Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

ALSO BY JEROME S. BERG AND FROM MCFARLAND Listening on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today (2008) On the Short Waves, 1923–1945: Broadcast Listening in the Pioneer Days of Radio (1999; paperback 2007)

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today JEROME S. BERG

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers Jefferson, North Carolina, and London

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGUING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Berg, Jerome S., ¡943– Broadcasting on the short waves, 1945 to today / Jerome S. Berg. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-7864-3674-3 illustrated case binding : 50# alkaline paper ¡. Shortwave radio— History. 2. International broadcasting — History. I. Title. HE8697.4.B473 2008 384.54 — dc22 2008024679 British Library cataloguing data are available ©2008 Jerome S. Berg. All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Cover photographs ©2008 Shutterstock Manufactured in the United States of America

McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers Box 6¡¡, Je›erson, North Carolina 28640 www.mcfarlandpub.com

To Keith Glover, Eddie Startz, Harry van Gelder, Clayton Howard, Earle Fisher, and all the other familiar voices that greeted generations of shortwave listeners, and (again) to P.V.

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Contents Preface.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  1 Titles, Abbreviations and Acronyms .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  5 1. An Overview of Shortwave Broadcasting .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  9 2. 1945–1949 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  64 3. 1950–1959 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  94 4. 1960–1969 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  144 5. 1970–1979 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  189 6. 1980–1989 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  243 7. 1990–1999 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  296 8. 2000–2008 .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  361 9. The Changing Shortwave Environment .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  414 Appendix: Stations by the Year.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  435 Chapter Notes .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  455 Selected Bibliography.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  475 Index .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  485

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Preface This is the third part of a trilogy begun in 1999 with the publication of On the Short Waves, 1923–1945: Broadcast Listening in the Pioneer Days of Radio, and Listening on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today, published concurrently with this volume and dealing with the listening side of the subject. The purpose of this third volume is to complete the post–1945 story by focusing on the table at which shortwave listeners have long feasted — the stations themselves. For many years, international broadcasting was synonymous with shortwave broadcasting. This is no longer the case, there now being other media that can bring signals to foreign shores. The focus of this book, however, is on shortwave and shortwave alone. It is written from the standpoint of the listener, particularly the listener who has immersed himself or herself in all of shortwave listening’s many facets. A book written from the perspective of the casual listener, the stations themselves, or the broadcasting industry, would be different in many particulars. The heart of this book following an overview of some of the major elements of shortwave broadcasting, is a year-by-year account of the shortwave bands as listeners found them beginning in 1945 — the stations heard, their comings and goings, and the major shortwave events of each year. While no attempt has been made to be comprehensive as to individual stations, and no account could reference all the shortwave stations that were on the air or that could be heard, I have attempted to capture events in sufficient detail so as to accurately portray the nature of the shortwave medium and the shortwave listening experience in the United States. While I sometimes refer to “North America” to leaven the text, and in recognition of the similarity between the Canadian and American shortwave listening experiences, I have made no attempt to cover Canadian shortwave listening per se. There are some topics within the broader scope of international broadcasting that are addressed only in limited fashion, e.g., program content, the political and propaganda role of shortwave broadcasting, and the shortwave industry. Much has been written about the second of these areas, and those wishing to learn more about it should examine Christopher H. Sterling, “CBQ Review Essay (Part One), Overall Histories of International Radio Propaganda,” in which Sterling lists and summarizes many resources in the field. A companion article focusing on World War II is “CBQ Review Essay (Part Two), International Radio Propaganda in World War II.”1 1

2

Preface

The best overall histories of international shortwave broadcasting and the major shortwave stations, albeit with an emphasis on facilities and transmitters befitting the author’s engineering background, are the two books by James Wood, History of International Broadcasting and History of International Broadcasting, Vol. 2,2 written in 1992 and 2000 respectively. Two standard works on international broadcasting that are often cited are Julian Hale’s Radio Power: Propaganda and International Broadcasting, written in 1975,3 and Donald R. Browne’s 1982 book, International Broadcasting: The Limits of the Limitless Medium.4 Also worthy of attention are two UNESCO publications: George A. Codding Jr.’s Broadcasting Without Barriers (1959),5 and Bumpus and Skelt’s 1984 monograph, Seventy Years of International Broadcasting.6 A textbooklike primer on international broadcasting as it was in 1993 is International Communication: History, Conflict, and Control of the Global Metropolis, by Robert S. Fortner.7 While Wood’s book from 2000 is comparatively recent, the others are now dated. In addition, they and the other professional and academic literature in the field address mainly the larger stations, and are virtually silent on an important part of the story to listeners— the national and regional stations operating in the regions of 6 MHz. and below, the favorite haunts of DXers. A list of titles, abbreviations and acronyms can be found on pages 5–8. In quoting material, I have made occasional minor changes in punctuation, case and spelling to make the text easier on the eye. In a few places I have changed some abbreviations to others that are more understandable, and converted megacycles or megahertz to kilocycles or kilohertz for the sake of uniformity. And it is out of habit rather than any disrespect to James Watt that I have persisted in the use of the old fashioned kw. rather than kW. Considerably more of the professional and academic writing on international broadcasting and shortwave broadcasting deals with the years after the war than with earlier periods. While this is not an academic work, readers wishing to do further reading and research will find many references to this literature. Most are to print resources; internet references were correct as of August 1, 2008. The spelling of shortwave as one word throughout the book reflects modern practice. It is two words in the title in order to preserve continuity with my earlier (1999) book, On the Short Waves, 1923–1945: Broadcast Listening in the Pioneer Days of Radio. In those years, shortwave was more often spelled as two words. The research for this book and its companion volume was a unified undertaking in which I benefited from the advice and assistance of the many individuals whom I acknowledged in the preface to Listening on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today, and whom I wish to thank again here. Major support was received from Richard D’Angelo, Reuben Dagold, Mickey Delmage, John Herkimer, Alan Johnson, Bob LaRose, Adrian Peterson, Jack Rugg, Harold Sellers, and George Zeller. And I want to acknowledge again the special assistance of my longtime friend Don Jensen, who treated even my foolish questions with respect. Thanks are due as well to the dozens of shortwave practitioners and professionals who helped me in ways too numerous to detail. They are: “Skip” Arey, John T. Arthur, Guy Atkins, Ray Barfield, Michel Baron, Mike Barraclough, Rachel Baughn, Kirk Baxter, John Berenyi, Ralph Brandi, Walter Brodowsky, John Bryant, Joe Buch, Wolfgang Bueschel, Bill Butuk, John Callarman, John Campbell, Neil Carleton, Bryan Clark, Harold Cones, Mark Connolly, Bob Cooper, Pete Costello, Wendel Craighead, Richard Cuff, the late Neville

Preface

3

Denetto, Gerry Dexter, Torre Ekblom, Kim Andrew Elliott, Dan Ferguson, John Figliozzi, John Fisher (Massachusetts), Bill Fisher, Karl Forth, David Foster, Bernd Friedewald, Harold Frodge, Tom Gavaras, Victor Goonetilleke, Bill Graham, Manosij Guha, Dave Hammer, Chris Hansen, Nicholas Hardyman, Sheldon Harvey, Harry Helms, Dan Henderson, Eric Hitchcock, Jim Howard, Bob Hill, Günter Jacob, John Kapinos, Dave Kenny, Tony King, Henrik Klemetz, Joerg Klingenfuss, Erik Køie, Kraig Krist, Finn Krone, Mathias Kropf, Marie Lamb, Russell Lay, Chris Lobdell, Ken MacHarg, Stew MacKenzie, Larry Magne, Jonathan Marks, George Maroti, David Martin, Judy Massa, Ed Mayberry, Paul McDonough, Ian McFarland, Rich McVicar, Kevin Mikell, Don Moman, Don Moore, Ray Moore, Richard Moseson, Graham Mytton, Serge Neumann, Mark Nicholls, Mike Nikolich, Tim Noonan, Toshi Ohtake, Bill Oliver, Harold Ort, Fred Osterman, Kathy Otto, Bob Padula, Gene Parta, Jack Perolo, Anker Petersen, Nandor Petrov, Bill Plum, Christos Rigas, Tony Rogers, Ron Pokatiloff, Rob Rabe, Jim Ronda, Andreas Schmid, Andy Sennitt, Ed Shaw, Ken Short, the late Morris Sorensen, Simon Spanswick, Larry Steckler, Tom Sundstrom, “Tex” Swann, Jan Tunér, Rob Wagner, Dave Walcutt, Andy Wallace, Tom Walsh, Brent Weeks, Gerhard Werdin, Jeff White, Bob Wilkner, Barry Williams, John Wright, Larry Yamron, Andy Yoder, Bob Zanotti, Ken Zichi, and Oliver Zöllner. And thanks again to Jean Williams and Steffie Lowder of the Interlibrary Loan Department of Cary Memorial Library for their invaluable help in tracking down elusive publications and turning my local library into the Library of Congress. Most of the QSLs in this book are from the collection of the Committee to Preserve Radio Verifications (CPRV), a group which I chair. Thanks to my co-committeemen — Gerry Dexter, Tom Gavaras, Dan Henderson, John Herkimer, and Don Jensen — and to Chuck Howell and Michael Henry, curator and reference specialist, respectively, of the Library of American Broadcasting at the University of Maryland, where the CPRV collection resides. And last but hardly least, thanks are once again owed my wife, Ruth, who, while occasionally less certain than I of the value of some of my shortwave excursions, always shares my delight at journey’s end. This one has been longer than most and could not have been undertaken without her continued support and understanding and her faith that time would eventually bring me back to my senses. Any factual errors in the text are mine alone, and corrections, and different points of view, are welcome. Graphics are from the CPRV collection, my own collection, and the collections of various individuals. I have made every effort to contact copyright holders of original material when permission to utilize it appears necessary, and any errors in this regard are unintentional. For many years, high frequency broadcasting has survived recurring predictions of its demise. Happily, the end of the shortwave broadcasting story need not yet be written. However, while the lights are still on, they are unmistakably dimmed, as shortwave’s mission is taken up by other media and reliance on shortwave lessens. Many, including me, bemoan the decline in shortwave broadcasting, particularly among the smaller stations in faraway places that have made for exciting radio encounters. The irony that this is occurring at a time when it is easier than ever to listen to shortwave is not lost on those who have been at it for many years. For them, the magic continues.

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Titles, Abbreviations and Acronyms ACE, A*C*E .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Association of Clandestine Radio Enthusiasts ADXR .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Association of DX Reporters AIR .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  All India Radio ANARC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Association of North American Radio Clubs ARDXC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Australian Radio DX Club ASWLC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  American Shortwave Listeners Club AWA Journal .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the Antique Wireless Association, Inc. (since January 2005) AWA Review .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  annual anthology of the Antique Wireless Association, Inc. AWR .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Adventist World Radio BADX .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Boston Area DXers, or British Association of DXers BBC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  British Broadcasting Corp. BBG .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Broadcasting Board of Governors BCB .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  standard broadcast band, medium wave BDXC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  British DX Club BPL .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Broadcasting Over Power Lines CADEX .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the Canadian DX Club CADX .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Chicago Area DX Club CANDX .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of Canadian SWL International CB .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Citizens Band CBC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Canadian Broadcasting Corp. CDXC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Canadian DX Club CDXQ .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Club des DXers du Quebec CHAP .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Canadian Handicapped Aid Program CIDX .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Canadian International DX Club Communication .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the British DX Club CONTACT .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the World DX Club CRI .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  China Radio International 5

6

Titles, Abbreviations and Acronyms

CPRV .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Committee to Preserve Radio Verifications CSWLI .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Canadian SWL International (club) CW .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  continuous wave CW .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Communications World DSWCI .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Danish Shortwave Club(s) International DUDXS .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  “Down Under” DX Survey DW .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Deutsche Welle DX, DXing .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  distance, listening to distant stations DX Ontario .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the Ontario DX Association (through December 1999) DXLD .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  DX Listening Digest DXPL .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  DX Partyline (HCJB program) DX Reporter .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the Association of DX Reporters DXSF .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  DX South Florida EDXC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  European DX Council EI .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Electronics Illustrated FBIS .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Foreign Broadcast Information [Intelligence] Service FEBA .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Far East Broadcasting Association FEBC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Far East Broadcasting Co. FRENDX .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the North American Shortwave Association (through December 1989) GCSS .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Great Circle Shortwave Society HAP .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Handicapped Aid Program HFCC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  High Frequency Coordination Conference [Committee] HTL .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  How to Listen to the World IBB .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  International Broadcasting Bureau ID .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  identification IDXC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  International DXer’s Club of San Diego International Short Wave Radio .  .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the International Short Wave Club ISWC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  International Short Wave Club ISWL .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  International Short Wave League ITU .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  International Telecommunication Union kc., kHz. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  kilocycle(s), kilohertz kw. .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  kilowatt(s) Listening In .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the Ontario DX Association (from January 2000) LSB .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  lower sideband MARE .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Michigan Area Radio Enthusiasts mc., MHz . .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  megacycle(s), megahertz MDXC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Minnesota DX Club Messenger .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the Canadian International DX Club MT .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Monitoring Times

Titles, Abbreviations and Acronyms

7

MVDXC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Miami Valley DX Club MW .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  medium wave, standard broadcast band NASB .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  National Association of Shortwave Broadcasters NASWA .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  North American Shortwave Association NASWA Journal .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the North American Shortwave Association (from January 1990) New Zealand DX Times .  .  bulletin of the New Zealand Radio DX League NNRC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Newark News Radio Club NNRC Bulletin .  .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the Newark News Radio Club NU .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Numero Uno NZRDXL .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  New Zealand Radio DX League ODXA .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Ontario DX Association Old Timer’s Bulletin .  .  .  .  bulletin of the Antique Wireless Association, Inc. (through October 2004) ORF .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Österreichischer Rundfunk ORTF .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Office de Radiodiffusion Television Francaise Passport .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Passport to World Band Radio PE .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Popular Electronics PLL .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  phase locked loop PTT .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Post, Telephone & Telegraph QRM .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  interference QRN .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  noise, static QSL .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  verification of reception RBI .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Radio Berlin International RCI .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Radio Canada International RFE-RL .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Radio Free Europe-Radio Liberty RFPI .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Radio for Peace International RIB .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Review of International Broadcasting RNM .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Radio Nuevo Mundo RRI .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Radio Republik Indonesia SABC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  South African Broadcasting Corp. SCADS .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Southern California Area DXers SCDX .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Sweden Calling DXers Short Wave News .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the Danish Shortwave Club(s) International Short Wave News [ISWL] .  bulletin of the International Short Wave League (U.K.) or its predecessor magazine SPEEDX .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Society for the Preservation of the Engrossing Enjoyment of DXing SSB .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  single sideband SWBC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  shortwave broadcast SWC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Short Wave Center, a FRENDX column SWL .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  shortwave listener SWL .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the American Shortwave Listeners Club

8

Titles, Abbreviations and Acronyms

TDF .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Télédiffusion de France TWR .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Trans World Radio UADX .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Union of Asian DXers Universalite .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the Universal Radio DX Club URDXC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Universal Radio DX Club USB .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  upper sideband USIA .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  United States Information Agency VOA .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Voice of America VOFC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  Voice of Free China WDXC .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  World DX Club WPE Call Letter .  .  .  .  .  .  bulletin of the Great Circle Shortwave Society WRH, WRTH .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  World Radio Handbook, World Radio TV Handbook WT .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  The World at a Twirl

1 An Overview of Shortwave Broadcasting Short-wave Radio Is Often Like Coney Island. An evening at a short-wave radio is like a walk down the midway of the world. Barkers and pitchmen outshout each other. A hundred forms of music blare. Each country puts up a characteristic spiel in its broadcasts beamed to the Americas. The short-wave bands provide a marketplace of ideas but it more often resembles Coney Island than a forum.... The music up and down the short-wave boardwalk varies from country to country. Socialist countries tend to be longhair. London is addicted to popular music — popular, that is, some thirty years ago. Lisbon tends to be dreamy and full of tangos. Brazzaville, whose news covers Africa admirably, is given to Parisian cabaret music. Havana seems to be all tango and no news of Castro. The pleasant thing about short-wave listening is that there are no commercials unless the listener chooses thus to label the propaganda of the world’s governments.1 Universalite, 1959

Types of Stations The most basic paradigm of shortwave broadcasting divides stations into international broadcasters and domestic broadcasters. Several other subsets are well-known to the shortwave listening community and deserve special attention. They are religious broadcasting, clandestine broadcasting, domestic and foreign pirate radio, and private shortwave broadcasting from the United States.

INTERNATIONAL BROADCASTERS Many factors have prompted nations to become international broadcasters. The principal raison d’être of international broadcasting is to influence opinion makers, ordinary listeners, or —for decades in the Middle East — the “street.” International radio may serve as an official governmental voice and an arm of a country’s foreign policy establishment; promote a nation’s culture, tourism or commercial interests; educate and entertain; provide a link with expatriates abroad or at sea, or with the military; strengthen cultural ties with other nations; or satisfy national pride. It may promote, or combat, an ideology or a particular political viewpoint, or seek to save souls. And it may provide a valuable communications vehicle in times of crisis. 9

10

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

For all shortwave’s oft-touted ability to project national cultures and give different points of view, in North America the most listened to international shortwave stations have been those which reflect western culture and western media production values, and have a good signal. Most SWLs would include the following stations among them.

British Broadcasting Corp. (BBC)2 For nearly its entire history, the BBC has been one of the most powerful, dependable and easily found shortwave voices heard in the United States. This changed when it dropped its North American beam in 2001, although, with a little effort, it can still be heard comparatively well. Experimental shortwave broadcasts by the BBC began in 1927 over G5SW in Daventry. The Empire Service was established in 1932. As the name implies, the motivation behind this English-language service was to maintain contact with the many parts of the far-flung British Empire. Foreign language broadcasting was begun in 1938 with an Arabic service directed to the Middle East. It was largely a response to the propaganda broadcasts of Radio Bari, Italy, which were relayed on shortwave from Rome.3 Other foreign-language services directed to Europe, Latin America and elsewhere followed, and in 1939 the BBC overseas broadcasting effort became known collectively as the External Services. They consisted of the European Services, which retained a separate identity, and the Overseas Services, which were made up of the Empire Service plus the growing number of foreign language and specialized English-language services directed to areas beyond Europe. (A North American service was established in 1940.) In 1943 the Empire Service became the General Overseas Service. This was not strictly a renaming, for the General Overseas Service was an outgrowth not of the Empire Service

BBC station G5SW began experimental transmissions in 1927. The station operated in the 12 MHz. band with 10 kw. This card is from 1931, the year before the Empire Service was inaugurated (courtesy Dr. Adrian N. Peterson).

1. An Overview of Shortwave Broadcasting

11

itself but rather of the Overseas Forces Program, a special service intended for members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces serving throughout the world. It replaced the Empire Service as the BBC’s main English-language service. In 1965 the General Overseas Service became the World Service, a title that was extended to all BBC external broadcasting, in all languages, in 1988. The BBC transmitter plants in the U.K. and throughout the world were privatized in 1997 and thereafter were operated by Merlin Communications International, Ltd., which later became VT Communications. For nearly its entire life, but particularly since the days of World War II when it attracted huge audiences, the BBC has been recognized worldwide as the source of the most objective news and some of the highest quality (if sometimes stuffy) international programming on shortwave.4 This is due in part to its huge, long term experience in U.K. domestic broadcasting. While in recent years its reputation has been tarnished at times as the BBC sought to stay relevant in a fast-changing, budget-challenging media environment, most listeners still view it as the main pillar of international shortwave. However, while the American shortwave community has followed home debates about BBC external broadcasting less closely than those about the VOA (see below), the BBC has operated with many of the same tensions and faced many of the same issues and challenges as its American cousin.5

Voice of America (VOA)6 The German-language announcement in the VOA’s first broadcast to Europe in February 1942 was straightforward: “Every day at this time we will bring you the news of the war. The news may be good. The news may be bad. We shall tell you the truth.” It was probably the last time the VOA’s mission would seem simple, for the station’s entire existence has been a lesson in the complexities of governmental broadcasting in a democracy. Opposed at first by domestic broadcasting interests fearful that it might lead to domestic broadcasting by the government and competition with private stations (the VOA is prohibited from broadcasting to the United States), they eventually gave up the fight in the face of wartime needs for a better propaganda effort and the demonstrated unprofitability of America’s private shortwave broadcasting efforts. The VOA leased the shortwave facilities of the private stations and paid their owners to operate them for the VOA. While the owners retained the right to resume private broadcasting after the war, only WRUL did so. The rest were happy to be out of the business.7 By the mid–1940s, the VOA domestic transmitting stations totaled 11, including four that were brought on line after the VOA’s formation. Over time, all would close. Another domestic station — Greenville, North Carolina — opened in 1962, and over the years the VOA expanded its overseas relay network from the original two stations in Algeria and Hawaii to a powerful chain of high power transmitters in the Philippines, Germany, Greece, Tangiers, Liberia, São Tome, and many other places. VOA seems always to have been in the sights of Congress, the administration, or professional journalists over one issue or another, usually centering around the organization and efficacy of VOA versus the surrogate broadcasters (see below), and whether VOA is principally a journalistic endeavor that should be governed by journalistic standards or a propaganda vehicle that should emphasize the positive and promote official government policy.8 On the latter issue, in fact it is some of each. (Propaganda is now called public diplomacy, having been cleansed of its negative implications.9) The brief VOA charter, which

12

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

Born of a wartime need for a national voice, the VOA’s history has been one of success, notwithstanding numerous political challenges.

was adopted administratively in 1960 and by statute in 1976, provides that the VOA broadcast news that is accurate, objective and comprehensive, that VOA be balanced and comprehensive in its portrayal of American thought and institutions, and that it present the policies of the United States and responsible discussion and opinion on those policies.10 Organizationally, the VOA was at first an arm of the Department of State, which had neither experience nor interest in broadcasting. In 1953 it became part of the new, autonomous, United States Information Agency. The USIA was dissolved in 1999 and the VOA and the surrogate broadcasters placed under the control of a newly independent Broadcasting Board of Governors (which had been part of the USIA from 1994 to 1999). During all these years, in addition to the expected bureaucratic battles, VOA faced recurring questions about objectivity vs. editorializing, whether a hard or soft tone against communism was the better strategy, and who was listening and whether the VOA message was having any effect. The McCarthy years were particularly damaging, with the agency under attack on all fronts—facilities, management and programming.11 In addition, the VOA was expected to be responsive to periodic congressional demands for changes in service or for new surrogate broadcasting efforts. All of these issues had their impact on VOA appropriations. In recent years, the VOA debate has focused on the creation of the various specialized broadcasting services— surrogates like Radio Martí and Radio Free Asia, or VOA rebrandings such as Radio Sawa, Radio Farda and others— which have either duplicated or replaced the parallel VOA language services.12 The rebranding approach was partially styled along the lines of RFE-RL which, it was believed, had been an important element in winning the cold war. It exemplified the notion that the techniques of U.S. commercial broadcasting

1. An Overview of Shortwave Broadcasting

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could and should be applied to international broadcasting, with the focus on a marketsensitive format and on building audiences with music and entertainment and inserting the news in small doses. The debate gained momentum after September 11 and was fueled partly by a decision of VOA management to broadcast an exclusive interview with Taliban leader Mullah Mohamed Omar, a decision felt necessary in order to provide full and objective reporting of the then-unfolding events. Not everyone agreed, however, and in 2002 two new rebranded VOA efforts came into existence, the Arabic-language Radio Sawa and the Irantargeted Radio Farda. This was followed in 2004 by the Arabic-language Alhurra satellite TV channel. Even some regular VOA language services adopted surrogate-like names, such as Radio Aap Ki Dunya (Urdu) and Radio Ashna (Dari and Pashto). The discussion about traditional vs. surrogate and rebranded broadcasting has taken place at a time when budgets have been under great pressure, fueling the search for new, more cost-effective approaches to governmental functions. In addition, it has provided a convenient means of placating hard-line domestic constituencies. The creation of surrogate and rebranded “stations” has permitted the government to appear tough with the targeted countries while at the same time negotiating with them on other important matters (such as most favored nation status for China).13 VOA journalists fear that these services operate outside professional journalistic guidelines, trade long-term gain for short-term advantage by catering to the “street” rather than to opinion makers, and deprive VOA’s core operations of needed resources, all leading to a weakened VOA.14 The most recent conflict (2006–07) has been about continued reductions in VOA English-language broadcasting — just the opposite of a strategy adopted in the late 1950s when English was believed to be the language spoken by more people who were politically curious, and thus a VOA priority. For many years, English was the largest of the VOA language services.15 To some, today’s small audiences in the major Englishspeaking countries, the availability to them of other media, and the absence of a mission to serve Americans abroad are all good reasons to shift resources to areas of greater political interest to the United States. To others, the notion that the world’s largest English-speaking nation would not have a robust international broadcasting service in its own language is unthinkable. Such are the conflicts in VOA policy making.

Radio Canada International 16 Probably no international broadcaster still on the air has endured greater hardship than Radio Canada International. As one knowledgeable observer put it, “The history of Radio Canada International has been a series of intermittent terrors with reprieves at the last minute for a few years and then it starts all over again with a new breed of politicians who again do not know about it.”17 RCI began with much promise in 1945 as the International Service of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation.18 It was born as much to keep Canadian troops in touch with home as to tell Canada’s story to the world. At the start, broadcasts were for six hours daily in English, French and German, aimed mainly to Europe and North America. Other languages, and services to Africa and the Middle East, were soon added. As the cold war advanced, news, commentary and information about Canada replaced much of the music and drama that had become an International Service staple.

14

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

It was called the International Service of the Canadian Broadcasting Corp. rather than Radio Canada International when Canada first found its shortwave voice in 1945.

The International Service was run by the CBC but funded through Canada’s Ministry of External Affairs. In 1968 the International Service was made a part of the CBC for all purposes, including funding. In practical terms, however, CBC’s control over, and interest in, RCI was minimal. RCI did not discourage this low-profile arrangement, although it worked to RCI’s disadvantage when it needed support. In 1970, the International Service became Radio Canada International. The next two decades saw continuous improvement at RCI. Transmitters of 250 kw. were installed in 1971. Following good results with relays of RCI’s signal from Daventry, England, in 1966, additional relays were added via Sines, Portugal (1972), Cyclops, Malta (for a brief time only, 1974–75), and Yamata, Japan (1989). Some domestic CBC material was added to an expanding program lineup. RCI managed to accommodate many budget cuts in the 1970s and 1980s. However, in 1991 recessionary conditions across Canada, and major government-wide budget reductions, resulted in crippling cuts at RCI. These led to the loss of almost half the staff and elimination of six of RCI’s 13 language services. Moreover, nearly all RCI-produced programming was replaced with generic CBC French and English domestic programs, robbing RCI of its distinct on-air persona. “SWL Digest,” the popular DX program which engendered much station loyalty among SWLs, was dropped, as was a great deal else in the RCI program lineup. Organizationally, RCI remained within the CBC, with RCI funding coming part from the CBC and part from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. There were more cuts in 1993, and in 1996 another crisis occurred, with RCI a mere week from closing down when a decision was reached for RCI funding to be shared by the CBC and several govern-

1. An Overview of Shortwave Broadcasting

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The call of the Kookaburra over Radio Australia was one of the sounds of shortwave that enticed new SWLs.

ment ministries. Soon both CBC and ministry funding was replaced with direct funding out of general government operating funds. In 2003, RCI funding was integrated into the CBC budget. During the 1990s RCI was able to resume production of some of its own programming. Relay agreements increased, ensuring a strong signal in RCI target areas, and capital funds permitted the purchase of new equipment. The Sackville transmitters were also made available for relays of other broadcasters’ programs, a practice that was becoming increasingly common among international shortwave broadcasters. RCI’s search for a mission that can be endorsed by both the government and the CBC continues. Recently the RCI program lineup was completely revamped as part of a newly announced RCI priority to provide a link with new immigrants and potential immigrants. Whether this change will stanch the station’s periodic organizational hemorrhages, and how it will affect the RCI audience, remains to be seen. Over the years, the high level of RCI’s program content contributed greatly to the station’s popularity. However, its organizational problems, as manifested by an overall diminution of program content, surely have cost it listeners.19

16

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

Radio Australia20 There has been no friendlier voice on the shortwave bands than Radio Australia, whose programming has entertained shortwave listeners for decades. Australia entered international broadcasting in 1939 when it found itself on the sidelines of shortwave’s worldwide expansion. As the Prime Minister said when he opened the external shortwave service, “the time has come to speak for ourselves.” “Australia Calling,” as it was known at first, was a joint project of the Australian Broadcasting Commission (changed to “Corporation” in 1983) and the Broadcasting Division of the Department of Information until 1941, when the Department of Information took full control. Less than a year later it returned to the ABC, where it stayed until again reverting to the Department of Information in 1944. The station was renamed Radio Australia in 1945, and returned once again to the ABC in 1950. Although at the outset “Australia Calling” could be heard in Spanish, German, Dutch, French, Italian and Afrikaans, in addition to English, soon these were reduced to French and Dutch as the station concentrated on reaching nearby peoples in Asia and the Pacific. Broadcasts in Japanese, Thai, Indonesian and Mandarin Chinese were introduced during the war. In 1942, some 200 American BCB stations were rebroadcasting the station’s “Americans Calling Home” program in which American GIs “down under” sent recorded greetings to family and friends. Technologically, “Australia Calling” started out modestly, using 2 kw. and 10 kw. transmitters located in Sydney, Lyndhurst and Perth. A 50 kw. station was built at Shepparton in 1942 and upgraded to 100 kw. within a few years. A 250 kw. station at Darwin was brought on line in 1968. It was destroyed by a cyclone in 1974, but was returned to limited service in 1979 and full service from 1984 to 1997. Another 250 kw. station, at Carnarvon, was built in 1975 and remained in use until 1996, and a 10 kw. station was built in Brandon in 1988. While not evident on the air, the political and organizational conflicts which surrounded Radio Australia from the very start were at least as intense as those that faced the VOA, and led to some of the same compromises between journalism and diplomacy as are typical in international broadcasting. This was especially true during the war years, and particularly noticeable in the station’s impact on Indonesia, which was considerable. The extensive use of shortwave in Indonesia, which made Radio Republik Indonesia accessible in even the remotest parts of the archipelago, made it easy for Indonesians to pick up Radio Australia. Australia had been sympathetic to the Dutch in the fight for independence that followed Japan’s departure from the islands, and this may have set the stage for Radio Australia’s decades-long, sometimes rocky media relationship with Indonesia. Radio Australia’s shortwave signal was strong and dependable in the United States. Listening to Radio Australia was (and is) like putting on a pair of old slippers— an act both comfortable and unpretentious. In addition, Radio Australia was home to two weekly programs which were favorites of SWLs: “DXers Calling,” on the air from 1946 to 1977, and the mailbag program, which ran from the late 1940s to 1980. Changes in Radio Australia became evident in 1983 when the station replaced its targeted programs for North America and Europe with a general service that conveyed less personal touch. The overall style of the programs did not change radically, however, and the station retained its popularity. At home, however, support for international broadcast-

1. An Overview of Shortwave Broadcasting

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ing was waning, and by the mid–1990s budget cuts led to downsizing and the loss of many staff, and a clear refocusing on Asia and the Pacific.21 Over time, programming from Radio National, an ABC domestic service, increasingly replaced Radio Australia-produced programs. In 2000, the Darwin station was leased for ten years to Christian Voice, a U.K.–based international religious broadcaster. (The ABC soon had second thoughts, and Radio Australia now finds itself renting time from its own lessee.)

Radio Netherlands22 The small nation of Holland was one of the pioneers in international broadcasting. It began experimenting with shortwave to reach its colonies in the Dutch East Indies (later Indonesia) and the Dutch West Indies (Surinam and various Caribbean islands) in 1926. The effort was led by Philips Laboratories, a private firm in Eindhoven. Station PCJJ took to the air in March 1927 on 9930 kHz. and was arguably the first station anywhere to offer a distinct shortwave service (as opposed to a simulcast of broadcast band programming, which was the practice of the U.S. shortwave stations). The station moved to Huizen in 1927, and a new colonial broadcasting company, N. V. Philips Omroep Holland-Indie (PHOHI), was established in nearby Hilversum. A new 40 kw. transmitter, PHI, went into operation in 1929, with PCJJ thereafter retaining more of an experimental, less disciplined character.

This QSL from 1929 is only two years younger than PCJ itself. The impact of the Netherlands on shortwave broadcasting has been far larger than one would expect from this small country.

18

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

One of Philips’ early announcers was the effervescent Edward Startz, who had gone to work for the station in 1928 following a five-year sojourn in the United States, where he had a modest career as dishwasher, interpreter and traveling salesman, and a trip to South America, where he earned his passage as a ship’s steward. He created the “Happy Station” slogan by which the station, and his program, would soon be known. Financial problems and uncertainty in relations among Philips, the government and various domestic broadcasting interests led to the station’s closure from June of 1930 to Christmas Eve, 1932, by which time competition from the shortwave broadcasting activities of other countries had grown. To increase the station’s exposure, and raise some money, Startz was sent on several international promotional tours, the first one to the Dutch East Indies, where he demonstrated greater strength in showmanship than in fund raising. A new order came to Dutch shortwave broadcasting in 1945 following the five-year takeover of Holland’s shortwave stations by the Germans. Philips was out and a new national shortwave broadcasting service, Radio Nederland Wereldomroep, was created. There were many echoes of the station’s prewar period, including the reappearance of Startz, who had continued to live in Hilversum during the war. “Happy Station” was back. Foreign language broadcasting commenced, including, in 1947, a regular English-language service. But there would be no broadcasts in German. The development of Radio Netherlands was influenced by many things, including Dutch pluralism and prewar neutrality, which manifested itself in early bans on political and religious propaganda on shortwave; the politics of Dutch wartime broadcasting from Britain; and Holland’s centuries-old commitment to democracy and freedom. But respect for the country’s extensive shortwave history played a part as well in the small nation’s considerable, and long-term, commitment to shortwave broadcasting. Its voice was strengthened in 1956 when new 100 kw. transmitters were installed. Powerful relay stations were built in Bonaire (1969) and Madagascar (1971), and at home a new transmitter base, equipped with 500 kw. senders, was inaugurated at Flevo in 1985. Shortwave listeners were disappointed in 2000 when Radio Netherlands canceled its popular, 19-year-old “Media Network” program (which had itself grown out of the 20year-old “DX Jukebox”). They were surprised again in 2007 when the station dropped use of the now-privatized Flevo transmitter site in favor of renting time on transmitters outside the Netherlands. Through its commitment to continued shortwave broadcasting to America, its strong English language presence, and its adoption of high-quality program production values, Radio Netherlands has, at least for now, managed to preserve its considerable shortwave presence.

Deutsche Welle 23 Germany has long been a leader in international broadcasting. It began experimental shortwave transmissions in the mid–1920s, and in 1929 the Reichspost opened one of the world’s first international shortwave broadcasting stations. Located at Zeesen, near KönigsWusterhausen in what was later East Germany, by the mid–1930s the “Deutscher Kurzwellensender” was beaming programs worldwide with 50 kw. transmitters, and was the dominant voice on the shortwave bands. The facility was expanded in the 1940s and power increased to 120 kw. Shortwave broadcasting in what became West Germany was suspended after the war,

Before the war, as a Reich station, and after, Germany’s voice was one of the strongest on the shortwave bands.

20

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

but by 1946 a regional broadcasting structure had been adopted and the regional stations were permitted to use low power shortwave in addition to medium wave. In 1952 one of these stations, Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk, began regular test broadcasts on shortwave. This led to the establishment of an overseas shortwave service utilizing 20 kw. transmitters at Norden-Osterloog. The service was named Deutsche Welle (Voice of Germany), and in 1953 it was adopted by the umbrella organization of German regional stations24 before becoming a national-level public corporation in 1960. Additional Deutsche Welle transmitter sites came on line in 1956 (Jülich) and 1972 (Wertachtel), along with relay stations in Rwanda (1965), Portugal (1970), Malta (1974), Antigua (1976), Montserrat (1977),25 and Sri Lanka (1984). In East Germany, the domestic broadcaster, Radio DDR, was formed in 1953 and was heard via a shortwave transmitter at Leipzig that had previously been used by Deutschlandsender and Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk. In 1959, an international service called Radio Berlin International (RBI) was begun in order to counter the growing on-air presence of Deutsche Welle. It used the transmitters in Leipzig and Königs-Wusterhausen, and new broadcast transmitters in Nauen. Radio Berlin International remained on the air until German reunification in October 1990, whereupon Deutsche Welle inherited the three RBI transmitter sites. Deutsche Welle has long enjoyed strong reception in America. Its programs have been informative and well-produced. In addition, starting in the early 1990s, the Deutsche Bundespost, Deutsche Welle’s national transmitter provider (later known as Deutsche Telekom), made transmitter time available to numerous other international shortwave stations, as well as religious broadcasters, smaller domestic broadcasters, and opposition groups who wished to purchase air time. Time on German shortwave transmitters was available to practically anyone who could pay for it. Deutsche Welle has reduced its operations on shortwave in recent years. It stopped broadcasting in English to North America in 2003, and in 2006 it ended all transmissions to North America (except for a half-hour German-language DRM relay via Canada, later also dropped), effectively foreclosing reliable reception of the station on shortwave in this part of the world. This was followed by the sale of the Jülich transmitter facility to a religious organization (effective in 2008), and the transfer of a sizeable portion of DW’s shortwave transmission needs from Deutsche Telekom to the worldwide transmitter network of Britain’s VT Communications in 2007. The full implications of this change in German shortwave broadcasting remain to be seen.

Other Stations There are other stations that could rightly claim a place among those mentioned above. Radio Sweden is one. Swiss Radio International, a well-respected, strong-signal station for the nearly 70 years that it was on shortwave, is another. Radio RSA and Radio Austria International were also popular before they reduced their on-air presence. Others have had strong signals but English-language programming too brief to warrant as much of a following. These include Radio France International, Radio Portugal, Radio Exterior de España, the Voice of Greece, Kol Israel, RAI (Italy), and the Voice of Turkey. Radio Norway, Radio Denmark and Radio Finland were also in this group when they were on shortwave. Over the years, much shortwave programming has had an over-rehearsed quality.

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Nowhere was this more evident than in the Soviet and eastern bloc programming of the cold war years. The strong signals of Radio Moscow and its Eastern European surrogates offered fare that was notoriously tedious and lacking in spontaneity. The 1990s saw many changes in this pattern, and while old habits die hard, a few stations, like Radio Prague and China Radio International, are mastering the media lessons of the post–Soviet world.

DOMESTIC BROADCASTERS Domestic shortwave broadcasting is usually driven by a wish to cover national or regional geographic areas too large or too remote to be reached at a reasonable cost by medium wave or FM transmitters.26 The range of FM transmitters is short, and, in the tropics, medium wave reception is degraded by high noise levels. Commercial medium wave stations have also used the range of their simulcasted shortwave signals to impress advertisers with the size of their audience, an attitude reminiscent of the 1930s when consumer-targeted shortwave broadcasting was thought to have great promise. Unlike international broadcasting, domestic shortwave broadcasting is characterized by lower power, and by local stations, with programming usually borrowed from a station’s AM or FM channel. Thus these stations project both an authenticity sometimes lacking in international broadcasts, and a greater DX challenge. For these reasons they are the targets most sought after by DXers, and the heart of the DX culture.

Radio Martinique is typical of many stations in the Americas which extended their reach by operating small shortwave transmitters in parallel with their medium wave and FM transmissions.

22

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

At one time practically every country had a domestic shortwave service of one kind or another. Although the number of stations has declined greatly, some domestic shortwave broadcasting still takes place, particularly in less developed parts of the world. And most of the religious and commercial shortwave stations in the United States, while nominally broadcasting to other countries, often have U.S. listeners as one of their target audiences, and so even the United States has a domestic shortwave service of sorts. Although some domestic shortwave broadcasting takes place on the higher bands, the tropical bands have been its traditional home. These are the frequencies in the 60, 90 and 120 meter bands, or 4750–5060, 3200–3400 and 2300–2495 kHz. In 1938, the International Telecommunication Union allocated these bands, with some exceptions, to countries lying between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Prior to that time, when shortwave broadcasting was relatively new, little broadcasting took place in these frequency ranges. By the early 1940s, their usage had increased markedly, mainly for domestic broadcasting (plus some regional broadcasting and short-haul international broadcasting). Soon the tropical bands were the principal focus of serious DXers. Regrettably, the situation has changed dramatically over the years, and not for the better. As more and more FM stations were constructed and as terrestrial and satellite TV have outpaced radio as the news and entertainment media of choice, stations have closed down their tropical band services or foregone expensive repairs when equipment has broken down. The result is that the tropical bands have become depopulated. The table below tells the story.27 According to the data in the various annual editions of the Tropical Bands Survey and the Domestic Broadcasting Survey compiled by Anker Petersen of the Danish Shortwave Club International, the number of active transmitters in the tropical bands declined from 1,106 in 1973 to 307 in 2007, a drop of more than two-thirds. The number of transmitters operating in 2007 was less than half the number of ten years before. Active Domestic Transmitters, 2200–5800 kHz. From Data Compiled by Anker Petersen, DSWCI Region Central Africa Southern Africa Middle East Indian Subcontinent South East Asia Indonesia China, Taiwan & Mongolia Former Soviet Union Far East Papua New Guinea Other Pacific Central America & Mexico Caribbean NW South America Ecuador Peru Bolivia Brazil Southern South America Total

1973 102 57 9 62 40 171 119 61 38 17 10 21 29 98 47 78 35 107 5 1,106

1985

1997

2003

2007

76 39 4 45 29 105 110 59 28 20 4 23 3 41 33 69 42 87 2 819

40 33 1 45 21 65 75 47 28 20 13 24 3 19 22 78 25 67 1 627

26 9 0 36 7 19 44 21 17 20 7 17 4 5 13 53 15 50 0 363

22 9 0 36 6 15 39 9 12 16 12 10 3 3 8 39 22 45 1 307

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This reality is well known to tropical band DXers. For North American listeners, the tropical bands were first and foremost home to a huge number of local commercial stations from the Spanish-speaking parts of Central and South America and the Caribbean, and Portuguese-speaking Brazil.28 These stations, along with many stations in Africa and Asia (especially Indonesia), were the exotica of shortwave and made tempting DX targets. As recently as the 1980s, even though the decline in tropical band broadcasting was underway, many new stations were still coming on the air, and the bands— especially the 60 meter band — were places of active DXing. Now these once-abundant hunting grounds are home to a much-reduced number of “regulars,” with new stations a rarity. There has been a decrease in domestic broadcasting on the higher bands as well, although not as dramatic as in the tropical bands. While changes in methodology do not permit exact comparisons from year to year, there were 28 percent fewer entries above the tropical bands in the 2007 Domestic Broadcasting Survey than in the edition for 1999, the first year it was published. (Clandestine stations were excluded.)

RELIGIOUS BROADCASTERS29 Shortwave has been a particularly suitable medium for Christian broadcasting. It has long had substantial audiences in underdeveloped areas, home to both believers and souls thought in need of saving.30 Its long-distance properties have provided missionaries with a “live” reach not easily available through other media. More people could be reached through radio than through regular missionary work, including listeners who are illiterate and thus not candidates for print evangelism. In addition, the existing religious broadcasting industry in the west, particularly in the United States, has served as a ready source of programming.31 As early as the 1920s, American religious broadcasters such as Paul Rader, Aimee Semple McPherson and numerous others had learned how potent could be the mix of radio and the good book. These factors, together with the missionary zeal of some sectors of the American religious community, made the United States a natural leader in the field.32 Most of the international religious broadcasters, large and small, that operate their own shortwave stations in various countries have been headquartered in the United States. Most preach evangelical Protestantism. In addition, all but a few of the non-governmental shortwave broadcasting stations in the United States are religious in nature, and the rest include some religious programming in their program lineup. And numerous standalone religious organizations lease time on shortwave transmitters around the world. Christian broadcasters have had one major advantage in their use of shortwave — they could afford it. Some, like Adventist World Radio, WYFR, WEWN and KTBN are offshoots of larger religious enterprises that can provide financial support. Others, such as WWCR, WHRI, WMLK, WINB and KNLS were formed for the specific purpose of selling air time for religious programming prepared by others, either exclusively or as a supplement to their own programs. Most religious stations also have low operating costs and benefit from some direct contributions. In the leased-time era, some brokers and umbrella broadcasters, such as Pan American Broadcasting and the former World Beacon, have specialized in placing the output of religious program producers on shortwave stations. And the voices of some

24

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

preachers, such as Brother Stair and the late Dr. Gene Scott, have been ubiquitous on shortwave. Even death has not stopped Dr. Scott. The use of international shortwave broadcasting for commercial purposes, on the other hand, has never been successful. Most of the stations that have attempted it in the U.S., such as WRUL (later WNYW), WRNO, and KUSW, are now gone. WNYW was sold to WYFR and became a religious station. Commercial shortwave stations that continue to survive, such as WRMI and WBCQ, have had to carry some religious programming in order to pay the bills. Save perhaps for Vatican Radio which was founded in February 1931, the earliest major religious shortwave station was HCJB, Quito, Ecuador. The creation of American evangelists Clarence W. Jones and Reuben E. Larson, it began broadcasting on Christmas day of the same year.33 Starting out with a 200 watt transmitter, HCJB developed a major shortwave presence that lasted until 2003 when major cutbacks began. For the decades in between it was one of the first stations a new SWL would hear, and it was very friendly toward the SWL community. It’s DX program, “DX Partyline,” was on the air for over 40 years, and the related HCJB–sponsored ANDEX club was similarly long-lived (1974–96). HCJB remains on shortwave, albeit no longer in English. Recently, however, budget constraints, plus the need to remove its antennas due to nearby airport construction, brought about a rethinking of the entire ministry. Its shortwave activities have been greatly reduced, and there is a new emphasis on Latin America and on assisting in the development of local radio worldwide. Many stations followed the HCJB lead and religious broadcasting grew by leaps and bounds.34 The Far East Broadcasting Co. (FEBC) in the Philippines came to air on shortwave in 1949, as did TIFC, the “Lighthouse of the Caribbean,” in Costa Rica. The 1950s saw the birth of a number of Christian broadcasters that would become well-known in the shortwave community: TGNA (“Telling the Good News Abroad”), Guatemala;35 4VEH, Haiti; ELWA (“Eternal Love Winning Africa”), Liberia; and the Voice of Tangier, predecessor station to Trans World Radio (“Telling the World of Redemption”), which would become one of the largest international religious broadcasters. FEBC took over historic U.S. station KGEI in 1960. ETLF, Ethiopia; Radio Veritas Asia (a Catholic station) and South East Asia Radio Voice, both in the Philippines; and the Far East Broadcasting Association in the Seychelles (an FEBC offshoot), were all established in the 1960s. The year 1971 saw the creation of Adventist World Radio (AWR), and the Voice of Hope in southern Lebanon came on the air in 1981. In 2003, while its shortwave activities in Ecuador were retrenching, HCJB opened a new shortwave station in Australia. The missions and other religious interests behind most of the stations named above have been located — at least in the stations’ early stages— in the United States. There are some stations that are based outside the U.S., such as Christian Vision, which was founded in the U.K. in 1988 and which operates shortwave stations in several countries. In addition, numerous smaller shortwave stations operated by local religious bodies have operated in Central and South America, and some elsewhere. Although many of these stations were regularly heard in North America, they were mainly local in character, broadcasting little if any English. Religious broadcasting on shortwave flourished as stations established relay sites around the world and otherwise expanded. In addition, the 1980s saw the rebirth of private shortwave broadcasting in the United States. This gave religious shortwave broadcast-

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Although its continued presence on shortwave is now problematic, HCJB was one of the first stations to recognize the potential of mixing evangelism and long range broadcasting.

ing a tremendous boost because virtually all the new U.S. stations were religious in nature. These included KNLS (Alaska), KCBI (Texas), WHRI (Indiana), WMLK (Pennsylvania), KVOH (California), KJES (New Mexico), and WWCR (Tennessee), plus Christian Science stations WCSN (Maine) and WSHB (North Carolina). Religious stations also took root in American territories, i.e., KFBS (an FEBC station, on Saipan), KSDA (an AWR station on Guam), and KYOI, a private station on Saipan which was purchased by the Christian Science church and later became KHBI. In 1990 another private station, KUSW in Utah, was purchased by the Trinity Broadcasting Network and became KTBN. American religious stations begun in the 1990s were WJCR (Kentucky), WEWN (a Catholic station in Alabama), KWHR (Hawaii; owned by WHRI), WGTG and WWBS (Georgia), and WTJC (North Carolina), plus KHBN on the island of Palau (an American trusteeship at the time). The leased-time revolution of the 1990s (see p. 60) also saw an expansion in the producers of religious programs renting time on newly available shortwave transmitters. This was not an entirely new phenomenon, for smaller broadcasters such as IBRA Radio and Norea Radio had been renting time for decades, as had some larger broadcasters like Adventist World Radio. Now, however, the business exploded and all manner of religious programs were heard on shortwave, including an increasing number from Europe as well as America. Non-Christian programming also appeared, although this was rarely in English and thus had small impact in America.

26

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

Leased time provided new audiences to broadcasters who otherwise would have been unable to dream of being heard internationally. To transmitter operators it was a new, much-needed source of revenue. Leased time also made for strange bedfellows, with many Christian programs emanating from Russia. And Christian clients were welcome at the powerful Al Dhabbaya shortwave site in Abu Dhabi. While many Christian shortwave broadcasters have thrived, others have suffered from the same budgetary constraints and competition that face shortwave broadcasters generally. The Christian Science Monitor abandoned shortwave in 2004 after establishing three powerful shortwave stations as part of an ill-conceived Christian Science media expansion. HCJB’s shortwave presence from Ecuador has been greatly reduced and is still shrinking. Some of the smaller mission stations, such as 4VEH, TGNA, and TIFC, dropped shortwave in favor of AM and FM or let their shortwave transmitters fall into disrepair. Others, like ELWA and ETLF, were the victims of political upheavals in their adopted countries (ELWA has managed to recover on a limited basis). Some of the U.S. stations have left the air, and others have supplemented their religious programming with right-wing fare. Overall, however, religious broadcasters still have a major presence on shortwave, and the loss of air time by some has probably been more than compensated for by the increases of others.

PRIVATE SHORTWAVE BROADCASTING IN THE UNITED STATES37 Although it took place before 1945, knowledge of early American shortwave broadcasting is important to an understanding of the later years. It is one of the most interesting stories in shortwave history. The major players were the big radio companies— Crosley, General Electric, Westinghouse, CBS and NBC, plus a few outsiders like the World Wide Broadcasting Corp. They were motivated at first by the experimental nature of the medium, and then by domestic considerations— hopes that shortwave could replace expensive wire hookups for network broadcasting, increase the number of available broadcasting channels, provide economical nationwide “super station” service, and contribute to new markets for radio equipment. Later there were thoughts of hoped-for (but never-realized) profits from sponsors. The story of Frank Conrad’s pioneering experimental transmissions over the 8XS shortwave transmitter of Westinghouse station KDKA starting in 1922 is well known. KDKA shortwave became W8XK.38 Other companies followed the Westinghouse lead. Although the victory of land lines over shortwave in 1926 was a major brake on shortwave’s commercial development, by then a number of shortwave stations, usually co-located with and simulcasting the programs of their standard broadcast parents, were on the air, with others in the wings and momentum building. In 1924, General Electric put W2XAF and W2XAD on the air from Schenectady, New York. Crosley set up W8XAL in Harrison, Ohio the same year. (It moved to Mason, Ohio in 1928.) RCA’s W3XL in Bound Brook, New Jersey went into operation in 1925, and was soon joined by W3XAL. (Operation of the stations was later transferred to NBC, which was then owned by RCA.) CBS followed with W2XE on Long Island, in 1928, and W3XAU in Philadelphia in 1930. In the latter year Westinghouse set up another shortwave station — W1XAZ — this time in Springfield, Massachusetts (later it was moved to Millis). In 1931, Walter Lemmon bought W2XAL, a small shortwave station in New York,

General Electric was one of the several American radio giants that entered shortwave broadcasting for technical and commercial reasons. As this QSL from 1944 shows, GE was still verifying reports on its stations even after they had been put at the disposal of the VOA in 1942.

28

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

and moved it to Massachusetts where it operated as W1XAL. It became the well-known WRUL in 1939 when all stations traded in their experimental “X” calls for regular four-letter identifiers. In the early to mid–1930s some smaller players entered the field as well, including W4XB, “Wonderful Isle of Dreams Broadcasting Co.,” in Miami; W9XAA, Chicago, “the Shortwave Voice of Labor and Farmer”; and W9XF, also in Chicago. In 1937, GE opened a shortwave transmitter in Belmont, California, W6XBE, which would become KGEI. The first experiments in foreign shortwave broadcasting from the U.S. were in 1923 when the KDKA “Far North Program” was beamed to the Arctic in the summer, and later that year when special KDKA shortwave tests were picked up by 2AC in Manchester, England and rebroadcast on medium wave. KDKA programs were heard and rebroadcast in other countries as well. For the most part, however, programming was whatever the station’s broadcast band twin was offering, as befitted a medium focused more on technological possibilities than on content. The economic imperatives of private broadcasting made it difficult to compete with government-supported stations in Europe, especially with the FCC prohibition against on-air advertising. American stations were transmitting many hours daily to Central and South America, but the programming, mostly domestic American fare, was generally considered inadequate. The development of specialized, foreign-language programming was expensive. There were also many deficiencies in the technical quality of American shortwave signals. American stations, by and large, were not particularly well maintained, and over- and undermodulation, and hums on carriers, were not unusual. Compared to European stations, the American effort was puny. Yet American broadcasters were loath to admit the financial liability that shortwave represented, lest the government take it over and establish a precedent for greater control over broadcasting in general.39 This situation changed over time. Stations began looking for special events that would make good subjects for overseas broadcasts. GE started foreign-language broadcasting in 1931, and by the next year was beaming programs to specific parts of the world. By 1937 it was broadcasting a significant amount of international programming, and had one transmitter operating at 100 kw. (By this time, shortwave bands on consumer radios was commonplace.) RCA established an International Division within NBC in 1936. Programs were directed to Europe, the Far East and Latin America. The quantity and quality of specially prepared shortwave programming improved, and NBC was soon the leader in shortwave program production. NBC, CBS and Crosley each set up Latin American networks for rebroadcast of their shortwave material on medium wave. Latin America had become a focus of American international programming, in part because Germany and Italy already had well-established shortwave services directed there.40 Six months after Pearl Harbor, NBC had 92 people on its shortwave staff. It became the chief supplier of programming to the shortwave effort of General Electric, which was more interested in the technical side of the medium. CBS also developed a major shortwave program-production capability, and a significant international shortwave service, and Crosley upgraded its efforts as well. Westinghouse, the pioneer shortwave broadcaster, took a lower profile. The stations were motivated in part by storm clouds overseas and by an unsuccessful attempt in Congress to create a government shortwave station. Industry fears of expanded

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government involvement in shortwave broadcasting, and broadcasting generally, were not misplaced. Even though the Coordinator of Information (later the Office of War Information) and the office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, both created in 1941, did not have direct control over shortwave broadcasting, they took an active interest in providing guidance, and specific program material, to the private shortwave broadcasters, and also leased network studios and purchased unsold advertising time.41 The broadcasters, which had many other important issues pending before the government (which was usually sympathetic to their interests), emphasized the “good will” nature of their shortwave work and the service to the country which it represented. In the end, the patchwork of private shortwave broadcasting together with the government’s benign assistance were no match for countries like Germany and England, which were well along in shortwave broadcasting. Federal direction increased, and in 1942 the government effectively took over shortwave broadcasting, establishing the “Voice of America” utilizing the private broadcasters’ facilities on a leased basis. (NBC and CBS continued producing some programming for the government on a contract basis.) Advertising on shortwave, long sought by the stations, had been authorized on a limited basis in 1939, but turned out not to be profitable. By the time the government knocked on the door in 1942, save for WRUL, which had to be seized forcibly, the private stations were glad to hand over the keys. Only WRUL returned to private shortwave broadcasting immediately after the war. KGEI resumed private operation in 1953. No further private stations came on the air until 1962 when WINB received FCC authorization. Although the FCC soon became concerned about whether WINB’s fundamentalist, evangelistic programming was consistent with the

Headquartered in Boston, WRUL began broadcasting in the early 1930s as W1XAL. It viewed itself as an educational broadcaster rather than a commercial station.

30

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

FCC rule requiring international broadcasting to “reflect the culture of this country” and “promote international goodwill, understanding and cooperation,” the station survived.42 The FCC, concerned about the implications of international broadcasting by private parties, suspended further shortwave station licensing until 1973. The next station to receive FCC approval was KTWR in Guam, a religious station, which came on the air in 1977. WRNO in New Orleans, the first contemporary shortwave station that planned to operate wholly commercially, began broadcasting in 1982.43 Since 1939, the FCC rules have provided that any programs “solely intended for and directed to an audience in the continental United States” are not permitted.44 As a result, some private U.S. shortwave stations say they transmit to areas outside the United States, and utilize antennas nominally designed for that purpose. Coverage of the U.S. is an inevitable byproduct of the medium, however, and the FCC looks the other way. The WRNO approval opened the door to a multitude of other applicants. One knowledgeable observer, commenting in 1988 — by which time two commercial and 13 religious shortwave stations were operating — referred to the explosion of shortwave stations as a renaissance,45 which it was to transmitter manufacturers and others in the industry. But to many listeners it was more like a train wreck. Most of the commercial stations— WRNO, KUSW (Utah) and KYOI (Saipan)— have failed. WRMI (Florida) and WBCQ (Maine) have had to supplement their already-eclectic programming with religious fare, Cuban exile programs and the like in order to survive, and some of the religious stations have drifted from evangelism to “patriot” programming. Private U.S. shortwave broadcasting has not been broadly reflective of American culture and values and has gained a somewhat odious reputation, all in the name of the First Amendment.46 As one commentator has observed, “U.S. shortwave broadcasters are willing to put up with almost anything from their clients, as long as they pay their bills.”47 Organizationally, in 1989 the private U.S. shortwave broadcasters formed the Association of Shortwave Broadcasters, now the National Association of Shortwave Broadcasters. Its principal role has been to serve as a unifying force for the stations, whose interests differ from those of government broadcasters. It provides liaison with the FCC and the High Frequency Coordination Conference (HFCC) (see p. 40) on matters of frequency management, and it has been active on issues of shortwave broadcasting technology, in particular DRM.

CLANDESTINE STATIONS With its ability to influence audiences in distant places, one of shortwave’s principal uses has been so-called “clandestine” broadcasting. Clandestine broadcasting is usually aimed at a local population in a troubled part of the world, or utilized to influence world opinion about the situation in such areas. The term defies easy definition, and in modern times has become a term of art, since much of today’s “clandestine” broadcasting is anything but clandestine. However, most would agree on one element of a definition: clandestine broadcasting is unwelcome by the authorities in the area to which it is targeted. Clandestine broadcasting is best understood by separating content from delivery. In its classical form, clandestine radio is “opposition” broadcasting. Its content represents a political line contrary to that of the government against which it is directed. It may include

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fairly benign broadcasts that are mainly informative, virulent programming seeking the downfall of a particular regime, and all shades in between. In modern times the term has sometimes been expanded to include certain non-political broadcasts, such as religious and social programs, which are targeted to a country whose government views such programming as a threat. Clandestine broadcasting is typically targeted toward areas of instability or political ferment. During World War II, Europe was home to numerous clandestine radio operations. Some could be heard in the United States, including the New British Broadcasting Station from Germany on 7305 kc.; three British-run stations— Gustav Siegfried Eins on 6185 kHz., 9625 and other channels, Deutsche Kurzwellensender Atlantik on 9760, and the anti–Vichy Radio Inconnue on 9750 kc.; and others. Most clandestine broadcasting in the 1950s was from, and to, the Middle East. Since the 1960s the areas that have been most heavily targeted have been Cuba, Vietnam and other Southeast Asian countries, Iran, Iraq and the rest of the Middle East, and East Africa. However, clandestine broadcasts have been beamed towards other areas as well. These efforts may involve just one or a few broadcasters, or dozens, and may be short term or continue for decades. Clandestine broadcasting in the Middle East has become part of the ordinary broadcasting scene, with various political factions having their own stations. Clandestine broadcasting is not restricted to shortwave. Medium wave clandestine broadcasting can occur as well, and in some respects is more authentic because, to be heard, broadcasts on medium wave are more likely to originate closer to, or even within, the target area than shortwave, and thus project greater credibility. In terms of shortwave delivery, although clandestine broadcasting occasionally originates from within the targeted country itself, usually it is transmitted from abroad. An oft-heard classification of clandestine broadcasting divided it into the three categories that are sometimes applied to propaganda generally. “White” clandestines were above-ground broadcasters who made no effort to conceal themselves. This was really a contradiction in terms, since white “clandestines” were not clandestine at all, and thus “white clandestine” was a term seldom used in practice. In its early form, Radio Free Europe might have been considered nominally a white “clandestine.” Today, however, most “clandestine” broadcasting, having lost much of its clandestine character, is of this type. A “black” station was one that pretended to be something it was not, masquerading either its motive or location. One of the best known black clandestines was the wartime Gustav Siegfried Eins, a cleverly hatched operation that pretended to be an indigenous German station but was actually run by the British. Later examples would include Radio Swan, which held itself out as a commercial station while actually being a CIA–created front operation, and Radio Sparks and similar Chinese-language broadcasts that pretended to be indigenous Chinese stations but were actually located in Russia or Taiwan.48 Between white and black is the “gray” category — stations whose pedigrees are unclear. They may not seek to convince listeners that they are indigenous operations, but neither do they announce their location or parentage. An example from the Falklands War is “Liberty,” an anti–British station that was obviously operated by the Argentines but never identified itself as such. As technology has advanced and international politics has changed, the white-blackgray definition, developed when clandestine radio was seen mainly as a psychological war-

32

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

fare tool, has become less useful and more difficult to apply. A better classification from the listener’s standpoint has two major categories, governmental and nongovernmental clandestine broadcasting, each with its own subdivisions, which, unfortunately for those seeking clarity, often blend into each other.

Governmental Clandestine Broadcasting Governmental clandestine broadcasting includes surrogate and nonsurrogate broadcasting. Surrogate Governmental Broadcasting There are a few U.S. government shortwave services that target a particular country or region and have an identity different from VOA. Examples include Radio Martí and Radio Free Asia. Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty are nominally in this category, although in their early days their U.S. government sponsorship was hidden, and in the post–Soviet era they have scrapped their anti-communist mission and become mainstream broadcasters, one of whose goals is to encourage the development of independent media in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union. These “surrogate” broadcasters target areas where local broadcasting is deficient and are intended to serve as the equivalent of a truthful local broadcast service. They operate independent of the VOA, and with fewer constraints and a more immediate relationship to the audience.49 Some VOA services, such as Radio Sawa, Radio Farda, Radio Ashna, etc. may at first appear to be surrogate broadcasters. In fact, however, they are rebranded VOA services that boast special names and (sometimes) specialized formats, but otherwise operate within the VOA structure.

Radio Liberty is an example of U.S. government surrogate broadcasting. Despite its high-power transmitters in Europe, jamming made it difficult to hear in North America.

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There are many government-sponsored clandestine broadcasts that do not have the level of organization or separate identity of surrogate broadcasters but nonetheless are sponsored principally by governments. Often these broadcasts have been transmitted from the same facilities as the host country’s regular shortwave service. The Soviet Union and the eastern bloc countries ran many such stations, including Radio España Independiente, Radio Magallanes (opposing the Chilean government), and Bizim Radio (supporting the Turkish communist party). During the Vietnam war it was believed by many that Radio Liberation, the voice of liberation forces in South Vietnam, was in large part a North Vietnamese broadcasting effort, although probably there were Radio Liberation transmitters in both the north and the south. In recent years, Russia broadcast a service called Radio Free Chechnya. Radio Swan, which was designed to oppose Castro, was a CIA station, one of many that have been run by the CIA or that have at least enjoyed American government financial support. The governments of countries in conflict have often sponsored broadcasts against each other. The South Korean government broadcast the Voice of the People to the north, while North Korea transmitted the Voice of National Salvation to the south. The governments of Iran and Iraq, and Ethiopia and Eritrea, have long supported clandestine broadcasts aimed at each other. During the days of white rule, the South African government sponsored a number of clandestine stations intended to destabilize various revolutionary movements in southern Africa. These same movements produced clandestine programs that were broadcast on the transmitters of sympathetic host countries in Africa, some of which were happy to integrate the programs into their regular schedules, making no effort to hide them.50

Nonsurrogate Governmental Broadcasting

Nongovernmental Clandestine Broadcasting Historically, most clandestine stations are in this broad category. Over the years countless such stations have targeted Cuba, various Central American trouble spots, Kurdish and non–Kurdish areas of Iran and Iraq, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, and many other places. In general, these stations have an identity separate from any particular government, and in the case of those stations using independent, unauthorized transmission facilities this is an accurate characterization. Examples of this would include Radio Biafra and the many anti–Castro stations that have been operated by Cuban exiles in Florida. However, a closer look reveals that while these stations are not overtly associated with a governmental sponsor, covert government assistance at some level — use of government transmitters that goes unacknowledged by the host government, or government acquiescence in the station’s use of its own unauthorized transmitters— is not unusual. Indeed, such aid is often necessary to survival. Thus many of these stations are not entirely private affairs. It is not always easy to ferret out evidence of covert government support. However, students of shortwave history would probably agree that examples of stations enjoying some level of support from an interested government would include Radio Euzkadi (broadcasting to Spain’s Basque region), Radio Free Russia, A Voz da Resistência do Galo Negro (an Angolan resistance station), the National Radio of the Saharan Democratic Arab Republic, and numerous “clandestine” broadcasters in the Horn of Africa and the Middle East. Nongovernmental Leased-time Broadcasting Among the broadcasters leasing time from Nongovernmental Standalone Broadcasting

34

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

shortwave broadcasters when the practice came into vogue following the collapse of the Soviet Union were a plethora of self-proclaimed democracy groups, usually headquartered in the west, which, for a modest investment, could produce an hour- or half hour-long program and put it on the air a few times a week. Leased time gave birth to countless “stations” which otherwise would never have had a chance to broadcast, and today most clandestine broadcasting is of the leased-time variety. These have included “target” programs beamed to such places as Vietnam, Nigeria, Sri Lanka, the Sudan, and numerous other countries. While there have been some long-term, leased-time clandestine broadcasters, such as the Democratic Voice of Burma and the Voice of Oromo Liberation (Ethiopia), many leased-time clandestines have been short-term efforts that have ended when the novelty has faded or the money has run out. Leased time has brought clandestine broadcasting above ground. Most leased-time clandestine stations have websites and e-mail or postal addresses, and more often than not even an unrevealed transmitter location can be easily determined. From the DXer’s standpoint, leased-time clandestines are interesting — many will verify reception reports— but the high power of the originating transmitters make them less challenging DX targets. Clandestine broadcasting of varying intensity has been ongoing in all parts of the world since well before World War II. By virtue of the many European clandestine stations operating during the war, Europe is usually thought of as the home of modern clandestine broadcasting. However, save for some high profile, postwar clandestine stations like Radio Euzkadi, Radio España Independiente, and a number of communist-inspired stations, clandestine broadcasting in Europe subsided after the war and the focus shifted to other parts of the world. Shortwave listeners recognize a number of distinct postwar periods in clandestine broadcasting. The two that were most prominent to American listeners were the years of intense anti–Castro clandestine broadcasting (1960–70 and 1975–85),5¡ and the period of extensive clandestine broadcasting coincident with the political events in Nicaragua, El Salvador and Guatemala (1978–92).52 The Southeast Asian years, 1969–75, were a close third, although there was much clandestine broadcasting in the area before 1969 and (especially in Cambodia) after 1975. The country that has been a target of clandestine broadcasting for the longest period is probably Iran, toward which clandestine radio broadcasting began in 1957, intensifying over the years and continuing to the present.53 In the Middle East, no country has escaped the long-lived clandestine broadcasting efforts which have been going on there since 1958, even earlier if the 1948–50 period of Israel’s birth, and Nasser’s Voice of the Arabs, are included. Some Middle Eastern stations have operated for a long time, while others have come and gone. Since 1977, numerous clandestine broadcasts have been aimed at Ethiopia, Eritrea and Sudan. Many other countries have been the targets of significant clandestine radio efforts at one time or another. According to the analysis of one observer,54 the number of weekly clandestine broadcasting hours peaked in 1990 at 2,384, a 42 percent increase over the 1,677 hours reported four years earlier. During the 1990s, the weekly hours declined steadily to 1,116 in 1999, less than half the 1990 level. It increased to 1,732 weekly hours in 2002, declined again to 1,195 in 2005, and increased to 1,260 hours in 2006, 1,321 in 2007. While DXers have long shared among themselves news of their reception of clandes-

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tine broadcasts, these stations began receiving significant attention in the DX press only around 1970 when the first clandestine station lists and articles appeared.55 The NASWA bulletin had a strong clandestine radio column from 1973 to 1975. Books on clandestines followed in the 1980s, and from the mid–1980s both Popular Communications and Monitoring Times had columns devoted to clandestine radio.

