B U D D H I S T SECTS IN INDIA
NALINAKSHA
DUTT
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INTRODUCTION It is striking that 8i far back as 1859. i.e., ov~ a ceotury ago, the attention or European scholars was drawn to the appearance of Buddhist sects in IndIa, mentioning their names without, however, any comment. '(he earliest article was wrille D by St. Julien , 'lisle. diverses des Doms des djx·huit secles du bouddhisme' in the JournalAsfatique, 1859. This was followed by M.V. Vassilid in 1860, Drs. Rhys Davids and Oldeoberg in 1881. H. Kern in 1884 and I. P. Minayeff in 1884 (vide for details, pages 11 -13) of this book . It was afler the publication of the translation of the Chinese version of Vasumit ra's treatise on eighteen sects of Buddhism in India by Prof. J. Masuda, who happened to be a Lecturer in the Calcuna Unhenity and also a colleague of the present writer, in the Asia Major, vol. 1I (1925) supplemented by the Tibetan texts on the eigh teen schools by Bhavya and VinitadeYa en titled Nikii)'Q-Medol'ibhaliga and Samayobhedoparacanacakla respectively. It should be nOled that Vasumitra's treatise had three Chinese translations: (i) ' Shi-pa' pu' -I un, ascribed either to Kumfuajiva(40 1-13) or to Paramartha (546-69). (ii) Pu'-chi-i-lun, ascribed to Paramartha. This translatio n, according to Masuda, appears to be more accurate. (iii) I-pu'-tsung-!un, ascribed to Hiuen Tsang (662), is regarded by Masuda as the best of the translations. There were four scholars, bearing the name of Vasumitra: (0 Vasumitra of Kani$ka's Council and o ne of the authors of the Mahavihh:ha. (ii) Vasumitra of the Sautr:inlika school. (iii) Vasumitra, who appeared a thousand years after Buddha's pllrin ibbana, and (iv) Vasumitra of the Sarva~ ti\'ada school. from whom Hiuen Tsa ng learnt the Sarva.stiviida doctrines. It i~ curious th:1I no ne (If the books and a rticles mentioned on PI'. I I-IJ refen 10 ~ u c h an important Pa li Abhidhamma tell
,; the KalMvotthll published in 11197 :lnd i l 5 commentary in 1889 and the rormer work's English translation by Mrs. GA .F.
35
Rhys Davids entitled I'o[nts ojCo'Jf rOW!rsy (1915). The 3n1iquily 01" the K'a:hiloatlhll iradilionally goe, back [0 Ihe days or Emperor A~ olm, under whose auspices the T hird 8 u:1· dhis! Counci l was held with ~ oggah putt a T issa as its preSide nt.
The specls l t~at ures of this book arc Ihat (i) it preSt nts the doctrines 01" the opponents, Le., an e",~os i t ion of Ihe doctrines of a Plrllcu[a r non-Theraviida school: (ii) It allows him to state his arguments as well as (iii) 10 quote in thei r support Ihe statements of Buddha, occurring in t he Nika)'3s or elsewhere in any Pi!akan text. After giving full scope 10 the o pponents for the grounds or their vie"s. Moggaliputta Tissa. the president, refuted them from the stllndpoint of T heravada by counter-a rguments as well as with the help of quotations from the Buddhavacana s. The contrib ution of the p resent author lies not o nl y in making li n a nalytical study o f the trea tises of Vasumitra, Bha vya and Vinitade .. a but also the Kathiil'arthu and its commentary by Buddhngno,a as well as the Abhidltaramakosa-vyiikhya, an excelI: nt edition of which has ~n published by P rof. Wogi hara o f Jap]n a nd the Sammitlya-nikiiya siblfa translated from Chi nese by P rof. Ve ok.ata raman o f the Vitvabhanli and The Gilgir Ma'illscriprs, III , edited and published by the present writer, containi n! the original Miilasarvastivada Vinaya, and also the Jnana praslhlina SUtta partially restored from Chinese by Sanli Bh ik ~ u also of the ViSvabharati. This book end s with an Epilogue, in which an attempt has been made 10 sho .... how M ahliyAnism developed as a natura l consequence of the \'iews of the MahAs:ulghikas and as II de\elopment of the nebulo us conception ofBodhi satt\'a and Buddhakiiyas in the Div}'Ql'{xliina and Avadona-sa/aka, ascribed to the Sarvasl ivddins anda!50 asa reaclion to Ihe realism of the Sarv-.1stiviidins, a nd ho w gr:ld ually MaMyanism surpassed Hinayanism both in popularity and pro pagation. T o this book has been added a.n Appendix containing a s)nop~is of the a ncient geogra phy of Ind ia as described by Hiuen Tsang; il a lso th rows light on Ihe di spersal of Buddhist se>lts in Indin a long wil h n brief acco unt o f the Buddhist sects as
yii give n by I-tsi ng and the local ities where these were existing at his time, i. e., half a cen tury after H iuen Tsang's visit 10 Indi",. In fine , I sbould lite to Ihank my lea rned friend, Sri K. L Mukhopadhyay, M.A. for suggesting the appropriate litl: of the book . which hclp:d me to confine my attention exclusively to the Budd hist Sects in India. I should mention that I have deri\ed mucb benefit from the H jstojre du Bouddhisme ir.difll (Louvam, 1956) of Prof. E. Lamotte, who has also published mnny other valuable worki on Mab:iyann Buddhism, util ising exhnusti\:cly the Chinese versions of the lost Sansl::rit texIS. t al so thank my student Dr. Miss Ksanilca Saha, Ph . D. for preparing the I ndexes. N"' lI N" K ~HA Dun
CONTENTS I NTRODUCT I O N
V
ABBK EnATIU NS
xi
11
III IV V VI VII VlIl IX
IND[X
Political Background from Ajatasatru to Mahapadma Nanda Sources and Account of tbe Second Buddbi ~t Coundl Disruptive Forces in the Sangha So urces and Classification of Sects The Mabasillighikas Doctrines of Group II Schools Doctrines of Group [][ Schools Doctrinei of Group IV Schools Doctrine:> of Group 'Ii Schools Epilogue Appendix: Hiuen Tsang and I-tsing on the dispersion of Buddhist Sects in India
11 34 48 57 98 121 181 211 218 261 291
ABBREVIATIONS Aspects—义明沈“ of Mahayana Buddhism by N. Dutt (1930) ASR.—Archaeological Survey Report (Govt, of India) Astsi.—Astasdhasnka Prajnaparamitd (ASB. edition) Bareau—Les sectes du Petit Vehicule (BEFEO. 1956) E.I. or Ep. Ind— Epigraphia lndica EMB.—Early Monastic Buddhism by N. Dutt, 2 vols. (1941) Fa-hien—James Legge's Travels of Fa-hien in India & Ceylon. H.T —Hiuen Tsang I-tsing—Takakusu's Records of the Buddhist Religion in India & Malay Archipelago Ko^a-vyakliya or Kosa—Prof, Louis de la Valine Poussin's French translation K\u.—Kathavatthu (P.T.S.) Masuda—Masuda's Translation of Vasumitra's Treatise on Buddhist Sects’ published in the Asia Major, I I Mmk.— Manjusrl-mula-kalpa (Trivandrum Sanskrit Series) Mtu——Mahavastu, edited by Prof. E Senart M . Vr.— Madhyamika Vrtti, edited by Prof. Louis de la Vallee Poussin Ray Chaudhury— Pqlitical History of Ancient India by H. C. Ray Chaudhury (3rd edition) Schiefner—Prof. Schiefner's German translation of the Tibetan History of Buddhism of Taranatha V.—Vasumitra or Vasubandhu Watters—Watters' Yuan Chwang's Travels In India, 2 vols. Winternitz— History of the Buddhist Literature (Cal. Uni.)
Cfli\ I'T~R 1
PO LITI CA L BAC KGROUN D F ROM AJATASATT U TO MAHAPADMA NANDA Th~ s~ss i o n of th~ F irst Buddhist Council took place soon afler the mahapari nirvrqla of Buddha (486 II.C.) ill the eighth y<>IH of the reign of king Aja ta~attu, who ruled for.n years fmm 4qJ B.C. Ajata~attu extended hi.;; father 's dominion h~yond Magadha and ru led over Ailga , K isi and t he ;;tatesof t h~ Va.iji.1n confed~n1ci es .l T h~ Buddhist tradi tions are u n allim~ll~ in st
wa _~ not v~ry well -tii,posed towards Buddha and his rel igion, hut later on, hi~ mind ch.1n£,~d !lI III 's entilusi!l sm fill r~l1clering service 10 the new re1ig;,)!1, is referr<>d t o but t here i, no evidence 10 show his inlcr(',1 in Ihc pTi)pn~
(461-445
B.C.)
According to tbe Buddhist and Ja ina t raditio:1.s, though not according to the PII"iil}os,' Ajatasattu was succeeded by his son Udayibhaddn. He ruled for 16 ye:lfs 461 B.C . ~ T he Mmk. says tha t like his father lle was not only enthusiastiC about t he: Sec 8uddhist II/dia. C1.I; H.e. Ravchfwdhuri. Po/i/icai Hisrory uf 3rd cd , p, 140. ,Haiij"~1-im,;{ point~d Ollt that Ajallsallu
fllld~lIIllIliia.
r:paireu th : IS great 010na\lerlCS of RaJag;tha. 3, ,lin.',., p. 603. "!If
4. ~
~
'!
~oIT ::m;:f!:l~ w;nfr:
,
~
~r-.rr~r~;;
assigns to him a
Ici~n;nll pairxl
of:U
y~ar~.
2
8UfJI)HI S'1 SECTS IX 1:\U1 \
religion but also had Ihe ~ )' illg~ u f B uutlh;,. C('II1:cl::d .1 In the SOlnlC tex l' 1\.!;ain, it is stated thal t ill: n:lil!iun wo uld de-dine :l ncr Duddha's dc:ll h, the kings would be fil.ht illg with o ne a no ther, a nd the monks would busy Ihclllsdyt's wilh \'arious secJ lar m atters, find fau lt with o ne illlo thc r, and l
k C\.'Cnlly Prof. K. s llcccs~ ion
Cltl llopa dh:r J)~1 b:ls re<~amine<1 Mn~adh a ~ n d :mi v:u II I lhe
' h"
of the kings or
ql1~' l io ...
ur
conclusiOn Ih ~ 1
Dnda'a "" :lS (In altcrnlli\ : nan~ or Ud4yi as $r;!!Ilka was of Birrbisl ra an.I KU·/I!..u of l\J.ilOI >:It ru. l::.ec I'ro('. oJ,fle /tJdior. U iSfUt')' LUI;gl'eSS, Lah or~. 1940. 1"1). 141)..1) . Pror. 6 11:1 ....... , "a,- i<.lc "Li r~ O..ria ka ....Ith N &gad.hJ.k a. cr. £)i .) ·,i.."t!iina , p . J6~.
I
Mmk .. I), 604. ~
¢
UJIT ;::;f,Tlr~'." ~I ~ . I
\I f.ft:qf~f ififT fflJ:f ~ "' '3'tJ(': I ~itrr~ ;J~
~;;rt!il ~it
fiwrqfq~f
r"'ffitIl l tm ~ ~ -n
mR!
2. AIm!... P;J. 597·98 . J . The IN u r monu given In "'/Ilk .. p. SO IIPU111l , M aud!;al)'llyllll a,
~ : Is OIS follows ;_ \ 1 "hi\ki\ :I)-'lIr~. Su bhOli. R5h" I~,
N ;ulllJ .
8 Iudrd.. a. KI " hi (l3 IbiJ.. p. I II : S4ri;Ju t"ll . Ma uds:u lytl. y.m l . GJvllll[Y,lI i. ri nJola Bb .r" . d"ij:l. l'illld.IV;l:S
O be r nlillfr's nons/alion 0/ 8 /1'SfOtl'S HII/or~ 0/ Bu{Mllism (h~!l('t BU"';!!,)Il). II , p . ~~
~ l>u. I." ""("-,j 1"
j
P OLITICAL DA CKGR OU I\-D
to Ananda . Bot h Kasyapa and Ananda passed awa y durir.e the' life-time of Ajatusunu, ,.\nanda charged his disciple Sal;l3v;hika to protect the religion after his de mise and 10 ordain. in cnurse 01 time, Upagupla of M Jthura_ He ioretold that, 3ccorrling to the prophecy of the Teache r, Upagupta would hecome a Budd ha bUI not with all the cha racteristics of a Samhucldh~,Just befor e his demise, Ananda also ordained 500 Bnihm:lIlical ancho rites with M adhyantika a t their head, commis~ioning to him the propagatio n of Ihe religion in Kashmir. The ep;"ode 01 Mad hyantika a nd his activities in Kashmir d o nol however, _li nd any men tion io the Ceyio nesc chronicles. ANU R li DDHA'~ SON ll U~ I?l\
(445-437
B.C.)
Ud:iyibhadda, after B rcigrl of [6 years (46 [-445 1I .c.), ",as succeeded by his son Anuruddha, whu!>e period o f reign as well :1S that of his son MUI)9a was vc:ry ~hurt. being only 8 years in :111. 445-43 7 11.C. !n tnc: Di~)'ii l'udiilf{ll king M UOQ.il is described a~ the son of Udiiyibhadda, and III,,) meOlion is mucic of Anuruddna. In the A,igltllara Nikiiyu,' kmg MU1,l~a is mentioned as approach ing-b!Jikk hll. Niirada 011 the death of his queen Bhadd5.. He listened to Zl dijcoursc of bhikkhu N o'l. rada delivered at P~t!rl liputta on the impermallcun: of world ly beings :lnd objects. In the ]ainu tradition prc:scr'lt:d in the PariSi,qapon'GlI (eh. '11), it is stated that u prince ill the guise o f a Ja ina novice killed Ucl ayin. Prof. Chattopauhyaya surmises Ihal thi s novice might be king MuQQa'.'
King MUI,lQu was mcceeded by his son Nii g:l cl~1salca. who ruled for 24 years. With Na,l!adasaka ended Ihe rule of the line of ki ngs t hat co mmenced with Bimbisara .• in I I'/"; Ceylonese I. 2.
D:I'I·a~I/(!{l"". p 369. AflJfliuaril, III , PD. 51f.
3. K. Chauopadhyaya, up. dl . .. T~c Di,·)~il'ud.lllll (p. 369) says that ~'I JI)~a 's SOil "as K;',ka\'a rQi. In th» ..11>/",1.,,,,,,)11<1 and Dfl'yu\'(Jrlllna. Ihc line of ki ng, i~ wven as follo \\'5 :_ Bimbi oira-Aj1tab lIu -Ud rll ,en · IJi f -Nal\d a.lJ il1d u sllra- Su ~i,na -A .;okii .
BUDI)HIST SECn
1
H~
l ",Dl A
c hro nicles, all the successor, of Dlmbisara a rc described as p~lri· cidal (pllllthiiIO~a\'UJ1,sa) ; h;)w far Ihis st2.tcment is refiat!e n:maim to be exam,neJ, but it seems th:t l the tiudjhisls Ilerc nOI in much favour of these kings. and cYlde:ltly, liS the M lllk. ~ay) B uddhi ~ m was on the wane all along this period of about Ihllf a centu ry. ~'I adhy;i nt ikn 's departu~ to Kashm.r " nd hi", OlnC'llpl to propag:!Ie Buddhism far away from Magadha is also ,UI indirect hint ,II the unpopu larity of t ~c religion ill the pro\ i:ll"c uf its o rigin.
The throne of Nagaulhala was usurped by his minister. 5i slI_ na g ... \... ho according to 1111: tradaion preserved in the UtII,rr,,-;Mira-a/fhakafMl, was the )Oll of a l i!:clm\,j pri nce of Vais£ili by a courtezan. 1 As he .... as auuplcd b) a minisler. he C3m~ 10 be
known as a minister's son. According 10 u tue tradition presence in the Mii'lJ/Qlikdro·I'urtlll/. Sisunaga had his residence nt Vais.lli. to which place ht' IHer transfcrr:d his capital from Rajagah:1. He ruled fo r 18 ycar~ (413-395 n.o.) :lnci is said 10 have humbled the Prad)'u ta d)nasty of t\\lllnli . ~ As far as the testimony of the Buddhi!>t t(';l(U is concerned. no incident of note ever occurred in the history of Bu.ldhism during his reign. SHu nnga was succeeded by 11is son K !\ I:I ~o l-. :1 (395·367 B.C.) 0: the Ceylonesc chrontcles or KakavarlJin uf the PlII"d~IQf. Many schl)lars are of the opmio n 11131 the [WO IIJIUCS arc of the same person . T he AsOkrl 1'!JdulIQ places K:"lka HUl)in .Ifter 1\ l u n~a and ll\:Jkes no mention of K:\IMoka whiil: lhe Ma ;IjIlSrllI!liluka!pa spea ks of ViSoka as the successor o f Si~u naga . Tilr.l n:"lIht has confused the Emperor A~oka with K iila~oka and made vgob a ion or the former. In the Kalh!ll'ouIUl-/J/li:akall,a (p. 2) K
2
of Allcitlll /I/:lio (hcnecfoilh
5
POLITIC,\ L IIACKCROU ND
Acco rding to the MahiJborJhb'Qlflsa, KalUoka was succeeded by his to!n so ns: Bhadras.ena, Korao~ava rtJa, Mangura, Sabbanjah.a, 11laka, Ubhaka, Sanjaya. Kora vya, Nandlvardhana. and Pancanwka, \~h o ruled sim ultaneously fo r 22 yC'an (367-345 D.C.) but ill (he P'/Y(:J~fQS only o ne is mentioned. 'Iz .. Nand i-vardhanl. This (radition, towe\'=r. is not corro boratel! by (){her BuddhiSt sources, acc(lrdmg to which, Kal,Hokl or VBoka 'Was succeeded by his son 50rascna. who reigned for 17 yea rs.' $urasenn supported the bhik ~ us of the focr quarters for three years and offered a hundred kinds of requisi tes to all cait),oJ C'xisting on the fa ce of the eartl.: Taraniitha makes Arhat SU!):lviisikn and Arhat Vasa con temporaries of Sii rasena and refers 10 the appearJ.nce of Mah [ldeva and his five propositions :.luring his reign. Siir.lscna was succeeded by Nlnda, who, according to Taranii lha,~ was ~urasena's son. The Mmk.' says that king Nanda W;lS vrry powerful, maintained a large army and made Pu ~pa rum his capilal. H e, il is S2.id, acqui red wealth through magical means. On the huis of t he following stanza in the Mm" .: ;fR{l!W.HlliIGldl
m
~
oifT Ilf')i;
q·(>l <'Ii
m
~ I
~ JT1f: I I
hyas\\>nl l remarks tha t Nanda was at first a minister of Ihe prcvious ki ng and that he belonged to a law family bUI was the leading man or the community. lluough unup~cted acquisition of "':c:!lth he became the king of the country. He entertained the
I
Alto niled Uill"llWna in Ihe
.\tQ/,';/xHJJoi-.'O,,~a.
cr.
Mmk, p 6 11 .
d RI tC4 '1;;a l;: 1:RT ~ : wraP.!' I 1. Sch>erner, TtJ,.n>t6,Io:.'s C,schiclo:. rlcs Blldd;,;s",us, p. 51>-51. The Tnloration rrom Tibetan may wdl be Sorasena instead or Vln.senn. Cf. M",k. p. 611.
rnM if;Tfl.m-
m~ : lfiTIT ~ ~ I
~{"''fllfr ~ 'i'i!tl"dl ~ II 3. Schierner. Of}. cit .. p. 51. K ill§. Nandt!. came or the Lia:havi trike. 4 .!i.
Mlllk., pp. 6\ 1·1 2. /"'Mr;Q/ History 0/ India, p. 14.
,
BUDDHIST SECTS 11'0 L.... OIA
hhik~us
in KMi for man)' ytars.} King Nunda was su rrounded by Brabma\Hl ministers, on whom also he bcstowo:d wealth. At the instance of his spiritual teacher (Kal),ii!lomilra), ilt offered several giflS 10 the caj/)'aJ built on Buddha's relics.1 King Nanda ruled Jor 20 years and died as a !rue Buddhist at the
age of six t}·.si~ .s D uring the rei&n of king Nanda. Bhik$u Naga spoke hifhly of the five propositions of Mahadeva, which led to the appearance of £Our secB." In this connection, reference rna} be mad:! to the statement ofTaranalha to the effect that during the n:ign of Asoka (i.e. Kaiasoka) there app~a rcd a Br.ihmaJ;lu Vatsa in Kashmir, ",ho was learned but very wicked . He took pleasure in preaching tbe l\lmaka theory. travelled all over the country and made the simple people accept his teaching and caused a di~!iCnsion in the Sangila.a It is a well-known fa :t Ihat th: ViilDS of Kalasoka. Jayaswal, on the basis of the I. &hicfncr, 2.
"p. €II., p. 5) ,
Mmk , pp. 6 1 1.1 2.
J. Mil/f ..
p. 612. Schiefner, op. cil. S. Ibid. 6. I he proJpcunden of the AlIna:"a thc:ory ma ntaind that a soul P"SWi from u.,= cAi~lcncc 10 ano \h~r . Thi> Ihcot")' ",.. rtject"d by Ruddha . 7. Schicfner.op. €II, P 55 R See above. p. S.
4.
7
POLITICAL DACKGROUND
Mfl/k .• places ~uras:na afte r Kal.aioka. It mo.y be th).t Surtlseno. wa~
ulLulher namo: of n h~dr
lIu-slun. II . r. 76. 5' )1.·,.,S :If Stmskrll O",'"l1mr. rp 11 .:!7.
8~
•
l\{mnHIj
that Vararuci W2.S ano ther name of Kiityayana of the Aindra Scbool of grammarians, which school, Tiiranalha says, was believed to be earlier than the Pal;linian school. To this school also belongs Kaccayana 's Pilli grammar. Vararuci's interest in writing exegetical literature is also referred to by Belvalkar,l In view of all these references, it may be stated that Varar uci was also ... contemporary of king Nanda and PiiQ.ini and that he, li ke his famous nameslke Mahikaccayana. specialised in writi ng
commentaries on Buddha's enigmatic expressions. From the above accoum, II may be concluded that dissensions \0 the Buddhist Sangha commenced in the reign of Kal:Hoka and multiplied during the reigns of Surasena and Mahiipacimll. Nanda. PrinCipal Centres Of Buddhism The lIaillO;:S of monks aod the geographical information furnisho;:d by tllo;: accounts of tile Second Council throw some light on til(: o;:x:to;:nt of the area which came UDder the influence of the Bud.dhisl Church. The leading monks of the lime wen; counted as eight, viz., Sabb:lokiimi. Salha, Rcvam. KhujjasobhitD., Vasa, Sambhuta Si i)avll5i, Vasabhaglimika aod S umana.' T ho;: fi rst §ix were disciples of Anlnda, while the remaining two of Anuruddha. Ananda died during the later part of the reign of Ajiitasattu, and so hi! disciples Ilt the lime of the Seeoud Council were well advanced in age. Sabbaknmi W;1S the n the Sanghauhera but Revala was tbe recognized leader. In the Sanskrit tradition, Sambhiita Siii)avdsi is given prominence as he, according to this tradition. was selected by Annnda as the monk 10 take charge of the reljgion after bim. In the Chinese traditions, be is shown as taking the leading port in the deliberations of the Council. The VllislilioDS were monks o f the eastern countries (pacinaki), so also were Sabbak:i.mi, Sallta of
I. 2.
Ibid., p. 84. Bu·ston (II, p . 93) gi"" a stightly different Dn~n;ka, J(uhjita, Ajil8, Sambh!lt8, R~vata .
li~::
Yilill'. SA(lha.
9
POLITICA L BA C KGROUSD
S.lhnjiili ,' K.hujjasobhita and Viisabhagamikl!.t In Bu-ston's ac.:ou nl , Sabbakiimi is saId to have ~n r!:Siding at Vaisiili. H iuen Tsang states that Kh ujj llsobhita lx:-luuge:d to PU!lI liputra ",hile Sii lha hailed fro m Vaisfdi. It will be ub!:>ervetllhal Salha of S'lh3jiiti or Vais.'i li was al 11m ill all iutle:dsive ffioOO. King Kiiliisoka . also like Sdlha, wus a t lirst ill favour of lhe Vll is!l illlS , bu t later on, at the illll'l'VClltiuD uf his si!:>ler Bhikkhuni Nanda, he becamc inclilleJ tv wa rus the: Westerners. In the ea rly history of Duddhism, \'ai~ li i) ue:~ribcu a~ a town seethi ng '\lIh non-Duddhistic thillkl't~ auu I!:> a !..'Cntre of the followers of Nigllo!ha Ni!aputta. Hr:m::r: iL i) 4uitc: in keeping whh tbe traditions of the cou u Lry lha l nun-orthotlo x BuddhistS should fi nd a footing the re. Vasa, thc mos t activr: ligure in the account and lhe one who sl!lrled the COIlUllO li oll, hailed I according to Hiuen T sa ng, from Koh la. He len: Vu isali fo r Kosambl, where he organised a p"ny with sillL), mu nks o f P Lc.:mer, belonging to Kaoauj and mel him at Soreyya. The fourth Western monk was Sumana. Thus we ~ee [hat the re
SOl1!lka, au;uuJinlI tU BU_Slon, II , p. 93. Sa haj lUll s Idcnt!fied with mHe~, S.S. W . frflm AlllIh~bAd . Sir John M>1rshnll identifies S~h3J:l. t i with Shila on the b:lSis of the ins;::riplion : ' M4pdhl SlhaJAtiye nl&lIma.M'. &::: N. N. Qh ~ h, E:orl)' His. of Kausamb/, p. 89. 1.
BhiU, \I 2.
Bu-s:oo ( p o9J) ,i Y~ the: fol :owi0l s<:ographl(:ai ioforrnauon : -
Sarvab'inio or VlliUi Ii (il) Ydas ofDhlOih (III) $3I;Iha of &loal:a (i)
II') Ohanika or SifllklsYl (m Mal3dha, Rtiia8aloa. P
S(£
Przyluslra, U
CO/ftUe de
~'C.)
(v) Kll bjita of P11aliplli ra
(vi) Ajita of Srutthna tvil ) SambhOla of M4h ilmal;
Rcvata orSaha! lt; 3. PllheYYlka IS anotnet' rc~dLllg. 4. j'III/1l"flhuPpul'.us/rrf p. 166 : Poc1:himikli ye,'J paveyyakll.. ~ Ahoganaa i~ a mou ntain nll3r thu wu.-.;:es o f the G ansu, Mocao.tipuna Tiss:l rC!'; t!ed there just before the Third Coune I, ~ B.C. Law, (,ji i)
utO, . <>J I:.orly BuddhiJm, p . 40.
10
BUDDH I ST SECTS IN I:O:DIA
was a clear geographical division among the monks. The opposition to the Vais<11ia n practices was stant'd by YaSiI or Kosala, and s\M>ported by Revau of Soreyya (Kanauj), Sambhu,a sal)3v;1SI of Ma thura., and Sumana, whose native place: i ~ not menlioned anywhere. This testil1es 10 the faeL that the w..,nh
of the western countries, viz. Kau~mbi .t Avant!, Math ur.! were more orthodox in their observance of the Yinaya rules ilS ado pt· eel by Ihe Thcrava.dins. In the deliberatiuns of the Council, SabbakJl:d uivision of monks in hi, Conrlle de RJ}agrha (pp. 308-09) ami r~umrked that there we re defi nitely three centres, viz., Vaisali,t KuuMllllbi and MalhurA. Kau~a.mbi a nd all south-western i,;uuIILl'ics became later on the sea t o f the T berav;\d ins, while Matllura and tJ.c Donh-wc:>tern countries of thc SarvastiviidiDS. T il" Westerners of this Council were therefore the group o f muDks wl lo ca me to be later on known as the Sthavj rJi.s a nd SarvastivaJills, "hile the Easterners, who had t heir seat at Vaguli. wer~ th ~ Mahasanghikas and their offshoots. Whatever might have b ~c n the differences betwetn the Easterners arnl the W..:stc:Jners. it is apparent that Bud d hism was pre"ale nt a t tlu: lime all over the cemfal he'll of India from AvalltP to Vaisali ami from Mathura to K.au ~ambT. The chief centre of ButldbislII, it seems. was shifted at that time from RAjagrhll to Pa\alipUlra, whic h also became the sell t of the rulers. The Mah a~ ail 81lik as al!o made PJi.!aliputfa their chief cenlre.~ I. KaJUmh i i~ identified with the ruins al Koia m , 38 miles from Allahabad a~)\"e the YamlIlA. Watters, 11 . p. 15. In the Sarl"(utivAda Vinaya aecounl or tbe KalliAmbi dispute, one party is d~scribed liS ValsAliao and the othe r Kau:lambian. 2. Vaisill is identified with Besarh trI th e Muzaffarpurdlstrlcl of Delur. 3. A van t! in IIndent time~ wa s dlVl ccd In t o two pari;. I:' e norlhern pan \\itll 115 capltnl 01 UJen11s ioJallifi..:u wilh Mal ....".
4.
See
J,I/rtl .
C IIA:>TER II SOURCES OF T HE SECOND IlL"DDHIST COUNCIL P:ili ; Cullava!!ga XII ; MlIht\\'allua IV. Dlpaval1l,a IV & V; Samantaptls:idikii. M ahi1bodhivalJlS3.. Si1sanJv:irp~a. San;krit ; Mal'Jusn-ffilJa-ka .pa. p. j97 1 Sinh:ilese : Nlkaya-sallgraha Tibetan; Uul-va (XI. 323-330 ; MClasarvastiv<1t1u Vinuya, translated by W. W. Ro:'< hill ; Bu·ston·s History uf BuddhIsm tanslatej by E. Obtrmiller; Tammilh.!·~ H i ~ tory 01 HuddhlSn: transllted into German by A. Schiefner. Chines:: : (i) Mahasanghlka Vlna)'u round at Pd!<1.lipUira by Fa·hie n alld translated Into Chinese by BuddJ-.adatld lUlU Fa-hien In 416 A.D. II does no t mentioll all [he len defections but only the mOSI Important ones. (ii) MuluS:lrvsst!vada Vinuya (K sudratavastu) translated by I-Ising in 710 A.D. It mainly preserves tbe tradition (iii) Re<'itation in fou r parts: School of t~ Dharmagup!3.kas. tramlatcd into Chinese by Buddhayabs ana Tchou-funien in the 5th century A.D. (iv) Re<:itatlon of the Mahisasaka Vinaya [r3.mlated by Buddhaji"a, a K::shmirbn noank, in 424 A.n. Fa-hien cam~ a:ross a copy of the original Vin~ya in S:mskrit in Ceylon. It \Vas p roblbly in Pllli, In it closely followed tbe Cu1l3\agga XII.
I.
nrlMTT
"'f
~n.T
'I'll bT ~ ~ ~
tf.Pr.TV"f !;JrtRl~ ~
f&l:'lfif't sri ~
I
~ II
"RfVlT ~~ I
hru
l :l
BUJ)DH IST SHCTS
m
INDIA
(v) Recitation of Che.50ng-liu (Vinuya in ten ~e;;ti o n5 Dasadh)uya) of the Sarviuiviida school, Irallslate:d by Punyatr.lla. Kumiirujiva, and Vi m ahik~a. It m:1y Ix mentioned that Ihe: Vinaya le.'((s of Sarvastinida and Mu\asa n'~st iva d a li fe very dOSe 10 each o thel, .15 far as the: account of t 1e Second Cuuncil is concerned. It is definite: that Ken·pc:n-cho u-yi-bie·yrou is cldo· thall the DaMIJllyiiyn Villfiya. T ill: lath::r l"Ilvt::als <1 ~t:cturiull ~piljt. uhc.,Jy d!;vd u~J. am:l t ht: ~pjlil of the c:xpulI::.iuH ur BuJt.lhi)U1 wh.:n it \Oa::. far uJvuuccl in prupagation. (vi) Tile m:cou nt of tllc Vinllya-Illut rkii ·)utrct (Tu~~lIu eJ. 1463 k. 4, p. 8 19). Th is work appertainslu the Haim:J.Yula sect and IS preserved ouly in Chinese translation uf 3boU I the end of tile fourth 3nd beginning of the fi fth century ,\.0. (vil) Vasumitra, Bh3\ya and Vinlwdevu. translated by J. ,\ Iasudn in .'\ Si3 Major, \01. II. 'iasumitra.'s treatise has one TIbetan and th ree Chinese tra nslations of K um:\rajIva (.J0.!-.U21. Paramlrtha (~j7-569) and Hiuen Tsang (662). Koue-ki. a disciple of Hi uen Tsang, wrote a commentary on Paramart ha's Irea!ise. PuramArthl was the most il!arned Ind Ian mlss ion.try, who went to China to propagate the religion. He was as intelligent as Ku mA rajiv3. Ki-tsang, 3 monk of Parthian origin. being the son of (l Pa rt hian merchant !)cu led in China, and t he Chinese mother of Nan-km's. He tmeed -.be origi:! of sect; from the beginnang to t he end. He worte a commentarl on a ramar!ha's fre.:l u se on Vu~umi tra . ,\foOt'", Works 011 lite Sl'("olld COlmci/ ..
w. Wassilief, Def BuddlJismus (1860); T. W. Rhys O;.wids and H. Olde nberg, Vino),a Pifaka (S . B. E.) ( 18 81); H. Kern, Manual oj BUck/hlSm ( 1884. 1891); I. P. Minayeff, BIIJdizmu (1884); H. Olde:lberg, Bud(/lusti1C/Je Swaim i" 2.D.M .G., LU (1898); S. Beal, VinQy'a oj ,he Dharmaguplokas: Louis de la Vallee Poussin ( 1905) in £. R.£.. IV, 179-84. and in Le Mliseo,~ . vi, 30-37; Francke, J .P.T.S. (1908). W. Geiger, Introduction Mall/irOlllsa; R . C. Majumdar in B. C. La" Buddhistic Studies
'0
13
1ECOND BUDDHlST COUNC IL
Volume; Paul Dcmi6'illc. The Origin of B'II/dhis' Sec',,; ill }.Ielw/Sf's chinoi~' bOlfddhiqlll'1 VI,)I. I; M, H ofingcr, twde ,w r Ie CVll cil.. de Va/Jali in ~ ,icfr.scOII. vol. XX (1946); A Bare:lu, Ll!s $ect ..s Iwuddiliqllt!s dll Petit Vchirulc (1955), 'TRADITIONAL
AecOtJ~'T
Oll THP. SP.COVD
&UODf IUT COUXCIL
In the ~ccount of the Vinrtya texts, the devi:nions in the disciplina ry rules have been di.cussed . but apart from these deviations. there were a few doctrinal disputes, which ere as roll ow~ :The dIssident.. challenged the Slhavirlv:idin ~' claims that Arhau ....'ere perfectly pure in physical and mental actil'iti.:s as well rt\ in lhe knowledge of Ihe highest Truth. i.e. they wcre fully emanci prtlecl , They :l~~erled that the Arhats had four imperfec tion .. with lin iU'lri ir ion:a 1 item about the reJliza tion of the T ruth by an elCC::lm:lI lon "Aho", These are known as the five poinl~ of Ma h:"ldev:l Hence. the relsons for hotdiflC Ibe~sion of the Second C:(lIIocil were two, dig:iptillaryaad doctrinal 8mb of them li re beine I:lken np for consideration in this chapler, The accounl of Cul/m'ff3gn run .... " follows : Some of the V njji ~11 monb ofVais:"!1i ,eainst them , At this attitude of Vasa, the Vajjiall monk; e"eluded him frnm the S:u'lghJ by IIkkhepD,,')'a.kamma (aci of e,"commun:cation) Yac;.a then made all appeal to the Ia.ity, but it was of no lIvail lind he had 10 flee from the coun l r~ to his nlltive place. From Ihere he atlempted to form a gro up of mon!::s, who mppClrlC'rI hi ~ .. iews, He seDtmessengerslolhe monks of Pi'I!heyya and AVllnti, and he himself wen l to Ahogatlga, the residence of Samhhii ta S:1Q.avasi, There he W'.1S joincd by six ty IheTas o f prl! hC'yy:a and eighty thera;; of Avanti, and gradually by severil l olher.. , T hey e.11 decided 10 meet Slhavira Revala of Soreyyl'l. who ....ac;. then Ihe chier of the Sangha , Before they cOlllcl reach Soreyya. Re\'ata becllrne aware of Vasa's mi ssion :Inri started for Vaisali li nd the meeling of Revula wit h o ther mon ks took placc at
14
BUDDH1ST SECTS l:f INUIA
Suh'lj::1ti. The Vaisalinn monk>, in order to fore,tali Yfl~:'l'!,; plans. approached RevIll) at Sal1nj~ti wi.h robes :ud olhrT girl!'; but f~ilcd to win hIm ovn to their sidf'. SliJh:1 of Srthaj:iti was 3t first wavering between th.~ two PIITlic", hm ultimately he 6i~cd wilh Y:'-S3 . The VDjjian monics, h('ing III1~ucce;;sful in this 3ucmpt 0 f t:1eirs. :l.ppro3ched kine Kfll:hoka at Puppbapufa. and per>uaded birn to bdieve tn!! 1 the monk~ of the western counlries were maki ne a si niiter move til get possession of the Teacber's Gandh:lkfl!i in the Mahavan:tvihara al Vaisait. The king at first took up their c~me hIlT Inter on changed his mind. it is ~aid, at the intervention of hi~ "j"l.er who was a bhikkhuni. The session of the Coun:-i l W II S he1i1 :1.t Va i.;ili with 700 member$, but as there W:lS greM uproar during the deliberations it was decided to refer Ihe nl;!tter 10 n hndy of ro!lerees consisting of eighl member§, fOll:- from the wt':stern :lnd four fram the eastern countries. This was d(lne hy uhhahikii (voting) as described in the Piilimokkba. The fin:lings of t.he rere ree~, which were all aglinst the Vaisaltun r.1oDh, were plHcerl h~for~ the larger hody constituting the Council and were connrmed.
The Ceylonesc chro nicles cO[ltinue the story and \\-Tite that the findings were not accepted by all the VU.isalian monks. some of whom he~d another Council and included in it all mOllks, (l illats and non-urhllts, and decided miltters according 1(') thei r own light. This assembly wus cllllcd Maluisangha or MahSsailgit i. Time and Site af the CQUlldl All t~.e traditions S!:lte that a Council W1H held ahout a century (110 or 137 yea rs) :t ft er Budd hll '<:.den th to <;uppre<;s c:ertaill un-Vinayic acts practised by ~ group (If monk<; of Vaisa li. The Council was h.e1d at Vaisali, but th~ tr.1dilions differ annul the name of the! monastery where the ,"cene of the session wa~ laiC. In P ali the name of the monastery is given as ViilukiiriiJr.a. and this is corroborated by Ihe Mahii.,,~nghika Vinaya. 1 According to Bu-stOIl, the n:lme of the m,lnastery WllS KUJumapura,1 but 1. Watlers, op. ell , II. p. 73. 2. llu-ston, II, p. 96.
15
SI'CONO BUDDHIST COUNCIL
it is not corroborated by any other text. Bu-ston probably confused the capita! of the province with that of the se,lt of the Council. or it may be that the MahasaIi.ghikas, after their defeat in the Vaisali:m Council, held another Ccuncil at Pa\alipu tm _ No Prf'sidcn/ A remarkable feature of the Council is that it did !lot elect any Pre5ident. By the ubbahikii process a body of referees COIl"isting of eight monks was formed to go into Ihe questions of dispute, and each tradition gave prominence to its favoured monk. Thus, we set:: that though Sabbakami is recoguized as the Sailghatthcra, the Pali trad ition aceords to Revata, a Westerner, the kadcrship of the Coun~iJ,1 !lU-stOll gives prominence to Sabbakami and Khujjasobhita (Kubjit
TIn:
t(,11 UII~ Vi!1ayic
acts
Alilhe ellri ier sources agree in stating tha t the main businesi of the Council WA~ to eXllmine the vaLidity of the ten un-Vinayie acts performed by a section of t he Vaisilian monks, but there exists a wi,ie divergence of opinion in their itlterpretatiom, but it is cifficnlt to liecirle which of those accc~sible to us should be accepted. Those that :lppe:lr more plausible He mentioned
here. The len un-Vinayic acts with theif interpretutions, us found in the Pali texts, are as fol1ow,;:
(i) Siligilo(lil kappa or th: practic!;"! of n!rrying ,alt in a horn for use when needed, which contravened, accorliing to thl: l. The Dharmaguptakas, Mahi;1lsakas, Sanastivl!.dim (ollow the Pali tradition.
BUDDHIST SECTS
t~
INDIA-
T hefdvada view. the ruil: against ! toring of anicles of food (e/ Piicillira 38). (ii) Dl"(lIiglda k(Jppa O f the practice of ta king food aft er midd>lY. lit. when the shad ow (on the sun·dia l) is two digi ts wide (cf. Pac. 37) . (iii) G(lmUll fara kappa or the practice of going to a ueigh bouring village a nd t>lki n.@ a second meal there the sa me day, committing t hereby the olTence of over-ea ting (cJ. pac. 35). ( i l) iTI'{jsa kappa or the practice of observa nce of IIp(JJ·ulhtJ)· in dilTere nt place5 withi n the same pari5h (.1illlli) (prohibitcd in the Mahiil"agga. 11. 8. :3). (I') AliI/mali /..appa o r the pract ice of JX"rfuI"Illing lUI c(.:clesiastical aCl.a nd obtaining i15 sam::tion nfte rwimh (!.:untras t AfaM!l'a88 Q , IX , J. 5). (1'1) Ad~I~la lu:Wpa or t h..: pri.l!.:Lic:..: of using precedents
mt
cr. M illasan-tJs:il·.i:!u ~tZ"l"'H. Iff~
!l@it"ll"!qlil...4 ;;[
VinilJ"Q (G ilgi t mi .). Cilllr(n·asl" p. 141.
"!.:r1 f.JliTCr~
m~(fOij1{
I q'I
I ~ qf~ qf<>fl'frtiSll'i t f~ : 1iIT«m:Ji~if~.
~: 1j'illil(!l,f.;1 I 2. F or 3 d i:ICl.l>s iOl on tlic inlefl"lTtla lion. o f the lerml . see Mi ... ayerT. R("fhl!f"chts etc .. I, liP. 44-S0, T he fil"S 1 lhree ru1c:sare re1a)!8tio~, mlde by Buddha of the m orc stringe nt ruks. r"8udLng the sioral!" of food an d cOoling 10 su il Ibe cond itioru <,:~al(d by famine in Vcsali. The people of Ves-"ll! continued to ob;ervc the re' ;I. ~ ed rules though th~y were lltro.l!;l.ted latcrby the TheravJ!dins in their Vin4)"O. T he: c rde r..:or cnu"":Hlliul l tlU ) b~(n !;:h~ngcd for the conven enee of e:omparison witb the Pilli list.
17
SECO.. D BUDDHIST CQUt.'C IL
Both the translations of O bermiller and L. de la Vallee Poussin lire reproduced here :
/>.h. Vol. IH,
••"!,,".".n1••~qfu~ :!. )
r l. i, p . ",iii : 'Q" furtl11f'qtrt~;nrrf
I cf. M •. vi. J . I.
Ir4fa'l Antiquary. 1 ~3, Ihid .p. 9L
rp. " , 104.
4. Dhanna&upla$ : " deroltation (rom sobriety IU if. for example,. r:lonk afW:r In Empie repa st. rOf}euinS thoc: rule or conduct, bc:Sln to tale r', "10 ea' II second I,me afler h~ ... inll ri~n befo, ... lakin¥ a suffici ... rll meal." ,. Th~ Dharmlgupuu and MahU;!lakas say : " 10 dri nk, beyond the lim"
,oed
aUowed,
0.
mixture of ~re:>m, b uccc.r, h Olley nnd Illlnr."
18
ntoDli1ST
~I'.C.TS I ~
11\'D I'\
(r) Tak ing j'lfoxlcatillg drmk: (Obermiller) The monks take wine in the manner of 11 Ieee:' tha t s ucks blood nnd having drunk, excu5C it o n th:: ground o f illness. (L. V. P.) Drink ing fermented liquo r with :\ sucking action like leeches. rendering it legal by reason o f illness.! (n) M akmg a tiC'" rug: (Obermiller) Tlking a new rug without stitching it by (l palch of the so-called Susata span take n from the old one. (L. V. P.) Not hnving patched their new mats with a border, a Sugata'a cubit broad , from the old rnU.' (\'I"i) & gg;fll go ld alld :.ihw .- (Obermiller) The mon ks :1I1 0i ol an alms-bow\ with frogrant s picei, put il on the head of a ~ra .
ma oa , on a table o r a sent, or in Q narrow passage at the four cross-ronds, and proclaim: "This is 3. sublime vessel. ii yo u deposit your gifts in it and fiJI II , you are to reap great merit :' (t. v. P.) Taking al m s-bowl s such ns were round, pure and suitable fot ritunl. n nointing them with perfumes, fumigating them with inccnse, Ild orning them with various fregrant fl owers, placed on the heud o f a mo nk over a cus hion went about the highway!. streets and cross-roads, crying c..s follows: ·' Here. ye people. who have come from various towns and countries. ~nd ye wise people o f Vai~uli ! this pQtra is a lucky o ne, to give in it is to give much, or wh oever sholl fi ll it will obtain a great fruit, a great ad va ntage. n great !lctivily. a great de vel opment." [As far a~ the seven un- Vina~iC'aclS. men tioned above.ore C'on· cerned, all the Vinayo. tcX!s. including tho~e of the MahHns.'1kas and the Dharmaguptns ogre:, thoug h the) have differed in inter· prdlltions. which hc.ve nil ~npointed O Ut.J3 (viii) Digging gro m.d: (Obermiller) It is con!:idered ad mISsible fo r monks to live by ag riculture. ( L. V. P.) T hey ma y live by turning up the soil wi th their own hands. On Ihi s un·VinayK: OC I , the comment of the SarvtiSliv:i.dins nands alonc. nnd this seems to be d ue to c:\rel~s Sanskritiza lion '-"«on:Iinl 10 l he M llhfi.!~"kD.•, il i,. qllostion of ;nlollica l;na liqu o r, had become fermented. AlXord ini to the Mah l<4:>akas, 10 make for oneself II mat of undeter· d. n-.en$ionl; the re i. no que.I;;)n of fri n,c. J Accordinlj: 10 the Dharmagllptas. the V!ljji p ~ tta kas think: t"'eir co n· duc t m ny be: ),u5 tlfied b> d ecrari n~ that "this has been done from lime immemorinl. • I. whlfh 2. mined
!'ECO~'"D
I'
BUDDHIST COUNCIL
of aci, (IQ by iichinna, unconsciously changing t he root car to c.'lid. Hencl! tbe mterpret:ttion ottered by the Sarvastiv:idins should be lelt ou t of account. (ix) Approl'ing: (Oberm iller) T he dissidents p:rform religimu function.;. and at the same tim: p:rsuade the monk~ in :mend· ance 10 ap prove the same.(L. V. P.}. The Venerahle Ones (!!hotenl monks) having approved. do ye count it as approved, clI llc;eci The resolutions of the incomplete S311gha to he appmved h'y the monksof lhe parish.'
Bu·ston or Obermiller was misl:d by the Tibetan rendering of the Sanskrit word allilmodmlo, whte;', thOLJgh derived from the root mud, does not carry the meamng of 'reJOice'. Anuma· dana in pali means 'acqUIescence to an act done by the Sangha JO onc's absencc', T his IS also an Ins tance of the anomaly o f converting a Prakei! word into Sansk nt. It is not known what the original Prakrit word was, but evidently the Palisls made it OIlUl1Iati. Tn any case, the mterpretatlOns offered by the di tJennt Vinuya Ii!Xts are similar, I.e., gettmg a n ecclesiastical act performed in an incomplete lssembly and a pproved later by the a bsenIce members. The Manisa<;a\::as a nd the S:lrv:istiv:idins have both omitted iil"iisokappo of the Pali list. It "f'('ms that these schools included
all the iITegularilie~ commiued h)' Ihe Va]ian monks relating to the perform:mce .... r ecc le~ia~l ical aCIQ in ~ regular or irregular assemhly w Ihin (lllUmod(1I1ii IUlf/pn, wh ile the Tbera1loidins (Piili) a:ld the I1h armaell ptll ~ llllVe split it up into two : (',J/llmo!i and ihlisa. T 'le n harmaellf'JIa~, 11 will he noted, interpreted Ql"iisa· kawa ~ I ighlly differently. T hey ~f:He that "jn the ovuso, besides the regular .1C t.~, Ihe in , ovalol"l ac::ompl ished others." ( X) t):c/omalion 01 as((mislllnem: (Ubermtl lcr) The monks of Vaisali per;"orm re1Jgious observances and tit the same time admit such exciamatLons as allO.
I.
The
Dharma~l1lJ'as
support the
r~li
interpretation while the eccle5ia\tic~1 a:t 10 call
.ay, " In the [lccomplishment of an
20
BUDDHIST SllCTS 'N n\i)l-\..
Perhaps in order to keep t!'le number of deviations al It:n. the MahiMs3k:B ~lld the SarvAstivAdins borrowed um PlIilli from Mahadeva's five and made it the first their li SI, viz:: " t:::xdamation of ailo:' (L. V. P.) The monks o f Vai ~;i" having rendcrt:1l legal th: exclametion aJ/a performed an ecclesiastic:!1 act illegally in aD incomplete or complete Sel'lgha or legally in an incomplete Sangha. The interpreta tion given in the Vinaya of the Sarva:.liviidins is a laboured one and appears more or less 3. r~pClilio n or the prtvious un-\,inayic act of the Vajjiputtakas. T he exclamation of 0110 bas been discussed in Ihe Kulltiil"Qulll( (xi. 4) under the heading: '/dQltJ dukkl;on Ii' I'{leu", b/llisalQ ' ida,!1 dukkIJan Ii' n&Qill{l pal'Quatt Il.' A comparison of the two lists (PaIL and ~anskri t ) sho ws that both the traditions have wo rked on a common originallisl, which was probably in Prakrit and ddiDltely neither in Pali nor in Sanskrit. T his is stated on the basis of , he change noticed in the words ' singilofJo, Qci~I~1Q and QIIWIlOli. l ile anomaly of iil'iiSiJ cannot becxplaiocd. As regards t he remaining six items. the intcrprctlltion s of beth the schools are acceptable. In connectio n wtth the ten deviations in the disciplinary rules, it is necessary to recount the tradition preserved in the Mahasatighika Vinaya,t translated by M . Hofinger from Chinese into French. II runs as follows:The Pitakas of Buddha's teachings were rehearsed oy 7(10 monks. at Valuka Sanghanima in YaiSiil i. The monks of VaiSili used to address the donors (d{illopoti) in these words: "Respe: ted brothers, at the time when Bhagavan Buddha was living, we received two meals in a day, robes, service and adoration. After his parillifl'Q(uJ, who will take care o f us, we ha\'c
ur
l.
~ /"'r~ .
2.
Mah{;"as/u (cd of Sen.an, p 2) opens Wi th the ""ortls thlt JI is '1C
fir,! book of the Vmaya or the LOkOU:l.ravddtns, a &ailghiku.
su ~sect
vf the l\fahJ -
FIt-hien (414 .... D.) procured H transcr ipt of the oril!inal MahdS
Vina) a lind
tra n~lllted
it iuto Chinese two years later, Vide Takakusu. Records
0/111 .. Dllddhfsl /k/ir{oll by [' {sing,
p .~"
StCO",D BUDDHIST COU:\'CIL
21
~ome orphaDS, andso we req Jcst you to give sil ... cr to the S.:uighu. As weare HLlddh Hil fnars, you sho uld gi vc to the Sangha one, tWO, up to ten Ktil'1ti(l(J~las." On the day or Uposa:h!J. don vrs P Ut large sums into the ba~ jn plaC'ed at the croSSing of mads. The monks col1a:tcu Lhc::cou· leniS, and a lter dlVldmg t hem according to the numbel- uf bhik· ~Js. distributed the sa m~ among the oonks present In Ilib Wily Cfl me the turn of the VlIlayadhara Ya~a, and he was uffc::n:d his 5.1;1IC. Vasa enqUired , " Wherefi'om wa s this money ~Uliling '? " They replied, "We receI ved money as ~\eH a s med i~ine!>." Yn~a retorted that il was wrong; it was not p! rmissibJe. Tht:y replied "Yeu are sl:mdenng the Sangha by these words. Y uu should t lerefcre be e.xcommunica ted by ulk:epanl\'a kam:un (act of excom:nulllcation) ... Ailei' t hIS was done, Ya1a went to the Venerable D:t ~aba !a, who was then Wild ing in Mathura and told hi m Lh.aL he: had been c'(communlcaled by utkiepanl)'o.karmall. Da~ abal a said, "Why ;hd you sobm t 10 Lt 1 T here was no reason fur yUUf submLlI~ l on." YaSa 5.l id, " The Vil/aya P1ruka musllx n:1teaned, ~uddhl'S 1:1'" mu5t not be allowed to )e deStrO} N. " T o the question where .he Council should be held, Y a~a repl ied Ilat It should be held at the place where the d e:viatioDs had occurred. Then the Sangha of 700 monks assembled from lin;:: regions of Millhurn, SalllkiUya, Kdnya kubja , Snlv,htf. Sukda and other plnte) or Madhyade~a. The Saflgha was co m po~ of thosc W:1O recched directly from Ihe mouth of the TC::-ddK::c om: or two s.."Ctions of the V'-r.a),!] PI/aka as aim those whu hea rd it frem 11e mouth of his di rect diSCiples. the Snlvuka). There we:fe: also common men (Pi1hag}al/os), so(k;as,t uiuik~u.\.' tmil'idyQs 1 and ,al/Maliias l bafapr aptaS and ra~tb'lii/Os - ill all iOO members. They assem bled at Vdluka Sanghuni.ma in V ai~;i l i. At this time
Lit. under lralnina. :" LII. eompleu,d lu in.o.. i.e ... ho ha~c become (HlfflrJ J Lit. l'K)UC:Siinl: th~ thee kind, of .,no... ledlle: \'it fa) Knowledge of duhkha, amtya aDd anilman , (b) Kn owledge: of fOlmer b1llhs, (e) Knowledge ~ t~e dc~lruelio" of one's own impurilies. oj . l.11. Sl~ hrgher kn owlcdllC, or power, ~ IZ .. d! ~yaca lqu , divyalnJtra pn roCil1-.JM,na, pu. ~c"jva.""U~.lIl lj , pJd hi. ~ l lIa j)lIry4Yl·j~An a . '
22
BUDDHIST SECTS IN I ND l A
Mahiikiisya pa, Up
Bhik~us are permitted to ask for a soup-baSin, robfs, medicines, If they needed them, but they must not ask for gold and silver.
HI'I!
proposiliolls of Mafl(idl.' l'O
Vasumitra, fo llowed by Bhavya and Vinitadeva, writes that on account of the live propositIOns propounded by Mahadeva, t he Sangha became diVIded into two schools, MohasOIighi/<'o and SII!{JI';rarijdo. 'I he live propositiom are:The Arha ls I. are subject to temptation (cf. K"Ii. II. I; Attn; aro/!ato
rago 2,
fI ? )
may have resid ue of ignorance (cf. Kl'II. II. .2: A IIhi nrnhalO (lnn/i~Ir.n Ii ?)
~£GOND IIUDDHIST COUNCIL
3.
23
may have doubts regard ing certain matters (d. KI'U. II. 3: Aflhi aralzaro kahkhii ti?)
4. g:lin knowledge th rough other's help (d. K lU. II. 4 ; At/hi arahato paral'iriiraoii Ii?) 5. The Path is attained b)' an exclamativn (as "0110" cf. KI'u. I I. 3&4&XI. 4).
Paramarthagives an f..ccount of the Second Council which has been translated by Pa ul Demieville (Melanges chinios el bollddlliqlle.l. 1): The Second Council was held at Piitaliputra. 116 years after Mahiiparinifl'ii~Ja, duri ng the reign of Asoka (perhaps Kalasoka). The members were 211 bhihus (Le.. not necessarib Arhats). The president of the Council was Ba~pa (lit. tears). In the Council the controversy provoked by Mahadeva led to the division of the Sangha into two ~choo l s, Sthavira and Mahasanghika. Mahadeva's heresy wa.~ twofold. On the one hand. he wanted to incorporate all the Mahaya na siitras int<) the Tripi!aka. and on the other he a Urihut~d to the Arhats diver~e im perfections, such as douht, certain mea~ure o f ignorance, etc. Paramiirtha did nOl condemn the talfer enti rely, as he recognized the imper· fectiom of Arhats as partil1 ll y trlle and partiall y false. He was inspired hy the Mahftyftnic moml teflching~, which contained in essence more particularly the VijfHinavft rta view,. He was a fervent supporter of Vijii~ml'.· ~ d a . It is said that Mahftdeva f:lbricated many sLUms ~ n dautho r iz ed h is disciples to compo~e treatises, as they thought fit, and they should also refute the objections raised by their adversaries, so that the conservatives, i.e. , the St havi ras might be disposed to a dmit the authenticity of the Mahay~nic tr
2'
B UDDHIST
"~CTS
IS I!'DlA
scriptures and modifYing Iho~ introduced by Mahadc ... a after e)(amir.ing them itnew. Paramartha . however. writes tha t it produced verilahle sch ism. S(:parating the two schools completely.
10 the Vihhiisii ~ uch rapprochement is not men tioned. Afler the Second Council, the diSSIde nts moved to the north of Rajn erha. It W!l~ pointed QUI at the beginning o f this chapter thet some of the Chinese tra nslations of Ihe original texts in Sanskrit mention that the cause of the schi~ m of the Sangha was not merely tbe ten deviat ions in the disci pl ina ry rules but also in the doctrinal matters, reiating to the c1$1i ms of the Sthaviravadins that Ihe Arhat!> we re perfectly emrmcipaterl, which werec halle ngcd by the Mahasanghikas and their S,l l h-sect.~. The dissidents held the fi ve views mentioned above. The Theravadi ns emphatically deny that an Arhat, who is free from 3ttachmen! (l'flarnga), can be suhjec t to temptation. The opponents, as sh own in the KnJ., d rilw a ~u htl e distinction between a Sa-( _ Sans. SI'O-) dhamllloku.iala-arhal and a Paradhammakusala-arha/, the fo rmer. ilccording to the commentator, is a Pafiiinl'inJlltta and the latter nn nbl!atobhiiga vimlltfa. that is, the knowledge of the former i~ cnnfi ned to his own personal attainments while that of the latter i~ extended to o the rs' a ttainments besides hi~ own. In tbe P~'jl i texl~ the Ubflatobhagrmmu1ta is not regarded as supuior to the Paliii avimu/lfJ: the only dis· tinction made between the two i _~ that the former has sam othabhini ~esal and realizat ion of eigh t l"illlokkhos.2 while the latter has 11passoniibhiniIJfSdi and rell li 7.ation of only four jha.nas,4 but a s fa r as the q uestio n of r aga or drava is concerned both the classes of Arha ts must be regarded as completely free from it. The subtle di.tinction drilwn hy the opponents is therefore of no a'JlliJ ac~ording to the Thera'Jlidins.
1. SamarhiJ lea.ds to concentration of thouihls and eralli cation of anachment (..agll) . Cf.Anrutra,,,, I, p. 61 : raga,i,tlga cero'·iIllJllri. 2. For Ihe eiaht Vjrr.okkhai. sec Appendilt. 3. Vip
lIara, I, p. 61 : a~;JitM'ii8ii paililii~imatr/. 4. O . A.sprcrs, pp. 2SO, 27b. Sec AfaJjhrma, I, p. 477 alII.! MIIRlirall,ap".ot;ll, III. p. 188 ; Plifgafa·pun'"ffi, 14, 72.
25
SECOl\U BUDDHIST COUNC IL
The ne;,:t twO points. that an arhat may
hav~ ignoran~e
(i.e.
alilic~laand not arijjii) anli flouht (kailkliii or vill,ali). are also vehemently opposefl 1Y the Theraviidins on the ground that one
canllot be an ar1at Ill1le~s ne ha" got rid of Qnjjii and ricikicchii and develc:pt'd r~rfect vision free from impuritie, (virajam vItCln!a/a1]! dhammarakktJu1]l) after having dispersed all his doubts {kolikhii Wl[wya'lfi mhhii}
The opp"n~nts, as pre"ented in the KVII., in this case also dnlw a di"tinctinn hetween a Sadhammakusala-arhat and a Pnradhammaku"ala-arhat, <;aying that both the classes ofarhats may nOl. hav" al'i)jii in rega rd to the truths, the theol]' of causation. etc., or ricikicchii ahout Btu1flha, Dharma and Sangha or the ~ ho.enc~ of solll, hut the former mil.y have I1nli!i1)11 and kailkhri, <;:1;..' , a~ r~garc" the nllme and family of an unknown man or wnm:ln or of a tree. It should be noteo here that the opponents do not mean ~ahha;;,1U1a/jii~la (omniscienc~) hilt just paradlwm/Hm,01(111- an intellectual power attllineo hy the IJhhatobhiigavimutta-a rhat~, hy which power they Can knolV many things outside themselve~ _ Arguing in this way the opponent, maintain that a section Clf the arhats, i.e., the Paiii'ii'iviMuttas or Sadhammakusala-ar'mts hav~ ignorance (afiiiii{Ja) relMing to things or · qua1itie.~ other thlln those belonging to himself. The "ame argu ments ~nd counter-argumen'~ are alirluced ill the next discussion relating to allhi araharn parm·il{irm1ii ? The word .pararitiirm,lii perplt'xed our translator Mr. Shwe Zan Allng.l The discu<;sion in the K)·u. reveals that the word means that an arhat develo[)s t:li th in the Trirama or acquire;; knowledge of the truths, etc., not by himself but through the instruction of his preceptor, in whom he has firm faith. The Ther~v:irlins oppose the con tention of Ihe opponents, saying that nn arhat is vita11101/(1 and is possessed of dhammacnkkhu and so he ooes not req ui re paml'it{i/'l!I;1l1. The opponents contend ~s before that a SadhammakllS~la_mhat requiresparal'ifOro{1ii whi le ~ Para-dhamIllakusala-arhat does not. 1. • Excel1~d by others." See POilifS of lile ComrOl'CrsY, p. 119. BuddhaSho"a WTite. : yasmti yesalJl t:l.m vatthunt pare vJlaranli pakasenti licikkhanti tasml te"'ITl 3tthi pala~ili1Ja",;, Ii. Cr', fI.{a'uda p. 24 : "gain spiritual perception b\' the ~.elp of olhers (lit.
e nligbter.ment through others)",
26
BUDDH IST SECTS
I~
I1'm l.'
Another statement ofVasumilra r
"one who is I::rtakrtyah ( = Pali : katakaraQlyo) docs not take any dharma 10 himself i.e. has no attachmenL ror world I)' things" is echoed, I think. in the KI'u. (XVII , I & XXI. 2) in these term. : aftlli araflato pufinopacay o fl ? and ufuhii. kusula cirro parinibbiiyatl ri. The Theravt1.dins agrel!ing wilh lilt: Mahasangh!" kas contend Ihat the cilia of Arhats goes bli:yond pa,o a and pU(lya, kUj ala and akusala, krj}'lJ and vlp 6ku, hli:rlCc, to speak of
them as acquiring merits o r demerits is tlhsurJ. The opponcnU, the Alldhakos, however, co ntend that lhe Arhats perform runny good deeds, e.g., make gifts, worship callyas lind so forth. and remain a lways self-possessed (50:0 sampajano) C: Vt"1l at the time of his parinibbiina, and so he does collect merih and pa ~ses away with kUsolocitlo. Neither the above discussions in the Kal hiiL'althu nor the terse statements of Vasumitra help us much in finding alit the real d ifferellce between the Andhakas and the Theraviid ins about the position of an Arhat. The Mahayana Works point out the distinctio n thus! Arh ats , who are perfect Sriivakas, get rid of only kJesfJl"arOIJO, i.e .. the veil of impurities con5isting of raga, do ~, moha, silabbataparamiisa, and ~·i cikicch a but not of jl1eyiil'ara(la, i.e., the veil which conceals the Truth - Ihe veil which can ani) be removed by realizing the Dharma!linya tii or Tathat3.1 It is the Buddha alone, who is perfectly emancipated and who has both k JesQl"Oro(la and j iieya L'Ora(la removed . That the Mahisanghikas app;:ar to be groping to get at this clear distinction will be evident from two other topics discussed in the K L'U. but no t referred to in Vasumitra's trealise. The topics are, - a1lhi kind safiiiojanwn appahiiya parin;bbiinan ti.' (XXII. 1) or arahaftappatlft!'? (XXI. 3). To these the Mah asa nghikas reply in the affirmative, saying that an arhat is nikkileso (free fr om impun ties) and does attain parinibbana or arhatta but as he is nol cognizlni of all that is Buddhol'isaya (domain of Buddha 's kno wiedgej, it must be admitted that some sai'tilojanas are len in him. Thi. o pinion may be taken as a hint that the arhats do nOl remo ve the j iiry'ii ,arJf}Q. I.
For deta Ils, sec Aspects, p) . 3,ff.
SE(;I)J\" D Jj UDDI-I15T COU~C IL
21
'There aTe a few subsidiary di,cussions in the Kat fliilallhu rel:lting to Arhats. These arc gi','en here briefty:I V. I. Householders cannot become Arhats - Tlleral'fldins. But householders like Vasa. Uniya, Set u became Arhats - Utlaropalhakas. IV 2. No o ne is born a:; Arhat - Theral'. But there are Upahacca-(uppajja)-parini'obayi Arhats - UJlar.1p. JV .1. All dharmas of Arhats are not anasa\a, e.g . their physical body etc. - Thera!. Bu! Arhats arc anasava (free from a5aVaS) - VI/arop. IV 4. In the Arhat 5Ia&e. o nly arha ua phalu is acquired - Th('rm'. But all rhe phalas are possessed by the Arhats - Utrarr'ip. IV. 5. An Arhat IS chalupckkho (see App.) - Hera)'. Rath er. Arahll chahi upekkhahi samannagalo -
UUQrfip.
IV. 10. All safiiiojanas are gradually destroyed and not by Arhaltama~ga alone - Theral'. But by the d estrUctIOn of all safii';oja nas one becomes a n Arhat - Andhakas. XV II 2. Arhats may have untimely death as arahatghlltaka is mentioned in the Buddhavacanas - Th ~rav. But as one cannot become an Arhat before the karmic CIfCClS arc ex huusied, 3 n Arhat cannot have untimely death - Riijagirikas and Siddhallhlkas. XVII 3. Arbats do not die when in impert urbable meditation and cevoid o f kriyacitta - Theral'. But did not Galltama Buddha pas:; away immediately after arising from the 4th jhana - VI/afap. Dr. Bareau ( Les Sectes CIC . p. 64) after stucying the Chin~sc commentary Kouie-ki has commented o n the five propositions thus:_ (3) Seducrio'l of Arhors: An Arhal may dischl rge semen in sleep on accoun t of dreams caused perhaps by spirits; for such mental weakness fo r which the Arhat is not responsible, may be treated in the same manner as one tre:IlS pbysical excretions like urine, s.l liva, etc. In the Ka thii)'ollhu (ii. I) it is slated " aulli
28
DUDDHIST SECTS IX 1:>.1)IA
aralJa'o SlIkkol'i.'ll/(ht Ii," The Sui!:! schoob, according to Buddhaghc~a, contend thnt Illere arc bhikkhus. who claimed arh3tsh ip in the belief thJI Ihcy had attained thut stage, but actually they had not nttcined it. A 5 ain, there nre bhikkhus who claim arhmship falsely. Ih) igllol'(J,'lcc: l'snofnncc attributed to un Arhat is not (e) f)(mhT: nescicn~ (ul'idyii). the first Ufm :n the fnrmula of cJ.usallon (,fJO/iUO.SlI/11l1pplilm). The dOllhts of an
Arhal do nol relate to the! teadl.'ng>: of Buddha. An Arh:II'~ ignorance or doubt relates 10 his inability 10 tell Ihe name ami fflmily of a person , or of a tree, orberb and so forth , btcause he is not omnisci;~:nt like Buddha lKf'II. XX. 3).1 Id) Requirillg olhllT'sltelp; This point is also e-.:plained in Ihe aboVl' manner, i.e., nn Arhat !\lay get himself :\cquairteci with the name of 3 person, or ramily, or 2. tree, or:l herb fmm another person. (c) Exclamatian "Alrq": This is explained as that it j~ not unusual for a medi lator while developing the first mt"d tation (jhm la ~dh."iim). which is associated with reasoning (!"iff/kim) and refleeti'}n (I"icara) to make 3n exclamation when he r~:l1i7e~ Ih"t life is mise ry (Jllkkho). But. it i hould be Doted that since an Arhat is not in the first s t3£e of meditation, t hisexplanntion is far-fetched. \. Kru. ANhakatM, p. 189: Arah:: saboolll Budrlhlvisayrull naj:1n:'i li. Arahato 3abbal,nula-nal.Hibhavena p:l!ised,o bIn nll. aviiia.vicikicchn na TfI :lppahiincna. . Watters l collected some information :la,wl the life of \1;1.lui.deva from the AbhidhormQ·dbl!fisfi-Jfislra (eh. 99).1 According 10 this work, Mahadev;! 1\'3S the son of a Brahmin merch:lnl of Mathur::.. He had his ordinati:)n at Kukkuti"ir:ima in P:ital lputra. By his zeal 3nd abilities, he soon became the he-.Jd of the Buddhist establishment Ih er~. The ruling k.ing was :1 patron and frienc of Mabftdeva. With his help he was able to Dun the senior orthodox monks and e~ t ablish his five dogm!1~ as mentioned above. Yuan Chw:lng records tha t at the inslan~ of the reigni ng king, 3n assembly of monks was summoned . In thi, as~embly the senior brclhern, who were ArhMs, votl."a ~ eaiMt 1.
\\.altcrn,<>p. cit, I. pp. 267-68.
Regiorfs (lnd Localities .'rlterelUd in rhe ojJo./rs oj rhe SecmJ(i 11uddlris( Cotmcil ill Ihe tradiriollJ oj diffl!renr Secu
Theravada (Cullavagga)
MahiSasaka vinaya
Dharmagupla vinaya
Sarvastivada vinaya
Vtsali
Vaisflii Piirheyya Ahogailga Mathura
VuisnIi Piitheyya Ahogailga
Vaisaii
Pa~heyy3
Ahoganga
SarpJ.:a~ya
Saij1kassa Kal)nakujja
Miilasarvasti.. ada vinaya 'iaisiiii
Mathura region Sii!pkaHa
KillJ yakubja
Udumbara Aggalapur~
Sahajiiti Avanti Kosambi Ddkkhil,lii.p'ltlia Soreyya
Agg~larura
Sahaja
Sahajii
Dekkhan Kausa mbi Po-ho river
Kosala
Alavi
Pa!aliputra
V<1savagn'imika Srughna Tohoei Sukhavihara
Srllaviras of Ihe Westem C()I/ntries, who took parI in the Secund Buddlll~t COi/neil Slila\'ira Mahbasaka Dharrnagupla Sarvastivada MUiasarviistiviida Rev:lTa Sambhuta
Sal,lavasi
r
1
Yasa m Sabbakiim i , Sumana Silha Khujjasobhita Pou tcho tsong Vasa'ohagaP'o-cha-lan m ika Tch'ang fa
same
same
same
Pou-tcha- Ki-ichoSUll Kiungan mi-lo (Kubjita) suo-rna p'o-cheon- P'o-ye,k'ie p'o-tso tS\ltfl -mi (1) (7) Ajtai
Mahiisa.(lghika vinaya VuiSilii
Sravasti, S~ke'a
S£CO:-'"D Bl'OI}HIST COUNC I l.
29
Ihe the dognms, which, however, were supported by a lalge uU11ber of non-Ar ha t bhikkhus. The Chinesc p.lgrim, it will b~ ob,crvcd, mcntioned ball) the five dogmas nnd th~ few un-Vi -lUyic aCls of the Vaisaiian monb n the cause of the Council lind dCllvUAC of the S;ll1ghn. The comp.ler of the KalJu; >'O lflll. WIIS nW.!fC o f the fj,e dogn'os, which wc:re attributed by Buddh f.gho~u to the Mah5.st a common de...elopmcllt, i.e.,:1 s(!Ces.:;ion between the eas terners and the wcst('rners. The later version, Sthavirn-Su\lnSlivilda introJuces new divergences in their twditiolls. The ugreement of the later versions may be indjcat~d thus :-Elude
S~r I~
("oneil.. I.e l'aUu/i, p. 249.
BUDDHIST SECTS I S
INDI;\
Cu ll::l\'agg:l XTI and Mahisasll b VinHya hav~ direct affinity. simi la rl y t-.:lV~ D harmHgupm ~nf1 HailOlavata Vi naya hut a li ltlc leis IhC' Sarviist iv;i(lll Vi na)l!. It II p[lears strange tha t the Miilasarvir.slivada version i~ Ics~ c!n~e 10 Ihe Sarvlisti vada version. It se~ ms that th~ fonner;~ older than the linter. Chronoiogic:llly, The tradition> may bl! llrrangeri thus:Ellrliest- Muhasanghiku and MGlasafv3.stivida Ea rl ier - D ha rmagupt3 Next - Sthavim and Ma hisasaka Lotest - Sarvastivada ~nd Haimavata. In this \;onm::l.: tiull, it i) worth while to reco unt the co untries included in the pt::n:glill:l1io ns of Budd ha. Budd ha tr;\Vcllcd northwards up 10 Mathuru, aud his missionary worl;: was confined mainly to tht:: largt:: 1":1'1 ilol'Y uf the Gal1ge~ basin. The SarvAstivadi m pr..:rt::rr..:u Mut hum while the Stha~jras and MahisOsa l::as the siJ uth w.::~lt::ru al'l.::a . III between these two regions was the iHl bilat uf lilt:: Dllarmaguptas. M. Hofinger ha~ adduced cvidences and arguments to establish the a ulhenticity of Ihe session of the Second Buddhist Council. The only additIon Ihat can be made to il is tha i a canon ical text like t he Kalhih'ortlm discussec{ the doctrines of the different sok: of the Vinaya of the Lokottaravadins, a branch of th: Mahasanghikas, contaills mallY Mahayanic traces, to wh ich reference will be made in due course in ano ther chapter. Now the question that ca n be mised is: T o which of the two causes is the schism main ly due? The SCCQuj alternative is
'I
SECOl< D U UI)UHlfi COUNC I L
prdcrnble. 3S it indicated the advent of Ma hayanie cnneer l jnn~ . The two traditions rnlly be explainer! IhlL'I : The divisio n of mon ks beert n with Ihe cljtfer~nce.c; of np inion rega rd ing the intcrpretlHion o f Ihe tt'll Vinaya rule.c; during the reign o f Kal:i.Soka , i.I."., some lime hefore the appearance of M nh:idev!\ (or Naeil),1 i e. il w
I. In Tiiranatha (S:hicrnc r) Nil.aa is desc ribed asa disciple of \1ahil.deva, and Sthirama ti as a disciple of Nliga. 2. T he Vaisalian monks we re cl!.Ucd Vljjlp Ut1ak as in the }'a ll tc"~t s. 1[\ Ih" Atlglll/ara N;kdya ( I, p" 2J Q) ;1 is u oticed that a Vajjipul14kl ",,,nk approached Buddha telling him thai il would thl! 250 rule'! of It." Pii""m"lrkha
~
difficull for him 10
ob5Crv~
32 with di~lrust and disfavour by the Vaisali:ms, (who preferred a democratic rule to a mOll3rchical government). The claim of the Arhuls to become the exclusive members of the im port:lnt Councib Dnd \0 arrivea! decisions. which were binding on the nonArhals could not appeal to the Vajjians _ a clan imbued with a dcmt'Cratic spirit. T he five dogmas of Mahideva also indicated that the ;\rh:lts were not all fully perfect persons as was the vie:ax of the o rlhOO o); Theravadins. and th at the Arhats hfld a fe~ limitotion s. The Vaisalians refused to be bound down by the d,,cision of th~ "'rhats, and so they comen;-d a Council of both Arhuts and non-Arhats, calling it a M2hasangiti and agrttd TO abide by thc decisions of the ('ni:lrged assembly. This new body believed sincerely that the decisions taken by th~m wen~ in conformity with the instructions of the Teacher. Effi' u vII till- Srvigfta
Some of the Vaisalian monks scpumted themselves from the Sangha of the [ldcrs or the Orthodox, the Theras or Stbaviras, alld organized a new one of t hei r own. cnning it II Mah:isangha. rrom which Ihe)' Clmc to be known liS Mo.hir.sDfJghibs . From this time th: clcayage in th'! Sangha became wider nnd wider. uilimatdy gi"ing risc to as muny ns cight~en or more sub-sects. The Thera or Sthiwiruyudins wcre split up into eleven sects and remained as I lin3yiinie thro ughout their c:-.;stence while Ihe Mahasanghikus became divided into seven slIh-seels. ~radually g:!\'C up thei r lJin3yiinic doctrines Ilnd paved Ihe way for the appearance of Mahayiinism. On:c the disruptive forces were ~t in motion. the Sangha could no t remain a single whole. Sect after sect came into cxistcnce on slight differences of opi nion conC1:ming doctrines, disciplinur) rulcs nnd even cutting, dyeing and wearinG o f robes (Cr. Walter>. t'/lim Cltwallg. i. p . 151 ), In, iew of the gcnerul mutual agreement of the different traditions. the sc~~on of the Second Council should be taki!'11 as authentic. The only po int which require~ further evidences is the da:e of the Cou ncil und the mllne of the klllg under whose lIu>pices the Synod was held . The Ceylonese chronicles give K:I I:isoka as the n,IIllC cf the I..ing. K:iliisoka ~uccccded Sisunag:t lnd is identified
~J!;CO:>D
BUDDlI1S'T COUNCIL
with KH::avaroin of the PllriiQos. In view of the fact that Sihn:ian transferred his capital to Vaisili it is not unlikely that his 50n ~ho uld continue to make Vaisali his royal seal and take in't'~SI in the affairs of the SaIie:ha existin& in his capital. If Klil:ilola be accellted as the ro}al palron of the Synod. the date nr tile session should be put about a ctntur)' after Buddha's deml~. Kern has questioned the statement (If the Ceylonese chronicit'J abo ut the age of the monks who 1001.: a I~ading part in the deliberations of the SYllod, and has pointed out thut the nam~s do not indudeany of the list of telchers given in th~ fifth chapter of the Mahiil'(v1lsa, Since Kern's apprehensions ate not baseless, we should lake the statement of the Mahfi\'w1IJQ 'that some oithe monks lived at the lime of the Buddha' ..... ith n certam amount of caution, As far as the IiDe of leach~r:s is ..:oncerned, Kern O\'erlooks Ihe fact that it is a list of succession of the spiritual teachers of Mogga liputta Tissn und not a list ot' the succession of the Sailgha llh eras. Kern 's conclusion thai t):e Second Council " preceded the schism but had no connection With the Mahfisanghikas" seems to be his personal conviction and not based on any e\>idence, and so is his remark that A50k:t WdS first designated as .KaJa~oka, and then with his chan~cd a ttitude towards Buddhism, he was designated Dhannasok.a. Vasumitra. places the session of the Cou ncil during the ~ign of Malliipadma Nanrla. This statement is probably due to the c0nfusion made by Vasulll ltre that Muh.idcva's five propositions ....ere the main and actual cause of the schis'TI .
CHAPTER
III
DI SR UPTIVE FO RCES IN T il E SANG HA
Though the Order of monks (SanglJa) was orgam~ on a democratic basis, Buddha iclt that after his demise there might be discord among the monks. In the .\fahiipan'nibbollasutlanta 06·77 ) Buddha told his disciples that as long as the monks adhered \ 0 the practices mentio ned below, the S3.ngha "ould thri\'e and not decline. These were( I ) Avoid frui lle-ss tal ks. (2) ~I o [d assemblies as frequen tly os possible. (3) Perform all ecclesiastical aCls in concord (samaggu). (4) listen and be respectful to the senior monks, 'particularly to the heed or lhe Sangha These fo ur instructions implied his anxiety abo ut the wellbeiDI: of the Sangha in rulure, During his life·lime there were two occa~ions when II split in the Snngl:a became imminenl, but he did not regard the m as actual dissensions. The first took place when he was at Kosambi on account o f a m inor d iffeience of opinion between the DhQlllllladhuras and the YinQ)'QdllOras, l and the olher was the OIiC imtiated by Devadatta that the monks !<;hould lead a more austere lire . ~ In the Nikflyn s and other Cllrly texts also, there appear a few referer.ces to the possibility of discord in the Sangha and the cnndemnation or soilxhab/rct/a as one of the five extreme off~ nces like patricide. mat ricide, :lIId so forth. In the Vin:tya, .here are di rt'Ctions as to when a dissension among the nonks srC'luld be regnrded as a regular or an Irregul3r Jwighcbl!l:'da. in the account or Ihe First Counci l a iso, a rift is noticea'>le in the lute in the M"iui."t/I£U , X: "'ai/MIIIU, KO$amblsult~:
Kosambi ... althu. In thc:Gi lait nu. of Ille SlOT) renlllins
§ubslan l i ~lIy
l'i/laJlI, the
the same with sllih t v3r111110ns III
gcogr3[l11ic~t
(! ~I ail$ ,
2.
!>/tCIIIIIIOpllilll',/lfll..m/r,;,
MllfaJ'/n'I;JtiwiJa
C"f"""14/fo • .-i1 J. '4; J6u)/."Q~ I. p. 34.
DJSRUPTIV E "nRr: ....~ IN THE AAN OIU.
35
refuw of Thera Purar;aB o f DakkhiE:·Hi.giri to accept in 1010 the texts adopted by Mahiikassapa and his followers as Buddhol'QCCIlO, H is insistence on the in troduction of a few d iscipli nary rules clearly shows a lack of u nanimity a mong the monks immediately after Buddha's death (see infra, p. 39 n.). Th e TraditiOIl of KCJambl
At Kosambi, there were two teachers, one a Dhammadha ra and t ~e other a Vinayadhara. both imparting Instructions in their respective subJects to two different groltps of students. One daY the Dhammadhara leacher committed a very light offence Ih~uSh inadvertence and when pointed out, he expressed regret for it, but this was ta lk:ed abo ut by me Vinayadhara teacher amonJ his students and lay devOlee,. The students a nd IllY admirers of the Dhammadha ra teacher became offended at this prClvocative attitude of the Vinayadhara teacher and his followers, and there was a sharp cleavage not only betwttn the two groups but a lso betw«n their respective Jay devotees. Buddha intervened, and at first failed to make up the d ifferenoe. and it was QUI of sheer disgust that he preferred to retire to the fo rest to be :;erved by an elephant than by the quarrelling people of the world. At this attitude or th: Teacher, the qua rrelling teachers, studefils and lay public came to theIr sen;e5 and settled their dispute. This episode cannot strictly be called a s(lIigha. Metla , but it shows · the possibil ity or dissension in the Sangha. The tplSode of V(!\'(Jt/alla
The episode of Devadatta is a imost a sOilgl:abheila thoullh il IS nOI recognized as such in the Vina)a. 1 Devad:ma was an
l. Yuan Chwang V.rilU It'la! he ~w IhrC'e Budd:--ist monasterlcs in Ki"/I, p. 43. Mill was not IIlCI~ded In Dwadal\a's menu
36
BI."DOHI$T SE.CTS I N INDIA
advocate of mo re austere disci?linf' and requested Ihr- Te3cher to
an
make the foJ1owing five rule> compulsory for monks. : Th:lt the monks (i) should live jl' the fore-.. t ; (ii) subsist solely 00 d o l ~ collKttd from door 10 door : (iii) d ress themselves in rllg''' picked up from du st-reaps:
(iy) dwe'l al".IYs under
:I
Iree and never under a roof:
(v1 ne\er eat fi sh or (k..h.
