals absent or 1-3, pink to red, reddish purple, or reddish brown; sepals purple, sometimes marked with green to brownish green. Flowering mid spring. Var. atropurpureocarpum has red-purple ovary. T. stamineum. United States (C Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers sessile; petals dark red-purple, brownish purple, or rarely yellow with purple streaks, twisted and held horizontal; stamens prominent. Flowering early to mid spring. T. sulcatum. United States (Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, Alabama). Stems 12-28 in. Flowers pedicellate, dark red-maroon or purplish, sometimes pink, white, yellow, or greenish; veins form grooves. Flowering mid spring. Forma albolutescens has white or creamy yellow flowers. T. tschonoskii. Himalayas, China, Taiwan, Japan, and Korea. Stems 6-16 in. Flowers pedicellate, white to light green, mid to late spring. Var. atrorubens from Japan (Hokkaido) has dark red flowers. T. underwoodii. United States (N Florida, Georgia, Mississippi). Stems 3-10 in. Leaves large, heavily mottled. Flowers sessile, reddish purple to brown-maroon, rarely yellowish green, spring. T. undulatum. PAINTED TRILLIUM, PAINTED WAKE ROBIN. E North America; introduced 1811. Stems 8-20 in. Flowers pedi-

Trimezia cellate, white with reddish-purple zone at base, late spring. Forma enotatum has no markings. T. vaseyi. S Appalachian Mountains of United States. Stems 12-24 in. Flowers pedicellate, maroon or reddish brown, sweetly scented, mid to late spring. T. viride. United States (SW Illinois, E Missouri), along Mississippi River. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers sessile, green, greenish yellow, or yellow, sometimes marked with purple; petals narrow. Flowering mid spring. T. viridescens. United States (Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas). Stems 8-20 in. Flowers sessile; petals narrow, upright, green to green with purple at base. Flowering mid to late spring. SYNONYMS

T. affine see T. catesbaei. T. album see T. flexipes. T. amabile see T. smallii. T. atropurpureum see T. erectum. T. californicum see T. overtum. T. chloropetalum var. angustipetalum see T. angustipetalum. T. crassifolium see T. ovatum. T. declinatum see T. flexipes. T. erectum var. atropurpureum see T. erectum. T. erectum var. declinatum see T. flexipes. T. erectum var. rubrum see T. erectum. T. erectum var. vaseyi see T. vaseyi. T. erectum var. vaseyi f. simile see T. simile. T. erythrocarpum see T. grandiflorum, T. undulatum. T. foetidum see T. erectum. T. giganteum var. angustipetalum see T. angustipetalum. T. gleasonii see T. flexipes. T. hibbersonii see T. ovatum f. hibbersonii. T. hugeri see T. cuneatum. T. hugeri f. flavum see T. luteum. T. isanthum see T. sessile. T. japonicum see Kinugasa japonica. T. kamtschaticum see T. camschatcense. T. lanceolatum var. rectistamineum see T. underwoodii. T. longiflorum see T. sessile. T. membranaceum see T. sessile. T. nervosum see T. catesbaei. T. nutans see T. erectum. T. obovatum see T. erectum. T. petalosum see T. petiolatum. T. pictum see T. undulatum. T. pumilum see T. pusillum. T. purpureum see T. erectum. T. rectistamineum see T. underwoodii. T. reflexum see T. recurvatum. T. rhomboideum see T. erectum. T. rhomboideum var. grandiflorum see T. grandiflorum. T. rotundifolium see T. sessile. T. scouleri see T. ovatum. T. sessile var. angustipetalum see T. angustipetalum. T. sessile var. boreale see T. sessile.

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T. sessile var. luteum see T. luteum. T. sessile f. luteum see T. luteum. T. sessile var. nuttollii see T. viridescens. T. sessile var. praecox see T. cuneatum. T. sessile var. viridescens see T. viridescens. T. stenanthes see T. viridescens. T. stramineum see T. stamineum. T. stylosum see T. catesbaei. T. texanum see T. pusillum. T. tinctorum see T. sessile. "T. underwoodii" see T. cuneatum. T. underwoodii var. luteum see T. luteum. T. unguiculatum see T. recurvatum. T. vaseyi var. simile see T. simile. T. venosum see T. ovatum. T. viride var. luteum see T. cuneatum, T. luteum, T. viride.

Trimezia—Iridaceae Name derived from Greek treis ("3") and meizon ("greater"), referring to the outer perianth segments that are much larger than the inner ones. There are 5-8 species in the literature, but few are well known. They are tropical plants, native to the West Indies and South America, and certain species have become widely naturalized in the tropics, especially T. martinicensis. The rootstock is a rhizome, frequently covered by the old leaf bases. The leaves are rushlike and arranged in a fan, usually 4-6 per crown, 12 in. long. The flower stem maybe 14-16 in. tall but is generally shorter. The flowers emerge from several spathes on the stem; most plants produce 4 or 5 flowers, but usually only one is open at a time. Flowering is sporadic over a long period starting in April; the most flowers appear in spring but some are produced throughout the year. The outer perianth segments are rounded, free, to 1 in. long and half as wide; the inner segments are much narrower and shorter, and curve downward. The outer segments are commonly bright yellow, with some bronze spotting or other marking at the base; the inner segments are various shades of yellow and bronze, almost appearing striped. The 3 stamens are held upright, surrounding the style. CULTURE Trimezias require a night temperature of at least 55°F in winter, with hotter day temperatures and always high humidity. They are, therefore, plants for the warm or tropical greenhouse. Grow in light, moisture-retentive, highly organic soil. Place the rhizomes just below the surface and keep moist at all times when in growth; they need less water in winter but should never dry out. They could be tried outdoors only in the warmest parts of the United States, such as Hawaii and S Florida. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide the rhizomes, cutting so that each portion has an "eye." Cut surfaces should be dusted with fungicide and the divisions replanted as soon as possible.

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Triteleia

SPECIES T. juncifolia. Brazil. Flowers golden yellow with a little orange; lower perianth segments almost rounded, 1 in. long; inner segments smaller, recurving. Lower part of segments heavily striped with bronze; edges curl inward; tips of inner segments curl under. Maurice Boussard (pers. comm.) writes of seeing T. juncifolia at Serra do Cipo, Brazil: "Vegetatively, it looks like some South African Bobartia and grows in the same deep loose sand—a striking phenomenon of irids! Flowers are unfortunately very fugacious (open early in the afternoon and fade by dusk), as usual with many American irids." T. martii. Brazil. Similar to T. juncifolia, but flowers lighter yellow, outer segments more elliptical, inner segment with purplish markings on lower portion and almost white in center. Flowering summer. T. martinicensis. West Indies; widely naturalized. Stems 1216 in. Leaves 4-6, rushlike, in a fan, to 12 in. long. Flowers yellow to golden, marked with bronze at base; outer perianth segments rounded; inner segments much smaller, darker. Flowering sporadically over a long period, starting in April. Plate 1064.

Triteleia—Alliaceae (Liliaceae) GRASS NUTS Name derived from Greek tri ("3") and telos ("end, complete"); the parts of the flower are in 3s. All 13 species are native to W United States, mostly in Oregon and California. The genus is separated from the closely related genera Brodiaea and Dichelostemma because Triteleia has 6 fertile stamens, while the others have 3 stamens and 3 infertile staminodes. Many growers refer to all 3 genera loosely as "brodiaeas." Another common name is grass nuts, a reference to the edible corms. The corm is rather flattened and covered with a light-colored fibrous tunic. The scape is leafless and sometimes hairy at the base. The 1 or 2 leaves are linear, dark shiny green, and keeled, with a prominent midrib below. The flowers, borne in an umbel, have a fairly short, funnel-shaped tube and 6 flaring lobes. There are 6 fertile stamens, with flattened, threadlike filaments that may be equal or unequal. The stigma is small, and the style slender. Most species have blue to violet flowers; a few are white or yellow. Triteleias are attractive among rocks or in dry grassland, where they may naturalize and increase. They are suited to dry borders and sunny openings in woodland. They grow well in containers, but most are not too pleasing as pot plants owing to the absence of foliage at flowering time. They are good cut flowers and can be dried for winter arrangements. A few hybrids have been made, and the color range suggests further potential for breeding. CULTURE Hardiness varies among the species, but all are more likely to suffer from excessive wet than from cold. The most cold-tolerant are T. grandiflora, T. hendersonii, and T. hyacinthina. The 2 most often available in commerce, T. laxa and T. ixioides, are

hardy outdoors to about 15°F, probably colder if deeply planted and mulched. Plant bulbs 4-5 in. deep and 6 in. apart, in groups of 5-7 corms. They prefer full sun and require moderate moisture in fall and spring, followed by a dry summer dormancy. The taller species grow naturally in grassland and tolerate light shade. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate offsets from established corms after flowering stems have withered (the leaves of many are withered by flowering time). Sow seed in fall in a sandy soil mix with organic matter incorporated. Move seedling bulbs on after their leaves wither. Most will flower 3-4 years after sowing. SPECIES T. bridgesii. United States (SW Oregon to C California); introduced 1888. Stems to 20 in. Leaves narrow, to 20 in. long, 1/2 in. wide. Flowers to 25 in an umbel on long pedicels, violetblue, becoming bluer with age, 1 in. long and wide. Flowers open in succession, giving an attractive display for several weeks in summer. A good cut flower. T. Clementina. United States (California, on San Clemente Island). Stems 12-18 in. Flowers light blue, small, spring. T. crocea. Siskiyou Mountains of United States (Oregon, California). Stems 6-12 in. Flowers bright yellow, late spring. Subsp. modesta is smaller and has blue flowers. T. dudleyi. United States (California in Tulare County), at high elevations. Stems 4-12 in. Flowers large, pale yellow, turning purple when withering, early summer. T. grandiflora. United States (N California to Washington, east to Idaho, Montana, Wyoming, and N Utah) and Canada (British Columbia), in grassland and rocky hillsides; introduced 1876. Stems to 24 in. Flowers numerous in compact umbel, 1 in. long and wide, deep to very pale blue, sometimes white. Base of perianth tube cuplike. Stamens in 2 separate whorls. Flowering late spring to early summer. Subsp. howelliihas less flared perianth lobes and all stamens inserted at same level. T. hendersonii. United States (SW Oregon). Stems 8-20 in. Flowers yellow with purplish midribs, late spring. Var. leachiae from Siskiyou Mountains of Oregon has white flowers, often suffused with blue. T. hyacinthina. WHITE BRODIAEA, MISSOURI HYACINTH. Canada (British Columbia) and United States (Washington to California, Idaho); introduced 1833. Stems to 24 in. Leaves linear, pointed, 12-18 in. long. Flowers few per umbel on short pedicels, white more or less flushed purple on exterior; lobes flared widely. Stamens of equal length; anthers yellow. Flowers can be dried. Var. lilacina is slightly taller, with lavender anthers. T. ixioides. GOLDEN STAR, PRETTY FACE. United States (Oregon, N California); introduced 1831. Stems to 20 in. Leaves fleshy, linear, 3-8 in. long. Flowers few to 20, on 1/2i in. pedicels, about 1 in. in diameter, pale to deep with purple or brown median stripes. Tube rarely more than1/4in. long. Flowering late spring. Var. anilina has dull yellow flowers with blue anthers.

Tritonia Var. scabra has pale yellow flowers and cream to yellow anthers; its selection 'Starlight' is very floriferous. Plate 1065. T. laxa. GRASS NUTS, ITHURIEL'S SPEAR, TRIPLET LILY. United States (S Oregon, California); introduced 1832. Stems 8-24 in. Leaves 12-24 in. long, linear, pointed. Flowers in loose umbel on 2-in. pedicels, often more than 1 in. in diameter and 1 1/2 in. long, pale to deep violet-blue. Stamens attached at 2 levels; anthers blue. Flowering early summer. The most commonly grown species and a good cut flower. Selections include 'Humboldt Star', similar but flowers a bit larger; 'Queen Fabiola' ('Koningen Fabiola'), a little taller than the species, with stronger stems, 25 or more medium violet-blue flowers per stem. Plates 1066,1067. T. lemmoniae. United States (C Arizona in mountains near Flagstaff and Mogollon Rim plateau). Stems 4-14 in. Flowers yellow with green keels, late spring to mid summer. T. lugens. United States (N coastal California). Similar to and perhaps synonymous with T. montana. Stems to 18 in. Flowers golden yellow, midvein dark. T. montana. United States (California); introduced 1876. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers deep yellow with brown median stripes, early summer. T. peduncularis. United States (California), in seasonally wet places; introduced 1896. Stems 4-30 in. Leaves 12-30 in. long, 1/4 in. wide. Pedicels 3-5 in. long. Flowers numerous, white, often flushed purple on exterior, early summer. T. xtubergenii. Garden hybrid (T. hyadnthina x T. peduncularis}\ introduced in early twentieth century. Stems to 24 in. Leaves stout, linear, 20-30 in. long. Flowers in large umbels, pale blue, darker on exterior, early summer. An excellent garden plant and cut flower. SYNONYMS

T. angustiflora see T. laxa. T. Candida see T. laxa. T. gracilis see T. montana. T. howellii see T. grandiflora subsp. howellii. T. lutea see T. hyadnthina. T. modesta see T. crocea subsp modesta. T. montana see T. montana. T. uniflora see Ipheion uniflorum.

Tritoma see Kniphofia Tritonia—Iridaceae BLAZING STAR, MONTBRETIA, FLAME FREESIA Name derived from Greek triton ("weathervane"), referring to the stamens of some species which change direction. This is a genus of about 28 species native to tropical Africa and South Africa, mostly in the Western Cape. Some species closely resemble those in the genera Chasmanthe, Crocosmia, or Ixia, and various plants have moved among these groups. In the wild, tritonias generally grow in grassy areas that are quite moist during the growing season and dry later.

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The rootstock is a corm with a thin, dry, fibrous tunic, usually no more than 1/2 in. in diameter—much smaller than one would expect from the size of the plants, whose scapes can reach 24 in. Sword-shaped leaves, rigid and varying in width, are arranged fanlike in equal ranks on either side of the stalk. The scape emerges from the center of the leaves and generally exceeds them in length; it may be branched and may have a single stem leaf. Heights range from 6 in. to more than 24 in. The number of flowers produced varies but is never fewer than 6, except from immature corms (Plates 1074, 1075). The flowers are sessile. The base is a narrow tube, and the perianth segments flare to a bowl shape and recurve at the tips. On each of the lower 3 tepals there is a structure like a little vertical post or horn, often contrastingly colored. The flowers are arranged alternately on opposite sides of the stem, producing a zigzag effect, but may all turn to one side as they open. Colors are mostly in orange to red, but other colors occur, especially in hybrids. All species flower in warm weather over a long period. These plants deserve more attention. The color range is quite wide, and the flowers are very attractive. Tritonias are easy to grow in mild gardens. They should be planted in bold groups and are ideal for the sunny border. The smaller species are best in the rock garden. CULTURE Tritonias must be grown frost-free or nearly so. In colder climates they can be protected by a deep mulch or be lifted and overwintered in a frost-free place. In colder areas, all types are best planted in spring, 2-3 weeks before the last frost. Otherwise, species that flower in early summer should be planted in fall; those that flower in late summer, in spring. Plants survive in poor soils but do not flower well; feeding improves flowering. The soil must be well drained or the corms will rot. Set corms 2 in. deep and 4-6 in. apart. Provide moisture during the growing season. When the leaves begin to turn brown, withhold water and let the plants go dormant. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and separate the new corms produced on the top of the old ones during the dormant season. The small black seeds can be sown as soon as ripe in a sandy soil mix with peat moss, barely covered, and kept around 55°-65°F at night, warmer in the daytime. In cold climates, sow seed early in spring when light becomes adequate and warm temperatures easy to maintain. In warm climates, a seedbed can be made outdoors and the seeds broadcast and barely covered. After the first season of growth, the small corms can be lifted and lined out in nursery rows. In cold climates, plant them in containers kept frost-free. They should reach flowering size in 2 years. SPECIES

T. bakeri. South Africa (Little Karoo, Outeniqua Mountains), on grassy banks and in low scrub. Stems to 20 in., sometimes branched. Leaves 3, long, narrow. Flowers to 20 per stem, pale cream, sometimes pinkish, with dark brown veining and

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purple stamens; tube long, slender; lobes flare to about 1 in. in diameter. Flowering late spring to summer (October to December in the wild). T. cooperi. South Africa (W Western Cape). Stems 16-24 in. Flowers white, cream, or pale pink, darkening with age; 3 lower tepals sometimes marked with dark pink. Flowering early summer (November to December in the wild). T. crispa. South Africa (S Northern Cape, W Western Cape). Corm narrowly ovoid. Stems to 12 in. Leaves crinkled. Flowers yellow, cream, or pink, with red or purple markings in center, purple or red stripes on lower lobes, early summer (September to December in the wild). T. crocata. ORANGE FREESIA. South Africa (W Western Cape); introduced 1758. Stems 4-15 in. Leaves usually 4 or more, stiff, pointed, sword-shaped, in a basal fan, shorter than scape. Flowers held erect, somewhat bowl-shaped, 1/2 in. in diameter, orange to reddish. Flowering late spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). The most common species. Form once known as T. hyalina is earlier blooming, with almost translucent tepal margins. Cultivars include 'Baby Doll', salmon; 'Bridal Veil', white; 'Pink Sensation', pink; 'Serendipity', light red; 'Tangerine', orange. Plates 1068-1070. T. deusta. South Africa. Stems to 12 in. Flowers cinnabar red, late spring (September to October in the wild). Plate 1071. T. disticha subsp. rubrolucens. South Africa (Eastern Cape), in mountains at elevations up to 4000 ft. Stems to 20 in. Leaves few, basal, 12-18 in. long, arranged in a fan. Flowers red, rarely more than 10 per stem, 11/2 in. across, summer (December to February in the wild). T. flabellifolia. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers white, spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). Plate 1072. T. laxifolia. South Africa (coastal Eastern Cape) to Malawi and Tanzania; introduced 1904. Stems 8-18 in. Leaves 6-8,4-5 in. long, in 2 ranks, sharply pointed, flat, narrow. Flowers 10-14 in loose, erect spike, funnel-shaped and spreading; upper tepals concave, forming a hood over lower segments, orange-red pinkish inside; lower tepals with whitish projections. Flowering in fall (March to May in the wild). T. lineata. South Africa (E Western Cape to KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1774. Stems usually unbranched, 14-18 in. Leaves 3-4,8-12 in. long, with whitish veins and margin. Flowers usually 4-10 per stem, about 1 in. long and 111/2in. in diameter, pale cream with gray-brown veining, spring (August to November in the wild). Plate 1073. T. pallida. South Africa (Western Cape, mainly Little Karoo). Corm globose. Stems to 12 in. Flowers cream to pale lilac, throat yellow-green, long tube veined purple, spring (September to November in the wild). T. rosea. South Africa (Cape Peninsula, KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 18 in. Flowers pale pink, spring (September in the wild). T. securigera. South Africa (S Western Cape, Eastern Cape); introduced 1774. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers in one-sided spike. Upper tepals orange; lower tepals orange with yellow calluses. Flowering spring to early summer (September to November in the wild).

. T. squalida. South Africa (S Western Cape); introduced 1774. Stems to 18 in. Leaves to 12 in. long, thick, with yellowish veins and margins. Flowers about 1 in. in diameter, pale rose with deeper rose veins and central markings. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). T. watermeyeri. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 6-8 in. Leaves have wavy margins. Flowers orange; lower tepals have yellow, hornlike projections at base, spring (August to October in the wild). Likes free-draining compost and repotting every other year. SYNONYMS

T. aurantica see T. deusta. T. aurea see Crocosmia aurea. T. bracteata see T. laxifolia. T. capensis see T. flabellifolia. T. fenestrata see T. crocata. T. flavida see T. lineata. T. kraussii see T. lineata. T. mathewsiana see Crocosmia mathewsiana. T. paniculata see Crocosmia paniculata. T. pottsii see Crocosmia pottsii. T. scillaris see Ixia scillaris. T. teretifolia see Gladiolus inandensis. T. viridis see Freesia viridis. T. watsonioides see Watsonia watsonioides.

Tritoniopsis—Iridaceae Name refers to the resemblance of this genus to Tritonia. The genus consists of about 22 South African species. For a long time these plants were known as Exohebea, no longer a valid genus. Tritoniopsis is related to Gladiolus, but the flowers are arranged spirally around the stem. This genus is extremely rare in cultivation but quite abundant in the wild, inhabiting sandy and rocky mountain slopes in SW and S Western Cape and along the Indian Ocean coast as far as East London. The rootstock is a globose or ovoid corm with a tunic of matted brownish-red fibers which extend into a neck. The leaves are few, often absent at flowering time, narrowly sword-shaped and prominently veined. The flowers are arranged spirally around the stem when in bud, but as they open, they often turn to face one way. The flowers are mostly in pink or red shades. The tepals are narrow and irregular, frequently with a darker red median stripe, and often with wavy edges. The perianth segments are fused at the base into a tube that is long in some species, short in others. The stigma is divided into 3 parts. After the flowers pass, the seed capsule becomes quite large, often brightly colored and attractive. Bloom occurs in mid to late summer (January to March in the wild). These are mostly good plants for the sunny, well-drained border or for containers. They make good cut flowers. They must rank among the species most likely to succeed when they are finally distributed more widely. They are easy to grow, and, though the color range is limited, hybridizing might well unlock other colors.

Tropaeolum CULTURE

Tritoniopsis must be grown frost-free, though T. nervosa and T. antholyza can take a few degrees of frost. They need sun and well-drained soil; in containers a porous soil mix should be used. They can be planted in spring, lifted in fall, and stored over winter in a frost-free place to be replanted in spring, like gladioli. Plant corms 3-4 in. deep, 6-12 in. apart. They need moisture during spring and early summer. Fertilize established plantings as soon as growth commences. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Many little cormels are produced and can be removed during the dormant period and grown on; they reach flowering size in 2 years. Seed can be sown in spring in moderate heat in a welldrained soil mix, barely covered. Keep seed pots moist but not wet. As soon as germination has occurred, ample light and good ventilation are needed. Transplanted in the 2nd spring, the corms should be large enough to plant in their permanent locations the following year. SPECIES T. antholyza. South Africa (Bokkeveld Mountains in Northern Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape), usually on mountain slopes. Corm has a thick fibrous tunic. Stems to 40 in. Leaves few, linear and tapering, stiff, with prominent ridges, 18-20 in. long. Flowers arranged spirally on stem, salmon pink or red, lower part of perianth tube orange. Perianth segments recurve a little at the tips but are of about equal length. Stamens longer than segments, often by as much as Va in. Flowering spring to summer (October to February in the wild). T. burchellii. South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems 20-30 in. Flowers bright red; tepals nearly equal; late summer to fall (February to June in the wild). T. caffra. South Africa (E Western Cape, Eastern Cape), on peaty hillsides and grasslands, mostly near coast; introduced 1928. Corm globose, covered with fiber about 3/5 in. thick. Leaves 3-6, clasping lower part of stem, to 15 in. long, Va in. wide, with 3 prominent nerves. Flowers to 25, arranged on either side of stem, bright red, 3 in. or more long, the lower Va of the tube; upper tepals almost twice as long as lower, hiding stamens; lowest tepals curve downward; 3 lower and 2 lateral upper tepals reflexed; uppermost tepal extends longer, concave; stamens lie close against upper tepal; stigma extends beyond upper tepal and splits into 3. Seed capsule pink, balloon-shaped. Flowering mostly in spring and early summer, but also at almost anytime of year; has a long flowering period. An attractive species. Plates 1076-1078. T. dodii. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 6-20 in. Leaves erect, sword-shaped, 6-18 in. long. Flowers 12-18 per stem, arranged spirally, dull pink, upright, 2 in. long; tube short. Stamens clustered against top tepals. Flowering late summer (February to April in the wild). Plate 1079. T. intermedia. South Africa (Port Elizabeth area in Eastern Cape), on rocky mountain slopes. Stems 18-20 in. Flowers red

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marked with purple; top tepal hooded; spring to early summer (September to December in the wild). T. lata. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 18-30 in. Flowers pink, late summer to fall (February to May in the wild). T. nervosa. South Africa (Western Cape). Leaves linear. Flowers have long tube, pale yellow or cream, summer (December to January in the wild). T. parviflora. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Leaves short, swordlike, to 10 in. long. Flowers numerous, to 3 in. long, yellow striped with maroon, fading brown; tube short; lobes twisted. Flowering early to mid summer (October to February in the wild). T. pukhra. South Africa (Western Cape). Similar to T. triticea but leaves are broad from base, and the flower lacks an elongated upper tepal. Stems 10-20 in. Flowers dark red, late summer to fall (February to May in the wild). T. ramosa. South Africa (Western Cape to Eastern Cape), on stony slopes. Stems 8-16 in. Leaves shorter than scape, narrow, swordlike, upright. Flowers 10-12 per stem, deep pink, 2 in. long, arranged spirally; tube l/2 in. long; tepal lobes upright, with a deep carmine stripes, wavy margins, and recurved tips. Flowering over extended period. T. triticea. South Africa (Western Cape), in dry, stony ground on mountain slopes. Stems to 20 in. Leaves 2-4, linear, slightly shorter than scape; lower part of blade is rolled as if stalked. Flowers 25 or more per stem, especially numerous in cultivation, bright red; tube 1 in. or more long; lowest tepal broad, recurved; lateral 4 tepals not strongly reflexed; uppermost tepal concave; stamens protrude from flower. Flowering mid summer to fall (January to April in the wild). SYNONYM T. longituba see T. antholyza.

Tropaeolum—Tropaeolaceae NASTURTIUM Name derived from Greek tropaion ("a token of an enemy's defeat"), cognate with Latin trophaeum ("trophy"), for this curious reason: in ancient times, when a victory had been gained on the battlefield, a tree trunk was set up by the victors and festooned with the helmets of the vanquished. For many years gardeners trained T. majus poles, and the flowers reminded Linnaeus of the Classical image of blood-stained helmets. This genus of about 86 species is native to Central and South America. The most commonly grown species is T. majus (the garden nasturtium), an annual, but some species have tuberous or rhizomatous rootstocks. Only a few of these are in commerce, but all are showy and deserve trials in gardens. Some also have edible tubers. The leaves may be entire or deeply lobed, bright green to glaucous or gray. Most are climbers or twiners which can make many feet of growth in a season. The flower form is interesting. There are 5 sepals, often colorful, which fuse at the base to form a cup; the uppermost extends back toward the stem to form a nectar-holding spur that is often well over 1 in. long. The other

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Tropaeolum

sepals are pointed. The 5 petals are free at the base but are held by the sepals so they almost appear to be joined into a tube. At the base of the colored area on the lower 3 petals is a fringe of hairs, and on the upper petals colored markings often appear in the same area. The stigma extends above the anthers, which are held close to the narrow stalk of the petal blade. The flowers are carried on strong pedicels, ensuring each one its place in the sun. The climbing species are often grown through shrubs, something they also do in the wild. The trailing kinds are good ground cover in very well drained, dry places. The smallergrowing species are suitable for pot culture, and even the more expansive ones can be grown in large containers such as half barrels. Some species grow like weeds where well adapted, but this should be regarded as a tribute to their stout constitution and not disparaged. CULTURE Hardiness varies; the hardiest species is T. spedosum, followed by T. tuberosum, and, probably, some of the high-altitude Chilean species. Others should be grown frost-free, but not too warm in winter; a cool greenhouse or bulb frame is suitable. Most species require plenty of sun, but T. spedosum is a woodlander in nature. They require ample moisture in the growing season but many are quite drought-tolerant when dormant. They do best in acidic soils, which must be extremely well drained and should never be waterlogged. If fertilized, they make abundant vegetative growth at the expense of flowering. They normally go dormant in late summer or fall, but in warm climates they may be almost evergreen, with only a short dormancy, if any. Set rootstocks 4-5 in. deep; spacing is determined by the eventual size and habit. Climbers can be supported on trellises or allowed to trail out of large containers. Tuberous species should be left undisturbed as long as possible. PESTS AND DISEASES

Aphids can be a problem on these fleshy plants. A virus disease known as spotted wilt can attack the foliage, causing yellow spots to appear which turn brown and then black. The plants are sometimes eaten by caterpillars, but the damage is not generally severe because the plants are such quick growers; hand picking is the best control. If the attack is severe, chemical controls should be used. PROPAGATION

Cuttings can be taken from some species in summer and rooted in sand. They callus and form a rootstock in one season. Keep above 45°F their first winter. Mature plants can be lifted and divided in spring or fall. Sow seed in fall or spring; it usually germinates quickly, or not at all. Young plants can be transfered to individual containers or lined out. They must be protected from frost. SPECIES T. azureum. Chile, in coastal scrub; introduced 1842. Tubers small, spindle-shaped. Leaves on strong stalks, green with a hint of gray; divided into 5 free, wide-spreading lobes11/2-2in. long.

Flowers 1 in. in diameter, blue-violet with white at base of upper perianth segments and a dull black mark just below this; spur1/8in. long; pedicels 2-3 in. long. Flowering late winter to spring. Grow frost-free. T. brachyceras. Chile; introduced 1830. Tuber small, ovoid. Stems climbing or scrambling. Leaves 5- to 7-lobed. Flowers 1/2 in. in diameter, clear yellow with purplish lines on upper petals; spur prominent,1/4in. long. Flowering winter. Probably hardy to about 25°F. T. dliatum. Chile, on the shady side of steep ravines. Rootstock much like T. spedosum and may be as frost-hardy. Flowering profusely from late spring to summer. Plate 1080. T. indsum. Argentina. Flowers yellow, with long spur. Plate 1081. T. xleichtlinii. Garden hybrid (T. leptophyllum x T. polyphyllum). Flowers bright yellow. T. leptophyllum. Chile and Bolivia, in foothills; introduced 1841. Tuber large, edible. Stems trailing to 5 ft. Leaves 7- to 9lobed, on long stalks. Flowers white, light pink, orange, or yellow; spur over1/2in. long, narrowly conical. Flowering summer. Grow frost-free. T. pentaphyllum. South America; introduced 1829. Tubers long, resembling a string of beads. Climbing stems and long leaf stalks purple. Leaves green, 5-lobed, contrasting with the purple stalks which are quite long. Flower spur red and green, 1 in. long; sepals spotted red, petals scarlet. Flowering early to mid summer. Grow frost-free. T. polyphyllum. Andes of Chile and Argentina; introduced 1827. Rootstock an elongated tuber. Leaves gray, hairy, longstalked with 5-7 leaflets. Stems trailing. Flowers long-stalked, very numerous and dense, usually yellow, sometimes orange, rusty, or bicolored; spur % in. long, entire flower 1 in. in diameter. Flowering summer. Hardy to perhaps 25°F and excellent trailing over low walls; requires deep planting. Plate 1082. T. sessilifolium. Chile. Rootstock tuberous. Flowers red with purple shading, conical spur. Plate 1083. T. spedosum. FLAME FLOWER, FLAME NASTURTIUM. SC Chile; introduced 1847. Rhizome white, brittle, fleshy, branching. Leaves usually 6-lobed, overlapping, sometimes partially hiding flowers. Flowers scarlet to crimson, yellowish in center; spur narrow, often over 1 in. long. Petals square, notched; upper petals darkly veined. Prefers cool conditions and moist but well-drained peaty soil; hardy to about 10°F. Plate 1084. T. tricolorum. Bolivia and Chile; introduced 1828. Stems climbing or trailing. Leaves 5- to 7-lobed. Petals yellow edged with maroon; sepals small, crimson; spur curved upward, orange-red. Color variants may have blue or greenish tips, or blue, violet, or yellow petals. Flowering early summer. Grow frostfree. Plate 1085. T. tuberosum. Andes of Bolivia and Peru; introduced 1828. Tubers large, yellow, used as food. Stems purplish red, climbing. Leaves rounded and notched into 5 lobes, entire on lower part of blade. Sepals red; petals yellow or reddish. Spur to 1 in. long. There are apparently 2 forms: one has a short-day requirement and thus flowers in fall; the other in summer. Grow frost-free. 'Ken Aslet' has light orange flowers. Plate 1086.

Tulbaghia T. umbellatum. Bolivia. Tubers large. Stems climbing. Leaves almost round, 5-lobed. Petals scarlet, sepals yellow; spur about % in. long. Flowering late summer. Produces additional flowers on auxiliary peduncles. Grow frost-free. SYNONYMS

T. albiflorum see T. leptophyllum. T. coccineum see T. tricolorum. T. edule see T. leptophyllum. T. elegans see T. tricolorum. T. jarrattii see T. tricolorum. T. mucronatum see T. tuberosum. T. quinatum see T. pentaphyllum. T. tricolor see T. tricolorum. T. violaeflorum see T. azureum.