PIRATE STATIONS56 As long as there has been broadcasting, stations have taken to the air without benefit of license. They have usually been isolated, short-term affairs of benign intent and negligible impact.57 In the 1970s, however, North American pirate broadcasting developed into a distinct niche. Among long-distance radio listeners, contemporary pirate broadcasters have been of two basic types, domestic and foreign. Each group developed differently, but shared a characteristic that attracted North American DXers— their very low power, which made them good DX catches. In addition, their furtive nature added some excitement to the sedentary DX lifestyle. And they were good verifiers.

European Pirates Although there are some notable examples of earlier U.S. pirates, listening to shortwave pirates, both domestic and foreign, began in earnest in America in 1970–73. Among European pirates, the first to be widely heard was Radio Nordsee International, an offshore station that operated with considerable power —10 kw.— and that was of the same genre as the various medium wave and FM pirates that had been operating off the European coast since 1958.58 RNI was heard in the United States in 1970 on 6210 kHz. in the band that would become the main home of European pirates, 6200–6300 kHz. The mainstream European broadcasting scene had long been dominated by government stations and high-brow programming. The mission of the pirates was to open it up to the new generation of rock music and private broadcasting that were typical of American-style broadcasting. The movement would eventually remake European radio, but not without a fight, for this was no small matter to the established broadcasters.59 By the early 1970s, most of the seaborne pirates had been forced off the air by legislation and stepped up enforcement activities. Some of the pirate disc jockeys transitioned to private legal broadcasting, which began to take root. The demise of the offshore pirates led to the second phase of European pirate radio in which small, land-based stations, often the handiwork of electronics experimenters, took to the air, typically for a few hours on weekends. Many operated on FM, but some utilized shortwave to maximize their coverage. Their power was usually well below 100 watts, and they were not heard in America until around 1978 when the signal of the Dutch pirate, Free Radio Broadcasting Co., was one of the first to cross the Atlantic. Activity picked up in 1979, and soon the Europirates’ usual sign on time — early Sunday morning around 0800 UTC (3:00 A.M. EST)— became prime listening time for eager DX insomniacs, particularly on the east coast where reception was best. (Reception inland was much more difficult.) Their efforts were rewarded with loggings of many new stations,

36

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

mostly from England and Holland, which welcomed reception reports and were as happy to learn of the potency of their fly speck signals as legitimate stations had been decades earlier when shortwave was new. It was back to the future, with great satisfaction on both sides of the microphone. Europirate shortwave broadcasting increased over time. Many more stations were heard in North America, including pirates from Ireland, Northern Ireland and Scotland, places which did not otherwise broadcast on shortwave. Italian pirates became active, taking advantage of newly found loopholes in the country’s broadcasting laws. A well-known New Zealand pirate, Kiwi Radio, was heard in the United States in 1984. Pirates operated from Germany and from South America, and in 1997 North American DXers heard Radio San Marino, which claimed to be located in that small European principality. Some pirates relayed the programs of others, sometimes making it difficult to know just where a signal originated; and some taunted broadcasting regulators by taking to the air more often that was prudent. Occasionally there would be a knock at the door, but the result was seldom more than a warning or a fine. Among the European pirate stations properly considered classics were the numerous Dutch stations such as Radio Blue Star, Alfa Lima International, Radio East Coast Holland, and dozens of others. Belgium had Radio Borderhunter. Ireland was well-represented by Radio Dublin, Radio Condor International, Jolly Roger Radio, and Live Wire Radio. There was Scotland’s Weekend Music Radio and Radio Stella International; the Northern Ireland Shortwave Relay Service; the many incarnations of offshore pirate Radio Caroline; and countless U.K. stations, including European Music Radio, Laser Hot Hits, Swinging Radio

They were pirates, but the appearance of Radio Dublin and other stations in 1980 put Ireland on the shortwave map for the first time since the 1940s.

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England, Radio Impact, and Radio Free London. From South America, Radio Cochiguaz and Radio Piraña International became well-known, if difficult to hear. And in recent times, the surprisingly powerful Mystery Radio, believed to be in Italy, has been heard by many during its frequent broadcasts. In all, Europirate hunting has been a happy shortwave diversion that produced good DX and welcome QSLs, and that continues to be a specialty of some DXers.

North American Pirates North American pirate broadcasting developed differently. A few earlier efforts aside, it started in earnest in New York City circa 1976 in the frequency range of 1600–1630 kHz., just above the standard broadcast band long before the top of the band was expanded to 1700 kHz. While lacking the range of shortwave, early stations on these channels, such as WCPR and WFAT, and later in the decade, PRN (“Pirate Radio New England”), often could be heard throughout the northeast. With their mastery of telephone loop technology they were even able to receive listener phone calls and put them on the air in real time. And it was these stations that gave impetus to the development of community-oriented AM and FM pirate broadcasting in many parts of the country.60 A few pirates, such as WARC and Purple Pumpkin Radio, utilized shortwave, but

KVHF was one of the few West Coast shortwave pirates. This QSL is from 1980.

38

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

American shortwave pirates did not appear in numbers until late in the 1970s, by which time pirate activity in the 1600 kHz. area had dropped off. Although still largely an east coast phenomenon, pirate broadcasting spread to other parts of the country as stations like KVHF and RX4M in California, and WDAB and Radio Liberation in Florida, were heard. As pirate activity increased, the stations gathered in two informal “pirate bands,” first 6200–6300 kHz., and later 7300–7500 kHz., the same bands used by the European pirates. Although there were many exceptions, North American pirates have continued to transmit in fairly well-defined frequency ranges which change from time to time depending on the level of interference from other stations. From the mid–1980s, the area around 7415 kHz. was the preferred haunt. Interference caused a move to 6955 kHz. in 1995. Today the 6925–6950 kHz. range is pirate headquarters. FCC enforcement activities were relatively high in pirate radio’s early days. However, while there have been occasional bursts of activity, enforcement has declined in recent times. It may be that the use of a narrow range of frequencies, which increases a station’s exposure to FCC monitoring, may also serve to eliminate potential interference in other frequency ranges. justifying a more relaxed attitude toward pirate operations by the FCC. Still, most pirates are careful about preserving their anonymity. Letters to pirate stations are routed through third-party maildrops. When there is a need to, the North American pirate community justifies its activities by reference to perceived constitutional rights, or to the need for an affordable alternative to costly, licensed broadcasting and the sameness of corporate-produced programming. However, North American shortwave pirate radio is basically a niche movement, a blend of free thinkers, technical types and pranksters who just like to broadcast and don’t mind engaging in a little non-malicious mischief while seeing how far their signals can go. Save for some genuinely funny comedy on a few stations (humor is a staple on North American pirates), domestic shortwave pirate programming is at best unremarkable and at worst awful, but always off beat (unlike the European pirates which focus on playing pop music and at least make an attempt to sound professional). Pirate radio can be fun to listen to, and has benefited from a good deal of attention within the shortwave community. Pirate newsletters began appearing in 1979, and pirate radio has been the subject of a number of books (see the discussion in Listening On the Short Waves, 1945 to Today). A well-known club devoted to pirate (and clandestine) radio, the Association of Clandestine Radio Enthusiasts, operated from 1982 to 2005, and other clubs devoted space to the topic as well. Popular Communications had a pirate radio column for over 20 years before dropping it in 2004. Likewise Monitoring Times, whose column is still going strong.

Reaching the Audience FREQUENCY ALLOCATION AND MANAGEMENT Early frequency allocation and management efforts were the result of three international conferences: the 1927 International Radiotelegraph Conference held in Washington, D.C., the 1932 Madrid Telegraph and Radiotelegraph Conferences (two conferences meet-

1. An Overview of Shortwave Broadcasting

39

ing simultaneously), and the 1938 Cairo International Telecommunication Conferences (also two simultaneous conferences).6¡ The Washington conference established a Table of Frequency Allocations (which is still known by that name). It contained six bands for international broadcasting: 6000–6150, 9500–9600, 11700–11900, 15100–15350, 17750–17800, and 21450–21550 kHz. These allocations were only a guide, however. Broadcasters shared the bands with other services, and broadcasting on a non-interference basis outside the bands was permitted. Shortwave was new, and broadcasting was still viewed mainly as a national rather than an international activity, to be conducted on medium wave frequencies. Shortwave broadcasting was a low priority at the Washington conference, which was mainly concerned with other matters. Conference actions regarding shortwave were accomplished after informal conversations and little structured discussion. Yet the bands established in 1927 set the pattern for all that has happened since. Although the Madrid conferences added a new 11 meter broadcasting band (25600– 26500 kHz.) and strengthened the requirement that conference participants assign frequencies in accordance with the agreed-upon band scheme, shortwave broadcasting was as small a topic in Madrid as it had been in Washington. However, the growth of shortwave broadcasting in the mid–1930s made it a prime topic in Cairo, which expanded the bands somewhat. That conference also added a new broadcasting band, 7200–7300 kHz.; recognized for the first time three bands below 6000 kHz., the so-called tropical bands, for broadcasting principally from areas located between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn where static on medium wave reception is high; and adopted measures to reduce both out-of-band broadcasting and non-broadcast transmissions within the shortwave broadcast bands. In October 1937, almost half of some 245 shortwave broadcasting stations were operating out of band. (Most were in Central and South America.)62 Frequency assignments of individual stations were left to the national broadcasting authorities, with notice to be given to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in Berne, Switzerland. The ITU had been formed in Madrid out of the old International Telegraph Union. It regrouped after the war at the Atlantic City Conferences of 1947 (three simultaneous conferences), and at that time became affiliated with the United Nations. It moved to Geneva in 1948. At Atlantic City, broadcasting was given exclusive use of some bands which it had been sharing with other services. More important, Atlantic City was the first major attempt to coordinate use of the radio spectrum. That duty would fall to the newly created International Frequency Registration Board (IFRB) which was to establish a register reflecting the use of frequencies, facilitate compromise in the case of conflicts in usage, and generally give credibility to the international frequency scheme. The IFRB worked with governmental radio administrations around the world rather than with individual stations. It was largely inactive until 1960 when it sufficiently overcame cold war attitudes to begin active work.63 Under a series of ITU reforms adopted in 1992, the IFRB was replaced by the Radio Regulations Board (RRB), which acts through the ITU Radiocommunication Bureau.64 Much of the credit for the development of frequency coordination belongs to long time DXer Roger Legge who, while working for VOA, attended the 1947 conference and subsequent ITU meetings and developed the necessary procedures in the years after.

40

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

Roger Legge became active in frequency management circles as a result of his work for the Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service and the VOA in the 1940s. He was also an active DXer.

The IFRB-RRB procedures covered broadcasting in the 5900–26100 kHz. range. They required advance submission of proposed frequency usage schedules, from which they produced — usually late — a master schedule for each of the four annual broadcasting “seasons.” (The number of seasons was reduced to two in 1990, a seven-month “A” period, corresponding to summer in the northern hemisphere, and a five-month “B” period, corresponding to winter.) The schedule highlighted likely conflicts in frequency usage. Many of the RRB’s functions have become routinized, and the agency has assumed a reduced role compared to its predecessor, thanks in part to the establishment of the HFCC, the High Frequency Coordination Committee (later “Conference”). The history of meaningful international frequency coordination can be traced to 1961. At that time a western group, later to develop into what was known as the “G6,” had begun informal frequency coordination. In 1990, a parallel group doing frequency coordination within Russia and Eastern Europe suggested that the two groups begin cooperating. The result of their joint effort was the HFCC. The G6 continues to operate today, and its work between HFCC meetings makes the HFCC’s work more manageable. In recent years the members of the G6 have been the IBB, the FCC, VT Communications, RCI, Deutsche Welle and Radio Netherlands. Russia joined the group in 2005. HFCC members now number 65 and represent about 75–80 percent of global SWBC output. Essentially, the HFCC does its own frequency coordination.65 HFCC–developed software identifies potential conflicts, which are then addressed informally at twice-yearly working meetings or through electronic communication, and usually result in agreed-upon

1. An Overview of Shortwave Broadcasting

41

changes in frequency, beam, power, broadcast time, etc. (The HFCC also provides coordination for international or high-powered domestic broadcasting in the tropical bands.) The process is entirely voluntary, but it has been effective. Several HFCC–like groups which have been established in other parts of the world coordinate with the HFCC. This approach to frequency coordination was formally adopted by the ITU in 1997, in part due to the abandonment of the RRB’s own computer-based planning process, which had proven inadequate. The ITU also sponsors World Administrative Radio Conferences (called World Radiocommunication Conferences since 1993), which are intended mainly to update the ITU Radio Regulations that govern the use of the radio spectrum. The basic goal of these conferences as regards shortwave broadcasting is to improve the allocation of what has proven to be an insufficient number of frequencies.66 Some of the WARCs have had significant impact on shortwave broadcasting.67 The 1979 WARC established a new shortwave broadcasting band, 13600–13800 kHz., and approved a net expansion of 780 kHz. in the other bands to take effect over a period of years. The 1992 WARC expanded many parts of the SWBC bands for SSB use only, effective in 2007 (the SSB requirement was dropped in 2003). Over the years the shortwave broadcasting bands have been expanded further. Today they are: 3900–4000 kHz. (75 meters), 5900–6200 (49 m.), 7100–7350 (41 m.), 9400–9900 (31 m.), 11600–12100 (25 m.), 13570–13870 (22 m.), 15100–15800 (19 m.), 17480–17900 (16 m.), 18900–19020 (15 m.), 21450–21850 (13 m.), and 25670–26100 (11 m.). The tropical bands are: 2300–2495 kHz. (120 m.), 3200–3400 (90 m.), and 4750–5060 (60 m.). Some of the bands are shared with other services or authorized for broadcast use only in certain parts of the world, and at times frequency ranges adjacent to these bands have been available for broadcast use on a non-interference basis. (Interference from broadcast signals in parts of the 41 meter band is an ongoing complaint of ham operators in the United States where the frequencies are reserved for ham use. They are available for broadcasting in much of the rest of the world. Hams have similar shared-use problems in parts of the 75 meter band.) Out-of-band broadcasting, a practice whose original purpose was to grandfather the frequency usage of certain early broadcasters, is still permitted on a non-interference basis. As in-band channels became increasingly crowded, and as utility stations in frequency ranges adjacent to the broadcasting bands migrated to satellites and other frequencies, leaving their shortwave channels free, increasing numbers of stations moved to out-of-band frequencies. In 1987, an estimated 10 percent of shortwave broadcasting was on out-of-band frequencies.68 In 2001, an informal estimate was 25 percent.69 To relieve in-band crowding, the FCC approves use of many out-of-band frequencies for U.S. private international broadcasters on a non-interference basis, although this is becoming more problematic as non-broadcast operators become more protective of their frequencies. For its work in coordinating frequencies and representing private shortwave stations in the HFCC–ITU processes, the FCC has since the early 1990s charged shortwave stations a fee for frequency coordination services.70

42

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

An increase in power sometimes warrants a special QSL.

POWER An important element in reaching target audiences is transmitter power. In 1945, only the Swiss Broadcasting Corp., some senders in the Soviet Union, a few VOA transmitters, and perhaps one or two other stations, operated with 100 kw. or more on shortwave.7¡ Fifty kilowatts was the usual power level of the largest international broadcasters at the time. During the balance of the 1940s and the decade of the 1950s, many stations increased power to 100 kw., which was widely accepted as the maximum feasible power for international shortwave broadcasting. A major step in the power race occurred in 1962 when the VOA opened its Greenville, North Carolina, transmitting plant. It boasted not only 250 kw. transmitters, but 500 kilowatters as well.72 Suddenly 250 kw. was the new standard, and in succeeding years many of the leading broadcasters increased power to that level. These included the VOA station in Liberia and the Deutsche Welle relay station in Rwanda, the BBC relay station on Ascension Island, Trans World Radio on Bonaire, Radio Australia’s facility in Darwin, Radio RSA in South Africa, and many others. From 1966 to 1971, the number of transmitters of 200 kw. or more increased from 52 to 185.73 In 1972, the Swiss Broadcasting Corp. increased power to 500 kw. It was soon emulated by Sweden, France, Iraq, Libya, the Vatican, both Germanies, and many other countries. During the 1960s and 1970s, the Soviet Union built many 200 and 250 kw. transmitters, sometimes “doubling up” to produce twice the power and in some cases radiating as much

1. An Overview of Shortwave Broadcasting

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as 1000 kw. Today 500 kw. is the power of the largest shortwave transmitters, save for Radio Ukraine International which has at times brought back into service a 1000 kw. shortwave transmitter left behind from Soviet days.74

RELAY STATIONS When the VOA was born in 1942, it inherited a relay base in Algeria. By the end of the decade, in Hawaii, Germany and the Philippines, VOA had constructed shortwave stations that would take the VOA’s signal, usually received from home via point-to-point transmission (later satellite), and retransmit it to the desired target area, the result being improved reception. In the 1950s, the United States built 11 new relay sites (including five in Europe used mainly by Radio Free Europe). Four more were built in the 1960s. Then followed 20 years when VOA built only two stations, Kavala, Greece (1972) and Botswana (1981). Botswana operated solely on medium wave until 1991, when shortwave was added. As stations became obsolete they were either upgraded or taken out of service. Eight new stations were built in the decade of the 1990s and after. International Shortwave Relay Stations and Their Years of Operation75 From

To

1942 1944 1945 1947 1950 1950 1950 1951 1951 1952 1953 1953 1953 1954 1955

1947 1968 1994 1968 1964 — — 2003 1996 1964 1972 1977 1999 1999 1973

Singapore78 Cyprus Botswana Ascension Is. Oman (Masirah)

1948 1957 1965 1966 1969

— — 1968 — 2002

Antigua-Montserrat80

1976

2005

1974 1965 1970

1996 — —

From

To

Spain Liberia Rhodes Philippines (Tinang) Greece (Kavala) Botswana Portugal (Maxoqueira) Morocco (Briech)76 Thailand Sao Tome Saipan Sri Lanka (Iranawila) Tinian Kuwait

1959 1962 1962 1968 1972 1991 1991 1993 1993 1996 1998 1999 1999 2004

2001 1990 1990 — 2006 — 1994 — — — — — — —

Lesotho Hong Kong Seychelles Thailand Abu Dhabi (Al Dhabbaya)79 Oman (A’Seela)

1980 1987 1988 1996 2001

1996 1997 — — —

2002

—

Sierra Leone8¡ Antigua-Montserrat Sri Lanka (Trincomalee)82

1974 1976 1984

1975 2005 —

VOA/RFE/RL/IBB Algeria Hawaii Germany (Munich-Ismaning) Philippines (Malolos) Morocco (Tangier) Germany (Biblis) Germany (Lampertheim) Germany (Holzkirchen) Portugal (Gloria) USCGC Courier77 Greece (Thessaloniki) Okinawa Sri Lanka (Colombo) Philippines (Poro) Taiwan

BBC

Deutsche Welle Malta Rwanda Portugal (Sines)

44

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today From

To

1964

1988

1969

—

1984

—

From

To

Costa Rica

1992

—

Madagascar

1971

—

Radio Nacional de España Canary Islands

Radio Nederland Bonaire

Radio France International French Guiana

The United States was not the only country in the shortwave relay race. The BBC had operated a shortwave relay station in Singapore since 1948. It added Cyprus in 1957 and three more sites in the 1960s. It constructed relay sites on Antigua and Montserrat with Deutsche Welle in 1976, and added five more relay stations in the years after. Deutsche Welle built four relay stations in addition to Antigua-Montserrat (not counting the Sierra Leone station). Radio Netherlands built two, Radio Nacional de España two, and Radio France International one. However, self-owned relays were not the only means of improving reception at distant points. See “The Commoditization of Shortwave,” below.

JAMMING83 Jamming — the transmission of noise or other interfering material on the frequency of the targeted station so as to disrupt reception — has a long history. During the 1930s, Austria jammed Nazi broadcasts. Germany and Russia jammed each others’ broadcasts. Italy jammed Soviet broadcasts in Italian, as well as Ethiopian appeals during the Second ItaloAbyssinian war in 1935–36, and there was considerable jamming during the Spanish Civil

The opening of the Radio Netherlands Bonaire relay station in 1969 was celebrated by the issuance of a special postal stamp.

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War. World War II brought widespread jamming of the BBC by Germany. Germany and France jammed each other’s broadcasts, and Japan engaged in some jamming as well.

Jamming by the Soviet Union and Its Satellites Although Spain and the Soviet Union were jamming each other’s broadcasts in 1946, it was 1948 when the Soviets started jamming VOA Russian-language broadcasts and largescale postwar jamming began. A like effort against the BBC began in 1949. Soon the Eastern European satellite countries joined the fray, and by the early 1950s the jamming of the Russian and Eastern European–language broadcasts of the VOA, BBC, Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberation (later Radio Liberty) was pervasive. The programs of the Vatican, Spain, France, Italy, Canada, Israel and other countries were also jammed, as were broadcasts to the Persian, Turkish and Jewish minorities in the Soviet Union. Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty were prime targets of the jamming countries. Over the years a number of different jamming techniques have been tried — white noise jamming, bubble jamming, jamming by broadcasting a competing program on the same channel, etc. Cold war jamming was a particularly virulent strain, usually taking the form of a loud “buzz saw” noise. In North America the jamming signals were strong, and usually blocked both the target frequency and adjacent channels. Major segments of the higher bands, especially 19 and 25 meters, were rendered unuseable at various times of the day. One could tune through parts of the band and move from one jammer to another. Decent reception of Radio Free Europe was a rarity, even more so Radio Liberty. In 1958 it appeared that there were some 2,500 jamming transmitters in operation at several hundred sites in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Some were high power, covering large areas, others lower power, blocking reception in individual cities. Russian jammers often identified with two-letter codes (Eastern European jammers used letter-number combinations).84 The usual western response to jamming was to increase power and use more transmitters, often saturating the target zone with many frequencies in hopes that some would get through, which they often did. Changing frequencies also helped, but it confused listeners and the jammers eventually caught up. The level of jamming was often impacted by the state of a country’s relationships with the Soviet Union at any given time, or by internal events within the Soviet world.85 Jamming of independent-minded Yugoslavia depended on the status of Soviet-Yugoslav relations. Jamming of the BBC’s Russian broadcasts was suspended in early 1956 during a Khruschev visit to Britain, but resumed later in the year during the Hungarian uprising. RFE Polish broadcasts were free of jamming for years following riots in 1956 that were accompanied by public outcries against jamming. Jamming of the VOA and BBC was greatly reduced when Khruschev came to the U.S. in 1959, but resumed at the time of the U-2 incident in 1960. For the next three years jamming was selective, sometimes being applied only to certain portions of programs, leaving other material in the clear. Numerous resolutions in the United Nations and elsewhere decried jamming, and Soviet attempts to hide their activities were pro forma. They defended them on the grounds that the west was engaged in psychological warfare against the Soviets and their partners, who were obliged to respond; that the content of the broadcasts was full of untruths; and that the western broadcasters did not represent the views of their people, were controlled

46

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

by Wall Street, and were staffed by eastern bloc turncoats. The basic Soviet position was that elimination of jamming would have to be tied to the moderation of the broadcasts themselves. Nearly all jamming against western stations, including the VOA, BBC, Deutsche Welle and Kol Israel, ended during 1963 and 1964 following the atomic test ban agreement. It continued unabated against RFE-RL, however. Many of the jamming transmitters were redirected to regular broadcasting, and Moscow’s presence on the shortwave bands increased considerably — by 187 percent according to one calculation. 86 However, the improvements in their domestic media which the Soviets had hoped would minimize the adverse effects of foreign radio and thus eliminate the need for the jamming of what was widely acknowledged to be superior foreign radio reporting were insubstantial, and jamming resumed at the time of the invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. It intensified in 1969. There was also some internecine jamming within the communist world. During the early 1950s the Soviets jammed broadcasts from Yugoslavia. They jammed Radio Peking’s Russian-language programs for about a year starting in 1964, then ceased, only to resume in 1967. In 1982, Russia started jamming Radio Tirana’s Russian-language programs. Russian jamming against China and Albania ended in 1986.87 Although policy toward particular broadcasters and languages varied somewhat among the jamming countries, in general jamming from the eastern bloc was again suspended during detente in 1973 (except for RFE-RL, the jamming of which was non-stop). Jamming resumed in 1980, partly in response to strikes in Poland, partly in connection with the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. In 1987, as glasnost took hold, jamming from Russia and its satellites declined. Jamming of the BBC stopped late in the year. Early in 1988, Soviet bloc jamming of western Polish-language transmissions, including those of RFE, was dropped. By May, all Soviet bloc jamming of the VOA had stopped, and by the end of the year all Soviet bloc jamming, including the jamming of RFE-RL, had come to an end (save for some jamming by Bulgaria of various Bulgarian-language programs).88 Spare transmitting capacity was to be put to work on behalf of regular broadcasting. When the jamming stopped, Radio Liberty’s Soviet audience spiked, and soon it was the most popular of all the western stations, reaching an estimated 35 million people a week.89

Jamming by Other Countries China started jamming VOA Chinese broadcasts, as well as other VOA transmissions to the Far East, in 1956. The jamming ceased at the end of 1978 following the establishment of diplomatic relations between China and the U.S., by which time China was encouraging students to listen to the VOA in order to learn English. China continued jamming broadcasts from Taiwan, however, and eventually resumed jamming of the VOA. When Soviet jamming ended in 1988, Chinese jamming continued. Chinese jamming has been more subtle than its Soviet counterpart, often consisting of regular programming broadcast on the same channel as the target station and thus easily camouflaged as a benign problem of frequency management. The Chinese jamming problem was aggravated by the establishment of Radio Free Asia in 1996. Broadcasts of VOA, BBC, and Radio Free Asia have been prime targets for Chinese jamming of varying duration and intensity, as have the programs of Chinese- and Tibetan-language leased-time

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broadcasters such as Sound of Hope and Voice of Tibet. At present China does not jam VOA English broadcasts. Since 2001, China has been transmitting Chinese music as a jamming signal. Dubbed the “firedrake” or “fire dragon” by listeners, it consists of high-energy Chinese orchestra music featuring drums, crashing cymbals and the like. Although the west has not typically engaged in large scale jamming, there have been some exceptions. Spain jammed the programs of Radio España Independiente and Radio Euzkadi in the 1960s and 1970s. England was said to have jammed Egyptian broadcasts during the Suez crisis. London and Athens jammed each others’ broadcasts when Greek Cypriots were seeking independence, and Turkey and Greece did likewise in connection with the Cyprus dispute in the mid–1970s. Cuba conducted some limited jamming during the 1962 Cuban missile crisis. Jamming from Havana expanded greatly after the establishment of Radio Martí in 1985 (it continues to be heavily jammed), and again in the mid–1990s in connection with changes in U.S. policy on Cuban immigration. WRMI, Miami, Florida, which carries many Cuban exile programs, is a target of Cuban jamming. In the early 1970s, the Pinochet government in Chile jammed broadcasts from Havana and Moscow. In the mid–1970s, Israel suffered jamming from the Arab states, and in 1978 Iran was jamming the BBC. Low level jamming also occurred in connection with fighting in various African locales. A few other countries, such as Vietnam, North Korea, Iran and Zimbabwe, appear to have engaged in jamming in recent years. At the end of 2007, Ethiopia was reportedly jamming broadcasts from Eritrea, and VOA and Deutsche Welle transmissions beamed to Ethiopia.

The International Short Wave Club Anti-Jamming Campaign The activity for which Britain’s International Short Wave Club is best remembered, its anti-jamming campaign, began in 1956. The club requested members not to send reception reports to countries engaged in jamming, and urged clubs not to publish information about the stations. At first the Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria were named as the offending countries. It appeared that Britain was jamming transmissions from Greece and Egypt, and so it was added to the list at the end of 1956 (but removed in 1958 when the jamming stopped). China was added in 1958. Sometimes Spain, Italy and Jordan were included among the offenders, but they were eventually dropped. France and Cuba were added for a time in 1960. Although it had an international membership, the ISWC was a one-man operation, and the campaign reflected the uncompromising persona of the club’s leader, Arthur E. Bear. Hardly a month went by without an editorial against jamming, and during the first few years these often occupied a full page of the club’s four-page bulletin. The rhetoric became increasingly shrill. “Anyone who does not support the anti-jamming campaign is not your friend,” opined Bear. “All those who do not co-operate in the anti-jamming campaign are as bad as those who actually do the jamming.”90 Bear believed that stations needed listeners’ reception reports, as well as publicity about their broadcasts in the shortwave press, and that the campaign would begin hurting stations. Although in reality the power of the shortwave listening community to affect jamming was minuscule, the campaign did prompt some responses from the jammers. Moscow said VOA broadcasts were slanderous and an insult to their dignity, and required jamming to rid the airwaves of the annoyance. Poland criticized what it viewed as practices even

48

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

worse than jamming, namely, “piracy of wavelengths”— violations of frequency agreements by certain stations— and programming calculated to “stir up dissent and diversionist elements.”9¡ Other jamming countries parroted the Soviet line that it was hostile western propaganda that made jamming necessary. Bulgaria denied it was jamming and offered various trinkets for submitting reception reports. Bear interpreted such enticements as having been made necessary by the anti-jamming campaign, and took credit for the occasional breaks in jamming. Bear was impressed with the argument that jamming was justified in order to protect people from noxious foreign propaganda, and in December 1956 he added to the list of offenders certain “aggravating stations,” namely VOA, RFE, Radio Liberation, Radio Athens, and the Egyptian Broadcasting Service. Bear must have had second thoughts about this, however, for references to “aggravating stations” declined over time. By and large, American clubs were supportive of Bear’s motives but unwilling to follow his lead. Newark News Radio Club shortwave editor Hank Bennett reprinted several ISWC editorials, and the club’s Board of Directors expressed sympathy for the cause. However, Bennett felt that individual readers had to make their own decisions. He solicited member input, and found that the large majority wanted the club to blue-pencil material on the Iron Curtain stations, which Bennett announced he would do for a trial period (save for tips on certain worthwhile stations, e.g. Baku). Soon, however, any pretense of support of the anti-jamming campaign by the NNRC disappeared. The general editor of the Universal Radio DX Club announced that the club would not cover the anti-jamming campaign because it was against club policy to deal with political issues.92 The eastern and western section editors were somewhat more strident, but eventually settled for a policy to omit publication of information only on English-language broadcasts from the offending countries.93 Meanwhile, Bear was naming names. Among those chastised as non-supporters of the campaign were the World Radio TV Handbook, the URDXC, “Sweden Calling DXers,” and the Japan Short Wave Club.94 Although neither the NNRC nor Popular Electronics supported the campaign, they were not mentioned. Bennett, then serving as shortwave editor for both the NNRC and PE, suggested that the ISWC stop trying to dictate the policies of other organizations.95 But in a poll of ISWC members, the vote for continuing the campaign was 156 to 4.96 Said Bear, “Any publisher who prints information on the stations of the offending countries are [sic] traitors.”97 Added to the list of those who had “blacklisted themselves” were the ASWLC (and several named editors and members), the World DX Club, the New Zealand Radio DX League, and Ken Boord’s circuit letter. The campaign’s nonsupporters were a who’s who of DXing. (Arthur Cushen, a 12-year member of the ISWC, had his renewal rejected in 1962 because of his affiliation with the NZRDXL.) The campaign went on for years, with Bear able to take some credit for the decline in jamming in 1963–64. In the end, however, as one DX editor put it, the anti-jamming campaign “had all the effect of a flea taking a bite out of a rhino.”98

SINGLE SIDEBAND Increased transmitter power meant increased costs. Thus, in addition to better frequency management, stations were interested in technological improvements that would

1. An Overview of Shortwave Broadcasting

49

reduce costs or improve the quality of reception. One strategy that was thought to have promise was the use of single sideband mode, which hams had used for years. In single sideband, no carrier, and only one sideband rather than two, is transmitted, the receiver inserting a substitute carrier as it translates the signal. The result is steadier reception, but with narrower audio. A SSB signal requires less power and less bandwidth, yielding a cost saving and permitting more stations to operate within existing bands. The disadvantage is that ordinary AM receivers cannot translate SSB signals. A receiver with special circuitry, and high stability, is necessary, and while such receivers became widely available during the 1970s, tuning in single sideband mode was not (and is not) user friendly.99 Prior to the use of satellite relays, program feeds to the VOA and RFE-RL transmitter sites were often in SSB, and single sideband was also used by some broadcasters associated with military or commercial stations where SSB was in common use. Iceland, whose main target on shortwave was the Icelandic fishing fleet, had used single sideband for many years. Among other broadcasters using sideband were, in the 1980s, Radio Kiribati, Galei Zahal (Israel), and the local stations that were rebroadcast on various Argentine feeder frequencies; in the 1990s, Australian Armed Forces Radio and the various American Forces Network stations that appeared starting in 1998; and in 2001 and later the Information Radio broadcasts associated with the Afghan and Iraq military ventures.¡00 Some major broadcasters saw potential in single sideband. WARC 1979 and WARC 1984 encouraged its use and looked to the eventual replacement of regular AM shortwave altogether by 2015. WARC 1992 set aside frequency ranges for SSB use only, but the SSB requirement was dropped in 2003. Radio Netherlands and the BBC had conducted single sideband tests as early as 1964. Others that followed included, in the 1970s, Sweden, Switzerland, and Norway; in the 1980s, Japan, Austria, and Radio For Peace International in Costa Rica; and in the 1990s, HCJB, Cuba, and Finland. In the end, however, single sideband proved unfeasible for broadcasting, and SSB experimentation by the major broadcasters came to an end.

DIGITAL SHORTWAVE BROADCASTING While its ultimate impact remains to be seen, one of the most dramatic technical developments in shortwave broadcasting history is Digital Radio Mondiale, or DRM, a transmission standard created for digital broadcasting below 30 MHz., in particular shortwave. Its roots are in Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), a format which was originally developed to improve FM signals but which is finding its niche instead in a new VHF broadcasting service in England and some other countries. In 1998, international broadcasters, transmitter manufacturers and others interested in applying digital principles to shortwave transmission formed the DRM Consortium. Its purpose was to establish and promote a suitable worldwide technical standard so that digital audio broadcasting below 30 MHz. would have common characteristics everywhere (or at least that all digital receivers would be capable of receiving all digital broadcasting formats). The consortium has grown over the years to some 100 broadcasters, manufacturers and developers, industry groups, research bodies, regulators, and many others. The transmitter manufacturers have been among its strongest supporters.

50

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

Despite high hopes and promotion by the ITU, the use of single sideband for international shortwave broadcasting never caught on. However, various countries, including Sweden, conducted sideband tests.

The goal of DRM transmission is to produce near–FM audio quality on shortwave, thus permitting it to compete more effectively with other media in the expanding global radio scene. A DRM signal, at its best, produces crisp, high-fidelity audio, and eliminates the peaks and valleys that are inherent in even the strongest analog shortwave signal as it is reflected from an uneven ionosphere. To someone used to analog shortwave, the effect of DRM, at least under optimal conditions, is dramatic. It is like listening to FM on shortwave. DRM technology has other advantages as well. Text, such as a station’s name, can be sent over the signal (similar to RDS that is common on analog FM signals). DRM requires less power, with a 10 kw. DRM signal said to have about the same range as a 50 kw. analog signal. This translates into greatly reduced electricity consumption, and lower costs. And, as with DAB, DRM has the potential for sending multiple programs over the same channel (albeit with a corresponding sacrifice in audio). From the listener’s perspective, DRM has two main drawbacks. First, a DRM signal is received either full throat or not at all. Unlike an analog signal, whose quality may vary in large or small measure over time but which will generally stay useable at some level, a DRM signal that does not meet the threshold level for full digital reproduction cannot be heard at all. The listener is used to compensating for deficiencies in an analog signal by adjusting the receiver or simply accommodating mentally the suboptimal albeit continu-

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ous reception. The DRM listener loses the deficient digital signal entirely. Such “dropouts” can be frequent. Second, a digital signal produces audible interference when tuned on an analog receiver. This interference is more intense than analog interference and is not susceptible to reduction by adjusting the receiver. Moreover, while the nominal width of a digital shortwave signal is the same as that of an analog signal, there is proportionally more energy at the edges of a digital signal. Thus, when heard on an analog receiver, a digital signal produces much more adjacent-channel interference, often blanking out reception for 10–15 kHz. on either side of the center frequency. (This is another reason why digital signals are often broadcast at lower power than analog signals.) Some observers have suggested clustering digital signals into dedicated frequency ranges so as to avoid interference with analog broadcasts. DRM advocates have been slow to embrace this, pointing instead to DRM’s benefits in the grander scheme of things, bemoaning the unavailability of adequate shortwave spectrum, and promising better frequency management and improved transmitter adjustment. Their resistance appears to be lessening, however. The DRM Consortium makes a strong case for DRM and has nurtured and promoted it on many fronts. In 2002, the ITU adopted DRM as the sole recommended system for digital shortwave broadcasting (including, as of 2007, the tropical bands). Some 29 hours of daily DRM broadcasts were available in 2002 from the stations that were early supporters of DRM, such as Radio Netherlands, Radio Canada International, Deutsche Welle, and the BBC. In the June 2003 “official launch” of DRM at the ITU World Radiocommunications Conference in Geneva, some additional broadcasters— Christian Vision (transmitting via the U.K.), Radio Kuwait, Vatican Radio, the Voice of Russia, Swedish Radio International (which later dropped DRM), and several others— announced the inauguration of DRM broadcasts. A DRM Broadcasters’ Users Manual was published in 2004, the same year that an NASB–sponsored U.S.A. DRM Group was formed in order to coordinate DRM issues on a national level in the United States. In 2005, the FCC approved DRM as the required format for American shortwave broadcasters wishing to go digital. American DRM listeners have found that strong signals, and a high signal-to-noise ratio, are needed for good DRM reception. In practice, seldom more than a half-dozen stations can be heard with reliable (albeit not necessarily drop out-free) DRM signals. These stations include Radio Canada International; Radio France International; Radio Netherlands via a relay transmitter in Montsinery, French Guiana; Radio Kuwait; Vatican Radio; and Radio New Zealand International. A number of DRM demonstrations conducted under less than optimum circumstances at various shortwave gatherings have shown mixed results, even in the case of specially arranged broadcasts directed to the meeting site.¡0¡ While being in the transmission path is no guarantee of reception, unlike analog transmissions, digital broadcasts that are not in a listener’s path are seldom heard. DRM signals are also more easily blocked by co-channel and adjacent-channel analog interference, and are thus easily jammed. On the equipment side, stations wishing to transmit digital signals must buy new, DRM–capable transmitters, or retrofit old ones. Listeners have had an even more difficult problem. Regulatory uncertainties, cost, and the fluidity of digital radio development have conspired against efforts to bring to market consumer-grade receivers able to decode DRM. This has been a major obstacle to DRM’s advancement. Since 2001, recurring, seemingly

52

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

authoritative predictions of DRM radios about to hit the market at about $50 over analog receiver prices have proven unfounded, as have industry representatives’ forecasts of DRM receiver sales— a million DRM receivers in the marketplace by 2006, five million sold in Europe by 2007, eight million by 2008.¡02 Thus far, DRM listening in the United States has been limited to computer-savvy listeners with communications receivers connected to a computer on which the necessary DRM software has been installed, or to users of PC–based radios such as the WiNRADiO, the Italian ELAD FDM77, or the German-made Digital World Traveller DRM plug-in. Progress on the more important consumer side has been halting.¡03 Most recently, eyes have been on the $200 Morphy Richards 27024 DRM receiver, released in 2006, and the Himalaya Electronics (Hong Kong) DRM 2009. In early tests the Morphy Richards unit was rated high in audio quality when a signal was present, low in ease of use, and middling overall —“The Morphy Richards is an adequate DRM receiver but it is not a star performer in any way.”¡04 It also receives DAB and FM, to which DRM ran third in terms of available signals and overall quality of reception. Both radios were rated mediocre in the 2008 WRTH receiver reviews.

The Post–Soviet Era¡05 COMMUNIST BROADCASTERS With the fall of the Soviet Union, the raison d’etre of shortwave broadcasting in a post–cold war environment has come into question. With the need for propagandizing,

Time will tell whether the Himalaya DRM 209 is the receiver listeners have been waiting for.

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and for a place in the international shortwave cacophony, reduced or eliminated, just what was shortwave achieving? The fall of communism wreaked havoc on the economies of the east, torturing national budgets and accelerating the search for savings. Fiscal constraints were also being felt in the west. Was shortwave broadcasting worth the cost? And eastern bloc broadcasters were now faced with an ocean of competition. These same market forces had gotten a head start elsewhere in recent decades as government broadcasting monopolies fell and domestic radio improved throughout the western world and elsewhere. The domestic information and entertainment deficiencies in many countries that had made international broadcasts attractive, even essential, were now being reduced or eliminated from within. Why listen to foreign broadcasts if you didn’t have to? Receiver manufacturers have long touted shortwave radio as the medium that can put the listener at the scene of breaking events. Experienced listeners know that this is mostly overstatement. Those who expect a seat at ringside will usually be disappointed. In the case of the decline of the Soviet Union, however, the reality matched the rhetoric. The change in eastern bloc broadcasting was as dramatic as the political events themselves, and one of the two biggest factors to impact shortwave listening in half a century. (The other was the computer.) Two results of glasnost and the post–Soviet era that were evident to shortwave listeners are discussed elsewhere in this chapter: the end of jamming, and Russia as a major source of leased transmitter time to broadcasters in other countries. There were other impacts as well. With the introduction of market forces, international broadcasters in the east suddenly lost whatever sancrosanctity they had enjoyed during the cold war. They, as well as their western counterparts, had to confront some new realities. If international shortwave stations were to be relevant in this environment, they had to offer something that would make people listen. Programming, long the weak link in communist broadcasting (some would say in shortwave broadcasting generally), was now important. Journalistic and entertainment infrastructures that had been unnecessary in the days of party control were now essential. The result was a fundamental change in the broadcasting culture in Russia and its satellites. On shortwave it manifested itself in two ways. First and foremost, there was an improvement in programs. Although the change was sometimes halting, the traditional turgidness of eastern programming was replaced by a more modern, upbeat style. Content improved as old taboos were broken and journalistic objectivity took hold. Things were more relaxed, and the stations started sounding more and more like their western counterparts.¡06 It was a time of reflection on the past and hope for the future,¡07 and shortwave listeners were treated to some on-air retrospectives and self-analyses that would have been unthinkable before. Said one Radio Berlin International announcer during a farewell program: “I think [we tried] to give as accurate a picture as possible under the circumstances.... [T]here was no choice but to stick to the rules and present the official views which quite often were a far cry from reality, particularly in the final stage of the old regime. And for that I feel that I have to apologize.”¡08 During the attempted coup in Russia in August 1991, Radio Moscow had carried some statements written by the coup leaders. After the coup had failed, the station broadcast this message: “The leadership of the many thousands of employees of the USSR National Television and Radio Broadcasting Co. have offered their

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

apologies to the public for having been unable to conform to their professional duties due to strict control that existed for the past three days.”¡09 A second change in the broadcasting culture of the former Soviet Union was the proliferation of private radio stations, some of which were on shortwave.¡¡0 Suddenly in 1991, SWLs were hearing stations with names like Radio Vedo, Radio DVR, Radio Ala, Radio Galaxy, and others. As in the United States, the right-wing, in the form of Radio Pamyat (“memory”), also discovered shortwave. Russian shortwave transmitters were still operated by the government, and many of the new shortwave broadcasters were short-term affairs and not easy to hear in the United States. But their significance was less in their longevity or signal quality than in their very existence. To listeners who had grown up with the cold war it was all quite amazing. In 1979, two Bulgarian DXers finished serving over four years in jail for their DXing activities.¡¡¡ Ten years later, a Radio Liberty Listeners’ Club was operating in Odessa, Russia, in order to forward reception reports to that country’s long-time nemesis.¡¡2 On October 3, 1990, Radio Berlin International was dissolved and its transmitters became part of the Deutsche Welle network. Any doubt that everything had changed was dispelled in August 1991 when, returning triumphant after a failed coup, President Gorbachev observed that he had stayed abreast of developments by listening to the BBC, VOA and Radio Liberty. The same year, Deutsche Welle began renting time on Russia’s former Far East jamming transmitters in order to improve its signal to Asia. Although communism did not fall in China, radio there was affected by the glasnost-

Radio Polis was one of the new private stations heard from the former Soviet Union.

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This “last day” QSL memorialized the end of the German Democratic Republic.

inspired liberalization of the media in other communist countries. The programming of Radio Beijing changed dramatically, becoming more westernized in sound and dropping the party-inspired haranguing of old. Otherwise, however, China was a contrarian. Chinese jamming actually increased during the 1990s. And as other countries reduced their reliance on shortwave, China increased its shortwave capabilities with new, higher power transmitters and the expanded use of relay stations in other countries. More special services to Taiwan were established (Voice of Pujiang, China Huayi Broadcasting Co.). And no private shortwave stations were to be heard from China.

WESTERN BROADCASTING While there were no apologies heard over western stations, the challenges facing the communist countries— mission, budgets and competition — impacted western broadcasters as well. Its relentless campaign against Russia and its satellites having been vindicated, RFERL was nearly a victim of its own success. Consolidation of U.S. international broadcasting efforts was in the air, with some urging the station’s dissolution or its merger with VOA.¡¡3 RFE-RL’s president argued that while changes were clearly necessary, shutting down RFE-RL would be “like pulling the I-V tube from a sick patient at the first flicker of an eyelid.”¡¡4 President Clinton did not agree and ordered the stations closed, only to be reversed by Congress, acting in part at the urging of the very leaders of the countries to which RFERL had been broadcasting. RFE-RL did undergo fundamental change, however. It slimmed down, moved from Munich to Prague, and became a mainstream, above-ground broadcaster enjoying considerable access and influence in the countries to which it had been broadcasting for decades. There have been many other cross-currents at work in the west in the post–Soviet

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

shortwave world. Although shortwave receiver sales enjoyed a spike during the Gulf War, competing technologies— satellite broadcasting, the internet, global TV, the expansion of AM and FM broadcasting throughout the world, and the placement of the international broadcasters’ programs on local AM and FM stations, making them accessible on ordinary radios— have threatened shortwave’s survival. Recent years have seen a troubling increase in the number of major international broadcasters who have cut back their shortwave transmissions or left shortwave altogether. Many stations have supplemented their shortwave services with an internet presence. Others have completely replaced shortwave with an internet service and reaped substantial savings, if ambiguous audience figures, in the process. Still other stations have sharpened or retooled their missions, e.g., Radio Canada International, for whom potential or recent immigrants are now a major target audience. Many government stations have reinvented themselves as “public broadcasters” so as to enhance the journalistic and competitive benefits inherent in maintaining more distance from official control. In the United States, the cold war triumph of RFE-RL has confirmed Congress’s love of surrogate broadcasting, an attraction shared by the Broadcasting Board of Governors. Congress created Radio Free Asia in 1996, and a number of VOA language services have given way to Radio Sawa, Radio Farda, and various VOA rebranded operations beamed to the Middle East. The BBG leadership, in an effort to increase its influence on “the street,” felt that the Middle Eastern situation demanded new approaches to international broadcasting. Many VOA professionals have viewed the new services, along with other events at

Intended to parallel Radio Free Europe–Radio Liberty in Asia, U.S. government surrogate broadcaster Radio Free Asia came on the air in 1996. The station has been friendly to the SWL community.

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VOA, as a scheme to eliminate the VOA or at least render moot its journalistic standards. These dynamics are still in play. Meanwhile, evidence of the growing influence of private sector solutions has been seen in England and Germany where the shortwave transmission operations of the BBC and Deutsche Welle were privatized, with the formation of Deutsche Telekom and Merlin Communications International Ltd. in 1996 and 1997 respectively. Other countries have followed suit. Competition seemed to reach a new height in 2007 when Deutsche Welle announced that it would no longer broadcast on shortwave from German soil and would transfer the business from Deutsche Telekom to Britain’s privatized transmitter operator (by then known as VT Communications). Radio Netherlands did the same, dropping use of the now-privatized Flevo site in the Netherlands in favor of expanding its leased time on transmitters in other countries and continuing to rely on its relay stations in Bonaire and Madagascar. Issues of national sovereignty, or at least national pride, had little to do with it. It all came down to cost.

THE COMMODITIZATION OF SHORTWAVE When jamming stopped in 1988, it freed up a tremendous amount of Soviet and Eastern European transmitting capacity. The absence of jamming meant that western broadcasters required fewer frequencies, and fewer transmitters, to reach their target areas. And as society democratized throughout the former Soviet Union and its satellites, the need for stations like Radio Free Europe–Radio Liberty, or foreign-language shortwave services period, was reexamined. While some restraints remained, the broadcasting industry in formerly communist areas blossomed. Private broadcasting, long anathema, came into being, and with it new ideas for reaching the public, including the use of shortwave for private broadcasting. At the same time, in the United States, the private commercial shortwave stations which had grown up in the 1980s— most of them carrying paid religious programming — had learned the economic realities of shortwave broadcasting. With new souls to save in formerly communist countries came the possibility of more religious broadcasting and enhanced revenue. Financial pressures were growing throughout the world, no less in broadcasting than in other sectors. The cost of international broadcasting, while still cheap by some standards, was increasing as everything, including oil needed to generate power, became more expensive. In the west, governments and private stations alike reexamined their budgets, and international broadcasting, which had often operated with low visibility and few champions, was a natural target for reduction or elimination. Stations and national transmitter operators who had traditionally benefited from little oversight because of the perceived importance of radio in countering either the Soviet or the western threat were now scrambling for ways to increase revenues and stay relevant. All of this took place against a backdrop of rapid technological advance and the rethinking of the place of shortwave — an outmoded technology to many broadcasting decision makers— in the world of international communications. The result was a basic restructuring of how international shortwave broadcasting was done, driven mainly by the availability of transmitter time and the need to keep costs down

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

and improve revenues. There were three principal components to this change: affinity relays, commercial relays, and leased time broadcasting.

Affinity Relays From as far back as the 1940s, some governments had made their transmitting facilities available for the relay of other stations’ programs. At the outset these were mainly relays of broadcasters in countries with whom the relaying country had a special relationship. The BBC station at Woofferton began relaying the VOA in 1948. Radio Moscow programs were relayed from Hungary starting in 1951. Hungary relayed Albania from 1953, Albania was relaying Radio Peking in 1962, and the CBC started using the BBC’s Daventry transmitter in 1966. In 1979 the USSR provided extensive relays of Radio Afghanistan, at that time a client state, and also had a relay agreement with Radio Havana Cuba. Some were reciprocal transmission arrangements, with each country relaying some of the other’s programs. Some were outright purchases of time. Still others were relays provided in exchange for services rendered. Thus in 1953 the VOA could transmit via the station it had built for Ceylon; in 1969 the Cyprus Broadcasting Corp. obtained time on the BBC relay station hosted by that country; in 1980 the BBC transmitted from a facility it had built for the Lesotho government; etc. Over time this practice expanded beyond special relationships. Soon western nations were making spare transmitter capacity available for purchase (or exchange) by practically any other western broadcaster that wished to use it. Examples from the 1970s include Deutsche Welle’s usage of RCI’s Sackville transmitters in exchange for providing RCI time on the DW Malta transmitter, and Radio Japan’s use of DW transmitters in Germany and Portugal. In 1983, Africa Number One, the station in Gabon in which France held a major interest, was carrying the programs of Radio Japan and Swiss Radio International, as well as Adventist World Radio.115 The very existence of Adventist World Radio, which came on the air in 1971, was based on such relay arrangements, which dwarfed the broadcaster’s reliance on its own shortwave stations, the first of which was not established until 1985.

Commercial Relays There had been no relay arrangements between western countries and communist countries. This taboo was broken in 1986 when France and China entered into an exchange agreement whereby some of the programs of each would be broadcast over the other’s transmitters (in the case of France, the French Guiana relay station). A new French government canceled the deal (it was later reinstated), but the die was cast. Relay arrangements previously unthinkable followed. In 1988, Beijing made exchange agreements with Swiss Radio International and Radio Exterior de España. The next year Canada did the same with Beijing and with Austria and South Korea. Moscow and Beijing entered into a reciprocal arrangement. In 1991, Russia and many other countries of the former Soviet Union got into relay broadcasting in a big way, offering for sale transmitter time at many sites. Soon Deutsche Welle programming was being transmitted from such places as Irkutsk, Novosibirsk and Zhiguliev, Radio Netherlands was heard from Chita, Petropavlovsk and Tashkent, Hungary was relaying Radio France International, Bulgaria was carrying the VOA, etc., etc.¡¡6 As the 1990s progressed, the role of politics in relay arrangements declined. The fac-

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SENTECH, the public transmission provider in South Africa, offered major shortwave relay services to other broadcasters.

tors that counted for the programmer were deliverable signal quality and cost. For the transmitter operator it was the customer’s ability to pay. For listeners, they now had to think twice about whether the signal of the Voice of Vietnam that they were hearing was coming from Hanoi or Russia, whether Vatican Radio was transmitting from Vatican City or over WRMI, and whether Radio Portugal was coming from Lisbon or Taiwan. By 2001, the BBC was transmitting on shortwave from a dozen locations outside its own international relay network. Smaller countries also got into the act. Beijing was heard from Mali (Beijing had refurbished Mali’s transmitters), the BBC and the VOA were buying time from SENTECH in South Africa, and Germany and Switzerland were being heard via Radiobras in Brazil. Nor was the relay of religious programming verboten in countries which previously might have eschewed it. By 1992, the Philippine religious station, Far East Broadcasting Co., operating as Far East Christian Broadcasting, was on the air from Khabarovsk, and Adventist World Radio had set up offices in Russia and was transmitting from Novosibirsk. In 1995, Radio Maryja, the Polish Catholic broadcaster, was heard via Poland, and later via Russia. Trans World Radio was on the air from Russia and from what had been at one time the most Stalinist of venues, Albania. By 2002, about 50 broadcasters worldwide were utilizing some 100 offshore shortwave facilities that they either owned or from which they leased time, mainly the latter.¡¡7 In 2006, Radio Iran began broadcasting via Sitkunai, Lithuania, an illustration of the odd pairings now ordinary in the new world of international broadcasting.

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

Leased Time Broadcasting A major element in the new international broadcasting model was the advent of large scale leased time broadcasting. Leased time broadcasting by religious stations has already been discussed. Now they were joined by a host of non-traditional broadcasters, especially the “clandestine” stations. These broadcasters usually lacked their own transmitters and thus were not “stations” in the traditional sense. They were program producers, and some were shoestring operations even in that arena. But even if they were able to produce only a half-hour or an hour of programming a week, they could now transmit worldwide on shortwave. The result was that all manner of new “voices” appeared on the air. Virtually any student group or assemblage of disaffected persons, whether from Nigeria, Vietnam, the Horn of Africa or elsewhere, could become an international broadcaster if they had a tape recorder and enough money to buy some transmitter time. Some of these efforts would last for but a short time, and probably many had little understanding of what shortwave was all about or of whether their signal was reaching the intended audience. Other clandestines were larger operations with more substantial parentage. In both cases, where the burden and expense of operating a transmitter would have made shortwave broadcasting impossible before, leased time now made it feasible. Other broadcasters that have made use of leased time include United Nations Radio and such U.N.–based stations as Radio Okapi (Congo-Kinshasa) and Radio UNMEE (Ethiopia and Eritrea), and leased time operations that are not overtly political but provide humanitarian broadcasts or cultural programming not normally available on stations in the targeted countries, e.g., the Sudan Radio Service, Star Radio (broadcasting to Liberia), or Sound of Hope (serving China). With leased time, shortwave air time has become a commodity, and a new industry developed: brokering between program producers and transmitter operators. The wellknown brokers have been Radio Miami International (the parent organization of WRMI), TDP (Transmitter Documentation Project) in Belgium, Deutsche Telekom, and VT Com-

Radio Free Vietnam was one of several Vietnamese groups that leased air time on available shortwave transmitters.

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munications, the BBC transmitter operator. Some brokers that operate their own stations, such as Radio Miami International and VT Communications, also place programs on other transmitters. Some of the brokers and transmitter operators seem to have known or cared little about their clients’ messages. Some unusual situations have occurred, such as that of Radio Aum Shinrikyo, whose broadcasts over Russian transmitters were canceled in 1995 when the Japanese sect’s leader was found to have masterminded a gas attack on the Tokyo subway. Sri Lanka, no stranger to Tamil terrorism, was nonplused to find Tamil separatist sympathies in the program of a U.K–based broadcaster called IBC Tamil. In 1997 its programs were being carried on a leased time basis by Deutsche Telekom, whose Trincomalee relay station the Sri Lankan government hosted. And in the United States, First Amendment rights trumped all else as Nazi rants and other odious programming became standard fare on some private shortwave stations. With payrolls to meet and bills to pay, “anything goes” became the operative standard. The consequences of all this to the shortwave listener have varied depending on their interest. To the listener who tunes in for program content and is unconcerned with transmitter location, relays and leased time have been a boon, for the signals of the Voice of Vietnam or KBS World Radio, Seoul, as rebroadcast from Sackville, New Brunswick, could now be heard with a clarity impossible to achieve through direct broadcasts. DXers’ feelings about the new reality were mixed. While tuning in to non-traditional broadcasters transmitting via Jülich or Russia seldom represents much of a DX feat, these stations do at least offer new targets in an otherwise shrinking DX world, thanks to leased time. In shortwave’s new world order, the advent of leased time has also complicated the definition of a “station.” Traditionally a station has consisted of a transmitter, together with content that is either self-produced or obtained from some other source. Content producers lacking their own transmitters generally have been thought of simply as “programs.” But what does one call something like Radio Zamaneh, which produces programs in the Netherlands that are broadcast to Iran over leased transmitters in Russia, and that acts like a station? Is it a station? Or a “broadcaster”? A program? Just a DX “target”? Whatever it is, if it has “Radio” in its name, these days most DXers would consider it something interesting. From the traditional international shortwave station’s standpoint, leasing time on another’s transmitters may provide a reprieve, albeit sometimes only temporary, when operating one’s own transmitters becomes uneconomical or unfeasible for other reasons. Despite having many high power transmitters of its own, from 2002 to 2006 Libya transmitted its shortwave services via France. Far East Broadcasting Assn. in the Seychelles closed down in 2003 and transferred its programming to leased transmitters in other countries. Switzerland made extensive use of foreign relays during the years when it was closing its several shortwave facilities in advance of leaving shortwave all together in 2004. In 2006, Poland transmitted on shortwave solely via France and Germany, thus avoiding the need to upgrade its own transmitter plant. A few national voices that have been heard via relays, such as Wales Radio International and Radio Telefis Éireann, never would have been heard otherwise. And for some religious broadcasters without their own transmitters, and for the plethora of non-traditional broadcasters, leased time is their only shortwave alternative.

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

Relays and leased time have not been without their problems. In recent years, secrecy has surrounded the location of the transmitters of some broadcasters.¡¡8 A prime example is Radio Free Asia, which uses many transmitters in Central Asian countries that do not wish to be publicly associated with the station. Some relay stations do not wish it to be known who their leased-time clients are, and may hide behind the broker. Most non-traditional broadcasters do not reveal their transmitting sites (if they even know them), although DXers are usually able to identify them from correlations of signal characteristics and published data, or from inside information. Also, broadcasters run the risk that the national transmitter operator in another country will one day refuse to carry their programs for political reasons, a problem that has already cropped up with satellite broadcasting and FM broadcasting. This is less of a problem on shortwave, where the number of available transmitter options has expanded. However, some large international broadcasters such as the BBC, Radio Australia and Radio France International, which have traditionally relied on shortwave, now rebroadcast their programs on FM stations in various cities around the world, some in places where western-style freedom of expression is not necessarily a core value.

Shortwave Year-by-Year The best way to understand what the shortwave bands were like in the past is to describe what was on the air. Chapters 2–8 focus exclusively on broadcast stations, with a few “broadcast utilities” included when necessary to a full telling of the shortwave broadcast story. It would be impossible to include all stations, or to present complete chronologies for individual stations, and no attempt has been made to do so. However, it is hoped that a reasonably complete and accurate picture of the on-air shortwave environment will emerge, and that listeners who were active at the time will be able to relate their own experiences to these descriptions. Geographic and propagational factors dictate that reception of individual stations and broadcasts differ greatly depending on one’s location. The reader should note that, with a few relevant exceptions, this book describes the stations that were available to serious listeners in the United States. It is illustrative of the east coast bias of American DXing that, up until the 1960s, shortwave news in American club bulletins and radio magazines often was reported in Eastern Standard Time (or, from early 1942 to late 1945, “Eastern War Time,” the equivalent of daylight savings time, which was in continuous use throughout the country during those years).1¡9 Thus, listeners living on the west coast or somewhere else outside the eastern time zone had to “think” in both their local time and EST, as well as GMT. This “EST” convention is preserved in chapters 2 and 3. From 1960 on, times are shown in Greenwich time, called “GMT” through 1979, “UTC” thereafter (UTC came into general use circa 1982). Frequencies are shown in kilocycles (kc.) through 1969, the approximate time at which kilohertz (kHz.) became the preferred abbreviation. Stations changed frequencies often, and the use of multiple channels was standard among the larger stations. Many frequencies other than those reported here were in use.

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Although international stations have typically identified themselves with popular names rather than call letters, the latter are included if they were in common use. Although most domestic shortwave stations also tended to use popular names, many, especially in Latin America, were also assigned call letters which they would announce at sign on and sign off and at other times throughout the day. Some stations, particularly in Peru and Bolivia, operated without the benefit of license and thus had no call letters. I apologize in advance for a casual attitude toward proper diacritical marks in some station names and places. While greater diligence was warranted, neither the spirit nor the flesh was willing. Where I have used them I have tried to be consistent.

2

1945–1949 Times in E.S.T.

1945 It was a transition year, beginning in war and ending in peace. And the shortwaves were alive with signals. Germany surrendered on May 7, Japan on August 15. Among the major broadcasters that listeners were used to hearing were the BBC, London, operating on dozens of frequencies, each with its own “G” call letters, e.g. GRW, GSH, GWJ, etc.; “Zeesen,” Germany with its “D” calls—DJL, DXQ, DZD; the “J” call letters of Radio Tokyo,1 also operating on many frequencies (JLT, JVO, JZI, etc.); and Radio Australia— known simply as “Australia Calling” until November 1945 — with its call letters VLA, VLB and VLC (Shepparton, 50 to 100 kw.), and VLG (Lyndhurst, 10 kw.), always opening with the sound of Jacko, the laughing Kookaburra. The Australian Broadcasting Commission also operated what was called the Inland Short-Wave Service for the five percent of the population not adequately served by medium wave stations.2 It consisted of local shortwave stations VLR (Melbourne, 2 kw.), VLH (Lyndhurst, 10 kw.), VLQ (Brisbane, 10 kw.), and VLW (Perth, 2 kw.), all of which relayed their medium wave parent stations. Radio Centre, Moscow, operated on multiple frequencies, opening and closing its broadcasts with the injunction, “Death to the German invaders!” HCJB, Quito, Ecuador was a “first catch” for many shortwave listeners, as it would be for new listeners over the next half century. It had been on the air since Christmas day, 1931. XGOY in Chungking, China, operated by the Central Broadcasting Administration in Nanking, was widely

Forty-year Fascination “DX memories are made of what we heard back when everything was fresh and new, and we were too. For me, that includes the ‘first log,’ April 17, 1947, of HCJB. Actually it was something of a second hand tuning. It was my father, a sometimes SWL in the 1930s, who had just bought an all-band Midwest console, and was again listening to shortwave, who tuned the Quito signal, ‘coming all the way from Ecuador in South America.’ But I heard it too, and thus began a 40 year fascination with such things.” Don Jensen, “The Ones That Got Away,” WPE Call Letter, September 1987, p. 6.