Buddha could not agTre to Oevadatta's proposals. Ht' b~lil.'vcJ morc in puson's own inili:lIive Ihan In obligatory rults. and SO he left to the mon$.:s Ihe nrtion of obscr'lin~ the restriction;. T1Crc wer~ the provisions of I/hi-.taitgas (rigorous practices). but tt.eStc ...."ere nol made compul..ory for all monks. There were among Buddha's dirK! disciples some dh,iumidins ( practisers of d hil tnngas). Tl1is was Ino much ror Devadau3., who deputed to Oo.y[isisa with a number of di~iples . who supported him. It is Mid that at the instMv'(" nf Buddha. Si riputta and Moggal1ttna later won them over t~ Rlhidha's side. Apprr htfl.Jn'(! .JIQU'men,s in th e Nikaj'OJ On~ Cunda and An:mda approal:het.l p,uddha with the ne\\5 or the de,lIh of Nigao!ha NA!aputta ami ul'Prised hIm of the quarrels that immedl:ltdy followed his u~alh among his disciples. Buddha assured them tha t amons hb •..l.sdpks there was no disagreement !!s far as hIS fundamental teaching. consisting o f the 37 B!)dhipakkhi)"a dhammas,l W.J~ concerned. There might be after his death. he said, some ditf~ro;:llce, of opinion relutmg 10 abhidhawtn.l (atir('ka.dhaml1iQ= sub:,idiary poinu or doctrill(l),' ajjhnjrl'a (subsldlUry rules or livelilluod) 2nd adhi-Plilimokklu; (extra rlJles of dl;ciphne) but theM: :,hould be treated a s unim-
portant (appamatloko ), bUl ~houk! there be Dny di rr~rcnce$ (elllling to the fruit s ( phala). palh (lIl(Jgga, palipadii) or the 1. VD:. (I) four $Qlif'Olfh",,"~; (nl four stlll>nlOlpPJd":mu< ; thl) rVl.f frkl!ipoi,/d.: (i,) fh~ '"drl)us; t v) ftv~ bola.. : 1"1) !>Cv~n bcjjil/Jl/IIIS: (vii) e'Hhlfold path. See Dftha, ""i, la. o\'ufi hi",a, II, pp ", 103, 10..1 : lA/il.· "urare (Bib1. Ind .), pp. )4· 37: S("iG'li·pn,)~l)"" in JI'TS .. Im-O.5. pp. 71, 7S
" ' ahii.·.,.,,'ptllli, 2,
Allhes
p 2.
37
msilUPTIVE YORCES IS Til£; SAN-C IIA
congr~gation (smig"Q), it would lx- a malll::r of regrtt and might h:IlTIl the peOpl~.1 In dltftrences eoncenllng mi nor matters such as those mentioned abovt. hiS instruction was that tre tmng monks ..hould be politely poin ted Out that they w.::-c pU lling a di(f=rent interp reta llo n on :l lext, and th ut In the in lt regt of the S:l1':gha. they should gIve It up lor pi3.eucal purposes. H e suggested that a san~ and reasonable member tlmo nS the erri ng nlOnks should be selected for thl! purpose.~ In the SQlighadiJtSD ~ection 01" the parimokkhtP app~:lf Sim ila r lIlstructlons
a rclerence
10
.\nlnda
eomplamin~
to Buddha that Anuruddhil 's
dlsclplz H
for;in Jean.' Dtjinltjon uf SGligl/UbheJu E~ery quarri~1 \\.-as
1.
or dIfference of o("linion" among the hhikkhus not ch.Hacteri7ecf hy Ruddh"l a~ :1 ~O/igl,ahlleda. II is 'fajJMmu. II .~.
245;er.
D F2ho.
III .
II.
1I7f.
2. \(ojJl!;'ro. II. pp. 238-J9. 3. . lnIM"'r", II . p. 239. ". See !.he chapleT on 1',lrlnwkho. S. AIigJlIf_. V. pp. n, 7~, 7~; CuIIQWIIIQ, vii. S.
38
BUDOlllllT EECT§ I" INDIA
described in the Vi'lflyQ thu5i "For not o nly is a formal putting forward fInn voting on the false doctrine essential to sch ism :IS distinci rrom mere disagreement, bu t the offendmg bhi:.::kh us mm! aho he quite awa re that the d octrine so put forth was wrong, or at Icft s! cinuhtful , and a lso that the schism res ulting from his acl ion would he or probably be disastro us to the
Dhamma.
In other woro!', the schism must b: brought about
del ibe ~:l.Ie l y
by p ill ting forward a do:trine kno wn to be fnl se, o r at least doub tful, or wi th th e express inte-nlion or object of injuring Ih!'reby the O hamma."l This defi ni tion obviously reprcsenls the o pin ion of t he con!'ervative school, t he T heravadins, who u sually looked upon all those who d iffered from them with suspicion and ascribec1 an evil motive to th~ holding o f dissentient view'S It i;: v~ry like:ly that the d issenters held a n honest opinion that their vi('ws were c1evnid of any evil motive of injuring the Dhamma . It will , Therefore, be a pparent fro:n a neutral standpoint Ihat evil intention i<; not an essential factor in sanghabheda. T he essentials a rt' : - (I ) helief in a d issentlent religious view regarding either one or more points o f fa ith or disci pline; (2) acceptance of the di<;<:en ting view by eight or mo re fully o rd3i ned monks ; (3) thc d ivision taken among Ihe aforesrud eight or morc monks must show a majority on the side of the dlssenters. When the disunion is co nfin ed to eight mOJ.ks, it is called Smighnriiji. T his rt'striction as to the number fo rming the essential of sangJmriiji show<; tha t it might at a ny moment develop into a sOIighabhenn. hy drawing an additiona l monk into the difference. Of course. hnnqfide belief and tIle presence o f regula r monks a re necessnry req u isit~s.! Differences ill Ille First Cvundl Prut"cedings 1n the proceedings of the Firsl CuuU\;i l it will be ob:scncd tha t Mahakassapa wa, keen o n securing lhe approval of all the I. Mar./hel/I/a, ch. x; Vina)·u TUI1(S.B.f.'.) . pI. iii, p. 27 1 n. 2. Cul/a l"ull/n, vii, S,I : M lfinciapaiiha, p. J03 : ··r-..o tlyman ca n crelle
a schism, no r I sister
ofth~
order, no ol'le um.h:r 1I1=II(1ra tory instruction.
oor a Dovle: ul"l:i!h=r ~ . It must be a bhikk hu under no disabi lity. whn in rulL eommu nioa li nd eo-residen t" (S.R F.., vol. xxx ~ . p . 163).
i~
mSR u PTI VE FORCE! 1;«' THI!. ~NGUA
39
se:Hor monks, particularly of Gavampati and PUr3J;1a, fo r the texts settled b)' his Council as Buddhol'OCGIIQ.1 Gavampati remlincd neutral. i.e., he did nOl wholeheartedly acCept the proceedings of the Council as fi nl!, while Pur:!. tJ,a e.t pressed hi, in abi l i t~ to accept the sa me as the words of the Teacher.- He fu rth~ r insisted on the incorpora tio n into the Vin3ya of the eight rules relat ing to food .1 T he M3hitisaka Vinaya n ot on ly upheld these eigh l rules as pointed out by Prof. Przy lus ki~ but also ga~e special recognit ion to Puril(la as one of the foremost leachers of the time. All these teitimon ies clearly indicate that the seeds of dissensions had 2iread y been sown in the Sangha during Buddha's life-time and that these spro uted forth in full vigourin the second century aftc_r Buddha's de mise.' II PROBAB LE CAUSES FOR D1ruNSION S ' I' nlE SANG HA
p rrtt'tl ill~ d!3IlICr, illias beCIl shown that disrupdve \It:rt'
In the
fUl ce~
ab k
~'au~s
fur
tli~~t:f1~iun
ill tilt: Suilglll.l : -
Budd ha thought Ihat the prescription of heavy punishment for sch isms in the Church would check: thtm cffectivelyand that his D ha mma and Vinaya were comprehensi\'e enough to keep ~ £AlB. I , co. ~Ji i. CU:/(H'fl,RO • .\i. 1. 1 1. ~. T he eish l rulu (as lrarsla:ed by Swuk! (rom Ch n~) a~ :(I) cookin~ food ,"doc!s; (II) cooking indoors; (iii) c:>oking food of ..me·s OWIl acrord: (IV) lak.1ll ICOd of ooc:'$ 0~'1l JeCOld; (v) rtcC1YIOI food ...,hon nini; C-.IrI) in !he 1II,),,,in$. (..;) ':"""'''1 ruuoJ hom: in L"QmplillLoce Wilh II\, ~·t hof loe 'I\er: (vii) having m;sce UaneoL.lS fruilS: and (y ii i) ea lins Ihln~1 srown III a oond. 4. I> rlylu~ ki. LI' Cencile dc- R'iJIJk!lo" ~ . See InIra . Ch. VII.
1,
,
40
BtJDDHIST SECTS IN INDIA
in tact the religion establ ished by him, obviating thereby the appointment of Ihe supreme religiou s bead. He relied on the unaided ~trcnSlh of dlwmmo a nd vinaya, and direc ted that his teachi ngs would be the Teacher after his deal h.' Vassakara asked Ananda whether any bhikkhu had been specified by Buddha as one who would after his death become the I~ader of men unde r whom everybody would seek sheller. Ananda ans· wered in Ihe negat ive. He asked again whether any bhikkhu had been selected by the Sangha as would become their leader, etc. To this 1I Iso Ananda answered in the neg:ttive. Vassakiir:l. was cu rious to know Ihc cause of the concord prevailing In the C hurch in spi te of there being no leader (lit. refuge). An nnda re plied, " We are not without a refuge (uppalisara~lii), tlhuml/lu is our refuge. T here is a treatise called Piilimokklta whIch has been formulated by the omniscient T eacher and which. all ihe monks living in the same parish (g(;makkhetla) have to fCClle in a monastery where they assemble on the uposarlla d:J ys. Should there occur any difference or doubt in the recItatIOn, the bhikkhus prescnt explain them in l!.ccordance wIth the tlhunI'IIQ (hence they have tlhamma as their refuge). "2 In answer to another question pat by Vassakara , A nanda explai ned that though there was no supreme head o f the fraternity, yet there was in each parish a qualified head who was respected by the monks under his charge and whme guidance was strong enough to keep the great many parishes rema in together in religious concord. Thi s conversation makes it clear that each parish was under the con trol of the seniormost and the best q ualified monk that the parish could afford .! In the Patimokkha assemblies, the monks interpreted the subtle expressions of the Teacher in differelll ways and introduced additional materials in the interf)reta tions, and passed them in the name of Budd ha. This happened in most orlhe parishes scattered over the whole of northern India. There was none at tillt lime in the whole of the Buddhist comm un ity who could resolve the numberless divergences into ODe unirorm wholi! and convert the threatening eemrirugal forces then at ]. D igha, II, p. 1 S4 : Yo /J/Il}"a dhllmmn "0 mum' aCC(J)"I'IIO Sallhd. 2. Majjill/tlil, II I, pp. 7ff.
ro ,·illuyo ,'0 desilo paililoll() Si)
DURI,.I'TIV£ fORCES IN THE SA:i:OHA
41
work into centripetal lendencles, conducive to the well-being of Ihe whole Sangha. MahBkassapa made aD attempt to remedy this defect of the Smigha as a whole by convening a Council, bu t, as we have shown above, (p. 39n.) he, too, was n ot fully successful. S)'Jtt'lII of JjJtt"ializiJlicm In dijJerem b/'unches of Buddhist literature
The Pllli liler:\lure i. replete with terms like (i) SutlOnlikoj or m a"tC'rs nf Sutl l1 nt~ (or the Sun a-pi!3ka); (ii) Vinu)'odho/'us or ref!n .. i tnri e~ nf the rt1les of disci pl ine (Vinay3.-pi!~ka), (iii) Aftilil.iidl,urot or !hose verie'd in miitlkii ( _ abhidJuJlI/."o); (iv) Dhammokuthikus o r !he preachers of the Buddhist doctrine.l In the A!!hakllihii ago11n, appear fu rther terms like DfJ"abhiilJakD and .Hojiltimo-bhii/loka (reC'i ters of the Dlgha and Mojjhimo Nikii.lOf ).2
In I;o..e da)-s, when wnting was hardly used for recording the saying" anri riiscourSts of Buddha. the means for preserving and handing them flown to poslerity was re<:it3lion and memorization. This wn" a kin to the method that had been in vogue in Ind ia from Ihe earliest Vedic period. Among the Buddhists we find thaI the memorizing of different portions o f the Pilaka was entru ~terl 10 different sets of bodies sep~rated from one another in cour~ of time and bearing names descripti\'e o f their acqui"i,ions.J In the account of the FiRt Council it will be obsefYed that Ananda was requested to recite the Sullas while Up
Upon
Kassapa, the lhen Sail&hanMrtl IU the Prll$idcnl of the rint Couneil. He ako points OU I that I SII'I&hatthem i~ nnl a lway, the on~ who is IhOf lonll""'1 ordained fo r Sabbaklmin ..... ho II'IS the lonBc51 Ilpa!i()/IIp;l1l1Y.l bhik.khu.....015 ~IOt the President of the Second Council. 1. DIE/,a, II, p. 125: AIi" ."ala, I. r. 117.
42
BUDDHIST SECTS IN [NO lA
Vil/aya. T his would not have been the case If Ananda or Uplli was not generally fa med fo r proficiency in the particular "oranches of the Pi~aka. Elements of such specialilatioll can be noticed in the quarrel that took place between t he dltammakathikasand the vinayadharas. 1 L'olleagueship in studies gave rise to unity among the dhammakatllikm on the one side and the l'illayadharoJ on the o ther in such a significam method thaI each group made the caUie of one indivldual member its common cause and took sides in the dispute. It is interesting that arrangements o f beels and seats wert: made for the residence of the bhikkhus .! Oabba MaHapuua, it is said, made such an arra ngement that the bhikkhus, adopting the same course of study (sabhiigii) , resided at the same place in order that the Suttolllikas could recite JIII/anias among themselves whi le the Vinayadharas could discuss the rules of discipline with one another, and the Dhammakathikas could deal willi the matters of doctrine. Instances are not rarc of a feeling of rivalry among these bodies, each member of which wished .mu was pleased to see the bod)', to which he beLonged, t!lke pra:c:· dence over o ther bodies in occupying a sea t or in taking fol,)u, in assemblies or in thank:;giving after a meal. These separate bod ies, which existed for a particular functiun necessary for the whole Budd hist community, e.g., the preservation of a particular portion of Ih! Pi ~aka by regula r recitatiuus, imbibed, in course of time, doct rines which could be looked upon as peculiar to the body holding them and in this way, the body developed into a separate religious school of Buddhi.m. Such instances are fo und among the Theravadins, who had developed into such a school from the Vlnayadflaral', the S,un VlI .. I,p. IS ; PapafiUlsi.dani. D. 79. Vi'la}'Q, IV. 15.4. (S. B.E. xiii, p. 339). "On tbe PavaraQi day t be greater put of Ihe nigbl bas passed away wbile Ihe bbikkhus were In co~ l.
2.
fusion: Ihe bhlkkhus were reciun!! Ihe Dha mma, those
v~n;e
di sciples.
w.,..,
J)lSR UP TIVE FORCES IN T H E SA;\WII .\
43
Saulf:intikas from the Su(tamQ.}, the Sarvastivadins from the Abhidhamlllikas anJ the Vaibha~ikas from the Vibhii~iis. Grouping around 'IO /ed leQchen
The crystallization of bodies happened not only for the preservation of literature but also for the grouping of monks around a noted teacher. Buddha gave prominence to ~ome of hi s di sciples by extolling them for their attainment of proficiency in cenain · branches of the Buddhist dhamma. 1 Of them the following may be mentioned :- (i) S,lriputla. the foremost of the highly wise (ma/:iipaliiiiiI1GI1;): ,:ii) Mahdmoggail:i.na, the foremost of the possessors of miracu lous powers (id:lhim anliinGm), (ii i) Anuruddha , the foremmt of the possessors of divine eyes (dibba. cakkhukiiIlGIIl): (iv) Mailftkassapa, the foremost of ihe followers of dhilla precepts (dhuIOl'iidiiIlGm); (v) P U~lJ.a Mahtaniputta, the foremost of the preachers of d'wmma (dhammakaihikiillam ); (vi) Mahiikaccayana, tl".c foremos t of the expositors (sailkhiuena bfliisirassa I'iuhiirena allha/f! I"ibhajanliinam); (vii) Rahula, the foremost of the studen ts ('sikkhakiimiinam'); (viii) Revata Khadiravaniya, t he foremost or the forest·reclu:;es (iiraniiikcl1iim) ; ( i ~) Ananda. the foremost of thc vastly lelrned (haiwssllfiinam) ; and (x) Upali. the foremost of the masters of Yina ya (villoyadharii/!am). Buddha indirectly poin ted out to his new disciples the preceptor most suited to each in view of his particular mental leanings. This practice led to the grouping of students around a teacher or his direct disciples. hence the remark dhiituso satta sQ/!l samltmti wmenti! on the principle that like draws like. In the SOfl!yll/to Nikiiy a," we read of ten chief theras, viz., Siiriputta, M oggalliina, Mahflkonhita, etc., each having ten to forty d isciples under his tutelage. Budd ha on a certain occasion pointed out that the group of bhikkhus formed around each of these theras was posses,ed of the S3me special qualifications as those that characterised the them himself. Thus the bhikkhus under Sanputta's tutelage 'Were ma/:iiplJiiii(il'all((i, those urder Mahii1.
~.
J
Vinuya. II. PI'. 75. 16.
II, r. J.P. SalJlyu;/a.11. PI"> L~ ~. l ~n, SUIIIHlfW.
BUDDHI ST
~E(;TS
II\' I NDIA
moggnllunu's were fJ/!lhiddhikii, those under Mahitlm s~apl's were dllfitariitlli. the founde rs of the K iisyapiya sect. Yuan ChwClng no ticed abou t a thousand years latc r that on auspicious dlyS t he Abhidhammiko 5 wor:;hippcd Sflriputra , the \,inayi ~t s Up:l li. the Sr iimaoems Riihula, the Sutrllists PUrI]U .Maitr:iya{l iputru . the Somiidhists M uhiimoggulliina. the bhikkhul)is .\ nu nda the Mnhit)iinists Mlliijusri nnd o ther Bodhis,1t1 vas. 1 In (he fir5t four classes of bhikkhu5. the aforesaid affinity betwecn them and th('ir lenders is obviolls. I n the next three classes, the offinit), e)l isled all the same, thou£h It may not be apparent on the fuee of it. For the Samadhists followed 'vIo.l1timoggul1lino. bc<:ause he was the master of iddili par t'xcd!cm:£', whi('h could be obtai ned only thro ugh san!(idhi, and thl! bhikkhu~lis followed Ananda because to him thc order of nuns owed j,s origin. The principal points of rc!>Cmblance between the foJ!owcr~ und their prl!eeptors were the tie~ that bound the rn togcther, but these were the points which constituted the features by which the ehier qualit ies of the preceptors were distinguished. T hese distinctions :,mo ng them did not lie in any differences of doctrincs. which the)' professed but in the degrees of proficiency o.ttalllcd by each. in particular as~ ts of Buddhistic Jadlw/l{i. [lut the divisions, though not proceeding from radical diffcrcna::s in doctrine , grcw stereotyped in eoune of time, and fusion betwccn thcm later bC'Ca~e an impos!oibility due to the centrifugal tendenc ~cs they nrHurally de~cloped as separate bodies. Thus the division .... hich h;Id o riginatcd without any doctrinal differences grad ually golve me Ie the latter and grew into full-fledged schools. I.rd/utl" I//,'on ed ill Disciplille It has alread y be':"l rnet1lioncd in connection with the epIsode of Dev:td:ltta 2 th at lJu uJha all owed a certain amount of latitude to his disciples in th~ onserv:lnce of Vinaya rules. H e laid more
2.
Wane". Ylllm O"I'Ollg, Sc:c abovc, p. )5-)6.
I, p. '>0 2
DISRUI"TI\'F. FORCES L"I TilE SAl'lOIiA
45
emphu~i~
all mental than on phy~ical discipline. In his discussion witll Upili, a laydi5Ciplc ofNigan!ha N,i!aputta. he pointed out th ai ht' camidered lIIaIlQdQ~I{i.l as more important than kii)'arlu~l{lu in ~pidtual culture. 1 In the JlohiipQl'ill 1blxillQSlIttO. hi::s dirC1:1ioll regan.ling the abrogation of minor disciplinl!ry rulc$ deJ.rly re\l.·alcd his viewpoint in regard to external di~ipline .' In short. in I,is estimation, paiiiiii and ciuo practices we re far more importam thIn J.llo observanccs. 3 II ~ r..:alizeJ tho: vlllue of die lanel fo r the new adepts. but thai was not the b:-ull and the end-all or hi~ schtmc of culture. F ro m tho: history of the grm,'lh or the Vinaya code ~ it will be o bserved how he JI1 ~ut:: !;lJjiCe5Sion after concession for th e: physic.d comforb of lli~ disciples. His code wa s no t a hard-a nd -fast one. He IlWUC tllcep!ions in favour of the bhikkhu~, who were placed ,II a disadvantage by reason of the locality in which the )' rcsicletl. lu the border countries (paccal/rima jal/apoda) s uch i.l:> Avall ti, tlte: converts were f,:;w and intractable, hence, Budd ha at the I c4ue:,t of Ka,,::~yana and PUI,lr)a Mantii nipulla madc som e eKeptiulI.'> ill their Clvour in regard to the rules fo r formJ.ti on of an asscill bly for o rd ;lining monks and the w;c of lea ther-made ~hu(:. ;11](.1 oth:;r ,Irt:dcs prohibitro to the bhikkhus dwelliu£ in III~' Mil.hlle: coun try,S Pnrticdarly noliceJ.ble is ais repl) to the V aliip uttak ~1 IllUllk who c:.:pressed his difficulty in ob~f\'ins all the 250 rules uf Ille P,irilllokkha. Duddha sa ij that he \\ o uld Ix sJ.ti$fi<:d if tilt:: bhikkhu 1V0uld practi~ the three Si k ~s,' Vi7_. U(//,ili!fl. udhidflu and adhipllIr,ui, by which he meant the minute ob~rva ncc of 1111; disci plinc envisaged in the: a!!huligikulIlaggo.
Austerities made optiollol From his personal experiences Buddha r:commended to his ;lu>terilies as ,I m(!ans
di~cip!,:s the middle path which cschew;:d
1. Mnjjhima. l, p. 372f. 2. Viella, II. p. 154. ~c, EM 8., ~h. V I. 4. E,HB., I, ch. XVI. ~. FOI bound:mcs, see B.C. LOll', GCO!frd(.hy of Eorly BIIlMMJ"/II; l 'iwYII
J. D:' 191.9l!: Di~)'ii \'adi"'ll, p. ::! I . 6•. Majjlli'lll/. 11, p. 1:1, ;l, 9. Cr. OhA., I, p. 33.:1 : So.:khn Ii :,1111 Sil.hil...kh:J. a<.ll"c'!lasi kkhij a:lhipaniiasikkha Ii imfl tblo sik~h:\ si k ~h;II;W1() sC\T ill'~lti . nla ~I:'jn h''ll ~di'll kalva yava "r:'hllll"m"bllnllhi> ~(l II " .. ,Jh" b~~h, ... .
40
I\UDDIII5T SI;CTS IS I ND I A
o f !ltlaining the go:J.i. Buddha, who himsel; Jed :l life of severe austeri ty wns convinced Ihal austerities a lone could never f'Jlm his miu!on. ' For this reason. au>tere practtces do not figure in his disciplinary code! but there is ample evide:lce to show Iha t Budd ha prOlised thoie ascetics who took to the d/lli/(! preccpts.3 H e yielded to the strong tendency orthos~ ciiscipl;!s, who ~cliev ed in the efficlcy of austerities and could not be salisflcC with a religion barren of such pract ices. Mah;tkas;apa. one of his m os t fa .. ourite d isciples, was an advoca te of austeri ties, and it \Va; diflkult fo r the Teacher not to c0mpl y with t he wishes o f disciples like him. T he system of living a fores t-life, therefore, came into vogue in the early days of Bu ddhism, and so there are
in the Vinaya specia l rules for the iir-aiiliakas who were required to attend the fortnightly Pafimokkh'l asscmblies, though at the ..a rne time they weri;! c'(cmp1:cd from many formalities .
Fai!h il1slead of 1/I01·al obserlYJl1ces It cann ot be exactl} actermi ned when firm faith in Bu(k!ha, Dhall/lIJa and SQ/ig/za came to be recognized as a means to the attainment of Nirvaou. In the Vau/ziipamaslllta, so much emphasis is laid on it that a monk. having fi rm fa ith in the Trira/lla. is exem pted from observing even the rules of food. This sulfa further shows that a monk, taking to faith, needs not p:act isc the sIlas as recommended for the ge:1erality of mon ks. 4 In ,iew of \\>hat has been .tated abo,e, we may conclude that st rict observance of the Vinaya rules was Dot in the Teacher's mind, though lfter his demise his disciples made the most of the same. In fact , they became more and more ritualistic and failed to use common discretion. A slight deviati :m from Ihe Vinaya Jrms made them sinners, thaug:' . uch violations of the Jaw
I. 2. ~.
-1.
See Barua.
Majjhilllu, r, p. 17. VitlQ)'C, V, 13 1, 193. AI!illllara, III , 1"1. J44f Mnji"'m
329) for
detailed trealmer.t
by Dr. S.M.
vt SRUITI\' 1'. FO RCES IS T HE. SANQIIA
47
ma nered lillie ill ~piritu:l1 advancemen t. The pretest rui!ed by the Mah1:.
CII.·WTER I V
SOURCES AND ClASS IF ICATION OF SECTS Or. B:l reau' h:ls deall wi th the difTerenttradilions of Iho ught concerning the origin of secls chronologically, thus :I. The fl r~ 1 epoch _ Sinh:llesc traditions in the Dipa"QIII! O l-'th rentury .\ .0). Bu dd h:\gho~ a in his introduction 10 the commen· IM y on the K f.1lll1imfll/U added six setts 10 Ihe li, t of n fporOl/lsu. vil... R fljag irii:::ts, Siddhatthikas, Pubb:lseliyas, Apa mseliyas. Haimavata. and V:ijiriy.l. gr')uping the fi rst four unde r the Andhahs. He :ltlriiluled :t numb!r of "iews to Ih", Ullar:\patha· bs. Hetuv:id ins and Ihe Velullabs. Perha p" the Haill1:lv3 t:lS :lIld V:ijiriY:ls were .neluded in the Utt:Lr:ipalhakas. In the t radi· lion ar~ menti :med Ebbboh:irikas. Paiii\a lli v!lJins. and 8ahus· i Uliya" of Ihe no rthern branch of the Ceti):lvddins. who belonged 10 Ihe southern branch of the M ah:\s.:uighik :Is. II . T he second epoch- T he S:'l l}lmi liyu tradi lion o f Ohuv),a placed the H:limav:ll3s under Ih" Sihaviu sro up. and identified Hetuv:idi ns wilh S:tr\"D.sti v:id in". II fo llo,""",d Ihe Sinhalese lrudili on in its conce ption of the s ub·se~-ts 0;' the Mah::i.s..'1nghikos. Il l. The Ihird croch - K a~hrnir i (1 n tr:ldiliun: (a) . a rc enlnrged by th{' I.
U.w:.II. L('~
s,'rI,"
III/ 1" '11/
J ·.llIfIIl~
lBrr£o .. 19jb).
1'1'. Ihl
~OC RCES
49
f\ND CLA,5IFICf\TION OF SI!CTS
addition of Loko ttarav:ida, Aparasai la, PiirvaSlIila and Ullarasaila . 1 Vinil3deva and the author of the nilikf ul'a n iigwflTCc!Ul divided the eighteen sects into five groups, thus: 1. & 11. Mahas:ulgh ikas comprising P urvaSaiia. ApuaSaila. Uaimava!a, Lokottara vada and Prajiiaptivada. III. Sarvastivadins com prising Miilasarvll stiviida, KiiSyapiya, Mahisasllka, Dharrnngupta, B lIhu ~ rutiya, Tfun rasaFya and a section of the Vibhajyavada. IV. Sarpmitiyas comprising Kaurukullaka, Avantakn and Viit;;iputriya. V. Slhaviras comprisi ng Jetavaniya, ,'\bhayagirivasin, and Maha\ih:ira vasi n. Vinitadeva's information and classification evidently point to a posterior date. He indudes some of the later schools in his cilumerntion and omi ts some o f the older schools, which were probably extinct by his ti me, e.g., the Ekavyavahfi rika , Goku lika, Dharmottariya, a nd Bhadrayanika . Pa rticularly noticeable is his inclusion of the Ceylonese !itcts like Jetav:miya l (i.e. Sagalika of the Mah(lI'aJllSG, v. I J) Abhayagirivasin 3 (i.e. Dhamma rucika of the ,\fa1uil'OIJlSG, v. ! 3) and the Mahav iharnv:hin . The Jetavaniya , it will be no ted, come into existence as late liS !he reign of fo.l ahiisena (5th century A. D.). T;i.ranalha in hi ~ 42nd chapter (KllfZ" Bcrl'Gc/rlllllg ,fe.l· Sill/If's dr'/" I'in Sdlll/(,lIl t furnis hes us with very important iden tificatio ns 01 the different names of schools a ppea ring in the lists of Bh e,,},a, Vasumitra, Vinitadeva and others. Afte r reproducing the several list.s, he gIVes thl! foll owing iden tifica tIons : ( I) Knsya piya = Suv;lrsaka. (i1) Smpkrftnti l adin .." UttariY;1... Ta mrasiiliya , (iii) Callya\"a = Piirv:lsai la - School ~ or Mahfldeva. (iv) Lokotlam'ad
€'it. , p. 11>' . J'(//IISQffl,O(H>akusjnf. J).
RlI'I!JII."I"
Jelnvan:has,no bhikkhu . 3. Itid. It .... as roulldcd 'I .
III
17.5:
SJle11il:-a
m' m3
Maldsenal"ilni!o
Ceylon durin~ the reign of Vnl!agama~ i.
Schid"lIe-, up. rit .. pp :!7()..14.
\0
BUDDH IST H: CTS IN IND IA
(VI)
Kau rukul llJka, Va tsiputriya, Dlia rmotta riya, Bhadray.1niya and Ch.ltl naguika held al most similar viewi. 1 These IdentificatIOns help U~ to trace the Unar;i p.uha kas of lhe !\mhiiraU:/II. rillS school should be idcn titied with the Uuariyas of Uhavya and the S.lTTLkrantivfidi ns of Vusumi lra or Sarnk rfintlka s of the Pci h te:< ts. T he Sarpkdntiv:idi ns were al so :<: nown as tne I amrasil!iyas probably on account of their copper· coloured ro bes. Uut 01 these Tamrasa{iyas or Ullariipalhakas M Sa rpk r;inli vitdins o r D :i.r.~l finl i k:l s arose th\! Sauln'i nlikas. who arc otlcn m;:-ntioned 111 the ~mllkarab"iin'a . Sarradorj'ollQsOIigra flll
anc! sim ila r 011er works of tic Brahmanic schools o f philosophy. A comparison of the dilferent lists o f Schools shows thallhci r gr0upings qui re agr~e wi th one another. The M:l hfl s3. ng~ika brr,nches may be sub-divided inlo two grou ps. The ea rlier (or Ihe lirs!) gro up comprised Ihe origi nal M;Jhis;Jlighika s, Ek avya. vahilrik:1s an d CailYi.l kas or Lok ottar:l'Iudins. According to T:"1r:tl1iltha, Ekavya va11ftrikas and the Ma hiis~ lighi ka s were almost idclI ticu1. The chi cfcenlre of Ihis group was a t Pii!a tiputra. T he ];lI~r (or the seco nd) grou p o f Schools came into ex istence long a ft er lh ~ Mi.lhflsanghi k"s. They became widely known a s the Sn In Schools o r the Andhab s,~ and made thei r chief centre at Ar:la r{lv:lli :I n:! N:ig[lrj unikoQc;la . With them rna) be classed the ll ah u ~ rutiy . 1 ;lI1d Pmjilaptiviidins, as in doc trinal matters the former agreed lTo re wit h the Saila Schools than with the Mahflsa nghi kas. while the latter had it.s o rig in as a protest agai nst the doctrines of Ihe Bahus rutiYils. T he thi rd group of Sc hoQls is formed by the ea rlier M"hWi· l'akas, :md S:t r \':i~ li \'[\ dins with the !.tter Mahisasakas D ha rma-
t
»cvcn
T :I' :Il1ltha tell. li S rllrlher thll during the r~i!!n of the 1"':11:1 I(in~. ~hl"!Oh
on l} "Cft \.no"n .
Tht .c"·cr~:
Ii) S') "lm;l; y~ e(1!\1l'r;~;nfl V'\"il',u riy" ~ nd K ~llru l.: "lb~:I
fl) M ~ lh:l ':· ll1l!t1lk3 enllllHi~inl! Pr~jil~fJt i_:1da and LotIlIlM:lViida . Th ~ forme r hC"'lInc I.:nown a, D;i r~l:i llli b. out or wh ich dc·.. elored the S~IIIr;"\nli l.:a Seh,wl . Th i~ corrnt-o rm<'~ Ma ~lIda· .. rc ll:lrk ; ~ ag:lin,l Iha l nr I..('ul~ (\1.' I:, V,.ll cec POl".in ,hm Ihe Di"I P liln l ik~s I're~e
(ii I Safv:h l v[1(I:I wmfJri.ing T :inHOIS;-niYJ :lnd Sarv,hl v;·,d,\.
sOl1RCES ,\ '< 0 r.1.ASSIFIC.\ TID .... 01' ~EI:TS
guplatas, Kasyapiyas. Sal'J'lkrimtikas o r Cu "nipathab.s,' or nmTd3.tiyas. The fourth group wmprised the Valjipulla b~ or V:ilsiputri)a~ with Dhnrrnottariyas, BhadrJyanil:.,,'i, Ch:lnnag;uikas, nnd Sammili),3s. and also Kaurukull"k'ls. In this group, prnclically nil the school'i merged in one, Ii: .. tl'e Vii (siputriyas. otherwise I:.nown as the Sfllpmitiyas. The la~t, the fifth group but lhe cui e'it in origin, w.u the Thcrav:ida which, 1.S Viniladeva says, formed a group wilh the Ceylonese sects, \';: .. Jet.IYaniya. Abha}agiri\fl'ims and M3h:ivihitrava~ins.
Pror. Lamotte in his Ht~roir(' du 8olll.ldfli.~IIIC' Indi~n ( p. 578) I',IS furni shed us with a tabular stJlemenl of the ~eoJ;lrnphical distribution or the several "chools on Ihe basis of inscri ptions di~covered so rar. Accord ing 10 this 3wtemenl, Ihe schools. divided into several groups inour scheme, are reoroduced here. Groul's I (~ II
Comprising Mahasllllghik:u and its su!).sects Pur\'olloi lu find Apflr:\\:lib (also known as C:lityik a). Hllima\'lltn. Lokottoruviidu :llld Pr. ji'illptivada. The Saiia sch:)ols arc collectively known us thc Andh:lb~. "hich included R:ijasirikas and Siddhmhilo",
I &: If Mahiil(ll;Rhilw Mnha%ghiya (K ollow. p. 48). Lion Capital or Mnthura (1st CCII. A.I). ). 2. Mnhns(I!J1ghigii (KOIIUW, 1'. 170) : Warda k Vase. ~·car jl of Klll)i~\.:a (ca. 179 A,f).). ] Mohnsa!!hiya n .ildcn, 1103) Karle CII\,e of the rear 18 or G .l utamiputra SatakarQ l (cirl;;\ 106·1.30 A.D.). 4 Mnh;l ~ghiya ( Li.iucn.. 11(6) : Karle: Cave or the )'car 2..J of VasiHipulla Puloma (ca . 130·159 A.D.). 5. Ayirllharpgha (EI. XX, p, 17): Pillar of J\"agarjumko(lc;la or Ihe year 6 of M:\lharlpuua V l rapuru .~"\ datt:l o f the Ik ~v;1ku dyuas ty (ca . 2j0-2i.5 A. D.). 1 V~'llIllilra
m"nion~
5aull.tlllikll
;IS
all
fI
ter1~!lvc name far
~'II)lkr:llllikai or SafTlkr'inli,"~da. Se~ ~bsudll" . h"" """i"", II. autn1.lll ikos arc called Ullar.1n;l.! haJm ~ in the Klllh,hflllh" Set
p. 67 fn . The I nfra.
!J2
Il UOOH''''- SECTIi IN IN DI /\
6. Ayirahagha (fl . XX . p. ?O) Pillar of (t;a. 250-275 ..... u .).
Nagiirjunikol)~a
PiirWJSoi/o an.! A polUSQi/o
J. Puva(s)diya (EI, XX IV. p. 259) : Pillar wilh D !'tarmncakr:l of Dhara-:tiko~a : probable dille of V ,H i ! ~hip ll tr3 Puloma (ca. 130. 159) . 2. P uvaseiiya (An. Rep. ASI. 1923-24. p. 93) : Alluru (Kistna .-list.). 1. Apartlnluhiivinaseliy:' (1:."1. XX, p . 17): NiigarjuniKorl(;la Pillnr of the year Ii of Mli.!h3riplltra Vir3pllru~:l d]tla (ca. 250·275). 4. Apammahavin",scliya ( RI, p. 19) : Pillar of Kilgarjun i. k O I)~a of tile: year 6 of the same king. 5. Aparama h
ns
3Do\C.
Co;t\'i'ka or .<;(1i!a.f I. Cetlklya t LDd en•• 1248): Inscribed Slone of Am:1 r:ivali of (e.l. 130· 159) the reig n o f Vii si~ ! hi pul r:l Pulom li 2. Cet ik:1 (Murt l. N o . 33, p. 278) : (da l;> !'l ~ ohovc) slab of A marth'9\i 3. Celiv,l\':1lldak a (l ilde rs. In3) : ( d n) ~ u l pl u re of Amllrj,\'aH 4. Celia 'l;l mda Ka (Li.ide rs, 126]): ( do) ~c u l pture of Amarav:lli 5. Cctik:l of R:ij :l l;iri ( Liider:.. 1250) st: ulpture or Am arih ali (uu) 6. Ja.;J il.: i)a ( Lucle r'S. 1244) Pilla r cf Amanhali (do)
53
~llRCE~ AND CL." SSI F1 CATlOS OF SECTS
7. Cetika (LOders, I DO) : Nasik ~a vc 8. Cetiya (Liiders, I l7 t ) : Jun nar Ctne 9 . Seliya (LUders, 1270) : Pillar of Amar:} v[lti
10.
Mahav~ I1 l'.!;C li ya (Lijd~r!i,
(do) (tlu) (do)
1230) ; do
(do)
II . Mahiivnnnseia (Uders, 1272) sculpture of Amaravati
(do)
Hafmu rala 1
I. Hemavata ( Luders, 156) : Crystal casket of Son3 ri stOpa of SUl1ga epoch, (2nd ce nt. Il.C ) 2. Hcmavata ( Luders, 158): Steatite C
Comprising MfllaS:lrv3$itivada , Kasyaph'a, Dharm,lguptl. B.1.husru tiya, T:1mras;i!lya and a sect ion of Vibha jyuvuda. ,f";,arva.\·I; I'ada
1 & 2. Sarvastivatra (Kon aw, p. 48) : Mathura LIon Capital (1st cellI. A.D.). 3. S::tn'ustivatin ( Ko now. p. 137) : Shah ji· ki· I)heri (Shrine oi Kau iska)(ca . 128-15 1). 4. S:t[rvastiJvadati ( Knllow. p. 145} : Zeda P illar of K aQi ~ ka (circa 128. ISI). 5. San'astivad u (Konow, p. IS5) : Copper stllP:ll)f Ku rram (ca. 128-15 1). 6 Sarvastivadin (Ko now, p. lUi) : Inscribed 1;)hcri withou t dllte.
pOl~IICfd
of
t Re. lIu(ma.aras: scholars who ~al'C dealt with t hese se<:ts differ in thcir oplnlollS. While some pla.ce the Haim"I'U/u$ as a s.... l>-~""t or Ihe f,1"ha"m;g/ri· Icus, o tht:r~ inc::u ..k them a mon, t he JUb·5eC1S (If the S"r ,·jjsli'iid",~·.
54
BUDDHIST SEen I N INDI A
1. Sa rv:i slivtid in (Ludc rs, 9 . 8-[ 9) : Buddhisl statue of Ka man (no date)8 Surv:lsti v3d in Sarn:llh .
( Luders,
929) : Buddhist
balustrade
of
9. Savasthidiya (LUde rs, 125): Budd hist statue of Mathur:! 'NilhoUI dale. Kc1iyapfya
I.
Ka . .. ( Konow, p. 6J): Inscribed pottel)" of Takh l-i-811lti (110 da le,.
2. Kasavia (Konow, p. 88) : Ladle of copper of' I aXIla, gIrt of Isparakka problbly Aspavarma, yassa[ or Azes II (c:t. 5· 19 A.O .).
(Konow, p. 89) : Copp~r ladle of Bedadi in the kingdom o f Uras,i (no da te). 4. K(l ~(y)a viya ( KOllOIV. p. 122) : A jug of Palal u J)l1eri (no date). 5. Kassapiya ( L~der s , 904) : Buddhisl cave of Pabhosa of the year 10: probably the fifth Sunga. 6. $o\'l\saka ( Lucien , 1106) : Karle Can: of thc yCllr 24 of Vasi ~ !hiput ra , Puloma (ca. IJO·159). :;.
Ku ~yaviya
BahuJrulfya
I. Bah (u~u t i) aka (Konow, p. 122, : Jar of Pilla!u Q hcri (no date). 2. Bahusutiya (EI. XX, p. 24 : Pillar o f Nagarjunikol.l9a o ( the reign of Miilhariputra Virapuru ~datlll (ca .
250-275). J. flllhusnliya (EI, XX I, fl. fi2): Pilla r of
Naga rjullikol)~a
of the year 2 of Ehllvula Sanlflmul~ II o f the Ihv:iku dynasty (end of the 3re cent ury). Viitsipurriya
1. Vatsiputrika (Liiders, 923) : Buddhist Pilla r of Sarn.:th of the Gupta epoch (4th een .)
55
5OURC£S AND CI.MSI FICATION OF SECTS
MuhdiisiJka 1. Malii (sa) saka (EI, XX, p. 24) : Pillar of Naga rj uniko lJ~a of (ill: Yl:a r II of Enuvula SAmamOla II of the Ik ~va k.u
t.I ymtsty (end of the 3nl c-ent.).
2. Mahisasaka (£1. I. p. 138) : Pillar of Kura at Salt Range (Panjab) of the reign of Toramana Shah Jauvia (~nd of t he 5th cen t ).
SuutrJlltika I. Suluijlliku (Liiders, 797) : Pillar of Bharhut of the SUliga epoch (2nd ccnl. A.O.). 2. Sulatika lLUdcrs, 635) : Saiki (If the ~lJng:\ epnch.
J . Sutiitikini, Salli.tikini (Liidcl's, 352 , 3(9): Sailci o f the Sunga epoch.
D harlllotttlrf),(/
I. Dharn utaiiya lLiiders, 1094-95): Gift of two pillars to the Dha rmolt!lriya date).
school
of Surparaka (witho ut
2. DharnmuLl:lfiya tUlders, I I 52} : Jun na r Ca\c (no date). 8I1mlro)'iill/Yo I. (Bhadaya)niya ,Uidcrs, 987) . Kanhed Cave of the reign of Yajn:\sri Satakil.rQi (ca. 114-203). 2. Bhudrajam]a d:Jte).
( Liiders,
1018): Kanhcri CJ.Vf (withuLt
3. Biladuvaniya (li.iders, 1123): Nasik C lve o f the year 10 of V.isi.~!hipLLtr;1 Pulomu (ca. 1 ~0· 159). Bhad;ly:miya (Liidcrs, 1124) . Nusik ea\.; of the yca \ ~ 19 and 22 o f Viisi~!hiputru Pul om u (l·a . IJO·1 SIJ).
56
aUDDH l sr SECTS IN INDIA
Soq,II/alfya
I. Sammiliya (Liidcrs, 923) : Budd hist Pillar of SMnath o f the Gupta epoch (4th cenL). Sinhalese Therul'ikla
J. Tambapa(rp)l)aka (EI, XX, p. 22) : Temple of Na ga· rjullikol)Qa of the yea r [4 of M a~hariputril Viwpuru ~l datta o f the Ik ~vaku dynasty (ca. 250·275).
CIU.J>TF.R
V
THE MAHASANGHIKAS History
0/
sdll.}(J/~
0/
Grol<{JS J &: JJ
Tht first two groups in (JUT scheme included the Manasa lighikus and their ~ub-s~l<;. Sca nnin~ the va rious traditions about the appearance of the <;ub-sects, it is found that Va5u1I1ilTU and Bhavya agree wnh the Kalliiil'aulm as far as the three sub divisions are concerned if the name Ceti)'a be rC,I!;arded as all~rnutive to Lokottarav:ida . In the Ma/u;I'rulll which is an avowtd text of Lokottarav~da, a hranch of the Mahasanl\hikas, worship of Caityas is given prominence. It will not, thcrdor(,", be wrong to say that the I .okotlaraviidins were also called Caityukas. Somctime after the ap~arance of lhe~e three sub-sects. there l:lIffiC inlo eXIstence Iwo more !ou b-sect.s. viz... Bahusrutiya !lnd Prujilaptivada. According to VlIsllmitra and Bhavya, these is:.ucd out of the Mahiisanghikas direct, while !II the Kotfllimflfm and the Ceylonese traditions, Ihey ;!re made subdivisions of the Gokulika ~, though the latter did not appear to have btcn an important sect at any time. The cloetrines of these t .....o later sub-sects are allied to those of the Mahas<JiJghik,,~ <Jnd of the Snrvtl.sti\:idins. The Mahfl.5anghikas have g~ined in importa nce :lncl popularity not so much hy the: sub-sects mentioned above but hy lhe sects which tame into existence at :1 later period , i.e., the Sai lO! schooh of Vasumilra Hnd Bh:lYya and the Andhakas of the Pali tradition. The two writers mentioned above speak of three Saila sehooh, Vil., CaitYIl, Unum and AP:lr3, while in the P,,1i tradition apPCM fi~e names; Hernavntika. R:ljagirika, Sicldhatthika. Pubbllscl i)ft and Aparnseliya. Though the Pali tradition is p;trtially corroborated by Vjnitadcva's list, it has been flllly born~ out by thc inscriptio ns dise:overed at l\agarjunikru:u;b and Anlartivuti (Dhllnoku!uku)l I
Se" inffll..
58
aU DI)IiIS'f sErrrstr. INOlo\
T he $aHa schools of later days threw t ~e Mahasailghikas mto the ~hade. II seems that the earlier Mahasanghikas were not conccu Lraled in one centre as were the 5ailas. The former were st;attClcu all over N. W. india, Bihar and Western India, whi le the: lalto.:r weI": concentrated at 5riparvata and Dhanakataka (in Gliniur di~Lrkt). T he inscriptions indicate that a magnificent CallY-d was erected here a nd its grandeur and sanctity attracted
devotees from places all over India and Ceylon. According to the: inscriptions, me ntion ing the names of the ruling kings, the
date of erection of (he Caitya should be placed about the 3rd or 4t h centlJr y A.D.
The first group of seclS, viz., the Mahasailgh ikas, Ekavyavahiuikas ami the Caityakas (or Lokoltaravadins) had generally commOIl doc trines wilb mino r diffe rences, which have not been mi nutely distinguished by Vasumi lra. As regards the second grou p of SC\:ls, viz., the Sailas or the Andhakas, Ihe Bahu~rutiyas a nd Prajiiapthddins, VaSum tlra has equally been silent. It is ill the K arhfil'utlhll that we fi nd that a Jarge number of doctrines ha\'e been allribUled to this group, and after a nalysing the t.Io.)ctrines, it appt:ars that this group accepted some of the doctrines of Sarvasliv
In the D tpal'UlllSOI it is slated that the MahRsa nghi ka s lIot only introduced the ten new Vinaya rules but also propollnt.led new doc trines contrary to the established onego At the Mahii M1tigfli held by them at P iipliiputra they made alleralions in the Sulfa and Vil/oj'a Pi{akas, as also in their arrangement and interpretation. They d id not include, in thl! Pi !~k.a collectio n,2 l'orh·iira. AbhidhammappakarOlJa, Parisamhhidiimflggo.
Nidd(!~'a
and the Jiilakas . The im portance and accuracy (If their decision are su pported by the modern cri tical writers.a T he Parh·tira (piilha), in tended as a manual for thl! bhikkh us. was 110 doubt a t Dlpav(l//lSO. t h. iv. 2 IMd., Y. 32-38. J
Khyl DaviCls. ffil;berl
Vl/w)'Q rex/I. I, p. XXKIV.
UClllrtf,
p.
41 ; OI:Jcnlx:l')t's Intro. 10
Ihe
59 composition of a mudl lau:r !.laic. The t l hllMllulIIl!fu Ic;>.b abo dcvtloped after the \:u uud l u f Vd:lli ,lUd vblaim:u Ih,;:;, fi rlal ~ Impt;
in the th in'! SyuuU ltdll Juring ASuk.t'::, rci!;lll ,l
L" ~ ll y,
the t illce
wo rks, the PUf/1 umbhidJIIIIIIU:5I1 , N idtlr:.I /J am..! t i ll; Jliful..Gl. we re: added to tilt' DUlon lou g
rc-gioil. T here me si mi lar rderence.; to t he Slitra ri!aka abo, and in gre~le r delails. In nn inlcro plion' on one of the slabs fo und ne
60
BUDDHIST SECTS It' INDIA
"matlka" dc notC$ the detailed con tents of un Abllfdkamma lext. It is used elso 10 indicate Il complete AbhidllOltrlllQ text. Hence, it may be ~u rmiscd that the term " Pur}lcarnutukii" refers 10 five and not :seven, of thc Abhidhomma texts. Perhaps thc two texts omitted art the Pauhiiflo and Ihc Kathu,'ollhu, which were later added to thc AbhieJJrumma texis. Among the Vinnyu texiS enlisted in Nenjio's Catalogue there art four works with miil!kii as n part of their (hieS, though none of them belong to thc Muhlisnngh ikU5. 1 Prof. Pnyluski wri tes' that thc MuhiisUllghikns had Q parti_ cular fancy lor the number "five", c3pccially in connection wilh the Vinny'" te xts. Matrka was used by the ancient compilers to denote the ViI/U)'Q Pi/uka a. much as the Abllidhalllma Pi/aka, henee the word " Parpea-miituka" of the inscriptions may well mean the ";lIaya Pi/aka of tbe Mahti3ailghikas, wbosc text also had five divisions like that of the othcr schools. f-u·hien (41 4 A.D.) came ac ross a complcte transcript of the Mahasanghika Villaya ut Pa!uliputra and translated it into Chinese two years luter.~ In Nunjio's Catalogue arc mentioned two Vinllya texts or this school, viz., MahihaJlghika-vinaya and Mahasllilgha-bhik~u1)i'vina)a (No. 543). Fortunately there is the original Mal/(h'(lJ III , ~ which is the fi rst "olum::: of the Vi/laya Pi/aka of the Lokottara"adins, a branch of the Mahasanghikas. It corresponds to that part of the Pali Vinaya l'i!aka. which gives an account of Duddha's lifc and his fo rmal ion of the firsl Sailgha. By Buddha's life the com piler of the Mahiil'asfrl meaDt not merely bis pn:sent lifc but also th::: events of hi~ past lives, by reco unting which he showed thai a particular event in this life was onty ;t repetition or resliit o f the past. The account is divided into three ~ec l ions like I~ e Nidana-katha of thc Jatak,lS, tile riht dealing with his exi~tem:e ~ al tbe time of Dipail.kara ami ulln:! Buddlm~, Ihe secor,d with hi5 life in Tu~ita heaven, and Iht: IloinJ with his present life, agreeing mostly with tht: COIlU:nts I
f'rz)'lu, ki , I.., Gmcii",
1
1M" . rn
l~l ,
,n.
d~
H.iijagrl:a, p. 212.
l~Q
J M . HoIill~cr ill hi~ Elllill' sl/r Ie cOl/rtle dl' fuiSiili, chapter I V, pp. 14!. 4S has Ir;ln~lalcd Ihe Mahillanghika Vinaya into Frcnch, reproduced in English by me in Ihe \I(;,,'ourl[ ur th~ Second Buddhist Counei '. See above. Takakusu, H.:wr(/s of "I~ /Judd'iisl Hd'KIQII!>Y '·uillg p. xx. 4 Scnur!'~ edi tion, p . 2.
G1
THE r.lAIIAliANOHtKAS
of the Pa.li Muhiil'~gQ. Apart from It few rules re :atinS to ordi_ nation, it has nothing to do with the d i;ciplina ry matters. It co:uains a few Pra krit vcrsions of the siitr3s of the Nikii}'as_ Slltw-nlplJla. DhuIHI1I:lptllla Ilnd u few othtr IClttS. 11 is more a co.Jection of Jalakas than a (Cl(t on Vinnya. Winternitz th inks thai its date uf composition should be placed between t,e 2nd century R.t.:.. amI the 4th centu ry A,D. 1
Umgl.Ogi.' of I h~ ,\luhiisaitglllka-Pifoko Bu -ston 2 tells U~ thaI Ihr M ahii~afli:hjkas clai med Mahiikasyap:J a~ thei r founder, anl'l th:1I f1e lnngu:age of their Pllaka was Pr[lkri l. The language of thr Mnhlil'a.,·,u,3 especially its po~try purtion, is mixed San$k ril and which may well be ca llw Prakrit o r qU:I<;i-Sanskrit and pure S:md:rit, and the Sutra.pitaka was divid~d into _.IRClmas ins tead of Nikliyas. T he southern grou;l preferrc
or
Principal
Jl'ClU
vflhl'
SdlU(l / ~
Yuan Chw:lng~ stlltes thaI the majo rit y of inferior brethren at PiitaJipu tra established the M3h;i<;a oghika school. Fa-hien, as stated :Ibove, found the VlIlaya of this school at Pii!aliputm, sc it maV :,e concl uded Ih:1l the chief centre of this school W:lS at p attt'iputra. l-tsing (671-695 A D.l tells us thlt the Mlhi!sanj.!',il.a" were fou nd if! his time mostl)' in M.tgndha. and a few in Lal;! li nd Sindhu (WeSlern India) and some in a few plaa-s in Northern. Sou thern and Easlern India.' Before 1-tsing, both Fa-hien and Yuar: Chw.tng had in thes: .oc;!lilies rome
- - -- -
t Sec Wimer-;;'I1~ /lis',",' of Indiol! VU'ruflirt'. II, JI. !J9; 1\. C. l.aw, A S l rJdYn/fhf'iI1ahuFIIsfll, t930. 2 O~,idc .• l"~ir own h.nllllllgC. I)", ~lon nckls, Ih~i r ro bJ ' ~:ld ?lln 27 fTlnllel:. ~nd [:.adge w~s 1\ I"nnc~-~hell UU-SlOn , II . p. 100. Cj. C'«lm~ Konhi , JAS8., 1838. p. 134; \\>aJ~ilje'N, Df'r O"ddhl.mIlIS, fl 29~-9S: Eilers HUI/tl'>tX* (If C/JiflUt' fluddhiSIn , p 88. ] Sec Keith, Foreword 10 n. c. Law's Sludl' oj tll~ 1\1(111<11'(1.<111 . 4 Wallers. op. ('II .. II. 1")"1. U,1. 2~ S T Dkultuu. QP. <-if., p . II'uiii.
,he"
BlJD I)H IS1' SECTS IN Ir>:OIA a ~ ross the auhc rclllS or this school though not so fre::tuently as th ose of the others. T ilt: earliest epig~aph ical no tice of this school is found in the ins!.:"riptiun on the Mathu ra LiOl] Capi tal (Oloout 120 H.C,),' Il1clltionilll! lhal it had a very st rong oppo· nen t in Duddhila, all adhert:1ll of lht: Sarvastivl\da school. AI Andarab in Afghanistan a ll U ils neighbouri!1g places there were also some fo llowers of Ill b ~huol. During the reign of Huvi ~ ka, one Kamagulya Ut:pusill;!U some relics of Budd ha in t he Warduk vase find presenteu Ihe S;lme to the teachers of the Muhiisllilghika ~chool. The vaul, which contained t he relic·va se WIIS built by the rOlther of Kalllagulya.' At And o. rab, which WOlS t hree days journey from the cuulIlry or t he Wardnks. Yuan Chwang found the ad here nts o f t hi, ~hoo l in three monasteries. The re was another cent re uf Ihl;! school at Karle. in the Bt W
I 2
pp.
f:. I .. IX, I'P. 1l!1. 1::. I.. XI. P. 211
141 , 146.
1 See f(!r irs tle<;cril"lion Fergu.iSO"S I"dim l uwJ £a.flt" " A , dri:I'CIII"' , 4
11 7f; r c rgu,"'ul, :.1111.1 Ilur~c,s, Ca ,"t' Tl'lUp/~J oj Indi~', Ep. Illd., VII. pp. Mf.
P,) 2.12f.
S Ihili .. pp. 71 r. f,
Ilurgcs., /)",itIIliH $11I,')(IJo[
of S. I u.l iaj, p. IIl.D.
Aml/raml/a",1 /(lkff(l)"llpt/(1
(Arch Su r.
63 The nbove inscriptional evidencC5 rc1:tte to 1111: M ilhi~fI Shilw'i alonf. who, it appears from the cvjden:e3.. ....-ere s,.'lucred probably in small groups in a few locn lilies (If Norl h-Wl",tcrn and E" st~rn India, :md had their main centre I1t r:qalil'utra or KU5umtlpUra. J us t as Bodh-Gaya grew Lip 011 tht b:lIlk of Ihe Nt!rarijnr(1 as iHl tally centre of Thenlvida amJ a place of pilgrtmage for the 8uJdhim. so a lso did Aman1vuLi (extending to J agg:lyapc!a) alld Niigarjun,ko(lc,Ja e n the uunk of Ihe K r~l);'l (including I I ~ trib utary Paler) become a i10utislling centre of the olf-shoots o f the Mnh:ba ilghiku in the fir5t f.."Cntu ry R.C_ or A.D. and turned into a place of pilgnm:lge fOI the Bulldhisl." of bter daYi. On Ihe basis of the style of scu lpt ures and pnleographic dala. Ilurg~ ag reeing wilh Fergusson held thai the co n~trm:tiol\ of the I\mnr3vIlH >tupa w ~s comm enctd in Ih e 2nd cen tury n.r:. und later en la rged and decorated with additi onal sculptures. the Inlest of which was Ihe greJ t railing erecled a lillie before 200 A.n} It was some time afler the complet ion of the .'\ marj v:!li stOpa tha I the stOpas :11 J aggayapelu lind N.igarjunikol,l4n came into e'(istenc~. their da tes being. according 10 8urges~ :md Vogel, the In.l or 41h century 1\.0.' respectively. This estimate of d ate a rd the mention of the I< ing called M li~ha(puta Sir; Vir:!puri~J· d.II;1 ( - Sri M:"qlmri-putra Sri V raruru~-daltll) lIf the Ik \·J.i lll dynasty~ nrc based on paleographic eVidences. The inscriptions \Ill ti n: :J)'l7ka-pillars at NagJrjunikor;r(la mntain not only the naille Lf the king but also of his fa ther \,:'is~lhiputn Si d Ehuvuia Cij l,lturnQlu .' It appears fro m the inscriptio n th ~t the princip.LI donor' IJf Ihe subsidiJry st ructures o f thl' >lupa was C:.ilJlt:l~iri. si5ler of king Co'fI1tamOla. ard Ihe p nlernal a unt (pimdrtJ). bier on. pit Lably mother-in-law, of !I'e king Sin Vi r~pur i s.1d:lta.~ l lem:e. Iht' lime of the I1Iscri plions. mentioning the name of the klll~' C-II!II;r~ iri :.rnd Virapuri5:1d:Ha. i~ 3rd o r 41'1 cen tury A.D.
I
1:. I .• XX, fl 2
~
R Ch!~T a~sillll~
Jr..! century A. n. 10 Ihe reign (Or l..il1;:
xx. P. 2 (J IIOlin" Ii,d. A"I.. XI (1882), PI'. HM 1 r:. I . xx, ..... 3 " IIt;,I. S Htuf}r. II
AJr"
1'['1
18.)4.
l'uri :ad~la.
£1 ..
G-I
D UD D lll fT UtCTS IS INU"'-
It .l.hould be remem~r~d Ihal Ihe period mentio ned here rehlles \0 the 5ubsi.liary structures of Ihe main sllipa. and not \0 the Ull P:.l il~elr ~ t h~ M ;lh ;i ~ :lit)'a , wh ich mu~ 1 be assigned to :111 earlier period . II is eviden t the refo re thaI the off-shoots of the M ahlislIilghika" vi7., the Ca ityu nnd SllI lu schools. migrated to the Gllnt ll f district fro m Pii.!ulipulrn through Orissa and made thcir set1lemen ! in th nt region in Ihe 2nd cent ury 11. c. During the C('lllr~e of fo ur or live ccnturi~s o f their residence there. Ihcy @radufllIy ex tended Ih..:ir momlslerit'S In the neighbouring hills. The offshoot3 of this school. thc lokottaravad ins and Caity:!k.I ~, ill Olhtr words. the Soil... schools, as we know from the msr: ript ions of "maroi vuli nnd Nag:irjunikolJ~I:I, eS!:Iblisllcd thcmSC'lve5 along the bonb of the Kr~ l):' with ~ver:ll monus· tel es I(x:a lcd on Ihe d lfferenl hills all nround. 111 shorl, the ea rlier ~c hoo ls (i.e. tIle firs! group) were IOC': lIed CI t Pii ta lipu lra wi th adheren ts scattered :ill (wer Nor thern !lnci NOllh· wcstcrn India, while the later schoo ls (i e. the SC'(.·ond &1\.IUp) were concentra ted in the south, having their cluef cerllre III the Gunl uT dinrict o n the bonks or the K I H :1.
The Mah:i.s:lIiBhlbs mlgr:m·d from \'b gadha in two strcnms. o ne towards the north :I /ld the eol her Inw:mh thc S(l Ul h . Th.' nort hern, rather, the no rth· wesurn <;t('I,n n I!. Du ddhagho~a , in his c;)mmcnlary 0 11 the Kullui ."Urtfm, distinguished Wl ahiis:ulgh Iw~ hy Ihe words " ('/, OCY'{' Alahasa,,~IIiJ..ir· implyllIg Ih~reby thai :.11 Mahlisanghikaj d iu not s ubscrihc 10 the same doctrinl.'S. or il might he th nl he rcfcrr«l by " ebeec " eIther to Ihe north-wr .. tern o r to lhe so ulhern branch of the Mahas3lighibs. In Ihe Kmhii l'olflrll, the views discusscu :I re mostly of the Mahft ~:lilshika s. who misrUled to the sout h, ~ lIled down ill Ihe Andhra Pradesh
b5
around Amartvatl and DhdnyakaJaka . Their sub-branches concentrated at N agol.rjuniko IXIa, dwelling on the m ountains around . These wen:: the Pubbase1iyas or Unaraseliyas, Ap:tru· sdl yas, Sitldhatthikas, Rlljagirikas, and Ca ilyikas. col k !.:t iv>:l)' designated as the Andhakas by Duddhagh o~a in the jnlruuul.:liul1 to his cu mmenta ry on Ihe KatMI'Olll lu , O f Ihe no rthern M uha· sanghiku s he mentiuned the names o f Ekabbohliri ka s. Gokulika s. Pai'iftallivauim amI B,lhussutika. but in Ihc KotMratl/1II their views !La'fC n u t been referred to specitkaJ:y. perhaps they origina Lr\l artcr tbe compositio n of t he KallJdI'Qtl/lII. 111 till: KUI/r.a,'olthu there i~ a d iscussIo n o f the .. iews of Ihc VClul,akas, who were In favour of the Mahayanic dOl'trines. o r the two branches of the Mah4saflghikas, the Dort h-wo:stern brallch deified and uni versalised Budd ha a nd h eld that the A bsulute (Reality) w as Indescribable (aninacQllrya). It neither ~"i~ ls lIur nun-exists. I I is devoid o f [111 attrib utes (sIiFfIJCIiJ) , It is wilhuu t uri gin and decay. The Andh ra group was m ore t-i inayanic in its views with a slIght trace of Mah:lyArlism. This disti ncliun of the two groups w ill be apparent from the Ir Iloctrina l views as well as fro m their geographical loc:uio)n, ..tiscussed hen:aftcr. OEOOIlAPH ICAL O:STJU8UTION OF T HE TWO GROUPS
or
MAnJ.SA.NO H lKAS
(a)
North-wu tem
0 1'
tile &rlier GrO ftp
Fa-hien (Sth century A.O.P fo und D.e M ahasanBhikns Dt Pii.taliputra. Hiuen Tsa.ng (7th centurYA.D.)1 remarks that <'the majority of inferior brethren at Pi~a[iputu began the Mahi~nghika school" . I-tsing (67 1-695 A.D.)3 tells us that the M ahasailghikas were fou nd at hil time m ostl y in Magadha, a few in L i~ and Sindhu (Western Indi:l) a nd some in A few plllCCI in northern, euttrn and southern India.' I n these loea lilie:
66
flUDUHLlIT M!:CTS i N IN DlA
of this school though not 50 frequen tly as those of others. In the $iiriputfQ-PQripr~dlrl-$ii rru (Ch inese tmosJ.) it is slated that tbey resided a t U~9iyana along with the Sarvastividins, Mabih\sakas, Dharmaguptas and K t.tyapiyas (see Bareau, op . cit.),L The earliest epigraphica l notice of this ~ hoo l is found in tbe inscriptions o f the Mathura LionCapila.1 (about 120 U ,C.) ,1 meotioning that it had a very strong opponent in Buddhila, an adherent of the Sarvi!.sllVada school. At Andar:lb in Afgha ni stan ond its neibho uring places there were some followers of the Muhas.:u1Shikas. During the reign of H uvi ~b., on:! Kamagulya deposiled some relics of Budd ha in the Wa rdak vase and dedicated the same 10 the care of the teachero o f this school. The VQult which contained the relic vase was built b)' the fathe r o f KamagulY3. a At And:n ab, which was three days' journey from the eountry of Wa rdaks, Hiuen Tsang fou nd the adherents of this school in three monasteries. Oi the three writers, Vasumitra, Bhavya a nd Viniladeva, Vosum itro htls been ideotified by Prof. M a~udJI with the aut ho r of Ihe },falull'ib/ui , a during the reien of Kal)i ~ k:t . Vasumitra has devoted more attention to the doctrinal ,·jews of the nort hern group o f t he Mah:isangbikas tban to those of the sout hern grou p. He pu t togethe r the views o f the Mah::i.s:uighikas, Ekavyo.vllhiirikQs, Lokouarav:i.dins, nnd Kaukku!ikas, and attributed to them os many as fo rty-eight views with add itio nal nine as late r differe ntiated d octn nes. The nel{t Iwo >chools which rcct:ived his aUention were the B:thusrutiy:u and Prajnupl ivudins, who also belonged to the northern group, attri b uting to them nine d octri nes while he dismissed the southero schoo ls (CUllY:!., Ultoru ond Aparosuilas) .".,ith three vie",s. JU$t Ihe reverse was the (\II i tude taken by the compiler o f the Ka/Mil-att/lIl. In Ihis text. sixteen doctrinal views a rc lI uri buted 8a~:au. (>p. cit., p. S6 " uoli"8 Ihe opI nio n of Lin Li Ko u:lI1g ..... 110 wriles th ~ t Ihere ..... ere t..... o $;:CIS of the M al1:lsa~lIhikas; (i) The M nhl'iS:lIill hikas propel unrdotn:ed representi;}g the ohJ liberal Mahay.:! i..: leanin,s, clai:ning origin froOl Ihe Slh.vir.u or V 3 t~ipulli)as. OLI such clear CUI divisicn ii no l approvcd by Batea u. E. I .• IX, pp. 130, 141, 14b 2 C. f.. XI, p. 211 3 W~ l1e" . (>p. cit., 11. p p. 261. 269 4 AsI.t M<4iOr. II. p. 7r.
67 to the Mnluisailghikas in gen:ral while fOrly-one "iews 10 the Andhakas, compnslng Pubbasciiya, !\paraseii ya, R
of the Andhakas in the
Ccy l o ne~
chronicles. We have seen
above that their nllmes appeared more than once in the Amaravati and Nugiirjunikol)Qa inscriptions. In the Puli tradition appear five names: Hcmav8tika, Rd:agirika, Siddhatthika, PubbaseliY!l and Aparaseliya. Though the Pall tradition is partially corrobomted in Vinitadeva's list it has been fully born! out by the inscri ptions unearthed at NagarjunikOJ;u;ia an:! Amarivati ( Dhanaka!aka). making exception of the MahiSasaka, a branch of Sarvastivada. Out of the twelve names of the Pali tmd ltioD. we come ac ross s:ven in the Nagarjuniko~l(;ia in scription . This testimony conIlrms the authenticity of the Pali tradition. Vinitadeva replaced J3ahusrutiya by Prajilaptivada; othe rwise, he agreed with the traditions preserved in the Pali texts and the inscriptions. The Sliia schools in later days su rpassed the Mahasailghikas in popularity. It appears that the earlier Mah
68
BUDOIIIST SI'.r:n IN INO!A
(Jrd o r 4th century A.O) lIT Amanivati and NagarjunikoQQa furnish us wjlh the name5 nf the followiDi sects:
(i) Hamghi (Burgess, op. cit., p. 1U5) A yira-haghana (EI ., XX, pp. 17. 20, (ii) Cail}ika (Burgess, 0p. cil., pp. 100. 101) (iii) AJXlr2mah a\'nnaseliya (EI., XX, p. 41) Mahii.vanaseliyiina (Burgess, op. tit., p. lOS) (i\1) Puvasele (EI. . XX, p. 22) (v) Rajagiri·nivasika (Burgess, op. cU .. p. 53) Rlijasai b. (Ibid., p. 104) (v i) Sidhath ika (Ib id., p. \10) (vii) Bahusuliya (EI. , XX. p. 24) (viii) M ahi~:isaka (Ibid.) Except the last two, the rest a~ all sub-brancbes of tbe Mah:isaflghika school. All these evidences are obvious poimeu to the cleavage between the two g ro ups of the Mabas3lighikas, i.e .. (i) t~e Mahasailghikas of the north being the earher ones with Ii~r.tl disciplinary views and MaMya nic leanings: and (ii) the MuM,· sanghikas of the so uth, i.e., of Andhra, claim ing their origi n from the Slhuviras and Vatsiputri)·as. Lin Li K.ouang is al so of t!:tis view tho ugh Dr. Dare2.U does DOl fully approve of the same. DOClr;,IeS of the Northern Group of the lIIahiisrlJighfka.f
Vasumitra hitS put togethe r all the comrn()n views of the Mah:lsailghikas, Lukuttaravildins and Knukku!ibs. Param1inh:l (557. 569 A.D.),' a fullower of the Vij1\unnvada school was olle or the most learned tra nsla tors of Vasumitra's (rcalise on ~ct s viz., Samayabhedoparacalla-cakra. The li teral meanings of the r.ames of the sect:,;, as given by Paremlirtha are : (i) Muluisarighikas _ ihose who did not distinguish Arh~ l" fro m nOIl-A rhals, i.e ., A§uik ,ns fro m Saik,as, in the dclibt',1'1lions of an ecclesiastical assembly, Ihe memb.!rs of wltich, 1'IS a matter course, were larg e in number.
ur
J b
L'orlgfnt! d~s Sf!Clr~ bo"JdI,,',/~, d'QP'u PaNm,kth", b)' P;lul Dllm;,hil1e c1,hw;;s .t I.H>IIlIJIr;qIHJ, I, I Q1 I ,12.
M~/QII8Q
11IE .)J.'l. U ,i.sASGHlKAS
69
(ii) EJ.. 01') aTalliir jkas - A II dllarmas arc conventional and, he lll:t:, unreal, [lnu t hc Absolute is OIlC but rUTe [lnd accidental. (1lI) Lckot/afUl'.'lda - All worldly (louk iko) dharmas an: uJlft:al ; the real (1I/ormiJ.f::lre supra-mur.rJauc. (iv) Kaukkll!iko _ Doubt or su::.pic:ivu about cvaythillg. TIle name to deri ved from Aoukr tya - uvubt. Il bdit:~t:u tI al out of the , llr~e Pi~a ka s, o nly one was reliable. It wa::, the Abhidhlllllilla 3i il contained the actual instructium vi BudJhOl. Logic is the 0111) means fo r attaining the SI/mlllum bWII//Ij. Observa nce or diSclplinary' rules is not obligalor~ a::. Ihex: d " nul fit in always ,\>jth the moral ideals of a Bo
70
BUDDH IST SEcrs IN INDIA
schaoP of Harivarm an. One branch or thiS school establisiled distinction between real and unreal , absolute and comcntional, paramorllw and SalIIV!li. 11 recognized KatyayaI.\ipUlra of the Sarv3stjvada sd:ool as liS patron. The Bah u ~ru l iya s were in fa vou r of syncretism of Ih~ views of Hinayana and Mahayana like the Satyasiddhi school of Harj · varman. Jt seems necessary, therefore, to state here brieRy the views o f the Satyasiddhi schooL Harivannan was th ~ founder of the school about 900 years after Buddha's porinirrii~/(J. He was a Sailkhya teacher. He became a disciple of Acarya Kuma ralubdha of Kashmir, thc propounder of the Sautni!ltika school of teachings of about lhe 4th/ 5th century A.D. The Sarvastivad im denied the real existence o f soul (iitman) and admItted !.he reality of the dharmas (objccls) in their noumenal state. Iiariv3rman modified t his view of the Sarviistivadills as well as the extreme Sfmyata doctrine of l\agarjuna, the found er of the Madhyami ka school of thought, anrl a rrived at the following concius:ons: The Sar\'astiv:idins taught aniifmafl of a p:rson, i.e., the doctrine of non-ego. They held thaI the five skandhas jointly or severally had provisional existence, as they were the products of causes and conditions (hel/J-pratyaya) and on thaI accou nt, essentially uoreal (l ul/ya). He examined lhe noumenal state of dharmQj from three standpoints : (a) provisional or no"umenal existence; (h) existence of dharmas in re.'l lity; and (c) absolute unreality of dharmas with their fo llowi ng corollaries : (a) that only phenomenal existence of all objects. including t h~ ego of an individual. is unreal; (b) noumena l existence of objects as they appear to ou r senses i.~ unreal; and (c) all dharmas. i.e" fou r elements (earth, water, air, fire) ha\'e noumen al existence as they are co mbined by colour. smell, taste and tOllch. Mind and mental properties (citta. cai!ta·dharmas) have only provisional or noumenal existence.
TIlE. lIAIlASANOH lKAS
71
.A.gl in, smce alom and mtnd can
~
analysed. they are un real
(1ulI)'I"I). This is the transcendental truth or Harivarman.
COflCl'plion of B1Iddha
In Ihe Ar(mparl.leSal)4-.sultul oi the Thcrnvlidins is mentioned Ih:lt Buddha attained om niM:iellee and thAt he did not sed: Nibba'lft. He sought SOl/I}'ok Sumbuddha/lQad in o rde r to propound, p reach and p romulgate hitht:rtu unknown religious nnd philosophical views. He became a St:t:r and visu~liz=d the highest Truth or the Ke:llit} - the Truth which was 50 deep Ilnd s ubtl ~ Ihat he was at fi rst hesi tant to prew.:h the same to the people at large. as it would do mo re harm 10 them than guod . lie stated ~abbabhibhll sabbavidO'ham asllli. s,'lbbesu dhammesu anupali Uo. Ahafll hi araht\ loke, all
extinguished ~ve rythingl . Such utterances may well be the bash uf (l iC~ l\1ahasanghikll conception of l:Iuddha. Buddha, it is s~\Id. at Ihe intervention of Brahma, decided to preach his doctrines in a modified form ror tht: l.Jt:ucfit of the med iocre searchen; afler Truth to enable them 10 achieve thei r desired end. This modlfitd teaching consists of Ihe four Aryan truths (Ari)'o.souas), Eightfold path (AUlJa/)gfkn-maggu). and the Law or Causation (Pcliccasamllppl1da). the SUbJccl-l1la ltc.:r of His fint discourse. The M ahaya nists took the above ut:l..ision of Buddha to establ Ish their thesis that only an o mnisd.:ut Buddha could rea lize the highest Truth and that his d i sciplc~, who heard th~ fi rst discourse (DftammacakkapPalYlUOIIO-SlIlfU). !x:L3me kno ..... n as Ihe Sr.\vakas. who could lI u :!;i n pcrfl'Cliun (urltllfhwdi only by observmg the instruct.ollS comai ned in tht JiSC'Qurse. In Other words. they could realize o nly ab~nl,',: of i.ldivldunl sou l (cmaltli =p"dgafollmriilmya) and nul \h.: ul.ln-C':o;islen(,r
72
8UDDHIST
SV.CT~
LV Il
(d/wrma-siill)'arii) or sameness (fClhiiII'O) of all phenomenal beings
and Objects. The Theravadins and Sarvastivadins along "ilh the ir offshoots conceived of Buddha as a human being, who attained perfectiOn (Buddhahood) and became om nisciem at Bodhgaya. Until tben he was subject to all human frailties common to a PIOUS and meritorious person . The MahasaJighikas did no t subscribe to tJus view as they contended that how cou ld one who was the beSt of all divin! beings in merit and knowledge !D his existence just prior to his birth as Prince Siddhartha, become an ordinary human being. Hence his apprarance in the mortal world was only fictitious in order to follow the ways of the world (lokiinuar/IJllo). H e had achieved all the perfect io ns in his previous existences as a Bod hisattva, The Mahasailghikas, therefore. attributed to G au tama Buddha not only supra-mundane existence but al50 all perfections and omniscience from his so-ca lled bi rt h in the womb of Queen Maya, and not from his attainment of Bod hi at Bodh Gaya. It should be noted that the Mahiisanghikn s had in mind Buddha Gau lama of Saha /okalihlilu, and not the counlless Buddhas of th: innumerable lokadhiitus as conceived by the Mahnyanists. The Malulsalighi kas and their offshoots mention specifica lly th,u (I) Buddha's body is entIrely supra-mundane (lo1.ollara). The eighteen dhiiws are bereft of impure dharma.. The vocal, physi· cal and mental aClions (karman) are dissociated from impurities (iiJrat'a-I'isatt1yukIO). The body has nothing wo rdly (faukika): it is purity only (aniisrtna-miilra) and indestructible. (2) His material body (RiifXJkii,ra or Nim.iifJo-kiiya) is "unlimited" as a result of his unlimited past merits. Paramartba explains "unlimited" as -'immeasurable" and "i nnumerable", It can be eit her large or small, and it can also be of any numl>er. In his created body (Nirmiil/a-kiiyo) he can appear an}'where in the uni verse. The Karliiil'auhu (XVU . I & 2) throws further li~ht on the above, It states that. according to the Vetulyakas. the docl'rine that the Buddha does no t live in lhe world of men neither shou ld he be located anywhere and it is his created form (abhinil1lmito jillo) that delivered the religious discourses. The Thera\'adins account
73 for this hcr~sy by ~3y i llg that it is due to the litera l b ut wrong illlcrprclntion of the passage: BhogQl'li lok~ jiito 10k, sambmidho 101.0111 abhihhuyyQ \'ihorali o1lllpaJitto lokenii Ii (Buddha, born and en lightened in this \\orld, overcame ttm world and remained untoL.chcd by the things of the world (-SOIl' Nik .. iii, 140). This is supplemented by fu rther discusiions in the Kru .. (XV III. 1,2 &
XXI. 6) relating to Ihe heresies. also:mributed \0 the Vetu[ yab!s, viz .• Sa lattab/Jo"" "Buddho BhagQliJ mall/us%k .. ounlisl ,1 ( II sho uld 1101 be said that Buddha lived in the world of mell XVIII. 1); Sohbii disii BlIdJhii til/ham! til (Buddhas exist in a ll
corners of the world - XXI. 6) :md Abhbliml1urer.a dpnto Ii Ithe discourses are delivered by created forms - XVIII. 1}. These show thut according to the opponents of the Theravadins the Buddha i! oOHlipresent a nd, as such, beyond the possibIlity of I()('atlon in :my particula r direct.on or sphere and that all the pn:achings of Buddhism have been done by the apparitional images of Buddha. With his usual naivety Buddba£hOfa undemood the V~tuly3ka;; as holding the opin io n that Buddha remained always in the Tu~it3. heaven. where he was before he came to this world. Th~ discuisions in the KutMiwJtflll1 J.S also the te rse s!atcotcnt of Vas umitra leave no room fo r do ubt about the f:lct tha t the M a ha_ satighik:as (especially their offshoots. - the Ve tuly~kas and the Lokotlat:\\3dins regarded Buddha 35 transcendental. Masuda' suggests Ihat t he sambhoGukiiyo of Buddha is refe rred to in the heresies but the time of emergence of the conception of sambhogokayo is much later. From t he discussion in Ihe Kathdl·ollhu (XX I. 5) concernmg "ol1M Bur/dllal/w" HI/ddhelli hrmitirtkatii Ii " (v. helher Buddh~15 mu tually differ 1), it seems that the Andhak:ls (another oF.shoot of the M ahaSllilghikas) were still conretned with the somb/togakii)'o and hud not yet arrived at the conception of the Dhor'lIuk(iya. Budd hagho~1l suys that the Andhakas hold that Buddhas differ fro m one a nother in some qual ties other thaa This is Ihe opin,o:a or the i\h h!haneh,t:as C'lrly. 3C\!ordinl 10
I ~e
Kil l .
2 :\IUllda·s opinion. ho ... e\'~r, can be supported b} the fxt that in the p. J 69) Buddhll'S .l:d)"01 is equated I.oith ,,1,)YlIIdakliJ·u remlered ;1110 Chinese by pm JIIt'11I whIch is aLso the rendering of .'Ofllbhoruk(Jya, ~~t: m) A.~~cts. pp. 11', I ZOo M/jhii l·u~-III (I ,
IHIUUH IST SEt:i'1S I N I I'>U IA
BitainmfD l iikeU1fipDuhulIo sommQPpadho"o, etc., the on :1odox sdoal holdinglhat Budd hasm:ty differ I n respect o f sarfl'tl (body), O)'U, (length of life) and p r abMI'Q (rad:ance) but r.ot in reg;trd 10 the attamments mentioned above. The discussion in the Kl'u. (XXV II. 3) sh ows Ihm the Ctta ra pat hn\;as held th ~ v,ews that Buddhns could have no kQTU~ii (compassic n) and th:lt B uddha'~ body was mace of a"drrQ~'O dhQrmas (pu re elements). (3) Buddha's length of life (o)'u) is unlimited on accouilt of his pa.t a('('Umul:lted merits. He lives as long ai Ihe 5Cntienl beings live. (4) Buddha's divine power « Iejas. prtJbhal'O) is unlimited. He ca n appt'a r in o ne moment in all the world s o f the unive rs~.1 {5) Buddha is neller tired o f enligh ten ing sentient !x-ing.. and awakening pure faith (l-i juddho-STOddhii) in them . The Chinese co ~rne n tato r explai ns that Buddha's compassion (.larl~n) is limitlns and so in order to enlighten beings interminably. he neller en len into Nirl,o,a. (6) AI his mind is always in meditatio n, Buddha neither sleeps nor dreams. (7) Buddha C3!1 comprehend ever)tbinS in one moment (e.l.:-oIqr.(1ikociIlC) . His mind is like a mirror . He can answer any question simultaneoudy without r~n ec ti o n In the KOIhol'O"lw (v. 9) Ihls aoctrine is attri buted to the Andh;akas. who contend th!'.t Buddha has kno .....ledge o f all present matters (sahbQ!.'/IIi111 potcupar.lIe iio,tJM (;uhf If).