Tulbaghia—Alliaceae (Liliaceae) WlLD GARLIC, SOCIETY GARLIC, SWEET GARLIC, PINK AGAPANTHUS

Named in honor of Ryk Tulbagh (d. 1771), Dutch governor of the Cape of Good Hope. This is a genus of about 20 species, native to southern and tropical Africa. The flowers are often pink and are often found in association with Agapanthus (hence one of the common names) and the fragrance of the foliage or stems is mildly garlicky (hence the other common names). The flowers of many species, however, are pleasantly scented at night. Africans use the rootstock of T. alliacea in preparing baths for the cure of rheumatism, and the leaves of T. violacea to make tea or to rub on the forehead for the relief of headaches. Tulbaghia species have rhizomatous rootstocks. The 6-10 strap-shaped leaves are basal. The flowers are borne in an umbel of 6-12 and are generally small and may be white, mauve, green, or brown. Yellow or orange appendages ("corona scales") arise at the mouth of the tube on the 3 inner perianth lobes and curve upward. Tulbaghias are useful for the sunny border in warm areas, for the cool greenhouse in colder regions. Grow in large containers so plants can be massed, as they should be in gardens. Some species have ornamental foliage as well as flowers. Tulbaghia violaceae is the prettiest species and the one I suggest you try first in your garden. It is the only tulbaghia that deserves wider cultivation, but better garden forms could be selected. Tulbaghia violaceae is of very easy culture and its flowers are long-lasting. The species is frequently used as a bedding plant in South African gardens, parks, and street landscaping. In the wild, it is just as attractive, forming colonies of considerable size close to the seashore. CULTURE These summer-flowering plants must be grown frost-free or nearly so; they tolerate winter temperatures down to 25°F. They need well-drained soil in full sun. In colder climates they can be grown in a cool greenhouse, the tropical species in a warm greenhouse. The rootstocks should be planted 1-2 in. deep, 6-12 in. apart. Moisture is needed while the foliage is develop-

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ing. As soon as the flower spikes appear, water can be largely withheld. Little or no feeding is required, but established plants benefit from a general fertilizer when growth starts. Rootstocks can be planted in spring and lifted and stored in winter in cold climates, but this is difficult with T. alliacea because of its long growing season. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove offsets while plants are dormant. Sow seed in spring in a sandy soil mix, barely covered. Night temperatures should be about 50°F. Keep moist but not wet. Seedlings can be transplanted when of sufficient size and planted out in the 2nd year in warm climates. SPECIES T. acutiloba. South Africa (Gauteng, Mpumalanga, Northwestern Province), in grasslands. Bulb with brown tunic. Stems to 12 in. Leaves 4-6, strap-shaped, to 6 in. long. Flowers 2-6 per umbel, greenish, V-i in. long; corona usually purplish. Flowering summer. T. alliacea. Southern Africa. Bulb with thick, fleshy roots. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves produced in winter, basal, about 12 in. long, 1/4 in. wide. Flowers to 12 per umbel, brown to purple, sometimes flushed greenish; long perianth tube appears pinched at mouth. Flowering late summer to fall (March to May in the wild). Flowers sweetly scented at night; foliage smells like garlic when bruised. Requires ample winter moisture. T. capensis. South Africa (Western Cape and coast near Plettenberg Bay on Indian Ocean), in grassland; introduced 1774. Stems 18-20 in. Leaves bluish green, narrow, 12 in. long, l/2 in. wide. Flowers 12-14 per umbel, grayish brown; corona tan. Flowering in late summer (May in the wild). Has a strong garlic odor. Plate 1087. T. cominsii. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Leaves arching, fountainlike, narrow, to 7 in. long. Flowers starry, white with purple in tube, summer (December in the wild). Plate 1088. T. dregeana. South Africa (W Karoo and Namaqualand to SW Western Cape). Stems 6-10 in. Flowers cream to greenish yellow, spring (September in the wild) T. ludwigiana. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 18-24 in. Perianth green, corona yellow, spring (August to December in the wild). T. natalensis. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1891. Stems to 12 in. Flowers white; corona greenish white. Flowering late summer (May in the wild). T. nutans. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 8 in. Flowers light green; corona brick red to dark purple. Flowering summer (November to March in the wild). T. simmleri. South Africa (E Northern Province, Mpumalanga). Stems to 18 in. Flowers deep mauve to bright lilac, sometimes white, spring to summer (October to February in the wild). Plates 1089,1090. T. transvaalensis. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 10 in. Flowers green; corona bright yellow or orange; perianth

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lobes not much reflexed. Flowering spring to summer (October to December in the wild). T. violacea. SOCIETY GARLIC. South Africa (Little Karoo in Western Cape to KwaZulu-Natal); introduced 1838. Roots fat, tuberous. Leaves green, shiny, 8-12 in. long, forming a tuft out of which stem emerges. Stems 8-14 in. Flowers to 20 per umbel, mauve, early to late summer (December to April in the wild). Plates 1091-1093. SYNONYMS

T. affinis see T. alliacea. T. cepacea see T. violacea. T. fragrans see T. simmleri.

Tulipa—Liliaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from toliban, the Farsi (Persian) word for "turban," in reference to the shape of the flower in some species. This is a genus of about 100 species which has given rise to many thousands of cultivars. Tulips are native to Europe, W and C Asia, and North Africa. The flowers of almost all species are relatively large and bright, and most species are fairly cold-hardy. The bulbs have tunics which may be lined with hairs, or "wool," especially in species from very cold, dry areas. The leaves are linear to broadly ovate or lanceolate. The flowers are usually solitary, but in some species 2 or 3 flowers are borne on short branches. The flowers are mostly erect, rarely nodding, and bell- or funnel-shaped. The tepals are separate for their entire length and usually have a contrastingly colored blotch at the base, most often yellow but sometimes whitish; there may also be a black central zone. There are 6 stamens, always shorter than the tepals; the filaments are more or less flattened. The ovary is 3-celled, and the stigma cleft into 3. Flowering time starts early in the year and extends into late spring or even early summer. This bare description of the tulip gives no inkling of its long, rich history. It was introduced into European gardens in 1572 by Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, sent in 1554 as ambassador from the Holy Roman Empire to the Ottoman sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent. Busbecq sent seed and bulbs to the Austrian botanist Carolus Clusius, who took his tulips with him when he was appointed professor of botany at Leiden in the Netherlands. Many of these were then stolen and were soon distributed throughout the country. There were other introductions: in 1590 John Hogeland was growing tulips in Leiden from bulbs obtained from George Rye, a merchant of Mechlin, who in turn had them from an Antwerp merchant who dealt with the East. In a just few years, the tulip became very popular. Tulips had long been admired and grown by the Turks. In 1574 Selim II sent an order for 50,000 bulbs to the Sharif of Aziz. High prices were paid for bulbs, and Turkey had its own "Tulipomania" during the reign of Ahmed III (1703-1730), mirroring the earlier tulip boom in the Netherlands (16341637). A list of 1323 cultivars appears in a manuscript written by Sheik Mohammed Lalizare during the reign of Ahmed III. It is interesting to note the 6 characteristics the Turks sought

in a tulip. The tepals should be stiff and smooth, of one size and equally long, though with the inner tepals narrower than the outer. The tepals should touch one another and should conceal the stamens, but the pistil should just be visible. The flowers should resemble almonds in shape, and the tepals should resemble a dagger or a needle. The needle shape (typified by T. acuminata) was preferred, but a flower with both dagger- and needle-shaped tepals was considered priceless. The pointed tepal, however, was not esteemed in Europe, where gardeners preferred a broad, rounded form. The species T. elegans exhibits the pointed-tepal type. The fact that the tulips already were hybridized when introduced has made the pedigrees of cultivars difficult to determine. Tulips are ubiquitous in spring borders, beds, containers, and rock gardens (Plates 5,9,12,74,75,84). In fact, these bulbs can be used almost everywhere except woodland. Excellent cut flowers, amenable to forcing, tulips should be in every garden and should be considered by all greenhouse growers who raise cut and pot flowers. H O R T I C U L T U R A L CLASSIFICATION

Tulips are not difficult to raise from seed, but seedlings may take 6 years or more to flower. The constant demand for new cultivars and the high prices they commanded resulted in thousands being introduced. The need for control over names and classification was recognized in 1913, when the British Royal Horticultural Society set up a Tulip Nomenclature Committee and instituted trials at its garden at Wisley, Surrey. English and Dutch hybridizers and growers cooperated, and in 1930 the RHS and the Dutch Bulb Growers Society of Haarlem published a list of names. In 1935, at the International Horticultural Conference in Rome, a list of garden cultivars was accepted. This list serves as a base to avoid duplication of names. Despite this discipline, by 1948 more than 4000 cultivar names had been registered, 500 of them synonyms. Today control of names is even stricter, and purchasers of named cultivars can be assured that those of the same name are identical everywhere in the world: 'Gudoshnik' bulbs are identical, whether produced in the Netherlands, England, the United States, or Japan, though the different stocks may not perform equally well owing to climatic variability. Unlike daffodils, tulips are classified in rather simple and logical fashion. Hybrids are divided by bloom season into early flowering, mid season flowering, and late flowering. The 4th major division consists of the species, which are subdivided into 4 groups; 3 are named for the species whose characteristics are most evident in a given cultivar, and the 4th for other species and their hybrids in which the "wild" species are evident in color or form. There are 15 classes within the major divisions described here. Every year many new cultivars in each class are introduced, and new ones command a high price. Unless a gardener is a bulb hobbyist, the tried-and-true cultivars are a better choice. Once the gardener has been discovered which classes of tulips perform best in a particular area, the cost of the latest introductions may be justified.

Tulipa

EARLY FLOWERING Single Early Tulips. These are the earliest to flower, starting in March to mid-April. The known parent (the other being uncertain) of all garden tulips is T. gesneriana or one closely related to it. Tulipa suaveolens (now included in T. armena) is a shorter species from southern Russia. Its flowers have a pleasant fragrance, sometimes passed on to its descendants. It is thought that the latter species gave rise to the bright, very early flowering Due van Tol types, which are rarely listed in modern catalogs. Single Early tulips are generally around 6-8 in. tall, with a wide color range. An advantage of this group is that its bulbs can be lifted earlier (and the bed replanted with summer flowers) than those of many other cultivars. This is important in cold climates where the season for summer color is short. These early flowering bulbs are not so good for warmer climates, where mid season to late-flowering types are recommended. Being sturdy, short plants, they are good for edging beds filled with annuals or for low color blocks, especially in windswept areas where tallergrowing types might be damaged. Most can easily be forced. Double Early Tulips. These flower a little bit later than the Single Early tulips and are a little taller, up to 12 in. They have double flowers, often as much as 4 in. in diameter. These heavy flowers need some protection from rain and wind to prevent them from being spoiled. They are spectacular, especially when massed. The first double tulip appeared before 1700. Many cultivars in this group are sports of 'Murillo', a white flower flushed pink. More than 500 mutations of it have occurred, and many are still grown; they resemble 'Murillo' in every aspect except flower color.

MID SEASON FLOWERING Triumph Tulips. These popular plants are the result of a cross between Single Early and Darwin cultivars. Triumph tulips follow Double Early tulips in the succession of bloom. Their stems are 18-24 in. tall, stiff, and strong. The flowers are of very good substance, which makes them perfect for outdoor planting because they can stand up to bad weather. The color range is wide, including some with contrastingly colored margins. For example, 'Aureola' has bright red tepals margined with gold, which shades into the tepals on both inside and outside; 'Merry Widow' is deep red edged with silvery white. Triumph tulips can be forced if they are not brought into the greenhouse too quickly, certainly not before mid-February. A very similar group, the Mendel tulips, is no longer separately classified and is less popular than when introduced at the turn of the twentieth century. Mendel tulips resulted from a cross made by E. H. Krelage between the very short Due van Tol tulips and the tall Darwins. They forced well and thus were welcomed by greenhouse growers. They are generally of a single color, but some have contrasting margins. They need some protection from wind and tolerate deciduous shade. 'Apricot Beauty', a lovely salmon rose blushed red, is the one most often grown. Plate 1124. Darwin Hybrid Tulips. The first cultivar in this race of tulips was made by D. W. Lefeber in 1936 by crossing T. fosteriana

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'Madame Lefeber' ('Red Emperor') with a Darwin cultivar. Tulipa fosteriana is one of the largest-flowered tulips, and this size was passed on to the Darwin Hybrids. These superb tulips grow well in warmer climates and last a long time as cut flowers. They are tall, up to 28 in., and the flowers can be as much as 7 in. in diameter while still in cup form—and an enormous 12 in. across when open flat toward the end of their flowering time. The color range is not as great as in other types of tulips, but certain cultivars in this class have started to sport, and before too long a wider range of colors undoubtedly will be available. At present, most are in the red and yellow ranges. The closed form of these flowers may be triangular or rounded in silhouette. Plates 1113-1117.

LATE FLOWERING Single Late Tulips. Here are found Darwin tulips (named in honor of Charles Darwin), possibly the best known group, and the Cottage tulips. Because of hybridization, it is no longer possible to separate these 2 types. They are tall, generally 26-32 in. The flowers are usually rectangular, flat across the bottom and at the top. The tepals are rounded, but the bud is flat-topped. Very resistant to wind and rain, Darwin and Cottage tulips are ideal for bedding and make excellent cut flowers. They were selected from Late Flowering Cottage types by an amateur, M. J. Lenglart of Lille, France, and introduced into commerce in 1889. One of their advantages is their genetic compatibility with many others, so they have been extensively used in hybridizing. Darwin tulips bloom in late April or early May. The texture of the tepals is satiny, and there is a full range of colors, including many bicolors. Many are suitable for forcing. Lily-flowered Tulips. Though introduced around the beginning of World War I, this class was not separated from the Late Flowering tulips until 1958. The parentage of the first Lilyflowered tulips was T. retroflexa crossed with a Cottage tulip. The striking flower form resembles that of a lily, with very pointed, reflexed tepals. These plants grow around 24 in. tall. Despite their rather exotic look, they are quite tough and do well in borders, as well as being excellent, long-lasting cut flowers. Lily-flowered tulips bloom at the same time as Darwin Hybrids, late April to early May. Plate 1121. Fringed Tulips. These are becoming increasingly popular. They have laciniated or fringed margins on the tepals, often looking like a row of ice crystals, and sometimes of a contrasting color. The color range is comparable to that of other groups. Plate 1120. Viridiflora Tulips. These exotic-looking cultivars have varying amounts of green coloration, either in one part of the tepals, confined to the midveins, or as a flush throughout the tepals. 'Angel', for example, is off-white with a green flare extending to the tip of the tepal; 'Greenland' is pale pink with a vivid green flare which is surrounded by cream. Viridifloras are much in demand by florists. Rembrandt Tulips. These are the "broken tulips," so called because the colors are striped or blotched. Many such tulips are depicted in paintings by the old Dutch masters. The official description is "striped or marked brown, bronze, black, red, pink,

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or purple on red, white, or yellow ground." They were formerly known as Bizarre, Bijbloemen, and Rembrandt tulips, but since 1969 they have all been called Rembrandt tulips. Height ranges from 18 to 30 in. The flowers are often large and the stems not very strong, so they should be grown in an area protected from wind. Their main value is as cut flowers. They bloom in early May and are often sold as a mixture. They deserve greater consideration in sheltered gardens, especially around older country homes where the architecture complements these tulips, which will forever be associated with the paintings of the old masters. The "breaking" in most modern tulip cultivars is induced by factors other than virus; however, if virus is present, such color patterns may result from it. Parrot Tulips. The flowers are fringed, and the edges of the tepals finely shredded, scalloped, or undulating, so that the blossom has a rather random form. These bloom in May and reach 20-24 in. The flowers are often huge; in early cultivars the stems often bent under their weight, but the majority of today's cultivars have stronger stems. Most Parrot tulips were sports of other types of cultivars, further selected for strength. It is still advisable, however, to protect them from strong winds and rain, which weigh down the flowers. Some cultivars can be forced, but their main value is as cut flowers. If used in the garden, they should be in bold masses. Plates 1122,1123. Double Late Tulips. The flowers are large, and the alternate group name, Peony-flowered, describes them well. These are often the last tulips to bloom, in mid to late May. Self-colored or bicolored, they are 16-24 in. tall. The flowers are heavy and need some protection from wind and rain. They do well in containers. Plates 1118, 1119. SPECIES Kaufmanniana Tulips. The cultivars and hybrids of this group are very early flowering, in March. The foliage is sometimes mottled. Tulipa kaufmanniana, sometimes called the waterlily tulip, was introduced to Europe from Turkestan in the late seventeenth century by the German botanist Eduard August von Regel. Its hybrids with T. greigii and its hybrids often have variegated foliage. The flowers have rather narrow tepals and are horizontal when open. The total height is around 12 in. The flowers are usually bicolored, of good substance, and stand up well to bad weather. They do better in cooler climates and do not perform well where there is little or no winter frost. Where well adapted, they perennialize. In cold-winter regions they can be planted between stepping stones or in corners of the rock garden. They also can be planted under sod, as long the tulip foliage is allowed to die back naturally before the grass is cut in spring. They are small enough to be very effective in containers and are often used in public plantings. Fosteriana Tulips. The flowers of these hybrids are large sized on strong stems to 18 in. tall, in April. Some cultivars have mottled or striped foliage. Tulipa fosteriana grows on mountain slopes near Bokhara; it has been crossed with Single Early and Darwin tulips and is one parent of the Darwin Hybrids. Hybrids with T. kaufmanniana that resemble T. fosteriana are in this class; those that resemble T. kaufmanniana are in the Kauf-

manniana class. Flower colors are clean and bright and combine well with early flowering daffodils and Muscari. These tulips take the weather well and are good in containers. The best-known cultivars are the 'Emperor' strain: 'Red Emperor' (synonym 'Madame Lefeber'), 'Yellow Emperor', and so on. Greigii Tulips. These hybrids always have mottled or striped foliage and bloom in April on stems 8-16 in. tall. Their pedigree includes T. greigii, T. kaufmanniana, and other species and hybrids. The very large, cup-shaped flowers, often more than 5 in. in diameter, and the crimson-variegated grayish leaves make very attractive plants in garden or containers. The tepals are often differently colored outside and inside. Other Species and Variants. This group covers all other species and the hybrids that closely resemble them. CULTURE "You get bulbs and stick them in the ground." This simplistic approach typifies the depth of the information offered to purchasers of tulip bulbs. To obtain the best possible flower production, with good stems and substance, more attention to detail is needed. Depth of planting is important. If too shallow, the stems will topple; however, it is almost impossible to plant tulips too deeply. There should be at least 6 in. of soil above the bulb. In sandy and open, well-worked soils, 8 in. is not too deep; in very heavy clay soils, 5 in. may suffice. The bulbs do best in loose soil with good drainage and should not be planted in waterlogged spots. The true species do not all require such deep planting, but should seldom be planted with less than 4 in. of soil over them. Most tulips should be spaced 6-8 in. apart, the lower-growing types closer. Plant bulbs after the first frost in fall. In mild regions, plant toward the end of October or in early November; in the warmest areas, plant in late November or early December. Tulips do best in full sun but tolerate light shade, as near deciduous trees, but never deep shade. Adding bulb fertilizer or bone meal at planting time is beneficial but not essential. If the bulbs, however, are to be saved for subsequent years, apply a general fertilizer as soon as the foliage emerges in spring. The soil should be firmed around the bulbs and a good watering-in given, especially in sandy soils. In areas with little fall rain, watering the area the day before planting is necessary. After watering-in at planting time, normal rainfall should be adequate, but the bulbs should not be allowed to dry out. If the soil is not good, spreading 1 in. of peat moss or organic compost over the surface and working it into the soil as you plant is beneficial. In frost-free climates, tulips should be treated as annuals. Planting can be delayed until December, when the ground is cooler and the bulbs have a chance to make good root growth before being prompted to bloom by warming temperatures. The best tulips for such areas are mid- and late-season types. The bulbs should be lifted after the foliage has started to die down. Where winters are more severe, with a month or more of frost and cold days, lifting and precooling may be necessary for repeat flowering. Place bulbs in the vegetable section of a re-

Tulip a frigerator at temperatures between 32° and 40°F in September and October for planting in November or later. Never store tulip bulbs with fruit; the ethylene gas produced by apples, for example, harms the bulbs. In cold climates the bulbs can also be left in the ground, but they need a dry spell in late summer to ripen. Where October is sunny, bulbs in containers should be placed against a shady north-facing wall to encourage rooting. The remains of the flowers should be removed after the tepals drop. The bulbs should be lifted as soon as most foliage has turned brown. The stems then can be removed and the bulbs stored in paper bags in a light, airy place, but not in sun. Periodic inspections should be made and any bulbs showing signs of mildew or rotting removed. Shaking the bulbs in a plastic sack with a little fungicide (sold as "bulb dust") is a good preventive measure. All damaged bulbs should be discarded. The stored bulbs should be precooled and replanted at the correct time. Although repeat flowering usually occurs in cold climates, it is wise to plant the 2-year-old bulbs in rows for cutting; they should not be relied on to produce top-quality flowers year after year. Experience teaches the gardener which cultivars flower each year in a given area. Soil, site, and microclimate are factors that determine repeat flowering. The ideal is moist, cool soil in fall with cooler temperatures during winter; a slow warming period in spring with frosty nights until April; enough rain to keep the soil moist but not too wet; gradual drying and warmth during summer, with a very dry July and August. Winter snow cover is not harmful. Departure from this ideal requires the laborious lifting and precooling described above. Growing bulbs for indoor decoration is not difficult. To have bulbs in flower at Christmas requires special preparation (see chapter 7, "Growing Bulbs Out of Season"). Bulbs must be planted by mid-September and plunged in a very cool place; the soil temperature should be close to 40°F. If plunging the containers is not practical, then they should be hilled up with about 6 in. of soil or sand. If heavy rains arrive, covering maybe needed to prevent the containers from becoming waterlogged. At the beginning of December, bring the containers indoors into temperatures around 60°F and keep them in the dark until the sprouts have grown at least 2 in. Then they can be given light and the night temperature slightly increased, but never above 70°F; several degrees lower is even better. After flowering, forced tulips should be given a chance to reestablish their normal growth cycle, planted outdoors in their preferred conditions. If this is not possible, discard the bulbs. If you plant them out, do not count on their flowering again for several years. For later bloom indoors, no earlier than mid-January, bulbs should be planted with their tops just at the surface of the potting soil in late September or early October. The containers should be plunged to a depth of 6 in. in soil around 40°F. After 10-12 weeks, 3-4 in. of new growth will be present. Unearth the containers and bring them indoors to temperatures around 55°-60°F and low indirect light. After 15-18 days, give increased light but still no direct sunlight. When flower buds appear, temperatures can rise, but never above 70°F. Tulips should be

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brought along gently, never given high temperatures and sunlight indoors. Single Early, Mendel, and Triumph tulips are easier to force than other classes, though certain cultivars in the other classes are also suitable, and this trait is often mentioned in catalogs. With planning, tulips can be enjoyed for as much as 5 months in succession. Few species respond well to indoor conditions. PESTS AND DISEASES

In storage, tulip bulbs can be attacked by Fusarium oxysporum (tulipae), or sour disease, so called because diseased bulbs give off a sour smell. A white mold appears on the brown tunic. Bulbs can be consumed by this disease and become very light in weight. If removal of the tunic reveals soft tissue, the bulb should be discarded; if the total affected is over 10 percent of the stock then the entire batch should be discarded. This problem results from poor cultivation and harvesting methods. Soil sterilization, fumigants, and careful selection of planting stock are all necessary. This disease should not be mistaken for blue mold, caused by Penicillium, which is unsightly but not detrimental to the bulbs' performance. Bulbs should be dusted with a fungicide if they are going to be in storage for a long time, or dipped in fungicide just before planting. Rotting of the roots and basal parts of the bulb with blackening extending up into the bulb is known as "shanking." Infected plants are dwarfed and do not flower. The fungus responsible is Phytophthora. Infection begins in the roots. Care must be taken if this is seen in a greenhouse operation because the fungus can remain in the soil and on work surfaces and tools; new soil or sterilization is required. Wet soil must be avoided because the Phytophthora spores are transported in free water. Tulip fire (Botrytis tulipae) attacks both indoor and outdoor bulbs. Specks or streaks appear on foliage and flowers. The spots first appear water-soaked, then brown, and the tips of the leaves turn dark brown as if scorched. Tepals are spotted and the stem may be so seriously attacked that the entire plant topples over. Infected areas eventually take on a whitish-gray cast. The fungus forms blackish or dark brown sclerotia at the base of the stem and on the outer fleshy scales of the bulb. The soil thus becomes contaminated. Removal of all affected material is essential; the affected beds should not be used again for tulips. The disease can be controlled by fungicide dust, mixed into the soil at planting time, and growing plants should be sprayed with fungicide in spring from the time they reach 1 in. The problem is compounded by cold, damp weather but is less serious in welldrained soil. Deep planting as late as possible helps the emerging shoots to avoid cold, damp spring weather. Gray bulb rot is caused by Sclerotium tuliparum and is a gray, soft rot of the bulb, usually at the nose; it affects the growing shoot so that it rarely appears above ground. The bulb quickly disintegrates and the fungus forms large, brownish-black sclerotia on the rotted parts, which contaminate the ground. Reuse of the area for bulbs should be avoided and extra care given to clean cultivation and the selection of planting stock. Virus disease, or tulip break, is characterized by self-colored

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flowers that display white or cream-colored flecks or streaking on the tepals. Known since 1576 but only recently found to be caused by viruses, it is restrained by removing affected plants and controlling sucking insects such as aphids, which transmit the viruses. The other type of aphid likely to be a pest is the bulb aphid. Affected bulbs should be dipped in an insecticide. If aphids are observed in storage, the entire area should be fumigated. The home gardener is not often plagued by the pests or diseases mentioned above. A commercial grower following good cultural methods is unlikely to suffer problems either, but the fact that these problems exist should inspire all growers to maintain good spraying programs; prevention is better than control. In the garden, use baits to control slugs and snails. PROPAGATION

The advent of tissue culture has speeded the production of tulip stocks and brought new cultivars onto the market much sooner than was possible in the past. No one, however, has discovered a way to decrease the number of years from seed to flowering. "Breaking" is the term used when a plant vegetatively produces an offset with flowers of a different form or color. Breaking can be artificially induced by radiation or the application of colchicine, but naturally occurring tulip sports are not uncommon. They have merit only if they are distinct improvements over existing cultivars. Raising new plants from seed is still the most certain method of producing new cultivars. A flower from the seed-bearing parent clone that has not yet opened is selected, and the stigma is examined to see if it is mature enough to receive pollen. Ripe pollen is collected from the other parent plant and is dusted onto the receptive stigma. The flower is then covered to prevent any other pollination taking place, and a record is made of the cross. The seed is collected when ripe and either sown at that time or held for sowing in February. The soil medium is a light, sandy mix. The seed is lightly covered and placed in a cold frame, not to protect it from cold temperatures but to avoid excessive moisture. By the end of March or early April, the seed will have germinated. The first shoot looks like a blade of grass. A tiny bulb forms underground. The seedlings can be left in the container until the end of their 2nd year, again protected over winter. After the 2nd season of growth, the little bulb often has produced another small bulb. These can be lifted and planted out into beds of light-textured soil at the normal planting time for mature bulbs. The seedlings are left in the ground for another 4—5 years, until the first flowers can be observed; however, it is generally not until the 6th season of growth that the true character of the flowers becomes evident. By then, the flowering bulb has produced several offsets. If judged worthy, these can be multiplied quickly by tissue culture. When stock is grown by normal vegetative increase, the flower buds are removed to strengthen the bulb. Natural propagation is a long and expensive process, but the offsets are often numerous. Only by vegetative propagation can true-to-type bulbs be propagated. Seedlings show great variation, and only 1

or 2 out of several thousand merit being grown on to full-scale commercial production. In commercial production, a small planting stock is replanted each fall (Plates 19, 20). Commercial-sized bulbs are separated for sale, and the smaller ones are replanted according to production schedule and the known performance of the cultivar. In the Netherlands, tulip rows often are mulched with straw during winter to prevent erosion and root damage resulting from frost heaving (Plate 21). Accurate records are kept of all phases of planting, digging, and commercial-sized bulbs obtained from a given footage or row of each cultivar. SPECIES T. acuminata. HORNED TULIP. Turkey; introduced sixteenth century. Stems to 18 in. Flowers yellow and red; tepals twisted with threadlike tips, 3-4 in. long. Flowering late spring. Possibly an old Turkish garden form. Plate 1094. T. agenensis. Italy, France, and Turkey; introduced 1804. Bulb stoloniferous. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers solitary, dull brownish scarlet with long, black blotch, flushed green and brown on reverse; tepals often over 3 in. long, 1 in. wide, with reflexed tips. Flowering mid spring. T. aitchisonii. Kashmir (Ladakh District near border with Tibet), at high elevations; introduced 1935. Stems to 8 in. Leaves 2-4,3-4 in. long,1/4wide. Flowers 1-2 per stem, yellow or white with purple blotch, marked with crimson on outer tepals, which are 11/2in. long. Flowering mid spring. Some authorities regard T. aitchisonii as synonymous with T. dusiana. T. alberti. C Asia. Stems 6-8 in. Bulb has black to very dark brown tunic with many hairs at apex. Flowers orange-scarlet, sometimes yellow, with prominent purple or black basal zone. Filaments yellow-orange, anthers dark, spring. T. aleppensis. Syria and S Turkey; introduced 1873. Stems to 8 in. Flowers red, inside paler red with black basal blotch sometimes edged with yellow, early to mid spring. T. altaica. C Asia from Altai Mountains to western Siberia, the northernmost range in the genus. Very hardy. Leaves 3, lowest 6 in. long. Flowers solitary, cup-shaped with pointed tepals, deep yellow, exterior strongly flushed green and bronze. Flowering mid spring. T. anisophylla. C Asia; described 1935. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers yellow, outer tepals flushed violet, spring. T. armena. S Caucasus, NE Turkey, and NW Iran; introduced 1608. Tunic tough. Stems to 8 in. Flowers usually red with orange margin, sometimes yellow or multicolored; basal blotch black, blue or yellow-green; tepals often paler outside. Flowering spring. One of the original parents of the Due van Tol tulips. Var. lycica is found in southern and central parts of range. T. aucheriana. Iran and Syria. Similar to T. humilis and sometimes regarded as synonymous, but later-flowering. Bulb small. Leaves 2-5, strap-shaped, 5 in. long, margins wavy, on 2- to 3-in. stalks. Stems 3-5 in. Flowers 1-3 per stem, opening flat and starry, pink with yellow-brown basal blotch; outer tepals have greenish-yellow median stripe; inner tepals have 2 green or brown veins on exterior. T. aximensis. Italy (Savoy region); introduced 1894. Stems

Tulipa 12-18 in. Flowers deep red with green blotch edged in yellow, mid to late spring. T. bakeri. Crete; introduced 1926. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers large, rich purple with yellow base, early spring. Not free-flowering in colder climates and needs a dry period in late summer. Similar to T. saxatilis and sometimes considered synonymous, but T. bakeri is diploid while T. saxatilis is triploid. Both are stoloniferous and have a slight fragrance. Selection 'Lilac Wonder' (see also T. saxatilis) has circular flowers with a deep lemon-colored base, outer tepals light purple, inner tepals pale mauve. Flowering spring. T. baldacd. N Italy; introduced 1893. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers purplish red with yellow-gray blotch, mid to late spring. T. batalinii. Uzbekistan. Stems 4-6 in. Leaves in a rosette. Flowers solitary, buff-yellow with yellow-gray to bronze blotch at base; tepals 2 in. long, 3/4 in. wide. Selections include 'Apricot Jewel', apricot orange, yellow inside; 'Bright Gem', sulfur yellow; 'Bronze Charm', bronze; 'Red Jewel', vermilion; 'Yellow Jewel', yellow tinged rose, base greenish yellow; some may be hybrids between T. batalinii and T. linifolia, both from the same area. Plate 1095. T. biflora. Caspian and Caucasus regions; introduced 1776. Bulb small. Stems to 4 in. Leaves 5 in. long, % in. wide. Flowers 1-5 per stem, small and starry, fragrant, opening flat, white to cream with yellow center; outer tepals stained green and crimson on reverse, inner tepals with green median stripe. Flowering early spring. Var. major is a little larger and has yellow filaments and yellow, purple-tipped anthers; it is sometimes confused with T. turkestanica, which has orange filaments and purple or deep brown anthers. T. bifloriformis. C Asia. Stems to 6 in. Flowers white with yellow base, early spring. T. borszczowii. Iran and C Asia. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers red or yellow with blackish blotch, early to mid spring. T. butkovii. Turkey, Iran, and Transcaucasia east to Tian Mountains of C Asia. Stems to 6 in. Flowers oxblood red with deeper basal blotch, mid spring. T. carinata. C Asia. Stems 18-20 in. Flowers crimson flushed pink, small basal blotch yellow or black bordered with yellow, mid spring. T. celsiana. Spain and Morocco. Regarded by some authorities as a form of T. sylvestris. Bulb produces stolons. Stems to 6 in. Leaves curling. Flowers 1-3 per stem, fragrant, flat and starry when open, yellow heavily flushed red, late spring. T. dusiana. LADY TULIP, CANDY TULIP, CANDY-STICK TULIP. Iran, Iraq, and Afghanistan; introduced 1802. Stems to 12 in. or more. Leaves 4; lower 2 folded, 8-10 in. long, 1/2 in. wide. Flowers solitary, flat, starry when fully open; interior white with dark blue basal zone; exterior red edged in white; tepals 2 in. long, % in. wide, pointed. Flowering mid to late spring. 'Cynthia' has cream flowers, red on exterior. 'Tubergen's Gem' is a large-flowered selection. Var. chrysantha has golden yellow tepals, exterior stained red or purple-brown. Var. stellata has a yellow basal blotch. Plates 18,1096,1097. T. confusa. Armenia. Stems to 8 in. Flowers red and yellow, mid spring.

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T. corynestemon. C Asia. Stems 5-10 in., sometimes shorter. Flowers solitary, opening flat, all yellow; outer segments tinged green and red. Filaments swollen at apex. Flowering mid spring. T. cretica. Crete. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers pale pink or white, yellow at base, outer segments darker pink, purple and green at base on reverse, mid spring. T. cypria. Cyprus; introduced 1930. Stems to 8 in. Flowers burgundy with blue-black blotch, mid spring. T. dasystemon. C Asia. Most-plants grown under this name are T. tarda, which has white tips on the yellow tepals. Bulb less than 1/2 in. in diameter, with light brown tunic. Stem 2 in. or less. Leaves 2, blue-green, 4 in. long, often immature at flowering. Flowers solitary, small, bright yellow; outer tepals have green central band and sometimes reddish-brown keel; inner tepals with brownish-green midrib. Flowering late spring. T. didieri. N Italy; introduced 1846. Stems very slender, 14-16 in. Flowers currant red with broad, irregular, creamy white margin; base blackish purple; slender tepals have reflexed tips. Flowering late spring. Closely related to T. gesneriana. T. dubia. C Asia. Stems short. Flowers yellow, stained violet outside, late spring. T. edulis. Korea, S Japan, Manchuria, and E China. Often placed in a separate genus, Amana, on basis of its elongated style and 2-3 stem leaves just below flower. Stems 2-6 in. Flower interior white with purple blotch surrounded by yellow; exterior stained and veined with purplish brown. Flowering early spring. Var. latifolia has short, broad leaves. T. ferganica. C Asia. Stems 10-12 in. Flowers 1-2, yellow with blue-pink or brown-pink reverse, mid spring. T. fosteriana. E Uzbekistan. Stems 6-18 in. Leaves 3, lowest to 8 in. long, 4 in. wide. Flowers bright scarlet with black, yellow-edged basal blotch; outer tepals often over 3 in. long; inner segments a little shorter, half as wide as long, blunt-pointed. Flowering early to mid spring. True species seldom available but important in hybridizing; many Fosteriana tulips resemble species closely. 'Golden Day' has yellow flowers; 'Purissima', white; and 'Red Emperor' (synonym 'Madame Lefeber') is taller than the species. Plates 1098,1099. T. galatica. Type collected near Amasya in Anatolia, N Turkey, but not known today in the wild. Stems to 4 in. Flowers large, yellow with greenish reverse, late spring. T. gesneriana. Name given to a wide range of tulip hybrids introduced into Europe from Asia in sixteenth century; no one wild species can be identified as the ancestor. Hardiness and ability to naturalize where adapted attest to its primitive strength and prepotency. Naturalized populations include plants sometimes called T. serotina in Italy and. T. platystigma in France. The collective name for all T. gesneriana variants is Neotulipae. To this species belongs the whole range of "garden" tulips. Bulb tunics glabrous or with few hairs; 3-4 ovate or lanceolate leaves tapered to apex; scape 12-20 in.; flowers 2-4 in. long. T. goulimyi. S Greece, on Kythira Island; introduced 1954. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers bright orange to brownish red, early spring. T. greigii. Turkestan. Stems 16-18 in. Leaves 3-4 per bulb, 34 in. wide, grayish, mottled or striped purple-brown stripes or

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Tulipa

mottled, lowest to 8 in. long. Flowers solitary, cup-shaped, scarlet with dark blotch on bright yellow base; outer tepals over 3 in. long, 2 in. wide, recurved; inner tepals remain erect. Flowering mid spring. Much used in hybridizing; many Greigii tulips resemble the true species. All the Greigii selections and hybrids have a trace of purple-brown or pinkish variegation on foliage. 'Plaisir' has flowers striped red and white; 'Princess Charmonte' has solid, bright red flowers. Plates 1100,1101. T. grengiolensis. Switzerland; described 1946; possibly extinct in the wild. Stems 10-18 in. Flowers pale primrose yellow with red margin, stripes, or spots, late spring. T. hageri. Greece and Turkey. Regarded by some authorities as a variety of T. orphanidea. Stems 5-6 in. Flowers to 4 per stem, copper to near scarlet inside, with olive basal blotch, bellshaped; tepals 2 in. long, 1 in. wide; inner tepals sometimes edged yellow, with green median stripe on reverse, outer tepals buff and green on reverse. Flowering mid spring. 'Nitens' is orange-scarlet within with blue-purple blotch; leaves glaucous. 'Splendens' is to 8 in. tall, flowers coppery bronze on reverse, center greenish black with yellow margin, 3-5 flowers per stem. T. heterophylla. C Asia. Similar to T. edulis. Stems to 6 in. Flowers yellow inside with prominent veins; exterior stained green or purple. Flowering early summer. T. hoogiana. Turkmenistan. Stems to 18 in. Flowers scarletorange, black or olive-green blotch with pale yellow margin, mid spring. T. humilis. SE Turkey, Iran, and Caucasus. Often grown under synonym T. pulchella. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers 1-3, tepals 1 in. long and wide or a little more, bright rose pink to deep purple-violet; basal blotches pink, purple, black, yellow, or blue. Pollen yellow, blue, or purple. Flowering early spring. Variants include 'Albocaerulea-oculata' (synonym T. violaceavar. pallidd), white with deep steel-blue base; 'Eastern Star', rose flamed with bronze-green, base yellow; 'Magenta Queen', lilac with yellow center; 'Odalisque', beet purple with yellow center; 'Persian Pearl', purple with yellow base; 'Rosea', light violet with yellow center; 'Violacea' (synonym T. violacea), strong grower with more rounded violet-pink flowers, black basal blotch edged with yellow. T. hungarica. Hungary, SW Romania, and Slovenia; introduced 1882. Stems to 24 in. Flowers yellow without basal blotch, late spring. T. iliensis. Turkestan. Stems to 6 in. Flowers yellow, stained red and olive on reverse, early spring. T. ingens. C Asia. Stems to 14 in. but usually less, reddish. Leaves 3-5, lowest 10 in. long, flat and tapering, greenish gray, slightly hairy. Flowers very large, solitary, cup-shaped, bright glossy scarlet with long, black basal blotch; pollen violet to purple-brown. Flowering mid spring. T. julia. E Turkey, NW Iran, and S Transcaucasia; introduced 1849. Stems to 6 in. Flowers red or orange-red with black basal blotch edged yellow; exterior tinted salmon or orange. Flowering late spring. T. kaufmanniana. WATERLILY TULIP. Turkestan. Stems 6-8 in. Leaves 3-5, lowest 10 in. long, over 3 in. wide. Flowers solitary, sometimes fragrant, flat and starry, white, cream, or pale

yellow with yellow base, outer segments red-streaked; outer tepals narrow, 3l/2 in. long, pointed; inner tepals broader, rounded. Flowering early spring. Selections include 'Brilliant', entirely soft crimson; 'Coccinea', scarlet; 'Josef Kafka', buttercup-yellow overlaid with vermilion on reverse; 'Lady Rose', rich rose pink with deeper basal blotch. Often crossed with T. fosteriana and T. greigii. T. kolpakowskiana. Afghanistan and C Asia. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves 2-4, lowest 8 in. long, wide, flat, and glaucous. Flowers solitary, rarely 2 per stem, 2l/2 in. long, pendent in bud, erect when open, first flat, then reflexed, bright yellow without blotch; reverse olive green with red flush. Flowering mid spring. T. kurdica. NE Iraq. Similar to T. humilis. Stems 4-6 in. Flowers brick red or orange red, basal blotch black, late spring. T. kuschkensis. Turkestan. Stems to 9 in. Flowers deep red, basal blotch black edged yellow, mid spring. T. lanata. Pamir Mountains of C Asia; naturalized in much of C and W Asia. Stems to 24 in., often less. Bulb stoloniferous. Leaves 4-5, lowest 10 in. long, 2 in. wide, lanceolate, somewhat glaucous. Flowers large, solitary, to 8 in. across, cup-shaped, brilliant orange red; basal blotch black with yellow edge; reverse silver-pink. Flowering mid spring over a long period, closing at night and on cloudy days. T. lehmanniana. Russia, C Asia, NE Iran, and Afghanistan. Stems to 10 in. Flowers yellow stained reddish brown with black basal blotch, mid spring. T. linifolia. Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pamir Mountains. Stems 6-12 in. Leaves narrow, undulating, with red margins, arranged in a rosette. Flowers solitary, scarlet with basal blotch of blue-black edged cream or yellow; tepals 2 in. long, % in. wide, pointed. Flowering late spring. T. lownei. Lebanon. Stems less than 3 in. Flowers white or pale pink with yellow blotch, early spring. T. lutea. NC Turkey. Probably a form of T. armena. Stems to 8 in. Flowers yellow with blue blotch, late spring. T. marjolettii. Probably from Savoy region of SE France; introduced 1894. Stems to 20 in. Flowers soft primrose yellow on opening, aging to rosy red, margins and bases rosy red; filaments black, anthers pale yellow. Flowering late spring. T. mauritania. Probably from SE France; introduced 1858. Both this species and T. marjolettii are thought by some authorities to be garden escapes. Stems 14-16 in. Flowers scarlet, base black, exterior of base primrose yellow with lemon-yellow flames. Flowering late spring. T. maximowiczii. C Asia. Similar to T. linifolia but said to bloom earlier and be lighter red with small, bluish-black center, edged white; pollen mauve. Leaves erect. T. micheliana. NE Iran and Pamir Mountains of C Asia. Stems to 10 in. Flowers pale red with black basal blotch edged yellow, mid spring. T. montana. Iran-Turkmenistan border, in mountains. Stems 3-4 in. Flowers deep vermilion red, late spring. T. neustruevae. C Asia. Stems 8-12 in. Flowers bright yellow, early spring. T. orphanidea. Greece and Turkey. Closely related to T. sylvestris; regarded by some authorities as a complex species in-