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2. 1945–1949

65

A postwar view of Radio Tokyo headquarters.

heard in its services to Europe, North America, Japan and other parts of the world.3 The station had been built in a cave in order to protect it from the Japanese. There were many stations in Europe, including HVJ, Vatican Radio (12 kw.); OLR, Ceskoslovensky Rozhlas, Prague, Czechoslovakia; Radio Nacional de España, Madrid (40 kw.); Radio Paris (later Radiodiffusion Francaise); and Radio Éireann, Athlone, Ireland, operating experimentally with 1.5 kw. on 9695 and 17840 kc. Twelve days after liberation in 1944, Radio Luxembourg returned to the air in the service of the Supreme Headquarters of the Allied Expeditionary Force. Regular Radio Luxembourg programming resumed in 1945, on shortwave with a 5 kw. transmitter on 6090 kc. It had started broadcasting on medium wave in 1932, shortwave in 1938, but had been silenced during the war.4 The Swiss Broadcasting Corp. had a good signal on 7380, 9539 and 11775 kc., and carried messages from U.S. soldiers on furlough in Switzerland. Portugal was well represented, with CSW, Emissora Nacional, Lisbon, on 9735 and 11040 kc., and Radio Renascença on 6155. A new station from Portugal in 1945 was Radio Clube Português, Parede, on 12400 kc. Emissora Nacional, Ponta Delgada, Azores could also be heard. It was on 4020 kc. From the higher latitudes there was SBT, the Swedish Broadcasting Corp. (“Radiotjanst”), Stockholm, on 15155 kc. (12 kw.); Leningrad, with its Sunday multi-lingual programs on 11642 kc. at 0930; and the 7 kw. transmitter of TFJ, the Iceland State Broadcasting Service, Reykjavik, which was on 12235 kc. OIX, the Finnish Broadcasting Co., operated from three sites: Helsinki on 6120 kc. (10 kw.) and 17800 (1 kw.), Lahti on 9500 (10 kw.), and Pori on 15190 (15 kw.). There was English daily at 0800. The stations in Africa were growing in number, and, as would be the case for decades to come, they got the DX juices flowing. Radio France, Algiers, was reported with an excel-

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

lent signal on 12120 kc., as was the Voice of America’s 50 kw. Algiers station on 6040, 9610 and 11765 kc., identifying as “the Voice of America in North Africa.” Cairo station SUX on 7860 and 10055 kc. was reported often, although it appeared to be more of a news utility than a regular broadcaster. Radio Maroc, Rabat, French Morocco, operated on 9093 kc. The South African Broadcasting Corp. (SABC) could be heard via Cape Town frequencies ZRK, 5885 kc. and ZRL, 9605, both 5 kw., as well as several channels of l kw. or less from Johannesburg, Durban and Pietermaritzburg. There were two stations in what was then the Belgian Congo—OTC, the 50 kw. transmitter of Radiodiffusion Nationale Belge, in operation since 1943, and OTM, the 7.5 kw. transmitter of Radio Congo Belge. Both were located in Leopoldville (now Kinshasa). Radio Congo Belge was audible at various times during the day on 9395 kc., among other frequencies. One listener reported that he could hear the station on a simple six-tube home set with an indoor aerial. The Congo station of Radiodiffusion Nationale Belge had been inaugurated in 1943 and served as the Belgian national voice during the German occupation. It had a nightly program to North America called “Belgium Speaks to America,” and it also relayed the VOA and the BBC. TAP, Ankara, Turkey was a regular on 9465 kc., with its listeners mailbag program on Sundays at 1630; and ZNR, Aden, came through with English until 1315 on 12115. Indian stations VUB (Bombay), VUC (Calcutta), VUM (Madras) and VUD (Delhi) were heard, the latter using many frequencies, including 7275 kc., which was widely reported around 0800–1000. These had been the first shortwave stations installed in India when shortwave came into use there in 1938. Medium wave was the preferred frequency range, supple-

CSW were the call letters of Emissora Nacional de Radiodifusão, the state broadcaster of Portugal. This QSL is from 1946, when the station operated with 10 kw.

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mented by a shortwave service whose purpose was to provide the entire country with at least a “second grade service.”5 In China, following the surrender of Japan, “numerous stations were built up like bamboo shoots after spring rains— especially in Shanghai, where at one time more than 100 stations were found operating” (not all on shortwave).6 Besides XGOY, which was the main Chinese shortwave station, listeners could hear XMHA, The Call of the Orient, Shanghai, on 11860 kc. with English at 0800; XTPA, the Canton Broadcasting Station, on 11650; XGCA, Kalgan, 9625 (“Easy to identify”); and XPSA, Kweiyang, on 7010 kc., with English news at 0800. XGRS, Shanghai, a 5 kw. station on 11690 kc., was used by the Germans until May 1945 when the Japanese took it over following Germany’s surrender and changed the call to XGOO. It became XORA when China’s Central Broadcasting Administration began operating it in November 1945. From the Pacific, the 5 kw. ZLT7, Wellington, New Zealand on 6715 kc. was heard, as were FK8AA, Radio Noumea, New Caledonia, the “Voice of France in the South Pacific,” signing off at 0600 on 6205 kc., and FO8AA, Radio Club Oceania, Papeete, Tahiti, on 6980. VOA station KRHO in Honolulu, Hawaii, still an American territory, was often heard on 6120 and 17720 kc. It was one of the first relay stations built specifically for the VOA in the agency’s early days (1944). A number of Russian stations relaying Radio Centre programs were reported, including RW15, Khabarovsk, on 5935 kc.; Magadan on 5715; Leningrad on 11642; and Petropavlovsk on 6070. Komsomolsk had its own English service beamed to the United States on 9565 kc., and most mornings it put in a good signal on the east coast. There were many American transmitters carrying Voice of America programming, all of them having been leased in 1942 from their corporate owners, mainly NBC, CBS, RCA, GE, Crosley and Westinghouse. WRUL in Boston was the only American shortwave broadcaster that had resumed some of its own programming after the war. (It was founded as experimental station W1XAL in 1933, and became WRUL, the “World Radio University,” in 1939.)7 However, as one well-traveled observer noted, American voices had a hard time keeping up with the competition. Kandahar has the best Government hotel in Afghanistan, with a fine short-wave radio. My dinner was ending with a piled-high plate of juicy pomegranate when the music of a string quartet came softly in. Being the only guest, I ran the gamut of four wave bands, trying to see whether WRUL or some other short-wave voice was coming through from the United States. ¶The director of Radio Kabul had assured me that a finer receiving set, then on order, would establish the connection. ¶For two hours in Kandahar I twirled the dials, combing the ether for those sound waves which blare forth from loud-speakers in every large town of once-isolated Afghanistan. ¶Every second station I got was Berlin. Oriental music from India; Berlin; Oriental music (male) from Kabul; Berlin; sophisticated discussion of swing from London; Berlin; Spanish rhythms from Buenos Aires; Berlin. But no news from home.8

By 1945, the Office of War Information had fully 110 stations operating in the United States on 67 frequencies. These included many commercial phone relay stations that also carried some broadcast programming. A frequently reported relay station was the 10 kw. Guam transmitter with its “K” calls, e.g. KU5Q, KU5G, KGB5, and so on. WWV, whose origins date back to 1920, was located in Beltsville, Maryland, in the Washington, D.C., suburbs, and operated on 2.5, 5, 10 and 15 mc. It was solely a standard frequency station until October when it started giving time announcements, and then in

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code only (voice announcements were added in 1950). Transmissions on 20, 25 and 30 mc. began in 1947. Canada was well represented on shortwave through, among others, CFCX,9 Montreal on 9630 kc.; VE9AI, Edmonton, Alberta, “the Voice of the Great North West,” relaying BCBer CJCA on 6005 (later 9540); CKRO, Winnipeg, Manitoba on 6150 (and its sister station CKRX on 11720); and CHNX, Halifax, Nova Scotia, on 6130. CFVP, Calgary, Alberta, “the Voice of the Prairie,” and CFRX, Montreal, operated on the same frequencies they would use for decades: 6030 and 6070 kc. respectively. VONH, St. Johns, Newfoundland, was regularly heard on 5970 kc. (Newfoundland was self-governing at the time and did not become a province of Canada until 1949.) On February 25, 1945, following two months of testing, the Canadian Broadcasting Corp. inaugurated the first international service from that country. The transmitters were newly installed, 50 kw. units located at the site of CBC medium wave station CBA in Sackville, New Brunswick, still the locus of today’s Radio Canada International transmitter base. Each frequency had different call letters, e.g. CKNC (17820 kc.), CKCS (15320), CKLX (15090), etc. By the early 1950s, letters were coming in to the CBC’s International Service at the rate of 3,000–4,000 per month.10 In the “DX” category were stations like ZOY, Accra, the Gold Coast (Ghana), on 15435 kc, transmitting on Monday and Thursday at 1130–1145; FIQA, Radio Tananarive, Madagascar, on 12127, with news in French at 0850; Radio Andorra on 5997 and 9330 kc., heard around 1730; and the Cable & Wireless, Ltd. station, VQ7LO, Nairobi, Kenya on 10730 (“This is Nairobi calling”). Others were Radio Clube de Moçambique, Lourenço Marques, “the Radio Station for Happy Listening,” often heard on 9710 kc.; Radio Martinique, Fortde-France, “the Voice of Fighting France in the West Indies,” on 9705; and CR6RA, Radio Clube de Angola, on 9470, closing at 1530 with the Portuguese national anthem and 12 chimes.11 Other good catches included FXE, Radio Levant, Beirut, Lebanon on 8025 kc., a 3 kw. French-operated station that could sometimes be heard in the late afternoon; and PZX, Paramaribo, Surinam, on 5750 kc., heard until sign off at 2145. Station ETAA, Radio Addis Ababa, Ethiopia was sometimes audible at 1100 on 9620 kc. (7 kw.); and Radio Khartoum in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, broadcasting on 9220 kc., could be heard closing at 1700 with the “Goodnight Waltz” and the announcement, “Good night wherever you may be from the Sudan Broadcasting Service.” Among the rarest catches reported in 1945 were Radio Clube de Macao, Portuguese China, on 7530 kc., signing off at 0900; Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia, heard on 15585 kc. at 1400–1600; and OQ2AB, Radio Congolia, Leopoldville, operating with a mere 50 watts on 15320 kc. Many South American stations were on the air, including Radio El Mercurio, Santiago, Chile on 11855 kc.; CXA19, El Espectador, Montevideo, Uruguay, on 11705; and Venezuelans YV6RV, La Voz de Carabobo, Ciudad Bolivar, 6200 kc.; YV5RN, Radio Caracas, 4920; and YVKC, Radiodifusora Nacional, 9640. Among the Colombians heard were HJCT, Radiodifusora Nacional, on 6180; HJCD, Emisora Nueva Granada, Bogota, on 6160; and HCJX, La Voz de Colombia, Bogota, on 6018. Peru could not boast the number of stations it would have in later years, but it was represented by, among others, OAX4P, Radio Nacional del Peru, Lima, on 5890 kc., and OAX4Q, Radio Victoria, Lima., on 6020, a frequency it still uses today.12 Argentina was heard via Buenos Aires stations LRA, which carried English at 1600 on 17720 kc.; LSX, Transradio Nacional, also with English news at 1900 on 10350 kc.; and LR1, Radio El Mundo, operating on 6120 and 9660 kc. and identi-

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fying occasionally in English. LRR, Radio Ovidio Lagos, broadcast from Rosario, on 11880 kc. And the southernmost station in the western hemisphere was Radio Ejercito, Punta Arenas, Chile, on 12270 kc. (“Easy to identify, gives call every 15 minutes” advised one listener). From Ecuador, besides HCJB there was HC1AC, La Voz de la Democracia, Quito, on 7200 kc.; Estación HC2RL, Guayaquil, on 6635; HC2AK, Radio Emisora del Ecuador, heard signing off at 2348 on 4650; and HC4EB, Radio Manta, on 6870 kc. Brazil was on the air, albeit without the multitude of stations that listeners would become used to in later years. PSF, Rio de Janeiro, a combined SWBC and utility operation, was active on 14690 kHz, parallel to PSH on 10220. PRL8, Radio Nacional, “the Voice of Brazil,” was heard with English at 2200 on 11720 kc., and PRA8, Radio Clube de Pernambuco, Recife, could be heard on 6015. Central American and Caribbean stations included TGWA, La Voz de Guatemala, on 15170 kc.; Dominican Republic stations HI2T, La Voz del Yuna, Ciudad Trujillo, on 11900; HI9T, Broadcasting Tropical, Puerto Plata, 6170; and HI3U, Estación Perifonica, Santiago, on 5985.13 From Panama City there was HP5A, Radio Teatro, on 11695 kc., and HP5K, La Voz de la Victor, on 6005. HRN, La Voz de Honduras, transmitted from Tegucigalpa on 5875 kc., a channel it would occupy for many years. Costa Rica had seven stations on shortwave, the most famous being TI4NRH, 9692 kc., operated by well-known shortwave personality Amando Cespedes Marin.14 A number of Nicaraguan stations were active in the 7 mc. area, including YNLAT, La Voz del Mombacho, on 7615 kc.; YNFM, Radio Masaya, 7095; and YNBH, Radio Panamericana, 7008. El Salvador was represented by YSI, Radio Intercontinental, 7035 kc., which operated nightly from 2000 to 2335, opening with a program sponsored by Coca Cola. Among the Mexican stations on shortwave were Mexico City outlets XEWW, La Voz de la America Latina, on 9500 kc.; XENN, Radio Mundial, on 11780; XEBR, Radiodifusora de Sonora, Hermosillo, 11820; and XEAM, Matamoras, 5570. Numerous Cuban stations could be heard, including COBQ, La Voz de Cuba, Havana, on 9238 kc.; General Electric station COCQ (“Circuito CMQ”), Havana, on 7015; COCY, Radio Havana Cuba, “Cadena Azul,” on 1174015; COKG, Cadena Oriental, Santiago, on 9040; and COCO, Compania Radiodifusora, Havana, on 6130. Elsewhere in the Caribbean, Bahamas station ZNS was often heard in the late afternoon and evening relaying the BCB outlet over its 600 watt shortwave transmitter on 6090 kc. PJC1, “Curom,” Willemstad, Curacao, broadcast on 7250 kc., and Radio Guadeloupe, Basse-Terre, could be heard on 7540. Well-heard stations from the Caribbean area and environs were ZQI, Kingston, Jamaica, 4700 kc., a station that had begun operation in 1939 with a donated ham transmitter; HH3W, Port-au-Prince, Haiti, on 10130; and ZFY, the Voice of Guiana, Georgetown, British Guiana on 6000 kc. ZFY had earlier been known as VP3MR and was the result of a 1938 merger of VP3BG, the British Guiana United Broadcasting Co., Ltd., and the 3MR operation. Later it would broadcast on 5980 kc. Many of the clandestine stations that had been heard in America during the war had already ceased operating by 1945. Still on the air, however, was Radio Debunk, “Voice of All Free America,” purporting to operate from the midwest but actually transmitting from Bremen, Germany. It broadcast on 7203 kc. among other frequencies. Another station widely noted in 1945 was Deutsche Kurzwellensender Atlantik, on 6212, 7420 and 9800

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kc. It had a strong signal at night. Radio Atlantik turned out to be an Allied operation, disguised to appear as if it was operating from within Germany and so genuine sounding that professional monitors often mistook it for the real thing. Prior to the end of the war, a number of interesting stations could be heard from Japanese-controlled areas. There was JANX, Batavia (the Dutch name for Jakarta), Java (Indonesia), on 12275 kc. (it carried prisoner-of-war messages for Australia until 1045); JZHA, Hong Kong on 9465; and Radio Saigon, French Indo-China, with English news at 1045 on 11775 kc. Other Japanese stations included PIRN (the former KZRH) in Manila, the Philippines on 15320 and 15440 kc. with English at 1900–2100; Radio Shonan, from Japanese-occupied Singapore, on 15450 (beaming English programs to both the east and west coasts of the United States); and the widely heard MTCY, the Hsinking Central Broadcasting Station in Hsingking, Manchukuo (Japanese-occupied Manchuria).16 Allied stations included AFHQ (Allied Forces Headquarters), Italy, which carried press reports and news on many frequencies; the “Voice of Freedom” program from WVLC, the station at General MacArthur’s headquarters in Leyte, the Philippines, on 7795; and the RCA commercial station at Kahuku, Hawaii which was often used to boost WVLC’s signal and also relay other stations’ broadcasts. ABSIE was a strong presence on 9520, 9550, 9625 and 9640 kc., identifying every 15 minutes as “This is the American Broadcasting Station in Europe.” It was a joint American-British effort, mainly on medium wave frequencies in Britain, beamed to occupied Europe in advance of the Allied Invasion. It was on the air for a year. From “Free French Africa” there was the famous FZI, Radio Brazzaville, originally set up in 1940, its power increased from 5 to 50 kw. in 1943 and now broadcasting on 9440 and 11970 kc.; and Radio Dakar on 7210, 9930 and 11405. Radio Dakar had English on Wednesdays at 1630. ZOJ, Radio SEAC, South East Asia Command, Columbo, Ceylon broadcast in English at 0800 on 11810 kc. among other channels. ZOH, the Ceylon Broadcasting Station, was the local shortwave outlet in Ceylon, and operated on 4900 kc. After the war there was more time for tuning the bands, and the level of shortwave listening increased. New stations were coming on the air and old ones returned to their prewar status. Late in the year, Holland’s PCJ (“Peace, Cheer and Joy”), the pre-war shortwave broadcaster with roots going back to 1926, returned to the air on its old frequency of 9590 kc. The transmitters (and the then-unique rotatable antenna) were in Huizen and the studios were in Hilversum. The Dutch had blown up the station rather than let it fall into German hands. The Germans rebuilt it, but blew it up on their departure. The Dutch reconstructed it and got it back on the air as Radio Nederland.17 The former ZHP in Singapore, the Straits Settlements, returned to British control with an improved signal on 9555 kc., identifying as the British Military Administration Station at Singapore (later called Radio Malaya). Arthur Cushen of New Zealand reported: “John Moody, news announcer at Singapore Radio in prewar days, escaped from internment and was waiting at the studio to resume his old job when British occupation forces arrived in Malaya.”18 One attentive listener observed that the woman announcer on Radio Saigon after it returned to French control sounded like the same voice heard on-air before the Japanese takeover. Other stations reported after the war ended included Belgrade Shortwave Station YUA, Yugoslavia, on 6150 kc.; SPW, Polskie Radio Warsaw, on 6100 and 13635 (7.5 kw.);

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Radio Rangoon, Burma, with English news at 0930 on 1186019; ZBW, Hong Kong, heard with English news at 0700 on 9495; EPA, Teheran, Iran on 10810; and YI5KG, Baghdad, Iraq on 7085 kc., carrying BBC news at noon. EAJ43, Radio Club Tenerife, the Canary Islands, was heard on 7570 kc. until sign off at 1800. On 7220 kc., the U.K.’s Forces Broadcasting Service station JCKW, Jerusalem, could be heard closing at 1600, requesting reports.20 Sister station JCPA, Cairo, 7190 kc., was also heard. Sharq al Adna, the Britishoperated Near East Arab Broadcasting Station, Jaffa, Palestine, signed on at 2330 on 6135 and 6790 kc. The power was 7.5 kw.21 An east coast listener reported American Forces Network (AFN), Munich on 8600 kc. with “the strongest signals I have ever heard from a European station. No matter how low I kicked down the volume control the R meter still showed R9 plus.” As reflected above, there was a good deal of broadcasting activity outside the normal shortwave broadcasting bands. In addition, it was not unusual for small stations in outof-the way places to use comparatively high frequencies, e.g. 9–15 mc., making their signals audible with regularity over long distances. And English programming from Central and South America, often in the form of scheduled English news broadcasts, was not unusual.

1946 The Voice of America transmitters were carrying both VOA and Armed Forces Radio Service programs around the clock. A total of 25 broadcast transmitters, mostly 50 kw., were in use from the east coast, specifically in Boston (Westinghouse, WBOS; World Wide Broadcasting Foundation, WRUA, WRUS, WRUL, WRUW); Bound Brook, New Jersey (National Broadcasting Corp., WNBI, WNRA, WNRE, WNRI, WNRX, WRCA); Brentwood, New Jersey (Columbia Broadcasting System, WCBN, WCRC, WCBX); Wayne, New Jersey (also Columbia, WOOC, WOOW); Schenectady, New York (General Electric Co., WGEO, WGEA); and Bethany and Mason, Ohio (Crosley Corp., WLWO, WLWK, WLWL1, WLWL-2, WLWR, WLWS-1, WLWS-2). There were ten broadcast transmitters in California. The units in Delano came into service in 194422 (CBS — KCBA, KCBF, KCBR). The rest were in Belmont (GE — KGEI, KGEK), Dixon (NBC — KNBA, KNBI, KNBX), and San Francisco (Associated Broadcasting, Inc., KWID, KWIX). KRHO continued to operate from Honolulu, Hawaii. The United Nations had been established in 1945, and U.N. Radio broadcasts, consisting of programs produced by the U.N. and relays of U.N. sessions, were carried regularly over VOA transmitters. (Some U.N. material was transmitted in Morse code.) The Armed Forces Radio Service had developed after the establishment of a standalone AM station in Fort Greely, Alaska in 1941. AFRS was set up in 1942 as part of the War Department’s “Morale Branch,” and by the end of the war it was coordinating some 300 mostly local stations. Shortwave was thought to be the best way of reaching the troops directly until it was found that few GIs had access to receivers good enough for reliable reception. As a result, the mission was changed, with shortwave used mainly to provide programming for rebroadcast by local stations and only secondarily to reach individual soldiers direct. The nature of shortwave gave AFRS shortwave a much wider audience both

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in the United States and elsewhere, however. Because it carried domestic network programming (with the commercials removed), it was thought by some to be a more authentic American shortwave voice than VOA.23 Its sports coverage was a particular favorite with listeners. Though they were not part of its target audience, many non–Americans enjoyed AFRS programs. The BBC was probably the most widely heard of all stations, with its General Overseas Service (which had replaced the Empire Service in 1943) and its special services to particular target areas (including North America). Radio Paris increased power, first from 12 to 25 kw., and then to 100 kw. It broadcast from several sites, including Allouis, Muret, Realtort, and Les Essarts. Radio Belgrade, Yugoslavia, was strong after midnight on 9420 kc., with a tuning signal of the first four notes of the Blue Danube Waltz. The Swiss Broadcasting Corp. station in Berne was widely heard in North America and had both a 20minute “Short Edition” transmission and a regular 90-minute “Long Edition” program. Radio Andorra moved to a high frequency, 11985 kc., where it could be heard at 0830. Radio Wien, Vienna, Austria signed on at midnight on 7180 kc. It operated with less than 1 kw. on all frequencies and was a good catch. The U.S. Armed Forces Radio Station KOFA in Salzburg, Austria, the only shortwave channel of the three-station Blue Danube Network in Austria, transmitted on 7220 kc. (later 9617) and was glad to QSL reports.

The Blue Danube Network in Austria was a postwar military broadcaster operated by the Armed Forces Radio Service. Opposite, top: Until Radio Nacional de España built a high-power relay station in the Canary Islands in 1964, the island chain was a rare DX catch in North America. Bottom: The British station Sharq al Adna started out in Jaffa, Palestine, moved to Cyprus in 1948, and in 1957 became the BBC East Mediterranean Relay station.

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On November 24, Radio Sweden, another station that was well-heard in the United States via its transmitter in Motala, had a special broadcast for readers of Radio News. It was presented by Arne Skoog, who would, two years later, become the host of the new program, “Sweden Calling DXers.” Radio Athens used 7295 kc., and ZAA, Radio Tirana, Albania operated on 7850. Albania had begun broadcasting on shortwave in 1938. LZB, Radio Sofia, Bulgaria, was also active on shortwave. It transmitted on 7660 kc. with 5 kw., while Radio Rodina, a military station in Bulgaria, operated on 9350 kc. with the same power. Norsk Rikskringkasting, Oslo, Norway was on 6200 kc. with a 10 kw. transmitter that had been erected at Klofta by the Germans. However, by the end of the year they were testing a new, higher power transmitter from Frederikstad. The Italian station, Ente Italiana Audizioni Radiofoniche (EIAR), was heard from its site at Busto Arsizio near Milan on 9630 kc. (50 kw.) and 11810 kc. (10 kw.), as well as from Rome on 6030 (1 kw.). Radio Mediterraneo, Valencia, Spain, a small station transmitting on 7037 kc., was occasionally audible on the east coast in the late afternoon. Other stations operating from Spain in the 7 mc. band included Radio Cordoba, 7045 kc.; Radio SEU, Madrid, 7100 kc. (later known as EDV10, La Voz de Juventud); Radio Falange de Alicante, 7940 kc.; and Radio Nacional de España stations in Cuenca (7100 kc.) and Malaga (7012). Radio Monte Carlo, Monaco used 6130 kc. and signed on at 0130. The power was 300 watts, and the transmitter was located across the border in France. Radio Monte Carlo was one of several cross-border radios périphériques which were permitted to skirt the French ban on private commercial broadcasting notwithstanding the controlling or near-control-

Motala was the site of Radio Sweden’s early shortwave transmitters.

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ling interest in their operations held by the French government holding company SOFIRAD. Other such stations included Radio Luxembourg, and later, Radio Méditerranée Internationale, broadcasting from Morocco; Radio Monte Carlo Moyen-Orient, a popular Radio Monte Carlo medium wave offshoot which took to shortwave via Radio Méditerranée Internationale in 1986; and Africa No. One in Gabon.24 Careful listeners were able to hear and identify Russian regional stations. Tiflis (now Tbilisi) in the Georgian S.S.R. was heard on 7490 kc. with its own programs until 2200, followed by a relay of the Moscow Home Service. A clandestine station first reported in 1946 was Radio España Independiente, the voice of the Spanish Communist party in exile. Announcing as being “somewhere in the Pyrenees” but actually transmitting from Moscow, it was heard on the half-hour throughout the day on 15375 and 17262 kc. and would operate until 1977. PCJ’s Eddie Startz resumed the “Happy Station” program which he had hosted from 1928 until the Germans occupied Holland. He announced that he was looking for a copy of his prewar theme song, “A Nice Cup of Tea,” recorded by Henry Hall’s Orchestra on Columbia records, his copy having been lost during the war. Another station that returned to the air was OZF, Radio Denmark, operating on 9520 kc. with 5 kw. Germany’s long history of shortwave broadcasting had begun in 1929 when its “Zeesen” station, near Königs-Wusterhausen, went on the air with an 8 kw. sender. By 1935 the station was broadcasting worldwide, and it was upgraded to 50 kw. the following year. A total of 22 transmitters ranging in power from 50 to 120 kw. were in operation from four sites by 1943. Shortwave broadcasting had been suspended in Germany in 1945, but now lowpower shortwave transmitters were authorized for use by the various German states to relay their medium wave programming. This was the start of the West German regional broadcasting system whose stations would be heard for decades in the 41 and 49 meter bands. The Südwestfunk shortwave relay was heard on 6320 kc., and Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk, Leipzig, was on 9730. The British Forces Network station in Hamburg was also regularly heard on 7290 kc. Increasing numbers of Latin American stations were being heard. HCJB, by now operating with 10 kw., celebrated its 14th anniversary. At the time, there were 26 full-time missionaries on the staff, plus many Ecuadorean workers and 15 staff in the United States. HCJB was also the Quito station in NBC’s “Cadena Panamericana” network. It rebroadcast hundreds of Spanish-language programs from New York, along with locally produced religious and cultural programs and American gospel programs, in a total of 18 languages. Other South American stations heard during the year included Paraguayans ZPA3, Radio Teleco, on 11870 kc., and ZPA5, Radio Encarnación, on 11950; Buenos Aires stations LRY, Radio Belgrano, on 9453 kc., and LRS, Radio Splendid, on 5985; and, from Uruguay, CXA30, Radio Nacional del Uruguay, on 6035 kc., and CXA6, Radio Electrica (SODRE), Montevideo, on 9623. Two Peruvians heard were OAX1B, Radio Piura, on 5530 kc., and OAX4H, Radio Mundial, Lima, on 6365. Two new Ecuadorean stations reported were HC1TR, Radio Equinocciol, Ibara, on 6025, and HC5HC, Ondas del Chimborazo, Riobamba, on 4960. Chilean station Radio Sociedad Nacional de Mineria in Santiago was on 11730 kc. Quite a few Columbian stations were operating, including HJDP. Emisora Claridad, Medellin, on 4885 kc.; HJFK, La Voz Amiga, Pereira, on 6100; and HJDE, La Voz de Antio-

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quia, Medellin, on 6145. Venezuelan outlets included YV1RZ, Radio Valera, on 4840 kc.; YV6RD, La Voz de Guayana, Ciudad Bolivar, on 6200; YV5RU, Ondas Populares, Caracas, on 4860; and a station that would be a shortwave staple for many years, YV2RN, La Voz del Táchira, San Cristobal, on 4830 kc. The number of stations in Central American and the Caribbean was also growing. TIPG, La Voz de la Victor, San Jose, Costa Rica, was regularly heard in the evening on 9620 kc. A new Guatemalan was TGLA, La Voz del Pacifico, on 6276 kc. Several Panamanian stations were active. Two new ones heard in 1946 were HP5H, La Voz del Pueblo, Panama City, on 6122 kc., and HOXA, the Voice of Central America, also from Panama City, carrying the programs of medium wave station HOX on 9660, 11810 and 15100 kc. (plus 44.3 mc. FM). The power was 7.5 kw. Also heard was HOB, Radio Panamericana, Panama City, on 6175 kc. Station HOLA, Radio Atlantico, 9505 kc., went on the air from Panama in 1946. The most powerful Mexican station was 10 kw. XEBT, Las Emisoras de America, on 9625 kc. Nicaragua had a number of shortwave stations, some of which began moving from their 7 mc. frequencies to 6 mc. channels in 1946. (As a result of an international treaty, all commercial shortwave stations in the western hemisphere had to leave the 7000–7300 kc. frequency range.) Two of the 7 mc. stations were YNDG, La Voz de Leon (later Radio Colonial), on 7660 kc., and YNWW, Radio Sport, Granada, on 7325. On 6 mc. there was YNQ, La Voz de la Victoria, Managua, on 6950 kc. From the Caribbean, the Dominican Republic was represented by HI9B, 7030 kc., broadcasting from the Hotel Mercedes in Santiago; HI1N, La Voz del Partido Dominicana, Ciudad Trujillo, on 6245; HI1R, La Voz de Fundacion, San Cristobal, on 6430; and others.

Paraguay was a difficult country to hear on shortwave, even in the mid–1940s.

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HOXA was the first Christian station in Panama. It came on the air in 1946. The station later affiliated with HCJB, and was on shortwave until 1953.

Tangier had been an international city since 1923, administered jointly by France, Spain and Britain. Spain controlled it during the war, but it returned to its international status from 1945 until its integration into Morocco soon after the latter’s independence from France in 1956. Tangier would long serve as host for interesting broadcasters, and one of the first was Radio Tanger. It could be heard broadcasting in Spanish on 7098 kc. to 1830 sign off. The station dated back to the 1930s, and after the war was owned by Texan exmarine Herbert R. Southworth, who aired mostly evangelical programming. Southworth claimed to receive 5,000 letters a month, about two-thirds from French Morocco, the rest from Europe, Algeria and Tunisia. It appears that all commercial shortwave broadcasting from Tangier through 1959 originated from one of three stations—Radio Tanger (also known as Radio International and Radio Tanger International), Radio Africa (sometimes called Radio Africa Tangier), and Pan American Radio. The picture appeared more complex, however, because of the multiple names, and the stations’ practice of leasing time to other broadcasters.25 Radio Tetuan, “the Voice of Spain in North Africa,” broadcast from Spanish Morocco on 6067 kc. at around 0230. From the Cape Verde Islands, CR4AA, Radio Clube de Cabo Verde, operated on 6408 kc. (later 5880). Radio France from Algiers was heard on 11836 kc., later in the year changing its name to Radio Algerie. The 50 watt Radio Bissau, Portuguese Guinea, was a good catch on 7090 kc., as was VQ6MI, Radio Somali, Hargeisa,

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Known earlier as Northern Rhodesia, the country became Zambia in 1964.

British Somaliland, which occasionally could be heard via its 1 kw. transmitter on 7120 kc. The Northern Rhodesia Broadcasting Station, ZQP, Lusaka, commenced transmissions on 3900, 7220 and 7285 kc., and was later heard on 9710 (“This is the Northern Rhodesia Broadcasting Station in Lusaka”). Belgium resumed broadcasting directly from Brussels on 9480, 9665, 11850 and 17840 kc., but OTC in the Belgian Congo remained in operation. All India Radio was widely heard on many channels via its Delhi transmitters, some of which operated with 100 kw. (the regional stations in Bombay, Calcutta and Madras used 10 kw.). In addition to its own programming, AIR carried a program entitled “The Voice of Britain Calling the Far East” which could be heard in the United States on 9590 kc. and other channels. (India became independent in 1947.) Another SEAC station, Headquarters Radio in Singapore, could be heard from 0930 on 6777, 11735, 15275 and 15310 kc. It announced, “This is the Far Eastern Service of South East Asia Command calling in the 31 and 41 meter bands.” Reported a west coast listener, “All have fine signals and excellent quality.” It was difficult to keep up with the changing shortwave scene in Indonesia. Many stations, with varying names and constantly changing frequencies, were heard. Indonesia had proclaimed itself independent in August 1945, after the surrender of Japan, which had occupied the islands during the war. There was continuous fighting with the Dutch, who had controlled the area before the war when it was known as the Dutch East Indies. Holland finally recognized Indonesian sovereignty in December 1949. Radio Makassar in the Celebes, a station put on the air by the Japanese during the occupation, was heard on 9350 kc. signing off at 0830. It carried an English program three days a week. Also heard from Indonesia was Radio Bandung, Java, on 3010, 8000 and 10060 kc., the latter channel putting in the best signal until sign off after 1100. Another Indone-

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sian station, the Voice of Free Indonesia, was heard with excellent signals on 12005 and 15210 kc. Broadcasts with identifications for Radio Republik Indonesia and the Voice of Indonesia were also reported. (Radio Republik Indonesia was formed in 1945.) Stations under Dutch control sometimes carried programs from PCJ, Holland. An interesting station was Radio Balikpapan in Pontianak, Dutch Borneo, on 9125 kc. The station announced that its power was 125 watts, but disbelieving DXers on the west coast often heard it playing American records and putting in a decent signal until 0930. KZRH, the Voice of the Philippines, came back on the air at mid year and transmitted on 9635 kc. It signed on at 0500 with the Star Spangled Banner and rendered good reception until XGOY signed on a half-hour later and QRMed the frequency. Another Philippine station, KZRM, resumed shortwave transmissions at the end of the year. The Korean Broadcasting System, Seoul, was a rare catch on shortwave. The station operated with a 5 kw. transmitter on 2510 kc.26 Radio Rangoon, Burma was heard on 6035 and 11860 kc.; Radio Bangkok could be heard in the morning on 6000 kc.; and Radio Malaya., Singapore, had English news at 0900 on 6160 kc. WVTR, Tokyo, Japan, the main station of the U.S. Armed Forces Radio Service network, was heard on 4860, 6015 and 9605 kc., and was relayed by other Japanese stations. There was also a series of low-power (3 kw.) broadcast transmitters in Japan that were operated by the U.S. Army Signal Corps and that carried AFRS programming. These were JVT, 6750 kc., JLS, 9655, and JVP, 7510. Shortwave continued in use in Japan after the war, but not for broadcasting on an inter-

WVTR was the headquarters of the Armed Forces Radio Service in Japan. As this 1946 QSL indicates, it was located in the Radio Tokyo building.

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national scale. The transmitters were owned by the International Telecommunications Company of Japan and were operated by company personnel under the supervision of the U.S. 8th Army. As today, they identified as NHK, Nippon Hoso Kyokei (NHK was formed in 1926). Before and during the war these 15–20 kw. units had been used for both broadcasting and point-to-point purposes. Now they were used at lower power for relaying WVTR programming to other AFRS stations in Japan and for carrying the programming of principal Tokyo NHK station JOAK to other NHK network stations in Japan and to Japanese repatriation camps in China. Many Chinese stations were heard, especially on the west coast. While XGOY operated with 35 kw., the power of most of the other Chinese stations was thought to be in the 1 to 10 kw. range. Listener Paul Dilg of Monrovia, California described the chaotic Chinese shortwave scene this way: The majority of Chinese stations are erratic and drift in frequency from day to day. The Chungking stations on Oct. 1 set their clocks back one hour. XGOY, 9635 kc. is still good. XGOY, 11920, to Europe, good from 10:45–11:45 A.M. with news at 11 A.M. XGOA on 9730, weak with news at 9 A.M. XGOL, 9995, fairly good but drifts some days to 9990. News at 9 A.M. and sign off at 10 A.M. XTPA, Canton, also moved the clock back and has news at 9 A.M. and sign off at 9:15 A.M. XNCR, Yenan, on about 7520 opens around 7 A.M. with sign off at 8:30 A.M. XGOE (location unknown), on 9820, not heard recently. XOFD, Hangchow, 9553 (approx.), signs off at 8 A.M. but returns at 8:30 A.M. Shanghai, 11705, has poor signal at present. Does not carry Chungking news at 9 A.M. but instead carries a Chinese program.27

XNCR, the Voice of Xinhua, was the first external shortwave service run by the communists and was the direct predecessor of Radio Peking. It became the Central People’s Broadcasting Station in 1949.28 Also heard from China was XMEW, “Your American forces station in Kunming,” on 8690 kc., and XUSA, a U.S. Army Signal Corps station broadcasting from Chungking on 4759 kc. At the close of the war, Taiwan (also known as Formosa) had reverted from Japanese to Chinese control, and by 1946 it had its own share of “X” stations, the main one being XUPA on 9695 kc., which broadcast in English at 0840. The station sometimes carried news from XGOY. And while not shortwave broadcasting, on July 1, in the utility bands, some lucky listeners heard 600 watt station NCLG on the USS Appalachian, as well as other Navy ship stations, describe the atomic bomb tests on Bikini Atoll.

1947 The first edition of the World Radio Handbook was published in November. It was also the 25th anniversary of the founding of the BBC and the 15th anniversary of its shortwave service. Regional stations from Germany were increasing in number. Radio München, Munich was heard on 6190 kc.; Radio Stuttgart was on 6180; Berliner Rundfunk could be found on 6072; and Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk, Hamburg, was on 6115. AFN-Frankfurt was on 6080 kc., announcing “This is AFN serving the armed forces in the European Theater.” Radio Italiana, the Italian Broadcasting System, Rome, was heard on 6085 kc., and the International Red Cross Station in Geneva was heard on 7230. It had been broadcast-

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ing since 1945. Radio Romania Libra was reported to be operating with 3 kw. on 6210 kc., and another Romanian station, Radio Dacia, was on 9252 kc. (“This is the Romanian shortwave station, Radio Dacia Romana, on 25 and 32.4 meters”). The Portuguese station at Ponta Delgada, Azores, Emissora Regional dos Açores, moved to 4845 kc. Radio Monte Carlo shortwave went to 25 kw. in July, and Radio Denmark announced plans for a new 50 kw. transmitter. Radio Éireann, Ireland, said it was constructing a 100 kw. shortwave station. Ireland had first conducted shortwave broadcasts in 1938–41 over a 1.5 kw. transmitter, and these transmissions had continued on an intermittent basis.29 The VOA, Algiers ceased operations on June 1. Radio Brazzaville, French Equatorial Africa, continued to be well heard on multiple frequencies, including 9575, 11970 and 17845 kc. Programming was in French, but many American recordings were played. A new Angolan station, 50 watt Radio Clube de Malanje, appeared on 7140 kc.; and another, on 9165 kc., was identified as CR6RB, Radio Clube de Benguela. An interesting if rarely heard station on 5900 kc. was 200-watt ZNB, Mafeking, Bechuanaland (now Botswana). It was primarily a radiotelephone station, but a technician explained that “during our spare time we broadcast records only.... This station is very popular in South Africa, mainly because we do not have set programs like all the SABC stations do. In other words, we play anything we can lay our hands on.”30 Radio Clube de Moçambique in Lourenço Marques became an increasingly popular station. It broadcast two separate services, one in Portuguese, known as Radio Clube de Moçambique, and the other in English (and sometimes Afrikaans), usually called Lourenço Marques Radio. The interval signal was four chimes (do-mi-do-so), and the identification was “Lourenço Marques, for happy listening in the ... meter bands from 6 o’clock in the

Before independence, Radio Clube de Moçambique was one of the most popular stations in southern Africa.

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morning until 11 o’clock at night.” The power was 7.5 kw.31 In 1948 a new four-story “Radio Palace” in downtown Lourenço Marques became the station’s new home. Another broadcaster in Mozambique, 300-watt CR7IB, Emissora do Aero Clube da Beira, was a rare catch on 7255 kc. What appeared to be a new station, announcing as “Radio International broadcasting from Tangiers,” was heard with multi-lingual commercial programs in the afternoon on 6190 kc. (later 6110). This was Herbert Southworth’s Radio Tanger, which often used the name Radio International after the war. On shortwave it broadcast with 2 kw. From 1950 the station was sometimes referred to as the Dr. Walter A. Maier Memorial Broadcasting Station. Maier, who died in 1950, was the founder of the Lutheran Hour. One of his programs, “Bringing Christ to the Nations,” was carried over Radio International.32 South American and Central American shortwave stations were the most difficult about which to find information. A British magazine, Short Wave News, carried lists of Latin American stations, as well as those in other countries. In 1947 it listed 17 stations in Cuba, six in Costa Rica, eight in Panama, 13 in Bolivia, and ten in Brazil. From Central America, more Nicaraguan stations were heard, including Managua outlets YNCNN, Ecos de America, on 6700 kc., and YNOW, La Voz de la America Central, on 6850, plus YNS, La Voz de Teustepe, in Teustepe, on 8010 kc., and YNFT, La Voz de la Sultana, Granada, on 7502. La Voz de Quezaltenango, Guatemala, transmitted on 6905

Radio International was one of many broadcasters from Tangier before private broadcasting from the city came to a close on December 31, 1959.

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kc.; YSW, La Radio del Pueblo, broadcast from Santa Ana, El Salvador, on 6000 kc.; HRA, La Voz de Lempira, Honduras, was heard on 6048; and HRP1, El Eco de Honduras, San Pedro Sula, was on 6350. From Costa Rica, TIGPH, “Alma Tica,” returned to shortwave on 5870 kc. after an absence. It closed at 2200, at which time another station, La Reina del Aire, signed on using the same transmitter. British Honduras station ZIK2 was reported on an announced frequency of 10060 kc. It operated with 200 watts. Among the Caribbean stations reported were HHCM, Magloire Broadcasting Circuit, Port-au-Prince, Haiti, heard on 6165 kc., and COCW, Radio Progresso, Havana, Cuba on 6325. Listeners could also hear cricket and football matches transmitted by Cable & Wireless, Ltd. via its 2.5 kw. Stony Hill, Jamaica utility transmitters VRR4, 11595 kc., and VRR5, 12050. These broadcasts were picked up from ZQI and retransmitted for the benefit of listeners in Trinidad, but were heard in other countries as well. South American stations heard included OAX5C, Radio Universal, Ica, Peru on 9815 kc.; ZYC8, Radio Tamoio, Rio de Janeiro, on 9610; Colombians HJCF, La Voz de Bogota, on 6240 kc., and HJAP, Radio Colonial, Cartagena, on 9895; and a group of stations from Barquisimeto, Venezuela —YV3RS, Radiodifusora Occidental, on 4990 kc.; YV3RN, Radio Barquisimeto, on 4940; and YV3RM, Radio Universal, on 4860. Not a broadcaster, but an interesting utility station heard in 1947, was NAVE (pronounced “Navy”), the Navy’s 2.5 kw. radio station aboard the USS Mt. Olympus, providing transmission facilities for the major U.S. radio networks on the Navy’s “Operation Highjump” expedition to Antarctica. Usually reception was best on 17820 kc. A number of new Philippine voices were heard during the year. KZPI, 9710 kc., identified as “KZPI, Manila, 800 on your dial, owned by the Philippine Broadcasting Company.” Also heard was KZRC, “the Voice of Cebu,” on 6140 kc., relaying their 650 kc. medium wave transmitter. During the next few years a plethora of Philippine stations would start using shortwave, and sometimes they were audible on the west coast. Early in the year, finishing touches were put on a high power Voice of America transmitter base at Malolos, Bulacan province, 25 miles northwest of Manila. At year’s end the station was reported on 11840 kc. announcing as “The Voice of America testing from Manila.” The transmitters were 7.5 and 50 kw. Indonesia continued to be a confusing place on shortwave. The Voice of Indonesia, Jakarta, put in a very good signal on 11000 kc., identifying frequently in English as the Indonesian Broadcasting Center and requesting reports. Also heard were PMA, Bandung, Java on 19350; “The Official Radio Station of Batavia,” Java, on 9555, 9690, 10365, 15145, and 18600; Radio Nusantara on 14546; and a Dutch forces station on 8000, signing off at 1130 and identifying as “the official Dutch station in Bandoeng.” The World Radio Handbook listed a host of “PL” and “YD” calls and frequencies for stations in Batavia (Jakarta), Bandung, Surabaya, Semarang, Makassar, Medan and Pontianak, and this helped DXers sort things out. Definitive information was still scarce, however. There were two separate broadcasting authorities in Malaya. Radio Malaya, formerly the British Military Administration station, operated several networks from Kuala Lumpur and Singapore, and was basically a local broadcaster, while the British Far Eastern Broadcasting Service was run by the British Foreign Office. BFEBS had begun as the SEAC headquarters station in Singapore. It operated from its Thomson Road studios, with transmitters in the Jurong sector, and served mainly a non–British audience, principally relaying the

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The British Far Eastern Broadcasting Service in Singapore was run by the British Foreign Office. In 1946 it began identifying as the Voice of Britain. Eventually it became the BBC Far Eastern Station.

BBC over a 10 kw. transmitter. The station often was heard on 15300 kc. As a station staff member reported: The British [staff ] members were mostly BBC–trained, but specialization was impossible for everyone had to do a bit of everything. The pace was feverish, the hours long, and illness repeatedly cut down personnel numbers. On one memorable occasion, an overworked woman announcer “took hysterics” when about to enter the studio to read the news. The Chief Engineer snatched the bulletin from her and read it in a strong Midland accent, and so saved the day!33

From June 1946, BFEBS announced as the Voice of Britain, dropping all references to SEAC. The station was taken over by the BBC in 1948 — the first time the BBC had operated a broadcasting facility outside the U.K.34— and plans were set in motion for the introduction of new 100 kw. transmitters. It continued to be known as the British Far Eastern Broadcasting Service, and it would eventually become the well-known BBC Far Eastern Station. An interesting station from Kure, Japan was WLKS, “the Voice of the British Commonwealth Occupation Forces,” on 6105 kc. It was reported to close at 0800, announcing, “WLKS, Voice of the British Commonwealth in Japan, time 11 o’clock, operating on 1470 kc. in the broadcast band and 6105 in the 49 meter band. This is Tom saying goodbye and wishing a very pleasant good night to you all.” China announced plans to expand its overseas shortwave broadcasts, and a major step in that direction was undertaken when XGOY, the Voice of China, in Chunking, hired Roy Dunlop, a noted Canadian journalist and broadcaster, to direct the foreign service expansion.35 More significant from a DX standpoint, although “X” stations, including stations

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under Communist control, continued to broadcast from other parts of China, the numerous privately owned (and often unauthorized) stations in Shanghai were closed down by the government, leaving in place only XORA, a government station which itself disappeared from shortwave in 1948.36 Dunlop described his role in the elimination of some of the Shanghai “mosquito stations” (on medium wave) this way: Dr. Fung [the head of XGOY] and I and a platoon of Chinese soldiers armed with fixed bayonets and revolvers, set out with a CBA [Central Broadcasting Administration] license inspector who had a list of the forbidden stations. We went from street to street and house to house locating small transmitting units under stairways, in attics and basements, in out-houses and leantos. Whenever the soldiers found a transmitter — and many were housed in orange-crates with a crystal set output — they would give a howl of delight, and immediately smash the contraband equipment with the butt-end of their rifles, the owners fleeing in terror. Dr. Fung and I kept score and at the end of a busy day found we had eliminated 27 illicit radio stations! Shanghai’s six million listeners would now simply have to listen to the government (Kuomintang) station and the CBA had justified its existence.37

Some lucky DXers heard Radio Tabriz, Iran on 6090 and 11960 kc. Other interesting Asian signals included 4 kw. Radio Dalat, French Indo-China, on 7520 kc. around 0700–0800; and Radio Biak, the Jungle Network, Netherlands New Guinea, operating at 0500–0630 on 7200 kc. with 400 watts. Radio Biak was a voluntary effort of U.S. air force personnel. ZBW, Hong Kong, continued to be heard on 9538 kc. (“This ZBW, Hong Kong. We are now taking you over to London for the news”). India was widely heard during U.S. evening hours on 15190 kc., and Radio SEAC, Ceylon, was often present on 15120 kc. with its program to the U.K. on Sundays at 1330–1530. In 1946, Radio SEAC had supplemented its 7.5 kw. transmitter with one of 100 kw. Observed one listener, “Some U.S. DXers may have mistaken this one for the BBC due to fine quality signal level.”38 Radio Saigon had one of the strongest signals in the Far East before the war. However, in April 1946 practically the entire station was destroyed in an ammunition dump explosion and it had to be rebuilt from scratch. In 1947 it was operating with 10 kw. on 4810 and 11780 kc., the latter frequency well heard. Mrs. R. G. Coughlin of Pennsylvania, the wife of a foreign service officer in Saigon, hosted two daily one-hour English programs which included music, news, English lessons for French listeners, sports, and talks. Letters from shortwave listeners were acknowledged on Thursdays in the “Listeners’ Letter Box” program.39 Late in the year it was announced that a Spanish broadcaster, Sociedad de Radiodifusion Intercontinental, was to build a super-power (200 kw.), multi-lingual commercial station, Radio Atlantica, at Santa Isabel on the island of Fernando Póo (now called Bioko) in Spanish Guinea, Africa. The status of the project was murky, and it never materialized. Equatorial Guinea, as it would be called after independence in 1968, would later be home to a number of interesting stations.40 Although “special programs” on shortwave generally did not have the same DX consequences as those on domestic BCB stations (which usually were aired at times when the station otherwise would be off-air), they were interesting nonetheless, and popular in the postwar years. A number of these programs were broadcast in 1947, including two for the NNRC — one over 500-watt VP4RD, Radio Trinidad, Port-of-Spain, on 9625 kc., and another from HOX, Panama City, Panama (which also carried it on medium wave). TAP, Ankara, Turkey, and HCJB, Quito, Ecuador, broadcast special programs for the Interna-

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tional Short Wave Club, London; HP5K, La Voz de la Victor, Panama City, 6005 kc., ran a special for the Danish Short-Wave Club; Radio Saigon carried a special program for Radio News; and Radio Sweden dedicated programs to the Australian DX Radio Club and the Universal Radio DX Club.

1948 In November, the Finnish Broadcasting Corp. began regular transmissions over its new 100 kw. transmitter, and soon it was planning extensive shortwave coverage of the 1952 Winter Olympic Games which were to be held in Finland. Norway’s station, Norsk Riksringkasting, had an ambitious schedule of broadcasts, mostly in Norwegian for Norwegians abroad, via its transmitters in Oslo (5 kw.), Frederikstad (8 kw.), and Tromsø (10 kw.). At mid-year a new 100 kw. transmitter greatly increased the station’s range. Another station in Norway was the Ukesenderen student station at the Norwegian Technical University, Trondheim, which operated during “Studenter-uka” (student week) with 600 watts on 9610 and 7240 kc., the latter a frequency that would for many years carry these occasional broadcasts (and continually elude U.S. listeners). United Nations Radio commenced experimental broadcasts from Geneva and was heard with excellent signals on a variety of frequencies as it searched for suitable channels. Moscow began identifying as Radio Moscow rather than Radio Centre. Radio Athens was broadcasting on 15345 kc. and was heard with an excellent signal in the United States. On October 1, Radio Denmark increased power to 50 kw. and likewise became a regular visitor on American shortwave receivers. The Voice of America transmitted to Eastern Europe via transmitters in Munich (Ismaning) on 6080, 7250, 9540 and 11870 kc. From the Soviet zone of Germany, Radio Volga was on 7611 kc., mainly relaying Radio Moscow for occupation forces. DXers were discovering many new African stations. The 1 kw. transmitter of CR6RL, Radio Clube de Angola, Luanda, was heard on 15915 kc. (and on 9475). In the U.K., CR6RG, Radio Diamang, Dundo, Angola, was heard on 8242 kc. A listener in South Africa reported many new Angolan stations, including Radio Clube do Huambo, Nova Lisboa, 7152 kc.; CR6AA, Estaçao Radio Difusora, Lobito, 7177; Radio Clube do Bie, Silva Porto, on 7550; Radio Clube de Moçamedes, 7700; and Radio Clube da Huila, Sá da Bandeira, on 9235. Radio Dakar, Senegal, could be heard regularly on 11710 kc. until 1800. From the French Camerouns, Radio Douala was heard in French on 7950 and 9149 kc. until 1600 sign off. On 7948 kc. there was CQM, Portuguese Guinea, identifying “Aqui Bissau” and staying on until closedown at 1730. Radio Tananarive, Madagascar was on 10615 kc., and U.K. listeners heard a test broadcast from Radio Gambia at 1615 (“This is Radio Gambia operating on a frequency of 9530 kc. per second, 31.48 meters.... We should appreciate reports on the reception of our signals”). Listeners in South Africa were reporting OQ2AB, Radio Elisabethville, in the Belgian Congo, on 7145 and 11900 kc. South African military station ZRB was heard on 9110 kc. around 0100 with weather, recordings, and relays from the SABC. It announced, “This is Radio ZRB, South African Air Force Station near Pretoria.” OTC, Radiodiffusion Nationale Belge, Leopoldville, Belgian Congo, had a North American service at 2100–2300 on 9767

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Numerous shortwave stations operated from Angola. All were excellent catches in the United States, and regular targets of serious shortwave listeners.

kc. Listeners’ letters were answered in its popular “Amongst Friends” program. And despite much information about the Mauritius Broadcasting Service operating on shortwave, word was received from the station that they were on medium wave only, but hopeful of adding shortwave in the future. An interesting shortwave event in Africa was the Gatti-Hallicrafters Expedition to “the Mountains of the Moon” (the Ruwenzori Range) in East Africa. Mainly a ham radio undertaking “to test the outer boundaries of short-wave radio experimentation”41 (and not incidentally to promote Hallicrafters equipment), the nine-month trek was led by Italian author-explorer Attilio Gatti and covered Kenya, Tanganyika and Uganda. In North America, CHU, Dominion Observatory, Ottawa, Canada, which had been in operation since 1928 (it was called VE9OB until 1938), was a constant presence on the same frequencies it uses today: 3330, 7335 and 14670 kc., giving the time — then in Eastern Standard Time — in Morse code. CFCX, Montreal, by now on 6005 kc., left the air. (It returned in 1963.) OXI, Godthab, Greenland was heard on 5942 kc. Colombia and Venezuela were home to a multitude of shortwave signals. Colombian stations reported included HJGB, Radio Santander, Bucaramanga, on 4777 kc.; HJED, La Voz del Valle, Cali, on 4825; HJEX, Radio Pacifico, Cali, on 6054; HJCH, La Voz de la Victor, Bogota, on 4895; HJKF, Emisora Nuevo Mundo, Bogota, on 9520; and HJAQ, Radio Miramar, Cartagena, on 9930 kc. From Venezuela could be heard YV1RO, Radio Trujillo, on 3310 kc.; YV6RK, La Voz del Tigre, on 3330; YV5RY, Radio Continente, Caracas, 4725; YV9RA, La Voz de Apure, San Fernando de Apure, 4820; and YV1RG, Radio Cabimas, on 6150 kc. Deeper in South America were the Ecuadorean stations HC4FS, La Voz de Esmeraldas, Ciudad Esmeraldas, on 4560 kc., and HC1GQ, Radio Nariz del Diablo, Quito, on 9190, returning to the air after a seven-year absence. Listeners also reported Peruvians

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OAX1A, Radio Delcar, Chiclayo, on 6715 kc., and OAX6E, Radio Continental, Arequipa, on 6330. Also heard were LRM, Radio Aconcagua, Mendoza, Argentina, on 6180 kc. (the same frequency occupied many years later by Radio Nacional de Mendoza); ZYN6, Ceará Radio Clube, Fortaleza, Brazil, on 6105; ZYK2, Radio Jornal do Comercio, Recife, on 15145; and PRL4, Radio Ministério da Educação, Rio de Janeiro, on 9768. PZC, “AVROS” (Algemeene Vereeniging Radio Omroep Surinam), Paramaribo, Surinam was heard on 15405 kc., a frequency it would also use for many years. XEQQ, Radio Panamericana, Mexico City, could be heard on 9680 kc., as could new YSLK, “San Salvador en el Aire,” El Salvador, on 9540. And following the previous year’s experiments by its Jamaican cousin, point-to-point station Cable & Wireless (West Indies), Ltd. began relaying Saturday afternoon cricket matches and horse races from Bridgetown, Barbados over VPO on 10605 kc. The Barbados channels received the call letters ZNX in 1949, and relays of sports events from Barbados Rediffusion Service, Ltd. continued to provide interesting afternoon listening several times a year during the 1950s, usually on 7547 kc. (ZNX32), 5 kw. When Pakistan became independent in 1947, it had no shortwave transmitters. However, by the next year Radio Pakistan was being heard in English on 6210 kc. The Damascus Broadcasting Station transmitted with 500 watts on 12000 kc. while it awaited completion of three high power broadcast transmitters. It signed on at midnight and signed off at 1500, and its English identification was, “This is the Syrian Broadcasting Station calling from Damascus.” As part of the British withdrawal from the Middle East mainland, Sharq al Adna, the Near East Arab Broadcasting Station, moved from Jaffa, Palestine to Lakatamia, Cyprus; and Forces Broadcasting Service station JCKW moved from Jerusalem to Malta, where it was heard on 4782 kc. and other frequencies. The State of Israel was declared in May 1948. Before then, each of the three Jewish resistance groups, Haganah, Irgun and the Stern Gang, had its own radio stations, and they preferred shortwave because shortwave transmitters were more mobile. Five Haganah stations were reported operating: Tel Aviv on 6835 kc., Jerusalem on 8100, Haifa on 6500, Radio Negev on 3800, and the Voice of Galilea, Tiberius, on 6890. After May, 6835 kc. announced as “Kol Israel, the broadcasting station of the Jewish state.” Kol Israel would be the name of the Israeli government broadcasting service. “Usually is S9 or more here in West Virginia,” reported Ken Boord.42 HLKA, the Korean Broadcasting System, Seoul, South Korea, was on 7935 kc., a channel used to feed signals from the main medium wave station to sub-stations. The power was 5 kw. Chinese “X” stations continued to be heard, including XLRA, the Hankow Broadcasting Station, on 11490 kc. From Manchuria, XNNR, 7100 kc. was heard, announcing: “This is the new Chinese station XNNR in liberated Manchuria. We are operating on frequencies 42 meters, 7100 kc., and 284.4 meters, 1055 kc. You have been listening to the news in English which is broadcast daily at 9 P.M. local time or 1300 GMT.” The situation in Indonesia continued to be confused. As the British publication Short Wave News put it, “The position regarding the Javanese stations has been rather fluid for some time and it has been difficult to tie down definite channels for many of them,” whereupon it then listed 79 Indonesian frequencies.43 Within the areas still under Dutch administration there were many frequencies in use from Batavia, Bandung, Makassar, Pontianak, Samarang, Surabaya, and Biak (New Guinea).

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There was much activity in the Pacific. Australia started broadcasting domestic programs via a 2 kw. shortwave transmitter in Sydney, VLI, on 6090 and 9500 kc. WWVH commenced operations on 5, 10 and 15 mc. from Puunene (Maui), Hawaii. After a long delay occasioned by antenna difficulties, the New Zealand Broadcasting Service started testing new 7.5 kw. transmitters on 6080, 9540, 11780 and 15280 kc. and Radio New Zealand was born. Its signal was heard by many listeners. The year also saw the introduction of shortwave broadcasting from a new radio country, Papua New Guinea (then called British New Guinea). Australian Broadcasting Commission stations VLT7, 9520 kc. and VLT5, 7280 kc., at Port Moresby, relayed medium wave station 9PA. (“This is 9PA and shortwave VLT7, Port Moresby”). The 7 mc. channel was especially well heard in the U.S. Said NNRC shortwave editor James J. Hart, “I have heard it beginning at 0400 and until I leave the receiver at 0600 signals are R8-9 at all times.” Radio Saigon conducted a special broadcast for the International Short Wave Club, as did OTC, which also carried specials for the British Short Wave League and the International Short Wave League. WRUL also carried one for the ISWL. The announcer ... told a most interesting story of how he first heard of the ISWL. Hailing a taxi in Boston, Mass. he asked for WRUL studios. The inquisitive taxi driver enquired who he was and on being told, started recounting some of his shortwave listening experiences. During the conversation he said he was a member of the ISWL, and gave the announcer full details of the benefits of ISWL membership. A few days later, [ISWL representative] Charles Southall’s letter suggesting an ISWL dedicatory programme arrived at WRUL and thus the idea of the programme began!44

It is probably fair to say that, over the years, not too many taxi drivers have engaged passengers on the subject of shortwave listening.

1949 The Swiss Broadcasting Corp. continued to be one of the best heard stations, with 12 shortwave transmissions daily over its three 100 kw. and two 25 kw. “HER” and “HEU” transmitters. Radio Andorra, operating with 25 kw., was easily heard on 5980 kc., and RIAS (Radio In the American Sector), Berlin, was heard on 6080 kc. While originally intended to serve the residents of the American occupation zone of Berlin, East Germany soon became the station’s main target.45 The International Red Cross Station in Geneva closed down its shortwave operation due to lack of funds, but not before helping to reunite some of over a half-million prisoners of war and displaced persons with loved ones by reading their names over the air. In North Africa, VOA Tangier started operation and soon would boast four 100 kw. transmitters and two of 50 kw. These augmented the VOA’s other overseas relays in Munich, Honolulu and Manila, plus its leased-time arrangements with the BBC for the use of its Woofferton facilities. By the end of 1950, VOA was broadcasting in 25 languages. Also from Tangier, U.K. listeners could hear Radio Africa on 7080 kc. to 1700 sign off. A new country, the Balearic Islands, was heard by way of Radio Menorca on 7545 kc. The station was on the air until around 1600, announcing, “Aqui Menorca, Emisora Radio Menorca, Delegación Insular del Frente de Juventudos, Islas Baleanes.”

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An African listener reported a new Forces Broadcasting Service station in Mombassa, Kenya, opening at 2300 with “Strike Up the Band” and the identification, “Your Forces Broadcasting Service, East Africa, radiating from Mombassa on 41.54 meters, 7.22 mc.” OTC in the Belgian Congo established an OTC Club in which members could, for $1, obtain a membership card and an OTC badge. The balance after postage costs was remitted to widows and orphans of members of Samoyede, a Belgian wartime underground radio resistance group. In North America, the CBC maintained two shortwave transmitters, one of 7.5 kw., the other 200 watts, at Vercheres, 35 miles east of Montreal, on which it transmitted Home Service programs in English and French on various frequencies. VONH in Newfoundland became CBNX. It was on 5970 kc. at the time, and would eventually become CKZN and move to 6160 kc. In 1949, 6160 was occupied by the CBC Vancouver station, CBRX, which would become CBUX and (in 1965) CKZU, and share the channel with CKZN. U.S. listeners hearing a strong carrier on 6080 kc. at hours when WLWO was not using the frequency learned from the Crosley Broadcasting Corp. that it was their 1 kw. transmitter, W8XAL (the pre–WLWO call sign), Cincinnati, operating on behalf of the National Bureau of Standards for the purpose of a long-term propagation study.46 Central and South America continued to provide a broad range of stations to tune for. From Panama, HORT, Radio Balboa, Panama City, transmitted on 6060 kc., while HP5B, Radio Miramar, also in Panama City, was on 6030. A new one from Panama was HOJA, Radio Provincias, Chitre, on 9645 kc. From Guatemala, TG2, Radio Morse, Guatemala City, was heard on 6621 kc. And Guatemalan station TGWA, La Voz de Guatemala, had a half-hour English program on Thursdays called “Guatemala Marches On.” YSUA, La Voz de El Salvador, was heard with a good signal on 6225 kc., announcing in English every half hour, “This is YSUA transmitting to you on the 49 meter band from El Salvador.” At the end of the year, a new 300-watt Costa Rican station came on the air on 9645 kc. It was TIFC, “Transmitting Internationally For Christ,” owned by the Latin American Mission of Ridgefield Park, New Jersey. It was heard until midnight in English as well as Spanish. “The Lighthouse of the Caribbean” would become well-known to listeners for many years. Cuban stations reported included CMBL, Radio Cadena Suaritos, 9833 kc., and COCH, Union Radio, on 9437. Haitian stations changed calls from “HH” to “4V.” Four stations were reported operating on shortwave from Haiti. In the Dominican Republic, HI2L, La Voz del Tropico, reactivated on 9525 kc. after an absence, and La Voz del Yuna changed its slogan to one that would become well-known to shortwave listeners, La Voz Dominicana. Venezuela replaced its five-digit calls (e.g. YV1AB, YV2CD) with four-letter “YVAB” calls. A list of Venezuelan broadcasters showed 42 stations using shortwave, all in the 60 and 90 meter bands (including many in the out-of-band 3.4–3.7 mc. range). Ecuadorean stations reported included HC2FB, Radio Nacional de El Condor, Guayaquil, on 6130 kc.; and HC5AB, La Voz de Riobamba, on 7472 kc. From the Near East, Radio Ankara, Turkey was on the air via two 20 kw. transmitters, TAP, 9465 kc., and TAQ, 15145. Israel began moving some of its shortwave transmitters to medium wave. However, Kol Israel remained on 6835 kc., and the Galilea and Negev stations also stayed on shortwave for a short time. Later in the year, Kol Israel, using

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7.5 kw., was well heard while testing on several frequencies, including 9000 kc. at 2245 sign on. This channel, which would soon adjust slightly to 9009, would be a regular Tel Aviv frequency for decades. From a new shortwave venue, Portuguese India, CR8AB, Emissora da Goa, began operating on 7230 and 9610 kc. with 1 kw. Radio Pakistan was widely heard on 15270 kc. via a 7.5 kw. transmitter in Dacca, East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). Shortwave transmitters of 7.5 kw. were said to be under construction in Peshawar, Lahore and Multan. And, as would still be the case a half-century later, the Karachi transmitter on 6225 kc. was heard identifying sometimes as Radio Pakistan and sometimes as Azad Kashmir Radio. Early in the year the Chinese “X” stations got new “BE” call letters, and the new call of XGOA, the Voice of China, Chungking, became BEF6, BEF7, etc., while the Nanking transmitters carried BEA designators. Other stations became, e.g., the Canton Broadcasting Station, BEE3; the Hankow Broadcasting Station, BEL7; the Peiping Broadcasting Station, BEK9; etc. James J. Hart, NNRC shortwave editor, advised readers in June: “You will find quite a few of the Chinese [stations] moving to nearby islands. Already Taiwan is being reported and you can rest assured that the Voice of China will be heard again combating stations of the Communists, many of which are now being heard on the frequencies assigned to China.”47 Toward the end of the year, Communist-controlled stations, principally in the north of China, were announcing as the Peiping-Nanking Broadcasting System. They broadcast English news at 0830. The People’s Republic was proclaimed on October 1, 1949, and soon the Voice of Free China, the international department of the Broadcasting Corp. of China, was heard from Taiwan via “BED” (home service) and “BEC” (mainland service) transmitters. Before long the mainland stations stopped using call letters altogether.48 HS8PD, Bangkok, was heard in English on 6010 at 0600 sign on, announcing, “This is the Overseas Broadcasting Station of Siam.” Radio France-Hanoi, French Indo-China, was heard on 6190 kc. circa 0600, closing with the “Merry Widow Waltz.” The Voice of Viet Nam, clandestine outlet of the Communist “Republic of Viet Nam” (then the IndoChinese insurgents) was heard in Australia on 11974 kc. The Ekala transmitting facilities of Radio SEAC, Ceylon, were transferred to the Ceylon government, and thereafter the station was known as Radio Ceylon. It had several transmitters, with powers of 7.5, 35 and 100 kw. On Sundays it continued to carry the popular Forces Broadcasting Service program to the British Isles, identifying as, “This is the Forces Broadcasting Service of Radio Ceylon.” From Indonesia, a Batavia publication called Radio Gids showed the Indonesian shortwave stations to be: Radio Indonesia, Batavia, with programs intended for other countries; and domestic stations Radio Bandung, Radio Makassar, Radio Medan, Radio Surabaya, Radio Manado, Radio Palembang, Radio Padang, Radio Semarang, Radio Garoet (forces programs), Radio Pontianak, and Radio Djakarta.49 “D” call letters replaced “K” in the Philippines, e.g. DZH2, 9640 kc., relaying DZRH medium wave (formerly KZRH); DZH3, 9500, relaying DZPI (formerly KZPI); DYH3, 6100, relaying DYBU (former KYBU). A new missionary station heard testing from the Philippines was the Far East Broadcasting Company. It had begun operating on medium wave in 1948 with all home made equipment. Now it was on 6030 kc. Later it would be heard on other frequencies as well, and over time it would become well-known to generations of DXers.50

Top: Known as the “Call of the Orient,” the Far East Broadcasting Co., a religious station, was founded in 1949 and had the best-heard shortwave signal from the Philippines. Bottom: With its exotic music and good signal, Radio Tahiti was a favorite among shortwave listeners. This QSL is from 1958.