(8) Buddha j, alwaY' aware th ut he has nQ impurities (k,IQ)'ijJiiino) a nd that he cannot be reborn (an lltpiir.ajiiollQ). What hai ~n ,tatC
M oltti"'lSlll, I , P 168
2 Ibid. p. 143.
"
Buddh3'S acquisitions il rc all supram unl..!Jne (Jukouara)' And
cannol be compa red to anything worldly. Hi) spirit ua l practices arc supr
.2
3 4
I bid., I, r. 139. Fer tbe l-e:l.uufQ] IMplri n~ a(rOt nl. read I ~e J.!a;'Oll1Sfll. I. DD 167-7::1. Kola. iu.100: h. !54 M ..JltimsllI, I, I). 168:
Loklnu\'artantlrp Buddt!l anuI'ananl1 !auki ~If1l. p:ajr,aplim anuvananli yalM iokt;lIalQLI pi . CL. I, p. 1$9. 5 1)lrll", II , p. IOJ: )',un kaS"4CI cllltdro Iddhip\di bhh, tl1 ./\ ~bnkhl' m~no k/\ pp~" \~l lioheyya brp.'va~lm \';1
BI.'DDIUSl'
'6
~ECTS
IN INDIA
portion of the ~fa"(i\'aJ'II, uwJ so it is evident t hat the le~t was orrginally Hinoyiini<: and tlUt!, in course of lllne, the introductory c ha pte rs were ndded by the LukcltanlVL'Idins. In the main lext, the doctrines mentioned arc c~nti a ll y H ioaya!lJC. e.g., the four trut 115. the eightfold path. the law uf causation (pratftyasamutpiJda). i rnperrn2nt'nce of C(lnSlitllCn t5 ur a being (skolldhas), non·existence of ;Qu l ( allllllllun). theory o f tht: eITect of past deeds (karma). the thirty se\'cn dhllrmu leediog to Bodhi (&d;'IPQk~i)'cd"':Irmas, bodh)'Dligas) lind so forthl, Tht:re is DO ment!o ll 01 the no n-existenec of phenomenal objects (dflOlmasf1n),Qta). of the Three bodies of Budd ha (rrihiya) and Ill\,: two veils (lil'ura~;aJ') regarding the impurities Ilmi the Truth (k/da :lndjiitJ'Il). 1 he only Mllha y5 nic dO('trines, \·iz., the fo ur stages of the practices of Bodhisattva (C'Oryas), the tcn gradual )pirimal stagcs (dasabhiilm), count.ess Buddhas and their countbs spheres (k1l'uas) appear more as la ter additions than 35 imebral p:lrti of the t e~t.~
Concep tioll of DoJhi~{JflrU
T he conceptio n of Borlhisattva found in the Mahlh-astll tas bern ~Iattd aoo"\oe. There urc some: adliition~ 1 materials in the works o f Vas u:ni lra, Dhlnyu ar:d Villiuueva. These are stated belf'lw. AI the outset it should be nOled that the various sects of the Maluhloghikas knew only of one Bodhisallva - tbe previous e.~j)tcntts of Siddhartha Gautama, who hed to pass through uumerous existences 11\ order to attain Buddhahood, a fact admltttd by the Theravlidms also. Hence the views mentioned here refer on ly 10 the Bodhisattva stages of Gautama Buddha. (i) The Bodhisauv.1 la kcs aoy form o f lowel existence (d!l rgati) for enlightening the briol;s of Ihe \.\-orld .' (ii) The Bodhisattva enlers hi:; mother's womb as a
IH~hirl"us'u,
III, p. 331 ·33
2
l &i.1., IJ 44-49
3
M al,,:r.·us/u . I, p. 345
white
17
eJcpllan t symbolical of hi~ grea t physical slTeogt h combined with softness. It is n ot an intcrm~cli:lle cxis('!!lcc (amarflbha )'o) but mClY
be r~ga rd cd as a created (/Jim:iln) fo rm.! In the Kmlzii l'oll/;I( (t.encc-forth abbreviated a~ K •.".) (X IV. 2) the view attributed to
toe Sailas is that the Bodhi .. atlv~'s si,( org;.tns
app~ar
simulta-
neously whi le he is in the womh. He does not pass thro ugh the embryonic stages (ka lala. arhuda, pdi and 8h::IO:1). ( iii) The Bodhisattl'a hn~ in his mind no 1!:l.ce of desire, hutred and mdie! (kama. vyap:ida :lad vihirps;l Sal'l\j1a).~ Are Bndfli~orr:Yls (/IeroS£' beillg.v?
It , acco rding to the M.:thasanghikas, Budchas :lrC loko1laro and II the Buddha (Siddhartha Gauwmn) is only a created fo r m (Nirmal,lck5.ya) of [I'e Teal Buddha, the B odh.i s~tt \a s :l lso ca nno: be a\'e rtge bt'ings - they mu st also be s u pram u nuane.~ In VJSUInIt ra' s treatise (BaTeau op. cil., p. 26 1) the following acco ur.t (Jf t h~ Bodhisatll'as, mtributed to the M:lhiisal"lghibs is given: T he Bod hisattvas do no t pass th ro ugh thc em bryonic stagcs. They assume the form of whit;;: eleph a nts when they enter their mot!Jers' wom bs a nd come o ut of lhe same by the right side." The above opinion IS the natural ou tcome of Ihe legend ary hel ief that cnme to be woven around Gautama Buddha about a century after his demise. In the Lll/itGl'istara5 the Bodhisattva i ~ placed not only within a crystal cas ket in the womb but whi le In thai state he is said to have been preJ.chi ng his (Iharma to the hea\'cnly beings that ·Hocked to him. The story of the whi le elepha nt seen by Queen M aya in a dream at the time of he r conception and the birth o f the Bodhisattva by bursting t hrough the n ght side of his mo t her"s womb is a pure legend and nreds no comment. Tbe only doctrine that can be described as M ahiiyanic is that Bodhlsattvas take birth out o f their own free· will in any form Ibid. , p. 335-37 Ibid , II, p. 363; Ill , p. 65 Ibid., I, p . U~. 153·54 BIlTeau. op. elr., pp, 58f., quotins (he View, found in th e ..... orks VUlImitrn lind Vinit.. dC'1l with cornmen:5. 5 LalirlJ~'srorQ (A. S. edition), p.73.
I 2 3 4
0(
73
f\llnllHI~T
SECTS IN IXUiA
of existence for impart iI'.g his (,harrna to the sentient brings according to the lauer's fo rm uf existence. This idea is we-ll cte\'c1oped in the Jiilokas , Sik!(isan;ucca.1O and BadhiclIryihatiira. This topic h as been taken up for discussi:m in the KI'I/. (XX II I-3) t hus '. BmlltiMJtto
is:l"ariyakiil/lak ~irik ahew
l'illipii!Q11!
gaccha rr
f i .. ,
In Ihis discussion the views of the Mahas:lli2hikas are- igno red ; Bodhisa ttva is Iret- Ied U~ un cvcrngll hum:!n being, wi".o \ hrcH1eh p~Lsollal clIerti ons attained Bodhi.
In the Niyiill/okkalltikatlrii (Kill. t V !l: XII. 5,6; XIII. 4) also, the views of the Ma hasanghlka) are Ignored and only thc T heraviida \'iew is presented thus: '] here urc two IIf)'!imOS (guides) : (i) sammattaniYiimll (right PHh or guide) a nd (i i) micchatturr;yfima (wrong path or gUide). I he Hrst refers to the practice of pure moral la'Ns (braflmQcariya) and to that of the eightfold path (o!!hmigikomagga) lead ing to sanctificJtion (rr;biulw); it 31so implies the fullilment of the six or ten perfect ions (ptvamisor r(vall/iUts b) the HodhisatlvlS T he second, Le. micc/Illltan i.wima , means the commlSilOn of immoralities a nd offences incl uding t:1C most heinous ones (alullllariyakollll/,a) leading to existences in hells. Pracllces not 'lIlCludcd in either of the above two arc called unde termmed or unpredestin:d (oniyora) . Tn the sense expressed above, any Sravaka GIn be a sOlllllUluolliyiima though he may not be a Bodhisattva . The Theravad ins do not recognize the Hodhlsattvas JS supe r,or in attai nment to the Sriiva kas. t n t he matter of hrahlllocoriya and I=ractice of ariromaggo, they do not make allY diHinction between a Sr:ivukl and a UOOhlSitttva.
In the LoiJkiil'o/(ira and A~'l1i.ga's Srllrii!lI/i~· tira and 1I few other Mahayanic works, howeve r, it is repc1!.tedly stated that a person by the development of BodMciflQ becomes a p rcdc~tincd (,"IiYrJro) Bochi~atlva , who, by fulfilment of the: Piiramiuis and practice of the va riOlls fo rms of ascetic,s m, ultimutcly bccomes a Buddha. Siddhartha G autam3, m onc of his previous cxistences a s Jotipala ma \lUVa, did, as a matter of facI, devclop Bodhicitta ::!.t the time of K
79 The Alldhaku; took the opposite view and usserted o n the busis o f the pas~l1ge in the Majjhima Ni,lo:ii.~a ( II. p. S.Ii.) th ut he
become u $riil'aka of Kossnpa Buddha : Kossapo, nJ-am Allo.ndo. bhngov3ti brnhmucoriyum aC3ri!Jl sumbodlHiYli Ii etc. (Kill . p. 28S). Buddha s
Tcal':h;,,!;~
Afler d~aling with Ihe personality of Bu:Jdha. the Muhiisanghikas contend that the 5uper.<Jh,ine Buddha did not deliver any discour)~s to !:l is disciples. The views arc as follows: (i) Tho ugh Buddha is always in SQlluidlri, sentient beings think (hal they have heard discourses from him in "'CII-constructed senteDCC~. The CO Olmentator e"plains that words flow from Buddha's mou th spontaneously, and these have been collected
as discourses. In rhe Krll, (XV III 2)lh;\ view j .. ~I!ritllltcn 10 'be Vel ulY!1kas and i<: ('xl"lainecl in 111e>~ \Ynrrl<:. "Rudrlhena 8hagav:1I:i na de.~i t (l. " In <: upror! of Ihi<: tn ntention th~y nrg ue th:l1 Abhi . dharma w.1~ rreJlch~ct In Mily:'l in TivatiTTl<::l hefl\'en :lnd the gist wa<: et\e:n In Sariflllna to deve.lop it. T "'e)' further contC-fld thai whalt\e:· An:lnrta h~:nrt wa~ frnm the: cre,lI ed body (nirmfllJakAy:t (IT rnra IG1Y~) of Budd ha. (2) Ry nne lHterance or word (fohfJa) Ructdha r:an e"tIxlUnd :111 d N:l rin e<:. The twn \liew<: menlinnect llNwe arc. however, oontr:.dicled by the nex t two .. iew<: : i3) All of 8ucdhu's preachings dea l (lnly v.ith Dharmocakro (Whed of Law). his first diicourse W:'IS deltvered:'ll S5.rn:ilh but Ihe commentator e ... pl:!.ins that hts dhorma referred o nly to the eradio:ation of desire, etc_ : wh:!te\'cr may be s tated by Him expresses thc truth only U'alhiirtha}.l All sulr:15 of Buddha have IIttartlla (definite or direct meaning):ls opposed to Iwrart/!o (indirect or impLed meanina). In the KI'u. ( II. 10. the di~cussion resting Wi th the topic: ----;---;: -
-
c r. M, v r. , p. 49~ : Y}':!\'3lm3rnrp anlJrllya parom3nho na deSyale. Pmamlirt"o SM)" me,,", the highe$ltru.h .... hile SIIII"'rf/-lOlfO me.os the '0~a\lclllruth5.u u~ed in every.day u ..... £e hy the ['IC
D UDDHIST SECTS IS ISOlA
"Ouddhassa ObalaV1UO vohlro lokuttaro ,i" re\leals th;I' the Andhakas. to whom the a~o~e opinion is ascribed, held th:ll Buddha's actions (I'(."/(iro) are IvkuUQf'u (suprnmundane), but tbey are loot.ed upon as lok i)'tI (mundane) Cf [okrutura (supra. mundane). Mr. Sh\"'e Zan Aunt prefcrs to confine the sense of the wo rd Ivllar!) to speech. and \\c think tl'-at Ihere is good reason for il. I n Vscd by words. It can be e:tplained only by silen=e or at the mO!;l by an c;(clam::.lion - which idea , I think. is e;>.pressed in V"su milra's treatise thus: " The Duddha call e;(pound all t ,1e doctrines wilh a single utterance and tha i there is no'thing which is nol in conform ity with the trut h in what has been preached by the W orld-honoured one."j 10 the UP«JUkUII~'u lJ'(II1U rirurlu of the Suddharl1l(lplI(l(/mlko it has beet! shown Illal for {. :'lining Ull deluded beings in his doctrines, Bud r.l ba did tuJ..t:: tCCOUI'~C' 10 variom e:o.pcdients w:1ich were conventional. i,t:: .. unrea l (.UII/II·:I; 01: .IUIIU1IlIti) , and tha t thro ugh such teachill~s lit:: h:d Ihe ddu Jcd beings to the truth -paramcirrho. So it rollo ....'S that "II hi:. leal'h· iugs collected in Ihe Pilakos arc merel) ~'I/I!I1'!I; VI' summllt; (cou~entional), and they a l'e therefore nOI lib n:al t~;ld!iug).~ Among the other attributes of Ihi~ lu/wl/um Bur.lllha, Vas uUlllr3'S treatise speaks of his pD\\c rs (bu/UJ)a ill> unlimited 1 Asia Major, II, p. 19 AJpnlS etc" p. 193. 3 The len balas arc::-
2
I 1 ~
4 ~
t>
rlti.nU,ltiinJ"ljul.uII ••• SlIbiJOlllrllg(j",r"/PUtil'tulill7' jiJ..ali, II llikud/"jlum njir6dildll:tTl /okllm j ll"':;II. Saltjrllllfl r:unadlr.mll l l lkdnllTfl jtind/f.
Parostllldna'/l torcputgaljil/clJl lndrilo-r.aropari),all(lll' MU/Q'T' pardl/iilf, AIfIJIld¥u1w/mc':"IJ1u'miliu/'/1 hr/UJ() vlplll:a".jllfillfi.
)'a/iltl-
81
wh ile the Mnlliirasw o f his fi ve eyes (cak.rll.f )1 as u ncommon (asiidhiirnlw) and excelling those of Pro/),ckabuddJras, Arilat! and others. This p,lfticular lopk_tatllligatabalol/l sal'okasiid/uiroIJOIi I; has been lak l"n up fo r discussion in the XI'II. (II I. I), bUI strangely eno ugh Ihe position ta ken by the compiler of the X liii. is no t thaI of a Theravad in but t hat of {\ Lo kottafavl1dill Mahasa nghik a hili ae:unst the Andhakas, i.e., Ihe S0 11a schools. in Vasumitra's l re:Hise this topic appears in a slightly different
fortn. The Ther3\'arims d" nol regard Buddha Q ~ lokotlara but attribu te to him fllmost alllhe powe rs and qualities of a luko/tara Buddha. a nll Ihis discu.sion reveals one o f such jn s tam.:c~ . The len special balas (powers) of a Tathiigatu appear no: u :lly in the 1'-/aho l'a.rlll (1. pp. 159-60) but a lso in old Pali works l i k~ the Majjhima Nikiiyn (i. pp. 6~ If.). T he conte ntio n of !ht: Andhak as i .• th~1 lh~re is a certa in deg ree of difference Ixlwt:cl1 the Bud d ha~ and the Arha ts regard ing the acquisit ion of t he te n balil~, and. A~ SII('h. Budd has and Arhat.; lire not 011 the .same level (asadfliim(lttlll) . In the Mahiil'aslu and the Pali worb this view Ii accept er! with this reservation thlll B:Jddhas are .}ufI·ukiI· riljna , i.e., they possess a complete a nd detailed knowledge of everything, while a n Arhat can a t tbe most have KC tiolla i knowledge. The PM i school, i.e., the Theravndi ns. holds tl lat as fa r ' 3S I'imlluj is conc.'med the re is no difference bctwecn a Buddha and an Arhat. ~nd thll l Buddhas a re s uperior to the Arhals u :lly on account of the f:l et that the former is r. promulgator of a new religio n and ph ilosophy and the lalte r is oilly a fo llower o f lhe same.
",,(/"tI-
7.
jhfjlllH'imok k/;{lsmniidl,,·.•nmllparrfnattl sunk ile1lIl rokkhun~ rolle paJsoti cQVQmfln<, upopajja.,,(ilft! etc. i O. Q8aVij'UlJ' kir,j)'J (lllilSQI'Q'11 ce/oVlml/!li'l' dif//Je ,'/1 d/mmmf :tc)'''''' abJt,;mji Ofl,,~hlJw'Yil """,~mpUlju nhlUalf. By eyes, the It~( "llcans 311 the fi vr. viz , m U!IIs,U ak,,, di.y o,. , pmjilric, dharmfl(", and buddhur . 2, d. Kl'll. C:,'., p 62 .Thlinithanldini hI sivak! pade.fflo j
III . Tan l uddesato $AdhdraQlini; niddeSlto asMhlrn(lAni ... Cf. M IR. , I. p. 158 :
lI irld~alo "",bb"'I,,,,.~al1ld M ya ~Iikk hlpat l, AS/HCts. p. I Ofi fn t. See SUl"f1),ulla, llI , p . 66.
cr.
CUlln'Jlfio>1 v/ Arlwf5
In view (,I" scch n['inioll :1bout the pcrsonnli tyof Buddhn, the M :lh{I&:.lIi gh il..ns ('(1111d no t agree to the high spiritual sta tus a u ri butcc.l by th(' T lwr.waciins 10 the Arhats fo r they argued thaI the Arha ts rC!\tised only h:.llf the Truth. viz .• nb:;enccof indi\'idual soul (pudg:lla-ifmyn1i1) ~ nd not the nb:;cnce of both the indi vidual SOU l ;LI1d the worldly objects (dharma-~ u nyata l as held by the Mah flyii nislS. Thio; io; :l.lso d~scribcd as omniscIence. The Ar hat, acco rdmg to the TheraVf!Oins, is fully eman~i paled. He is in possession of the excellent gall (sai/au/w). i.~ free from 2tl:1chmcnt. hntrl' (na par'H'lf(i,a~l.'i) and has attained perfect knowledge of the four stap:s of sanctification ica ru"/(fgga-nii~l(l) bu t not omniscience or SOIllj'uk Jall1hllddhall'a (K w. c)'. p . (7). This point was first raised by an erurlirr. monk M ahadeva at the subsidiary Second Bud dhist Synor! hdd at Ptitaliputra . The five propositions were acccp!ed by th(" M!1 ha~ai'lg hikas including the Andh:lkas, Bahuhu tiy:tsnnd the Haimwntas. The fi\'e propositions have al ready be",n dlSCllsst'cI in Chapter II (Second Buddhist Counr.:il).
In the KO/lrli~ 'aflllll-a!f"(Jklllltti Buddhaghoia WTltcs that a section of toe Mahiisanghika s and their otfshoots asserted on the basis of the fi rs t iou r proposi tionsol Mahadeva that t he Arha1S or the A~a ik~as have so me Imperfections. file Uttarapathakas regarded some of the Arhats as impos,ors. There is ano ther attribute ue rog:llory to the Arha t,,_ T he M lllliiscuighikas and some sects of th(" o rtllC'l dox eroll p, like the Snrvastiv:idins and the Sammiti}a~ , hold Ilw l A rh:l t~ are subject to retrogression (P':lrih:lyali ;Ira hil arnllllJt~ Ii : K,·u. i . 2).
83 1 tc oll:er !>(!.'(hJn uf Iht: Mal li.hai.ghil..a!>, who oPIXlse the above \iew. hullh llt
or 0\ pen.vll. Hence ,til the 3dherents of lhe Mlhasanghlka, school were
not 01 the sa me vIew about the status of an ArhlL Tile Kalhii"atllm (Ii. I) discusses the question. " Anhi Arahato Ii? The o ppon ~nts . i.e .. the Mahasanghikas
a~uc.sukkavi$a!!hi
SiBle IllrH the discha rge 01 semen of an Arh at is n physical n:lIural discharac like urine, excreta. etc. T~.e Sthavi.'(\v:idir.s cons.der that such a statement a:nQUnls 10 a c31umnialion of an Arhat. Srola-iipallnakar
Besides Arhathood, the Mahasanghikils held panic.Jlar views abou t the status of the SrOla-ipannakas. The preparatory stage o f Srota-apannaka IS called the AHhamaka. It is also deSCribed as the Gotra-bhumi, for which the Mahtiyarlisls also use the term "(jolrab hurn lr3$!amak:t ." The ptepuatory stage Icaes to the comprehen~lon of the four Truths, for which 11 IS deSignated a5 Samyak l\";J.-:lIyama. This state marks the crouing of the Hate 01 a common man (prthag-
jana - pu t hujja na). The Mahasaitahikas hold t bat (i) a srola-apannaka hu no relrogre§Slon as he eelS rid of the ten fe tten (s:lfJ\yojaIl3s) ( 8 . ':0) . He comprehends mind and
its nalure (8 . 29). He Can pract.se med 1:1Iio o He rega rds suffering (du kkha) as a means for acqui ri ng knowledge (niu;!a) lnding 10 NirvaI;l3 (8 . 33, 34). He can sta y in the Srota-ftp~nna stage for a long lime ( 8. 35). He ca nnot commi t any of the five dudl)' sins (anantaryas) (8 . 40). I. B_ Ban:au, uss~cus rIC. 2. V_ Vuumitra in AJiu MOjo, II
BUDDHIST SECTS IN
L~DIA
TI K! tight Mages al t ( 1{2) Solapalti-mI1S&:!!!Im AlJd pIJl1IU!!lia (3 /4) Sakadfigami'lll, ,H:d ph, (as abuve)
(5/6) A nugulni-m, anu plia, do (7,8) Arahatta·Jll, and pha, du Al,d the ten fe ttefS an: (8) satk4Yll.d q!i , viciliL).-. , :>i la .v rala·p ;tniIlHlf~ U lUllIl,lraga M id pHltigha, lBehef in tile heresy of sou l or individuality, lack 0 1 faith In Tnratna, grasping after TIles and ceremorlles, s trong deSi re for reblrlh In Ite mOrlal world, and revengefu!neis, J (b) rupaniga, arupaniga , mana , auddhm ya, and avid yA, [Stro ng desire fo r rebirth in the heaven s. or in the higher beavens (arupa), pride. arrogance, and ignorunce vI' Truth,) The Ml!h:isailghik us acccpl that a )rota,~p:lnlla is n(rGl o sombodhiporoyolJo a nd hence. is not su bje\:t 10 ret r ogression. but a sakada~:im i or an an:i&ami may retroi:ress but not lur· ther than the soll'i.p3nna stai:e. for some of the adepTs in the two stages ll1ay have do rmant passion (OIlIlWY.,), which may develop into actual {parirUl!hi:"oV passion and thus brini: about the fa ll. Regarding the srota.:ipanna, Vasumilr:1 furt lwr states: If the S
Am"lQla
po5lilb~lly
ever II \.!vrr o;:spun.Ji"" IC)VUIl>e
'n/ra.
,n
1.10;: out~r
wcoL ld,
F UL f ..lIlbcL" JCllli l) , !iCc
85 111 the XI'II. (III. 5): .4.1fhamakassal pliggafassa di!lllipariYIII!!u!J. 110'11 pallfnOlI Ii ? [Has a person in ,he eighth stage put an end to pervading wrong views.] According to the Alldlwka.r. an adept. who is in the eighth stage i.e., sOI:t?3ni-ffi:lgganha and not yet sOl
til
Di/ pliY.1mpanno pugga!o S0I1cicC"U
pii{/aT/1
jfJ"ito \·Qrop('y}·a
II ? (XII.7 - Pubba scliyas). ICan a person, possessing the right view, commit the sin of killing?J
(ii)
Dl"hiJl1mpal/l/Ussa pliggalassa pahfnri duggatf Ii? (X! 1.
8-
Uttanipathakas). (Is a person, pos<:e~sing the right view. free from birth in a lower form of existence? J By the fint vicw the Pubbnseliy3s mean that a persoa by having .fl;mnuidi!!lri does not get rid of h :;.lred (dosa). hence he can commit tho sin of killing-a view asserted by the UltiHa~ pa li akas th!!.! a penon with right view (sommiidiflhi) cannot be re born in ~ lower form o f cll:istencc; the Theravidins point out thJot it may be 90, but he may have desire (tG!lhii) for object.s and bcin£s belonging to the lower forms o f cxistence. There are, in Vasumitrll, two statement, rela,ing to anu.illYo I. The DlihuIf,ukol 1! n: tjtLI"l' who have jU$t Slcppccd into the Sotiipan"la_ hood, which b th;; eigluh or the lowest stage in !he rnl;' < or sanc ti'ica tio ll. For the me~nini or the t~rm and its d istinction (rom pari),lI/!hij'Jo see abo\·e. 2. ;\tlnamaka-pJggalas ha,'e saddha b ut n ot saddhindriya- AndhJka.
86
BUDOH IST S£CT> IN !N OI \.
and por),cl'aJ'lh5I1C which will dear up the above pr'll:: lem rurther : Ii) Armf oyos (dQrmant passions or latent bias) are neither mind (Cilia) nor mental (cailosika) dhamas. and again the y never become the object of thought (unli/amballa). (R 45 : V. 2.) (ii) AliI/soya is different from paryoL'Qs/luino (pervarling passion) and vice versa. It must be said tha t amtSo.l'a dne~ not combme (sampruyujatl) with cillo whereas poryclI'ustJriina rl('ICs. Relating to the above topics, the KI'II. has, (i) AmlS!J)'li oniiranull(J(lii ri ? (lX . 4) nnd ciuoI'ippCYlfllii I (Dorman: Plssions are without any basis and are dissociated from mind .) (ii) Allilsoya tJl'ynk(lld ti (Xl.l) (Arc dormant passions neutral, i.e., neither good nor bad?) (iii) Aii/io klillluragtlilusayo mll10lil kcmarilgapari)"llfildilicli Ii ? (XIV. 5) (Is the dormant passion of attachment different from Ihe pervading paSSion of attachment 1) (iv) PariYUf/lliinom ciUQI'ippo)'utlUIf ti? (XIV. 6) Os pervading p:.ssion dissociated from mind ?) Masuda offers the following interpretation rrom the 'SlIucni; TheallltSQYos are really hljll5 (germs inborn in the mimi) of raga and other passions. They remain dormant unless t:.II!..:ited by the corresponding impiu!Ie. They remain ulways in the mind even in ku! alacitta. so they arC' dissociated fro m the mind and do not require any objecl (ii/flmbollo) fo r support . WlJt:1l the anuSaya is e~cited by a Im itable impulse, it bc<:onle5 parynva~ sthana (pariyullhaoa) and as such becomes a mental runction (caitasika), and then only it beNltleS an impurily and d ugs the way to spiritual &I'owth. The interpretatio n. given above is corroborated by the Km . A.I The Thcravtidins, howevt:r. co oot distinguish between k~mariiganusaya and k iimarcIgap.triyu!! ~ hana and maintain thllt as the anus3Yus arc included in the I. Xvu. A., j'l . 1 17 : Tanha ye~m nnusay5 n1ma ciHtlvippayunll. ahelUk:ilI avyaknta. ten eva anAi'ammaoA Ii laddh i Sl'yyalh~ 1'; Andhak3n,,~ c' "va cbeclnuD Ct Uuarnpa thaklina rn (Kvu . X. 1)
saJ]lkharakkhandha, they a rc ,,11 ~anu llllla~lii But ,1\.:!;:unJing 10 the Andhakas s()me mental Jb positiolls (sa1Ilkha f;l S) 31'C s:inlmrr;81;13 (with ba~is) lind ~ollle an: 31lar3UHnal.la (without baSiS)! but not so are tbe n:ruaiui llg fuul" khaud has. From ll'.e above dIS( USSlon it is a pparent that the nnusayas, tla:ording to the Andhakas, are avyakata,l I.e., neither pod nor bad, and consequ~ntly thty are diSSOCia ted from mind (CIUiIVippJyulla), and :llso causeless (ahetuka). rhe Andhakas ill the thmi dl!roCusSlon assert Ihal aousayas are dlffeunt from panyu!!hiinas, bul In the fo urth , the KI1J . makes Ihe Andhakns contend thnt pariyuJ!hanas are also cittavlppaYUtlas, which, however, appear to be contradictory. Vasurnttra says that the pnriYUHhiinas attordlOg to these schools afe ciuasamprayuttas. so we must dismiss the statement of the KI'II . as unwarranted . "The world in its variety origmates out of actions (ka rma), which uxumulale o n account of anuiay3S. In the abs: nee Q'IIIJaJo~'. karma, is not capable of producing a new e)ustence Consequentl)' the rOOl of Mel'a or rebi rth IS karl/Ill , in other words, al/usora. With these wo rds Vas ubandhu opens the fift h book of Koso ." (See Kaso, V, p. I ).
(pIlI/arb/'I OIo),
The Sarvllstividins like the Theravadins regard amiSara, paryal'Qsl hiillO and klesa as same, the only distinction beins that al1ltScya is subtle, while par)la\'O~ lhiino is manifest, state of riiga. (Jo~a , !IIoho, etc, Th= Kosa too deab with the prnbl~m undu discussion. viz, whether or not 01l1l5ol'Q (e.g. lciilllariigwlUsayo) is a dha ~ma by ltSdf diSSOciated from mind , the prtipti of kamariiga. elc.? The answer of the Sarvaui\ii.din( i~ in the negati\'t li ke that or the Theru\-adins The former qU'lte a!> th!!ir nuthCl rity Ihe JIi{JII0prusrhiina-slilra, 1ll which anlltll)'Q i" !IIImwn tn he 3.~sncirl ted with mind (dllasampral'lI/clo). They Il~~ef't rhat Umtfn.rof are .ldesas, and hence they cannQ( bolt be cilta-u.m[lra)'ukla ~. In this connectIon the Kosa refers to the opmion of the S:lutrilnlib .. , who h.,ld that al/usur u is di fferent fr0 11 Idda 103smuch a. I.
K,".,
p
"01 : S 1'11t,;h.irlll.:kh:r.ndho
ck:ulCMl 5l rammal)o,
cklldc$O
IIn.t rnIlIJ1U1nO ~
Tile Andha~ a$, il scer:u, loo.(e.;l II 13:1. Ill! n:J ll YIi a;
an.! trt:lled Ih~ !IUlt.! :li a~YI'kala .
Cf. DhnmmaMlllloJ91,
aci t
88
BtJDD1UGT SECTS I": I:'iO IA
it is neither associaltd with, nor dissociated from. mine! !'wnuse it is not a drovYQ apart; il is a sakI; left in certain ind i vid ll nl~ by the previomly c)I'; isting kfelas and has the power of reprcc!ut:ing further klelas. According to the Sautrantikas. kIt/a , when non·manifes:. is QIIUSOj/O and when manifest. an act. it is P(uj'flI'Qsfhiir.a (K osa , V, p. 7), 1 The A{fliomokos ho\'e Saddhindri)'fl (dominant faculty of faith) Vasumilra does not menlion this view among the doctri nts of the Mahasangbikas, hilI it is stated in the KI':I. Ihn t according \0 the Andhatas. DII/mmokossa pusga/asra natthi sadJltindrinlfl Ii (III. 6), {Doe5 It pttson in the eighth stage not possess dominan t faculty of fa ith 1]. i. e. the althamri:as may de\'Clop sod(Uui, \';ri)':l, etc. hut dn not acquire saddhindri)'Q, Iirl)"iIlJri)Q e tc .• a distinction whic h the Theravadim are not prepared to admit. The Andhaka!l me:l n that saddhindriya or viriyindriya, etc. is a facull)' forming :l p:lrt of the mind while t:ldd hfl or viriya etc. is only a {\l!l!ling phase of the mind.
Abhisomo}'o or R,oli:!o/;on of /lle Four Trulhs Like the T heuvlidins the M.e.hi:sanghikas hold that the realitation of the four trut hs (ari}·a.!acl"as) takes place: simu\· taneously in a momenl (cKak,fal}ika B. 23; Y.21) a nd not gra· d'Jally, as held by the $an·thtivad ins.' They argue thul the moment one rea lizes the nature of suffering (du~kha), one: comprehendf also its origin and decay (.ramuJo),o, "irodlro) lIS 3\50 the path leading 10 s uffering (marga). The: four truths a re: sub-divided inlO fiitceD Ihu ~: (0 dul;!.kha (suffering), (iI) Dnitya (impermanence), (iii) iimya (absence of phcnomc:nnJ objects), (IV) analmllka (non· cxiSlcnee of soul), ('1') sn mudaya (uggrcgat:d origio), (vi) pra· bha'l'a tongio) , (,ii) hetu (cause), (viii) pmtyayu (condilior.), (ix) nirodha (cessa tion), (x) ~ntu (quietude), (xi) pral,1 ita (excellent), (xii) nii)S3rO(lO (liberation), (xiii) misrga (path to t For cxhalluivt treatment AMfd/rllrma.\:oill, V.
or Anub yal,
5eC!
Lal Vall" POllu in·.
2. AJ'iaMajor, II , p. 22 rn. {Masuda's Oriil!D and Doctrines of Ea rly
Indian UUddhlst S\:hools. Set also Abhldllarmokow, Chap. \' I. I he !Sar'l'd· s tiva!! ins ho"e e different tiM of the sixteen aspects. See Infra.
89 liberation), (xiv) nyaya (logical reason), (IV) pmipaui (proceeding), (xvi) nairyal;llka (final ema ncipation). Reali:atioll 0/ Dubkha leeds to Abhisama)'a the Kalh iil'a(lhu (xi. 4) " Idarra dukkhan Ii"
In lIac~1j1 bh5 s!lto (I) "ld31J1 dukkhan [i" nil;la lj1 pavattati Ii a nd In Vasilmiln's treatise the exclamation o f "Aho va ta d ui;llc ham i ti" is rel:ognized by the Andbalca$ as a means to the
rulization of the Fo ur Truths. The exclamation of the \\o rds " Ihi s is suffering" leads 10 tbe realizatIon that existen;:e in thi~ wo rld IS mistry. i2) Oukkhaharo mafs:uig2.1P maggapariyantan Ii (X" II. ii, 6). (SuffNing is a food o r a means leading to perfechon in the eightfold path).
(3) Sa m:lpannassa
althi vacibhedo Ii (KvlI. Ii. 5) (Can a meditator utter 3n e:e mora l precepts, meditational eXerCises and various olher mean> leading to the 3ltai nmeot of perlect knowledge (praJ na). Hence the above tWO views arc acceptable to the Theraviidms also,
The other two views mise the question whether a medita to r, prac tising anyone of the four j hlm as (dhyanas). partic ularly the first, which is not free from disc ursive thoughts (l'irakka) and determi na tion (riciira), can utter an exclamation like "A ho
90
BUDnll 15T SEcrs
I~
INIJlA.
dukkhnm it;'" or hear sound, Sfly, of a lightning.l The Andh:\bs contend that medil:l to rs in the first dhyana do not re~lch the siage when all the orgam of sens~ become wholly inaclivt' a nd canElot perceive anything. The Therav ii.din~ do not in lend to make such a distinction.
Abhisamayo by mogga-bhiivallii
(Realization of the Four Truths through spiritual progress in th e jowr stages of sanctifica tion)
In the Buddhist texts Magga (-miirga) bears IwO different meanings. These are : (I)
Ma,2g.1 - eip:ht fold path of the Dh ammacakkappavat~
lana-suua. (2)
htbgga _ Four stages of ;anclificatinn le:lciing to Nibbiina. viz.. . SotaplHti, Sflkad!lg:imi , Ana8ami and Arahalta. In tIle p re~nt discussion of the Mahii5!loghikn view, the liiITen:n! k inds of maggas have b:cll used indiscriminately. becau.st: these were meant for monks hi&hly advanced spirit'.Jully. The Mahasanghikas and a few other sects state that matter (rura) is an associate of the magga (i.e. Sotilpattl , etc.) (B. 55). In the Kvu. ( X.2) "Maggasamailgissa riipl'11 maggo" 15 explained thus: Right speech. right action and right means o f livelihood arc according to the above-mentioned sects, matter (rupa). Hence riipa is also a basis for progress in a magga (i.e. Sotapatti ctc.). The M;"l hii~ an gh ikas :llso contend that observance of five or ten mor ~ 1 precept.. (sila) is also an aid to the spiri tual progress. cr. K ••.• IX.
~
: Opinion of Ih; l'ubba3Cliyas: Sllbbaso vilakknynt" ~ddo ti? The Cy on il i~ : YII.mA ','itllkk~\'idir~ vacisamkh1rt' Ii vutU tasm1 sabb3S
viciray1to vitakkavipphl m
cr.
2. cr. KVII., XVIII. 8: Sami\panllO Slddalfl slU).ilti ti. As it ha s been said by Buddha that SOllnd Is a hiDdranC~ to the first jha.na and thUt on~ rises fmm tho;: firu Jh~nl!. by lIlI o;:)(t~rn~l ~o ... nd. the Pubbr.selJ)"lu inferred there_ from tbat on~ in meditatio!! ","ar<
91
In , he K VII . (X.6) it is statd that "maggas,trlltuigi dvihi sitcht s:u'l:Lnnngalo", i.e .. a monk spiritually il(hunccd is [l5SOC1U\CO \\ illl moral observ:lI1ccs, which ma~ be disting'Jis"Cd as worldly
(ioiiya) and s:Jpra-mundane or spirilU!l1 (Iokona ra ). Both the VtC\\S arc opposed by the Thern3dir.s. who do nOI reco gnize that Ihe first three items of the eiglltrold path are Joki~3 and nct lokomr" The Mnhasanghikas furt her contend that An adept. in splle
of his fh e sense·perceptions. can progress along the spliitua l p:llh (8 . 24, 25). In the Kru. this vi~w hus been discussed: (i) Paiital'i/iliiitlosOIllQ/igissa auhi IIIll'Sgabluil'Qllii Ii (X . 3) (In spite of :he five scnsc:· p~rceplions. can a person prJgress along the spiritual path ?), (ii) Paiicar;liiid~15 l(IIsal(1 ti aku-ftJia pi ti (X . 4), and tlli) PGlicOl'ililiiilJii siib/lOga (X. 5) (The the sense-perceptions
mny be ,l!:ood or bad and are associated with mcntal enjoyment (siibhoga). The Maha;alighikas on the basis of the statemenl o~- Ohagavan. "Id:,a. bhikkhQ\'~. Mikkhu cal;kilut:ii f'lipOlli di51'Q lIImi:ta· &,JIIf hOl; no " fmiuaggiihr hau Ii sotello saMall1 .~!JI\'ii etc.," contend that a person using the f,ve sense·organs may und:nake sPlritu :II practices (muKKab/uivanal by grasping or not grasping the char3cteri,tics of the object seen or hean.! and directing his mind toward~ IIIbbiillG. The Theraviidins a -gue that, if through pa;;coI·,.,j/itinii one altains souipaui anc OIlu=r maggas. then the pa;;coriiiliii',lii and mox;a shouk! be of the same category, but the former i<; pre-sotapanna (Iok/Jil) and the lauer postsotapanna (Iokurrora). the former has an object as basis (sol'a. U/,lIkrl) and the latteri'i lVithout any b;.1~is (ol'atthllka). In this lVay, the Therav;idi ns argue that on account of the function of the fhe vii'tiHl1~a s one does not attain nibbr/Iln. T h: Mahasanghika s argJc further that the fivc or si~ p~rcep. tions (viiifiJ.l)as) may be produ: tive of ~ither attachmem (slragl\) or
92
n UDDlUST SECTS IN ISOlA
There are two o lhcr "Jews (8 . 78, 79), which speak of rootcomciousnc» (miila-vijii iilllt) as the basis of the five or six scn5C-orgilnic vijillina.) (i.e. l·ak~. ~ rOlra. cec.). This mOlavijn4na co rrcspondiDg to suulillli ual consciousness (bhaval'lga-dtm) before it b«omc! aClual t"un')ciOllsness like desire. hatred, etc., IS {'Idled pravrtti-vij ,t lna. It is to bt' d,stinguished from desires (.. asanii) which pervade the mind. These two views anticipate YOEiidi ra doclrines,l
The Mahasnnghikas also contend that a spitituaUyadvanced adept 311aining the power of controll ing thoughts (bala pa uo vasibhfHo) can also cOll1rol the thoughts of olhers (B. 74) In the KathfIl'ollhu (XVI. I), in its " Para parassa ciua m niggahAli Ii", it is pointed OLit th31 Ihe interp re tation is wrong. T he rtdep t acqui res the power of self-COnt ro l and does not or cannot comrol others' th ought.;. [II support of this, the follow ing sta temell! of Bu dd ha is relied upon: Attnnd va katam p:lpaill attami sa mkilis~a t i. :lII ll nii aklltam p:1pa lJl altana va visulih:ui, Suddh i osuddhi pJccatta Ql naiiiio !tiiii,HII ViM.wJluye Ii. (Evib comm itted by c ncsc:lf caun: )ufTc:riug Lo one's own self. E"i" not committcd by oneself wak~ uuc's own self pure. Purity nnd impurity IHe om.: '~ uwu; 1I0ne else can p uriiy another.) The Mahiisaitghikas fu rthtr hold that the fi ve or six senseptrctptiODS {vijOdnas} exist together both in the material and non·material spheres (Rupa ud Arupa dhatw) (B. 25; V.23).
Righ,
I'jew
cl Faculty of faith
In Vasumitr3'S trealise it is stated that the Mahasailghi kas hold the views thnt (i) Tln:n: is neither lau kika-samyagdrn i (nght view) nor laukike'rau uhcndriya(faculty o f faith) in a eomnon man. The correspondtng passages of the Kn~ .. are, 0) Natthi pUlhujjanus.1O ,;ii(lan Ii? (XX, 2) ;2 and J. cr. L 'de la V. POUSSln, VljiiuparimJmuii·:iddlil, pp.17l!-79, IS4n.. 186. 2. Allribured [0 the Heluv ~din5 only.
TilE MIIHA~A..'ioGH1KA5
9J
(ii) Nouhi /o/":iYaI/1 soddhlmlriyon ri? (XIX, 8).1 J he arg ument of the Therava.dins is Ihal a lay,nall may have knov.ledge (pannlJ) and failh (soddhIJ) uf u kind whie:a rna) be different from tho5e of an 4rya, but pulltifi Bnd JotldM , whieh the co mmon :nan POS)esses. are devduped iulO pwilij"ririya and sa:JdJwldriya by an a.rya. II may be:: th,!! tilt: common man-s pmlfia or i1UIJQlfI is con!1ned 10 gins, prl:Ctpb. sacrifice (dulla. sUa, raga), etc., Le., worldly affairs. und uve:. not e",lend to til: comprehension of the higher (lokuIIJru) )ultj ccts like truth!, p:Hhs (maggas) and fruits (phalus), hCni;(, .... i;l,.on.ling to the Therunldins, there may he !oklyapaiJiJ lnd"/)u "uti JfllldM"Jriya. H.t. /Ild"yus (Organs o f sense) : CcHhunii flipw}1 passan Ii (KI·:J. XVI.I.I. 9). lSentlcnt s urfaces
of the cye~ see).~ In the Ku!hlil'aulw (X VIII. 9), the Mah{\sloghi:0 the view of the Vaibha~ik<1s (vide Kosa, tmns!., i. p. 8 1-82). The Sailll schools and the Thern\adins hold the opposite view
(see hUra). RI!. AprarisQ111khYO-lIiroaila (Emancipation without knowledge) : (Koso. transl. ii. p. 280). The Buddhists admit Iha t there are two kind .. of "irodha: one attained by means oi know ledee (prnti~a"lkh)'il) and the other by complete removal of a ~1 imp"nlie .. which cause rebi rth, and by knowledge (QPrtltismpUyii) . The; Mah:lsa:'lgbikas hold lhat the Latter is PQJdid abhiil'a (slIhse;qllent absence) 0: dnam/Qs. One is not reborn by virtue of Ihe $pnnlaneous des tr uction of 1I0t
dIJarmDS. 3 Re .
Klda·blja (Germ o f impurities) :
The Mahasailghikas state that kleJa-b1ja IS a dharma distinct
from kleia (Kosa, V, p.7). I. In the Cy. it i! att ribu ted to the Hetuv4dms Bnd htthiillsakas, a:1d they mean 1111 the five indriyu: sacdhA, viriya. su ti,sam~ c h i and pallilA. 2. That the eyes see and not the cak~l>VijMn!l is al!o the opinion of the Vaibho.~ikas(KoJQ. I. 8HZ). 3. Kola (tra m!.) , vi, p. 185 fn.
94
Rl'nnHI'T SECTS I" L'i)IA
Rt. Aui- ratla ; The Mtlhas':lI'ghikas m2in min as against the Sarv;istiviidins Ih:u Ihe present e~ is ts but 110 1 the pasl and thc fm ure. Re. Viifiarti .Signs 01 intimaton) The Mtlhils:llighikas hold tha t rijliapli is :l[so an act (K osa. i... , p. 3).
Other Doctrines
Some of the doctrines auributed to the Mlhasanghikas in the Karharorrhll cnly arc as follows : (1) Restraint (.i'QIJ!l'Ilra) or unres traint (aswllI'ara) of the organs of sense should be treated as action (kamma).! The T hcr(lvudins regard il as non -action; their contention is thai an action should be defined as actual funclio~ing (If the five: Of)!:l1l5 of sense inititHcd by mind (cerallii). Kw XII. I. (ii) All actions (~'1bbmfl kOll1mal/f) are accomp:lint'd by results (s(I1'ljuika). The Theraviidins contend that ;JS r'<'fllll;; is the SO lHC~ of all actions,l and as thrre are llI'yiikala (neither nood nor bad) and Ql'ip,;kll (unaccompainrd by an y rrsull) 6/11/5,3 there nlust aiso be avyalcata and avipa k a k ammas. Hence all actions a re not flect'ssl1.riiy accompanied by "results. Xl'// . XII. 2. (iii) Sound :md other ayatanas (spheres of the orgons or ;ense) are also results o f actions (.I.~ommasso karmla IIppmI1l0'!I). In short, all non materials (onipadlwmma) are products of Ilctions (kammasomIlIfNimi)-KI"Il. , XII. 3 & 4 .~ (iv) Acquisition of mo ral purity is not menta l (.f1l,;,,,, au/asiku",'-; ifla/i/Ila cilliifl/rpur;'·ollf Ii). K,u. X. 7, 8. The l\'lahasanghi kas imply by Ihe above opmion that PUrtty speech (samma \laCa). in actions (samma kammantllJ and III means of livelihood (samma ajlva) is a corporeal property
I.
2. J. 4.
5.
:r.
KoM, (ITanl.), iv, p. 52. Cemn5harp knmnl3ql \ladAmJ-..lllhos., p. 135.
SI:O::
=r.
pp. 117 fr. p. 69·70.
Dfi(lmma~QlltQI,1I,
KnoW, (1 ransl. ), K,'~ .• I. p. 422.
i.
95 constituents of;) being in such n wt y Ih,LI 11 can no ~onge r com mit any \uong. i.e., cannot \::e llllnNa. (v) T he collection of silas (moral C b~UYl n ces) i. not as...ociatC'd with mind (CiIlOI'ipjY.l),lJftall' sr/opaca)'QI1I) . KI7I . X. 9. Buddl:agho~
explains this as due 10 mim pprchc:nsion of the passage in the So/:,yrilta ""ikdy a ( I p 3): .-Ironra· ruplJ rUliarop" ye Jano. '''J01fl sad,; pwi,ia" , pal'Q(}(J':ati ( the merits of those who plant p.l rks :\nd wo.)ds ir.cf"Cn,c ut ull limes). ~t'I~C: or t h~
(vi) Magga~amo;'~;f!ia r i"ipa'll l!Iag.ll() II,' Xl'll X.2. (in the person practising the eig.htfo!d path, the body is inCluded), (VIi) J!l1gga.wl·J/Otigl (/Jlh; sf/du' sWllllmliigalo Ii.' KL'II, X 6 lA per~on practising the e!l:htfold p nlh IS endowed wi t h clOllhle morality (i.e. wo rld ly 2nd unworldly). (viii) Vhi:lalti sflall Ii. KI,It. X. 10 (Acts of intimation are virtues). (i,,) A )';,i,ialli dU,lJ/lcm ri. K I'II. X. II . (Acts not int imating 11 mura l purpose are immoral).' SlIlCC: !oiJa, (!ccording to the: M., must be a posi tive action, and not mere res tramt (Sil l'Jlyara), so any lifln"u; (inUmation) by mea ns of body or speech IS slla. Sllutation. nSing to welcome. folding hallds. etc. are silas. The M ., in yi::w of their opinion that there may be accumulatIon of demeritS wi thout the associallon of mind lCWOI'lppayulIalll aplliitil)pacaYOIJI). contend "that acts not m;.imating a moral purpose: are im:norol." (x) Nii~l(Jlll ciual·;PPuJIlItaq1. KI·u. XI, 3. (Insight is dissociated from mind). (xi)
bbim
Aljiiii~,e ligerf' iiiillaJippayuru cilte 1'(Jltamtmf' ntJ I'Qttu-
'iia~II' Ii.
KI'!I. XI. 2 , (One should not be called 'i'iaQi'
1. Trans!. "That tbe physica! (rame or one wllo is plactiliing the tlahl (old //IQ!/IDS (i. e. SotAi'alll, etc,) 11 includ-
palh iUld has allaUlCd one O(lhe rOUt ed
that paih." P"ints of ContrrJl'ersy, p. 244. 2. Tn.""J. "Tlu l one who is engage..! In the patb Is practising a double moral,ty." i'Jid., p. ~.J8. Vis ...., p . 6 : SlIc nll lo14pcnnl-saktldAa'm;· bhhaml k:'il1l\lam paklsila'll hoti !iMAI"~nno hi ttle'" r~rirnr!lklrt ti vlllln, t:ltht\ s8 k ad~~ami. 3. See Dh(JmnuuQI.gll/J.i, p. 60, In
96
BUDDHI ST SECTS IN I:-IOIA
(possessed o f insight) t hough hi.. lui,iji~/U (spi ritua l ignorance) is gone but his thoughts arc not conj uint.:u wilh insight). In this controversy ii(i11a meallS mag!:\
maggaihi. ~)a
amI 3l'fCS1S his sc:ns::·
pcra:ptions (vii\i\5.0a) tha t he may be descl'jueu as 'ni'tQI,. hence iiii.r:l!l is I1N associa ted wi th mind (dna _ viiiiUi.l)a). (xii) Aku!a/amiila" , pa!isamfahu/l J.lIsulumMull Ii.' KI':/. XIV. 1 (A basis of impure tho ugh ts is cU Il ~t:eulive Lo a basis thut is pure, and conversely),1 The ,\1. contend that as the same object m
ba~,s
(If &:'Klrl 'h:>ught
nr.d converrel),. P"illts O!COn/fOversy. p. 28~. 2. cL TikaPQllhrir.a, pp. 168 fr. 3. See A{{/ius., p. 9: D/lkop
THE MA.HASANOH IKA5
97
(xiv) Al!ijjii poccayii pi ,{tlmklloro., 110 mllabba/]/ "samkhiirii paccayii pi Q)'ijJii f;",l K I'II, XV, 2. This view nf the M , is o nly 11 corollary to the previo us one. The M hold thaI avijji\ is the hew (cause) of s::ll'pkhiira :lnd:Is such There crmnot he ,1 1l Y other rt lmio n between the two. The Th., howt:ver, arg ue thlt t a 'lijjft a nd s3lJlkh:1ri 2.re related to each o t.h er ho th as helll (c ause) a nd sahaj:ita (co·ex isten t) o r aiii'iamflnna (reciprocal) cause he nce it may be stated that .o.,.1lJlkhara a re iahaj:i lapllccaya o fa vijj:i., and l'i ;:e versa ,: In the VihJlf1nga (flP . 151'i rr.) the samp:tyutta (associated) a nd aiiii.amllfiiifl (rt:ciprncal) rel!ltions be l w~n any t lllO consecutive links of Ihe c hain of c:m sat io n have bee n exhaustivel y de::! \t with, showing clearly the altitude of the The ravadins 10 the problem. (xv) LokuttardrtolJl dhomlllQII01fl jaramur~", {oklllrarOI1I. XV. 6 (Decay Ilnd deal.h of supram undallt:: beings or o bjects are also suprllmundane). K I'U"
(xvi)
Para parassa
c1ftafTIlligg~hiiti.
K VII. , XV I. 1.
The M ahasaiighikas hold l hat the spirit ually ad vanced monks de velo p tht: pOlller of controlling others' though ts,3 (xvii)
lddhiba/ena
samanniigato
kappam
tillh(·y),o.
Kvu., K I. 5, On the basis of Buddha's slatemt: nt , those who have maslc r:!d
iddhipiida (higher powers) ma y live rnr :10 a mu. daya a,ijjt; also Digha Nikli)'ll, II, p, ,5-51: viilftdoapaccaya ndmarllpem. UlllluOplPBCClya vtl'li'idQ3n Ii. J. \ r. above, p. 9>1. 1. cr. ,\ (uh" fJ'I,-i,';bWnuJUfla. p. 1[7.
CIiAPTEIl V I
DOCTRINES OF G ROUP 11 SCHOOLS THE SA IL \ SCHOOL~, PRAjNAPT IV,\DIl\S, D.... H U~ )( UTjY ... ~ AND YETUU' AUg
Tn disc ussing the doclrines of the !hila and olher ~rhn(ll<; , Vasumitra has mixed them up with the Mahas:ulghikas, prnhably with that section of the Mahisanghikas that i. distinguisherl in I he Karhiil'allhu-allhakctha as ekacce M ahihOliglllkii. It i~ on the Ixlsi~ of the Kathlil'otthu that we have distinguished the doctrillC's the later Mahasanshibs, whose views may be talcen as identical with those of the Sa i\a and other schools, and put them together in the followi ng pages.
or
I. Is BIJdha 111"1/011 1
In Vasllmitrll's trf'flli ~ e, Rudclhas are cle ~c rib(d as /uk Offora ( supramundane), and a~ -"uch they are made of anii~ra\"il dharmas' (pu re objecls), and nre withollt ~leer nr dream , which is a concomitant of siisrfll'o dhnrn;as. Rllddhll _~ h:lVe unlimited riipakiiyos (male rial bodies), powt''fS (balas) , len glh of life (a)'IJ), elc.
In the Kmhol'arrllll (XVlI. 1,2) the above dQ(: lrin~ are attrIbuted 10 the Velulya kas, according 10 whom Buddha ooe~ not IIVC in t he mortal world. Nor should hc be localed anywhere; tl IS his created form (I:irmii~la -kiiJQ = nipa·kii)'Q i.e., ob/zit/immilo jino) that delivered the religious d iscourses. The ThenlYadi ns account f or thii h~resy hy sayi ng that it is due to the literal but incorr~ct comprehension of the passage; Bhagal'ti loke jiifo lokI' sambuddho lokam abhibhu))'Q I'ikarati anllpaliJlo IQkenii ri ( Buddha, J.
Masuda re:'lders it ai "no s;hrava dharmas." Tt.1: rendering shoJld
be "anilsrava dharrras;' i.e., Buddhas are embcduncnt of pure dh.1(mas vk. ,lIukandha, samld~lsk .• pmjnask., vimuklisk., IIIIU v;III"k.lijJUllau.lI ~a · nuk., not or rOpa. \'edan4 . SIl/lfiIl .• :Mlilkhfir4 an:! \'ic'u'Ul):t, whic h Rre s.J,srll"a dh~rm~~
See my A..ol",:r.o (If Mnh,;)nnn R"ddiriJ/lI nr.d It.• Re/mion /(J 111r.ayima (henceforth indicated as AJpt'cts), :>. 108.
99
DOCfR IKES OF GROUP II SCHOOLS
burn ami enlightened in this world,
overcome~
this world and
n:m3ill:; untouched by the things of the world, Sa",. Nil.... iii. 140).
Tbis is supplemented by further discussions in the KathiiWlttflU (.\Viii. I, 2; lxi. 6) relating to the heresies, which a rc also attrilmted to the Vctulyakas, ,·iz., "IIa )'attabbmrr Buddha Bhago.vii rno.nusjo.loke o.!!hii~· f Ii" (it should not be said that Duddha lived in the mortal world --Kvu., xviii. I); sahbii diJii Ouddhii tifllrantl J;"l (Buddhas exist in all corners of the world-Kvu., xxi . 6) and auhinimmitfel;o. desito ti (the discourses arc delivered by created fvrms-KI'u., xvi ii. 2). These show that, according to the oppoIlents of the Theravadins, Buddha is omnipresent and beyond tht' possibility of location in any p~uticula r corner or sphere:, and that all the discounes were delivered by the apparitional body (Jr Buddha. Buddhagho~a with his usual naivety understood the Vetulyakas as holding the opinion that Buddha always remained in the Tusita heaven, where he dwelt before he came to thiS world. The discussions in the Karhi1rauhu as w~n as the terse statemmts of Vasumitra leave no 100m for doubt about the fact that the Mahiisailghikas (especiall)' their offshoots, the Vetulyakas and the Lokotta ravadins)rep;arded Buddha as transcendental. Masuda suggests Ihat the refulgent body (sambho!:a·kaya) of Buddha is referred to in the heresies but the time of emergence of the conception of mmbhogakaya is a matter of controversy.2 From the discussion in the Kathavatthu (ni. 5) "atthi Buddhanarn Buddhehi hinatirekatit ti" (whether Buddhas mutually differ?), it seems that the Andhakas were concerned with the Sambhogakaya and had not then arrived at the conception of the Dbarma~ kaya. Buddhaghosa states that the Andhakas hold that Buddhas differ from one another in certain qualities other than the attainments like satipa!ltuina (alert mindfulness"" sammappadhana (right e.xertion) etc .. the orthodox holding that Buddhas
1. This is the opinion Kmhiivatlhu.
2.
of the Mahli.s.ailjl:hikas only. accordinll [0 [he
Masuda's opinion can be supported by tne fact that in the Mahiivailli
(I. p. 169) Buddha's kayo is equaled to nifyanda-kiiya (resultant body) rendered into Chinese b)" poo .1!<'rllf. ",hid, iI aho ll,<: l<:[Jdc,iug of SlJmbhogu' kliyn; see my Asp"" etc., p. 117, 120.
100
BU!)DH IST SEC1:S IN I NDI A
or
rna) differ in respect body, length of life and radiance (kii.}a. ayu, pabhiivl) but not in reg2.rd to the attainments mention~d above. The disc ussion in the Katha.vaHhu (xviii. 3) shows that the IJtlarap2thak2S hold the view that Buddhas can have no compassion (kafuoa) and that Buddha's body is made of pure objects (anasra va.d harmas). In the Mahiivastu (i . pp . 167-68)the conttplion 01 supra mundane (Iokolta ra) Buddha appears thus: T ranscenden tal are the practices of 8 bagavlln. and so are his merits (kubin-mlllas), his eating. drinki ng and other dai lY activities. He follows the \\aYi of the world just as much as he follows the transcendental ways.' He makes a show o f standing, walking. sitting and lying (iri yapathas). but he never gets ti red . He washes his feet or body. though there is no dirt: he cleanses his mouth, tho ugh it smells like a lotus, He eats though he ha s no hun ger. and so fort h. These are all due to his being an em· bodimentofthe effects of good actions.2 There is nothing in common between Him and the beings of the world . Everything of the great J,fi is transcendental. including his advent into the world. s Ir the transcendence of Buddha be admitted. then it follows as a matter of course that hi, length of life would be unlimited and that he wo uld not be subject to sleep or dream. as he would have no fatigue. and one who is without sleep and ever awake has Dothina to do with d rea m. It is worth noting here that even in the Pali sill/as such as the MahiiparinibhiiIJQS/itta. there are hints to the effect that Buddha. if he wishes. can extend his life·limit up to a ko/pa o r the end of a kaipa. 4 thus revealing thai the transcendental conception took rooli in the mind s of the Buddhists at a very early dale. In the Karhal'o"hu. 6 the discussion of the topic Bl,ddhasso Bhcga!"Olo rohOro ioklluaro ti rev~als that the Andhaka!i. to I. cr. KI'u.. XVJ!T. 4; Bud d h3~5a Bhagavato ucciirapa5S~vo II ti\'iya tli'li'ie gandhajale ad hijuJ Mt l Ii -opi nion of som e Andhak~5 and Utta r;1p,l th ~ka5. 2. {\ff~ .• J. p. 10)1, cr. Lmlkci, pp. 2M. 34. 3. l'dl~., r, p. 159, 4. Dfg ho, II, p. 103 : :raua ka;,acicauliro iddhipad1l. w1l.bilkhnmuno h npam vA tillhcyya koppll.vasesa01 v!i. 3. Kv~·., It , 10.
DOCTRI:-:-ES OF GROUP U SCHOOLS
101
whom the above opinion is ascribed, hold that Buddha's :actions a~ 111lw/furo and that thcy arc treated 115 lob'ya (mun. dane) anu 'v/wltara (supramundanc) accordmg as the o bject of the aClio!! is luki}'u or lokouara , Mr. Sh ....e Zen "ung prefers to coofine Ihe sense of the word ' I'O/'OTO' I to "speech', Ilnd we think that it Rlca llS "conventional teaching",' In Vo.~ um i t ra's trealise 3D opiuiou oi this nature i5 an ribuled to the 1\·13h:isailghikns in cOntl1l~ 1 10 the $arvasti"lidms, VIZ. , the SUlTiU (o r d iscourses) pr~:tcht'J Oy Buddha are all perfcet in thcmseh'es (IIWiTt/,a), Buddha, spczk of no thing but dhaTma (doctrines); a$ such their Icachiug b concerned only with paramkt!ta' SQI)'a (paramalthoS UiTU), i,e" not with jalfll'flisaf),c (sammut/,fa cea).' The para· mlirlhll,:"IIYU cannot be normally expressed by words. It cun be ex?iailU:d o uly by silence o r al the rna)! by nn exclam3tionwhich idea, I think, is e)(pressed in Vnsumitm', treatise thus: Buddha can expound all Ihe doctrines with a Single utterance
J. 2.
Si" '~. V]ul'D./l(Jru.
"r. M . V!., p. 19,1,
J. Pllra"wrlha·.fIOf)'Q means Ihe hi,hesl uuth ..... hile saqwrtl-sD.t)·1I rr.cans tile COO\'cntlonal truths as used in e~f)daJ usage by the people In ger.eral. For detaIled treatment:iCC m~ AtplClS, pp. 216 ff, 4, ASia MaJor,H , p. I!I. ~. S~., A'po'C'J, p . 1ge. 6. (a) l4a)'!ljliim ll means cOliniza nce of the fact Ihal 1111 Ihe nSlI wu are
dcs!Toyed; (b) Anl/lpadajttlillu means c08nizance or the faetlnat one will not be reborn again. cr. Kosa, VI, 67; Atlhruo!"',I, p . 54, cf ASI'UfI. p. 106 rn. I.
102
BUDDH I ST neTS 11'ii [NOlI\,
their minds. the Sarvisuvlidins holding that all Arhats may have k:oyaj,iiino, but a fewonty have QlIlllpiitlajifcna; the Theravadins. however, do not m:lke an} such distinction. Amons the other attributes of this lokollaro Buddha. \'a5u· mitra's trealise spe3ks of his pol.ien (bala.f)1 aJ unlimited while Ite JlalriivQSf/l ,peaks of his five eyes (cok;us)t as uncommon (asiidhiira'!-o) and excelling those of Prat)'ekablldJhas. Arlwts and otbers. This p:lrticular topic - tath4gafabolo'11 sih·aka.ril· dlriirQ~lfm Ii - has been taken up for discussion in the Ka:hiil'Q/llw (iii. I). bUI strangely enough the position taken by the compiler of the Kathikau/ru is not tha t of a Therav:idin but that of a Lokoltaravddin Mahnsunghika as against the Andbakas. i.e., the Sailn schools. In Vllsumitra's treatise, thi' topic appean in a slightly different form. The Thenivl1dins do not regarJ BUl.h.lha as /ukollara but lluri· bule to h im almost all the powers aud qualitiCJ of a /ok ottafa Buddha, ami this discussion reveals ODe uf such instances. The ten special balos (powen) of II Tllthuguta aplXllr lIot only in the Mahal'Qstll (I. pp. 1s()"60) but a lso in old Pali works like the MOJJhlma Nlkll}"o (I. pp. 60 If.). The COllleutiun Qf the Andha· kas is that there ii a certain degree of dilTereol.:e b;;twcen Dud· dha!" and Arahats regarding the acquisition of the leu balas, and thot Buddhas and Amhats are not there rore 011 til<: same level I. The len bIllS are : (.\fa/uh'owl!. Pl'. tS9060; Kalhol'illlhu and /I1aiJMma Nfka"",).
I. Tftdnatht1'lo", j
A,.,kl~iM'"m puhNnlVfistU1l QIlUJJOfa/I,
9.
Dfbbmo {:akkhwwi satre pustl/I ~r:jmtJne upcpojjam6nt
to.
Asal',:iIUl/fl Ha"d anawl'lIl11 ctt(lvlmullf", pafijUhfm"lIi~, di(lh~
elt! I'Q
d.'umllllt ,saY(I/(I ublliililli !ar:cJukamj upascmpaJ}c I',irarall, 2, By (}'e~, tl:e leltt means allihe tive, VIZ" mtll1lSilctlklU, dl~}'Qr:., prajifUr:~ dharnU',c., and f}w/dllac.
DOUTKINES 01' OROU," II SC H OOLS
l O:l
(Q.fiidkiirQ~IQJ]J).
In the Mahiivm(u and the PaIi wo rks, tbis view is accepted wi lh this reservation that Buddhas are sarvfikiirajiia, i.e., t he}, possess a complete and detailed knowledge of everything. while an Arhat can at the most have sectional knowledge .l T he PliJi school, i.e., the Theraviidins hold that as far as rimutti is concerned there is no difference between a Buddha and an Arhat, and that Buddhas are superior to the Arhats only on account of the fact that Ihe former are promulgators of a new Dharma while the Arhats a re only followers o f the same.' II, Are Bodhlsatrl'QS average bd"g,·? If, according to the Mahisanghil.:as. Bt1ddh3_~ are /nkotlara. ond if the Buddhas that we jJlllJmjjllnas knnw of are onl y the created forms of the real Buddha . the R n rlh i~al tvas also can not be ave rage human beings - the y mu~t a lso be supramundane . ]n Vasumitra's treatise is given the foll o wing occount o f the Bodh isattvas. The Bodllisall 'l3s do nol pass thro ugh tile embryonic stages. T hey assume the form o f white elephants when they enter their mothers' womh~ and come o ut of the some by the righ t side. The Above opinion is the natural outcome of the lengendary belief that came to be woven around the person o f tbe great Teacher about a ccntury a ftcr his Ilctunl existence. In the LafiIQl,jstartl ,' the Bodhisattva is placed nOl only in a c rystal casket put within the womb but while in thnt sta ,e he is said to ha~ e been prea ching dharma to the heavenly beings that ftocke:l around hi m. T he sta r), of the white elephant se~n by Miya in a dream at the time of her conception und the birth of the Bodhhallva hy bursting t hrough the right side of the mother's womb i .~ too well k nown to ne:d any comment. The incorporation of these legends in the doctrines of the Mahisalighikas and of thei r o ffshoots ~how s that the Bodhisattva conception of the Mahiyanists was yet in the process o f development. cr". "~,,. c.~. , p . 62: T/11nilhlnllodi"i h i d.v~
Ta!h~&a!1 nipl'iJ{f.. , .. nn
K~u. ~ also Sam Nlk .• I I I , " . 66 e h. V I, " . 73 (of A .S. D. cdilion ).
2
This argument is adduced In t he
3
LQII/aI'(llUra,
104
3U()D BlST SEen IN INO IA
The only doctnne that can be d~sc ri bed as Mahayiimc IS that 80dhisIlllvas take bi n h o ut of the r own free will In any form of existence for imparting theIr teachings to the statu:nt beings of thlt particular fo rm of o:istence,' It IS well Illustrated in t!'le }(JtakaJ and develo ped in later Maba)am works like the Slk,(j.Iomuccaya and the Bodhl(Qfyarotfira. I his t OpiC t.as bten taken up fo r discussIon In lhe &tl:iiwltthu lXX.llI. J) : Bo(UII'satto issafl}'okiimokiirlkii,'; e(u I'inipijrom gotXhatf :i - btu the argum~nlS
pUI forward completely ignore the standpomt of the
Ma hfisang hikas a nd attempt to show the untenability o f Ihe
opponent's proposilio n by treatmg the Hodhlsa!lva as nothmg bu t an average human adept, tOlimg along the path towa rds lhe 3nainment of bodill.
In the nir amokkol1rikathii! !KI'U., vi. 8: xii, 5, 6 : xiii. 4) the sli me attitude is revealed by the Theraviidins. By nii tima, the Thera"udins understand sommattalliyiimQ and micc/jattaniromo. the former being the p ractice of brahmocarira, (purity of conduct) and oriycmaRRQ (path of sanctification) including, for the Bodh isauvas, the fulfilment of ptimmij, leading to emancipation (i.e. sCl'lIyakl l'O or j ammatla, and the laller the comm,ssion of heinous crimes (illlontorlyakamma), leading to hell (i.e. mithya/ra or micchotta).' In the sense as expressed ilbove any Srnvaka can be a sommollaniyo'11o. a nd he ne: d not be a Sodhi~a tt va. The Theravadins do not recognize the Bodbisath aS:1S SU perior in attainments to the Snivakru, and in the matter of orahmoc'ori),a and practice of ariyama1!ga, they do not want to make any distinction between a Snhak.a and a Bodh i~!tYa. In the LailkDlatiira alld Asaopa's SutrafankiirlJ and sim ilar other Mahayana works, however. it is repeatedly stated that a pc",on by the development of bodhicitta beco mes II ni),ara Bod hisnttva, i.e., through the fulfilment of param;s and practice of the vnnous iorms of asceticism, he ultimately becomes a Buddha. Siddhartha Gautama, in o ne of h is previous bi rths as Jotipa la·mtloava, did, as I:. matter of fact, develop bodhid tfa at the time of Knssapa Buddha and then through several !. M!lsuda. 11. 21. 2. Scepping into Che pa th destined to reach Nibbana 3. K ..u., PJ). 78, 14): I~ dvt! ~iyiimf /hilptm] a,;;o m)'amo nUlI1u nallhi.
105
DOCTRI!<ES Of GROllP II SC H OOLS
existences, he fulfilled the p:iramis and had recourse to 011 possible jUdJrOlliis, whether BUI.klh stic or non-Buddhistic and ultimately att:l.Inei! perfectiu n He eYeD bc:nmc disciple o f A.larll Kalama and Rudraka R:imapulra , whose doctnnes 3re truted as heresle5 In the Bra.ltm!Jjitla and other J •• IIO$. In Mahaya na texts emphasis is laid mure on bodhidtra lh:m on brahll/occrila and a,,),amaggc. In tile }uJlhii ..alth.1 discussion, the MahiiyintC S(nse (If lIi)'atu is ignored and the Thernvuda scnse of scmmo/rolU),ama is kept in yic\\.. In the Kor/tiirotlhll (~iii. 4), it is argued that t(I speak. of a lIly o /a Jriil'uko o r bodl!isal/l'Q as having become a sommauu is illogica1. 1 The difference of opinion rests really on the imerpn:tali on given to the word ,,;),ola in Mahayana tex.ts as agaiuSi tha t given by the compiler and commentator of the KarhQ,'ouhll . In )pile of the above interpretation of lIiyiima and a ltitudc ur the Thcrayadins , the Mahayanists contended that Gautama BuuuhB in his bodhi sll ttya existence did not bewme a disciple of KU!»illm Buddha. In support 01 their co ntention they cited the p'h)agc: 1111 /Ill' um"yo aj/hi, sod/sa mr nQ I'ijjolf etc. The Aw.lh"!!:)..Lgl; ffOm the Maj}Ilima ,vikiiya (Ii, p. 54): Kassara. aha/II -i/'al/du, IJllugu"0(; brohmacari),ol11 acorul' sombodMyll tf etc.I According to the J heruvad ins, the BCKlhisam'as as a dus) of beings as envisaged In the sr/frrllonktJra and wlkiJl'ufiiru, do not exis!. The individual, who happens 10 become BwJlIha, is called a Bodhisattva In hiS pre\ious existences .ust to d istinguish him as a being supen or to an average one ; by rnllinIl him a BodblsaU\'a the Therav;'idms do not IUlri butc to him any special virtues unattainable by a Sr:lvuka. The Mnhlsal'lg;likas or the Andhnkasdo nol subSCribe to the abo", "iew. According to them, an mdlvldual , from the moment he develops todflrtiuo, becomes a Bodhira(/)'a and IS destined (myo:a) to bcrome a Buddha and follo \\ a carecr whICh is qUite dilTercnt from tha t of a irQ)'Qka. 1 he career of the former is marked more by love an d compassion for the sullenng beings than by path-culture l.
,va m),Q/a!S(llIi),iimokkQmCIIUIrI /osmtJ oJ(jdhll~all If.
2
K,'u, P 288.
lin•. p. 143.
106
BUODHIST SI!.CTS IN [NOlA.
whi le Ihnt of the latter has mort: IJf pall. culture aDd sI1JhwlCl than exercise of ml!(til and karu~ra. 9
HI
Are ArhaiS fully pmond{loted ?
Acco rding to Vasumitra. 8bavya and Vinitadeva, the .ieCe5sion of the Mahisanghikas from the Theravadins happened on aCCollnt of the five points of Mahade . . a. Four of the~e points relate to the qualities attainable by an Arhat. According to the TheravAdins only, one who is fully emanci pated is called an
Arhat.- he is anuparro khl!IOJOI'O ohilahharo
sadottho
I'florago 1'1l0tWSO
rrtamollQ (in
kOlakoroQlyo nOparom irrl!attiiyd Ii
possession of the c;o;cellent goal, free from allachmenl, hatred and delusioo, in short, all impurities, relieved of the burden of
k.handbas. accomplisbed all that is to be done aod freed from further existence). He has also acquired clear viSIon of the origin and destruction of beings, got rid of all d oubts (kQJikhii) about the Buddha, Dhamma and Sangha, oon-exislence o f soul aDd tbe law of causation. aDd rc:alize:l the truth without the help of othen ('fa parapitora1}iJ)' and attained booM which, however, is catuma~ga-"tiQrl2 and not sabbannufaifiil)Q - the bodhi of the Buddhas.' Th~ Theravadins do not a:lmit the fai l ings~ which are attributed 10 the Arhats by the Balm ~ r utiyas. the Saila sthools and the Haimavatas. The (ailing$ are thus enumerated in Vasumitra's treatise : (lJ Arhats can be tempted by others ; (2) They still have igno rance ; (3) They still have doubt ; (4) They gain knowledge ...,ith o lher's (heJp).a
IV. Can there be ri'tr()gnfsfoll of Arluus, Sro(JpcllmlS and olher Phalasthcu ?
The fo llowing views regarding lhe pouibility of retrogression-
of Arhats, Srotapannas :and other phnlasthu are a llribu tffl in I . See Jupra, p. 11. Z. The. u tumaggaJ a~ : )()I.ipDtt i, ""1I::ld~mi, IIntt.,:\mi :lnd In.h:uta. 3. S« Kou., A ., p . 16 4. For [he discllision "Parihiyali .rahA am hattA li" see Jupra, p. 21. 5. Muuda, pp. 24, 36. 38, 53; cr. JRAS., t910, pp. 413·23. For c.~ po silion and discus;ion of Ihe four faili ngs, see above. Ch, II, pp. 24 If.
DOCTR INE S OF GR OUP II Sc.:UUUI..S
107
Vasumitra's trc ntise' 10 a section of the Maha sailghikas and some or their sub-secls : (i) F rom che gotra bhfimidbarma there is in all stages the pos~ibility of retrogression. (ii) A Srotilp:mna has 3 chance of retrogression while an Arhot has not. Till;:' above two " iews lre discussed in 1he KathiiraUl1l/ under the tupic : Pariltayati aralia crahattii Ii J (1. 2) . It will be obscrved that the K l'u. does not attribute to the Mah fi~ailgh i kas the above views about the retrogression of Arhal~ and Srol!iponnas. According to tne M ~ h:i.~anghib. s . the Xl'lt. says an Arhot has retrogr~ ssion while a Srolapanna has nul, while Vusumitra takes a contrary view, a~ above (ii). Yasumilra ~ay s that the forme r opinion is held b)l tile Sarviisti· va.din ~ and other Sc;hoob. Buddh as ho ~a points out that this opinion is held by one section of the M:lh:i.s:lllghikfl~ and not by all, and so Vasumilrn may have referred 10 the views "of that section, according to whom, the Arhats may retro g re ~s hut not the Srutapanna$." ! All the ~chooh advocating the view that arhatl relrogr~s s hold, as ~11t1!;:J iu the Kill., thul the Sotilp3l1nas have no retrogression. Tlli:;, however, contradicts the statement of Yallllmiua. 3 All these sdwoh accept that n sotiip:w no is m)'a(o .wmh(}dhi. PQr(J)'a~/O and hence is not subject to retrogression, bUl a sabdagAmi ur un aniigamI may retrogress but not further Ih:," th e iotapanuu sluge, for some of the adepts in the.e stages may have IJflllmyu, which may develop iutopariYUf/hanai and thereby briJlg aboui their fall - an argument which will be di scus~ed m:;\! in connection with the Anhc mak as. In re{;ard to these fWO stages the Kl'u co r roboratc~ VtI~umitra's statement (no. ii). Regarding the notapannas, Vusurnitra 5 further states thaI , (i) they are capable of knowing their own n:'ltnre (s}'ubllal'u) through their cilia and cailmika dhnrmm; I. Masud;, r>. 22. 2. K,'U. A., p. 3S: SammitlyA Va iiiDlltti~a Sabb.:luhlvAdino c'ekaccc a MaMsaTighikA arahalo pa ri h~nim icchati. 3. 5<:c Masuda, p. 27. ' 4. ~c p. ts4 (n . I 5.
Sec a b\lvc, p;>. 55 f.
103
nUDOIII~T S"'CT'~
11'1' INDIA
(ii) they can also attain perfection in the dlJ)'iillos; (iii) they nre liable to commit aU sorts of offences except the five iinanrarlkas (Le. nuuricide, parricide elc.l In the Kl'u. we do not come aCros; any controversy relating to the first two top cs. This silence may b: interpreted as acceptance of the 1""0 views by the Theraviidins. As regards the th,rd topic, we may lake into considerJ.tioo the controversy: IhnilisQ!1Ipa1l1l0 p/l"g%
JlJiicicca pOr;Dlll ih'ito rorop~),J'ii
I; ?
(see p. 18). A sOlapanna is a person with right ,jew (dillhiJompallna). hence, according to the Therav{ldins, he cannot commit killing ( pC~laripata) or similar other offences, not to speak of the five elttreme oifencts like matricide or parricide. Vasumilra perhaps speaks of the opinion of that section of the ~ahA sanghlk:is, i.e .. the Andhakas. which contemplates the retrogression of the SOI\\pannas, while the K)'u. very likely speaks of the other section, accordinR to which the Sot
Along with the above we rna} discuss the allied topic word· ed thus m Vasurnitra's treatise: (i) There is neither laukika·samYilgdn~i (worldly right view) nor laukika-~raddhendriya (worldly faculty of faith). The corresponding passages of the Xvu. are : (i) Nallhi pUlh"'jjal1assa nat/atl Ii? (XX, 2):3 and I. Th: three S3lllYoilllfl lire ; sl{obba,aJXIrumdjU.
virfkkCWj,
and
mfcrh6difl~i.
2. The Dh(lunAyaUnlU ale VtfMIlO, JD1f/jiio, and scf!lskiirQ. These are Ipheres of //IClIICl. cr. A!)/II. KoJa, p. 46. AI~o the fiel(l of o~jec(S 01 ideation. DIICmmasa'iga(ll, 58, (j(j c:1':. J. Allribllli!d 10 th. Helu vl dinl only.
DOCTRIN~3
01' CROUP II SCHOOLS
109
(ii) Nallhi lokiyalll.mddhindriyan ri' (XIX. 8).L The argument of the Theravadins is that a Jayman may have par./iii and Jaddha of a kind which rna) be different from those of an adept. but patinii and !flddha that he possesses develop into paiiiiindriya and JaddlJindriya. lt may be that t:--e laynum's pan/iii or /iii~'Q1!1 is confined to dana, sila, d.ga, e!e., i.e, lokiy:! affairs and do~s nOI extend to t:le comprehension of lokuttara subjects like truths, mlggas and phalas. Acc')rding to the Theravadins. therefore. there may be lokiya p::i1iii ndriya lind saddhindriya . VI.
IJ lItterance of dllkkho pOfJible ill meditalioll and does it help realizatioll 0/ trlll1/J ?
To the two statemcnt:i of Vasumitra. namely, (i) The path is Tefllized by utterances and (ii) Even in Ihe sta le of sam:ihita one can utter word~, corresponds "sol/l(ipam;assu atliti I'uc!bhedo Ii" of the Kathul'atlhu. It is explained by Buddhngho~n thus: Accord ing to the Saila schools, an adept, while he is in the first jhana (meditation) and on the point of attaimnent of the So!apallimagga, gives out in some cases an exclamation like "aho dukkhan ti."l The adherents of the Saila schools account for this by s2.ying that in the first jhana, there is I'iwkf<:ol'iclira, and because of l'ilQkka,;cara there is tac!sOIflkhiira,~ i.e .• discu rsive and discriminating thoughts cause vocallctivilY, he:lct there is the possibility of a meditator in the fi rst jhana uttering the word 'dukkha', The Theravadins contend that as all physical activities of a meditator are set at complete rest. his giving out an exclamation is an im.po!>SibiliIY,. Along with the above we should take into consideration the other tbree doctrines of the Mah.isanghi kas presented thus in 1. Attribute:d ill Ih~ Cr. l() Ihe Hetuvadlm and M uhl$ls:l~as und thl:' mean all the: five indriyas, saddhll. viriyn. , ali, slImlldhi ~nd pa~i'iil. 2,
d. ViIlQ),". I, p.lS, in Y~~QPllbbQiI", 'upoddutorro VUIO bho upnssa-
IIham vata bbo.' 3. cr. Kru .. IX 9: Opinion of the Pllbha
110
BUO!>HIST 5E:CT51N I S IH ....