Tulip a eluding T. hageriand T. whittallii. Stems 8-10 in. Flowers usually solitary, sometimes 2 or more, loosely starry, bronze orange to brick red with green center; outer tepals green and purple on reverse, 2 in. long, narrow; inner tepals wider. Flowering mid spring. 'Flava' has medium-sized yellow flowers tinged orange and green, lasts longer in flower than species. T. ostrowskiana. Turkestan. Stems slender, short at flowering, elongating to 6-14 in. Leaves 2-4, decurved, lowest nearly prostrate, 8-12 in. long, 11/4 in. wide. Flowers solitary, cupshaped, orange red to vermilion or multicolored; tepals 2 in. long, reflexed, outer with shell-like luster on reverse. Flowering mid spring. T. platystigma. SE France; introduced 1855. A member of the T. gesneriana group. Stems to 20 in. Flowers violet-pink suffused with orange. Similar to T. didieri but with elongated stigma. Plates 1102,1103. T. praecox. Probably Middle East, naturalized in S Europe, around Mediterranean and in W Turkey. Bulb stoloniferous. Stems 18-20 in. Leaves 3-5, upright, lowest 12 in. long, almost 4 in. wide, glaucous. Flowers solitary, opening wide, scarlet with broad yellow margin, deep olive basal blotch; outer tepals reflexed, dull orange or greenish on reverse, 2l/2 in. long; inner tepals shorter and narrower. Flowering spring. T. praestans. C Asia. Stems to 24 in. Leaves 5-6, sometimes more, lowest 10 in. long, 4 in. wide. Flowers to 4 per stem, cupshaped, 2% in. long, over 1 in. wide, dark orange-red. Flowering mid to late spring. Selections include 'Fusilier', to 10 in. tall, with up to 5 shiny red-orange flowers; 'Unicum', leaves edged white or pale yellow, 5 flowers per stem, red with yellow base, anthers black; 'Van Tubergen's Variety', 10 in., flowering earlier than species, scarlet, 2-3 flowers per stem; 'Zwanenburg', 12 in., deep crimson-red, flowers numerous with long, pointed tepals. T. primulina. NW Algeria. Stems to 8 in. Flowers creamy white, yellowish at base, mid spring. T. retroflexa. Garden hybrid of unknown parentage. Stems to 18 in. Flowers bright yellow, late spring. T. saxatilis. CANDIA TULIP. Crete; introduced 1827. Bulb stoloniferous, tunic yellow-brown tinged pink. Stems 6-8 in. Leaves 6-12 in. long, flat, shiny green. Flowers fragrant, 1-4 per stem, cup-shaped, pale lilac with yellow blotch; tepals 2 in. long, 1 in. wide. Best in warm climates. 'Lilac Wonder', selection of this or of T. bakeri, has rosy lilac flowers with lemon-yellow base. Plates 1104,1105. T. schmidtii. Transcaucasia. Stems to 16 in. Flowers red with black blotch edged yellow, late spring. T. sharonensis. Israel. Similar to T. praecox and T. agenensis. Stems to 6 in. Flowers dark scarlet with olive blotch edged yellow, mid spring. T. sosnowskyi. Armenia. Stems to 14 in. Flowers red with black basal blotch and gray central blotch, late spring. T. sprengeri. N Turkey; introduced 1894. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers solitary, bright scarlet or brownish crimson, lighter on reverse, no basal blotch; outer tepals reflexed at tips, 21/2 in. long, % in. wide, inner 1 in. wide, pointed and shiny. The latestflowering tulip, in late spring or early summer. Tolerates some

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shade and often naturalizes in gardens by self-sowing. Offsets poorly and usually increased by seed. T. stapfii. Iran and Turkey. Stems to 12 in. Flowers crimson or scarlet with purple basal blotch which may be edged yellow, mid spring. T. subpraestans. C Asia. Stems 18-20 in. Flowers 2-3 per stem, starry, orange red with yellowish basal blotch; anthers black. Flowering mid spring. T. sylvestris. Origin unknown, naturalized in much of Europe, Iran, and North Africa. Either triploid or tetraploid. Stems 10-12 in. Flowers 1-2 per stem, fragrant, clear yellow sometimes veined red and green; outer segments 2 in. long, 1 in. wide, reflexed at reddish tips. Flowering mid to late spring. Spreads rapidly where well adapted and is recommended for wild garden. Subsp. australis is diploid, stem slender, exterior flushed red. T. systola. N Iraq, W Iran, Cyprus, and Israel. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers reddish orange to scarlet, blotch purple edged yellow, early spring. Similar to T. agenensis but leaves waxy. Plate 1106. T. tarda. C Asia in Tian Mountains and E Turkestan. Bulb stoloniferous. Stems 4-6 in. Leaves 4-7, narrow and folded, 6 in. long, forming a rosette. Flowers 1-6 per stem, starry, yellow with white tips; outer tepals marked green and red on reverse; inner have purple and green median stripe. Flowering late spring. Plate 1107. T. tchitounyi. Turkey. Similar to T. sylvestris. Stems 10-12 in. Flowers small, yellow, mid spring. T. tetraphylla. C Asia. Stems to 10 in. Flowers 1-4 per stem, pale yellow; outer tepals reflexed, tinted green or purple on midrib, bordered by crimson bands; basal blotch greenish yellow. Flowering mid spring. T. tschimganica. C Asia, especially Uzbekistan (near Tashkent). Stems to 10 in. Flowers yellow with V-shaped red blotch inside, late spring. T. tubergeniana. Pamir Mountains of C Asia. Stems to 12 in. Leaves 4-5, lowest 12 in. long, 21/2in. wide, downy, pointed. Flowers usually solitary, large, shallowly cup-shaped, glossy vermilion with short black or deep reddish-black, yellow-edged basal blotch; tepals 4 in. long, 1 1 /2 in. wide, pointed; anthers dark purple. Flowering mid spring. 'Keukenhof has several flowers per stem, scarlet with yellow center. T. turkestanica. Turkestan and NW China. Bulb tunic bright crimson or purple. Stems 8-10 in. Leaves 2-3,8 in. long, about 1 in. wide. Flowers 1-12, small, starry, 2 in. wide when open, white with orange center, early spring. Plate 1108. T. ulophylla. Iran; introduced 1966. Stems 7-10 in. Flowers crimson, black blotch edged yellow, mid spring. T. undulatifolia. Transcaucasia, Turkey, Iran, and Greece; introduced 1844. Usually grown under synonym T. eichleri. Stems 18-20 in. Leaves 4-5, basal, 8 in. long, 21/2 in. wide. Flowers solitary, widely bell-shaped, bright scarlet with yellow margin and black to purple basal blotch, edged yellow; reverse buff; tepals 4 in. long, 2 in. wide. Flowering mid spring. Excellent for formal bedding. 'Clare Benedict' has bright red flowers, black base; 'Excelsa' is scarlet with base of black edged yellow. T. urumiensis. NW Iran and E Turkey; introduced 1928.

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Typhonium

Closely related to T. biflora and perhaps a form of it. Stems 4-6 in. Leaves in a rosette, 5 in. long and1/2in. wide. Flowers 1-2 per stem, golden yellow with reverse streaked green or red, mid spring. Plates 1109,1110. T. urumoffii. S Bulgaria, Kosovo, and S Yugoslavia. Stems 8-12 in. Flowers dull red or yellow with dark basal blotch, early to mid spring. T. veneris. Cyprus. Stems to 12 in. Flowers red with olivegreen blotch edged yellow, late spring. T. vvedenskyi. C Asia. Stems 8-10 in. Leaves glaucous, very wavy. Flowers very large, bright orange to scarlet with yellow basal blotch, mid to late spring. Select color forms include 'Orange Sunset' and 'Tangerine Beauty'. Plates 1111,1112. T. whittallii. Turkey. Sometimes regarded as a variety of T. orphanidea. Stems 12-14 in. Leaves 3-4, lowest 8 in. long, about 1 in. wide. Flowers solitary, bell-shaped opening wide, bright orange with blackish base, yellow, green, or buff on reverse; outer tepals 21/2 in. long, % in. wide, inner segments wider. Flowering mid spring. T. zenaidae. C Asia. Stems to 6 in. Flowers yellow with pink flush on exterior, black blotch at base. Flowering mid spring. SYNONYMS

T. aitchisoniivar. cashmeriana see T. dusianavar. chrysantha. T. aitchisonii var. chrysantha see T. dusiana var. chrysantha. T. australis see T. sylvestris subsp. australis. T. baeotica see T. undulatifolia. T. biebersteiniana see T. sylvestris, T. sylvestris subsp. australis. T. billietiana see T. gesneriana. T. bithynica see T. orphanidea. T. boeotica see T. undulatifolia. T. bonarotiana see T. gesneriana. T. brachyanthera see T. sprengeri. T. callieri see T. biflora. T. chitralensis see T. dusiana. T. chrysantha see T. dusiana var. chrysantha. T. ciliatula see T. armena var. lycica. T. concinna see T. armena var. lycica. T. connivens see T. gesneriana. T. cornuta see T. acuminata. T. cuspidata see T. stapfii. T. eichleri see T. undulatifolia. T. elegans see T. gesneriana. T. erythronioides see T. edulis. T. etrusca see T. gesneriana. T. florentina see T. sylvestris. T. foliosa see T. armena var. lycica. T. fransoniana see T. gesneriana. T. fulgens see T. gesneriana. T. graminifolia see T. edulis. T. grisebachiana see T. sylvestris. T. hayatii see T. orphanidea. T. hellespontica see T. orphanidea. T. heterochroa see T. armena var. lycica. T. kaghyzmanica see T. julia. T. kolpakowskiana subsp. coccinea see T. ostrowskiana.

T. latifolia see T. edulis var. latifolia. T. lortetii see T. agenensis. T. lurida see T. gesneriana. T. maleolens see T. gesneriana. T. mariannaesee T. biflora. T. martelliana see T. gesneriana. T. maurania see T. mauritania. T. mucronata see T. armena. T. neglecta see T. gesneriana. T. ostrowskyana var. lycica see T. armena var. lycica. T. oculis-solis see T. agenensis. T. passeriniana see T. gesneriana. T. polychroma see T. biflora. T. pubescens see T. gesneriana. T. pulchella see T. humilis. T. rhodopea see T. urumoffii. T. scabriscopa see T. gesneriana. T. schrenkii see T. armena. T. segusiana see T. gesneriana. T. serotina see T. gesneriana. T. sommieri see T. gesneriana. T. spathulata see T. gesneriana. T. stellata see T. dusiana var. stellata. T. stellata var. chrysantha see T. dusiana var. chrysantha. T. strangulata see T. gesneriana. T. suaveolens see T. armena. T. thirkeana see T. sylvestris. T. thracica see T. orphanidea. T. turcarum see T. armena. T. turcica see T. acuminata, T. orphanidea, T. sylvestris. T. variopicta see T. gesneriana. T. violacea see T. humilis. T. willmottae see T. armena. T. wilsoniana see T. montana.

Typhonium—Araceae Name alludes to a monster (and whirlwind) of Greek mythology which had long, pointed ears—possibly a reference to the spathe. The 30 or so species are mostly tropical, native to South and Southeast Asia and Australia. They are unusual plants for the warm greenhouse or tropical garden, but of interest primarily to aroid enthusiasts. The tubers are cylindrical; a new section is produced above the older section each year, and the older portions slowly rot away. The roots emerge from the top of the youngest section. The foliage is basal, arrow- or spear-shaped, often 3-lobed. The leaf has a network of veins, often bordered by 2 or 3 submarginal, more prominent veins. There is a slender leafstalk, often 18-20 in. long. The inflorescence appears with the leaves. The spathe generally extends just a little above the foliage. It has a green tube at the base and the limb is lance-shaped or oval. The interior has a green background overlaid with purple spots or stripes. The tip of the spathe curls back, exposing the spadix, which has a zone of sterile flowers separating the upper male flowers from the lower female ones. The berries are purple red.

Ungernia CULTURE

Typhonium needs minimum night temperatures of 50°F, very warm days, and high humidity. Set rootstocks just below soil level, except for T. liliifolium, which should be planted 3 in. deep. Space plants 6-10 inches apart. Soil should be rich, with a high organic content. Plants should not be allowed to become dry but need less moisture during winter.

463

red to purple within; appendage at tip of spadix up to 6 in. long. Being tropical, no set flowering time but heaviest in summer. T. trilobatum. India, Nepal, SE China, Sri Lanka, and N Malaysia. Leaves deeply 3-lobed; center lobe 8 in. long, 4 in. wide, lateral lobes unequal in size. Petiole sheathed for a quarter of its 14 in. length. Spathe to 8 in. long, green outside, purple inside. Spadix shorter than spathe, with 4- to 5-in. appendix at tip. Flowering summer.

PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide tubers at the end of summer. Sow seed in a humus-rich soil, barely buried and given a temperature of 55°60°F at night. After germination, pot seedlings into individual containers and grow on. SPECIES T. blumei. E and Southeast Asia, naturalized in numerous tropical Pacific islands. Leaves arrow-shaped, 3-lobed. Spathe green on exterior, purple within, tapering from middle, tip twisted and dark purple. T. brownii. Western Australia. Foliage to 10 in. The rootstock grows vertically, l/2 in. in diameter, 2 in. long. Leaves usually divided into 3 broad lobes, lateral lobes about 1 in. wide, 2 in. long, central lobe almost twice as big. Spathe shorter than leaf stalks, often sitting on surface of the soil, 3 in. long, dark red inside, pale green outside. Spadix short, female flowers crowded at base, appendage 1 in. long at tip. Flowering early summer (December to January in the wild), dormant after mid summer. T. diversifolium. Himalayas, including Tibet. Leaf usually solitary, heart- or arrow-shaped or 3-lobed. Petioles 10-12 in. long. Spathe green outside, purple within, sometimes striped or spotted, or with a network of purple on yellow-green background. Spadix has the longest appendage of the species, 2-3 in. long. Flowering summer. T. flagelliforme. NE India, China, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Australia (Queensland). Leaves variable in form, lobes spreading, middle lobe much larger than others. Spathe narrow, to 12 in. long, with short tube at base, white. Spadix equal in length to spathe, with yellow-green appendix. Flowering summer. T. giganteum. China. Produces many offsets. Leaves often over 14 in. long on petioles 20 in. long, both leaves and petioles pale green. Spathe 10 in. long on 6-in. stalk; tube oblong to oval, deep maroon. Flowering summer. Berries purplish. Var. giraldi is smaller. T. liliifolium. Malaysia. Tuber cormlike, squat, orange, often found 3 in. deep. Leaves 2-6 on 12-in. petioles, gray-green with yellow veins; blade under 1 in. wide, 8-12 in. long. Stalk of spathe grows underground; spathe emerges at ground level, velvety red with green margins on inner surface, paler outside; appendage at tip of spadix is up to 2 in. long. Flowering summer (December to January in the wild). T. roxburghii. India and Malaysia, naturalized in Brazil. Leaves 2-6 in. long, 3-lobed, broader than long. Petiole sheathed for l/3 of its 12-in. length. Spathe 12 in. long, green outside, dark

U,

mbilicus—Crassulaceae

Name derived from Latin umbilicus ("navel"), in reference to the depression in the center of the round leaves. There are about 18 species, but only 3 have enlarged rootstocks. These 3 are native to Europe and Turkey. The flowers are inconspicuous and bell-shaped, and the plants are rarely cultivated except by hobbyists specializing in succulents, though they are easy to grow. CULTURE Set the rootstock 2-3 in. deep in average, well-drained garden soil. Plants need only a moderate amount of moisture and tolerate either sun or light shade. The species listed here are hardy toatleast10°F. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Propagate by division of the rootstock during the dormant period. SPECIES

U. erectus. S Italy, NW Africa, and E Turkey. Small tuber with creeping rhizome. Stems to 10 in. Leaves fleshy, kidneyshaped, appearing before flowering. Flowers yellow, very small, mid to late summer. U. horizontalis. Mediterranean region. Much like U. rupestris but flower spike is shorter and flowers held horizontally. Leaves on flowering stem more compact. Var. intermedius has more pointed petals. U. rupestris. NAVELWORT, PENNYWORT. Europe. Rootstock a tuber. Leaves in a rosette; center of each leaf has characteristic depression. Flowers tubular, very small, in a spike which may branch, greenish white with red dots.

Ungernia—Amaryllidaceae Named in honor of Baron Franz von Ungern-Sternberg (1800-1868) of Dorpat in East Estonia. This is a genus of about 8 species, mostly in C Asia. It is related to Lycoris but differs in having disc-shaped seeds. The genus is little known in horticulture; the few bulb specialists who have tried to grow these plants have found them extremely slow and difficult, and seed is obtainable only from intrepid collectors (Plate 1125). Ungernias produce 2-18 flowers in an umbel. The flowers are funnel-shaped with oblanceolate tepals which have greenish

464

Urceolina

keels. The stamens are inserted in the throat in 2 rows. The leaves are narrowly strap-shaped and often withered by flowering time. The bulbs are rather long and narrow, with a thick, dark, somewhat fibrous tunic and persistent roots. CULTURE These are plants of steppe regions with cold, rather dry winters and hot, dry summers; most grow on rocky slopes. Their needs can thus be presumed to include perfect drainage and careful management of the moisture regime. They should survive temperatures down to 0°F if not too wet in winter. Higher elevations in SW United States should suit them well. Elsewhere, they are plants for the bulb frame. Plant bulbs about 4 in. deep in very gritty, sandy soil and leave them undisturbed. They can be grown in large, deep containers plunged in sand and protected from rain in both winter and summer. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Few or no offsets are produced. Sow seed in fall and keep in cool conditions, preferably outdoors sheltered from rain. Germination may occur the first or 2nd spring after sowing. Transplant young bulbs to their permanent position during their first dormancy and leave them undisturbed. Seedlings are reported to take more than 8 years to flower. SPECIES U.ferganica. Tian Mountains of C Asia. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers 5-18 per umbel, pale yellow with purple margins. U. minor. Tajikistan, on dry rocky slopes. Stems to 2 in. Leaves tiny, tufted. Flowers 2-5 per umbel, pale rose with brownish median stripes. U. severtzovii. Tian Mountains of C Asia, in dry scrub. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers 5-20 per umbel, brick red. U. tadzhikorum. Tajikistan, on dry slopes. Stems 8-12 in. Flowers to 18 per umbel, yellowish or pinkish with purple median stripes. U. trisphaera. Turkestan; 1886. Stems 8-12 in. Flowers 6-15 per umbel, reddish, 1 in. long, tubular; tepals pointed and flaring a little above tube. Bulbs rounded, 2-3 in. in diameter; tunic extends into 5- to 6-in. neck. Flowering early summer. U. victoris. Kyrgyzstan, on dry, grassy slopes. Stems to 4 in. Flowers to 10 per umbel, yellow with brownish-purple median stripe.

Urceolina—Amaryllidaceae URN FLOWERS Name derived from Latin urceolus ("small cup"), in reference to the urn-shaped flowers. This is a genus of about 6 species native to the Andes of Bolivia and Peru, introduced to England early in the nineteenth century. The bulbs are not large, about 11/2 in. in diameter. The leaves have petioles, and their blades are broad, strap-shaped to elliptic or oblong, emerging with or after the scape. The urn-shaped

flowers are carried in small umbels on long pedicels and are pendent when open. They are to 2 in. long, in shades of orange, red, or yellow. The base is narrow, swelling to ¥2 in. in the center and then constricted; the lobes often flare wide. In some species there is a corona at the top of the tube. The stamens and style extend beyond the perianth, with the style longer than the stamens. The overall height of the plants is about 12 in. Though these plants are not common, they are of comparatively easy culture and quite distinctive in appearance. In warmer climates, they make a good display in winter or spring, especially if several are grouped. In the cool greenhouse they can be grown in borders or containers. CULTURE

Urceolina must be grown frost-free; in cold climates, a cool greenhouse is suitable. Plant bulbs in fall, in well-drained soil in a sunny spot. Set them with their necks just at soil level, about 6-8 in. apart. If containers are used, they must be deep; the plants should remain undisturbed for several years. Each year, however, remove and replace the uppermost layer of soil, but do not disturb the roots. After watering-in at planting time, do not supply much moisture until growth appears, then increase watering, but at no time soak the soil. Good drainage is essential. After the foliage has died down, reduce watering and keep bulbs barely moist. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove offsets from mature bulbs as soon as the foliage has died down in late summer; disturb the roots as little as possible. In warm climates, the smallest offsets can be lined out and will reach flowering size in one year. In cool climates, replant in containers. SPECIES U. latifolia. Andes of Peru. Stems 8-10 in. Leaves usually 2-4, with petioles to 12 in. long, blades 10 in. long, 4 in. wide, broadly oval. Flowers 6-8 on strong pedicels, funnel-shaped, yellow shaded orange with green tips; tepals do not recurve. Corona has 6 teeth alternating with stamens which arise from apex of tube. Stamens and style longer than perianth, style longer than stamens. Flowering winter. Capsules upright. U. urceolata. Peru; introduced 1864. Leaves 2, 12 in. long, 4 in. wide or more, appear with flowers. Flowers 4-6 per umbel, yellow with greenish lobes, spring. SYNONYMS

U. bakeriana see Eucharis bakeriana. U. bouchei see Eucharis bouchei. U. Candida see Eucharis Candida. U. grandiflora see Eucharis xgrandiflora. U. mastersii see Eucharis xgrandiflora. U. miniata see Stenomesson miniatum. U. pendula see Stenomesson miniatum. U. peruviana see Stenomesson miniatum.

Urginea U. sanderi see Eucharis sanderi. U. subedentata see Eucharis subedentata.

Urginea—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) MOUNTAIN SQUILL Named for the Beni Urgin, an Arab tribe in Algeria, where the type specimen was found. This genus includes perhaps 100 species (about 24 from South Africa), but few are of interest to gardeners. Urginea is a widely distributed genus, found from the Mediterranean south to South Africa and east to India, usually on sandy flats, both coastal and inland. The common English name is sea squill. Some authorities now combine this genus with Drimia under the latter name. The plants are used medicinally; in Africa, Bantu chiefs are scarified with a paste made from the plant, and the leaves are eaten; however, the leaves and bulbs are toxic to cattle and humans. The bulbs are quite large, 4-6 in. in diameter and somewhat scaly, like lily bulbs. The leaves vary in length according to species; generally there are 6-10 per bulb, emerging after flowering and persisting through winter. The species vary in size. The best-known, U. maritima, is a robust plant, often 48 in. or so in height and bearing a towering flower head in late summer. The flowers of most species are white, sometimes with a hint of pink; larger species may bear as many as 100 flowers per stem. The perianth segments are free, sometimes opening wide to a starry flower or sometimes rather bell-shaped. Urgineas are attractive in their native settings but not as pretty or free-flowering in gardens, probably because the soil is too rich. It is doubtful that any are worth growing in a greenhouse. The plants are of interest mainly to bulb fanciers, particularly in mild maritime regions. It would be worth trying U. maritima along coastal S California, where conditions seem ideal for it. Other species might be tried by coastal gardeners who have difficulty establishing a wide range of plants. CULTURE Few if any species tolerate frost, but some might survive an occasional light frost provided that day temperatures rise to around 40°F and the winter-growing foliage is protected from morning sun so it will warm slowly and avoid cell damage. Urgineas need full sun and deep, sandy soil, with moderate moisture during winter. Plant bulbs in late spring while there is still enough moisture for them to make root growth. Set them 1-2 in. deep; smaller species should be set so the bulb just breaks the surface. Moisture should be given as soon as the flowering stem emerges and then kept up through winter, then withheld as the leaves start to die back. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Urgineas can be propagated by scales or by simply lifting and dividing the naturally increased bulbs.

465

SPECIES U. altissima. Tropical Africa and E South Africa; 1789. Stems 24-36 in. Flowers white with green keel, spring to summer (October to December in the wild). U. barkerae. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers dull red, spring to summer (October to November in the wild). U. calcarata. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal). Similar to U. tenella but shorter, 4-12 in. U. capitata. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, Free State), Lesotho, and Swaziland; 1862. Bulb fleshy. Stems to 12 in. Leaves linear, 12 in. long, 1/2 in. wide. Flowers numerous in globose raceme, appearing before leaves, white inside, dark purplish on reverse of outer perianth segments, 1 in. in diameter when fully open, mid winter (June to August in the wild). U. ciliate. South Africa (S Western Cape to Grahamstown in Eastern Cape). Stems to 6 in. Flowers white, summer (January to February in the wild). U. delagoensis. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), Swaziland, and Mozambique. Stems to 20 in. Flowers small, yellowish green to brown with green median stripes and purple reverse, winter to summer (July to January in the wild). U. depressa. Swaziland and South Africa (Northwestern Province, Gauteng, Mpumalanga). Flowers white with brownish or purplish stripes, spring to summer (September to November in the wild). U. dregei. South Africa (Cape Peninsula to Swellendam in Western Cape). Stems 5-12 in. Flowers brownish or white, summer (November to March in the wild). U.fugax. Mediterranean region. Stems to 14 in. Flowers pale pink with red veins. U. gracilis. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers cream with dark keels, late summer (February to April in the wild). U. indica. Namibia and South Africa (Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal, Northern Cape). Stems to 20 in. Flowers light brown, with tan margins, early summer (November to December in the wild). U. lydenburgensis. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 20 in. Flowers white with green keels, early spring (August to September in the wild). U. macrocentra. Drakensberg Mountains of South Africa (Mpumalanga, Northern Province); 1887. Stems to 36 in. Flowers white, brown, or yellow with green, brown, or black keels, in dense raceme, spring to early summer (October to December in the wild). U. marginata. South Africa (W Karoo, SW Western Cape). Stems 6-8 in. Flowers brown, summer (December to February in the wild). U. maritima. SEA ONION, SEA SQUILL. Mediterranean region, especially Algeria and Portugal, in sandy soil near seashores; 1829. Bulb to 4 in. in diameter. Stems to 48 in. or more. Leaves 18-20,12-18 in. long, to 4 in. wide, appearing after flowering. Flowers often more than 100, in tall raceme, white with brownish midline, starry, about J/2 in. in diameter; tip of inflorescence

466

Vagaria

often bent over by weight of flowers. Flowering late summer (August and September in the wild). U. minor. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 2-3 in. Flowers white to brownish, late summer (February to April in the wild). U. multisetosa. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 12 in. Flowers pinkish brown with white margins in elongated raceme, early spring (August to September in the wild). U. physodes. South Africa (Namaqualand, interior Western Cape); 1804. Bulb very large. Stems to 6 in. Flowers white, summer to fall. U. pusilla. South Africa (S Namaqualand, Western Cape). Stems 2-4 in. Flowers white, summer (February to March in the wild). U. revoluta. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Flowers brown, summer (December to January in the wild). U. rigidifolia. South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers white with green keels, summer (November to January in the wild). U. rubella. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga) and Lesotho. Stems to 8 in. Flowers white with purplish margins, fragrant, early summer (September to November in the wild). U. sanguined. Namibia, Botswana, and South Africa. Bulb red. Stems to 20 in. Flowers white, sometimes with brown midvein, early summer (September to November in the wild). Plates 1126,1127. U. tenella. Lesotho and South Africa (Free State, KwaZuluNatal). Stems 2-6 in. Flowers pinkish white, spring to summer (October to December in the wild). U. undulata. Corsica, Sardinia, and North Africa. Stems to 20 in. Flowers pinkish or greenish, late summer. U. virens. South Africa (W Karoo, Little Karoo, S coast of Western Cape). Stems 4-6 in. Flowers white with green keels to brownish, spring to summer (October to February in the wild). SYNONYMS

U. amboensis see U. indica. U. epigea see U. altissima. U. exuviata see Tenicroa exuviata. U.filifolia see Tenicroa filifolia. U. flexuosa see Tenicroa filifolia. U. forsteri see Drimia capensis. U. fragrans see Tenicroa fragrans. U. lilacina see U. macrocentra. U. modesta see U. cakarata. U. natalensis see U. cakarata. U. pretoriensis see U. cakarata. U. pygmaea see U. minor. U. rosulata see U. ciliate. U. schlechteri see U. macrocentra. U. scilla see U. maritima.

Vagaria—Amaryllidaceae Name derived from Latin vagus ("wandering"). Obviously, someone had a sense of humor when this plant was named: it was described from a specimen of unknown origin grown in Paris, whither it had wandered from the Levant! It is found at lower elevations and must be grown frost-free. There are 4 species; the only one cultivated is V. parviflora, which often is placed in the genus Pancratium. Vagaria differs from Pancratium in that it has a corolla of 12 linear, awl-shaped teeth, whereas the corolla of Pancratium is formed by the 6 stamens joined at the base. CULTURE As for Pancratium. PESTS AND DISEASES

As for Pancratium. PROPAGATION

As for Pancratium. SPECIES V. parviflora. North Africa, Syria, and Israel. Bulb ovoid, 2 in. in diameter, with a long neck and brown tunic. Leaves 4-6, strap-shaped, 6-8 in. long when the plants are in flower, elongating to 18-24 in. later, often with a central white band. Flowers funnel-shaped, about 1 Vi in. long, borne in an umbel of 6-9 on a scape 10-12 in. tall; perianth a short tube; segments with a green keel on the reverse. Flowering late summer or early fall. Plate 1128.

Vallota V. purpurea see Cyrtanthus elatus. V. speciosa see Cyrtanthus elatus.

Veltheimia—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) RED-HOT POKER, UNICORN ROOT Named in honor of August Ferdinand Graf von Veltheim (1741-1801), a German patron of botany. There are only 2 species, V. bracteata and V. capensis; 4 or 5 variants formerly recognized as species are now included in one or the other of these. Veltheimias are delightful plants, native to S and W South Africa—V. capensis from the Atlantic side, and V. bracteata from the Indian Ocean side. Their common name describes the form of the inflorescence; however, they are not closely related to the other plant with that common* name, Kniphofia. Both bear dense racemes, but the foliage is very different. The bulbs are quite large, to 5 in. in diameter. The dense spikes or racemes are borne on leafless, mottled, fleshy scapes. The foliage of both species may reach 18 in. long and 4 in. wide; there are up to 10 basal, lanceolate to oblong leaves with crisped or wavy margins. The narrowly tubular flowers are held upright (or nearly so) when in tight bud, and pendent when fully open.

Veratrum They are mostly pink or purplish with green tips, and sometimes spotted green. The fruits are inflated, 1-1J/2 in. long. Flowering is in winter or early spring. In warm areas these are lovely plants for the shady part of the garden. In colder areas, they are excellent container plants. Seeing these plants in the wild leads one to appreciate their beauty more than one does knowing them only in cultivation. They have great charm; though they look fragile, they are quite robust. This genus is no doubt destined to return to favor; in Victorian times and as late as the 1940s, veltheimias were grown extensively as hothouse plants and sold by florists. Many strains or selections of those days had variations in color, including yellow spotted red and deep red. The foliage is ornamental and the flowers quite long-lasting.

467

V. capensis. South Africa (Namaqualand, W Karoo, Western Cape), in dry hills; 1928. Stems to 16 in. Leaves 4-9 in basal rosette, to 14 in. long and 4 in. wide, bluish green with wavy margins, emerging after scape. Flowers in dense raceme, tubular, just over 1 in. long, purplish pink with green tips. Flowering a little earlier than V. bracteata. Goes completely dormant in summer and should be fairly dry. Includes geographic variants formerly called V. deasii, which is more compact, and V. glauca, which is red-spotted or yellowish. SYNONYMS

V. deasii see V. capensis. V. glauca see V. capensis. V. roodeae see V. capensis. V. viridiflora see V. bracteata.

CULTURE Veltheimias must be grown frost-free, with winter temperatures above 40°F. They are ideal pot plants for the cool greenhouse or indoors. In warmer climates they should be given some shade, and where only slight, infrequent frost occurs, they can be tried outside in spots where they will not receive morning sun. Plants must have good drainage and adequate moisture during the growing season from fall to spring, with a dry period in summer, but should never become completely dry. Set bulbs with their tops 1-2 in. below the soil surface, 6-10 in. apart. Bulbs should be allowed to remain undisturbed because root disturbance inhibits flowering. If grown in containers, they should be repotted only after several years. Established plants can be given slow-release fertilizer or liquid organic fertilizer while in growth. Plants should not be exposed to hot sun for any length of time; bright, high shade is best. PESTS AND DISEASES

Protect the foliage against slugs and snails, and do not overwater to prevent rotting. PROPAGATION

Remove offsets from large bulbs after the foliage has died down. Lower leaves taken from well-established plants with their bases intact and inserted into a sandy soil mix produce bulblets at the base. These should be transplanted to a sand and peat mix as soon as they are large enough to handle. Sow seed in containers or greenhouse beds, transplant seedlings to seedling beds, and grow to commercial size, which usually takes 3 years. In view of the growth cycle, outdoor propagation is not recommended in any but the warmest areas. SPECIES V. bracteata. South Africa (Eastern Cape), in coastal bush; 1768. Bulb large, fleshy, to 6 in. in diameter. Stems mottled with purple, 18-20 in. Leaves about 10 in a basal rosette, to 18 in. long and 4 in. wide, with undulating margins, deep shiny green sometimes flecked with pale green, well-developed at flowering time. Flowers drooping, often more than 50 in dense raceme, tubular, almost 2 in. long, pale rose flecked at tip with green. Flowering mid winter to early spring (July to September in the wild). More robust than V. capensis. Plates 1129-1131.