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In the Pacific, a new transmitter at Perth, VLX, commenced operation. In June, the private Tahitian station, FO8AA, Radio Club de Oceania, 6980 kc., ceased operation, and in its place a new government broadcaster, FZP8, Radio Tahiti, took to the air with 600 watts on 12080 kc. Radio Australia carried a special program for the International Short Wave Club, as did Radio Sweden and Radio Falange de Alicante, Spain, on 7940 kc. WRUL had another special broadcast for the International Short Wave League. And HJDE, La Voz de Antioquia, Medellin, Colombia, broadcast a special program for all shortwave and BCB DXers. The station operated on 6145 kc. shortwave with 10 kw.

3

1950–1959 Times in E.S.T.

1950 Radio Free Europe came on the air for the first time on July 4 via a 7.5 kw. transmitter located at Lampertheim, south of Frankfurt. The RFE offices were in Munich. The frequency was 6130 kc., and the first program was for Czechoslovakia. Other services followed — to Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland and Romania — and soon RFE was operating from 1200 to 1800 daily. By the end of the year it would also be using three 10 kw. transmitters and one of 50 kw. from transmitter sites in Biblis, Germany and Lisbon, Portugal.¡ Posing as a private broadcaster until its CIA connection was revealed in 1967, Radio Free Europe nonetheless developed considerable credibility with its target audiences, largely as a result of its news gathering capability within Eastern Europe.2 The signal from Radio Budapest, Hungary grew better. In 1949 the station had installed a 2 kw. transmitter on 6247 and 9835 kc., and in 1950 it increased power to 100 kw. A number of local shortwave outlets in Greece were heard, including Greek Armed Forces broadcasting stations in Larissa on 6745 kc. (500 watts), Athens on 6340 (200 watts), and Kavala on 7650. Regional shortwave stations in Macedonia (7950 kc.) and Makronissos (7020) were also heard. Nine such stations were confirmed to be operating, and several others remained unidentified. In Canada, Canadian Signal Corps station VED, Edmonton, Alberta relayed CBC station CBX for the Yukon at 1100–0400 on 8265 kc. (later 7320), and sometimes carried special relays or personal messages for distant listeners. It identified as, “This is VED, Edmonton, owned and operated by Northwest Territories and Yukon Trading System, Royal Corps of Signals,” and it was heard by many listeners. Its signal was rebroadcast by a group of lowpower medium wave stations in the north. Also in Canada, ten-watt CKFX, Vancouver, British Columbia, could sometimes be heard in the middle of the night on 6080 kc. Its shortwave channel had been inaugurated in 1947 to serve the mountainous areas of British Columbia that could not be reached by the CKWX broadcast band signal. In Africa, a government station, Radio Bamako, in the French Soudan (later called Mali), began broadcasting news, weather and music on 15030 kc. with 2 kw. Radio Douala, French Cameroons, operated with 600 watts on 9150 kc.; and Radio Nigeria, Lagos, utilized a 300 watt transmitter and one of 1 kw. on 6035 and 9655 kc. Save for this station, 94

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Radio Free Europe came on the air in 1950. The power was 7.5 kw.

“broadcasting” in the country was by way of the Radio Distribution Service, a wired network. The Lagos shortwave station was operated by the Nigerian Posts and Telegraphs Department and predated the formation of the Nigerian Broadcasting Service in 1951. It “often broke down, was frequently off the air, and with its low power could only provide limited coverage. Even so there were occasions when freak reception conditions drew verification cards from countries as far removed as Sweden and New Zealand.”3 In Liberia, ELBC, the Liberian Broadcasting Co., a commercial station in Monrovia, went on the air in May with 1 kw. on 6025 kc. and was heard in the U.S. from time to time around 1845. The station was owned by Dr. John B. West, formerly an American physician in New York. Radio Dakar was on 11895 kc. and on a good day could be heard with English news at 1400, closing with the announcement, “You are listening to the news from Dakar. This ends the transmission to Europe.” From the Portuguese colonies, east coast mid-afternoon DXers reported Radio Clube de São Tome early in the year on 9615 kc. At mid-year it was heard on 17677 kc., where it operated with 1 kw. at 0700–0900, Thursday and Sunday. Soon it was also heard on 4807.5 kc., a frequency it would use for many years. Another Portuguese station that was heard in the U.S. was CR6RD, Radio Clube do Huambo, Nova Lisboa, Angola on 11925 kc. (later 7125), broadcasting until 1530 sign off. “This is one to pick out of the QRM,” said DXer John J. Oskay. It was also reported on 9705 kc. On May 1, the South African Broadcast-

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ing Corp. commenced a commercial program for the Transvaal. Springbok Radio operated on multiple shortwave frequencies, as well as on medium wave. The Forces Broadcasting Service, Malta, was heard on 4965 kc. from around midnight until sign off at 0230. A new station in Tangier, Pan American Radio, supported by the International Banking Corp. of Tangier, was heard testing at 0700 on 15050 kc. It closed at 0830 with a woman saying, “This is Pan American Radio, Tangiers. We have been testing on 15050 kc. in the 19 meter band and are now signing off.” The station was run by a Spaniard, Jaime Suriñach Oller, who was assisted by an American banker, Charles E. Walbaum. It broadcast programs in English, French, Spanish, Italian, Arabic and Hindi, and relayed BBC and VOA news. The Saudi Arabian Broadcasting Service had a 3 kw. station in Jeddah which could sometimes be heard with a 30–60 minute transmission starting at 2300 on 11750 and 11950 kc. Radio Sudan, Khartoum, in what was then the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, began using a more powerful, 6 kw. transmitter in the 31 meter band. And in December, Radio Ankara inaugurated a new 100 kw. transmitter, as well as several of 20 kw. A foreign service from Israel was begun. It was called Kol Zion Lagolah, “the Voice of Zion to the Diaspora.” Although it shared facilities with Kol Israel, it was actually funded by and operated under the auspices of the Jewish Agency, the representative in Israel of the independent World Zionist Organization. Its mission was to inform the broader Jewish world of events taking place in Israel and to increase immigration to Israel. In 1960, Kol Zion Lagolah was merged into Kol Israel, where it became the external services department.4 The DX surprise of the year was V3USE, the Mauritius Broadcasting Service, Forest Side, Mauritius on 15060 kc. Located off the East African coast, the shortwave service was mainly for Rodrigues Island, a Mauritian dependency some 500 km. to the east, but DXers were often able to hear it, and at surprising strength. It signed on at 2200 with a march selection, six time pips, and BBC news, and signed off at 2315 with “God Save the King.” Sometimes it was also heard in the morning around 1000. The station verified reports quickly, giving its power as 1.5 kw. Activity in the Americas continued to increase. The 5 kw. government station in Jamaica, ZQI, also known as Radio Jamaica, was heard at night until 2300 on a new frequency, 3360 kc. Although it became the commercial Jamaica Broadcasting Co. Ltd., it continued to identify as Radio Jamaica. Two new stations from Honduras were HRXW, Radio Comayaguela, on 8982 kc. (later 6105), and HROW, Radio Monserrat, on 6020. A new station from Panama City was HO5O, Radio Continental, on 5995 kc. Panamanian station HOJA, Radio Provincias, Chitre, on 9642 kc., was also heard. A new Central American missionary station in Guatemala City was TGNA, “Radio Voice of the Central American Mission” (which was in Dallas, Texas). It could be heard “Telling the Good News Abroad” in the evening on 6039 and 9660 kc., requesting reports, which it answered in its English-language mailbag program on Saturdays at 2215. Soon it moved to 5955 kc. where it would remain for a half century. From Havana, Cuba, COBL, Radio Cadena Suaritos, was well heard on 9833 kc., as was Radio Salas on 9020. An official list showed 16 shortwave stations in the Dominican Republic. Several Haitian stations were operational, including 4V2S, Radio Port-au-Prince, “Voice of the Republic of Haiti,” on 5951 kc. (with an English program on Friday nights), and 4VRW, Radio Haiti (ex-HH3W), also in Port-au-Prince, wandering between its tra-

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Though operating with only 200 watts, ZQI, Kingston, Jamaica, was a regular to U.S. shortwave listeners.

ditional channel of 10135 kc. and a new frequency of 9790, and later operating circa 5850 kc. The station often identified in English as “This is Radio Haiti, 4VW, 4VHW, 4VRW located at Port-au-Prince.” In June, yet another new missionary station appeared. 4VEH was heard testing from Cap-Haitien, Haiti on a varying frequency around 9885 kc. The station was owned by the East and West Indies Bible Mission, and the power was 400 watts. Meanwhile, the granddaddy of missionary stations, HCJB, was seeking donations to buy a 100 kw. transmitter. Already in the HCJB program lineup was “Morning In the Mountains.” A number of South American stations carried English programs. Colombian HJCT, Radiodifusora Nacional, a new station in Bogota on 5965 kc., had “English By Radio” after signing on around 0645. Another Colombian with English was HJKE, Radio Continental, Bogota, on 4835 kc. It had English news and the “Cavalcade of America” program at 2300. The existing international broadcasting service of Argentina, Servicio Radiofonico Internacional, which had been founded by Radio El Mundo, Radio Splendid and Radio Belgrano, was replaced by SIRA, Servicio Internacional Radiofonica Argentina (SIRA), and commenced international broadcasting over a new 100 kw. transmitter, LRA, the most powerful in South America. It offered programs in several foreign languages, including English, on 9450, 9690, 11880, and 15290 kc.5 And from Brazil, “Brazil Calling” was heard over ZYK3, Radio Jornal do Comercio, Recife, at 2015 on 9565 kc. A monitor in Brazil reported that in 1950 there were six Brazilian stations operating in the 60 meter band (and eight construction permits pending), five on 49 meters, five on 31 meters, four on 25 meters, five on 19 meters, and one on 16 meters.6 The Indonesian broadcasting scene was enjoying some stability. Consolidation of sta-

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tions into the government broadcasting service, Radio Republik Indonesia, was continuing. RRI started testing a new 100 kw. GE transmitter from Djakarta on 6045, 11795 and 15150 kc. and was often heard in the U.S. in the mornings, when English was aired. The call letters were YDF, YDF2, YDF3, etc. The Dutch had retained control over Dutch New Guinea when Indonesia became independent. The official station there was Radio Omroep Nieuw Guinea in Hollandia (later known as Jajapura). It was the outgrowth of a 350-watt combined ham-broadcast station on the island of Biak located off the northern coast of western New Guinea. It operated with 500 watts on 7125 kc. (later 5045), and solicited donations of useable records from listeners. In what was then known as Indochina, Radio Saigon became Radio France-Asie, “the Voice of France in the Far East.” This SWL–friendly station remained under French authority, while the Voice of Vietnam, also operating from Saigon, was under local Vietnamese authority. There were also low power shortwave stations in Dalat, Hue, and Hanoi. Radio Cambodge, Phnom Penh, on 6090 kc., also operated under local authority, although Cambodia did not become fully independent until 1954. The British Far Eastern Broadcasting Service moved from Jurong, Singapore to Tebrau (near Johore Bahru), Malaya. It mainly relayed the BBC, but it carried some locally originated English programming as well. The broadcasting situation in China was confusing, with many Chinese voices on many frequencies. A reliable channel from mainland China was 15080 kc., where English news was well heard at 0830, followed by the identification, “This is Radio Peking.” From the Nationalist side, BCAF (later BEC32), the Chinese Air Force Broadcasting Station, Taiwan, was heard on 11680 kc. (later 9775), where it operated with 3.5 kw. The Voice of Righteousness broadcast from Taipei via BEC36, 7400 kc. Despite the name, it was a government propaganda station beamed toward mainland China. Although never confirmed by actual monitoring , there were Indian press reports that a government station called Radio Tibet was operating irregularly around 7200 kc., with programming that opposed expected Chinese aggression. The station was said to have been the work of one Reginald Fox, a British citizen in Lhasa who had been a representative of the British Political Mission and was married to a Tibetan woman. He was also a ham operator, AC4YN, suggesting that, if it existed at all, “Radio Tibet” was most likely an impromptu, pirate affair.7 In the Pacific, Radio Noumea, New Caledonia, was heard around 0200 by way of its 1 kw. transmitter on 6034 kc. Radio Tahiti on 6982 and 12080 kc. could be heard with English at 2330–2345, inviting requests for tourist information. On the time signal front, beginning on January 1, WWV started broadcasting time announcements in voice at five-minute intervals. Since the commencement of time announcements on WWV in 1945, they had been in Morse code only. National Physical Laboratory standard frequency station MSF, Rugby, England also began operations this year (a half hour a day on 5 and 10 mc.). The station would enter 24 hour service in 1953. The number of DX specials declined. There was one from Radio Nacional de España, Madrid, Spain, and three for the International Short Wave Club —from HCJB, WRUL and Kol Israel.

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1951 Stations were increasing their power. Radio Budapest went to 100 kw. and began relaying programs from Radio Moscow on 9833 kc. and other frequencies. Radio Sofia, Bulgaria also increased power to 100 kw. and inaugurated a foreign service, including English programs to North America. It also carried programs from Moscow, as did Polskie Radio, which increased power to 100 kw. as well. Radio Italiana (also called Radio Roma) installed new 100 kw. transmitters. And in December, listeners heard the following announcement on 21730 kc. and other frequencies: “This is a test transmission from one of the new transmitters of Stockholm.” Radio Sweden began regular use of its new 100 kw. transmitters at Hörby in January 1952. There was also much activity among lower power stations. Radio Murcia, Emisora del Frente de Juventudes, Spain, transmitted on 7160 kc., and Radio Alerta, from Valencia, was on 7475. (For many years it would be standard practice for stations in Spain and the Spanish colonies to sign off with the exhortation, “Viva Franco, Arriba España!”) Radio Shkodra, Albania, could be heard in Europe on 8215 kc., and Radio Korça was heard on 7570. Both were 3 kw. stations. RIAS, Germany, moved to 6005 kc., upgraded to 20 kw., and began 24 hour operations. It would be a beacon on that frequency until it merged with other stations in 1994.

Radio Sweden increased power to 100 kw. in 1952. The statement on this QSL to the effect that the country had the largest number of radios per person may explain why Sweden seemed to be the most DXactive country in Europe, and perhaps the world.

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk, Hamburg, which had been operating on 7290 kc. with a 20 kw. transmitter at Norden-Osterloog, put a second 20 kw. transmitter on the air on 11795 kc., as well as 350 watt senders on 17815 and 17845 kc. And Radio Norway utilized its 10 kw. transmitter in Tromsø on 7210 and 9540 kc. for home service broadcasts to the North Atlantic and the North Sea. A Spanish clandestine that was heard and that would remain active intermittently over many years was Radio Euzkadi, the voice of the Basque underground. Its frequency was 6560 kc. Another clandestine that was reported was the Yugoslav Emigrants’ Station, Radio Stanica Yugoslovenskich, on 6280 kc. Moscow was not the only Soviet city on shortwave. Petropavlovsk was on 6075 kc. Ashkabad on 6180 kc. had an English program at 0930. Khabarovsk operated on 5990 kc. and carried a request program for Russian troops in Germany. The ID was “Radio Soviet, Khabarovsk.” Russian stations signed on with the Soviet national anthem, which had replaced the Internationale as the Soviet anthem in 1944. Radio Luxembourg’s signal on 6090 kc. would start reaching the U.S. in the late afternoon after Radio Commerce, Haiti, left the channel. Luxembourg’s 15350 kc. transmitter could be heard in the morning. TFJ, Iceland had a Sunday-only broadcast around 1130 on 12175 kc., a frequency it would use for decades. The power was 7 kw. OXI, Grønlands Radio, Godthab, Greenland, operated on 5942 kc. with 500 watts and signed on at 1630 with a series of chimes. It conducted experimental broadcasts on 12300 and 15402 kc. as well. Programs were in Danish (Greenland is a Danish territory). Most of Greenland’s population of approximately 22,000 was located on the western coast, where there were roughly 1,050 radio sets in use, most of them battery-operated because there was electricity only in the larger villages.8 Mail could be received only from June to December, when the harbor was free of ice. On May 1, 1951, Radio Free Europe inaugurated a powerful 135 kw. medium wave transmitter at Holzkirchen, Germany, a site that would later be used for shortwave broadcasting. In June, Radio Inter Red Cross, the broadcasting service of the International Committee of the Red Cross in Geneva, conducted three days of multi-lingual tests for Europe on 7210 kc. via the transmitters of the Swiss PTT. The tests, which netted 500 reception reports from 30 countries, continued. They would become the Red Cross Broadcasting Service in 1971.9 At the end of the year, a new station, Radio Chad, in French Equatorial Africa, was heard in South Africa, broadcasting at 0030–0130 on 15595 kc. It was unclear whether this station was actually transmitting from Chad, or was a special service of Radio Brazzaville. Radio A.E.F., also from French Equatorial Africa, was heard on 6025, 9970 and 17838 kc. It was Brazzaville’s home service program, and would later be heard on other frequencies as well. The Mauritius Broadcasting Service moved from the 19 meter band to 11840 kc., but was back on 19 meters by year’s end. Radio Congo Belge was by now operating with 20 kw. and was being more widely heard. And some experimental shortwave broadcasts were carried out in Sierra Leone via a 300-watt transmitter on 9630 kc., but they were closed down in July due to lack of funds. Damascus was heard testing new 20 kw. transmitters to Europe on 11915 and 15395 kc., announcing “This is SBS [Syrian Broadcasting Service] calling Europe.” English from EPB, Radio Teheran, was heard at 1345 over the station’s 20 kw. transmitter on 15100 kc.

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And the Hashemite Jordan Broadcasting Service was operating from Ramallah on 7110 kc. with 500 watts. It would leave shortwave temporarily in 1952. Radio Pakistan in Karachi had upgraded its shortwave plant to 50 kw. and was broadcasting several external services on multiple frequencies. This included slow speed English news, which would be heard from Pakistan for many years, as well as a General Overseas Service, a name borrowed from the BBC. In England, Radio Kabul, Afghanistan,was heard on 9975 kc. around 1200 with a request program (“Send requests. If we have them, we will play them.”). And Radio Addis Ababa could be heard in South Africa on 9624 kc. carrying “Voice of the Evangelical,” a program of the Sudan Interior Mission, which went on to found ELWA, Monrovia, Liberia in 1954. PJC2, Willemstad, Curacao, was a regular on 5010 kc., at times with English, including ads for GE and Coca-Cola. It remained on the air for only a few years, however. TGTQ, Radio Internacional, “La Voz de la Capital,” Guatemala City, could be heard at night on 6285 kc., as could HRD2, La Voz de Atlantida, La Ceiba, Honduras,on 6235, and a new Honduran, HRSU, Radio Progreso, San Pedro Sula, on 6180. XESC, Impulsoras del Progreso, Mexico City, was a powerful presence at night on 15205 kc. Mexico had 14 commercial stations and four cultural stations operating on shortwave.¡0 The most powerful were XESC and XEWW, both 10 kw. stations. Most of the others operated with less than 1 kw. From South America, La Cruz del Sur, La Paz, Bolivia, operated a 1 kw. transmitter on 9505 kc. The station was run by the Canadian Baptist Mission in Bolivia, and could be heard opening at 0600 with “Onward Christian Soldiers.” Colombian stations reported included HJFB, Radio Manizales, “la primer emisora de Caldas,” on 6225 kc.; HJCX, La Voz de Colombia, Bogota, on 6018; and HJAB, Emisoras Unidas, Barranquilla, on 4785.

One of the best-known stations in Bolivia, religious station La Cruz del Sur would be heard for decades, albeit with continuously declining signal quality.

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CE1515, Radio Corporación, Santiago, Chile, began operations on 15151 kc. and could be heard in the evenings. (“Confirmed in 11 ⁄2 weeks with a nice four-color pennant,” reported one DXer.) Another Chilean station that was heard was CE1174, Radio Emisora Nuevo Mundo, Santiago, on 11740 kc. From a more distant part of Chile, Punta Arenas, CE920, Radio Militar Austral, seemingly part broadcaster, part utility, was often reported on 9200 kc. It was on the air until 2200. The U.S. embassy in Lima reported that there were 22 shortwave stations operating in Peru. Toward the end of the year, one of the largest, Radio Nacional del Peru, Lima, began testing with multi-lingual announcements over a new 50 kw. transmitter. It was heard requesting reports on a number of shortwave frequencies, including 9560, 15145, and 15400 kc. The number of shortwave stations in Brazil was growing. Among the new stations in 1951 were ZYV30, Radio Difusora Brasileira, Uberlandia, 2320 kc.; ZYK21, Radio Tamandaré, Recife, 3265; ZYJ21, Radio Borborema, Campina Grande, 3325; ZYN22, Radio Cultura da Bahia, Salvador, 3345; and ZYP23, Radio Quitandinha, Petropolis, 5045. It was around this time that Brazilian stations were first required to carry the government’s “Voz do Brasil” program from Agencia Nacional at 1730–1800. In April, Radio Nepal, Kathmandu began operating on 7100 kc. Radio Ceylon began a Commercial Service and could be heard on 11975 and 15120 kc. At times it relayed the VOA. On Christmas day, NHK, Japan, reopened a limited overseas service using 50 kw. transmitters at Nazaki (JOA) and Yamata (JOB). Radio Japan programs were in English and Japanese only and were beamed to North America, North and Central China, the Philip-

Radio Quitandinha was one of the many stations heard from Portuguese-speaking Brazil. Most DXers felt that Brazilian stations were better verifiers than their Spanish-speaking counterparts in Central and South America.

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pines, Indonesia, and India. NHK also continued to operate a network of mostly 5 kw. regional stations in Yamata, Nazaki, and Kawachi. The Armed Forces Radio Service shortwave station, WVTR, had been absorbed into the Far East Network, which broadcast from Japan over 10 and 20 kw. shortwave transmitters as well as on medium wave. And the United Nations Command, based in Japan, broadcast programs to North Korea in Korean and Chinese from transmitters in Japan and Seoul, Korea. (“This is the Voice of the United Nations Command calling the peoples of Korea.”) In an interesting reprise of the prisoner of war messages broadcast by Axis stations during World War II, Radio Peking began carrying messages of U.N. (mainly U.S.) soldiers captured in Korea. (The Korean War had begun in June 1950.) China did not have the same broad range of frequencies that listeners would become used to in later years. The main frequencies for broadcasts from Peking were 6100, 7500, 9040, 10260, 11690 and 15060 kc. There were reports from overseas DXers that Radio Vila Verde, Macau (Portuguese China), had been heard signing on at 0600 on 9500 kc. These were short-term transmissions during March and April while the station was awaiting a new medium wave transmitter. In the Philippines, DYH2, “the Voice of Cebu,” was heard on 6140 kc. The religious broadcaster, Far East Broadcasting Co., identified as “the Call of the Orient,” and closed with the colorful announcement, “We salute you from the Philippine Republic, 7,000 beautiful islands where the Pacific Ocean meets the China Sea.” FEBC placed “PMs,” or “portable missionary” receivers, in villages, homes and various other locations around the Philippines. These receivers were fixed-tuned to the station’s 2 kw. transmitter on 3345 kc.¡¡ In September, a station called Radio Free Asia appeared at 0830–1000 on 6110 kc., the 10 kw. frequency of the Republic Broadcasting System in Manila. It broadcast in Chinese and English and played a bugle call between programs. Programs were produced in San Francisco, and, unlike the VOA, which focused on American life, Radio Free Asia was directed “to the common people of Asia who are interested in maintaining and improving their livelihood ... the farmers and workers and the educated classes, encouraging them to protect their freedom and national independence.”¡2 Later it would be learned that the station’s parent, the Committee for a Free Asia (subsequently renamed the Asia Foundation), was a CIA-sponsored effort. (Browne reports that the station also broadcast from transmitters in San Francisco and on Guam.)¡3 A 10 kw. transmitter, VLM, was installed by the Australian Broadcasting Commission in Brisbane to replace a lower power unit. Arthur Cushen reported that there were 38 active stations in Indonesia. As would be the case for many years, they operated mainly in the 41, 49, 60 and 90 meter bands, and mostly with under a kilowatt. A weekly mailbag program in English was heard via the high power station, which identified as the Voice of Indonesia. There was a DX special for the International Short Wave League from Radio Nacional de España. And a listener who reported hearing a pigeon before the strikes of Big Ben (which were broadcast live over the BBC) received this response from the Director of the Overseas Service: “Our engineers say that it is quite possible that you did hear a pigeon just before Big Ben struck. They do perch on the windscreen covering the moving coil microphone and this covering has to be replaced every two or three months. This microphone is placed about twenty feet from Big Ben itself, and about the same distance from the four chime bells, just above the public gallery in the tower.”¡4

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1952 Radio Yugoslavia installed a new 100 kw. transmitter at Belgrade and was heard in the United States with S9+ signals. HVJ, Vatican Radio, also increased power to 100 kw. Radio Italiana installed low-powered shortwave transmitters in Rome (3930 kc.), Palermo (6260) and Milan (5980), and plans were made to transmit from Caltanissetta, Sicily on 6240 kc. For years, the Irish government had been promising that a major shortwave service using a 100 kw. transmitter was just around the corner. The government announced in 1951 that it had obtained a transmitter three years earlier but that, with other financial demands, the country could not justify high-power shortwave transmissions. The project was dropped, although occasional low-power shortwave broadcasts from Radio Éireann continued through 1952 on 17840 kc. On August 1, the Belgian National Broadcasting Service inaugurated a new 100 kw. transmitter plant at Wavre, near Brussels. It was known as International Goodwill Station ORU. Thereafter, OTC in Leopoldville, the Belgian Congo, served only as a relay base for ORU’s North and South American beams. The best heard OTC frequency was 9655 kc. OTM, Radio Congo Belge, was heard occasionally in America on 9380 kc., opening at 0000 with an 18-note drum interval signal. Other small (250 watt) Congo stations logged occasionally, albeit only rarely in the United States, included OQ2AA, Radio Leo, Leopoldville,

The Belgian National Broadcasting Service became International Goodwill Station ORU in 1952. Later it would be known as “World’s Fair Radio” in honor of the 1958 World’s Fair in Brussels.

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on 11720 and 15170 kc.; OQ2AB, Radio Elisabeth, Elisabethville, 7150 and 11900; and OQ2AC, Radio College, Elisabethville, on 3390, 4980 and 7200 kc. Although details were sketchy, a group of low-power Turkish university stations were found to be operating in the 7 mc. range. Radio Algeria, Algiers, broadcast at 1600–1800, closing with “Le Marseillaise” (Algeria was a French colony until 1962). Frequencies heard included 6145, 6200, 9570 and 7280 kc. In Tangier, Dux Radio, a Swedish radio manufacturer interested in promoting shortwave, broadcast a half-hour Dux Radio program in Swedish over Radio Africa on 7126 kc. (A few Swedish broadcasters gravitated to Tangier because commercial broadcasting was not permitted in Sweden.) The Iraqi Broadcasting Station carried the English program, “Date With Baghdad,” for listeners in Europe at 1415 on 11724 kc. The interval signal was the birdcall of the Bulbul, “the nightingale of Iraq.” In Israel, Galei Zahal, the Israel Defense Forces Broadcasting Service, was on the air over 4XB44, 6725 kc., with 1 kw. The station’s roots went back to its pre-independence Haganah predecessor. A previously unknown station in San’a, Yemen was reported to be operating with a new 25 kw. transmitter on 5985, 9705 and 11905 kc. The Egyptian Broadcasting Service conducted tests in English and French at 1345–1600, requesting reception reports and identifying as, “This is Cairo calling on an experimental short wave length of 9.555 mc.” The power was 6 kw.¡5 The Forces Broadcasting Service, East Africa Command, Mombassa, Kenya was heard occasionally at 2300 on 7265 kc., as was the Cable and Wireless station in Kenya on 4855. ZEAF, Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia was heard over its 1 kw. and 7.5 kw. transmitters on 3320, 7285 and 9490 kc. The Nigerian Broadcasting Service, Lagos, advised that it was operating on 6100, 7230 and 9650 kc. and that regional stations were on the air in Kaduna on 3326, 4795 and 7165 kc., Enugu on 7090, and Ibadan on 5032. Lagos was also heard testing on 4990 kc., a Nigerian channel that would be a 60 meter beacon for many years. An African station heard in South Africa was CR6RP, Radio Clube do Cuanza Sul, Novo Redondo, Angola on 7806 kc. Radio Clube de Angola started using a new 10 kw. transmitter on 11865 kc. And a new French West African radio country was heard — the Ivory Coast. Radio Abidjan was transmitting on 7210 kc. with 1 kw. In the United States, WRUL was the only shortwave station transmitting its own programs. Its headquarters were in Boston, and its 50 kw. transmitter was located at Hatherly Beach in nearby Scituate. In addition to carrying government programming, it broadcast its own programs daily for an hour to Europe and an hour to Latin America using the slogan “the Voice of Freedom” and sometimes also calling itself “Radio Boston.” A dozen local Latin American stations relayed WRUL’s programs. Mexican stations were plentiful, with regular logs of XEKW, Radio Morelia, on 6030 kc., and XEHH, La Voz Potosina, on 11880 kc. Among the Central American stations heard were HRQ, Radio Suyapa, San Pedro Sula, Honduras, on 6125 kc.; San Jose, Costa Rican stations TINRH, La Voz de Costa Rica, on 9692 kc., and TIOCHO, La Voz del Hogar, on 9714; and HOQQ, Radio Nacional, Panama City, on 6140. Others from the area included Nicaraguan stations YNWA, Radio Mundial, Managua, on 6460 kc.; YNVP, La Voz de Nicaragua, Managua, on 6760 kc.; and TGDA, Radio La Voz de Occidente, Quezaltenango, Guatemala, on 7471. A list of Guatemalan broadcasters showed 15 stations on shortwave. And HI1A, Radio Caribe, Santiago, the Dominican Republic, 4980 kc., presaged a Dominican station of the same name that would become much better known in 1960.

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4VEH had been off the air since November 1951 due to a transformer breakdown, but returned in July 1952 at increased power (3 kw.). 4VWA, Radio Citadelle, Cap-Haitien, Haiti, was heard on 6300 kc., sometimes rebroadcasting the French program of the VOA. 4VPL, Radio Petionville, Haiti, was also heard on its frequency of 8895 kc. A point-topoint station, ZJA6, in Georgetown, British Guiana, was occasionally heard on 15075 kc. relaying horse race and cricket matches from ZFY, similar to the Cable and Wireless relays from Jamaica and Barbados. ZIK2, Belize, British Honduras, was heard on 4950 kc. to 1915 sign off. Radio Trinidad opened a new frequency, 3275 kc., and could be heard until 2200, sometimes later, with relays of cricket matches from Radio Australia. The station broadcast on 9625 kc. as well. And in November a new station, Radio Montserrat, Plymouth, Montserrat, began operating on 3255 kc. with 40 watts. On April 18, the VOA floating station aboard the 338-foot USCGC Courier commenced broadcasting during its shake down cruise to the Panama Canal Zone. With 80 men and 10 officers aboard, plus three VOA engineers, the ship was to be the first of a proposed fleet of “Truth Ships” that would defeat Soviet jamming by operating close to VOA target areas. The call letters were KU2XAJ, and tests were conducted at 1700–2300 on 6110 and 9690 kc. shortwave (35 kw.), and 1510 kc. medium wave (150 kw.). Broadcasts closed with the Panamanian national anthem and the Star Spangled Banner. One of the novel features of the early Courier installation was a 35 by 69 foot barrage balloon that held the medium wave antenna aloft. (The balloon had a tendency to break loose and was eventually replaced by

The floating VOA radio station aboard the USCGC Courier began testing from the Panama Canal Zone in 1952 before moving to its permanent berth at Rhodes.

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a permanent antenna.) Reports were invited to an address in Colón, Panama. The tests lasted until April 27, after which the ship headed to Rhodes where it would remain until it left the air in 1964. From there it would announce: “This is the Courier, seaborne relay base of the Voice of America, transmitting on 1394 kc., 215 meters medium wave, and 6015 kc. in the 49 meter band and 7200 kc. in the 41 meter band.” The Panama tests were heard well throughout the United States. DXers were disappointed that most reception reports brought only a postcard sketch of the ship, with no verification data. However, they subsequently received a booklet describing the Courier’s visit to Panama.¡6 From the northern coast of South America, Colombian stations heard included HJEX, Radio Pacifico, Cali, on 6054 kc.; HJDW, La Voz de Medellin, on 5028; HJAE, Emisora Fuentes de Cartagena, 4965; HJBG, La Voz del Norte, Cúcuta, on 4871; HJFU, La Voz del Comercio, Armenia, on 4797; and HJEF, Radiodifusora del Occidente, Cali, on 4768 kc. A list of Colombian stations showed 30 active on shortwave. Among the many Venezuelan stations reported by listeners were YVPA, Radio Yaracuy, San Filipe, on 4860 kc.; YVME, Ondas del Lago, Maracaibo, on 4800; YVLI, Radio Maracay, on 3440; YVOJ, Radio Universidad, Mérida, on 3420; YVKX, La Voz de la Patria, Caracas, on 3390; YVKT, Radio Libertador, Caracas, 3350; YVQG, La Voz de Anzoategui, Barcelona, 3320; and YVLK, Radio Rumbos, Caracas, on 4970 kc. Radio Rumbos had an English program at 1800–1900, the first 45 minutes of which was a disk jockey show called “The Supper Club.” It was followed by news. The announcer, Jay Farr, promoted the program and was anxious for listeners to hear it. He also presented English news over the government station, YVKO, Radiodifusora Nacional, on 6170 kc. Other South American stations heard included HC2RL, Radio Quinta Piedad, Guayaquil, Ecuador, on 6633 kc.; OAX4J, Radio Colonial, Lima, Peru, on 9330; and OAX4X, Radio El Sol, Lima, Peru, 15105 kc., which had English at 2200–2330. Many Brazilian stations were heard, including PRF6, Radio Bare, Manaus on 4895 kc., and the new ZYI21, Radio Poti, Natal, on 4935 kc. Radio Tashkent, Uzbek S.S.R., was heard on 6825 kc. (later 6730) with English at 1500. Radio Yerevan, in the Armenian S.S.R., was heard on 7150. Khabarovsk was heard in the late evenings on various frequencies, including 5940, 6075, 9380 and 11700 kc. Sometimes it carried Radio Moscow programming, but at other times it had its own programs (all in Russian) and it identified as “Govorit Khabarovsk.” Emissora de Goa, Portuguese India, now had a 5 kw. transmitter on 3425, 6025 and 9610 kc. Its English identification was, “This is Radio Goa with shortwave transmitters beamed to India and Pakistan.” A clandestine station reported from Japan was Radio Free Japan, broadcasting four one-hour programs daily over 6310, 10180 and 11890 kc. The communist station was believed to be transmitting from either China or North Korea. Radio Republik Indonesia was testing a new 50 kw. transmitter, and an Australian listener tuned to 11000 kc. reported hearing the announcement, “This is the Voice of Indonesia trying out transmitters PLQ2 on 19.345 and PLB9 on 11.000.” Additional 50 kw. senders were expected to be installed at the end of 1953. And a new station operating from Djakarta on 11945 kc. was the Indonesian Air Force station, Radio Angkatan Udara. From Hawaii, a program popular with domestic U.S. audiences, “Hawaii Calls,” was often heard via a relay from the islands to the U.S. mainland over the 40 kw. RCA radiotelephone station at Kahuku.

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Indonesia was a prime DX target for North American DXers. This QSL verifies 1952 reception of the Makassar station.

1953 At the start of 1953, these countries had external shortwave services of 50 to 100 kw.: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, Finland, France, French Equatorial Africa (Radio Brazzaville), Great Britain, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, Norway, Pakistan, Poland, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Turkey, United States, U.S.S.R., Vatican, and Yugoslavia. The international services from the Netherlands and Spain used 40 kw. transmitters. The VOA became part of the new United States Information Agency.¡7 As a cost saving measure it reduced its broadcasts from 45 languages to 34. The leader of all the international broadcasters was the BBC, whose external services included the European Services (medium wave and shortwave) and the Overseas Services (shortwave only). The Overseas Services included the General Overseas Service, successor to the prewar Empire Service. It was conducted entirely in English, 21 hours a day. There were other special services as well, in English and other languages. In all, the BBC broadcast in 25 languages. The European Services and the Overseas Services utilized 39 shortwave transmitters of 50–100 kw. and a total of 85 frequencies.¡8 (One was the very low-frequency GRC, 2880 kc., which carried the General Overseas Service at 2300.) Within Britain, shortwave broadcast transmitters had been operating from Daventry since 1932 (1927 if the station’s experimental period is included), Rampisham since 1941, and Skel-

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ton¡9 and Woofferton20 since 1943. Woofferton had been operated as a VOA relay base since the Berlin blockade of 1948. Süddeutscher Rundfunk, Stuttgart, operated with 20 kw. on 6030 kc. And it was 1953 when the ARD,2¡ the umbrella organization for all broadcasting stations in West Germany, established a German overseas service called Deutsche Welle. It was sponsored principally by Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk, which in 1952 had begun regular broadcasts on multiple shortwave channels over a 20 kw. transmitter at Norden-Osterloog. The main Deutsche Welle frequencies were 7290, 11795, 15275 and 17845 kc., and at the outset the five daily three-hour broadcasts were all in German, with English identifications as the Voice of Germany. Another channel, 6270 kc. (later 5980), carried the Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk home service. Another new station in Germany was Radio Liberation. Its purpose was to broadcast to the Soviet Union. The station originated with the American Committee for Freedom of the Peoples of the U.S.S.R., which — not known at the time — was funded by the CIA. It began broadcasting on March 1, 1953 from Lampertheim, Germany. While basically an American effort, the station was staffed largely by anti–Communist emigrants from the Soviet Union. In organization, management and staffing it was deemed by some to be less professional than RFE, which sometimes referred to Radio Liberation as “Radio Hole-inthe Head.” Like RFE, “RL” attracted huge jamming and was a challenge for American DXers to hear with a clear signal. The Soviets took the station seriously and engaged in much anti–Radio Liberation counteraction. “RL employees, especially the émigrés, had good cause to fear each day for their lives.”22 From the other side of the iron curtain, Radio Tirana, still a low power station, began transmitting to the Americas over the transmitters of Radio Sofia, Bulgaria, an arrangement that would last eight years. In Greece, the VOA station in Thessaloniki added shortwave to what had been solely a medium wave operation. The power was 35 kw. Also from Greece, a clandestine station called Free Greek Radio was heard on 6970 kc. until around 2300. From the Russian Zone of Germany, Staatliches Rundfunkomittee operated several 5 kw. transmitters: “Deutschlandsender” on 6115 kc., Berlin I on 7150, and Berlin II on 9730 kc. Radio Luxembourg increased power to 50 kw. on both 6090 and 15350 kc. And in November, Radio Nederland celebrated the 25th anniversary of Eddie Startz’s widely listened-to “Happy Station” program. An interesting station heard in the U.S. and Europe around mid-year was the Forces Broadcasting Service, Trieste, on 15125 kc. Although intended mainly for short-distance reception, it was heard with a fairly good signal in the U.S. until closedown at 1800 with the announcement: “Good night to you all. Thank you for listening. This is the British Forces Station in Trieste operating on 216 meters, 1385 kc., and the 19 meter band.” A place on which both Italy and Yugoslavia had claims, Trieste was an international city under mainly British-American administration from the end of the war until 1954 when it became part of Italy. KGEI, San Francisco, had been on shortwave since its birth at the Golden Gate Exposition in 1939, and had broadcast its own “good will” programs for Latin America and Asia until going into full-time service for the VOA in 1942. The government cancelled its contract with KGEI in 1953, but the station continued on the air with its own programs for

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Latin America under General Electric’s non-commercial sponsorship, at first identifying as the “Voice of Free Enterprise.” By 1954, KGEI, by then calling itself the International University of the Air, was broadcasting three hours daily in Spanish, Portuguese and English on 9550 and 15170 kc. There was a daily mailbag program where letters from listeners outside the U.S. were acknowledged. (Letters from U.S. listeners were not acknowledged because the station was authorized to broadcast only to other countries.) Almost 5,000 letters were received from Latin America in 1954. In light of the increased number of CBC broadcast band stations, CBC closed its shortwave relays from Vercheres. The relays in Vancouver and St. John’s remained on the air, however. CJCX, Sydney, Nova Scotia, was well heard on 6010 kc. And an interesting Canadian station, albeit not strictly shortwave broadcast, was VONW in North West River, Labrador, a small village of 250 people about 20 miles from Goose Bay. (The call letters became CKA36 when Labrador became a province of Canada.) The station was operated by a Methodist minister, the Rev. Lester L. Burry, and was used irregularly to bring church services to trappers and to the local population. The service had begun in 1937 with a 20 watt transmitter. By the mid 1950s it was operating three days a week on 3420 kc. with 75 watts. Programs began, “Good evening, friends, very glad to give you a call again this evening.” Radio Cairo increased power to 100 kw., first in its broadcasts to the Middle East, then in those beamed to the Americas. In July, the Voice of the Arabs service commenced broadcasting from Egypt. It would for many years be the region’s largest and most effective propaganda station, and an important weapon against Arab governments unfriendly to President Nasser.23 As one commentator put it, it “has to be heard to be believed: for sheer venom, vulgarity, and indifference to truth it has few equals in the world.”24 Radio International, Tangier, on 6110 kc. announced that it had increased power to 50 kw. However, to the dismay of shortwave listeners (or their delight, as the case may be), the increase was on medium wave. On shortwave the power was still 2 kw. Additional information on the Turkish low power stations came to light. Three such stations were the University of Istanbul station on 7030 kc., the Technical University of Istanbul on a varying frequency around 7050 (500 watts), and a non-university station in Smyrna, Radio Izmir, on 6383. From Africa, Radio Dakar was widely heard on 9560 kc. until sign off at 1800. ZOY, the Gold Coast Broadcasting Service, Ghana, was on 4915 kc., a frequency that had been used since 193925 and continued in use until recently. Keen European listeners could hear the 300-watt transmitter of Radio Mogadishu, Italian Somaliland, on 7420 kc., as well as VQ6MI, Radio Somali, Hargeisa, British Somaliland, on 7125 kc. (1 kw.). In South Africa, signals from Radio St. Denis, Reunion, were reported on 7168 kc. And Radio Dar es Salaam, Tanganyika was experimenting with a 250 watt transmitter on 5050 kc. A new occupant on 4965 kc. was the Forces Broadcasting Station, Benghazi, Libya, which began transmitting there with 500 watts. Later they would be on 4782 and 4930 kc., plus 3305, and power would jump to 7.5 kw. Also in the 60 meter band, the Portuguese regional station in the Azores, CSA93, Emissora Regional dos Açores, moved from 4845 to 4865 kc. It would become a beacon on this frequency, which it would use for many years. And while the proposed Radio Atlantica in Spanish Guinea never materialized, a local station there, Emisora de Radiodiffusion de Santa Isabel, increased power on 7200 kc. (later

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Ghana would be a presence on 4915 kHz. for decades. This QSL is from 1945, when the country was called the Gold Coast.

7160) and its signal started reaching distant places. Both VOA-Tangier and a small station in Spain, Radio Juventud, Cadiz, also operated on the frequency, making identification of Santa Isabel difficult. Central and South America continued to offer a rich variety of shortwave targets. Stations reported from Central America included YSS, Radio Nacional de El Salvador, on a frequency it would use intermittently for many years, 9555 kc. (also 6010); YSAX, La Voz Panamericana, also in El Salvador, on 11950 kc.; and TGAZ, Radio Continental, Guatemala City, on 6150 kc. Medium waver HOF, Onda Popular, in Panama City, began operating on 9687 kc. shortwave with the call letters HOFA, and could be heard signing on at 0630. HOXA, the Voice of Central America, a station that had been heard a few years earlier, left the air. An official list of Panamanian stations showed 17 operating on shortwave. HRLP, Radio America, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, operated on 6405 kc. and could be heard around 2300. A Costa Rican station that was frequently reported was TIHH, Radio Athenea, San Jose, on 11972 kc. Another new one from Costa Rica was TIHBG, Radio Cristal, San Jose, on 6006 kc. (In 1958 the station would become the widely heard Radio Reloj.) In Belize, British Honduras, ZIK2 became the British Honduras Broadcasting Service and was heard until sign off at 2200 on a new frequency of 3300 kc. The interval signal was a recording of “Greensleeves.” Later known as Radio Belize, the station would have a presence on the 90 meter band until 1989.

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From the Dominican Republic, HI8Z, Cadena Nacional de Radio, was heard in the mornings on 5030 kc., and La Voz Dominicana, Ciudad Trujillo, was heard on 5970 kc. (HI4T) and 9735 kc. (HI2T). There were 15 private shortwave stations in Cuba. One that was often heard was COBC, Radio Progreso, Havana, on 9362 kc. Haiti continued to be active on shortwave. A new Haitian station was 4VGS, Radio Independence, Les Gonaives, on 6340 kc. It could be heard until 2015 sign off. On a nearby frequency, 6390 kc., was 4VCP, La Voix du Nord, Cap-Haitien. Radio Commerce, Portau-Prince, began testing with 7.5 kw. over 4VB, 6090 kc. and 4VC, 9490 kc. and was heard in French at 0630 sign on and at 2300 sign off. Radio Guadeloupe, Basse-Terre, was on 7447 kc., and was best at 0600 sign on and 2000 sign off. Later it was heard on 6067 and 9428 kc. In South America, HCJB moved its transmitters about 12 miles, from Quito to Pifo, where it constructed an elaborate antenna farm in anticipation of the inauguration of new, high-power transmitters and round-the-clock broadcasting. Local Ecuadorean stations heard included HC4AS, La Voz de las Caras, Ecuador, on 4203 kc.; HC1RC, Radio Casa de la Cultura, Quito, on 4930; and HC4FF, La Voz de Esmeraldas, on 6238. Radio Rumbos in Venezuela increased power to 10 kw. Among the Colombian stations reported were Caracol network station HJFV, Radio Neiva, on 4855 kc., and HJBB, La Voz de Cúcuta, on 4815. HJKH (later HJGC), Acción Cultural Popular, Sutatenza, also known as Radio Sutatenza, was on 5060 kc., and in April increased power to 25 kw. In response to the many reports received from Australia and New Zealand, the station had an English program beamed to that area on Saturdays at 0530–0600. Radio Australia reported that, next to HCJB, Radio Sutatenza was the Latin American station best heard in Australia. Reception was equally strong in the United States. In January, following a period of testing, Radio Cayenne in French Guiana, a new radio country, began regular broadcasts. It operated with 350 watts on 6200 kc. at 1800–1900. ZFY, British Guiana, which had been known as Radio Demarara since 1951, was heard on the new channel of 3255 kc. From Uruguay, CXA13, Radio Carve, Montevideo, was heard on 6157 kc. around 1900, and CXA3, Radio Ariel, could be heard on 6075. At the end of the year, the Argentine international service, Servicio Internacional Radiofonica Argentina (SIRA), left the air, leaving Radio Splendid on 11880 kc., Radio El Mundo on 15290, and Radio del Estado on 9690 and 15345 kc. A new Brazilian station was Radio Bandeirantes, Sao Paulo, on 6185 (ZYR77) and 11925 kc. (ZYR78). It was named after the 18th century Sao Paulo pioneers who penetrated deep into the country and extended its borders almost to the Andes mountains. Also from Sao Paulo, new ZYR57, Radio Cultura, came on the air on 9745 kc. The station suffered QRM from HCJB, a regular occupant of the channel even then. Another new Brazilian, this one from Rio de Janeiro, was ZYZ20, Radio Relogio Federal, on 4905 kc. It broadcast no music, just time, weather and advertisements around the clock. It would be widely heard on the same channel for many years. Also counted among the growing number of Brazilian stations was Radio Universidad do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, on 3944 kc., and ZYR63, Radio Emissora de Piratininga, 6025 kc. In Asia, the VOA established a 35 kw. relay base in Okinawa, the Ryukyu Islands. (“This program has come to you from the United States of America. This is the Voice of

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Radio Sutatenza, Colombia, was strong, but usually suffered telegraph interference on its 5060 kHz. channel.

America at Okinawa.”) A VOA relay station of the same power, co-located at Radio Ceylon’s Ekala transmitting facility near Colombo, Ceylon, went into service. It was built by the VOA but owned and operated by the government of Ceylon which agreed to make it available for VOA programs as well as its own. HLKA, the Korean Broadcasting System, Seoul, increased power to 10 kw. JJY, the Japanese time signal station, was broadcasting on 8000 kc. The low-power Thai National Broadcasting Station, formerly HS8PD, increased power to 50 kw. (HSK9) and inaugurated three broadcasts for overseas listeners. The frequency, 11680 kc., carried English at 0630. The Thai Army Signal Corps Radio Service operated HS1JS on 4875 kc. Radio Hong Kong operated over ZBW3, 9525 kc., 2.5 kw. And early in the year, Radio Free Asia, in the Philippines, was heard on the new frequencies of 9490 and 11940 kc. By mid-year, however, the station had closed down. It would be more than 40 years before shortwave listeners would next hear a station by this name. Britain’s Forces Broadcasting Service opened shortwave transmissions from Singapore on 5010 kc. with 7.5 kw. From Hanoi, the French were operating a 1 kw. station called Radio Hirondelle, “the Voice of the French Army in Indo-China.” It transmitted on 7408 kc. Radio Lao, Vientiane, broadcast on 7215 kc. with 1 kw. And on the clandestine front, an anti-communist station in China called Chinese Patriot Radio was heard on several fre-

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quencies, including 15060 kc. It used Radio Peking frequencies, and came on the air for five to 15 minutes after Peking signed off. In February, test transmissions from the Fiji Broadcasting Commission were heard by west coast DXers around 0300 on multiple frequencies, including several around 6000 kc., plus 3980, 7195 and 9535. Later, east coast listeners would hear the station as well, and soon it would settle on 3980 and 5980 kc. Programming was a relay of medium wave station ZVJ. Fiji had been absent from shortwave for a decade when the Fiji Broadcasting Commission was formed in 1952 to take the place of the old Fiji Broadcasting Co. The 500 watt shortwave transmitter was intended to cover areas where there were gaps in AM coverage. However, “[i]n this, it was not entirely successful. The vagaries of short-wave transmission brought reports of good reception of VRH4 [the new call letters on 3980] in Sweden, Japan, New Zealand and the Atlantic coast of North America, while listeners in Lautoka were complaining of poor signals.”26 In April, a special Easter broadcast on 4VEH was arranged by Ken Boord of Radio & Television News. It was the first of several programs with Boord at the organ keyboard of his local church. There was a similar program on HCJB in December, the same month that Deutsche Welle also broadcast a special for shortwave listeners.

1954 Radio Free Europe increased power from 50 to 100 kw. at its transmitter base in Gloria, Portugal. And for the first time, Deutsche Welle carried programs in English, French, Spanish and Portuguese. It reported that

A QSL from the Fiji Islands would brighten any DXer’s day.

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[t]housands of fan letters arrive from all parts of the world. Radio operators of German freighters in the Atlantic and Japanese radio amateurs write in. Germans serving in the Foreign Legion in Indo-China ask for their favorite tunes. Farmers in the African bush and Franciscan monks near the Amazon River send in requests for what they call “good German music.” German settlers in South America’s primeval forests want to hear the folksongs of the “old country.”27

RAI, Italy broadcast its home service programs on shortwave via transmitters at Caltanisetta, Sicily on 6240 and 9420 kc., Palermo, Sicily on 6260 kc. (later 7175), and Rome on 3995 kc. Radio Bucharest, Romania, increased power and began a North American service. English DXers heard a new anti-communist clandestine station, Radio Free Russia, on about 6530 kc. It was operated by NTS, the National Alliance of Russian Solidarists, a right-wing Russian émigré group whose roots went back to 1930.28 In December, Canadian time signal station CHU added voice announcements to its time signal format. The time in Eastern Standard Time was given each minute in English (French was added in 1964).29 In the United States, the VOA moved its headquarters and its 600 employees from New York to Washington, D.C. The VOA station in Mason, Ohio closed down and the WLWO call sign, which had been shared by Mason and Bethany, was now used exclusively by the latter. The Mason plant traced its history to the startup of Crosley station W8XAL in 1925. In the Middle East, Sharq al Adna, Limassol, Cyprus, continued to be heard on 6790 kc. (ZJM6) and 11720 kc. (ZJM7). After many months of anticipation, Kol Israel increased

Radio Bucharest, Romania, was one of the Eastern European stations that were easily heard in the United States. Practically all had North American services.

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power to 50 kw. Its English program at 1600–1645 on 9009 kc. identified as the Voice of Zion. Galei Zahal, the armed forces station, was heard in Europe over its 1 kw. transmitter on 6690 kc. In addition to its 50 kw. station in Karachi, Radio Pakistan was also operating with 7.5 kw. from Dacca and 1 kw. from Lahore, and also had shortwave links among Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Lahore and Karachi. In February, a new broadcaster, the Voice of Tangier (“WTAN”), was heard testing with 2.5 kw. on 6025, 7175 and 7305 kc. Although it operated autonomously, its transmitters were leased from Radio International. The Voice of Tangier would develop into the world missionary broadcaster Trans World Radio, which would still have a strong shortwave presence a half-century later.30 Some of the early religious programming of the Voice of Tangier was under the name Voice of International Evangelism. The station also carried programs produced by others, including, for a short time in 1954, a Danish commercial programmer, Danmarks Reklame Radio. In nearby Spanish Morocco there was another commercial operation, Radio Dersa, Tetuan, which operated on 6067 kc. This was the former Radio Tetuan. Rounding out the Tangier-Morocco shortwave scene was Radio Maroc, Rabat, French Morocco, which broadcast in French, English, Spanish and Arabic, and the VOA station in Tangier, which, in addition to VOA programming, relayed some programs for Radio Maroc. A new station in the Canary Islands, Radio Atlantico, Las Palmas, Gran Canaria, began testing on 9420 kc. around 1700–1900, and a new station from the Cape Verde Islands,

Radio Abidjan eventually settled on 4940 kHz., where for decades it would be a beacon of 60 meter band conditions.

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CR4AB, Radio Clube Mindelo, appeared on 7092 kc. It would later move to 4719 kc. Radio Abidjan, in the Ivory Coast, was heard on 4820 kc., closing at 1600. Later it moved to 4945 kc., where it could be heard at 0145 sign on and 1630 sign off. The power was 10 kw. The 20 kw. transmitter of the Nigerian Broadcasting Service, Lagos, was well heard on 4800 kc. to sign off at 1700. Said one east coast listener, “This is one of the best signals out of Africa today.” And from East Africa, a regional station of Radio Clube de Moçambique was set up in Nampula, where it broadcast with 1 kw. on 3535, 4930 and 6152 kc. English DXers heard ZQP, now known as the Central African Broadcasting Station, in Lusaka, Northern Rhodesia, on 4826 kc. Although OTC in the Belgian Congo was now used exclusively for relaying the programs of the Belgian National Broadcasting Service in Brussels, authentic Congolese programming could be heard on the domestic station, Radio Congo Belge. It operated two home services, one for African listeners on 6140, 9210, and 11670 kc., and one for Europeans on 6295, 9380 and 11720 kc. It could often be heard in the U.S., especially on 9380 kc., closing at 1600 and opening at 0000. Shortwave broadcasting in the British empire was by now far along. Colonial broadcasting, for which the BBC should receive much credit, has now developed so that nearly every British colony has some broadcasting organisation, reports London Calling. Only four years after the BBC commenced to operate, in 1922, Georgetown, British Guiana, commenced to operate on short-wave. In 1927, Kenya joined the short-wave broadcasters, and in 1929 Radio Hong Kong, one of the best of the early colonial stations, took the air. Sierra Leone commenced transmissions in 1934, and in 1935 the Gold Coast, as well as Gibraltar, Malta, Barbados and Fiji. ¶This activity in the colonies resulted in the BBC commencing to train technicians in London, with the co-operation of the Colonial Office. Many well-known BBC technicians have left London to work on the operation of these new stations, and to get the personnel trained.3¡

Radio Martinique, which had been operating on approximately 9700 kc. for some ten years, left the air, not to return until 1959. An amateur operator on St. Vincent, British West Indies, VP2SA, said that he was running an hour-long Sunday afternoon program for the government on 3336 kc. with 400 watts. It was said to consist of news, sports, music, and a religious service. The station was never reported heard, however. In Central America, a new station was heard from Tegucigalpa, Honduras. It was HRNQ, Radio Morazon, heard testing in English and Spanish at 0250, announcing its frequency as 6090 kc. and asking for reports. Also heard from Tegucigalpa was HRTL, Radio Tela, which broadcast on 6035 kc. And while little noticed by SWLs at the time, an important shortwave event was occurring in Guatemala: the use of a CIA–created clandestine station, La Voz de la Liberación, to multiply the impact of a small invasion force sent to unseat the Arbenz regime. The station operated above the 49 meter band, circa 6360 kc., and was on the air for only a few months. It would be the prototype for a similar station that would be more widely heard in 1960–61, Radio Swan.32 From continental South America, Radio Cayenne, French Guiana, was heard opening at 1730 on 6232 kc. Other stations heard included Venezuelans YVMA, Ecos del Zulia, Maracaibo, on 4750 kc., and YVMK, Radio Cabimas, a regular around 2000 on 3410 kc.; and a new Colombian station, HJHC, Radio Nariño, Pasto, 4825 kc., which identified with “Love’s Old Sweet Song” in the background. From deeper in South America, a new Ecuadorean station, HC6EM, Radio Cosmopolita, Ambato, was heard on 6192 kc. CE766, Radio Yungay, Santiago Chile, was on 7660 kc. Peruvian stations reported included OAX4S, Radio San Cristobal, Lima, on 6216

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kc.; and OBX4G, Radio Excelsior, Lima, on 6153 kc. Among the Brazilian stations heard were ZYS8, Radio Difusora do Amazonas, Manaus, 4805 kc.; PRC5, Radio Clube do Pará, Belem, on 4865; ZYV32, Radio Industrial de Juiz de Fora, 4925; PRA6, Radio Gazeta, Sao Paulo, 9685; and PRB2, Radio Clube Paranaense, Curitiba, on 11935 kc. An official list showed active Brazilian stations on 57 shortwave frequencies. The Voice of America established a second relay station in the Philippines, this time at Poro Point, near San Fernando, Luzon. (“This is the Voice of America radio station in Northern Luzon, the Philippines.”) The power was 35 kw. The first commercial shortwave station in Japan was established. Nippon Tampa Hoso, the Nihon Short-Wave Broadcasting Co., Ltd., operated via JOZ, 3925 kc., and JOZ2, 6095 kc. It opened in August with 5 kw. transmitters after making test transmissions with 500 watts. Programming was classical, popular, Latin American and Japanese music, with announcements in Japanese and call letters given in English. Reception reports from listeners were sought. The station is still on the air as Radio Nikkei. Radio Hong Kong, long a regular on 31 meters, showed up on 3945 kc. for the first time. Radio Sarawak, located in the British-controlled part of Borneo, came on shortwave with a 5 kw. transmitter on 4870 kc. In California it was heard opening at 0439 and closing at 0830 with “God Save the Queen.” And VS4S, Radio Sabah, Jesselton, also from British North Bornea, was experimenting on 7237 kc. with 250 watts. It expected to be at 7.5 kw. by the end of the year. Radio Pyongyang, North Korea was reported operating on four shortwave frequencies: 2850, 4400, 5700 and 6250 kc. The Far East Network, Tokyo, was on 6160 and 11750 kc., both with 10 kw. And the Voice of the United Nations Command, a 2.5 kw. station located in Pusan, Korea, was heard in New Zealand at 1400 on 4780 kc. A British member of the NNRC arranged for broadcast band courtesy programs to be transmitted from Radio Athens and from ORU, Brussels in January, but these programs wound up going out on shortwave instead. Carleton Lord, who had prepared a tape of greetings to be played over the ORU program, was at his receiver on January 20 (the program had been rescheduled from January 13). At 2045 EST on January 20th, the NC-183D again was tuned to 6.085 mc., and again a good S7 signal was pushing through — excellent quality, little fading, and no interference. How does your voice sound from a distance of over 3000 miles? In a few minutes you would know. At 2059 EST, the tape recorder was started up, and a minute later the ceiling crashed as a male voice allowed in French as how you were listening to Radio Commerce in Haiti. In the ensuing 30 minutes, Radio Commerce maintained its strong signal, and nothing could be heard from ORU.33

Ken Boord organ specials were broadcast in April over TGNA, Guatemala City, and in December over TIFC, Costa Rica. In May, HCJB broadcast a special program for the International Short Wave Club.