Vasumitra',; treatise : (i) The wnrd~ or su ffering can help (the process of realization of the path) ; ti i) Suffering le~ rl<: fI man to the p ath; (iii) Suffering ~I L~o i ~ (a kind of) food (ahara): and (iv) Through prnjiiii ~lIfr~r ing is destroyed and fina l beatitude is attainerl. The corresponding expressions 10 The Kalhiil"al1hu are as fo ll ows: (i) "fdaJ11 dllkkhon Ii" wicmll bhiisrun ·'idom (/ul.:k!/On Ii" ijii~l(JIfJ P''''Qlloli ? (X I. 4) 1 (ii) Dllkkhiihiiro maggmigm" maggapar;)'tiprtnnQII I; ? (11.6), ( Repeated utterance of 'dukkha' induces insight and is a facto r of, and induded in, the Path). Both these statements appear in slightly different l.eTm~ fmm what has been stated by Vasumitra. The Anclhflb<: and the ~tlilas hold that when a meditator realizes with in his inner· most heart that the world is full of ;;uffering and is not worth livlOg in, he exclaims, "aha Vil la dukkharp.!" Then and there his insight (iia~a) penetrate, into the firsl truth. "idarp dukkhan Ii," as a reiult of which he attains (pariyiip/l~/{"jtl) Ihe Sotli patli. masga. So " dukkba" may be called ~m ·"ahara'· (food) in res· pect of the re3.li~ation of the path as also an "ailga" (limb) of the Sotapauimagsa. Accordi ng to the fourth doctrine mentioned above, as Masuda explains dllkkha can be removed not by means of the observance of moral precepts (~ilas) and practice of m~dital io n (snmildhi) but by knowledge of the truth, causal law, and QI/Qllii oi beings and things of the world. It is the basic teaching of Theraviida. and so no reie rence i. made to it in the KI'II . V IT .
HOI~
Vijfliinas/unction?
The following opinions are attributed by Vasumitra to the Mahasanghikas : (i) Beings of th:! Riipa and Ariipa dhatus possess all the si x sense·perceptions (~Qvijiiiinas).2
-',-, """'s.-,-,c',-o-,-,-'RO, 2.
Or
la4vij~anaUya
or the
jlfOUp
of ~ ix sense·perctptions.
II I
DOCTjUNES O F GRO UP II SCHOOLS
(ii) The five ,·ijM.n!lS conduce buth lu attachm:nt (saraga) and freed om from auachment (.·jraga). (iii) The ru~n d ri yas (organs of sense) are no thing but lumps of fl esh ; the eyes do not s:e colours, theearsdo not hear sounds, the nose does not 3m~ 1l odours, the tongue does not taste flavo ur, and th:= body do!s not fee l touch . The Xl'll. d ea ls with th ~se topics thus: (i) Sa!iiyolalliko ouablral'o riipadhiilUya Ii ? (V III. 7). (ii) P(JJic' erayotana kama Ii ? (VllI . 4). (iii) Cakkhlllta riipaf1'l passan li?... pe ... kiiYima phof{ha. bba1fl phi/satl li? (XVIII. 9). In the discussion relating to the six a yatanas (spheres of the
Vfbhoriga. p.
40.~ :
In
K ~mmihA UJ
there are eaklr.hl!.yatana and
OpAyatana, sotilyatana and JaddAyatana, etc., in all. h\"dve aya tanas. Jlibhariga, pp. 405.()7. 3.
See in/,,,.
112
BUllDlilH SI!;CTS IN INDIA
Malui.sailghik:IS hold that t he eyes, ears etc. are mere m aterial cnrveyer<; (If perception, the caklchuvini"lal)a, i otaviiii'i.:iI:13, etc. a re the act tl:ll percipients. in other \\-orJ ... e yes. ears etc. belo ng tn the rilpakhancih H. which is material, while cakkhu vii'1ii3"(l3, elC. helong In the v nn:1Qakh:l ndha, whic h makes a being aware of the rhing.~ Ilr(liinci il.
VIII.
How mOlly ol'yiikalas ure thl're?
rhe opiOlo n o f the Andhakas that "there is nothing wh ich is mdeterffimuJ le" (avyakrta) has been explained by Masuda as that the Andhakas admitted only two natures of things, good or bad and not a third, i.e. neither good nor bad. This interpretalio n docs not appear to be souod as in the B!1ddhi;;t lexlS the three natures or thing. are accepted generally. The a" yiikatas also refer to t hose problems which Buddh3 len unanswered as any answer to them whethe r in the affirmative or in the negative would mislead the e!lquirer, or he treated the question as absurd f nd una nswerable. These avyiikata pro blems a re always mentioned in a stereo lyped form in ,II Buddhist lexts, whether Hinayiina or Mat.iiyiina. 1 Nftgiirjuna has utilised these problems in hiS Madhyamaka-kiirikii to establish the Mahiiyiinic conception of Sunyata. If we accept Vas\.lmitra's statement as corre:t, we shall have to say t hat the S[inyatii conception was known to the Mahlisailghikas, and so to them the so-called avyiikata problems were not avyiikata (inexplicable), but this way of looking at the statement of Vasumilra seems to be too far-fe tched and so, it llIay be regarded that Vasumitra's statement is not complete. Perhaps it refers to the problem discussed in the KIU: diflhiga l aJ1I avytikara./ I;? (XIV. 8), ~ whether a person hold ing one of the erroneous views can be regardd as avyiikau. i.e., neither good no r bad. The ans .... er of the Them'ladins is tha t tbe holder of anyone of the views i~ wrong, hence akl.lsaia, and c"nnot be avyii kJ.ta as supposed by the Andhakas and Uttarfipathakas . J. SlSs.ato 101m, ~ .... ~to lo ko : anla vi lo ko. ananU , :1 lo ke: 111m Ji' a.". tam sariralTl, aiinaTL jivarn ai'lihrll sarlram: holr Talhi~a to lIarMn m ~ m pa. no hOli TalMgato parolln mara!);\; hOli ca na hOli Talh.'galO pararn maran A n'eva ho:r na III hoti Tathiig;tlo paranl nuraoii.
113
VOCTRI'-"[S Ot" GROUP I I SCHQOLS
IX.
HoI<' mally A smrukrtadlIGrmas are there?
In the P ali texts, as also in the Ab/Jidlwrmokosa (or the SaTVastivadins) the three aS3Jpskrtas a re (i) Prati,aI]1khy:1n irodha, (ii) Apratisarpkhya-nirod ha and (iii) Akasa . The Andhakas increa;;e them to nine by adding lite four arllppaS i and iiryamtirgaligikat,'a. 2 Excepting the nirodha of two kinds, all other asarpskrtas of the Mahasailghikas are not r.:cognised as such by the Theravadins, whose argumcnt is whethe r eacn of th~se asarnskrtas is of the sane nature as Nibbina, if not, t hcy are saQ1skrtas. Strangely enough, the Kru. goes so far as to say that akiisa is not asarpkhata. The atti tude taken in the K VII. (V i. 2, 4,6; XIX. 3, 4) is that Nibb in a is ra(IOflJ Jenam aCClllalll all1atallJ (escape, refuge, infallible and immortal) so each of the seven of asarpkhatas, even every member of the formula o)f Pa~icca samuppada, each of the four phalas must be tii(JOI/l [emu!1aCCmllf!1 01l1a1l111J , otherwise, they arc saqlkhJtas (constituted).:! The Maluisailghika5 interpret, as presented in tile KJ"/I., that the asarpkhata is that which is unchangeable (aneiija) but not laQatp lenarn, etc. ] n regard to the ca usal law, they rely on Buddha's statement: arijja paccaya hhikkhm'e Salf).Idlllrii, IIppiidii \'a TOlhiigatallUltl alll/ppl1dii rii Tathagatiil/(lf!1 ,hira va sii dhfitu
dhallJlllafilliJatii dhaJlllllOlliyamoul idoppaccayat(j etc., a nd point out that by asaIJ1khaia they do not mean the link3 separately but the unchangeable la .... (a) of the origin of an object through a cause, and (b) of the unchangeable na ture of dhammas, undisturbed by appearance (uppiida) or non-appearance (anuppada) or continuity (\hid). As for the iiryamiirgiiligikall'a, the KVII. explains that the Pubbaseliyas regard as asaqlkha{a the fact of attai nment (paUil of a magga or phala by the removal of certain mental impuritic;, lkilesap:lhana rp) and not the maggas or I.
f ile fou r ;." uPI]a,;
.HC :
AkM .... n,mUya:"nn; (ii) Viji\'inallamjyatana; (iii ) Akificanyiiyalana; and ( i)
(iv)
N a i~asarnjiii'\ · II~S~(Jlji'iilyat~~a.
Cf. Koja, iii, p . 17. ;. In lh\! Af uiJ",'lIju Nik,l}u, (I, p. c!!hmigik o mO!/gtJ is £aI;k/1tJ/Q.
J01) il
i~
<..Ii,li",;tt)·
~1"1~<..I
llml
114
HUDDHUT sr:CT5 I:,,{ INDIA
phalas by thems::I\'~s. This, Va;umitra corroborates by usi ng the term uuirgo/igika:ra i.e. prlipli of 3. m:lrga and not si mply IIltirgo. In the KI'II. there are.a few other di~cussions relating 10 the :lumkh:tlaS, 10 which we shall revert while dealing with the Mah is~"isakas.
The remain ing three opinio ns of this group of schools, viz., (I) There is DO in termediate state of existence (lllllarabl/ara).
tii)
Phenomena exist neither in the past nor in the future,
(Iii)
The nature of mind is pure ill its origin : it becomes impure when il is stained by iigamukarajas and
and
IIpakldas,
are in accord with those of the Theralladins.l Both of these schools do not admit that between death and rebirth there is a ny i nterllclllIIg peri od, in which the subtle khandhas wClit for the select ion of pare nts of the nex t Stale of existenc:e. The Kvu. says til:n the opmion of the opponents is formed through t he mlscomprehenslOn of the meaning of the word 'Clmaraparinibbflyi'. \'ve shall revert to Ihis topic while deulin:; with the Sammlliyas, with whom, the cOllllllentator says, the Pubbasthyas agree. As regards the opinion th!lt the past and fu ture exist - the cardinal doctrine of the Sarvastiviidins, to b:- dealt with hereafier. both the Therav:id ins and the Mahftsalighikai are emphatic in their protest against it. Thethird point rdsesan importam problem, that is to say, whether the mind at the beginning was pure (lr not. Tile Theruviidin; are decided ly of opinion tha t p!lbbako!i (b!ginnin.e.) and opr:m;kO!l(cnd) ofbcinJ!s are unknowable, and a s such they hUlle not gone into the question whether the mind is pure a t any time before the a ttainment of I";IIIII/li. This doctrin!.' of the Mnhasaitghik:is had its full development in the idealistic philosophy of ¥og£lc{lra., in which the Ala)"Ql"ijiitllla. the store-house of pure consciousness, gets contaminated wi th worldly objec ts thro ugh illdl"iyal';;I1ii.llos and mentally creates a world around it. It is by I.
cr,
Allhastihlll, p. 68 ; Ciltarn
dgantuk ~ hi
upakkilesehi upakiJillham.
DOC TRI N E S OF GROUP"
Sf:HOOT _~
115
[he removal of this mental creation that a p~rson regains the iila)'aT'iji/alla in its pure original form and becomes an crnar!cipated being.
Spe6al doctrill!'S of the .~aila School:s Vasumilr.l has attributed the foll owing d octrines specially to
the three Saila schools; (i)
HodhisaHvas arc ave rage beings and may be born in the lower states of e,
116
P iirvasailas are ic(crred to in the NdJ:tuj unikonQu inscription!;. and Do t the Inter Sail:;. S(hQOI~ mentioned a'jo\'c. Nin'(i{;o ill Nligii"jll/liko(l~a il/scrip/iD/1S
In the l'fig1rjuniku:u;b i.ISCriptivllS, there are a few incidental
remarks rdat in£ to BudJh" BuJ Nirvuo:J.. The~e probably apply 10 the conceptiolls hdd by the Pun :dailas or Cait)'ak..as. Buddha is de~cJibcd hel\: dS j ila-riigu-dosa-moha (one who has conq uered ulbchlllent, ilI,"ili aul cd u)iun) and dJ/l11lIlYJlUparl. go;';la (possessed of the t'",,,.-:!!!:nl dMlu) • ..md the donor expects as a result o f his or her !jifls lJ1erits whidl he or she can transfer (poril)iimetUlJlj to Iii) ur her n:!a lil'C) and friends -an arude of faith not f.:.;:ugnist:J ill llu: Pal; works where alladipa aUusarOQO is the H1aAim. The fruils t'.\pecl ~d ure: (I) religious merits for h iUls of the Asok:lU x n th in~ criplion : em W(/:/lJ tiel.fli),t· iyolJll IIIi' ItIdatiktlJ(t 1)'0'11 IIII' plUa· trikli)"!"! Ii and (ii) Njrii~IU-J·lullpllfl (nirval)adom) for hllnself or ber~c1 r. '
The recoroing vf the yit:w tllal gins. mlly bring h:tppincss to all. only tv um:l>jcct of thought or .1 penon not )et fr=e flOiIl bVlld:.,gt"; ·'
b U lllin·~/a
Cp . Ind., XX, pp. 16, 1S-:1 ; '1Illno" or ... pa '0:PI' {, . I.. XX. p 24. 3. · Ibid., p. 2~. 4. Mrs. Rhys Davids, PO'IIts o/t/;t Contro'·trsy. pp. 231·3J. I.
2.
117
POCTltl\"ES 01' GROUr 11 ;;CHOOl.S
aDd ,he Olher aliribUied to the An!.llukas is that "the Nibb{j"a~ dJriiw is k/lsula (good)" in the sco::.e ill which mcntal statcs (ue spoken of as kusala (good), ami Ult:~e arc fau ltless statcs,! Both these 5tlltcmcnts bear the impl il,:~llion that thc Pubbasc1iyus or the Andhukls conceived of .Nifl'ii~la as a 'positive fn ultless state'- a conception which 1.;11:11 hardly be accepted by tl:e Theravldms. who spe:lk of real lLillg Nibbiioa within one's owo self by IIle w,se (paCCQIIQ//1 ~'edil(J/.JlJu l','i'jfiiihi) and not o f srasp~ mg the same as some obj~1 pruuucillg pure bappiDcs5.~ Special doctrines 0/ the BailllJrurrYQS R.!£ard iog tbe s~c i :ll dOClrine~ of the llahusrutiyas. the Authal'arr/Ill is sileo!. Though I hi~ school belonged to the l\bhas.lnghilca group. it acceplcti, according to Vasumitra, many \'iews of th~ Safvasti vii (lin~. Vasumitra adds that it held that Buddha's teachings rl'i:)tl!1g ttl Qllilyalli, ,il/Mha, slillya. OWI/IIlOII and Nirl'll~la (Iransi l orinc~'1, suffering, non-(':xislenee of Objects, absenc.! of soul,
MC.lapariyayasutta,
"f"tm~~~ ~ "~'~jq~f,~,OO_"1
m
wro-:r l/l"
~ %1 I q(lI(l4f.1'~ r ~~;:f~: 1 lITJi 1tll'lM 1<: 1illi!ffo1 (1( 'ifo1:lm"-f.T~ffi!ff'1' :wm~
""fq;j;-~")'"'!"1 ~,' . I St'e Prof. Vidhusc:k.har 5asto'! SandM.bI1l1IQ in lHQ. , IV. p_ 295_
"""" "Tam ,
118
RUDOlllST SECTS
I~:
II'>DI_'\o.
meaning) to the teachings of Buddha. It adoptcJ the SuryallS its main text. This school is mentioned in the NagarjuDiko(lca inscription.
siddhISoslru of Harivarman
Special Doerrius of ,I,e PrajtiGpliriidilb Rc 6anJiug lIn;: :op::dJ.J doctrinc~ of Ihe Pra}tlaplfl'tldl llS, l Vasulllitra ICilial h lila! they agreed mainly wi th the Nlahasnlighikas (i.e. Jat!:!" Mahus:lllghikas). They held in addition Ihe folJowi ng opiuiolJ): (i) Skol/dl/QJ and dll~k/l(J are not cOllcomitant; (ii) The twelve liyu/U/lUs tirc not real; (iii) Either allain rnent of t'Jtyu·mclrgn or death is dependent on kanl/o, The Pr
1. This school came inln ex i.te,1ce 2,00 (Kosa,
yea~
24). Z. ~ce Dcmi i!vdle op. cit., p. 49-50. 1. cr. The topics 'of the Dlratu-kQt!td, (P.T.S.). Y,
p
after the Mllhhailshi kas
119
OOCTRL"e,s OF CROUr It SCHOOLS
(Iii) Cnasiko t'I/amllio danan Ii (VII . 4). (IV) 110 d/l111t'IIQ raflhQ ylipem i (V II. 6).
By the fo rmer il means that gift is not material : the mind for making a gifl is really ~Ivmg. l3y the laner it holds that merits are .lccumulated. and that a person enjoys its fruits in after-life aD aCCDunt or such accumulation. (v) PariblmgamaYU/f1 pUnr'Oll! I'OrjrjlJafl (VII. !!). T he accumulating merits ca n go on increasing (by renewal of girts of robes and o ther anicles to monks, and so forth). (vi) Na/lhi craharo al::ti/aftJacclI (XV 11. 2), Arhats cannot die untimely. i.e., their deat h is also subject to the mfluence of karma. 1 (vii) Sabbo1}l idoll! kcJlIl'1I010 (XVU . 3). Everything is subject 10 karma. (viii) Kappoffho kappm,' ll i!!/reY)"o (XIII Il A being d:stincd to live ror un neon lives for an aeon as one consigned to purgatory ror commi tting SIlnghbheda. Spuiai Doctril/l!S oj Ihe Vetu!raka.s
In the Katluj"uttllll, the followmg doctrines are attributed to the Velulyakas only : (I)
No wltlabouf1J "Buddha Blwgm·a II/Qll/usa 1oki! a/{hiisi"
(XVlll. 1). This point has been discussed above. (ii)
Na I'attabball'
" Bllild/:assa
dillnafll
ma'lopph:Jla'1l
hot;" (XVII. 10). As Buddha does not exist as a per~on. it is meanin!!less to say that Bift~ to Buddha prod uc~ greal merit . (iii) (i\'\ ("')
(v,)
Na ,'{lllabba',1 "SOJpgIJo dakkhi~hlJI' p;,!iga~Ih1I1i"' Na l'ollobbUJI' "so1fJgho !lakkhi~Jw" ,·jfOlI/rt'lj". No l"ollobbu1fl "som8/'0 bhunjoli pi"ali IcMit/al; ;ii)'{l';". No "oltobba,,1 "so'1'gl,osso dimlOll1 mo!/uppllo/O'I' holi" V J I. 6-9).
ex
All the four opiniom are of the same import. The question miscd here whether Stuigba is" body of inciividual5, who hnve 1.
B:lS
120
BUOOliliT SECT' 1:>-: INDIA
alta ned magga and photo (fruits of sanctificalion) or S:uigha is identical with maggaphafa. This school holds that Sangha does not exist apart from mcggop/!ala and so it is not proper to say It.at Sangha receives gifts. or purifit"s them, or enjoys tiem. or a Wft made to a Sangha is productive of great merits,'
I.
cr. Mulm:apcflha
ro"t~ill',
p. 9' T.: Kola. Iv. J2. ahu !oCC 1.... de L.a Val ltc Jf'lpu on La acc;td"f! des rcfuk~1 in I~.c loUkJnge6 ~hhlOll "' "-1_
t/lrlqo ...s. vol T. fl. 1';4
r.
DOCTRINES
OF GROUP 111 SCHOOLS
THE MAHIS;'SA KAS, SARVASnVADINS, DHARMAGUPTAK... S, AND
OmEil. SCHOOLS
The third group of schools, according lu the Pali tradItio n 'cumprised the Mah if)1Siisa l.:as and their o[fshoou , viz., Dhammagultikas, Sabbatthjv;idrns, K ass apili.a~, Sankantikns, and $uttav:ldins, According 10 th IS tradition. the Mailirp5')snklls were the earliest to ~('cede from t he Therav
122
BU:>DIUST SECTS IN I NDI A
Mahasanghlkas. Tht: Vln3ya texts of the Theraviidins (in Pali) r.:cord the differences ot OplDJOD of the Mahisasakas and the
Dharmaguplllkas- relatmg to seven ru les according to the MahIbetween Maba kassapa :lnd PUrfU,13 of lJakktul)agiri (near RiiJusrhl). The MahlSasaka VlOaya attached specl311mporta::u:e to the p!rson ofPura03, who Imlsled o n a second rehearsal, Willen, axordmgto tillS SChool, WU,) complied Wllh by Mahakassapa, by I he incorporatIon in the Vmaya of the seven rule ~ relating to food. I hi s shows clearly tha t Purson and his fo llowers formed a group by tnemsclves. though. prObably not yet known by the de" gna tlOn. Mahlhsaka. Prof Przyluskl has d iscussed thiS in his worl Le COl/cll/! tit RQjagt ha (PP. 3191[) o n the baSIS of the Ma hislisaka and Dnarmagupta Vmaya te't:ts In Clunese. He wntes that the episode of PUral.Hl of OakkhilJagiri l in the acco unt of the tirst Cou ncil notices the clillerence betwe::n the J heraviidi ns and the Mahisasakas . In COUf:;e or time, that group of mo nks, which held PuralJa in high esteem, formed the MahiSilstlka school by Including his seven rules nol accepted by Ma hakaS5a~ III hiS Vioaya code. 1 In the Mahisaiaka Vina}a. the >erond place of sen iorit y is accorded to P Urdl)3, t he fir~ 1 bemg gl\ en to KauOf;hn ya. The !\'hhis:isakas a~ert that after the deliberations or the Firs t Cou ncil were fin ished. the te1ts were once more rcclted for lhe app rova l of Puriil)a, who accepted I le same after adding hi; seven rules. Regarding the geographical expansion of the schoo, Prof. Przyluskl POIOIi OUlthat (i) PuralJa refe rs to the peo ple of Mahisaka; (ii) that Ihc alternative name of this school is Manavantaka;3 and (iii) tha t the Vinaya text of thi~ school was found by Fa-hicn in Ceylon. On the basis o f these facts, he sla tes tha i the lme of expansiO n or this school was the same as Ihat o f thc Theraviida , i .~ .. along the KauSil mbi-Bharukacch.1, axis and thll t it gradua lly ext~nded
.$.isakas, and eIght rules according 10 the L>harmaguptakas -
1. "Pu. !il)_ lI~",,,t.In; lIll!l~ Ie: ~\llI :' H ~re by " sull", he lT1Car5 Dnkthtna· s iri , whIch IS fully 001 in 1110 sou th , 2 See above, Ch. 111 , p. 39. rD. 3. 3. Tilran!l.lha in hi~ GeschicJllt (PP. 175,273) S,)(a ks of Ihe AVl\lllnkBS
I I an offshool of the S4mmlllyu.
DOCTRINES
O~·
123
C ROUP III SC HOOLS
up 10 the !>ca-bornc: countries, and that it beclrne p:uticubrl y and ""v:lnti. ;md uhim .liel y f.:.'ach"d
p OpU ::lf III M l1 hi · amar.l~a :n
C~~' l o :l .
Pro,' pcz}lusk i's s U Eg~. ti c n~ art s uppo n.:.'d by the N:i.garjun l_ i: um,l..1 illsc::ript ions, i n \\hicr it is s tnted th ai the queen or Vana _ vihl cl l'ctcd a pilla r nml 0. mo ntl <;lcr}:lI N:'igilrjuniko::llib ror 'he bt'1I.:fit ot the ic..i ryas or the M ahi~:1&a b S:CI I Van:l\l si l,orr....s _ pomh to North Kan urll. There ilJ also 3 village C'.I lk-d V3nadsi in IIIC Shi mogJ. District o f the M y<;o re Slate 3nJ lies 0::1 the bordcr uf ~1 ysorc territory anJ Nor th Kana r:! . V:m3v:"tsi is 31so one u- the ("ounlric!!, which the mi~§ion of Asob', reisn \'i ~ited, am; it IVa!> fronl thi, country tha t a m ;./!Jii,htru caller.! Canda. gull.1 "'cnllo Ceylo n :lt the inv ;tatio n of Duqhagilllla"i to t:lke part ill lile celebration) for cr.xtins the maiuilillipa. Hencc. it m .l\ Uc concl uded that the Muhi§tisa kus bcc.lme popular III Van:l_ " ;j~i, i C ., in North Kana ru und Mysore, "nJ prob.lbly had some fu llU""en in Ceylon. a 5 this seboul ngreed with the Thera vaJins n fundamental doct rines a nd di.,ci plinul')' rules. In short, th is ~chool had its sphe re of influence in so uth western In :li:1 and Ct:y lon . ~
The Ka/lul'att"', has not II. word to say abo ut the doclri1cs of th j$ 5I;hool. Thi!> silen("c, though a n..!gcli\ e evidence. confima our 5Upposllion tha t the T he raviidin, hod lil!le o r no difTc re1ee with the Mah isasakas as ra r as their doctrines were concerneJ. Va)urlitra furnishes u! with the following inrormtllion regarding the Joc t rine!> of Ihi) school.
DOC/Tines of tne earlfer
MahlJO~a/.:at
The Mahlsasa kas rejecled the "Sabbam anhi"
thc!>b uf the and held tha t the present only exists. Thl:Y made it more emphatic by slating that all suql.)kOras pcrbh at c\"Cr) Sar vast i vadin~ ~
Fl. XX,,, j6; ~ f £1. \/01 111. 1"1 117 ; " ikrD",litikadr!ratarl/o , V, 23: Ma'riml'(I!o. XII, 31; XXIX. 42; B. C. Law, Geogrll/;h1 v/ url1 O,,;Jdh'Stn. p.66. z. c r. Prz~· l u~ky. QJ1 ci, .• pp. 32'. 327- M a h l ~Mna(lQafa, Avftnll and Ol lie. ",:;,·oorne countries on Ibe we!1. 3. Fo~ Sarvisli-'oOO .";c ....,,, .Kc i'l/N .
124
BrD OUIST SI!Cl'S IN
I~O I A
moment and thai entrance into the womb is the ~£inniog, and death is the cnd. of human life. The material constilUents of the secse-organs as also cifta and caiwsikas arc subject 10 coange. In other words, there are no real clements. They do not enter into the question of Buddha's attributes and probably like Ihe Theravddins held Buddha as an average human being. Regarding Al'ha(s, Ihey Sta le Ihal (i) a srot:ipanna has 3. chance of retrogression while an nrhul has not, and that (ii) Ql'halS do 001 perform meritorious deeds. Both of Ih~se opinions nre directly opposed 10 those of the Snrvilslivadins and a re partly in agreemen t with Iho;e of the Therovadins. Re. Sumyuk(l'QlI),tima, the MahrsCllakas haye nothing lO suy. TIley stale against Ihe opinion of theSarv:1sliviidins tlHll l!lel'!; is 110 del'u whu leads a holy life. Re. Allllpllbb(ibhiwMoya. the MahiMisakas hold views contrary to those of Ihe SarYasliv~dins. They state that the four trutb. are to be meditated upon at one and the same time. Re. Jhiil:a, they hold, as against :he opinion of the Therav"dins, that trami tion from one jhiina to another is immediate (KI'II., XVlIL 6). Re PlI1hujjana. etc., the 'vlahisasakas hclc the following views in agreement with the Sarvasthiidins excepting the last; (i) All average man is able to destroy riiga and pratiglUl in the Kumlldhfltu. (ii) There is
laukikasaillyagd!~ti
(right ... iew of a worldly mEln). no IOllkikaJrad(/i!/!Iulrl)'O (faculty of faith obtained by a worldly mall). This is di;;cussed in Ihe /(1'11., XIX. 8 (see abo,e, p. 108).
Oii) There is
Re Alll/sojo f.nd Parjal'Qsthiillo, the opinions of the Mahisasabs are ciirectly opposed to those of the Sarvi'lstivadins and the Theravadins and are in agreement with thNe of the Mnhlisa nghikas: (i) Amlio)u (dormant passion) is neither ciua (mind) nor caJla!.ika (mental). (ii) AnI/soya is differeDI from pervading passion (parym'oJ!hOna).
OOCTRI:-: ES OF GROt:P UJ SCHOOLS
125
(III) Anuiayo is never an object of though t (anulambuno). (IV) All/doya is dissociated fro m mimI (ciHa~I'isump,uJllkw) . (v) Paryal'asrMJlla is assodatcJ wilh mind (tillu-sumpray uk Ill). All these have been disc:ussed in the Kalhii ..atlllllill con neC!lon with the doctrines of the schools ot Gro up 11 (see above).
Rc Meditation & Smrtyupasr/tfino, tbe only difference between the MnhiSasakas and rhe Samlslivadins is th3t the former do not recognize any !okouaradhyullo. They 19ree wi, h the Sarv:i.Sli_ vadi os in holdillg that all thO-IIIOS (m:.i. rgailga<;) arc incl uded in the four smrl),lIpl1Stlulnas (application of mmdfu lness). Re. Vljiiiina, the Sarvastivodins stale that th.e five I'ii/lanas (perception defJved by the organs of sc=nse) engender raga (nttuchrnent) but not I'ird,go (detachment). The M:lhiStlsakas consider this unreasonable and hold that these conduce both to saNiga and I'i,iiga, Bot h the schools agree in hoidilll: that the SIX \'ijiiiiIlGS combine with L'ilarka and l':cdra . Re. ASWflslqla & A,,,ariibhm'o, tltt:" views o f the M3hi~i <;D kas are :111 opposed t o thost:" of the S3rvasti ..,:iCi ns: (I) There are nUle uneonst it uted (asa/lld,!ta) d'Wf mas, but the list is different from that of the MahJ.s:lI'l~hibs.1 (ii) There is 110 intermediate stale of existence (olllorribIJQlY1 ). (iii) There is nothing which can transmig ra te from on..: eXistence to another.
There are a few other o pimo ns, whier. arc Ulso yolltr.IT) tel those of the Sarv,hti yJdin ~, viz .. (i) No heretic can gain the fivc supernatural powers. (ii) G ood k arma canno t become the e(luse of existence, In addition to the abo ve, the MahiSdsakas hold the followi ng two views: (i) l'houga Buddh3 is in c [ud~d III the Sai1~ha , a gift mude lo Buddha is more meritorious tha n that to the S':l.lll!h:L (ii) Buddltaj-'iJl/o and SrcTI'okardllG have the sJ m~ e!1laucip:llie u ( vfmllkrfJ. I. PmtiS;lIpkhya nirodha, ADralis3m~hYl nirudh3, .\k :iS~ . AII!Hmon. Kuial.-dharma-tal!::atA, AkuSil la-dh.ta, A... y lkr'a·uh. I~. M ~rgdnga -t:J. , PrJ, titya-samutp.i.da.ta .
126
DUDDJIIST SECTS 1)0; I:\,D IA
The Luter Mah i!iisukcs It hi :tlre!'!c), been pointed out thill there Weri! twn ,chonl!> cor Ma hisjuk:B, on~e:Jrlier :l nd tl:e oth.. r late r, Th" view. ~tatect above wcr.;: held by Ih'! r trlier school The btn M!1hi, fl":Ib" accept the c:l d in:li d octrines of tilt S;t r..,:istiv;i din, lh:1.[ r)J~t a nd future e)(ist, :lnd :l'!>erl II1:u dal1ltlhllf, {/h,ir"s :l nd ih'nfOnof in their su~ l!e~t sl.l:c arc :.l!W.lys ('Ifesenl. so :11<;" are: the {!1IIIS".1'OS (dormant passions). T hey ;hld th:u lh(" (,,!1rth la<;ts lo r :Ieons. Th!!y agr~c wIth th.:- S:ln :i<.ti ddj n~ in IIl"'holding Ihal 11';,:r" is alllar!JbflOI'fI (in :ermcdil tc s t~le ~t \Vl1' r n two f'-.:islenc.:s). The Ilter Mahi ~:h:lk3S. therefor.... were ' I ~ mn::h in Ilg~ m ent wit!- the S:u'VaS(i\',i.dins :1 , the l"'.trlier ~hhi':i,alnl.!> \\.:re \\ith the T he r3 v:1dins, Sml'lil tirli t/(I i nl ~nd uc tory
note (p. 112 r,) appearance, geoJ,!raphicni I:mguni;e and literature .•I:ld d octrines of Sarvasti":ida h:I\'e hem l:en:t "ith. The group of Thern,:\dins (Stha\"ir:lVi"u.lins) .\":15 subdivided illlo ele'en or more sects, of which th ~ Snrv:lsI;\'I,rlim :Jnd the Snmmiti):ls bc'came prominent. the rcrr.:lin ine ~I, we re the \1 Gla-sarvasti\:ldins, KasyapivJ.s, etc. !n lhr
di~trihu t il:'ln,
1\.11 a Hillar.1 nn ~" h ,)ol with iiS pi!!lkas in T ht.; EU I upean M:ho lar~ dubbed it ae a ~choo l upho ld ing 'Reali'IIl'. The doctrines or this school were sub· ;~ctcd 10 Vdlt:1I1Cllt criticism by M ahilya na pl' ilosophcrs like I\.ig;lrj un:t, AXlilg.J. Ar)ilu::va and others, who uphclJ 'N"onre:\li"m' (.flill)"'IIJ, Uf ' Idealism' (rji1iOI'Jillliirrrlfii). s:'1f\[ls:h.i.ua
S,m.~k rit,
The Sarv.:istivadins selected Mathur;l as the venue of thei r carty H cti\"j t i e~ nnd it \~as from Ihis plnce thut t hey fanned out 10 G~ndhara and Kashmir a nd ult imately to Ccntral A'ia and Chil1a, T he legend abcU l lhe ~1("Cfio n or Mat /m ra as the ren:le:t:vous of the S:trv:i~tivii.din. run
Emperor ASoka, accl..mJ ilig to the CeylulIcs:: chronicles, mCl the leading ml}[: k-~jn t uf the lime. Mogga lipultn Tiss
OOCTlU."<:1!.I OF G ltOt'1" III
127
~CHOOLS
under his chairmanship. Thos! monk ... \\ho did n('; ~uh<;('rhe to the doctri:les of Thcra,iida. Vo't're c<'m,..!!cd lo:l Ic:l\'!': P;i!aliputra. the scene of the Synod. Th!) \\ enl first to \ 1a,hura. About Ihe introduction of Buddhism. the Imdiliol1. pr.."rn('d in the Mlilasanii'itinida Vi,rtaya l :I i' also ill the CI·jn{'.~e \ el"~i()l1 of the A$akiil'(ltkil1 l1 ,2 is as follows: Bhn ~\:i n Buddha while truvcr~ins the Slllus.:n.J \,;uulltry. reaeht'd Mnthuru \~I-er;: he notic~d n green f(l(~Sl 011 a hill called Urumul)c;la. He predIcted that a hunJI'.;d )'\,'<1[5 afler hi;; demise. t \\O rich brothers Ntl!n a 'id Glla!a wuulll bui;d there the Na!t1bhu!u\ihilro., wh teh would b«:ome a mngcnbl place for meditation or monks, seeking quic:tutlc ( .al1lalha) and inSight (I'lpa/rallii) At that time t here would be a spicedenier. whose 5011 Upaguplu would be: as grc,ll a jJlc;!t:her as He himself was, without however the ph)sical ~igll> uf Oi Buddha. He would be ortl ain~d by Mudh ~[l n dinll. a ui~~·ipk of AnOlnda alld would be the lost of the dhnrn·,a- pre.1cllcl). In the DiI')'ul"lUIUlIll (p . 348) it is slOttd that Durid h.... made the forC'Ca~t abou t the .ldl·cn! of Upngupto.. Siinuklwii.si ..... o ult.! b!! his spintual pre<;eptor but there is also the Iraditiou tllat t'. la dhya ntlina (t. ladhy:\ntika, Mn.ti hllntl ka) ordained Upagupla. Tile episode of Vi'!s:IYadntt:i is ,;;i\'en a prominent place ,II all the biographies of Upngupta.
Upagupm occup;ed a very high place ill the hierarchy of the Sar ... aSllvadn school. In the AbMdharlllllko.illl·Hikll),ii (IL 44) UI':lguptn tS said to have composed the Nl!l{padas!;Slra. His opillioll'i \'I.:re "alued as those of the S(!rv
I. 0,1(1,11 Mf'S . 111. pt. i. 2. A-,./I""'(/J/f(-ulrull'/ Iroml31crl by S~"'ahabh=rl r" IranI. Poylulki. UgclII!c de I'''m~r('ljr A.io/(t/ .
in
50(; .... 0. P,.
J23
DUDDHIST SECTS
I~
1:><01'"
after till: Mllh.i51sakw and the Mahasanshiklls. There is no do ubt thai i: branched off from the Mahis.hilkas and n ot from tile Tbcfll.V!\::Iiru directly as s taled by Vns.1mitra and olh::r writers of i!Her da),s. TlC Sarv.isllvudins should be d istinguished from the l1.1jlasarv.htivd.dins,l who probably modified cert
If ~ lum 10 Ihl! Sll~u!)< i o n or 1;:;lc'lcr:. (ticiir)'!lf'Or" lllp:.mi). :I.~
gi.. ~n in !IImost ull S.Losl-ril tr:lLilions. pro.:",,·pcJ in Tlbelan. il will be' nh;,e r...ed t hen aftl!r Sambhtlla Sjtuv;hl. th.: ~lIo:.:~ssion I. "'" rs ~p;::l k j 0( Ih;.:o MOl.J"'lrv,i..lt ... ~ ..h ns. Sec THl\lu~u, rp. xo,;iii-ni v, 7-14 , 21.). :! In Kls hmir th~r.: w.:re both Vaibhl:lbs and S.llIlr}nl kM(YC \'i la),avid;hb)':..rl, S,lulriintika bll.lJ 1.1lath)'~h). The lall.:r ar~ co: ....,.ibcd III thc AOs.:I-. )'ijl..fl)'jj
(Viii. n) J~ VioJ}.I·vu.:I. Ther.: I'i
""!U'
ler~rrt,J I()
bhi-I~:t'.
"liu
ill the /\oW:l ~ "blhhdc:i.lk~ Va,b!,:i-llJ. ... )_ rror, T"ka~U311 WIII<:J (JPT$ .• 190-I-OS. p. II I) Ih:ll1he S:lr"'~I,,;jui.u W~I ~ lis/) dill .hed on II", VlbJ,ti,'" :I~ K:, l.i. cpo {'it .. II. JOS. hYCd .)UhM" Kls hm ir
DOCTRINE_ OF GROUP !II
129
SCHOOU
is recorded ditferemly from t hat in Pi"Hi. Bu-ston' and Taranathal tell us that .\1 ahakassapa entrusted the gua rdi:tnship oi the Sangha 10 Anand.:t, whoi nturn entrusted the same to Sambhuta Sanavasi. T he latle; gave over the guardia nship to Upagupta of ~1athura .! It is well known th at in the Sanskrit Avadanas, Upagupttl i;; made the spiritual adviser of A.so k.:t as against Moggaliputtl Tissa of the Pali texts. This also lends support to the view that M::thura became the lim cen tre o f the San asli· vad ins soon arter the Second CounciL ;!nd t hat it was fr011 Math ura that the influence of the Sarv3.stiviidins radiated all over Northern India, purtiwlarly over Gandhii ra and Kashmir. T he propagatio n or Buddhism in G andhara and Kashmir has an independent history of its own . Both the pali and Sanr;k rit trad itions state that Madhyuntika (Majjlrantika) was responsible for the propagation of the religion in these two cou ntries. Madhyanlika was a d isciple of Ananda and so he was a co n ~ t~mpOnl ry of Sambh u\a Sal)avasi and senior to Uplgupta. Madhyantika is recognized ;!s a leacher by the SarvaSllvudins. 1113 1 Madhyiimika preached Sarvaslivada Buddhism in Kas'lmir is corro bora led by the testimony o f Hiuen Tsang, who tel!s us that A~oka not o nl y sent Buddhist mo nks to Kashmir but also built monasteries a t Ihat place.! He writes that during Asoka·s reign there ~as in Magadha '8 subtle investigator of niima-rfipa (mind and matter). who pu t his extraordi nary thoughts in a treatise which taught heresy'. An attempt was made to drown these monks into the Ganges, but they saved themselves by fleemg to Kashmir where they setlled on the hills and in the valleys. On hearing this, Asoka lelt remorse and requested them to return, and on their refuS2.I, built fo r them 500 monasteries and "gave up all Kashmir for the benefit of the Buddhist church.'" The fac t underlying this story is that the " investi· gators of mind a nd marter" were no ne other than the Sarviistlvadins, whose principal tenet is tha t nama and riipa are r{'al and are divisible into b4 elements, which exist for ever (sanam asti,. 1. See Bu-s:on, If, p. IDS. He derived his information from Ihe Vi/lajl
k l l1dralw of (he M{jtruarvAstl v;ldim. 2. Tir!lntl.lha, Upagu;ltll W&, followed by l. WIHlen; , I, p. 269.
4.
WaileD, I.p. 267.
Dililika.
130
BUDDHIST SECTS IX L"DIA
and It ii for this ... ie\\ th a i they had the appel lation of San'aMi· vAda. Then the statement that they resorted to the hills and valleys of K3shmir corrobor2.tes the Hight of the Sarvastivoidm m onks to the nort 1 in Kashmir. Hiuen Tsang must have fallen in to confusion in regard to the name Maradev!! . T he re were in all likelihood two persons of thIS name, "one an influent ial abl:OI of Pu!alipUlrn'" who preached the D?l'odiila'j ,itra, and t he other 2. monk who introduced the tenets re lating to the impe rfections of an Arhat! M aMdeva the Investigator of mind and matter must have been a Sarvlistivadin while the other Mahiideva, "h o attributed imperfections to an Arhat, was a Mahasanghika . Hiuen Tsa ng ' fu rther confused the The ravadins with the Muhtisnilghikas when he: wrote tha t ASo~a supported the Mah:isailghikas against the Theravlidins, a nd that 500 Arhats lert Pli.!3Iiputra and propagated the Sthavira school in Kashmir, while the majority of the inferior brethren al Pii!ulip utra began Ihe Mahisailghika school.' The Mahasailghi kas, as we know, lived origi nally at VaisMi and later o n passed o n to the south, making their pri nci pal cmlre in t he And hra country 31 Dhanaka!aka (present Guntur District). The stalemenl that A~o ka beca me repenlanl later on a nd thu he wa nled Ih: monks who flc:d to Kashmir to return 10 Mugadha may be an indirect rde:rtnce to the fact recorded in the DiI'yiil'adiJlla4 li nd A j okiil'adiina l that A ~o ka made an attempt towards the end of his life 10 reconcile tbe monb of Ihe different schools of Buddhist though t by convening a council to which he panicularl y invi ted the monks living at T amll savana in Kashmir. The Ceylonese chro nicles maintain a discreet si lence over t his incident, a nd this is nol unusual in view of the secta rian spirit permeating the chro n icles. The SarviiSli\'iidins also claim A~oka as their p:al ron. They ignore the n ame or Moggaliputta Tissa and put in its stead the name of Up:agupta as the spiritual advi5er of A~o ka , The I.
M~jhi"" J,
2.
W l t\~ ,
III , 179. I, p. lfi8.
3. See above. P. 22. 4. Wallen;, I. p. 2(,9. 3. Di,yii., p, 399, IA ., 1895, pp. 241 If.
UOIJIII. I N~
131
Ul'lHIUUP III SCHOOLS
A\adana literaturel or the Sarva.stivAlIin.s is rull of epIsodes de:ali ng with the life :md munificence uf I\soka. Tolramitha also speaks of his lavish gifts to the S(1Tvas ti viilla monks of Apartin. taka Kashmir and Tuk hnrn.' KalhnlJll' writes that Ariola not only bUIlt Srinagari but ol so covered Su~aletra nnd Vltastra with numerous stupas, o ne ofwhieh was :,o high that Its pinna· cle could not be geen. Yuan Chwang noti..:e:u fo ur A soka to pes, each orwbichcon tained relics of nuddh a'~ body. The Avadanas record that towards the end o f IllS lire A ~ uka's liberality to the Buddhist monk.s WM cuned to such all t: ... tt:nt that his grandson S:lmp~di,' who was in chnrge o f his li'C a~ury, refused to carry Ollt his commands a nd even reduced lib food to a myrobalan, h:l li of wblCh was the las t gift m ade: by him to t he lSuddhis t S:nlgha. Through the ac tivities of the Sarvasli vadms, Kashmir beca me a centre of Buddhist ph ilosophical stu d il.:~" und was, according to Tflramitha, also the seenc of the act;\'ities of Vatsn, the propounder of the Atmaku theory (pllllgula~'t1dQ) and the fo under (If the VatsipUlri),ll or Summitiya sellout. Geographical upunSion of S(Jn'ii:itj~'ada
During the rden of Aioka the Survii.5 t iviid iJl ~ lIid nOt find a congen ial home a 1 P:i.!alipUlra, i. e. in M ngad ba and misrated to the no rth. They founded two centrc!, one iu Kashmir under the leaderShip of Venerable Madhyantika am! the olher at Mathu fa unde r Ihat of Venerable Upag upta. Mudhya ntika was the direc t dhciple of Ananda whilc Upngupta was the disciple of SalJavasika, who was also a d isciple of Anaulla. The SarvaI . Prof. Pnyl~ski writes in his ugelllil tit r Emp"'ur Aioka, 1'11'1 lot . J 17 thaI It council of ~O,OOO II'IOnkswas held by A~~a, his sources of in~onn· _'ion belnK tbe AJ.:Ma."udOlICl and TarJnAtha.
2. Schi~ rn~r, p. 31. 3. S:ein. I, P. 19.
4. II has been restored by Schiefner as DllanadA or Sampldi, 5. Sec Gtfgit Ms .. '1 01. I, Intro. 1>. ~h;e fncr, p. 44. Sec Infra.
Vasa vadA!r~,
but it may al!lO be
'32
IlVDDHIST SECTS IN INDIA
sti,adins can therefore claim Ananda as thei r patriarch, but Du-ston l stat(" that they claimed as t heir founder Vellcf
tea:her. The Therllv,i
Sammitiya and Mahlisanghika. The Jiianaprasthallasjit~u of K:ilyi1yal)iputra contended thai the objectS in pre5ent hay!: lIJ1;lf past ness and futuri ty. It was refutec! by Moggalip ulta Tl~~a in the Kut/)Qrallllu It was for t hiS reason perhaps that Ai.uka supported the cause of the Sthavlr3vadlns, and conscquclll[Y the Sarv:istivfidms left Mdgadha aod went oorUl\\ard~ tu Mathura and Kashmir. There are a few inscriptions dating trom the 20d 10 the 41h century A. D., "nesting to the presence 01 the SurvdSlivddm) ill M:llhura. Peshawar, Kas~mir and Baluchistan . There were a few Sa rvlistivadins at Sr:ivasti a a nd Benaras lSarnath).· Th: ea rl le~1 of the lhree IRSCriptlons (lsi century 8. c .) was found al Matbura (Mathura Lion Cnpital) of tbe tIme of Ranjuvula and SoQ.asa. It runs 9S fo llows : (a) The chief queen of Mahdk ~t ra pa Kajula. daughler of Ponce Kharoasta, mother of N:mda Dlaka along with other~ established at this site, which was JU$t outside tbe consecrated boundary (ni~sfmiiJ, the relic of Bhagavan ~akyamunJ the Buddha, ereeted a slone-pillar crowned with a hOD, and built a
1.
OU-510n, It , p, 100. 2. Abhl(Jhur"'u!.QJ.. ~) Jk"yu. pp 71 4 ,719. 3. ....mQ~a tho donots lhe nameoo 'nf Ih~ SarviSLivAdins do nol appear in the S
DOCTR I NES
or
CROUP III SCH OOLS
133
monastery (sOIiglziirama) for the accepta nce of the monks of the four quarters, particula rly, the San·aslivudi ns. (b) I n the reign of K ~ trapa So~l;isa . son of M ah:ik~ t rapa Raj uia, Udaya, a d isciple of Ac:irya Buddhad eva. along with Prince Khalamasa and Maja as assenting pari its (alJ;lIIuwakii) made the gill of a cave-dwelling (gu/u;-I'ihiira) to Bucld hila of Nagaraka for the acceptance of the Sa rv:istivadin mon ks. (e) In the reign of K. ~a tra pa SOl,Usa, the gifl of land was made to Ac:irya Buddhjla of Nagara ka. who refuttd the arguments ot' tbe Mahasangbikas. (t::ndiDg with the ,,"o rds) Adoralion to all Buddhas, U harma, Sangha, and to the Sakas of the Saka country. etc. The above· mentioned inscriptions distinctly prove that the early Saka rulers were sup porters or Buc:ldh ism. particul arl y of the Sa rvaslivadins, one of whose centres of activity was then at Math ura. Buddhi la, a ~arva st ivad a teacher, must have ea rned a grea t reputatio n as a dis putant for defeating some Mahasarighika teachers in philosoph ical controversies, a nd was lhe recipIent o f gifts from distinBuished personages. T here is also the men tion of ano ther great teachcr called Acarya Buddhl!deva. At Sr.ivasti (Set Ma het) has b~n found un elliptic clay sea ling inscribed with the na me of " BuddhacJeva" in the la tc Gupta scnpt (A SR, 1907-OH, p. 128). YasortlJlra in his Abhidharma. kOSoI'J'iikhyii (V. 26; IX .12)refers to St havlra Buddhade\'a as an authority on Sarvastivoida doctrines and state" that one of his preceding leachers wa) Sthavir'J. Nagasena, who was a contemporary of King Menaoder. Buddhadeva intcrpreted the Sarvasti· y;1da doctrines as implying that "all exists (sorl'iislitvo) as relative Uistence (on}'othiill}OllriitI'Q, K osQv)'iikh.va, P. 470)." It is rather risky to Identify th is Buddhadeva with Duddhadeya of Ihe inscription, for JI was a Common practice among the Buddhist monks to have identical appellations. There is JnothzT inscription at Matllura (Buddhist Image Inscription) of the time of H uvi~ka (I II A. n.), in which the i!l~I!llIation of a Bodhisattva image is attributed to t wo nu ns, both of whom were diSCiples of Bhik ~u BOlla, a master of Tripilaka, and une of the nuns, Dhanavati, was a sister's daughter of ~hik:~u Buddhamitra, also a master o f Tripi~aka. This inscri ptio n e"icJently refe rs to an image of Siddhiirtha Gautnma before
134
BUDDlllliT 101':(;1"5 1N !NUIA
his ~ttainmcnt of bodhi, i. e., n HInnyunic image. Tne preceptor of the nun i~ described IlS 0. student of the Tripi!ak:t, attributed only to the Hinil)dnisu. Tb:n Bala was a Snrv5stivadin is established by two other inscriptions discovered at Snivasli". viz., (a) Set Mllhet Stone Umbre lla Staff, Ilnd (b) [mage inscrip. tiom of KUJ.1i~kn I, which bur the slime text. During the reign of Kal}i~kn (78-101 A. D.) the gift of an umbrella and a itaff, with a Dodhisaltva (image) was made by Bhik ~u Bala and a disciple of Pu ~pnbudd hi , nnd these two were installed in the promenade (cankruma) around the Knu ~ mbi ·kii!i. which was a part of the Jctavana rama nnd where prebnbl) Buddha was staying when he admonish~d the monks of Kau ~::lmbi. A sim ilar !;ift was made at Sarnath by Bhik ~u Bala (So.rnath Buddhist Image inscription of Ka~ l~ kll I), find these were also installed in the cQlikrama used by Duddhn for his med itation. The gift was made by Bala, wishing to share his merits with his parents, his disciples, with another monk coiled Buddhllmitra as a lso with K ~allapas Vaollspara and Kharapallanu. Both Bala and Buudhawitra were SarvastiHidins, hence it eun be inferred that at Sarnalll also resided a few Sarviistiviidins during the reign of Kitl}i~k:a . Ou lh~ south side of the Jagat Singh Stupa, the fullowing il1S!';fiplivlI was disco,·ered on the topmost step of the stone-stai rs "adryyiinal]l Sarvastivadiniirp pnrigrahe." Dr. Vogel a~~ it!Ds thi:) inscription to the 2nd centu ry A. D.t This inscription is n:pcat(;d on a "rail surroundi ng tbe old silipa iD the south chapel uf Lht: main shrine." The second inscription on the ASokan pillar at Sarnath, mentioning the nume of ASvaghos:t, was probably dedicated to the SarvdsliviidiDs, which appellation WID> unfortunately obliterated. T he third inscnptioD on the same pilldr rcad~ 115 follows! "acaryyuniuJl Sllmmitiyamll]l parigrahe Vat::.ipulciy81}.a!p.'" From these citations of Ihe tWO sects, S
ASR., 1907-611, p, 73. Satmi,
Cruuf,,¥~
vj Sa'fla'!. .\I.. ,c""', p . 30-31.
OOCTa .:ies OP GROUP m SCUO(U,
13;
the Sarvastivadins left the place, leaving tbere tbe monks of the Sammitiya school o nly, The find oran inscription of the Kushan period inpure Pali' leatJ!l us 10 condude that the Sthavirtlvadins also re.ided there a t a very early dale, perhaps before the Sanasriv;ldins attained rrominence, Very likely the pro~ressiye career of the Sa rvistivadins had a setback for some lime during the reign of Pu~yamitra (187·[51 II.C..) as is evident from the Divyiil'ndiillO, a le:\l of this school. Rut the several donations made during this period by the devoI~ prove that it was professed by a large section of the people. Its revival cam: with the Invasions of the Graeco-Baclrians. ~akas. Pahlavas. Panhians and Yavanas. The M ifindapmiha, th~ o:iglflal of which was in Sanskrit ...ery likely belonged to Ihi~ ...:hool l The existence of this tex t shows that Ihe GroecoBactrian kings like Menander were in terested in this religion. liS complele revival took place during the reign oflhe Sakas, and Ihe popularity of this sect reached its climax in the reign
nr K.\~i~lra.
FA-hien (111).414 A.D.; noticed the existence of this school Pli!nlil'Ulra while Yuan Chwane (629-645 A.D.) found it "chit'fty in K:l.~hgar. Udyana, and several other places in the Nnrlhem Frontier, in Matipur, Kanauj. and a place near RajAcrh:l and alen in Pe("l;ia."s I-ISing came across the adhen:nts or Ihis school in Lata, Sindhu. Southern and Eastern India. SUmMrll, 1;l\Ia. ('hina, l.enlrlll Asia and Cochin China.· From Ihe above evidence~ it i~ 8J"1J"1arent how widely popular was Ihis <;chool all over Northern India and outside India, but little known in Southern and Weo.lern India. AI
J . The Pall inscriptIon reads IS follows . Cauari imim bhir..kJllI'tC a riyuaeeJru Kalart:lini c:ilnAri---dukkh~rp bhikktr..w anyllo;ac:carp dutkhlSamuda)lam ariya~ccam dukkhanirodh~lJl ariyasaa:afJI dukkhanhKlhapm;Di ca palipad! ariyasaa:al']l 2. Ab/litiharmoJroiiH16kiy4, ill:_ 12 (Jap. td .). p 7a:1 rtfer! 10 N'.a~na
as piir rukll-sthulirQ.
J. JI'TS., (Pl'Ur. Tnhku~u), 19W 05, p. 7 1, Legle's Fa-him, p. 99. JR.AS., U9t, p. <120, Takoku;u, I_lsi"" pp. ~~ii_uh. 4. "ISmr, hlro.
136
B UDDHISf secTS IN I SOlA
811-s101l's in!ormarirm about th e School
According to Bu-ston. the founder of this school was Rah ulabhadra of the K$tltriya caSle " renowned fo r his devotion to discipline.'· T he mantle worn by the members of this school had 25 to 29 fringes. and th:ir badge had an u lpaJa (a lotus). a jewel, and the leaf of a tree.! He further writes. " J ust as the higher classes establish the mundane laws and customs of a country or race, in a similar manner the Sarvas tivfidins. as they spoke in Sanskrit , the language of the higher daises. represent the foundation of the oUler ~ts. ' ·'
It cannot be definitely stated whether Bu-stoo had in mind tbe Sarv;lst hAdins o r the Miilasar .. aslivadi n s.~
LAnguage lInd Literature The Tibetan traditions corroborated by the recent finds 01" manuscripts in Eastern T urkestan a nd Gilgit leave no room for do ubt about the fact that the SarvaSl ividins adopted g rammaticaT Sanskrit (and not mixed Sanskrit) as the medium of their literature and that they posses~d a complde canon of their own in three divisions Surra, Vinaya and Abhidharma. The sub-divisions of these three Pi~ak as were also substantially the same as these in Pali. OUT rTk'l.in source of informatIon regarding the literature of this school is Chi neSt and, occasionally. Tibetan versions ot lh: Tripi!ak2. supplemented by the fi nd of manuscripts in Central Asia, Eastern Turkestan, Gilgit and Nepal, and by quotations found in works like the Laliravisrara , Mahiil'QSlll, Mlidhyamika-I'.m i, SUlfiiionkiira of Asanga, Divyavadana, .4bhidhannako.fa with its Bhiiiya and V)'iikhyii. It may be questi oned whether the information available about the literature of this school are 01 the Sarvas· tivadins o r of the Miilasarvastivadins. For the p resent it IS not 1. BU'SIOfl, II, p. 100. For fllrlher In formalio n, sec Walter.!, Yuan Ch"'ung, I, p. 149·50. 2. BIl-Slon, II, pp. 99-100. 3. Hi ucn T so,ng GlnleS Ih~ t th e Sarv!l&ti~l\din~ had a pec:uliu mocle of weainK lin,' cnll'lIrina lheir robes nOl app roved bY'ne follo ....ers of several schools ,WalleN;, I, PI'. ISO fr. Taklkuill, 1·1~11jf).
nnt:TlITNES OF GROUP 1II SCHOOL..!
137
possible to disting uish between the two, but it seems that the Agamas were common to both. so also were the Abhidharma le}lts. It is only in regard to Vinaya and few Avadana texts that there might have been some differences. Agama Sllrras : The SUlra·Piiaka of the Sarvt1sti~t1dins wa~ diviuc:d into t\gamas curresponding to Nikllyas of the Pal; Sl.hvul. There were four AgarTUls caUed Drrgfla, Madl/),ama, SU"I),uktu and Ekottara. In the Kola there are references to the K;udrulcu. which iruplies by the ellislentt of a K.rudraktlgoTr.a too. Pror. Alanuma has compared the Agamas in Chinese with the Pali Nikayas l in detail and has come to the following conclusions : The DffghQgoma contains 30 sQtras as against 34 of the Dlgha NiU)'Q. or the 13 sutlas in the tim volume of the Palt Dfgha Nlkt.yo, 3 only are omitted in the Dlrghtlgama viz., Mohall (no. 6). Jal/ya (no. 1) and SuMo (no. 10). All the sums or the other two volumes arc contained in this Agama and a few in the Madhyamagama. The order of arrangement of the sOtras in the Agarnas and Nlkayas differs widely, c.g.• /tfahdpadlina is the first sOlra in the Agama in place of Brolmrajdfa or the Nikdya. In the Agama the serIes of siltras is as rollo ws: Malrdpodiina, Malliiparmibbti!ltJ,
Malrtlgo'inda, Janaliasablla. Agganiio, Cakkol'atli, Sfhaniida, PtJytlJl, Udwmbarika-Sihaniida, Sailglli, Dasultora, Mahon/dolla, Saaa·pan1;a, PiJ/ika, SII1gii/oI'Qda, Piisfidika , SamposddQII/}'a, Malrt1samaJa. Ambaflha, }Jrohmajfifa, SOfJDdQ}J{ia, Ku!oi!anta, Kel'OIIQ. KaSlapa-slhandda, Tel'Wa, Siimai/iiphaia, POllhapdda, Loft/cea. The Agama contains two other suUas. or these sutras, fragmen ts of the Aliillarrya and S(/liglti have
been discovered In Eastern Turkestan,· and quotatio ns from the Bruhmojoio and ::iorigrti appea r 10 the AbhidltormokoSa. The relation of the sutras or the Madhyam§gama to Ihose of the Majjlllmo Nlka)'Q IS as follows : ()f Ihe Ij:l suttas 10 the
Tllf Comparoli"f Cala/ogur 0/ Chirlfll .fgllmas & Plili Niktl)'oJ. (1929). ! . Uoo::rnlc:, M"'''ils<:tlJI' &t",..inJ u/ BwdAl,' LlurUI",t:/u/OlI" '" UlJIt:,1O TlilrIc"JI
JIi )lJ1\
138
BUDOHIST SECT'S
I~
INOlA
tbree volumes 01" the .\1Q)}hima, only 1\;1 are omitted in the Agama,
.'1%., CuloJliropamll (no. 30). Mahiisaccaka (DO. 36). Slileyyaka (D() 4 1), VeraiiJaka (no. 42). Kandaraka (no. 51), Jrvaka (no. ~'>' Kllklc ural'otika (no. 57), AbitayariiJOkumiira (no. 58). Apa1Jnaka (no. 60). Tel'U}a-VacchagouQ (no. 7 1), Gholamukha (no. 94), Cuilkl (no. 95), Vdsetlha (DO. 98), SallgaraviJ (no. 100), PaifCQl[o)'a (no. 102) , Killli (no. 103), Sunakkhatta (no. lOS), Allupada (no. 111), aDd Hhaddekaralla (no. 131). 10 the Madhyamifgallfa,
there a rc III all 222 slHras., tl2 of which correspond to the sums
in the AngutlDra, IU 10 the sultas In the Sall.YlitllJ, 9 to those in the IJlgha and the rest to the sultas in t he Majjhlma. There are a few 01 these sums In Pah not found in lh= Asama. while a few slTay suuns correspond to passage In the SUltampala, Thera-thertgotha and rinrl)'o (MaMI·agga). In vlewofthe mixture of the suttas from twO or three I\ikayas In this Agama, we can hardly expect much egreement In the order of the arrangement of the
sfllns. Fragment5 of two sutras of the MQdh},amiigama. viz.. Updff and Suka, have been discovered m Eastern Turkestan.! The agreement between the Saf7lyu\';la Agama and Sal11y"tta Nik4)'a is similar to that of Ihe Mad/tyaltliigama and Majjllllla Nikaya. The Sagarhal'agga (Sec. I) 01 the two Pitakas has much in common but not tbe Nidiiflol'Ogga (Sec. 11); the 8th and 9th chapters of Nidilna, V'L, Samal,lobriihmatla li nd Alllarape),y(1!a are wanting in tbe A.gama, while the 1st and Sth chapler (Buddha and GaJll1[Jall) show marked differences. In the same section, Ahhisamaya. Dhiit" and other SalflyultQj are almost passed over
in the A.gama, but there is much Ihat IS common in the following live Saqt)'Ultus: AnamaJogga, Kassapo. LakkhaJ)a. Opcmmaka and Bhikkhu, In the XllOndllc-vl1gga (Section III) of the Agama. the 10110wing sal11.VIlUtlS are wantmg : Okkanuka, Uppoda. Kle5ll, Siiriplllta , Niiga, Gandhabbakaya, Valiha, Vacchagoua and J"dna, In lhe Saliiya/l1o·\'ogga (Section IV), the following are absent: Miitugama. MoggaffQna. Asankllatc, Sammappadhiina. Bdlc and Jddl:/pCda. while major portions of the Mcgga, !IJd,,}'a. and Saer-a
are omille!.l. The Sumyukldgama. as it exists in Chinc5C. is divided into SO J.
Hoemle, tp, rft.
DOOTIHNI!:901' OIlOU P lIT SCHOOLS
1 3~
sections and incorpo rates a large number of suttas of the Anguttara Njkiiya and a few of the other tex ts. There are also a few sutras which have no parallels in p al i. A fragment of the .~rofJaSlilra o f this Aga ma has beeo discovered in Eastern Tu rkesta n, while Prof. Sylvai n Levi traced a few quotations fro m this i\gama in the SQlrii/mikdra of Asailga,l and id~n t ifi ed the following fragments in the colh=ction o f Griinwedel: Kokanada-siura ( - Aligmrara, V, pp. I Y6 -~ 8); AllfillwpifJ~ada ( - AlIguuata. V. pp. 185-89); Dlrgllanakha SI1lro ( - Maiihjma, I, pp. 497-50 1); Sarabha-sulra ( '" Aiigutlara, I , p p. 185-88); Palil'riijaka.Slhal'ira..ulra and Brulmlal.loJalydJli sfillo (-Alig Uf!ara. II , p. 185)-arc all includ ed in the Chinese translation of the Somyuklfigama.' T he Ekollariigama and the Ailg uttara NikiijQ have very little in common. This is partly due to the fact that a large number of the suttas of the Afigultara is included in the Mudhyama and Sam)'ukto Axomos . The P,ili tex t is much more extensive than the Sanskrit, and it seems that the growth of this part o f t he Piraka too k place independently of each other. From Ak.annma's comparative studies, the followi ng siitras m:ly be p ointed out as being more or less common in the two Pi~akas: Samtlcirta (I, pp. 61-9), DewJt/iita (I, pp. 132-50), Briihma~la to Lo~laphala (t, p p. 155-2581, CaHa (n. pp. 32-44). MWJlariija (Ill, pp. 4 5·62), Ni I'arofJa (Ill. pp. 63-79), Aghiila (1lI, pp. 185-202), Dellalii 10 MoM (III , pp. 329-420) Al'ydkata to Malia (IV, pp. 67- 139), Gahapati (IV, pp. 208-35), SaciUa (V, pp. 92-11 2), Upiisaka (V, pp. 176·210), JCIIUSSOlJi (V, pp. 249-73), and AnuJ'sati (V, p p. 328-58). This is not an uhaustive list, for there are stra y agreemen ts ill other sections as well. A fifth .~ga ma was not recognized by tbe schools other thell the T herav ada . J n the Divyli~adiil1a (pp. 17, 33 J, 333) and elsewhere: the Agarnas a re referred [0 as AgOMacOIIll!QYOlJI. In the Nagarjunikol,H;ia inscriptions also, fo ur Nikayas are mentioned and not fi ve. T he Pali Khudt/aka Nikiiya is really a collecti on not of discour.;es, sho rt or long, but of a number of independent treatis~, which could not be included in any of the four Nikayas . I. ~e Winlernllz, 0". CII. D. 234 fn. 2. TOIIIIg 1'00, V, p. 209.
14{)
J3UDlUUST SECTS IN I"OIA
By Khuddaka, the PdlislS probably meant "other works" or "miscellaneous ..... o rks." Though the Sarvastivadins did not have 11 fiflh Nik:'iya, tbey hed a few lexts like the UdiinQI'orga. S,ilro· nipl1ra (AfJhaka and Piira.l"ana voggos). Sihavira-gu/hii. Dharmapado, Vlmallm'QslU, and Butldhal'0tflsa. which came later on to be collecdvcly called Kl udraskiigama (see above). Vinoyo I'illoya (('XIs: Our information about the Vinaya texts of the
Sarvast ivadins is derived solely from the: catalosucs of Chinese canonical literature. In Nunjio 's Catalogue, appear the followrng titles: (i) San'iisli~·iida-'I'illa)'a-lIliif! kQ. translated b! Sailghavallllan (445 .... D.): Tllisho xxiii, 1441; ~anj i o 1132. (ii) Sarl-iistiw?ida-I';lIoya-l,jbhiilii, translator unknown (350-431 A.D.); Taisho xxiii, 1440; Nanjio 1135, 1136. (Iii) San·u.ftil'("ida-,i//llya-smigfaha, compilt:U by Jinamilra, !nmslatcd by l-tsing (700 A.O.) ; Nalljiu 1127. (iv) DasQdhyaya-ri/luya-lIiddnu. trallslaLt:d by Vimala.k~a (being the preface: to the Du.i:ijJh.l'ilyu-'inayo), Nanjio 1144. (v) Dasddhycl)"a-yilluyu-bhik..lu-pru rimok,o, translated by Kumliraji ....a (404 A.U.) : Taisho "xiii. 1436; Nanjio 1160. (vi) Dusiidh,iiyu-I'illfJ}"fJ-bIIjl.1Unl-prllt lmokJo, compiled by fayin (42()-479 A..v.) : Taisho xxiii , 1437; Nanjio 1161. (vii) DuJ'iiJh,.uYfJ-lrllliJ)'CI or the Sarvllsrivllda Vinaya, translated by Putlyalara together with Kumarajiva (404 A.D) : Tai~hu xxiii, 1435; Nanjio 1115. The principal text of the Sunrastivli.dins was the Dasadh,-ri),a"'·;lIa),o. Fa-hien writes that he came across a Sarvastivada-vinaya in \'erses, but the Chinese translation of the Dastidhyiiya-I1'"aya a ttributed to the Sarvastivadins is in prose. The DasMhyli)'a (faisho ed., xxiii, 1435) is divided into 14sections. It opens with the eight sections of the Priitim ok~asu tra . The ninth section deals with ''Seven dharma~", I'j:., iik:iipoJa, p,o,fUJha, papaddana, \'aTl ii)'(isa, carmOI"QSlu, bhailojyarasruand ch ara (moral precepts, fortnightly ceremonies. confession . dwelling in the rai ny season, use of leather-shoes, use of medicines, and robes). The tenth section contains "eight dhnrmas," viz., Kathina, KOl4itimbr. Campii,
pOCTR I!>o.'F.S OF GRO U P III SCHOOU
141
Plir.(lufohira k a, Sanglu'iI'olNo·paril·asa, Pal icc/iiidaIlQ, Sayallii.rclla and AsamuMciirika-dharma (rules reomaking of Ko\h ina-robes, dispute at KauSambi, events at Campa, de!ds of Pa~ulo hi t aka monks, atonement for Sanghavas~sa-offences, concealment of irreligious acts, rules regarding bed and seat and proper conduct of monks).l The eleventh seClion entitled "saQl}ulta," i.e., miscellaneou~ rules, deals with dMra and o ther extraordinary precepts observed by some monks. The twelfth section is devoted to Bhik; U(lf priilimoksa containing, as it does, 8 Parajikil, 17 SUligliiil'aie;a, 30 Nail}sargika, 78 Pd.l'anlika, 8 PrcilideJalllyii and A.i/o-{l!/Qrmd. The thirteenth section fe-arranges the preceding rules in the £koltara style, from one to eleven dharmas. The concluding section, the fourteenth , contains Upiili-pariprc:clid, a well-known text on disciplinary rules.2 TIle text contains almost all the chapters of the Vinaya of the Thera\·;idins and t he Mu lasarvastiv;idins, and appears 10 be a much shorter ...ersion of tbe leJtt of tbe Jatter. From the litle, one expects len Chapters, but act ually there are fourteen, and so we have to ass ume that four of the fourteen chapters were later additions or were originally treated a s supplements. The 11th, 13th and 14th chapters are no do ubt later additions, bUI it is difficult to ascertain the fourth additional chapter. A close study or the Chinese translation along with Sanskrit text of the Mula· sarv;istiviidin5 will reveal the actual positio n.
A/ii/asGrvastiviida Vinaya As stated above, we rely on the Chinese versions of the Suvdstivada literature including the Vinaya Pi!aka. In this connection. it may be mentioned th at a large portion of the original MOlasarvastivi'ida , Vinaya was discovered at Gi lgit and edited by me after collating it with its Tibeta n versio n. It may be as;;umed that the VinH)'H texts of Saryastiv;ida and Mulasan'a stivada were not Yery different from each other. Fro m the Mulasarvastivada text, it appears Ihat the MUlasan·ustivad ins also,
I. See Bodhbama.p,ntlmol:sa.sutra. IntTo .• p_ 3 (I HQ.. vTT 2) 2. For run her detail;, sec: introduttien 10 Ihe MllIas~rvlstiy;ld.l-vin:l~a, (illgll Mss, vel. III, pt. iI.
!\UDDlI lST SEen 1:"-' I NDIA
142
li ke the Lokottnrvadin s, whose first Vinaya text is the Mohiivas lu, intrOduced many episodes reh.rine In the past and present Iiws of Gaulama Buddha. T he chapters of Ihis Pilaka that have bet n published (Gllgil Manuscripts, Vol. 111) are as follows :i. Pra~rajy a-vastu (frtlg!llentary) II. Po~adha-vastu (do) iii. Pra\ti.raQ.a-vastu (do) IV . Va r ~a-vastu (do) v. Carma-vastu (including the Sro I)Q-Kc!ikar03 avadana) VI. Bha i~a.l ya-vastu (also in frogment s) vii . Civara·vastu (co mplete) viii. Kathina-\'aS1U (do) ix. Ko~n:baka-vajtu (do) x. Kurma-vastu (do) xi. Pa~llilu l ohi taka- va$tu (do) }Iii. Pudgaia-yastu (do) ",iii. Pltl'ivasika-vastu (do) xiv. Po ~dhasl h . [ t may also be regarded as a QlIintesseoee of Ihe ~eve n Abhidharma texts. F o r a g~neral idea of the several texts at the present moment. we shalt have to de pend on the valuable analysis of the Chinese translations of the texIS made by Pror. Takakusu in the JPrs. 1904-05, and the notes given b)! Pror. Louis de la Vallee Poussin in his in troduction to the French translation or the AbhidharmakQsa. With the publi-
DOC1'RlNES OF GROUP III SCHOOLS
143
.cation of the Vyuk"yii it has become possible to comprehe nd {he terms awl nomenclaturcs suggested by Takakusu on th:: basis of the Chinese rcndedng5 and form a bctter idea of the contcn t3 of the texts. TiIC ~evcn lexts claimed by the Sarviistinidins as (;o[lstilutillg their original Abhidharmapi~aka arc a~ follows :1-
(0 (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii)
ltiiinaprastlulnasutra of Arya Kfltyayat)i-pulra with its ~ix supplements Va! padii~), viz.
Prakarat;1apiida of Sthavira Vasumitra Vijf.iinakiiya of Sthavi n Devasarma Dharmaskandha of Arya 5ariputra PrajiiaptiSii:;lra of Arya Maudgalyayana Dhatukiiya of purQ.a and Saligllj-paryaya of Mahakau~rhila.
(i) The Jiiiinaprasihiina-sutra is attributed to A.rya KatyayUl)iputra. In the Kosa it is stated that the actual author of thl' work was Buddha but the arrangement of chapters and topic!; were madc by Katyayaoiput ra and so its aUlhorship is attrihull'd to him. It was translated twice into Chinese, hy Ciotama Samghadeva of Kashmir and Chu Fo-nien, in the 4th century A.D., and by Hiuen-tsang in the 7th century. It is divided into eight .ections. The fi nit section contains exposition of ]aukiidigradlwrmas, jiiiillG, pudgala, sradd/rii, ahrikatii. l"Iipa and its lak.fU(w,anarlhaka (?), a nd caitasika (~best mundane topics,l knowledge. individuality, fai t h and reverence, lack of modesty, material constituents of the body and their characteristics, anarthaka (?) and mental states). The second section details the saf]l)"ojal1Gs or defilements, which hinder the spiritual progress of an adept, and the causes of defilements. The third section is devoted to the acquisition of knowledge (jiiana) (a) of doctrinal matters by which a sekha becomes an asekha, (b) of right and wrong: views, (e) of the means of a tta ining six aMijiiGs, (d) of the four truths and of the acquisitions to be made in the four stages oi sanctification, The founh section details what may be called evil works and acts with their consequences and also
1. 2.
Kola, 1, 9 & 11. Kola (Fr. tram1.), ;"lro., p. xxx. See Infra . p. \44.
[44
mrnOIH~T ~ F.r:TS
IS lNnTA
explains vijnapli and arIj11apli. ' The firlh section givo!s 311 e,'(· pmitioD of rlipa.f/:olldha. i.e. , the four conitttuents. and of those originating out of Item. bOI:l in ternal and e:HernJI. The si~ lh s«tiOn analyses the 22 indri),(J$ (predomi na nt (acull ies) and the three ~phe res of existence viz., kama, nipii tlnd (lf lipa. and explai ns in detuil the sparJ.:JIdl'iyQ, miila-cflfa, eiC. The seventh seclion is devoted to the men tal states de"eloped by an adept whIle he is In sQmiitihi. and gradually advance. from Sa kadag:\mi to Anlga mi stage. The last, Ihe eighth section explains the four smrly upasr/tii"Qs,
the various wrong views, and sim ilar other
mallers. The :oiternali"e title of the Jiiiina-prasrIJiiJlQ-Sii lra is A:ragranlho, as it contains eij/,hl chapter.;, relating to Lal!ki/Ciigra. dharma (~mind and me:Hal Scatts) which are considered to be the best of worldly (kuma and rupu dlullU) matters. It seems that this book corresponds to the DllOlllmasQJi1{a~li in P,lIL It con tains eight chapters: T hese a fe : (i) LallkikiiKradharma _ the best world-condit iom : (ii) Jfi{i'lOm knowledge of the natu re of all worldly objects : (Iii) Plldgallih - of ind ividuali ties: (i...) Sne!:a-gOilrawm _ Sraddhii _ Regard and firm faith in the T riratna. i.c .. Buddha. Dharma and Sangha: (v) Aflrfkyc1l1 - immodesty ; (vi) LakSOllal1f= charac1cri stics of the body, i.e.. QJli,yutii (- impermanence. i.e.. binh. o ld age and death) : (\'ii) Caal/ii . SlIf]lC('ulllii. adhiretal/Q- Idea. thinking. Dod deep thinking: (,iii) AnarlhakaJ1l=Pcrhaps. it means ··i ndifferent. i. e., neither ,ood nor evil"! The second chapter dea ls with (i) Aklisaia (evil actions a nd though ts in general) : (ii) SalllyojOl:i.ini = fcltcrs of hunlan life. Thc ~e are lhe illme 3~ Sat]I),ojo·,iini in P:ili: 0=
1.
" ·ol<1. I.!1. The above e""n'crlltio n IIn<1 Hllcfprct:OI;on lin: b.l~d on Ilx: Sll1:.1..lil lrar< la lin n or Iht reJr.";1n1 ChiOf'~ 1<"'1 by Sri S.\n!! Ilh,\<," o f $ilnl. N'\
Vi~.ab~nlli.
145
DOCTR INES OF GROUI' III SC HOOLS
(iii) SaiJacarltam - fetters relating to the dhalUs : K:1ma, RQpa and ArOpa ;
b~iDgs
uf the three
(iv) Sarn'Q~_ lhe waY!i lind methods to b::: alluptell lIy the denizens of the three dhiitus Iu get riu ur lIlI:: ~Wf')'UjUf'W (feller..) ; (v) DaJa DIYlr4(li_ it enumerates all Lht: ~un~dv al,)lc Impurities of the denizens of the thre!;; t.lhatu~. Th e remaining six chapters ha~e Bot yet bteu pubtislled by 53-ntl Bh ik~u 5astrf.
Dr. B:lrua mggests that the work
(Jifdr.apr~thiina .~·ii(ru)
ilia)
be paralleled to the Ptlli te:
work is expected to conta in topics leading to the high~t knowledge, which, in other words, is purity or emancipation. The second book is entitled Pral.:aralJ.aplJda. Its aUlhunhip is attributed to Sthavira Vasum ilra, who. according IU the Chinese tradition, composed it in 8 monastery at PUSkitl:iVitli. It was translated into Chinese by GUl)abhadm and 8oohiya~"3 of Central fDdia (4305·443 A. D.) and also by Hiuen-tsang (659 A.D.) . The work is divided into eight chapters. The first lIdinci riipa, Cilia, caitasikas, cittal"ipraYllktas and astV1Jskrtas' (material constituents, mind. mental states, non-mental states, and the unconstltuled) . The second dc=als with the s.tme topics as those discu!ised In tlte 185t twO chapters of the fou rth section of the J/1QI/Qprasllliinasiirra. The third explains the se nse~rgalls dnd their spheres of action. whi le the fourth defines scverulterJus, su~h as dlrii ru, iiyarol1a, skandha, mahl1bhnmlka 3 (cf. Ku~'u, II, 23; Ill , 32), etc. The finb chapter analyses the wlu';uyu~' (dormant passions), v.hi\e the sixth explains l"ijne)"a, anUnlf!y a and Qllasrol"ll dhQfnraS (things to be known, to be inferrC\.!, lind pure dharmas). 1 he concluding chapter, the seventh, appears to be an mde'C., containing all the technical terms with their meanlOgS III short. 1. Law, HiJlory of fiili Lit .. I, p. 137. 2. Stc: III/rD. 3.
KlJitI , ii, 61-62
14fi
BUDDH IST
sJ'.ms
1.'1 !.NOlA
The third book, ViJiiiilla-kiiya is attributed to Devasarmu, who, according to Hiuen-tsOlng, compiled it at ViSoka near Sravasti, about a century after Buddha's death. It was transill ted into Chinese by Hiuen-Isang (649 A.D.). 11 is divided iolO si'{ chlplers. Il contains an exposition of pudgn/a, illd,iya, ('iUIl, klda. \'ijtiOlUl, etc. as ghen by Maudgalyaya na, enumerates the dilferen! classes of beings, persons, CIC., defines the function of menIal Slales as Imu (cause) and iilambanQ (ba;is) of spi ritual progress and also of mental Slales of a perfect (i.e., Arhal) and an imperfect adept,! Pror. ?oussin remarks in his Etudes Asiot :qlll!s, 1925 (i. 343-76) t ha t the first two chapters contain the conlrovenics reiating to the existence of past and futu re, and of plldgala (soul),~ The fourlh book is en titled Dharma,!ka.'ldiJa , Its au thorship is attributed to Saripu tra, It was translated into Chinese by Hiuen-tsang (659 A,O.), In the colophon of the Chinese t r~lls lation this text is described a s " the most importa nt of the Abhidll(lrma works, and the fo untain-head of the Sarvastivada system." This book, il seems, appealed 10 the Chines\! not for its subtlety and dep th ot' philosophical discussions as for il> comprehensiveness outlining the general course of spiritual training p rescribed fO T a Buddhist monk. This work can also be paralleled to t he Visuddhimagga of Buddhaghosa. Its 21 sections a re as follows: SikKipadas or Silas; atlainmenli leading to SrOlapatti ; dcvelopment of faith in the Trimtna ; the fruits o f the four :;tages of sanctifica.tion, four Gr),a-pudgalos ~alll)'ok -sal11ka/po o f the eightfold puh; attainment of !Jdhipiidas; practice of SIII!IJUpasl ,linas: exposition of Ihe iiryasatyas; four dhJ'iil/us; ' fO.1f apromiilJo.1; four higher samiipauis (ilru/1Yos) , practice of bliarcllii; exposition of bodh)'Qligos, and tt.en an expositio:1 of inariyos, o),oranos, skcndhas and dharl/s. Its concludin,g chapter explai ns the twelve terms of the formula of causation
(prarrtYQsQmutpMa). The fifth book, DMtllktiya, is attributed to Piir(1a in the Sanskrit and Tibetan texts, and to Vasumitra by the Chinese writers, Prof. Takakusu remarks that the original Sanskrit had I. 2,
"'oia, vii. 12.
cr.
KQij; (Trans]), ii, p. !!iO (n, Sec bi/ra ,
UOCT fI
J N~S
OF OIl,OUI' III SCHOOLS
14'
probsbly mnre than one recension . It was translated lOto Chinese h} Hiuen-\sang (663 A. D.). The object or the [(catise is 10 ennmerate the dharmas. considered as 'reals' by the SarvastivAclim. The dharmas are classified under the heads : 10 maf"ihltitm;kas. 10 UeJa·maJuWllimikas. 10 pariuakfeJas. 5 kleJaJ. 5 dmif, etc. Thi s classification difTers: sl .ghtly from that round in 'Pali 1::'<15 and the AbJudharmakoSo. 1 Pror. La Valll:e Poussin Ihinks that this must be a ,'ery old text, which may be regarded :1" the source or the Pali Dllatukatltii also, as it discusses the t(1'lIpa)'ulla and l'ipPOj.·ulIa relatio ns of the dharmas as has been dene in the [)hfjlllkathii. The si xth book Prqjiiilptijlistra is attributed to Maudgalyaya na . It was translated into Chinese at a very latc date ( 10041055 A. D.) by Fa-nu ( - Dharmapaln) or Ma ~adha. Th e Chine~e text is incomplete. In the Tibetan version this treatise is d ivided into three parts. viz .. /ok(Jprajn(Jpfi, k(ir(J~apr(fiiiapti and karmaprajiiapti. The /okaprajiiapli appears in a well-di,ne:>ted rorm in the Abhidharmakosa (HI) . Prof. La Vallee Poussin has a nalysed the first two Prajiiaplis in the Ca,smoloJ!ie biJuddhfque (pr. 275-)50).~ In the Iokaprqjfiapri th~ cosmolo~i:al ideas of the Buddhists are given. in the kiiumapro,iiir.{Jli the characteri"lics tha i make a Bodhi~attva are discussed , while in the k armaprajiiap;i there are enumeration and classification o i d ifferent kinds oj deeds. The se\'enth book SaiJgftipary tiya is attributed 10 Mahiikau$!hila by y a.somitra and Bu·slon. and to Sftripu tra by tbe Chin:=..e writers. It was lramlaled into Chinc:r,e by HlUen-t)3ng (660-663 A. D.). This te:(t was compiled. according to the irllroductory remarks. immediately after Bud:iha's d e:uh t() aVert d isputes among the disciples regard ing lhe Budd hist teachinRs and di\ciplinary rules. The scene or thiS tex t is laid a t PJ V3. where dissen~ions amDng the Ni~aOlhn Niitaputtas stllrte:l an~r the death Dr their teacher. It arranges the (}f,armas, both doctrInal and disciplinary. numericaily in the Ekoltro style. i.e., gradu ally increasing the number of dharmas rrom one to len. The content5 or this ttXt agree to a large e",tent with those of the SaiJgfti and [)asuttara Juttolllas~ of tbe Drghonikiiyo. 1.