Veratrum—Melanthiaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Latin vere ("truly") and ater ("black"); these plants have a thick, black rhizomatous rootstock. The genus is distributed throughout the northern temperate regions. Most of the 20 or so species are denizens of alpine meadows and open woodland with plenty of moisture and soil rich in organic matter. They are coarse, vigorous plants; all parts, especially the rhizome, are highly poisonous. The rhizome is stout and deep-delving, producing offsets in a tight clump. The leaves are folded like fans as they emerge and remain strongly ribbed. The very numerous flowers are carried in terminal panicles on short pedicels and may be white, green, brownish, or dull purple. The perianth is bell-shaped or starry, with 6 tepals which are narrowed or, in some species, fused into a short tube at the base. There are 6 stamens and 3 styles. Veratrums are noble architectural plants for the border, even though their flowers are not colorful. Combine them with hostas and ferns; they do well in light shade at low elevations. They should not be planted where animals might browse on the toxic leaves; unfortunately, they appear not to be toxic to slugs, which are the plants' greatest enemy. They are not often seen in nurseries, perhaps because the rhizome is so large that veratrums are not easily handled as container plants. CULTURE All species are very cold-hardy, especially if mulched. Plant rootstocks 2-4 in. deep, 18-24 in. apart in a moisture-retentive, rich soil in full sun or light shade. Leave undisturbed unless needed for propagation. Because they are grown for their foliage (they do not flower until quite large), they should be protected from winds which can brown the leaves. They do best with plenty of moisture from spring to fall, but some species (for example, V. californicurri) tolerate drier conditions after mid summer, when they go dormant. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

To propagate by root cuttings in spring, cut 2-in. sections of the rhizome, each with a bud, and insert them in a sandy soil

468

Wachendorfia

mix. When well rooted, transplant into containers. Established plants can also be dug and divided. Sow seed as soon as ripe in outdoor conditions, preferably where the plants are to grow permanently. Germination occurs the following spring. Transplant or pot seedlings after 2-3 years; they take 8-10 years to reach flowering size, but the foliage is handsome after about the 4th year. SPECIES V. album. Europe, North Africa, and N Asia. Foliage to 8 in., flowering stem to 24 in. Leaves 3-12,12 in. long, 6 in. wide, oblong or elliptical. Flowers in dense raceme, white and green, summer. Plate 1132. V. californicum. W United States, at low to mid elevations. Foliage to 30 in., flowering stem to 6 ft. or more. Lower leaves oval, upper lance-shaped. Flowers very numerous, greenish white, bell-shaped with blunt tepals, about 1 in. in diameter, summer. V. nigrum. Europe and Asia, including Siberia. Stems to 40 in. Leaves 12 in. long, 6 in. wide; lower leaves not quite as wide, oblong and folded. Flowers barely V4 in. in diameter, numerous in dense raceme, purplish black, summer. V. viride. N United States, at high elevations and latitudes. Stems leafy, to 6 ft. or more. Leaves 12 in. long at the base of stem, smaller toward top of stem. Flowers bright yellow-green, 1 in. in diameter, in a raceme with numerous lateral branches, summer. Hardy to -40°F. V. wilsonii. S China. Stems to 36 in. Leaves to 20 in. long, 1 in. wide. Flowers numerous in a pyramidal raceme, white, 1 in. in diameter, with green band on the lower part of tepals. Probably not as hardy as other species.

Waachendorfia—Haemodoraceae Named in honor of E. J. von Wachendorff (1702-1758), professor of botany and chemistry in Utrecht, Netherlands. There are 4 currently recognized species, but only 2 are of great horticultural importance: Wachendorfia thyrsiflora and W. paniculata. Anyone who travels along the Garden Route in South Africa in spring notices these plants. Wachendorfia thyrsiflora is a common and lovely plant of moist areas along roads, making a vivid splash of yellow that stands out well above the dark green foliage. The plants are evergreen, and the foliage is stiff and erect, often pleated. Flowers are borne in terminal panicles; the individual flowers are not long-lasting but many open in succession. The flowers open flat, with 5 perianth segments on one plane, and the uppermost segment carried behind the others. The stems often are reddish. The red color is also present throughout the cormous rootstock and in the sap, which is used as a dye. The thick older stems of the plants are made into necklaces by native people and are said to fend off various ills. In the garden, W. thyrsiflora is suited to damp areas along-

side streams and around pools. The foliage is of interest after the flowers have finished. CULTURE Wachendorfias do best if grown frost-free but can withstand light frost of short duration. They need moisture during spring and summer but tolerate drier conditions in late summer. Other needs are full sun and fertile peaty soil, which can even be marshy in winter and spring. The corms should be planted 4-5 in. deep and 10-14 in. apart. In containers, they do not flower as well as in the open ground, but they can be started and grown in pots and planted out in spring after danger of frost is past. Repot and take indoors for protection in colder climates. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide plants in spring. Many cormels are produced and quickly reach flowering size. Often the smaller ones have 1-2 leaves, and these are almost certain to flower in the first season after division. Seeds can be sown in spring in a soil mix rich in humus and kept constantly moist, with night temperatures around 55°F and bright light; they can be planted out the following spring. SPECIES W. brachyandra. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 8-24 in. Flowers apricot yellow with brownish markings, spring to summer (September to November in the wild). W. multiflora. South Africa (Namaqualand, SW Western Cape). Corm orange. Stems to 12 in. Leaves bluish green, hairy. Flowers dull yellow, spring (August to October in the wild). W. paniculata. South Africa (S Northern Cape, Western Cape, Eastern Cape), widespread; introduced 1700. Corm red inside and out. Leaves 5-6, corrugated, fanning out from stem, basal, 15-18 in. long. Stems 12-15 in. Flowers golden yellow, often lasting less than a day, 3-5 open at once and many are produced. Flowering spring to mid summer (August to December in the wild). Seed large. Var. pallida has pale yellow flowers. Plates 1133,1134. W. thyrsiflora. South Africa (Cape Peninsula to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape, along S coast), often in swampy places; introduced 1759. Stems branched, 30-60 in. Leaves erect, pleated, shorter than flowering stem. Flowers reddish in bud, opening gleaming deep yellow, outward- and upward-facing. Flowering spring to summer (August to December in the wild). Perhaps the best species of Wachendorfia, with a long flowering period. Found growing in the wild with Zantedeschia aethiopica and flowering at the same time, a very pretty sight. Plates 11351138. SYNONYMS

W. brevifolia see W. paniculata. W. graminifolia see W. paniculata. W. hirsuta see W. paniculata. W. parviflora see W. multiflora. W. villosa see W. paniculata.

Watsonia

Walleria—Tecophilaeaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of Horace Waller, who collected plants in Malawi in the late nineteenth century. An interesting genus containing only 3 species, all native to southern Africa. John Hutchinson (1973) placed this genus in the family Tecophilaeaceae, not in Liliaceae, because the anthers open with pores and the ovary is partly inferior. In Liliaceae the anthers open by slits (rarely by pores) and the ovary is completely superior. One other difference concerns the rootstock: genera in Liliaceae have a true bulb or rarely a corm; in Tecophilaeaceae the rootstock is a corm or flattened tuber. Walleria has a tuberous root that is edible, potato-like, and deep-seated, and produces an annual taproot. The plants are seldom over 15 in. but sometimes climb by means of tendrils on the leaf tips, much as Gloriosa does. The leaves are sessile, alternate, and often prickly. The flowers are small, only a little over 1 in. in diameter. The tepals are fused at the base, spreading and reflexed. The anthers protrude in the form of a cone and are quite colorful—blue and yellow. The pendent, pink or white flowers are carried on long pedicels arising from the axils of the upper leaves. The leaves are scattered along the rather weak stems, and the plants require support. They bloom in late spring or summer in their native habitat. These should make interesting plants for the front of a warm, sunny border with light shade during the heat of the day. More for collectors than for home gardeners, but the literature often mentions their beauty. CULTURE

Walleria must be protected from temperatures below 40°F. Plants require light shade in the sunniest regions, sandy soil, and ample moisture during the growing season. The tubers should be planted 2-3 in. deep and 6-8 in. apart. Weak feedings of organic fertilizer as the plants start into growth are beneficial. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Lift and divide the tubers after flowering is finished and stems start to die down. Seed sown as soon as ripe and given warm conditions seems feasible. Since the native habitat experiences abundant summer rains, I suggest planting media be kept moist, the seed barely covered, and a sandy soil mix used. Transplant seedlings to individual pots as soon as they are large enough to handle. Young plants should be shielded from direct sun but kept warm with good indirect light. SPECIES W. gracilis. South Africa (Namaqualand, NW Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Leaves scattered, often with tendrils at tips; spines sometimes scattered between the leaves along the stem, which also assist in climbing. Flowers 11A in. in diameter, pendent, fragrant, white with purplish-blue center; anthers yellow tipped with blue. Flowers not long-lasting, numerous, winter to early spring (June to July in the wild).

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W. mackenzii. Malawi, Zambia, and Angola, in subtropical scrub and rocky areas in poor soil. A little more robust than W. gracilis, standing erect without support. Leaves to 4 in. long, over 1 in. wide. Flowers 1 in., deep blue to almost white; anthers dark blue with a hint of purple and yellow tips. Flowering mid summer (December to January in the wild). W. nutans. Malawi, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Namibia, and Zambia, and South Africa (Northwestern Province, Northern Province, Mpumalanga, Northern Cape), in open, sandy areas and on edges of woodland or scrub. Stems erect, seldom over 8 in., sometimes with a few scattered spines. Leaves narrow, without tendrils. Flowers pendent, about 1 in. in diameter, white to pale blue or violet; yellow anthers tipped with purple; stamens joined at tips and attached to segments, forming a cone. Flowering mid summer (December to January in the wild).

Watsonia—Iridaceae BUGLE FLOWER, BUGLE LILY Named in honor of Sir William Watson (1715-1787), English apothecary, physician, and naturalist celebrated for his research on electricity. This is a large genus found only in South Africa, Lesotho, and Swaziland. The plants look something like Gladiolus; they have corms and dense spikes of flowers. Most species have unbranched flower stems. The flowers are held in a flat plane, facing in opposite directions; in this respect they differ from Gladiolus. Moreover, the stigma in Watsonia is divided twice, making 6 branches, while those in Gladiolus divide only once into 3 branches. Despite their picturesque common name, these plants are more often simply called watsonias. The corms are usually globose and have coarse tunics. The basal leaves generally are long, sword-shaped, rigid, and veined, with the midrib sometimes quite prominent. Certain species, especially those from the warmer regions of South Africa such as KwaZulu-Natal, are evergreen. Height ranges from 12 in. to over 5 ft., and flowering time also varies with species. The flowers are sessile, each with a bract and 2 fused bracteoles. The flower tube can be either slightly or sharply curved or bent; the lower part of the perianth is cylindrical and the upper part generally widely flared. The lobes of the perianth segments may be nearly equal, or the inner 3 wider than the outer 3. The flowers come in a wide color range: white, various shades of pink, purple, red, orange, and yellow. This range has been exploited by hybridizers, and many hybrid cultivars are available. Perhaps the most widely available are 'Malvern', clear orchid-pink; 'Mrs. Bullard's White', a pure white selection of great beauty; and 'Rubra', pinkish red or fuchsia red. Watsonias are ideal summer bedding plants, used like gladiolus. Evergreen species are well worth growing in warmer climates, and all types are good subjects for the cool greenhouse, either in open borders or in containers. They are good cut flowers. The evergreen species should find a home in gardens in the warmer parts of the United States, where they will thrive and increase, and give good color in mid to late summer. The taller species can be placed in shrub borders where their flower spikes

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Watsonia

will rise above low-growing plants and prolong interest. Relatively trouble-free and easy to grow, watsonias will certainly continue to command the attention of hybridizers, and selections and hybrids in a vast range of colors may someday be as common in gardens as gladiolus are now. CULTURE The culture of watsonias depends on where the species comes from. In climates where little or no frost is experienced, this is not important; in colder regions, where certain species can be grown like gladiolus, it is best to understand the native habitat. As a cultural guide, these plants can be divided into 3 groups. Early flowering species flower in spring or early summer. They are best planted in September either outdoors or in a cool greenhouse where winter temperatures fall near 20°F. Summerflowering species can be treated like gladiolus and planted in spring after danger of frost is past. For flowering in cooler climates, lift corms, store over winter, and replant in spring. In warm climates they can be planted successively to give a longer season of bloom, or left in the ground permanently. Evergreen species mostly flower in late summer or early fall and should be planted in spring and left undisturbed. Where temperatures fall below 25°F, provide a deep winter mulch or grow the plants in coldframes. Outdoors they should be given the warmest possible site. In areas where temperatures rarely fall below 32°F, corms can be planted out where plants will not receive early morning sun. With the shelter of a wall, they can be permanent. Where temperatures are seldom below 35°F, they can be planted in full sun in almost any site. The flowering time depends largely on whether a species comes from a winter- or summer-rainfall region. The corms are mostly dormant or in their least active state about 4 months before flowering. Plant spring-flowering species in fall, summer- and later-flowering species in spring. Despite the conservative directions above, watsonias are probably hardier than generally supposed, but this depends on how wet the soil is during winter; they should survive better in drier conditions. Plant corms 2-3 in. deep and 6-10 in. apart. Deciduous species can be lifted after the foliage dies; evergreen species are best left undisturbed for several years. If the space is needed, they can be placed in containers or, better yet, heeled into the ground in another part of the garden. Spring-flowering species need ample moisture during winter and spring and dry summer conditions. Summer-flowering species are watered during summer. Evergreen species require moisture throughout the year. Though they can survive in poor soil, all species perform better in rich, well-drained beds. Fertilizer can be given as soon as growth is seen. The evergreen species can be fed during spring and summer. Organic fertilizer given in liquid form is preferred. Slow-release fertilizers also can be used. In containers, a well-drained soil mix should be used; only large containers, over 12 in. deep, are suitable. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems.

PROPAGATION

Mature corms produce several new ones each year. These can be detached during the dormant season. Grown on in nursery rows or in containers, they reach flowering size in 2 years; larger cormels reach flowering size in one year. Seed can be sown in spring or early summer using a sandy soil mix with good organic content. Plants from seed flower the 3rd season. Except in a warm climate or greenhouse, outdoor sowing is best done in spring. Seedling variation must be expected if several species are grown in proximity. Seed from named selections will not produce identical plants. SPECIES W. aletroides. South Africa (Caledon to George in Western Cape), on roadsides and hillsides; introduced 1774. Stems to 24 in. Leaves to 12 in. long, l/2 in. wide, stiff, held close to scape. Flowers tubular (unlike other species), 1-2 in. long, salmon orange to more common dark tomato red, spring (August to October in the wild). Plates 1139,1140. W. amabilis. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 12 in. Leaves 6 in. long, J/2 in. wide. Flowers rose pink with darker center, spring to early summer (October to November in the wild). W. amatolae. Amatola Mountains of South Africa (Eastern Cape). Stems to 24 in. Leaves 2-4. Flowers to 20 per spike, pinkpurple; style arched over stamens; summer (November to Januaryinthewild). W. angusta. South Africa (Western Cape and Eastern Cape to S. KwaZulu-Natal), in wet areas. Stem often branched, to 48 in. Flowers scarlet, rarely yellow; long tepals narrowest in genus. Flowering summer mainly (November to January in the wild). W. bachmannii. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal), in coastal marshes. Stems to 20 in. Flowers orange, winter to spring (July to October in the wild). W. bella. Swaziland and South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems to 24 in. Flowers pink to purple, spring to summer (October to December or January in the wild). W. borbonica. South Africa (SW Western Cape), on mountain slopes; introduced 1800. Stems branched, often over 5 ft. Leaves 30 in. long, 1 in. wide. Flowers cyclamen pink, over 2 in. in diameter; tube 1 in. long. Flowering spring to early summer (October to December in the wild); dormant in summer, should be planted in early fall. Subsp. ardernei also from Western Cape, introduced 1889, is slightly smaller, with pure white flowers which appear a bit earlier; this popular garden plant is no longer found in the wild. It has been suggested that this plant be called W. boronica subsp. ardernei 'Arderne's White' or W. 'Arderne's White' (Mathew 1994). W. canaliculata. South Africa (C KwaZulu-Natal). Corm large, to 2 in. in diameter. Stems to 18 in. Flowers arching up from stem, pink, paler in throat, darker streak on lower midvein, early summer (November to December in the wild). W. confusa. South Africa (coastal KwaZulu-Natal to Eastern Cape). Stems to 48 in. Flowers purple-pink with darker median stripe, summer (December to March inland, earlier on coast).

Watsonia W. densiflora. South Africa (Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal), in grassland; introduced 1879. Stems unbranched, to 36 in. but often less. Flowers in 2 rows in dense spike, many open at same time, pink, over 1 in. long and wide; tube curved. Flowering summer (December to March in the wild). W. dubia. South Africa (Western Cape); endangered. Stems to 16 in. Flowers pale to deep pink, darker in throat, spring to early summer (October to November in the wild). W. elsiae. N Tsitsikamma Mountains of South Africa (Eastern Cape), in foothills. Stems to 20 in. Flowers bright scarlet, early summer (November to December in the wild). W. emiliae. South Africa (E Western Cape), in mountains. Stems 15-20 in., sometimes with short lateral branches. Flowers 1-2 per branch, pale pink, early summer (November to December in the wild). W. fergusoniae. S coastal Africa, in limestone hills. Stems to 36 in. Flowers scarlet to bright orange, held horizontally, spring to early summer (October to November in the wild). W. fourcadei. South Africa (Cedarberg Mountains of Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape), on mountainsides; introduced 1930. Stems branched, to 48 in. Leaves to 24 in. long, over 1 in. wide, with yellowish margins, evergreen. Flowers coral red to rose purple in loose spike, over 2 in. long and wide; tube long, curved; outer lobes darker than inner. Flowering summer (November to December in the wild). W. galpinii. Swartberg Mountains of South Africa (Western Cape, Eastern Cape), in damp and often shaded areas along streams; introduced 1925. Stems 36-40 in. Leaves stiff, linear, 14-18 in. long, evergreen. Flowers upward-facing in dense spike, 1 in. in diameter, deep red or sometimes pink to terracotta orange, tips often darker; tube curves and flares widely; segments widely spaced. Flowering summer (November to March in the wild). Among the loveliest watsonias, and perhaps useful for breeding hybrids with long flowering period. Should have shade in hot areas. W. gladioloides. South Africa (S KwaZulu-Natal, N Eastern Cape) and Lesotho. Stems to 18 in. Flowers bright red, early summer (November to December in the wild). W. humilis. South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced 1754; endangered. Stems 12-18 in. Leaves narrow, to 9 in. long. Flowers delicate pinkish mauve; stigma branches overlap anthers. Flowering spring to early summer (September to November in the wild). A form with larger, purple-blotched flowers was formerly called W. maculata. Plate 1141. W. hysterantha. South Africa (W coastal Western Cape). Stems 24-36 in. Leaves not present at flowering. Flowers to 10 per spike, deep red, late summer to winter (March to July in the wild). W. indinata. South Africa (S KwaZulu-Natal). Stems to 20 in. Flowers 10-11 per spike, pink, white in throat, fragrant, flowering after fires, spring (September to October in the wild). W. knysnana. S coastal Africa. Stems to 40 in. Flowers rose pink to purple, summer (October to January in the wild). W. laccata. South Africa (S Western Cape to Eastern Cape at Humansdrop); introduced 1794. Stems unbranched, to!6 in. Leaves shorter, stiff. Flowers 14-18 per stem, pink, orange,

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sometimes white, very curved, more or less outward-facing, 1 in. in diameter, with narrow tube, spring (September and October in the wild). W. latifolia. Swaziland and South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, SE Mpumalanga). Corm edible. Stems 28-60 in. Flowers deep maroon-red, summer (December to February in the wild). W. lepida. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal to Free State) and Lesotho. Stems to 24 in. Flowers pink, paler in throat, summer (November to February in the wild). W. longifolia. South Africa (Knysna area in E Western Cape), on open, grassy, damp slopes; introduced 1925. Thought to be a natural hybrid (W. knysnana x W. pillansii). Stems sometimes branched, over 48 in. Leaves usually 4, sword-shaped, lowest over 30 in. long and 1 in. wide, others around 24 in. long. Flowers somewhat upward-facing, ll/2 in. in diameter, orange, pink, or red; tepals sometimes sharply pointed, 2l/2 in. long, curving up and away from stem. Color may be whitish, pink to old rose, salmon to terra-cotta orange. Leaves used by native people to make anklets and bangles. Flowering spring to summer (October to February in the wild). W. marginata. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1774. Stems branched, to 6 ft. or more. Leaves slightly glaucous, to 30 in. long, 11/4 in. wide, with yellowish-brown margins. Flowers numerous, mauve, pink, or magenta; with white line edged in purple at base of segments, about 1 in. in diameter, opening wide from short, curved tube. Flowering spring to early summer (October to November in the wild). Dwarf forms exist, ranging in color from white to purple. Plates 1142-1144. W. marlothii. Swartberg Mountains of South Africa (Western Cape). Flowers pale pink to red, sometimes white to purple. Stems to 40 in. Flowering early summer (November to January in the wild). W. meriana. South Africa (Namaqualand to SW Western Cape); introduced in 1750. Stems 24-36 in. Leaves 12-24 in. long, to l/2 in. wide. Flowers white, pink, or mauve; tube about 2 in. long, lobes spreading to over 2 in. in diameter. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). 'Bulbillifera' attains 5 ft., has fewer but larger orange flowers; produces bulbils in axils of bracts and stem leaves; naturalized on the islands of Mauritius and Reunion, and in Western Australia. A form previously known as W. cocdnea, from Western Cape near Malmsbury, Bradadorp, and Tulbagh, in drier areas, is 12 in. or more tall, with leaves 6-9 in. long, 1/2 in. wide, flowers bright crimson. Plate 1145. W. minima. South Africa (Caledon area in Western Cape). Stems very short, to 15 in. Flowers orange-red, small, summer (November to December in the wild). W. mtamvunae. South Africa, in Mtamvuna Nature Reserve (along S coastal KwaZulu-Natal). Stems 18-20 in. Flowers pale pink, spring (August to October in the wild). W. occulta. South Africa (SE Mpumalanga), in mountain grassland. Stems to 18 in. Basal leaves 2-3, linear-lanceolate. Flowers to 7 per stem, pale pink, enclosed in long, green bracts, summer (December to January in the wild). W. paudflora. South Africa (SW Western Cape), in mountains. Stems to 15 in. Flowers pink with dark purple median

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Watsonia

stripe, summer (late November to January in the wild). Seems to need smoke from fires to thrive. W. pillansii. South Africa (George in Western Cape to KwaZulu-Natal), in open grassland and on slopes. New corms develop over several generations of older corms and have a coarse tunic. Stems unbranched, 4-6 ft. Leaves to 48 in. long, 1 in. or more wide, straight, rigid, linear, evergreen. Flowers numerous in dense spike, funnel-shaped, bright orange-red, often over 2 in. in diameter, with curved tube 2 in. long, summer (December to January in the wild). Few flowers are open on the spike at one time, but their color and the large clumps make this plant highly visible. Watsonia beatricis is now included in W. pillansii. Plates 1146-1148. W. pondoensis. South Africa (S KwaZulu-Natal), in marshes. Stems to 20 in. Flowers purple, paler in throat, spring (September to October in the wild). W. pulchra. South Africa (NE KwaZulu-Natal to Mpumalanga) and Swaziland. Stems to 40 in. Flowers pink to purple or maroon, rarely white, summer (December to March in the wild). Similar to W. densiflora. W. rogersii. South Africa (coastal area around Hermanus in Western Cape). Stems to 18 in. Flowers pink to light purple, often with dark median stripe, spring to early summer (October to December in the wild). W. rourkei. South Africa (C Namaqualand), in mountains. Stems to 6 ft. Flowers pale mauve pink, tube slightly darker, summer (November in the wild). W. schlechteri. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems to 5 ft. Flowers orange-red to flame-orange, summer (November to February in the wild). W. spectabilis. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 18 in. Leaves to 12 in. long, l/2 in. wide, sword-shaped. Flowers glowing flame-red, about 2V2 in. long, to 3 in. in diameter; zygomorphic, upper segments reaching up and lower segments recurved, often hidden by the bracts, spring (September to October in the wild). A lovely plant for garden or containers, it must be planted in fall. W. stenosiphon. South Africa (S Western Cape). Stems to 20 in. Flowers bright orange, apricot, pink, or mauve with narrow tube, spring (September to October in the wild). Plate 1149. W. stokoei. South Africa (W Western Cape), in moist areas in mountains. Stems to 36 in. Flowers light scarlet, summer (November to January in the wild). W. strictiflora. South Africa (SW Western Cape); introduced 1810. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers rose pink with darker streak at base, spring to early summer (October to November in the wild). W. strubeniae. South Africa (E Northern Province, Mpumalanga). Stems 12-30 in. Flowers pale pink with darker median stripe, late summer (February to May in the wild). W. tabularis. South Africa (Cape Peninsula and Cape Flats in Western Cape), often in cloud belt of mountainsides, in marshy places. Stems branched, to 5 ft., often more. Leaves over 2 in. wide, over 36 in. long. Flowers 20-30 per spike, outward-facing, curved, to 3 in. in diameter, orange to pink, usually salmon orange; outer segments deeper in color. Flowering summer (No-

vember to February in the wild). Var. concolor, less common, has uniformly orange-red flowers. W. transvaalensis. South Africa (Northern Province), in open grassland. Stems to 24 in. Leaves sword-shaped, with prominent yellow ribs and margins, to 24 in. long. Flowers to 20 per spike, trumpet-shaped, clear light pink with darker, nearcrimson median stripe, long-lasting. Often all flowers on spike open at the same time. Flowering late summer to early fall (January to April in the wild). Plant in spring. W. vanderspuyae. South Africa (W Western Cape). Stems to 48 in. Leaves the broadest of the genus. Flowers bright red, spring (September to November in the wild). Plate 1150. W. versfeldii. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 60 in. Flowers rose pink, late spring (October to November in the wild). Plate 1151. W. watsonioides. South Africa (S Northern Province, Mpumalanga) and Swaziland, in mountain grassland. Stems to 36 in. Leaves about 24 in. long, hard and stiff, with prominent midribs and margins, evergreen. Flowers very close together on spike and quite distichous, cream to yellow or maroon, entirely tubular, 2-3 in. long, with maroon stripe on outside at tips. Flowering late summer (January to March in the wild). W. wilmaniae. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems to 48 in. Flowers rose, purple, pink, cream, yellow, or orange, summer (November to February in the wild). W. wilmsii. South Africa (Mpumalanga). Stems 24-30 in. Flowers deep pink, late summer to fall (January to April in the wild). W. zeyheri. South Africa (SW Western Cape), in swampy ground. Stems to 36 in. Leaves 24-30 in. long, Vi in. wide, evergreen. Flowers bright orange to apricot, arching up and away from stem, outward-facing, widely spaced; tube about 2 in. long; lobes flare to P/2 in. in diameter. Flowering early summer (November to January in the wild), especially profuse after fires. SYNONYMS

W. alba see W. borbonica subsp. ardernei. W. albertiniensis see W. laccata. W. alpina see W. strubeniae. W. archbelliae see W. pillansii. W. ardernei see W. borbonica subsp. ardernei. W. baurii see W. gladioloides. W. beatricis see W. pillansii. W. brevifolia see W. laccata. W. bulbilifera see W. meriana. W. caledonica see W. laccata. W. coccinea see W. meriana. W. comptonii see W. zeyheri. W. cooperi see W. borbonica. W. desmidtii see W. wilmaniae. W. ecklonii see W. versfeldii. W. elimensis see W. zeyheri. W. flavida see W. watsonioides. W. iridifolia 'O'brienii' see W. borbonica subsp. ardernei. W. leipoldtii see W. meriana. W. litura see W. humilis.

Worsleya W. maculata see W. humilis. W. masoniae see W. pillansii. W. meriana var. dubia see W. dubia. W. meriana var. roseoalbus see W. humilis. W. middlemostii see W. rogersii. W. muirii see W. laccata. W. neglecta see W. densiflora. W. plantii see W. densiflora. W. priorii see W. pillansii. W. pyramidata see W. borbonica. W. pyramidata subsp. ardernei see W. borbonica subsp. ardernei. W. rosea see W. borbonica. W. rosea subsp. ardernei see W. borbonica subsp. ardernei. W. roseoalba see W. humilis. W. ryderae see W. fourcadei. W. schinzii see W. schlechteri. W. socium see W. pillansii. W. stanfordiae see W. fourcadei. W. starkeae see W. wilmaniae. W. stenanthe see W. vanderspuyae. W. stohriae see W. fourcadei. W. transvaalensis var. drakensbergensis see W. strubeniae. W. vivipara see W. meriana. W. wordsworthiana see W. borbonica subsp. ardernei.

Whiteheadia—Hyacinthaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of the Reverend Henry Whitehead of South Africa. This is a monotypic genus having 2 opposite leaves that spread on the ground. Whiteheadia can be distinguished from Massonia, which it resembles, by the convex leaf bases which overlap each other. CULTURE Whiteheadia must be grown frost-free. Provide well-drained soil, shade, warmth, and moisture during the growing season. Plant bulbs in spring, 2-4 in. deep and 16 in. apart. They need moisture during winter and a dry period in mid to late summer, with watering resumed in late fall. No feeding is necessary unless in very poor soil. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Remove offsets while the plants are dormant. Sow seed in spring on sandy soil, barely covered, and keep it on the dry side with cool night temperatures. Transplant seedlings to individual containers as soon as they are large enough to handle. They should then be grown on and planted out the season after the leaves have reached 3-4 in. long. SPECIES

W. bifolia. South Africa (Namaqualand, NW Western Cape) and S Namibia, in the shade of rocks. Rootstock a brownish, round bulb. Leaves broadly ovate, to 12 in. long and 8 in. wide, shiny, and succulent. Flowers densely held in a spike 3-6 in.

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long, less than J/2 in. in diameter, with 6 stamens; the 6 perianth segments are fused at the base, as are the filaments, to form a short, erect tube. The greenish flowers are not as noticeable as the greenish bracts. Flowering time is late winter to early spring (July to August in the wild). Plates 1152,1153.

Worsleya—Amaryllidaceae Named in honor of Arthington Worsley (d. 1943), an English botanist. The sole species was introduced under the name Amaryllis procera. Some authorities place it in the genus Hippeastrum. It is endemic to a remote valley in Brazil north of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, in a mountain formation called the Organs because of the rocks' resemblance to organ pipes. Free drainage is essential for these bulbs. They have the reputation of being very difficult to grow. They are dramatic flowers for the conservatory. CULTURE Although it is reported that these plants can withstand a few degrees of frost, until they become more common, it is wise to protect them from low temperatures, keeping night temperatures around 55°F for young plants; mature plants can withstand temperatures to around 40°F at night. Plant in gritty, gravelly soil with superb drainage, mixed with well-rotted leafmold. Keep the neck of the bulb free of the soil so that at least Va of the bulb is exposed. Water sparingly, increasing moisture when plant makes growth, but it is better to risk underwatering than overwatering. Less moisture is needed during winter, but at no time should the foliage be allowed to shrivel. Give full sun, with light shade for no more than 1-2 hours during the hottest part of the day. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems PROPAGATION

Established plants produce numerous offsets, which can be separated and grown on. This is best done just as growth commences in spring. Seed (rarely available) can be sown in spring in a sandy soil mix, barely covered. Like their cousins in the genus Griffinia, these seedlings must be kept moist, and humidity should be high. Sow thinly so the plants can remain in the seed mix for a season before being transplanted into individual containers when growth starts in the 2nd year. Otherwise they are best left undisturbed. SPECIES

W. rayneri. BLUE AMARYLLIS, EMPRESS OF BRAZIL. Brazil, in crevices in granite cliffs; 1863. Bulbs very large, to 6 in. in diameter, generally weighing 3 pounds but can reach 10 pounds, pear-shaped, with a papery tunic; neck extends above ground, formed by the sheathing leaf bases, may be 24 in. long in a mature plant. Leaves evergreen, sickle-shaped, 4 in. wide and 24-36 in. long, pale green to blue-green, arranged in 2 ranks, with a total of 18-24 on well-established plants. Flowers few to 14 or 15, in a terminal umbel well above the foliage on a hollow scape to a height of 48 in. or more; pedicels up to 11A in. long;

474

Wurmbea

perianth tube about 1 in. long. Tepals lilac to sky blue, with mauve markings on the interior and white at the base. Perianth lobes up to 6 in. long and 1 in. wide, curving, pointed, much longer than stamens. Style longer than the stamens; stigma 3lobed. Flowering usually summer, but in the tropics plants may bloom at other times.

Wurmbea—Colchicaceae (Liliaceae) Named in honor of Friedrich von Wurmb (d. 1781), a Dutch merchant and secretary of the Academy of Sciences in Batavia, Indonesia, who supported the research of Carl P. Thunberg, the botanist who described the genus. The 37 species of Wurmbea are widely distributed in Western Australia and in South Africa. The Australian species are minute plants, 4 in. or less in height. For more information, see McFarlane (1980). The 17-19 South African species also are small, but more ornamental. The dark brown corm is small, tunicated, and about 3 A in. in diameter, with a long neck. The foliage is sparse, usually only 3 leaves which sheathe the scape at the base. Held erect, the leaves taper to a point and are about Vz in. at their widest. Flower colors and shapes vary greatly among the species. As many as 20 flowers are held in a raceme only 2-3 in. long. Each flower develops to l/2 in. in diameter, with a tube 1A in. long. Flowering spring. The fruit is a 3-valved capsule. Dainty plants that vary greatly, with unusual coloration and surprisingly large flower spikes, these plants are good for the damper parts of a rock garden or border. Plant them close to a path so the small flowers on their short spikes can be appreciated. CULTURE Wurmbea species must be grown frost-free and are suitable for the cool greenhouse. In early fall, plant the corms in damp areas, about 1 in. deep and 3 in. apart. They need full sun, though in very hot areas they can be planted among other vegetation that shades them some. They need moisture except when dormant in late summer and early fall, but even during dormancy the soil should not be completely dry. Once established, the plants should be left undisturbed. When growing them in containers, be sure the pots are quite deep and use a peaty soil mix. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Separate offsets when plants are dormant. Sow seed in spring and keep at 55°F at night. Grow the young plants on in containers, with a drier period after the foliage has died down. They should be transplanted in the 2nd year, spaced several inches apart. SPECIES W. capensis. South Africa (Western Cape); introduced 1788. Stems to 12 in. Leaves 3-4, to 9 in. long. Flowers cream and brown, Vi in. long, in spikes 1-3 in. tall; tube bell-shaped with black glands at base. Flowering spring (August to September in

the wild). 'Longiflora' is a more robust plant with larger flowers, introduced 1788; 'Pumila' is shorter; 'Purpurea' has purple flowers. W. compacta. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 2-8 in. Flowers pink, winter (June to July in the wild). W. dioica. EARLY NANCY. Australia (Victoria, Western Australia), on edges of swamps and stream banks. Corms small, white, eaten by native people. Stems erect, to 5 in., with several leaflike bracts. Leaves 2-3, narrow, to 4 in. long. Flowers 3-4 per stem, 1A in. long, white with purple bands and purple nectaries, winter to spring (July to October in the wild). Plate 1154. W. dolichantha. South Africa (Bokkeveld Mounts in Northern Cape to Piketberg in Western Cape). Stems 6-18 in. Flowers cream or white; center of tepal marked yellow, green, or purple, darkening with age. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). W. drummondii. Western Australia (Coolgardie District). Stems to 4 in. Flowering winter (June in the wild), in an area where rainfall is erratic, never more than 10 in. a year. W. elatior. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, Free State, Eastern Cape) and Lesotho. Stems to 16 in. Flowers unpleasantly scented, white with deep red to purplish-black crescent in center of tepal, summer to fall (January to May in the wild). W. elongata. South Africa (Western Cape). Stems 4-8 in. Flowers greenish white to cream with dark margins, anthers yellow, spring (September to October in the wild). W. hiemalis. South Africa (Cape Peninsula). Stems 2-6 in. Flowers white to creamy yellow, tips and edges dark purplish black, winter (May to August in the wild). W. inusta. South Africa. (SW Western Cape). Stems 2-8 in. Flowers greenish or cream with purple margins, spring (September to November in the wild). W. kraussi. South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal, in grassland in Drakensberg Mountains, Free State, Eastern Cape) and Swaziland. Stems to 6 in. Flowers white to pink, tepals with distinct markings, spring (August to November in the wild). W. marginata. South Africa (W coastal Western Cape). Stems 3-10 in. Flowers malodorous, red to blackish purple, spring (September to November in the wild). W. minima. South Africa (W Western Cape). Stems to 2 in. Flowers white with no distinct tube, spring (October in the wild). W. monopetala. South Africa (Cape Peninsula). Stems 2-10 in. Flowers cream to greenish with dark margins, spring (August to November in the wild). W. pygmaea. Australia (Western Australia). Flowers white aging to purple, early winter (May in the wild). W. recurva. South Africa (SW Western Cape). Stems 1-8 in. Flowers vanilla-scented, deep reddish black to purplish black, tepals recurved, spring (August to September in the wild). W. robusta. South Africa (Malmesbury district in SW Western Cape). Stems 6-10 in. Flowers cream with dark margins; stamens long, extending beyond petals, winter to spring (July to October in the wild). W. spicata. WITKOPPIE ("white top"). South Africa (Cape Peninsula), in damp places. Stems usually 3-4 in., rarely to 8

Zantedeschia in. Leaves 3, longer than scape at 8-10 in., light green, pointed; leaf margins tend to curl inward. Flowers in a dense raceme,l/2 in. in diameter, white or yellowish with dark chocolate-brown margins and tips and very short tube and flaring perianth lobes; pointed tepals sometimes have elongated tips, creating a spidery effect. In some variants the chocolate color covers almost the entire tepal. Flowering spring (September to October in the wild). Should never dry out completely. W. variabilis. South Africa (Clanwilliam in Western Cape to Port Elizabeth in Eastern Cape). Stems 1-8 in. Flowers creamy white, spot in middle of tepals, spring (August to November in the wild). SYNONYMS

W. conferta see W. spicata. W. longiflora see W. monopetala. W. purpurea see W. marginata. W. ustulata see W. spicata.

XXenoscapa—Iridaceae Name derived from Greek xenos ("strange, foreign, a stranger"), At one time Xenoscapa fistulosa was in the genus Anomatheca. When Goldblatt and Manning (1995) sunk 4 species of Anomatheca in Freesia, they established the new genus Xenoscapa with one species, it being a stranger in the group and likely to remain so. CULTURE As for Freesia. PESTS AND DISEASES

As for Freesia. PROPAGATION

Sow seed in spring in sandy soil mix. Plant cormels from parent corm when dormant. SPECIES

Xenoscapa fistulosa. South Africa (Namaqualand, Western Cape) and S Namibia, in rock crevices and shady sites, at an elevation of 600-1000 ft. Corm small, covered with netted fibers. Stems 3-5 in. Foliage basal and prostrate, 2 leaves 5-7 in. long. Flowers slightly fragrant, white to cream, reverse of tepals purplish mauve; perianth tube narrow, to P/2 in. long. Each flower carried on a separate stem; a corm can produce more than one stem. Flowering summer. Plate 1155. SYNONYM

X. uliginosa see X. fistulosa.

Xiphium see Iris

475

z

antedeschia—Araceae

CALLA LILY, RICHARDIAS, ARUM LILY, SPOTTED CALLA Named in honor of Giovanni Zantedeschi (1773-1846), an Italian botanist and physician. This is an interesting genus of 6 or 7 species, all native to South Africa. Linnaeus placed Zantedeschia aethiopica in the genus Calla. In 1818 Kunth moved it to the genus Richardia, but this name was already in use for other plants in the family Rubiaceae, so the present generic name was given. Even after all these years, the plants retain the common name calla lily. This small genus of aroids is by far the most decorative in its family. The plants are produced from thick rhizomes. The leaf blade is arrow-shaped, sometimes variegated with white dots. The leafstalks are long and thick and sheathe the stem base. The flowers are carried on a crowded spadix with no sterile flowers between the male and female flowers. The spathe is longer than the spadix and may be white, yellow, or rose, sometimes quite red. It is held erect, with a short tube, convolute and funnelshaped; the blade is expanded and the tip recurved. Some species, including Z. aethiopica, can reach over 6 ft. in their native habitat, growing in wet, marshy ground, often on the edge of the forest. In the wild they flower mainly September to December, as well as at other times of the year. In the Northern Hemisphere they tend to bloom from spring through early or late summer. Zantedeschia species and cultivars are much used in the florist trade (Plate 1163). They are useful border plants where hardy. Some have ornamentally variegated foliage and are attractive even when not in flower. For Z. aethiopica, the ideal location is on the edge of woods in rich soil with plenty of moisture, or in ponds up to 36 in. deep. Other species are better suited for the greenhouse. Zantedeschia aethiopicahas a number of medicinal uses. The Xhosa people use a warmed leaf placed on the forehead to cure headaches. The fresh leaf is soothing to insect bites and warmed is used as a poultice on sores and boils. The juice of the plant produces an indelible brown stain on clothing and, while the seed is poisonous, the rootstock is eaten by wild boars. When boiled, the rootstock makes good fodder for pigs. The leaf and flower stems are cooked and eaten with mealie-meal porridge by the natives. The persistence of this species is legendary. I have seen it force its way through several inches of blacktop and grow well. Numerous firms offer cultivars of Zantedeschia. They are popular plants among the younger generation of gardeners, as they were among the Victorians; during the mid-twentieth century, they were not so well appreciated. Names given to selections indicate spathe color: 'Best Gold'; 'Black-eyed Beauty', with a large black blotch at the base of the spathe; 'Carmine Red' has yellow stamens and white splotched green leaves; 'Dusty Pink'; 'Giant White'; 'Harvest Moon', buttercup yellow; and 'Mango', reddish orange fading to a yellow base. These cultivars are often used as indoor decoration when young.