1955 On February 1, Austria’s Österreichischer Rundfunk (ORF) began radiating a test program in German, English and French at 0200–0400 and 1400–1700 over a 5 kw. transmitter located at Linz-Kronstorf. The frequencies were 5985,7245 and 11935 kc. ORF had

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been established in 1954.34 As a cost-saving measure, and in order to concentrate on serving Belgians abroad, the Belgian National Broadcasting Service cancelled all its foreignlanguage programming, including its two-hour nightly program in English to North America and the popular BNBS “Amongst Friends” programs. A station in Spain called Radio Salamanca was heard opening at 1500 on approximately 6390 kc. The Spanish Falangist network, La Red de Emisoras del Movimiento, said that it had 15 low-power shortwave stations in Spain, mostly operating in the 7 mc. band with a few hundred watts or less, plus Radio Atlantico in the Canary Islands and La Voz de Ceuta in Spanish Morocco. United Nations Radio, Geneva, Switzerland, could be heard with news in English and French at 1330–1400 via HBQ, 6675 kc. (“This is the United Nations calling the peoples of the world.”) Bayerischer Rundfunk, Munich was heard on 6160 kc. The clandestine station, Radio España Independiente, was reported frequently on 6950, 7600 and 8070 kc. in the 1300–1730 time period. And the Swiss Broadcasting Corp. was carrying the “Penny A Song” request program where listeners first made a donation to the Red Cross, either via the station or to their local chapter, and sent in the receipt with their request. In North America, budget constraints forced the CBC International Service to reduce five European language services to weekly status. (They were eliminated altogether in 1961.) Broadcasts to other areas, including Africa and the U.S., continued to grow, however. The VOA station in Bound Brook, New Jersey changed call signs from WNBC to WBOU. Over several months, a new VOA station identifying as KK2XEZ was heard in the 17, 18 and 21 mc. bands around 1500. At first thought to be a second floating station like the Courier, it turned out to be a test of a new 500 kw. VOA transmitter conducted by its manufacturer, Continental Electronics of Dallas, Texas. Also in the United States, the VOA introduced a new program, “Music U.S.A.” Its best known segment would be known informally as the “VOA Jazz Hour” and it would become one of the most popular programs on shortwave, and make its host, Willis Conover, an international celebrity.35 The Voice of Tangier was heard testing on several frequencies around 9500 kc. Also from Tangier, a new broadcaster, IBRA Radio, a project of the Swedish Pentecostal movement, was heard testing over Radio Africa at the end of July. Various frequencies were in use, including 11726 and 15253 kc. At first announcements were in Swedish and English only. Eventually the station established a schedule of 15-minute religious programs in 16 different languages. Radio Omdurman, Khartoum, Sudan, was heard on 4990 kc. during east coast afternoons. V3USE, Forest Side, Mauritius was heard for the first time in several years. It was noted to 2315 sign off on 15085 kc. and other nearby frequencies. The Tanganyika Broadcasting Service increased power on 5050 kc. to 20 kw. European listeners reported hearing Radio Uganda until 1315 sign off using its new 7.5 kw. shortwave transmitter on 5026 kc. Two new Mozambique stations in Beira were Emissora do Aero Clube da Beira, 450 watts on 3567 kc. and 350 watts on 7255; and Radio Pax on approximately 3100 (CR7RA) and 7205 kc. (CR7RB). Also from Portuguese Africa, a new Angolan station, CR6RB, Radio Ecclesia, Luanda, commenced broadcasting on 7260 kc. ELWA, “Eternal Love Winning Africa,” Monrovia, Liberia, had begun operating on medium wave in February 1954. It commenced broadcasting on shortwave in March 1955

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DXers loved IBRA Radio because each language service had its own QSL. This one was for the German program.

and soon there were reports of ELWA being heard on the east coast around noon, first on 11800 kc., then on 15200. The transmitter power was 10 kw.36 The Windward Islands Broadcasting Service, Grenada, British West Indies, came on the air for the first time on February 7. It was heard at 1700–2000 on 3395 kc. (5 kw.) and 5980 kc. (250 watts). The Dominican Republic could be logged via HI3K, La Voz del Yaque, which was heard all evening on 4980 kc. And a new Haitian station, 4VRM, La Voix de Gonaives, appeared on 5060 kc. Mexican stations heard included XEOI, Radio Mil, Mexico City, on 6010 kc; XEUW, El Eco de Sotavento, Vera Cruz, on 6020; XEFT, La Voz de Vera Cruz, on 9545; XETT, La Hora Exacta, Mexico City, 9555; and XEBR, El Heraldo de Sonora, Hermosillo, 11820 kc. From La Ceiba, Honduras, HRMS, La Voz de la Patria, was heard on 6135 kc. Two Guatemala City stations reported were TGJA, Radio Nuevo Mundo, on 5990 kc., and TGOA, La Voz de las Americas, on 6100. Present in the evenings on 9607 kc. was HP5J, La Voz de Panama, Panama City. Costa Rica’s TIDCR, La Voz de la Victor, San Jose, was a regular visitor on 9615 kc. And a Costa Rican clandestine station calling itself La Voz de Guanacaste Libre, “Radiodifusora Revolucionario Autentico Anti-Comunista,” was heard with 10-minute broadcasts circa 1900 on 7050 kc. The station announced that it was located in Los Chiles, Guanacaste province, Costa Rica. Brazilian shortwave stations heard included ZYE7, Radio Educadora de Parnaiba, 4825 kc.; ZYY9, Radio Timbira, Sao Luiz, on 4975; Radio Difusora Sao Paulo, ZYB7, 6095

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kc. and ZYB9, 15155; and Radio Mauá, Rio de Janeiro, on 9705 kc. (ZYX24) and 11885 (ZYX25). Peruvian stations included OAX4Q, Radio Victoria, Lima, on 6012 kc; OBX4P, Radio Miraflores, Peru on 6325; and OAX4K, Radio Central, Lima, on 9540. In April, OBX4Q, Radio El Sol, Lima, was heard with an excellent signal on 5970 kc. to 0230 sign off, testing a new 5 kw. transmitter with announcements in Spanish, English and Italian, and promising to QSL. Also heard from Peru was OAX6H, Radio Tacna, on 9488 kc. Chilean station CE1180, Radio Sociedad Nacional de Agricultura, Santiago, was on 12000 kc. A powerful new Colombian was HJLB, La Voz del Tolima, Ibague, operating with 10 kw. on 6040 kc. Also heard from Colombia were HJAG, Emisora Atlantico, Barranquilla, on 4898 kc.; and HJFK, La Voz del Valle, Cali, on 6135. In Venezuela, 47 frequencies were in use by shortwave broadcasting stations. There was some rearrangement of Venezuelan frequencies in the 2 and 3 mc. band. Operations were limited to two ranges, 3200–3300 kc. and 2300–2500 kc., and stations operating above 3400 kc. were given new frequencies in one of the two ranges. All 3 mc. stations were assigned frequencies ending in “5” and all 2 mc. stations were assigned frequencies ending in zero. In the Near East, 2 kw. station FXE, the Lebanese Broadcasting Station, Beirut, was a good catch on 8036 kc. It was heard on the west coast with English at 1000. (“Good evening. This is the English program of the Lebanese Broadcasting Station in Beirut.”) In Central Asia, Radio Tashkent transmitted on 6825 kc. and had a daily half-hour in English at 0700 and 1000. Farther east, Radio Japan began a service to eastern North America. Reception of its 50 kw. transmitters on 11705 and 15235 kc. was not particularly good, however. And at year’s end, Nihon Short-Wave Broadcasting Co. increased power from 5 to 10 kw. A second “Voice of Vietnam” appeared on 9925 and 11995 kc. It announced as the Voice of Vietnam, “broadcasting from Hanoi, the Vietnamese People’s Republic.” English news was heard at 0800. As various reporters noted at the time, “this is not the true Voice of Vietnam” (which was still based in Saigon). The French military station, Radio Hirondelle, moved from Hanoi to Saigon, where the French were still in charge. It began announcing as the Voice of the Vietnam National Army. The U.S.–supported, anti–Soviet Radio Liberation started using transmitters of the Broadcasting Corporation of China in Taiwan to supplement its regular transmissions from Germany. A Taiwan station heard on the west coast was 500-watt BEC27, the Voice of MAAG (U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group), noted at first on 6997 kc., then on 7215, paralleling its medium wave channel to 0900 sign off. (“This is your Allied Forces Station, BEC27, 800 on your radio dial, broadcasting from downtown Taipei, Taiwan.”) From South Korea, the Armed Forces Korea Network operated Radio Station Vagabond (later Radio Station Homestead) on 6895 kc. (and medium wave) from 1630 to 1230, which was soon enlarged to 24 hours. It relayed AFRTS from Los Angeles most of the time. The power was 250 watts. (“The American Forces Korea Network, 1150 on your radio dial. This is Vagabond.”) More stations from the U.S.S.R. surfaced, with exact locations always uncertain. In the U.K., Yerevan, Armenia was heard at 1200 on 5740 kc., parallel to Samarkand on 5450. Sakhalin was heard on 5060 after 0000, and Vladivostok was on 5015. Other stations were said to be operating from Komsomolsk, Krasnoyarsk, Magadan, Molotov (later called Perm), Alma Ata, Ashkabad (15 kw.), Baku (2 kw.), Blagoveschensk, Khabarovsk (20 kw.), and other Soviet locations.

The U.S. Military Assistance Group station was also known as Armed Forces Radio Taiwan.

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In Indonesia, a new 20 kw. transmitter was installed at Jogjakarta and began carrying the Radio Republik Indonesia home service on 7100 kc. The long anticipated relocation of Radio Omroep Nieuw Guinea from Hollandia to Biak, in Dutch-controlled New Guinea, with an upgrade of power to 5 kw., finally occurred in September. A second frequency, 7190 kc., was added to the station’s usual channel of 5045 kc. And at the end of the year, reports began appearing of ZK1ZA, Radio Raratonga, Cook Islands, being heard in the United States at around midnight on 5050 kc. It had begun broadcasting in April 1954 on 3390 kc. before moving to 6180. The power was 350 watts. English broadcasts could be heard from many out-of-the way places, including Radio France-Asie, Saigon at 0500 on 15420 kc. and 0915 on 9775; HSK9, Bangkok, Thailand at 0545 on 1169037; Radio Cairo at 0815 on 15315; Radio Pakistan, Dacca, at 0915 on 7010, and Karachi at 1500 on 6235; and Radio Brazzaville at 1300, 1400, 1630 and 1745 on 11970. (“This is Brazzaville, the French national broadcasting station in French Equatorial Africa. Ici Brazzaville, poste nationale Francaise.”) Also heard in English were ZAA, Radio Tirana, at 1530 on 7850 kc.; Radio Damascus at 1530 on 9655; HOLA, Radio Atlantico, Colón, Panama, with English news at 1630 on 9505; the Voice of Zion, Israel, at 1700 (Sundays) and 2300 (Thursdays) on 9009 kc.; 4VC, Radio Commerce, Haiti, at 1715 on 9485; TIFC, San Jose, Costa Rica, at 2300–0000 on 9645; Radio Clube de Moçambique, at 2300 on 11745; TGNA, Guatemala City, at 2345 on 11970; and Radio Nacional del Peru, at 2345 on 6082 kc. It was a big year for special programs. Ken Boord hosted an April organ special on TGNA, and 4VEH presented a special fifth anniversary broadcast in May. HCJB carried a

ZK1ZA, Radio Rarotonga, Cook Islands, was on everyone’s target list in the 1950s and for decades after.

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special for the Austrian DX Club and one for the Radioklubben Universal (Sweden), Radio Sweden broadcast for the Universal Radio DX Club and the Club des Auditeurs de le Radio Mondiale (France), and WRUL broadcast a special program for the Heureka DX Club in Norway. In addition, the International Short Wave Club arranged a series of special dedicatory programs commemorating the club’s 25th anniversary. These were carried by the Swiss Short Wave Service, Radio Monte Carlo, Belgian National Broadcasting Service, Radio Norway, Radio Sweden, Deutsche Welle, Radio Prague, Polskie Radio, Österreichischer Rundfunk, 4VEH, HCJB, CBC International Service, Radio Australia, and Radio Republik Indonesia.

1956 On April 1, the first 100 kw. Deutsche Welle transmitter at Jülich began operation. Another followed in August. Radio Nacional de España began regular use of its new 100 kw. transmitter, establishing a foreign service with broadcasts to all parts of the world. Österreichischer Rundfunk continued testing on shortwave, increasing power to 20 kw. on some frequencies, including two 25 mc. channels. And at year’s end, Radio Nederland began broadcasting over the first of its new 100 kw. transmitters at Lopik (actually Ijsselstijn, 20 miles south of Hilversum). The station’s oldest transmitters, located at Huizen (six miles northeast of Hilversum), were closed down. A 15 kw. transmitter at Kootwijk (40 miles east of Hilversum) was preserved.38 The BBC broadcast a special weekly program, “Calling the Antarctic,” for the men of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition, the first successful overland crossing of the continent. Radio DDR, Leipzig, East Germany, transmitted on 6115, 7150 and 9730 kc., and could be heard in a variety of languages. Radio Athens, although operating with only 7.5 kw., was often heard on 15345 kc. Among the smaller stations broadcasting from Europe were the Greek Forces Broadcasting Station, Athens, on 7422 kc., sometimes audible at 0000 sign on, and its sister stations in Larissa (6752 kc.) and Kozani (7950). In Czechoslovakia, the new 100 kw. shortwave facility for Radio Prague at Rimavska Sobota was inaugurated and the phase out of the Podebrady site, which had been in operation from before the war and upgraded several times, was begun. The Hungarian uprising took place in October and November, and the broadcasts of Radio Free Europe would long be remembered for the rhetoric which many believed inflamed passions and fueled hopes of western intervention.39 After the fighting, the RFE Hungarian service devoted much of its programming to messages from refugees in the west to people in Hungary. Coded names were used in order to avoid Soviet reprisals. An interesting “broadcast utility” station was the Voice of Maritime Labor, a news program for ships’ crews that was aired at 1250 on Sundays. It was produced by the Maritime Trades Department of the AFL-CIO, and it was transmitted over WFK39, 19850 kc., WFL65, 15850 kc., and WFK95, 15700 kc., frequencies of Press Wireless in Hicksville, Long Island, New York. Hicksville was mainly a utility station. However, it had carried some broadcast programming from as long ago as the mid 1930s, and Voice of America programs for several years after the VOA’s founding in 1942.40 At mid-year, Canadian medium wave station CFGB, Goose Bay, Labrador, 1320 kc., was

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widely heard on its sixth harmonic, 7920 kc., as was CKCW, Moncton, New Brunswick, 1220 kc., on its 6th harmonic of 7320 kc. Radio Zanzibar was heard in Europe on 4795 kc. (“This is Zanzibar calling”). In addition to the Cable & Wireless broadcasts from Kenya, the African Broadcasting Service was active from the country on 4923, 4934, 4943 , 6170, 7172 and 7288 kc. Radio Sana’a, Yemen, was heard testing on 9705 and 11905 kc.; and the 1 kw. transmitter of Radio Djibouti, French Somaliland, moved from 4970 to 4870 kc. West African stations were becoming increasingly active on shortwave. Radio Dakar was still on 11895 kc. with excellent signals at 0130 sign on and 1800 sign off, and English news three days a week at 1745–1800. Radio Ecuatorial, Bata, Rio Muni (Spanish Guinea), could sometimes be heard on 8800 kc., signing off at 1700. Radio Cotonou, Dahomey, was on 4867 kc. until 1730 close, causing interference to Emissora Regional dos Açores in the Azores on 4865. Dahomey would move to 4900, and then settle on 4870. The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service had recently commenced regular operations on shortwave. Its frequency, 3316 kc., would be familiar to DXers for many years. Its 5 kw. transmitter was heard until 1700 sign off. Another frequency that would be widely known for decades, 3366 kc., came into use by the Gold Coast Broadcasting Service, Ghana. And Radio Conakry could be heard almost every day on the east coast. Its frequency, 4910 kc., would also be in use for a long time. The Voice of Tangier increased power to 10 kw. Among other targets, it broadcast to Israel. (“This is the Voice of Tangier, testing on a new frequency [9440] in order to project our signals to Israel.”) A transmitter, reportedly of 100 kw. and beamed to Europe, was being tested by Radio Clube de Moçambique on 15085 and 17795 kc. at 0900–1500. “Sounds like 100 kw.,” observed one U.S. reporter. The South African Broadcasting Corp. installed new 20 kw. transmitters at Paradys. It was near Bloemfentein, site of the country’s first shortwave broadcasting effort in 1931. A modest new international service could be heard on 25820 kc., identifying as the Africa Service of SABC. The local English, Afrikaans and commercial services of SABC were heard on many tropical band frequencies, including 3290, 3380, 4810 and 4895 kc. Soon all South African shortwave broadcasts were using the 20 kw. Paradys transmitters. And time signal station ZUO was reported operating from South Africa on 5000 mc. In the Caribbean and Central America, the Windward Islands Broadcasting Service appeared on several high frequency channels, including 11830, 17745 and 17800 kc., until 2115 sign off. This was a 250 watt transmitter. 4VEH was operating on 6100 and 15415 kc. with 1 kw., and 9640 and 9662 kc. with 3 kw. The Dominican Republic was heard via, among others, HI5C, La Voz del Progreso, San Francisco de Macoris, on 4860 kc.; and HI1J, La Voz de Oriente, San Pedro de Macoris, on 6025. YNRM, Radio Musun, Matagalpa, Nicaragua, was heard on 7602 kc., and TGTA, Radio Sonora, Guatemala City, was audible on 6000 kc. In Argentina, the shortwave scene consisted of the government station LRA, Radio del Estado, on 6062, 6180 and 9690 kc.; and privately owned stations Radio El Mundo (LRX on 6120 and 9660 kc., and LRU on 15290); Radio Splendid (LRS, 5985, 9320 and 11880); and Radio Belgrano (LRY, 6090, and LRT, 11840). Argentina’s foreign service had closed in 1953. Now, a new foreign service, Servicio Informativo Argentino, was opened by Radio del Estado, with an hour block of programs in Spanish, Portuguese, Italian, French,

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German and English at 1700 and 2100 on 6180 and 9690 kc. At other times these channels carried domestic Spanish-language Radio del Estado programming. Argentine time signal station LOL was also heard occasionally on 15000 kc. Colombian stations continued to be very active on shortwave. Among those heard were HJCJ, Radiodifusora Reina de Colombia, Bogota, on 4755 kc.; HJEV, La Voz de Pereira, on 4865; HJCW, Emisora Sur America, Bogota, on 4945; and HJTC, Radiodifusora Militar, Bogota, on 6156. On August 7, the explosion of seven ammunition trucks in Cali destroyed eight city blocks and killed 1,200 people. Stations were on the air 24 hours a day handling messages for family and friends and helping with relief work. La Voz de Cali, 6195 kc., and Radio Pacifico, 6055, were widely heard with disaster coverage. New Brazilian stations included ZYZ27, Radio Mayrink Veiga, Rio de Janeiro, on 9575 kc.; and Radio Novo de Julho, Sao Paulo, on 11855. PRL2, Radio Ministério da Educação, Rio de Janeiro, returned to 17875 kc. after an absence of some time, and was heard around 0800. A new station was heard from Paraguay, ZPA7, Radio Guaraní, Asunción, on 15200 kc. From Chile, CE1194, Radio Cooperativa Vitalicia, was heard on 11900 kc., and a new station, CE610, Radio Calama, was on 6100. HCJB increased power to 50 kw. In January, Ken Boord reported hearing an interesting point-to-point contact on 11915 and 15115 kc. between HCJB co-founder Clarence Jones and New York utility channel WER46. It was a dispatch to NBC by Ecuadorean air and ground search parties that had found the bodies of five missionaries killed by hostile indians in a remote section of the Ecuadorean jungle. Other Ecuadorean stations heard included HC2AJ, Compania Radiodifusora del Ecuador (commonly known as C.R.E.), Guayaquil, on 4650 kc.; and HC1DF, Radiodifusora la Voz del Norte, Ibarra, operating around 5820 kc. HC1GB, Radio Nacional Espejo, Otavalo, began operations on 4680 kc. (later 4770), reportedly with a 5 kw. transmitter. French colonial rule in Vietnam had ended in 1954. Planned elections to unify the north and the south did not take place, and South Vietnam declared itself independent in 1955. Soon it nationalized all broadcasting, and in February, Radio France-Asie in Saigon closed down. There was now one Voice of Vietnam based in Saigon, South Vietnam, and another Voice of Vietnam in Hanoi, North Vietnam. A French plan to replace Radio FranceAsie with a 100 kw. shortwave station in Djibouti —“the Voice of France in Asia and Africa”— never came to fruition. On July 1, the British Far Eastern Broadcasting Service station, nominally in Singapore but actually located at Tebrau, Malaya, was fully integrated into the BBC shortwave network and became the BBC Far Eastern Station. The Korean Broadcasting System, Seoul, increased power to 50 kw. Operating under the callsign HLKA, it was heard with experimental transmissions on 11935 kc. at 0100, requesting reports. These programs were said to be intended for Koreans living in Hawaii. Mukden, Manchuria, was heard often in Chinese at 0800–0900 on 6525 kc. Radio Lao broadcast on two frequencies that would remain in use for decades, 6130 and 7145 kc. And the Japanese standard frequency and time station, JJY, was now reported operating from Tokyo on 2.5, 4, 5, 8, 10 and 15 mc., with time tones and a CW and voice announcement every five minutes. Radio Tahiti could be heard on 6135 kc., mostly in French but with English at 0245–0300. (“This is Radio Tahiti calling, the Voice of France in the Pacific, with our daily

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English program from the islands of the Pacific.”) The Solomon Islands Broadcasting Service had come on air on medium wave in 1953, and added shortwave in 1956. Its call letters were VQO2 and it transmitted on 5960 kc., first with 100 watts, then 5 kw. It could sometimes be heard closing around 0300. “Olympic fever” led Radio Australia to provide extensive special coverage for the 1956 olympics which were being held in Melbourne at year’s end. And a rare Australian station was Radio Puckapunyal, 7850 kc., a 75 watt Australian army station located about 60 miles north of Melbourne whose broadcasts were intended mainly for the entertainment of troops in the area. It operated at 0400–0600, Tuesdays only, and was heard (and verified) from California. In May, the Swiss Short Wave Service dedicated a program to the New Zealand Radio DX League. IBRA Radio and Radio Sweden broadcast specials for the Universal Radio DX Club, and a joint NNRC–National Radio Club Christmas special was transmitted from 4VEH.

This QSL confirms a west coast DXer’s reception of 100-watt VQO2, the Solomon Islands Broadcasting Service, in 1956. The station would increase power, and for many years would be regularly heard throughout North America.

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1957 For a time, ORU in Belgium resumed English broadcasts to North America with what was called the “World’s Fair Radio” broadcasts, intended to promote the 1958 Brussels World’s Fair. Otherwise, Belgium’s programming was almost entirely in the Belgian national languages of French and Flemish (a Dutch dialect). While not SWBC, many shortwave listeners heard the first earth satellite, Russia’s Sputnik I, which was launched on October 4. It was reported in North America around 2100–2300 on 20005 kc. (it also used 40002), and it could often be heard for 20–40 minutes at a time. Only a few reported hearing Sputnik II, which was launched on November 3. (It was nicknamed Muttnick because it carried a dog.) And also from the Soviet Union, Radio Moscow’s Joe Adamov began hosting “Moscow Mailbag.” Vatican Radio inaugurated its new shortwave transmitter plant at Santa Maria di Galeria, northwest of Rome. At first, one 100 kw. transmitter and two 10 kw. shortwave transmitters were located there, and additional senders followed. The transmitter site enjoyed extraterritorial status. The American Forces Network, Frankfurt, was occasionally heard on 5470 kc. around 1900 and 0100. The power was increased from 250 to 500 watts. Another 500-watt station, La Voz de Valladolid, Spain, sometimes was heard closing at 1830 on 7006 kc. The Organization of American States began broadcasting the Voz de la OEA program over VOA transmitters. And the Canadian Broadcasting Corp. operated a nightly 40-minute Northwest Territories Service on shortwave. On Sundays, during the winter months, it was followed by the 45-minute “Northwest Messenger,” which carried greetings and messages to listeners in the north. Several clandestine stations were heard. An Italian-language station, La Voce Italiano d’Istria, operated on 6450 kc. Istria was a province of Yugoslavia containing a large Italian minority. The Voice of Free Egypt was heard on various frequencies, including 15136 and 17787 kc. On 8330 kc. and other channels there was the Algerian National Liberation Front station, Radio Free and Fighting Algeria. It operated at 1500–1800. A Far Eastern clandestine station of unknown origin was heard on 17815 kc., signing on at 2200, after which it was quickly jammed. It identified as Radio Baikal. And at year’s end, a station calling itself Radio Free Cuba was heard on 7043 kc. Sharq al Adna on Cyprus had been carrying the BBC Arabic program under the name Voice of Britain since the Suez crisis of 1956. In 1957 the station became the BBC East Mediterranean Relay and thereafter carried the General Overseas Service as well as BBC Arabic programming.4¡ In North Africa, Radio Tripoli increased power on 6140 kc. and was on the air daily until around 1615. The Benghazi station was on 7180 kc. NOREA Radio (Nordic Radio Evangelistic Association), a program of the Norwegian Lutheran church, was heard over Voice of Tangier. The Gold Coast Broadcasting Service became the Ghana Broadcasting System when the country adopted a new name in March. The Nigerian Broadcasting Corp. took over from the Nigerian Broadcasting Service, and east coast DXers could sometimes pick up the NBC Eastern Regional Program from Enugu on 3965 kc. at 0000. A new station in the area was Radio Lomé, Togo, which could be heard closing down at 1700 on 5038 kc. And

The launch of Sputnik in 1957 was a huge technological and political event. and the Soviet Committee for the International Geophysical Year was happy to verify reception reports with this card.

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The signal of Radio Moscow can be elusive today. In the 1950s, it was one of the strongest on the air, and one of the first English-language stations a new DXer would come across during an evening’s listening.

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Radio Yaounde, French Cameroon, operated on 4975 kc. As with many other French African stations at the time, the power of both Lomé and Yaounde was 4 kw. ELWA inaugurated a Tuesday-night North American service. It was on the air over the station’s 10 kw. transmitter at 1800–1930 on 15200 and 21535 kc., repeated at 2000–2130 on 9650 and 21535 kc., and it put in a surprisingly good signal. ELWA also broadcast on 4760 kc. From Angola, CR6RQ, Radio Clube do Huambo, Nova Lisboa, was occasionally heard until closedown at 1600 on 4855 kc. On 4869 kc., CR6RN, Radio Clube de Angola, Luanda, sometimes made it through as well. Emisora de Radiodifusion de Santa Isabel, Spanish Guinea, was a regular visitor on 7160 kc., especially at 1600 sign off when it transmitted with 5 kw. (it operated with 500 watts at 0130 sign on). Santa Isabel was located on the island of Fernando Póo. Bata, home base of the other Spanish Guinea station, Radio Ecuatorial, was located in the mainland enclave of Rio Muni. Radio Ecuatorial would soon move to 7846 kc. Radio Tananarive, Madagascar, could sometimes be heard signing on at 2230 on 9515 kc. European DXers heard the African Broadcasting Service testing a new transmitter from Kisumu, Kenya on 4964 and 4985 kc. A new station reported operating from the Belgian Congo was OQ2AD, Radio UFAC, Elisabethville, on 4980 and 7156 kc. Radio Congo Belge was often heard via OTH, 9210 kc. The station operated a number of other transmitters. From Leopoldville it used 50 kw. on 9210 as well as on 9380, 11670 and 11720 kc., 20 kw. on 4760, and 250 watts on 6295. Both the Elisabethville station on 6030 kc. and Stanleyville on 6085 were 3 kw.

It was a long way from the United States to Madagascar. Radio Tananarive’s 1 kw. transmitter did not make hearing it any easier, but DXers welcomed the challenge.

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Although Radio Jamaica left shortwave, the Caribbean and Central and South America continued to be a rich source of signals for American shortwave listeners. Regular Havana stations heard included the famous COCQ, Circuito CMQ, on 9670 kc.42; COCO, El Periódico del Aire, on 9531; COBC, Radio Progreso, 9362; and COBL, Radio Aeropuerto, 9833. HI1R, La Voz de Fundación, San Cristobal, Dominican Republic, was heard on 6185 kc. Two Haitian outlets reported were 4VES, La Voix de St. Marc, on 6175 kc., and 4VGC, Radio Liberté, Port-au-Prince, on 6135. Two new Mexican stations were XELZZ, Mexico City, 11860 kc., relaying medium wave outlet XELZ around 2200–2400; and XELUU, Radio Universidad, Chihuahua, 15300 kc., relaying XELU. Also heard from Mexico was XEXE, Radiodifusora Mexico, León, which carried mostly sports programming on 11900 kc. and could be heard in the early afternoon hours. New stations heard from Guatemala City included TGXB, Radio Centro Musical, on 6050 kc., and TGKN, Radio Novedades, on 6200. TGHC, Radio Universal, also in Guatemala City, moved to 6208 kc. after a stay on 6140. A regular from Guatemala City was TGAR, Radio Quetzal, on 5977 kc. Also occasionally heard was TGCX, Radio Cristal, on 11750 kc. HOU31, La Voz del Baru, David, Panama, was heard on 6045 kc. It had a good signal, and usually closed at 2200. And from Nicaragua, YNMS, Radio Philips, Matagalpa, was heard in the evenings on 7660 kc. YNCA, Radio Atlantico, Bluefields, operated on 7753 kc. until 2300. An official list showed 13 shortwave stations in Nicaragua. Colombian stations heard included HJGF, Radio Bucaramanga, 4845 kc., and HJFW, Transmisoras Caldas, Manizales, on 5027. There continued to be Venezuelans aplenty, including YVRA, Radio Monagas, on 3325 kc.; YVQI, Emisoras Unidas, Barcelona, 3385; and YVMQ, Radio Barquisimeto, on 4990. There were also many shortwave stations operating in Ecuador. One that was heard regularly was HC2VP, Radio Atalaya, Guayaquil, on 4600 kc. Peruvian stations reported included OAX4J, Radio La Cronica, Lima, on 9320 kc., and OAX4W, Radio America, Lima, on 9415. AVROS, in Surinam, broadcast on 4750 as well as 15405 kc. Irregular test transmissions around 1800–2100 were heard from CXA71, Radio Sarandi, Montivideo, Uruguay, 9515 kc. The station was also heard on 15385 kc. with announcements in both Spanish and French. Another Uruguayan station that was heard was CXA19, Radio El Espectador, Montevideo, on 11835 kc. ZPA5, Radio Encarnación, Asunción, Paraguay, was heard around 1800 on 11990 kc. Its power was 3 kw. CE960, Radio Presidente Balmaceda (formerly called Radio La Americana), Santiago, Chile, was on 9600 kc. where it put in a good signal. ZYC9, Radio Tupi, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil reappeared on 15365 kc. after a long absence. ZYR83, Radio Aparecida, was on 9635 kc., a channel it still uses today. Sometimes it identified in English. Other Brazilians heard included ZYV29, Radio Itatiaia, Belo Horizonte, on 3315 kc.; ZYT7, Radio Guarujá, Florianópolis, on 5975; ZYR56, Radio Excelsior, Sao Paulo, 9585; ZYN29, Radio Cultura da Bahia, Salvador, 9595; ZYG3, Radio Clube de Goiania, 11735; and PRA7, Radio Clube Ribeirão Preto, on 15415. The Burma Broadcasting Service went high power, putting four 50 kw. RCA transmitters into service. It was heard on 11765 kc., opening at 0635. The low power Indonesian broadcasting scene was sorting itself out, but most Indonesian stations were real DX. Those that could be heard, especially on the west coast, included YDG3, Surakarta, 7250

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kc.; YDQ3, Makassar, 7295; YDS2, Manado, 5990; YDJ, Jogjakarta, 5060; YDM2, Bukittinggi, 5029; YDR, Ambon, 4865; and YDK, Palembang, 4855. There was but one shortwave special in 1957, in December, a 4VEH program broadcast in honor of the NNRC’s 30th anniversary.

1958 The East German Deutschlandsender could be heard on 6115 kc. from around 0000. Grønlands Radio, Godthab, Greenland, left shortwave, not to return until 1965. And an unknown station announcing as Radio Calatrava was heard around 6680 kc. until 2100 closedown. It continued to be heard for over a year. Widely believed to be located in Spanish Guinea despite authoritative information that there was no Calatrava there, there was some evidence that it was a station of a Roman Catholic religious order in Calatrava, Spain. Its actual location was never established. In San Francisco, 50 kw. General Electric station KGEI, which had been off the air since December 1, 1956, resumed broadcasting under new management. Calling itself the Voice of Friendship, it broadcast to South America daily at 2015–2315 on 17800 kc. VE9AI in Edmonton, Alberta, which had operated “experimentally” on 9540 kc. for many years and put in a reliable if not very strong signal, left the air. The CBC announced plans to build a 50 kw. shortwave transmitter in Vancouver to cover the Yukon and the Northwest Territories. No such station was ever established, and rumors of similar CBC west coast ventures surfaced periodically for years. However, 1958 did see the inauguration of the CBC Northern Service, which was designed to serve the roughly 80,000 native persons living in the Yukon and Northwest Territories. The “Northern Messenger” program had been broadcast by the CBC’s predecessor, the Canadian Radio Broadcasting Commission, beginning in 1933, and more recently the CBC had been providing programming to some small northern stations set up by civilians and by various members of the armed forces. The CBC had assumed control of many of these stations over the years. Radio Teheran, which had operated with 10 kw. and 20 kw. shortwave transmitters, increased power to 100 kw. and was widely heard on 9660, 11730 and 15125 kc. Radio Kabul was reported on the unusual frequency of 18640 kc. It was heard at 1000–1130 when it had English news. The call sign was YAK, and the power was 5 kw. In February, Egypt and Syria “merged” into the United Arab Republic, an arrangement that lasted until September 1961. During this period, the Egyptian Broadcasting Service and the Syrian Broadcasting Service both identified as the United Arab Republic Broadcasting Service. Syria could be heard opening in English at 1500 on 15165 kc. The year 1958 was the first for large-scale clandestine broadcasting in the Middle East. As would be true for many years, some stations claimed to be operated by, or espouse the views of, one group but were actually operated by another. The Voice of Free Africa operated on 17890 and 17915 kc. It broadcast anti-imperialist programs in Swahili and Arabic, and was widely understood to be transmitting from Egypt. The Voice of Justice, on 6190, 6250, 7210 and 9770 kc., warned Middle Easterners about the Soviet Union. It claimed to be located in Syria, but was probably run by the CIA. An anti–Nasser station, the Voice of

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Free Egypt, was heard with good signals on 7090, 9490, 9510, 15135 and 17785 kc. The location of the transmitter was unknown.43 Ken Boord’s Middle East Correspondent, Paul Kary, situated in his FBIS listening post in Cyprus, was able to provide detailed, never-before-available information on clandestine stations.44 Prior to a July coup that deposed the Hashemite monarchy in Iraq, an anti–Hashemite clandestine station, the Voice of Iraq, was heard operating on 9455 kc. It went off the air after the coup. Another anti–Hashemite station, Jordan People’s Radio, was on 6005 kc. A pro–Hashemite Voice of Iraq operated on 9553 kc. After the coup, Radio Baghdad inaugurated a foreign service on 6188 kc. (soon moved to 6030). It included broadcasts in English, French, German and other languages, and identified as the Broadcasting Service of the Iraqi Republic. In Lebanon, an insurrection broke out during the last months of the presidential term of Camille Chamoun. The anti–Chamoun Voice of Free Lebanon operated on 6028 and 12000 kc. It left the air in October. Another anti–Chamoun station, the Voice of the People, was on 7209 kc. A pro-government Voice of Lebanon, believed to be run by the Lebanese army, operated on 6580 kc. It also left the air in October. Radio Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, could sometimes be heard in English at 1315–1400 on 9608 kc. Other frequencies in use were 6184 and 7294 kc. Radio Algeria increased power from 25 to 50 kw., and operated a French network on 11715 and 11835 kc., an Arabic network on the widely heard frequency of 9685 kc., and a Kabyl network (a local language)

Radio-Inter-Africa was another of the many broadcasters operating in Tangier through 1959. Its QSLcards were numbered so that listeners could take part in promised competitions.

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on 6145 kc. A fourth network relayed Paris on 7115 kc. A few lucky DXers managed to catch Radio Hargeisa, British Somaliland, around 0900–1100 on its new frequency of 9666 kc., which replaced 7126. And new from Tangier was Radio Eurafrica, heard with pop music and multi-lingual announcements on 9270 and 11458 kc. until around 1730. Soon it was renamed Radio-Inter-Africa. (It was actually a service of Radio Africa Tangier.) CR6RL, Radio Clube de Angola, Luanda, put in a good signal when opening at 0100 on 9629 kc. Another Angolan heard was CR6RH, Radio Clube da Huila, Sá de Bandeira, on 5024 kc. A seldom heard Portuguese colonial station was CQM, Emissora da Guiné, Portuguese Guinea, on 3975 kc. The Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland had existed since 1953. It was composed of Northern Rhodesia (Zambia from 1964), Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe from 1980), and Nyasaland (Malawai from 1964). Northern Rhodesia was served by the Central African Broadcasting Station in Lusaka, and Southern Rhodesia by the Federal Broadcasting Service in Salisbury. (There was no station in Nyasaland.) In 1958, the Lusaka and Salisbury stations were consolidated into the Federal Broadcasting Corp. of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. The most often reported frequencies were, from Lusaka, 4911, 4965 and 7285 kc. (all 10 kw.) and 4826 kc. (15 kw.), and from Salisbury, 3396 and 6018 kc. (both 7.5 kw.). A new Mexican station was XECMT, Radio Mante, Ciudad el Mante, on 6090 kc. Also heard were XEQM, Emisoras Unidas de Yucatan, Merida, on 6105 kc., and XEYU, Radio Universidad Nacional de Mexico, Mexico City, on 9605. Well heard from the Dominican Republic on 3391 kc. was new HI2D, Radio Hit Musical, Santiago. Another Dominican station that was widely heard was HI2S, Onda Musical, Ciudad Trujillo, on 3345 kc. And La Voz Dominicana had English at 2100–2115 over HI2T, 9735 kc., and HI4T, 5970. From Cuba, COJK, La Voz del Camagueyano, Camaguey, was heard on 9620 kc. COKG, Radio Reloj del Aire, was on 9740. There was comparatively little Cuban clandestine shortwave activity reported by American DXers prior to Castro’s takeover. In April, an unnamed Cuban clandestine station was reported heard on 14240 kc. around 2300 with “lots of propaganda, yelling and bold-sounding music.” This may have been Castro’s Radio Rebelde, which, at least by the end of the year, was transmitting in the 20 and 40 meter bands.45 Also at the end of the year a station of unknown affiliation, announcing variously as Radio Libre de Cuba and La Voz de Cuba Libre, was reported heard on 15055 kc. around 2300. There were many Honduran stations on the air, including HRYN2, La Voz del Merendon, San Pedro Sula, which could be heard on 6060 kc. until 2300; HRVW, La Voz de Centro America, San Pedro Sula, on 5972; HRP1, El Eco de Honduras, San Pedro Sula, on 5990; and HRMH, La Voz del Junco, Santa Barbara, on 6075. Two new Hondurans that appeared at year’s end were HRTL2, Radio Tegucigalpa, 6035 kc., and HRRH, La Voz de Occidente, Santa Rosa de Copán, on 9541 kc. From Costa Rica, TIQ, Radio Casino, Puerto Limon, was operating on 5965 kc. Panama City station HOF31, Circuito RPC, “Reloj de Panama,” could be heard to 2400 on 9685 kc. with ads, news, time ticks, and the time on the minute. Over the years, this format was used by other Latin American stations as well. Also from Central America, YNEQ, La Voz de la Victoria, Managua, Nicaragua, could be heard with a strong signal until 2300 close on 6065 kc. A new Colombian station that operated irregularly was HJDJ, La Voz del Choco,

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Quibdo, on 5043 kc. From Venezuela, YVXJ, Radio Barquisimeto, was heard on 9505 kc., announcing use of their new 15 kw. transmitter. Also heard from Venezuela were YVQA, Radio Sucre, Cumaná, on 4960 kc., and YVKD, Radio Cultura, Caracas, on 5050. New from Peru was OAX8F, Radio Loreto, Iquitos, on 9590 kc. Peruvian OBX4Z, Radio Luz, Lima was heard to closedown at 2400 on 6115 kc. Also heard from Peru was OBX4M, Radio Panamericana, Lima, on 5980; OAX4K, Radio Central, Lima, on 9541; and OAX8K, Radio Atlántida, Iquitos, on 9625. New Ecuadoreans were HC1FA, Radio Metropolitana, Quito, on 5782 kc.; Radio Cotacachi, Santa Ana de Cotacachi, heard to 2200 sign off on 5760 kc; and HCOV5, Radio Ondas del Volante, which had an excellent signal around 2100 on 6140 kc. Another active Ecuadorean station was HCRP1, Radio Catolica, Quito, on 5010 kc. External broadcasting from Argentina was once again reorganized, the new operating entity now called Radiodiffusion Argentina al Exterior (RAE). A new Brazilian station was ZYH29, Radio Dragão do Mar, Fortaleza, on 4775 kc. Others among the many Brazilians heard included ZYA41, Radio Eldorado, Rio de Janeiro, on 3385 kc.; ZYZ26, Radio Globo, Rio de Janeiro, on 6035; ZYT29, Radio Diario da Manha, Florionópolis, on 9675; and ZYU68, Radio Sociedad Farroupilha, Porto Alegre, on 15335 kc. The year saw a rare DX event: the first North American logging of the Falkland Islands Broadcasting Service, Port Stanley, Falkland Islands. It operated on 3958 kc. with 500 watts, and Colorado DXer John Beaver reported hearing it a dozen times between May and October in the 1800–1900 period. He could hear it only on a vertical antenna, and it suffered much interference from ham operators. Notwithstanding Beaver’s receipt of a QSL from the station, a number of DXers questioned whether such reception was possible. A letter to the station from Hank Bennett brought the response that FIBS was satisfied of the accuracy of the reception. Following the Beaver logging, FIBS was heard and verified by several other DXers. However, for years some DXers continued to claim that reception of the station was impossible. From South Asia, All India Radio set up a shortwave station in Hyderabad. It operated on 4988, 7140 and 9720 kc. The Commercial Service of Radio Ceylon was well heard on 15265 kc. around 2030. Said one DXer: “[It] blasts into the midwest some evenings. The ‘spots’ are delivered by genuine Englishmen, and it sounds rather amusing to hear Kolynos [toothpaste] and Anacin promoted in precise British accents.”46 Farther east, Radio Sarawak, Kuching, was heard on various frequencies, including 4950 and 9565 kc. And after making do with a variety of transmitters of 2, 4 and 10 kw. since its first shortwave broadcasts in 1949, FEBC in the Philippines increased power to 50 kw. Soon it was being widely reported on 11920 kc. The National Broadcasting System of Vietnam (Radiodiffusion Nationale du Vietnam), Saigon, became known as VTVN, standing for Vô-Tuyén Viêtnam. Its call letters were 3WT, and the best frequency on which to hear it was 9754 kc., where it used 25 kw. (the other channels were 1 or 12 kw.). Thailand had several rarely heard stations, including the Thai National Police Station on 7080 kc., and the Thai TV Broadcasting Station on 6380. HLKA, South Korea, was heard in English at 0530 on 9640 kc. And the Burma Broadcasting Service 50 kw. transmitter was heard on 21725 kc. Khabarovsk, in the Russian Far East, was heard signing on at 1430 on 9380 kc., identifying as “Govorit Khabarovsk.” Magadan could be heard on 9500 kc., giving a local iden-

Despite the distance, signals from Ceylon were surprisingly well-heard in North America. The country became Sri Lanka in 1972.

Radio Vietnam, Saigon, sent out this attractive QSL in the late 1950s.

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tification around 1400 when it switched from its own programming to a Moscow relay. Radio Baku, Azerbaijan S.S.R., was heard regularly on 4958 kc., opening at 2100 with an hour of local programming before relaying Moscow. China operated regional shortwave services from many cities, including Heilungjiang, Inner Mongolia (3270 and 4760 kc.), Kweichow (3260), Yunan (6925 and 9650), Fukien (4980), Hupei (3940 and 5020), Hunan (3225 and 4990), and others. A new standard frequency station in China, BPV, was heard on 5, 10 and 15 mc. The best way to hear Radio Republik Indonesia, Djakarta, was via its 50 kw. transmitter, YDF6, on 9710 kc. English was at 0600–0700 and 0930–1030. RRI could also be heard in English at 1400–1500 over YDF8, 9685 kc. The home service was regularly present on YDE, 11770 kc. Also heard often was Radio Angkatan Udara, the Indonesian Air Force station, which operated on 11943 kc. and put in a surprisingly good signal for 7.5 kw. A major insurrection on Sumatra led to some interesting listening for those close to the scene, including messages from persons stranded in the fighting. A clandestine station, Radio Andala, “the Voice of Sumatran Underground Fighters for Freedom of the Republic of Indonesia,” operated on 6820 kc., and was thought to be located in Taiwan. In the Pacific, Radio Tahiti was a regular on 11825 kc. A station occasionally heard on the west coast was Radio Sorong, Dutch New Guinea. It was run by the Dutch New Guinea Petroleum Company, and transmitted on 3395 kc. with 500 watts. HCJB carried a special program for the Universal Radio DX Club in February, and one commemorating the Danish Short Wave Club’s second anniversary in November. Greetings to the Danish club were also broadcast over Radio Japan and Radio Australia. And Radio New Zealand celebrated its 10th year on the air with special anniversary week broadcasts (September 20–26), offering a special QSL souvenir diploma for all reports of reception during that week. Finally, 1958 was the year of perhaps the greatest DX hoax of all time, l’affaire NibiNibi. It began when the Deustche Welle DX bulletin ran an item from a reporter to the effect that a station called the Nibi-Nibi Broadcasting Station, said to be located on the island of Nibi-Nibi, 12,650 miles southwest of Sheboygan, Wisconsin, was broadcasting on 615 kc. medium wave and 7712 kc. shortwave at 2200–2400 and 0700–1030 GMT. The interval signal was the sound of “halting cocoanuts,” and programs were in the “Aku-Aku” and “Gurkhaili” languages. The address was P.O. Box 24, Nibi-Nibi. The item was picked up by clubs, and even by the World Radio Handbook, and some DX editors, particularly those who got fooled, got exercised over the prank. In Germany, a police comparison of the paper and typeface of the original report with that of other reports identified the culprit as being a well-known American DXer (although not the one who came to mind among some of the hobby cognoscenti). Ever since this event, it has been common to label as “Nibi-Nibi’s” mischievous loggings of imaginary stations.47

1959 A new commercial station in Andorra, Andorradio, was heard on 6305 kc. to 1700 sign off. The power was 1 kw. At first it claimed to be operating only on 3145 kc., but then acknowledged its use of the 6 mc. channel.

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In October, Radio Berlin International, the East German foreign service, was born. (It was one of the first stations to adopt the “Radio ___ International” name format that became popular in later years.) Transmitting from three locations—Königs-Wusterhausen, Leipzig, and Nauen— it was still a fairly modest station by western standards. (Nauen was a commercial site with a long history, upgraded in 1959 for broadcast purposes.) The VOA station aboard the USCGC Courier dropped the ship’s name in its identifications, instead calling itself the VOA transmitter at Rhodes. In March, a new U.S. government transmitter came into use in Playa de Pals, Spain. For many years it would be used to carry the programs of Radio Liberty (as Radio Liberation was renamed in May). From the Karelo-Finnish S.S.R., Petrozavodsk could be heard regularly on 5065 kc. carrying Moscow domestic programming at 2200, dual to Tbilisi on 5040 kc., Baku on 4958, and others. La Voz de León, Spain, could be heard on 6937 kc. to 1900 sign off. Radio Tirana was heard in English at 1730 on 6900 kc. in addition to 7850. The power was 3 kw. on both channels. A clandestine station, Radio Socialist Albania, was heard on a wide range of frequencies, including 4760, 4875, 7165, 7285, 9637, 9768, and 11777 kc. The Moroccan Broadcasting System, Rabat, had English news at 1430 on 5970 and 7213 kc. The Moroccan government ordered all private stations in Tangier closed down by December 31, 1959. The NOREA Radio program moved from Voice of Tangier to HCJB. IBRA Radio continued broadcasting on some small stations in various countries, but would

Over the years, NOREA Radio, the Norwegian religious broadcaster, would be heard over shortwave stations in Tangier, Ecuador, Monaco, and other places.

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not regain a major shortwave presence until 1971. VOA had long made the Tangier shortwave facility available to the Moroccan government for the relay of some of its programming, and was able to continue broadcasting from Tangier after December 31. Around this time the Voice of America also announced plans to build a relay station in Liberia. The Saudi Arabian Broadcasting Service, Jeddah, was often heard with a strong signal on 11950 kc., opening at 2300. Radio Algeria became known as “France Cinq” and was widely heard on 11835 kc. to 1715 sign off. A French-sponsored Algerian clandestine station, the Algerian Renaissance Movement, was heard on 8220 kc. at 0000–0045 and 1500–1545. Radio Free Algeria was sometimes reported on the same frequency.48 The French African stations had an increased presence in the late 1950s and early 1960s as their countries moved toward independence from France. In 1956, France had established SORAFOM, the Société de Radiodiffusion de la France d’Outre-Mer, to assist in the development of broadcasting in the French colonies, and most of the French African stations belonged to it. (In 1962, SORAFOM was replaced by OCORA, Office de Coopération Radiophonique, which two years later was replaced by the ORTF Département des Affaires Extérieures et de la Coopération.) All the countries of France’s former Federation of French West Africa gained autonomy, and then independence, between 1956 and 1960. These countries were Benin (formerly Dahomey), French Cameroon, the Ivory Coast, Guinea, Mali (formerly called Soudan), Mauritania, Niger, Senegal, Togo and Upper Volta (Burkina Faso from 1984). The other French African federation, French Equatorial Africa, was dissolved in 1959 and each of its

Most French stations in Africa were members of SORAFOM, Société de Radiodiffusion de la France d’Outre-Mer, and used this QSL-card.

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constituent parts— Chad, the Central African Republic (formerly called Oubanggi-Chari), Gabon, and the Congo Republic (formerly Middle Congo)— gained independence in 1960. Except for Guinea, all the countries of the former French West Africa and French Equatorial Africa remained within the French community, and within SORAFOM, for some period of time. Other French shortwave stations belonging to SORAFOM were Radio Madagascar, Radio Djibouti, Radio Noumea, Radio Tahiti, and Radio Comores. By 1959, all of the SORAFOM countries in Africa were on shortwave, and although their power was typically 4 kw., most were heard reasonably well on the east coast until their sign off in the late afternoon. The stations, and their best-heard channels, were: Radio Dahomey, 4870 kc.; Radio Cameroon, Yaounde (4972.5), Douala (6115), and Garoua (5010); Radio Cote d’Ivoire, 4940, 25 kw.; Radio Soudan (later Radio Mali), 4835; Radio Mauritanie, 4855 (actually located in St. Louis, Senegal); Radio Niger, 5020; Radiodiffusion de l’AOF, Dakar (later Radio Senegal), 4893; Radio Mali,49 Dakar, 4950 and 11895 (the latter channel 25 kw.); Radio Togo, 5047; Radio Haute-Volta, 4815; Radio Chad, 4904.5; Radio Bangui, 5982; Radio Gabon, 5025; and Radio AEF, Brazzaville, 4795 (later Radio Inter-Equatoriale, and still later Radio Congo on 4843). In the Belgian Congo, Radio Bukavu, Costermansville (later called Bukavu), was testing on 4808 kc. Radio Coquilhatville (later Mbandaka) moved from 6070 to 5992 kc., and a new station, Radio Luluabourg (later Kananga), was operating on 6127 kc. All were 10 kw. stations, and all were rare DX in North America. Indian Ocean station Radio Reunion was reported logged on 3385 kc. The Mauritius Broadcasting Service started operating below 15 mc., specifically on 14940 kc., but then abandoned 19 meters altogether in favor of 6101 kc. (10 kw.) and 3325 kc. (1.5 kw.). The Zanzibar Broadcasting Service began broadcasting on 6007 kc. CQM, Emissora da Guiné, Bissau, Portuguese Guinea, was often heard on 7948 kc. until 1800 closedown. There was speculation that this was a harmonic of 3974 kc., where they were also operating, but the signal quality suggested intentional use of the frequency. An Angolan station, CR6RU, Radio Clube de Congo Portugues, Carmona, operated on 4720 kc. and could be heard to 1700 close. And 10 kw. CR6RZ, Emissora Oficial, Luanda, was heard on 17795 kc. to 1730 close. Fidel Castro took over in Cuba early in the year, and some unusual broadcasting activity followed. Several new stations were heard on frequencies above 6300 kc., including Radio Oriente, 6315 kc., relaying CMKC medium wave, and Union Radio, 6330 kc., taking relays from medium wavers CMCF and CMKW. At mid-year, Radio Rebelde was heard on 6450 and 6040 kc. By this time, however, the station was no longer a clandestine. Castro’s network of Radio Rebelde stations within Cuba had been an important element of his success, and led to his sponsorship of other stations intended to destabilize the regimes of various Latin American countries. From Haiti, Radio Lumiere, Cayes, operated on 3322 kc. to 2130 sign off; and La Voix de la Vie Marie, Cap Haitien, could be heard on 6100 kc. Radio Trinidad was reported off shortwave. However, in September, DXers were happy to have Radiodiffusion Francaise, Fort-de-France, Martinique, return to the air on 5995 kc. after a five-year absence. It signed on at 1800 and could be heard to closedown at 2100. It broadcast mainly classical music. TIHB, Radio Reloj, San Jose, Costa Rica, was well heard on 6006 kc. The “HB” in the

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call letters were said to stand for “Hermanos Barahona,” brothers of a famous Costa Rican radio family. Honduran station HRQN3, La Voz del Atlantico, Puertos Cortés, could be heard on 4905 kc. to 2200 sign off. Still heard from this country after many years on the air was HRN, La Voz de Honduras, on a frequency that varied around 5855–5875 kc. Early in the year an anti-government Honduran clandestine calling itself Radio Liberación (later Radio Rebelde) was heard on a range of frequencies in the area of 5.5–5.9 mc. Heard from Colombia was HJEQ, La Voz del Cauca, Popayan, on 4915 kc. (later 6145). From nearby Venezuela, YVNK, Radio Cronos, Barquisimeto, was heard on 5017 kc. And YVKD, Radio Cultura, Caracas, broadcast an English “Night Beat” request program once a week at 2030–2100 on 5050 kc. Radio Cayenne, French Guiana, was heard regularly on 6170 kc. to 2005 sign off. New Ecuadorean stations included HCGE5, Radio Mundial, Riobamba, on 6255 kc., and HCQR1, Radio Quito, on 5126 kc. (Radio Quito was the source of a “War of the Worlds”— like Martian landing scare in 1949.50) Also heard from Ecuador were HCEA5, Radio Roxi, Riobamba, on 5050 kc., and HCCD3, Radio Fatima, Loja, on 5975. Peruvian station OAX2G, Radio Cajamarca, was heard on 4770 kc. to 2400 sign off; and OAX6I, Radio Universidad, Arequipa, had an excellent signal when testing on 6375 kc. On 6020 kc., CE602, Radio Diego Portales, Talca, Chile, was heard on its 10 kw. transmitter. By now Brazil had more shortwave stations than any other Latin American country. Those heard included ZYK28, Radio Olinda de Pernambuco, Recife, on 3375 kc.; ZYH21, Radio Iracema de Fortaleza, on 4815; PRD21, Emissora Continental, Rio de Janeiro, 6195; PRD5, Radio Roquete Pinto, Rio de Janeiro, 9515; PRB23, Radio Panamericana, Sao Paulo, on 15135; ZYE21, Radio Marajoara, Belem, on 15245; and many others. In November, Radio Rural Brasileira, Rio de Janeiro, broadcast a special program for listeners in Sweden over ZYZ31, 6065 kc., and ZYZ32, 15105. A new Brazilian on the unusually high frequency of 17725 kc. was ZYR232, Radio Universitária Santos Dumont, São José dos Campos. It was operated by the students of the Instituto Technológico de Aeronautica, and was heard testing in June with a 1.5 kw. transmitter. In Asia, All India Radio regional shortwave stations were on the air from Hyderabad, Madras, Gauhati, Bombay, Calcutta, Lucknow, Simla, Bhopal and Ranchi. CR8AB, Emissora da Goa, was reported fairly often in the morning hours on 9610 kc. Radio Nepal on 7100 kc. started broadcasting daily rather than once a week. Sign off was around 0750. And Radio Kabul was heard testing a new transmitter at 1300–1400 on 15385 kc. The broadcasting situation in Malaya was complicated. The Federation of Malaya became independent in 1957. Singapore, Sarawak and Sabah would join it in 1963 to form the nation of Malaysia, and Singapore would withdrew in 1965 and become independent. In 1959, the Radio Malaya transmitter on 6025 kc. was located at Kuala Lumpur, Malaya. The transmitters of Radio Singapore, located in Singapore, operated on 6135, 7198, 7280 and 9545 kc. However, these transmitters usually relayed Radio Malaya, and sometimes both stations would be mentioned in identifications. Radio Ulan Bator, Outer Mongolia, could be heard in the mornings on 6345 and 10375 kc., both 5 kw. Cyprus “Middle East Correspondent” Paul Kary reported hearing superrare Lhasa, Tibet on 9490 kc. to close at around 0900. Radio Peking took “Sweden Calling DXers” to task for listing the station under “Tibet” in its weekly program script. “As you know, Tibet has been an integral part of our country since ancient times and the Tibetan

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people are but one of the many national minority groups which make up the united, friendly, big family of Chinese people.”5¡ So said Radio Peking. English news could be heard at 0600 from Radio Republik Indonesia on 11795 kc. There were still some rebel stations operating in the country, including one calling itself Studio III and transmitting on 3900 and 6500 kc. Indonesia would have an active underground of illegal stations for decades to come. Radio Tahiti dropped its English news broadcast. VSZ10, Radio Tarawa, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands (Kiribati from 1979), was heard on 6050 kc. around 0300. The power was reported to be 500 watts. In October, 4VEH broadcast a special in commemoration of the 25th anniversary of the Universal Radio DX Club. However, special programs were losing their cachet.

4

1960–1969 Times in G.M.T.

1960 In England, the use of call letters for BBC frequencies was dropped. On east coast late afternoons, a clandestine station, the Voice of Free Russia, was heard on 10500 kc. with anti-communist talks in English. This was the “NTS” station first reported in 1954. Starting in 1962, NTS also carried two daily half-hour programs of Belgian Catholic programmer Radio Omega. The Voice of Tangier, having ceased broadcasting at the end of 1959 when the Moroccan government ordered all private stations in Tangier closed, became Trans World Radio and purchased a 100 kw. transmitter for Radio Monte Carlo, Monaco, which leased it back to TWR. TWR Monte Carlo went on the air in October in many languages and on many channels, including 6120, 9690 and 11715 kc. The Far East Broadcasting Co., based in the Philippines, bought KGEI in Belmont, California, and in March the historic station took to the air as an FEBC station. And presaging the promotion of never-to-be station NDXE in 1984–89, KFRN, the Global Broadcasting Co., a new 50 kw. commercial shortwave broadcasting station-in-waiting in Forney, Texas, announced that in October it would start broadcasting religious, educational and “good music” programs in English and Spanish in the 19 meter band. The station apparently received FCC approval, but the project collapsed in early 1961. In the Middle East, a new 100 kw. transmitter came into use in Jordan. The Hashemite Jordan Broadcasting Service began testing from Amman on 6020, 7155 and 9530 kc. Two rare Middle Eastern stations that were heard were Radio Tabriz, Iran on 6152 kc., noted during Ramadan around 0100, a time when it would otherwise not be on the air, and Radio Kuwait, a good catch on 4967.5 kc. until sign off around 2130. There was much activity in Africa. On January 1, Cameroon independence day, Radio Garoua was heard with special independence day programming on 5010 kc. Another Cameroon station, Radio Yaounde, was often heard opening at 0530 on 9662 kc. Also on January 1, Liberian station ELBC increased power to 10 kw. and was soon being heard on 3255 kc. ELWA inaugurated its new 50 kw. transmitter on January 4 with a four-hour ceremony. On June 30 the Belgian Congo became the independent Democratic Republic of the 144

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Religious broadcaster ELWA was staffed mainly by Americans and was friendly to DXers. It was heard easily even before it increased power to 50 kw. in 1960.

Congo. Moise Tshombe, the elected head of Katanga Province, proclaimed Katanga’s secession, and soon Radio Katanga, Elisabethville, was being widely heard during daytime hours on 11865 kc., and sometimes on 5933 kc. as well. Congo independence also brought the close of historic Belgian station OTC in Leopoldville. The Western Nigeria Radiovision Service, Ibadan, the first station owned by a regional government, came on the air and was soon being heard on 6050 kc. The second regionally owned station, the Eastern Nigerian Broadcasting Service, Enugu, began operations in October on 4855 kc. and could be heard to 2230 sign off. Both the Ibadan and Enugu stations used 10 kw. transmitters, and were the first Nigerian stations to accept commercial advertising (the Nigerian Broadcasting Corp. soon followed suit). Radiodiffusion Television Tunisienne commenced using its long-promised 50 kw. transmitters, and was heard in Arabic and French on 6125 and 9630 kc. And American listeners could hear Radio Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, with test transmissions to West Africa on 15345 kc. and to Western Europe on 11875. The power was 10 kw. Iraq became the target of the clandestine Voice of the Iraqi People, which was operated by the Iraqi communist party. It would be heard throughout the decade, going silent for most of the 1970s and returning to the air in 1982. Radio Senegal, Dakar, had English news at 2230 on Saturdays on 4893 kc. The station could also be heard in English around 2030 on 11895 and 15385 kc., announcing as the “National Station of Senegal” and staying on the air until 2300. This was the first use of Radio Senegal’s 100 kw. transmitter. The station identified as Radio Mali when Senegal joined with French Soudan to become the Federation of Mali, which lasted only from June to August 1960. (Senegal withdrew, whereupon Soudan proclaimed itself the Republic of Mali.)

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Senegal also put in a reliable signal in North America. This QSL is from 1956, when the station used the name Radio Dakar.

From the Portuguese world, CR6RZ, Emissora Oficial, Luanda, Angola was heard on 17795 kc. from 2100 sign on. (“Aqui Portugal, Emissora Oficial de Angola en Luanda.”) During the winter months, east coasters were treated to surprisingly good reception from CR7BV, Radio Clube de Moçambique, 4840 kc., at 0330 sign on. Later in the year the channel would be occupied by Radio Valera, Venezuela. Another good Mozambique channel at 0330 was 7254 kc. EAJ8AB, Radio Clube Tenerife, Canary Islands, was heard with a good signal around 2300 on 7295 kc. Another station in the Canaries, La Voz de la Isla de la Palma, Santa Cruz de la Palma, was on 7385 kc. until 2300 sign off. Soon it would move to 7345 kc. Radio Atlantico, Las Palmas, Canary Islands, left shortwave. It had been active on 9490 kc. And from the nearby Cape Verde Islands, CR4AC, Radio Barlavento, was sometimes audible during east coast afternoons on 3960 kc. Central America and the Caribbean were also the source of much interesting listening. Radio Swan on Swan Island began broadcasting on 1160 kc. in May. Soon it appeared on 6000 kc. shortwave as well, mostly in Spanish but with English at 0300–0400. The power was said to be 50 kw. on medium wave, 7.5 kw. on shortwave. At first believed to be owned by a private company, the Gibraltar Steamship Co. of New York, the press announced a year later that Radio Swan was a CIA operation. As part of the attempt to pass as a commercial station, Radio Swan programming at first included political and religious offerings, music, dramas, and even some advertising. Eventually, however, militant anti–Castroism became its sole output and that of its successor, Radio Americas. The origins and the “real” location of the station would be the subject of extensive, if sometimes contrived, discus-

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Radio Barlavento was one of several stations in the Cape Verde Islands. All were difficult to hear in the U.S.

sion within the shortwave press for years to come.¡ A dispute between the United States and Honduras, both of which claimed sovereignty over the island, was settled in favor of Honduras in 1972. The Windward Islands Broadcasting Service was heard during daytime broadcasts to the U.K. on 21680 and 25860 kc. Radio Martinique could be heard in the evenings on the unusual frequency of 2420 kc., parallel to its regular channel of 5995 kc. 4VEB, Radio Caraibes, Port-au-Prince, Haiti was heard on the variable frequency of 6004 kc. Richard E. Wood would visit the station in 1967: [R]ain was coming down in torrents and lightning was cracking in the sky. Worse than that, floods of rain were pouring in onto the open balcony, on which the transmitter, completely exposed to wind and weather, was sitting. Enormous blue sparks were flying around, and the hapless disc jockeys certainly deserve danger pay for working under such circumstances. As is well known, this station wanders up and down the 49 meter band. It is a wonder it is on the air at all. It cannot be long before lightning strikes it; so send your reports in now.2

A special program with Ken Boord at the organ and members of his church choir singing was broadcast on 4VEH in April. And the broadcasts of Radio Curom, Willemstad, Curacao, appeared some evenings in the 31 meter band, first on 9654 kc., then on 9750. Although similar albeit out-of-band Curom transmissions in 1970 turned out to originate from a utility station, the exact origin of these 1960 in-band events was never resolved. A new Guatemalan station, TGCO, La Voz del Tropico, Coatepeque, was heard on 6055 kc., and a new Honduran, HRVS, La Voz de Suyapa, was well heard in the evening on 4940

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kc. These Cuban stations were active: COCW, Radio Rebelde, 6370 kc.; COBZ, Radio Salas, 9030; COBQ, Onda Musical del Oriente, 9235; COBC, Radio Progreso, 9362; COCO, Radio Libre, 9530; CMJK, 9620; COCQ, Circuito CMQ, 9670; COBL, Radio Aeropuerto, 9833; and COBH, Radio Cadena Havana, 11800. But as one DX editor observed, “When was the last time you received a verification from any of these stations?”3 Within the WRUL lineup were a number of programs produced by anti–Castro groups. The station would broadcast such programming on a leased-time basis for years, as other American shortwave stations would do in the future for various anti–Communist groups. The year also saw the start of the Cuban Freedom Committee, a Washington, D.C.-based organization that produced programs under the name Radio Cuba Libre which it placed on various American south coast broadcast band stations as well as Radio Caribe and, later, Radio Americas. Ostensibly a private group, the Cuban Freedom Committee was actually a CIA creation. It operated until June 1967. Other anti–Castro groups also purchased air time on American stations, and a least one, Radio Cuba Independiente, operating around 6140 and 7040 kc. shortwave, was said to be broadcasting from a ship.4 In South America, AVROS in Surinam became a more frequent visitor on 15495 kc. It had an English-language listeners’ letters program on Mondays at 0130. On 3375 kc., YVMI, La Voz de la Fe, Maracaibo, Venezuela, was heard. Also from Venezuela were the English broadcasts to “British Guiana freedom fighting forces” that were reported to be transmitted on Saturdays at 2200 over both Radio Rumbos on 4970 kc. and Radio Continente on 5030. Both stations had retransmitted programs of Castro’s Radio Rebelde before Castro took power, as did commercial stations in other Latin American countries. A clandestine station called Radio Liberación de Venezuela was heard on 6088 kc. and in the 9400–9500 kc. frequency range in late afternoon and evening hours, attacking the Romulo Betancourt government. The station was actually located in the Dominican Republic, and later in the year its frequencies were briefly taken over by Dominican station HIX, Radio Nacional. In July the channels were occupied by a powerful new Dominican voice, Radio Caribe, operating on 6090 (HI2U) and 9505 kc. (HI3U), and soon on 3320 and 15065 as well. Radio Caribe supported Dominican dictator Rafael L. Trujillo, and anti–Trujillo demonstrators were seen stoning the station as the dictator’s reign was coming to an end. New from Cali, Colombia was HJNE, Radio El Sol, on 6118 kc. Another Colombian, HJCF, La Voz de Bogota, carried the “Sunday Evening Show” in Spanish and English at 0200–0430 on 5960 kc. A rarely heard station was Radio Sarandi, Montevideo, Uruguay, on 11885 kc. (CXA68) and 15390 kc. (CXA60). It could sometimes be heard around 0100. In September 1959, a station called Radio Vigo, supposedly in Guayaquil, Ecuador, had been briefly reported in the British shortwave press. It resurfaced several times in 1960, supposedly broadcasting programs in Arabic. The reports were found to be a hoax, but not before the World Radio TV Handbook was fooled into listing it on 6035 and 7240 kc. in the 1961 edition.5 Brazil moved its capital from Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia, and set up a new station there. It was named Radio Nacional de Brasilia in order to mirror the popular Radio Nacional Rio de Janeiro. Although the station operated on a frequency, 11720 kc., that was high enough to reach the United States with ease, Radio Nacional de Brasilia operated only intermittently. To celebrate its 25th year of broadcasting, NHK, Tokyo sent a special letter of appre-

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ciation, and small souvenirs, to its regular reporters. Some other stations were not so long lived. Goa had left the air toward the end of 1959, promising to return with a more powerful transmitter, which it did in 1960 when DXers started hearing Emissora de Goa with a new 50 kw. transmitter on 17835 kc., signing off at 1930. Soon it was heard on 21580 as well. However, in December Indian troops entered Goa, ending centuries of Portuguese rule and silencing Goa’s shortwave transmitters. Radio Sarawak, 4950 kc., could be heard on the west coast, signing off at 1430. On nearby 4970 kc., Radio Sabah, Jesselton, North Borneo, was audible until closedown at 1400. (Sabah became part of Malaysia in 1963.) And among the tropical band Indonesian stations reported heard were Radio Republik Indonesia (RRI) outlets YDH2, Samarang, on 3935 kc.; YDU2, Denpasar, 3945; YDB2, Jakarta, 4805; YDG3, Surakarta, 4878; and YDB, Medan, 5030.