2.
Kq;u, lulru. p.l\JU;vii If.
cr. Oasottara-tQlra in AM ;t!lra""a"oirJ-~Jo/ild'J'd (Ia"
~rI ). T' ~90.
148
BUDDHI ST SECTS IN 1l\'O IA
Besides these seven recognized texts of the SarvastivMin there "'ere a few other d igests and commentaries dealing with the topics of the Abhidharma. The exhaustive A bhidhar m api ~a ka ,
commentary on the Jiiiillapraslhtillo-smra was, of course. the M ahiil'ibhii"f(l, compi led , accord i ng to Param iinha. by K !ltyd-
yauipu tra himsel f with the assistance of ASv agho~a of Sakel8. Anl0Dg the digest s, the most important work is Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakosa, which has got a bhii.rya written by Vasubandhu himself and a " .~'iikhyci wntten by Yasomitta. Then there are 1\\ 0 other texts, viz., Abhidharma-II}'ii),IIITUsara and Ab/Jidlwrmosamopo-pralilpika, attributed to Sarnghabhadra. an opponent of Vas uhandhu. Sa [Jlghabhadra w rOie these works to refute some of the the.>Cs of Vas ubandhu , especially l hose which were in support of Saut nintika views. .' T here was an ea rlier digest called th ~ Abhfdharmasiira written b}' Dharmasri. It contained eight Ch:lpler5, viz., dhiiru , SOII's· kora. anl/saya, arya, jiiiina, sallliidhi, miscellaneous siistrQl'orga
or \·(jtfa·l'arga. 1 Among other works of note belonging to this school, \\ e may
mention Siiriplllriibhodlwrllla, AbhidllarmomrldsiiHra of Gho ~a, Abhidharmahrdaya of Dharmottara a nd Lokaprajr'apti-abhi· dharma!.iislra of an unknown autho r. Doctrilles
In the history o f the secession of schools , it has been ~hown that the SarviSlivtid ins belonged to the orthodox group, which is why there a ~ many points o f agret ment between the Ther:lvu.dll and Sar'/:lstivad:: d oc tr in~ s .
I. SoMam aulti The principal pomt of d Ifference between the two schools is that the Sarvastivfrdin ;; maintain the existence of 5 ,tharn/u.r in their subtlest st:lfes at all times, whether in the past , present or futu re, while the Theraviidins deny any such exislence. The fo rmer accept the fundamen tal creed s of Buddhism, viz., anaUa and anicca of all worldly beings and objects. and their content ion J. For delails 5t:Ie La
Vall~
Poussin's Intra, (0 the Koia, p. b.iiL
DOcrR1Nl:!.~
01'" GROUP 11i $CHOOL9
149
is that the b~ings and objects constituted out of tbe dharmru at a particular tim~ are slI hje.::t to d isintegration but not the dllUrmas themselves, wnicn always exist in their subtlest states. fled.mc, for instance, may be kuSala. akuiala or ol'yiikrta at a particular tim'e anrl place but it exist!; at all times.l The Karhih·ar"n.t (1.6) presents th~ ariluments and counterarguments of the Sarvastivildins and the Theravad ins thus: The Sarviistiviidins maintain that all dlzol'amas exist but not always and everywhere and in the same form. In reply to the question whether khand ha s which are all different by nat ure exist uncombined (ayngam), they answer in the negative. This, however, gives a n oprortunity ro the Theravadins to show the fallacy Ihal if all ex ist then both m icchiidiUhi and sammiidil1hi shouldexiSI together. Then again by equating the past and the future with the present , the Theravadins show that if the past and the future exist then their (xi~tence should be predicated in the same way as of Ihe present} which the S. de ny, sayine: that tile past and the future e)Cist hut not exactly io the same form as one would speak of the present. The Th . have recourse to the reco nd argument, saying that let the 'present material aggreglHc' (JlaccIIPP(1Jlna'rjjpa) be treated as o ne inseparable object; DOW, :lner sometime has elapsed, this material aggregate becomes the ra~ t, i.e. gives up its presentness (paccuppanIlQbhiillo), to which the K agree; then in the same way can it be .aid thai the maler;:!l aggregate also gives up its materiality (rupa-bhih'a) ? The S. deny the latter inference. reaso ning thus - let a piece or white cloth be regarded as one inseparable o bject; now, when thill doth is coloured, it gives up its whiteness (like pacC!lppnnnahhiiva, as in the former case), but does it give up it5 d o thoess (like riipahlriira as in the former case)? This d isarms the opponents. T he Th.. however, follow up this argument of the S. by slIJdhikanaya (pure tOiie) saying tha t if the material aggrega te (ruPtJ) dne_, not give up its materiali ty ( rupt:Jbhiil'a)! Ihen nipa become!> permanent. eternally existing
I. 2. 1.
See Points of Cotllrover~y, Appendl~. PI'. 37$-1. UIUmt:nI j~ rCIJo:aled wilh cadI of the 1r.bflr'ldhas. C)'. rIlpllkkh:r.lldbena u lJlg1hilaUi.
Thi ~
ISO
III.-ODHI~T
SEOTS IN I NOlA
like nihMlla - a conclusion not accepted by the S., as according to the latter. rlipabhiil'O is different from nibbtmab/Jii!'G. The ne.t t question put by the Th. is, whether the past (at/la) gives up its pas tness (alitabhii,'a)? The S. answer in the negative hut take care to note that when the y say that oll/obl/ol'a e.'I(ists. they mean that anfigotahhii"o (fu turity) and paccuPPollJ1iiblicl'u ( pre>enlness) do oot exist li ke the ulilQhhtlla, and si milarly when they predicate e"
"r:Hern('nt is then applied to each of the khandhas. The Th. round up the discussion by their usu:!.I slIddhikanoYQ sayi ng that niT/a or otfrobMiI'(J wou ld tbell be the s ame as nihbiillD or nibbiinaMam, a conclusion rejected b} the S. T he T b. then take to l'{1clInarodhana (clearing up of verbal errors), saying that (0 if Ihe exinence of the past (olffa) and the non-past (l1iitlra) as also of the future (alliigata) and t he non-future ('10 alliig ata) IS denied , then the S. should not say t hat the past and the future exist: so :llso (ii) if the y do not accept the identity of atfta, paccuppanlla and af/iigafa, 1 they (.:9.nnot say that allta and aniig atQ exigI. The next argu ment of the Th. is that if the S. a dmit that pllcmppannmiii1}o (present cognition) eJ<jsts and it ha <; the functio n of knowing things ( paCel/pal/mJlII riii(IClIl l attl,i, tena iU/(lma iiii(lakcrOlJiYO'l' karoti) und then why not should the (ltifwiii(/Q und unagaroiiiir;u, the existence of .... hich is affirmed by the S. , hc\'e Ihe function of kno wing past and future things in ilnalogy 10 th ut o f paccuppa,mo·,iiill a '11 The Th . consider Ihis as i!iogicai c nd reject t he conte nti on of the S. that atltal.n ,iii(lalll mthi.
The Th . now take up the instnpces o f Arhats, Am1gaml s, etc., and show t h.1t according to the S.'s statement that aWa rliga exists in an Ar hat, that atria byapiJda exists in an An:'lgl'lmi, and so forth , an Arhat should be sar17go , an Amlgllmi should be I . By havlnl! recounc to the discussion whether Rum} IlOli. hllll'il hOfT,; lind '!a hum} /la 1'0Ii, no h~lvii IIIl harfti, the Th. 1hooY logiell 11y lhe untenability of thIS assertion of the S. (KI'~. P t25) . . 2. I n the te~t, t hi~ argumcnt i~ elaborlltcd by II,e allllli~illiuu uf this general
IVa. lejo and 'OYII (paras 47-4!1).
DOCTR INES OF GROUP III SCHOOLS
151
b}'tlpanno-citra, and so on, but lhis inference Is nOI aecepted by
the S. The laM arg ument resorte~lges from the Suua PI!s ka in i Upport of their l'Olllentiolls, one howeve r remaimng unconvinced by the other. Tin: fulJowi og may be taken as the opinion of the S. : I The past and the fUlure , as usually understood, d o not exist t !1 ou~h they are perceptible in the present .1 In the same sen e, the lIun-past·future should a lso be laken as non-existe nl. 2. It is bMva of cachof the five kbandh!l.s, and not the khandhas, that JXrsists in the p :1St, present aDd fUlU re. 3. An object (Vasl l4) may lose its paSl ne n, presentnes>, or futurity but not its obJectness (l'aSIUlt·a). bUI that objectness is lIu t iuentical with nlbbllna or nfbbtJllobM,.a. 4 , An Arhat, e.g" has attra rc'lga but he Is not therefore 10 be n:ganJeu as 'sarago'.·
cr
'1he S. admit impermanence (ani/yo/d) of the conStlluents but they contend thllt the "dbarmas" (or bhavas) of the past are transmitted into the present and likewise the "dharmas" or the lulure are latent in the present. This we may ill ustra te, by Clung the eXl!.mple of n ~weet mango - the past mango seed transmits IOtO the prer.ent its ' rrmngoness', if not the 'sweetness' ; and, simila rly, the 'future mango' receives its 'mangoness' from the present : t he mango seed can never produce any OIher frUlt though there may be a change In the quality shape and cololJr E.¥. umi gu:u',1 h"n'u lIaCC"" pomWI/I !Iu fl but umjjafU IS no t iden tical II(lCCuppunllu in the ordinaf)' ~ense, though in purcllpranllU there is \ the dhanna of) u lltr.fala so in thai 5CnliC pucC".Jpptm 'iD iJ ur.agatu. ~ . cr. the views or Sa lt~ 5Choot~ r::. tJllUJiJj'a, pp. 8-Ir.. I !~ tr. I,
.....lth
152
BUDDHIST SECTS IN INDIA
of the mango. T he S. speak of a beiog in the same way. According to them, a being is composed orf\ve dharmas (not five khandhas), viz" (i) cWa (mind), (ii) wi/osIka (meow I slale:.). (Iii) ,Cpa (maUer), (iv) l'i.'ilJf1JprayukuHDrpskb.rlJs ( ~ta tes imk:pcu" dent of the mind),' and (V) osQJ1Uk!las (Ite uncomtiIUltd).s The I. In Valurritra this appean also as • separate opi nion of the S.: The ph010mena il,i, It.,,), ,thill, QlU/)'!I/tJ are ciua-I/JOWlfJ'O)'uI
or
2. 'These fh'c are sub-divided lDOO seventy·five thus : I.
(b) lndrl)" l~
KQpa (1): (Q) 1'1[Q)'O (') (i) I apa (ii) tabda (Ii i) aandha
(iv) rasa
(iv) jilwendriya (v) klIyendri~a
(v) sparia (I .
JIJ
(el Ql'ljllap'; (I>
(i) cakJurindriya (Ii) Irotrendriya (iii; II.hrll)Cndriya
Cilia (I> Cailasltu (46) : (02) MIIMlJlrilnilt1l (10)
(scuvoc:i lla-bhDvo.twt, Kola, II, p . 42) (i) ve~lInA (vi) ma li or ptajlia (ii) samji'ii (vii) 5mrti (iii) cel~ na (viii) manasklra (iv) spatia (ilt) adhl mot~ lV) chanda (It) SIImWhi (II) x..JaIa"',Q!t#JIfOmi;c02 ( 10)
(vi) alobba (viii advda (viii) a?limsA (ill) prambdbi (,,) aprumada
(il tnddbl
Iii) vlrya (iii) upcktJ. (iv) hr1 (v) ~palr4pya
(C) Klda·mahd/JhflmlkQ (6) (d) AI;us<1/Q'",aMbltij",ika ( 2) (i) moha (i) ah -Ihl;'i (iiI pramada Iii) anapatrltipya (iii) h ufldYI (iv) .Jriddhya
(v) $111M lvl) auddl!atr.a
(el
Upakld(J-b~ulllfka( I O)
til krodbo. (ii) avllkp (iii) milsary'
(I)
An"y.,w·b""",i~u (8 )
(I) kaJkrlya (ii) middha (ill) vitorka
DOCTRlN t;~
153
0.1' GROUP 10 SCIiOOLlJ
five dharmas (not elemenl s II .~ usually understood) persist in a beinS, the present being Ihe re.mltll nt of the past. and potential o r the future. An adept IIft~ r hecoming a sotapomo remains so in his following existence, pro·,ing thereby that his past dharmas continue and the th ree sn'flyfljonos l remain ineffective. II may be
argued by the Th. th:lt the three sOQlyojanos have altogether disappeared ; then the Slltvastiv.idins may cite the instance of S:\kadagamin as a blotter ilI u<;tnltiOIl. A Sakadagamin reduces TaKa, dOIa :l nd mo/w to the minimum, and in hi. following births tha t state continues, provine Iht" continuity of pas t 'dharmas'. Now we may paiS on to the case of the Arhats. The ArbalS. it wi!! be seen, become completely free from riiga, riosa and moho, but accordine to the Th., these li te destroyed for ever, but according to the S., these rflga, nOla lind moho persist t hough in an ineffective rorm, and these may reappear and cause an A rhat fall from Arhathood- a topic discuSM:d in the Kvu. (I. 2) a nd attributed by Buddhagbo~ to the S., viz., Parihii)"ati oralio arahatro Ii l'
(iv)
IffYa
IV) prada&! ( .i) yihirpsl (vii) upanaba
(viii) maya (ili:) iAlhya (11) mada I V. Ci Ua-vi prayuk.ta (14): (i) pnlpti (il)
aprapti
(ui) sctbhQ ~llt6 (iv) asamjilikll IV) asarnjili·samapatti
( vi) n irodbl-Samiipall i
(vii) jivita v . Asarnskrtl (3): (i) AklSa
(iv) vicara (v) rqa. (vi) prnughll (VIi ) mA na
(viii) vicit.itsl
('1m) Sad (IA) ~t h it i (>I) jarfl (Ii) aoi tys!a (xii) lI1InakAya (llij i) padaUya
(xiv) vyat'ljana·tiiYI
(n) pni.lt$alfltltYI-nirodha aI'HI.1~rnk h) a-nirodh ...
<'ii)
See Rosenbera, Di~ robillm, du b ud"hi~'''uh~n flhil".lnl'hi~, pp. 128.9. RAnu la ~nkily~ana , Ahliitihorff,Q·koia. Table Ill.
1. Viz_, SIIkkayoditl"ii sl/llbN/aporonuha, vicJ/.;i~lhQ, 2,
For it, eJ.posi lion, see ante, p. 107.
154
BUDDHlrI &2Cn IN l1i ol-'.
In Karii::as 25-7 of the fifth Kosasthana of t he Abhidl/QrIS a detailed e~position of the main thesis of the Sarvastivadins, VIZ. , Sarra", asci. The contention of the S. that
makosa.' there
the dharmas exist in the past, present and futu re rests on certain
statements found in the :\garnas, one of which is as follows: fqqr.,*~qdl("'b1I·'tlli'
!f;: ~: S«lR~ t ~ ~
iAIQ~lIq
""" f.lm
...t
f<mrq f"".", .fll
is impermanent. not to speak of the present. A \ell rned Sran ka. who realizes this, remains unconcerned with the past nipa. does not rejoice a! his future riipa and exerts to rid his mind of the present rupaj ,Z On the authority o f this statement taken literally (k~(;'atah). the S. contend that if the past rupa does not e:(isl, there was no necessity of instructing an adept to remain unco ncerned with the same. In the same way, it may be said of the future and the present.s The same statement when interpreted (arthatab) yield s a furt her a rgument. viz., every I'ij/irilla (perception , cognition) requires the combinatio n of two things, the sense-or~an and its object. Now, one speaks of manoviJliiina (mental perceptio n, cogn ition) of past aCls or things. T his also implies the existence of p ast acts or objects. otherwise bow could there be rm:mfJ\'ijiiilnQ of the same. The same argument is applicable 10 future acts or objects. I Then agai n, if there be no past, how can one spea k of a n effect due to past good o r bad deed s, At the moment when the effect produced there is the liipiika·I!elu, whicb is past. S For the reasons stated above the S. affi rm the existence of
is
I . See Stchcrba tsky, Cell/ral Conccpli{)t! nf RUfldl,(.",. App<-ndi:<, pp. 76-91: L.1 V
M v,., p. 4-44 ; Bh l!ddek"ral{a· ~((lta in ,\/uJ/himo., iii. p. Atit arp n,),nv.lgameyya. nappa!ik.an~hol anaRalam. Yad a ;IHIIll pahi1al1l tarn, MPFl u an ca an/lgalarp, J>a c<:upp"nnaryl co. yo dhammll.'fI {puha laClha vl)l
l.
cr.
1~7 :
DOCTRl l\'ES OF GROUP
m SC IIOOW;
paSt and future of dral')'os only, and nol of bllcllo,
155 IQk,a~'Q
or
alO Hhii.
The Snrviistivud n exp onents, however. differed among them. 5ehe$ and in terpreted t he e.lislence of beings and o:'je.:-Is in the past. prescn t and future in divers: wa)s. thus: (I) Dharm ntr;ita SUtes In:\! the objects rem3in t he same and und ergo only modnl changes (blull'lin),arhiitl'c), i. e, in form :1nd qU;l]ity. giving rise to different ootions, such 3S, past, prtse:lI And future. 1\ .thillS origin Lltes when it tukei new m odes or fo rm ~ n d qll,llity nnd is destroyed when it abandons them. He cites the instance of gold and ornlments made out of II. as also of milLnnd curd. pointing OUI that the gold and the subslance o f milk remn in the slime. though both undergo dunges in fo rm and QU:1lity by the addition or subtneti on of something el!Oe. The DH'dnl changes are described as past, present and future, deeR} Il nd ori,!:in , nod ~o fo rth. A cerl!l in objet I gh es up liS fulu re mcde or form aDd qu ality and reachei Ihe pre;ent mode. Similar!) it Ilb~ nd tm5 its prescnt mode lind attains thc pu t mode. If it not be so, the futurt:, present a nd past objects would be e nti rely diffcrent from one anOlhcr. Vamband hu h!ts criticizcd this view tiS simi lar \0 the S:itpkh ya doct rine of evolution (parl!l iima). ad mitti ng, however, the furdamental differellce bctwe~ n SUlf\khya and Dharmalr:ita'i view thtll t:'e former upholds Ihe existence of an eternal reality (prtlkrti) while Dharmatrutll adheres 10 the impcrm:lnenl nature of worldly objects. (ii) Gho~aku Slfltes Ilmt c:'ery phenomena l objeci has three: chu ractc ristic:s, viz., birth , old age und dCllth, lind these e."
156
liUUlJHl~"'T S~!,; I
5 IN UWIA
inctplion becOmei past and its ultimate decay future. By this .argument, Gho jaka established change in cha racteristiC'S (/nk,o!liinyathiill·a). Dharmalriita deals with the object and its form lind quality (drm'ya and bhlira) separately, while Gh O~3 kQ takes the tWO as inseparable. Gho~aka argues that i f the three characteristics (lak ,a~lQs) do no t exist together and be completely separated (1';)',41
(iii) Vasumitra (1st century A.O.), author of Pariprccitii, Pmical'aswka and olher treatises,l states that objects exi st at all the three times; past, present and (uture, and do not undergo any change either in substa nce or in thei r form and quality or in their chara~te r i sl ics us contended by Dbarmatr5ta and Gho~a ka .l He holds that it is the activity or function (kiirirra) that detennines the pastoesi, presentness and futurit y of en object (araslhiinyotluill·Q). When activity is taking place. C.g., when eyes fu nction and see an object as it is in substance, m KuJ.J-v)Ukhyu eJil p. ed.), p. 470. Thili, aocording to Fa-pliO, i, tho opin ion or Sa1j1ghnbhlld rll. Accordi~1i: to P'ou-k cuna: this opinion is also expressed in the ViMii,';; . c r. ICJ;jaryakh)o, p. 470. 3. AhhfdhQrmakoJa (l a p. t d.), p, 167. 1.
2.
DOCTRVo.'1'Ji
or
GROUP III SCHOOLS
1>7
form and qU3.lity or in characteristics, it is called present: likewi ~e . when the activity C(:cses, i.e_, when eyes ha\'e eompbted steing an object, the object is regnrded a.s put. Similarly, when the activit)' will take place with rega.rd to nny object, the objcct is described as future. In other wo rds. in all objects, a U the thrce time·faetors arc co-existent. and it is the activity or iunetion Ihnt determines the time or nnlure of an object (ad"riinQ~ kdrit ..t:1Jll 1'} 'UI"t'/ rtllitli ~) . Had there been nOco-existence of the time-factor.;, the past and the future would be non-eltistent like the horns of a h :m:. Pastness or futu ri ty, !lceording to Vnsumitm, is neither an error nor absol utely non-existent . Hcnce. all phenomenalob· jects exist in the past, pn::scnt and fut ure. Hc cites thc instuntt o f a cipher and its position in a mathematical figure. Just as 4 CIphe r placed before the figure I hns no value, and whcn placed after the figure I, it carries the value of 10, so also an o bject by its activity is determined as past, present and future. Of the three inlerpretation ~ stated above, Vasubandhu gives pH.:fefence to Va5umitra's view, but criticises it abo as fault y. Vasubandhu argu~s that, accord ing to the doctrine of " all e.\isb", "'..iirirru" should abo be existent along with the object at I.:ription (~e Itbove, p. 132.). He "titles th.! ! the phenomeDlt1 ubjcc15 e~ist at a il limes; the y are tlt:lluku as p..1S1, prescnt o r fulure relatively (onyolltilnyolhfJ. ull·U). Like Yusumilra, he uu::s nUl agfc\: whh lhc contention uf Dharm,,· tnita anu Ghu ~aka llnil ubjc!":lS ullu.:rgu ch:lIl~e ill fu rlll ulliJ 4uality ur in lime-cIHlrtlctr;:risli!;;,. He says lital an ulJjccl lemains the ~amt: dt all times. but It i" de noted as future with refelence to il" t:lo.i"tenee in the past a nd present, likewise the present is
158
DUDDII1ST SECTS 1:'1 INDIA
dcnolcd with rdcrenc~ to ils existcncc in the prcsent a nd futu re. The usc of past. present n nd future d ~pe nds on t hc relative cxiste nc~ of un object. He ci tes the iosunee of 11 woman who is described both as a daughter a nd mother with refe rence to her fatl'er :lnd son . Buddhadeva contends tha t while cvery object possesses all the three ti me-f(lctors at the sa me time. only one time-facto r is pointd out in reh lion to a nother. It is sometiling like saying tha t a certai n object is curd in its presentness, m ilk in its p:ntness and cream in its fUlUrity. An o bject, Ihe anterio r ex.i s tenc~ of which is known and flot its posterior, L denotcd as future: again ,111 object, the an terior and posterior existences of which :He known, is dcnotd a s present : then, again, an object. the posterior existe nce of which is kaown and no t it~ anterior. is de noted as past . In this man ner, Budd hadevit e~ l a blished the exi stence of:Hl object at all times (Iri·kiito ·SOI ).l Vasubandhu cri ticizes thi s vicw, saying tb ut, according to Buddh:deva, three time-factors become one (c/;asmim cl"{ulhv(llIi tra)'o priipll lll'clIIfi), which is un tenable.
II.
MClirrC (amity) and Ka/"lIl,1ii (compassion)
The S. in conwnanee with the Th. regard Buddha as a human being b ut the y atlnbutc to him divine, w metimes :>upcrdlvme, powers. T hey look upo n the Bodhisatt ...as as P!lIlJlljjo7ll0S who m ust destroy the worldly fetters like an average adept tn o rder to step IIlIO lite sQlllrakll'QfI}'Oma or soliipmlila!;ood. ,",ccordi ng 10 the S .. '"sentient comcious rn:ings are not ohJecls of moltr' and karll{lll and so font; 011 the part of the Buddha ," 3 oj , rurther, "if a nyone adhe res to the view that there are sentient beings he cannot rea lize cnwm."ipatkm. " The first opin io n is opposed in the KI"JI. (XV III. 3 : Nallh: Bllddhasa Bhagarlllo karu{111 til on t he ground that the Buddha is descri bcc In the ICXIS as 'karUlJiko' and t hat he sometlme~ enters Imo mah(7iwrJI(I(J,f<1lllllpartl and so he has kOrll(I(1 for senti· ent beings.J In the pal i texu. the practice of four brall/lIadllllras. maflrf. kar/l{ll1 , murfi/II and upek,ro, form an essentwl part of the Th errtv~ d a code 0[" spiri lUat practice. It is by mClns of I.
Ku1u·,)u~hJll,
2. A Il
lh~!i"
vic ....,
(Jllf! "J .J, 410-11. ha v~ bun JillCu$l<:d earlier,
Sec
pp.
73(. above.
OOCTR I:,El O f O IlOl' l' : 11 sC HOO l...
159
brahlllm'ihjjrns Ih:l l all adl"p t lS :lble 10 :001.:. upon all be ins> us one llnci Ihe s,1 me. I n mhe r wl>rdc;, Ie d..-velops SQIIJQliipj{jIlU .
Regarding the c;o::ond ,)pin inn, Ihe S. "1;lIe only Ih? a~i ()ma t k trut h that in Ruddha', eye, "0 inciivlciu;II ~ngi ex!.>1 IJId as l'iu~h they ca nnot b:! the oh.1!C1 0'" h' ~ 1I/f1/,rf and hml{I,I. There arc three other view~ relat ing In RuclJha's teach ings, which are o pposed to those of the I\ lah!klliehikast but :I re in keeping wil h Ihe human conceptIon o f Ruddh:I T l("'>e are' (i) The Buddhas cannO( c(Plmnd all d~ITloe~ 'Wil h a sl n gl~ uttcracce. (i i) The world-ho noured One u\terc; wonh ",hich :I f f!'. not :l lways in conformity \.I.ilh the lruth . (iii) The s~ tras delivered by Budd ha have " "ii" ,hn,l :lnd t hcro~ are even lome O/ril{jrl"a ·~iit"H Ill .
Arlwts
A ccord ing to the Sarv:islivftdins, Vasumitra SU}S: (i) A srota-apa nna h:ls no chance of ret ro.~ rcss i o n while an a rhat has. (ii) All arhat> do no t gain (Jilurpiida-iiitilla. (iii) An arhat is governed by pratrl)'a~amutplidiiliga (limb. of t be caus.11 law). ( iv) Certain arhals perform meritoriocs tecds. (v) Arhats a re nol free from the influe,ce of thei r past carma. ('i) Arha1S ~ain lrail'asaikiu-,Ilisaikia.;,iipw. (vii) Arhats gai n the four fu nd..1mentu l dhyanas ; they carnat realiz.: l he fruits of dhyiinas. T he fust opinio:l that 3rhats may h::.ve retrOl!.ression is the same as th:lt of Ihe Mahasa ilghikas and thei r slb-sccts (discussed above, p. 23f., 82[, 106f). The S., lIke the M.. aSiume the existence of t wo c1aisei of arha ts WIth d ifferent degrees of uttlinmenlS.a According to the S., all arhat s a re !lot completely I. All lhese vjcw~ h .. ~~ bo:1: 'l U;K:u!o:ied earlier, !itt pp. 73r aNlvc. 2. Tho! word II/(iirlhll means 'Iireralor (\ne.;1 me:lnlfl&' and duct n CJ conve! the real and Inferred 5t'nse as tbe r.t')'}'tlrl"a doei. 3. s~ &Ja. vi. 64 : The: UUhilJ..IlcbhliavHl1UII. ·Q fhQI~ realise nlrodhuamJiparrl and remove: bot h t!eM.varalJll (obstacle or r".1 •• ion~) lind v(mo.
(obstDcle to the know!edllc of Gk./mll(/~FI/II of IJU'II1l and " ipc ) while the: Praji'lavilUukla .arh" t3 H~ th 03C wllu .",UlUVo! only ktcSJVanlt;ll by menn! of prUJfla. For Ihe si ~ kinds or arba ts. Kil KIJJa. vi. 56ff k'~vanll::!a
160
I)L"DDHDT
~!.CT3
IN I NOlh
perfect - an opinion not aC'C'epl~ by lhe Thenvlidi n'l.. th nugh the latter have no objection ",huever to dislingui<;.hinl arhats 3§ Sa( -svo).dhom,"akllso/a and P(lr(l·diwmlll(1k ll ~nla. It is interest. ing to find this o?inion di.~c ll uen Hlso in the Milindapaiiha.1 where it is said that there are :.rhat!1 w ho rn:\y not be aware of the na me a nd golfn of any and tV~y person, the va riom roads and so forth, but there m ay b~ !>Orne cnnver<;anl wi th the \' imultis.2
The &eCond opinion reilerates the first in anothe r form . The S. hold th:lt some and no t all arhats 83in the nnutpiidaj,1iillo (lit. knowledge of tbe ces;auon of rebirttt), but :111 may have k i D)YJjliQII(1
(lit. knowledge of the extinction of all imrmrities in one-
$elf). The M. assert that o nl y BLiddhas and not ArhnL~ ca n have both k la)'ajfiiina and am/tpiid3jiiuIIQ.3 Regl!rd ing the third o pinion, Mr. M asuda on the baSii of SI/I/-chi says that of the twelve items of the ca us:d law. four, v;£" m'imariipa, ~~ayatanQ , phussa and verlana - (or, according to ano ther interpretation, only \ed.lni) remain aeli"e in the ca~e ofadmts, the other itcrm, i.e .. Dvijj.l, S3l'Jlkhiira, taoh:l, upadana bhllYu. jilli, and jarii-maraQn. becomi ng ine:Teetive. The C hinese interpreta lion can be I1ccepl~d only if ' ,-edana' is limited 10 'aduklha-asukha-,·edan.i', for an arhat is cha/upekkho' (endow. ed with inllilTercncc to the six indr/yas, i.e., the organs of sense) com: intu cuntact with the re!pcctive objects of the sense o rgans which do uot evoke any feeling , good or hLld , in him . The fou rth opinion speaks of Pilliiiopacaya of an Arh:lt. The Th. and Mabisasa!cas rejec t it, so also do the M ahiis.lI'1ghikns.' The Arhab li Te said to have done all that is to be done (leata. kar(lf)'c) and are beyond merit (lnd demerit, good or bad; he nee to speak. o f sume of them as collecting merits shows that the I. /lfi/i"dapaMD , p. 267: Avisa),o mlMrija ekaCClU$!. arahlto sabbarp ji'lnilul1l no. hi USSll balam Ruh i SZIbblm j6nitul'['l cr. K"u .• II . 2 ~Dove p.SU.
2. The five villlurlis llre-{t Ila:l. tU'Ila\imlllti or vipP,,"s.auil·i\i(UI II/win:d by remO"'1llI th~ lIJi!ICQocc:ption! (If nic:cG, nimilla lite., (2) viklc hambhar.a. v,muui or p3.l:Clvc:lckh.a"l.i'ilQ:l, (1) nm,u:c:hed3vi'TlUlli or mana·:'-tl.('3. \4} pa!;,,,,madhivi r.lu lti or phala·Mna. and (~) mssaral)o'lvimutti. 3. See above. p. 82(. 4. Ofglia , ,ii, p. 245; M~JJ"'mtJ, J, p. 2 1'1; /{vu, p 21iO. 5. /ofajJhimo, U, p. lU'.
OOCT1U~ES
161
O F GROUP III SC HOO I.S
S ., lilt: ti le Andhalo.as, do no t look upon all arhat~ 6.5 complctely perrect. The fi fth opinion tha t arhats afe subject to thc influence of p as t k ormo is JX'rhaps based upon some instances found in the Pita kan s tories that ArhalS li ke Angulimil.!e und Mllhnrnogga. 1\;1na: s uffered pain o n account of their P:lst karma. ~ In the sixth o pin ion, the word lIail'asaik f a-lliilaikfa, as trans· lated by Mr. Masuda, appears lob<: a mbiguou,;," and preference should be given 10 the mean ing " nirv&Qu" as assigned t o it by the: /lfalliivyulpalti. The: sense would tbcn be thm, according t o the: S., some, and no t all, arha ts altaiD Nirvtll;aa (full cman'::lpa· lion). The sevcnth opinion has not been taken up for discussio n in the Kvu. The Kosa (\·iii. 6) tells u s that there are eight f unda· mental dhyiinas (lIIa~/a·sa '"iipalli-dravyiilJi) i.e. , fo ur dhycllos and four iirupyas (higher dhy.inas). The contention o f the S, is that all arhats complete the four dhyii.nas but !ill d o not necessarilyaltaiD th e fruiu of the four dhyii. Das,' which are detailed in the KuJa (viii. 27-28), thu, : by the fi rst dhyAnn, o n e obtains drl/trdharma-sukhal·jhii,.a,& by the second jiiiil/a-darJana (Of dirya-cakl llra!Jhijri jj),' by the Ih ird prajliii-prablreda,' a nd by the four lh IJlliisrcH'Ulii.' lY. Samyakt l'{Jllytima' (destined to attain nirvar.Ht) Vas umitra attributes the following opinions to the SarvAs(ivadins :Mfllndapafilla, p. 188. Milim.:lp.1iih:z, p. 134: Nil hi mnn.irija sabbantarn veda yitatyl kam_ mamnlalrnTfl. See:ol
:t
luk havihira).
6. !II. Insig ht lnlo the rnl
Pilli :
i\A?lldl!s5~nll).
S\at~
of IhfngJ i.c. free (rom
lI~ y
"Iku/p u. ( -
7. lit. sp;:cial or detail!d knowledg e or the things or lhe world - the corres ponding Pall e:xpressio:l is p3:is:lmbhidl. 8. lit. purity (~l i : A$lIV!nlilll khay nj. 9.
For reference<; sec Keta, vi. p . 181 f".
162
RUDDH IST
SF.CT~
1:"1 l!\DTA
'''q'';''
(;) A peeso" " " ''''''.''akn,.,,,y.,ma Ih co" ,h Ih' m,d;lal ion 01 flill),a 'ii and (J/, ralllllirow; a penon in .mlll),oktra1I)'(lmo IS cnlledprarfpanllaka up to the firlee m h (or th~ last ) momen t of the (lad Ollomarga. In the sixtcenlh moment he is called J1"ola~'''a when he is i n blu11'ClUj · IIItjrga
t il) A pe rson can acquire ~mll)'lIktr
(i ii) A being (in Rftpu
Alli.J to the above three, there a re two other views att ributed to the S .• viz ..
(iv) There are cert ain dev3s who lead a holy li fe.
(v) There is no one who is free irum pa~sju;1 ill lli~ Ullarakuru. No saint is born there or ill the A sulilii-J"ufll'u/oku. The first th rec views r:lise the question of samFok n onyiima. i.e., of persons \\ho are destined to attai n Nirva(La. and h:J'Ic no
chn ncc of being d ivcned from the Aryan path Elnd going to lower states or joini ng heretical sects. An adept in samyukll"QIIyiimli is the sume as sotiipartimaggapalipanlla, i.e., one after destroying the three .famyojanas (impuri ties). viz .• sllkkii}'adillhi (belief in a self). 5llabbataparomtl.fO (belief in the efficacy of rit\l al~) and l'lcikicc/,,/ (lack of rai th in the Triratll3.) is on the way 10 .mliipotlipliala. According to the sche m ~ of the S .. an Adept remain:; srorJp(lIlipha/a-pratipannaka for the first fifteen mi'mtnl<;, i c .• up 10 the d ~ve l o pm~nt of marge anvllyajlia,wk.(;;IIII ,1 when he co mpletes the (Jariol1w/Uirga: from the 16th m oment he is in srotiipatriphalastfJa or srotiipaJlna . The Ii r~ 1 opi nion raises the question wh~thcr onc cnn become a umiipUlliph(l/a-ptofipallllako by the mcdi letion of sUI/yatli (i.t:. IllI/illl/o/a) and (Jpra'lifll'/QIO (i.e. du(IJ:lw/ii) and anilya/(jt 1. See il/lfli. 2. cr. ,Asia M Qj<)', II. p. 40,
n.~.
DOCTRINEJ OF GROLl' III SC HOOU
. bJ
{In:! not of Qll jmirtata ; ' the answer given by the S. is in the nffirmati\'c. Th~ second de.:! l" with thc problem whether J(l·".nll..II'UlI)I'IIIU foll owed by Drh~thood cnn be attained without the: prac : ic~ the four d .lyilnas, the S. asserting that It is po~siblt.: to alluin Hrhathood by meons of certain practices o tln:r thall t ho~~ n cecssnry ior dh yA nas, c . g., by means of 5IU!lytfPUJ/liu"uJ ur brulmloliharO.T and so for th.
or
The th ird is concerned with the problem : wh: tbe r gods in the R upu or ArOpadMIU can gain sumyakll'llN)'iimu a s also a rha t· h uull . The S. hold that the} can Juain the laller but nOI the for· mer • .is it can o nly be attained by :1 be ng while In the KamalIhatu. This problem is d l scus~ed m the J(I'U. (1.3): Noltllide1(!s/I braltmacarl)'tJrtiso II ?-an opinIOn held by the Sammitiyas. The o pinion of Ihe S. is upheld by the T h. In the J(I'II. it is contend· cd th:1t · bra.h m a·ca ~ IYllvlIsa · docs not meun merely pravrajya (ordinallon), mUIJ~iynrJ1 (sha\'en-headedness) and so forth as he:d by the Samm lliyils, but
The fou rt h opmion of the S. is thai the godse.'(cept t 1C As:ln· ha\'e maggabh(jt'O/~a . tho ugh notpabbajjJ, fIIUlJ{li.l'UlP etc. The tinh opinion is based o n a passage of t~ AI/g. Ni.I... (iv. 396) and cited in tt:e Ki'I" (I. 8, p. 99), in which it is s ta ted thai the mhabil:mts of Jarnbudvipa surpass those of Uttarakuru 'Ind TaV ;lIirpSil heaven in energy. mind fulness and in religious life {brahmocariJ'ih'iiUl) ;Z from this it has been in ferred that there cannOI be any saint in Ulla rakuru .J It has been menlioned above that the S. as well a s the T h. excl ude the Asai'ii'iisatl:js nj~" tt as can
I.
Mr.
Masu d~
o n lhe b;!sls of fa-JCD Sla tu that JJhnrmagllpl3 hckl
Ih:1I one cllnnollillain IQmJ'..~' t _,ydmu wit hollt ...,i",i/lw.umiitP,,·, A~t'" ,\tUfur . p . .40. n. Q. 2. Po"w of COIIlrovefSY. O. 73. 1. T he S. are mak.ng an anomaly in drawing the irrercnces. If Ul tarl .kuru cannot ha\'C any gint how ca n Ih;: Tiivali'flSa bav= any!
164
from the gods who follow n religious life. and AsaiiilisaUiis nho there cannot be !In), G:lint. 1
S0,
amo:\.g the
V. Allllpllbbfibbiscmoyo (gradual realisat:on of the truth) Vasumi tra attri butes 'he following view ~ to the Sarvast;vadms : (i) The four truths nrc to be meditAted u()On gradually. (ii) The catur.}riimOlf)'opllfllas nre not necessarily attained gradually. (iii) If onc is in sam)'okt l'( lII),iimtJ , he C':In alll;n (at once) the fr uits o f sakrdiigami and flllnenmi nn account of (the completion of) the louit;kamlirEo . An adept, accordi ng to the S., de\lel op~ in~ight into the fo ur truths in a sradual o rder: in ]5 mom enl ~ , t"m .
Dariana-miirga
1
( i) D I,I~khe
tor in live skandh:ls, i,e, ~ nAma -rOpe) dhatmajl\lina·kJinu rcoothed to KllmadM tu. {raI th, conviction} (ii) DlIl,Ikh~ dhl!.rnl.ljllinll (iii) DlIl,1.khe anv:oyajlllna-lr:,ln,i 4 lell tcndCd to R op" ~nd (iv) Duhkhe anvayn;i'lAna ArOpadh!tui .
J
SrOfiipOlfi-prafiponlloka-darSal1ollliirga
1
(v) S:tmudayc (stlSrvadh:trmAn:l.m hctu Lc., ~rtmlalr.lcic) dharmaj/ldnl'j' confincd to KAmadhiilU. k~nu
(vi) Samudaye oharmajnlina I. Mr. MiCl uu~ pu inls UUt (In tbe fll. A.sia M ajor, p. 46) thaI Uuara· k..-u h re:;:.Gnkd D.S II la nd of {l:UI"e h'lp pi ~eliJ ar d the A;ani\is01l1l l a~ tin hil hc!1 dcvalokl with 10:18 lefe aad happiness: hence Inc beir.gs of lhes~ t wO abode. n.."",d nUl t~ke to rcllglOlJs lire, 2. cr. Kola. vi 2. 3. K ,lnli meliDS "faith (k
ftm rr.omcI111hillk~ lh al h~ hlS reallzcd (I hou gh actcally he h:ts not r~al12c
165
DOCTRINEI OF GROUP 111 SCHOOLS
(vii) (\iii)
"anyayaji\ana·lr.~anti "In\-ayajnlmt
1e.'Lcllded 10 ROpa and A:1IpadhllU'.
(Ill) Nirodhc IpraIiUlTlllhyi·"j,-odhe or } Ic:inn~ldda_t'lOye)
k,'nli.
dhannajlbna.
(lI) Nlroohc dh~lm.Jn!l.na (lIl) Ntrod he an\-ayaJ na nut::; .. li Ixii) .. IlnvlyajiUna (xiii) Mtlrge (Jai kfl da ik18 dh.trrra or ~ , ,,alhl-vj pl jy. nylifJI)
clh:uma.
JtUnak'-n!i
(liv) Mlrae dllarmajrtAnl (lIV) Mlrte InyayaiUnalc~nti
(wi) f\. lllrge anvayajftli na1
confined to Klmiu.lhaL ....
1
extended 10 RQP<" and A rQpadh AI"~
~
eonfined 10 KAmadh~l u
) ~tended
1
LI,I RQpa aDd
Ar1lpadhAlus.
From the abo\e table it is e\idenl !lu\\' the S. mark the gradu nl stages of the d evelopment ofinsigh l into the four truths. In the Kru, the con troversies: Anupl.'bbiibl;isamuyo Ii 1 (Il. 9) and Od',isOIJhiso kiJes~ jollan Ii 1 ( 1.4) and also YimuttaTf/l'imureamifIIa1l ri '/ (III, 4) suppon Ihe view of lht: S. about the gradual realizallon of the truths. The problem Jisc\lsscd is whether aD adept reaILzes the four stlmailllaphulw', mcluding "iml;tti, gradually or not? I'he Th. contend that there is no hn.r to the re-alitation or all the pha/as at o ne and the S3.DlC time. The S. subscribe to ttis view as will be appart:nt from the second opinion of the S. quoted above, eACept thal tlte) do Dot include the fourth phala, viz., arhathood o r 1'{mulll,' Duddhllgbosa should have pointed out this discrepancy HS far a5 the S, a re concerned. According to him, the opinion thaI the reaUl.ation of theplr%J is attained gradually is held by the Sanuni tiyas. Tn the third point, it is stated Ihat, accordi ng to the S. those adepts only who have completed the {auklharnarga' attain the second and tbird pha/as at on~ and Ihe same time. Tbc Th. hold that Miil'aniimarga, which commeoces from the JrO lapalt;phota stage is iokotlara and cannot be lauklka; the S., however, t. cr, YlbklnGO pp. 225, ] t5. 329. 2. 7bere may be ascel ics y,ho ot:Llin the four rruits ,radually (InupllrvCl)at C8 IUQphaJ~prli pli). Kola , vi. 45. 3. Kola, vi, 4S : The bhiil'ollii-I'liirio is of two khub : htukika o r '''rava and lokOi lara cr anl\S.nlva.
166
8UI)D IlI r. SEC>S I;>; INLlIA
contend thai it may be either laukika o r loknllorn. A topic allied to tbis is di s.:: u ~sed in the Kru. (l. S) . which \l.'ill be dealt with hereafter. VI.
PufIIU}jaI/Q, lAukikamiirga or Lallkikiigrntlhafma
The S., a, poinled out by Vusumitra hold :_ (i) A pl/tlmjinl/o (a\erage man) able tu de:m oy raga and pratighn in t he Kamadhillu. (ii) A pUfhl{ijano can die with Il good state of mind. (iii) There is Jouk ika.sa",yagdr,ft i and !uul,;,lka·Jraddhend"JYI. (IV) The lallkikagradharma is a stage lasting only ro r one mo-
i;
ment (l'kaIqQ~likQciua).
In the Buddhist texts a puthujjana (au average man), whether a househ older or a recluse, who has Jlul yet d ~stro)ed Ihe three S(lJ1I},OjDlUU, viz., r.zkku)odillhi, ,jcikiu:hd and sflabbalopariImiisa L in meltr to beconle n sotapanna, call hardly be expected to destroy rliga, JOS3 and moira, which impurities are normally remnved when an adept reaches the aniig4mi stage. The ~ . hold Ihlll a puthujjana is able to remove from his mmd raga and pratigha, which is the same as JUJU o r vytJptJdlJ. The T h. discuss this view in the Knl. in these words: Jallall pUlh';ljjallo komarr.gn.byapadall Ii ? (L 5) concluding thaI a pUl nujja na cannOI eomple:dy trudieale from hi:) mind rllga (attachment) a nd b),iipiida (hatred), gross and subtle. In courSe of thIS dlscus~ ion. the Th. raise the other questioll : PurhuJJaf/o k(lmesli vitarago salla dhammdbitisamayii alliJgamip/tull' SalJlhtlll Ii ? (KI'u . l. 5, p. 112J. i.t . whether:'ln average roan, who Is free from klima, attains with the ru.iJzation of the truth the a uagami stage or not '/ The S. , as we have seen above, answer the questio n in the allirrntllive, but Ihey do Dol think that sudJ it puthujjana can attmn arhathood, but he can attain all the uther photos at one and the S2 me l ime. In other words, the coutention of the S. is thai a pU{huijana's nnainmcnlS through lauk iku-marga may be of ~o high an order that the momenl tbe truth Hashes in his mind he becomes an 3naglimi, when he completes all the necessary condlllons for nni'lglimihood, including those lhe lower two phD/as. r
or
I.
2.
Sa: ubovt, p. 162 .
Se: K.·/• • P tI 3-4.
DOCTRINES OF ORO U P III St:.HOO L5
,.7
The second opinion that an average man dies with a kusalacitw is based o n many instancr-s of upisakas d ying with a good mental slatc. The Th . also subscrihe to thi s view, and hence there is no discussion in the Kill . The third opinion is the sa me fI .~ that of the Th. a nd is opposed to that of the Saila schools (see above. p . 109). T he fourth o pinion is no t touched upon in the K l"lI. but has been dealt with fully in the Koso (VI. 19) thus : If the conviction (k:iillli) concerning dU(lkha ("'" skandhas) of the Kii madhiitu be the st rongest. it lasts only fo r a moment, so also arc the agradharmlJs, i.e. hmkikligradhormas,l which though .)(l.!m ra (impure) ar~ the highest of the mundane dharmas and lead one to the Jari ana-miir80 (way to the realizmion of the truths). The point is that a puth uijil:lD, accordi ng to the S., may attain spiritual progr~s up to the unEigilmi stage by pracri~i n g satipal!h dna an.d such other practices, which are lauki/ro so long as they are practise\! by olle .... bo is no t y~t in on~ of the maggas and phalos.
VII. A.nuJaya and ParYQluslhiinQ
The S. are of opinion that : ( i) All the a1m.fnyas are caitasika; they are citlasamprayuklQ and are also objects or thought (iilambana) . (ii) All the nnu_fuyas can be included in the paryal·asrhfmas but alll"'ryul'ostMnas are not l1Il ufayas. While the above two opinions are diametrically o pposed to lhose of the Mah:isanghikas. they are in full agreement wi th those of t he T h. T he to pie~ are dealt wit h in the Klu. fully (see aote. pp. 84 r.. 124) in which it is shown that rlllusayus arc not withOllt iirammalla ; they !ire not tlvyiikala (neither good nor bad); they arc the same as the paryul'flft/liinas( = pariyuuhiinos). which again arc not cittal'ippaYlllla. The S. distinguish the anusayas fro m par)'a rasthiinas, saying that all ]JlJfyol'Qstltiinas are not Qllldayus, is true, I. cr. S"lra/
108
BUDDHIST IECTS IN ISOlA
VIII . Meditation The Sarvasliv;i.uins hold Ihat (i) In the state o f sQlmihita one can utter words. (Ii) No man ever dies in the stale of swndhUo. (iii) It may be said tha t four smrt),upasthiillos can include all dharmas.
(iv) All dhydnOJ are included in the smrtyupasrhanas. (v) There are fou r Ickotraro-dhyfinas. (vi) The bodJtyniigl1s are acquired in uven JlJJr.iipatfi.J Gnd
D Ot
in o lhe~. The first cpinioo is in 8~cmcnt with that of Saila schools, and as sucb, has been rtfuted by the Th . in tiM:: KIlu. (see ante, p. 89. The 5CCOlld i~ opposed by the R Ajagi rikas and the Th. and as such, i5 disCUSStd in the K,u (XV. 9) : Saniitlvedoyita-nirodhotrJ samiipolll/o kiilurp. kareyya It 7 T he Th. contend that a meditator while in the ounfltlrf'd!ylla-nfrodha-samiipatti cannot have any death-lik!;: (lfIurCi~,unlika) COOlaC!, feeling, perception. etc. or i. not affected by Jh'iwn. weapon-snob!, or fire; hence to speak of him as dyin,g while in the meditation is wro ng. The opponents con· tcnd that tben; is no such law (ntyDnla) that a meditator while in sC /1 /irireliayilu-niroaha will not die. The third topic discussed in the KVII. (1. 9) is : sabbe dltulllma i- ao opinion attributed by Buddhaghosa 10 the Andhal:as. The interpretation o f Buddhaghosa is that the opponents meant by saripallhiina the objects which form the basi' of sail (sal/ya PtJllhiina, saligocara, sanya PQtirrhdna).1 10 this sense the second opinion may be explained as that the salipof{hiillas include all forms of meditation, i.e., an adept practising salipa/IlIaI/O need not have recourse to other meditational practices. T he S. may well point to the well-known statement foun d in many passages of the N lkiyas (vide Majjllin/a, I, pp. 55·6). Ihat there is only one way to the attainment of purity and that is the slJ/lpaf(har.lJ Ii
t . Kolo, vi. 14 : le sml lyupasthlna C"SI triple: Sl/l t tYUpDJtl:Ol1l1 C:"I $Oi (s ,ubMwi). par conncxlon (stlmsurgIJ). en quaHt~ d-Objccl (dlam/xJl!(lJ/11rll" pi1SIMmJ).
169
O()(:Tfl.l;«ES OV GROUI' III SCIlOOUl
practice of satipafll!ana (tkl1)'ono ayolJl maggo sauallam visud· d/Jiy IL ... yadidam cattdro saJipallnana).i The fourth opinion hardly needs any comment. It refers to the first four dhyanas when they are practised by adepts, who Are in o ne of the maggas and pho/as. The dhyiina of a mnggn{fhn o r phalaJlha is regarded as l okottaro (supramundane). T ile !1fth opinion evidcnt ly rcfers to the contention discussed ill Ihe Ku,su (VIII. 6) Ihat of the eight dhylinas or Jomiipotlis, the [ir:.1 seve-II an: capahle of elevating tbe mind of aD adcpt 10 the pun~st Slale but nol Ihe eighth, in which Jarpjiiii is the feeblest
IX.
Vynano
The S. asscrl, as statcd by Yosumitra, that Thc fh'c 3Cns,;-pcrceptions (pa;rco\'iFiiinak iil o) conduce to a ttacnment (sarago) and not to detachment (I·j,.iigll), be· cause t hcse only perceive t be cbofilcteristics (JaJ'fIl{l!lS) of objects and havc 11 0 iod:pcndent thinking faculty of their Own.
If the reason adduced by the S. that the vljiMnaklJyoj· b)' themselves cannot produce \'lrlJga, how can they induce sarllga ? Hence, the reasoning of the Sa rvAsth'adins is not quite clear, and it would be bener to accept what the K I'u. says on the point (see above, p. 111).
The following opinions are attributed to the Sarvistivddins:_ (i) Theri! 3re indeterminable problems (lJvy6krla-dhtJrlnas). (ii) The law of causality (protrtyaf(mlUlpadii;,gjkol~a) is undoubtedly constituted (slJI7lskrta). (iii) The saf71Skrla- l·osfUS are of three kinds ; the aso'1lskrtavas fu s are also of thrC!C! kinds. I.
cr.
KoJa , ,.j. p. 158, n. I ;
170
B U D O lIls r S I: CTS I N I ND IA.
(iv) Only in Kama and Rupa-dba tus there is a n intermediate slate of existence (anl ariibhul'Q) . The fi rst two o piDions are o pposed to those of Ihe M!'I h ~ _ sangh ikn s bIll ag ree with t.ho<;e of the T h. (~above, p. 11 2). The third 11.150 is no t
:lueed 10 hy the Th . The di'feren ce between the Th. and l he S lies in the fact thlll tbe la lter make the moriifical in n in accnr_ dll.nce with their doc trine "ubb:l 1J1 :lit hi" (d i ~cusserl hefore pr. 148f) according to which, the co n ~t itllted thing~ (.tml1 dqll1-l'a.vtll) should becbssified
XI.
Other opiniOlts
There are a few olner opinions held by the S. These a re,(i) AU the d/wrmiiyotQnas (i.e . the fi eld s or objects of ideation)! incomprehensible but they are attainable by the Aryas. (ii) Even here tics can gain five supernat ural p owers (se~ above, p. 125) Wassilljcw, Der Buddhis·nus, p. 272, n. 3). (iii) Good kQrma cao also become the cause of existencea n o pinion objected to by the Mahisasakas! DHARM AGU PT A
Tltt: Iltild in imparlance among the s:hooh of this g roup is Dhanuag up l
M asudll ,
p.
31
: Ilsa'T"krla-dha""1I1,
iljMplirnr~~
2. See :lbo_e, p. 3(> fn. 3.
O;-lIilll$ikll-d"nro>~ s
lind
171
DOrTRINl'.S OF GROUP 111 SCHOOLS
authori tati ve on the ground that th~ ori~inal teachi ngs of· Buddha were lost. About th ~ Ijtcratu r~ of this school, the only information we ha \·e is that there W3S n Vinnya text o f ItS o ....n (Nanj,o. 1\17) and tbat the Abhinj:kram3~la-sutrQ belonged to Ih i~ school. This sutra was translated into Chinese between 280 and 312 A.D. l Prof. Przyluski furnishes us with the mfo rmation that the canon o f this school had the followmg divISions: B hi k $ u-pnj li l!lot~a
Vinaya-pi!aka
1
D bik~u l,Ji-priitimokp
Khandhaka
l Etatlnra
Sfilra-pi !aka
~ l
Dirgha-ngama Madhyamn-alluma Ekaltara.-agama Safllyukta-agaml K t udrata-:lgama
r Dlfficuh (texts)
Abhidharma-pi!aka
j
Not dllllcult (texIs)
.... SiOfIlgrahu l Snlfl)'ukla
Prof. Przyluskl, o n lh~ basis of the comll"lenHU"y nf K'ouciki on Vasumitra's treatise, remarks lhal this school Wl'lS nnted for Its popularity in Central Asia and China. De Groot rem~rh in his Codl! du Mahayano en CJI;II~ (p. 3) thai th! Pnitimok~ of Ihe Dharmaguptas was actoa[y in use a s th~ discip lin~ry rlll e~ In all the centres or China. The firsl It'x t ..... as trftDsl;lled into Chinese in 152 A. . O . by K'aung-st'ns-bi, a Sogdian, bt'loneing to this school, so also was Ihe other tt'XI (Kie_mo) WIDSlated in 254 A.D. by Tan.tai, a Parlhis n. Ht'nce. it is inrerred that t1i'l ,chool was established in the Iranian countries in the third centur y .\.D. Budd hayatas, a native or Kipin (mod . K..1Shmir), mtroduced the Vin:lya or this schooluHO Ch ina and from Ihis I. T ranSlated Into Enllilsh by lical ..j ~kJ a Buddha"
urllJ~/'
It..:
lill~ " Th(! ROl1lu/II(c;
LI·¥Md
lIT1nnHIS'T
"".crI l :
I-:OIA
Prof. Przyluskl concludes that this school had its centre in the north-west.' He a lso iden tifies Dharmagupta with Yonaka Dhammo.rn.kkhita. mentioned in the Ceylonese chronicles as the apostle sent to AparADtaka. The reason adduced by him for this identification is that the region betWeen the North-west and Avanti was traversed by the Yavanas, Sakas, and Pallavas about the beginning of the Christian era, and the ,reacher is descnbed as a Yonaka a nd then again Dhammarakkhita and Dharmagupttl Ilre identical in meaning (i.e. TQkkMta-Kupta). Doctrints
About the doctrines of this scbool, Vasumitra wri tes tho.t these were mainly the snme as those of the M ahiisnilghika!, though it was a branch of the SlI rvOstivildim. The doctrines specially attributed to them fire as iollows : (i) Gifts made to the Smigha are morc meritorious than those made to the Buddha, thougb Buddha is included in the Sangha.' T his is a view contrllry to Ihat of the Mahisasakas and Jllso to that expressed in the DGkkhil,liiI'iblumgasulto,'- in spilc of the ract that Buddha usked MlI.h5.pajilpati GOlami to offer Ihc robe meant fo r him to the Sangha. (ii) Gifls made to ... .rriipa are meritorio u~. This opinion is opposed to Lhnl or thc Saila school!. (iii) V;nmkli (emancipation) of ~rril'akay6"a and DuddhajoQlla is St'Ime, though there may be difftrencc in tbe paths lcading to it. T his opinion is in agreement with that of the Sarvastivad ins.1 (iv) Heretics COllnot &aiD the five slJpcmatural powen.· (V) The body o r an Dr/rat is pure (amural·a). (vi) Realization of the truths (abisamG)'a) takes place not graduaUy but all at a time. This is contrary to the opinion of thi: Sarvt\stividins (discussed above) but is in ag recme1l t with that of the Thcraviidins.' 1. U C~ItC;le de Rdjqrha, pp. 32~·6. 2. See 1(n.fII (Fr. T",n.l. ), iv. 117; Mnjjhi"'tJ, iii, p . 253.
1. See above, p. 125. 4. See above, p. 125. for opinions of olher schools 0.11 thi, point sce Masuda, p. 42 n. 5. Tbls clOCIrlne I, not memloncd by Vasumltra. II is fOLHId III I/u;: KOJ,7, 'Vi. 27, 50: ~}'tik")Q (Jlp. cd.), J; . SoU
173
DOCTR INES OF GROUP III SCH OOU
KASYAPh'A The KiHyapiya scbool was known by three Olher names, Sthaviri},a, Saddharmava r~ k a, o r Suvarsaka. It issued from the Sarviistivadim on account of cerlain opinior.s, which were more in agreement with those of the Stha\'iravildins or Vibhajya\ adins than with those of the Sarviistiviid ins. This seem i to be the cause of their being called a Sthiiviriya. Its tlllrd name, Suvar~ka appeurs in the works of Tar211 atha and C h'eu luo, while Saddharmavar$a ka in Bhavya's treatise.' About the literature of t he Kiisyapiyas, Prof. Przyluski writes that it had a canon ~imilar to that of the Dharmaguptas, and had the following divisions Bhiksu-pnitimoksa Bhik ~u oj- prii ! im o k ~a
Vma}'a-pi!aka
K.athina {
M.llrka
Ekottnm
r Dirgha-lig!lmtl
J Mad hya mft- il~ ma
SUlra-pilaka
-< Ekottara-iigama SaIllyukta-agnma
l
K ~ udr a ka.aga ma
r
Sapra~naka-\ibbanga
! Ap ra~naka-vj bhailga
Ahllidrama-pi!aka
~
SaIJIgraha
LCompar:l tive t:l blcos
Doctrilles
To tile Kasya piya. Vasumi tra Il tl ributes Ihe fo11o ,,"ing doctrines :(i) Achats have both k.
in/,a,
Prof. PnylL>1.:i ;rI~ "tifies the Kllj,apiyas with Ih~
Hairravetas. sec
BUOOIUST UC'I'S IN . "O tA
(ii) Sal/lSkOral' perish eve ry moment.
(iii) The plSt which has 1I0t produc~d its fruit exists, the present exists, and some o f the futur~ exists. This opinion is discussed In the Kalhilmrrhll (I. 8) and is the only doctrine attributed in thii ttxt to t he Ka ~sap ikas.t S"MKA:-rTIKA OR S,\UTRANTIKA
In the Plili tradition the Sal]lk2.ntikas are described as ao offshoot of Ihe Kassapikas, and from the Sarnkamikas branched off the Sult3viidis. Vasumitra writes t thai a l the b:gin ning of th: 4th cemury (Le. afler Buddha's death), th:re was OIlC school named Sautriintika, otherwise called SafTlkrtlntiviida. which issued from Sarviistiviida. The founder of this school declares: " I take "'nar.da as my preceptor. " From these two tradit ions, it seems that Ihe Su(tavadis are identical with the Saulranlikas, having branched olT from the earl!er school. the Sl l'flkant ikas, who may also be equa ted with the Dii rs~a nt ika. of Vasubandhu. Doctrines
Vasum llra characterizes the Sautrantlkas as the school w~Jich admits the transference of skandllol/l(lrras from on~ cXISIence t o another as d istinguished frorn the Samllllliyas, who maintain the transference of put/gala only. Both o f these vIews are who tJ) o pposed to the ~ardinal d octrine of the carl), Buddhists, viz., k sa~lIl.::a (momentary) existence o f ska ndhas (constllUents of a bong). i.e .• the skondhas diii ntegrate every moment {a give rise to anothe r. The Sllutr3ntikas, in deference to Ihis o ld kJa~lika theory. add that Ihe Jk a.,dJras in their gross lo rm do not pass from one ex istence to another; th: mii({jnrik(l (onginal or the subtlest fo rm or) skandhas, .. 11 the five o f whIch are of one nalure (I'kara!o). in other words, which are In rellity one substance and not five diffe rent substances paSSing from one ex islence to another. Bh:lvavjvekn in his TarJ.ajril/a (sce Obermiller, I.
K l'u . L ] : A vip~ kk.v ipak a rfl alib i,
vipakkavip.:lktfll na llhlt i aniga! am
"uhili lidi.u d.IICl.... 1l1 Illthltl upp:ldlnnachaOln\: SOm.llltlyJ. vadoli!!. 2. Muuda. p. 17.
DOCTRINES 01' CROUP III
~!1OUL.S
175
A"oly~is 0/ the Abln'.;omo}iiIOlikiira. pt. III , p. 380) stales thal the school admitted the reali ty of the individual (i.e . /!lIdg(jla) which , j , something inexpressible bUI neither identical \\i lh, Dor different rrom, the skolld has. The second dOi.:lrint: 3HI"ibuted by Vas umitra to this school i. that "apart rrom lht: alyan paths !Le. OI!Ongika.miirga) there can be no eternal IIc~ tluction ha ppening evcry mom::nt." This shows that, m.:con.liug to tile Sau trantikas, the .fkolldhas, gross or sublle, end in lIinii/;u. This view is also allicd to the doctrine of the Sammi l"yas thaI the puriga/a ceases in lIirl"Ollo. Hence, it may be staled that,
Ko.fo
011
tl;e Soul riilltika doctrintS
Though Vasub:lIldhll helonged to the Sarvi!stivi!da school, oc<:asion3.lIy he g3.ve preference in his writings to the Saulrantika views. Fo r this, hc W :lS sevN cJy cri ticized b) Samghabhadra, who wa s a staunch SlIrvfisliviioin. In the Kosa. Vasuha nd hu has referred 10 the Salltriinlika doctrines on seveml occasiom and pointed oul the dll'ferenCe§ hetween the Sarvfua ivadl and Sautrii..ntilea views. Prof. LIl. Vl'lllee POllssin has summed up these reference; in his inl ronllctilln to the French translation of the Koyo. A s these throw welcome light on the Saulran tika doct rines a gi~t of the same j( given here : (i) The Silutrantikas do no t accept the Abhidhnrmnpi!nk(lof the Sarviist iviidi ns as au thorit3.lj\'c (Kosa, i. 3). On this point VasubandhU suppons the Sautr a nlikas.1 (ii) T he W, W{l.Ik.,'IlJ have no real existcncc. There is n Ions drawn Cou llO,· el~y in the Kosa (ii. ":5) between t he Survtisti vadins and tbo:: Sautriintikas as to whether the c.sa'llSkrtas hu\·c :lny cause or fJ aib. I.
Ace. II> t.1C SlIu l riln l i",..s, bloddf.a,·cctlOO ,I
i. 25; iv. 2.
,·as·vijiiapti.
~
KuJ!I.
176
BUI'lOrflST S£CTII
~
INDIA-
(iii) The Sautnintikas deny t he cifto-I'I'prayuktas (Le. sa",skaras not associated with mind, e.g. priipl i, sabhiiSQtii, jfloilellliriya, etc.)' a . real as contended by the Sa rvastivlidi ns (Kosa. ii. 35-36). (iv) Like all other schools, t he Sautrantii.:as reject the Samis· th'fida view that past and future exist (Kosa, v. 25), (V) Byadmitting the existence of the past and of proptl. the 5.1nastivlidins explain tne function of causality. The Sautriintikas deny both of these and assert instead t he existence of the subtle citra o r bIja or vdsanii and explain thereby the working of the formula of causation (Kosa, ii. 36, SO). (vi) The Sautrcintikas carry the k,Q!likafl'a doctrine to t he
extreme, asserting that it almost verges on zero. and as such objects can have no duration (Jthiti). It further ass~rts that as dest ruction of objects takes place almost immediately, there is no necessity of any effective cause. 1 (yii) The Sautrantikas deny the existence of uvijriaptj (non~ communicating corporeal and yocal acts)! ;ls a real dravya. They hold in agreement with the Theraviidins tha t an alijiiaplj act is mental (cetana, kii}'osamcelolla). (viii) According to the commentary of the Vijiiaptimiitrata· lcstra, the Sllut ra mikas are divided in their opinion relating to the conception of ciua (mind) and wiltas lmemal states). According to the Daqpi nt ika·Sautr".ntikas cilia only exists but not the caittas. but accordin .~ to other Sautnintlkas. cail/as also exist a nd thei r num ber according to some is three. viz., vedanii,.saql}f:ii a nd celanii, while according to others. it is fou r. len or fourteen. Some Sautr'doti kas admit the existenoc of all the fajitas of the Sarvastivadins (for details. see KoSo, transl., Ii. 23, fn,). (ix) T he Sautrantikas hold that the body of an arhat is pure, as it is produced by knowedge. (x) There may be ma n)' Buddhas simultaneously. I . S<w Koso, h. 2·3. The $.~t/JarJ.:ma~m"cc"ya cites Ihis pIlS!n~ {rom II sillra the SaUlr.lntt~ S P:!i'icemiini bhilo:$avab ~(lmji'\jm;iT r:"fI ""ll1l\1rtim~t . r(l~l vyaVllhiiramdnalll Katanldni paile-d. Atito'd, ... d aniig.lto'dhl'd sn hetuko
or
vina.;"t) §kaS.11ll pudl!nla itL
c.::t
V(diillla!~lru, II.
2,2J;
N).ly"piirlliJ..unlrpur),(llr/(11383. s..c itl~o KOJII, ti. flP, 29, n. S; 173. n. II. 2U, 413 2. For details. sec KoJo. IV. 3.
46;
/It
DOCTRI:-I[.S OF GR OUP III SCIIOOLS
177
HAINA VATA
Bhavya and Vinl!adeva enlist t he H rtlmrtV3 tas as a branch o f Mtihasanghikas (Group I Schools) while Vasumitra r~m :.lrks that thl;: principal doct ri nes of this School wue the same a s Ih o~1;: of the Sarnislivadi ns.' He adds that Ihe original (,,,,7fo) Slh:lvira\"aua l:ha ngeu its name to Haimavata. 2 In the Ceylonese "hronides, however, the;: Hemavatikas are counted as one of the later sel:ls, which I.::ame ifilO existence some time after the apreanlllt;c of the first eighteen schools. In view of these conflicting :.lalelllenls, ami the aCl;eptam;e of some doctrines of the Mah asailghikas, it seem~ that this schoul might have branched out o f the Sarviislivad ins or Stha viravAdi ns bUI d oclrinally it was inl:Iill::d mo re towards the M
so l'ohemovaliicori),osQ.
(iii) There are other inscriptions which mention Majjh ima and Dundubhissara. He adds that there can be no doubt abo ut the fa ~ t that the monks o f Kassapa-gotta were responsible for the propagation of Buddhism in the Him3.\'anta. This s:::hool also claims Kassapa as its founder. So the same scho ol was known by two names. one, after the region. as Haimavata and the other after its founder, Kassa pa as Kassapiya ( ... Kasya pi)'a). Since the form er name was not used, the Chinese pilgrims refer to it by the other name only, viz. , the Ka§yapiyas.' The conclUSion drawn by Prof. Przylus ki from the inscri ptional evidences does not appear to be logical. In the inscrip1. 2. 3.
Masllda. p. S~ . Masud a. p. 16; Poim$ of COn/roversy. p , .v .\Vii. u Conci/e de Rili ngrha, PI'. 317-1S.
178
BUDDIi IST SECTS IN I:>:I)JA
tiollS It is stJ ted thai some monks of t.he Kas::aplgotta proj:agat· cd Buddhism in HillHlvanUl, but there IS nothi ng to show that the
Kas~apagotla
monks necessllTiiy belonged to the
K4 ~yap iya
school. Hence the identification of K
\'aSJmi t ra Ireats the Kasyapiyas and the Haimnvatas as sep Irate schools uphnlding di fferent doctrines. H e attributes to the 1·l1irnavalas a few doctrines " 'hich a:c in close >If:reement with thos:e or Ihe Saryj<;livad ins, e.g., (i) Bodhisu ttvo.s Grc 3\'e rase beings (Ptthasjol1(u): (ii) Bod hisattvas hnve neither ,lisa nor klimo when rile y enter their mOlhcr"s wombs; (iii) lIerctks cannOI Snin the five supernatural powcr<:; (IV) Therc is no brohmacariyouisa among the god,; ~ncl
(\) Arhnts huvc ignomnceand doubt; :hcyare subjtd to Ttom _ ptlltionj thcy ga,n spirituul perception with tl:e help ofOfhers;
Frrm the gcollraphical evidences collected by Dr. B. C. Law l About Uttarapatha. it appears to have origi nally indicated Ihe hieh road funnin g north from Magadha to the north ·weSt. LAT er, however. it denoted the area west of Prthlidaka (Pehoa, ~boU1 14 mileS west of Thancswar) and " comprised the Punjab, inrlud ing Kashrrir J.nd the ad joining hill states .... il h the whole of ~A~ teJll Afghanistan be)ond the Il'idus. and the present Cis· SUTlej SlaleS to thc \Vest of the Sar...<;va ti"·~ The name 'Uttan;'pathal;a' apprnrs on ly in the KClIM rattJ/U. o/l'wko,liii and not in any other (CJi I, nnt e ... ~ n in ille Ce),IOl:ese chronicles. Evidently BuJdh:Jeho'>:. hllli in mind SOffiC monks Wll O could not be cJ:I~Scd :1 5 anhNl'n!~ of the doctrines of a I.
The !lSI 1"0 ~icws ( 'v '" v) are in 3g~lI1"nl "j,h Ihnq: or Ihe;
M ~ha":lIi~hikas.
See abo\le, PD. 22-23. 2. G~~gr. of Eurl}' Buddhlllll. PI'. 48·9. ). Cunningt.anls A" c*nt Gtagr. uf flllfill, p. 13.
OOCTIH NES Ot' GROUP III SC HOOLS
179
p~nicular
s.;;houl, or probably he mean t, like the Andhakas, a gro up or M:lIouls pcpular in the north. From the several d octrines attfiuuted by Duddhagh')S3 to the Unani.pathakas, it appears that it was an eclectic school having doc tnnes take n from both the Mah.hanghi ka and Thcrav:id'agroups and occ upyins nn illtefillooialt: st Hge between Hinayana and Ma h:i}:ina. ' T he foll owi.IS are :.ome or these uocl rincs re£ardmg :BUlk/lio. Il is the atlainmenl of bodl;; or perrert knowledge and omniscience a lone that ma ke a Bud1ha (KI'I•. iv. 6); Budd has are abovemailriandl..arll..uj! (Krll. xviii. 3, 4),
Bodhisafl':JS. On the basis of th~ stories of Ih ! previous existences of Gaulanu Buddha, the U. remark tha t the Bu ddhu~ arc always endowed with the 1,,,,/Jii,'lllrU!O-/aklQ(laJ (KI'II. iv.7). ArI/aIS. All Dharmas possessed by an arhat arc p ure (tmusrm'c) (KI'U. iv. 3). The arha" are able to end their li ves ;n Ihe same Wcty as Buddha did (K)'JI. xxii, 3), lS described in th e M aluiparinibbdna-slluo. They admit Iholt there may be person .. claiming a rhathood falsely (KvII. xxiii. 2). Citmg Ihe exa mple or Ya.t! 's attainment of arhtllho:xl they hold that a householde r (gihr) ean altain arhathood wi tho ut giving up the househoJ der ' ~ life. The T h. poin t OUI that Ya!a may have the gi.'1f si:;ns ex ternally but hj ~ mind was free fro m tbe fe tters of a ho useholrler (KI'II. IV. I ). T hen on the basis of the existence o r Upahorrn (Uppojja-parillibbiiyl) arhats. the Uuaropathakas held Ihat a being, usually a god, at the very moment of his birth, call nUll in arhathood. They a lso ~old thll bcinps while in the wornh or beings just born may attain arhathood on account of thei r I?equisili on of sotapanf'ahood in their previous uvcs. Somy ulcnoll),ilma : The PlJthlljjllnas, who ar\! (miyoto (nol destined to attain NibbilOi.) or who are d oen; of evi l aCls, may ultimately become niJ'otQ and re:lli7e th e trut h. This they sta t:: on the basis of so me stalemen:<: or Buddha h imself, \.\ ho foretold to cerlai n pUl hujjan3s that Ihe}' WClukl rea iu the truth ultimately. ::.K-, in the case of Angu hm:i ln ( KI'II. v. 4; xix. 7: M K. II. p. 105). I. cr. Salya5iddhi ~a;lra of HanVH n1l1 n, IranslJlcd by Yamakami SO(ien (C. U.). 2. Sec abGvc, p . 1.;8.
180
BUDDHIST SEen IN INDIA
Allied to the above are two other views of the Uttarlipathakas: one is that the persons who have to take seven more births to attain Nibbana (sallokkhatruparo/llQ) can reach the goal after seven births and not earlier or later. The Th. are nol prepared to aCttpl this view on the g round that such persons may quicken their pace by greater exertion or rttard their progress by committing evil deeds (KI'U. xii. 5). The second is that an adepc may attain the (our frui ts of sanctification by one moggo. The Th.
contend that an adept can altain the phalas of the corresponding maggas on ly, i.e., a sotapanna gets rid of sokkiiyadiflhi, etc . and
he cannot (ltlain the plrofas of the sokadiigami or antigami maggo i.e., by dimination of ,aga, doSQ and moho. The Uttanipathakas do not subscribe to the lattt:r \iew (Kl'u. xviii. 5). AnuloJo,J. According to the U" Ol1uso)'af are anarammO'.la and ciuorippayutra (see above, pp.87f. . 124, KVII. bl.. 4) ; the Th . contend that past dharmos may be saram ma~Ul (ix.6). ASQI/lkhalos: (i) nirodhosomiipaui is unconstituted (vi. 5).
(ii)
sl)3ce or all kinds is unconstilUted (vi. 6).
Immutability (II;)QtO) ; All dharmas like riipa and I('dolla do not change their nature (:ui. 7); kormaic effects also are un· alterable (x:;;i. 8). Go/is (spheres or existence) : The U. count the tlSllrogati as one additional to the usual five, to talling in all six gal is. ButfdhQl·acana. The U" assert that the religioui teachings were revised thrice in the three Councils (xx.i. 1).1
I . All the above rc:"erCllCCS are 10 Ihe Ktlll!iiwJ(/hu.
CHAPTER VIII
DOCTRINES OF GROUP IV SCHOOLS The Vatasipulriya-Siirpmitiyas, Dharmottariyas and other Schools This group of schools compnsed maInly the Va,ijiputtakas or Vatsiputriyas, Dhammuttariyas, Bhadrayanlkas, Channagarikas a nd Sammitiyas. Of tbese, the YaBiputriyas, later known as Vatsipu triya-SaIJlmitiyas,1 became th: most promiIiem school of this group. The mon ks adhering to these ~hooJs were prohahly those Vajjiputt.1kas who submitted to the decisions of the Second CotlOci l and gave up their heresies, as distinguished from those who preferred to rema in apart and lorn: a disti nct Sangha of their o wn. The PJiIi and Samkrit traditions place the origin of the Sammitiyas in the 3rd century B. C. We do nOI hear much of this school in the early history of Buddhism exCt'pting a few cnticisms of its radical doctrine of Ihe existence of a conceptual self (praj;;apti-sat-pudgala) apart lrom the five skandhas. " hIs school became popular and widespread d urmg the reign of Har ~ava rdbana (606·647 A. 0.), and iI is sa id Ihat the ki ng's siSler, Rajyasri, jomed the school as a bhli ~ ulJi. r he C hinese tra\ellers also testify to ils popularity in India. The earliest evidence of the existence of this school is rurnished by two inscnptions of the 2nd and 4th centuries A. D., attestmg to the presence of the Sammitiyas in Mathura and Samath. The earlier inscription is the fifth stone-slab inscriptio n of Mathura,' which records the installation of a n image of a Hodhisattva and its dedication to the Sammltiya monks or SirivlhAra by a monk: whose teacher wai Dharma ka. Hesides the Sirivihara, the sloneslab inscripliolls mention three other V1haras, vil.., Pravarikavihara, Suvan;lakara-vihara and Cutta kavihara, hut tbe lasl men· t!oned vih ara was dedicated to Ihe Mah asanghikas. There are I. f.·Rt.· XI, p. 168; KOJ(Nyiikllyii, IX. 3 AryaSllm m Qliyll),
2. C/. , VIII, p.I72; Sahni, Ctl/ololltJe
tJa~.
ofth~
ed., p. 6?9) Vl'I!Slplmlyl'l
Mustum at Safllotlr p 30.
162
BUnOUIST SECTS IN" JKOJI\.
Hrahmt inscription> of the Kushan period. very lik~l)' of the reign of HUYI,ka (I II A 0'). inscribed in m ixed Pra kri, and Sanskrit. 1 be latC:f JOscriplion, m(ntloning tbis sect \\"3S found :n 5amath. IS insCribed Oil the Asokan pillar below the Asokan edict and
anoCtce inscript,on. It records a gift to the leachers of the Sammili)3S, who were ot ~e rwise known as tn: Vdtsiputrikas (kufyanal)l pangrahe VatsipulrikanalJl).1 It belongs very likely 10 the Jrd or 4th century A. D. ".,hen the Sammili)::ls blX'ame more populnf than the San";is liv;id iDS at Samath by propagating Ihclf views and recruiting a lurge number of monk s and nuns. Tbis inscri ption shows that Sarnalh was at first a centre of the Theravada group. the earliest popular school, which gradually yielded its place to the ne.n popular school, Sarvastivada. Though Sanastiviidll relained its popularity and influence all
oYer Northern India, It had. at least at S<1rOllh, given place to the SammJliyas. The Snmmitiyas ascribed the oriBin of their school In Maid. kacciyana. the famous mODk of Avallti. This established their close conn.."'Clion Dot only with the P21i school but !lIsa with Avanli, fnr \.\hich their aiternatiH! name given in some sources is Avanl[lb) Their robes hud 21 to 2S rringes and their badge was Snrcib Bower like those of the Thcra,,!!dins_~ Yuan Chwnog writes that he carried to China 15 tN'atisc! of this 5Ch ool~ whik 1-15 ng speaks of Its :separate Vinl1ya tcxt.'Thc latter tells u~ further that this Vinaya had rules regulating the use of underga rment, girdle, medicines, and beds for the members of tbe seCt in a way peculiar to luelf. The only treatise tbat is expre"Jy mentioned a~ belonging to this school in Nanjio's Guafogue. and extant in Chinese translation is the Siil/lmitfy
See 'tifrD. A ;cordiag 10 VIO ;;ld(va, Ih( SlfJ'\Mill~U "'CI'C
,;eelS. K uru·l{ullaku,
A V1nl ~klU
3. Bll-ston. II, p. 100. Y~Q" Ch~·atlf,
Jub-d!\idcJ 11110 three
and \'AI>ipUlrl)?J See Du." on. II , p . qq.
4.
WnHcrs '
S.
T,lkllk u'u./-lSmK, pp. 7, 66,
I, P;J. 20, 21 . l ~.
DUl: 'I' ,l(IN"~
u t·
G R OU P IV
183
SCHOOL~
It is very likely that th~ Sutta-piplk:l of subsl:tntially the S3m~ ai thai in Pal,
Ih~
Sammitiiyas was
AccorJing to the KmhlJl'(ltlhu and Vasumitra's treat ise. the main thesis of nlis group of schools is llntl there is a persi5ting sou l ( plu/gala) passing from on~ existence: to another and that it is nO! possible for the skandhas lotrunsmigl31c without the put!gala. Tn Ihe Torkajl'iila of BMv~viveka abu, a siulilar statement is found . It says that the VHsrputrlyas, Bhadrayanik!ls, Dbarmaguptas a nd Sarpkffimiv:1dins admit the rtulity of the individual self.' Among other views of this group. we may mention that they. like the Theraviidins recognized the Arhc.ts as DOl liable to fall from arhathood as against the opinion uf the Sarvastiv:idins. The}" however. ad hered to the d:>ctrine thl!.llberc was an Uflla,-aMara (In termediate stale of existence), which W.b flot ao;reed to by the '1 heravadins and the Mahasaflghlkas. Tht'ir COIlCC pliQns o f Huddha and Nirv;]!)a, fruits of sanctilh.:aLion anti their att.:,inments, VIItIOUS stages of dllya'loS (meditatiun),
The ctlrrlir.nl doctnnc of this school is th2.t besides the elements com posing a being. the re is a 'purlS3la' (an individuality, a personality. a sdf) .... hich is indefi nable and which persists Ihrough 011 the e)( islenccs.~ It is n either identical wit', nOI diffe rent frorn, the skandbas as allalmall forms the k:ynote of Duddhi st philosophy. This theory h:l ~ brought forth vigorous criticism3 from most of tbe prominent Buddhist philosophers, including Nj,giirjuna l and Vasublndbh u } It has also been I.