476

Zantedeschia

CULTURE

The hardiness of the species varies. Zantedeschia aethiopica can withstand temperatures down to about 15°F if well mulched or planted in shallow water; even if the leaves are destroyed, the rhizomes survive. Other species are not as hardy and should not be grown outdoors where winter temperatures drop below 25°F. Set the rhizomes 4 in. deep in rich, moisture-retentive soil, 12-18 in. apart. Zantedeschia aethiopica can be grown in shallow water if there is a good depth of soil for its roots and if the water does not freeze solid. All species like wet soils and heavy feeding with organic fertilizer. They are adaptable to sun or shade. They can be planted at almost any time in warm climates, but should be set out in spring in cooler regions. They are all ideal for the cool or warm greenhouse. If grown indoors overwinter, they can be placed outdoors when night temperatures are above 40°F. Plants in containers need a rich soil mix with copious organic liquid fertilizer or old chicken manure during spring and summer. Reduce water and fertilizer from October to March. PESTS AND DISEASES

Leaf-spotting fungi attack the leaves, but this problem can be kept under control by removing and destroying affected foliage. The roots are sometimes attacked by a soft rot, but simply removing the affected parts and dusting with a fungicide controls this. Virus diseases may cause white spots or streaks in the leaves. Discarding such plants is the best control, along with an insecticide to control sucking insects that transmit virus diseases. PROPAGATION

Division of the rootstock is the best way to increase stock. Many suckers are produced and can be removed in spring, cut from the parent plants with a knife. Seed is sometimes set and can be planted in warm conditions as soon as ripe after the fleshy coating is washed away. Cultivars will not come true from seed. SPECIES Z. aethiopica. CALLA LILY, EGYPTIAN LILY, JACK-IN-THEPULPIT, LILY OF THE NlLE, PIG LILY, TRUMPET LILY. South Africa (Namaqualand and Western Cape up coast to KwaZuluNatal, Northern Province, and Mpumalanga); introduced 1731. Stems to 6 ft. in native habitat, usually to 36 in. in gardens. Leaves twice as long as broad, evergreen in warm climates, deciduous in colder areas. Spathe white, to 10 in. long, with recurved margins; spadix yellow. Flowering spring to early summer (September to December in the wild). The most commonly grown Zantedeschia. If it likes its location, it soon forms large clumps. Selections include 'Childsiana', a smaller form with more flowers; 'Crowborough', reputedly hardier than the type; 'Gigantea', a larger form; 'Green Goddess', with dull green flowers; and 'Little Gem', a dwarf selection. Plates 1156-1160. Z. albomaculata. E southern Africa; introduced 1859. Stems 24-36 in. Leaves 12-18 in. long, 3-6 in. wide, with oblong, white, translucent spots all over, deciduous after flowering.

Spathe greenish white, blotched crimson at base on inside, 2-3 in. across. Flowering early summer (November in the wild). Subsp. angustiloba from South Africa (Eastern Cape) has rich yellow spathe with dark spot at base, tightly curled; leaves to 17 in. long and often 6-7 in. wide. Subsp. macrocarpa has leaves sometimes unspotted. Subsp. oculata has greenish yellow leaves with black-purple spot at base. Subsp. tropicalis from South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga) and Zimbabwe has cream to pale yellow spathe with dark blotch inside, also a coral pink form. Subsp. valida has unspotted leaves. Z. xaurata. Garden hybrid (Z. albomaculata x Z. oculata). Spotted leaves and large, spotted spathe. Z. xcantabrigiensis. Garden hybrid (Z. melanoleuca x Z. rehmanii). Z. elliotiana. GOLDEN CALLA, YELLOW CALLA. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga); introduced 1896. Stem to 36 in. Leaves blotched with silver, broad and cordate at base. Spathe bright yellow, without blotch, to 6 in. long, summer. Plates 1161,1162. Z. xelliottiopica. Garden hybrid (Z. aethiopicax Z. elliotiana). Z. jucunda. South Africa (Mpumalanga, S Northern Province, N Gauteng, and E Northwestern Province), on mountainsides. Stems to 24 in. Leaves triangular with sharp point, slight fold along middle, and many white, translucent spots. Spathe cup-shaped, golden yellow with purple blotch on inside at base but not on exterior. Flowering late spring to summer (November to December in the wild). Z. xlathamiana. Garden hybrid (Z. albomaculata x Z. elliotiana). Z. odorata. Similar to Z. aethiopicabut always deciduous and somewhat shorter. Freesia fragrance. Fruiting stalks bend. Z. pentlandii. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga). Stems to 24 in. Flowers pale to deep yellow, purple blotch at base, late spring to summer (November to December in the wild). Z. xragionieri. Garden hybrid (Z. elliotianax Z. rehmannii). Z. rehmannii. PINK CALLA, PURPLE ARUM. South Africa (Northern Province, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal) and Swaziland, in damp grassland. Stems to 24 in. Leaf base tapered, not lobed as in other species. Leaf blade to 16 in. long, 2-3 in. wide, spotted light green or white. Spathe varies from white through shades of pink to deep maroon; spadix yellow. Flowering mid summer. Perhaps the loveliest of the species; several garden forms have been selected in a wide color range. Z. xtaylori. Garden hybrid (Z. xaurataxZ. elliotiana). SYNONYMS Z. angustiloba see Z. albomaculata. Z. hastata see Z. albomaculata. Z. lutwychei see Z. albomaculata. Z. melanoleuca see Z. albomaculata. Z. oculata see Z. albomaculata. Z. sprengeri see Z. pentlandii. Z. tropicalis see Z. albomaculata. Z. valida see Z. albomaculata subsp. valida.

Zephyranthes

Zephyr a—Tecophilaeaceae (Liliaceae) Name derived from Greek zephyros ("west wind"), presumably because this plant grows in coastal Chile, exposed to the west wind from the ocean. Formerly in the Liliaceae but now placed by John Hutchinson in the Tecophilaeaceae because of its silky, tunicated corm and partly inferior ovary. There is only one species.

477

then spread wide, forming a funnel-shaped flower. There are 6 stamens, 3 long and 3 short. The flowers may be white, pink, red, greenish, or yellow. These are useful in warm regions for edging borders, especially the evergreen species. Rain lilies are especially popular in the U.S. Southeast. Plant where their nighttime fragrance can be appreciated. CULTURE

CULTURE Zephyra must be grown frost-free in well-drained soil with moisture during winter and spring, and a warm, dry summer dormancy. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Set corms 1-2 in. deep, 4-6 in. apart, in full sun. Presumably it can be propagated by offsets or seed, the latter sown in cool but frost-free conditions in fall. SPECIES Z. elegans. Chile. Rootstock a corm with a branched stem. Plant height about 10 in., often less. Leaves narrow, on the lower part of the stem, well below the flowers. Flowers small, about 1 in. in diameter, white within; when they are fully open, the blue reverse is obscured. Flowering early spring (October in the wild).

Zephyranthes—Amaryllidaceae RAINDROPS, RAIN LILY, ZEPHYR LILY, FAIRY LILY, ATAMASCO LILY, CROCUS LILY, FLOWER-OF-THE-WESTWIND, PERUVIAN SWAMP LILY, SWAMP LILY Name derived from Greek zephyros ("west wind") and anthos ("flower"); many species come into bloom suddenly after rains, presumably brought by the west wind. The genus includes more than 70 species, most of which are spring- or summer-flowering. They are native to the Americas, mainly in Mexico, Colombia, Guatemala, and SE United States. Many grow wild in wet areas. This genus is similar to Habranthus, differing in that the latter's flowers are not as erect and the stamens are grouped to one side of the tube. Some species were formerly separated in the genus Cooperia on the basis of their anthers being erect, rather than versatile, and their long perianth tubes. The flowers of this group open at night and have a pleasant, primroselike fragrance; they are produced in late summer and are white, sometimes flushed pink, flat when open but funnel-shaped in bud. The foliage is slightly glaucous and emerges before the flowers. The rootstock is a true bulb. Plants are seldom more than 8-12 in. tall. The leaves are strap-shaped or narrowly linear, usually appearing with the flowers and dying back after the growing season. There are, however, some evergreen species. The flowers are solitary, usually held erect or nearly so on a pedicel. The perianth segments usually form a tube at the base and

These plants like bright light (or direct sun in temperate climates) and rich soil with plenty of moisture. They should be planted in spring, 2-4 in. deep and 4-8 in. apart. In colder climates, they should be lifted in late summer when foliage dies down or growth slows, stored over winter, and replanted in spring. Where temperatures remain above 25°F, they can be left in the ground, but they appreciate some protection against winter rains; however, they flower profusely during monsoons, the heavy rains that occur in their native region in late summer and fall. Except for the evergreen types, these plants need a resting period after the growing season, but they should never be bone dry. In containers, a good soil mix is equal parts sand, peat, and good loam. The hardiest species are the spring-flowering Z. atamasca and fall-flowering Z. Candida, followed by Z. grandiflora, then Z. mesochloa, Z. pulchella, Z. rosea, and Z. treatiae; these all grow well in containers. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Separate offsets from parent bulbs when dormant (for deciduous species) or in spring (evergreen species). Sow seed as soon as ripe in sandy-peaty soil mix and keep in moderate temperatures with ample light. Germination is usually rapid. After one year seedlings can be planted out in warm areas in nursery rows and grown on to flowering size. Keep moist while growing; the evergreen species need less moisture during winter. In colder areas they are best raised in a cool greenhouse but can be set outside in their containers in summer. SPECIES

Z. albiella. Colombia; introduced 1945. Stems 2-4 in. Flowers white with green at base, spring to fall. Z. alboliladnus. Bolivia. Flowers slender, white with fine lilac stripes, spring. Z. arenicola. United States (Baja California). Flowers large, white, spring. Z. atamasca. ATAMASCO LILY, GROUND LILY, SWAMP LILY. United States (Virginia to Florida, west to Mississippi), in swamps and damp clearings; introduced before 1629. Species name derives from a Native American word meaning "stained with red," describing the white flowers tinged pink. Stem's to 12 in. Leaves appear with flowers, basal, ll/2 in. wide, strap-shaped, sharp-edged, bright shiny green, to 14 in. long. Flowers to 3l/2 in. in diameter, 2 in. long, mid spring. Plate 1164. Z. aurea. Peru. Stems 6-12 in. Flowers deep golden yellow, summer.

478

Zephyranthes

Z. bella. Mexico, in near desert conditions and poor soil. Among the smallest species. Flowers purplish, spring to summer. Z. bifolia. Santo Domingo; introduced 1913. Stems to 4 in., pink at base and green above. Leaves 6 in. long, shiny green. Flowers bright red, green in throat, 3 in. long and wide; anthers lilac. Flowering early summer. Other colors are reported, including white, pink, and orange; possibly this is a group of hybrids. Z. brazosensis. United States (Texas). Regarded by some authorities as a form of Z. chlorosolen; others list it as a Cooperia species. Stems 5-6 in. Leaves glaucous, linear, twisted, tinged red at base, 10-15 in. long. Flowers erect, to 1 in. in diameter, white with red stripes on the exterior; perianth tube often over 3 in. long, aging to reddish; outer tepals are pointed, inner narrower and rounded. Anthers are sessile at mouth of tube; stigma 3-lobed. Flowering mid to late summer. Z. Candida. Argentina and Uruguay along La Plata River, in marshes; introduced 1822. Stems 8-10 in. Leaves 8-12 in. long, narrow, rushlike, somewhat fleshy, evergreen. Spathe clothes flower bud; pedicel 1/4 in. long. Flowers cup-shaped, 2 in. long, white sometimes flushed rose, green near base; segments1/2in. wide. Flowering fall. The best known and possibly hardiest species. Var. major is larger in all respects, with 18-in. leaves and 21/2-in. flowers. Plate 1165. Z. challensis. Bolivia. Leaves dark green. Flowers white with yellowish throat, pale pink shading on exterior. Z. chichimecca. Mexico. Stems 6-8 in. Flowers pink or white flushed pink. Z. chlorosolen. United States (Kansas, Louisiana, Texas) and adjacent Mexico. Flowers small, white, fragrant, mid summer to fall. Z. citrina. West Indies; introduced 1880. Stems to 5 in., 2edged. Leaves 3-4, bright green, produced with flowers, 12 in. long,1/8in. wide, strap-shaped, channeled. Pedicels about 1 in. long; filaments of equal length. Style shorter than stamens. Perianth tube 1/2 in. long, funnel-shaped, green; lobes golden yellow. Flowering late summer to early fall. Thought to have been crossed (1899) with Z. Candida to produce Z. xajax, with creamy yellow flowers, flowering in early summer. Requires frost-free conditions. Z. clintiae. Mexico. Flowers variable, usually salmon pink. Perhaps a natural hybrid. Z. crodflora. Mexico. Stems to 8 in. Flowers erect, white with reddish flush on exterior. Z. cutleri. Bolivia. Stems 8-10 in. Leaves dark green. Flowers orange-red. Z. drummondii. TEXAS STAR FLOWER. United States (Texas, New Mexico) and Mexico. Stems 5-16 in. in. Leaves linear, somewhat glaucous, 9 in. long, twisted, prostrate, produced before flowers. Flowers open in late afternoon or evening, erect, fragrant, shiny white sometimes flushed pink; perianth tube 2 in. long, greenish. Flowering late summer. Z.fosteri. Mexico (S of Mexico City), in mountains. Stems to 3 in. Leaves erect. Flowers usually bright red, sometimes lighter pink to almost white.

Z. grandiflora. FAIRY LILY. Mexico and Guatemala, in damp woodland, and naturalized in many warm countries, including South Africa; introduced 1824. Stems to 12 in., reddish at base. Leaves usually 3, narrow, strap-shaped, upright, to 12 in. long and V* in. wide. Pedicel 1 in. long, as is spathe. Flowers large, clear pink with white throat; perianth segments to 3 in. long, 1 in. wide; style longer than stamens. Flowering late summer. Very pretty, but requires frost-free conditions. Plates 1166, 1167. Z. huastecana. Mexico. Bulb large. Flowers fragrant, bright pink fading to white, spring. Z. insularum. West Indies, and naturalized in United States (Florida), Mexico, and Cuba. Stems to 6 in., sometimes more than one per bulb. Leaves 8 in. long, brown at base, upper part bright green. Flowers small, funnel-shaped, white flushed pink on exterior and on tips, green near base; tube light green; outer segments larger than inner. Z. jonesii. United States (Texas). Possibly a natural hybrid (Z. chlorosolen x Z. pulchella). Stems to 12 in. Leaves to 14 in. long, 1 in. wide. Perianth tube 2J/2 in. long, upper part pale greenish white, lower part greener and tinged pink; lobes light yellow. Flowers fragrant, mid summer to early fall. Z. lindleyana. Mexico and perhaps Guatemala; introduced before 1825. Stems 2-6 in. Flowers pale pink with yellow throat, spring to early summer. Z. longifolia. United States (S Arizona to W Texas) and N Mexico. Stems 6-9 in. Leaves narrow, 12 in. long. Flowers yellow flushed copper on exterior. Spathe with 2 distinct points at tip; lower portion white and tubular, much longer than pedicel. Flowering early summer. Z. macrosiphon. Mexico; introduced 1865. Stems 5-8 in. Flowers bright rosy-red with green tube and white center, spring to early summer. Z. mesochloa. Paraguay, Uruguay, Argentina, and Brazil; introduced 1829. Stems 3-6 in. Flowers white, stained red on exterior, late spring. Z. morrisdintii. Mexico. Stems to 10 in. Flowers rose pink, fragrant, spring. Z. nymphaea. Mexico. Stems 4-8 in. Flowers yellow. Z. primulina. Mexico. Stems to 6 in. Leaves with definite keel on underside. Flowers yellow, spring to early summer. Z. puertoricensis. Puerto Rico. Flowers white to pink. Often grown under name Z. tubispatha, a synonym of Habranthus tubispathus. Z. pulchella. Mexico and United States (Texas); introduced before 1937. Stems 7-9 in. Flowers slightly fragrant, orangeyellow, late summer. Z. pusilla. S Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. Stems to 2 in. Dark green leaves produced in fall. Flowers yellow to white with darker throat. Spathe half underground, transparent with brown veins. Flowering spring to summer. Z. rosea. Guatemala, Cuba, and West Indies; introduced 1823. Stems to 6 in. Leaves narrow, straplike, produced with flowers, 8 in. long and to 1A in. wide. Flowers rose pink with greenish base, about 1 in. in diameter; style longer than stamens. Flowering late summer. Surprisingly hardy considering

Zigadenus its origin; with the protection of a warm wall, it tolerates temperatures as low as 25°F. Plate 1168. Z. simpsonii. United States (Florida); introduced c. 1892. Stems 3-6 in. Flowers pink, spring. Possibly a variety of Z. atamasca. Z. smallii. United States (Texas). Stems to 6 in. Flowers lemon yellow, tube green, outer lobes with red tinge, late summer. Z. traubii. United States (Texas) and E Mexico. Stems to 6 in. Leaves very narrow. Flowers white, flushed pink outside, edge of petals rolled inward, open evenings. Flowering late summer. Z. treatiae. United States (Florida, Georgia); introduced 1880. Stems 3-10 in. Flowers white aging to pink, spring. Z. tubispatha. Jamaica, Cuba, and West Indies. An obscure species, never in cultivation and not recollected in recent decades. Stems 6-8 in. Leaves narrow, produced with flowers, to 12 in. long and1/4in. wide. Flowers white, sometimes flushed pink at tips, green at base of tube, mid summer. Z. verecunda. Mexico, at elevations to. 10,000 ft. in open, moist grasslands; introduced 1824. Stems often less than 4 in. Leaves very narrow, rushlike, purple at base, 8-10 in. long, sometimes produced after flowers. Flowers 1 in. in diameter, almost flat when open, white flushed pink, green near base in short tube. Flowering early summer. Perhaps one of the hardiest species. Z. wrightii. Cuba and West Indies. Stems 3-10 in. Flowers pink, greenish at base, inner lobes smaller than outer, spring. SYNONYMS Z. xajax see Z. citrina. Z. andersonii see Habranthus tubispathus. Z. aurea see Pyrolirion aureum. Z. beustiisee Pyrolirion flavum. Z. brasiliensis see Z. drummondii. Z. cardinalis see Z. bifolia. Z. carinata see Z. grandiflora. Z. concolorsee Habranthus concolor. Z. cubensis see Z. wrightii. Z. eggersiana see Z. citrina. Z. flava see Pyrolirion flavum. Z. gracilifolius see Habranthus gracilifolius. Z. grahamiana see Z. verecunda. Z. longipes see Habranthus longipes. Z. mexicana see Z. chlorosolen. Z. plumieri see Habranthus plumieri. Z. pseudocolchicum see Z. pusilla. Z. pumila see Rhodophiala rosea. Z. robusta see Habranthus robustus. Z. sessilis see Z. verecunda. Z. striata see Z. verecunda. Z. texana see Habranthus tubispathus. Z. timida see Z. traubii. Z. tsouii see Z. grandiflora. Z. tubiflora see Pyrolirion aureum. Z. tubispatha see Habranthus tubispathus. Z. versicolor see Habranthus versicolor.

479

Zigadenus—Melanthiaceae (Liliaceae) DEATH CAMAS Name (sometimes spelled Zygadenus) derived from Greek zygon ("yoke") and aden ("gland"); the glands usually are found in pairs at the base of the perianth segments. This is a genus of about 18 species of bulbous and rhizomatous plants, native primarily to the United States and Canada. All are poisonous; the most infamous is Z. nuttallii, the death camas, found in the United States from Tennessee west to Texas and Kansas. This common name is also given to Z. venenosus, a West Coast species. The entire plant contains a toxic alkaloid that causes vomiting, breathing difficulties, and coma in humans; it can be fatal to livestock. The onionlike bulbs, sometimes with a dark tunic, are only 1 in. or so in diameter. The foliage sheathes the flower stalk at the base, and there are occasionally a few leaves on the stalk itself. The leaves are linear and smooth, sometimes glaucous. The greenish- or yellowish-white flowers are carried in terminal racemes, sometimes branched. These plants should be considered for the garden only where they are inaccessible to animals. There is not much difference in general appearance among the species, and it is doubtful that even the collector would wish to grow many of them. Zigadenus elegans and Z. fremontii are probably the showiest species, but there are many other pretty but nonpoisonous plants worthy of cultivation. CULTURE Most species are hardy to at least 0°F; Z. elegans grows in Alaska where it experiences -60°F. Set plants in well-drained soil in fall, 3-4 in. deep and 8-10 in. apart, in full sun. No fertilizer is needed, except in the poorest soil. Water should be available throughout the growing season, but plants can be drier in winter, especially under snow. PESTS AND DISEASES

No special problems. PROPAGATION

Seeds or offsets are sown or planted in spring in moderately rich soil and moved to containers or in nursery rows when large enough. SPECIES Z. brevibracteatus. United States (California). Stems 12-10 in. Flowers yellowish, spring. Z. densus. United States (Florida to Texas, Virginia, mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee), in damp pinelands and bogs. Stems 12-18 in. Flowers white aging to purplish, late spring. Z. elegans. ELEGANT CAMAS, ELEPHANT CAMAS, ALKALI GRASS, WHITE CAMAS. United States (from Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas through Colorado, Nevada, and Oregon, Alaska) and W Canada, in mountain meadows and forests and on rocky slopes. Stems 24-30 in. Leaves 6-12 in. long, 1/4—V2 in. wide. Flowers greenish outside, white inside, about l/2 in. long, open

480

Zigadenus

wide, with distinct heart-shaped gland at base of each segment; pedicel to 1 in. long, ascending, so that flowers face up and outward. Flowering mid summer. Subsp. glaucus from E United States and Canada has bluish foliage. Plates 1169,1170. Z. exaltatus. United States (California). Stems 20-40 in. Flowers greenish or yellowish white, early summer. Z. fontanus. United States (California). Stems 15-40 in. Flowers white, late spring. Z. fremontii. United States (Baja California to S Oregon); introduced 1871. Stems 12-40 in. Flowers greenish white, mid spring. Var. minor from California is 4-8 in. tall, flowers early spring. Plate 1171. Z. leimanthoides. United States and Canada, on eastern coastal plain. Stems 12-48 in. Flowers cream or yellow, summer. Z. micranthus. United States (N California, Oregon). Stems 8-20 in. Flowers yellow, early summer. Z. nuttallii. DEATH CAMAS, POISON CAMAS, MERRYHEARTS. United States (Tennessee to Texas and Kansas), on prairies and in open woodland; introduced 1883. Stems 8-24 in. Leaves basal, usually 4-6, 12-18 in. long. Flowers 30 or more in ra-

ceme, yellow-white, with obvious gland at base of each perianth segment. Lower parts of segments pinched and narrow; open flower J/2 in. in diameter. Flowering spring. Z. paniculatus. United States (Washington to New Mexico). Stems 8-20 in. Flowers creamy yellow, late spring. Z. sibiricus. C and E Russia. Stems to 30 in. Flowers greenish, white within, summer. Z. venenosus. DEATH CAMAS. United States (S California to Washington) and Canada (British Columbia), in moist, grassy places. Stems 8-18 in. Bulb oblong-ovoid with dark tunic. Leaves 6-10 in. long, basal, not sheathing. Perianth segments less than V-i in. long, whitish, with distinct gland. Flowering late spring to early summer. SYNONYMS Z. chloranthus var. minor see Z. fremontii var. minor. Z. diegensis see Z. venenosus. Z. gramineus see Z. venenosus. Z. muscitoxicum see Amianthum muscitoxicum. Z. speciosus see Z. fremontii. Z. toxicoscordion var. venenosus see Z. venenosus.

APPENDIX

A

Families of Bulbous Plants

n f-f plant classification, every genus is assigned to a family, { I based on similarities in the form and placement of the varI ious parts of the plants. The families of bulbous plants folJL. low, with brief descriptions of their characteristics. At the end of each description is a list of the genera from that family which are included in this book. With these descriptions in hand it is possible to speed the identification of unknown species. Agapanthaceae (agapanthus family). Formerly in Liliaceae, then moved to Alliaceae, and now a separate family. Rhizomatous perennials. Leaves in 2 ranks, straplike, basal. Flowers blue, rarely white, in an umbel on a leafless stalk and enclosed by 2 large papery bracts. Tepals 6, joined toward their base. Stamens 6, unequal; style and stamens arched. Ovary superior. Genus: Agapanthus. Agavaceae (sisal family). Rootstock a rhizome. Leaves usually crowded on or at the base of the stem, narrow, often thick or fleshy, entire or with prickly teeth on the margin. Flowers bisexual, polygamous or deciduous, actinomorphic or somewhat zygomorphic, in a raceme or panicle. Perianth tube short to rather long, lobes or segments unequal to subequal, corona never present. Stamens 6, inserted at base of lobes or on tube, filaments filiform or thickened towards the base, free. Ovary superior or inferior. Genera: Bravoa, Hesperocallis, Manfreda, Polianthes, Prochnyanthes, Pseudobravoa. Alliaceae (onion family). Formerly in Liliaceae. Bulbous or rhizomatous perennials. Rootstock and leaves smell of garlic when crushed or bruised. Leaves spirally arranged, straplike or tubular. Flowers in a wide color range, in an umbel on a leafless stem and enclosed by 2 large papery bracts. Tepals 6, free or joined below. Stamens 6, sometimes with flattened filaments. Ovary superior with undivided style. Genera: Allium, Androstephium, Bessera, Bloomeria, Brodiaea, Caloscordum, Dichelostemma, Leucocoryne, Muilla, Petronymphe, Triteleia,

<1

Tulhnahin

Aloeaceae (aloe family). Formerly in Liliaceae. Rhizomatous perennials, often with yellow sap. Leaves succulent, frequently tough and fibrous, in a spiral or 2 ranks; margins toothed. Flowers white to yellow, orange, or red, crowded in a spike or branched raceme. Tepals 6, united into a tube more or less straight. Stamens 6, as long as or longer than the tube. Ovary superior, style slender. Genus: Kniphofia. Alstroemeriaceae (alstroemeria family). Formerly in Liliaceae. Rhizomatous perennials, often with swollen and fleshy roots. Leaves alternate, non-sheathing, slightly twisted at base. Flowers slightly zygomorphic but usually actinomorphic, terminal, spirally clustered, subtended by leaf bracts. Tepals 6, overlapping, variously spotted or striped. Stamens 6, anthers basifixed or dorsifixed, non-versatile, generally opposite outer tepals. Ovary inferior. Fruit a capsule. Genera: Alstroemeria, Bomarea. Amaryllidaceae (amaryllis family). For many years the only recognized difference between the Amaryllidaceae and the Liliaceae was the position of the ovary: superior in the Liliaceae and inferior in the Amaryllidaceae. Otherwise, the 2 families could be described as having perfect flowers, rarely one sex, 6 perianth segments in 2 series, 6 stamens, 3 carpels; fruit a capsule, sometimes a berry; inflorescence solitary, racemose, paniculate, or umbellate. Such a simple difference between these 2 families was too minor and separated genera that were otherwise closely related. John Hutchinson, late keeper of the herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, took a dramatic step in including in the Amaryllidaceae certain groups formerly placed in the Liliaceae. He considered the trait of an umbellate inflorescence with an involucre of bracts to be of greater taxonomic importance and to provide a more natural grouping than the superior or inferior ovary. This rather radical step has been generally accepted. Herbs with a tunicated, bulbous or rarely rhizomatous rootstock. Leaves few from the base of the stem or apex of the bulb,

481

482

Appendix A

more or less linear, with parallel veins and transverse secondary nerves. Flowers usually showy, bisexual, actinomorphic, solitary to many, in an umbel at the top of the scape, subtended by an involucre of 2 or more (rarely only one) usually membranous bracts. Perianth segments or lobes 6, in 2 series, all equal and similar or the inner smaller or larger than the outer, inserted below or usually above the ovary, petaloid, often withering and persisting, with or without a tube; corona often present. Stamens nearly always 6, opposite the perianth segments or lobes, hypogynous or inserted on the tube or towards the base of the segments. Filaments free or expanded at the base, connate, forming a "false" corona; anthers 2, locular, introrse, basifixed or versatile, opening by slits lengthwise. Ovary either superior or inferior. Fruit a capsule, or fleshy and indehiscent. Seeds usually numerous, with fleshy endosperm surrounding a small embryo, sometimes angular or compressed and winged. Genera included in Amaryllidaceae: xAmarcrinum, xAmarine, xAmarygia, Amaryllis, Ammocharis, Apodolirion, Bokkeveldia, Boophane, Brunsvigia, Calostemma, Carpolyza, Chlidanthus, Clivia, Crinum, Crossyne, Cybistetes, Cyrtanthus, Eucharis, Eucrosia, Eustephia, Galanthus, Gethyllis, Griffinia, Habranthus, Haemanthus, Hannonia, Hessea, Hippeastrum, Hymenocallis, Ipheion, Ixiolirion, Lapiedra, Lepidochiton, Leucojum, Lycoris, Milla, Namaquanula, Narcissus, Nectaroscordum, Nerine, Nothoscordum, Pamianthe, Pancratium, Paramongaia, Phaedranassa, Phycella, Placea, Plagiolirion, Proiphys, Pyrolirion, Rhodophiala, Scadoxus, Sprekelia, Stenomesson, Sternbergia, Strumaria, Tedingea, Ungernia, Urceolina, Vagaria, Worsleya, Zephyranthes. Anthericaceae (grasslily family). Cormous, rhizomatous, or tuberous perennials, self-supporting or climbing. Leaves alternate, arranged in a spiral, generally sessile, held edgewise to the stem. Flowers carried in racemes, spikes, heads, and umbels. Tepals 6, sometimes joined and forming a basal tube, sometimes fringed. Stamens 3 or 6, stigmas 2- or 3-lobed. Genera: Caesia, Echeandia, Leucocrinum. Araceae (arum family). Rhizomatous and cormous perennials. Leaves often lanceolate. Flowers usually crowded on a spadix and enclosed in a large spathe but sometimes reduced to one or a few, usually monoecious but may be dioecious or perfect, lacking bracts, often lacking perianth. Stamens normally 6, but as few as one; pistil also often reduced to a single carpel. Fruit a berry, the outer covering of the seed often fleshy. Genera: Amorphophallus, Arisaema, Arisarum, Arum, Biarum, Caladium, Colocasia, Cryptocoryne, Dracunculus, Eminium, Gonatopus, Pinellia, Pycnospatha, Sauromatum, Typhonium, Zantedeschia. Aristolochiaceae (birthwort family). Rhizomatous herbs. Leaves alternate, simple. Flowers solitary or in terminal or lateral racemes, bisexual; perianth usually has 3 fused lobes with Sshaped tube. Stamens 6-40, in 2 series. Ovary inferior, carpels 4-6, fused 4- to 6-loculed. Fruit a capsule, sometimes fleshy. Genus: Asarum. Asclepiadaceae (milkweed family). Flowers in usually manyflowered cymes, racemes, or umbels, regular and perfect, usu-

ally small. Sepals 5, free; petals 5, joined. Stamens 5, epipetalous, with anthers united to the margin; backs of anthers bear curious appendages forming a corona, but sometimes the corona springs from the corolla. Ovary superior; carpels 2, united by their styles into a gynostegium; style head large, with stigma usually beneath or on the edge of it. Genera: Asclepias, Ceropegia. Asparagaceae (asparagus family). Formerly in Liliaceae. Leaves reduced, scalelike, sometimes in the form of hooks which can be quite hard—almost like a rose spine—or flat or needlelike. Flowers small, white or greenish, often inconspicuous in a raceme, solitary or in a cluster and arising from the same point. Tepals 6, free or joined at their base. Stamens 6, but flowers can be unisexual. Ovary superior with a short style. Fruit a fleshy berry. Genus: Asparagus. Asphodelaceae (asphodel family). Formerly in Liliaceae. Rhizomatous perennials. Leaves fleshy, held in 2 ranks or arranged in a spiral, simple, sessile. Flowers green, white, red, pink, yellow, purple, or purple and brown, but never blue or violet, in a simple or branched raceme. Tepals 6, either free or united into a tube. Stamens 6. Ovary superior, style slender. Genera: Anthencum, Anthropodium, Asphodelina, Asphodelus, Bulbine, Bulbinopsis, Eremurus, Paradisea, Simethis, Thysanotus, Vulvinella. Asteraceae (aster family). There are some 14 major tribes in this family, also known as the Compositae (composite family, sunflower family), but as numerous studies reevaluate the phylogeny of the family, such presently accepted differences may well be changed. Writing in Guide to Flowering Plant Families (1994), Wendy B. Zomlefer, plant taxonomist and scientific illustrator, states, "Asteraceae is currently in a flux as a result of recent analyses of molecular and morphological data." It is not the purpose of this book to enter into such discussion, and no attempt at describing this complex is undertaken here. Flowers usually in heads surrounded by an involucre of bracts or in very short and crowded spikes; sometimes neutral, unisexual, or perfect, and distribution of the different forms in the heads varies greatly. Calyx rarely distinct, sometimes absent, sometimes a 5-toothed rim at the top of the inferior ovary, usually a number of hairs or bristles which enlarge after fertilization to aid in the distribution of the one-seeded fruit. Corolla of 5 connate petals, sometimes 2-lipped, sometimes strapshaped, often regular. Stamens 5, growing on the tube of the corolla, anthers joined into a tube surrounding the style. Ovary inferior, style 1, stigmas 2, ovule 1. Genera: Dahlia, Helianthus, Liatris, Microseris. Basellaceae (basella family). Leaves opposite or alternate, produced on annual climbing shoots. Flowers very small, in mostly terminal heads or sometimes produced from the axils of the leaves; regular, bisexual, with 2 sepal-like bracteoles sometimes joined along their length to the perianth. Segments 5, free, petal-like. Stamens 5, opposite the segments. Ovary superior; carpels 3, fused. Genus: Anredera. Begoniaceae (begonia family). Flowers typically irregular, monoecious. Male flowers of 2 to rarely 5 sepals, 2-6 petals or petals absent, and many stamens. Female flowers of usually