1961 In November 1961, Radio Tirana opened a new transmitting center in Shijak which included two 50 kw. shortwave transmitters. This greatly expanded the station’s range. Over time, Radio Tirana would become the most strident of Eastern Europe’s stations, its glorification of dictator Enver Hoxha and its proclamation of the Stalinist line making it the most boring and tiresome of all the communist stations. At the other end of the spectrum was “Saturday Night Club” from Radio Denmark, a program that many shortwave enthusiasts liked. Hostess Marianne Linard answered letters and generally held forth with listeners in her friendly and mildly sultry style. The frequency was 9520 kc. Several power upgrades took place in Africa. Radio Abidjan began testing a 100 kw. transmitter on 11820 kc. English news was heard around 1900. Radio Conakry, Guinea, likewise tested a new 100 kw. transmitter and was suddenly the strongest signal in the 60 meter band on east coast afternoons (4910 kc.).6 Toward the end of the year, the Ghana Broadcasting System commenced an international service for Africa using 100 kw. transmitters located at Tema. Ghana could also be heard on 15120 and 17865 kc. with programs to Ghanian forces in the Congo. Also late in the year, Lutheran World Federation station ETLF in Ethiopia began testing via a 1 kw. transmitter, with plans to upgrade to 100 kw. There was much other activity in Africa. In the former Belgian Congo, the main station was now called Radio Nationale Congolaise, or Radio Congo, in Leopoldville. It carried an international service on its 50 kw. transmitter, frequency 11755 kc. (announcing 11795). A North American service, which included English news, could be heard at 2200–2400. Radio Katanga was still heard on 11865 kc. until around 2100 on east coast afternoons. Although verifications stated that they had not achieved their goal of increasing power to 20 or 50 kw., this was not consistent with the typically strong reception. Other Congo stations on shortwave were Radio Leo, Leopoldville, on 11720 kc.; Radio Coquilhatville on 5993 and 9700; Radio Luebo on 6110 and 7295; Radio Stanleyville on 6052; and Radio Bukavu on 4808. Unfortunately, although Bukavu was sometimes heard, most of these did not broadcast at times suitable for North American reception. A regular African visitor was Radio Dahomey on 4870 kc., often audible both at sign

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on and sign off at 0500 and 2130 respectively. (Dahomey is now called Benin.) From Dundo, Angola, CR6RI, Radio Diamang, was on 9475 kc. until around 1930. A rare Angolan that was occasionally logged at its late, 2200 Saturday close was CR6RY, Radio Clube do Cuanza Sul, Novo Redondo, on 4838 kc. Radio Ecuatorial, Bata, Spanish Guinea changed frequency to 7846 kc. and could be heard in the afternoon until 2100 sign off. A beacon for determining the quality of African reception was CR5SB, Radio Clube de São Tome, on 4807.5 kc., which usually closed at 2100. Reception varied greatly, depending on conditions. The Federal Broadcasting Corp. of Rhodesia and Nyasaland transmitted its African service from Lusaka on 3346 and 3975 kc. The FBC commercial service from Salisbury was on 3396 kc., and a new transmitter at Gwelo was heard on 3306. And three domestic services could be heard from the South African Broadcasting Corp.: the all-night English service, known as Radio South Africa; the commercial service, called Springbok Radio; and the Afrikaans Service. In Central America, October saw the British Honduras Broadcasting Service, Belize, 3300 kc., knocked off the air by Hurricane Hattie. It operated irregularly for several months, eventually returning to the air under a new name, Radio Belize. In the Dominican Republic, Ciudad Trujillo re-adopted its pre–1936 name, Santo Domingo. On May Day, Cuba inaugurated a 100 kw. international shortwave facility at Bauta, near Havana. In its Spanish-language foreign service programs it identified for a time

Diamang means diamond, and Radio Diamang, in Dundo, Angola, was operated by Companhia de Diamantes de Angola, an international diamond consortium. The station was the outgrowth of a successful town-wide sound system.

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as La Onda Corta Experimental Cubana. Soon it became known simply as Radio Havana Cuba, and its principal target was Central and South America. By the middle of 1962, all the privately owned Cuban shortwave stations would be off the air.7 Anti-Cuban broadcasting increased before the Bay of Pigs invasion in April, particularly in the 40 meter ham band and just above the 49 meter international band. Among the identifications heard were Radio Revolución (6210 kc.), La Voz de Cuba Libre (6344 and 7038), Radio Gusano (6205), and Radio Cuba Libre (6245). Many of the stations implied that they were located within Cuba, but this was doubtful. (Radio Cuba Libre was supposedly in Guatemala.) After the invasion, CMQ Libre, operated by a group of former employees of the major Cuban CMQ network, broadcast anti–Castro programs over, among others, shortwave stations La Voz de la Victor, San Jose, Costa Rica; Radio Nacional de El Salvador; Onda Popular, Panama City; and Radio Nacional Quezaltenango, Guatemala. Another post-invasion, anti–Communist operation was Radio Libertad. It appeared in October on 7000 and 7325 kc., soon adding 15050 kc. and a mediumwave frequency, and later using other channels as well. It used the “Victory At Sea” theme in its identification, and it was thought to be located in Venezuela. Although this was never firmly established, in 1968 a few QSLs were received in response to reports sent to a Venezuelan address. Radio Libertad continued in operation until around 1969.8 In November, Radio Swan, still CIA controlled, became Radio Americas. It announced an address in Miami, and soon QSLs started arriving in DXers’ mailboxes. But Radio Americas’ virulent anti–Cuban programming drew Cuban jamming. The WRUL Spanish programs also suffered jamming. YVKO, Radio Nacional de Venezuela, returned to shortwave after a long absence. It was on the air at 1100–1200 and 0000–0500, 6170 kc., and offered an English program on Sundays. Another Venezuelan, YVQN, Ondas Porteñas, Puerto la Cruz, could be heard with English news at 0325 on 4790 kc. YVKX, La Voz de la Patria, Caracas, by then on 3305 kc. (formerly 3390), was a regular in the evenings. A new Colombian was HJCG, Radio Santa Fe, Bogota, on 4965 kc. Radio Sutatenza, also in Bogota and already a regular on 5075 and 5095 kc., opened another channel on 6075. And at around 0330, Radio Televisora Nacional, Bogota, on 3288 and 5012 kc., could be heard with Spanish-language news from Moscow, Paris, the BBC and WRUL. By now HCJB had some programs with names that would be familiar to shortwave listeners for decades to come, including “Morning in the Mountains,” “Caribbean Call,” and “Ecuadorian Echoes.” Also in Ecuador, HCSP4, La Voz de Volante, Portoviejo, put out a powerful signal on 6100 kc. around 0300, announcing the use of its new 15 kw. transmitter. Another Ecuadorean station heard was HCRI1, Centro Radiofónico de Imbabura, Ibarra, 5070 kc. And HCXZ1, Radiodifusora Nacional del Ecuador, Quito, was on 4940 kc. with 10 kw. New from Peru was OAX5U, Radio Huancavelica, announcing its frequency as 4815 kc. but actually transmitting on 4990. CP81, Radio Pio XII, Siglo Veinte, Bolivia, could be heard around 0230 on 5949 kc. From Brazil, ZYB22, Radio Rio Mar, Manaus, reactivated on 9695 kc. and was heard until 0200 sign off. Other Brazilians heard were ZYR31, Bauru Radio Clube, on 3275 kc., and PRI4, Radio Tabajara, João Pessoa, on 4795 kc. An interesting station was Agencia Nacional on 10220 (PSH) and 14690 kc. (PSF). This was the 20

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kw. station of the Ministry of Justice and the Interior which produced the “A Voz do Brasil” program which all Brazilian stations were required to carry at 2200–2300. In August, 50 kw. transmitters were put into operation at the Nihon Short-Wave Broadcasting Co., Tokyo, on its still-familiar frequencies of 3925, 3945 and 6055 kc. Until then the station had been using 10 kw. Five kilowatt VQO2, the Solomon Islands Broadcasting Service, was one of the best heard of the low-power Pacific stations and was often audible from 0800 sign on on 5960 kc.9 Radio Noumea, New Caledonia, was a regular on 6035 kc. In October, Radio Australia dropped the use of its “VL” call letters. Also in October, VL9BR, Radio Rabaul, Papua New Guinea, began operations on 4840 kc. with 250 watts. It would move to 3385 kc. This was the first of an extensive network of local shortwave stations that would be built in Papua New Guinea during the decade. These were low budget operations, at first utilizing low power PNG Post and Telegraphs transmitters that were poorly suited for broadcasting.¡0

1962 Radio Norway had an extensive schedule of international shortwave broadcasts. However, English programming was limited to a half-hour program, “Norway This Week,” on Sunday. Portugal’s Emissora Nacional had two external services— an Overseas Service directed to Portugal’s “overseas provinces” (as the Portuguese colonies were called), and an International Service for the rest of the world. Some of the station’s programs now began identifying as “the Voice of the West.” And Radiodiffusion-Television Belge (formerly the Belgian National Broadcasting Service) cancelled the English-language transmissions to North America due to what it felt was low listener interest. During the summer, ORF, Austria, began testing with 50 kw. on a wide variety of frequencies. The transmitter was located at Moosbrunn, a site which the station had purchased in 1959. And for a short time, the BBC used a transmitter at Crowborough to send VOA programs to Africa. Crowborough was principally a medium wave site, home of the famous 600 kw. “Aspidistra” transmitter that was used for black broadcasting during the war. It was run not by the BBC but by the Diplomatic Wireless Service, a part of the Foreign Office. Among the Russian stations heard were Radio Kiev, Ukrainian S.S.R., and Radio Alma Ata, Kazakh S.S.R. The latter was sometimes heard with German programming on 10530 kc. Radio Tirana’s relays via Bulgaria had ended in 1961. Now Albania was heard over several Radio Peking high-power transmitters. The year was an important one in U.S. shortwave broadcasting. The first transmissions from the VOA’s new 250 kw. transmitter in Greenville, North Carolina — the first new VOA station in North America since the VOA had been created — were heard in September on 5965 and 9760 kc. The 6,200 acre facility consisted of three sites, with transmitters and antennas at two and receivers and administrative offices at the third. There were 18 transmitters, six each of 50, 250 and 500 kw., and 96 directional antennas.¡¡ In 1968 the facility was rededicated as the Edward R. Murrow Transmitting Station in honor of the late journalist and director of the United States Information Agency (1961–64). WRUL was bought by the International Educational Broadcasting Corp. (later called

The Nihon Short-Wave Broadcasting Co. was a private station in Japan that operated exclusively on shortwave. It is still on the air (now known as Radio Nikkei).

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the Bonneville International Corp.), an arm of the Mormon church, and began announcing as Radio New York Worldwide. Programs were produced mainly by New York staff, supplemented by wire service news, field reports, etc. The station was the only international affiliate of ABC, giving it access to ABC worldwide reporting and analysis. It also had its own broadcasting facility at the U.N.¡2 WINB, Red Lion, Pennsylvania, came on the air in September and was widely heard on various channels. And filed with the FCC but later withdrawn was an application for a 50 kw. shortwave station on Maury Island, Washington, which was planning to broadcast from the grounds of the Seattle World’s Fair. Three stateside VOA relay bases were closed down in the wake of the Greenville startup. These stations had long histories. WGEO, Schenectady, New York, had begun in the 1920s as General Electric stations W2XAD and W2XAF. CBS station WDSI in Wayne, New Jersey had started in the 1920s as W2XE. And the Brentwood, Long Island WDSI transmitter had come on line in 1943.¡3 Radio Baghdad was reported on 6030 kc. with English news at 2030, followed at 2100 by home service programming in Arabic. The Lebanese Broadcasting Station inaugurated a 100 kw. transmitter and soon had a powerful signal around 2000 on 11715 and 15235 kc. Radio Kuwait also increased power. The most widely reported of its several new 50 kw. channels was 15150 kc. The Voice of Nigeria, a two-hour service of Radio Nigeria for West and Central Africa on 7205 kc., came into being on New Year’s Day. The power was 10 kw. A new Nigerian commercial station, also operating with 10 kw., was Radio-Television Kaduna, which started operation on 6090 kc. and could be heard on the east coast at 0430 sign on. Radio Conakry, Guinea, was well heard on 11965 kc. during the American afternoon hours on its 100 kw. transmitter. Later it would also be heard on 9650, 15315 and 17715 kc. CR6RB, Radio Ecclesia, Luanda, Angola began operating on 11757 kc. over a new 10 kw. transmitter, and was heard until sign off at 2100. The Voice of America began broadcasting over a 50 kw. mobile transmitter at its new relay station in Monrovia, Liberia. (A few lucky DXers listening on 11760 or 15350 kc. heard a VOA portable station being tested from Yuma, Arizona before being put into service in Monrovia.)¡4 And toward the end of the year the new 100 kw. transmitters of the Libyan Broadcasting Service came into use and could be heard on several 31 meter frequencies. Radiodiffusion Marocaine was widely reported on 15345 kc. with English at 1830 (“This is the Morocco Broadcasting Service, Rabat, calling Africa”). The regional station, Radio Ziguinchor, in Senegal, operated with 4 kw. on 3336 kc. and often could be heard around 0700. The red channel of Radio Uganda, Kampala, was sometimes heard at 0400 on 4976 kc., a frequency that is still in use. And in April, the organ recitals of Ken Boord were once again featured in a special half-hour Easter week DX program on ELWA. On July 1, Rwanda and Burundi, the two parts of the Belgian mandate of RuandaUrundi, became independent countries. The Belgian station in Burundi, Radio Usumbura, while a rare signal, could occasionally be heard opening at 2330 on 6195 kc. At independence it became Radio Burundi. A new station, Radio Rwanda, was set up in that country. During the Cuban missile crisis in October, eight medium wave stations in the southern U.S., plus WRUL and KGEI, broadcast special Spanish-language programs to Cuba on behalf of the VOA, which also stepped up its own Spanish-language programming.

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Radio Usumbura was a difficult station to hear. After independence in 1962 it became Radio Burundi, taking the name of the newly formed country.

4VEH in Haiti began testing on 2490 kc. XERR, Radiodifusoras Comerciales, Mexico City, started broadcasting on 15110 kc., relaying medium waver XERH (1500 kc.). (XERH was also carried on XEHH, 11880 kc.) TGQB, Radio Nacional, Quetzaltenango, Guatemala was widely if irregularly heard on 11700 kc. Well-known Brazilian DXer Jack Perolo visited Guatemala, and based on monitoring and station contacts he found nine Guatemalan shortwave stations on the air and 18 former shortwavers off the air (of which six were planning to return). The cricket matches were heard from Barbados via Cable & Wireless station ZNX32 on 7547 kc. And Trans World Radio filed an application with the FCC for a 250 kw. shortwave station near Vega Baja, Puerto Rico. It was also rumored that TWR was considering building a station on Curacao. In September, a new Colombian station was heard on 5950 kc. It was HJIQ, La Voz del Llano, Villavicencio, which would be a regular among shortwave listeners for decades to come. A new Peruvian station, OAX8I, Radio La Hora, Iquitos, was on 9540 kc. Among several other new Peruvians were two that would remain on the air for many years: OAX9D, Radio Tropical, Tarapoto, on 9710 kc., and OAZ4C, Radio Andina, Huancayo, on 4995 kc. ZPA7, Radio Guaraní, Asuncion, Paraguay, was heard during the early evening hours on the reactivated frequency of 15210 kc. And from Brazil, ZYR96, Radio Novo de Julho, Sao Paulo, carried a daily Japanese-language program at 0930 on 9620 kc. The elusive Radio Phnom Penh, Cambodia, increased power to 50 kw. and reports of reception on its frequency of 9695 kc. started appearing. An Asian station that would be widely heard in North America for decades was Radio Tashkent, Uzbek S.S.R., which put

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Radio Tashkent’s English program, opening with the station’s distinctive tuning signal, could almost always be heard. The Uzbekistan station left shortwave at the end of 2006.

in a good signal in its morning English transmission at 1200 on 9600 kc. Unlike the foreign services of many Soviet regional broadcasters, Radio Tashkent had its own transmitters.

1963 Radio Sweden had an extensive international shortwave service, although reception in the United States often was not as good as other high power European stations due to the high latitude of the transmitter site. In January, Radio Netherlands offered a “Dutch By Radio” course. Texts were sent to prospective students on request. Radio Japan had a weekly program, “Let’s Speak Japanese,” with a textbook available free of charge. CFCX, Montreal, 6005 kc., off shortwave since 1948, returned in September, testing first with 75 watts and then increasing power to 500 watts. A major VOA modernization program in 1963 resulted in major facility upgrades at Bethany, Ohio and at west coast stations KNBH, Dixon, California and KCBR, Delano, California. The rare Radio Sana’a, Yemen, made some appearances during extended broadcasts for Ramadan. It was heard past 2100 and at 0400 sign on on its frequency of 5953 kc. Also providing extended Ramadan reception around 2100 was the Aden Broadcasting Service on 5058 kc.

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The Philippine-based Far East Broadcasting Co. bought KGEI in 1960. The history of the California station dates back to the 1930s when it was General Electric station W6XBE.

By January, control of Katanga was in the hands of the central Congolese government, which was now utilizing the 100 kw. transmitter of Radio Katanga and identifying as “Ici Elisabethville, Radiodiffusion Congolaise, station provinciale du Sud Katanga.” It also carried U.N. programs in English (“This is the Voice of the United Nations in Katanga”). Broadcasts from Elisabethville became irregular in 1965, but continued to be heard occasionally into the early 1970s, by which time the city had been renamed Lubumbashi. Also in January, some DXers were hearing Radio Djibouti, French Somaliland (called Afars and Issas from 1967 to 1977). It appeared almost daily on 6000 kc. until sign off at 0100. In February, ETLF, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, began transmitting religious programs to Africa and Asia over new 100 kw. transmitters. Calling itself Radio Voice of the Gospel, it was soon heard worldwide on many international band frequencies.¡5 A new Cameroon station in Buea, known as Radio Cameroon IV, began operating on 5984 kc. with 1 kw. (Years later it would be on 3970 kc.) Radio Uganda could be heard on 5026 kc. with English news at 2050, just prior to 2100 sign off. Radio Portugal Libre, a clandestine station with political talks about Africa, was heard on approximately 8300 kc. until sign off around 2345. The station would be heard through the decade on this channel, as well as on 12005 and 11510 kc. It was believed run by the Portuguese Communist Party, and transmitted from Romania. In August, the Deutsche Welle relay station in Kigali, Rwanda began test transmissions on several 41 meter frequencies using a 500 watt transmitter. Programming was taped and flown in from Germany. The DW technicians also used the Kigali installation for amateur radio purposes in order to maintain contact with Germany. It would officially commence transmissions in 1965.

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At the end of the year, 50 kw. Radio Brazzaville eliminated its overseas broadcasts to the United States and all other target areas except Africa and the Far East. However, the station’s remaining programming, including English news, could still be heard without much difficulty. Brazzaville also relayed programs of Radiodiffusion-Television Francaise in Paris. Radio Nigeria had a strong signal on 11900 kc. starting on December 24, the first day that its new 100 kw. RCA transmitter officially came on the air. Best reception was around 1800 when multi-lingual IDs were heard, along with requests that reception reports be sent to the Chief Engineer in Lagos. And on Christmas Eve, Radio CORDAC, a 250-watt Protestant missionary station, began broadcasting from Burundi on 3971 and 3985 kc. From Mexico, XEUDS, Radio Universidad de Sonora, Hermosillo, could be heard opening at 1200 and closing at 2400 on 6140 kc., 1 kw. Programming was mostly classical music, and the station often identified in English and requested reports. (Soon it moved to 6115 kc.) Another Mexican station, XETT, La Hora Exacta, on 9555 kc., could be heard in the evenings. Said one DXer: “I have sent them four reports and received four skeds. Has anyone EVER verified them?” HRNQ4, Radio Morazan, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, was heard on 6084 kc. From Costa Rica, TIGPH, Radio Monumental, San Jose, was using 6215 kc. on an irregular basis. And 4VU, Radio Lumiere, Les Cayes, Haiti, was on 2410 kc. It had some English-language pro-

One of the most famous shortwave stations, Radio Brazzaville was General de Gaulle’s “Free French” voice during France’s occupation.

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gramming. The station’s other frequencies were 6100 and 9635 kc. All channels operated with 250 watts. The Dominican Republic station HI2JP, Radio Comercial, in Santo Domingo, put in a strong signal on 4880 kc. around 2300. Also from the Dominican Republic, Radio Caribe could be heard on its several frequencies at 2245 with Russian-language programs for Russian troops in Cuba. The American station Radio Liberty, whose main broadcasts to the Soviet Union were from transmitters in Germany, Spain and Taiwan, produced Russianlanguage programming in its New York office for transmission from American medium wave station WBT in Charlotte, North Carolina, and intended for Russian personnel in Cuba. Radio Caribe and Radio Libertad also carried the Russian-language programming of NTS, or Radio Free Russia, nominally a clandestine station which had been transmitting to the Soviet Union from Germany for ten years. (NTS stopped broadcasting around 1976.) And Spanish “numbers” stations, similar to those heard in Europe and believed intended for Communist agents in West Germany, started appearing. New from Colombia were HJFQ, La Voz del Pueblo, Pereira, on 5997 kc., and HJHJ, Ecos del Pasto, on 6085 kc., the latter with English announcements in which the station requested reports and promised to verify. The Argentine station LRY1, Radio Belgrano, Buenos Aires, could be heard on 6090 kc. around 0300. Also heard from Buenos Aires was Radio Splendid on 9740 kc. and 5985 kc. The Bolivian station CP38, R. Altiplano, La Paz, was heard on 9505 kc. until closedown at 0400. And Radio Difusora do Amazonas, Manaus, Brazil was heard with a good signal on 17795 kc. The Radio Japan General Service in Japanese and English was broadcast for 30 minutes each hour on many different frequencies. There were also many Radio Japan services targeted to particular parts of the world. However, reception on the east coast was highly variable. In February 1963, using its modest 10 kw. transmitters, Radio Malaya established an overseas service called Suara Malaya, or the Voice of Malaya. It would be called the Voice of Malaysia when the country was renamed in September, and the power would soon increase to 100 kw. Although the principal source of transmissions from China was Radio Peking’s high power broadcasts, there were still many lower-power domestic stations around the country, including Canton on 2360, 3205 and 5050 kc. (50 kw.), Kunming with 20 kw. on 2390, 3232 and 4770 kc., Nanning with 20 kw. on 5030 kc., and Chungking on 3250 and 2330 kc. (5 and 10 kw. respectively), along with 1 kw. stations in Foochow (3375 kc.), Nanchang (2460) and Sichang (2480). Magadan, U.S.S.R., was heard on 4995 kc. identifying as “Govorit Magadan” at 0700. It also used 5940 and 9500 kc. Other Soviet home service programs that were heard included Khabarovsk on 4090, 6195, 7210, 9377 and 9750 kc., Vladivostok on 5015, and Blagoveshchensk on 4050, 6005 and 6115. On weekends at 1930–2030, Radio Yerevan, in the Armenian S.S.R., transmitted to Armenians in the Americas on 11850 kc. Programs were in Armenian, with a few minutes of English (“This is Yerevan calling, this is the Voice of Armenia”), and there were similar Yerevan broadcasts to other parts of the world. This was one of a number of regional broadcasters whose programs were transmitted over the nationwide network of high power Soviet shortwave transmitters. VL9CD, Radio Wewak, came on the air with 250 watts on 3335 kc. The Australian

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Broadcasting Commission station VLT in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea, on 4890 and 9520 kc. increased power from 2 kw. to 10 kw., and a new transmitter, VLK, came on the air on 3925 and 4890 (also 10 kw.). These stations relayed medium wave station 9PA in Port Moresby.

1964 In Germany, Bayerischer Rundfunk could be heard after midnight on 6085 kc., and Norddeutscher Rundfunk, Hamburg, was audible on 6075. RIAS reportedly began using a 100 kw. VOA transmitter in Munich on its 6005 kc. frequency, synchronized with the old 20 kw. transmitter which continued in use. Radio Free Europe was on a number of 75 meter channels, including 3960 and 3995 kc., both from Germany. Radio Berlin International in East Germany had developed an innovative rotating antenna system which was now installed at Nauen where it was connected to a new 100 kw. transmitter. Although still no match for West Germany’s Deutsche Welle, RBI was heard on many frequencies. It had two half-hour English broadcasts to eastern North America each night and two to western North America, plus services to all other parts of the world. The Russian-language program, “Radiostansiya Rodina,” a broadcast of the “Soviet Committee for Cultural Relations With Fellow Countrymen Abroad,” was often heard on various Soviet frequencies. The Soviet practice was for services to share transmitter time

Another well-known U.S. military station, RIAS (Radio in the American Sector), remained on its shortwave frequency, 6005 kHz., for decades. It merged with several German stations in 1994.

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on individual frequencies, e.g. Radio Moscow was heard on 7190 kc. until 0145, when Radio Kiev took over. Radio Netherlands began conducting tests in compatible single sideband on 9590 and 15425 kc. This mode used only half the usual bandwidth and could be received on conventional shortwave radios, albeit with some loss of audio quality. The BBC also experimented with single sideband transmissions on 9317, 12182 and 15913 kc., all of which carried the General Overseas Service. And Radio Netherlands’ well-known Sunday “Happy Station” program was reduced in length from 90 to 80 minutes. The VOA opened a land-based station at Rhodes to replace the transmitters aboard the USCGC Courier, which was taken out of VOA service. The Armed Forces Radio and Television Service shortwave broadcasts transmitted from the U.S. included a Pacific Service, with programs originating in Los Angeles, and a European Service based in New York. The Pacific Service was transmitted mainly over KCBR and was on the air almost aroundthe-clock. The European Service used mainly Greenville and WBOU and was on from around 1430 to 2245. Program production for AFRTS was consolidated in 1966. On November 16, CJCX, Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada, 6010 kc., carried a special DX broadcast dedicated to Popular Electronics. It was on the station’s medium wave, FM and shortwave channels, and PE offered a special QSL-card for reports on the transmission. A program for NASWA, scheduled for September over WINB, never made it to air. The program director was out of town and had not left authorization to broadcast the tape. The Saudi Arabian Broadcasting Service carried out test transmissions from its new facilities in Jeddah on 7120, 9760 and 11950 kc. Fighting had broken out between the Greek and Turkish communities on Cyprus in December 1963. U.N. peacekeeping forces were deployed in 1964, and toward the end of the year a new station, Bayrak Radio, “the Voice of the Turkish Cypriot Fighters,” was heard intermittently in Turkish, Greek and English on 6700 and 7275 kc. (The 6700 kc. channel was a frequency used by the former Cyprus station Sharq al Adna.) Two communist stations represented the main early opposition to the Shah of Iran. The National Voice of Iran, which had begun broadcasting in 1959, transmitted via Radio Baku, and would remain on the air, on 6025 kc., through the Iranian revolution. Another pro–Soviet, anti-government station, Peyk-e Iran (“Courier of Iran”), was more widely heard. It operated on 11695 kc. and was best heard around 1800. It had a strong signal, and Iran believed it was broadcasting from transmitters in East Germany. If that was ever true, within a few years of its start in 1957 western intelligence had concluded that the signals were coming from Bulgaria. At least as interesting was the “Kiss Me Honey” station which continuously broadcast the Shirley Bassey song, “Kiss Me Honey,” on the Peyk-e Iran frequency, jamming the station while it was on the air. It usually stayed on for a short time after Peyk-e-Iran signed off at 1830. (“Kiss Me Honey” was later replaced by the Beatles’ “Can’t Buy Me Love” and some other songs.) In addition to the regular low-frequency channels of 3366 and 4915 kc., the Ghana Broadcasting Corp. was heard on many higher frequencies, including 11800, 17910 and 21545 kc. It was reported that it had put two 250 kw transmitters in service at Ejura.¡6 The 100 kw. transmitter of Radiodiffusion du Togo, Lomé, put in a strong signal on 5047 kc.

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until 2230 sign off. Radiodiffusion Nationale Malgache, Tananarive, Madagascar, was occasionally heard with experimental transmissions at 2100–2200 on 15270 kc. The Malawi Broadcasting Corp. was formed in February and took over the functions of Radio Malawi which had inherited the transmitter of the Federal Broadcasting Corp. in August 1963, just prior to the country’s independence. The station transmitted on 3380 and 5995 kc., and could be heard on the former channel opening at 0345 with rooster crowing. Radio Nacional de España opened a 50 kw. shortwave station, the “Centro Emisor del Atlántico,” on Santa Cruz de Tenerife, the Canary Islands, and its signals were received at powerful levels in North America on its two frequencies, 9600 and 11800 kc. Radio Ecuatorial, Bata, Spanish Guinea, was on 4926 kc., a frequency it would use intermittently for many years. It would close down at 2205. The VOA increased power at its Liberian station to 250 kw. Late in the year the VOA ceased transmissions from Tangier and handed the station over to the Moroccan government. A special ANARC transmission was arranged for December 15 at 2000–2045 over Radio Gambia, Bathurst, on 4820 kc. The station was relatively new, having commenced broadcasting in May 1962. Reports were to be sent to ANARC, and although the broadcast received wide publicity, only a handful of reports were received and none could be verified. Twenty years later, Gambia would be the site of another specially arranged shortwave transmission. A small Mexican station occasionally audible around midnight was XEXQ, Radio Universidad Potosina, San Luis Potosí, on 6045 kc. A strong signal from Central America was heard from HRUC, Radio Centro, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, on 6155 kc. HIBD, La Voz de La Romana, La Romana, Dominican Republic, could be heard on 3355 kc. And the last shortwave broadcaster in Panama, HOU31, La Voz del Baru, David, was occasionally reported with a fair signal at 1100 sign on on 6045 kc. Toward the end of the year, Trans World Radio was heard with test transmissions on a host of frequencies from its new 250 kw. station on Bonaire in the Netherlands Antilles. During the announcements the call letters were given as PJB and reception reports were requested. Construction of the TWR transmitter base had been a daunting task: “Working conditions were difficult and the crews had to be almost completely self sufficient on the small remote island. During the building of the original 760 foot AM tower, workers had to contend with trade winds that at those heights swept by at 50 knots or more.... ‘Arc welding was a miserable task in the hot Bonaire sun with no shelter and wearing a mask with a glass window.’”¡7 The results were spectacular, however. So strong were the signals that Radio Netherlands began renting air time on the station and in 1969 built its own transmitter base on the island. HCQR1, Radio Quito, Ecuador, was on 4923 kc. and was well heard in the late evenings. There were many Ecuadorean stations operating out of band in the 3.5–4.0 mc. range. Two that could be heard well enough to identify were HCOT1, Radio Zaracay, Santo Domingo de los Colorados, 3545 kc., and HCDY4, Radio Iris, Esmeraldas, 3945. A new station in Peru was OAZ4L, Radio del Pacifico, Lima, on 9675 kc. A rare Peruvian was OAX8Q, Radio Pucallpa, on 9580 kc. It would reappear over the years. HJDE, Radio Villavicencio, Colombia, previously medium wave only, took to the air on 4870 kc. shortwave (later it moved to 4935). And HJBG, La Voz del Norte, Cucuta, Colombia, reappeared on 4875 kc. after a long absence.

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The Far East Network, Tokyo, operated on several frequencies: 3910, 6155, 11750 and 15260 kc., using either 1 kw. or 10 kw., depending on the time of day. The VOA and Radio Ceylon shared the Colombo transmitter on 9667 kc., with the VOA using it at 1200 and Radio Ceylon Commercial Service programming offered at 1400. On the west coast, “Govorit Kamchatska,” Petropavlovsk, U.S.S.R., was reported with an excellent signal at 1000 on 4485 kc. Armed Forces Radio Taiwan operated on 7215 kc. (1 kw.) and 3990 kc. (400 watts). Although it was rarely heard, it was friendly to DXers. And Radio Hong Kong could still be heard on shortwave, 3940 kc., with Chinese programming. Papua New Guinea station VL8VK, Radio Kerema, came on the air on 3245 kc. with 250 watts, while Radio Wewak was designated a regional station and increased power to 10 kw. Radio Noumea, New Caledonia, settled on a new frequency, 7170 kc., and could be heard around 0800. It also broadcast on 3355 kc. Radio Australia issued a special QSL-card from September through December to commemorate its 25th anniversary. One of the Australian “Third Network” shortwave transmitters at Perth, VLX, increased power from 10 to 50 kw. It continued to operate on 9610 and 15425 kc. And in September, a new time signal station in Australia, VNG, Lyndhurst, was inaugurated. Soon DXers were reporting hearing it on 5500, 7500 and 12000 kc.

The Far East Network was a U.S. military network in Japan serving the American armed forces. It was on the air until 1988.

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1965 On May 1, the BBC General Overseas Service became the BBC World Service. The Swiss Broadcasting Corp. installed 250 kw. transmitters at its Schwarzenburg site and soon constructed a second 250 kw. site in Beromünster. The International Committee of the Red Cross made a series of its periodic test broadcasts in March, May, July, September and November. All broadcasts were via the SBC’s Schwarzenburg transmitter on 7210 kc. The name Red Cross Broadcasting Service would be adopted in 1971, and these periodic broadcasts continued in various forms, on frequencies beamed to all parts of the world, until 1996. The year 1965 also saw the VOA adopt a lighter, more upbeat version of its tuning signal, “O, Columbia! The Gem of the Ocean.” On January 1, Grønlands Radio, Godthab, Greenland, started testing on 5960 and 5980 kc. with 1 kw., relaying the home service. Radio Luxembourg was often heard in east coast afternoons on 15350 kc. The 300-watt Polish Pathfinders Union Broadcasting Station could be heard in Europe on 6850 and 7306 kc. A new station manager was anxious to establish closer contact with listeners. Unfortunately, the station’s schedule was not conducive to reception in America. The Iceland State Broadcast Service announced that it was discontinuing its small shortwave service. Soon, however, it was heard testing on 11780 kc. The National Hellenic Broadcasting Institute in Greece reported that it had discontinued its foreign service. (“Is

The Basque resistance station, Radio Euzkadi, was believed to have operated from several locations, including Venezuela.

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this the same foreign service that no one ever heard?” observed one listener.) It resumed operation in 1966. And toward the end of the year, Radio Euzkadi, “the Voice of the Basque Resistance,” reappeared on shortwave after a decade’s absence. It was on 13230 and 15020 kc. with test transmissions in Spanish and Basque at 1900–2200, inviting reports to a Paris address.¡8 Surprisingly, 18 months of Canadian government threats to drastically curtail or even eliminate the CBC International Service ended with the station entering a period of relative prosperity, planning to upgrade the 20-year-old transmitters at Sackville. An increase in listener mail, a temporary end to jamming, and the approach of the 1967 Montreal World’s Fair were all contributing factors. There would be many subsequent attempts to cut back shortwave broadcasting from Canada, however. A station called the Voice of the Blue Eagle was heard on 9530, 13680 and 19100 kc. One letter from the FCC said it was a pirate, while another said it was an otherwise unspecified government broadcasting station testing “for worldwide use.” It was later reported that early in 1966, a “Blue Eagle” station was operating on AM, FM and TV from three Super Constellation aircraft above Vietnam, and that it had tested its equipment over one or more American cities prior to that assignment.¡9 The Voice of Turkey put in a very strong signal around 2100 on 9515 kc. The Broadcasting Service of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan had English for North America at 0100–0130 and identified as “the Voice of the Holy Land.” Radio Sana’a was again being reported, this time on 5805 kc. around 0330. And in Israel, the independent Israel Broadcasting Authority was born. Included within the new organization was Kol Israel, the Israeli foreign service. From the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Radiodiffusion UFAC on 4980 kc., Radio Leo on 11720 kc., and Radio College on 3390 and 7200 kc. returned to the air after an absence. Also after a period of inactivity, Elisabethville, Katanga returned to the air on 9540 and 5958 kc. as Radio Interprovinciale du Katanga. The foreign service, called La Voix de la Fraternité Africaine, had English at 1900 on 11868 kc. Radio Mali, in Bamako, was using more power than most former French African stations—18 kw. on 4835 kc., 60 kw. on 9745. ELBC in Monrovia, Liberia, relayed the BBC via a 10 kw. transmitter on 9555 kc. By this time ELBC was jointly sponsored by the Liberian government and a U.K. firm, Overseas Rediffusion Ltd. A plan for another Liberian shortwave station to be run by the Netherlands Catholic Radio Organization never came to fruition. The Commercial Service of Radio Nigeria was widely reported on 4990 kc. around 0400. Radio Burundi, on 6195 kc., was heard often at 0500 sign on, and although there was co-channel QRM from the BBC, Burundi was often the dominant signal. And DXers wondered if a new high power transmitter was in use when they heard Radio Mogadiscio at surprisingly good levels on 7160 kc. at 0330, with English at 0345. (“This is Radio Mogadiscio, the voice of the Somali Republic.”) One DXer reported receiving a QSL in 22 days. The power was 50 kw. Radiodiffusion Nationale Malgache, Madagascar, had an international service in French and English that could sometimes he heard in the United States. It was broadcast at 1600–1700 on 15265 kc. On Saturdays it featured the “QSL Service” and “Friendship Club” programs.

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Radio Diamang, Dundo, Angola, was on 11685 kc. to 1930 sign off and was the easiest of the Angolans to hear in the United States. Ace South African DXer Richard Ginbey surveyed the Angolan shortwave scene and found the following stations active: Emissora Oficial de Angola on many frequencies; Radio Clube de Angola on 4870, 7140 and 9630 kc.; Radio Ecclesia on 4985; Radio Clube do Cunza Sul, 4840 and 7285; Radio Clube de Malange, 4935 and 7115; Radio Clube do Moxico, 5137; Radio Clube de Cabinda, 5035; Radio Clube do Lobito, 4910 and 7175; Radio Diamang on 4770, 9615 and 11685; Radio Clube do Huambo, 3704, 5965 and 7125; Radio Clube da Huila, 3970, 5025 and 9675; Radio Clube do Bié, 4895 and 7390; Radio Comercial de Angola, 3990, 4795 and 7155; and Radio Clube de Benguela, 5040 and 6150. All were fair game for late afternoon east coast DXers. Early in the year, two rare 1 kw. stations in Bechuanaland, ZNB on 5900 kc. and ZND on 3356, were replaced by Radio Bechuanaland, which used 10 kw. on 3356 kc. and 5965 kc. (Bechuanaland became Botswana in September 1966.) At the end of the year, the BBC started broadcasting on shortwave from its new Central African Relay Station in Francistown, Botswana, on 4845 and 7295 kc. The power on shortwave was 10 kw., 50 kw. on medium wave, and the purpose was to provide BBC programming for Rhodesia which had recently gone into rebellion as a result of the unilateral declaration of independence by Prime Minister Ian Smith. Sign on was 0400, all programs were in English, and the station sometimes verified direct. The Deutsche Welle relay station in Rwanda —DW’s first relay station — opened officially on October 26.20 The first 250 kw. transmitter went into operation,

Many Angolan stations were DXer friendly and sent attractive QSLs. One was Radio Clube do Lobito, 5035 kHz.

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and the station was heard worldwide on various frequencies with multi-lingual IDs. (“This is the Deutsche Welle relay station in Kigali, Rwanda.”) The Dominican Republic produced some exciting listening. In 1962, La Voz Dominicana on 3285 and 5970 kc. had become Radio Santo Domingo (later Radio Santo Domingo TV). In 1964, Radio Caribe closed and Radio Santo Domingo TV took over Caribe’s 6090 and 9505 kc. channels. On April 24, 1965 there was a military coup against the existing junta which had overthrown President Juan Bosch in 1963. U.S. military intervention followed several days later. The shortwave scene was chaotic. Radio Santo Domingo TV exchanged hands several times and eventually was silenced by air strikes. By the end of May, the junta had regained control of the station, which was announcing as “La Voz Oficial del Gobierno de Reconstrucción Nacional.” Some medium wave stations were still in rebel hands, and a station identifying as Radio Santo Domingo Libre was heard on another Radio Santo Domingo TV shortwave channel, 3215 kc., broadcasting anti-junta and anti–U.S. programming. The Organization of American States, using the transmitter of HIN, opened La Voz de la O.E.A. on 4965 kc. in order to present impartial news of the situation. Many stations were off the air over the next few months. However, by the end of the year, Dominican Republic DXer César Óbjio reported that nine shortwave stations were back in operation.2¡ 4VC, Radio Commerce, Port-au-Prince, Haiti was reported heard on 9480 kc. (“strong all day and night with Duvalier-inspired songs every few minutes”). A new Mexican commercial station, XEMP, in Mexico City, took to the air on 11740 kc. Nicaraguan station YNHC, Radio Hernandez de Cordoba, Ocotal, could be heard occasionally around 2300 on 6100 kc. if Belgrade was absent from the frequency. Within a few years it would become one of the rarest of all Central American stations. Another station from Nicaragua was YNWW, Radio 590 (also called Radio Sport), on 5965 kc., an all-sports channel relaying 590 kc. medium wave and heard to around 0500 sign off. And on 6775 kc. another anti–Castro station, Radio Libre, was heard. From Venezuela, YVKP, Radio Tropical, Caracas was on 4870 kc., and YVLA, La Voz de Carabobo, Valencia, was on 4780. A new station was YVNK, Radio Juventud, Barquisimeto, Venezuela, on 4900 kc. Also new to shortwave was medium waver YVQH, Radio Maturin, on 5040 kc., a frequency previously used by Ecos del Zulia in Maracaibo. On 90 meters, YVPM, Radio Tovar, Mérida, could be heard around 1000 on 3365; YVRA, Radio Monagas, Maturin, was on 3325; and YVQL, La Voz del Tigre, El Tigre, was on 3255 until closedown around 0645. On an even lower frequency, 2430 kc., listeners sometimes could hear YVPM, Escuelas Radiofonicas de Venezuela, San Fernando, a station set up in 1964 by the Ministry of Education to broadcast to some 450 “radio schools” which educated farmers in small villages and settlements. Thousands of transistor radios were distributed to the rural population. Soon the station would be heard on 4910 kc. as well (YVPN). The Brazilian station ZYV74, Radio Guaraní, Belo Horizonte, was heard around 0430 on 6175 kc. Another Brazilian station that had been a regular, Radio Mayrink Veiga, Rio de Janeiro, 9575 kc., closed down. ZPA3, Radio Teleco, Asunción, Paraguay, was on 11852 kc. past 0100. OAX6E, Radio Continental, Arequipa, Peru, put in a good signal until sign off at 0500 on 5930 kc. A new Peruvian station on 6115 kc. was the 10 kw. OBZ4O, Radio Union, Lima, heard to 0600 sign off. Other less often-heard Peruvians included OCX4W, Radio Inca, Lima, on 4763 kc.; OAZ4T, Radio Chanchamayo, La Merced, on 4895; and OBX7C, Radio Onda Azul, Puno, on 4800.

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Reporting on a trip to Lima, Peru, Don Jensen made these observations: Though many stations are heard on MW, a morning’s walk around Lima’s downtown section, even with a list of addresses provided by WRTH, might convince one that there are few stations here.... After a while one discovers the trick of locating these stations, however. Glance at the rooftop and spot the antennas. From this evidence it soon becomes apparent that about every fourth building in the heart of the city houses a radio station.... Most seem to use a horizontal dipole about 20 or 30 feet above the roof of the average three or four story buildings.... Inside, the operations and equipment of the better stations par that of the average in the U.S., though a lot less formal. On some occasions I simply wandered around the station without even being asked what I wanted.22

Later in the trip, Jensen visited Radio Tawantinsuyo in Cuzco, a station which operated on 6217 kc. shortwave (OAX7C) and would still be on the air decades later (on 6175). Located just 100 feet from my hotel, this station proved to be something of a shock to me, even though by this time I expected to find smaller South American stations operating in chaos. It is housed in a small, single-story green stucco building, reminding one very much of an old abandoned service station. Front door open to the street, only about four rooms were seen and each with a single light bulb for use at night. Equipment was extremely primitive and such things as soundproof studios are apparently unknown, with a fellow pounding on a workbench across the hall from the open room that served as a studio for broadcasting. It was surprising that the onthe-air results were as good as they were and almost unbelievable that a station as chaotically operated as this would ever reply/respond to a listener report. However, while visiting a Brazilian DXer later, I did in fact see a verification letter from this station.23

HCVE4, La Voz de Esmeraldas, Esmeraldas, Ecuador, could be heard on 4875 kc. to sign off at 0500. On 4765 kc., HCAK2, Radio Difusora del Ecuador, Guayaquil, was on the air until around 0500; and on 4910 kc., HCMJ1, Emisora Gran Colombia, Quito, was a regular around the same time, and also in the morning at 1000. Two other Ecuadoreans which would make periodic if infrequent appearances for many years were HCVS6, La Voz de Saquisili, on 4900 kc., and HCHA2, Ondas Quevedeñas, Quevedo, on 3610 kc. (later 3322). An unlucky station was CP81, Radio Pio XII, Siglo Veinte, Bolivia, which was temporarily silenced by disgruntled miners who tossed a charge of dynamite into the station’s patio, destroying studios, offices, etc. The station operated around 5950 kc. Bolivia had numerous unauthorized stations, many sponsored by the various miners’ groups, which were a major force in Bolivian politics. It was not unusual for such stations to carry commercials and operate with more than nominal power. Some would become legal stations. 24 Radio Baku, Azerbaijan S.S.R., could be heard on 9490 kc. at 0200–0300 with clock strikes on the hour following the two minute silence that was the standard Soviet top-ofthe-hour practice. As it would be for decades to come, Radio Dushanbe in the Tadzhik S.S.R. was a rare catch on 4635 kc. around 0030. In South Korea, the Voice of Free Korea, as the overseas broadcasts had been known since 1953, was heard testing on several frequencies in advance of establishing a special service for the Korean military contingent in Vietnam. All VOFK transmissions were via 50 kw. transmitters in Suwon, south of Seoul. Radio Pyongyang, North Korea, operated on many out-of-band channels, including 6540, 7380, 7580, 10380 and 14520 kc. The Voice of Vietnam, Hanoi, North Vietnam, could be heard on 11760 kc. with English for U.S. troops in South Vietnam at 1300–1330. The program consisted of news, commentary and music. (U.S. military advisers had been present in South Vietnam since 1961. The first U.S. combat forces arrived in March 1965.) The best frequency on which to hear Radio

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VTVN, Saigon, South Vietnam, was the 50 kw. transmitter on 9620 kc. It carried Network “A” of the home service program from sign on at 1200. Other frequencies used 20 kw. The strongest of the Radio Republik Indonesia regional signals was YDR2, Ambon on 7140 kc., and next best was YDQ4, Makassar, on 4753 kc. DUH2, the Philippine Broadcasting Service, Manila, could be heard on 6167 kc. until sign off at 1130 when it gave a long list of call letters. More powerful from the Philippines was the South East Asia Radio Voice, heard testing its new 100 kw. transmitter on a variety of frequencies. SEARV was a project of the National Council of Churches in the Philippines and the World Association for Christian Broadcasting. The Thai National Broadcasting Station, Bangkok, broadcast its overseas service to North America at 0415–0515 and 1030–1130 on 6160, 7305 and 11910 kc. Only the last channel (HSK9), with 50 kw., was well heard, the others being 1 kw. The Maldives was running an experimental shortwave service called Malé Cineco Radio, a combined effort of the government and the Malé Cinema Co. The frequencies were said to be 3223.5, 7150 and 9552 kc., with a power of 15 kw. and sign on was 0230. There were no reports of North American reception, however. Pacific station Radio Rarotonga in the Cook Islands was heard on the west coast on 5045 kc., signing on at 0430 with English news. The station operated on this channel and on 9695 kc. with 1 kw., and on 11760 kc. with 400 watts. Radio Fiji had increased power to 10 kw. and was being heard on 3284 kc. (VRH9) until sign off at 1030. Two new 250watt stations came on the air from Papua New Guinea: VL8BD, Radio Daru, on 3304 kc. and VL9CG, Radio Goroka, on 2410 kc. And though it was far from the Pacific, WRUL in Boston was heard with the “Hawaii Calls” program at 1930. WRUL also participated in one

Several religious stations operated from the Philippines, including SEARV (Southeast Asia Radio Voice), which came on the air in 1965.

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of the early experimental exchanges of programming with Germany (Hessischer Rundfunk, Frankfurt) via the Early Bird satellite.

1966 Emissora Nacional, Lisbon, Portugal, offered a Portuguese language course for listeners; and, following up on a successful course on radio servicing, Radio Netherlands presented one about transistors. Österreichischer Rundfunk, Vienna, broadcast to North America at 2200–0200 with 50 kw. on 9770 kc. Later in the year it put two new 100 kw. transmitters in service. United Nations Radio could still be heard direct from Geneva via a 25 kw. commercial transmitter, HBX37, 7443 kc. The broadcast was in Russian on Fridays at 1830. An English program from Radio Vilnius, Lithuanian S.S.R., was on the air Fridays and Sundays at 2100 and 2230 on various frequencies. A reliable marker for 75 meter reception was the BBC, London on 3952.5 kc., heard regularly after 0000 and often with a better signal than higher frequency BBC channels. A rarer European station was the Greek Forces Broadcasting Station, Athens, on 6045 kc., which was occasionally reported at 0430 sign on or 2300 sign off. In February, Radio New York Worldwide leased new studios and offices on Madison Avenue in New York City. In March it received FCC permission for the construction of a new transmitter plant on a 785-acre site near Chatsworth, New Jersey, in the state’s heavily wooded “Pine Barrens.” It was to include 50, 100 and 250 kw. transmitters. On June 1, the station changed its call letters from WRUL to WNYW. Also in New Jersey, VOA station WBOU, Bound Brook, went out of VOA service in March and was used thereafter for United Nations broadcasts until it closed later in the year. WBOU had begun as NBC station W3XL in the 1920s. In New York City, construction of the World Trade Center began, wiping out “Radio Row” on Courtland Street, home to numerous radio and electronics stores. WWV moved from Greenbelt, Maryland, and on December 1 began broadcasting from its new location in Fort Collins, Colorado. In addition to being more centrally located for U.S. reception, Fort Collins was the home of the National Bureau of Standards frequency standard lab. The NBS had already been transmitting from there on low frequencies (WWVL, 20 kc. and WWVB, 60 kc.). CFVP, “The Voice of the Prairies,” Calgary, Alberta, made a few rare morning appearances on 6030 kc. Its power was 100 watts. The CBC International Service began using BBC relay transmitters in Daventry for broadcasts to Europe. These relay broadcasts were soon extended to the Eastern European beam, and the CBC eventually purchased two of the Daventry transmitters for its exclusive use. In May, a station identifying as WBBH was heard on 4970 kc. until 2130 sign off. At least one listener received a QSL from the New Brunswick, New Jersey address that was announced over the air. The QSL indicated that the station was operated by the Courtland School of Music. The Courtland School was fictitious, however, and WBBH turned out to be an early shortwave pirate. The operators, in Fairlawn, New Jersey, were found and closed down by the FCC.25

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Radio Lebanon was operating shortwave services to Africa, Europe and the Americas in English, Arabic, Spanish and French. English to North America was at 0230–0300 on 11760 kc. English could be heard from Radio Algeria around 2200 on 6175 and 9685 kc. Algiers also made its transmitters available to the Frente Patriotica de Libertação Nacional (FPLN) for anti-government broadcasts to Portugal called Radio Voz da Liberdade. In Africa, Radio Omdurman, Sudan, had English for Europe at 0530–0600 on 9510 kc.; and Radio Conakry, Guinea, had English on 9650 kc. around 2230. A rare station that was nonetheless heard quite often was the Office de Radiodiffusion Francaise station at St. Denis, Reunion, off Africa’s east coast. It opened at 0230 and faded quickly, but sometimes could be heard on one or both of its two parallel channels, 2446 and 3215 kc. Radio Senegal, Dakar, used 100 kw. during its 1900–0100 transmission on either 9675 or 9720 kc. Emisora de Radiodifusion de Santa Isabel, Spanish Guinea, was now on 6250 kc. and was heard often until closedown at 2300. (The station would identify as La Voz de Guinea Ecuatorial following independence in 1968.) Radio CORDAC in Burundi increased power to 2.5 kw. And a rare Mozambique station, 10 kw. Catholic broadcaster Radio Pax in Beira, was occasionally heard opening at 0400 on 7205 kc. The reception window was narrow, however, as Deutsche Welle signed on the channel at 0425. In October 1965, the South African Broadcasting Corp. had begun operations from the new H. F. Verwoerd Transmitting Station, named after the late prime minister. This 250 kw. facility was located near Johannesburg at Bloemendal, a cattle grazing farm, but before long would be commonly referred to by the name of the closest town, Meyerton. A new external service, Radio RSA, “the Voice of South Africa,” made its maiden broadcast on May 1, 1966. Early broadcasts were to Africa and to Europe; expanded services to Europe and new services to North America and the Far East followed.26 The BBC 250 kw. Atlantic Relay station at English Bay, Ascension Island, came into regular operation on July 3. The first frequency in use was 15350 kc. About the station’s construction, one observer noted: The engineer working a lonely night shift here will not be entirely without visitors. A passing donkey calling for a bucket of water, or a land crab hopelessly off course in a cable duct demanded attention, and a luckless centipede which carelessly stepped across two 50-volt terminals not only contaminated the BBC World Service with a loud hum, but provided an exercise in fault-finding not generally dealt with at training school.27

There was continued debate over the location of Radio Americas, successor to Radio Swan. Various theories were propounded, and the station was peppered with questions about its location. It left shortwave in September (it remained on medium wave), but then returned. In early 1967, what appeared to be an early U.S. pirate, Radio Phoenix, broadcast briefly on the former Radio Americas frequency of 6000 kc. It was announced that a new station would shortly be coming on the air from Shasiland, supposedly a privately owned island located where Botswana, Rhodesia and South Africa meet. To be run by the Christian Action for Radio in Africa group (CARA), it was to be similar to ETLF in Ethiopia. However, the station never materialized.28 HISD, Radio Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic, became Radio-TV Dominicana. The frequencies were still 6090 and 9505 kc., the latter channel being well heard until sign off at 0500. HIJP, Radio Comercial, Santo Domingo, was on 4880 kc. and could be

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heard both at 1100 sign on and 0400 closedown. Also on the air from Santo Domingo were HICN, Radio Antillas, on 4960 kc., audible around 0100, and HIBE, Radio Mil, reactivated in mid-year and heard very well on 4940 kc. In Haiti, 4VGS, Radio Independence, Gonaives, was operating on 5020 kc. with 500 watts, and was heard signing on at 1130. WNYW was broadcasting Creole-language Haitian exile programs attacking the regime of Dr. Francois “Papa Doc” Duvalier, Haiti’s “president for life.” From Honduras, HRQW, Radio Trópico, Tela, Honduras was on 4995 kc. and could be heard in the evening. A stronger Honduran was HRVC (“Hoy Redime Vidas Cristo”), La Voz Evangelica, Tegucigalpa, on 4820 kc., a frequency where it would operate for many years. HRVC had English on Sundays at 2300–2330, and reported receiving about 700 letters a month. Costa Rican TIQ, Radio Casino, Puerto Limon, on 5954 kc., often had English segments during its morning and evening broadcasts, and identified as “Gold Coast Radio on the beautiful Caribbean.” A new educational station in Mexico was heard —XEJN, Radio Huayacocotla, on 2390 kc., a frequency it would continue to use for decades. The power was 1 kw. and the station was on the air only at 0000–0200. A new Guatemalan station began broadcasting in August. It was TGCH, Radio Chortis, Jocotán, heard on 3380 kc. to sign off at 0200. From Venezuela, YVKD, Radio Cultura, Caracas, 5050 kc., broadcast an Arabic program around 2200. Another Venezuelan station, YVKB, Radiodifusora Venezuela, Caracas, temporarily on 4916 kc. (from 4890), also had an Arabic program at 0145–0200. A Venezuelan station that was well heard was YVOE, Ondas Panamericanas, El Vigia, on 3215 kc. Operating on 3295 kc. was YVOG, Radio Trujillo. A new Bolivian station, CP62, Radioemisoras Bolivia, Oruro, came on the air on 4755 kc. It was part of a six-station Catholic church network which also included Radio Pio XII. Peruvian OAX8W, Radio Sideral, Pucallpa, was heard in the evenings until after 2400 on 9753 kc. Radio Diego Portales, Santiago, Chile, was on 9570 kc. putting in an excellent signal until 0530 sign off. A couple of Brazilian stations thought to be inactive were heard, including ZYY9, Radio Timbira, São Luis, on 15215 kc., with its English program, “International Correspondent,” at 0030–0100; and ZYN31, Radio Sociedade da Bahia, Salvador, on 15125 kc., also strong at both 0030 and 1030. And from Radio Aparecida, Sao Paulo, DXers started receiving QSLs for reception reports sent long ago, some as far back as 15 years before. A 23-yearold student, newly designated the station’s international correspondence chief, was cleaning out the files. Radio Pakistan, Karachi, was heard with the dictation speed English news for which it was well known. The time was 1335 and the frequency was 17948 kc. In April, All India Radio inaugurated its English-language General Overseas Service, which broadcast in four blocks totaling 93 ⁄4 hours per day on various channels beamed in different directions. Soon it became the AIR mother service. Radio Ulan Bator, Mongolia, established a new English-language program for the Far East. It was broadcast four days a week at 1420–1520 and 2130–2230 over 50 kw. transmitters on 9540 and 11850 kc. The station also became a more reliable verifier. Radio Phnom Penh, Cambodia, was sometimes heard on 9700 kc., coming on the air circa 1305. As one listener observed, they never signed on at the same time two days in a row. And the Thai

Coming home and finding a certificate QSL like this one, from Ondas Panamericanas, Venezuela, made all the follow-up reports worthwhile.

Overseas Broadcasting Station increased its power on 11910 kc. (HSK9) to 100 kw. This channel was used during the North American transmission, among others. The British Forces Broadcasting Service operated from Singapore on 5010 kc., and could often be heard after its 0930 sign on. In June, American B-52 bombers bombed what was thought to be the transmitter base of the Viet Cong clandestine station, Radio Liberation, supposedly located about 75 miles north of Saigon and five miles from the Cambo-

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On the east coast, reception from even the powerful stations of the Indian subcontinent, like Radio Pakistan, often was mediocre.

dian frontier. The next day the station was still signing on at its usual opening hour of 0500. It utilized many frequencies, and verified reports via an address in Prague, Czechoslovakia. Over its years of operation it probably utilized transmitters in both North and South Vietnam, and perhaps elsewhere as well. The 5 kw. Radio Republik Indonesia station at Pakanbaru on 5955 kc. increased power to 10 kw. The number of Papua New Guinea stations continued to grow, with a new one, VL9CH, Radio Mount Hagen (later Radio Western Highlands), starting operations on 2450 kc. with 250 watts. Two other PNG stations increased power to 10 kw —Radio Rabaul, 3385 kc., and Radio Daru, 3305 kc. Radio Tarawa, Gilbert and Ellice Islands, changed frequency to 4912.5 kc. It had been a difficult catch in America because of HCJB’s all-night use of the former Tarawa frequency, 6050 kc. The new channel at least gave DXers a fighting chance to hear this 2 kw. station. Broadcasting was actually a sideline for the station, whose main purpose was to operate a network of 35 non-broadcast utility stations in the 37-island group. And in the New Hebrides, a regular albeit small-scale broadcasting service was commenced in August. Radio Port Vila operated at 0015–0115 on 7260 kc. and 0615–0715 on 3905 kc., 500 watts, Tuesdays through Fridays.

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1967 Radio Tirana opened a second new shortwave facility, this one at Cerrik. The plant had 16 Chinese-built shortwave transmitters, ten of 50 kw. and six that operated at 15–25 kw. And although Polish Radio had been using 100 kw. shortwave transmitters as far back as 1950, it was not until 1967 that it inaugurated its first broadcasts to North America —15 minutes weekly in Polish and 15 minutes in English. In its North American service, Radio Moscow had both an east coast and a Pacific coast service. Among the Soviet broadcasts heard on shortwave besides Radio Moscow were Radio Majak, the “lighthouse” service (home service second program); Radiostansiya Atlantika, for the Soviet fishing fleet (home service fifth program); Radiostansiya Tikhy Okean (“Radio Pacific Ocean”), for Soviet ships in the Pacific; Radiostansiya Rodina, the “motherland” program, intended for Soviet citizens abroad; Radio Station Peace and Progress, “the voice of Soviet public opinion”; and Radiostansiya Yunost, a youth service. On April 28, WWV and WWVH started giving the time in Greenwich Mean Time rather than Eastern Standard Time and Hawaiian Standard Time respectively. On April 9, a fire of undetermined origin destroyed the transmitting facility of WNYW in Scituate, Massachusetts. After eight days of silence, the station returned to the air utilizing leased time over RCA’s “Radio Central” utility transmitters in Rocky Point, Long Island and over the ITT shortwave utility facility in Brentwood, New Jersey. The plan for a new WNYW transmitter site in New Jersey, announced in 1966, was shelved and the site at Scituate was reconstructed. A pirate station, Radio Free Harlem, was heard in February on 3868 kc. Programs were brief, about a half-hour, and consisted of tape-recorded church services and pleas for funds for the Abyssinian Baptist Church in Harlem, home congregation of the Rev. (and Congressman) Adam Clayton Powell. The station was heard several more times in the ensuing months. C. M. Stanbury reported that a number of quasi-legal Canadian Arctic stations were in operation. One was said to be Inuit Neepingit (the “Voice of the Arctic” or the “Voice of the Eskimo”) at Pond Inlet, Northwest Territories, on 3750 kc., broadcasting at 0000–0400 with 100 watts. Reportedly, three hours were in Eskimo and one was in English, and the station sometimes rebroadcast CBC programs. Similar “broadcast” stations were said to be operating at Cape Dorset, Clyde River and Pangnirtung.29 Other small broadcast-utility stations in Canada’s far north had been reported in earlier years. Radio Ashkabad, Turkmen S.S.R., could be heard with good signals on 4825 kc. around 0315 following a relay of Moscow programs. On 10530 kc., Radio Alma Ata, Kazakh S.S.R., was often audible at 0000 sign on with chimes and the familiar Soviet sign on sequence: the national anthem and sitting up exercises. The best frequency for hearing Radio Afghanistan (called Radio Kabul until 1963) was 15265 kc., where foreign-language programs were broadcast at 1730–1930 (the last half-hour in English). The South Arabian Broadcasting Service, formerly the Aden Broadcasting Service, became the South Yemen Broadcasting Service following withdrawal of British troops from Aden in 1967 and the renaming of the country the People’s Republic of South Yemen. The station operated on 5060 kc. with 7.5 kw., and was sometimes heard opening at 0330.

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Radio Afghanistan’s foreign service, including English, could often be heard in the afternoons on 15265 kHz. The station’s QSL usually arrived by registered mail.

Emissora Nacional in Lisbon, Portugal upgraded the transmitter of Radio Clube de São Tome, 4807.5 kc., from 1 kw. to 10 kw., and São Tome began carrying Lisbon’s Englishlanguage “Voice of the West” program at 2145–2230. Radio Bissau, Portuguese Guinea, was regularly heard with a good signal on 5045 kc. until closedown at 2400. As with all stations in Portuguese colonies, the day’s programming ended with the playing of “A Portuguesa,” the Portuguese national anthem, which became widely recognized by DXers. La Voix de la Fraternité Africaine, the foreign service of Radio Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo, was still heard with English, now at around 1730–1830. The frequency was 11866 kc. From the Republic of the Congo (formerly French), La Voix de la Révolution Congolaise, Brazzaville, was often heard at 0500 on 4765 kc. There were many other French-language African stations in operation. Radiodiffusion Nationale Malgache, Tananarive, Madagascar, conducted tests on 15265 and 17830 kc. at 0800–1000 daily. Radio Abidjan, the Ivory Coast, could be heard on 6015 kc. at 0630 sign on. Radio Yaounde, Cameroon, had English at 0530–0600 on 4972.5 kc. And the 3222 kc. channel was busy, with neighbors Radio Togo, Lomé and Radio Mauretania, Nouakchott, both using the frequency. Togo, with its 100 kw. transmitter, was usually dominant. Radio Djibouti, French Somaliland, 4780 kc., closed at 2000 with “La Marseillaise,” but usually suffered interference. From the former Italian Somaliland, Radio Mogadiscio, Somali Republic, was reported “with fantastic signal” at 0330 sign on on 6105 kc.

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The external service of Radio Nigeria was heard around 1700–1900 on 21700 kc. More interesting, on May 30, the breakaway Biafra region in southeastern Nigeria declared its independence, and within a month the Eastern Nigerian Broadcasting Service in Enugu became Radio Biafra (also announcing as the Voice of Biafra). Many listeners reported hearing it on the regular ENBS frequency of 4855 kc. at 0500 sign on.30 Radio Malawi on 3380 kc. often put in a good signal at 0345 sign on with drumming and a rooster crow. The Voice of Kenya channel on 4885 kc. could be heard in the eastern U.S. until sign off at 2105. (“This is the English Service of the Voice of Kenya.”) Radio Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, operated on 15435 kc. and could be heard most days with English news at 1900 and sign off at 2000. A good catch was the Mauritius Broadcasting Corp., which sometimes could be heard on 9710 kc. in the morning around 1100. In an early shortwave austerity move, ELWA cut back its programming by 25 percent and reduced its staff. And on December 21, Radio RSA presented a special Christmas program of recorded greetings from shortwave clubs around the world, including the ISWC, ISWL, ASWLC, and others. Central and South America continued to be alive with signals. From Haiti, 4VB, Voix de la Révolution Duvalieriste, Port-au-Prince, formerly Radio Commerce, was a regular in the evening hours on 5906 kc. HIMS, Radio Cristal, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, was heard on a varying frequency in the 5005–5020 kc. range. The signal was fairly good at sign off around 0400. In the same range, on 5010 kc., OAX8V, Radio Eco, Iquitos, Peru could be heard until 0400 sign off. Widely heard was TIRICA, La Voz de la Victor, San Jose, Costa Rica, 9615 kc. Unfortunately, its strong signal could not save the station from bankruptcy in 1969. An interesting station in Nicaragua was 500-watt YNCA, Radio Atlantico, Bluefields, on 6120 kc. It signed on at 1130. Another station in Bluefields was Radio Zelaya on 5950 kc. Bluefields was in an area known as the Mosquito Coast and was under British influence until 1854 when it was incorporated into Nicaragua. Although the official language was Spanish, English was often heard on these two Mosquito Coast stations. DXers started hearing the new TGBA, Radio Maya Barillas, Huehuetenango, Guatemala, on 2360 kc. It was run by the Central American Mission of Dallas, Texas and transmitted with 300 watts. And ZFY, Radio Demarara, Georgetown, Guyana, usually put in a good signal when it signed on at 0900 on 5980 kc. Formerly British Guiana, the country had achieved independence in June 1966. HCJB increased power from 50 to 100 kw. and began testing its new transmitter on Christmas Day. Official operations began on January 7, 1968. Occasionally reported from Ecuador was HCWN1, La Voz del Triunfo, Santo Domingo de los Colorados, on 3835 kc. HCJA5, La Voz del Rio Tarqui, Cuenca, Ecuador could be heard opening at 1100 on 3995 kc. Sometimes the station operated all night (it later moved to 3285 kc.). And although CP6, Radio Illimani, La Paz, Bolivia, 9555 kc., became Radio del Estado, it soon reverted to its old name. It could be heard around 1000. YVOT, Radio Junin, San Cristobal, Venezuela, had an English program at 0130–0145 on 4930 kc. YVOA, La Voz del Táchira, San Cristóbal, was still on 4830 kc. after many years of operation and was heard well both in the morning and at night. On 4860 kc., YVQE, Radio Cumaná in Cumaná became Radio Mundo in Maracaibo. YVNL, Radio Miranda, Los Teques, 6000 kc., was often reported. Higher in frequency, YVOS, Radio Tovar, Mérida, was heard on 9750 kc. And from Colombia, Radio Difusora Nacional,

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English-speaking stations from exotic places, like Radio Demarara in the former British Guiana, offered American listeners a “live” glimpse of the country not otherwise obtainable.