Sec
O\.1crmillc~,
A"alysi.J Ill, ;>p.380. Fot do:tllil.d
dis;:u~ ion
5~~
2. K()i(l·vytikluyi (Jap. cd.J, pp. 697-713. 3. Miidil)'flmiko\'rlli, p. 275 quotieg RO/l;!i ,·r./(, p. 267, 283: Bodhira'Y~ vo:,ira ix 60. 4. A'Jlllliharlllr.ko!a, eh. IX.
184
BUDDH IST SECTS IN IN DIA
mooted whether. on account of this thesis, the Samrnitiyas ( - VatSlputoyas) should be reg:;rded as bting within o r out.siJe the pale of Buddhism. According to some thinkers, they :.houlll be treated as heretical while acco rding to others, they art: Buddhists though their pudgalolJiJda, being a form of ~ak l"i.ya diHhi, acts as a hindrance to the attai nment of Nirva{la.l It is necessary now 10 state what the PudgalQl'lkia uf the Sammitiyas actually was. It is given here In tXU/ISO.
Plldga/ariido Like the Suvistivadins, the Sammitiyu also differed on many doctrinal points from the Th:ravddim and other sccts. These h3\'c been discussed in the Xorhdl'Qllhll and mentioned in the Treatises on SttIS written by 8hl\,)'3, Vasuml lra and VinItade\'a. The pudgalavtIda ga.ve a rude shock to the other sectarian tCilcher", who regarded it as almost heretical and a negation of the alliitma'l'tida o f Buddha. and was biuerly criticized by many writers like Vas uband hu and Santarak$ita.' We have to make o ut from tbe criticiims what t he eltacl positio n taken up hy the Sammitiya·Vitsiputriyas was regarding the conception of m ul and its tra m migration from o ne eXistence to another. The publicuion of Prof. Venkataraman's translation of the Siimmitlyo·niktiya-sastra in Chinese has been very helpful. The Sammitiyas Vatsiputriyas stated that Buddha admitted the uistence of an impermanent soul quite different from the Upani. $3.dic conception of an eternal and changeless soul, wh ich conti· nued unchani:ed through all the existences o f a being unless and until it aHainen and merged in the paromotmall or Brahman. The Sammi tiyas therefore preferred to name their chaDgIDi soul ai pudgaia, distillguishinl: it from the Anattii doctrine of Buddha. In the Katlliirauhu, the view of tht: S:!. nlmitiyas is given thus :T he Pudga lavudins r~ly on the following words of Buddha I. For dtl:ail. and re:rEr(nttS. Itt La \i .~ l'oU~'!iln '5 pre:lrmlnary nOles mille Kolil (fr. 11'11151.) Ill , pp . n7r. 2. MOSIlOli pulUl Tits::! is Ihe ......:obr:ued (ompiler of Ihe Ka",,'j,'allhu, .... hile Va.~uha"dhu . i~ the aUlhor or Ihe Abhidhurfflflko/a and iti BlraiYo. and its V)'dkh JU by Ya{omiln&. S4n1arak1ila IS autho r o f TQt/lYlSQr,tgrflha .lind irs comrmnlator is KamaJdlla.
DOCTRIN£S OF GROUP IV SCH OOLS
105
" aLthi puggalo allahit5.ya pa!ip:lOno" (there is a penOD who exerts fol' his 0\\1] good). "ekapuggalo lo ke uppajjamino uppajjati bahujauahita)a bahujanasukhu),B lokanukamp:iya etc. (there appears a penon who is rebo rn for the good and happiness o f mallY, fOl'showing eompassionto the world of beings). Basing on ,sllt;h worusofBuddha, thcSlmmilfyas (henceforth abbreviated as the S.) ~ ta te 'pllggala' of the above-mentioned pUisages is somethillg po~ilive; it is neither a mirage nor a hears,I),; it is neither 1111: um;Ollstillllt:d realit), like Nibbiina or J.kiisu nor a constituent Jwtlt:rial deuU::f11 (rupa), feding (vt'don6), etc. The 'puggala' is f1u t real ill the Il j~ hcst sense (parmiirlha), On the one hand, it is not someLhing apart from the constituents (khandhas) of a being, und as scch il is not possible to estllblish a relation between the puggulu
In the AbhldharmakQ1a and its cODlIllc:nta ry. the relation between pudgala and skandhas is eAplllinc:d by the simile offirc .and fue l. Fi re exists as long as its fucl lasts, so the pudgala exists as l(log as there are the constituen15, but fire i:, different from fuel inasmuch as it has the power uf burning an object -o r producing light, .... hich the fuel b)' itsdf duo nuLPOS5:SS, Fire and fuel are co-existent, and the latter is a )uppurt for the former, and just as one is not wholly different from the other because fucl is not ..... holly devoid of fiery dement (tejus), in the same way stands 'pudgaJa' in relation to Ihe I;onstilueilis of a being. The S. quote the BMraharasilua li nd expliiill lhat burden {Mara) refers to the constituentS (skandha) while their carrier (hara) IS I~e pudgala. Unloading orthe bunlen is etTtl.:led by tbe
186
BUDDHIST SECTS IN INDIA
cessation of desires. al!achmcnt and hatred. T his 'pudgala' bears. a name, belongs to fI. fnmily and is the c:njoyer of happjn c:~s and unhappinels,' In discussingt'le 8/iufaharasiitriJ , S:intar3!C~it3 and Kamalaiila state lhat Buddha used Ihe word 'pudgala' as a meTe conctpt (projiiopti) . He did not state expressly that it was Don--existenl as nobody enquired of its real nature. He haJ in mi:ld the aggregation of five constituents and to these collectively he referred as ' pudgala.' It ii not subject 10 origin and decay. hence 11 has no past, present and future . It is neitner eternal (nilya) nor no:-..eternal (ani/yo). It is inexplicable aDd indeterminable. it is not included in the constituents but a?pea rs only when oil the constiLUents are present.
In the KIlI/JaI'(Jt/1i it is stated that the S. point out that their" 'pud gala' has a materbl form in the world of men aDd gods. who have got material bodiei (rupa), and it is without any matcrial form in the world of higher gOdi, who arc without material bodIes (arupl). They state that the 'pudgala' corresponds to the ~ntlty called a beiog (sam'a) and also to the vital force (jr.'a) of a living being, but at the same time it is neither id~ntical with, nor different from, the body (kaya), for Buddha rej:cted bOlh the views of icientity, and difference of vital force U,.·a) and body (" or(ro) (turp jt.'am /OJ11 sarlrafll milialll jlWlII1 afiifOJTl sarrrarp). They rcl y on another statement made freI . SotrIJIIlla. lIf. Po 2.S : Kllamo bhi'
...
,.
Kalamo ca bhi~khavc bhirahAro ? Pugg~.lo li'ssa vlcaniYIQl. Yo' )'arp :\yasmA evtIlJI n'mo cvalll gOllO. A yaIT yuccatl bhfk(hayc bharaR'l.ro. I n the TDIt...,SU~#"""u (p. 130, IL J":?) Komolo .i!;l quotes Dh:\r~h ;lrab kcalll1ul.\ pud,plal., 1 Yo'5AvA)'U !mAnnc~alll nAml'l, CYMIl jAil!" eyalfl gOlrl, Cfamah.tra, CV~11l sukhadul,lkharp pta lisarpyedl, CVJlll (llr,hllyur Ilyldln a pudi;alo Y)AkllyA lal.'.
.'c:dan .. p4. bhikkhtve .
DOCTRINES OF G ROU P IV SCHOOLS
1ST
quently by Budd ha thai a monk while pracuslng mindfulness (sl1IrJyupast!tclla) remains a lways aware of what is passing within his body (so kilye kiiyiinupa;sl viharal i). I n this statement
Buddha uses the word 'so' meaning 'he', i.e .• ' pudgala', which wlltches Ine contents and movements of IllS body. This 'so' is not a m ~re concept (prajliapl i ), it refers 10 actual 'pudgala.' The S. now take up the problem of transmigration. They hold that ' pug8a1a' passes from one cAislence to a nother, but the 'puggaJa' of two existences is neither the same nor different. T he reason adduced by Ihem IS thai a person, who has auained the SOliipaltis tage of sanctification. continues to be a sOfiipcnna in his fu ture existences, IVhether in this mortal world or in heavi::n (riipad1u'iIIl). A sOf{ipul/na man may be reborn as a sOffipal/na god, i.e., sofiipannahood remains unchan,ll,eli th ough the constituents of his body have !.: hangcd from those of a man to those of a god. The transition of sOfiipalllJailood from one existence to another cannot take place unless the existence and continuity of ' puggala' are admitted. In support of this contention t he S .. rely on the folJowing. utterances of B llddha:_ (i) There orc four pain of (saintly) persons or eigh t (saintly) persons (sami colt6ro pllrisayuga a/lJra purisapuggalii). This statement refers to Buddha's Sangha, which comists of disciples who havc aUllined the preparatory stagc and fru ,ts (magga, pita/a) of sanctification. (i;) A soulpunna bas to be reborn seven limes at the most 10 atlaiu fun emancipatio n ($0 SiJfluk hatlllparOltl O sUIulhuvinYina pugg% dllkkhasS(Jllfakaro hOff). The S. lay .sln:ss on the words sa"dhiIv{mJno p /4gga/o, i.t:., tht: lrammigralion of soul (pllggafa). (Ii i) The cycle of existence (salt/siiro) of a being i~ without a beginning, which is not apparent to beings immersed in desires (anamowggo a)'aJ!1 samsiiro pubbii kat! 110 paiiiliiya1j saffiil/o", talJ!uj·salllyojallii'lI).
The S.
pick up the words ' .ia msaro' and 'satta' and ded uce therefro m that Buddha admitted the tran smigration of soul of beings.
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BUDDIIIST SECTS IN" INDIA
(iv) Lastl y, Buddha very often spoke of the acquisition of higher po .... crs or knowledge (ablujna), one of which was the po.....er of remembering one's previous ex istences ( pIIObt-tIll'OMll1iitl{J). He himself referred to his previous cl(islences and often said, "When I was Sunelra, etc." This alsoeslabhsbed their contention thai the~ must be a soul ( pIIRgo/a). continuing through several existences and Bud dha is able 10 remember hJs past births. Memo ry of past
tJUHences IS not possible for the comtnuents (sk andhas). which change every mo ment, not to speak of the dr3slic change that t he beings undergo when passing from dea th to rebirth. Tbe S. add that :::dmlsslon of memory (smrrj) also Implies the existence 01 ' puggaJu', The S. stale Ihal their 'puggala' 15 the percIpient but It is d ifferent from mind (cit/a, \'ij,iiilla), one of the constItuents of a belDg_ It i~ al;o not mo mentary (k,fOlJika) like mmd but is perceivable in every momentary though!. It is the '~e r ' whether the e}es are fUilc ti on ing o r 1I0t, because Buddha said, " I see by my divine eyes bein~s appearing and disappearing:' Here 'I' is 'puggala' of the S, Then S. take up the problem of capacity for eff~.;:tiv e action (arrhaKriyiikiirlfI'D) o f the soul. In con form ity with Duddha's teachiDg th:lt the world is not a cr
DOCTRL"OES OF GR.OUP IV SCHOOLS
109
the impermanent, momentary (allit)'a. kiO~lik(i) soul that caD have any activity (arthokriyiikiiril l'o) . Santarak~ila in his TotHasmigraha (pp. 336-349) writes that the 'puggalu' oftbe Viitiiputriyas is neither identical with , nor different from, the constituents (skolldhasJ. In his comments, Kamalasila states that the 'puggala' of the Vatsiputriy.ll.s is the doer of det:d~ and enjoyer of thei r fruits. During transmigration it kayes one group of constituents to take up another. It is lIt.)t separate from the constituents, for, in t hat case, it would be eternal. Again, it cannot t>e the same as the constituents, fu r in tlla t case, it would be not aile but man~' . It is therefore inexplil,:'lbk. The exposition of Kam:tlasila is supported by Prajiif/,lml'llln81i iu his commentury o n the iJoahi(Qryiil'Otaro. Ln Ihb l,:ount:ction Kamala:Sila has discus!>ed also the criticism of Uddyulakara in his NyiiJ'Qriirttiko (III. J. I) that a soul must be postulated if it is not identified with one or the constituents. Candralcini. however, does not dismiss the plldgO/OI'cdo of the SammiUya::.' as whoJly untenable. He even admits that Buddha as an elpcui!;'ut taught the pudgalarada 0.5 he later propounded Ihe idealistic uuctrilleof ~ijlialrol·iida. The SammilI)'ull/J..ii)'triii!>tro (Vcnctnrnman's translation; mentions anu Jil>l,:usses all possible views thus (p. 21): (i) Th~rt: h JlO real self. (ii) Till: ::.t:lf is indeterminable (a"yiik!la). (iii) Five l,:oastituenu and the sd f are identical. (iV) Five ~oJlsliluent5 and the sel f Are different. (\') Selfi) eternal ua.hata). (vi) Selr is oot eternal (a.iiiil-ata) und impermanent (onit)'o). (vii) Selr IS <:.eluully exi3tent thoug h no t eternal. Of the~e views the la5t is held by the S. In this text, the non·Sammitlya views have been brielly stateJ without any comment UI critiehm while it3 own vIe" has ~en fully ciealt with Ihu5 :(i) The 'puggala' is the product oflh·e constituen ts, and it is neither eternal liar wholly impermanent. (ii) BuJdha\ denial of self was enunciated to counteract the wrong vi:ws that the self was based on m:ntal impressions
190
BUDnH'~T ~ Ff::T~ I N INOlA
(sa1llkMriis ) or thai it was identica l with the body or fi ve
constituents. He admonished his disciplei to remove the notion o f "I-n beings bore a strong attachment, but he did not refer 10 that self (pugga /a) which. strictly speaking, cou ld n ot be the object of passionate seeking. Tt.cn, again, in Budd ha's sayings, the term 'non-existencc'
was used in a dim' rent con text, e.g., he said that some were absol utely non-existen t like sky-flower and horn:> of a hare, and agai n some were rea lly nOll-existent but existent relatively like long and shan, seed and sprou t. So Buddha's denial of soul does not necessarily refer to the absolute non-exis tence of 'puggala'. It is sometimes referred to as inexplicable because of the fa ct tllat it ca n neit her be identified with, nor differentiated fr om, the constitucnts, which only are appa rent to the unenlightened. Again. jf ' puggala' be regarded as permanent o r impermanent, constituted or unconstituted, it would be adherin g to one of the two ext rem~ views of existence and non· existenrx, b oth of which were discarded by Buddha. Hence, 'puggala' as relati vely existent was admitted by Buddha. The S. contend that if self be wholly non:=xi~te!lt there would be neithcr killing of beings n or a killer, neither the attainment of fruit s o j sanctification nor a saint, consequently, neither a Buddha nor his teac hing;;. In this treatisc the Bltiiraillim-sulla has been mentioned and discussed li nd emphasis has becn [aid on the \."ord 'puggala' used in il. On the basis of the Slura, the S. contend that a distinction has been made by Buddha betwe~n burden (bhQro) and its corrier (IJiim) , the 'pugga13' c::rryi ng the burden. This siilra clear[y establishes that the carrier of 'puggala' is n ot id~ntica ! with the bu rden of the constituents (skandhas). Again, (he carrier and the burden nre inseparable; they are interdependen t a nd hence 'puggala' is not distinguished or separated from the skomihas. [t has been further pointed out that the acquisition or remo· val of impurities like attachment (raga) o r th irst (tm/a) is ~lfec ( cd not by the ' puBgala' al one to the exciusion of the constituents. Out at the same lime it should be admitted tha t the
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puggala,' and the 'skandhas' are ndlJu:1 iuentiLol no z- dint-rent, for Buddha denied the identity ami Jirr.....cnce or the vital fOf(:e U II'a) and body (sor/ra).
The treatise no w takes u p ro r lli~(: ussion the (:C'n(:cptio n of 'puggaJa' from tb ree standpoints :(i) The Self is designated by its ~ u pport (u.iruJU-lIwj ,iuplupIll/gala), i.e., thi! self is so metimes given a ll nppdla t ioJl 0 .. Jc~ cription on the basis of its llsraya o r ii/um!IIJfltJ, as fi re is naUlt'd and described by its ruel, e. g., for~l-firl;:. coal-fire. III a liyjng being, the imprtssions (.I'af1ukt'Jras) llft: fud aud the " puggllla" is the fire which deri\"es its att ri butes and appd lttLivu ill acculI.1ance wit l; the impressions. A being is calkJ a /IIall, lIagit u r a g o d in a;:cordallce with the Iype uf bvdy "u ::.:; e~~t'J oy him, The self is the receiver of {he materiul forlll (l'lIpu) oUl lilt' 'seW and 'rupa', being interdepende nt and imepitfuld have IJvthiug to s ta nd by ill his future e"istenccs. Li kewise, if tilt' l> cl f bt: n:al l.ultl eternal vr unreal and eVanest'enl, the sdf l -dn take nUl hiug Wilh it when il pas,es rr uw one eJliSICDI.:C tu anuther. The transmigra tiun uf self is eJlpH::sst:d ill IUallY sta t.:mellb uf Buddhll, t', g., he ~aid, " In this IYorlc.l ow.: pclfofms good deeJs anti a~ a result eujo}'s happincss ill the nexl wo rld", " onc who l.:ulJlroh his s:;::nse-orga ns gains a happy stule in hi5 !lc.,1 life" , " II dying person arisc5 again, etc," Buddha himsdf oftcn spoke (If his past cxist:nccs, in which he: perfected h lm!elf in many pJrullliliis, He foretold Ajita that in fu t urc he would become
192
BUDOtusr SECTS IN INDIA
the M
when It ceases ami has
11 0
morc rebirth. This happens in the
case of 3n A rlmllhe j>l::lfcct, who has rcmo"cd all his impurities (kl/{Ia.srara) ami ha:. ULtaiocU Nirvlil)u, and therefore. ca nnot have any more rebirth. In the Slme trealboc ha:. beeu diKU$se,j another statement of Buddha, in which he salu that the cycle of existences hM no begin ning (a'lomOlaggo YU'7' J·Uf!j~iilu) ilnd deduced therefrom that It had a beginning. whh..:h was unknowable to the une n' lightened, and so also, Buddha's d~clarati.oD of the non·existence of ii/mell implied that tbe ~elf (pudgulu) was unknowable to the Imperfect. It has been argul"tl by tilt: S. exponents that the reality or unrtality of 2n obja.1 )huulJ not be questioned btca ..se of the fact that it is uuknuwllble by men of average intelhgence. It indicates only luck uf k./luwledge ou the pa rt of the imperfect and not existence or nlm-exislem':l: of the real, or even of an unreal Object. It is Irue tha t tbe Arupu sphere is unknowable by beings of the Rilpu ~plll:r~. and ~o it is not proper to infer from that unknowabiJily that Aropulu/t.a does not eXIst. Similarly. self (put/gala) is unkn uw.lblt: by the U/l' Wise, but thai does not establish that 'pudgaJa' is !lQ!l-c:\i~tC:llt. T hen, agalD. a minute speck of dust, tip of a hair, mines within the earth, shores of ocean, a handful of salt dissoh·ed. in wlltc:r, 8 jewel hidden behmd a wall, bodies of spirits or ghosts, even the e)c-\ids wbich are so close 10 the eyes are not scen by the common physical eyes but that does not prove thei r nonexistence. The) are seen by those who P0iSeSS divine eyes (dj,),acakiU). Likewise, the beginning of the c)cle of e:\istence is unknowable by the unwise but is knowable by the fUll y enlightened Buddha. Buddha said thut the world has no beginning, mainly with U I'iew IU seeing that his disciples dId not take to the beliefs of clernalbm ,\lId negallvlsm and to seeing that they might !lot harbour
193
DOCTRI:-;'ES OF GROU P IV SCHOOLS
an) notion like " I was, 1 am Gnd 1 shall be." If the beginning of the world hnd been non·existent like the ;;ky-flower or horns of a. hare, Buddha would not have cared to state that the world had no beginning, as one does not say that there is no sky-flower or horns of n hare. A spberica l object ha; no besinning but no o ne says it docs not exist, so also with the world of existence (SOIJlSql"o). Last ly, if t he cycle of existences has D O beginning or end, it would be identical with NirvaQa, which is also withOUt a beginning or end. From all these arguments, the author of the Sutnmil i)'o-llikii)'u sustra established that Buddha did not fully explain maoy of his deeper ideas, and the existence of self 'plldgala' is one of them. Buddha's reticence, therefo re, should not be taken a~ t he denial of the existence of a 'pudgala' as conceived by the Sammitiyns. Profs. Stcherba tsky a nd La Vallee Poussin have furni shed the materials of the AbhldharmakosQ in English and French translations, and at present we have also the original Sanskrit teu of its Vytikh)"ii, edited by Prof. Wogihara. On the basis of these three teJ.:ts, a gist of the argqmeDts of this school for establishing the existence of pudgara is presented here. This will be foUowed up by a summary of the arguments and counter~ arguments given in the Karhil l'au hu, which has not so far received any aUention.l The KoJa opens the controversy with the qlle,tion, whe t h~r the ViitsiplllriYlls can be regarded as Buddh ists and whether t hey n r c entitled to emancipation (mok$Q)'! As has been poi nted out aboye, they were rcgo.rded b)' some us Buddhists while by others as non-Buddhists. The Buddhists believe that since there is no mokra outside the pale of Buddhism, the non-Buddhists cannot have emancipation, and that is mainly because the non-Buddhist teachers like Kapila and Ulukn believe in the existence of a permanent soul, ..... hieh, according to them, is different from the constituents of a being and is not a term Indicating the flll x of 1. KQfhiiratlh~ ( P.T.S.). pp. 1-69, bJ Mrs. Rhy, Davids,
translated In
['olnu 01 Comrl1I'l!fs>,
194
BUDDIIIST SECTS J!\ INDIA
elements· (sk andbasQTlfiiIlQ). The soul, the Buddhists assert, can neither be established by d irect perception ( pfQt)'QkIQ) nor by inference (al/umiina). Vasubandhu (henceforth abbre~ialed ai V.) first delines the contention of the Viltsipu trT)aS (henceforth abbreviated as VII .) thu ~: Is the pudgala of the Va. real (dral'fa) or nominal (prajliapli)? By real (drcl')o) existence re meant eXistence like that of rupa and such othe r demen ts, and by nominal (prajfiapll) he meant existence like 1M! of milk, house or army, which has no separate existence of ils own apart from its consti tuents. If the soul of the Va. be o f the lo rmer category (drav),a). it wOLld be different from the skal/dhos. as n> dQllii IS from "'pa, and is nO( also all the skandhas taken together. Now, 10 that case, it should be either sOIflsJi!ta (constituted), or osa/llsk!ta (unronstitu ted). It cannot be the laller, for it would make tbe Va. hold the Jiisra ta view, which is herelical. If th~ soul of the Va. b~ of the laner category (praj/iaptl), its cltim:nce is depcr:dent on the ska ndhas, "and so it cannot have any independent existence of its own, i.e ., it does not eX ist ([I dgcla it; pOj ioflir osaf-pudg%Q propnoti). The Va. contend tbat their soul is real (dravya), bUI It IS neither identjcal with, nor different from, the skandhas as tire is from the fuel. Fire exists as long us the fuel lasts, so also the soul (pudgala) ('xists a$ long as there are skand has, o therwise, plldgala would he either aSOIIuk.rfO (unconstituted). siihata (eternal) or sa1}1Sk,ta (constituted), asiii~'ala ( - uccheda a nnihilating).1 Fire is different from tbe fuel inasmuch as it has the power of burning an o bject to asbes or to produce ligbt, which the fuel does not possess. Vasubandhu argues that, fuel and fire appea r at different I.
Jl)'iikh)'Q (lap. ed.), p. 697 quotes tllb JrUIrU.
~ lI"ra 'f
2.
lilt /fTftJ
01"154l1li'6:1
;::r'{ll;IU>t~rd ~I~ "If ~"{ I ~ ,","'f: Wltdl ~ "f qm ;t[l'fu\' 'HItR{q(~ 1 ;::rroqf\f"t'jI"il.~1I'llT II cr. Ille quotalion In tl'lc Kru. p. 34 ;Khand~es l1 bhijj~ mlne!iU Sa cc hhijjali puwlo Uccheda
b~avlti
dilthi)'1 Buddhcna vivaijiti
Khandhest! bbijJllmanc.su fII} co: bllijjati llugp10 PuU~lo ~<.'<3ln hnli nibillnenl samasamo.
195
OOCT1UNES Of GROUP IV SCHOOLS
times (hlllnnokiila) like seed and sproul. Hence fire is impermanent, and the riifferenct between fuel and tire is one of lime and characteristic (/akfo~la), and again one is the cause of tile other. He then states that according to the Va., fuel is constiluted of three mahiibhiitas, while fire is of the fourth (rejas) only: tben it follows that fire is diITercnt from fuel. The Va. re ply that fire and fuel are co-existent and the latter is a support of the former (upiidu)'o; iii,irya), and that one is not wholly different from the other, for fue l is not totally devoid of the fiery element; in the same way, plld;,alo ~hould be distinguished from sk(l!1dlw$. Vasubandhu challenges the Va. by citing the instance of a burnin~ log of wood and saying thlt it represen ts both fuel and fire. That is \\oby they are identical (ananyo).
According to the Vit., put/gala
IS
neither to be described as
.ollil)a, which is sub-divided into past, present and fut ure nor nit)'o, eternal. II is QfaklQlyQ, indeterminable, im:/[plieable. H is not included ill the list of the constituents of a being., but is perceived when only !III the constituents llJ'e present.
The question next raised is, can the pudgala of the Va. be cognized by any sense-organ (illdriya). Lf so, by which? The Va. reply that it is perceived by 1111 the six sense-organs. They contend that eyes do not care 10 see rtipa (object) o r recognise il unless the mind (mano-ind'l)'o) is there. Eyes act as the dami· natlng factor when the vlsuul actIOn lakes place, hence it is not correct to say that eyes alone see ,iipo, or for the matter of that each 01 the five sense· organs cannot function in their rcspeclhe spheres mdependent or lhe mmd. 1 For cognition of p"t/gola. the Va. state that all the sense-organs point to the mind indir«:tly U:at there IS a pudga/a; e.g., eyes dlscern the r':;po (colour· figure) of a body aod thereby IDduce the mmd to cognize the presence o f an mdlvidm.l (i.e. pudgola which IS neIther identical With, not different from rupa).z V. argues that If rtipa be the cause of cogni~ lion of pudgafa (rupiinlirrJ kurmrall'om adhik,iyate). one should not I. 1.
S~e aboye: cr. Masudo. p. 230. !Sec Ko.la lI-r. Irans!.) 1)(, p. 2JI rn.
1%
DODDDIst SCCTS I N INDt....
say that "ipa and pl/dgola a red iffe~ nl (an)"QJy.).l Again. if cognition of rUpa lead, at o nce to the oogni lion of pudgoll1 (rUpJn)"!pOdii),o plltlsa/opaJabdhir ;ti), ODC should ~ I ~ ~:Jy that riipa a nd pudgala are identical (anol/yo),1 in other worth, one i .~ nnlya modificatio n of the other (riipantarotvill) . The Vii ., however, would neither iden lify riipa (colour.figu re) with pudgola nor treat them as different ; in the same way. they would nei ther regard the perception of riipa (colour-figure) 1\$ identical with the flert:e ptio n o f purlgolo nor look upon them as different . V. asserts that if plldgaia be an enthy. it should be eithermaterial (rop!l) or n on-material (nQma), but Buddha sa)'S rGpo
or l\'dantJ or lO'11jfitJ or SQllukiir4 or l'fjiU11/Q is not self- all dharmas aTC without self- thtre is no pudgalo. He fUMhe r states that sartl'Q. )1110, pudgala is a prqjlloptl (designation) applied to the fa lse notion of a self cherished by the unenlightened . The Va. in reply state that they were not prepared to accept the sto remems attri buted to Buddh3 as authentic' as tbese were not to be fo und in their Pi!aka. They rtferted to staltmtnB, in \\-hich Buddha spoke of a person's pas t existence or reeognised pllbbenil1iha;ui~la~ as one of the hightr acquisitio ns of an adept., and asked, who i.s it that remembers? Is It pudgoJa o r the skar,dhas? They fu rt h(!r argue that if Buddha be regarded as omniscient, i.e., he knows everythinA past or present. of every place,of every bdng dc. it a lsoi mpliesa contin uity of somethin.'l. In other words, it im plies the existence of a pud1.o1a. T he Va. fu rther state that unless there were some form of pudj:a(o. why the d Isciples should be instructed to avoid thin king of rUpol'un alwft' b(Jb!lul'iitIte 'dlll'ani (in tbe past I possessed a bod)) and so forth.a V. refut~ Ihi~ conlentio n hy !.'lying thai pudsa/a rere refers I. JuS! 15 li"ht. f)"n aDd miod. \\t-ith ausc lhe visualisation d an objec:, arc nOl different from th: object. Ibid.., p . 2~8n. Set V,YQkll)'o' p . 701. 2. Ibid. , p. 23~ n. s...-.: Vydth)4, pp. 701-2. 3. a . Y)'6Jh)'4 : mOlasru'lgftibhralllu't. 4. cr. ilfaJJilln.a, I, p. 22 : so C'{31ll Um~hlte d lle parisuddhe pa riyod ilte cnn~lIlI,e ... pubbc:ni vh! uu""HUi_Ciil(liya (;iltllm abhinlnn~mclf. 5. r:r Mttlj/ri•..n, J, p . 8. ; ahosin nu kho II.halll atilllfl'. od dhftMlll .. , kiq, hUlv1 kUll ahosim nu kilo atil am addhlina m . CIC. CIC.
COCTJUNE6 OF CROUP IV $CHOOUJ
197
lra CIC. 2 Cf Kn.fll, iii, 10, 12, 18-19, '1uotin~ Sapta-sat-llurum-J.1ati-sotrsfl1 . .l . Majjhimo, i, p. 8 : Allhi me Illta Ii '1"511\ saccato thetato diHhi UppB./jot l, nol/I me alta Ii va'ssa saccato IhetalO dilthi uppJjjati, ctc.
cr.
198
BUDDHltr
~£CTS
IN I:""IA
D oes it ind icate Ihnt the de ments o f tbe past arc th: clements of the present? V. refutes it by sflying Ihnt just lIS lire passes fro m one wood to a no ther, Ihough it never remnins the SlIme, so the elements pa iS from o ne existence 10 another, nothi ng rcm.1inins identical. If, accord ing to the va., Buddhas ndmitt:d the ex istence o f 'pudgala', t hey \\ould be subject to Ih:: wrong belief of sclkiiyur/.ri/i. Th~ Va. now ask, how enn memor} be cxplnincd whh out the conceptio n of 'pudgoln'? W ho is it th at rcmcnl bcrs? V. answers that it is SQllljn(1 that rcmcmbcn -£Qrfljlili with atten. tion directed to Ihe object, an idcn ctc. is similar to, or connected with, it, provided Ihc:"c [s no corporeal pain to impair its C3P3city.
Th e VO. nrc o f the o pin io n Ih[l.\ t here must be an agent, a doer, n proprieto r of memory. T he re mu st be a cognizing agent, nn net ion must hove a doer. ' D~vlJdalt a walks' implies the exis· tenee of nn ind ividu ality. V. replies that it is not so, lie states that just ns when a fire Iraverses from one foreH to another. no qUC5lion of individuality aris:s, similar!) Dc"adatta is a projliopli (lik:: fire) nppl.ed 10 a conglomeratioll of clemeuts passillg from one existence to another and has 110 individ uality.' NOW, we shall pass on to Ihe Il rguments of the Vii. and the counter·arguments of the Theravadms as presented tn the KathlJ ~ollllll (I. i), which is of a much earlier dale t!lan that of the medieval and modern dialecllcal worlG. The first question put by the T heT:lvadins 10 the V
look upon it Simply as a hears2Y. The-Sam. deny pract ically a ll I. Koin·yydk hyl (laD. c:d.), p. 710! ynt!"!!!. IU \;~a1)lko ',nir iii, etc. 1. " " ua" rerers to the Da ~a8raD hs n llr ked In the 1". T . S. edition or the Kuti••hu{/J.".
DOCTRINES OF CR O\lP IV SCII OOLS
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the four possibilities. though they assert t hat the puggola is known R$ a (ell and ultimate fac t (sacdka/flta-parama!!h ena). T!le Sam. now assail the Th. with the counter-question whether they would admit th nt pliggala is nOI known in lhc sam: way as Ihat ~vhich is real
200
BL"UDHIST SECTS IN INDiA
cia not c1~arly Ua ~ e tha t pugga!D (as a palinatll] is different from the elements, the reason assigned b) B uddb:;ghosa 1 is th at the qu e:c;linn ~ of the o pponl:nts have a mixture of sammUli and pnrnmolfllfl trut hs, and as such the Th. have no other 901l('r· native bllt 10 leave tbem uD3nswero!"d (Ihapanlya).2 The nex t attempt of the Th. is to .. how tbat the Sam . should 3d voc~le either Ut'Chedmiida or SOilQIa\'oda. With th is end in view, the Th . put the questions whethe r pliggala is identical with or ditTerent from r/ip
(so $0) puggal0 Ii ?
K~u,
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201
Olttl1ilitaya pa~ipallnu li" which Olgain is count:red by the Th. by sa)ing tha i Ilu; Sam. ~hould equally rely 00 the statement "s uiinato lokil!Jl avekkha)su, etc." and lIdmit that there j, 00 }Juggu/u.
The Th. now pnx.:c;:tu tu examine the ptJIifioui (description) of Jluggu!u. In amwcr tu the question ..... belh~r the pugga/a of the Riil'oohuru is rDpt and likewise: of the KiImad/rii ru is kiimI and uf IlK: AriipadhlJru, ampr. the Sam. affirm the first and the third bu t nol the second. Tile Sa m. argue that pugga!a _ satra _ j ll'u i.llld kd)'a~ sQrrra. Thuug h they do not admit either the idclitilY of. or difference betwl::en, j ll'U and sar1ra, they hold, tbough not logically tenable, tbal kilyu must be diffe re nt from plIgga'a as there are such stalcmeob :as 'so kaye k4yinupassi viha rati and so forth,' in whieh so cannut but refer to puggala. T he next discussion r~lating to upl!dl1-pwi;;ulfi (rebirth) of pugga/a raises the question of transmigraliull, The Sam, affirm that puggala passes from this existence to ue,,1 but it is neither the self-same puggala nor a d ifferent puggala-a statement simillir to what the Th. would say about the passing of the kllandhas--avoiding the two beretical o pinions of su,nulu viida and IIcclledal'Ma as also the ekacrasassarfkarddrJ ami omoriJ· ~'fkk."tpikot.i!!;'j,2 In support of their contemion the Saul. quo te the p assages in which a 'puggala" is said to pass from Cine existence to another (Jolldhii l'ari S!lflISOrall). According to the Opinion of the opponents that the self·same, o r a different, pugga/a does not pass from one existence to ano ther. the Th. poiO[ out that they admit that some form of pusga/a referred to in the abo\e-mentioned passages, does p
'Ii satlbuvacarllo upatabbhali. Yo pana upalabbhali. na so sabbo P'JgpJo. Alila kho te hi ei na pupo ke hI cJ na pcgplo 'II, TallM kQ1cQrQII"~ "~1cJ,,) ,,;I
upalllbbhali yeva, Taltha puggalo 'va PUli1310 rOplldisu pallo. koci pi na Jl uiJla10 ' Ii. 2. See my Earl)' Mon(l$lic Buddhism (1941 ), I, pp, liJ fr, l, See my £Url)' MOllaslic Buddhism ( 1 ~4 I J I, p, 63 t.
202
BU DDHIST SECT S IN 1:>'"DIA
mallussa is known to la ke rebirth as a sOlapaDlla-dcva and qUI,!~tion how !.:an this sotapanna. hood pas, from one existence t o anUil ll:f UIlit;::o;S there e}lists some form of pugga/a to car ry th e qualities. III order to show the unsoun:lness 0: the statement, t he Th. ask wllethcr the passing puggalu remains identical in every Icspecl 1 lind does not lose any of its q u alilie5.~ T he O?POnelliS fi rst negative it on the gro und that a man docs not continue to be a Illan in the demloka; but on second th01Jght they affirm it in view of the fact th at the carrier of certain qualities frolll one existencc to another is a pugga/a, an omardbhol·Q·puggalu.' T he Sam . take care to keep clear of the two e.\treme vkws; /OI/l jlllwI' talll sur/ral/l and atlliolfl jll'wl' 0/1;;011' sar/fOI!I. The-y affirm that tlle transformed k"andhas and pllggO/U, and Hot the identical kl/(lndltuJ and p :lggaia, pass from o ne e~i :. tcnCt: to alloth:r. T he k"andlroJ a re, however, impermanent alllJ cuustiIUh;:d, wh ile the pligguia is not so , but it is not perIJIUIlt:II L<.IIlU Ullconstituteu either. Without klralldho , ayalalla, dluilll , illdriYil amI (:ii/a, pUl;gula cannot remain alone but fo r that rt:dson, lile colour and other qualit ie~ of the khatldlta, a.l·u/anu. cle. du nU l afft:ct thi: plIg8a1a. Aga in the pUlga la is lIul a ::.hauuw (chayti) o r the lhaud ha s.
In reply to the question, whether the puggaro is perceivable in every momentary thought, the Sam . answer in the affirmative, but they wo uld not accept the inierence drawn by the Th. that the pl/ggala in that case would have momentary existence (kholJika-b!Jal'of71), i.e" would disap pear and re-appear every moment like celasikas (thoughts). The Sam . nnw ask the T h. wh:ther t.hey would admit th[lt one (y o) who sees .~nmethin g (YOIII ) by means of an organ of sense (J'elw) is the puggnlo or not. The T h .. after aSieming to it ~s fl convent ional truth (mmmuri-.mcca), put the same question in the oegat ive form thu!': One (yo). who' does not !'ee anything (YO/Il) hy mean ~ o f an orga n of sense ( , eIlQ . is I . Afllli\i'lo_"" bb"iiclr"'M ",lc:asadi' o . 2. Avilato = ekena pi dk4re1)a a ... igaIO. J. The self v.hich ell isls bclW~1l dealh Rnd rebirth. Sec above pp. I t4, 1U
4. E.g., a bHnd man, an asantllsalta.
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not apuggaln. The !jam., however, without a rguiug fu rther, quote a few pJssages, in which BLlddha said: 1 (i.t:. Ihe plfggalo, accord ing to the Sap.) see by means of my di\iuc eyes (dlbbmo l'okkllll~lii) beings appea ring and disappt:arill b and SQ forth , and inter Iherdrom Ihat the seer is pl/ggala. Their next discussions rehled to pllrusaklira. T he Th . do 110t admit the exiHencc of any doer, SO they asked the Sam. whether the laller would subscribe to the sa me opinion. O n their denial the Th. as~ '.'-llethcr the Sam. would admlt the e}(istence of the doe r, and a creato r of the doer, wh ich is negatived by the Sam. on accou nt of tl:e ileret ica l doctrine of issolonimmii1)u (God the creator of the world) but which o n second thought IS affirmed by them in view of tl·.c fact t;,at the pl! rent s, teachers etc. arc also in a sense the makers (kaua. kurerii) of a person. The Th . withou t going into the implied sense of the replies. say that such a Slate of things (i.e., a doer having a doer a nd a deed which implies Dot just a deed bu, also a doer) would le:ld to the cone/usion that so long a s there is deed (kammo), there is its doer (kdrako puggalo), and hence there can be no end to pllggG'/a-parampara and tha t would falsify the fa ct that by the stoppage of the wheel of actions, dllkkho can be brougbt to an end . Then again nibbiina, mahapalhavi, etc. must also have a doer. All the inferences drawn by the Th. are rejected by the Sam. In conclusion, the Sam. deny tbl! the deed a nd the doe r can be distinct, j ust to avoid admitting that the plIggofa has menta l properties.
While in the above discussion, the doer of a deed is enquired into in the following discussion It 1; the identi ty of the doer of a deed with the enjoyer of its fruit that is enqu ired into. The Th . deny the existence of a feele r or enjoyer apart fmm l'ipiika_pm'Qfti (tha I which is realized , tna t fructification of an effect). The Sam. hold In .. ! I'ntisflIfI\'rdimhhn is vipiika (resuh) but the pugga/a is not viplika. 1 The.y further stllk that Nibhiina I. Bul it may happen Iha: fNlfflldo, who is in Iho: enjoynenl or his flUil , (i.e. merils). may be u.l:ai n an obj« t of enioyment of another plIl!gula, e.g. a son enjoying the r~uils of his aclions may be the objec t of affectiOn of his mother, and s.o forth. This cxplar,ation of Buddhaghosa should be compued ",jlh the abo-.e like Ihe kiife/ll of "atrii.
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BUDDHIST SECTS IN INDIA
or Mahap:qllavi, ~h,;. IS nol I·ipfiku like divine happilless (djbba~uk h a) or hm/IUII hupJlillf:!is (wanussasuklJa) so nUDe of Item is au v l>jccl of t'njuYII~Jl l of the pugga/a but again the Sam. do not adlllil Lhi:lL .)ukhu is dislim;l rrom the sukha-l'njoyn. The: Th. logically \\Iu/ll ( u 10 makt: Ibldr uppont:nts admit that thcre must not only bt: all t'ujuyer ora [ruil LUI also an enjoycr of lb.: C"llju},ef of lilt: [ ruil auu won lilt: au endless chain; ill ollu:r \\ord1>. uccunJiug 10 them, as shu" n above, dllkkha cun lu \'c no enu . Tilt: Th. nuw put tIn: crucial questio n thus: whether the doe r of a lkeu is idenlical wi lh, or dij"erem from, the enjoyer of its
fruit.
The opponents first deny both to avoid contradiction in Buddhr.'s saying; sayalll kawf{l paror]1 kara'll sukhadukkhwTJ.
etc, bUlan second thought, in view of thei r theory tbat thert: is a common clement keeping the link between the present anll the future life, they admit ie. In short, the Sam. affirm that there is a kl1raka (doer) a nd I't'daka (feeler or enjoyer) of a deed, bUI the two are neilher identical nor dilfercOl, neither both identical and different, nor not both identical and different. The Sa m. next apply the test of ab/uiffia (supernormal powers), fill!1 (relatives) and phala (al1ainments) and put the argu ments thus: (0 How can a person perform certain miracles keeping his organs of sense. etc. inert and lDactive, unless there is something else as puggafa. (ii) Ho w cen one recognize the existence of parents, castes, etc. without positing that there is a puggafa, and (11:) How can a pbofasrha con tinue to be the same in more t han o ne life, unless the e"istcnce of a puggala is admitted. The Th. avoid the issues by submitting the counter·argumen t to the eUect that one who cannot perform miracles is not a pllelga/a. In this way they refule the otber two arguments. The ne.~1 questIOn of Ihe '1h. is whether the puggafa 1S constituted (so'11kha/O) or unconstituted or neither constit uted nor unconstituted (,, 'e l'a S1l11lkhat niisafllkhato). The Sam. affirm the Inst allernatll'e but would not treae l~e puggala as something apart (aiiilo) from OlC sOlilkiwt kltandllOs. They state that the puggala has ccrtain aspects of Satllkhata, e.g., it is subject to s ukha, dukkha, and so forth; again it has certain aspccts of
DOCTRI~E..S
OF CROUP IV SCHOOLS
20'
asamkhoto, e. g., it is 1101 5ubjcct to birth, old ngc and death UII".lorll, lImlll;UrU(IfI) .
In reply to the TI.:s qucstion whether a par;,ribbHto plIggalo cxists in Nibbana o r lIot, thc Sam ncgativc both, as the nffirmo:tion of rithcr wuuld make them either a Su 511tll\oiid .n or nn U«:hedavadir:. Xow the S ~m . put tlu: counter-questioa: Docs not n peTion say tha t he is feeling happy or unhappy and 50 forth? How C'.!n n person sa} so ullh:ss he is 11 pllggala und not n m ere congo 10mcnllio[J o f scparate: kllaudhas? In refuting this con tention. the Th. put the ~IUUe: quc~tioD in a negative form thus: Wcll, If a pcrson docs Dol fet:! happiness or unhappiness, then there Is no pl;ggaia. The;: Th. furth er ask whether Sam. would trem sllkha and puggutu as something sepamle lind d istinct. The Sam. evade a clin::t:t allswer and ask: \Vell , when a pl/gga/a (k oc/ o r so) is sl,titl to 1)1:: f.;.jj)'e krj)"lilwpalS Yihara ri, docs it not affirm the exislcnct: of a puggala ? The controversy is 1111:11 closed by citations of pf.ssngc:s fro m th: Nik&yas, the T h . yuOltug oil ly those which de,uJ~ express a/lllull c f Gil th ings, whilt: the Sam . quote tho~e pas5ages in wh ich the word puggulu ur ut/(.lMro or so appe u . Thro ugh these contro vt:nics, it is apparent tha t the Sam. are seeking to establ ish that the five kbandhas which arc dis tinct from o ne another cannut Bivc .·ise to the consciousnessof I-ness, a un ity. The facts that u persou aets or thin ks as one and oot as five separate ob:ccts, lhat in Illany paiSagt:~ Buddha does actually use the " orllS'" SQ, Wlli aud p"sgala, that a pcr50u'~ a ttainments like sOliJplmnuhOutI c!Jntinue to be the SJ.mc ill different eA isl ern.:e~ , anll th ul o lle spta l.s of bjs past exiHCllcCS, and so fonh , do Icallto tht: cOlldusio n that, besides the fil'e khand has. there exists SUIJlt: Illeuml pro)pcrt~ which form s the basis of I-ness, anll maintaim ILc continui ty uf A-Orilla from one c:o.i Slcnce 10 anolher. Thut llIelltal property, however, is ehallg" ing kbamJhas bul ill vi\:w of thc fact thal OIiC can think of h iS past, even o f Ilt: I:VClltS 11is past c:o. istcllces, thc challging khandhas a lune t:aullo t lie made respolIsilJl.: for the memo ry. The Sam. Iht::rd"of': affirm t he exh le1l\::e of a sixth (mcntal) properly and f.:all it pl/sga/a, whi eh eRn rema in only a lo ng wilh kbandhas and w lIIust di sappear when the khnndllJs dimppcnr
or
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1 ~IlIA
in Nibbana. As this mental property c r puggalD is no t kl Q{liko
{constituted. momentary objec t} tnd again, as it is not 3150 unchanging and ever existing like Nibbi'ina, ill it is no t asolJlklima. Therdorc the pliggala must be adm illed 10 be neither .~01tJkflQIO nor a~ al!lkl:ala.1
Rcfer ri nz to the pudgalo-nida o f the Sam.. S:i.nlarak ~i t a in hi, Tatrrasaf.graha. eh. \'ii (I) remarks jokingly that the Saugat3j (i.e. Ihe Buddhists) as the upholders of the ullaud doctrine should bother their head with identity and difference o f the d oer o f a dctd and the enjo),cr of iLS fru it. Santarak$i la. of course. dismisses both al/cuiiriit/a and pudgakl-l'iida from lhe
st3ndpoint of the Vedanta ;chool of philosophy, accordinJ: to
or
which the etern alily (i ll/Ill" is maintained. Vasumitra summ:lrizcs the doctrines o f the Samm itiyas or the ViitsiputriYEls thus: I. T he pm/gala is neither tt', e saine as the skandha.I' no r dift'e rcntfrom the skolldhas. Th~ narneplldga/a is provisionally givcn LO nn Ullgr('gate of ~kOlldllaJ. (iya:alllls and dhii/Us. 2. D harm a! can not transmigrat..! from one existence to rlnother tl p:!rt fro m the pl/dgala. Th:se C3n be said to aa nsmigrtl te 3loni: with the put/gala.
Olher duClr;'"e:; Vasumilra attnb utes to the Vatsiputriyas a few otbcr vicws which h ~ve alreaJy been d iscussed . These are: (i) The the vijiianas conduce neil her to sariiga (desirc) r.or 10 \';r-/iga ( removal of desi res);! tii) To become i rce fro m desire ( "irugQ), o ne mus: rd .inqu.sh the SQ1l,)"ojoFlc.! which can be destroyed by an adept when he I. cr.Ob;:rmill«·s Attal):sll 0/ ,h" AbM,amQ),so",J..dra, 111, p . lBO, ",r"rrin,,'" TIl""j.,i/ti amI Scha)er, K"mnI,,'If,,·~ K·i/it, n,.s PuJgnJow.Itiu. Obermiller wr,tes 'the \'Al~putriyas, DbadrJ.yinikas, !il.rnmilyas. Dharmasuptas and SallkrAnlivAdins are th OSt; that adn:i t the reality of the indivirJua l' They Jay that the 'indi\iduai" is somet hing inexpressible, being neither Ident iC11 wh h the the groups of clcments nor difTerent from them. It ;5 to be eOll nb ed by the six fOrtl19 of Vijil.-iIllIS, nnd i~ $ubjcct to SalllJiirn (phcrlnmcrnl c~ i.~ I~n ce) . 2. SCCOIrlt,pp, 1 1 0,I G~.
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DOCTR Iz,:ES OF GROU P IV SCHOOLS
bhiil'ar.iimurga, and not while he re ma ins in darlcnamurgc. (iii) W hen one has ente red the sam),ok tra;f),iilllo, one is called praripannoko in the first twelve m omeniS of the dodOI/Omargo and when one is in the thirtee nt, moment o ne is called pha/ost/·a. l (iv) T here i5 w/tcriiblial'O.! T he Sammi iiyas, like the Sarvareaches
stivudins, hold that ever)' being, whether destired for K a mnloka or R lipaloka by his karma, remains for some time in an intermed iate state o f existence. At that lime the body takes no materia l fo rm, not even the jkandhas. It is not an independent state of existence but j ust a waiting stage preliminary to its existence in one of the two lokas. The Sammiti)'us add that those beings, who a re destined for helis, or AsannI sphere, o r ArOpaloka, have no antarabllOra. (v) Parihiiyati aralIa arahafl(j Ii (Kvll . I . 2).3 ( vi) N'aulI; {lcrC'SIi bralimacariytiwlso Ii (KYII . I. 3).' (vii) OdhiJodhiso kile!J(! j ahalfti (KI'II. I. 4).5 (vi ii) Janal; pUlhujjOIlO kiimariiga-b)'opMan ti ? (K ru. I . 5),' DIt MI MUTTARIYA , BH ADRAYANIYA ANO O I AN· NAOAR IK A
Vasumitra skips over the special doctrines of these three schools.' mentioning in '-crse only th:l t they diffe red reg!l rdins the a ttai nmentJ of an orhal. and the consequent chances of hig fall from arhathood. It seems tb:lt in Olher matters, these three schools agreed with the views of the Sammilips, In the Kl'U, II 4: To the Bhadr!l.),i niklls is aU rihuled the doctrino o f " ':lnupubba bhisnmtl)'Il" (gradual real ization of the four lrtuhs). In Ite KI·u. aflilakolhii (p. 56), to the Ch30-nag.:uikas i.. :lUributed the J. Cf, MaJ"".Ia', nOIU in Ihe A sin M id"'" II Sanmil/)'rIS
toun t in all tile fourleen
p. 5/i
mOlnC:l I ~ i"'tca~
In (hnrt, the
of S:nvh:iva(!in.'
sill:een; so Ihe 13111 mome:!t or the Sa mmiHyucorresponds to the 15111 of Ille Sarvistivldins; see p. 16-1.5. 2. Secallle,pp. 1 \4, \ 25. J. So:oo mll<'.pp 82, 108. 4 . See orlfe, p. 163. 5. Si!c (mle. p. 165.
6. See
allIe, p. 160. 7. See atlle, p. )0
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BUDDH IST
SECT~
m i NOt...
d octrine DukkhiihiirOli i.e., the utterQI ICf! of the wo rd " dukkha" leads to knowledge: (r.iiQ.'l) (d. Qbo~'e p. 110). vum ,v'(AVAUA
T his is one of ll.e ~choob enlisted by Bhav}a and Viniladeva. but Jlot by VU1>ullIit ru. IL u<xs nu L appear in t h ~ list of schools of tht: CcyIOi.e:>t: dJrollido. Blwvya and YinI1adeva treal it es a ll ulTshout of Lilt: Sur vl1s1ivudu schooL Prof. La Vallee Poussin has traced in the Chinese tom m~ntary of the Vijiiaplimiifra ra~ l'jddlJi a pasSU};!: in
which Vibhaj yavadins arc: identified with
Plujil'l plivadins.t This apparently refers to the Bahu!ruHya.. \'i\.J!J~jy a v;1di n s.· by which name the Praj llapth'adins d istioguhbc:u themselves from the B ah u ~ru tCyas. Prof. Po ussin has sho ....'ll Ilm l lhe position of the Vibhajyavadios cannot be cleu ly mace uut us Iheir doctrines have m!Jch in common with the d octrines u r lhe SarvQstivad ins, MahAsailghlkas. Sammiti),as a nd o then. T o ad d 10 this co nfusion, we have the Ceylo nese trad Ition 10 which the Pfl.1i school, I.e., the Theravo.dins, prererred to caU itsel r Vibhaj)avldins.' This ano malo us position or the Vibhajyav;ld ins, it seems, may be explained by rega rding tnem not as a n independent SChOO!, but as a lerm deno ting those who d id nOt accept the doc trines of a particular school in totO.4 It may be shown that those San':l.stivadias, who did not accept t he sar vaJ/J aSl i thesis in toto and held instead the opinio n tbat the p as t, which has not yet produced its fruits, and the future do not exist were known 2.S V\bbajyavadin, i.e., ~arvas l ivid a vibhnjynvM in, j ust as we IHlve Bah usrutlya-vl bhajyavadlD, On this analog} we rna) say that among the TheravAdlDi there were perhap s some disse nting groups. who were distinguished as
I. KrJi(l ,lmro .. p, Iv. 2. See aoo\e, p. 101. 3, jI,"(JI,,;W" IU(J , p, 54.
4. s.ee Kit.fe, Ind".1.1'1- hi; V. p, 21_24 fn" qllolinl Anhaprt:lifpa. 3, p. 48. "leI Vibhaj),B"Adins Oll bien son t des nl.nre5 divuvcnts du G rand VC:hiculc, au bien wUles Irs Koles du Petit Vehicul" son t nomm~s \ ibhajya-
"adios: O:I1)[-ci ne $Onl
p~s
une eco.c delermin!!c. Par
CO!1~uc:nt.
dans Ie
!I1a"iIJtlJlilSQ.,gruha (Nanj 0 I t 8j), It'S Vibbaj}'a"adlns SOnt explrquts C(l1111T1C MahiU Gk.:u ; d.,ns 4t Vibhdll, comme Slll1lmiLiyllS."
209
DOOTRINE5 O P CROU P IV SCH OOLS
Therav:i.da·vibhajyavadi ns. The Ceylonese monks of M.1ha. vihara probabl y preferred to call themselves Vibhajjaviidin as we find it clearly expressed in the vw;ilied table o f contents of chapter 1II of t he Cullavagga 1 and in the colophon of the commentary on the Tikapalfhiina,1 as also in the Dipal'alflsa (xvi ii. 41. 44). In the accou nt of t he Third Council, as givcn in the Ceylonese chro nicles.' as also in Bud d hagho~a's com mentary.4 the Vib?lajjaviidins are declared to be orthodox monks.s As Vasumitra does not count the Vibhajyaviidins as one o r' the sects. he has not mentioned any spec13l doctrines of theirs. It is o nly in t he Abhidharl/lokosa tha t we come across certain doctrines atl ribu;:ed to this !teet. Evidently Vasubandh u had in his mind the SarvlIstiv
Sec>
YlruYQ,
CV., pp. 72.
Tll mMrm ~'.';(tiJlllpa!Ad n k&nam
112 : IcariyAn:up
MaMvi hlirllvAsinanl
Vihha.iiawd~"am
vAcun l'l
sa ddhamma-
nhiliyl ti. 2. TikQ-po1!hiina (Cy.). P 366 : &cariy4nalll vAd a m ~viN'ya \'Ibtajia· vA di-sissAnam clC. ; p. S~7 ; themvarpsa ppa.d iplirla f')1 Ihcrll!;u~ JTI M.. hlvlMravas!nalfl V'l!jl ,n ~.. rJkQr .. Uhll cna vipul n-... i1uddh D -buddhin~ Bl.lddha_ 8ho50 Ii ... _helen a I.:al i . ) . M'lhiiWllJl _ w . V, 271. 4. Kmlrdvaflhu..a/!,'ak u/hii. p.6. 5. Before Vihh.1jjav4da ca me 10 b.: rer arded 85 n sect, it meant tho re ..... ho deal l ..... ith tbe mt tnphyslca l p ro ble ms ~ nalyl lcally. frum .. pan i<:1.I1a.sta '1 dllofnt a~ u P;>Ulh'1I \0 IhoK who $Olvcd Ihe proble ms l1' IOIi8h.",.y (t:ka",UlYildl'l) by 0. d ire~ l ~n'wc r . 5ke M "JihlmiJ , ll . 1"11. 99, J07: cr. E.118.• I. JI 124 : Vihhajja vy,Ai(a r:lo iya and Ekarpsavy4karaniya. I n the Majjlllnill I. o. 163; PQptlikasj(/QIIT, II, p. Ill. Buddha declared thl! be knew t fll'rQriidil,
..... hi~h, according to Buddbagholil , mcanllhirabhlv8\'A da (mentat sle:ullness). T hough these two terms, Vibhaj}a.iida and Tflerm'(ldu. wer: uscd it' Ihc Nikaya 5. they d id not dcn:lte any sect, but we n,a), take t ~'" 10 meRn the ~our<:c. from which tho: K" t"ri3n nllme r~~"cd later 0'1.
210
lI U UDII1 ~ T
SI':CTS I); IN DIA
vi. B haga van is always in meditation (Kosa, Fr. transl. iv. p. 43 n.l and has no middlw (torpor) (Ibid) . vii. Vibhavat,HHl is :lbando!1ed by bhftvana (Koso, vi. 10-11). VIII. Arha ts have no fall from Arha t hood (Koso. vi. 58) . IX. T he re are 43 B odhipak~ l ka-dharmas (Koi a. vi. p. 281 n.) Ihe six ndditio nal dharmas a re anicca-;;ai'ina, dukkha-s., "nattan., pahilna-s., viraga-s., and nirodha-s. x. T here is nipa (matter) i1\ the Anlpya-dhatu (Kosa. viii. 3. Kosa, F r. lransl, p. 135 n.). Some schools like the Andhakas, Mahasanghikas, Mahisftsakas point out t hai riipa exists in A.riipyadhfitu but in a very SUbtle stale. The cOTlt e nt ion of the Vib hajyavadins is pmsibly the same as that of the Tiimropar!/iyas l (Koso i, 38) who state that mano_ dhow is a material organ, which they call iladayo-l'tl ttJIII (see Vi!uddhamagga, p. 44!) This basis of mano--dhiiw, which is material , exists in the Arupyadhiitu al;:o. xi . T he Arya of the 4 th Arupya (i.e .. nevasaijljiiiiniis:lrpjiiayatana) dhitu obtldns arhathood without the aid of the magga. This i~ a doctrine 0 1· the M 2hiSasak as. xii. T here are twelve viparyasas, (see K oia-" yiikhyo p. 454), of which eight are removed in darsanamarga and four in hlliiI'lmii'Piirgo (KoSa, v. p. 23 n.). xiii. Jiiiino is the same as dha rma!, which are £ood by nature (sllobhiiIIQIa f.i) , while "tjiiiina means those dharmas which arc good by association (samproyogaraf!) with jiiiina (Koia. iv. p, 33 n. ; :x. p. 248 n) . .xi v. Realization of the four truths takes p lace all at once, a nd not gradually2 (Kosa. vi, pp. 123, 185).
t.
' 'Jet'''')",;,
2.
S e!
1'. 39.
~bow,
p. 88.
CHAPTER
IX
DOCT RI NeS OF GROUP V SCHOOLS
Sthavirvada or Theravada (including Mahiiviharavilsins and Abhayagirivasins) According to both Pali and Sanskrit traditions, the origin:l l school, which the Ceylonese chronicles l do not count as schismfltic, was called Theravada or Sthaviravada. An alternative name o f the Sthaviravadins is gi\'en as Vibha jyHv~idins. It is doubtful whether there was any independent school h:lVing the name of Vibhajyav:ida. It has been shown above (p. 208) that Vibhajyavada was sometimes a ffixed to the I1:\me of a school on account of cerlain adherent;; differing in m inor poi nls from the principal doctrines of a particular school and p referring to distinguish themscl~$ as Vibhajyavad ins of that partict1 lar school. In th is way, we may explai n the Vib hajyav:ida of Ihe Ceylonese tradition, that is, the Ceylonese did not accept in loto the doctrines of Theraviida and preferred to distinguish Ihemselves as Sthavira-vibhajjavadi or simply as Vibhajj:1vadi. Tn lheK(ltlllil·{1(tllll. the .term Saka\,:lda is used imtead of SthaviraVildfl or Vibhajjavada. l Hillen T sang spea ks of a group of monks as Mahayanist s of the Slh:lVira school. From his record s,' it seems that he divided the monks of Ceylon into two groups, calling the Mahavi biira· vii~ i ns a~ Hinayana-Sthaviras and the Abhayagirivasins as M3ha yfina-Sth.1viras_ He cr,me ac ross such Mahiiyiniit Sthaviras in the Mahiibodhi-sangblinima, built at Gaya by a king of Ceylon ,. L Dfpul'CIflSll, V. 51 : Sallarasa W alters. I, p, 104_ 2. P. xli. 3. W~ue", 11 . p. 234. 4. WalleT'S. II . p. 13~.
bhinnavlIdd eko "rido abhinnako. Sec
212
Rllnmll!IT ~I!cn 1:.1 INDIA
and also in Kalitiga 1 and SUral. 2 In the monasteries of Samat~l!a ,3 Dravir;la,~ he says, the monks belonged to the Sthavira schooL No mention is made of Mahii}'ana. He was aware of the split of Ihe B L!drlh ist ch urch into two schools, Sthaviras and MahAsnilgbikas and quite deliberately used Ihe expression Mahayanis t Sthaviras. His rem arks about the d ivision of monks in Ceylon remind us of the Ceylonese tradition according to which the Ahhayagiri monastery became for some time a centre of the Vetulya kas. the immediate forerunn ers of the Mahiiy:i.nists,5 and very probably the Chinese pilgrim referred to the Vetulyakas or the monks generally living in the Abhayagiri monlstery as Sthaviras of the Mahayana school. By Mahayaniit Sthaviras, Hi uen Tsang' probably meant those monk> who followed Vinaya rules of the Sthaviravadins but held doctrinal views of the Mahayan ists, like Sunnata doctrin: of the Velulyakas. In the AbhidharmakolQ and its bhiisya,' certain erudite monks are referred to as Sthaviras, e_g., Sthavira SUlpghabhadra, Sthavira Vasubandhu, Sthavi ra Srllata while the Chinese commentators all the texts point out that by " nikayantara", the text referred to the Sthavira school. In the Kosapyiikhyii (p. 705), there is a reference to the Tiimra?Q'~I ')'Q-lIit.;iiJa . These referencc), however, are inadequate for drawing any conclusion. leaving aside for lhe present the Haimavatas, or the Mahayanist Sthaviras, let us turn to the original Sthavira school. tbe Sthaviravadins of the Mahiivihiira of Ceylon. V.,sumitra passed overthe doctrines of this school while the Kathiiratthu referred to them by the word sokoriitW. For the purpose of lindi ng out the distirlctive doctrines of t his scho ol, we shall elici t from Ihe KatlrOI'ouhu the vic\\s of the Sakariidins as against those of other schools on any particular doctrine.
Cenfres of papl/lorit)' The Tibetan tradition . ascribe the foundation of Ihis school to Mahakacc:iya na,9 who was a native of Ujjaini and son of Ihe I. WoIIU.., II , p. 109. 2. Ibid.. II , p_ 243. 3. Wat:ers. Yllan Chwanl!.lI, p. 188. 4. Ibid., II , p. 226. S. Watters, 1, p . 164 : H, p. 161. 6. Sec above J). 99 f. 7. See Kok, index, S". Sthavira. 8. See also Mllhakar,'I1Q,ibhanga , PP. 61·2.
DOCTRINE~
O f G1'I.OUP V SCHOOLS
213
priest of king Cal}Qa Pajjota of Ava nli. The Piili trad itions, however, give prominence to Upali, and speak of tilt: suIX:!:ssion of his disciples, the chief of whom was D 5.saka. Till: lalter's disciples were Siggava and CaQQav3jji, who were young at tht: t ime of the Second Buddhist Counci l. 1 T he events of the $ccond Council, in which the T lu::ravau ins became separated fr om Ihe main body, indicate that tht: lIJoIlh of the west, especially of K ausambi and Ava nli, formed the nucleus of this :iCct. The biography of Mahinda, who is IllZillly responsible for the propagation o f this school of Buddhi:.m ill Ceylon, also shows tha t this school was more popular ill tht: west of India than in the cast. Taking into consideratio n all these fnels, it may be stated that the Theravadins had out: centre a t Pa~aliputra along wi th other schools, but were chit:lly l,."QIl~'t:[] tra ted in lind around Ujjaini, which became its seeuml but more impo rtant centre. In the Sarna th inscription,' Ihere is a refen:llce to the existence of the The~av.ii.d i ns at that place in the early L1ays, whi le in the Nilgiirjunakol).Qa inscriptions, mention is made of the activities of this sect in the propagation of Buddlli:.lll. In the Mayi· mckalai, wc find tha t it had its popularity ill I,;uunlries around K aiici, which became one ofthe!r principal celllrt:s in the post· Christian cras:' The fact tha t Buudhagho~ alld Dhammapala had their training at Kanei goes to S}iOW that Kiiiid bc<;am e later the educational scat of the Theravliliins. After Mahindu's de· m ise, the school obtained a firm footing in Ct:ylon and made the Mah3vibti.rn its chief academic ctntce. H iueD T sang iaw one hu nd red monasteries of the Stha\'ira SdlOUI ill Drivi!).a and also in Samatn!a. He says that Dhammapfl.la was born in the Ora· vi!ila country} From thi! suney, it Illay be iuferred thaI the 1. A I/"u~·tllini (p. 32) however gtl'es prominence to the dlSClpks or S;lripul\a, the "hief of the Abhidhafllmih,s thll": S!riplitta-Bhaddaji-Sub\,ila· Piyajl\!i_riyal1dla. Piyadas~i·Kosiyarl1lllll·Sil!ea\a_Sandeva. Mol!galipulta, eiC. Moggalipulla Tissa was a diSCiple of SiWI'll ;;nd Ca(ldav~ji. Sec Salll(mtapUsadikii, I, p. 4<1. 2. See above p. 135n. l. See Alya ngar, 'A Buddhist School at Kanel (J'roCiedmgs of/he 4111 Oritnwl Omfacncc, Albhnbad). 4. Walter<;, II, r . 226.
214
BUDOIfiST SECTS IN I"DIA
school originated at P4!alipulIa, b::nllllc popular in the western coun tries, made Ujjaini its ~txOI1U centre, and then it gradunlly made headway towards the suuth, settling in and around Klind. and ultimately establishetl itself in Ceylon.
Language According to the Tibeton traditions, this school had its Pilaka in the Paisaci d ia lect. Much \'alue is attached to this tradition. Grierson holds that Paisiici hod ils home in the Norlh.west (Kekaya and GandhiHa, Le. near Taxila) and that it gradually
made its way to the western countries as fa r as the Koobn coast. 1 GUQiir,thya, who belonged to Ujjaini, it is said, wrote Brhatkarhii in Paisaci.2 On philological ground, Sten Kenow J()(;alil:cs PaHaci around the Vindhya hills. He holds that Pali is the litera ry form of I"aisiici. The traditiom preserved in the Ceylonese chronicles also indicate Iba! Pali had its home somewhere in Annti. So it is plausible that the Tibetan tradition should n:fer to Pilli as literary PuiMici. Literature
The whole of Piili literature belongs to this school, and as such it hardly needs any comment. The only information that we should add is that Hiuen Tsang records that he carried to China fourteen volumes of the Sthavira Siilras, SMtras and Vinaya. No Sinologis! has so far dealt with this literature, which is why we are sti ll in the dark about the Sthaviras, whose literature the Chinese pilgrim had in view.
Doctrines The T heravada doctrines are fai rly well·known and have been given in deta il in the present author's Early Munastic B~ddhislll . OUc object here will be to mention the differellces which this school had with othe r schools as pointeg oul by Vasumitn and I. BhamlorkOl' COm"ll'mOMlio" Va/I/mt, "p. 119·20; sec also JRAS. 1921. Pl'. 244·5; 424·8. 2. ZDMG., LXVI, (1910), pp. 114f.
DOCTRll'ES OF CROUP V SCHOOLS
215
Buddhagho~a. Since these dilTerences have been discussed in detail in connection with the doctrines of each school, these are not repeated here. It should be noted that the doctrines of the Sarvastivadim, Sammitiyas, Mahisasakas, Sautrantikas and the Mahiisarighikas have been mainly kept in view. The views of the Theraviiclins. as against the opinions of the above-mentioned schools are as iollows : -
Re. Bllddhas: (i) Duddhas posscss rupakiiya and worldly attributes and are subject to all the physical frailties of a human being; it is the attainment of bodhi that makes a being Buddha. (i i) Buddhas are above mairri and karu(Iii, but thcy do show maitrl and karu(lii to beings. (iii) Buddhas cannot expound all the doctrines through a single utterance.
Re. BodhiJattl'as: (i) Bodhisattva. are average beings and are subject to kfdas. (ii) They are not self·born (upapaduka).
Re. Reals: Past and future dharmas do not exist, not even their dharmaTl'a. To say that an Arhat has atlta raga though ineffective is wrong.
Re. Arhat: (i) Arhats are perfect, hence they cannot have a fall from arhathood. They possess both kfQyajiiiina (i.e. the know-
ledge that they have no more k/dQS) and anulpliaajliiina (i.e. the knowledge that they will have no more rebirths). There are, however, two grades of Arhats, vi::: ., sl'adharmQkllsafa and paradharmaku§afa as m~ntione::i above, p. 24).
(ii) Arhats, having reached Ihe stage which is beyond merit and demeril, cannot accumulate merils or be subject to the intluence of the past karman.
216
RIJDDHIIT SECTS I ~ INDIA
(iii) All Arhats practise the fo ur dhymlaJ and enjoy their fruits. ( i~ )
All Arhllts attain Niniit,lQ.
R,. Pllthujjana :
An avenge being dues nut full y cndicatc from his mind attachment (r4go) and hatred (drua) but he may die in a good state of minJ.
Re. M editation: (i) In tb! Slate or samiihila, one cannot utter words. (ii) An Arhat cannot die while in the highest samlJdhi (SQIfMI'eda),ironirodha ) .
Re. Ar/(ariihhava : There is no intermediate state of existence (antorabllafa) in the Kama and Riipa dhaws. Re. Put/gala : (i) Pudgala doe not exist in the highest sense. (ii) There is not hing which can tra nsmigrate from onc existence to another. Re. Anusayas and Parya rosthiinas : A nuSayas (dormant passions) and Paryarasthtlnas (pariyuUhiinas in Pali = pervad ing passions) are caitasika$ (mental states). cit/a samprayuktab (associated with mind), and have objects of thought (na anarammal,la).
Re.
Vijfiiinas :
The five vijiiiinali conduce as much to attachment to the objects of the world as to detachment from the same.
Re. Asal11skrras: There are three aso'l1sk!tr..
DOCTRI"'E~
OF GROUP V SCHOOLS
217
Re. Bra/unacarya of gods: The gods, except the Asaiiiiisaaas, may practise maggabhiivana though they do not have ordination according to the Vinaya rules.
Re. AII!Jpubbiibhisamaya : (i) The adepts realize the truths gradually. (ii) They get rid of kleias (impurities) also gradually. (iii) They may, only in exceptional cases, realize the four samaiiilapha!as, including vimll/Ii all at once.
Re. Laukika and Lokotrara : All the practices and fruits after srota-iipattiphala are supramundane (fokotlara), and not worldly (laukika).
EPILOGUE The Firs! Budd hist Council, Wllich was presided over by Mahii· kassapa, was held SOOIi after Bhagavan Duddha's demise in 487 or 483 B.C. Anamla, the constant companion of Buddha, recited the Teacher's sayings, lalia codified as the Sulla Pi!nka, while UpAII, the foremmt Vinayisl, recited the disc.iplinary rules pre· scribed for tile observance of monks and nuns, later codified as the Vinaya Pi!ata. The procc;:uillg~ of the Counci l wcre appro\'ed by all the monks prescnt c:xccpt by PuraJ;la of DakkhiJ;logiri, who wanted incorporation of sli ~hl chang(;s in the seven or eight rules relating to the cooting, sLurl1g(; and eating of food by monks. This difference being of a minur nature, no dissension took place in the Sangha, though latt:r, the earlier Mahi:iiisakas included these 7 or 8 rules in their Vinaya Pitaka (~ee 3bov~. p. 39, n. 3). It was little ove r a century aftt:r the session of the First Council that actual dissension s took place in the Sangha in the Second Buddhist Council held at Vcsali, iu which thc dissenters asserted that tbey would not regaru all Arhats (=Ari (kilesas)+han (destruction) as perfect (sec p. 22). Thenceforward. sects aller sects appeared under the two broa!.! !.!ivisions, viz., Thera":ida and Mahasatlghika, the former havlngdeven sub-sects and the latter seven. Some of the sub-sects of the Mahasanghikas, particularly the Lokottaravadins and the Sailall, who settled mostlyatAmaravati and Nagarjunak:otl~a in the Anuhra Pro\'ince, not only confirmed the views of their parent St:r.:l. Ihe Maha.sailghikas, regarding-1he imperfections of Arhats but also deified Buddha as a superdivine being. This conception leu to the evolution ot" Bodhisattva-vAda, which introduced the doctri(lc of paramiliisC ,.- perfection in six or ten vlnues by c... lrt:lI1(; sacrifice of one's ownselt" for the fulfilment of the six Vi rlUCll, viz., dana charity, Hla or moral observances, k ,lJnri or perst:vclanee, vfr)'Q or energy, and prajilii or perfect knowledge. In tbis c011nection, it shou ld be noted that the PaJi school , i.e .• tht: onhodox and conservative Therav1dms included in their K/;udduha Nikiiya 550 Jatahs, depicting the previ ous existences of OaU!am3 Duddha and his fulfilment of ten pllramfs, i.e .. in adJition to the Sill
F.PI'-OGUE
219
mCniioned above, they mtroduced four piiramis, viz., (7) uptI)akaulalya (deviccs for imparting training to the Sravakas for de\~loping their mind for the attainment of Buddha hood), (3) jiilma (knowledge of the ways and means for the attainment of Buddhahood) (9) prar;idhrma (to promise to attain Buddhahood), and (IOj bala (to a:quire enough strength to proceed to Buddhahood). The incorporation of piiramis by the T heravadins in the lii/akas reveals that they were not immune from Mahayanic influence. This happened, a/" course, at a much later date. In mort the conception of the Lo kollaravadins, as mentioned above, forecasts the ultimate appearance of Mahayanism. It will be ob~rved in lILt: d Iscussion recorded in the Ka/hOl'at//III (see above, p. 26) that the distinctions between Arhats and
Buddhas lay in the fact lhal Arhats got rid of only kldiivaral;la ( '"-' mental impurities) and thclcby attain:d o nly cesso.tion of further existences (nfrvMu) but not of jljeyliyara~la (the veil, which covet> the highest trut h (paramiirtha). j,e., the sameness of all beings and objects of the universe (Iathald) or the inexplicability of Truth (anln'arunlyultt or Jiillya/li) devoid as it is of all conventional attributes. How this transition from Hinayana to MaM.yana took place may be indicated thus :The hii!ory of Buddbism for the first five or six. centuries may be divided into the (a llowing three periods : A. EAkLY O R P URE HiNA .... Al'A BUDDHISM preserved mainly io the Pali Nikiiyas, Vinaya Pllaka and Abhidharnma Pitaka or in their Sanskrit versions or fragment> of the same so far discovered, B. MUCRO HiNAV.A.NA B UOnI-fIS" repre!tenled hy thevarioussects. which came into existence a bout a century after Buddha's demise. The so urces for this period lu·e m('ntinned ahove (see pp. 11-12),
C. ApPEARA!'\CE OF MAHAYANA. The sources for this period are mainly the Prajiitipiiramittis, the SaddharmaplIlJ(larlka, Dasahfimikasutra, Gal;!{iavyiiha. Lallkiil'Q/tira as also the works of Nagarjuna, Sflntldeva, Asvagho~a, Asailga, Vasubandhu and oth:rs so far as they throw light on the relJtive position of Hi nayana and Mahayana .
220
Rl ID J)H TST SF.CTS IN INI1iA
r IRST
PER I OD
(circa 450 to 350 B.C.) A. EARLY OR P U R.E; I1 i'lAYAK,\ B UUlJH l M\
There has already appeared a fairly large amount of literature, ·dealing with the first period (Le., the first century after the inception ofEuddhism) and offering solutions of many problems, a result wlliet. has been made possible by t he strenuous labours of the Pali Text Society, initiated by Dr. Rhys Davids in regard to the publications of the Pali Omonicai texts. By early or pure Hi nayiina Budd hism, we mean only that form of Huddhism
which has been described in a considerable portion of t he Vjnaya Pitaka and the four Nikayas. Fo r the present purpose or drawing a rough sketch of the period of transition from Hinayima to Mahayana, we shall state some of the conclusions reached by 'scholars about Bu ddhism of this period in order to show how it changed in course of time and gave rise to the different schools. These conclusions are as follows :1. The spread o f Buddhism was at first confined to a few -towns and villages situated in the central belt of India from the east to the west. Of these the most notewortl1Y were: K ajailgaia, Campa, Riijagaha, Gaya, Kasi, Nalanda, Pa!alipuUa , Vaisali, Sa"atthi ; the dominion of the Licchavis, Vajjis, Videhas, Mallas, Bhaggas, and Koliyas; Kosambi, Sankassa, Ujjcni, Avanti, Madhuni , and Veraiija. T here were a few adherents, who came from the northern country of Madda ranha, and two Brah mal)a -villages of Kuru, and also from the southern places like Pati~!hana. Gandhara and Takkhasila were as yet unk nown to them. 1 2. The kings and clans mentioned in them are all pre-A~okan, ·e.g., Bimbisara, Ajatasattu, Past'nadi Kosala and CalJ ~ a P ajjota, ,and the dans like the Bulis, Koliyas, and Vijjis.! 3. The place of the laity was not yet well defined. Laymen appeared more as supporters of the Sangh a than as actual adhere nts of Buddhism. They revered Buddha and his disciples, heard their teachings and observed some of the precepts, and t. See my frlrly HiJlor.v etc•• pp. 82 If.; E.J. Thomas, LiJi! of Ihe IJuddha, Map. 2. Ibid.
221
El'lLOOU£
occa~ io nally uttered the formula of ,,;jnrQ~/G_t he only mark that distinguished a de ... olee of Rmtdha from others. This, however, did not affect their social status, which in Tnd ia bad alwa ys been a~socia ted with caste and religion, a!O th~y continued to be the members of the socielY to wh ich they belonged .1 4. The religion in its full form w~<: m e ~nt exclusively for those who retired from hou.~ehold life, enlered the o rder of monks and observed the p;;rimnkk:m rul~ s, which was not possible 'for a householder. HOllseho1ctcn co uld not comply even with t he first five Jlla.~. 5. T he Piiramirih were yet unknown. The 3.ccount of the Life of Buddha usually commenced from the time of Prince Siddhilrtha's retirement to his attainment of Bodhi with occa· sional refereoces to his previous existences, as in the IUa/IlI' govilldn •.tu;ffl or MnhiiJ//daS.Ml1a·SUIfQ. The conception of 1\ Bodhi<:rtUva performing piiramis was hazy, if not unk n own.~ 6. The Jiitak:ls, tl~ one of [he n ine Ailgas, referred to onl y some of The stories about the previous existences of Buddha 1U found in theMaJuigol'inda, MaiJiisud(fuona, Makhiidt'l"u und similar other ~t() ri es traced by Dr. Rhys Davids in the Nikii)'cs and VinaJa Pi!akr., but they did not appear as ye t (IS tI sepurntc col1ec· lion depicting the Bodhisattva's practkes of the piiramiliJs. 7. Buddha was u human being but possessed omniscience, supernatu ral powers, and o ther attainments beyond the reach' ()f other heings. 3 T he appearance o f a BuJdh(l wos cxcecdingly rare in the world , only one occurring in several knlp!ls. 8. The doctrines were 'confined to the three essentials: (II/irc-a, dukklw, anrl antlltli, and the four ari),awucas, paficcasomuppiidw and uuhangika.",ngga : practices were limited to Ihe thirty-seven Bodhipnlrkhika.dlwmmas. The practices \VCrc u5ually divided under three heHds ; .lila (observance o f moral precepts), SUllliidM (med iltl lion), and pmlfia (development of insight imd knowledge, enahlinr: one to realize the Trut h).
I.
N . L1W . SIIr/il!'l ill ,,,drOll Hi .,,,,·}· (1m' OJUIN', ;h. Y, · ·E.arly
dhism Hnd lhe t..a il~:· 2. SC~ E.R .E., II, SV. Bodhis~tl\"a. 3. ~ce S:wooer>. cpochs ill iJllddhi!f HisfIJry, pp. x,'iii-lix ror a or Du d dh(Jro~y.
3ml·
.s.::hcn~
222
DUDDHIST SFr.
rs
IN
I~DIA
9. The gont of li fe was Arhathood and rarely Pacceka-buddha· hood, but newr Bu(ldhahood. The stage~ of progress to Arhathood wue fou r, I'ix., .\'()fiipOlli. sakadiigami. muigami, and arhatta. 10. Nibban:l wa .~ a stale of absolute rest and marked the end of al1 ki!"so.~ (impurities) and, consequently, of all dukk/:a. It was an extremdy happy and peaceful (siillfa, pa~lita, accontll3l1kha) condition. SECOl\D PERIOD
(circa 350
fO
100 II.C.)
B. Mlx[D HiNAVANA BUDDHISM
The history of the events and doctrines of Buddhi sm of thi; period-One of the most important periods in its history-is still not fully known; first, hecause the sources from which the reeonsiruclion can be m:lde are scantY,1 and secondly, because those that are a\'ai]able :lre of a very late date. This period witnessed the breaking up of the Ruddhist Sangha into many sections and the dispersal of th~e over the various parts of India, each gro\.. • ing in its own way. Though dissensions in the Sangha may be undesirable from tbe orthodox point of view, they were indicative or the deep interest faken hy the disciples in ascenaining the real teachings oj Budrlha as also of the attempts to interpret the old te3e hing ~ in a new way. and to adapt them to the cha n£cd circumslance~ brought about by the advancement of knowledge for over a century.
Growlh of rhe Abhidlwmma Lilerature To keep pace with this movement or though t, the older schools had to gird up their loins in order to make theIr posItion strong and ummaibble. As a resuH o f this elfort, there is the Abt.idhamma literature of the Therav!ida and Sarv:i.stivada schools, I. E. g. Sanskrit: .lI,fa~aWl$III, Lafila JiSlOra, lJl v) ·IJI'Cdana, All1ddna J(ltaka, Alok/i,'lId<'Ma, Vasumitn.·s In::,,li,,e o n the Sohoob, fragment, of the
San5k,il Cano n d iwo ...cr~d in Eastern T l. rkesta n aDd the neighbn"rina re_ gions and Gilgit. Kal/;", 'I'IlIhu, Cc),!one,e chronicles, Nikiiya$ailgraha and lhe luis e nlis ted in p, 48.
223
U"It.OGUr..