Families of Bulbous Plants 5 perianth segments but as few as 2, sometimes in 2 whorls of 3 or 4; ovary usually entirely inferior, carpels 3, rarely 4 or 5; styles free; ovules many. Fruit a capsule, rarely a berry. Genus: Begonia. Behniaceae. Formerly in Liliaceae. Perennials from short rhizomes. Leaves alternate on stems, self supporting or climbing. Flowers solitary, green or white. Tepals 6, joined, in 2 whorls. Stamens 6, stigma 3-lobed. Male flowers with a sterile but nectariferous ovary. Female flowers with staminodes. Ovary superior. Genus: Behnia. Berberidaceae (barberry family). Sepals and petals imbricate, usually in 3 rows of 3, rarely 2 or 4. Stamens free, as many as the petals, filaments short, anthers opening by valves (rarely by a longitudinal slit). Ovary superior, carpel solitary, style short or wanting, stigma usually peltate. Fruit a berry or pod. Seeds few or many. Genera: Bongardia, Gymnospermium, Leontice. Blandfordiaceae (blandfordia family). Formerly in Liliaceae. Rhizomatous perennials. Leaves alternate, long and pointed, mostly basal sheathing the stem, with a few leaves on flowering stem. Flowers yellow, orange, or red, pendulous, terminal in a raceme, with 1 leaflike bract. Tepals 6, joined, held in 2 whorls. Stamens 6, stigma slightly 3-lobed. Seeds hairy. Genus: Blandfordia. Calochortaceae (calochortus family). Formerly in Liliaceae. Bulbous perennials. Stem with generally 1 leaf. Other foliage flat, sessile, sheathing the flowering stem. Flowers yellow, red, or pink, plain or with contrasting markings, terminal, held singly or in branched racemes on long pedicels. Tepals 6, held in 2 whorls. Stamens 6, stigmas 3. Genus: Calochortus. Campanulaceae (bellflower family). Flowers usually in racemes but sometimes in cymes or with several flowers in the axils of the bracts on the raceme, usually perfect, regular or zygomorphic, with parts in 5s. Petals joined. Stamens above the ovary, anthers sometimes united. Ovary inferior, carpels 5 or 2-3, many-celled; ovules many. Fruit a capsule or berry. Genera: Codonopsis, Cyphia. Cannaceae (canna family). Flowers with colorful petaloid stamens. Sepals 3, small, usually green; petals 3, long, narrow, usually colored. Stamens 1 to 5, of which 2 or 3 are broad and colorful, 1 recurves to form the lower lip of the flower, and 1 is fertile with a single pollen-producing cell on one side of the stamen, the other side being petaloid. Ovary inferior, 3-celled, style single, long. Fruit a 3-celled capsule with many seeds. Genus: Canna. Colchicaceae (colchicum family). Formerly Liliaceae. Cormous or sometimes rhizomatous perennials. Leaves in a loose spiral, sometimes with terminal tendril used for climbing, or can grow flat on the ground. Flowers in a raceme or solitary. Tepals 6, free or united into a tube. Stamens 6. Ovary superior, styles 1 or 3, free or partially joined, stigmas 3. Genera: Androcymbium, Baeometra, Bulbocodium, Burchardia, Camptorrhiza, Colchicum, Gloriosa, Hexacyrtis, Iphigenia, Littonia, Neodregea, Onixotis, Ornithoglossum, Sandersonia, Wurmbea. Commelinaceae (spiderwort family). Flowers usually in a cyme, perfect, usually regular and blue. Sepals and petals 3. Stamens 6, often absent or transformed into staminodes. Ovary

483

superior, 3-celled, with a few ovules in each cell. Fruit a capsule. Genera: Cartonema, Commelina. Convallariaceae (lily of the valley family). Formerly in Liliaceae. Rhizomatous or tuberous perennials. Leaves alternate, held in a spiral or 2 distinct ranks, sessile or with petioles, sheathing at the base but margins free. Flowers solitary or grouped, small to medium size, held on erect stems. Tepals 6, sometimes 8, held in 2 whorls. Stamens 4 or 8 but usually 6. Ovary superior. Genera: Convallaria, Liriope, Maianthemum, Polygonatum. Convolvulaceae (morning-glory family). Most commonly annual or perennial vines, often with a milky sap. Leaves simple, entire, lobed, or pinnately divided, held alternately. Flowers regular, quickly passing, generally subtended by a pair of bracts. Sepals 5, sometimes unequal, persistent. Petals united by their margins, entire or 5-lobed, forming a funnel, and often brightly colored in red, violet, blue, or white. Stamens 5, joined to the base of the petals, filaments often not equal. Ovary superior. Genus: Ipomoea. Crassulaceae (stonecrop family). Leaves mostly succulent. Flower parts from 3 to 30, free except sometimes the petals and carpels are united. Ovary superior. Fruit usually a group of follicles with many very small seeds. Genus: Umbilicus. Dioscoreaceae (yam family). Flowers small, in racemes of spikes; usually dioecious. Perianth tubular, 6-cleft. Stamens 6,3 sometimes reduced to staminodes. Ovary inferior, usually 3celled, with 2 ovules in each cell, occasionally 1 -celled. Fruit a capsule or berry. Genus: Dioscorea. Doryanthaceae. Formerly in Liliaceae. Rhizomatous perennials. Leaves in a rosette, large, alternate, in a spiral, sessile, sheathing the short stem, simple. Flowers white or red, in a terminal head, more or less flat, sometimes replaced by bulbils. Tepals 6, held in 2 whorls. Ovary inferior, styles 2. Genus: Herpolirion. Droseraceae (sundew family). This family contains numerous species of carnivorous plants. Rootstock often rhizomatous or tuberous. Leaves in a basal rosette, either spirally arranged or whorled, simple, with gland-tipped hairs or active traps which entrap insects. Flowers bisexual, regular, solitary or in cymes, often with a withered but persistent calyx. Sepals 4-8, slightly united at the bases. Petals 4-8, rolled or twisted together, especially before fully open. Stamens usually 5, but sometimes 4, or as many as 10—20. Ovary superior. Fruit a capsule with few or many seeds. Genus: Drosera. Eriospermaceae (eriospermum family). Tuber fleshly, irregularly shaped and varying in size and color (and thus useful in identifying the species). Leaves comprise 2 or 3 basal scales, arranged in a spiral, sometimes sessile, sometimes with a short petiole, often with appendages at base of the blade, thin threads, or featherlike, or branched with thick and fleshy segments. Flowers white, cream, yellow, or pink. Tepals 6. Stamens 6, style 1. Genus: Eriospermum. Fumariaceae (fumitory family). This family is often placed with and included in Papaveraceae, but its species do not have a milky sap as do members of the poppy family. Leaves basal or alternate to nearly opposite, much dissected. Flowers often ir-

484

Appendix A

regular, bisexual. Sepals 2, small, and deciduous; petals 4, outer 2 often spurred with inner 2 narrower and crested. Stamens 4 or 6; if 4, then opposite; if 6, then united in 2 bundles. Ovary superior. Genera: Corydalis, Dicentra. Geraniaceae (geranium family). Flowers often showy, perfect. Sepals 5, free, persistent; petals 5, sometimes less, usually free. Stamens 5,10, or 15, joined at base. Ovary superior; carpels joined, 2-5; ovules 2 to many in each cell; style long with 5 stigmas, persistent. Fruit splits off from the central beak. Genera: Geranium, Pelargonium. Gesneriaceae (gesneria family). Flowers often large, showy, perfect, zygomorphic; calyx with 5 very short teeth; corolla usually distinctly 2-lipped, but sometimes nearly regular. Stamens 4, in 2 unequal pairs, or 2 with sometimes 2 or 3 staminode anthers often connivent in pairs or all drawn close together. Ovary superior or more or less inferior, with pistil of 2 joined carpels; ovules many. Fruit a capsule with many small seeds. Genera: Achimenes, Eucodonia, Koellikeria, Kohleria, Sinningia, Smithiantha. Haemodoraceae (bloodwort family). Rhizomatous perennials. Leaves mostly basal, linear or sword-shaped, with the veins parallel. Flowers mostly regular, bisexual, with the tube absent or long, in a raceme, panicle, or cyme. Perianth segments 6, in 1 or 2 series. Stamens 3 or 6. Ovary inferior or superior. Genera: Anigozanthos, Haemodorum, Wachendorfia. Hemerocallidaceae (daylily family). Formerly in Liliaceae. Rhizomatous or tuberous perennials. Leaves basal, alternate, in 2 opposite ranks, flat or folded, sessile and sheathing, linear or lanceolate, with parallel veins. Flowers lilylike, red to orange to yellow, never variegated but sometimes striped, terminal, in a more or less flathead with the central (terminal) flower opening first. Tepals 6, in 2 whorls. Stamens 6. Ovary superior, style single. Genus: Hemerocallis. Hyacinthaceae (hyacinth family). Formerly in Liliaceae. Bulbous or (rarely) rhizomatous perennials. Leaves alternate, sessile, sheathing, linear or lanceolate, fleshy. Flowers held in racemes, spikes, or heads, usually simple, seldom branched. Tepals 6, free or joined, united into a tube. Stamens 6, rarely 3. Ovary superior. Genera: Albuca, Amphisiphon, Androsiphon, Bellevalia, Bowiea, Brimeura, Camassia, Chionodoxa, xChionoscilla, Chlorogalum, Curculigo, Daubenya, Dipcadi, Drimia, Drimiopsis, Eucomis, Hyacinthella, Hyacinthoides, Hyacinthus, Lachenalia, Ledebouria, Litanthus, Massonia, Muscari, Neopatersonia, Ornithogalum, Periboea, Polyxena, Pseudogaltonia, Puschkinia, Rhadamanthus, Scilla, Tenicroa, Urginea, Veltheimia, Whiteheadia. Hypoxidaceae (star-grass family). Cormous or rhizomatous perennials. Leaves basal, in 2 ranks or in a spiral. Flowers mostly white or yellow, sometimes pink to red, frequently green on the underside, often in reduced stems carried at soil level, or carried on leafless stalks in loose clusters. Tepals 6, occasionally 4 free or joined into a tube. Stamens 3,4, or 6, on short filaments. Ovary inferior. Genera: Empodium, Hypoxis, Pauridia, Rhodohypoxis, Saniella. Iridaceae (iris family). Perennial herbs with roots from underground rhizomes, corms, or bulbs; stems herbaceous, in

bunches from the rhizome or bulb or solitary. Leaves often crowded at base of stem, mostly narrowly linear, flattened at sides, sheathing at base. Flowers bisexual, actinomorphic, with a straight perianth tube, or tube curved with an oblong limb, or completely zygomorphic, usually very ornamental and beautifully mottled or spotted. Perianth petaloid, segments or lobes 6, 2-seriate subequal or similar, or the 2 series different in size, shape, and texture; when limb oblique then the dorsal lobe often the largest and sometimes hoodlike. Stamens 3, opposite the outer perianth lobes; filaments free or partially connate; anthers 2-locular. Ovary inferior, very rarely superior; style slender, 3-lobed in the upper part, branches subulate and entire or deeply lobed, sometimes winged and petaloid, stigmatose at the top or within. Genera: Alophia, Babiana, Belamcanda, Bobartia, Calydorea, Chasmanthe, Cipura, Crocosmia, Crocus, Cypella, Devia, Dierama, Dietes, Duthiastrum, Eleutherine, Ennealophus, Ferraria, Freesia, Galaxia, Geissorhiza, Gelasine, Gladiolus, Gynandriris, Herbertia, Hermodactylus, Hesperantha, Hexaglottis, Homeria, Iris, Isophysis, Ixia, Lapeirousia, Mastigostyla, Melasphaerula, Micranthus, Moraea, Nemastylis, Neomarica, Olsynium, xPardacanda, Pardanthopsis, Patersonia, Pillansia, Radinosiphon, Rheome, Rigidella, Roggeveldia, Romulea, Sparaxis, Sphenostigma, Syringodea, Thereianthus, Tigridia, Trimezia, Tritonia, Tritoniopsis, Watsonia, Xenoscapa. Labiatae (mint family). The most commonly noticed features of this family, also known as Lamiaceae, are square stems and opposite leaves with more or less flat-topped flowerheads held in the axils of the leaves, where they are held in false whorls. Leaves simple to pinnately or palmately dissected, or compound and most commonly serrate. Flowers zygomorphic. Sepals 5-lobed; corolla tubular, typically forming a 2-lobed upper lip and 3-lobed lower lip. Stamens 4, sometimes 2, often of equal length. Ovary superior, style split into 2 lips at the tip. Genus: Salvia. Leguminosae (pea family, pulse family). This family, also known as Fabaceae, was originally divided into subfamilies Papilionoideae, Mimosoideae, and Caesalpinioideae. Subfamily Papilionoideae has zygomorphic flowers with 5 sepals and 5 petals, the posterior petals being the large standard, the 2 lateral the wings. A distinct keel is formed by the obliquely anterior petals which are separate but fused distally so as to enclose the stamens and carpel. Stamens 10, 9 united by their stalks into a tube, the 10th (which is posterior) separate to its base. Ovary superior, forming a pod with numerous ovules on the posterior margins. Style longer than the stamens, stigma capitate. Genus (in subfamily Papilionoideae): Lathyrus. Liliaceae (lily family). During the latter part of the twentieth century, botanists endeavored to restructure the family Liliaceae. Since this family contains some 250 genera and more than 3500 species worldwide, this is not surprising. Such restructuring will no doubt continue, but it is difficult to say when general agreement will be reached. This state of affairs is reflected in the present work, where the "narrow" new family name in the entry heading is followed by the "broad" family name Liliaceae in parentheses. The narrower family has the following characteristics. Inflo-

Families of Bulbous Plants rescence usually racemose, sometimes cymose, sometimes solitary terminal flowers. Flower regular, bisexual, perianth 3 + 3 united or free, sometimes sepaloid, petaloid, stamens 3 + 3 or fewer. Ovary 3 fused carpels, superior. Genera: Amana, Cardiocrinum, Erythronium, Fritillaria, Gagea, Galtonia, Lilium, Lloydia, Nomocharis, Notholirion, Tulipa. Melanthiaceae. Formerly in Liliaceae. Rhizomatous, tuberous, or occasionally cormous perennials, rarely annuals. Leaves alternate, in a spiral or in 2 distinct ranks, usually sessile and sheathing, linear or lanceolate. Flowers white, yellow, brown, purple, usually inconspicuous, held in racemes, spikes, or (rarely) panicles. Tepals 6, free or joined, in 2 whorls. Stamens 6, styles 1 or 3; when 3, free or partially joined. Ovary superior or partly inferior. Genera: Amianthum, Chamaelirion, Helonias, Heloniopsis, Stenanthium, Veratrum, Zigadenus. Melastomataceae (melastoma family). Only one genus of this family contains a bulbous plant, and only one species in that genus has a bulbous (tuberous) rootstock. Stem 4-sided, sometimes winged. Leaves opposite, with opposite veins; margins smooth, sometimes toothed. Flowers symmetrical, with calyx tube 4- to 5-lobed. Stamens 8-10, petals 4-5; petals and stamens inserted on the summit of calyx tube. Style 1, stigma 1. Fruit urn-shaped with 4 points. Genus: Rhexia. Oxalidaceae (wood-sorrel family). Cormous and tuberous perennials. Flowers large, in cymes, perfect and regular. Sepals 5, free, overlapping, persistent; petals 5, twisted or overlapping, free or nearly so. Stamens 10, joined in lower part. Ovary superior, carpels 5, joined, with free styles. Fruit a capsule or berry. Genus: Oxalis. Papaveraceae (poppy family). This family often includes genera placed with and included in Fumariaceae. The genera of the two families are alike in that the leaves are basal or alternate to nearly opposite, and much dissected, and the flowers are often irregular, bisexual, with 2 small and deciduous sepals. Papaveraceae is distinguished from Fumariaceae in having numerous stamens (Fumariaceae has only 4 stamens), petals that are rolled or crumpled in bud, and leaves with a milky sap. Genus: Sanguinaria. Portulacaceae (purslane family). Leaves alternate or opposite, simple. Flowers usually regular and bisexual, solitary or in heads, small, showy. Sepals 2, free, usually persistent, tepals 4-6, free with shiny surface. Stamens 4-6, with nectary ring or nectaries around stamens. Ovary superior. Fruit a capsule. Genus: Claytonia. Primulaceae (primrose family). Flowers often showy, perfect, usually regular but sometimes zygomorphic; calyx 5toothed, persistent; corolla 5-lobed, but the petals sometimes free, sometimes absent. Stamens 5, on corolla opposite petals. Ovary superior or half-inferior, 1-celled, ovules many, free-central. Fruit a capsule, usually opening by teeth. Genus: Cyclamen. Ranunculaceae (buttercup family). Flowers perfect, rarely unisexual. Sepals 2-15, usually 5; petals 2-15, rarely absent. Stamens many, rarely few. Ovary superior, carpels 1 to many, separate. Fruit an achene or a follicle, rarely berrylike. Genera: Aconitum, Adonis, Anemone, Anemonella, Delphinium, Eranthis, Hepatica, Ranunculus.

485

Scrophulariaceae (figwort family). Inflorescence a raceme, spike, head, or panicle. Flowers hermaphrodite, often irregular, calyx inferior, persistent, with 5 (rarely 4) teeth or lobes, corolla gamopetalous. Limbs 4 or 5, rarely 6 or 8, equally spreading lobes, or more or less 2-lipped with the upper lip entire, emarginate or 2-lobed, lower 3-lobed and often spreading. Stamens often 4, in 2 unequal pairs, alternating with corolla lobes; anthers 2-celled, sometimes 1-celled. Fruit variable, often a dehiscent capsule, sometimes an indehiscent berry. Genus: Cycnium. Solanaceae (nightshade family). Inflorescence usually a cyme, often leaf-opposed owing to adnations. Flowers hermaphrodite, regular or slightly irregular; calyx with 5 (rarely 4, 6, or 7) parts, toothed or lobed, gamosepalous, inferior; corolla gamopetalous, tubular, funnel-, bell-, or salver-shaped; lobes equal or slightly 2-lipped. Stamens alternating with corolla lobes, affixed to tube. Ovary 2- to 5-celled, superior, oblique. Fruit a many-seeded capsule or berry. Genus: Solanum. Stylidiaceae (stylidium family). Plants mostly small. Leaves in basal rosettes, spirally arranged, grasslike; if more than one rosette, separated by a leafy part of the stem. Flowers in terminal inflorescence, bisexual, rarely unisexual; corolla of 5-fused petals, deeply lobed, the lowest much different from the other 4. Stamens 2, filaments forming a cone around the style, anthers sessile at the top of the column. Ovary inferior. Genus: Stylidium. Taccaceae (tacca family). Rootstock a rhizome or a tuber, cylindrical, scarred with leaf bases as the leaves are crowded on the rootstock. Stemless. Leaves entire, sometimes lobed, green to gray-green, glossy above and duller beneath. Flowers white, yellow-green, violet-green, or darkish purple-brown, nodding campanulate, with 6 perianth segments in 2 whorls, unusual in that each flower in a cluster is backed by a collar of glossy bracts which are ornamented by spidery appendages. Genus: Tacca. Tecophilaeaceae (cyanella family). Formerly in Liliaceae. Cormous or tuberous perennials. Leaves basal, alternate, spiral, sessile and sheathing, linear to lanceolate, ovate or orbicular. Flowers white, yellow, violet, or blue, terminal in simple or compound racemes. Tepals 6, free or joined, in 2 whorls. Stamens 3 or 6. Ovary partly inferior, stigma 3-lobed. Genera: Conanthera, Cyanastrum, Cyanella, Odontostomum, Tecophilaea, Walleria, Zephyra. Trilliaceae (trillium family). Formerly in Liliaceae. Rhizomatous or tuberous perennials, mostly woodland species. Leaves in whorls carried high on the stem, either 3 or many per whorl, with or without petioles, lanceolate or oblong to ovate cordate, cuneate, or attenuate at the base. Flowers solitary, sessile or with petioles, green, white, yellow, pink, or purple. Perianth parts in 3s, from 6 to 18, not joined. Stamens 6-10. Ovary superior. Genera: Daiswa, Kinugasa, Medeola, Paris, Trillium. Tropaeolaceae (nasturtium family). Flowers often showy, perfect, zygomorphic, spurred. Sepals and petals 5. Stamens 8. Ovary superior, the spur a hollow development of the tip of the pedicel. Fruit separates into 3 rounded, 1-seeded carpels with a fleshy or spongy outer layer. Genus: Tropaeolum.

486

Appendix A

Zingiberaceae (ginger family). Flowers often showy, in a raceme, head, or cyme. Perianth of 6 segments, outer 3 (sepals) united into a tube at base and usually different in texture and color from the more conspicuous inner 3 (petals) which are united at base into a long tube. Stamens 3, only 1 fertile, the

other 2 of the inner whorl sterile, and represented by staminodes, sometimes very small if not absent; the lip or labellum variously interpreted but in most genera seems to represent the combination of the 3 outer stamens. Ovary inferior, 3-celled with numerous ovules. Fruit a capsule. Genus: Roscoea.

APPENDIX

B

Bulbs Around the World

S~~r*\ ulbous plants are found throughout the world. Listed • m^J here are the principle, but not the only, locations I ^» where various genera are to be found in the wild. ^ -J Plants know no territorial boundaries, and genera listed under a country might well also be found in neighboring countries.

Afghanistan Allium Bellevalia Corydalis Crocus Eremurus Fritillaria Iris Notholirion Stilla Tulipa

Argentina Anredera Begonia Ennealophus Eustephia Habranthus Herbertia Olsynium Oxalis Rhodophiala Tropaeolum

Australia Amorphophallus Anigozanthos

Arthropodium Blandfordia Bulbine Bulbinopsis Burchardia Caesia Calostemma Cartonema Ceropegia Crinum Curculigo Dietes Dio scorea Drosera Haemodorum Herpolirion Hypoxis Isophysis Microseris Moraea Patersonia Proiphys Stylidium Thysanotus Typhonium Watsonia Wurmbea

Bolivia

Canada

Begonia Camassia Ennealophus Hippeastrum Koellikeria Pyrolirion Stenomesson Tropaeolum Urceolina

Arisaema Asclepias Brodiaea Camassia Delphinium Dichelostemma Erythronium Helianthus Iris Lilium Medeola Microseris Polygonatum Sanguinaria Stenanthium Trillium Zigadenus

Brazil Alophia Alstroemeria Anredera Caladium Cypella Dioscorea Griffinia Habranthus Herbertia Hippeastrum Neomarica Oxalis Salvia Sinningia Trimezia Worsleya

Bulgaria Allium Gagea Iris Lilium Nectar osco rdum

Canary Islands Asphodelus Dracunculus Narcissus Pancratium

Caucasus Bellevalia Bulbocodium Crocus Fritillaria Gagea Galanthus Iris Lilium

487

488

Appendix B

Chile

Colombia

Alstroemeria Calydorea Camassia Chlidanthus Conanthera Hippeastrum Ipheion Leucocoryne Microseris Olsynium Oxalis Phycella Placea Rhodophiala Tecophilaea Tropaeolum Zephyra

Caladium Dioscorea Eucharis Hippeastrum Phaedranassa Plagiolirion Sphenostigma

Congo Amorphophallus Dierama Gladiolus Gonatopus Lapeirousia Pelargonium Scadoxus

Corsica China Aconitum Allium Amana Arisaema Asarum Asparagus Begonia Belamcanda Caloscordum Cardiocrinum Codonopsis Corydalis Crinum Daiswa Dioscorea Fritillaria Gagea Geranium Hemerocallis Iphigenia Iris Lilium Liriope Lycoris Nomocharis Pardanthopsis Pinellia Roscoea Salvia Scilla Tacca Trillium Tulip a Typhonium

Arum Brimeura Crocus Dracunculus Gladiolus Leucojum Pancratium

Crete Arum Bellevalia Biarum Chionodoxa Colchicum Crocus Cyclamen Gagea Tulipa

Cuba Anredera Zephyranthes

Cyprus Crocus Cyclamen Iris Tulipa

Ecuador Begonia Caladium Dioscorea Eucrosia Ennealophus Hymenocallis

Lepidochiton Phaedranassa Stenomesson

Egypt Colchicum

Ethiopa A Ilium Crinum Dierama Gladiolus Kniphofia Lapeirousia Moraea

Europe (genera that are widespread) Adonis Asarum Colchicum Convallaria Dipcadi Eranthis Erythronium Gagea Galanthus Gladiolus Gymnospermium Hepatica Hyacinthoides Iris Lathyrus Leucojum Lilium Lloydia Maianthemum Muscari Narcissus Ornithogalum Pancratium Paradisea Paris Polygonatum Ranunculus Romulea Scilla Tulipa Umbilicus Veratrum

France Anemone Arum Brimeura Crocus

Dioscorea Fritillaria Iris Lilium Muscari Narcissus Scilla Tulipa

Georgia Bellevalia Galanthus

Greece Androcymbium Anemone Asphodeline Bellevalia Biarum Colchicum Corydalis Crocus Cyclamen Fritillaria Gagea Geranium Iris Leontice Lilium Muscari Narcissus Sternbergia Tulipa

Guatemala Achimenes Begonia Calochortus Hymenocallis Milla Tigridia Zephyranthes

Guyana Caladium

Himalayas Arisaema Colocasia Fritillaria Iris Lilium Roscoea Sauromatum Trillium

Bulbs Around the World Hungary

Italy

Cokhicum Iris Tulipa

Allium Arisarum Asphodeline Bellevalia Biarum Cokhicum Crocus Fritillaria Iris Lilium Muscari Narcissus Nectaroscordum Scilla Sternbergia Tulipa Umbilicus

India Amorphophallus Arisaema Begonia Belamcanda Cardiocrinum Cryptocoryne Crinum Dioscorea Tacca Indonesia Amorphophallus Tacca Typhonium Iran Bellevalia Bongardia Cokhicum Corydalis Crocus Cyclamen Delphinium Eremurus Fritillaria Gagea Iris Leontice Muscari Nectaroscordum Ornithogalum Puschkinia Sternbergia Tulipa Iraq Hyacinthella Puschkinia Sternbergia Tulipa Israel Arum Bellevalia Crocus Gagea Hyacinthella Iris Lilium Vagaria

Ivory Coast Crinum Gladiolus

Gladiolus Gloriosa Gonatopus Romulea Korea Adonis Heloniopsis Hemerocallis Lilium Lycoris Lebanon Arum Cokhicum Crocus Cyclamen Fritillaria Iris Lilium Puschkinia Libya

Jamaica

Cyclamen

Achimenes Crinum Dioscorea

Malawi Radinosiphon Malaya

Japan Adonis Amana Arisaema Asarum Asparagus Belamcanda Cardiocrinum Eranthis Erythronium Fritillaria Heloniopsis Hemerocallis Iris Kinugasa Lilium Liriope Lycoris Pinellia Trillium Kenya Boophane Ceropegia Crinum Dierama Eriospermum

Amorphophallus Arisaema Colocasia Curculigo Cryptocoryne Proiphys Mediterranean Region Arisarum Arum Asparagus Asphodelus Biarum Cyclamen Dracunculus Gladiolus Gynandriris Hermodactylus Hyacinthus Iris Leontice Lilium Muscari Narcissus Ornithogalum Pancratium Simethis

Sternbergia Tulipa Urginea Mexico Achimenes Alophia Asparagus Begonia Bessera Bomarea Bravoa Calochortus Chlidanthus Commelina Crinum Cypella Dahlia Dichelostemma Echeandia Eucodonia Hymenocallis Manfreda Milla Muilla Nemastylis Neomarica Oxalis Petronymphe Polianthes Prochnyanthes Pseudobravoa Salvia Smithiantha Sphenostigma Sprekelia Tigridia Zephyranthes Mongolia Caloscordum Morocco Hannonia Iris Narcissus Ranunculus Mozambique Camptorrhiza Cyanastrum Gonatopus Myanmar (Burma) Amorphophallus Crinum

489

490

Appendix B

Daiswa Dioscorea Lilium Lycoris Nomocharis Notholirion

Namibia Namaquanula Pseudogaltonia Rhadamanthus Tenicroa

New Zealand Arthropodium Bulbinella Drosera Herpolirion Iphigenia Microseris Pelargonium Ranunculus Nigeria Cyanastrum

Panama Achimenes

Paraguay Anredera Cypella Habranthus Peru Begonia Bomarea Caladium Camassia Canna Chlidanthus Ennealophus Eucrosia Eustephia Hymenocallis Koellikeria Mastigostyla Pamianthe Paramongaia Pyrolirion Stenomesson Urceolina Philippines Amorphophallus

Patersonia Proiphys

Russia Anemone Belamcanda Crocus Eremurus Fritillaria Gagea Galanthus Iris Lilium Scilla Tulipa Sardinia Brimeura Dracunculus Gagea

Scandanavia Anthericum

Siberia Caloscordum Corydalis Eranthis Hemerocallis Pardanthopsis Sicily Bellevalia Gagea Iris Muscari Narcissus Nectar oscordum Sternbergia

South Africa Agapanthus Albuca Amaryllis Ammocharis Amphisiphon Androcymbium Androsiphon Anthericum Apodolirion Asclepias Asparagus Babiana Baeometra Begonia Behnia

Bobartia Bokkeveldia Boophane Bowiea Brunsvigia Bulbine Bulbinella Caesia Camptorrhiza Carpolyza Ceropegia Chasmanthe Clivia Crinum Crocosmia Crossyne Cyanella Cybistetes Cycnium Cyphia Cyrtanthus Daubenya Devia Dierama Dietes Dioscorea Dipcadi Drimia Drimiopsis Drosera Duthiastrum Empodium Eriospermum Eucomis Ferraria Freesia Galaxia Galtonia Geissorhiza Geranium Gethyllis Gladiolus Gloria sa Gonatopus Gynandriris Haemanthus Hesperantha Hessea Hexacyrtis Hexaglottis Homeria Hypoxis Iphigenia Ixia Kniphofia Lachenalia

Lapeirousia Ledebouria Litanthus Littonia Massonia Melasphaerula Micranthus Moraea Narcissus Neodregea Neopatersonia Nerine Onixotis Ornithogalum Ornithoglossum Oxalis Pauridia Pelargonium Periboea Pillansia Polyxena Radinosiphon Rhadamanthus Rheome Rhodohypoxis Roggeveldia Romulea Sandersonia Saniella Scadoxus Scilla Sparaxis Strumaria Syringodea Tedingea Tenicroa Thereianthus Tritonia Tritoniopsis Tulbaghia Urginea Veltheimia Wachendorfia Walleria Watsonia Whiteheadia Wurmbea Xenoscapa Zantedeschia

South America Eleutherine Gelasine Ipomoea Kohleria Nothoscordum

Bulbs Around the World Oxalis Solatium Trimezia Tropaeolum Zephyranthes

Tasmania

Spain

Amorphophallus Colocasia Dioscorea Iris Lilium Pycnospatha Tacca

Aconitum Allium Androcymbium Anthericum Arisarum Arum Biarum Brimeura Bulbocodium Colchicum Crocus Dioscorea Gagea Hyacinthoides Iris Lapiedra Leucojum Lilium Narcissus Romulea Scilla Tulipa Switzerland Aconitum Bulbocodium Cyclamen Gagea Lilium Tulipa Syria Arum Bellevalia Bongardia Colchicum Crocus Eminium Hyacinthella Iris Puschkinia Sternbergia Tulipa Vagaria Taiwan Belamcanda Lilium

Blandfordia Isophysis Thailand

Tibet Aconitum Adonis Cardiocrinum Corydalis Iris Lilium Nomocharis Notholirion Tulipa Typhonium Turkestan Allium Iris Ixiolirion Tulipa Ungernia Turkey Allium Arum Asphodeline Asphodelus Bellevalia Biarum Chionodoxa Colchicum Corydalis Crocus Cyclamen Delphinium Eminium Gagea Galanthus Gladiolus Hyacinthella Hyacinthus Iris Leontice Lilium Muscari

Nectaroscordum Ornithogalum Paris Puschkinia Sternbergia Tulipa Ukraine Crocus Fritillaria Galanthus Iris Muscari United Kingdom Allium Anemone Arum Colchicum Fritillaria Gagea Hyacinthoides Iris Leucojum Lloydia Narcissus Ornithogalum Paris Romulea Scilla United States (eastern) Anemonella Arisaema Asclepias Chamaelirion Claytonia Erythronium Helonias Ipomoea Iris Liatris Lilium Medeola Trillium United States (midwestern) Camassia Helianthus Liatris Lilium Odontostomum Polygonatum Rhexia

491

United States (southern and southeastern) Alophia Amianthum Calydorea Canna Hesperocallis Hymenocallis Lilium Manfreda Medeola Nemastylis Sanguinaria Sphenostigma Zephyranthes United States (western and southwestern) Androstephium Asarum Asclepias Bloomeria Brodiaea Calochortus Camassia Chlorogalum Claytonia Corydalis Delphinium Dicentra Dichelostemma Echeandia Erythronium Fritillaria Iris Leucocrinum Lilium Microseris Milla Muilla Nothoscordum Odontostomum Olsynium Stenanthium Triteleia Zigadenus •JL

If

11

Uruguay Calydorea Habranthus Herbertia Rhodophiala Venezuela Hymenocallis Koellikeria

492

Appendix B

Vietnam

Yugoslavia

Zambia

Zimbabwe

Pycnospatha

Bellevalia Crocus Fritillaria Galanthus Hyacinthella Iris Lilium Ornithogalum Scilla

Begonia Bowiea Cyanastrum Gonatopus Lapeirousia Moraea Pelargonium Walleria

Babiana Bowiea Camptorrhiza Crinum Gladiolus Lapeirousia Moraea Pelargonium Radinosiphon Scadoxus Walleria

West Indies Canna Cipura Hymenocallis Neomarica Zephyranthes

APPENDIX

c

Specific Landscape Uses of Bulbs

Flower Color It is not always easy to specify the precise colors of flowers. While some say that a flower is blue, others say it is purplish, and lists showing more exact coloration of the flowers are only long and boring. For this reason, the genera have been listed under the following color ranges: reds (including red, pink, and

purple tones), yellows, white, blues, and bicolors and unusual combinations. The last category includes greenish flowers, bicolored flowers, and those with unusual color combinations. Only those genera most likely to be found in commerce are given here.