Bogota, was noted on various channels around 15330 kc., closing at 0440. Later it was also heard on 17865, opening at 0000. LRY2, Radio Belgrano, Buenos Aires, Argentina, had an excellent signal on 11780 kc. during the hours around 0100–0300. LRX2, Radio El Mundo, Buenos Aires, could be heard to 0100 close on 9710 kc. And from Brazil, Radio Brasil Central, Goiania, was noted on ZYW23, 9755 kc., a channel thought to be inactive. It was more widely heard on 4995 kc. (ZYX9), where it put in a powerful signal. The Voice of the United Nations Command (VUNC) was transmitting from Deragawa, Okinawa, on 9840 and 13830 kc. Programming was in Korean (Chinese had been dropped), and although the frequencies were jammed, the station was sometimes heard in the U.S. It would leave the air in 1971. Hardly a Chinese version of AFRTS, the main goal of China’s People’s Liberation Army Station was political education. It was located in Fukien Province, and the frequencies most often heard in the U.S. were 2430, 3400, 3535, 5170 and 8195 kc. The Voice of the Patriotic Militiamen’s Front, a station broadcasting against the North Vietnamese government, was believed to be operated by U.S. elements in South Vietnam. It could be heard on 7216 and 9430 kc. around 1400. There were a number of relatively low power VOA transmitters in Asia for DXers to

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Argentine broadcasters, including Radio Belgrano, tended to be more professional than stations in many other parts of Latin America.

try for: Malolos, the Philippines, 6170 and 7275 kc. (7.5 kw.), and 7135 and 11735 kc. (15 kw.); Ceylon on 7275 and 15285 kc. (10 kw.); and Okinawa, 9740 kc. (15 kw.). Munich, Germany, was also low power: 8 kw. on 3980 kc. Radio Nepal was on 7105 kc. and frequently was heard by DXers until sign off at 1200. With regard to Indonesian stations, a study published in FRENDX indicated that more than two-thirds of the 95 shortwave frequencies in use by RRI were in the 60, 75, 90 and 120 meter bands. The VOA station in Honolulu ceased operations save for occasional maintenance transmissions, while a new Papua New Guinea station opened. VL8AS, Radio Samarai (soon renamed Radio Milne Bay) began operations with 250 watts on 3235 kc. where it could be heard until 1030 sign off.

1968 Radio Tirana expanded its schedule and added many new frequencies, furthering the development of its well-deserved reputation as the dullest Communist propaganda station on the air.

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RIAS was using two transmitter sites for its broadcasts on 6005 kc.— a 20 kw. transmitter in West Berlin during darkness hours, and a 100 kw. sender in Munich during daylight. The Swiss Broadcasting Corp. European Service was broadcast over a new high power transmitter on 3985 kc. In May, limited English-language programming (10 minutes daily) returned to ORU, Belgium. Radio Finland suffered a breakdown of its 100 kw. transmitter and for a month transmitted to North America with only 15 kw. And the BBC closed the mailing list for its monthly program schedule, London Calling. New names were placed on a waiting list. On August 20, Russian troops invaded Czechoslovakia. Within the country, many freedom broadcasts were heard on medium wave, and soon a makeshift network of broadcasters emerged. Within a few days a station could be heard in America on the regular Prague shortwave channels of 7345 and 11990 kc., announcing variously (in Czech) as “the legal transmitter of Radio Prague,” “the free transmitter of the Czechoslovak broadcasting,” “Radio Prague, the legitimate voice of the Czechoslovak people,” and “Radio Prague No. One.” Some listeners reported it as Radio Free Prague. In English it announced that it was broadcasting “from occupied Czechoslovakia” and it carried an anti–Soviet line. It broadcast in other languages as well, but it left the air within a week and shortwave broadcasting in Czechoslavakia returned to normal.3¡ Russia started jamming western broadcasts for the first time in over five years. KGEI increased power to 250 kw. To the consternation of DXers, VOA dropped transmitter locations from its identifications. Although VOA said the change was made for “technical operating reasons,” some thought it an attempt to shield cooperative host governments of VOA relay stations from nationalistic, anti–VOA elements, a problem which would resurface many years later when U.S. government broadcasts would be transmitted from facilities in some of the former Soviet republics. Happily, the local identifications were reinstated. Whether a letter-writing campaign by SWLs had anything to do with it could not be determined. Later, however, the site IDs would be dropped for good. From the Middle East, tests were heard on many 21 mc. channels from Radio Kuwait, using its new 250 kw. transmitters. A new Middle East shortwave radio country, the Gulf sheikdom of Qatar, took to the air in June. The 100 kw. transmitter of the Qatar Broadcasting Service in Doha put in a strong signal on 9570 kc. Signals were usually good as well from Radio Baghdad, which was heard opening with its bird call interval signal at 0430 on 7180 kc. Baghdad’s 11785 kc. channel could be heard at the same time, and on 6095 kc. English was available at 1930. Africa continued to be a place of much shortwave activity. Radiodiffusion-Television Nationale Congolaise, Kinshasa, started putting in a good signal on a new channel that would be heard on and off for many years, 15245 kc. It was best in the hours before 2400 sign off. Radio Lubumbashi was still on 11865 kc., best around 1800–1900 when it sometimes had English identifications. From the former Northern Rhodesia (called Zambia since 1964), Radio Zambia could be heard opening at 0345 on 3346 kc. And the Rhodesia Broadcasting Corp., Salisbury, Rhodesia (formerly Southern Rhodesia), began testing two 100 kw. transmitters. The best channel for Radio Clube de Moçambique was 11778 kc., where an Englishlanguage disc jockey show and commercials could be heard around 0330. Radio Gabon, Libreville, was a regular on 4777 kc. in the late afternoon and at 0500 sign on. The Voice

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of Ethiopia made frequent appearances on 6185 kc. around 0400. The Voice of Kenya was on 4915 kc. around 0300, although later in the evening Radio Ghana would be dominant on the channel. And Radio Abidjan continued to use a frequency that was a 60 meter band beacon for many years, 4940 kc. It was also heard on 11920 kc. until close at 2400. Occasionally reported Angolan stations included CR6RF, Radio Clube de Benguela, on 5042 kc., heard in the late afternoon on the east coast; CR6RY, Radio Clube do Cuanza Sul, Novo Redondo, heard until 2300 on 4840 kc.; and CR6SG, Radio Clube da Huila, Sá da Bandeira, 3970 kc. The government took over the shortwave station in the Maldives and a 30 kw. transmitter was installed for the Maldive Islands Broadcasting Service, soon renamed Radio Maldives. It was a rare event for the station to be heard in North America on its frequency of 4740 kc. The BBC relay via ELBC, Liberia, ceased in the spring. The BBC Central African Relay Station in Botswana left the air in March and the shortwave transmitter donated to Radio Botswana, which thereafter used it on 4845 kc. There had been some discussion of replacing the BBC station with a floating “Voice of Britain” aboard the British aircraft carrier HMS Leviathan, but the plan never came to fruition. Said the Southern Rhodesian authorities: “The British station in Francistown and the BBC External Service propaganda campaign directed against Rhodesia failed utterly because the RBC [Rhodesia Broadcasting Corp.] was able to bring newly acquired high-powered short and medium-wave transmitters into operation to carry a message which had far greater appeal and credibility for the Rhodesian audience than the BBC’s improbable prognostications of catastrophe.”32 A station that would become a legendary DX target surfaced for the first time. ZOE, Tristan Radio, on Tristan da Cunha in the South Atlantic Ocean, operated with 40 watts on 3290 kc., reportedly at 1900–2200, three days a week. Although the station’s director, who was a ham, said he would answer any honest reception reports received, over many years of operation there were no bona fide loggings of Tristan Radio in North America. Radio Americas left the air in May. Anti-communist Radio Libertad could still be heard around 15050 kc. at approximately 2130–2330 with identifications in English and Spanish and an address in Miami, Florida. In July, 4VEH in Haiti returned to the air after a 40-day shutdown, the result of seemingly unfounded allegations that the station had collaborated with a rebel invasion force that had landed in May. The station was permitted to resume broadcasting following a meeting between officials of the station’s U.S. owners, the Oriental Missionary Society of Greenwood, Indiana, and Haitian President Francois Duvalier. HISD, Radio-TV Dominicana, carried English programs from around 0200 on 9505 kc. They covered the gamut from UNESCO offerings to religious programs to folk and country music. Two stations in La Romana ceased transmitting briefly to dramatize their request for a medium wave license which had been denied in order to protect Puerto Rican medium wave channels from interference. The stations were HIBB, La Voz del Papagayo, 5030 kc., and HIBD, La Voz de La Romana, on 3355 kc. On Tuesdays and Sundays, YSS, Radio Nacional de El Salvador, had a program called “Reportes del Mundo” in which the station replied to letters from foreign listeners. The frequencies were 9555 and 6010 kc. (the latter soon changed to 5980). Rarely heard but also on the air from El Salvador was YSV, Radio Comercio (also known as La Voz del Comercio), Santa Ana, on around 9576 kc. Its signal was sometimes heard in the morning hours.

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

The anti-communist clandestine station, Radio Libertad, was on the air for most of the 1960s (courtesy Gerry L. Dexter).

Late in the year, TGQB, Radio Nacional, Quezaltenango, Guatemala, reactivated 11700 kc. and put in a strong signal, identifying as La Voz de Quezaltenango. And in November, Radio Atenea, San Jose, Costa Rica, opened a shortwave frequency, 6150 kc., after having been exclusively on medium wave for 33 years. The commercial station’s 1 kw. transmitter put out a good signal, and the station offered a pennant for reception reports. Radio Cayenne, French Guiana, transmitted with 4 kw. on 3385 kc. and was best heard at 0915 sign on or at 0100 sign off. In the French Caribbean, Office de Radiodiffusion Television Francaise (ORTF), Fort de France, Martinique, was regularly heard on 3315 kc., opening at 1015 and closing at 0215. HJIC, Ondas del Meta, Villavicencio, Colombia was on 4885 kc. and could be heard at 1100 sign on and 0400 sign off. A strong Colombian was HJDH, Radio Colosal, on 4945 kc. Not as well heard were HJCH, La Voz de la Victor, Bogota on 4895 kc., and HJGT, Radio Neiva, on 4855 kc. HJGF, Radio Bucaramanga, 4845 kc., had an English-language travel program on Wednesdays at 0345. OAX9G, Radio Nor Peruana, Chachapoyas, Peru, was on 9655 kc., audible around 0200. A new Peruvian in Lima was OCY4H, Radio Santa Rosa, on 6045 kc. It operated with 10 kw. and was heard around 0300–0400. Not too often heard was ZPA11, Radio Charitas, a 1 kw. station in Asunción, Paraguay. It operated on nominal 6110 kc., but was actually heard on 6106. It broadcast a Japanese-language program for Japanese immigrants at 1000–1030. SODRE, Montevideo, Uruguay, also was not particularly well heard, but sometimes poked through around 0100 over CXA10, 11900 kc. Radiodiffusion Argentina al Exterior (RAE) on 11710 kc. could be heard with English

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to 2345 sign off. Radio Nacional de Brasilia inaugurated an international service, and although the programming was in Portuguese, there were English announcements and requests for reports. The hour-long program was on the air three times daily on 6065, 9665, 11720 and 15445 kc. And HCJB received 19,920 pieces of listener mail during the year, up from 18,580 in 1967. Radio Nepal inaugurated a 100 kw. transmitter and was now more widely heard. The frequency, 9590 kc., was a new one, not parallel to Nepal lower-power channels. The VOA completed its “Project Bamboo” and opened another relay base in the Philippines, this one at Tinang. It transferred the Malolos base to the Philippine government, which utilized it for the new Voice of the Philippines. The Poro Point station remained in operation. A favorite DX target, Radio Hong Kong, 3940 kc., left shortwave. The station that DXers continued to hear on the channel turned out to be Radio Peking. Following the seizure of the USS Pueblo by North Korea in January, some of the families of crew members expressed an interest in receiving recordings of their family members speaking (“confessing”) over Radio Pyongyang. ASWLC Executive Editor Stewart MacKenzie accepted recordings and passed them on to the families. The British Forces Broadcasting Service, Singapore, was heard on a new channel, 6040 kc., usually in Gurkha dialects but parallel at times to the English program on 5010. A new station run by the South Korean army, the Voice of Hope, began testing with Korean popular music and announcements in Korean and English. The frequency was 6170 kc. And from Taiwan, the Voice of Righteousness, Taipei, was on 7200 kc. and was often reported

Despite the name, the Voice of Righteousness on Taiwan was a government station rather than a religious broadcaster.

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

at 1100 sign on, giving its call letters in English (BEC76 on this channel). The station, which was a Kuomintang voice rather than a religious station, suffered jamming from Communist China. Less often heard from Taiwan was the Voice of the Chinese Air Force, BEC61, 6103 kc., operating with 7.5 kw. China had a major presence on the shortwave bands. When the country fell to the communists in 1949, its international service was transmitting 56 hours per week. By 1959, Radio Peking was broadcasting 512 hours per week, and by 1968 the figure was 1,400 hours per week in 31 languages. More than 40 transmitters with power up to 240 kw. were operational. By 1968, the deterioration of Sino-Soviet relations was resulting in 302 broadcast hours per week from China in the Russian language, beamed to the Soviet Union. In addition, some Radio Peking broadcasts intended for Europe, Africa and North America were being relayed from Tirana, Albania.33 Radio Tahiti was well heard from 0300 sign on on both of its shortwave frequencies, 6135 and 11825 kc. Many DXers reported hearing a more elusive Pacific station, VSZ2, the Voice of Tarawa, on 4912.5 kc. during the 0700–0900 period. And early in the year another Papua New Guinea station, VL9BA, Radio Bougainville, came into operation. The frequency was 3322.5 kc., and although the transmitter had a 10 kw. capability, it was operating at only 2 kw.34 In December, test transmissions commenced from the new Radio Australia relay station on the Cox Peninsula, about 10 miles from Darwin. The facility included three 250 kw. transmitters and five antennas, with the target zones being areas north and west of Australia.35 The station received its programs over the air from the Shepparton and Lyndhurst stations until this was replaced by a landline from Melbourne in September 1974.

1969 The Armed Forces Radio and Television Service became the American Forces Radio and Television Service. Plans for the CBC International Service to install 250 kw. transmitters in Sackville, New Brunswick in 1970, and to expand the Northern Service, fell victim to a Canadian government austerity program. “An embarrassment to the Northern Service has been the oft heard criticism in Ottawa that it is far easier to pick up the broadcasts from the U.S.S.R. than it is to hear CBC programmes.”36 In the U.S., pirate stations were still a rarity. One, WJMS, the Voice of the Purple Pumpkin, was heard on 7295 kc. around 2330, announcing its location as “Free State, U.S.A.” Many letters reporting excellent reception were received by Kol Israel on their experimental transmission to North America at 0400 on 9009 kc. However, the broadcast had to be canceled for budgetary reasons, a problem that would reoccur at the Israeli station throughout its life. In September, the Cyprus Broadcasting Corp. resumed a series of two-hour experimental shortwave transmissions that were aired principally for Cypriots in the U.K. They were on at 1900–2105 on 15260 kc. and on Sundays at 0900–1600 on 17785 via the BBC East Mediterranean Relay on Cyprus. Radio Kuwait had an English program at 1600–1730 on 11920 kc. Radio Iran was on 15135 and 17735 kc. and put in a good signal when it broadcast in English at 2000. And in

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The Radio Australia station in Darwin came on the air in 1968.

September, listeners started hearing a new English service over the Jeddah transmitter of the Broadcasting Service of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia at 1700–2000 on 11855 kc. A fairly regular Russian regional station was Radio Tbilisi, Georgian S.S.R., on 5040 kc. It was often heard opening at 0200 with its tuning signal, the Soviet anthem, time pips and station ID. Radio Tunis was on 6195 and could be heard opening at 0430. From the Cape Verde Islands, CR4AA, Radio Clube Cabo Verde, Praia, could sometimes be heard quite well, ham QRM permitting, on 3883 kc. until 2300 sign off. The station’s power was 5 kw. ELWA was on 4770 kc., opening at 0615. It also had a powerful signal on 15095 kc. in Arabic until 2230 close. Also from West Africa, Radio Cotonou, Dahomey, on 4870 kc., carried an English lesson at 0600. And the Rhodesia Broadcasting Corp. could be heard opening at 0355 on 5012 kc. At mid-year, Radio Biafra was heard on 7301 kc. at 0430 sign on with news, music and a call to arms. The transmitter was said to be a mobile unit located near Orlu, and the signal was strong, prompting DXers to speculate that it was more than 10 kw. The station

The Armed Forces Radio and Television Service entertained troops around the world from its inception in 1942. It left shortwave in 1988. (A reduced service returned in 1998.)

had another transmitter, identifying as the Voice of Biafra, on 6145 kc. This was the station’s “international service.” The Nigerian Broadcasting Corp. station in Benin City could be heard on 4932 kc. at 0430 sign on and 2230 sign off. In later years it would be called the Bendel Broadcasting Service. The power was 10 kw. In October, the U.K.’s Far East Broadcasting Association (FEBA), a branch of the Far East Broadcasting Co. (FEBC), started testing from its new station in the Seychelles, requesting reception reports. For a short time it operated with 2 kw., then increased power to 30 kw. It was widely reported at around 0100–0300 on 15165 kc. and at 1830– 2000 on 21460 kc.37 As usual, there was much shortwave activity in Central America and the The Canadian Broadcasting Corp.’s Northern Service was established in 1958 to serve communities in the country’s far northern regions.

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Caribbean. In April, listeners started hearing the new Radio Netherlands 300 kw. relay station, “Bonaire Noord,” in the Netherlands Antilles. It put in a very strong signal in the United States.38 In September, a new Mexican station was heard testing on 11720 kc. It was government station XERMX, Radio Mexico, Mexico City, and it broadcast multi-lingual announcements and sometimes relayed XEB (1220 kc. medium wave). Soon it was also heard on 6055, 9535 and 15125 kc. 4VEH, Cap Haitien, Haiti, was widely heard on its two main frequencies, 9770 and 11835 kc. The station said that it received 15,000 letters a year. TGVN, La Voz de Nahuala, Guatemala, signed off around 0315 on 3360 kc. HRVL, Radio Lux, Olanchito, Honduras, was sometimes heard on 4890 kc. around 1200, overtaking the co-channel Papua New Guinea station on the east coast most days. And a powerful new station was heard from Nicaragua. Radio Difusora Nacional, Managua, “Voz Oficial del Estado,” was on 5935 kc. until 0400 and put in an excellent signal with its new 100 kw. transmitter. It was heard during the day on 11875 kc. HIRL, Radio Exitos, Santiago, the Dominican Republic, 3365 kc., was well heard until sign off at 0500. On February 9 and 17, and May 18, Dominican station HIMS, Radio Cristal, 5010 kc., had a special “Programa por DXers” arranged by DXer César Óbjio. On May 24, Brazilian Radio Aparecida had a special program, in English, arranged by NASWA member and soon-to-be “Shortwave Center” editor William A. Matthews. Brazil continued to be the source of numerous shortwave signals. Among the stations that could be heard were ZYV9, Radio Timbira, Sao Luiz, on 4975 kc., and ZYI21, Radio Poti, Natal, 4935 kc., which was on until 0300. All Brazilian stations were required to carry the government program “A Voz do Brasil” at 2200–2300. It was intended mainly to give those living in the interior some connection with the rest of the country, but the program did not enjoy a wide following. On 4752 kc., La Voz del Rio Cauca, Cali, Colombia put in a strong signal at night. A new Colombian was TODELAR network station HJSG, Radio Guatapurí, Valledupar, on 4915 kc. And one that was reactivated in 1969 was HJAH, Emisora Atlantico, Barranquilla, 4905 kc., a 10 kw. station that could be heard until 0500 sign off. Venezuela was still home to many shortwave stations. YVPM, Radio Occidente, Tovar, moved from 3365 kc. to 3225, where it was well heard at 1000, parallel to its 31 meter band outlet, YVOS, 9750 kc. YVLI, Radio Maracay, was on 3315 kc.; YVNW, Radio Bolivar, Ciudad Bolivar, was on 4770; and YVOC, Ecos del Torbes, San Cristóbal, was a strong presence on 4980 kc. YVQI, Radio Barcelona, 3385 kc., sometimes relayed Radio Rumbos. YVNI, Radio Carora, put in a good signal on 5018 kc. A rarely heard Venezuelan that would make it through occasionally when closing at 0045 was YVTE, Radio Valles del Tuy, Ocumare del Tuy, on 6129 kc. And listeners reported hearing time signal station YVTO, Observatorio Naval Cagigal, Caracas, on 6100 kc. OAZ4L, Radio del Pacifico, Lima, Peru, 9675 kc., was run by an American evangelical group and had English news at 0200 followed by English-language religious programs. On 9452 kc., OAX6D, Radio Continental de Arequipa, could be heard at night, sometimes relaying news from Radio America (OAX4V, 9505 kc). Also from Peru, OAX8E, Radio Loreto, Iquitos, had a good signal on 5050 kc. New from Ecuador was HCRS4, Canal Manabita, Portoviejo, heard in the evenings on 4820 kc. A strong Ecuadorean station was HCXX4, Radio Cenit, Bahia de Caraquez,

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on 4865 kc. Located between these two stations was HCJS1, Ondas del Angel, 4830 kc., heard around 0200. And on the out-of-band channel of 3569 kc., HCOS4, La Voz del Rio Carrizal, Calceta, was audible to 0630 closedown. The Burma Broadcasting Service began operating on 4725 kc. in place of 4795 and could be heard with English lessons at 1300. Radio Malaysia now transmitted from what were considered three separate radio countries: Malaysia proper, with transmitters in both Kuala Lumpur and Penang; Kuching, Sarawak; and Kota Kinabalu, Sabah. (Kota Kinabalu was called Jesselton until 1967.) And starting on December 10, Radio Hanoi broadcast greetings from American prisoners of war. The VOA station in Hawaii closed down for good. Since becoming inactive a year or so earlier, it had been on 15130 kc. for maintenance purposes only, one hour a day, four days a week, with IDs and test tones. The antenna towers would remain up for another 30 years. A 10 kw. station, VL8BM, the Australian Administration Broadcasting Service, was put into service in Goroka, Papua New Guinea. It operated on 11880 kc. for two hours daily, mainly to provide news and information to other PNG stations. The Solomon Islands Broadcasting Service was operating on 3995 kc. with 5 kw. and was best heard until closedown at 1130. And Emissora de Radiodifusão de Timor Portugues, Dili, in the Portuguese colony of Timor, operated with 1 kw. on 3286 kc. and on rare occasions was heard at sign on at 1000. On December 31, Eddie Startz, host of the Radio Netherlands “Happy Station” program since 1928, retired and was succeeded as host by Tom Meyer. NNRC shortwave editor Hank Bennett appeared to have inside information that Startz would return on another shortwave station, but it never happened.

5

1970–1979 Times in G.M.T.

1970 On January 1, Radio Denmark dropped all foreign-language broadcasts, leaving only its Danish programs for Danes abroad on shortwave. Although the station continued to identify in English when it opened transmissions, it replied only to correspondence in Danish (whereupon the ASWLC issued a Danish-language reception report form). The correspondence policy was soon relaxed, however. Also early in the year, Radio Nordsee International, the first European “pirate” station to be heard regularly in North America, took to the air on 6210 kHz. The station broadcast from a ship, the MEBO II, off the coast of Holland with a power of 10 kw., and it was widely heard in North America around 2300. In March the ship moved to a location off the coast of England. RNI’s medium wave transmitter on 1610 kHz. closed down due to interference to an English marine station, and for a brief time RNI operated only on shortwave, including, later, 9940 kHz. The station returned to the Dutch coast in July, and was on the air until September 24.¡ RNI was owned by Erwin Meister and Edwin Bollier (“Me/Bo”). In 1977 they would assist the Libyan government with its broadcasting facilities. Years later their company would be accused of supplying Libya with circuitry that was used in the bomb that brought down Pan Am 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland in 1988. A new 250 kw. shortwave station known as Radio Trans-Europe came on the air from Sines, Portugal. The three-transmitter station was a joint project of Deutsche Welle and the former owner of Radio Africa Tangier, with most of the transmitter time devoted to DW programming and the rest available for sale to other broadcasters. The transmitters were originally intended for a planned DW relay station in El Salvador. The RAI station in Caltanissetta, Sicily could be heard most evenings with home service programming on 6060 kHz. and occasionally on 9515. Most country counters considered Sicily a separate radio country, so this was a sought-after catch. Another station high on many want lists was the Forces Broadcasting Service, Athens, Greece, on 6045 kHz., signing on at 0430. Grønlands Radio, Godthab, Greenland was another rare station. Under good conditions it could sometimes be heard on three different frequencies— 5960, 5980 and 9575 kHz.— at its morning sign on at 1010. In Canada, the CBC International Service became Radio Canada International (RCI), 189

North American DXers were happy to hear an ocean-going European pirate station, even if it did have the relatively high power of 10 kw. The story of Radio Nordsee International is one of the most interesting chapters of the Europirate story.

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assuming for the first time an identity separate from the domestic network. In the United States, WWV in Fort Collins, Colorado used a standby transmitter to launch a series of experimental transmissions on 13560 kHz. using the call letters KC2XIO. Radio Iran put in an excellent signal on 15084 kHz. with English news at 2000. Radio Sana’a, Yemen, was a less frequent visitor but could sometimes be heard opening at 0300 on 5804 kHz. And at year’s end, several DXers logged a hitherto unheard Middle Eastern station, the Voice of the Coast, Sharjah, from what was then known as the Trucial Coast. The frequency was 6040 kHz., and the station was heard in the 1315–1400 time period, a slot that favored American reception for just a few weeks. The appearance of Radio Zanzibar was a welcome surprise. It was heard with regularity on 3339 kHz. at 0330 sign on. Vague replies from the station’s spokesman, Omar M. Omar, together with a friendly contact at the American embassy in Zanzibar, led the Numero Uno group to print up a supply of QSL cards and send them to Omar. He claimed there was a mistake in the cards and never used them. Radio Biafra’s last broadcast was on January 14, a few days after Biafra’s surrender to Nigerian government forces. The frequency was 7307 kHz. The personnel remained at the station, which eventually became the East Central State Broadcasting Service, Enugu, on 7301 kHz., a station owned by the state (rather than the federal) government. Radio Mali, Bamako, began testing a 100 kw. transmitter on 11715 and 17710 kHz. In August, Radio Gabon increased power on 4777 kc. from 30 kw. to 100 kw. and was well heard until 2300 sign off. “Strongest signal on the band,” observed one DXer. Radio Mogadiscio, Somalia, could often be heard at 0330 sign on on 6097.5 kHz., though the signal seldom lasted very long. Decent reception was also sometimes possible from the Voice of Kenya, Nairobi, on 4915 kHz., around 0400. Less often heard was the Kenya station on 4885 kHz. Under good conditions, the Radio Clube de Moçambique “A” program could be heard on the east coast on 4925 kHz. to 2200 sign off and at 0430 on 4855 and 11820 kHz. A rare African station was Radio Pax in Beira, Mozambique. Careful listeners could sometimes hear it on 7205 kHz. at 0400. On the higher frequencies, Radiodiffusion Nationale, Conakry, Guinea, was heard on 15310 kHz. signing on at 0600 with an anthem, chimes, and rooster crowing. This frequency would be used, on and off, for many years. And Springbok Radio, the South African commercial service, was often reported from around 0700 to as late as 1500 on 11936 kHz. Programming was in English and Afrikaans. Easy to hear was a new Costa Rican station, TIHB, Radio Capital, San Jose, on 4832 kHz. Its sister station, Radio Reloj, reopened its shortwave channel of 6005 kHz. In Haiti, increasing costs caused 4VU, Radio Lumiere, 2410 kHz., to leave shortwave at the start of the year. However, another Haitian station, 4VOD, Radio Valparaiso, Port-de-Paix, appeared on 5041 kHz. and was heard by DXers until around 0350 close. Some lucky listeners also heard the programming of Radio Curom, Willemstad, Curacao, which was sometimes used as an audio source for the government radiotelephone station on 17513.5 and 20779 kHz. These “Curom” transmissions would be heard occasionally for several years. Similarly, the audio from Radio Barbados was sometimes carried over the Cable & Wireless station in Bridgetown, Barbados on 9970 kHz. The Dominican Republic was an abundant source of shortwave signals. New was HIFA,

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Radio Mogadiscio, also known as the Somali Broadcasting Service, was a surprise when it appeared in the 49 meter band.

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La Voz de las Fuerzas Armadas, Santo Domingo. It was well heard on 4825 kHz., signing off around 0200. HISD, Radio-TV Dominicana, also in Santo Domingo, returned to the air in May on 9505 kHz. for election coverage. HIBB, La Voz del Papagayo, La Romana, could be heard briefly at 0400 on 5030 kHz. after the Venezuelan station, Radio Continente, left the frequency. And in November a station that would become well-known to many listeners in the future, Radio Clarin, Santo Domingo, was heard a few times on 3405 kHz. It was apparently a network identification, however, as the frequency was soon occupied by HIAZ, Radio Santiago. Reactivated from Columbia after a long absence was CARACOL station HJIC, La Voz del Caqueta, Florencia on 5035 kHz, heard around 0400. Another well-heard Colombian was HJIW, La Voz del Centro, Espinal, on 6095 kHz. Among the many Venezuelan stations were YVKT, Radio Libertador, Caracas, on 3245 kHz., and YVOJ, Radio Universidad, Mérida, on 3395. YVOD, Ecos del Torbes, San Cristóbal, on 4980 kHz. would occasionally identify in English for Venezuelans abroad. And on 6070 kHz., YVSR, Radio San Sebastian, San Cristóbal, could be heard around 0200, and also at 1000 sign on, sometimes stronger than co-channel CFRX. From Ecuador, strong signals were noted from HCDE4, Radio Visión, Manta, 6141 kHz., around 0400, sometimes with an English identification. Another strong station, albeit heard only intermittently, was HCRP1, Radio Catolica, Quito, on 5060 kHz., sometimes noted until sign off at 0330. More exciting from Ecuador was the new station in the Galapagos Islands. It was HCVG8, La Voz de Galapagos, located in the Franciscan Mission in Puerto Baquerizo Moreno. It was first heard in September on 6255 kHz. The transmitter was nominally 1 kw., but the station was operating with reduced power. It could be heard to 0400 sign off. It moved to 3520 kHz. in 1972 and to 4810 in 1974. There was a huge earthquake in Peru on May 31, and many stations relayed “mensajes” from friends and relatives to those in the earthquake area north of Lima. The stations included OBX4M, Radio Panamericana on 5980 kHz.; OAX4Q, Radio Victoria, 6020; OBZ4O, Radio Union, 6115; and OAX4Z, Radio Nacional del Peru, 6082. The death toll from the quake was over 66,000.2 ZYR232, Radio Universitária Santos Dumont, Sa˘o José dos Campos, Brazil, returned to the air on 17725 kHz. after an absence of five years. It was heard with strong signals at around 0100. And a rare station from Asunción, Paraguay, ZPA5, Radio Encarnación, made a few appearances. It was sometimes in the clear until 0200 on approximately 11950 kHz. In Asia, a Chinese satellite was launched on April 24 and its signal on 20009 kHz. was soon heard by many DXers. Although known informally as Chicom I, its actual name was “Dong Fang Hong,” or “The East Is Red,” which was also the name of the melody it played. “The East Is Red” had been the unofficial anthem of China during the cultural revolution, and it was familiar to shortwave listeners, who heard it often on Radio Peking. Some lucky DXers had their reception of Chicom I QSLed by the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Peking. It was a year of much clandestine activity. Radio España Independiente, the station of the Spanish communist party in exile, was still on the air after many years and could be heard at 1330–1415 on 14482 kHz. It was jammed, but not too effectively. Much of the clandestine activity was in Southeast Asia. The Vietcong station, Radio Liberation, “Voice of the Provisional Revolutionary Government of South Vietnam,”

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

This QSL from the Chinese Academy of Sciences verifies reception of the signal of the first Chinese earth satellite, launched in 1970.

was widely heard in the afternoon hours on 15048 kHz. It could be heard broadcasting in French to 2030, then in Vietnamese to 2100 sign off. The station was thought to broadcast initially from Cambodia and South Vietnam, but by 1972 the sense was that it was transmitting from the Voice of Vietnam complex in North Vietnam. QSLs were received from the organization’s Paris address. The Voice of Vietnam, the regular North Vietnamese foreign service, could be heard on many out-of-band channels, including frequencies around 10070, 12025, and 15020 kHz. The Voice of the National United Front of Kampuchea, Cambodia, operated on 10080 and 12006 kHz. It was controlled by Prince Norodom Sihanouk who had been deposed in a military coup in March. The station operated from Cambodia, and at times was also relayed by the Voice of Vietnam. And listeners started hearing the Voice of the Malayan Revolution, a clandestine station of the Malaysian communist party. It had come to air late in 1969 and would broadcast for many years. It was heard on 7305, 11830 and 15790 kHz., supposedly from a 50 kw. transmitter located in a tunnel near Changsha, China. The Solomon Islands Broadcasting Service was heard on the new frequency of 7115 kHz. around 1000 with a signal almost as good as Radio Australia’s, even though the power

This QSL of Radio España Independiente, the clandestine voice of the Spanish communist party, featured a rendering of a Picasso face dove.

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

was still only 5 kw. And the signal of Radio Noumea, New Caledonia on 7170 kHz. improved greatly when it increased power to 20 kw. At the end of the year it was also being heard on 9510 kHz. On the other side of the DX ledger, however, Radio Tarawa left shortwave, not to return until 1981 (as Radio Kiribati).

1971 Radio Nacional de España inaugurated new 350 kw. transmitters at a new site, Noblejas, while also keeping the old site at Arganda del Rey in operation. Radio Nordsee International returned to the air in February. However, in May it was firebombed, briefly disabling transmissions.3 Also mid year, religious broadcaster IBRA Radio began transmitting via Radio Trans-Europe, Sines, Portugal. Radio Canada International followed, and on October 1, 1971, a new international religious broadcaster, Adventist World Radio, also began using the Sines facility to start what would be AWR’s long history on shortwave.4 On July 1, WWVH in Hawaii relocated from Maui to Kauai. WWV and WWVH also began giving the time announcement every minute rather than every five minutes. On August 1, in order for Deutsche Welle to gain better coverage of North and Central America, the first relay of DW programming via the RCI transmitters at Sackville was made. A few months later, RCI inaugurated two 250 kw. transmitters, greatly increasing the station’s former power of 50 kw. Three more 250 kw. transmitters were added later. The year saw the appearance of a few early North American pirate stations, including WJMS from “Free State, U.S.A.,” on 7350 kHz.; WRVU, “Radio Voice of the Underground,” on 7315; and Purple Pumpkin Radio, also from “Free State, U.S.A.,” on 7353. There would be reincarnations of the “Purple Pumpkin” for many years. Radio Baghdad installed new 250 kw. transmitters. (It would upgrade again, to 500 kw., in 1976.) Among Iraq’s several broadcast services was the Voice of the Masses, intended for both domestic and external consumption, plus a number of clandestine broadcasts aimed at other Arab countries. The Libyan Broadcasting Service, Tripoli, was well heard on 8630 kHz. until 2300. During the fall months of Ramadan, when Middle Eastern stations often operated on extended schedules, Radio Djibouti, in Afars and Issas, was sometimes heard on 4780 kHz. at around 2200. Around the same time, the Abu Dhabi Broadcasting Service was heard on 4989 kHz., closing down at approximately 2000. It operated with 10 kw. In December, Abu Dhabi was one of six previously independent emirates that joined together to form the United Arab Emirates. They were Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Sharjah, Fujairah, Ajman and Umm al Qaiwain. U.K. monitors observed that, at about the same time, the Voice of the Coast, Sharjah, 6040 kHz., moved to Dubai and began identifying as Dubai Radio, and the Abu Dhabi Broadcasting Service on 4989 began identifying as the Voice of the United Arab Emirates. Most of the small shortwave stations in Turkey were impossible to hear in the United States.5 However, late in the year a new station, the Voice of Meteorology, operated by the Turkish State Meteorological Service, Ankara, came on the air and could be heard at 0500 sign on on two closely positioned frequencies, 6890 and 6900 kHz., both using 2.5 kw. Also toward the end of the year, a professional-sounding clandestine station, Voice of the Free South, broadcasting to South Yemen, was heard on the out-of-band channels of 5345 and

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8405 kHz. until sign off around 2000. It was thought to be the same as the anti-communist Yemeni Royalist Radio which had earlier been reported operating from Saudi Arabia. It was unusual to hear a clandestine station from West Africa, but La Voix Libre du Peuple de Guinée, broadcasting from Portuguese Guinea to Guinea (formerly French Guinea), did surprisingly well on the east coast until around 2200 sign off on 4970 kHz. (“Ici La Voix Libre du Peuple de Guinée, la Radiodiffusion du Front de Libération National de la Republique de Guinée.”) The government station in Conakry on 4910 kHz. began identifying as Voix de la Révolution. Several new African stations came on the air. In April, the BBC Monitoring Service discovered that Radio Sahara in Aiaun, Spanish Sahara, was broadcasting on shortwave. Soon it was being widely heard at 0800 sign on over 7230 kHz. Also new on shortwave was Radio Lesotho. The station’s frequency, which would be used for decades, was 4800 kHz. Its 10 kw. signal could be heard after Radio Lara, Venezuela, signed off the channel at 0400. And in late December, the first test transmissions were heard from the new Radio Netherlands relay station on Madagascar. Angolan stations often closed down at 2300 and thus were within range of late afternoon east coast listeners. Among the stations often heard were CR6RH, Radio Clube da Huila, Sá da Bandeira, 5025 kHz.; CR6RD, Radio Clube do Huambo, Nova Lisboa, 5060; A Voz de Angola, Luanda, on 6175; CR6RB, Radio Ecclesia, Luanda, on 7215; and CR6RZ, Emissora Oficial, Luanda, on 7245 kHz. Radio Gambia could sometimes be heard on 4820 kHz. to sign off at 2200 and at 0630 sign on. (“You have been listening to the Gambia Broadcasting Service from Bathurst.”) Although its best-heard channel, both in the afternoon and early morning, was 3316 kHz., Radio Sierra Leone could also be heard on 5980 kHz. at around 0700. (“You’re tuned to the big sound in radio, Radio Sierra Leone, Freetown.”) And Radio Chad, located at Fort Lamy in the Republic of Chad, was a regular in the afternoons on 4904.5 kHz. (Fort Lamy was renamed N’Djamena in 1975.) Two Nigerian stations that were close in frequency were the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation’s stations at Calabar, on 6145 kHz., and Maidugari, on 6140. They could be heard around 0500. Although both were 10 kw., Calabar put in the better signal. Maidugari would soon move to 4900 kHz., and would eventually be known as Radio Borno, while Calabar became Cross River Radio. In July, Radiodiffusion Television Algerienne upgraded its shortwave transmitting plant with eight new transmitters, five of 100 kw., three of 50 kw. And on October 27, the Democratic Republic of the Congo became known as Zaire. From the Caribbean, HICN, Radio Antillas, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, was heard on 4962 kHz. It had been inactive since 1965. But the most important news from the Caribbean was the appearance of broadcast transmissions from Turks & Caicos Islands. The Cable & Wireless utility station there, which transmitted on 4560 kHz., had an unannounced broadcast transmission on Christmas Eve, 1970. A few DXers stumbled across it by accident. More listeners were favored with reception from this never before-heard country when the station broadcast storm warnings during an August 1971 hurricane. (“This is Turks Island Radio, Turks Island Radio, VSI8, rebroadcasting a storm warning from the Florida Storm Center.”) The station was glad to verify reports, and it was heard again in November. A new Guatemalan station was TGDF, La Voz de Atitlan, Santiago Atitlan, on the low

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

frequency of 2390 kHz., a channel also occupied by Mexican station XEJN, Radio Huayacocotla. Both stations were good DX. La Voz de Atitlan’s outspoken director was found dead in 1981 following what was believed to be interrogation by paramilitary forces. The station left the air, but returned in 1982. Many other stations were active intermittently in Mexico, including XEOI, Radio Mil, Mexico City, 6010 kHz.; XEUW (usually identifying as “XEU”), Radio Eco de Sotavento, Veracruz, 6020; XEWW, La Voz de la America Latina, Mexico City, 6165 and 9515; XEFT, La Voz de Veracruz, 9545; and XEHH, Radio Tricolor, Mexico City, 11880. A long inactive station in Maracaibo, Venezuela, YVMC, Radio Mara, returned to the air on 3275 kHz., as did YVKR, Radio Caracas, on 4920. Two less often-heard Venezuelans were YVRW, Radio Boconó, on 5010 kHz., and YVSX, Radio Angostura, Ciudad Bolivar, on 6120. At year’s end, Radio Nacional, Caracas, was being heard in the afternoons on multiple high frequency channels, including 11725, 11970 and 17840 kHz. Its international transmissions would come and go through the years. In September it was noticed that the Colombian station on 6140 kHz. was identifying sometimes as Radio El Sol and sometimes as La Voz de Cali, both TODELAR stations. Later in the year, HJAX, Radio Super de Bogota, began operating on 6065 kHz. Also heard from Bogota on 49 meters was HJKE, Radio Continental, on 6125 kHz. At mid year a second station from Guyana, the Guyana Broadcasting Service, came on shortwave. Usually identifying as “Action Radio,” it was heard in both the morning and the evening on 3290 kHz. From Ecuador, HCJP1, Radio Jesus del Gran Poder, Quito was heard on 5070 kHz. It was audible only on Friday and Sunday nights. Brazilian station PRL3, Radio Ministério da Educação, Rio de Janeiro, 11950 kHz., sometimes identified in English and French as well as in Portuguese. A new Brazilian was PRE7, Radio America, Sao Paulo, which put in a very good signal on 11854 kHz. And while Paraguay was not an easy country to hear, a decent signal could sometimes be had from ZPA10, Radio Paraguay, Asunción, on 6015 kHz. at around 0930. All India Radio brought a new transmitter site on line. With four 250 kw. transmitters, Aligarh, 150 km. southeast of New Delhi, became India’s most powerful broadcast station.6 In December, following bloody fighting, East Pakistan became the new nation of Bangladesh, and the old Radio Pakistan station at Dacca became Radio Bangladesh. Both the home service and overseas service broadcasts would be heard worldwide. The Voice of the Philippines could be heard in the mornings on 9580 and 11950 kHz. (“This is the Overseas Service of the Voice of the Philippines.”) English from Radio Pyongyang, North Korea, was regularly heard at 1400–1500 on 15150 kHz. Radiodiffusion Nationale Khmere, Phnom-Penh, Cambodia (then known as the Khmer Republic) was regularly heard on 6090 kHz. with French news at 1230 followed by English at 1245. (“This is Radio Phnom-Penh., the Voice of the Cambodian Republic.”) And a Laotian station long heard on 4500 and 7600 kHz. was identified as an army station, United Lao Races, in Long Cheng. The location of Chinese stations was difficult to pinpoint due to language difficulties and the absence of local identifications. However, BBC Monitoring Service was able to confirm that the station in Lhasa, Tibet was definitely operating on 4035, 5935 and 9490 kHz. The latter channel could be heard fairly easily, and soon DXers were pursuing the signal from this remote radio country.

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Radio Bangladesh, headquartered in Dacca, came on the air in 1971 when the country was born out of what had been East Pakistan.

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

Among the better heard Radio Republik Indonesia regional stations were YDW1, Pontianak, 3346 kHz.; YDQ4, Makassar (known as Ujung Pandang from 1972 to 1999), 4719; YDK, Palembang, 4855; YDK6, Jambi, 4927; YDG4, Surakarta, 4932; YDJ1, Jogjakarta, 5047; YDA3, Bandung, 5055; and YDR2, Ambon, 7140. The first stateside reception of a non–RRI Indonesian station appears to have been in September when Radio Chusus Pemerintah Daerah Kabupatan Poso in the Celebes Islands was heard on 5270 kHz. The power was 250 watts. The British Forces Broadcasting Service in Singapore, long on 5010 kHz., left shortwave and turned over its equipment to Radio Singapore, which commenced using the frequency.7 In the Pacific, Radio Tahiti began using 15170 kHz. and put in a surprisingly strong signal at 0300 sign on. It was also heard on 11825 kHz. The growth of broadcasting in Papua New Guinea continued, with two new stations coming on the air: Radio Madang, 3260 kHz., and Radio Morobe, 3220. Both transmitted with 2 kw. Three other PNG stations increased their power to 2 kw.: Radio Goroka, Radio Mount Hagen, and Radio Kerema (later renamed Radio Gulf). Radio Milne Bay, previously known as Radio Samarai, increased power to 10 kw. and moved from 3235 to 3360 kHz. And on Christmas eve, Radio Vila in the New Hebrides increased power from 500 watts to 2 kw.

The Radio Republik Indonesia station in Palembang was one of numerous stations which, with careful tuning, could be heard from Indonesia.

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Radio Vila became Radio Vanuatu when the New Hebrides achieved independence in 1980.

1972 Budget cuts led to the near extinction of the shortwave service of Österreichischer Rundfunk. The station survived, but the event presaged an uncertain future for many shortwave stations. A number of new high power transmitting bases opened in Europe. The Swiss Broadcasting Corp. inaugurated a 500 kw. transmitter at Sottens. Deutsche Welle opened a new 500 kw. transmission center at Wertachtel. DW also began work on a major new relay station on Malta. East Germany’s Radio Berlin International also entered the high power race, with the installation of 500 kw. transmitters at Nauen and the start of a ten-year long transmitter upgrade project. In April, the VOA opened a 250 kw. relay base at Kavala, Greece. The U.S. turned over to Greece the VOA Thessaloniki facility and its 35 kw. transmitters. The Greek government was also given broadcast time on the new 250 kw. units. In addition, the Greek ERT (Ethnikon Idhryma Radiophonias), successor to the NHBI (National Hellenic Broadcasting Institute), installed two 100 kw. shortwave transmitters of its own at Avlis, near Athens, for the use of the Voice of Greece, which had long been operating with a modest 7.5 kw. The Forces Broadcasting Service in Greece dropped its shortwave transmissions on 6045 kHz. A small (1 kw.) army station in Vienna, Austria, Schulungssender des Österreichischen Bundesheeres, was a favorite target of serious DXers, several of whom were

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

able to hear it on 6255 kHz. around 0600. Another sought-after Austrian target was Österreichischer Rundfunk’s 1 kw. transmitter at Aldrans which carried the European program at 0400–2305 on 6000 kHz. An interesting station was Radio Petrozavodsk, in what was then known as the Karelian A.S.S.R., an “autonomous republic” of the Soviet Union. Until 1956 it had been known as the Karelo-Finnish S.S.R., and it had separate country status on the NASWA country list. As a result, many DXers pursued the station, which could be heard in America in the winter on 4780 and 5065 kHz. A number of communist parties sponsored “clandestine” broadcasts which were transmitted over the shortwave transmitters of various East European countries. The Portuguese communist party operated Radio Portugal Libre. Originally it transmitted from Algeria, then from Romania, on a variety of frequencies including approximately 11510 and 15480 kHz. (seemingly the same transmitters used by Radio España Independiente). The Voice of Truth, operated by the outlawed, communist-oriented United Democratic Left of Greece, broadcast on 7335 and 9776 kHz., originally from Romania, then from Bulgaria. Bizim Radio (“Our Radio”), the voice of the Turkish communist party, was on 9500 kHz. as well as other channels. It had been on the air since 1958 via East Germany, Romania, and finally Bulgaria. A station called the Voice of the Turkish Communist Party was active from East Germany, and could be heard on 6200, 9585 and 11820 kHz. In North America, RCI shortwave personality Earle Fisher retired. Her had been the

The Austrian Army Radio Station was a rare early morning catch on 6255 kHz.

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long-time host of the station’s mailbag program, “Listeners’ Corner,” which had been on the air since 1947. He was succeeded by Bob MacGregor, who hosted the program until it left the air in 1975. A few more pirate stations appeared: another “Purple Pumpkin,” this time on 9752 kHz. and identifying as WXWL; and a station just above the broadcast band, WYBH, on 1611 kHz. While not strictly shortwave, this frequency range would become a home to many U.S. pirates. In the Middle East, largely as a result of the need to combat Soviet jamming, Kol Israel began testing a new 300 kw. transmitter. The Voice of the United Arab Emirates, Abu Dhabi, increased power to 120 kw. and was more widely heard on its new channel of 9695 kHz. (soon changed to 9620). A new station in a new radio country, Swaziland Commercial Radio— identifying for several years as Swazi Music Radio, then as Swazi Radio and finally as Radio S-R— began broadcasting in February. Owned and operated by Intermedia, a company in Kansas City, Missouri, it could be heard on 6155 kHz. from 0400 sign on. The station was located at Sandlane in Swaziland, just 400 meters from the South African border near Amsterdam in the Transvaal, and the pop music format targeted a South African audience. Later the station would be heard on 4980 kHz.8 Another new commercial broadcaster from the same part of the world was Lakeland Radio. Using the facilities of the Malawi Broadcasting Corp., it was heard on 6000 and 9510 kHz. It closed after about a year. Radio Brazzaville, the famous “Free French” station of World War II, was taken over by the Congolese government. It had continued to be operated by ORTF, Paris, and had carried ORTF programming, even after the Congo’s independence in 1960. Mauritius had not been reported for several years. Toward the end of the year, the Mauritius Broadcasting Corp. appeared on 9710 kHz. and was heard for a short time until sign off at 1300. Radio Rwanda was often heard on 6055 kHz. opening at 0330, a frequency still in use. And the programs of Radio Sahara in the Spanish Sahara were noted on a new channel of 4627 kHz. But Radio Sahara had already left shortwave; 4627 was a 5 kw. utility transmitter relaying the station’s medium wave programming from El Aaiun to Villa Cisneros. A number of regional stations were still operating in Mozambique. These included Quelimane on 3320 and 4902 kHz.; Porto Amelia on 4936 and 7175; Nampula on 3355, 4946, 4958 and 7253; and Beira on 3235, 3265, 3370, 4890 and 9635 Khz. Rarely were these audible in the United States, save for Beira, which had a 100 kw. transmitter. In September, Radio Belize in British Honduras returned to the air on its old frequency of 3300 kHz. It was off again by year’s end, however. (Although the country was commonly referred to locally as Belize, that did not become its official name until 1973. It gained full independence in 1981.) In November, a new Guatemalan station was heard on 4835 kHz. It was TGTZ, Radio Tezulutlan, Cobán, and it put in a strong signal until close at 2400. These were test transmissions, as the station, which was cultural and non-commercial, had not yet been licensed.9 From Honduras, HRRH, La Voz de Occidente, Santa Rosa de Copán, could be heard on 5960 kHz. around 2330, and HRVK, Radio San Isidro, La Ceiba, would make an occasional appearance on 4845 kHz. around 0200. The only shortwave broadcaster left in Panama, the elusive HOU31, La Voz del Baru, David, Panama, which could still be heard occasionally on 6045 kHz., left the air. Although in the late 1980s there were rumors that Panama was seeking funding from Cuba to pur-

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chase two high-power SWBC transmitters from Czechoslovakia, the country never returned to shortwave. The number of Nicaraguan stations had declined but several were still audible, including YNM, Radio Nacional, Managua, which could be heard on 11875 kHz. in both the morning and evening hours. Less often reported were YNCA, Radio Atlantico, Bluefields, on 6120 kHz., and YNTP, Radio Mar, Puerto Cabezas, on 9580. A new Colombian station was HJLZ, La Voz del Cinaruco, Arauca, on 4865 kHz. It operated with a 1 kw. home-built transmitter, and would be heard on the same channel for many years. Radio Nacional de Brasilia began an experimental English-language service in the evenings on 11720 and 15445 kHz. It produced a very good signal in the United States, but it was short lived. From Ecuador, the 2 kw. station, HCGM7, Radio Rio Amazonas, Macuma, was often heard on 4870 kHz. Another well-heard station was HCRT6, Radio Paz y Bien, Ambato, on 4820. An official broadcasting list of the Ecuadorean government showed stations on some 70 shortwave frequencies. While the list was not thought entirely accurate, it illustrated the extent of shortwave broadcasting activity in the country.¡0 Although 60 meter band Bolivian stations were among the less well-heard broadcasters from South America, those that were on the air and reported from time to time included Radio Mamoré, Guayaramerin, on 4600 kHz.; CP114, Radio San Miguel, Riberalta, 4700; CP73, Radio Nueva America, La Paz, on 4797; CP117, Radio Riberalta, 4283; CP70, Radio Grigotá, Santa Cruz, 4823; CP72, Radio Fides, La Paz, 4845; CP66, Radio Centenario, Santa Cruz, 4855; CP48, R. Universo, La Paz, 5015; and CP38, Radiodifusoras Altiplano, La Paz, 5045 kHz. A few loggings of the Falkland Islands Broadcasting Service were reported. The station varied in frequency a bit, but was usually heard on 3943 kHz., slightly below its nominal frequency of 3958. Ceylon changed its name and the Ceylon Broadcasting Corp. became the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corp. DXers were beginning to learn more about reception of the All India Radio stations operating in the tropical bands. As would become increasingly evident, under the proper conditions these stations could sometimes be heard for brief periods, both in the morning and in the evening. Among those heard were Bhopal on 3315 kHz., Gauhati on 4775, Bombay, 4840, Kurseong, 4895, and Madras, 4920. A number of interesting Asian stations made appearances. Following reports by a DXer on Truk, Emissora de Radiodifusão de Timor Portugues, Dili, in the Portuguese colony of Timor, was heard by a number of American DXers around 1200 on the out-of-band channel of 3668 kHz. Another infrequently heard station was Radio Malaysia Sabah in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah. It operated on 4970 and 5980 kHz., and was occasionally audible around dawn. Broadcasting from Kashmir, an area disputed by India and Pakistan, was Azad Kashmir Radio. It could sometimes be heard on 4730 kHz. around 1200. The station’s headquarters and its transmitter were in Muzaffarabad, although many years earlier the transmitter had operated from a truck in Trarkhel. Azad Kashmir Radio was under Pakistani control, and it also broadcast a separate program over the Radio Pakistan transmitters at Rawalpindi (which sometimes still identified as Trarkhel). Some happy DXers managed to obtain verifications of their reception of Azad Kashmir Radio.

By the 1970s, east coast DXers were learning more about the morning and evening windows during which signals from the Indian regional stations could be heard for short periods. This QSL verifies reception of the All India Radio station in Madras.

Sabah, located in the northern part of Borneo, became part of Malaysia in 1963.

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The Thai TV Co., Bangkok, was one of a few Thai stations, besides Radio Thailand, that operated on shortwave and that were heard in the United States. Sometimes it made an appearance around 1100 on 6010 or 7106 kHz.¡¡ Two North Vietnamese regional stations were identified. They were Tay Bac, a three-province autonomous region (capital, Son La), on 4767, 6285 and 9875 kHz.; and a five-province autonomous region, Viet Bac (capital, Thai Nguyen), on 6708 kHz. There was much clandestine activity. A number of African broadcasters carried “liberation” programs that were only nominally clandestine.¡2 From the Zambia Broadcasting Service in Lusaka, and Radiodiffusion Television Congolaise, Brazzaville, could be heard the Voice of Fighting Angola (also known as the Voice of the Angolan Revolution), sponsored by the MPLA, the Moscow-Peking supported Movimento Popular de Libertação de Angola. Another Angolan program, the Voice of Free Angola, was transmitted from La Vox du Zaire in Kinshasa and from Radio Lubumbashi. Radio Algeria carried A Voz da Liberdade, sponsored by the FNLA (Frente Nacional de Libertação de Angola). Radio Tanzania carried programs for a number of southern African groups, e.g., ZANU (Zimbabwe African National Union), ZAPU (Zimbabwe African People’s Movement), FRELIMO (Frente de Libertação de Mozambique), SWAPO (South West African People’s Organization, Namibia), and South Africa’s African National Congress (ANC). Many stations would carry such programs throughout the 1970s. A number of clandestine stations representing various branches of the Palestinian movement were on the air, including the Voice of the Storm, “Voice of Palestine, Voice of the Palestinian Revolution,” and Voice of Fatah. These programs were transmitted from various Arab capitals including Baghdad, Cairo, Algiers and Damascus. “Voice of Palestine, Voice of the Palestinian Revolution” would remain on the air for many years.¡3 In Southeast Asia, the Voice of the People of Thailand, the Thai communist party station, could be heard on 6034, 9423 and 12102 kHz. It had begun operating in 1962 from transmitters believed to be in China. China was also thought to be the site of the communist party station, Voice of the People of Burma, which began operating in 1972. Two Laotian clandestines were the Voice of the Pathet Lao on 4660, 6199 and 7310 kHz., and Radio of the Patriotic Neutralist Forces on 4250, 6273 and 8600 kHz. And three anti–Maoist stations, believed to be broadcasting from Soviet facilities, were Radio Fighters on 7520 kHz., Radio Sparks on 7185 and 9600, and Voice of the Liberation Army on 7290, 9660 and 11795 kHz. Although their presence was only then becoming known to many DXers, they had been operating since the beginning of the cultural revolution in 1966. In the Pacific, the Fiji Broadcasting Commission left shortwave, converting its shortwave transmitters to medium wave frequencies. And a new station came on the air from Papua New Guinea. It was Radio Northern District, Popondetta, operating with 2 kw. on 2468 kHz.

1973 Radio Sweden’s new 500 kw. transmitters in Karlsborg and Hörby came into use, resulting in a big improvement in the station’s signal. (“This is the Swedish Telecommunications Administration testing on a frequency between 5.95 and 26.1 MHz. a new 500

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kw. shortwave broadcasting transmitter, SCB2, located at Karlsborg, Sweden.”) The increase in power compensated for the slightly less reliable signal that was the product of the station’s northerly location. Radio Luxembourg increased power, seemingly from 50 kw. to 250 kw. on 6090 kHz., the famous station’s principal shortwave channel (mainly in German, with some English), and from 6 kw. to 50 kw. on 15350 (French). This produced a big improvement in signal quality. Although it was mainly a point-to-point utility station, Reykjavik Radio in Iceland began transmitting a broadcast program at 1200–1300 via its 5 kw. transmitter on 12175 kHz. This officially reactivated a country that was to have dropped SWBC programming around 1965 but that had been heard with occasional SWBC transmissions in the intervening years. Südwestfunk in Baden-Baden, Germany was still on the air after many years, putting in a good signal from its 20 kw. sender on 7265 kHz. around 0300 (the transmitter was in Rohrdorf ). Sender Freies Berlin could be heard on 6190 kHz., as could Süddeutscher Rundfunk, Stuttgart, which operated from Mühlacker on 6030 kHz. (20 kw.). Radio Netherlands designated 1973 as World DX Friendship Year.¡4 Radio Free Europe began a Saturday night program that included commentary in English as well as Eastern European languages (which rotated each week). And the Secretaria de Estado da Infor-

Few stations have a longer history than Radio Luxembourg. Founded in 1933, it played an important role in the development of commercial radio in Europe.

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Radio Netherlands led the way in designating 1973 as World DX Friendship Year.

mação e Turismo (SEIT) in Portugal began presenting tourist programs over Radio TransEurope, Sines, for listeners in the Scandinavian and Benelux countries. CIA support of RFE-RL ceased and the stations were placed under the jurisdiction of a new, presidentially appointed Board for International Broadcasting, established solely to provide funding and oversight for the stations. On October 20, 1973, Family Stations, Inc. purchased WNYW, by then owned by a subsidiary of the Mormon church. The call letters were changed to WYFR and the station began identifying as Family Radio. WYFR had been purchasing air time over WNYW since January 1973. Now the entire output of the former WRUL would be gospel programming produced at Family Radio headquarters in Oakland, California. Occasionally the VOA was found in single sideband, feeding its programs to the overseas relay stations. These were utility transmissions, and sometimes there would be a distinctive ID, e.g “This is a VOA transmitter operating point-to-point in the fixed service.” A fire at CJCX, Sydney, Nova Scotia, Canada, brought the station to an end. It had been a beacon on 6010 kHz. since coming on the air in 1936. A few new North American pirate stations were heard, including WTIT, the “Voice of Young America,” on 1610 and 7415 kHz., and WARC, “ARCO Radio Network,” on 6217. The year’s biggest pirate news was in September with the brief appearance of Dr. Carl McIntyre’s Radio Free America on 1160 kHz. in the standard broadcast band. McIntyre, a fundamentalist minister and originator of the syndicated “20th Century Reformation Hour,” had lost the license for BCBer WXUR, and, taking a cue from the early European offshore

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pirates, decided to take to the sea and operate from a 10 kw. shipboard transmitter off Cape May, New Jersey. A three-hour test transmission resulted in a fire aboard the 150 foot wooden minesweeper. The first and only regular broadcast was on September 19; an injunction obtained by the FCC forced him off the air. Plans for further broadcasts on 1608 kHz. came to naught.¡5 The Broadcasting Service of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia upgraded its Riyadh transmitters from 50 to 350 kw. and thereafter was heard with strong signals worldwide. DXers were happy to hear on-air announcements requesting reception reports. Kol Israel began a North American service in English and French at 0500–0530 and 1130–1230 on 9009 and 11960 kHz., among other frequencies. It was dropped in 1974, however. A prime time service to North America was reconsidered occasionally and would be tried again in 1980. And another local Turkish station, the police-operated Türkiye Polis Radyosu, Ankara, appeared on 6340 kHz. around 0600. Iran became the target of a number of new clandestine stations opposing the Shah. A station adhering closely to the Ayatollah Khomeini’s philosophy was the Voice of the Iranian Nation, which had operated from Iraq since 1965. Other anti–Shah clandestines included the Iraq-based Voice of the United Front of the Peoples of Iran (9598 and 17720 kHz.), and Radio of the Patriots, located in Libya. The conflict among factions seeking an independent Kurdistan, and the shifting Iraqi and Iranian interests in the Kurdish conflict, led to two Kurdish clandestine stations. The Voice of Iranian Kurdistan broadcast from Iraq. It commenced operation in 1973 on 7000 and 7402 kHz. Various incarnations of the Voice of Iraqi Kurdistan operated on and off from Iran during the period 1965–1970, favoring frequencies between 6.2 and 6.3 MHz. It returned in 1974 and has remained on the air almost continually ever since. As always, Africa was a prime DX target. One of the best heard, low frequency, Englishlanguage stations was Radio Ghana. Its strongest channel was 4915 kHz., although 3366 also did well. The station was heard daily, opening at 0530 and closing down at 2300. RadioTelevision Kaduna, Nigeria, was heard on 9570 kHz. until 2215 sign off. The Nigerian Broadcasting Corp. station in Sokoto could sometimes be heard battling it out with the BBC on 6195 kHz. around 0600. (In the 1980s it would change its name to Rima Radio.) And Radio Zambia, Lusaka, put a new 50 kw. Chinese-built transmitter into operation. The station’s new external service was heard well on 17895 kHz. until around 2100. Radio Hargeisa, Somalia, was now using 10 kw. on 7160 kHz. and 5 kw. on 11670. Radio Maldives was operating on a number of channels, including 3331, 4740, 6150, 7225 and 9538 kHz., but was practically impossible to hear in the United States. Radio Cotonou, Dahomey, became La Voix de la Révolution in 1973. And in December, Radio Tchad increased power on 4904.5 kHz. to 100 kw. French-speaking countries were a major DX presence in Africa. A regular afternoon log was Radio Bangui, Central African Republic, on 5038 kHz. It was heard to 2400 sign off. Radio Abidjan, in the Ivory Coast, was well heard in the afternoons on 11920 kHz. and used some English in its broadcasts. A less frequent visitor was La Voix de la Révolution, Bujumbura, Burundi, sometimes audible on 6140 kHz., opening at 0330 through heavy interference. Also heard occasionally was the low-powered (4 kw.) regional station of Radiodiffusion Television Gabonaise in Franceville, Gabon, on 4830 kHz. It was on until 2300 sign off.

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Radio Tchad, in the former French Equatorial Africa, was often heard when operating with 4 kw. It became even stronger in 1973 when it boosted power to 100 kw.

Radio Lubumbashi, Zaire, continued to be heard with intermittent transmissions on 11866 kHz. until 2000 sign off. Sometimes it was logged on 4750 kHz. around 0400 as well. And from the “other” (formerly French) Congo, now known as the People’s Republic of the Congo, Radiodiffusion Television Congolaise, Brazzaville, identifying as La Voix de la Révolution Congolaise, put in a good signal during afternoon hours on 15190 kHz. From August to November, the St. Helena Government Broadcasting Service carried out tests to determine the feasibility of a service for St. Helenians living on Ascension Island, approximately 700 miles away. The frequencies were 6100 and 11830 kHz. The attempt to establish a link between St. Helena’s 400-watt transmitter and available nonprofessional receivers on Ascension was not successful, however, and the plans were scrapped. The DX press contained no reliable reports of reception of these transmissions in the United States, and shortwave broadcasting from St. Helena was shelved until events brought the station to air in 1990. Although the Windward Islands Administration had been replaced by the Federation of the West Indies in 1958, it was not until 1973 that the Windward Islands Broadcasting Service took the name of its island home and became Radio Grenada. It was a regular presence on 5015 kHz. until 2400, when listeners could retune to 3300 kHz. and hear it there. The station also broadcast on 15105 kHz. until around 2130. (“This is Radio Grenada broadcasting on 15105 in the 19 meter band. We broadcast daily from 2000 to 2130. Our transmission is directed to the U.K.”) Grenada gained full independence in 1974, and the station was heard infrequently thereafter. Cable & Wireless in the Turks & Caicos Islands was again active with broadcast programming several days a week until around 2300 on 4788 kHz. Identifications included “This is the 500 watt sound of solid gold from Grand Turk, Radio Turk Island,” and “This is Radio 4788.”