T he agreelJlent belw~n the Nikfty~~ (Agamas)' and the Vir.ayas l of the Thcnwada
I. Theravlida: SuuaDitaka : Dif!hollikuya, /lfajjhimallihi)u I/Ikuyu, SartlYJ/Ttallikflya and Klluddakollikiiya.
Sarvaslivada: J)lrghagoma , Madhrumagul/la, £kottawgulI/o and Sa/nyu1:/llgl1mQ.
2. TheravAda: Vinayapitaka: PtltinICkkila, Muhii\lllliKo,
Cul/urt/IRo, and PorivQrIJ. sarv3stivacla: Vinl1.yapl\aka: ViflOyarustu, Pri1t1mok~~tra, Vm")"Q' .,·hloiign, Vinayukwd,ako,>QJ'" .nd Vina)'tJ.""(/~tJ.gra",lra. SUllo~jbhwigu
J. 1berav3da: Abbidharrma: DhummaUJiigutli. VitharKu,
/}I!iif~karlrii,
Puggalapaiiiiafti, Kathu,·u(lhu, Yumuka and Pal/luilla. Sarv:lstivMa: Abhidhamma: Surigflipuryii)"o. 1)IJii/likaya. I'raj;iaplisiJra,
Dharmnsknndha . VijfitiIJaktiya and Prakara(lOpcdQ. For details see Early Binory etc .. PD. 277 ff.
4. i.e., in the first period. S. Fot a con:parison of the fragments or Sarvlist.vMa Agamls with Ihe corrCl;pondinll portion5 of t,le PJ.1i Hemair..s {'IC., pp. )0 If.
f or the ccrre>pondeac:e.
Nil;.iya~,
"'-""
verbal and otherwise
H~lnk
'
MUllu>
belween the
Prilli-
/tl/}klasOlrn or The Sar'lutil'i\dms and the PJtlf7!{)kkha of the Tt.erav!\ctns,
19t ~: s<:c ~Iso ltvi, l.A., 19t:! ; OJdenbetg, Z./).M.G., '·01. Iii: Watanabe, Tubles of Probl~III.! in Ihe Sa'llyukta Al(lmo alld Sa1iI)'I1I/U Nikiiyo (To.'~o, 1926), and also my /:.o.rly Mallanic Buddhism II, pp 1 2~f. 6. See J.P.T.S., 1904-5, pp. 60 If. 7. An evidence for The laler growlh of Ihe Abhit!ha"In/a literll.luOl is Ih~
sec l. A.
orthodox tradition (AIIJla., pp. 28·32) thaT Buddha did not preach the .'fbhllfha.'T'/tK.! til ('xlt'nUJ bUI gave only Ih~ mati/Cli, which was l:oter developed
by. SIiI!PUUH .H~ h:lnded. do,:,." n by him throush his disciples to ReV-lIo. ThiS c\ldencc IS Illlportanlln VIew of the fact Ihallhis is a statement rude by pelso.ns y.>ho believed Ihat cverythingof the scnptures wa, Buddha·'acana. :rhe reJectIOn. nf the. Ahhid~(}n/ma by the M ~hhailshi kas ~s rlOr.....:anonical IS also an c 'lldence In sUPpOrt of our contention. See Early Hll·l(Jry ltc., p. 235. In the Kaia·,'y~kfl)"~ {p. 12) it Iii stated that the AlJflidharma was prcJch:d in f;-aament s by Buddha.
224
DUDO III ST SECTS IN I:"lD IA
Appearallce oflhe Jatakcu alld A vadil/1as Besides the drorts of the old a nd the new schools to vie with one ano the r in the fie ld of literature, onc notices also a keen competition among them for propagatin ~ Ihe tenets of their respeC'live schools, whic h, as a matter of fm:t, resulted in a great meas ure in t he wide propagat ion of Buddhism,l It ii a wellknown fnct th r. t t he '/(ilakas and A radii/ro.f were meant for inspi ring in t he mi nd~ nf common people a fai th in Budd hism and thereby l1opulari7ing the religion. 2 The llItakas we re only a n afterthought of The Theravndins. They origiTlJlly did not form a p:J rl of t heir scrip tures ( Buddl;awcQl/o). The Jatah BookS or the fl O::l ting m llS!; of sto rleo;, ~ome of wh ich found their way into the famolls stone-monument of Inel ia , helongs cena iniy to nn ancient da t (':u is proved by schobrs li ke Rhy.~ Dav i ds.Cunnin~ _ ham , O lde nberg, Md Wiillern itz, but still all of them arc not considered to be of the same age as t h~ Nikijya~ _ D r. R hys Da vids' suggest ion , that the stories fo und both in t he Nikiiyas (i.e ., SuUan ta Ja tabs of Clllfanit/t/esn) a nd in the I ii/aka collection form the oldest type J:1.taka sio ries :,":1 may therefoTt: he called Pre-liitaJ.:n. is of gre:1I value' . ~ 1. The inocriptions, which ~lJeak of the gifls made to a partic ular school. add sometimes th31 Ihe gifts were mean t also for Ihe ('/j/llrdlia sa/ig/Ia, i.e., mem"~rs of the Buddhist Sangha of the four quarters. Con.pare Ihe lira . S., p . IOPlix (KillJX1drllm/!I'ad~l/dJ: Gacc hata bhik:",vo yQylull 3QUvAnlnl vinaylinh:tlnh., Dci~n pratya bhig.1cchanta i.t pl"3ka~:I}"lt1l w " "'T:fm . (The word 501I1\'r:i in This verse is noteworthy. Th~ Mahayinists wit l nil l admi l lhat The dIll/films which Wl!fe mostly pr opJgaTed b)' Ihe Hina)"lln· iSIS a l first were anYThjn~ but [!"Ie conl'entional truth. There is, of cOll rs .... also the hint tha t l'W"mm'lnlm truth is a 11 mailer for realisation and connol be lhe subje\."t or p,\."aehi n3.) 2. See Speyer, Prcf;1OC 10 Iho) II I·a. k, pp. ", vi. 1 In the '-H Q .. vol. iv, p. 6. Prof. Winterniu draws ou r allcmion 10 lile fdCI that the Ma ndalaY:lIld Phayre ~1 ss, of Ihe Jat:1ka-Boot (i .t'. , Ve rseJ:l.laka) have been examined by Dr. We!l~r and fOI.nd to be e,Ur.JCIS made rrom
I ~e Jal~ka
commenTary. He, holl'eve r, sll I Cherishes Ihe view Ihal
there was n cntlonic:11 J:uaka·81.101<. and l11at it was in
~crM:" .
Bllddlti3/ "'''la, pp. IOOf.: M r. G. P . De (Cal. Rep. 1919_30), hO "'II" ~r ~ h o" ~ Ihal \ler"io"~ r-( <"'lne of the ~u!lanta-J iHilkn~ :He posh:rior to the 4.
verskms of those of Ihe Jillaka·anhak:1ln,,; hence all NiklYJ·Ht:\ kJ.. ilrc nOI of the aide>! Iype and e.ll1not be I\'gJ rd~d as 1)1"e-J ~tak J .
I>P I LOaU II
Mentio n o f Jiitakcs in the Nal'iiliga.~ (nine s~c ti o ns), an a nci c 'lt divisio:l o f the Bud dhist scriptu r~s, m ay I c ~ d o ne to th ink that t he ancienl Buddhists wer~ not without n Jiit:lb, iite rJt ure o f their own. This seems plausible at fim ~ i ght , bm it should be rem'!moered tha t the d ivisio n of the Rucidh ist scriptur es into n ine A ilgas does not refer to ni ne different grou ps of litcf31 ure but to n ine types of compositio n to he foun:1 in the collections o f the ancie nt Budd hists. In one Su a a or SlI tt:lnta there may !>e p ortio ns wh ich can be called a Slltta, a g eY)'(J .' :l gat/u'. :10 udlillo . a veyyiik araf)ll, an abbhutadhamma. o r a jiitaka . It was long after t he navanga d ivi)ion was known that the compila t ions Udal/a, Iti ~lIttaka, and I ii /aka came into existe nce. T he explanation o f navangas as attempted by Buddhago$<11 3 1;;0 shows that he did not know a ny particula r sect ions of literat ure corresponding to navailgas. II is very interesting 10 no te in his exposition t hal f Of two of the nine a ngas. ,iz .. r ei/alia and Ahhllllfadh ammii,1 he could no t find any wo rk: or group of wo rks, w hicb cou ld be classifi ed under t hese headings. a nd so he n a med some sutt3S which came under them. Taki ng these two a s o ur due, we m:ly suggest that the other seven of the naviingas sho uld a lso be exp lained in the same way. Instead of pUlli ng the who le Ab hid ha mma collection under Veyyakaran.' the SUlins. in which Sfl riputla , Mahakacca yana or Buddha 3 gave delflil,..d ex posit io n G ~yYlln
I.
A ll/III., p. 20: Sabb:lJ"(l pi sagdthalcofTl sult3111
2.
Slim . Vii., PP, 23, :34 ; At/flu., p, 26; PelQvQ/lJ/U 11 ., p. 2. AlIha.• p . 21i : Sl bbe pi a«"h ari )'abbh .. tldhamm .. pal~' I'Y Ulta 5UII.1IIIa
Ii vedila bbaql .
). A bbhuladhamman Ii vedilabbam . The ' A o::h ~r i yabbllutad ha m m ll Suu, ' (M ajjIJlmfl, III , pp. 118 f.) may be treated as one of the A bb hll1 8 rlh ~ m ll"la ctass. For A bbhutad hamrna , sec also Mill .. III , P. 200. 4. A~ is done in the Altha ., pp. 27·28. 5. The Mllhiik scc~ n"hh ~,ldo;k a nt LL a·s ulla (MajjMnlQ, Il l , No. I3J) otTe rs a n e."(cellen t eXJm"le of a I ull"- co ntain ins Gilha and vc) ~ !lkara (la . The
M3hi'ika mmavi bha0g3·;u!la (/lfajjliima , Ill, No. 136) ; ~ a typC of Y\!)'yAka1303 Sll[[ Q. Bud dha ~a makes hi m~l r qui te clear in his ammpl to eSl:l blish that Ih" Kurh,Jvul/lm is ai Illu,h Budf.!ha·bhl tila as 1I·.:r<.' Ih~ Mad hupiQlji\;a and suc h olher Sut tas cllpollnded by Maha kacc3n:l, Ananda and olhers. H i. arj lUllenl is Ihar Bud dha at som~ p1 ~en save o nly Ihe m!I;1..;; (. ub:;til ncc). whil;h wa s sometimes explaiocd by l\.I ahakacdl1~ . 3n~ I ~ C ,··ho le of it ,,'n! rCg:l rd:d us lI ud dhavncana. S.al~§ of t!lis type, in lll)' op inion. \,.:re l1l ~u nl to be ;ocluded under \'~y yA kQ ral)o'\ ·div ision. S« AlIlla., p. 5.
226 o f the fo ur trut hs or of t he e ightfo ld P:llh, or of any t enet of Budd hism or of any o f the pithy ~ ayings of Buddha, ~houl d have b ee n included. So also the Jiitaka-Anga does no t r~fertn th e S50 l:1tJ.kas as Buddhago~a says, but to the few §Iories fou nd in the N iL.:flyas, in whic h Budd ha referred 10 the incide nts of one of his previous existences. Piirl'iiml.wl!Ii is one of theabltljiiih l'upt ri or knowled ge) acqu ired by the Arh:lls, and w il i~ q uite in keepi llg with the tenels o f early BuddlllSm to spe:lk of one'!, pre · vious ex istences. But the idea of utilising IheSe stories of Purvanus m rti as a means of p rop ~ gali o n of the religion cli me Inter, at le:lst subsequent by a ce ntu ry and a half to the inception of Buddhis m. S o it is in the second p.:riod of o ur division t hrll we must place the cornpib tlon or composit ion of the Abh idhamma tlnd the J alaka lilernlu res.l
Like Bud dhash ~a, the Mahiiyiinic expositors attempteci to clussify their literatures accord ing to the I wehe angas _ a divi sion current among th e Sarvastivadins, Mah iisanghibs and othe r.~, placing the A;rosiihasrikii Praj,iiipiiramitii unde r S iitra. t}-.e Gm:(lflI'),/illa, Samiidhirltja and Sa(Jdharmapll~l?ar'ka under Ve)'yiikanwa. Qnd so forth.! But Ib is d ivifion of script ures into twelve Atig:lS was not th e work of the M ahaya nists. It had been made by the Snrvzist ivaciins 3 and the Mahasati.ghi kas, followed by some of the othcr Hinayanic sc h ools. The three addit ional Angas are Nidlina, Al'udiillll and UpadiSa.t Bumouf explains Nhlfillo as I. In addition til what had bttn said in connection ""ilh the Abhidhamma (see In, ~n l e, p. 224), il may be polmecl 0;11 lhatlhe Mahls;lOIII:llikb abo lc~,cd Ihat c laim or lhe Thc l"llvadins that the Abbidhamma and the H.takas were canorn<::aJ. Compare the Yog1cm trad ition Ibm in I~ fir
2.
Burnouf, /n(l"o., po 5 1-67 ; HodGson, NOI;<::el; etc .• in the A.1mi" XV I; WassiUew, BIlr{(lhi~mllS. I'll. 118 If. 3. KeSo, VI, 2%. P.-ofes;;or La Vallee I'oussin 'hew my attention to the fact that the 12 alil.JS were memior.cd in Yd omitm's vy.'lId/Yli nn,! not in the Koia nsc.f. 4 . T .. king Vufpul)" ... V.·oI"{f",,,.,,, K",u. JI["'IIfu/v! 8uddhi.>tJI, p. 7. For 0. di$<us(ion about Vaipulya _ Va Jtul ya, see J.R ... f. S, 1?o7. "p. 4J::! Irnnd 1927. Dn. 26~1f: but cf. Huddhacho'u 's interprtcation ill 100 Aldll15, i". ~6 . Rel t>u,dll'.r,
227
'EPILOGUE
Ihose tlea li~d which :'ihow Ihe causes antceedenl to evenu, e. g., how S:ikyamuni became a Ouddha. The cause was the completioll of tin: Paramilas by BuddhJ. and sothetrcatisc$ or portions of tn:a tis~s, descri~ing thc co:npletio n of paramlttis tl fC ea llcd Nillc1ufis. He aho points out that there is no literature which co n 1.x: classified u nder Nidana.' The explanlltion of Durnouf is :.uppol"ted by the Nidan
signi:lcance
N;(Una~ulta.
2. }.fll< •• I, pp. 2, 4. 3. Pui/ca., p. 11. 4. M. loalou's paper in Ihe J.A ., 1925. 5. See Sperer"> Ir.lro, 10 the A~a. ~. Th: l'aU coI1C\.-1ion
Arm/Jlw II ('ont~ins accollnts of the PCl'y iO llS Ii>·~j of Arh1".
or
Ihe tellll ill t he Di¥iY.J.
h.a~ al~J
""
6. Uurr.ouf. op, cil .. PP. 55-6; As. Rn, XVII p.417; Waisiljew, up. cit. , p. 119 : "die Upadcsas cir,c analytische Untenucllung d:r loeh-e.-· .,. On II Angas.:;.ee Nanjio's Cull1(OgU('. No. 1199 (Taisho ed ui" lito.: Tripi;ah,
vol . H. p ,586).
22"
BI' DDHtST SECTS IN INDT\.
has been explained as those discourses which cOilt:lined exposi. tion of the profound and mystic dh.:.rmas. That the term later bore this sense is also apparent frolll the fact t hat the AbhisoIlJa)'jj!wikfi;"okiirikii
sometime>
called
piimmilopaddaiiislra. l JNCORPORATIO~ OF
P(jrall1is IN THE DOCTRIN"ES
OF THE THERA\i.~Dl?\' S
One can easily observe the type of literature tilat was intended for incl usion under at least two of these headings. It cosisted more of anecdotes, storieo;, parables and so forth than of actual doctrines of Buddhism. These were incorporated into the Buddhis t literatu re in the garb of P urvanusmrtis, their chief object being to popularize Budd hism and to show that they were meant as much fo r t he benefit of the mass as for the select few. who would retire fro m the worldly life, T his is an innoyation which the earliest orthodox school, the Therayadins, had to make reluctantly under the pressure of circumstuuces, Their early literature did not refer to the paramitas,2 and muc:" later, when they spoke of the paramis, it was only to inspire faith in the mind of the people and not to. set an example to encourage them to fulfil the piiramis. The attitude of the Sarvastivadi ns and the Mahiisailghikas, however, was di tlerent. They did not minimise in th= least the extreme difficulty of the task of fulfilling the paramitiis, but they did not di scoUiage people ['rom the endeavour. Not only to inspire faith, but also to encour::ge people in the performance of dana, sila, k.lal1ti, rirya, dhyiillo .,nd prajiiii, they invented story after story and associated them not only with the lire o f Buddha but also with the lives or pcr~ons, wllO attained prominence in the history of the Buddhist raith. The Theraviidins, it will be observed, speak, orten paramis mentioned above (p, 218), 'lhroughout Sa;1skrit literature, Illtro. to the PaiiravullSdfisiii1mrik,;, file omi,,:cn cf 'l'aramila' in lhe uasullara and SaflgHi sutlantas of the Dig!", ;$ .;gnifkant. The word 'pammippat!o' (Mujihillla, Ill, p. 28) i_> .""",!ime< found in the sen~ ofsuc<:e", perfecti.;>n OU ll101 in th e techni. cal sense of si x or (en pi'iramis. l.
Z,
See my
22'
EIPl.OOUE
whether Hinayana or Mahaya na, earlier or I(uer, the paramilas are mentioned as six,llt is in the DaJobl111mlka-siirra2 tlUlt we first find mention of ten pi ramitas, the fo llo~ing four auucd to the usual six ,-Upo)okauJa/)'a, Pro(lidlldllO, Bala .mu Jliiina. If we cornp(lre the three lists, it would be evident that till;:: conception of the six paramita s was the oldest. The Therllvauins added to it !{ekkhamma, Saua , AdlN flllillG, M erta and Up<:kkhii, and dropped Dlzyiina. Apparently, this list lacks a :.ystem,' for the la£[ two. Melhi. Hnd Upekkha, are included in lin: fQurbrahmavihiras and have to be practised by all ArhalS tu atta in perfec· tion, while Sacca may easily be included in Sila. Of the other two, Adhighiina is to take a resoludon (whicb ill the case of Sumedha only was to become a Buddha) and 10 cal l)' it oul at any cost. It corresponds to PralJidhl\na of the Mailayani!ts.' 'I'he Nekkhamma parami, i.e., re tirement from the household life, was emphasized by the TheravAdins; it, in fact, funned one of the chief features of the doctrines of this schoul, while it was not insiste\1 upon by the Mahasanghikas and Sarv also gave to Nekkhamm3. a superior place, but they did not make it imperative upon e\"er~ p:r~lJn to retire in order to deri\'e the benefits of the religion. One of the main reasons for the varying treatmen t of the Pftramitiis by the three schools is that the Thera~adin s rejeo::ted the idea of any person aspiring to Buddhahood, while the other two schools regarded t ile probability of a persun bewming Buddha as a very rare event. In the Dil'j'flvudiina,6 there are passages, in which it is stated tbat after lhe delivery o f a dis· course, some persons were established in lhe Truth, some in one of the four stages of sanctification, some I..!t:\doped aspira. tion for the atiainment of Sraval::abodhi ur Ptatyebbodhi, and some for Anullarasamyaksambodhi. Rema rls like these are sigll1ficant and 5how that the SarvASliviuins, to which school
1.
2.
Di.·yii., pp. 95, 127, -180 ; Lal V.,. , .~p. 345, 474; Dasn. PI'. fl, 12, 31. 94. Cr. M •.1""'. 34.
~'{j",.,
I) :;42.
3. Cf. Pror. La Vallee Poussin'$ remark in the E.R E ... sv. Bodhisattva. 4. $temy Asptc(St!le. ch . IV; four kin!:!! of AdbiHbanl, 5ee M_yu:, 80 an.! P. T.S. Diel.; AdhitJh.lna In the MahtJralTUa, eh. XV I t. 46. 5.
Vivyd., Pi>. 226, 271, 368,
46~, 476,478, 495, 569.
230
BUDDIIIST SECTS I N INDIA
tlie D ivyfH'adana belonged,l were not as conservative as the Thcraviidins. The Mahiisanghikas, as is well known, were the first [0 bring about this change in the angle o f vision. They were the precursors of Mahayana, and hence it is hardly necessary to adduce reasons why the practice of Paramit as should
form an integral part of their doctrines.
So the introduction
and formulation of the Piiramitiis were due originally either to the Mahasanghikas or the Sarviistivadins and were adopted lal;er in a modified form by the Theravadins.
Closely connected with the Paramitiis are the Jiitakas and Avadanas, and, consequently, the Bharhut and Sanchi scu!pture5.
All the three schools put forth their best efforts in propaganda, but it is still an open question as to which of t he three schools inspired the origin of the famous stone monuments. Attempts have b~e n made by miny scholars2 to identify the sculptural representations of t he J[itakas, representations which ha\le been traced to the Jii(akattha)'alJ~ana, but still the identifications are not all beyond doubt, and it is not improbable that a better elucidati on of these sc ulptures will be found in the huge literature of Avadanas. PROPAGATION
The efforts of the \Iarious schools to propagate (beir particular faith met with success, as is evidenced by the early stone-monuments of India. Every scnool no doubt increased tbe number of its adherents, and we have evidence of this in some of the inscriptions, belonging to a period a litt!e later than that with which we are here concerned. These inscriptions are records of gifts made specially to a particul ar school:' But along wi th these there are some inscriptions in wh ich no particular sect is mentioned, but gifts are made for the benefit of the sangha of the four regions (caturdisa-sangha)." This shows clearly that the devotees might have had faith in the tenees of J.
2.
s.
Csoma Kouhi. As. Res., XX; Speyer, In!TO. to tile Ava. Of whom Cunningh:lm, Oldc[lberg, Barua, Charpcnti:r may be
m~nlioncd.
3. See Luders' Liu. Nos. 1105. 1107. 4. Sec Liiders' Li$f, Nos. 1099, 1107.
231
EPILOGUE
only one of the schools but they supported all the schools, i.e., Buddhism in general. As the dates of these inscriptions do not help us much with regard to the period under review, we have to confine ourselves to the scanty evidence yielded by the few works, whose dates of compos it on might be a little later, but which may be regarded as yielding evidence for this period. It has been seen from the Nikiyas that early Buddhism was confined to the central belt of India from Ansa to Avanti, though it also claimed a few adherents from the distant countries of the north and the south. 1 The account of the distribution of relics as given in the Mahiparinibbina Sutta in its Pili and Tibetan versions 2 gives a fairly correct idea of the spread of Buddhism towards the beginning of the first period. The people who shared the relics were the L icchavis of Vaisali, Sakyas of Kapila\atthu, Bulis of Allal;.appa, Koliyas of Rimagama, Brahmal)as of Ve~hadipa, Mallas of P:1v;l and Kusimlri, Moriyas of Pipphaiivana, and the inhabitants of Magadha. The places mentioned are all in eastern India. The only place mentioned outside the eastern territory i;; Gandharapura, where a tooth of Buddha is said to have been enshrined_'_ Tlli~ is, as the commentator points out, a later addition ; in any case, the people of Gandh:1rapura did not share in the relics. A further hint about the spread of Buddhism ill the first period is-furnished by the boundaries of the Majjhima-janapada as given in the Afahiil'aggo orthe Vinoyo .4 The boundaries are as follows: Kajangala nisama in the east, next to the Mahasala forest, the river Sallavati on the sout h-east, Setaka1,1l)ika nigama on the south, Thfm3 bnlhmaJ.1agarna on the west and Usira pab bata on the norlh. According to this account, A,·anti-dakkhiJ.1iipatha was a paccantiml-janapada (border country)5 and so also the country in the east beyond Kajangala, which is identified with.
1. See for details, my Early History etc., pp. 92. 137/f., 155, 169ft·; Dr. E. J. Thoma$, life oft/II! Buddh7, Map. 2. Digha, II, p. 161; As Res. , XX, p. 316. 3.
D;gha.l1, p . 167.
4.
,Hot., I, p_ 197: h;r .• 1.49; D i vy;;.• p_ 21_
5.
M~ .
I. p. In
232
lIUDDH IST SECTS II'> I ND IA
Bhagalpur. 1 The D!vyiJvad(1l1a~ prese r ves Ihis tradi tion replacing only the eastern bou nda ry Kaja!'tga13 by PUDl) nV
or Jcariyaparampara
T he traditions of the Second Council as preserved by the Ther3vadins and the Sa rv:istivadins a re the same,e and as rar as t he succession o f monks is concerned , there is alio no dis· agrC'ement. n .c T heravadins c nly refer to SambhGta SaQavasi as a member of t he committee of t he Second Council whi le the Sarvasti\'ad ins speak of him as the patria rch, who suC(;ewed Ananda. The b 'o trad iti o ns bifcrcate afle r the Seco nd Council, I. For th~ identification of the boundalies of the Majj hima-janapada Ste S.N. MJjumdnr's Im fO. to Cur.ningham's GrogropIrJ'. p. xliii. 2 D;,·ya., p. 21; Pu{lqravardhan:: on the east ; Salaviul Ull lhe :.uull.; SthOl,.opaMhO ... a ka ll,rlbnaQa,rimu OD (he west; and Lsinsiri on the north.
3 4.
Waller's YIlQII ChWOIIll, I, p. 308. Tara., pp.lO, ]3.
"
C~.,
XII, i, 7C. See lr.d. A lit" 1908, COIJllcil,
tiC. ; P(Jg Sam Jail
p. ViII,: for the Mahl!lisaka tradition, see Wassiljc\\'s nOles in TllrQ, 1'1'.289-90:
6
L .. .. 1908, pp. 4 If; 89 IT.
th~
Z
App. lu
.one s~aking of the Asokan Council under thl! leadership of Moggalipuua Tissa, while the other speaking of upagupta as the religious adviser _ of Asoka. and dwelling at length on the KalJi~kan Council at JaJandhafa instead of the Asokan Council. This diver!:en.:e of tradi tions is signllicant, and henceforth, the hi>totyof Buddhism is DO longer the history ofa single form of Buddhism but of many, principally of the three schools, Tberaviida. Sarviisti\iida and Mahasailghika} The Theravada is pre-eminently a Vinaya schooJ,2 and though the Tibetan tradition ascribes to Kaccayana its leadership,a It may be noted that UpiiJi as the compiler of the Vinaya was highly venerated b~' the Theravadins, and his co nn~tion with the Asokan -Council is established through his disciples. It should be observed that though the T heravitdins speak of lines of disciples (acatiyoparampora) from Upiili or Siiriputta, there was no system of patriarchal §uccession. In the Majjhima lVikaya l it is expressly stated that in the Buddhist Satigha there was no retognized head. It had. according to the Founder'i dK:tum. a fully democratic basis. The Tibelan and Chinese traditions gave, in fact, currency 10 the idea of patriarchal succession,& which, however, is not worth credence.' The A"hasdlinl also gives us a list of aca riyas of the Abhidham. mikas, tracing it from Siiriputta. The traditions of the 1. 11.ranatha (p. 44) reftfS also to Sthavira Vatsa who Introduced the Aunaka IltcQry. He adds thai Dhitika, who ~u~cd UJ:ilgUpt •• CO'lvcncd a council in the Pu;kariQi vih6ru (of M:Jru Land) 10 iupprciS the Alm"k" th~ory cf V"Is" and ~lIcc~ded 10 convi nce the fono .... ers of Ya!sa and, uitinl1lely. the teacher himself of the u."ltenability of the theory. This legend -evidently refers to Ihe YAtsipUlriyas or the Vajjiputtakas. or S:m:miliyal, who attained prominence durinl! the min of Haoa¥ardhana.:S« Append ix .and JArty History tiC., pp. 297(f. 2. Early /listor)' fIC., p. 2 1t; Wattc:l'3, YMQfI CI"""'lg, I, p. 302 referrinl! to the Yina)ists, (f..... the Thuavadinii) as wcrshippna1 J ~ti. J. Wassiijcw. rJlI cit .• 0.295; Eitel. Jlandboot, ~IC. 4. MQjfoiw,o, Sutta lOS; see als; DUll. Early Buddhist MOJ/Qchi$nI, ,pp. 141 1'1'. S. Allhu., p. 32: Acariyaparamparl: S4riputtauhero BhaddaJI Sobi,ilO PiyajllJ Pi)"dJkio Pi)'adusi Kosi)'apu!lo Si8iAVO S.ndcho MOl&lIlipullO Visl.ldll llo Dhammiyo Doisako SOQako Rcvato Ii. (Then in Ceylon) Mahindo .Ir1dhiyo lJlliyo Bhaddan4mo ea Sambl!10. 6. T,)rQ., p. 9.
,,.
BUDDHIST SECTS IN IND IA.
ThenlViidins :lnd the Sarvastiviidins about the iicari),(1pnrnmp(1r5 of the first two ce nt llries may be combined Ihus : Mahll.kassapa
I
Ananda saolva!ika (teacher of
Madhtnlika (Benares-Usira, alld Ihell IC'~f,;h"r
Sri_ast; .lIld
il5 neill:hbour-
of Kashmir)
hood)
I
tlPaiupta crirhm·Malhurn :
S!ripu1ta
I
Bhaddaji
Uplil i
Sobhita
O.lo.)a ka
~a\I .
I
of
(Vcs!l~
I
.....
Soolka (Plltalipuua\
\ _
Siuavi
I
.
(PlitalipuUl)
n:ligil.>Uli allvi""
of A~olm , accordini 10 the Sar¥aStivilda tradi ti...,,:)
Motll:alipulla Tissa (Palaliplltia : rtl i,ious advlser...,f A!ob, IIIXordiug tn the Theravlda tradit ion
\
Dhil ika
(converted at Mathura, visited or lived in Kashmi r, TukhAra. KlmarOpa, and M!Ia,-a, HiH;onlemporary and oonvens WC~_ Meaande r and
Klg~na
of M iUmiJPflilhQ (if Minlira of nranitha
Milinda of the PAli text).
Hermaios)
As mentioned above, there was no such dcariyaparamparii as patriarchal suece.sion, nor should an attempt be made to calculate the duration of abbotship on the basis of an average period, BS is usually done in connccti on with kings, for the Buddhist suints were generally long-lived. and there W&J no custom of n disciple succeeding his teacher. Morcover. thc o rd ination of disciples could have happened in the carliCit or the latest port of tl teachcr'5 life. According to Tiiranitthu, Madhyantika WIlSordained by Ananda shortl y before his death; hence it is quite possible that he was a eontcmporary of both Siu)oviisi and Upagupta, or of Dasaka, SOl}aka. Siggavc and Moggoliputt:1. Reading the tradition in this way. and also observing the "ames of places, which were thc ccntITS of activity of the various bhik1.;h us. it may be stated that after the Council of Vaisili. the Sarvastivadins attained more and m ore popularity and spread towllrds the north, having two important centres, o ne at Mathura with UpaE upto as the chief teacher, and the o ther in
23'
EPILOGUE
Ka.'>hmir with Madhyinlika as the chief, the two centr~s having later o n coalesced under the leadenh ip of Dhi tika, who. it seems, greatly extended the horiwn o f influence of the SarvastivAda school by pushing it eastwards to K amarupa, westward to Malava. and north- we~twa rd to Tukhara, the redm of rvfin1ira and Imhas3. The ThenlVf\(iin~ retained their seat in Magadha ull along with a branch at Ujjayini. founded by Mahllkae<:ilyann. Mahinda and Smighllmitta,l it seem$. '>'ere closely connected with the Ujjayini hranch o f the Thcravada schocl and propagated the same in Ceylon. ASOKA's
PART IN lU g l'ROPAOATION Of' B UODlnS~1
Emperor Asoka hlld no do ubt Budd histic le~ ni ng~ but in his exhortations, so fa r as they have been found in the edicts, there· is not the 5lightcst hint of his actively helping the propagation o f Duddhism. His edicts r~fer to dhalllmav.'jaya as opposed to · conquest by arms, but by dhamma he did not mean Ruddhism. Hi3 dhamma consisted of maxims for leading an ideal life and perform ing merito rious deeds, which made a person happy in, thi3 world as .... -ell as in the next. The edicts do no t contain any reference to N irval)n or ~iinya la. Anitma or O uJ;. kha. while o n the ot her hand, these &peak of heaven and r.ap piness in II. heavenly life,' which W[l.S never an iceal of earl y Budd hism, for it considered eltistence in aoyone of the th ree dhlitus: Kama. Riipa II.nd Ariipa !o be misery (Ju~kha). But it m llst be ad mitted that when Ul] emperor like Atoka showed a bias for a parliculnr religion and even proclaimed himself to be a Blllidhist upilsako., and paid visits to the mon:uteries or sacred p i llce~ of the Buddhists. the religion automatically received an impetus and ils propagation by lhe Buddhist monks t hen became easy. So if mny be regarded that Asoka Wal a passive propagator of I. It is ootewollhy that wilh lh~ ordinOlicm of Mahindll arc asscx:iated the names of Majjhantika (very probably of Ka shmir fame) and :\1ahll.deva, the propzgator of Buddhism in Mahl ~ma r)Qall alon~ ",itb Moggaliplitta. See also Eor/y His/(}ry etc .• pp. 260 If. 2. HuU.uch, Corpus, p. [iiI. The remark of Dr. HullZ§ch IhJL A:ioka', dh'mm~ ,
prCAch:ng for helvenly life, rcprCS(:nt s lin any bJ,sis.
i~ 'IO'ithol,lj
elrli~r
stage of NirdQa
236
BUDDHIST SECTS IX INDIA
Buddhism and, during his rule, the religion ver)' probably made its way throughout his kingdom, reacbing also places beyond his dominion, I·j:., the kingdoms of the Yavanas, Kambojas,
Gandharas, Pilenikas in the west, and COQ3S, Piu'u.iyas as far as TamraparQi on the south.l As Asoto. wa .. an adherent of BuJdbism only as a supporter, or at most as an upasaka,2 he cannot be expected to be interfering in the sectarian disputes that were going on at his time. Hence it is dinicult to attach imporlance to the tradition of the Malrii)'Qllll'O according to which he supported the Vibhajjavadins ( _ Theravudins),3 or to the state· ment in the A I'ar/linas that he was a dc .. otee of U pagupta. 11 may flso be observed that he did not refer to the Bodhisattva conception, nor to the paramitas. which could suitably have b~n incorporated into his code of moral maxims. His admonition to his subjects to choose the middle path, avoiding tile two extremes, viz., of retirement from worldly life on the one hand and of indulgence in envy, anger, laziness, and so forth on the o thl!r,' shows that be was not so much in favour of ret irem~ nt from household life. upon whi::h the early Hinayana Buddhists always laid emphasis. Asoka's preference for the life of an ideal up:isaka as against that of a monk may have stimulated the Buddhist monks to devise ways and means to popularize their religioll, and as a result of the efforts of the monks in this direction, appeared a large number of Jc1tlkas and Avad:inas. The tradition of the A/ahavalll.la about th:: part played by A.soka in the Third CouDcil with Moggaliputla Tissa
I. For details, see Huitzs;:h, Corpu1 (1925), pp. ).lIXyiii, xxxix. 2. Ibid. , Pi>. xliv·xlv. 3. Maflli:a'fl.ja, p. 54. 4. HU\(Z5\:h, op. cit., p. 114. Thc (c",Jering of Prin'ICp, Dhandll.rl;ur nnd Smith is adopted hero in prdcrcnce to that of Hultl<eh who~e r('TIel e ring: nili" nnt ~ppear to he in consona nce with the !;cneral tenor of the in;cription. See M.N. Basu's rem:lfks in this connection in the I.H.Q., III, p. ~49.
237
E.PILOGUE
territories in and outside India,1 wh ich the Maluil'ClI1Ua recorded with a colouring of its olYn. 10 the go me wo)', we can accoun t for the religi ous auvisers of Aso ka, viz., Upagupta (lild Moggaliputta Tissa. Asuka as an impartia l ruler must have oUered equal trcatment tv lin: ~uddhi sts a nd tile non · Buddhists. In the ci rcumstances it may 'b: inferred tllat he would Ilot support one sect of Bud:lhism against another. T ile T he rav:idi ns as well as the Sarv
or
Mahl~ama~9ala, Su\'a~lJabhiimi,
VanlvQsf, Yona, Mah[l rag ha, ll im:lVarHaruucsa
and
La fl ka.dJpa .~
Further ligh t could have been thrown on the p ropagation of Buddhism during this period, if the trar'liti rm about the p ropagation of tbe Mahasallghikas had been available. It ma y be that the C hinese versio ns of the Mahii<;,anghika VinaY-ll$a Kaj,lp~SO tiu8 SIIVIIh::m~v,",.acariy~.sa,' lind (in!id ~ thc tid) 'sapUl"i53(sa) Majh;ma~a· d.;o<e-,.~ cDnsidemtkm. S~e Cunn;nen;lIn. RM/m Topl's. p. 287. 2. Waddel l in i .A .S .B., 1897, pt., i, p. 16; PTiJc. AS. B., 1899, r. 70; Stmth, Early " isl.>'1 ofll/dlll, 4th cd., p. 199 fn. J. M ailli'·af{l.w, p. 94: SaSlIIIIHa I1lSll, p. to. For del~"o:J Ire:\l1110:1I !>Cc Smith. Asvka CJrd cd.}, p. 41 : 6hand:lrkar, AJoo;u, VI'. 15~ If 4.
£po 1",1., IX, pp. 13'), I H, 146.
238
BUDDHIST SECTS IN r i.:DIA
in Afgha nistan,l it may be inferred that they m ade attempts to proceed towa rds the north, but the caves of Ka rl~ and t he
location
of the centre of activities of thei r offshoots, the
Pubbaseliyas and Aparasc1iyu;; at Dhanaka!aka 2 (i.e., Amar5vati and N~igarjunako!.lga stiipas) indica te that they were later successful in (heir propagation more in the south t ha n in the florin. According to Dr. Burgess, the Amaravati stllpas at D haral)iko ta ( Dhii.nykataka) we re originally COllstructed as early as the 2nd century 8 .0.,3 and Niigil.fj una was closely associated wi t h
the Buddhist establishment of this place. At any rate there is no do ubt t hat D hanyakataka wa~ the chief centre of lhe C J.ityakas. the Plirva and Apara saila bra nches of the Mahasa6ghika school, and that the people living there and in its neighbourhood lavished gifts on til is Buddhist estab l i~h llle nt. The Mafi}usrimukkalpat also mentions that it contained t he rdin of Buddha. s This is corroborated by the recent find of a ll i H~cription, recording the gift of a pinar by the siiter of Malla.raja Madhariputra S rivirapu r u~adatta to the Caitya t:n~hrilling the dhlt tu of Sammasa mb udd ha. Among t he inscriptiolls of this place, edited by D r. Burgess, t here is o ne (No. 121), which refers to t he Caityakas, of · whic h the Puna-and Apala·5uilas were b ranches. Ano ther important place Ilear Dhanyak ata ka was Sriparvata (SrBaib m), where, according to lh~ Tibetan tradition, Nagarju na passed his last d ays." The Munjusrrmulakafpa also ta kes notice of this mountain as a sui table place for Duddhis tic practices and one of t he inscriptiom, n:\;elltly found, records tha t some devotees constructed a number of cailyas and viharas, and dug we lls for pilgrims visiting the :;acn~d place from Gandhara, Cina, Aparanta, Vailga, TambapaJ.H.lidipa. etc.' (Sec above. p. 63)1. Ibid.. Xl, p. 211 ; for other places in India wh ~re the Mahisaflghika~ made their way, see Early HiJlOry etc., pp. 24ItT. 2. See Pag Sam Jon Zong, p. 74: Dhana-srihi-gUil. 3. Burge,s. /~ m1ru ·xl/i (/lid JClgguyapel04 SIUp<JS, p. 100. 4. '\{Il,ij"lr[mu!~ka/pa (T,ivund'l.Im SUllskrit Series), p. 88. ~. Thill. Srldhanyakalake eaitye jinadhHudhare. 6. Burgess, op. cit .• p. 6; Tara., pp. 73, 81. See above, pp. 67 If. 7. Annual Report of S. 1. Epigraphy, 1927, pp.43,71. Dc. L D. Barnett kindly d rew JIl)" atlc"tiull tu Jh~ rt:l;e"t fi 'Hh ur the ins;;ripJions.
239
EPILOGUE B UOOlllS:<'1 A'FTER
ASOKA
The Mahiimrnsa and the SiisallaraJrJsa present a connected history of Buddhism in India up to the period of Asoka, and the n turn to the histon' of Buddhism in Ce~lon, leaving us in the dark about the career of the Theravtid ins in India , till we come to the lvlilindapaiiita. From it is learnt that king Mi linda of Sagaia (Sialkot, Labore) took ~reat interest in Buddh ism, and that Nena. a native of Kajailgaia, the easternmost boundary of the Majjhi ma-janapada, came to him, passing thro ugh Valtaniya and Ptitaiiputta. He stopped at the Salikhe~ya parivel)a at Sagaia. This account of Nagasena's route indicates that Buddhism had already made its way as far north as Sagala. 1 Taranatha, however, continues the story and gives us an account of the spread of Buddhism after Asoka, but as his narrathe is based main ly on the Sarvastivada tradition, we may regard this story as essentiaHy that of the Sarvilstivadins. He tells us that Upagupta ordained Dhitika,2 a native of Ujjayini, at Mathura, the usual place of residence of Upagupta. The teachership was transferred from Upagupta to Dhiti ka, who spread the religion widely, and converted Minara, the king of T ukhara. Many monks of his time went thither from Kashmir and established firmly the religion at that place. They were supported by both King Minara and his son Imhasa. 3 Dhitika then went to the east to Kilmarupa where he converted the rich Brahmal).a Siddha and established the rcligion there. After this, he visited Malava and converted the rich Briihmal)a Adarpa, laying (hereby the founda tion of [he reli~i on in that region. He came at length to his native place at Ujja)'ini and therc spent his last days. He was succl.!eded by Kala or K rsI)a,4 who was followed by Sudadalla of Bharukaccha. The spheres of activity I. Mil., pp. 8, 16. 2. Trira., p. 23: All SarvastivAd"l tladitions both in Chinese and Tibet:lIl mention Dhltika a, Ihe successor of U ~ lgupta.
3.
Schiefm;r
~ugg~s[s
lhal Minara=Mcnandcr, and Imhasa .... Hermaim,
see Tara ., pp . 23, 24 fn.
4. T11erc is a reference 10
th ~
spre0
Krn1a is said to have vis ited the placc. Tiira., p. 44.
240
BUI)I)IU ST SECT'S IN INOI"-.
of both these monks were 111 'he west (Si nd h) :mci .l1e north (Kashmi r) of India generally. III connection with Kr.~Q:t, it is stated th ut he spread the religion in the soulh Dr Imiia, in many small islands inctudillg Ceylon, ;wd subseq uently in Mai5.cina. 1 Poshadha, who came afte r him, spread B l1d rt hi~m in Ori!;sa ounng the ru le of Vigatisoka. t Taranatha ·... history i ... fu1 ' or legend" a n:! as such all his statements c:lOnol he taken as authentic. But considering the fact that he makes ~ome ~ ,a le mcnts wbich are nOlprimafadi! unreasonable 1'lnd :ue, in mnny cases, corroborated by the Chinese travellen, we ca n attach to them so me impon:tnce, though, of course, great calltinn should be exe rcised DoC'r N I.'lAI. DE VE LOP ~IENTS
We .,.Ilall now proceed to take n pll lloramic ,·iew of the rJOClrinal de~el opme n t s that took place during thi s period (lnd herald..:!.! the advent of Mahayanism . T he M ahiisanghikl\s ..... ere evitleully the earliest ,school of the JI inaYdnists to show a tenden<:y towa rds conceiving Buddha docetieally. which W(1S later on brought to coulplet ion by a branch of thei rs. the Lokottara.. l\di ns. 3 Bu t whICther the conception of t he Bodhisattva and the practice of tht: si;\. paramit1h was introduced for the first time by lhe Mahu~
2. Tar"., p. SO. J. E.R.E ., sv. DoI.:<.1i~lII. ror dClaib. 4. Hilber h,,~ Ir;x:ed 18 Avad:lna,; of th Di~)·ul'l1dii.1Q in the Chin~se vrrsion of Ih~ Sal'\:'Istlv.:1da Vinuyll (B.E.F.E.O. v, PD. 1-37). See also L':\'i, T'O//!IK Pi/O. Ser. II (l;l(l7). no. 1. So it il quite probable tIll! the lJi~>iil>{/(ftjliil i., a book of Ille San;isli.,.ild iIlS.
24'
EPIL,)G I1E TH£ G O.l. I. O F 8,·DOII.-\1loo0
Then there r¢mnins the other conception. I'i: .. the attainment of BlIcldhahood as the goal to be aspired after, and the consequent l()wering of the position of the Arhats.l The Thcravadins do not definitely den y that Buddhahood is unattainable, for there is the instance of Sumedha B riihma~a becoming siikyamllni and that of a certain being, who will in futu re become Maitreya Buddha, but such instances are so few and far between that it would not be reasonable to hold up the ideal for the generality of the human beings to follow. They assert that a Buddha is h ardly expected to arise even in so many kalpa s,2 and this is echoed in the Lalita ristara, Mahiil'aslII, and some of the Malll1yanic texts : but still one reads in the Dil'yiil'adrilla th at after the delivery of a d iscourse, some aspired to Sro l'akabodl:i, some to Pratyekabodhi, and some to Sam),aksambodhi.' The fact mentio ned la st that some aspire to Samyabambodhi leads us to infer that by the time of the Dil'y0l"adlit. a the San:astivadins admitted the practicability of hold ing up Buddhallood as an ideal. So. clearly, the S"mi stiviidins encouraged the aspiration to Buddhahood and hence to the life of a Bod hisattva, and the goal o f Buddhahood was not purely Mahiisanghika or Mahiyanic. The Sarvisl ivadins like the Thera"adins conceived Buddha as an actual human being, but they magnified his attainments and powers so much th at one is led to regard their conception of Buddha ai that of a superhuman being.
1. III Vuulllirta 's t rcatilC as well as in the Karllti,·a"ht. it is Slated that the SarvistivAdins belie"ed that the Arhats wert littble to fa ll frolll Ub3 1_ hood. On this poinl the Theravi\dio.s hold a different opinion. They t-elieve tilat the Arha!~ liTe a! pur<:: ., Buddhas, ond connor fo il from that position. The ~ahAs.ui.m i ka.s also co not su pport the SarvAstivddins in regard to thi s point. See above, pp 81, 108. 2. Kaddei karahici Tal~Agalii. loke uppajjanli. Dr/h", JI. P. 139 Mill., I, p . 5S . 3. Di.)·u., pp. 225. 271. Ctc. TI,C trClltiH ot' Va51lm itra alw sa),s that the SarV3stivldins were aware of the three VAnas. The dale of lhe comp ilalion of the Di.yaWldiina may b( tater, but il conlains many 8vad!n lS which arc <.>1<1. The men don of three Badhis in the Di"yi...ad:fnm and the reference of Vasumitra in connecliDn willi tile Sarv;lSlivAdins to Ille Ihlte Yl1nas show Ihat, to the Sarvluivldins, (he Sam)'aksambuddhahood was a goal as much a. tlte
otha tWO aod hi~.
,.,
B U DDJII5T SECTS IN INDIA
T he Saniistivaclins had two Kii ya conceptions. viz., riipakiiya and dhmmakiiya, but these did not bear any Mahayanic sense, though their conception of dha rmakiiya helped the Yogacarins in the formu lation of their conception of the same. The Sarviis ti· vti.rlins were also respo nsible fOf the addition of the fourt h term, siinya, to the us ual trio. viz" dul)kha, ani tya, 2n d aniil ma. though the word conveyed no Mahayanic meaning as it connot· cd no other sense than anatman.l But the most important doctrine of the Sarvastivadim, which contrarily led to the development of Mahiyana, is their ext reme Astitval'iida (the theor y of the actual eXil>ienCe of clemenlS com· posing a being). It may be said that Mahiyiina is a continuat ;on of the B uddhological speculations of the Mahasanghikas and 1ho-ir offshoots, and contrarily aga inst the aSlitv:wida of the Sarvastin'idins - a dogma which appeaored to the Mahiiyan ists .as an utter distortion of Buddha's teaching;;.2 It was th is reaction, which led tothe o[her extreme, the establishment of dharma..!lllJyii/(1 (non-eKistence of everything whatsoever) JS the real teaching of Buddha. The thiru contribution JUdde by the Hinay':mists. espt'dally by the Sarva~tivadills, i) the exposition or analysis of skanuhas, dhatus, ayaluuas, aryasatyas, al'lgas of the pratityasamutpada, and so fOrlh? The Mahayanists incorporated them in thdr work in (o ro, ailhuugh they rdegated them 10 the domain of SaIJlvrti or Purikaepita, Paralantra, admitting. howe\er, lIu::ir I. Lal. ViI' .. p. 419; Divyri., pp. 266,367: ~. nitya. dU~lkha, 1Unya, analma. Scc Ko.ia, v r, p. 163 and VII. pp, 31 f. where HInya is eXpli'lmc
243 utility as being indispensable to Bodhisattvas in arriving at the Paramartha or Parini~panna truth .l CONTACT OF THE SARVAsTIVADINS WITH THE MAHAYANISTS
ThcMahu3anghikas may havc been the forerunners of Mahaya na but it is clear thot the Sarvastiviidins contributed much to th~ growth of Mahayana in one wily or the other. Asa sign of close contact, it may further be pointed out t hat Subhiiti,2 a prominent figure in the Sarvastiviicla tradition, played an important role in the Prajliiipiirami(ii. It is anomalous to find a HinayanD. monk explaining the sunyatii doctirnc, which goc; directly against his own: so the Prajiitipiiramirtl offers us an explanation -of the anomaly by saying that whatever was preached by Subhuti was not according to his own lights but through the inspiration of Buddhas: The adoption of the Lalita Vistara by the Mahiiyimists as the recognized Lifr; 0/ Buddha also shows a point of contact between them and the Sarvastivadins, for, as we learn from the Chinese translators, the Lalita Vi.tlara was a biography of Buddha of the Sarvastivada school. Mahayanism in all probability germinated in the south, where the offshoots of the Mahasanghikas had their centres of activities, but where it appcarcu more developed was a place somewhere itl the eastern part of India, a place where the SarvastiYadim were p re:dominant. TaraDiitha tells us that the PraJiiiipiiramilii was first preached by MaiijusrI at OQ.hiSa (Orissa),a which, if 110t th: actual ecntre of Sarvasti\'adins, was in the n: ighboUlhood of the Sarviistivada ~pheres of influence, for it has already been slatt:u that Dhitika propagated Sarv.istiv.idu Buddhism ill Kftl1lfUPd nnd PUI).r;lravardhana, which was th: e"tended eastern limit of the Madhiiyadda. But the most fruitful contact betwtt:il lite Sarvustiviidins and the ~ahayanists took place at Naiaudii, whieh became the principal centre of Mahayana and lin;! seat of Niigiirjnna. I. Sc;; my A;pl!<.·I~' uf lv/uiJuY'ina, etc. chapter Ill. 2. See, e.g. , Ih~ Ava. S., pp. 127· 132 nnd p. K1. (Kalp..ldrumamdJnaj; R. L. Mitra, Nep. 13. Lit., pp. 295-6. In the Apadiina, and in the Aro$.ulfara. and It~ commentary, SlIbhiill IS mentioned as the chief of the Aral),a\lhiirins. but he is nOI given much prominence in pali works 3. TMa ., 'p o 58 .
244
BUDDHIST SECTS IN I 'W 1A
The M allljj'olighik as were basically H fnayiil:ist s Thus it is apparent that the Sarv.1stivddil1s were as llluch resp onsi ble for the growth o f MahayAna as lhe Mahasal'lghika5. Apart Irom the Buddhological spe:::ulalions, the Mahasanghiku
can not claim much as thei r contribution to the growth of Mah a ~ yana. It may be that Ihe PrajiiiJparamltlJ which, as tb: Tibetan trad itionl te Us us, was possessed by tbe Pu rvirlailas, conlribuled much to the p hilosoph}' o f MahayAna, but as yet we arc completely in the dark about this PrajnlJpGram(r,l . From Vasumitra'$ acco unt of the tenets of the Maha safl.gh ik as~ or from lilt: discussions found in the Kathii l'attllll about the doctrines of the Mahasailghikas, onc hardl y n o t ices any thing particularly M ahaya n ic in th~m . ro r instance, the MahAsangbi kas speak (0 o f the p3.ika·(or ~4-)vij 1iii na kayas, d lltering from the Theravftdins and t h~ Sarvlistiviidins as to the functi o n of the physical organs of sense;3 (ii) of the four or ~ight Hinayanic stages of sanctificat ion along with the attainments appertaining thereto,' the Ka rhiil'Quhu add ing tha t tb~ M ihi sanghikas assert that the Arhats ha"c avijja, vicikiccha, as they cannot comprehend the things Ih:lt come within t he purview of (Budd ha\' i ~aya);:' (i ii) of the ind i!'pensability of the application (prayoaa) of prajii.a, for destroying dul,lk ha and obtai ning accanta-sukha (i. t ., 1. 2. 1.
Twa., p. $3.
M;(!uda, 0;>. cil. Sec also flOoVC, pp. llO, t 69, 206. MaiUd.1.. op. ci/ .• I, 22..4 ; K ,·u .• ltviii, 9: It, 3·": Par'kRv l""l(lasamailJisSl althi maggabhlvan.1 (one mlY practise (be path while he has til'efold cOflscioumcss, The conception of VijMfl3 of the Mahasa.i1ghibs is a little different from that of the Theravi\.difls and the Sarvilstivildins, spt.'Cia1!y in VIew of t1\'O other tenets held by them. viz., "'At one and the same muml'ul, two mCfltaJ $tate5 ean ari se ~id: by ,[de" and "the natu r~ or mInd is pure in il~ origin. etc." MU\ldn, op cit, A . 43, B 3. 4. Masuda, op. cil .. I, 26·}O. 33-5, 39,48: Mill., I, p. 139, 5, Kvu.. xxi 3; i. 2. Th: Thcrav:1.difls hold Ihat sabbannuuiU"a (omn iscience) is a special acquis.tio:l of Buddha! aod tcyond the scope of Arh.1.ts; so It is wrong to hold Ihat "rta ts h2.\·c avijjil, viciklCCU. c r. "u~ulllitra (Masuda, op. ell. , I, 3~): "That .~ording to thc MahAsanahikas. Arhatl are liable to link while the Kmhill"iJltllll (i, 2. Cy., p. H) !UI.Yi that Ulme of the Mahlsanghilcas hold that Arbals ale not so liable."
t:l'ILOCTlE
245
fin al beatitud~, NiniiJ):l), one of the II!OM important tenets of the H inay,i nic schools;! (,v) o f samyagdn!i, s raddhendriyOl. as not laukiktl (worldly), the Kalhii)·{]tlIUl 2 adding that the M ,dl.asailghikas hold that old age and death cou ld neither be lukiya (worldly) nor lokottara (tra nscende ntal), because they an: aparini~panna (unmade),3 ~nd because the "decay and death of supramundnne beings and things is supramundane and C,tnllot be mundan~ " ;J (v) o f samyaktva-nyan:a~ (de~tinell for right knowledge) and th~ cOlls~ql.!e nt d::slruction of ~a lll)ojanas (fetters); (vi) of Buddha 's pre:lch ing the Dharma in the nitCtnha senSe ;8
(vii) of a5aT]1Skrtll d harmas as bt:illg nine in conlrast to three o f the Sa rv.istl\'Udrns;' (viii) of upaklesas (impuritIes), lIIlu;Uyas (dorrr.ant pa~ions) and par~avasthanns (Jx:rvading passiolb) ;' (ix) of the non-existence of plit:lloluena of the past nnd future, as against the opinion of the Sal \3stivildins,t flnd (x) or the non·existence of antaliibhava (e~istence intermediate between death and re·birlh) as against the opiniulJ of the SarvastivftdillS l o and the Sammitiyas. In these and on a few other points of d lrTerence noticed in lhe work of Vas umitra and the Kathiil'althu, th ere is very liltlc: 10 d isti nguish them as distinctly Mahayanic. In the Mahi1I'm'/U" I . }'·fasuda. ap. ri/, I. 31 : For Pra:1'Ili and PraYOG1, !ee also M'll. l, p. : 70. Throughout ,\1111. onc nOlices that j\l m '! Qa ",\
Uf., p.27 rro .; cr. Emlro. Icnf26~b Ii. Masuda. op tif. 1,5,40. This
goes dircclly against the Mahi\ylnic \ iew that BLddha's discourses have two senses, nlla/lhn and ~y:1rlha, a.ud
Olho •• gn inst lhe Sa .... lI.sl iviidll vie ..... Sec ~bs\lda. "p d ,. , P 5' 7. Masuda. or. cit .• I, 41 ; s~e above, pp. 113, 125.
S. Ibid .. I. 44; see aoove, p. 92. II. Ibid., I; 45; $00 ttoove, p. ISH. 10. Ibid" I. 47; sec above, pp, 114,125, II . It does not really belong 10 the MaMlanghlkas; so ils dale 111\1\1 be
1,,1<1. alld il ma) be rc~lcd co lhe lhird period of ou r d ;"';~ioo . Only Illose pa 'sa~s which corroborate Ih~ lenet§ of th~ Mah~ satighikas mentioned in the trea tise of Vasumitm are referred to here.
BUDDHIST SECTS L" JNIlIA
also, the discourses on the Truths' or the Causal Law, or on anilya, du,Q.kha, and am\tma do not go beyond the limits of Hiuayana conceptions. The onlI Mahayanic traoes in Ihe tenets of tilt: MaMsal'lghikas are: (i) the Buddhological speculation, ~iz .. that Buddhas a re 10kaHara (supramundane), without any siisruva dharma (defiled elements), possessed of limitless rupakiiya (physical body)." prabhliva (power), and tiyu a (length of life), can remain without any sleep or dream, are always in samadhi, and do not preach by name or designation, possess k1131)ikacitta (i.e. understand all dharmas with a moment's thought), and so forth (see above. p. 100); and (ii) the Bodhisattva conception. l'iz., that the Bodhisattvas ale not born and do Dot grow in the womb the same way as an ordinary being, are not defiled by the impurities of the womb,4 enter the womb in full consciousness,' never harboll; any feeling of kama (lu5t),8 dve$a (hatred or enmity), and moha (delusion) take birth in hilla.gatis (lower rorm~ of existence) for the benefit of the various classes of sentient being~, and so forth.7 These Buddholo&ical speculation!> are more or less corollaries to the Mahasanso hika conception of tbe life of ~akyamuni. The Mahasarighikas do not show thereby any recognition that all beings can become Bodhisattva... and ultimately Buddhas. Tbe-
L Mtll., III, PI'. 334, 446. 2. Cr. Mill., T, p . 2fiJ: Buddha appears everywhere. In the Nikayas ont also reads "eko pi huMl bahudha hoti. dC. ,. Dlgha, I. P. 18. In the LAlita YulUI"tJ (p. 1(0) we read or the !lodbl~ttva appcarins in all the houses Presented to fiim by the SakiyaD!i. J. Masuda, op. ell., l. pt). IS. 19; KVIl., :d, S : The Mah~,afl8hikas cite the passaae or the MaA4parilibbQna Sulta. in which Buddha s~id to A.nand~ that h. could Jivc many kalpa.s ir he had 51.1 wished. The TberavMim with. out reruting this statement cile another passaiC which soes against tbis vie'N. 4. Mru., I, p. 143 ; II, pp. 14.J!j: GarbbAvaknlnti and sthiti arc all miraculous; RndhitlHtvas are !lot touch.d by any impuriliC!. MIll., H. PI-'. 16, 20. Sa: abo~, p. 103. S. MIll., 11, p. 10. 6. MIll., J, p. I ~3 : ~ na. !evanti. RAhula was an aupapadukll. He d~ed from T~ila beavenand remained in his mOlher's wCllIb rur ~i~ years (MIll., ur, p.l~9). 7. Masuda, op cit .. p. 2).
EPn,I"lGI1E
247
concep1 ion of the four caryas and ten bhiimis of the Lokottara· vadins indicates a sl ight leaning to Mahayanism. Thus, there appears to be little of Mahayana in the tenets of the Mahasanghikas.1 The MahiisaIighikas, therefore, were basically Hinayanists, only with the conception of Buddha slightl~' different. Now we can state briefly the history of Buddhism in the second period thus: I. Buddhism is no longer one. It is divided into three principal sections, viz., Theravada, Sarvii.stivuda, and Mahas:uighika. The Theraviidins remained in the central belt of India, making, their position stronger in Avanti where Mahakceayana hild laid the foundation of Buddhism and from which place Mahendra was despatched to Ceylon to propagnle Theravilda Buddhism therc. The Sarvdstivo.dins were aho in the central belt ofIndia with their centres of activity in Mathura and Kashmir, the former having becn founded by Upagupta and maintained by Madhyiintika, who spread it widely all over Northern India including Tukhiira on the north·west, Malava on tne west and 04ivisa (Orissa) and Kamarupa on the cast. The Mana5ailgbika~ established them'IClves at Vaisali and had followers sprinkled all over Northern India, but they became popular in the soutb. In short, Buddhism during th.is period spread all over Northern India and parts of Southern India. 2. Emperor Asoka took great interest in Buddhism but did not help any particular sect. The dhamma preached in his edicts i~ mainly ethical and lacks the specific colouring of any school
of Ruddhism. He encouraged leading a righteous household life fRther than the life of a monk or an ascetic. He, however, re~fJected and supported the monks and recluses. The interest taken by rulers, like Minara and Imhasa, helped greatly the propagation of Buddhi5m outside Jndia.
I. The tenet of the Mah.hailxhikas Ihal "the nat\lre of mind is pure il'J it. origin; it becomes impure when it i. stained by passions (upaklda$), the
adventitious dust (!ganlukaraias)" hu, ~ccording to M~~uda, been added by Asvagho~a in his A','akening of Fail/;. See Ma~da. 0;. cir., P. )0.
I1liDDIl!.T i>liCTS I:" I ... DIA
3. The relation o f the laity to the Buddhis t Sangha wa. no t materially altered as compared with the previous conditions but a greater interest was created for the laity by popularizmg Buddhism through the Jii takas and A\adiinas, and by holding up the Piira mitii practices before them as ideal. 4. Much stress was laid on the composition of the Jarak os and A mdii,w). and great religious me rit was allached to reading, wntiug. painting, alld carving them. This cllught the fancy o f the l 1hut. The credit for popularizing the religion ~hrough the Jatakas Jud Avadanas goes, at the first instance, to the SarvtlstiHidim, alld, later. to the Theravadins. 5. The old division of NQI'u,iga was increaseJ to DI':JdnMlign by the add.tion of '\Iidana, Avadina, and Upades:l. Th ough the JCltabs ;'ormed one of the divi;ions of the NJv:hlg:l, thcy did nnt exist as 1 se parate literature, but we re embodied i n the diS(:-HlI<;CS purporting to have been delivered by Buddha and his disciples. 6. T he accnunt of the I.I/e oj BuJd/ia commenced not fro m th". timeorSidh~r tha ', retirement but from the fi rst resolution (pral)idh:1 na) m:lde hy Sumedha Brihmaoa. and the prophecy ( v~yy;il.:.1 r:1l)a) made by Dip:ulka ra Buddha. 7. The essential doct rines are still thc same as in the fi rst period witb . Iight chmlges ('.g., til: lddition of silllya to the usual ;>nitya, dul)kha. and anatman, and oflhe six paranlltas to the thirty-seven Bojhipak ~ ika dharmas. S. Somt rudi~' al cJ l ange~ were effected l!\ the tene ts ..:- 1 the whid l tlt:vdoped during this period, e.g., the $an:htivadins starttu lln:ir uoctri ne of realism, of the existence of pas t, present, amI CUlun:, and so (orth, while the ~1~has.:lIighikas COIlceived Buddha d0cetically and int roduced the Bcdhl5:lln a conception. ~d1Uu1s,
9. The 110:11 of life remained Arhathood and P mtyekabuddh~ hood with the Therav[idms, \\hi le the S:\.f\astiv;idins added to them the $:oal of Sam)aks"mbuddhahood.
2.9
"€PILOCC E
10. The conception of .fo,'j, diI,lQ as sukha, san ta, etc., did not much, the S
II . The flfowth 0 1 th(: AbllldlJammo literatu re lOul place during this period . A s the principal schools 10l'aled th~ir centres of activity at diffe rent places. the development of the literature of each school was indcpendrn t of one anothrr. This an:ounts for the wide divergence between the Abhidhamma literature: of the Thera\'adins and that of the SarvastivAdins.
12. The conception of Bodhisatt va, Param ita practiC'es, :lnd the flOa l of Budc hnhood are thc only Ma hayiinic traces that appciUed in thc doI;:lriroes o f the Mah:is:lIighikas and Sa rva sti. v,id in s, and their offshoots.
THIR D PERIO D (C'ir~(1
lOO D.C. (0300 ,\.D.)
Before procttding to ascertai n the approximate time of the emergence of Mahayana, Ihe special characteristics, which dis tin· gui sh Mahayana from H inaya na sho uld bedctermined. Generally ~ pe aki n g, Mahaya nism denotes: (i) the conception of Bodhisattva. (ii) the practice of
riirami li a~.
I. The S~ rv~~liY~l1m.~ helrl I~al (he \'{mllkl; (If the Sr4vakas, Pratyeka. buddhas, and Buddhas is Ihe same. (\la. ud1, op. (i;., P. 49.) The Mah il'n5a kas held the same ... iew (Mnsuda, op. ril. , p. 62), but nOI Ihe D hHntagup tas. The Siimilmikura, howe,e r, holds IhlH with regard 10 u/lTllkll, the Buddhas and Ihe S'.l!\'aka::; !>ta ml ull Ih" Ioame fC(ll ing. This is llho Ih. o pinion fo und in the ol her Y(lgl\clira le.'II.. cr. a l.o MIU., iI . PI', 285, 345. 2. Sicherbac;ky, Comupli:m oj Nirl""j~la, pp. 251f.
BUDDHlST SECTS IN
I~DIA
(iii) the developmeDt or Hodhicilta , (iv) the ten stages (bhiimi) of spiritual progress, (v) the goal of 8uddhahood,
(vi) the conception of Trikaya, and (vii) the conception of Dharmasunyata or Dharmasumlltii or Tathata. The Mahayani~ts distinguish themsel\'es by saying that they seek the removal of both klf'Jih'arllf,l1l (veil of impurities) and' jiieyQl'C.rll(lll (veil covering the paca martha Iruth), and this is poss_ ible by the realization of hoth pudgalasI7nyalli (absence of soul) and dharmaJiinyatii. (non-elli"tence of all beings and objects)_ The HinayAnists realize Orlly the former and thereby remove kldAvara\la only. They, therefore, attain ~'imllkti (emancipation) from kle.ias, :md as fllr as this is concerned, they are on the same footing as the Mahl1yanists, but they lack true knowledge a., conceived by the Mahayanists, l'iz., dharmasunyata, because they rto not remove ji'ieyavaraQa . The Hinayanists. however. do ont ~dmit theirinferiorilY with regacd tojiiina. for they consider t.hat th~ destruction of ~vidya (ignorance of truth) or, in other word!':. acquisition of true knowledge is the only means to emancipMinn, and this is effected by Arhats in the same way as by BucldhHs. The Arh:ltS are very often mentioned in the Piili ....orks. a~ attaining iarnhodhL They, however, admit that Buddhas on account of their superior merits (technically, go/raj due to their long pr~ctice of meritorious deeds, attain some powers and excellenCe<: and also omniscience. which are beyond the reach of the Arhah. This in shorl, is the relative position of the Hinayi_ nists and the Mahayanists. If the development of Hinayana in its various phases be examined, ODe cannot help observing that some of the distinguishing characteristics of Mahayana mentioned above are also found in the later phases of Hinayana e.K., (i) conception of Bodhisattva, (ii) practice of six paramitas,
251
EPILOGUE
(iii) development of Bodhicitta, (iv) gOdl lIf Buddhahood, and (v) two of the three Kaya conceptions, I';Z., Riipa (or Nirmil.Qa-)kaya and Dharmakiiya, the conception of the latter being essentially different from that of the Mahayinists.1 So, to be exuct about the time of emergence of Mahayana, we should consider when the conceptions of Dharmasunyata and Dharmakayo ( __ T'Uthuta) ....-ere introduced.
SEMI-MAHAYANA
From what has been sta'ed above in regard to the lines of de ... elopment in the preceding period. it is evident that the Hina}anists, either to popularize their religion or to interest the laity more in it. incorporated in their doctrines the conception of Bodhisattva and the practice of paramitas.! This was effected hy the production of new literature: the liitakas and AI'adiinas. While the Jitakas are confined to the previous lives of Buddha~ the Avadanas introduced the Bodhisattva conception, and pre~ented the same as an ideal for the laity. The object of the Avadanas is to show how the devotees sacrificed everything, even their lives. for perfection in one of the paramitas. not for any earthly or heavenly plea~ures, but for the attainment of bodhi and then for rescuing all being~ from misery.3
I. Tn the Mru., the expres;~ion Sambhogaldiya dOc'S not occur; yet the description of Buddha's body sometimes shows it 10 be tantamount to that
conception. 2. For an interesting discussion on this point see Speyer, Ava.
~ .• pp. v If. 3. Di.yii .. p. 473 : Rupavali makes sacrifice for "na nljylrthal"J1 na bhoga.rthalll na svarganhal"J1 na !akrArthalll Da rajfiam cakravartinlrp
\'i~ai'aflharn
nll.llyatriihum unuttarlim 5amyahaulbodhim al.>hisambudhyll_
dAntli.n damayeyam arnnktin mocayeyam an;ih'auan Uvl!sa}eyllm aparini:vrtAn parinirva.Dayeya!fl."
252
BUDDH IST SECTS IN INOLA
TIlt: Dil'yill'm!ill/II, : tUpii Of alTering some
gifts to it. Tn connection with the Sarv1i.Slhadins, Vasumitra speaks (i) of the sameness of l'imukli of Buddhas, Sravakas and Pratyeklbudchas (ii) and also of tile three Yanas; and (iii) or Bodhisattvas continuing to be P!'thagjana till they step into Ihe samyaktva-n}ama (the path leading to right knowledge: .2 The ,\1a/wrQstu also speaks of the existence o f the three Yanas3 and of the pc.ths and practices to be rollowed by a Bodhisattva. II mentions the four carras of a Bodhisattva and the ten b/iiill/is, but the conception of the bhOmis4 has very little in COnlmon with that of the ten bhiimis of the Dasab/lIlmikasiit/'G
I. .11111., pp. 364, 365, 367: bodhflya ciuarp nametva; pp. 37:), JJ7 b()(lhim at ulyal]1 sJ1rsati. See above, p. i8,
2. Masuda, op, cil., p. 4~ : " The Buddha and the IWO vchicl~s have no differences as to ernancipaticn (y;mukti): theAl)'an paths (marga) of the tl'ree vehicl~s IhO\lever) ditTcr from cneanoth~r. This is wanting i) the T ibcten \Cr3;On;' Masuda refules W"ssiljcw's opinion (p. 275, n. 4) .hdl it ~n interpolation of the later ~tah~Y"nist<. For vimuktidrnan}a of
w~>
Sr.ivakas, Pratyekabuddhas, and Buddhas, see above P. 125. M~suda, op. cit .. D. 50 : The Haimavata school SUP[lort~d th~ vadins 011 this point, adding, how~ver,that Ih~ Bodhisattvas were ject to raga wd kiima, See Mawda, op. cil., p. 52. The Mtu. calls sattva in the fmt b.,(lmi a pr1hagJana, who txcomcs an Arya ~ccond
bh(lm;.
3.
Mill., II, p. 362,
4.
Rahd~r·slntro. to
5.
Edited by the present al.l:ho:,
Duiu., pp. iii f,
Sana>!inot suba BodhiIrom the
233
EPIL OGUE
Himwiinie Bodhisattva-y:ina. T he Lokottaraviidins 1 of the Muh~ sa i1.ghikas show a lillIe more development th:m the Sarvii_ stiviidins by defining the four car),ifs, l·j-. prakrfirar.l'ri. pral)idluinacaryii, anu/omafllJ"yii, and al1jl'f1rTfll1ararwj,~ t he first referring to the prelimin;lry practices of a Rodhisattv:1 while he is a prthagj ana. th\! second to the development of Rodhidtta, th e third to the gradual progress made by a Rorlhisa\tva up to the- sixth bhumi, and the fourth to the pr:lctice of the last four bhtimis,2 from wh ich a Bodhisattva can nevt'"f retrocede but ultimately must attain Bodhi. T he attainment of Bodhi, therefore. came to be regarded as one of the goals of Hin ay:ina . It is for this reason that the k(lsa 3 has discussed the- thirty-four moments required for the attainment of Bodh i, and other matters rel:Hing to Buddhahood, and the Hinayanic works t m~ntion some of t he Bodhisattva practices as well as ph ilosophical expre~sions li ke siln)ata, dharmadh:i tu. dharmakaya, tat ha tva, though these (Ire devojd of their Mah:lyanic sense. In view of these facts, it may be held thai before Mahayana came into being with its new interpretation of Buddha's words e\'olving a new sense of sunyata. there had already been a Hinayan ic Bod hisattvayana, which might be called semi-Mahayana. or Mahaya na in the making. This semi-Mahayanism concerned itself only with the six Paramita practices and the extraordi nary powers and knowledge attained by Buddh as. It was as yet unaware of'Advaya Advaidhlkara; Dharmasunyata or Tathata. T ha t the six paramitfls belong to the domain of Hinayana is also hinted at in the Dasabhumika..l"iilra. 1n this siltra as well as in other treatises dealing with bhumis, the ten bhlimis are divided
1.
,\(111, II, p. 46; Lui. Vis., p. 35.
the writer or the Mill. h~d "cr, \ague ideas about th~ last four bhumi>, he dismissed them wilh m~rc enumeration of some names of Buddhas and recOllntlllg some slOries. 3. j(oSa, 11, 44; VI, 21a-b; ef. K YII., I. :. I'a!i,f. M ., I , pp. tlItI". 2.
SlIICC
di.ocusSoCs the iiiil)a of 4.
B uddh~5.
Mlu ., 1I, p. 357 ; Sun)'utAm
p . ?(,~; IH, [1. 167.
'''mum
bhA"emi,
KC
aho S~'f')"ull" tJ ,
254
BUDDlIJS1
~Et..TS
IN ,,,,' VIA
into two sections, the first six carrying a Bodhis:lttva to the realiza tion of PudgalaHinyata, or in other words, the Truth as conceived by the Hinayanists, and the last four lead ing to the realiza tion of Dharmaslinyata, the T ruth as concei'ved by the Mahaya nists. So the actual Mahayanic stages of progress commenced from the sevent h, but it is stated in the Dasahhilmikasurra that the six. paramitas nre completed by a Bodhisattva in the first six bhiimis. Thus it follows that the practice of Piramitiis ulone docs not make a person u follower of Mahayana, though it must be admitted thot Muhuyana takes its stand upon the paramitiis as far as the practices are concerned, for it i. said in the Prajiiiipiirami!iis that Buddhas deli vcr disc-ourses connected with the Sil piiramitas,l nnd also in the Madhyamakiil'atiira 2 that Mahayana tcachcs not only siinyata but also piiramitiis, bhiimis, and so forth. Lastly, the fact namely, that t he conccptions of lIimimitta and lIi.~svabhiiva, indicating thc chicf fcaturcs of the attainments of a Dodhisatt,'a in the last fouf bhiimis, werc yet unkno"n to the compiler of the Mahiil'astu, is evident from his non-mention of the qualities attai ned in the last fouf bhiimis. Hence, it may be concluded that Buddhism entered intoitssemiMah
T H);
'IIM); UY t.;UM1-'O~JTION 01'
THE
f'riijiiupiiramilii
The new Mahiiyiinic conception of Siinyati was for the first time propounded in the Prajiiiipiiramitiis. It should, therefore be ascertained when the Prajnpiiramitii first came into e){isten~e. This is a Tibetan tradition that the PurvUSaiias and Aparasailas had u Prajiiiipiiramilii in Prflkp dialect;3 unfortunately no other
I.
Po;'co. , p. 7 :
~alparamiliipralisaf1lyukUIfI
dharmadeiian.ilfl kaWIi.
2. M. Ava.• (Le Museon, VII . p. 271) : En effet, la doctrine au Grand
Vehicule n'enseigne pa, seulemcnt Ie neant des elements, mais encore les terres des Bodhisaltvas, les vertu~ transa:ndantes (pdramitils), les resolution; (p£al)idMna), la grande compassion, Clc., mais encore J'applicatlon du merile" illumillaliol), IC1 deux equipment~ de merite el de $avoir et I" llature incomprehen.ible du dharma (acintya_dham,aul). 3. Wassiljew, B/lddllismus. p. 291 quoting the Tibetan Siddhiima.
ZPII..OOUE
jnrnrmafion ahout it is forthcoming. Tarnmi.t ha trlls us that shonly the time of king Maha[ladma Nanda, a king cai!ed Candragupt3 reigned in OQ ivisa (Orissa)l . Manju~ri came to his house in the form of a bhik~u and delivered the Mahiiyao9. teaching. ·The Sautrantikas maintained that this te:u:h ing drnoted. the AslasdhaJrikd Prajliiipiiramild, but the T~nlric school asserted that it indicated the Toltva.~Qligraha.2 It may he safely stated that the Tantric tradition was baseless in view of th ~ subjects treated in the Tarll'osaJigraha, · and preference should he eiven to the Sautra nlika tradition that the Asfosiihasrika was the earliest text to ·contain Mahiiy! na teach ing. If the content~ of the A1{nl·lJh~rika, POIicalimi ntisanasr;ka. and SOlasaliosrika he compared, it will be seen that the Asfasalrasrika is the earliest of the three and that it can be as early as the first century ~'lrter
R."'.·
TH~ GEOGRAPHICAL DATA ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF MAlf.~YANA
Wilhout attaching much importance 10 the chronology of king5 amI such other infonnation presented by T
1. lam .• p. 58; PIlg Sam JOI/ Za~. , p. 82 al so ~y~ tllat Mah:.yana Dllddbism had Its bcginmng in 04ivisa shonty afler the (e iin of MaMpadml N"nda. 2. Recently publimed in the Glekwad Orien tal 5<::1<:3. 3. Fo ~ a survey of ils COnlent'l see my revie ... in I .H. Q.• D K .• 1929. 4. For deails, iee Inlm, 10 the Paliea.
5. A~vagtJo ,a is called a bodhisattva in Ihe Chinese Sa'11yuklu-rolnap;r
2!ifi
DI:DDIlIST
~I;Cl'S
IX I:
the anutptH/ika dharmukf(inli (faith in the non.origination of all dnarmas)l, a dogm:1 {' h :lrll(' teri ~ lic of Mahayanism. It may be a development of the Hinayanic K.farajiiiina ,l (ef::ldication of asrn· vas) and Anutpad:l.ji'iana (non.origin) and hence non·rebirth, but it bore a completely different sen~e in the Mahayana scriptufO:s. The referenc~ to the exi51ence 0 :'[\ class of monks called Bodhisalivas at the timco of K rll~i ~b'~ Council is also significant. for the DjJ'yol'Qr/iina spt':lh of the existence of a cb\ss of monks called BodhisallI'ajiilikn along w ilh a hinl that they were not look. ed upon with favour by the Hinayftni~ts.' Taranatha exprcossts his difficulty in accounting for the exi stence of mon ks called Bodhisattvasin the KalJ i~ka n Council. He tells us further that about the time of Ka Qi~ka , the BrahmllQa K ullka of SaUra~!ra invited the Sthavira Arahantll N:md:l, a nalive of Anga, who had comprehen· ded the Mahayana tcoaching. in Moer to hear from him the new tcaching.- The o nly point thaI ciesl'rves notice is the use of the appellations, Aral1anta and Sthavim. indicating that Nanda W:lS a Hinnyanist monk, who had comprehended the MahayilDa tcach · ing. The remark 01 T aranath:1 that Ihe monks who had attained anutpnttikndharmak~nti preached a lso Mahayana, shows there WiU u class of HiM)"U na monks, who hnd heen propai,lating the Mahayana teaching.i T hen the a.socirltions of OQiviSa with the beginning o f Mahayana teaching and that of the monk Nanda with Anga suggest that the origin ofM:lhflyfina ,hould be lookcd for somcwhere in the east. A p..1.ssuge occurring in all the Pra· jliiipiiramirih, partially lends support to the Matement of Tara· natha. In this pas.agc it is stated thai M;Ihflyilna teaching would originatc in the south ( Dak~iQapatha ) . p:ls. to the eastern count· ries (Yarlnnyiim),1 and pros~r in the no nh . Evidently, the
I. T,ira .. p. 61. See M Vr . J1. Jfi3c .. WII/{U .. p 8t; A gIJ .. p. JJt ; nn IllpAdajill!.na·klan lika bodhisallva. 2. For Alllllpl!.daj"'ana and Ksayajnana, sec Kokl, VI, 17, 71. The K ~yajiiana \\ ith thc Anutplidajnarla produces Rodhl; see al;o Ko-ia. ~i. ~; \ii,l, 46, 7. ~ec abQve, pp. t'9·~1. J. Dj~J.u., p.2ul.
4.
TUfa. p. 62.
l PcrhOIlS Asval:ho~a. autho; of Ih: Bllddhacari!a. an d th e Smdd!wlpiit/a·siltr(J. belonged 10 Ihis CllSS of Hinay ana monki. 6. A.'!IJ .• p. 225. For Vartanyjm. q'C Tril.;ulI4I1jf.'~, 2. 1. 12.
El'lLQGJE
257
statement of the Prajliapilramittl was wrillell while the work was composed in {he nonh arler the Mahiiyam. teaelling had l;n;n effectively propagated {here. Tliis ~tah;lIJcnt may be ~ubs la n tiated by pointing {O the Tib~tall tratlit iull about the exislenc.:: of a Prajliliptiramfta in the Prilk !t dialect bdollgillg to the Saila schools, the centre of whidl was ill the south (Ollntllr District). Very probably, tllis Prujl7iipiIrami/rl contained the rudiments of Mahayana teal,;hillg. Then t..lle shifting of tile c~ntre of Mahayana to the easl is hiuled at by T<:S M:CLll to be fi~til iou~; $0J11(; of the name< are :-S'igaramukha, S1Saraniima Latiklpatha, Vajr.lpuranima Dravida-paI13na, Vanavii~i, Milasphuranam nama JambudvipaSir.am. POlalaka ithe dwelling place of Avalokile;:vara). and DVarava!i.. 4. The northern coulltries visited b) Sudhana ar~ : Ilodhima!)Qa and
Kapilavastu.