Genus

Reds

Yellows

White

Blues

Other

Achimenes Aconitum Adonis Agapanthus Albuca Allium Alophia Alstroemeria Amana xAmarcrinum xAmarine xAmarygia Amaryllis Amianthum Ammocharis Amorphophallus Amphisiphon Androcymbium Androsiphon Androstephium Anemone Anemonella

Reds — Reds — — Reds — Reds Reds Reds Reds Reds Reds — Reds Reds — Reds — Reds Reds Reds

Yellows Yellows Yellows — Yellows Yellows — Yellows — — — — — — — — Yellows — Yellows — — —

White White — White White White — White White — — — White White White — — White — — White White

Blues Blues — Blues — Blues Blues — — — — — — — — — — — — Blues Blues —

— — — Green/white — Violets Markings — — — — — — — Dull green — — — — — —

(continued) 493

494

Appendix C

Genus

Reds

Yellows

Anigozanthos Anredera Anthericum Apodolirion Arisaema Arisarum Arthropodium Arum Asarum Asclepias Asparagus Asphodeline Asphodelus Babiana Baeometra Begonia Belamcanda Bellevalia Bessera Biarum Blandfordia Bloomeria Bomarea Bongardia Boophane Bowiea Bravoa Brimeura Brodiaea Brunsvigia Bulbine Bulbinella Bulbocodium Caladium (foliage) Calochortus Caloscordum Calostemma Calydorea Camassia Canna Cardiocrinum Carpolyza Ceropegia Chasmanthe Chionodoxa xChionoscilla Chlidanthus Chlorogalum Cipura Claytonia Clivia Codonopsis Colchicum

Reds

Yellows

—

Yellows

Reds Reds Reds Reds Reds Reds

—

Blues

Other

—

Olive green

—

—

—

Brown/green/bluish/purple/often with white stripes Green to chocolate brown Purples Greenish purple Foliage attractive

White White

Blues

Often with interesting markings

White

—

—

— — White

Blues — —

— — Dark green Brownish

—

—

—

Green with yellowish -white stripes

White White —

Blues Blues —

— — —

White White White White — White

— Blues

— — Mottled

White

White White White

White

Yellows White Yellows

Reds Reds Reds — Reds Reds Reds

Yellows Yellows Yellows — —

Yellows Yellows Yellows Yellows

Reds Reds Reds Reds Reds — — Reds

White

— Yellows

Yellows Yellows —

Reds Reds —

Yellows — Yellows —

Reds —

Yellows —

Reds Reds — — Reds

Yellows — — Yellows

Reds Reds Reds

—

White — White White White White — — White White White

Yellows — White

Blues — — Blues Blues — —

— — — — —

Blues

Green

Blues Blues —

— — —

Blues

—

Blues Blues

—

Specific Landscape Uses of Bulbs

Genus

Reds

Yellows

White

Colocasia Commelina Conanthera Convallaria Corydalis Crinum Crocosmia Crocus Cryptocoryne Cyanastrum Cyanella Cybistetes Cyclamen Cycnium Cypella Cyphia Cyrtanthus Dahlia Daubenya Delphinium Dicentra Dierama Dietes Dioscorea Dipcadi Dracunculus Drimia Drimiopsis Drosera Eleutherine Eminium Empodium Ennealophus Eranthis Eremurus Eriospermum Erythronium Eucharis Eucomis Eucrosia Eustephia Ferraria Freesia Fritillaria Gagea Galanthus Galaxia Galtonia Geissorhiza Gelasine Geranium Gethyllis

— — — Reds — Reds Reds — Reds — — — Reds Reds — Reds Reds Reds — — Reds Reds — — — Reds Reds Reds Reds — — — — — Reds — Reds — — Reds Reds — Reds Reds — — Reds — Reds — Reds —

— Yellows — Yellows — Yellows Yellows — — Yellows — — — Yellows — Yellows Yellows Yellows Yellows — — — Yellows Yellows — Yellows — — — — Yellows — Yellows Yellows Yellows Yellows — — Yellows — — Yellows Yellows Yellows — Yellows — Yellows — — —

— — White White White — White — White White White White — — White White White — White White — White White — — White — White White — — — White White White White White — — — — White — White White White White White — White White

Blues

495

Other Unusual foliage markings

Blues Blues — Blues — — Blues Blues Blues Blues — — — Blues — — — — Blues — — Blues — — — — — — — — — Blues — — Blues Blues — — — — — Blues — — — Blues — — Blues Blues —

Many flowers interestingly striped Green

Unusual color combinations

Greenish brown Greenish brown Greenish white

Bluish green

Green

Green

Brown, green, yellow Brown/yellow

Attractive foliage (continued)

496

Appendix C

Genus

Reds

Yellows

White

Blues

Other

Gladiolus Gloriosa Griffinia Gynandriris Habranthus Haemanthus Helianthus Helonias Heloniopsis Hemerocallis Hepatica Herbertia Hermodactylus Herpolirion Hesperantha Hesperocallis Hexaglottis Hippeastrum Homeria Hyacinthella Hyacinthoides Hyacinthus Hymenocallis Hypoxis Ipheion Iris Ixia Ixiolirion Kniphofia Koellikeria Kohleria Lachenalia Lapeirousia Lapiedra Lathyrus Ledebouria Leontice Lepidochiton Leucocoryne Leucocrinum Leucojum Liatris Lilium Liriope Litanthus Littonia Lloydia Lycoris Maianthemum Manfreda Massonia Mastigostyla Melasphaerula

Reds Reds — — Reds Reds Reds Reds — Reds Reds — — — Reds — — Reds — — Reds Reds — Reds — Reds Reds — Reds — Reds Reds — — Reds — — — — — — Reds Reds — Reds — — Reds — Reds — — —

Yellows Yellows — — — — Yellows — — Yellows — — — — Yellows — Yellows — Yellows — — Yellows Yellows Yellows — Yellows Yellows — Yellows — Yellows Yellows — — — — Yellows Yellows — — — — Yellows — — Yellows — Yellows — — — — —

White — — — — — — — — White White — — White White White — White — — White White White White White White White — — — — White White White — — — White White White White White White White White — White — White — White — White

Blues — Blues Blues — — — — Blues — Blues Blues — Blues — — — — Blues Blues Blues Blues — — Blues Blues — Blues — — — — Blues — — Blues — — Blues — — Blues — Blues — — — — — — — Blues —

Many unusual bicolors — — — — — Purples — Purples Many bicolors Pink-purple — Greenish with purplish markings Cream — — — — — — — — — — — Many unusual bicolors — — — Attractive foliage — Many interesting color combinations — — — Green — — — — — — Many color combinations found in new hybrids — — — — — — Purplish green — — —

Specific Landscape Uses of Bulbs

Genus

Reds

Yellows

White

Blues

Other

Micranthus Milla Moraea Muilla Muscari Narcissus Nectaroscordum Nemastylis Nerine Nomocharis Notholirion Nothoscordum Odontostomum Onixotis Ornithogalum Oxalis Pamianthe Pancratium Paradisea Paramongaia xPardacanda Pardanthopsis Paris Patersonia Pauridia Pelargonium Phaedranassa Pillansia Pinellia Placea Plagiolirion Polianthes Polygonatum Polyxena Prochnyanthes Proiphys Pseudobravoa Pseudogaltonia Puschkinia Pyrolirion Ranunculus Rhadamanthus Rheome Rhexia Rhodohypoxis Rhodophiala Romulea Roscoea Salvia Sandersonia Sanguinaria Sauromatum

_ — — — — —

_ — Yellows — — Yellows

_

Blues Blues Blues — Blues —

_ — — — — Attractive bicolors Green, purple

White White White White White White

Blues

Yellows Reds Reds Reds — — — Reds Reds — — — Reds

— — Reds Reds Reds

Reds —

—

Yellows — — Yellows Yellows — — — Yellows Yellows Yellows Yellows — Yellows — Yellows —

Reds

497

White White

—

Attractively spotted

— — — —

— — — —

— — —

— — —

Blues

Many combinations of colors Blue-green

— White White

Blues — —

— — —

—

— —

— Green and purplish

—

—

White White White White White White White White —

White White White White White

Greenish superb foliage —

Greenish brown

White —

Reds Reds — Reds Reds Reds Reds Reds — — —

Yellows —

White White

Yellows Yellows — Yellows Yellows

White White —

Yellows Yellows — Yellows —

White — — — White

— White

—

Blues —

—

— — —

— — —

—

Oranges

Blues Blues — —

— — —

Combinations of purple, yellow, greenish (continued)

498

Appendix C

Genus

Reds

Yellows

White

Blues

Other

Scadoxus Scilla Sinningia Solanum Sparaxis Sphenostigma Sprekelia Stenanthium Stenomesson Sternbergia Syringodea Tecophilaea Thereianthus Thysanotus Tigridia Trillium Trimezia Triteleia Tritonia Tritoniopsis Tropaeolum Tulbaghia Tulipa Umbilicus Ungernia Urceolina Urginea Vagaria Veltheimia Veratrum Wachendorfia Walleria Watsonia Whiteheadia Worsleya Wurmbea Zantedeschia Zephyra Zephyranthes Zigadenus

Reds — Reds

_ — Yellows

_ White White

_ Blues Blues Blues

_ — —

Reds

Yellows

White

Many color combinations Blues

Reds Reds

White White Yellows Yellows

Reds Reds Reds — — Reds Reds Reds Reds Reds Reds Reds Reds

Yellows Yellows Yellows Yellows Yellows

Reds — — Reds —

White White — White White White

Blues Blues Blues Blues

—

— — Blues —

— — —

White White

—

Many color combinations

—

—

—

White White

—

—

White

Blues

— —

White White —

Blues — — Blues

Yellows Yellows Yellows Yellows —

Reds Reds —

White White

—

Greenish purple Greenish

— Yellows

Yellows — Yellows Yellows Yellows Yellows

White White White White White

— Blues

— Greenish — —

Greenish

499

Specific Landscape Uses of Bulbs

Flowering Times The list that follows indicates the flowering season(s) for many but not all genera. Certain genera contain species that have different flowering times; that is, both winter and spring or summer. In such cases the reader is asked to refer to the alphabetical listings of genera to determine which species is most suitable. Flowering times are often difficult to determine exactly. The time of flowering of a plant in southern California will often be in a different month than the same plant being grown in Maine. By referring to the seasons, which come at different times of the year to various parts of the world, the reader will be able to determine when the plants will flower in a specific geographical location.

Genus

Spring

Summer

Autumn

Winter

Achimenes Aconitum Adonis Agapanthus Albuca Allium Alophia Alstroemeria Amana xAmarcrinum xAmarine xAmarygia Amaryllis Amianthum Ammocharis Amorphophallus Amphisiphon Androcymbium Androsiphon Androstephium Anemone Anemonella Anigozanthos Anredera Anthericum Apodolirion Arisaema Arisarum Arthropodium Arum Asarum Asclepias Asparagus Asphodeline Asphodelus Babiana

— — Spring — Spring Spring — — Spring

Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer — — Summer Summer — Summer

— Autumn — — — — — —

— — — — — — — —

Autumn — — Autumn Autumn

— — — Winter —

Summer Summer — —

— — — Autumn

— — Winter Winter

Summer

—

—

Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer

— Autumn — — —

Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer

— — — Autumn — — — —

— — — — — Winter — — — — — — — —

Spring Spring Spring Spring Spring Spring Spring Spring Spring

Spring Spring Spring Spring

Spring Spring

Genus

Spring

Summer

Autumn

Winter

Baeometra Begonia Belamcanda Bellevalia Bessera Biarum Blandfordia Bloomeria Bobartia Bokkeveldia Bomarea Bongardia Boophane Bowiea Bravoa Brimeura Brodiaea Brunsvigia Bulbine Bulbinella Bulbinopsis Bulbocodium Burchardia Caesia Caladium Calochortus Caloscordum Calostemma Calydorea Camassia Camptorrhiza Canna Cardiocrinum Carpolyza Cartonema Ceropegia Chamaelirion Chasmanthe Chionodoxa xChionoscilla Chlidanthus Chlorogalum Cipura Claytonia Clivia Codonopsis Colchicum Colocasia (foliage) Commelina Conanthera Convallaria Corydalis

Spring — — Spring — — — Spring Spring — — Spring Spring — — Spring Spring — Spring Spring — Spring Spring Spring — Spring — — Spring Spring — — — Spring — — — — Spring Spring — — Spring — Spring — Spring — — — Spring Spring

— Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer — — Summer Summer — — Summer Summer — Summer Summer — — Summer — — — Summer Summer Summer — Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer — Summer Summer Summer Summer — — Summer Summer — Summer — Summer — Summer Summer Summer — —

— — — — — Autumn — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — Autumn — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — Autumn — — — — —

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — Winter — — — — — — — — — — Winter — — — — — — — — — — Winter — Winter — — — — —

(continued)

500

Appendix C

Genus

Spring

Summer

Autumn

Winter

Genus

Spring

Summer

Autumn

Winter

Crinum Crocosmia Crocus Crossyne Cryptocoryne Curculigo Cyanastrum Cyanella Cybistetes Cyclamen Cycnium Cypella Cyphia Cyrtanthus Dahlia Daubenya Delphinium Dicentra Dierama Dietes Dioscorea Dipcadi Dracunculus Drimia Drimiopsis Drosera Eleutherine Eminium Eranthis Eremurus Eriospermum Erythronium Eucharis Eucomis Eucrosia Eustephia Ferraria Freesia Fritillaria Gagea Galanthus Galaxia Galtonia Geissorhiza Gelasine Geranium Gethyllis Gladiolus Gloriosa Griffinia Gynandriris Habranthus Haemanthus

_ — Spring Spring — — — Spring — Spring — — Spring Spring — — — Spring Spring Spring — — Spring — Spring Spring Spring Spring Spring — — Spring — Spring Spring Spring Spring Spring Spring Spring Spring Spring — Spring — Spring — Spring — Spring Spring — Spring

Summer Summer — Summer Summer Summer Summer — Summer Summer Summer Summer — Summer Summer — Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer — Summer Summer — — Summer Summer — Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer — — — — Summer — Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer

_ — Autumn — — — — — — Autumn — — — Autumn — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — Autumn — — — — Autumn — — — — — Autumn —

_ — Winter — — — — — — Winter — — Winter — — Winter — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — Winter — — Winter — — Winter Winter — — — — — Winter — — — — —

Haemodorum Hannonia Helianthus Helonias Heloniopsis Hemerocallis Hepatica Herbertia Hermodactylus Hesperantha Hesperocallis Hessea Hexaglottis Hippeastrum Homeria Hyacinthella Hyacinthoides Hyacinthus Hymenocallis Hypoxis Ipheion Ipomoea Iris Ixia Ixiolirion Kniphofia Koellikeria Lachenalia Lapeirousia Lapiedra Lathyrus Ledebouria Leontice Lepidochiton Leucocoryne Leucocrinum Leucojum Liatris Lilium Liriope Littonia Lloydia Lycoris Maianthemum Manfreda Massonia Mastigostyla Medeola Melasphaerula Micranthus Milla Moraea Muilla

_ — — Spring Spring — Spring — Spring Spring Spring Spring — Spring Spring Spring Spring Spring — Spring Spring — Spring Spring Spring Spring — Spring Spring — — Spring Spring Spring Spring — Spring — Spring — — Spring — Spring — Spring — — Spring Spring — Spring Spring

Summer Summer Summer — — Summer — Summer — Summer — Summer Summer Summer Summer — — — Summer Summer — Summer Summer — — Summer Summer — Summer Summer Summer — — Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer — Summer — Summer — Summer — Summer Summer — — Summer Summer —

_ — — — — — — — — Autumn — — — — — — — — — Autumn — — — — — — Autumn — — — — — — — — — Autumn Autumn — Autumn — — — — — — — — — — — — —

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — Winter — — — Winter — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — Winter — — — — — Winter — — — — — — —

Specific Landscape Uses of Bulbs

Genus

Spring

Muscari Narcissus Nectaroscordum Nemastylis Neodregea Neomarica Neopatersonia Nerine Nomocharis Notholirion Nothoscordum Odontostomum Onixotis Ornithogalum Ornithoglossum Oxalis Pamianthe Pancratium Paradisea Paramongaia xPardacanda Pardanthopsis Paris Patersonia Pauridia Pelargonium Periboea Petronymphe Phaedranassa Phycella Pillansia Pinellia Placea Plagiolirion Polianthes Polygonatum Polyxena Prochnyanthes Proiphys Pseudobravoa Pseudogaltonia Puschkinia Pyrolirion Radinosiphon Ranunculus Rhadamanthus Rheome Rhexia Rhodohypoxis Rhodophiala Romulea

Spring Spring — Spring — — Spring — — — Spring — Spring Spring — Spring Spring Spring — — — — Spring Spring — Spring Spring — — — Spring — Spring — — Spring Spring — Spring — — Spring Spring — Spring — Spring — Spring Spring Spring

Summer

Autumn

Winter

— Summer Summer Summer Summer — Summer Summer Summer — Summer — Summer Summer Summer — Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer — Summer Summer Summer — Summer — Summer Summer Summer — Summer — Summer Summer — — Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer — Summer

Autumn — — — — — Autumn — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — Autumn Autumn

— — — — — — — — — — — Winter — — Winter — Winter — — — — — — — — Winter — — — — — — — — — Winter — Winter — — — — — — — — — — — Winter

501

Genus

Spring

Summer

Autumn

Winter

Roscoea Salvia Sandersonia Sanguinaria Saniella Sauromatum Scadoxus Scilla Sinningia Solanum Sparaxis Sphenostigma Sprekelia Stenanthium Stenomesson Sternbergia Strumaria Stylidium Syringodea Tacca Tecophilaea Tedingea Tenicroa Thereianthus Thysanotus Tigridia Trillium Trimezia Tritonia Tritoniopsis Tropaeolum Tulbaghia Tulip a Umbilicus Ungernia Urceolina Urginea Vagaria Veltheimia Veratrum Wachendorfia Walleria Watsonia Whiteheadia Worsleya Xenoscapa Zantedeschia Zephyra Zephyranthes Zigadenus

_ — — Spring — Spring Spring Spring Spring — Spring — — — Spring Spring — Spring — — Spring — — Spring Spring Spring Spring Spring Spring — — Spring Spring — — Spring — — Spring — Spring Spring Spring Spring — Spring Spring Spring — Spring

Summer Summer Summer — Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer — — — — Summer Summer — — Summer Summer Summer Summer — Summer Summer Summer Summer Summer — Summer Summer — Summer Summer — Summer Summer Summer Summer — Summer — Summer — Summer Summer

— — — — — — — — Autumn — — — — — Autumn Autumn — Autumn — — Autumn — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — Winter — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — Winter — — — —

502

Appendix C

Shade-Loving and Woodland Plants Within many genera there are species that will tolerate shade and others that require shade to be grown well. The list that follows indicates those genera in which some species tolerate shade and those in which all species prefer shade. The question of shade is an interesting one. The obvious differences between locations that have cool temperatures but bright sunshine and those which have high temperatures and bright sunshine make it difficult to produce a list which indicates the exact shade or sun required by various genera. A plant may well take full sun along the cooler areas of a coastline, but is unable to withstand full sun in much warmer inland areas. In the listing of genera that follows, readers should use their local knowledge, dependent on their exact location, to determine the amount of shade a plant needs. All woodlands have areas which are shaded for a number of hours a day but also receive intervals of bright sunlight. Few plants appreciate being grown entirely in the shade; most prefer at least short periods of brighter light. Aconitum Alophia Anemone Anemonella Arisaema Arisarum Arum Begonia Caladium Cardiocrinum Clivia Corydalis Crinum Cryptocoryne Cyanastrum Cyclamen Dicentra Dracunculus Eranthis Erythronium Galanthus

Haemanthus Hyacinthoides Lachenalia Leucojum Littonia Maianthemum Muscari Nerine Nomocharis Onixotis Ornithogalum Oxalis Pamianthe Paramongaia Pinellia Scadoxus Sphenostigma Stenomesson Trillium Veltheimia

Cut Flowers Many bulbous plants are suitable for cutting to use in flower arrangements. A number of species, while attractive for a short period of time in a flower arrangement, do not last sufficiently well to be worthy of consideration as a cut flower. The listing that follows is of those genera that are especially good cut flowers, worthy of being grown for that purpose. Agapanthus Allium Alstroemeria

Amaryllis Anemone Arum

Babiana Belamcanda Bomarea Bravoa Brunsvigia Chasmanthe Chlidanthus Clivia Crinum Crocosmia Cyclamen Cyrtanthus Dahlia Dierama Eremurus Eucharis Eucomis Freesia Galanthus Galtonia Gladiolus Gloriosa Hippeastrum

Iris Ixia Lilium Lycoris Narcissus Nerine Nomocharis Notholirion Ornithogalum Paradisea Polianthes Ranunculus Sandersonia Sparaxis Sphenostigma Tritonia Tulbaghia Tulip a Ungernia Veltheimia Watsonia Zantedeschia

Fragrance Fragrance is an elusive quality of flowers. Certain species of Lilium have a superb fragrance, others little or none. In the listing that follows, genera containing fragrant species can be found. It must be noted that not all species of these genera are fragrant. The reader is directed to the alphabetical listing where greater detail regarding the attributes of the species in the genera will be found. Babiana Cardiocrinum Chlidanthus Crinum Crocus Cyanella Cybistetes Cyclamen Cyrtanthus Eucharis Freesia Galanthus Gethyllis Gladiolus Hemerocallis Hesperantha Hesperocallis Homeria Hyacinthus Hymenocallis Ipheion

Iris Lachenalia Leucocoryne Leucojum Lilium Lycoris Mastigostyla Moraea Muscari Narcissus Oxalis Pamianthe Pancratium Paradisea Paramongaia Polianthes Tulbaghia Tulipa Vagaria Watsonia Zephyranthes

APPENDIX

D

Conversion Table

Centimeters / Inches

16 15

-6

14 13

-5

12114

10 9-_

8-3 76-

5--2 4-_

3-1 210

0

Celsius / Fahrenheit 30° 86° 29°--84.2° 28°--82.4°

27°--80.6° 26°--78.8° 25°--77° 24°--75.2° 23°--73.4° 22°--71.6° 21°--69.8° 20°--68° 19°--66.2° 18°--64.4° 17°--62.6° 16°--60.8° 15°--59° 14°--57.2° 13° _-55.4°

Length 1 inch = 2.5 centimeters 1 foot = 0.3 meter 1 yard = 0.9 meter 1 mile =1.6 kilometers

Area 1 square foot = 930 square centimeters 1 square yard = 0.8 square meter 1 square mile = 2.6 square kilometers 1 acre = 0.4 hectare Weight 1 ounce = 28 grams 1 pound = 0.4 kilogram 2.5 pounds = 1 kilogram

Capacity 1 fluid ounce = 28 milliliters 1 U.S. gallon = 4 liters

Temperature 32° Fahrenheit = 0° Celsius 0° Fahrenheit = 18° Celsius

12°--53.6° 11°--51.8° 10°--50° 9°--48.2° 8°--46.4° 7°--44.6° 6°--42.8° 5°--41° 4°--39.2° 3°--37.4° 2°--35.6° l°--33.8° 0°J-32°

503

Glossary

Achene. A one-seeded nut as in the fruits of Ranunculus (buttercup). Acid. Having a pH of less than 7. Actinomorphic. Having symmetrical halves; regular. Adnation. A part attached by its whole length or surface. Adult (bulb). A bulb of flowering size. Adventitious. Occurring in an unusual location, as in roots that grow from a leaf. Aerial. Found above ground. Alkaline. Having a pH of 7 or above. Often such soils have a high percentage of chalk or limestone. Alternate. Arranged singly, at different heights, and most usually on different sides of the main stem, but not opposite. Angiosperm. Any flowering and seed-bearing plant not having a cone. Annual. A plant that germinates, grows, flowers, and dies in one continuous cycle. Annulate. Ring-shaped. Anther. The pollen-bearing portion of a stamen, either sessile or attached to a filament. Apex. The growing point of a stem or root; tip of an organ or structure. Apical. Borne at the apex. Aril. A fleshly seed covering that develops after fertilization occurs. Asexual propagation. Propagation without the involvement of male and female reproductive organs. Methods include division, cuttings, meristem culture, and bulblet and scale production. Also called vegetative propagation. Auricle. An earlike lobe, often at the base of the leaf. Axil. The upper angle formed where a leaf is attached to a stem. Axillary. Growing from an axil, not from the tip of a stem. Basal. Growing from the base, as in leaves which are formed at the base of a flowering stem. Basal plate. The bottom of the bulb, from which roots emerge. 504

Basifixed. Attached by the base, not by the back, as in an anther joined to a filament. Beard. A tuft or line of hairs, as on the falls of certain iris species. Biennial. A plant that forms foliage in one season, then flowers and dies in the second. Bipinnate. Twice pinnate. Bisexual. Having both male and female organs in the same flower; perfect (complete). Blade. The thin, expanded part of a leaf or petal. Bract. A modified, protective leaf usually subtending the flowers. Bracteole. A secondary or miniature bract. Breaking. Producing flowers of a different form or color (a mutation, in horticulture called a "sport"). Bulb. An underground organ, consisting of leaves modified for storage and attached to a basal plate. Examples: onion, tulip. In broad application, includes true bulbs, corms, rhizomes, and tubers. Bulbil. A small bulb produced on the above portion of the stem or, in certain species, in an inflorescence. Bulblet. A small, new bulb produced on the base of the stem of the parent bulb, below ground. Calcareous. Chalky, as of limy soils. Callus. The thick tissue a plant produces to cover an injury. Calyx. The outer whorl of the perianth consisting of separate or united sepals. Campanulate. Bell-shaped. Canaliculate. Having a concave, gutterlike groove. Capitate. Arranged in heads, as in flowers of the Compositae. Capitulum (pl. capitula). An inflorescence with densely clustered and sessile or subsessile flowers. Capsule. A dry pod that holds the seed. Carpel. The ovule-bearing part of a flower. Cataphyll. A bractlike sheath that protects the stem. Caudate. Tapering like a tail.

Glossary Caudex. A stout, swollen or succulent stem. Caudiciform. Having a caudex. Ciliate. Having a marginal fringe of short hairs. Cladode. A branch acting as a leaf and able to photosynthesize. Clavate. Club-shaped. Claw. The narrow, petal-like base of some sepals and petals. Clone. A plant that has been propagated vegetatively so that it is identical to its parent. Concolorous. Having a uniform color. Connate. United; fused into a single unit. Connivent. Converging but not fused. Contractile. Shortening in length, as in roots that pull a bulb deeper into the soil as they contract. Convolute. Rolled together. Cordate. Heart-shaped. Corm. An underground storage organ, a swollen part of an underground stem and not having scales as in true bulbs. Examples: Crocus, Gladiolus. Cormel. A young, small corm growing from a mature corm. Corolla. The inner whorl of a flower consisting of separate or united petals. Corona. A "crown" or cuplike appendage between the corolla and the stamens, as in Narcissus (daffodils). Corymb. A flat-topped inflorescence in which the outer flowers open first. Cotyledon. The first leaflike structure that appears when a seed germinates. Crenate. Scalloped. Crenulate. Minutely scalloped. Crest. A ridge, as on the falls of an iris. Crown. The point of junction of stem and root. Cultivar. A plant that is maintained and propagated in cultivation. Cyme. A flat-topped inflorescence in which the central flower opens first. Deciduous. Shedding foliage at the end of the growth period; not evergreen. Decumbent. Horizontal with an ascending apex. Dehisce. To split open at maturity, thus discharging or exposing contents. Deltoid. Shaped like a triangle with three equal sides. Dicotyledon. A plant that produces two cotyledons upon germination of the seed. Didynamous. Containing two pairs of stamens, one pair shorter than the other. Digitate. Growing from the same point, like fingers on a hand. Dioecious. With male and female flowers on separate plants. Diploid. Having twice the basic number of chromosomes. Distal. Located away from the point of origin or attachment. Distichous. Arranged in one plane, in two opposite ranks, as leaves along a stem. Dormancy. A state of suspended growth; resting period. Double. Having more than twice the usual number of petals. Emarginate. Shallowly notched. Enation. A cylindrical growth on the surface of an organ. Entire. Having untoothed edges.

505

Epigeal. Occurring above ground, as in some lily species where the cotyledon germinates above the soil level. Epipetalous. Borne on the petals of a flower. Etiolated. Drawn out, elongated, and sometimes bleached from lack of light. Evergreen. Retaining leaves at the end of the growth period; not deciduous. Exserted. Projecting beyond an organ, as in stamens extending beyond the corolla. Extrorse. Facing outwards (away from an axis), as an anther opening away from the center of a flower. F1. First filial (crossbred) generation. Fall. An outer perianth segment which seems to droop. On an iris, the three outer segments. Fasciated. Having flattened stems that, due to their malformation, appear to be connected and growing together. Filament. The stalk of a stamen. Filiform. Threadlike. Fimbriate. Fringed. Follicle. A dry, one-celled capsule which splits along one side to release the seed. Forcing bulbs. Bringing bulbs into flower ahead of their normal flowering time. Fynbos. Scrub; a type of shrubby vegetation unique to areas of South Africa with a Mediterranean climate. Gamete. A fertile male or female reproductive cell. Gamopetalous. Having petals united (at least by their bases) to form a tubular corolla. Gamosepalous. Having sepals united by their margins. Gibbosity. A basal or apical swelling. Glabrous. Smooth; without hairs. Glaucous. Covered with a white, blue-green, or gray bloom. Globose. Ball- or globe-shaped. Haft. The narrow basal part of the falls in an iris flower. Herbaceous. Not woody; dying back to the ground each year. Hermaphrodite. Having both male and female organs in the same flower; bisexual. Holding back bulbs. The culture of bringing bulbs into flower after their normal flowering time. Hypocotyl. The part of a plant stem that is immediately below the cotyledon, above roots. Hypogeal. Occurring below ground, as in some lily species. Hypogynous. Borne below the ovary. Imbricate. Overlapping. Indumentum. A covering of hairs. Inflorescence. The main flower stem and its flowers. Introrse. Facing inwards (towards an axis), as an anther opening toward the center of a flower. Involucre. A highly conspicuous bract, subtending flowers. Involute. Rolled inward. Keeled. With a prominent ridge, like a boat keel. Labellum. Lip. Laciniated. Slashed; cut irregularly. Lanceolate. Lance- or spear-shaped. Linear. Slender, narrow, with more or less parallel edges. Locular. Divided into separate chambers.

506

Glossary

Locule. A seed chamber. Meristem culture. Propagation using undifferentiated tissue capable of developing into specialized tissue or additional undifferentiated tissue, depending on treatment and food supplies. Midrib. The main rib of a leaf, often quite prominent especially on the leaf underside. Monocarpic. Fruiting once and then dying. Monocotyledon. A plant that has one cotyledon. Monoecious. With male and female flowers on the same plant. Monotypic. Having only one member, as a genus comprised of a single species. Naturalized. Plants which have established colonies and multiply. Neck. The upper part of a true bulb from which emerge the stem and leaves. Nectary. A gland that secretes nectar. Node. The point on a stem where the leaf is attached. Obconical. Conical with the point of attachment at the narrow end. Oblanceolate. Lance-shaped with the broadest part toward the apex rather than the base. Obovate. Ovate with the broadest end at the apex. Opposite. Arranged on opposite sides of a stem; not alternate. Outward-facing. Held horizontally, not erect (upright-facing) or drooping (downward-facing). Ovary. The female part of the flower containing ovules. An ovary can be superior (borne above the point of attachment of the stamens and perianth) or inferior (borne below that point). Ovate. Egg-shaped only in outline; elliptical. Ovoid. Egg-shaped. Ovule. The body in an ovary which develops into a seed upon pollination. Palmate. With three or more lobes, as fingers from a palm. Panicle. A type of inflorescence in which flowers are held loosely. Papillae. Small protuberances, as on the interior bases of petals of various lily species. Pedate. Having lobed lobes. Pedicel. The stalk of an individual flower or fruit. Peduncle. The stalk of an inflorescence. Peltate. Attached to the undersurface (of a leaf) rather than at the base. Pendent. Downward-facing; hanging. Pentamerous. Having (plant) parts in groups of five. Perennial. A plant living more than two seasons. Perfect. Having both male and female reproductive organs, as in a bisexual flower. Perianth. The outer, usually showy part of a flower, consisting of the corolla and calyx. Pericarp. The wall of a mature ovary. Petal. A modified leaf of the corolla, generally brightly colored. Petaloid. Like a petal. Petiole. A leafstalk. Phylogeny. The evolutionary history of an organism. Pinnate. Of a compound leaf arranged like a feather.

Pip. A bud on the rhizome, as in Convallaria (lily of the valley). Pistil. One of the female reproductive organs, comprising the ovary, style, and stigma. Plicate. Folded; pleated. Polygamous. Having bisexual and unisexual flowers on the same plant. Procumbent. Trailing loosely. Pubescent. Hairy. Pustule. A blisterlike spot. Raceme. A type of inflorescence in which the flowers are borne on individual stalks which are attached to the main stem. Radiate. Spreading outward from a center. Radicle. The root of a seed. Ray florets. One of the outer flowers in the head of a plant belonging to the Compositae. Recurved. Curling back, applied to petals. Reflexed. Abruptly recurved, at more than a 90-degree angle. Regular. Having symmetrical halves; actinomorphic. Reniform. Kidney-shaped. Reticulate. Netted. Revolute. Rolled inward. Rhizome. An underground stem that is used to store food, as in certain iris species. Rootstock. An underground fibrous, rhizomatous, or tuberous stem; the roots. Rosette. A circular cluster of leaves, often close to or touching the ground. Saccate. Pouch- or bag-shaped. Sagittate. Arrow-shaped. Scale. A leaf modified for storage and forming part of a true bulb. Scaly bulb. A bulb with modified leaves that do not form or have a tunic. Scandent. Climbing. Scape. A leafless flower stem. Schizocarp. A dry fruit that splits into one-seeded halves. Sclerotia. Hardened growths. Secund. Arranged on one side only, as in flowers or leaves borne on one side of a stem. Sepal. A segment in the outer whorl of a flower; collectively sepals form the calyx. Sessile. Lacking a stalk. Sexual propagation. Involving male and female reproductive organs, as in the production of seed. Simple. Not divided into smaller parts. Solitary. Occurring singly, not in a cluster. Spadix. A spike of flowers on a thick, often fleshy axis, as in Arum. Spathe. A conspicuous leaf or bract that subtends a spadix. Spatulate. Spatula-shaped. Spike. An inflorescence with sessile flowers. Sport. A mutation; a new plant that results when one part of an established plant (rarely the entire plant) produces a flower of different form or color. Spur. A saclike growth on the perianth. Stamen. The male or pollen-producing part of a plant, comprised of the filament and anther.

Glossary Staminode. A sterile stamen. Standard. An inner perianth segment of an iris flower. Sterile. Incapable of producing viable seed. Stigma. The tip of the style which receives the pollen. Stolon. An underground stem which roots to form new plants. Strain. A group of plants with identical parentage, generally raised from seed. Style. The narrow part of the pistil, between the ovary and the stigma. Subacute. Having a tapered but not sharp point, as of leaves. Subulate. Tapering to a fine point. Synanthous. Produced with the flowers, as of leaves. Syngenesious. The anthers joined into a tube. Tepal. A perianth segment that cannot be distinguished as either sepal or petal. Terminal. At the tip of a stem. Tessellated. Checkered. Tetramerous. Having (plant) parts in groups of four. Tetraploid. Having four times the basic number of chromosomes. Tissue culture. A method of propagating plants in the laboratory from cells. Also called micropropagation. Trichome. An unbranched, hairlike growth. Trifid. Divided twice into three lobes.

507

Trifoliate. Three-leaved. Trilocular. Having three locules. Trimerous. Having (plant) parts in groups of three. Tripartite. Divided into three segments. Triploid. Having three times the basic number of chromosomes. Tuber. An underground root modified for storage and capable of producing buds and roots, as in Begonia. Tuberculate. Covered with small nodules. Tunic. The covering of a bulb or corm, as seen in daffodil bulbs. Umbel. A type of inflorescence with individual flowers arising from a central point, like the spokes of an umbrella. Undulate. Having a wavy surface. Upward-facing. Erect; upright. Vernalization. The process of treating seeds to shorten the time until they germinate. Versatile. Attached but able to move freely, as an anther attached to a filament. Verticillaster. A false whorl that appears to surround a stem. Whorl. The placement of leaves in a circle around a plant stem, as in certain lily species. Zygomorphic. Having only one place of symmetry in which it can be divided into two equal halves.

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Index of Common Names

A

11 peoples give plants local, common or unscientific names. Some are quite descriptive of either the flower or the location where the plants are found. Some are A. also very confusing. Agapanthus is often called the lily of the Nile, yet this plant is from South Africa and not anywhere near the Nile. Furthermore, it is not a lily, but in common with many other species that are not in the genus Lilium, is called a lily. Massonia species are known as Abraham's book, an apt description as the two leaves of these plants resemble an open book. Chincherinchee, the common name for Ornithogalum thyrsoides, is an attempt to write the sound produced when the stems of these plants are rubbed together. It is, in fact, quite accurate. Common names, however, are often applied to more than one species. Elephant's ear is the common name of Caladium, Colocasia, and Eriospermum. In some instances a common name applies to a specific species. The Easter lily, Lilium longiflorum, is a good example of this. Yet the name is misleading as the plants are forced into flower for Easter; their normal flowering time is late summer. Other common names are applied to an entire genus without implying any species. Corn flag and corn lily are applied to many if not all Gladiolus species. Certain common names are quite attractive and understandable; Jack in the pulpit for Arisaema triphyllum is a good example of this. Common names are quite interesting, and there certainly are a great number of them. The list that follows includes those that have been authenticated. Many others are used, such as blue balls for Agapanthus, which are "descriptive" names and, in my opinion, not true "common" names, so are not included. The reader will, however, find in the literature those names listed here.

Abraham's book Achira

Massonia Canna indica

Adam and Eve Adder's tongue Adobe lily African blue lily African corn lily African lily Air potato Ajo lily Albany cat's paw Algerian iris Alkali grass Alligator lily Alpine grass-lily Alpine leek Alpine sundew Alpine violet Alp lily Amaryllis Amazon lily Amberbell American flame lily American true love American Turk's cap lily American wood lily Amole Ananuca Angel's fishing rod Angel's tears Angel wings Angled Solomon's seal Annunciation lily Apostle plant Apricot tulip

Erythronium grandiflorum Erythronium, E. albidum Fritillaria pluriflora Agapanthus africanus Ixia maculata Agapanthus africanus Dioscorea bulbifera Hesperocallis undulata Anigozanthos preissii Iris unguicularis Zigadenus elegans Hymenocallis palmeri Caesia alpina Allium victorialis Drosera arcturi Cyclamen Lloydia serotina Hippeastrum, Lycoris Eucharis xgrandiflora Erythronium americanum Lilium philadelphicum Trillium erectum Lilium superbum Trillium Chlorogalum pomeridianum Phycella Dierama Narcissus triandrus Caladium Polygonatum odoratum Lilium candidum Neomarica gracilis Homeria

515

516

Index of Common Names

April fool April-fool lily Arum lily Asarabacca Ashy sunflower Asiatic crowfoot Asphodel lily Asturian daffodil Atamasco lily August lily Australia lily Australian daffodil Australian sword lily Autumn crocus Autumn daffodil Autumn star Avalanche lily Aztec lily Baboon flower Baboon's shoes Bamboo lily Barbados lily Barbary nut Bartram's ixia Bashful Ben Basket flower Bath asparagus Bat plant Bear's foot Belladonna lily Bell agapanthus Benediction lily Bengal lily Berg lily Bermuda buttercup Bethlehem lily Birch-rind yam Birth-root Blackberry lily Black lily Black Mountain iris Black sarana Blazing star Bleeding heart Blood flower

Blood lily Bloodroot Blue African lily Blue Afrikaner Blue Altai lily Blue amaryllis Blue babiana

Haemanthus coccineus Boophane Zantedeschia, Z. aethiopica Asarum, A. europeaum Helianthus mollis Ranunculus Hemerocallis lilio-asphodelus Narcissus asturiensis Zephyranthes, Z. atamasca Amaryllis belladonna Blandfordia Calostemma luteum Anigozanthos Colchicum Narcissus viridiflorus, Sternbergia Empodium, E. gloriosum Erythronium grandiflorum, E. montanum Sprekelia Babiana Androcymbium melanthoides Lilium japonicum Hippeastrum puniceum Gynandriris sisyrinchium Sphenostigma coelestinum Trillium cernuum Hymenocallis, H. narcissiflora Ornithogalum pyrenaicum Tacca chantrieri, T. integrifolia Aconitum napellus Amaryllis belladonna Agapanthus campanulatus Clivia miniata Crinum zeylanicum Galtonia candicans Oxalis pes-caprae Eucharis xgrandiflora Dioscorea aculeata Trillium erectum Belamcanda chinensis Fritillaria camschatcensis Isophysis Fritillaria camschatcensis Liatris, Tritonia Dicentra Asclepias curassavica, Haemanthus, Scadoxus multiflorus subsp. katherinae Haemodorum, Scadoxus multiflorus Haemodorum, Sanguinaria Agapanthus africanus Gladiolus cardinalis Ixiolirion Worsleya rayneri Babiana disticha

Bluebell Blue Bethlehem lily Blue dicks Blue flag Blue funnel lily Blue lily Blue sequin Blue spiderwort Blue squill Bonnet bellflower Bourbon lily Bowl-tubed iris Branched cat's claw Brazilian parrot lily Brisbane lily Brown bells Bugle flower Bugle lily Bunch-flowered narcissus Bush iris Bush lily Bushman's pipe Buttercup Buttercup anemone Butterfly Butterfly amaryllis Butterfly iris Butterfly tulip Butterfly weed Buttonhole flower Button snakeroot Byzantine squill Cactus geranium Caledon bluebell California firecracker California iris Calla lily Camas Camass Campernelle jonquil Canada garlic Candelabra flower Candia tulip Candy-stick tulip Candy tulip Canna lily Cape belladonna lily Cape coast lily Cape cowslip Cape hyacinth Cape lily Cape poison bulb Cape tulip

Hyacinthoides Androstephium caeruleum Dichelostema capitatum Iris versicolor Androstephium caeruleum Ixiolirion tataricum Geissorhiza Commelina coelestis Scilla natalensis Codonopsis Lilium candidum Iris macrosiphon Anigozanthos onycis Alstroemeria pulchella Proiphys cunninghamii Dipcadi brevifolium Watsonia Watsonia Narcissus tazetta Patersonia Clivia miniata Ceropegia Ranunculus Anemone ranunculoides Moraea Hippeastrum papilio Moraea Calochortus Asclepias tuberosa Massonia Liatris, L. pycnostachya Scilla amoena Pelargonium echinatum Gladiolus bullatus Dichelostemma ida-maia Iris douglasiana Zantedeschia, Z. aethiopica Camassia Camassia Narcissus xodorus Allium canadense Brunsvigia Tulipa saxatilis Tulipa clusiana Tulipa clusiana Canna Brunsvigia Crinum macowanii, C. moorei Lachenalia Galtonia candicans Agapanthus africanus, Crinum longifolium Boophane Haemanthus coccineus, Homeria

Index of Common Names Cardwell lily Caribbean lily Carolina lily Caspian bluebell Catherine wheel Cat's ears Cat's paw Cat's whiskers Caucasian lily Celandine crocus Celestial iris Century plant Chaparral lily Checkered lily Chemise lily Chicken-gizzard lily Chigger flower Chilean blue crocus Chilean crocus Chilean lily Chincherinchee Chinese chives Chinese lantern Chinese potato Chinese sacred lily Chinese yam Chives Chocolate lily Christmas begonia Christmas bells Cinnamon vine Cliff gladiolus Climbing Christmas bell Climbing lily Climbing onion Cloth of gold crocus Coast lily Cobra lily Cocoyam Coffee lily Columbia tiger lily Common cat's paw Common hyacinth Common iris Compass plant Coral drops Coral lily Corn flag Corn lily Corsican lily Cranesbill Crape flower Creeping lily

Proiphys amboinensis Hymenocallis caribaea Lilium michauxii Scilla hohenackeri Scadoxus multiflorus subsp. katherinae Calochortus Anigozanthos Tacca chantrieri Lilium szovitsianum Crocus korolkowii Iris ensata Boophane, B. disticha Lilium rubescens Fritillaria meleagris Erythronium grandiflorum Crinum Asclepias tuberosa Tecophilaea cyanocrocus Tecophilaea cyanocrocus Alstroemeria chilensis Ornithogalum thyrsoides Allium tuberosum Sandersonia Dioscorea divaricata Narcissus tazetta Dioscorea batatas Allium schoenoprasum Arthropodium strictum, Fritillaria biflora Begonia xcheimantha Blandfordia, Sandersonia Dioscorea batatas, D. divaricata Gladiolus sempervirens Littonia Gloriosa Bowiea volubilis Crocus angustifolius Lilium maritimum Arisaema Colocasia esculenta Hesperantha coccinea Lilium columbianum Anigozanthos humilis Hyacinthus orientalis Iris germanica Bulbine Bessera elegans Lilium pumilum Gladiolus Gladiolus, Ixia Pancratium illyricum Geranium Nerine, Pelargonium Gloriosa

517

Crimson flag Crimson satin flower Crinum lily Crocus lily Crow garlic Crown imperial Cuban lily Cuckoopint Curly-curly Curly lily Custard lily

Hesperantha coccinea Dichelostemma ida-maia Crinum longifolium Zephyranthes Allium vineale Fritillaria imperialis Scilla peruviana Arum maculatum Dipcadi brevifolium, D. ciliare Erythronium grandiflorum Hemerocallis lilio-asphodelus

Daffodil Daffodil garlic Daffodil lily Daisy yam Dalmatian iris Darling lily Dasheen Davis begonia Dayflower Daylily Death camas Deer grass Delicate lily Desert candle Desert lily Devil flower Devil lily Devil's bit Devil's tongue Dobo lily Dog's-tooth violet Double golden crown Doyala yam Dragon arum Dragon root Dragon's mouth Drooping agapanthus Dutch iris hybrids Dutchman's breeches Dwarf kangaroo paw Dwarf purple flag

Narcissus Allium neapolitanum Amaryllis Microseris Iris pallida Crinum flaccidum Colocasia esculenta Begonia davisii Commelina Hemerocallis Zigadenus nuttallii, Z. venenosus Rhexia Chlidanthus Eremurus Hesperocallis undulata Tacca chantrieri Lilium lancifolium Chamaelirion Amorphophallus, A. rivieri Cyrtanthus brachyscyphus Erythronium, E. dens-canis Hemerocallis fulva 'Flore Pleno' Dioscorea tomentosa Dracunculus, D. vulgaris Arisaema dracontium Dracunculus muscivorus Agapanthus inapertus I. xiphium var. praecox x I. tingitana Dicentra Anigozanthos gabrielae Patersonia longifolia

Early Nancy Earth chestnut Earth-nut pea Easter bells Easter lily Eastern blue flag Egyptian lily El cacomite Elegant camas Elephant camas Elephant's-ear

Wurmbea dioica Lathyrus Lathyrus Erythronium Lilium longiflorum Iris virginica Zantedeschia aethiopica Tigridia Zigadenus elegans Zigadenus elegans Caladium, Colocasia, C. esculenta, Eriospermum capense

518

Index of Common Names

Elephant's foot Elephant yam Emerald fern Empress of Brazil Enchanting violet-lily English bluebell English iris English-weed Equestrian starflower Eucharist lily Eureka lily Evergreen kangaroo paw Fairybell Fairy fishing rod Fairy lantern Fairy lily Fairy stars Fairy wand Falling stars False garlic False lily of the valley False sea onion Fawn lily Featherbells Featherfleece February fair maid Few-flowered leek Field garlic Field gladiolus Fireball lily Firecracker flower Firecracker lily Fire lily Five fingers Flag Flames Flame flower Flame freesia Flame lily Flame lips Flame nasturtium Flames Flax lily Fleur-de-lis Floral firecracker Florentine iris Florida swamp lily Florists' gloxinia

Dioscorea elephantipes Amorphophallus paeoniifolius Asparagus densiflorus Worsleya rayneri Sphenostigma coelestinum Hyacinthoides non-scripta Iris latifolia Oxalis pes-caprae Hippeastrum puniceum Eucharis xgrandiflora, Proiphys, P. amboinensis Lilium occidentale Anigozanthos flavidus

Dierama Dierama Calochortus Zephyranthes, Z. grandiflora Hypoxis trifurcillata Chamaelirion Crocosmia aurea Nothoscordum Maianthemum, M. bifolium Ornithogalum longibracteatum Erythronium, E. californicum Stenanthium gramineum Stenanthium gramineum Galanthus Allium paradoxum Allium oleraceum Gladiolus italicus Haemanthus, Scadoxus Dichelostemma ida-maia Dichelostemma ida-maia Cyrtanthus, C. tuckii, Lilium bulbiferum Cyanella lutea Iris Chasmanthe, Gladiolus huttonii Tropaeolum speciosum Tritonia Clivia miniata, Gloriosa, Lilium philadelphicum Lilium philadelphicum Tropaeolum speciosum Chasmanthe, Gladiolus huttonii, G. radians Arthropodium dianellaceum Iris germanica 'Florentina', /. pseudacorus Dichelostemma ida-maia Iris germanica 'Florentina' Crinum americanum Sinningia speciosa

Flowering garlic Flowering grass Flowering onion Flower of Tigris Flower-of-the-WestWind Fly poison Fool's onion Football lily Forest lily Forked sundew Four-leaved clover Foxtail lily Fragile iris Fragrant-flowered garlic French snowflake Friar's cap Friar's cowl Fringed lily

Allium Dierama pendulum Allium neapolitanum Tigridia Zephyranthes Amianthum muscitoxicum Brodiaea Haemanthus, Scadoxus Clivia miniata Drosera binata Oxalis tetraphylla Eremurus Pa tersonia fragilis Allium ramosum

Fringed violet Fringe flower Fringe lily Frost lily

Leucojum nicaeense Aconitum napellus Arisarum simorrhinum. Arthropodium fimbriatum, Thysanotus multiflorus Thysanotus tuberosus Thysanotus Thysanotus Zephyranthes

Garden monkshood Garden wolfsbane Garland lily Garlic Garlic chives Gayfeather George lily German garlic German onion Giant asphodel Giant chincherinchee Giant cyrtanthus Giant garlic Giant krubi Giant lily Giant spider lily Giant sundew Glacier lily Glade lily Glads Globe lily Globe tulip Glory lily Glory of the snow Glory of the sun Gloxinia Goa potato Gold band lily Golden calla Golden flame lily

Aconitum napellus Aconitum napellus Calostemma purpureum Allium sativum Allium tuberosum Liatris Cyrtanthus elatus Allium senescens Ornithogalum longibracteatum Asphodelus ramosus Ornithogalum saundersiae Cyrtanthus obliquus Allium giganteum Amorphophallus titanum Cardiocrinum Crinum amabile Drosera regia Erythronium montanum Lilium philadelphicum Gladiolus Calochortus Calochortus Gloriosa Chionodoxa Leucocoryne Sinningia Dioscorea aculeata Lilium auratum Zantedeschia elliotiana Pyrolirion aureum

Index of Common Names Golden garlic Golden gladiolus Golden hurricane lily Golden kangaroo paw Golden lanterns Golden lily Golden spider lily Golden star Golden stars Golden weather glass Golden winter star Good luck leaf plant Good luck lily Grape hyacinth Grapevine begonia Grass lily Grass nuts Grassy bell Great Solomon's seal Great white trillium Green dragon Green kangaroo paw Ground iris Ground lily Guernsey lily Guinea-hen flower

Allium moly Gladiolus aureus Lycoris aurea Anigozanthos pulcherrimus Calochortus amabilis Lycoris aurea Lycoris aurea Triteleia ixioides Bloomeria Hypoxis hygrometrica Hypoxis villosa Oxalis tetraphylla Narcissus tazetta Muscari Begonia xweltoniensis Arthropodium strictum Triteleia, T. laxa Dierama Polygonatum commutatum Trillium grandiflorum Arisaema dracontium Anigozanthos viridis Iris macrosiphon Trillium cernuum, Zephyranthes atamasca Nerine sarniensis Fritillaria meleagris Dierama Dracunculus muscivorus Patersonia rudis Lycoris squamigera Begonia grandis subsp. evansiana Sparaxis Agapanthus Maianthemum Caladium bicolor Ceropegia woodii Aconitum napellus Alstroemeria pelegrina Paris quadrifolia Gladiolus carmineus

Hairbell Hairy arum Hairy flag Hardy amaryllis Hardy begonia Harlequin flower Harriet's flower Heartleaf lily Heart of Jesus Hearts entangled Helmet flower Herb lily Herb paris Hermanus cliff gladiolus Hollyhock begonia Homer's lily Honey flower Hoop petticoat daffodil Horned tulip Hottentot bread Hot water plant Huckleberry lily Hurricane lily Hyacinth

Tulipa acuminata Dioscorea elephantipes Achimenes Lilium philadelphicum Lycoris Hyacinthus

Ifafa lily

Cyrtanthus mackenii

Begonia gracilis Allium nigrum Gladiolus longicollis Narcissus bulbocodium

519

Inanda River lily Inca lily Indian arrowroot Indian cucumber root Indian lily Indian root Indian shot Indian turnip Iron Cross plant Italian bluebell Ithuriel's spear Ivy-leaved cyclamen Ixia lily

Crinum moorei Alstroemeria pelegrina Tacca leontopetaloides Medeola Camassia Asclepias curassavica Canna indica Arisaema triphyllum Oxalis tetraphylla Hyacinthoides italica Triteleia laxa Cyclamen repandum Ixiolirion

Jack-in-the-pulpit

Arisaema triphyllum, Zantedeschia aethiopica Sprekelia Asphodeline Allium fistulosum

Jacobean lily Jacob's rod Japanese bunching onion Japanese iris Japanese lily Japanese roof iris Japanese spider lily Jersey lily Jerusalem artichoke Johnny-jump-up Jonquill Josephine's lily

Iris ensata Lilium speciosum Iris tectorum Nerine Cyrtanthus elatus Helianthus tuberosus Fritillaria pudica Narcissus jonquilla Brunsvigia josephinae

Kalo Kangaroo paw Keeled garlic Kerry lily King of Candia King's crown lily King's spear Knight's star lily Knysna lily Kochang lily Korean lily Kukumakranka Kurrat

Colocasia esculenta Anigozanthos Allium carinatum Simethis Haemanthus coccineus Fritillaria imperialis Asphodeline lutea Hippeastrum Cyrtanthus elatus Lilium distichum Lilium amabile Gethyllis Allium ampeloprasum

Lady's hand Lady's leek Lady's locket Lady tulip Lake crinum Lamb's quarters Lamb's tongue Large brown Afrikaner Large Christmas bell Large pink Afrikaner Larkspur

Cyanella hyacinthoides Allium cernuum Dicentra Tulipa clusiana Crinum submersum Trillium erectum Erythronium Gladiolus liliaceus Blandfordia grandiflora Gladiolus caryophyllaceus Delphinium

520

Index of Common Names

Lavender globe lily Leafy purple flag Lebanon squill Leek Lemon lily Lent daffodil Lent lily Leopard lily Leper lily Lesser celandine Levant garlic Likiang lily Lily Lily leek Lily-of-the-Altai Lily-of-the-Amazon Lily-of-the-desert Lily-of-the-field Lily-of-the-field (biblical) Lily- of- the- Incas Lily of the Nile

Allium tanguticum Patersonia, P. glabrata Puschkinia Allium porrum Hemerocallis lilio-asphodelus, Lilium parryi Narcissus pseudonarcissus Narcissus pseudonarcissus Belamcanda chinensis, Lachenalia, Lilium catesbaei, L pardalinum Fritillaria meleagris Ranunculus ficaria Allium ampeloprasum Lilium papilliferum Lilium Allium moly Ixiolirion Eucharis Hesperocallis undulata Anemone Sternbergia lutea Alstroemeria pelegrina Agapanthus, Zantedeschia aethiopica Hippeastrum aulicum Alstroemeria Echeandia chandleri Convallaria Liriopes Gymnospermium albertii Anigozanthos bicolor Androcymbium Moraea Hypoxis, Milla Leucojum, L. aestivum Patersonia longiscapa Gladiolus angustus

Lily of the palace Lily-of-Peru Lily of the plains Lily-of-the-valley Lilyturf Lion's turnip Little kangaroo paw Little-men-in-a-boat Little owl Little stars Loddon lily Long purple flag Long-tubed painted lady Lords-and-ladies Lucky clover Lucky leaf Lyre flower

Arum maculatum Oxalis tetraphylla Oxalis tetraphylla Dicentra

Madeira vine Madonna lily Magenta wallflower Magic flower Magic lily Magic lily of Japan Malabar glory lily Malacca yam Malagas lily Mallee fringe lily Mananitas Man of the earth

Anredera Eucharis, Lilium candidum Dierama pulcherrimum Achimenes Lycoris squamigera Lycoris Gloriosa Dioscorea atropurpurea Cybistetes Thysanotus baueri Habranthus concolor Ipomoea pandurata

Many-flowered fringe lily Maori onion Maple-leaf begonia March flower March lily Mariposa lily Mariposa tulip Marsh Afrikaner Martagon lily Matal Matthiole lily Mauve Afrikaner Mayflower Meadow beauty Meadow leek Meadow lily Meadow saffron Meadow snowflake Mediterranean lily Merryhearts Mexican daylily Mexican lily Mexican pine woods lily Mexican scarlet lily Mexican shell flower Mexican star of Bethlehem Mignonette vine Milk-and-wine lily Milk lily Milkmaids Milkweed Miracle lily Misery lily Mission bells Missouri hyacinth Monarch of the East Monkshood Montbretia Morning glory Morning star lily Mother's tears Mountain garlic Mountain lily Mountain saffron Mountain squill Mount Cook lily Mount Etna lily Mourning iris Mouse garlic Mouse plant Mozambique lily

Thysanotus multiflorus Bulbinella hookeri Begonia xweltoniensis Haemanthus coccineus Amaryllis belladonna Calochortus Calochortus Gladiolus tristus Lilium martagon Asclepias curassavica Pancratium maritimum Gladiolus carinatus Maianthemum Rhexia Allium canadense Amaryllis belladonna, Lilium canadense Colchicum, C. autumnale Leucojum aestivum Pancratium Zigadenus nuttallii Tigridia Amaryllis belladonna, Hippeastrum reginae Alophia veracruzana Sprekelia Tigridia Milla biflora Anredera Crinum zeylanicum Crinum Burchardia Asclepias Lycoris squamigera Amaryllis belladonna Fritillaria biflora Triteleia hyacinthina Sauromatum venosum Aconitum Crocosmia, Tritonia Ipomoea Lilium concolor Achimenes Allium senescens Ranunculus lyallii Bulbocodium Urginea Ranunculus lyallii Sternbergia lutea Iris susiana Allium angulosum Arisarum proboscideum Gloriosa

Index of Common Names Mystery lily

Lycoris

Naked boys Naked ladies Naked lady Naked lily Nankeen lily Naples garlic Nasturtium Natal crocus Natal lily Navelwort New Zealand buttercup Nightshade Nodding lily Nodding onion Nodding wood lily North American dragon root Nut orchid Nuwejaarsblom

Cokhicum autumnale Amaryllis belladonna Lycoris squamigera Amaryllis belladonna Lilium xtestaceum Allium neapolitanum Tropaeolum Apodolirion Clivia Umbilicus rupestris Ranunculus lyallii Solanum Lilium cernuum Allium cernuum Trillium cernuum Arisaema dracontium Achimenes Gladiolus cardinalis

Ocher lily Onion lily Onions Ookow Opal lachenalia Orange bells Orange cup lily Orange freesia Orange lily Orange River lily Orchid iris Orchid lily Oregon lily Orinoco lily Oxblood lily

Lilium primulinum Ornithogalum longibracteatum Allium Dichelostemma congestum Lachenalia orchioides var. glaucina Sandersonia aurantiaca Lilium philadelphicum Tritonia crocata Hemerocallis Crinum bulbispermum Iris japonica Sprekelia Lilium columbianum Crinum Rhodophiala bifida

Paint brush Painted lady Painted sundew Painted trillium Painted wake robin Pale vanilla lily Palm grass Panther lily Paperwhite Paradise lily Parrot lily

Haemanthus, Scadoxus Gladiolus carneus, G. debilis Drosera zonaria Trillium undulatum Trillium undulatum Arthropodium milleflorum Curculigo capitulata Lilium pardalinum Narcissus papyraceus, N. tazetta Paradisea liliastrum Alstroemeria pulchella, Gladiolus dalenii Anemone pavonina Moraea, Tigridia Moraea Umbilicus rupestris Fritillaria persica

Peacock eye Peacock flower Peacock iris Pennywort Persian lily

Persian violet Peruvian daffodil Peruvian lily Peruvian swamp lily Pheasant's eye narcissus Pig lily Pilewort Pincushion Pineapple lily Pine lily Pinewoods lily Pink agapanthus Pink bell Pink calla Pink funnel lily Pink George lily Pink spider lily Pitcher lily Pleurisy root Poet's narcissus Poison bulb Poison camas Poison onion Poison plant Poker plant Polyanthus lily Polyanthus narcissus Poppy anemone Pot-of-gold lily Prairie iris Prairie lily Prairie onion Pregnant onion Pretty face Primrose peerless Prince of irises Prussian asparagus Purple arum Purple dragon lily Purple pleatleaf Purple silkweed Purple trillium Pyjama flower Pyjama lily Pyrenees meadow saffron

521

Cyclamen Chlidanthus fragrans, Hymenocallis narcissiflora Alstroemeria, Scilla peruviana Zephyranthes Narcissus poeticus Zantedeschia aethiopica Ranunculus ficaria Massonia Eucomis, E. autumnalis Lilium catesbaei Alophia drummondii Tulbaghia Gladiolus ornatus Zantedeschia rehmannii Androstephium breviflorum Cyrtanthus elatus Lycoris radiata Amaryllis Asclepias tuberosa Narcissus poeticus Crinum asiaticum Zigadenus nuttallii Dipcadi glaucum, Ornithoglossum viride Boophane Kniphofia Polianthes Narcissus tazetta Anemone coronaria Lilium iridollae Nemastylis geminiflora Nemastylis geminiflora Allium drummondii, A. stellatum Ornithogalum Triteleia ixioides Narcissus xmedioluteus Iris gatesii Ornithogalum pyrenaicum Zantedeschia rehmannii Dracunculus Alophia drummondii Asclepias purpurascens Trillium erectum Androcymbium melanthoides Crinum macowanii Colchicum montanum

Camassia Quamash Queen Anne's double Narcissus jonquilla 'Flore Plena' jonquil Amaryllis, Phaedranassa Queen lily Canna indica Queensland arrowroot

522

Index of Common Names

Raindrops Rain lily Ramsons Rangoon yam Rattlesnake root Red Afrikaner Red-and-green kangaroo paw Red bell Red bush lily Red calla Red gladiolus Red-hot poker Red ink sundew Red lily Red martagon Red posy Red puccoon Red sequin Red-skinned onion Red spider lily Red star Red trillium Red tulip Redwood sorrel Regal lily Resurrection lily Rice-grain fritillary Richardias River lily Riversdale bluebell Roast beef plant Rocky Mountain iris Rosary vine Rose-colored lily Rose leek Rose snowflake Rosy garlic Round-headed leek Roundleaf trillium Royal Bay lily Royal Brunswick lily Royal paint brush Rubrum lily Rue anemone Rush-leaved jonquil

Fritillaria recurva Clivia nobilis Sauromatum venosum Gladiolus cruentus Kniphofia, Veltheimia Drosera erythrorhiza Lilium philadelphicum Lilium chalcedonicum Boophane Sanguinaria Geissorhiza Allium haematochiton Lycoris radiata Rhodohypoxis baurii Trillium erectum Homeria miniata Oxalis oregana Lilium regale Lycoris Fritillaria affinis Zantedeschia Hesperantha coccinea Gladiolus rogersii Iris foetidissima Iris missouriensis Ceropegia woodii Nerine thomsonianum Allium canadense Leucojum roseum Allium roseum Allium sphaerocephalon Trillium petiolatum Galtonia regalis Brunsvigia Sauromatum puniceus Lilium speciosum Anemonella thalictroides Narcissus assoanus

Sabie crinum Sacred Aztec lily Sacred tiger lily Saffron Sage Saint Bernard's lily Saint Bruno's lily Saint James lily Saint John's lily

Crinum macowanii Tigridia Tigridia Crocus sativus Salvia Anthericum liliago Paradisea liliastrum Sprekelia Gladiolus communis

Zephyranthes Habranthus, Zephyranthes Allium ursinum Dioscorea atropurpurea Chamaelirion Gladiolus huttonii Anigozanthos manglesii

Saint Joseph's lily Saint Martin's flower Saint Michael's lily Salt marsh iris Sand leek Sand lily Satin bell Satin flowers Scarborough lily Scarlet fritillary Scarlet river lily Scarlet turk's cap lily Scented sundew Schoolhouse lily Scotch crocus Scurvy grass Sea daffodil Sea lily Sea onion Sea squill Sego lily Sentry box Sentry-in-the-box September lily Shaving brush Shell flower Shepherd's lily Short purple flag Siberian lily Siberian squill Sicilian honey garlic Sierra lily Silkweed Silky purple flag Silver bells Siskiyou lily Sky-blue lily Sky-lily Slimstem lily Small Afrikaner Small brown Afrikaner Small celandine Small red iris Small Solomon's seal Small yellow star Snake flower Snake lily Snake palm

Cybistetes, Lilium candidum Alstroemeria ligtu Hemerocallis Iris spuria Allium scorodoprasum Hypoxis hirsuta, Leucocrinum Calochortus Sinningia Cyrtanthus elatus, Vallota Fritillaria recurva Hesperantha coccinea Lilium chalcedonicum Drosera whittakeri Rhodophiala bifida Crocus biflorus Oxalis enneaphylla Pancratium, P. maritimum Pancratium, P. maritimum Ornithogalum longibracteatum, Urginea maritima Urginea maritima Calochortus nuttalli Albuca, A. maxima Albuca Clivia miniata Haemanthus, Scadoxus Tigridia Ranunculus lyallii Patersonia fragilis Ixiolirion Scilla siberica Nectaroscordum siculum Lilium parvum Asclepias Patersonia, P. sericea Ornithogalum nutans Fritillaria glauca Ixiolirion Herpolirion Lilium callosum Gladiolus permeabilis subsp. edulis Gladiolus maculatus

Ranunculus ficaria Lapeirousia Polygonatum biflorum Hypoxis argentea Ornithogalum Fritillaria meleagris, Scadoxus Amorphophallus, A. corrugatus, A. rivieri Haemanthus Snake plant Liatris punctata Snakeroot Snake's head fritillary Fritillaria meleagris Hermodactylus Snake's head iris Amorphophallus bulbifer Snake's tongue

Index of Common Names Snowdon lily Snowdrop Snowflake Snow lily Snow trillium Soap plant Society garlic Soldier-in-the-box Soldier's cap Solomon's lily Solomon's seal Sore eye flower Sorrel South African squill Southern blue flag Sowbread Spanish bluebell Spanish garlic Spanish iris Spanish nut Spear lily Spider amaryllis Spider flower Spider lily Spire lily Spotted calla Spring beauty Spring lily Spring meadow saffron Spring onion Spring snowflake Spring squill Spring starflower Square root Squill Star grass Star lily Star of Bethlehem Star of the marsh Star of Persia Star tulip Steer's head Stink bells Stinking Benjamin Stinking iris Stinking Willie String of hearts Striped garlic Striped squill Summer daffodil Summer hyacinth Summer snowflake

Lloydia serotina Galanthus, G. nivalis Leucojum Trillium grandiflorum Trillium nivale Chlorogalum pomeridianum Tulbaghia, T. violacea Albuca, A. flaccida Aconitum napellus Arum palaestinum Polygonatum Boophane Oxalis Ledebouria cooperi Iris virginica Cyclamen hederifolium Hyacinthoides hispanica Allium scorodoprasum Iris xiphium Gynandriris sisyrinchium Gladiolus Hippeastrum cybister Hymenocallis Hymenocallis narcissiflora, Lycoris, Pancratium maritimum Galtonia candicans Zantedeschia Claytonia, C. virginica Erythronium albidum Bulbocodium Allium fistulosum Leucojum vernum Scilla verna Ipheion uniflorum Trillium erectum Scilla Hypoxis Hypoxis capensis, Lilium concolor, Milla biflora Eucharis xgrandiflora, Hypoxis argentea, Ornithogalum umbellatum Onixotis triquetra Allium christophii Calochortus Dicentra uniflora Fritillaria agrestis Trillium erectum Iris foetidissima Trillium erectum Ceropegia woodii Allium christophii Puschkinia scilloides Hymenocallis Galtonia candicans Leucojum aestivum

Sundew Sunflower Swallowwort Swamp lily

Swamp onion Swamp pink Sweet garlic Sweetheart geranium Sweetheart vine Sweet potato Sword lily Tall kangaroo paw Tall squill Tall sundew Tasmanian Christmas bells Tasmanian edelweiss Tasmanian gem Tassel hyacinth Tawny lily Telingo potato Temple bells Tenby lily Texas star flower Thong lily Three-cornered leek Three-leaved snowflake Tiger flower Tiger lily Titan arum Toad lily Toadshade Toad trillium Torch lily Tortoise plant Tous-les-mois Transkei gladiolus Transkei lily Tree paw Trinity lily Triplet lily Tritoma Trout lily Trumpet lily Trumpet narcissus Tuberose Tuberous pea Tulbagh bell Tumbleweed Turkey corn Turk's cap

523

Drosera Helianthus Asclepias curassavica Crinum americanum, Lilium superbum, Zephyranthes, Z. atamasca Allium validum Helonias Tulbaghia Pelargonium echinatum Ceropegia woodii Dioscorea purpurea, Ipomoea batatas Gladiolus, Iris Anigozanthos flavidus Scilla natalensis Drosera auriculata Blandfordia punicea Isophysis Isophysis Muscari comosum Hemerocallis Amorphophallus paeoniifolius Smithiantha Narcissus obvallaris Zephyranthes drummondii Clivia Allium triquetrum Leucojum trichophyllum Tigridia Lilium catesbaei, L. lancifolium Amorphophallus titanum Fritillaria meleagris Trillium sessile Trillium sessile Haemanthus, Kniphofia, Scadoxus Dioscorea elephantipes, D. macrostachya Canna indica Gladiolus oppositiflorus Nerine masonorum Anigozanthos flavidus Trillium grandiflorum Triteleia laxa Kniphofia Erythronium, E. americanum Zantedeschia aethiopica Narcissus pseudonarcissus Polianthes tuberosa Lathyrus Gladiolus inflatus Boophane disticha Dicentra eximia Aconitum napellus

524

Index of Common Names

Turk's-cap lily Turnip geranium Twelve apostles Twining fringe lily Two-leaf lily Two-leaved Solomon's seal

Lilium martagon Pelargonium incrassatum Neomarica caerulea Thysanotus patersonii Maianthemum bifolium Maianthemum canadense

Widow's tears Wild bleeding heart Wild clary Wild daffodil Wild garlic Wild ginger Wild hyacinth

Umbel lily Umbrella arum Unicorn root Urn flowers

Lilium xhollandicum Amorphophallus rivieri Veltheimia Urceolina

Vaal River lily Vervain Violet wood sorrel Voodoo lily Voodoo plant

Crinum bulbispermum Salvia verbenaca Oxalis violacea Sauromatum venosum Amorphophallus

Wake robin Walking iris Wand flower Wand lily Waterfall lily Water flower Water lily Waterlily tulip Water trumpet Water yam Wedding bell Welsh onion Western blue flag Western white trillium Wet dog Wheel lily White brodiaea White camas White dog's-tooth violet White eyes White globe lily White hoop petticoat daffodil White Jerusalem artichoke White mountain lily White spider lily

Trillium Neomarica gracilis Ixia, Sparaxis Eremurus Gladiolus cardinalis Onixotis triquetra Crinum campanulatum Tulipa kaufmanniana Cryptocoryne, C. affinis Dioscorea alata Dierama Allium fistulosum Iris missouriensis Trillium ovatum

Wild iris Wild leek Wild onion Wild orange lily Wild potato vine Wild saffron Wild sweet potato vine Wild tiger lily Wild yam Windflower Wine cup Wine-cup babiana Wine lily Winter aconite Winter daffodil Winter golden star Witkoppie Wolfsbane Wonder flower Wood anemone Wood garlic Wood lily Wood sorrel

White star grass White star lily White yam Whitsun lily Whorled Solomon's seal Widow iris

Trillium erectum Lilium medeoloides Triteleia hyacinthina Zigadenus elegans Erythronium albidum Leucojum vernum Calochortus albus Narcissus cantabricus Bomarea Erythronium montanum Hymenocallis narcissiflora, Lycoris xalbiflora Hypoxis capensis Milla biflora Dioscorea alata Narcissus poeticus Polygonatum verticillatum Hermodactylus

Yam Yellow adder's tongue Yellow asphodel Yellow bell Yellow calla Yellow chincherinchee Yellow chink Yellow fire lily Yellow flag Yellow kangaroo paw Yellow onion Yellow spider Yellow star Yellow star grass Yellow star of Bethlehem Yellow tulip Yellow yam

Zephyr lily Zulu potato

Achimenes, Commelina Dicentra formosa Salvia verbenaca Narcissus pseudonarcissus Allium ursinum, Tulbaghia Asarum Camassia, Dichelostemma capitatum, Lachenalia, L. contaminata Dietes, Patersonia, P. glabrata Allium ampeloprasum, A. tricoccum Allium cernuum Lilium philadelphicum Ipomoea pandurata Crocus cartwrightianus Ipomoea pandurata Lilium superbum Dioscorea villasa Anemone Geissorhiza Babiana rubrocyanea Crinum Eranthis, E. hyemalis Sternbergia fischeriana Hypoxis villosa Wurmbea spicata Aconitum Ornithogalum thyrsoides Anemone nemorosa Allium ursinum Lilium philadelphicum, Trillium Oxalis pes-caprae Dioscorea Erythronium americanum Asphodeline lutea Apodolirion, Fritillaria pudica Zantedeschia elliotiana Ornithogalum dubium Ornithogalum dubium Cyrtanthus breviflorus Iris pseudacorus, Patersonia xanthina Anigozanthos pulcherrimus Allium moly Lycoris Hypoxis Hypoxis, H. hirsuta Gagea lutea Homeria pallida Dioscorea cayenensis Zephyranthes Bowiea volubilis