258
BVDDHIST SECTS IN INDIA
kalpa; also Dhanyaka~aka, 5riparvata, and a few other places of the Dak~ilJapatha are mentioned, showing the prevalence of Buddhism there. Niigarjuna, whose birth-place was in Vidarbha (BerarV also dwelt in the south, passing his last days at 5ripa rvata (mod. 5ri5ailarn).3 Aryadeva likewise came from Southern India, as did Naga,4 the Olher disciple of Nagarjuna. It appears Iherefore that the SQuth may claim credit for being not only the place of origin of Mahayana but also of some of the notable figures, who were instrumenfal in making Mahayana what it was in the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D. The dales of Aryadeva and Naga are placed in the early part of the 3rd ..:cntury (200-225), and, Nagarjuna precedes them by a few decades. s The glory of Nagarjuna and his school of philosophy threw into shade the great figure of Maitreya, the traditional founder of the Yogacara school, until the time of Asanga, who brought his works into prominence and placed this school of philosoplly on a high pedestaL NATURE OF THE -CONTENTS OF EARLY MAHAYANA WORKS
The first two centuries of the Christian era witnessed a conflict between Hinayana and Mahayana as well as the systematization of the Mahayana doctrines. The works, which depict (in onesided fashion, it must be admitted) Ihis struggle, are, I'iz., the PrajfiiJpiiramita.s, Soddha'mapu1J~arfka, Laflkiil'(}.fiira, Dasahilumika.sulra and Gd1J(IaVYUha were ver~' probably the products of
Maiijusrin/li/ak aJpa (Tfivandrum Sanskri t Series), p. 88. in Z . fur Buddhismus '.Muni,h), I, DD.9.'itf. )_ Nii.garj ulla.'~ "ame is c1o~c1 y ~ss,-",jal"'u ... ilh Dhillly~k~!aka, Hcar which ar.:: Sriparvala and Nflg!iTjunikOI,lQa ("'eslof Palnad Tuluk); for delails sec Burgess. Sfiij/tls of Amariivat( DD. 5. Ii, 112; Annual Re,?ort of Soulh indian Epigraphy, 1926-7, p. 7\. 4. N~gii.hvaya in ullikii., p . 2:;;6 ; see Vaidya's Call1(zJatikii IlIIrrJ., PD. 22, 51; WOlSSJljew, op. cil., p. 130·; \,id}lbItQ~ana's Logi~ (1st cd.), D. 71. ~. Prof. Wallesa- liJinks il should be Ihe beginn ing of the 2nd cenury ~'" z. fur Buddhism"s (6 Jahr.llllng, Schlllss Hefl), p . 242; i-tsinx. p. Ivii ; Nall:arjuna, ASvailhosa, and Aryade~·a ar" reaarderl II~ conlemporarie~ of I.
2. Wal1eser, Die Lebells:eit de"f NagiirjlllUl
Kal)i ~ ka,
1>PILOGUE
259
this period, but tvidtnces are stili lacking as to the exact dates of composition of these works. The only clue is supplied by tht dates of their Chinese translations, but these are to be reiarded .as the latest limits of the time of their composition.1 In the absence of any definite data about the earliest limit. one can lake jnlo consideration the nature of their contents, indicating a time when the Mahflyanists were trying to belittle the Hinayanists. The Prajiiiipiiramiliis are full of Hinayanic technical expressions and phraseology and show how the position of the Hinayanists is untenable, how thty are dellid~ by the superficialities of their religion. and how insignificant is their knowledge in comparison with that of a Bodhisattva practising the prajiiapiiramita. The Saddharma-pur;ujarfka applies itself to the task of proving ~hat the Hina}anists are of poor intellect, but they can still make progress in religious matters, ultimately turning to Mahayana .and comprehending the truth. The Gal)(/avyuha essayS to depict Ihe great struggles of a Bodhisattva-struggles which are beyond the capacity of the Hinayanists - in order to learn the Samantabhadra bodhisattvacarya. Sudhana visits many Bodhisattva!i, bhik~us, bh i k~ul)iS, upasakas and upasik:is versed in certain JlOr~ tion oftheCary:i,and acquires the same from them. The DaJahhiimikastl1ra, as the title indicates, describes the practices connected with the bhumis. the gradual stages of a bodhisattva's ~anct ifica tion. It also never misses an opportunity toattack the Hinayanists. and to show how the last four bhiimis of Ihe BodhisatlvllS are Da~ of tile Chinese lranslalions : or the Pro}lIiipiiranriID:t, the earl!est v(nion translated was Ihe })aJtJsii}o.asrikii. "hid>, huwever, has no Sanskrit ori,lnal. It was Iransl:ued
I.
( I)
bct\\eeo 2~ ~ nd 220 A.C. ; the P<Jii"(l";'rlJ(llisiihasrikii and the .futarii!tasrlkii abnul t'i~9 . ... .n
bctwc<:u 265 lIud J 16
A.D.
(Ii)
by
The SuddkJ.rll'.oPIII,lt/4rika ....-as translated between 265 and 316 A.D. and bclW1:Cn 384 and 417 .... 0. by Kumarajiva . for ils
Dharmarak~,
viUiQu~ V\:rsions, see Hoern!e, Montlscript RunnillS. I.'(c .; J .R.AS.• 1927, PD . .2S2ff.; Feer. AnI/tiles J" h-'usfe Guimet. II, p. 342; As. Rf's .• XX. D. 436; Wassiijew. nu"'dhismus, p. lSI. (iii) The J...arikii~a1iirQ wu translated b)' Gu~abml.dra (>1>13 ... .c.) :lnd Bodhiruci (SS). See &ute", Budtihisl. IV, I). 99. {IV) The DaJahhiimikrlSll:ra was Iranslaled by Dh.1 r m.1rak~a (~97 A.C.) and by KumQrajlva (j84-417). S~e RaMer's Intro. 10 th~ Du5a. (v> The GU1J{lavyUlu:J was lransllled belween 311 and 420 .... c.
260
I1UOOH!:5T SECTS IN INor,..
wholly beyond the capacity of the ~r:hakas. The Ll1Iikiimtnm, though one of the latest books of this group to be transla terl intn Chinese, contains an e.'lposition of the carly Yo gacara system and harps thro ughout on the theme, viz., how the H inay:i.ni~t.~ are concerned only with sV:1s5.m:iny3.l!\k~al;la (particular anrl generic char.:lctcristics of objects) and arc ignorant of the non-existence of all objects. The Mahii-)'unn works thai immediatdy follow are those of Niigarjuna, ASlllign, ,\ryndeva, Vas ubandhu, etc. Though t he main object of Nagarjuna's Kdrikii is to establish the thesis tha t things are relatively existent, nnd that the truth is one and realizahle only within one's own self, he takes up the dogma of the Hinayanic schools and tries to prove its hollowness from the new stann_ poillt set up by him. AsclIiga, though of a much later d ate, nnt allow the Hinayanic doctrines to pass unnoticed. He shows ill his Stitriiltlfikara tile inferiority of the H inayanists in ment:ll \:alib..e and their unfitness to comprehend the truth. Vasubandhll li\.::ewise: ill his ViJfiaptimiirrarasiddhi pointedly indicates how the Htnayanists labour under misconceptions, complete eradicatioll ur whieh is the aim of the Mahayanists. Thus it is seen thilt though most of the work ! mentioned above belong to a time posterior to the appearance of Mahayana, the y present materials illustrative of the conflict for llseendancy that was going on between the H inayanists and the M nhayanists. Qne remarkable feature, however, of the criticisms contained in these Mahiiyiinic works against the Hinayanists is that they UU 1I0t attempt to distort the position of the Hinayanists in onkr to ta\.::e advantage. The statements made in them with regard tu the H inayanists are mostly borne out by the earlier and later H loayiina Work5. lI enee, instead of distorting thei r real positiulJ, tlley throw a flood of light on t he Hina}anie doctrines. T he Mahayanist! found fault with the HinayanislS. not because they fai led to comprehend the real te:lchings of Buddha but because the y looked upon as truth that which appe:treu tu the Mahayanists as o nly partial truth.
APPENDIX HlL;E.,.,< TSA:\G 0:< THE
D1~PElt,IO:-;
OF BUDDHIST
SEerS IN INDIA
Hiu~n Tsang (henceforth ubbre'.. iuted as HT.) rema r ks in his introduction to the account of the state of Buddhism in India that Buddhism at his time, i.e., in the 7th century A.D., was pure or diluted according to the spiritual insight and mental capacity of its adhercnt5. The first split in the sangha took pl~ce at Vais;'ili betwcen th: Sthav:ras and Mahiisanghikas. Both recognized the t1rcc Pit~\kas. The Mahiisanghikas, however, nddcd the fourth Pi!"aka known as the VyakaruQa (prophesies of Buddha) (W.L 103-6).1 The tenets of these sects kept them apMt and became thc ~ubjcct-matter of controversies among the siistrn-mntters of diffhent sects. Eaeh sect clnimed to have intellectual superiority. There were "many noisy discussions," but sid..: by side thcre werc also monks "sitting in 5ilent reveries" ("li~ idGi/G), strolling to and fro (calikrall1a) usually while circumambulating a stupa or tem~k, standing still ({hal/a) or laying do"n (Sa)"G/la). After .:>ueh general remarks IlT. procced~d to Sive an accoul:t cf the state of t he religion in different places, where he call1i: acro~s its adherents, menticming the number of monks lind monasteries, as well as the sects, to which they belonged. A brief s)nopsis is being presented here as per the peregrinations of the pl\grim within lndia. The fi rst country visited by HT. ill Iodia wa~Ud)iio" (-UjjanJ) in S\\a! valky, l:orn~~puudillg to the four districts of P.lnjkora, Bij.twar, Swat allu BUlli!, ~itua ted on thl.' north of Peshd.war (p;]fJshawar ) (C. 194). The pt:vplc of this
I. For distnbUlIJn 01 sects on the basis of inscriptions so far discovered, "cc above, pp. SilT. 2. Abbrcviati"ns used in this 3eeour.l are :IS follows: HT.- Hiucll Tsang. T he Da~e Ilurr.bers indicated are frum Waiters' Yua n C.lwang, I nnd II.
262
8 11 n n H IST SECTS I N I ND rA
place held Buddhism in high esteem and were reverential believers in Mahaya na. T herl! were fo rmerly 140 monas teries with 18,000 mo nks. All these were in ruins and the number of monh was few. Fa-hien writes that though the y weTe Mahaya.nists, they fo llowed the Hinayii na Vinaya rules. HT. remarks that the monks could recite texts, but they did not comprehend thedeeper meaning o f the same. AI this place there were 4 or S hamlets. one of which was known a s Mang· kil. About 200 Ii from Mang-kil there was the Mah avana monaste ry; not far from th is monastery was the Rohitaka sliipa. At this place HT. came across five redactions of the Vinaya Pi!aka, belonging Ie) the five sects, viz .. Dharmaguplaka, Mahi sasa ka, K:isyapiya. S:.rviisti v;\da and Mahasanghika. (W. L 226 f.). D~ rel J the ancient capi tal 0 : Ud y;ina ·government. It ha~ been identified by Cunni ngham (p. 95) with the country of the D ards. rn the valley, an im'l.ge of Ava loki tesvara was erected at t he instance nf the m issionary Madhyantika. After the erection of lhis image, Buddhism became popular. C unningham writes that the image of Buddha erected here was colossal. 8oI0r, flbout 83 miles across the Indus. Cunningham identi fies it with Ralti or Little Ti bet (C.96).1 HT. records thai there w~re several monasteries and monk s, who were without learni ng. and ca reless ;l hout the observance of the Sangha-rules. Tak!jllsi li, (modern Taxila in Pa kistan), Its bounda ries were as foUo ws : in the north Ucasi, in the east the Jhelum; in the soulh Sill'lhapu!'a, and in the weit the Indu:;. The city has been idC'nt ifien hy Cunningham with the ruins near Shah-dheri ( _ Royal Residence). 12 mile : nortb- west of R awalpindi (C, 120; NOles. 681). H ere have been found, among o ther objects, traces of al leasl 55 ~ t upas. 28 monasteries. 9 temples, a copper-plate inscribed with the name 'Tahd ila' and a vase wit h Kharo~!hi inscription . (For fu rther dttails, see Sir J ohn Marshall's Guide to Taxila .) HT. refers to Santa ra k$ita and the Sautnintika teacher Kllmi rai:"lbdha, who dw~lt here formerl y. HT. visileci this country twice, once in 630 A.D. when he came I. C. lndicalc:>C ... rmil\ghaLll'~ AI/ci~,,' Gro&rQplr)" of lndr'4 with Intro _ duct ion and Not
innicate pae:c·numbcrs.
/ .P I'ENOI X
263
to this country and again in 645 A. D. on his return journey. He saw n umero us m onasteries but all in rui ns. T he few mo nks he saw were all Mahayanists. The people were adherents of Buddhism. Emperor ASoka sent here Ilis son KUl),a la fo r quelling distu rbances and res toring peace to the regio n. The prince, however, was blinded through the machinations of his stepmother Ti ~yar3 k ,i tii.. H is eyes were restored later by arhat Gho ~a. who was a physician a nd an occultist (vide illl'}'ol'adana, XXV II). Thtre is a tradition that the ruler of Ta k ~asi la was exceedingly rich, having nine crores of gold and silver coins (C. [2). He "'as a contemporary of King Bimbisa ra, who invited him to meet Buddha. H e came and took ordination as a monk, but unfortuna tely qn his way back, he met with an acciden t and [m t his life (Dil'yal'oduflo, XXV I) . He donated his vast wealth for th e construction of SlrlpaS over Buddha's relics to be distributed later by Emperor Asoka (W.!. 243). Simbapurl . From Ta k Ja~i la HT. travelled so uth-east about 117 miles to reach thi j place. This cou ntry was a depe ndency of Kashmir. Cunningham (p. 142) ident ifies its capital wit II Ketas, situ ated on the no rth side of the S[lit Range. Near the south of the capi tal there was an ASoka stupa known as the Mill.l ikyala stupa, commemo rating the sacrifice of his body by the Hod hisativa (i.e . in one of t he previous lives of Buddha) to save the life of a tigress. Near this stupa there was a monastery but it was deserted. HT. saw here Svelambara I a ina monks. He no ticed one monastery, in which there were abo ut 100 monk s, who were all Mahayanists. From this place HT. proceeded about 8 miles eastward to an isolated hill where also was a monastery with abolll 200 monks, who were also Mahayan ist). Kashmir. On his way from Shnhapura to K ashmir HT. came across several mO:13steries. At Hu ~ka ra - v ihara he spent the night. H e was welcomed by tile king of the p lace. He lodged for one night in Jayendra-vihara (W.1. 259). The king gave him 20 clerk s to copy the manuscripts. HT. remained there for two years and de\ o ted his time to the study of the Sul ras and sastras. Kashm ir was variously kno wn as Kapi" Nagar, Gandha ra. and Ud}'un a. K apis (or Kipin) was fo rmerly occupied by the Sa kas.
264
BLiODIlIST SEGTl' 1:\ INDIA
~~i
Rcvata or Ka lvataka waS converted here to Buddhism
(W.!. 200). HT. refers to MaJhya ndir.a, a disciple of Ananda. the missionary sent to this country after the Third Buddhist Council held at Pfl\ahputra. HT. saw there 100 monasteries and 5,000 m onks. On his way he crossed Uskara and Baramuh ( - VarO,ha·mula-pura). Along wita Madhyimdma went 500 Arhats and jOO ordi nary monks. Among the i:mer was one called \1al1iicleva of great learning and a subtle investigator of /!lima and riipa (-mi nd and matter). He was the son of a Briihmatlu me rchant of Matt ura (\\I .1.21':8). He cornl1itteo the iillontarl),a (deadly) sir-so It is eVIdent that he was nl'staken for the Mubiidc"a whe brought about the spli t in t he Sangha in the Second Buddhist Council (l'ide abo ve, p. 22). T here was alia ano ther Ma h:i.deva, wilo preachcd the D('\adutasut~a and was an influential abbot of Pa!a hputra (W.J 261). The outstanding event Ih nt tC"Iflk pbce in Kashmir \\as the session of the Fourth Rll Oclhi<;t Coulleil under the :Iu~pi~'cli of Em peror Kar)i$ka in the 400,h y~"'i after Buddha's mah:"i.p:l.rinirvana. The emperor W;l, fM 1.zled by the different interprcuti"f)s given by his spiritual !(';"ie-hers while he was studying the Buddhist texts. and so he w;J ntecl that the main object of thi s Cou ncil should be to record til!' variom interpre tations given of Buddha' s words by the tea::her<; o f di ffer,:-nt sects. It W1S It Arh:lt Piirs\a'& advice tha ll h~ Fmperor de<:-ided to ho:d the Council (W.l. 271). liT. fa uno ill this country cnc momstery with 300 monks, but no mention is made of their ~ect. In one mo nastery hc saw the: image of Bodhisattva Ava10kite~var:l . H e refe red to A!;:
265 Riijapura ( _ Ruiaor i, south of Kashmir). HT. travelled 67 miles south-east from Kashmir to reach this place. It was bounded on the north hy the Pir Paneha! range. on the west by
Punach, on the south hy Bhimbar and on the east by Rihan
and Aknur (c. 149). HT. saw here 10 monasteries with a few n:onks. No sect is mentioned (W.I. 284). S~kala ( ~ Sanealawa1a T iba; C.212_Sagala of the Mili,/{faptJIiha). CunningiLlffi traces (i) a modern town in the n:idst of the fuins , (ii) a WI]'(1 of ASoka. one mile to the north\\.'("51 of tl~e monastery inside the town. The low ridges of a rock have been idelllified hy Cunningham with Munuapapura. which is still known a ~ tht;' land of the Madras. HY. record s t ll at it was the capita l a i' King Mihirakula. It was also kOGwn as the Vona muntry. Thi~ king wanted to study the Buddhist scriptlLres and requested the monks to depute a learned monk. but unfortunately the monks sdected a Sramana, who was an :1 ltendant of the monks. For this, the king felt insulted, got cnr:1gcd and became defermined to cXlerminat~ Buddhism from his n~alm. At this time Bfthiditya, a Gupta ruler and a zealous advoc:lte of Rllddhism, rebelled against him anti made him a pri~() n er, hltt:11 t hl' request of h ' ~ mothcr, he was released, but Mihi ra\;lll~ W:l~ l:lte r murdered by his hrother, who then occupi ~d the throne, W;tS .1Iso!l pep;ccntor of Ruddhism (W.I. 289). From Rftjapma, HT. proceeded ~outh-cast 10 T a kka (Cheh-n.1 "", Tfiki or the Punjah hetween Vi pasa on t he cast and thc lndll~ on the \Ve~t) ACcoflting to Cunningham (p. 219,. it w~s then the c:lpilal of the Punjah. It is 19 miles in direct line f rom Silbla. Its .:ntiguity is provect hy Ihe find of a large numher of Tnilo-Scythian coim :It t hi~ site. Tt~ hi~!ory therefore go." hack to thl' 1st c~ntltry AD. HT. fottnct I'crc iO monnstc ries with only a few bcli~vers in Budd 'lj<;m (W.T. no). From Chl~h-na (Takka) HT. proceeded 10 Chinapati.!ihumi or China_Bhuk t i identi fier! by lunllinrh2m (p. nO) with Patti. This place mlS <elected hy Emp ~ ror J{:\t)i~ka for the reside!lCe of his rhinc<;e hmf;lres, 10 whom. accmding to th~ Chinese co mmentator of HT.'s life, h~ gave good trealmcn1. HT. re('ords that there were 10 monasterie~ but he doe~ not mention tl·c numhcr of monks living nor t!J~ir sect. The Chine,c commentator of HT.'s life therein
266
lIUDDH1ST
~~CTS
IN INDIA
furni~h~s u .~ with the information that the re was one mOUl'litery known a~ T os:hana (_ rleasure-givin g seat), in which dwelt the Sastra-ma.~'er Vinitaprahllll, who wrote commentarie!O on the Ahhidharma lexl.s. HT. stayed with him for 14 months to study the Ahhidharma treatises (W.T. 291)_ From the capital of Chinapati_hhtimi HT. went sOlllh-ea.~t about RO miles. Tn HT.'" life the distrmce is said to he only 8: miles and reached. Tlmaslh"ana. H was an isolMed independent establishment. In the Dhyiil'adii!1lI (p. 399) it is s2.id to be the name of a monrtstery 11lso. This monastery had 300 monks of the Suvastivada sect. The monks observed the monastic rll les strictly. The sastra_master K:'ityayanipulta co mposed here the Jiiiinapras!hiina.siilra. (W.L 294). From Tamasavana monastery HT. proceeded to Jiiludhar:1, identified by C unn ingham (p. 156) with Kangra. It was the name of a city as wel! as of the district. A former King of Mid-India Wu-ti ( - Udita) met an Ar hat and appreciat~d Buddhism. He gave the Arhat sole control of matters relating to monks with.out any di,tinction. He travelled all over India and erected Sfl"ipas and monasteries at all the sacred place;;. HT. found here 20 monasteries with 1,000 monks, who were either Hinayanists or Mahayanists but the number of Hinayanists was few . There was one monastery called Nagaradhana where HT. studied Abhidharma with Aciirya Cand ravarma (W.1. 266-7) . Cunningham (p. 129) ad ds that here an inscription, said to be of 801 A.O., has been found, mentioning the name of the king of this place as Jayn Malia Candra. From Hlandham, HT. proceeded to Ku-I..o-To identified by Cunningham (p. 162) with KuBu in the upper valley of the Bias. HT. found here an Asoka stupa and 20 monasteries with 1,000 monks mostly Mahayanist~, a few being H inayiinists (W.I. 298). Satadru (Shc-to-t'u-lo). F rom Ku-lo-to HT. travelled south over a high mountain and acro ~3 a river for more than 116 miles to reach this place. Cunnin!!ham (pp. 166-7) identifies the place with Sar-hind (- Frontier of Hind) oe~ u picd later by Sairindhfls of Sirind, i.e., Sar-hind . Satadru wns bounded by
267
rhe Sutlez on the we~t and north and T ihara to Ambala o n the !'>Duth and from Ambala to Simla on the e'dSt. HT. found here 10 monasteries with a few monks (W.I. 299). HT. proceeded from Satadru to Pliri yiitra ( = 8 :lirat). the capital of MalSya. The present town is 105 mile~ south-east of Delhi and 41 miles to the north of J aipuT (c. 3[)!). HT. found here S monasteries with a few Hinayana monks (WJ. 300). Hr. Ihen procet>dNi from Bairat to Mathuri. This famous city was the ca pital of a large kingdom . lying between the distriCts o f B:.i rat and Ammji. eXtend ing beyond Agra as far as Narw:u and Seopllri on the south and the Sind hu river on the west. It induded the present dislriets of Mathura with the smaH states o f Bh::uatpur, I( hir:1oli a nd Dholpur, and the northern half of the Gwalior territory (C. 427·8). HT. found here: 20 monasteries of both H inayana and Mahayana schools. FJ.-hien (pp. 44, 46) saw here 3f) monasteries with 3,000 monks, 4 stupes of past Buddhas. and o ne stiipa eaeh fo r Sariputca, Mudgahl.putra. Pucl)a Maitr.iyalJi. putra, Upii li. A na nda and Rohula and one hill ·mound of Upugupla. The site of Upaguplu monastery was U ru· or RurumUI)~a hill. The monastcry WIlS built by two brothers, Naja and Bha~a, whieh is, why it was also called Nu!a-bh3.!3.-vihara. Upaguptn had u great success as a mi ssionary (W .!. 307). Growsc irlcnlified the Upagupta·vihiim with Yusa-vihara in the Kank ali · ~i lii. .
HT. saw here 20 monasteries with 200 monks, who were all diligent students of both Hinayana and Mahayana (W.r. 30 1) . He refers to Fa-hien's account of the stupas of the past Buddhas and the noted d isciples of Gautama Buddha. He a lso noticed that the worship of t he stupns was cont inued liS it was in Fa· hien's time. He refers to the cave-monastery where a monke)' offered honey to Buddha. 1 1. C. (376) writes that HT. rerecred 10 the large provinces of Ctnlrl!
India. but he
not tollow Ihc
C . prefer~ 10 deal witiJ "II tlu;: order :
dl t!"er~ nL dlfCCIIOnjsys:.:nutic:tIl!·.
pl~",es
of
C~n ' ra l
Hence
India in the r"llewing [ !:ontd.
268
BU:>DlUST SECTS IN !NOlA
S lhalle~\'Ara . Its northern bo undar) may be takcn as a stra ieht line drawn from Hari-ka·pltan to Muzaff:u nagar near th ~ Gange~, 3nd its southern boundary is an irregular lill~ drawn from Pak-pat:lO on the Sutlez, "io. Bhat nc r
Klpitthl (Scn-ka.she-SaflkilsY
I\latipura <... r\'b d~w :lf -CO 399, 40:), a smu ll distric t beh\,:cn the GJnge~ and the R:imgail£a ri ler. There ",ere iO inOlHsterirs Wilh ROO S;Irvasti\'adins. GUI}:\prnbha, nul he r of
J.
Sthnnes\,ara 2.
6. G ovi>;\Oa 11. 16. 2 1. 26,
Kall3uj
3. Srughu'l 4. l\Iad~,\~r !. Drahm~puru 8_ P,los:lna 9. Sa'lkisa 10. Mathur3 D. Hayamu kha j·t Pra>'~g3 I S. Kau';iimbi
B~ ir;\l
7. A lu;,x:h3tra
I!. A)'uto 17. Vaisukha 18 . SrAva>ti 19. Ka pila 20, K u';ln~i:lIra \:'\r:UI3)i 22. Yodh.'r,,'ip~tr~ ~3. "fiji 24 Nep~ ] :!S. Masa'U-.n Hir;ln}a P~f\ata 27. Ca:np:!. 28. K:'\ n ~jol 29. PurHJra,_mlh""a
KU ~~rllra
.10, Jaj hOli 31. l\l ahc;\' ~rajlliu 32 Ujjo.in 33, l\l ~lwJ. 34, K hc(]a or Kil allu J~. Ananlbp ura 36. \'all ad or £(]cr. (T~is serial IIs l lS na doubt "aluable for forming J corre-ct ,ie\\ of the: ancient Gccgrap],) of In<.lia, but as our object IS (0 pre;t:ul HT:s a.;:~'()unt of lht ~l~IC or I!uddhi,m in Cenlr.. India. "~lla\,, lU rclllow Waller<,' ) uan CI-I\ang. l. M
APPENDIX
269
the Taltla-siddhi-fastra or 1attl'a-fQlidesa-s!itra whIch drab WIth Sarvaslivilda doctrmes. dwelt here. He did not show reverence to MaitreY:l liodlllSC!uva (W.1. 323,325). His contemporary was Devasena. Bumouf thinks tha t GU1)aprabha was also known as GUE:lamati, teacher of Vasumi tr::t of the Abflidharma_ kosavyiikh),a, who had a dispute with a Sankhya teacher, Sanghabhadm, the Kashmirian Vajbh;l.~i);a te~.cher, died here. Another contemporary of Sarpghabhadra was Yasuband hu, de voted to mystic doctrines, evidently beCause he \\as also Ihe author of the ViJllapti·miUrata·sidd/rl of the YogacaTl school (W. I 322-4).
BnhlflltVllra (uear Matipura). Its ano ther U<JIllt: v. itS Bani.!·pagana or LakkhaQapura and it \\a5 situated i.lJlJiJ~t the hills, north·east of Haridviira (CA DS). There were 5 mlJJlit ~te ri es but with few monk5 (W.I. 329). Abiccbatra, capita! of West Paik:ila n~ar Ramgarh in Rohilkh and (C.416) . There were 10 monasteries with 1,000 Sammitiya monh. (W.I. 3J2). Virisana (Bhilsana) (C4l7), S miles to the no rt h of Etah.
Buddha delivered here the Skand ha·dh;ltu.sth:ina Slim). T here were 2 monasteries with 2.000 Ma hi'lyiina monk<;. (W.I 332). Kiinyakubja (Kanauj) (c. 430·43). At the lime of 1-IT's visit the reigning king was Har ~ avurdhana with his capital a t this place. He was a patron of Buddhism . There were 100 monasteries with 1.000 Hinayana and Mah3.y.j na monks. In Fahien's time there were only 2 monasleri:=os. It is therefore appare nt that after Fa-hien's time the re was a great increase in the popula rity of Buddhism. H aqa reigned for 30 )ears and held quinquennial assemblies of Bud dh i ~t monks. There were 3 monasteries with 5,000 Sarvastivflda monks (W.1. 343·8). Govisana (or Kashipur). On its north was Bmhmapura, on the west Madawar and on the south and east Ahicehatra, It corresponded to the modern districts of Kashipur, R:l mpur and Pilbhit. (C.411·2). There wen~ 2 monasteries with 100 H inayana mo nk s (W.1. 330·1).
270
BUDDHlST sECTS IN '/IODIA
Srugbna ( _ Sugh). It is 50 miles fro m Sthandvara, wherefrom 1-11'. reached this place. (C.394). There ·",'ere 5 monasteries and about l ,lXlO monks, the majority of whom were Hina)'fmists. The monks were learned and lucid expounders of abstract doctrines. Many mon ks came to them for havin g their doubts resolved by them. (W.!. ::JIK,. ~a,· ade,· ali.Ula (at present Nohbatganj) on the eastern bank of the Ganges (C.43S). HT. travelled about 16 miles sou th-east from Sr ughna to reach this place. There he ;;aw 3 monasteries with 500 Sarvastivada monks. These were enclosed within a wall with separate gat~s for each vihara(W.l. 352, 361). It was 20 miles south-east of Kanauj . Ayodbyii . From Navadevakula HT. travelled about 100 miles and crossed the Ganges to the south to reach Ayodhya. C . (p. 438) furn ishes us with the following information: "From Kanauj the two Chinese pilgrims followe d different routes, Fa-hien having proceeded direct to Sha-chi (Ayodhya, near Fyzabad on the Ghagra) while HT. followed the course of the Ganges and proceeded 21 miles to the south to the forest of Holi, where were several ;;tupas erected on spots where Buddha had taken his seat. T here were 100 monasteries with 3,000 Hinayana and Mahayana monks. Here, in an old monastery resided Asatiga, who composed the Yogawryiibhumi-§tistra a lso known as the Saptadasa-bMimi-s(istra as also the SUfriilmikiirajikJ and Madhyiillfavibhiiga-! ikii (edited partiaHy by Prof. Vidhusekhar Saslri) and fully by the Japanese scholars." Asanga at firs t was a follower of the MahiSasaka school; his brother Vasubandhu joined tbe San'astivida (later Vaibha~ika) school. His third brother was BUddhasif!1ha. Asanga became a Mahayanic Yogaciirin and comerted Vasubandhl.l to that ,chao!' Vasubandhu developed the Yogicara philosophy funher and started the Viji'iaptimatrata philosophy. Th is change took place when Vasubandhu heard the Dasahllllmikasiitra from a student of Asaitga. Ha}'amukha, north of Ayod hya acruss the Ganges. C. (p. 444) prefen. Tod's identification with Baiswara bounded by the Ghagra river on the nvrth
271
.:luthor of the MlJluj'I'ibhiisii-fiistra but the C hinese pilgrims do not mention hi~ name (W .!. 359). Prayiiga (Allahabad) at the junction of the two rivers. Jumna and the Ganges. HT. saw here only two monasteries with few monk.... He refers to Har~a vardhan:l and his quin-
quennial
~s se mblies
that were held here (W .1. 361).
Kausiimbi (village Kos3m, nea r Allahabad). C. (pp.448455) writes that it was one of the most celebrated pla~s in ancient India. It is mentioned in the Riimiiya~lO. T he story of King Udayana of Kau sambi is referred to in Kilid fts a's MeghtJdfHn . The distance from Prayaga to Kau simbi is 38 miles. The present ruins con;ist of a huge fortres s with an earthen rampart. HT. saw here 10 monasteries but these were mostly in mins. There resided, however, 300 Hinayima monks. Within the palace of the king there was a temple enshrin ing Buddha. Here in Gho ~ itarama formerly resided Vasubandhu, who compo!>ed the VijnaptimiitrofdsidJhi. It was translated in to Chinese by Gautama-praj naruci in 520 A. D. and then by Parama.rtha in 560 and the third by HT. in 661. This treatise refuted the existenct of both matter and mi nd. In other words, it en\' isa ge.~ the unreality of phenomena and consequently o f ~e nl>e·perception s. apart from the thinking principle, the e:crnal mind (vijiiaptimiitra) unmoved by changes and un soiled by efror (\V.I. 371). HT. remarks that at K ausiimbi BUddhism, as foretold by Sakyamuni. would ultimately cease 10 exist. Watters COmments On this remark that in the Maililnf(l)"ii-!uua, Buddha predicted t hat at the . end of 1500 yea rs after his demise, a bhiksu would kill an arhat and the disciples of the arhat would avenge it This trouble would bring about the end of the relii:i(lO at the time mentioned above. Kiisapura (Kusapura, C.456: Kajapura, Kusabhavana· pUra, named after Rama's son, later known as Sulta npur). It is surrounded on the three sides by the river Gomatf (Gumli) (C.459). HT. reached the place from Kausambi after crossing the Ganges. Here were the ruins of an old mOllastery, in which resided Acarya D harmapala, who defeated the h(retics in disputation. ViSoka (_ Visakha, Siiketa). The slor)" of Visakha is rela ted in Ihe Pali t(xts. She was the d aughter of the rich
272
UUDDH1ST
~PCTS
I" L'
Dhananjaya se\!hi. who h"d emigrated there from Rajagrha (C.462·3). Here were 20 monasteries with 3,000 Sammitiya monks. In O:lC monastery resided Devasarman, who lived to years after Buddha's demise ami wrote a trculise, denyin,l! both
ego and non·ego. There was here another arhat ca lled Gopa, who wrote a treatIse on the Sastra on the essential realities of Buddhism. lIftirming the existence of both ego and non-ego. The opposi te views of the two:e3chers led to bitter comro\'crsie,. This trea tise formed onc of the six padas of the Jliiillapra~tluilla. surra of Ihe S:uv:istJviidins or the Vaibhal)ikas. The SautfJ.n1ihs did not regard this text as canonical (W .1. 374). Srdl'lsti (Sflvatthi. at prescnt Set Mahet). It is 85 miles from Visoka, a sub-division of Uttar Kosala in Gonda district. The territory of Sriiv3sti comprised all the countries b~tween th~ Himalayus and the Ghagra river (C.474). 11 is o n~ of the most celebrated centres of Buddhism, as Gautama Buddha reSIded here for the 14th vassa (rainy seasoD ret reat) and subsequen tly lor all the vass~I S after the 19th vassaviisa (vide my EM H. ( 1941 ) I, p.145 fn.). Buddha exhibited here the miracle 01 an earthquake limited to a circle defined by him . (Cf. Gilgit M!lIlUSCripls, vol. Ill. p. 163: SravastyaQ1 mahapriiti haryam vldarlitaf)l bhavati). Her:: was Jetavan,i\'ihftra built by Anftthapll)Qika Senhi (W.1. 377.401 ). Kapilavaslu, the hirth-place of Gautama Buddha. It IS si tuated about 8; miles south-east from Sravasti. C. (p. 475) Identifies it with Nagar in the no rthern district of Oudh hl!yonci the Ghllgra river and therefore in Kosala. The monastcries were in ruins. Oaly in one monastery, however, there were 300 Sammitiya monks (W.l 1. I). Ramagrama was a famous place between Kapila v3Stu and KuSinag:lra, idemifit=d by C. (p. 482) with Dcokali. It is now in ruins (W.I1. 20f.). Kusinagara (Old. Kasia), the site of mahlparinibb£lna of liautama Buddha. II was a wild forest in HT.'s time (W. II. 261'). Varal.1asi. The people of this place were wealthy, wellbehaved and esteemed in learning. T he majority of the people believed in S:llvism, Vai~l.lavism, etc. There were many ascetics
practising austerities.
There was an Asoka sHipa, in front of
whIch was a polished gretn stone, clea r and lustrous like a
AI>1-'ENIllX
2i3
mirror, in which the reflection of Buddha could be constantly seen (W.II.4S). About two miles from here. there: was the Deer-park (mrpad:iya, Samath) \\ith a monastery, divided into eight sections and enclosed by a wall. There was also a temple of Buddha very high with eight niches, in which were placed images of Buddha. In the mon:tstery there were about 1500 monks of the Sammitiya school (W.H. 48) Yudtlhapati (Chua-chu) identified by C. (p. 503) witll Ghazipur. which was on the Ganges , about 50 miles to the east of Banaras. Here were about 10 m::>nasteries with I ,(){x) Hinayana monks (W.lI.59). V.Hali (\\'.11. 63). After crossing the Ga.ndak, HT. travelled abo ut 25 miles to reach VaiSali, identified by C. (p.507) with Besa4 (Raja Vis{ll-ki Garh), the reputed founder of Vaisali. Buddha visited the place and said, 'How beautiful. Ananda, is the hlOd of Vrjis.' The people of Vlisali were also known as the Licchavis. Here lived the famous danseuse, AmmpaiI, who bter on became a nun. r\ear the site, Vimalakirti wrote the Vimala-kfrtf-siitra (W.l1.65). The present name of Vaisali is Tirhut (Tirdbhukti, mentioned in a 12th century rns,). Tirhll\ i~ the ancient Vido:ha (C. 718). It was the site of the Second Buddhist Council. Here HT. found only one monastery with a few Sarnrnitiya monks. About lulf a mile to the north of tho: monastery Buddhl stopp.:d in his la,t journey to Kusin:l.gara, identifi~d by C. (I'. 4(3) with K::tsia near Gorakhpur. Syctapura, HT. travd!ed about 13 miles from V::tisali to reach this pl
o
274
BUODHIST SE(;TS IN ''' OIA
and some of them were eminent scholars of Buddhist literat ure. At HT.'s time it was a dependency of Tibet (W.l1. 83.85). C. (SI6-7) writes that the Raja of Nepal was a K$lltriya of the ATfI~uva rman race. Magadba . HT. returned from Nepal to Vaih.li and therefrom reached Kusu mapura, ancient caplial of Magadha. The capital was in ruins. At this t ime the new capital was p a.!aliputra, 'Palibothra' of the Greeks. (C. 516-20). While speaking of Magadha, t he scene of Buddha's early activities, the pilgrim became enthusiast ic and recounted several legends and episodes, many of which he must ha\'c learnt from the Chinese version of the DivyiifadCina. Some of these are: (i)
Legend of Moka's Hell. [n this Hell a Sramal)u was
taken fo r being put to death. The SramaQa sought a few moments' respite, within which he became an Arhat. When he was put in the cauldron placed over blazing fire, the fi re t urned into a pool of cool water with lo tus fl owers, on o ne of which the Arhat was found seated in composure (d. ml'yOl·adtina. p. 374f.). (ii) Erection of stupas by M oka on the relics of Buddha's earthly rema ins, in accordance with the advice of his spiritual adviser, Ven. Upagupta. (iii) Kukkuli rama monastery situated in the south-west of Pii!aliputra, in which a . large number of monks, includi ng PiQ~ ola Bharadviija, who is believed to have seen Buddha, were maintained b)' Asoka. (iv) Kapota-vihara with 200 Sarviistivada monks. (v) Tiloshaka or T iladaka monastery, a rendezvous of scholar-monks. There was a temple with an image of Budd ha. flanked by Avalokitehara on the right and the goddess Tara o n the left. The images were made of bronze. (vi) A monastery built in honour of Acarya Silabhadra. a scion of the royal family of Samata!a. The Acii.rya was very keen fo r learning and travelled over many countries throughout l ndia. At last, he was ordained by Dharmapala, a Mahayanist, and received the necessary instruction from him (W.11. 1(9). (vii) A temple with images of Bodhisattvas. Avalokitesvara a nd Maitreya. (viii) A monastery erected by king Biiliiditya's son at
2)5 N!iandil, where dwelt Acaryas Dharmapala. GUl)amati. Sthira· wati, Prabhamitra, J i n~mj[ra, Jinaca ndra, and Silabhadra. (it() A temple at Rodh-Gaya known as the Mahiibodhi Sangharama built by II king of Ceylon, in which resided 1,000 M ahaya nist Sthavira ITl()nks. HirlJ)yllplrvata ( = I-Ian-na-fo-to) identified by C, (p. 346) with the district o f Monghyr. I t was bounded on the north by the Ganges ; on the south by a forest-clad mOUniain a s fllr ns Parasnath Hill near the junctio n of the rivers BUTakar and Dnmodar. There were Iwn monasteries with J ,000 monks of the Sarvastivada school- There was a stupa of 5 rol)a Vimsaliko!i . :Here Yalr. ~a BaktJla was overcome by Buddha (W.ll. 178-9). Campi identified by C. (p. 477) with Bhagalpur, There were 10 monasteries with Hinayana monks. (W.l1. 181). KajaogaJa (or K ajughira. Ku-chu-wen-k 'i-Io) identified by C. (p. 548) with K anlcjol (modern Rajmahai). There were 6 o r 7 monasteries with ]00 monks (W. I!. 183), Pw,4ravardhAna (or Pa(lQravardhana) identified by C. (p. 549) with Pahna (Bengal) . There were 20 monasteries with 8,000 monks of both Hinayiina and Mahayana schools. In Poki-sha monasteries there 700 Mahayana monks. Here DiRambara Jainaswere numerous (W. II. 184).20 Ii to the west of the -<:apital there was a magnificent Buddhist establishment known U Po.shi-po. which had spacious halls and tall storeyed chambers. There were 700 monks of the Mahayana school (W . 11 . 184). From PUl}~ra"a rdh a na HT. travelled 150 miles across the ·river Brahmaputra to reach Kamrup. an extensive valley of the river together with KuSa-\·ihara. The valley was divided illtothree .d i s tricl~: Sadiya, Assam proper and Kamrup. According to C . .(p.572) Kamrup was included in Eastern India, which comprised the Del ta of the (Tanges, Sa mhalpur. Orissa a nd Ganjam. HT. divided the prm'ince inln !Oix kingdoms : KAmarupa, Sa mata~a. T.ii.mr::tlipti, Karl;"la (nr Kira l)a ) .suvau;aa, Odra(Orissa) and Ganjam. Th ~ order of HT .'~ arrangement will be followed in this account. KimarUpa (mod. Assa m). Its enlightened ruler al HT:s time was King Bhaskaravarman, who. though a Br.ii.hmaf,la, took jnterest in Buddhism and treated the accomplished S rama~as
,,,
B UDDH IST SECTS IN ) :-;' U! h
with due respect CW. 11. 18S 6). He invited HT. to pay a \'isit to his country. Samatala (Jes~ore). It comprised GauQadesa (Maida), Pan4ua ahd Maha ~t!Hi na . 7 mill's north of Bogf3. (C. 724). T!"cre were 30 mona;terie~ with 2,000 monks of the Sthavira school. The king was an cnlhusi:ntic adherent of Buddhism (W . II. 18 7). Tamralipli near fin inlet of the sea. It W:lS bounded on the wc"t hy tl"e Hong hly river; on the north by Bu rdwan ~ nd Kalna up tn the hank. of the Kasai river (C. 577-8). There were 10 mona~leries wllh more than 1,000 monks (n:> sect mentioned) (\V.II, 189), Karl"HI (Kira,:,a) Sllvarl}a. It lies to the north-west of Tamralipti and the same distance to the north-east of Orissa. A numher of tri~; like the Santhals lived there (C. 575-7). Here were 10 monasteries with 2,000 monks of the Snmmitiyn schJoL There were also t hree monasteries in which the fo Il ()w~rs of OevadaHa rcsi
APPENDIX
2i7
but a Buddhist in faith and was noted for benevolence. There were 100 monasteries with 10,000 MahayA.na monks. NiigArjuna resided here [Of some time. He was met here by Ven . Aryadeva o f Sil]lbaia. HT, refe rs to N:igarjuna's Epistle to kinK S 4tavAba na . available in Tibetan and translated into English by P rof. Wc:uze! in the JPTS. 1885. (W.II. p. 200, also p . 2(4). Audbra, south of Dak~iQ.a KoSaia. C. (pp. 603, 605) il.kutified it with modern Telingitta. There were 20 monasteries with 3,000 monks (sect not mentioned). It was the centre of the logician Diim1i.£3.. who was born in Sirh havaktra, a suburb of K anci in t he south. He jOined t he Vitsiputriya school. E)[pclled from the community by his teacher, he joined the SarvastiVlidll. school of Vas uband hu . He resided for foO me li mc in Bhora.saila in O rissa . Very often he resided in Adlfa monutcry in Ma h1i.ra ~!ra. He was a contemporary of the fnm ous poet Ka.lidii.sa. He composed the Arya Prnjiiiipiiramiliivivaral)o, translated into Tibetan by Triratnadasa. He gave up Hinnyiinisrn and devoted himself to the study of Mahayanism (W. II . 212, 214). Dhanakataka (_ Db aral} iko~a) where are the fa mous Amarivati and Jasgayyapeta stiipas. Ayalca Pillars at N Agarjunikol].9a were the girt ofkiog M:i4hariputa Siri Virapurisaciala ( _ Mi!hariputra Sri Vira puru~ad atta) of the lk~v itlc ll dyn!lsIy (Ep . Indica, XX. p. 2-3) of the 3rd or 4th century A.I). Tile subsidiary structures of the stiipa were made by Carpta siri. s i~te r of ki ng Siri Caiptamiila and later probably m other-in-law of kina Siri Virapurisadata' (See above p. 63). C. (p. 596) writes that Amaravati was about 70 miles south o f Rajamahc:ndri . There was a high mountain called Brabmagiri. from which King Satav:lhana hewed out a pavilion of five storeys fo r the re;.icience of Acarya Niigirjuna. Fa-hien also n oticed it and called it the Pigeon monastery. HT. states that monks o f this country were Mahisanghikas, whose Abhidharma treatises were ulJrlierl hy bim with two moo"'. whom he lD tum taught the Mahayana scriptures. He refers to the Piirvas.ailas And Aparaobilas, who formed one establishment. In this connection HT. refers to the: ~aMra -ma ster Bhavaviveka . mentioned by Candmki rti, the co mmentator of Nilg:1 rju na's Madhycmnka-kiirikii. He was a native of South
278
BUDDHIST SECTS IN INDli\.
India (Mulayagiri). H is disciples lived durini1 the period between Nagarjuna and Dinniga. Bhava·viveka is slid to be the author
of the Pr:ajiia-pradipa·$iistra and Tarka- MiNi . Schiefner restores the name Praj,jiipradipa-mii!ii-miidhyamika-rrtti (W.lI. 214- 24). Culiya (...,.... Cu!ya or Cola country). C, (p. 626) identifies it with Karnul district, which is no rt h-north-west of KAncipura and 100 mile;; to the west-south·west of Dharaniko!a. Tanjore was the capita! of the country. DriivlQa. Its capital was Kaiicipura (Conjeevaram) on the Palar fIVer (C. 626). It was a seaport of South India often used by the boats sailing to and from Ceylon. Here were 100 monasteries ",jth 10,000 monks of the Sthavira schoo l. It is the birthplace of Dharmapala, who wrote treatises on etymloilY, logic and metaphysic~ of Buddhism. HT. states that out of ~heer curiosity for learning the Brahmanic Yoga-sastras, he studied them but found that these were not of that high standard as he had heard them to be from Silabhadra. Durin\: the pilgrim's stay at Kancipura, about 300 monks arrived there from Ceylon, which co untry they quitted on account of political dist urbance consequent upon the death of the ruli ng king. On the basis of this information C. (p. 628) calculates t hat HT. mu ~ t have arrived at K:iiicipura about th 30th July. 639 A.D., as, accorrl ing to Turno ur's list of the kings of Ceylon, Raja Buna Mugalan was put to death in 632. (W.l1. 226). Malayakfita, identified by C. (p. 622) wi!h the mojern districts of Tanjore and Quilon . Madura is its present capil"l. This COUnty is also known as Malayalam or Malahar (C. 629). It extends up to the Ka'~eri river. HT. travelled ahout 500 miles south from K
APPE:-
279
Maharii3!ra, This place was hounded by Drflvi.;ia on the south . Dh8nak~ ! nka on the east, Mahariht:ra-.-.DlLlhe north. and the sea 0 11 the w;st. The pilgrim ~aw here one temple with the image or Avelokitdvara. In another temple he saw a si milar- image about 70 feet high, He stated that Diilmlga stayed here ror some time. There were 100 monasteri e~ with 10,000 monks of either Hina)'una or Mahay:h a sch(l(l1. Th=re was also a temple with a sandal· wood image of Bodhi~attva Maitreya. said to have heen made by Sro.,a VilJ'lsaliko!i, or whom also there was a stjjpa C'N.II.239). ~'1a1airi~tra, identified by C. (p. 635) with the area bounded by Malava OD the north, nak~ioa Kosala and Andhra OD the east, Konka1;la on the so~ th and the sea on the wesl. The king was Pulakdi. HT. tra"elled ahnut 400 miles from Ko nkal}apura to reach this place. Its capital was Paithan or Pra ti ~lh;:lDa in the 7th cenlur)'. The pilgrim fou nd 100 monasteries here with about 5,000 monks of both Hinayana and Mahayana schools. In lin old monastery thert was an image of Avalokitdvara . In a monastery built by Achdo (Acirn) or Western India. there was a temple with a sto ne.i mage of Budd ha. 70 feet high. Diilnaga stayed here for sorn~ time (W. IT . 239). Broacb (or Bharukaccha). It is about 250 miles from Paithan (C. 634). Here the p ilgrim saw 10 mona'iteries with 300 monks of the Mahayanist Stha,·ira school (W. If . 241). C. (p. 374) slates that it was also called Bharoch (Rhrgukaccha). Milan. According to C. (p 562), it lies ~I)ulh-ea~t of tho ri ver Mahi, about 333 miles to the north-we~t of Broach . In Ihort, it is the tract of the country lying between lJiiain and CUlch; on its weU and east were Gurjjara and Raira! respect. ively, on the no rth was Valabhi and on the sout h was Mahiirii $!ra. HT. writes that the two coun tries, which esteemed Budd h i ~m and encouraged the study of the Buddhi.t .criptlm'S were Magndha in the no rth-east and Valabhi in the south.we.1. Tn M:i.iava there were many monasterieli and no less than 20,000 monks of the S:l.mmiH} u school. Sixty yea rs befo re HT.'s visit . it was rul ~d by a king cul.ed Silid it ya , who was a staunch Budd hist. By the side of his palace, the king had built a Buddhist tem ple IUl istk in structural and rich in orna mental works, Tn the tem ple there were seven images of Buddh a HT. refers 10 Ihe
280
BUDDHIST SECTS IN INDIA
legend about the cont rove rsy of B h ik ~u Bhadraruci with a Brahmi n disputant, who ....as defea ted in a dis putation (W. II. 242).
Atall, 50 miles to the north-west of Malwa (C. 564). There was only one Deva-temple, but no Buddhi st monastery, nor any monk (W.JI. 243). Kbcda (or Kai ru = Ki-tll). C. (p. 565) thinks that the district of Kain extended from the bD.nk of the Sabarmati on the west to the great bend of the: M ahi ri ver on the north-east, aod to Baroda in the south. Dr. Fleet would identify the place with Cutch (modern Kacb). The pilgrim fo u nd here iO m onasteries with more tha n 1,000 monks, who were followers of either H innyano. or Mahayana school (W.ll. 245). HT. divided Western Indio. into three Slates : Valabhi. Gurjjara, ODd Sindh.
Valabbi (or Balabhadra = Fa.la·pi). It is situated on the eaStern side of Gujrat between Ahmedabad and Cambay. It is the extreme western division of M alwa also known as Suni,tra. HT. found here 100 monasteries with 6,000 monks of the Sa mmitiya school. Its ~ign in g king was a K~triya called Dh ruvabhaHa, a nephew or son·in· la w of Siladitya, the reigning kings of KaIlauj (Kanyakubja). DhruvabbaHa was a believer in Buddhism. Not far from his capital was a large monastery erected by Acaia, in which Aciiryas GUlJamati and Sthiramati resided some time and composed their valuable treatises. (W. 11. 146).
XIlDdapura. It was a bout 117 miles north-west of the city of Valabhi. C. (p. 565) identifies it with the triangular tract lying between the mouth of the Banas river on the west and the Sabarmati r iver on the east. HT. found here IO monasteries with J ,000 Sammitiya monks (W. II. 247). Sur"~l r. (Sural). C. (p. J72) writes that it5 capital was at the foul of lh~ Ujjayaliia Hill (anOlher name of Gimar) in the .:ily of Ju naga lil (=- Yavana-gaQ) 80 m i le~ to the we51 of Valabhi. Ht.:rt 'Ull: th..:: illM:riptions of k ings Rudradaman and Skandagupta. HT. fouml 50 monasteries here .... ith 3,000 mocks of the
Malui.yanist Slhilvira school (W.lI.24S).
.APPENDIX
2B1
Ujjeoi( =Ujayana, also Ujjayini,capital of Avanti province. According to C. (p. 560-1) it was bounded on the west by the Chambal river, on the north by the kingdoms of Mathura and Jajhoti, on the east by Mahe§varapura and on the south by the Satpum mountains running between the Narbada and the Tapti. HT. found here several monasteries but most of them were in rui ns. Only 3 or 4 were in a state of preservation with about 300 monks of both Hinayana and :\iahliyana schools. (w.n. 250, 351).
J ajboti (= Chi.chi-to). identified by C. 550-0 with the <listrict of Bundelkhand. Its capital wa~ Khajuraho. The name Jajhoti is derived from Yajur-hotii, an observance of the Yajur..eda. There were many monasteries but only a few monks. The king and the people were believers in Brfl hm ani~m . The king. though a BrahmaQa, patronised Buddhism (w.n. 251). Mahesvarlpura. C. (p. 560) identities it with Mahi~ matipura on the upper Narbada. Its boundaries roughly extendcd from Dumoh and Leoni on the west to the sources of the Narbada on the east. The people were non-Buddhists and so was the kingl (W.II.250). HT. went back from MahcSvarapura to Guchala (Gurjjara, nonh-east of Sura~tra). crossed the Sindhu (Indus) river and reached (W.IL 252). Siodh. C. (pp. 285f.) writes that Sindh comprised the whole \alley of the Indus from the Punjab to the sea, induding the delta and the island of Cutch. In the 7th century Sindh was divided into four principalities, viz., Upper Sindh, Middle Sindh, lower Sindh and Cutch. Upper Sindh comprised the present districts of Kach·Gandava. Kahan. Sikarpur and larkana to the west oi the Indus, and to the east the districts of Sabzalkot and Khairpur. In the 7th century its capital was Vicalapura (Pi·chen-po-pu-lo). Middle Sindh comprised the districts of Sehwan, Hula, the northern parts of Haidarabad, and Llmarkot. Lower Sindb or Lar district or the district of Pitasiia included Patala or Nirunkot in Haidarabad. Nirunkot was si tuated on
282
BUODHIST SECTS IN INDIA
hill. Pitasila was a rock, a long fiaHopped hill on which was siluiitet.l HaiUarabaJ. 'Ihe fourth province was Cutch identified by C. with Alor
II
near Hhakar on the Indus
te.
320-346). HT. writes that the
people of the place were firm believers in BUddhism. There were several monasteries with. 10,000 monks of the Sammitlya schoo\. The king also had faith in Buddhism. Cpagupta., it is said, often \'isi ted the place. (W.l1.252-3). M iilastbiaipura (Multan) in the north of Sindh. It was.
the southern province of the Punjab. To the east of Multan was the Ravi river (C.273). HT. (W.l1.224) mentions that there was a magnificent temple of Surya-deva. There is no mention of Buddhism .
Panata (Po-fa-to). Prof. S.
~.
Majumdar Saslri (p.6S7)
identifies it with a place about 116 miles north·east of Muhan. HT. writes that there were 10 monasteries and 1,000 monks of both Hinayana and Mahayana schools. Acarya Jinaputra com posed the Yogacarydbhiimr S3.stra here and Adryas Bhadraruci and GUlJaprabha were ordained. The monasteries were in ruins. 1t was here that HT. studied the Sammil ij'amii/a-ahhidharmaidstra (d. Nanjio 1272). (W.lI.255). w
w
Adbyav.kil. (ur Auuumbi1ra A tien-p'o-chin-1o). C. (p.346-7) thinks it tu be all allernutive name for the fourth province of Sinuh, i. e., Cutch (~e~ uboveJ. HT. writes that its capital was un the Indus riv~r lIt!3r tht: sea. There were 80 monasteries with 5,000 monks. lIlo~tl)' of the Sammitiya school. (W.II .256). w
GurUafa ( = Ku-che·lo). According to C. (p.3S7) it was 300 miles to the nortb of Valabhi or 467 miles to the northwest of Ujjain. l IS capi tal was Balmer (Pi·lo.mi-Io). HT. writes that there ....as only one monastery with 100 monks of the Sarvti.5th'ada school. The king, a scholar, was a believer in Buddhism and a patron of exc~ptional abilities. (W. II .249). AVRntaka (..." I\.(:1n.1'u). Watters (p. 261) ~Ilgge.;;ts thut it must h:lVe been il locality from which the Sammitiyas were alternatively known a" Avantab~ . C. thinks that it wa. Middle
Sindh (see
~hove).
HT
write~
th:1t here were 20 monasteries
APpeXDI"
283
with 3,000 monk;;, the majority of whom were Sammitiyas. (W 11.259).
HT.
travelll!'d ahout 150 miles from Avantaka to reach Vllrlll}3. It is iden tified by C. (['I. 97) with the district of Bauu . HT. writes that there were many monasteries, though they w~rl: mostly in ruins. There werl!', however, 300 monks, who were all Mabliyiinists. (W.II.262). This is the last place from whieh the pilgrim returned to hi!O country across the Himalayas.
A TABULAR STATEMENT OF THE BUDDHIST SECfS IN INDIA (on the basis of information furnished by Hiuen Tsang, 7th century A.D.) Sthavira-(Ibera-) vida ~o.
Countries Samata~a (Jessorr) Dravi4a (capital Kaiicipura)
Total
of monasteries No. of monks
30 100
200 10,000
13D
10,200
M aM yanist-Stbavira 1 Bodh-Gaya Mahabodhi
Sailgh
Total
1,000
50
500 300 3,000
71
4,800
10 10
I . l in Li·Kouani on the Chinese version of the Saddharma-smrtyupaSlhana'SUlra, be ing ~n inlroducl lon 10 the Dharmasartfuccu)lfl, l \feal i~ like: the .\la/lthyut}'<Jlli, write, : T !lat the M a h iyii'li~ t Sthavir::n ,~ould be interDreted literaUy. T hey actually belonged 10 the Slhavira shcool but held 1'>fah:lyink views ard an Arhat playi:lg the role of a BodhisauI'a, i. e. praclisi n& rnaitrf and karu,a (amity and compassion) towards a ll beingi. The Abhayagiri monastery of Ceylon, a centre of staur"K;h Theravadlns, held M;lbayanie: views, (or which the:y were e:ritic ised by the conscrvatiVil m onks o f Mahivihlirl! of Ceylon. See Li n Li.KO\Ia~lI, op . cit., p. 209 and Bears Bllddlrist Ruorm 4 /h/l If'l$l~m World. II , p.247.
APPRNnlX
MahasaIighikas (including liuila sub-sect) No. of monasteries
Countries
Pataliputra Dhanakataka (Aman'l.vati) TotaL
No. of monks
I 20
100 1,000
21
1,100
1
1
300 800 500 200 1,000 100
28
2,900
10
1,000 1,000 1,000 3,000
Sarvasti..,(ida Tamasiivana Matipur Navadevakula Kapota Vihara (in Magadha) Hiral,lyaparvata
20 3 1 2
Gurjjara TotaL
Samltlitlya t Ahicchatra Kapitha (Sankas)'a) Hayamulha Visoka Sravasti
Kapilavastu VaraQasi Samath Vaisali Hiral)yaparvata Karl)a8uvart;la
Malava Valabhi Anandapura Sindh
4
5 20 some in ruins mostly in ruins 3{)
1 1
to to some 100 to many
r,w
30
3,000 1,500
r,w
4,000 2,000 20,000 6,000 1,000 10.000
'" It wiD be observed that ttIe Sammi:iyas were the largest in number. It was due perhaps to their Plldgflla-viida (mig rating but changing soul). which appealed to the Indian Buddhists. who accepteiJ it along with AnattaYad~ ...,r Buddha.
286
BUDDH1ST SECTS IN IN DIA
Countries Aviddhakaroa (A.tieo-po-(che-Io)
No. of mo nasteries
No. of monks
80
50,000
50 20
3,000 2,000
351
I,OM.5jU
Badakshan
(Pi-to-tche-Io) A-fan-tu (Middle Sindh) T ohli
Hlnaytinists Pu ~ka rii ... ati
(I'csbawar) I I nil 11it
Shabazgarbi Sagala Kuluto
Pariyatra (Bairat) Sthandvara Srughna Matipur Go"isana
Prayaga Ka usambi Ghazipur
sonu: 50
100 few few
3
700
5 I 2 2 10
1,000
10
200
few few
300 1,000 ( Seal's Record s of the Western World)
50
MagadiJa Campa
few dozens
200
37
2,600
140 few I
18,000 few 100 1,000
TOLaI Maflliyanists
Udyana Tak~asi l a
Sirnhapura K ullu
20 few
VaralJa
Total
161
loo
19,400
287
Al'PENDIX
BOlh HlnaJ·iillists and Mai:iiyollisls 1
No. of mOIl
Countries Kashmir
No. of monk s (sprinkling uf SarvAstiV'ddins
and Mahayana)
few
Punach Satadru Mathura Ayodhya Prayaga Vaisali Svetapura
10
20
100 2 3 or 4 in ruins 10 no fig ure
Nepal
6
Kajangala PUQ~ravardhana
Tamralipti Malayaku!a Konk81)3pUra Ujjayini Maharagra Kheda
Total
I.
20 10 I
few few no figure
300 few few no figu re
2,000 300 3,000 1,000
100
no figure 10,000
3 or 4
300
100 10
5.000
397
22,900
1,000
Vc:ry liledy both liinayAna an.! Mahayana 1LL'.IIll..S h;!d doctrin,,! they livw together in the same monastery observing the S3m" monastic rules" tbose of the H inaylini~t>, for the \{ahAyAni51~ had no monastic code of their own.
differencc:\, but
I.tsing's Observatiuns on the Dispersal of Buddhist Sects in India (671 -595 A.LJ.)
About hal f a century afte r H iuen Tsang's departure from India, I-tsing reached Ta.mralipti iD 673 A.D. He studied mainly at NlllaDda. His mission was to colieft the ViDaya texts of the MUlasarvastivada-nikaya in o rder to correct the malpractices of the Chinese mo nks. J·tsi ng's aCCOllnt of the d ispersal of the Buddhist sects in Indio. is as rollow.~:J. Afya Mah&saflghika.nik aya had 1. 7 sub-sects. 2. Tripi!aka in 3 lac §lokas. 3. It was followed in Magl'ldha . A few of them were Uta and Sindh as also in North and South India.
ID
JI. Arya Sthavira·nikaya bad
t. 2. 3.
3 sub·sects. Tripi!ak a in 3 lac ~Iokas. It was fnllowed in South India and Mngndha. A few in r.ata a nd Sindh. It existed along with other secl~ in Ell st India but not in No rth India.
Ill. A[ya Mula-sarvistiv:lda·nikaya had I. 2. 3.
4 sut>.sects, viz., "(0) Miila-sorvastivada, (h) Dharma. gupta, (c) MahiSasaka and (d) KAsyapi)'a . Tripitaka in 3 lac ~ I obs. It wa~ fl o urishing most in Magadha, North and East India, a few ill La!a and Sinoh and in South
India. 4.
Ohar maguptas, Mahisasak as and Ka.syapi},as wer~ not found in India proper but had follo wers in Udyana. A few in Campa .
289
APPEND IX
IV. Arya Sammitiya-ni!
4 sub-sects
2.
Tripi!aka in 2 lac slokas, Vina~'a Pi!aka had 30,000 slokas. It was flouri shing most in La!a and Sindh and in South India: along with other sects in East India but not in I\orth India.
3.
V. Maha.yl!na and Hiuayana. Doth of these existed in North India, and also were l>prinklcd oyer all other places in Indio.
l-tsing (I ntra. pp. 14·15) describes Mahayana \'cry simply thus (;I) Iho~ who worshipped the BodhisJ tlvas were called M ah:1y~ni.~ts. and (b) tho~t:: who did not worship them were Hinayanisu. He then stated that Mahayana was divided into two ichoots : Madhyami ka and Yogaca ra. The former upheld that what was regarded as commonly existed was in reality non-existenl, Le., all objects were mere empty show, while the YogacArios a ffirmed that no phenomenal objects existed in reality but their concep· tion existed in mind ooly (Le., ViJnaptimatrata.), which , however, was rea l. L:nlly. he remarked t hat the two systems were perrectly in accordance with the noble doctrine. Incidentally, he referred to some literary persons, who were mostly Ml1hnyiinists. These were (i) Mitrceta, author of the Satapanctisatka. Cii) Aliv2gho'2, the poet and author of the RuddhaclJrita Kavya, and the Siilrii!alikiira·iiisrra (which, it ~hou!d be noted. was different fro m Asang.1's ~';Irii!nilkiiro) . (i i) Nagarjuna's Suhr/lekha to king Sillavclhana (translated by Dr. Wenzel from iu Tibetan versi ull ill JPTS. 1886). I·tsing has missed to mention several other works of Asvaand Nagarjuna, (rOT which see Winternitz, History of Buddhist literature, pp. 256ff.)
gho~a
290
BUDDHIST SECTS I/<,' INIlIA
He mentions the names of the following distinguished writer5: Aryadeva, Vasubandhu, Asanga, Bhavaviveka. Dharmapala, Dharmakirti. Silabhadra, GUl).amati, Prajiiagupta, GUl).aprabha, and Jinaputra. Lastly, he mentiolls the name of Siiadit}a (Har~avardhana) as author of the Jimii!GI'iihana-nii!aka ( - Niigiinanda edited by Prof. Yidhusekhar Sastri). He was the patron of Hiuen Tsang.
INDfX
AbhayaJ,lirivisin 49 Abhidhamma 59-60 AbhidhammikaJ 43-4, 234 Abhidharma 142 r., 222-3 Abhidha,makooo ~5, 113. 12!!, 142, 154. 170, lR~, 209. 212 AbhidharmakoSavydkhya ]27, 132·3 Abhidharmapi\alm 115, 219 AbhidharmasAra 148 Abhidharma Vibhasa-Sa,ua 23 Abhir. i~krnmll~n·SCttra Abhi",~m"y"
IiI
R9_90
Abulama 62 A(ariyaparampara 233-H, lradilions of, 232 A
Adnna kappa 16 Adasakam nisjdan~m 16 Adhi-patimokkha 36 Afghanistan 66, 23~ Agal1la~ 61, 131, 139, 154 Agantukarajas I H AhogailEJ. 9, 13 Aindra school of !!mnlm~ria ;)s 8 Ajiita~lht 1-2, 8 Ajita 8-9 Aku~~lamiila 96 Al~ra Kal~ma 105
AlayaviiNina 114-5 Al lahabad 9-10 Amalapada 116 Amaravan 50, 59, 63-5, 68, 218, 238 Amathita Kappa 16 Ananda 2, 8, 22, 36·7. 40-3, 79, 129-32, 174-5, 234 Ananlarikas 108 Andlrna-vdda 184 AUUardb62,66 Andhakas 26, 48 67 81-5 9O-J 99-102,112, 16i, l6Sl,'179 ' Andhra Pradesh 64. 67, 128, no,
wi,
218
Align I, 110 Ailgllt:ara Nik~ya 3, 37, ]39. 199 Antilr3bhava 114. 126. 169, 18~, 202, 2
182, 213 Avasa kapp~ 15 Avyil.k:atas 112
Bl'Ihiyo 37
Bahusfuliyas 48, 50. 54. 66, 69, ~3, 98, 106, 118, 208 Bala 134 Balapmptas 21 D"lu~his!an 132 Bareall, Dr. n, 48, 65, 68, 77. U5 Barua, Dr. 14.s
'292
Belvalkar, Prof. 7-8 Benaras 132 Bhadda 3 Bhadrasena 5, 7 Bhadrika 2 Bhadrayanika 49, J 83 BhadraySniya 55, 207 Bhandarkar，Prof. 2 Bharadvaja 2 BharaharasQtra 185-6，190, 197 Bha 言a 127
BUDDHIST SECTS IN INDIA
Buddhist Council 1，4, 7-11, 13-5， 22-3, 29, 33-4，41, 121, 129, 170， 213’ 218 Buddhist Sects, sources of 48-56; groups of, 49 Buddhist Synod 82, 126 Burgess, Dr. 63, 238 Bu-stoa 2，6-9, 11，15’ 61’ 129, 136, 141 Caitasika 152 BhSvanamarga 165，207, 209 Caityakas 50，52, 58, 64，115，238 Bhavya 7，12, 49, 132，177 Caityas 5-6, 57, 64 Bhikkhuni Nanda 9’ 14 Cakkhuvinfiaoa 112 Bhiksu Naga 6 Campa 141 Bhirukavana 7 CamtamQla 63 Bhita 9 Carntasiri 63 Bihar 58 Candrakirti 191 Bimbisara 2 Cankrama 134 Bindusara 3 Caturdi^a-saAgha 230 Bodh-Gaya 63，72 Cetana 176 Bodhicaryavatara 104 Cetiya 57 Bodhicitta 104-5 Cetiyavadins 48 Bodhipakkhiya dhammas 36 Ceylon 3-4, 11，32, 123, 213-4 Bodhisattva 44，69, 74-8, 103-4，Ceylonese Chronicles 67, 126, 130. 133, 178-9, 240 172, 177,'209, 2 1 1 , 214 Bodhisattva-vada 218 Ceylonese traditions 57，208 Bodhyangas 169 Charida Pajjota 213 Bombay 62 Chan-Nagarika 207 Brahmacariya 104-5 Ch'en lun 173 Brahmacariyavasa 178 Che-Song-lieu 12 Brahmajala 105，137 . China 12’ 127’ 135’ 171, 181 Chinese 11’ 20’ 27, 31; traditions 8 Brahmana Vatsa 6 Chu Fo-nien 143 Brahma vihara 158-9, 163 Citta 45，118, 152, 176, 188;-VipraBrahmi 182 Buddha, teachings of 69, 117，17i yuktas, 176 Buddhadatta 11 Cochin China 135 Buddhaghosa 28-9, 48，64，73, 95，Cullavagga 11, 13, 30, 209, 232 99，107, 109, 146, 153, 165, 168， Cunda 36 Cunningham 224 178-9，200，213, 215, 226 Buddhajiva 11 Buddhamitra 133-4 Dabba Mallaputta 42 Buddhavacana 35, 38，224 DakkhinSgiri 35 Buddhavisaya 26 Danapati 20 Buddhayasas 11’ 171 Darsaka 2 Buddhila 62, 133 Darsanamarga 164, 207 Buddhism, propagation of 129’ 224; Dasadhyaya Vinaya 12，140 Spread of 220 De Groot 171
293
INDEX
Devadatta 34-6, 55 Devasarma 146 Dhamma 38, 40，106, 235 Dhammacakkbw 25 Dhammadhara 34’ 35 Dhammakathikas 41-2 Dhammakmala-Arhat 24 Dhammapada 61 Dhammapala 213 Dhammasariga^i 144 Dhammutarjya 207 Dhanakataka 58，65, 67 DhanavatF 133 Dharmaguptas 17-8, 30, 170-172, 183 Dharmaguptakas 121-2 Dharmaskandha 146 Dharmasoka 29, 33 Dharmatrata 155-7 Dharmottailya 49, 55, 181 DhStukSya 146 DhQta 46 DhQtangas 35 DhQtavada 44 DhOtavadins 36 Dhyanas 108, 161，168-9，183 Dlgha 199 Dighabhanaka 41 Dipankara 60 Dipavamsa 11，29，48，58, 20) Divyavadana 2, 127, 130, 229-30 Dro^ia 17 Dukkha 167, 203-4, 235; realization of, 89; utterance of, 110 Dul-va 11，16 Dundubhissara 177 DussHa 95 Dvangula-kappa 16 Early History of Kaus5mbi 9 Early Monastic Buddhism 24 Easterners 10 Ekabboharikas 48 Ekavyavaharika 49-50, 58 Fa-hien 11’ 60-1, 135, 140 Fa-pao 156 Fergusson 63 French 20
Gamakkhetta 40 Gamantara Kappa 16 Gandhakuti 14 Gandhara 126，128-9, 237-8 Gandharas 235 Gandharapura 231 Ganges 9 Gautamiputra Satakaroi 62 Gavairipati 2, 39, 170 Gayasisa 36 Geography of Early Buddhism 9 Ghosaka 155-7 Gilgit 141 Gokulika 49, 57 Gotama Saipghadeva 143 Graeco-Bactrians 135 Grierson 214 Groups of Schools 49-51 Guha-vihara 133 Guntur district 58, 64，67,�30 Gupta script 133 Haimavata 53, 82, 377-8; sect, 12, 48; Vinaya, 30 Harivarman 70, 118 Harsavardhana 181 Hemavatikas 177 Himavantapadesa 237
Hinayana 32, 69’ 112，117, 126, 179, 219-20, 222，229, 236
Histoire du Bouddhisme Indien 51 History of Buddhism 11 Hiuen Tsang 9, 12，65, 67, 129-30, 134, 143-7, 211-3 Hofinger, M. 20，29-30 Huviska 62, 66’ 182 Iddhipada 138 Identification of Schools 49-50 Iksvaku dynasty 63 Imperial History of India 6 rndriyavijnanas 114 Isvaranirmana 188, 203 I-tsing II, 61, 135，182
Jagat Singh stupa 134 Jaggayyapeta 63, 67 Jaina, tradition � 3
BUDDHIST SECTS IN INDIA
'294
Jalaka 5 Kusumapura 6，14, 63 Jambudvipa 163 Jataka 59-60,104,218, 224-6, 230,236 Lalitavistara 77，103 Java 135 Lamotte, Prof. 51 Jayaswa丨 5-6 Lankadlpa 237 Jetavaniya 49 Lankavatara 78 Jivitendriya 176 Lata 61, 65, 135 J. Masuda 12 66-7, 86, 160-1 Laukikamarga 164, 166 JnanaprasthanasOtra 132, 143-5 Laukika-Saniyagdrsti 108 Jneyavaraya 26 Laukika-Sraddhendriya 108 Law, B.C. 9’ 178 Kaccayana 8, 45 Licchavi 4, 15 Kakavar^i 3，33 Lin li Kouang 68 Kalasoka 4-9, 14, 29, 32-3 Lokottaravada 57，66 Kalinga 67，212 Lokottaravadins 50，64, 142，218 Kalyanamitra 6 Kamadhatu 163，167, 170 Madhyamikavrtti 191 Kamagulya 62，66 Madhyandina 127 Kamarupa 235, 238 Madhyantika 3-4，129, 131, 234-5 Kanauj 9-10，135 Magadha 1-2, 4, 9’ 61, 64-5，129, Kaftci 213-4 131，178 Kahkha 25 Magganana 96 Kapila 193 Magga-phala 120 Karuoa 106, 158-9 Mahabodhivanisa 5， 11 Kashgar 135 Mahadeva 5-7, 13, 20，.22-4, 28’ Kashmir 3-4，6, 23’ 126, 128-32, 143， 30-3，106, 115，130 232, 235, 237-8, 240 Mahakasyapa 2， 22, 61; MahakasKasi 1,6 sapa, 35, 38, 41, 43-4’ 46, 129, Kasyapiya 54, 126, 173, 177-8 170, 218 Kaundinya 122 Mahamoggallana 43-4 Kausambi 10, 122, 128, 134, 141 — 213Mahapadma Nanda 1，6，8，33 Keith 7 Mahapaririibbanasuttanta 34, 45, 75, Kharoasta 332 100, 179 Ki-tsang 12 Mahasanghika 10，22, 24, 26, 29, 33’ Klesavararia 26 47-8, 50，57 Kosala 9-10 Mahavamsa 1, 11’ 33，49, 236-7, 239 Kosambi 9，13，35 Mabavanavihara 14 Kosasthana 154 Mahavastu 30，57，60, 76，81,142，227 Kouie-ki 12, 27，171 Mahavihara 209 Krsna 63-4 Mahaviharavasin 49 Ksayajnana 101-2, 160 Mahavinayadhara 59 Ksudrakavastu 11 Mahavvutpatti 48 Kubjita 8 MahaySna 23，26，30，64, 69，112， Kukkutarama 28 117，126, 179,212，218,227, 229-30 Kumarajiva 32 Mahimsasakas 121, 132 Kusalacitta 167 Mahisasakas 17-20, 50’ 55’ J16，121-3, Kusalamula 96 125-6, 128，160, 218 Kushan period 135，182 Mahlsasaka-vinaya 11, 30，39 s
INDEX
Majjhima-bhanaka 41
295
Nirodha 113 Niyama 104 Nivamokkantikatha 78,104 N. N. Ghosh 9
Majjhima-Nikaya 37, 41，79, 102, Nltartha 317, 159 105，137, 233
Malawa 10’ 235 Manjusrimulakalpa 】，4-7，11, 238 Marshall，John, Sir 9 Mathura 3，9-10, 28, 30’ 127-9, 132-3, 1 8 1 , 2 3 2 , 2 3 - f , 2 3 9 Mutikadharas 41 Matipur 135 Maxmuller 7 Menander 133, 135 Metta 106 Micchattaaiyama 104 Milinda 239 Milindapanha 135, 160
Obermiller 2, 11, 17-8，174
Oldenberg 224 Orissa 64 Paccantima Janapada 45 Paccayas 96 Pacuiaka 8 Pacittiya 16 Paisaci 214 Pali II，15, 19，41，81，129, 182; Moggallana 36-7，43 Grammar, 8; traditions 57，67, Moggaliputta 33，126, 234 121’ 129，174, 233; school, 103; Moggaliputta-Tissu 9, 129 30. 233, suttas 100 236-7 Pamcamatuka 60 Mulasarvastivada 30 Panini 6-8; school 9; Vyakaraoa 7 Mulasarvastivadins 136， 141 Pafinattivadins 48 Mulasarvastivada-Vinaya 11, 16，127, Parajikas 22 141 Paramartha 23-4, 69, 117 M _ a 3-4 Paramis 104 Mysore 123 Paravitarao§. 25 Pataliputra 9-11, 15, 23, 28，50，58， Naga 6-7, 31 60-5, 82，127-31, 135，213-4 Nagadasaka 2-4 Persia 135 Nagarjuna 112, 126, 183, 219，238 Peshawar 132 Nagarjimikonda 50, 59, 63-5, 67-8, Phala 120 116，118，218 Pilindavatsa 2 Nanda 2-3, 5-8, 31 Pindola Bharadvaja 2 Nandivardhana 5 Pitaka 41-2, 58，80’ 101, 118，126. Nanjio 60, 140’ 171, 182 151，182，196, 214 Nan-kin 12 P'ou-koung 156 Narada 3 Poussin, L. de la Valine, Prof. 16-7， Nafa-bhata-vihara 127 142，146-7, 175，193, 209 Netrpadasastra 127 Prajnapti 194 Nibbana 113, 150, 180, 184. 198. Prajnaptivadins 50，58，66, 98, 118 200, 203-4’ 222 Prakaranapada 145 Nibbanabhava 150-1 Prakrit 19’ 118 Nigantha-Nataputta 9, 36’ 45’ 147 Prasenajit 3 Nikayas 34, 36，39，57, 168，199, Przyluski 9-10, 39，60，122-3, 128, 205，223-4, 231 171-2, 177 Nika>a-Sangraha 11 Pubbaseliyas 114, 116-17 Nirvana 46, 89，H6-7, 161-2, 175, Pudgala 174-5, 183-7, 192，195戍 206，216 183-5, 192-3, 216, 235
'296 Pudgala-vada 184, 189 Puranas J, 4-5, 33’ 39，322, 170 Purana of Dakkhinagiri 218 Queen MayS 12, 77, 79，163
SchieTner 5-6, 11 Sisunaga 4, 32-3 Sravakas 21，78-9，105 Sravakabodhi 7，229 Sthavira 10，13, 32, 67, 115, 130,
Rahula 2，43, 74
Sthaviravada 177，2 U
Rahulabhadra 132,136 Rajagaha 4 Rajagirikas 118 Rajagiha 10，135 Rajyasrl 181 Raychaudhury 1, 46 Revata 9-10, 13-15 Revata khadiravanfya 43 Rockhill, W. W. 11 Rudraka Ramaputra 205 RQpa-bhava �49-50 RUpadhatu 170，201 Sabbakami 8-10，15
BUDDHIST SECTS IN INDIA
132, 211-4
Sthiramaii 6-7 Sumana 8-10，15 Surasena 5，7-8，127 Sural 212 Suttantas 42-3 Suttantikas 41-2 Sutralankara 78
Takakusu, Prof. 142，146 Tamrasatiyas 50 Tamravarniya-Nikaya 212 T'an-tai 171
Taranatha 4-8，11，49, 129, 131, 173, 234, 238, 240
Sabbanfiutanana 25 Tarkajvala 174, 183 Sahajati 9，14 Tassho 12 Sailas 52，172, 218 Tattvasangraha 189, 206 Saila schools 57-8，64’ 93，98’ 109，Tavatimsa 163 115-6 Tchou-fu-nien 11 Sambboga-Kaya 99 Thera 32; Purana 35 SambhQta Sanavasi 8-10, 13，15，Theravada 16’ 56, 105, 121, 127-8’ 148，179, 182, 211, 214. 222, 233 128-9, 132 Theravadins 10’ 19, 24’ 26, 38，47， Sambuddha 3 Sarpkrantivadins 50，175 Sammitiyas 56, 163，174，181-5, 189’
87’ 93, 98, 121，123, 126, 128, 130, 213，218, 223, 228-9. 232, 234
Thiti 113 191’ 207-8, 215 Tibet 7，31 Sammitiya School 131 Sammitiya Nikaya Sastra 184, 189，Tikapatthana 209 Traividyas 21 193 Tripitaka 23, 133-4 SSilchi 177 Sangha 6’ 13，20-1, 23-5，29-41，106, Triratna 46 Tukhara 131 119-20，125, 129，131，172, 233 Tu^akuci 3 Sarighabheda 34-5, 37-8 Safijaya 5 Saranath 134, 181-2 Ubbahika 14-5 Sarvastivada 12，22，53，62, 70， Ubhatobhagavimutta Arhats 24 126-8’ 131-2，174-6, 222, 232-3 Ucchedavada 200 Sarvastivadins 10, 18-20, 43，50, 86-7’ Udaya 133 121，123，126, 133, 208’ 215-228 Udayana 135 Satyasiddhi-^astra 118 Udayibhadda 1-3 Sautrantikas 43, 55，174-6, 215 Ugrasena 5
INDEX
297
Vibhasa 24, 43 Vigatasoka 240 Vijnanas 111’ 154，169, 188，216 Vijnanavada 23, 189 Vijriapti 94，144 Vimamsa 96 Vimutti 114, 125, 160，165，172 Vinaya 10, J3, 18, 20’ 35, 38, 40, 52-3, 45, 140，170’ 223 Vacisarpkhara 109 Vinaya-matrka-Sutra 12 Vaibhasikas 43; school 127-8 Vinaya Pitaka 21-2, 59 Vaisali 4, 9-10, 13-4, 18-21, 29, 33, Vinnaoakhandha 112 128，132, 134，137 Vinfiatti 95 Vajiriya 48 Vipassanabhinivesa 24 Vajjiputtakas 29, 132 Vipasyaaa 127 Valukarama 14 Vtrasena 5 Valuka Sangharama 20，21 Visoka 4-5 Valuraka 62 Vogel Dr. 124 Vanaspara 134 Voharo 80 Varanasi 232, 237 Watters 10, 28, 32 Vararwci 6-8 Weber 7 Vaslbhutas 21 Westerners 9-10,15 Vasistlputra siri Pulumayi 62 Winternitz 224 Vassakara 40 Vasubandhu 128, 155-8，174, 183-4, Wogihara, Prof. 193 195’ 219 Yamuna 10 Vatsa 131 Yasa 5，8-10, J3-5, 128, 179 Vatsiputriyas 6 Yavanas 135, 172, 236 Vatthupamasutta 46 Yogacara 114 Vedanta 206 Yojana 17 Vetulyakas 48, 98 Yonaka 172 Vibhajyavada 208 Yuan Chwang 28, 31-2, 44, 61, 131, Vibhajyavadins 208，209，211 135’ 182 Ujjaini/Uiieni 10, 212, 214, 235, 239 Upadhyayas 22 Urumunda 127 Uttarakuru 163 Uttarapathakas 56, 112’ 178-9 Upagupta 3, 127, 129-31, 2^3-4, 237-8 Upali 22, 41-5’ 213 Uttarjyas 50