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Although the number of Haitian stations had declined markedly, one recently returned to air was 4VWA, Radio Citadelle, Cap Haitien, which was heard around 2300 on 6147 kHz. The station disappeared within a few months, but later returned. YVNK, Radio Juventud, Barquisimeto, 4900 kHz., returned to the air after a long absence. Also reactivated was YVOA, Radio Táchira, San Cristóbal, Venezuela, on 4830 kHz. A mystery station in Colombia on 5568 kHz. turned out to be Ecos de Puerto Martinez, heard often until sign off around 0230. Located in a remote settlement 150 km. from Quibdo, it operated with approximately 150 watts and initally was unlicensed. The friendly gerente was happy to respond to listener reports. Late in the year, two new Colombian stations were heard: from Quibdo, HJOT, Brisas del Citará, a 1 kw. station on 5032 kHz.; and on 5950 kHz., HJNX, Radio Super de Medellin. A new Peruvian station was OBZ4Z, Radio Chinchaycocha, Junin, on 4855 kHz. OAX4J, Radio La Cronica, Lima, was a strong presence in the evenings on 9520 kHz. Also heard well were OBX4U, Radio America, Lima, on 3240 kHz., and OBX4K, Radio Selecta, Lima, on 9587. More shortwave stations were being set up in rural Peru as electricity supplies improved and became more reliable.¡6 Under good conditions, many Brazilian stations could be heard on 90 meters, including ZYL23, Radio Educadora Palmares de Alagoas, Maceió, on 3245 kHz.; ZYR62, Radio Clube de Marilia, on 3255; ZYR92, Radio Ribeirão Preto, 3265; ZYE54, Radio Alvorada de Londrina, 3345; ZYS45, Radio Difusora do Paraná, Londrina, 3365; ZYK28, Radio Olinda, Pernambuco, 3375; and ZYC50, Radio Clube de Conquista, Vitória de Conquista, 3395. In September, a military coup in Chile overthrew President Salvador Allende and the military temporarily took over several radio stations, including CE613, Radio Universidad de Concepción on 6135 kHz.; CE956, Radio Portales, Santiago, on 9570; and CE1515, Radio Corporación, Santiago, on 15150. Shortwave listeners heard these stations identifying variously as “Radiodifusion Television de las Fuerzas Armadas de Chile” and “Radio de las Fuerzas Armadas de los Carabinieros Chilenos.” A year later, Radio Universidad de Concepción was still announcing, in English, as “University of Concepción Radio, serving the Chilean armed forces.” Many other stations remained untouched. Major jamming against Radio Havana Cuba and the South American service of Radio Moscow was soon attributed to the new Chilean government. In February, Radio Pakistan dedicated its first 250 kw. transmitter. It was located in Islamabad, and the increase from 100 kw. greatly improved reception. The Voice of Malaysia, the overseas service of Radio-Television Malaysia in Kuala Lumpur, set up a 100 kw. transmitter in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, a state of Malaysia located on the island of Borneo. Radio Ulan Bator, Mongolia, was heard on 6383 kHz. around 1200. Radio Nepal was often heard on exactly 5000 kHz., even though its use of the channel put it directly under dominant WWV. New from Asia was Bangkok Meteorological Radio, Thailand, principally a maritime station which broadcast Thai and western music, together with weather forecasts in Thai and English for nearby ships. The station commenced operations in October using 10 kw. transmitters on 7863 and 11645 kHz. When conditions were favorable, the 7 MHz. channel could be heard from around 1000 to sign off at 1330. The station moved to 6510 kHz., then announced it would close down in June 1975.

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In South Korea, the Voice of Free Korea became Radio Korea. A clandestine station in North Korea on 4560 kHz. was the Voice of the Revolutionary Party for Reunification. Countering it was the Voice of Hope on 3960 and 6335 kHz., a “black” South Korean army station which had begun operations in 1968 and whose shadowy existence would make it an interesting DX target for many years. (It was later known as Echo of Hope.) More was being learned about a largely unknown group of Indonesian broadcasters. These low power, poorly modulated stations, generally operating between the 75, 90 and 120 meter bands, belonged to local governmental units and typically identified as “Radio Pemerintah Daera Kabupatan...,” meaning radio of a particular “administrative” or “regional” government. They often relayed news from Jakarta and were easily mistaken for Radio Republik Indonesia stations. Another largely unknown group of stations was the unlicensed “amatirs,” perhaps 750 to 1,000 in number, putting out broadcast programs over 50–100 watt Japanese war surplus equipment. As one commentator put it, “One may compare radio in Indonesia to an iceberg. You see a top, a very small top of it, but what you do not see is the huge mass below the surface.”¡7 Papua New Guinea continued to bring new stations on line, including four in 1973: Radio Chimbu (later Radio Simbu), Kundiawa, on 2376 kHz.; Radio Southern Highlands, Mendi, 3275; Radio New Ireland, Kavieng, 2428 kHz.; and Radio West New Britain, Kimbe, 2340 kHz. All operated with transmitters of 2 kw., and this, combined with the vagaries of 120 meter band propagation, made these stations a challenge to hear.

1974 Radio Budapest, Hungary, brought a 250 kw. transmitter on line at Jászberény and began using it for broadcasts to northern Europe. ORU in Belgium likewise upgraded to 250 kw. And a 250 kw. Deutsche Welle relay station on Malta, located on a peninsula called Cyclops, went into operation on shortwave. Listeners started hearing it in August, with announcements requesting reception reports.¡8 (“This is Radio Deutsche Welle, transmitter Malta.”) Deutsche Welle also announced that it was considering dropping all its transmissions to North America, including its nightly three hours of English. Although this did not happen, English programming to North America was much reduced. The abandonment of shortwave by ORTF, Paris, proved to be a rumor. Radio Canada International began transmitting some programs via the DW Malta facility, an arrangement that lasted only a short time, however, owing to a conflict between the governments on an unrelated matter. The VOA and the BBC each expanded the availability of their facilities to the other. The VOA began using the BBC relay station on Ascension, and BBC programming was heard on shortwave via the VOA stations at Greenville, Dixon and Delano. (On medium wave, the VOA was already using the BBC Crowborough facility, and the BBC was transmitting over VOA Munich.) RCI’s Sackville transmitters also relayed BBC programs. And in 1974 the BBC closed its Tatsfield receiving station, a facility separate from the BBC Monitoring Service in Caversham. Radio Nordsee International closed on August 31, a victim of the Dutch Marine Offenses Act. In addition, after the fall of Portugal’s Fascist regime in April, the Portuguese communist party’s clandestine station, Radio Portugal Libre, closed. It had been on the

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air for more than 12 years. The 17-year-old Greek clandestine, the Voice of Truth, closed in 1975. On January 1, WWV began describing the time in “UTC” rather than “GMT.” In November, it added K index and solar flux information to its announcements. The biggest DX news of the year was the appearance of the American Forces Antarctic Network (AFAN), broadcasting on 6012 kHz. to scientists and forces in the area from the U.S. base at McMurdo Sound. Listeners started hearing the 24 hour, 1 kw. station in September, and on good days it put in a decent, albeit modest, signal in the morning around 0900. It was the first broadcast programming from the Antarctic since the Byrd Antarctic expedition of 1933–34.¡9 Billing itself as “the southernmost radio station in the world,” AFAN was happy to hear from listeners and was a good verifier. It would continue to be heard well into the 1980s, when it dropped shortwave, remaining on FM. The religious broadcaster, Trans World Radio, had been constructing a 25 kw. shortwave station in Swaziland, and in October it was heard with ten-minute test transmissions on 6175, 7135, 9615 and 11730 kHz., as well as other frequencies. Regular broadcasting began soon after, and DXers were happy when the station issued special first-day and firstweek QSLs. Eventually it increased power to 100 kw. Elsewhere on the continent, in a joint undertaking between Deutsche Welle and the Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service, a 250 kw. shortwave station was built at Waterloo, Sierra Leone, for the use of the two broadcasters. It was inaugurated in October. While some Deutsche Welle test transmissions were heard on 5980 kHz. in the station’s early days, it soon reverted to use almost exclusively by SLBS, which was now heard at strong levels on 5980 and 3316 kHz. “Forget this country as DX!” noted one DXer. Africa was still the source of many hard-to-hear stations. Radio CORDAC, Burundi, was heard on 4900 kHz. after 0400 when the Venezuelan station on the channel, Radio Juventud, signed off. The rare Radio Mbuji-Mayi, Zaire, was sometimes possible on its frequency of 7295 kHz., also after other stations on the frequency cleared out (at 0500). It operated with 10 kw. Radio Santa Isabel, Equatorial Guinea, on 6250 kHz., became Radio Malabo. It was well heard, although the transmitter suffered frequent outages and would be unheard for months at a time. Better was the signal from Radio Senegal, Dakar, which operated on 11895 kHz. at 1800–2400. Angolan stations continued to be prime east coast DX targets in the late afternoon and around midnight. Among those heard were Radio Commercial de Angola, Sá da Bandeira, 4795 kHz.; A Voz do Zaire, São Salvador, 4885; CR6RO, Radio Clube do Bie, Silva Porto, 4895; CR6RS, Radio Clube do Lobito, 4937; CR6RB, Radio Ecclesia, Luanda, 4985; CR6RW, Radio Clube de Cabinda, 5032 (sometimes relaying Radio Clube de Benguela); and CR6RV, Radio Clube do Moxico, Luso, 5075. XERH, Radio Tricolor, Mexico City, put in a strong signal on both 11880 and 15110 kHz. It was on the air most of the day, from 1400 to 0200, playing Mexican music and giving station identification. Reorganizations soon led to a variety of on-air IDs, including “Radio Fiesta” and “Radio Seis.” Two Mexican stations that were reactivated but still heard infrequently were XECMT, Ciudad Mante, on 6090 kHz., and XEDPM, La Voz del Maestro, Mexico City, on 6185. A number of new stations came on the air from the Americas. New from Costa Rica was TIUCR, Radio Universidad de Costa Rica, San Pedro Montes de Oca, on 6105 kHz.

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There were two new outlets in the Dominican Republic. One was HIAQ, Radio Norte, Santiago, on 4807 kHz. (later 4785), a station that put in a strong signal around 0400. The other was HILR, Radio Clarin, Santo Domingo, 4850 kHz., first heard in April with a good signal both mornings and evenings. There was a nightly English program, “Clarin International,” in which reception reports were acknowledged. The 3 kw. station announced that it was also transmitting on 11700 kHz., a 50 kw. channel originally conceived as a means of serving the large Dominican community in the New York metropolitan area. That frequency was not heard until December, however. New stations from Colombia included HJOX, Radio Surcolombiana, Neiva, heard in the evenings on 5010 kHz.; HJFR, La Voz del Huila, also in Neiva, good around 0300 on 6150 kHz.; and HJBG, La Voz de la Selva, Florencia, on 6170 kHz., which could be heard signing on at 1000. A Peruvian station with the same name, OAX8R, La Voz de la Selva (formerly called Radio San Jose), in Iquitos, was also regularly audible on 4825 kHz. And Radio Samaren, Iquitos, on 4815 (OAX8V) and 9770 kHz. (OAX8D), also sometimes used the slogan, “La Voz de la Selva Peruana.” (Selva means jungle in Spanish.) The long absent YVNM, Radio Coro, Venezuela, resurfaced on 4950 kHz. with a good signal around 0300 sign off and again in the morning around 1000. Three infrequently heard Venezuelan stations were positively identified in 1974. They were YVSB, Radio Los Andes, Mérida, on 6010 kHz.; YVWK, Radio Anzoatégui, Anaco, on 6020; and YVWO, Radio Canaima, San Felix, on 6159 kHz. Radio Nacional de Venezuela could be heard with English at 0030 on two high frequencies, 11750 and 15390 kHz. However, the only South American country that made extensive use of the higher frequencies for domestic broadcasting was Brazil, which had many stations in the 19, 25 and 31 meter bands. Among those regularly reported on 25 meters were ZYW28, Radio Club de Goiânia, 11735 kHz.; PRL8, Radio Nacional de Brasilia, 11780; ZYU61, Radio Guaiba, Porto Alegre, 11785; ZYW24, Radio Brasil Central, Goiânia, 11815; ZYB85, Radio Club de Pernambuco, Recife, 11865; PRC23, Radio Gaucha, Porto Alegre, 11905; and ZYS35, Radio Club Paranaense, Curitiba, 11935. HCOS4, La Voz del Rio Carrizal, Calceta, Ecuador, moved from 3569 to 3260 kHz. and was widely heard until sign off around 0300. LRA34, Radio Nacional, in Mendoza, Argentina, could be heard opening at 0930 on 6180 kHz. After an absence, Radio Nacional del Paraguay, a station on and off shortwave for decades, returned to the air on 6025 kHz. And a DXer in South America counted 32 Bolivian shortwave stations that he was able to hear. A surprise visitor from Uruguay was the Montevideo station, CXA3, Radio Ariel, which was heard often in April around 0930 on 6075 kHz. Also confirmed to be on the air from Uruguay during the year were CW142, La Voz de Artigas, 4945 kHz., and a number of Montevideo stations: CXA61, Difusoras del Uruguay, 6045 kHz.; CXA13, Radio Carve, 6155; SODRE, on 9620 (CXA6) and 15273 (CXA14); CXA7, Radio Oriental, 11735; and CXA19, Radio El Espectador, 11835 kHz. The foreign service from Radio Nacional de Chile was a news program called the Voice of Chile, heard in English at 0430 on 6195 kHz. (“This is the Voice of Chile broadcasting on the 19, 25, 31 and 49 meter bands.”) The station broadcast 20-minute programs in Arabic, Russian, German, Italian, French, English and Spanish, but was on the air only erratically. Its main high frequency channel was 15150 kHz. (For a time in 1977 the station would identify as the Voice of Free Chile.)

Religious broadcaster Trans World Radio opened its station in Swaziland in 1974, and is still on the air.

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Radio Liberty stopped transmitting from Taiwan at the end of the year. The Soviet “Pacific Ocean Radio Station,” Radio Tikhy Okean, Vladivostok, transmitted on many frequencies to the Soviet fishing fleets and could sometimes be heard with an English program at 0930–1000. A new radio country, Bhutan, came on the air. The all-volunteer Radio NYAB (National Youth Association of Bhutan), Thimpu, broadcast on Sundays only at around 0830–1130 on 7050 kHz. It was heard irregularly, and only by listeners in South Asia, and its very existence was doubted by some. Although a DXer visited the station in August, his report that it was operating increased hours, and with a respectable power of 10 kw., was disputed by some knowledgeable DXers in the area who felt its power was closer to 1 kw. A station that was better heard, if mainly by west coasters, was Radio Nepal, which had an English program at 1430 on 3425 kHz. The transmitter on this frequency, which was located at Khumaltar, was 100 kw. (The 60 meter channel from Jawalakhel, then on 5007 kHz., was 5 kw.) Another rarely heard station that poked through on good days was Radiodiffusion Nationale Lao, Vientiane, on 6130 kHz., where it was sometimes heard around 1100–1130 if CHNX, Halifax, Nova Scotia was absent. Radio Sarawak, Kuching, could be heard on 4835 and 6060 kHz. A new outlet on 5005 kHz., heard around 1100, was soon confirmed to be located in Sibu. Serious DXers, particularly those living in central and western states, focused their

Careful tuning will still produce the clock strikes from Laos at 1200 UTC on 6130 kHz.

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attention on Indonesia, where many low-power Radio Republik Indonesia stations operated, most of them happy to reply to reception reports. In addition, good conditions and a favorable location would sometimes produce reception from some of the rarest of the Indonesian stations, the newly discovered non–RRI stations run by local governmental districts. Among these “RPDKs,” “RKPDs” and “RKPDKs,” as their long names were abbreviated, were broadcasters in such exotic places as Situbondo (3578 kHz.), Jember (3800), Sidoardjo (3894), Simalungun (4650), and Surabaya (3165, 4698 and 5560). To the delight of country counters, some radio country lists (including NASWA’s) counted the several island groups of Indonesia as separate radio countries. Except for Radio Peking, identifying stations from China was extremely difficult due to the language barrier and the practice of Chinese regional stations giving local identifications infrequently if at all. However, official sources identified the location of some of the transmitters, e.g., Foochow on 5900 and 7025 kHz., Urumchi on 5920, 6135, 6280, 7075 and 7385, Lhasa on 5935, Harbin on 5950, Kunming on 5960, Hsining on 6260 and 9495, Chengtu on 7225, and Lanchow on 7325.20 Again, for country counters using the NASWA list, Tibet and Manchuria counted as separate countries. A sought after if seldom heard Chinese station, always shrouded in some mystery, was the Peihai Fishery Station in Peihai, Kwangsi Chuang Autonomous Region, operating on or near 8770 kHz. Its programs were intended for Chinese fishermen in the Gulf of Tonkin and the South China Sea. China had been the target of several Soviet “black” clandestines since 1966. From 1974 the stations appeared to merge into one, sometimes identifying as the Proletarian Battle Division, sometimes as Voice of the Liberation Army. The station made many 12-minute transmissions each day on 7165, 7290, 7525 or 9600 kHz. A new station in Papua New Guinea came on the air. It was Radio Central District, Boroko, operating with 2 kw. on 3290 kHz. The Solomon Islands Broadcasting Service could be heard on 3995 and 9545 kHz. from around 0700. (The 3995 kHz. channel soon moved to 5015, then 5020.) On Christmas Eve, Cyclone Tracy put the Radio Australia shortwave transmitters in Darwin off the air. In order to replace ABC Darwin medium wave station 8DR, which had lost its transmitter, and to serve Darwin evacuees, local 8DR programming was fed to Melbourne and transmitted to Darwin via the Shepparton shortwave transmitters. In Darwin it was picked up and relayed by other Darwin medium wave stations on 8DR’s 650 kHz. channel. In February and March 1975 there were brief ABC test transmissions on shortwave from Gnangara, a U.S. satellite tracking site near Perth, and these led to the decision to set up a new Radio Australia shortwave transmitter base at Carnarvon, which came on line the following year. Darwin came back into use for brief emergency periods in 1979, and was brought back to full use in 1984. The year was one of great but unfulfilled hope for the reception of signals from several out-of-the way places. NASWA arranged for three special broadcasts to take place — from the Cook Islands, the Maldives, and from a rarely heard Polish station. The Radio Cook Islands broadcast was to have taken place at 1100 on February 18, 1974 on 11760 kHz. Conditions were poor and no one heard it, and while the station said that it had indeed carried the broadcast, New Zealanders, who monitored the frequency closely, claimed it was not on. An interesting sidelight of this event was that the VOA temporarily vacated the frequency for the test (Radio Havana Cuba did not and was heard weakly).

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The Radio Maldives special at 1100 and 1215 on March 12, 1974, the station’s tenth anniversary, was broadcast as planned on 4740 kHz., a 30 kw. channel. However, conditions again were poor and nothing was heard stateside. Under the best of conditions, North American loggings of Radio Maldives were few. Finally, the Polish Pathfinders Station was to broadcast at 1430, 1830 and 2300 on June 1, 1974 over its usual 300 watt frequency of 6850 kHz. The last time slot would have been at least possible, if something of a long shot, for east coasters. However, the transmission was cancelled due to renovations at the station, and was not rescheduled.

1975 The breakup of Office de Radiodiffusion-Télévision Francaise (ORTF) gave birth to Radio France International (RFI), the latest in a series of French shortwave broadcasting efforts that had included Poste Colonial (1931–1938), Paris Mondial (1938–1940), the German controlled Voice of France (1940–1944), Radiodiffusion Francaise and Radiodiffusion-Télévision Francaise (1945–1964), and ORTF (1964–1974). Although the shortwave transmitters at Allouis and Issoudun, now controlled by Télédiffusion de France (TDF), operated with 100 and 500 kw. respectively, RFI transmitted in English for only about an hour a day, and that was beamed to Africa (“Paris Calling Africa”). Most of the programming was in French, as it still is today. This was consistent with the long-standing mission of French shortwave: serving the French-speaking world. Radio Liberty moved into Radio Free Europe’s new facilities in Munich. The two stations would now share administrative resources and streamline their operations. Adventist World Radio started transmitting some of its programs via the Deutsche Welle relay station on Malta. Radio Mediterran, operated by the government of Malta, controlled transmission time not used by DW. A fast-paced tourist program, “Malta Calling,” was produced by Xandir Malta, part of the private Telemalta Corp. IBRA Radio also broadcast via Malta. Radio Norway’s 10 kw. station in Tromsø, which carried the home service to the North Atlantic on 7240 kHz., closed down. Österreichischer Rundfunk increased the power of its 1 kw. transmitter at Aldrans to 10 kw. A local station of Radiodiffusion Television Albanaise located in Gjirokaster carried the Albanian home service program on 5057 kHz. and was heard widely. The foreign service programming of Radio Tirana continued to be the dreariest of all the eastern bloc stations. A new station was Radio Oman. In September it started testing with 50 kw. on 11890 kHz. However, North American DXers found reception unpredictable. Turkey had intervened militarily in Cyprus in 1974 and occupied much of the northeastern part of the island. Now Bayrak Radio was heard on 6150 kHz. from the Turkish zone. It had operated on a makeshift basis for over ten years, and it would be a prime DX target for decades. At about the same time, the Voice of Turkey established an English-language service to North America. France Régions 3, St. Denis, Reunion, left shortwave. (France Régions 3 was the name of the French regional service at the time.) On the other side of Madagascar from Reunion, the French territory of Comoros split into the self-proclaimed Federal Islamic Republic of

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Comoros, with its capital at Moroni, Grande Comore, and the island of Mayotte, which remained French. Mayotte’s administrative center is Dzaoudzi. There had been a 4 kw. Radiodiffusion Television Francaise station at Dzaoudzi from 1960 to 1967, when the station was relocated to Moroni, from which it had continued to operate on 3331 and 7260 kHz. It became Radio Comoro after the split, and while a rare catch in America, it was sometimes heard around 0300. Several African stations upgraded their transmitters. FEBA, in the Seychelles, increased its maximum available power from 50 kw. to 100 kw., but operated some broadcasts at 25 kw. Radio Uganda inaugurated a 250 kw. transmitter at Soroti, and its external service signal was heard “like a ton of bricks” from sign on at 1900 to closedown at 2100 on 9730 kHz. And Radio Sahara, Spanish Sahara, returned to the air, this time with a 100 kw. transmitter on 6095 and 11805 kHz. Dahomey was renamed Benin, and its station, La Voix de la Révolution, 4870 kHz., was heard regularly in the afternoons. DXers began hearing a regional station of Radiodiffusion du Togo located in Lama-Kara, in the northern part of the country. It operated on 3222 and 6155 kHz. And at the end of the year, Radio Hargeisa, Somalia, became a regular log on 7121 kHz. Even better heard was Radio Mogadishu on its 31 meter, 50 kw. channel of 9585 kHz. Cape Verde was still well represented on shortwave. Both Radio Clube Cabo Verde, Praia, on 3885 kHz., and CR4AC, Radio Barlavento, São Vicente, 3930 kHz., were some-

Although there was a small shortwave station there, the Seychelles were rarely heard until 1969 when the Far East Broadcasting Assn. started religious broadcasting from this Indian Ocean paradise.

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Listeners were used to hearing the station in Lomé, Togo, but were surprised in 1975 when they started hearing a new regional station from Lama Kara, in Togo’s north.

times audible until around 2400, amateur interference permitting. (Radio Barlavento became Radio Voz do São Vicente in 1977.) Whether the more elusive CR4AB, Radio Clube Mindelo, São Vicente, 4720 kHz., was still active was in some doubt, although reports of its reception persisted for several years. The aftermath of the 1974 coup in Portugal was soon reflected in broadcasting from

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the country’s African colonies (called “overseas provinces”). After years of fighting, Mozambique became independent in June 1975. Radio Clube de Moçambique, Radio Pax and Emissora do Aero Clube da Beira were consolidated into Radio Moçambique, and there began a long deterioration in the country’s shortwave broadcasting services. In October, the South African Broadcasting Corp. started a new popular music channel, Radio Five. It began broadcasting the day after its popular Top 40 predecessor, “LM Radio,” the English and Afrikaans service of Radio Moçambique, was closed down. LM Radio had been run by the SABC since 1972, and had been carried on some South African non-shortwave domestic channels. Radio Five would be transmitted on shortwave starting in 1977.2¡ Angola gained independence in November and suffered a radio fate similar to that of Mozambique. For over a year there had been many frequency changes among the Angolan stations. In the runup to independence, the political parties, including MPLA and UNITA, both of which sponsored clandestine programs, were permitted regular transmission times over Emissora Oficial. Emisora Oficial took over Voz de Angola on January 1, and some other Angolans now carried only Emissora Oficial programming. After independence, some stations came under the control of political parties, e.g., Voz do Zaire on 4885 kHz. became an FNLA station, Voz de Angola Livre, while Radio Clube do Huambo on 5060 kHz. became a UNITA outlet, Voz de Revolução. The broadcasting situation became increasingly chaotic and many Angolan stations disappeared. To diehard American DXers, especially east coasters for whom the reception of small Angolan stations had been challenging but achievable, the 60 meter band would never be the same. In the summer, XERMX, Radio Mexico, was widely heard on 15385 kHz. with a strong signal. DXers who had been around for a while experienced déjà vu when a new station called Radio Swan came on the air. Though located in San Pedro Sula, Honduras rather than on Swan Island, the station, which operated on 6185 kHz., was, like its 1960–61 namesake, strongly anti-communist in tone. Soon it even moved to the old Swan frequency, 6000 kHz., before settling on 6015. Another new Honduran station was HROX, Radio Landia, Comayagua, on 4870 kHz. (it soon moved to 4965). Also new in Central America was TGMN, Radio Mam, Cabrican, Guatemala, which was heard in the evenings on 4825 kHz. Colombia continued to be a major source of shortwave signals. New was the 5 kw. station HJOQ, La Voz de los Centauros, Villavicencio, on 5962 kHz., and Radio Super de Cali, on 6120. Other stations heard were HJJU, Meridiano 70, Arauca, on 3280 kHz. (soon moved to 4927); HJKW, Emisora Kennedy, Bogota, 4775; HJCP, Ecos del Atrato, Quibdo, 5020; HJDE, Radio Cinco, Villavicencio, on 5040 kHz.; and HJTF, Ondas del Darien, Turbo, on 6085 kHz. A new Venezuelan station, YVKX, Radio Capital, Caracas, was heard on 4850 kHz. as Radio Clarin’s use of the channel became increasingly intermittent. Another Venezuelan, YVLC, Radio Valencia, 3355 kHz., changed its name to Radio Impacto. It was not unusual for Venezuelan stations, particularly those operating on 60 meters, to disappear for months at a time and then return. During a U.N. conference in Venezuela, Radio Nacional de Venezuela broadcast in English at 2200–2300 on 15390 kHz. and at 0000–0100 on 11750, presenting music and talking about the country. Newly heard from Bolivia was CP165, Radio Animas, Chocaya, 4965 kHz. (soon moved

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to 6015), and Radio San Jose, Chiquitos, on 5580 kHz. Among the many Peruvian stations that could be heard on 60 meters were OAX7I, Radio Madre de Dios, Puerto Maldonado, on 4950 kHz.; OAX7Z, Radio Juliaca, 5013; OAX7O, Onda Imperial, Cuzco, on 5057; and OAX5Q, Radio Abancay, 5082 kHz. On May 1 a massive change in the frequencies of Brazilian tropical band stations took place, with many stations moving from the 90 meter band to the 60 meter band and vice versa, or changing frequencies within band. After the dust settled, a count of the Brazilian stations audible on shortwave showed five in the 120 meter band, 21 on 90 meters, 42 on 60 meters, 20 on 49 meters, 12 on 31 meters, 12 on 25 meters, eight on 19 meters, and one in the 16 meter band. On December 15, in order to unify state-owned broadcasting stations and facilitate the integration of the Amazon region into the rest of Brazil, the government established a new Brazilian broadcasting organization known as Radiobras. The new company installed many new “Radio Nacional” stations in the Amazon area (they would be sold to private companies in the late 1980s).22 The Chilean military junta closed Radio Presidente Balmaceda, Santiago, for broadcasting news which “endangered national security.” It returned to its usual channel, 9590 kHz. (CE959), in ten days, but it continued to have a stormy relationship with the government. The anti-communist regime in Chile became the target of a clandestine broadcast called La Voz de la Resistencia Chilena which was transmitted from Algeria, and a new Spanish-language service from the Soviet Union called Radio Magallanes, so named after a communist-backed medium wave station in Santiago which had been closed by the government in 1973. And antedating a major anti–Castro clandestine broadcasting effort from 1977 to the mid–1980s and beyond, a station calling itself Radio Cuba Libre was heard around 7075 kHz. Radio Veritas in the Philippines had begun shortwave broadcasting in 1969 but had been inactive since 1973. Now it returned to the air with 50 kw., and was heard on 9570 and 11910 kHz.23 All India Radio regional stations were operating in the 60 and 90 meter bands from Bhopal, Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, Gauhati, Hyderabad, Kohima, Kurseong, Lucknow, Madras, Ranchi, Simla, and Srinagar (Kashmir). These stations, as well as a few others that came on the air in later years, provided attractive DX targets for decades. An oftenheard program of Radio Pakistan was the 15 minutes of English news that was read at slow speed. It was transmitted several times a day. Of great interest to long distance radio enthusiasts were the dozen or so NHK shortwave stations that carried home service programs within Japan. Set up principally for emergency use, but on the air on a regular basis, they were located in such places as Osaka, Hiroshima, Sapporo, Fukuoka, Sendai, and other cities, and operated in the 31, 41, 49, 75 and 90 meter bands, sometimes with as little as a few hundred watts. To the frustration of DXers, NHK seldom verified reception of these outlets, apparently out of a reluctance to acknowledge that the signals propagated over long distances. However, over the years the QSL situation improved. On the clandestine front, the Voice of the National United Front of Kampuchea closed down soon after communist troops took over in April. The Viet Cong Liberation Radio closed its foreign service in August and ceased all operations in October. A “new,” govern-

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ment-run Liberation Radio opened in Saigon, now renamed Ho Chi Minh City. A number of other Southeast Asian clandestines left the air as well.24 Intramural and anti-government guerilla activity in East Timor, a Portuguese colony, led to an invasion of the island by Indonesia, followed by decades of continued fighting. (The Dutch side of the island had become part of Indonesia in 1950.) Transmissions from what had been Emissora de Radiodifusão de Timor Portugues in Dili on 3668 kHz. became irregular and eventually left the air. Two competing clandestine stations appeared, one favoring and the other opposing the left-wing Revolutionary Front for the Independence of East Timor (FRETILIN). Favoring FRETILIN was Radio Maubere, 3805 kHz. (later 5270). FRETILIN’s opponents adopted the name Radio Dili, which was heard on 3550 kHz. Some DXers believed that Radio Dili, which was pro–Indonesia, might have been broadcasting from the RRI station in Kupang on the Indonesian side of the island. East Timor became a province of Indonesia in 1976, whereupon the 3550 kHz. station did begin identifying as RRI Kupang. Papua New Guinea became independent on September 16. Radio Wewak became Radio East Sepik and Radio Rabaul became Radio East New Britain. In October, a new National Broadcasting Commission station was heard from Papua New Guinea. Radio Manus operated with 2 kw. on 3905 kHz. It was located in the town of Lorengau in an island group known as the Admiralty Islands. (“This is a test transmission on a frequency of 3905 from Radio Manus, the National Broadcasting Commission of Papua New Guinea, P.O. Box 1359, Boroko, New Guinea.”) The year ended with the start of transmissions from the new Radio Australia site at Carnarvon. Built to replace the cyclone-damaged Darwin facility and improve the station’s signal in Asia, at 250 kw. it was Radio Australia’s most powerful transmitter. It would remain in use for 20 years.

1976 On March 17, Eddie Startz, long time host of the Radio Netherlands “Happy Station” program, died. He was 77. He had retired at the end of 1969 and been succeeded by Tom Meyer. The two networks of ORU, Brussels, Belgium — the French-language network, Radiodiffusion Television Belge (RTB, later RTBF, Radio-Television Belge de la Communaute Francaise), and the Dutch-language network, Belgische Radio en Televisie (BRT)— went their separate ways on shortwave broadcasting. A plan to drop all ORU English-language programs was averted when the BRT decided to continue them, along with Spanish and Portuguese, all in addition to its usual Dutch programming. All RTB programs were in French, and BRT would later add some French-language programming as well. Radio Norway increased power to 250 kw., making its signal very strong in North America. The Swiss Broadcasting Corp. opened additional transmitter sites at Lenk and Sarnen. Each was 250 kw., transmitting omnidirectionally. Radio Finland upgraded its 100 kw. transmitter plant at Pori to 250 kw. And the Swedish Telecommunications Administration started single sideband tests from Hörby using a 30 kw. transmitter. These broadcasts were subsequently transferred to a 100 kw. transmitter in Varberg, and included both home and foreign service programs.

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From Greece, Radiophonikos Stathmos Makedonias, Thessaloniki, a governmentrun regional service that normally broadcast on medium wave, was now heard on 7280 and 9710 kHz. over the former VOA shortwave transmitters in Thessaloniki. Radio Andorra, long off shortwave, returned on 6230 kHz., simulcasting the Radio Andorra medium wave service and also carrying a weekly program produced by the former Danish pirate, World Music Radio. Soon it would identify as Radio Andorra International, and operate with both 3 and 10 kw. transmitters. In the U.S. it could be heard briefly after signing on at 0800. And at the end of the year, Portuguese programming heard at a strong level on 4865 kHz., thought to be a high-power reactivation of Emissor Regional dos Açores in the Azores, turned out to be Radiodifusão Portuguesa, Lisbon, with test transmissions to the Azores on the latter’s old frequency. For the second time, the Voice of America dropped the on-air identification of transmitter sites, this time for good, adopting instead a generic identification, “This the Voice of America, Washington, D.C., signing on,” accompanied by “Yankee Doodle.” The Russian “woodpecker” arrived at mid year. It was a strong, rapid fire, 10-pulse per second tapping emanating from several Russian over-the-horizon radar installations. Operating at unpredictable hours and for varying durations, the woodpecker affected many frequency ranges and radio services, including international broadcasting, and often rendered reception virtually impossible over wide swaths of frequencies. Some more technically inclined listeners tried the various filters and noise blankers that materialized to combat the woodpecker, but most just put up with it. It didn’t disappear until 1989. (The United States inaugurated a similar system from Maine in 1980, but it did not produce major interference.) Peyk-e Iran (“Courier of Iran”), which had been on the air since 1957, closed down, but the equally anti–Shah, anti–U.S. station, the National Voice of Iran, continued. It had been on the air since 1959 via Radio Baku. Radio Cairo’s 100 kw. transmitters at Abu Zaabal were supplemented with another 100 kw. installation at Mokattam and 250 kw. senders at Abis. The Voice of Turkey also went to 250 kw. Radio Gambia left shortwave. One of the better heard Angolans, Emissora Oficial, Luanda, on 3375 and 7245 kHz., became Radio Nacional de Angola. Soon it was on 3355 kHz. as well, the frequency of the former Radio Ecclesia. A number of listeners heard the rare Radio Hargeisa, Somalia, on 11645 kHz. during occasional appearances around 1500. Another good catch was the regional station of Radiodiffusion Television Congolaise at Pt. Noire, People’s Republic of the Congo. It was sometimes audible on 4843 kHz. around 0430. Radio Mali, Bamako, appeared with strong signals on two close-by frequencies, 4783 and 4875 kHz. At times it also used 3380, 4830 and 5995 kHz. Other well-heard stations from French-speaking Africa were La Voix de la Renovation, Ougadougou, Upper Volta, a regular presence on 4815 kHz. in the late afternoon and late evening; Radio Niger, Niamey, on 5020 kHz.; Radiodiffusion Nationale, Nouakchott, Mauritania, on 4845 kHz.; and La Voix de la Révolution, Cotonou, Benin, with a new 50 kw. transmitter on 4870 kHz. Under good conditions, their English program could be heard at 2000. Hearing a signal that actually originated from Morocco was becoming more difficult. Many of the broadcasts of Radiodiffusion Television Marocaine were actually transmit-

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ted from the VOA station in Tangier, considered a separate radio country. Within Morocco proper the only RTM shortwave transmitters were at Sebaa-Aioun. The 10 kw. units on 7115 and 7225 kHz. were seldom heard. More often logged was the 50 kw. transmitter on 6190, sometimes audible in the afternoon carrying Arabic-language programming. The BBC and Deutsche Welle opened two relay sites in the Caribbean. Operated by the jointly owned Caribbean Relay Co. Ltd., they consisted of four 250 kw. transmitters located on a 240 acre site near the village of Sea View Farm, Antigua, and 15 and 50 kw. transmitters located on Montserrat. The transmitter time was shared between the two broadcasters.25 BBC test broadcasts from Antigua were first heard in September on 6175 and 6195 kHz., and a regular schedule was instituted the following month. Deutsche Welle started using Antigua in November. (“This is Radio Deutsche Welle, transmitter Antigua.”) A special broadcast for NASWA from VSI, Turks Island Radio, was heard by many DXers. It was on the air on January 16 at 0000–0200 on 4788 kHz., and the power was 500 watts. Soon thereafter the station left shortwave, having concluded that there was no market for the service. A major earthquake in Guatemala in early February provided some exciting listening. The “Sistema Nacional de Emergencia” of TGW, Radio Nacional, 6180 kHz., was the main source of earthquake information. TGN, Radio Cultural, Guatemala City, on 3300 kHz., relayed the Radio Nacional coverage, while TGMN, Radio Mam, Cabrican, on 4825 kHz., had its own coverage. Many messages from residents were heard, along with requests for ham operators to try to reach relatives, whose contact information was given over the air.26 Radio Belize moved its shortwave transmitter from Ladyville, a few miles north of Belize City, to Belmopan, the country’s new capital, about 40 miles west, and soon changed its frequency from 3300 kHz. to 3285. A station on 6150 kHz., TIRS, Radio Atenea, San Jose, Costa Rica, became Radio Centroamericana. Toward the end of the year, the English program of HILR, Radio Clarin, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, became “This is Santo Domingo.” It was on the air at 2330 on 4850 and 11700 kHz. The host was Rudy Espinal, who would soon become a well known shortwave personality.27 (The program ended in 1978.) Regularly heard stations in Colombia included HJLW, Ecos del Combeima, Ibague, on 4876 kHz., and HJFV, Radio Neiva, 4855. A new Colombian station was HJQA, Ondas del Orteguaza, Florencia, on 4975 kHz. For a while, HJGC, Radio Sutatenza, on 5075 kHz., had occasional IDs in English: “This is ACPO [Acción Cultural Popular], Radio Sutatenza, transmitting from Bogota, Colombia, on 810 kHz. AM, 88.1 MHz. FM, 5095 kHz., 62 meters, tropical band. ACPO, Radio Sutatenza, the largest educational radio network in South America.” The Andes continued to be the source of many interesting shortwave signals. New from Bolivia were CP175, Radio Camargo, 3390 kHz., and CP168, Radio La Voz de la Frontera, Puerto Suarez, on 4808. Other Bolivians heard were CP120, Radiodifusora Trópico, Trinidad, 4775 kHz.; CP177, Radio Nacional, Huanuni, 5965; and CP44, Radio Nacional, Cochabamaba, 5974. Peruvians included OBX5I, Radio Apurimac, Abancay, 4831 kHz; OBX5E, Radio Andahuaylas, 4840; OAX6A, Radio Arequipa, 5951; and OAX7L, La Voz del Altiplano, Puno, 5958 kHz. Among the many Ecuadorean stations that could be heard were HCGC1, Radio Melodia, Quito, 3375 kHz.; HCER5, Escuelas Radiofónicas Populares, Riobamba, 3985 (later 5015); HCLV3, Radio Luz y Vida, Loja, 4831 kHz.;

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Radio Niger was one of the French-speaking stations that were common fare in east coast afternoons. Many had increased power from their original 4 kw.

HCGH1, Radiodifusora Tarqui, Quito, 4972.5; HCEH3, Radio Progreso, Loja, 5060; and HCDP5, Radio Cuenca, 5950 kHz. From Chile, Radio Colo Colo, a powerful medium wave station in Santiago, was heard on such out-of-band frequencies as 5050, 6685, 12250 and 14530 kHz. The station denied it was using shortwave, and it appeared that its signal was being used as an audio source by a utility station. Russian stations could be heard in the afternoons in the 60 meter band, some with home service programs, others carrying foreign service transmissions. Among them were Baku, Azerbaijan, on 4785 kHz.; Kiev, Ukraine, on 4940; Yerevan, Armenia, 4990; and Tbilisi, Georgia, 5040. Moscow was on 4055, 4825, 4860, and 4920 kHz., among others. Radio Korea, Seoul, now used 250 kw. for some transmissions. Radio Malaysia Sarawak opened a 10 kw. shortwave station at a third site, Miri. The Voice of the Chinese Air Force, Taiwan, reactivated from Taipei on 6104 kHz. and from Tainan on 7260. Both channels were promptly jammed. And although it was modest by most standards, the international service of Lao National Radio could be heard on 7145 kHz. at 1200–1400 with halfhour programs in Vietnamese, Cambodian, French and English. Rare Laotian stations Opposite: Radio Andorra came back on shortwave in 1976 after many years’ absence. It left the air for good in 1981.

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included the outlets in the provinces of Luang Prabang on 6980 and 8176 kHz., Pakse on 6595, Houa Phan on 6195, Xieng Khouang on 4602 and 6677, and Savannakhet on 7384 kHz. Although a report that Radio Republik Indonesia was about to increase power to 10 kw. at 11 locations was thought to refer to medium wave rather than shortwave, a number of Indonesian shortwave stations did increase power and became more widely heard. DXers continued to discover new stations in Indonesia, thanks in part to the efforts of Australia’s “Down Under” DX Circle which was formed in 1975 to focus on Asian stations. The prodigious research of its members identified many hitherto unknown stations. Radio Cook Islands was still being heard on 5045 kHz., sometimes with a surprisingly good signal. In May, Radio Australia adopted a new program format, replacing the English services beamed to distinct parts of the world with a single general service. It was still transmitted at times and on frequencies that were propagationally favorable to individual geographic areas, however. And the external service of Radio New Zealand closed down on May 1 as a cost-cutting measure. It returned on June 5, but with relays of the national program rather than specially prepared shortwave programs. (“This is the shortwave service of Radio New Zealand relaying our home service programs to the Pacific on 11.705 MHz. on the 25 meter band.”)

1977 With the democratization of government in Spain, Radio Euzkadi, the voice of the Basque resistance, closed down on April 30. It had been transmitting since the mid 1940s, most recently from Santa Lucia, Venezuela, about 20 miles from Caracas. In July, Radio España Independiente, which had come on the air at about the same time, also closed. RCI started the “DX Digest” program (it became “SWL Digest” in 1981). WYFR partially completed construction of a new, 660 acre transmitter base in Okeechobee, Florida and took to the air from the new site in November. Its old 40-acre site in Scituate, Massachusetts, formerly owned by WRUL, continued in use for some WYFR broadcasts for two more years, by which time all the equipment had been moved to the new location. At mid year, ship-based Radio Nordsee International was reincarnated on 6210 kHz. and was heard to 2300, usually announcing as “RNI,” sometimes as “Radio MEBO II,” and ending the broadcast day with the familiar RNI “Man of Action” theme. The MEBO II was a long way from home, operating off the coast of Libya, whose government Meister and Bollier were assisting in the upgrade of government medium wave facilities in Benghazi and Tripoli. (The ship would be renamed “Al Fateh.”) Meanwhile, the 500 kw. transmitters of the Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah Broadcasting Corp. took to the air from a major new shortwave transmitter base at Tripoli-Sabrata. In Lebanon, a Christian station, the Voice of Lebanon, began transmitting from Jounieh on 6550 kHz. It could be heard in the afternoons closing at 2100 and at night opening at 0500. Kol Israel had the 11 meter band practically to itself. It was audible at times on 25605 kHz. from 1400. The following year, other broadcasters, including Radio RSA (25790) and RFI, Paris (25620), would begin using 11 meters as well. On May 17–18, Kol Israel was on all night to cover the Israeli elections. Some months earlier, on December 3, 1976, as the

WYFR, which in 1973 had purchased the transmitters of the former WNYW in Massachusetts, began operating from its new transmitter base in Okeechobee, Florida, in 1977.

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Known as Oubangui-Chari until 1960, the Central African Republic became the Central African Empire in 1976. It reverted to its old name in 1979.

Central African Republic became the Central African Empire, Radio Bangui on 5035 kHz. was likewise on all night to cover the proclamation of Bokassa I as Emperor. (He was overthrown three years later.) Radio RSA upgraded its Meyerton facility from 250 to 500 kw. Radio Nigeria increased power from 10 to 50 kw. on its classic 60 meter band channel, 4990 kHz. It also inaugurated two new stations which were soon heard in the United States, one in Jos on 5965 kHz., and the other in Ilorin on 7145 kHz. These stations would become known, respectively, as the Plateau Broadcasting Corp. and the Kwara State Broadcasting Corp. Radio Lesotho, which had been inactive since August 1975, returned to the air on 4800 kHz. A new station in Cameroon was Radio Bertoua on 4750 kHz. The provincial station at Buea could also be heard when amateur interference was low. Its frequency was 3970 kHz. The best signals from Cameroon were from Yaounde on 4850 or 4972.5 kHz. And Radio Candip, Bunia, Zaire, came on the air. The frequencies were 3400 and 5050 kHz. (later 5066). A project of the Center for Broadcasting and Educational Activities, one of its principal objectives was the support of hundreds of local radio clubs whose members engaged in various local social and community development projects.28 On March 12, ETLF, Radio Voice of the Gospel, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, was seized by the military regime which had overthrown the late Emperor Haile Selassie in 1974. The station now became the Radio Voice of Revolutionary Ethiopia. And in April, Radio COR-

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DAC, Burundi, 4900 kHz., received ten days notice to cease transmissions. Henceforth, only government broadcasting would be allowed in that country. With unending political and military conflict in the Horn of Africa, Ethiopia, Somalia and Eritrea became targets of clandestine broadcasting. This began in 1977 with the Voice of Free Ethiopia and the Voice of the Eritrean Liberation Front broadcasts over Radio Sudan, and the Voice of the Eritrean Revolution, which was believed to broadcast from Baghdad. The BBC-Deutsche Welle station on Montserrat came on the air in March carrying DW programming. It operated as part of the Antilles Radio Corp. Ltd., parent of the 200 kw. Radio Antilles medium wave station in Plymouth, Montserrat. While the frequency, 11970 kHz., was that shown for Montserrat in advance DW schedules, announcements mentioned only the Caribbean Relay Station generally and not Montserrat specifically. Although a few direct QSLs, confirming the site, were received, it would take some time for DW to overcome its reluctance to verify reports with anything other than the vague, no-site QSLcard which DW was using at the time. HIBE, Radio Mil, Santo Domingo, reactivated on 4930 kHz. HIAU, La Voz de la Libertad, Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic, which in recent years had made occasional appearances on 6215 kHz., now showed up on 3207 as well. And a clandestine station beaming to Cuba, Radio Abdala, was heard on 7085 kHz. At the start of the year, Radiodifusora Nacional de Nicaragua, Managua, was heard testing, and requesting reports, on 5945 kHz. The signal was very strong. A reactivated YNCA, Radio Atlantico, Bluefields, Nicaragua, was a welcome log on 6122 kHz. Another

Radio Reloj, Costa Rica, was a familiar voice on both the 49 and 60 meter bands.

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Central American surprise was TGRZ, Radio Miramundo, Guatemala City, heard on 6160 kHz. at its 1200 opening. And TIHB, Radio Reloj, San Jose, Costa Rica, on 6006 kHz., was broadcasting a mailbag program, “Aqui Costa Rica,” which was partly in English. In March, DXers were surprised to find that Surinam had returned to the air in the form of Radio SRS (Stichting Radio Omroep Suriname), Paramaribo, on 4780 kHz. (it soon moved to 4850). The station was heard with Dutch and English programming, mostly pop and rock music, and requesting reports. HJBG, La Voz del Norte, Cúcuta, Colombia, again reappeared on 4875 kHz. after a long absence, just as it had in 1964. Also reactivated was HJGF, Radio Bucaramanga, 4845 kHz., and YVMG, Radio Popular, Maracaibo, Venezuela, on 4810 kHz. The signals from Ecuador seemed endless. Well heard were HCAC4, La Voz de los Caras, Bahia de Caraquez, on 4795 kHz.; HCMB5, Radio Popular Independiente, Cuenca, on 4800; HCCV3, Canal Juvenil, Loja, 4850; and HCSE7, Radio Federación, Sucua, 4960. A new time signal station came on the air from Ecuador and was heard well. It was HD2IOA, Instituto Oceanográfico de la Armada, Guayaquil, operating on 3810, 5000 and 7600 kHz. From Peru there was OAX3Q, Ondas del Huallaga, Huanuco, 3300 kHz.; OAZ4R, Radio San Juan de Tarma, 4892; OAX5S, Radio Cultural Amauta, Huanta, 4955; and OBX4Q, Radio El Sol, Lima, 5970. Newly reactivated from Bolivia was CP66, Radio Centenario, Santa Cruz, 4854 kHz. Other stations from Bolivia included CP110, Radio Norte, Montero, 4938, and CP18, Radio El Condor, Oruro, on 6069. After an absence of more than two years, CE963, Radio Agricultura, Santiago, Chile, returned to 9630 kHz. with a new 10 kw. transmitter, and was audible in the mornings around 1000. And in September, the international service of Radio Nacional de Brasilia was replaced with a daily five-hour, 250 kw. shortwave service for the Amazon called Radio Nacional da Amazônia. ZPA10, Emisoras Paraguay, could sometimes be heard around 0930 on 6015 kHz. CXA61, Radio Difusora del Uruguay, Montevideo, was heard on 6045 kHz. around 1000 before OCY4H, Radio Santa Rosa, Lima, Peru, opened on the frequency. This channel, as well as CXA19, 11835 kHz., would often be occupied by two other Difusoras del Uruguay stations—Radio Sport and Radio El Espectador. Another Uruguayan, SODRE, was occasionally heard with a 20-minute English program around 0300 on 9515 and 15273 kHz. In the mornings around 0900, from Buenos Aires, Argentina, LRS2, Radio Splendid, on 5985 kHz., and LRX1, Radio El Mundo, on 6120, could be heard. The best chance for hearing LRY1, Radio Belgrano, 11785 kHz., was around 0100, but the station was always elusive. Radio Bougainville, 3322.5 kHz., changed its name to Radio North Solomons. The Vietnamese regional station at Quang Ninh on 4696 kHz. was a rare catch, as was the station in Hue on 4680. The United States closed the VOA station on Okinawa. The U.S. had returned Okinawa to Japan in 1972. And on September 4, Trans World Radio started broadcasting from its new 100 kw. shortwave transmitter at Merizo, Guam. (“This is the newest voice on your shortwave radio, KTWR, Agana, Guam.”) TWR had been on medium wave from Guam since 1975. Specially endorsed QSLs were offered for first-day reception of the shortwave signal. The station received 75 letters, mostly from Japan, for their first few days of operation. Soon they would be receiving 100 letters a day.29

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This QSL verifies reception of Radio El Mundo, Argentina, in 1976. Argentine stations were heard best for a brief period in the morning circa 1000 UTC, and, interference permitting, around 2300–0100 UTC.

1978 Radio Moscow inaugurated an English-language World Service to replace nearly all its targeted English-language transmissions (the North American east and west coast services were preserved). As they had for many years, a variety of regional stations in the Soviet republics continued to offer programs for foreign consumption over many Soviet shortwave channels. Although some of the transmitters were located in the republic where the program originated, transmitters from other parts of the Soviet Union often were used as well in order to maximize signal quality. Among the stations that broadcast in this way were Radio Baku, Radio Kiev, Radio Leningrad, Radio Minsk, Radio Tallinn, Radio Tbilisi, Radio Riga, Radio Vilnius, and Radio Yerevan.30 Radio Tashkent, Uzbek S.S.R., used its own transmitters. Its English program at 1200–1230 was well heard in the United States for many years. (In 1979 it formed a “Radio Tashkent Veteran Club” for those who had been listening to the station for at least ten years and who submitted at least one report per year.) Radio Andorra began carrying programming from a new Swedish commercial venture called Radio Scandinavia. The Radio Finland program, “Introduction to Finnish,” was so popular that the station followed it up with an advanced course. And Radio Tirana’s relays of Radio Peking came to an end following a break with its former ally. Vatican Radio increased its transmitter power to 500 kw. and installed an innovative, rotatable Telefunken antenna. Radio Berlin International installed 23 new shortwave antennas. The Swiss Broadcasting Corp. began supplementing its regular AM broadcasts

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The signal of Radio Kiev was strong in North America.

with experimental 30 kw. transmissions in single sideband, but dropped them the following year. And on November 1, the SBC became Swiss Radio International. Radio Japan tested via Radio Trans-Europe, Sines, Portugal. Soon it would utilize the station, as well as Deutsche Welle facilities in Germany, in order to better reach Europe and America with its General Service transmissions. Sines also began carrying programs of religious broadcasters Emetteur Protestant International and Vox Fidei. Such leased time arrangements, long a staple for religious broadcasters like IBRA Radio and AWR, would greatly expand in the future and would become a new source of revenue for those with shortwave air time to sell. Five years earlier, in 1973, European pirate stations discovered shortwave and became interesting targets for Europeans tuning the 6200–6300 kHz. range. These stations usually operated on Sunday mornings at around 0900–1500, often with less than 100 watts. Most were in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands, while some were in countries that had never had SWBC stations or that were long inactive, e.g., Ireland, Scotland, and the Channel Islands. Many American DXers tried for them, and some of the “Europirates” even made special transmissions at times that would favor North American reception. However, there were few reliable reports of their reception in North America until January 1978 when the Free Radio Broadcasting Co. was heard on 6213 kHz. It used a Dutch address but it was believed to be located in England. Whether it was actually using a 6 kw. transmitter, as it claimed, is uncertain.

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Canada still had two very low power stations on the air. On 6080 kHz. there was CKFX, Vancouver, British Columbia, simulcasting its main outlet, 50 kw. medium waver “Super Country” CKWX, over a 10 watt shortwave transmitter. Although advances in technology had rendered its service for Vancouver Island and small coastal villages obsolete, it remained on the air. In September it was heard by a few lucky DXers, as was CFVP, “Radio West,” a 100 watt station in Calgary, Alberta, on 6030 kHz. North American pirate activity had been low during the years since 1973. Only a few stations had been reported, such as Wild Turkey Radio on 5037 kHz. and KLOG on 3873. One noteworthy pirate was WNIX, “Radio King Kong International,” which broadcast parodies of President Nixon. First heard in 1974, it operated on 6030 kHz., a channel on which another pirate was soon heard —Radio Clandestine. The two may have been one and the same station. Radio Clandestine and its host, R. F. Burns, reappeared in November 1978, by then on 6140 kHz., and in future years would become one of the best known American pirates. Another station with a claim to a place in pirate history was WCPR. It operated during the first few months of 1976 before being closed down by the FCC. Its frequency was 1620 kHz., just above the standard broadcast band, a place that would become a favorite of pirate stations, particularly in the New York City area. One of the operators of WCPR was Perry Cavalieri, who in 1978 reincarnated the station under a variety of names, the best known being WFAT. WFAT’s range in the northeast was surprisingly large, and it was the first pirate to feature live call-ins (accomplished through mastery of the “loop” system used by telephone company repairmen). WFAT was on the air often, mainly on weekends, and

Canada was not usually rare DX in the United States, but there were exceptions, one of which was CKFX, Vancouver, which operated with only 10 watts.

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

was headquartered in Cavalieri’s bedroom in the Marborough public housing project in Brooklyn. WFAT had achieved cult status among pirate lovers by the time the FCC caught up with it on April 15, 1979, and within a week Cavalieri and his station were being featured in the New York Times.3¡ A widely heard pirate in 1978 was the Voice of the Voyager on 5850 kHz. Some of the lesser lights during the year’s burst of pirate activity included WINT, 6205 kHz.; Jolly Roger Radio, 6210; WMMR, Midwest Music Radio, on 7450; the Voice of Free America, 15020; and Radio VOCAD, 28625. Despite their claims to legitimacy of purpose — a perceived need for alternative programming and affordable access to the airwaves— the North American pirates, unlike many of their European cousins, were basically kids (and adults) playing radio. But they were also interesting DX targets. In the Middle East, the BBC Eastern Relay Station on Masirah Island, Oman, which had been operating on medium wave since mid 1969, added shortwave. Completion of the shortwave facility had been delayed by severe cyclone damage at the transmitter site in 1977. Bayrak Radio, from the Turkish zone of Cyprus, was heard on 6279 kHz. Radio Lebanon was a strong presence on 11825 kHz. with its program for North America in English, French and Arabic at 0130–0300. And although it was now using 500 kw., Radio Baghdad’s new English-language service to North America, on the air at 0300–0400 on 11905 kHz., was not easy to hear. The Nigerian Broadcasting Corp. became the Federal Radio Corp. Radio Uganda conducted test transmissions to North America in the mornings at 1100 on 15325 kHz. and was poorly received. Later it would try around 0300 with much better results. Angolan stations were many fewer than before independence, but some were still heard, including Emissor Regional do Lobito, 4178 kHz.; Emissor Regional de Malanje, 4940; Emissor Regional da Cabinda, 5032; and Emissor Regional de Moçamedes, 5100. Radiodifusão National, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau, was heard well upon its return to 5041 kHz., a channel from which it had been absent for some time. The best time to hear it was when it opened at 0600. Formerly a Portuguese colony, Guinea-Bissau had gained independence in 1974. Two more Cuban clandestines were heard: Radio Rebelde on 7080 kHz., and Radio Libertad Cubana on 7090. The latter’s announcer used Castro’s old nom de guerre, “Comandante David.” Radiodifusora Nacional de Nicaragua and a long list of other Latin American stations carried a privately produced anti–Castro program called La Voz de Cuba. And making its first appearance was Radio Sandino, a Nicaraguan guerilla station that served as the voice of the anti–Somoza Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional (FSLN). Over time it would use several frequencies in the 7 MHz. range, including 7316, 7587 and 7702 kHz., and its productions would get increasingly professional. It would become one of the most famous clandestine stations of all time. France Régions 3, Fort-de-France, Martinique, left shortwave. In the Dominican Republic, Radio Clarin lost much revenue from government-sponsored programs following a presidential election in which the station backed the losing candidate. By June, Rudy Espinal had left Clarin. And in Haiti, 4VEH returned to shortwave after a several-month absence. The power was now about 2.1 kw. The only other Haitian broadcaster still on shortwave was Radio Citadelle, 6155 kHz., which at times also carried the programming of Radio Nationale and La Voix de l’Ave Maria.

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Two new stations heard from South America were HJCU, Radio Melodia, Bogota, Colombia, 6140 kHz., and HCVA5, Radio Amazonas, Lago Agrio, Ecuador, on 3290. A new station in Brazil was ZYG865, Radio Iguatemi, Osasco, on 3295 kHz. Among the many other tropical band Brazilian stations that were regular DX catches were ZYF900, Radio Difusora de Aquidauana, 4795; ZYF391, Radio Sociedad, Feira de Sentana, 4865; ZYG360, Radio Nacional de Macapa, 4915; and ZYI203, Radio Capixaba, Vitória, 4935. A rare Paraguayan station that made some appearances in 1978 was ZPA15, La Voz del Amambay, Pedro Juan Caballero, heard on 5996 kHz. around 0900. The programs of wellknown Buenos Aire medium wave sports station Radio Rivadavia were heard at various times on utility frequencies such as 5882 and 9115 kHz. via ENCOTEL, the Argentine national post and telecommunications network. Thought at first to be just a convenient audio source for circuit adjustment, it turned out that the Rivadavia programming was being transmitted for relay by various medium wave stations in the country’s interior. During the 1978 world soccer cup matches, the out-of-band frequencies were announced over the air. The BBC Far Eastern Station, having relocated from Tebrau, Malaysia to Kranji, Singapore, some 14 miles away, came on the air from its new home. Most of the 100 and 250 kw. Tebrau transmitters were transferred to Kranji. (The Tebrau facility closed down in March 1979.) And China stopped jamming the Voice of America. The VOA was completely free of jamming for the first time in many years. But jamming would later resume.

1979 In September, Adventist World Radio began testing over Radio Andorra on 6215 kHz. Radio Norway conducted some single sideband tests, and the foreign service of Radio Nacional de España adopted the name Radio Exterior de España. To the delight of east coast DXers, the signals of a few of the dozens of low power Sunday morning European pirate stations started making it across the Atlantic. Heard in North America were, among others, U.K. stations Radio Sunshine International (6235 and 7325 kHz.), European Music Radio (6235), and the right wing Radio Enoch (6252 and 7350), plus Dutch pirate Radio Viking (6249). Radio Canada International suffered a 22 percent budget cut and lost 38 of its 205 employees. It would face more cutbacks in the coming decade. The VOA site in Dixon, California, closed on September 2 after 35 years of service transmitting to Asia and the Pacific,32 and transmissions from the WYFR transmitters at Scituate, Massachusetts, ended on November 16 as the station completed its move to Florida.33 The North American pirate scene heated up. Among the better known stations heard around 1620 kHz. were PRN (Pirate Radio New England) and CREW, which said it was in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Stations in the 6 MHz. area included WDAB (6213 kHz.), KVHF (6420) and Radio Galaxy (6939). In the 7 MHz. range, DXers found Radio Indiana (7355), Radio U.S.A. (7360), Voice of Venus (7460), Radio Liberation (7425), and WOOF (7425). With the coming to power of Ayatollah Khomeini, the Voice of Iran became the Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and soon increased power to 350 kw. Kol Israel’s littleknown 5 kw. transmitter on 29705 kHz. was the highest frequency SWBC station operat-

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ing. In November, Israel began a 20-week Hebrew-language course for English speakers in North America. The domestic service of Radio Afghanistan was best heard on the station’s 100 kw. transmitter operating on 4775 kHz. The Soviet Union had been Afghanistan’s patron since the country’s Marxist coup in April 1978. In August 1979, listeners began noting the Afghan domestic service being relayed on powerful transmitters in the Soviet Union. Soviet troops invaded in December. The Russian relays, expanded to include external broadcasts as well, continued until 1992 (the last Russian troops withdrew in February 1989).34 Clandestine broadcasting in the Horn of Africa intensified. Radio Mogadishu carried the broadcasts of the Voice of the Liberation Fronts of Western Somalia and Abo and the Voice of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Eritrea. The Ethiopian government station, Radio Voice of Revolutionary Ethiopia, carried the anti–Somali broadcasts of Radio Kulmis (Radio Unity) on 7235 and 9595 kHz. It later became known as Radio Halgan and operated until 1988, when Ethiopia and Somalia reestablished diplomatic relations. A clandestine station that was to be one of the longest running was the anti–Ethiopian Voice of the Broad Masses of Eritrea. Operated by the Eritrean People’s Liberation Front, it was believed to broadcast from either Egypt or Iraq. (The station became a legitimate broadcaster in 1991.) In North Africa, Radiodiffusion Television Tunisienne increased its power to 100 kw. From nearby Radio Algiers, a clandestine program, the Voice of the Free Sahara, had been on the air for several years and could be heard until sign off at 2300 on various frequencies, which changed often. It was the station of the POLISARIO Front, the anti-colonial movement in the Spanish Sahara that was formed in 1973. From 1979, POLISARIO had its own medium wave station located at Tindouf, Algeria, a town to which many Saharan refugees had fled in 1975 in the face of Moroccan and Mauritanian military attacks. It added shortwave in 1993. Taking the name of the Saharan exile government, it called itself the National Radio of the Saharan Democratic Arab Republic, and it is still in operation. In September, a new 500 kw. shortwave service owned jointly by Gabon and France came on the air from Moyabi, Gabon. It was called Africa No. One, and test transmissions with very strong signals were heard on a variety of frequencies in the international bands. The station requested postcard reports which would be placed in a drawing for various prizes, including a Peugot car (won by a listener in the Ivory Coast). Even to its own management, the exact purpose of the station was unclear.35 In August, DXers were surprised to hear Radio Ecuatorial, Equatorial Guinea, in the 25 meter band. The station was heard opening at 0530 and signing off at 2200 on 11715 kHz., and was said to be operating with 50 kw. It was also heard on 5005 kHz. (or sometimes 4925). Springbok Radio, one of the South African Broadcasting Corp.’s domestic services that was widely available on FM, left shortwave. And although Nigeria’s policy was to gradually replace all shortwave broadcasting with medium wave and FM, a new Nigerian station was heard to 2300 sign off on 4755 kHz. It was the Imo Broadcasting Service at Owerri. (“This is the Imo Broadcasting Service testing a shortwave transmitter for the Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria.”) QSLs said the power was 100 kw. A comparison of the Central American stations listed in the World Radio TV Handbook for 1955 and 1979 revealed a drop from 109 to 60. Although the WRTH listed some

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stations that were inactive, the figures confirmed what shortwave listeners knew from their own experience, that shortwave was on the wane in that part of the world. But there were still interesting things to be heard. Some programs of Radio Havana Cuba were now being relayed from the Soviet Union, and American listeners had good reception of English programs from Radio Moscow’s World Service and its North American Service via Havana on 9600 and 11840 kHz. In May, a new station, TIRL, Radio Noticias del Continente, began broadcasting from San Jose, Costa Rica. The 50 kw. station, transmitting on 9615 kHz., followed a left-wing line to which many Latin American governments took exception.36 In September, the station survived an attempt to cancel its license. Another new Costa Rican station, TIPJ, Radio Nueva Victoria, 6082 kHz., began making frequent appearances around 2400. It was located in Heredia, a famous Costa Rican SWBC town from which the historic shortwave station TI4NRH had held forth a half century before.37 By mid year, FSLN clandestine Radio Sandino, thought to be transmitting from Costa Rica, was being jammed by a much stronger pro–Somoza station playing music and sometimes carrying the audio of the government’s La Voz de Nicaragua. The jammer developed into a full fledged station calling itself Radio Nacional. It was short lived, however. The FSLN entered Managua and established a five-member junta on July 18, the day after Somoza resigned. Soon it was in control of the government station on 5950 and 11835 kHz., which at first identified as Radio Sandino before reverting to its regular name, La Voz de Nicaragua.38 Also from Nicaragua, YNCA, Radio Atlantico, Bluefields, on 6120 kHz., became Radio Zinica, and was heard with a much improved signal. A bloodless coup on Grenada in March led to a people’s revolutionary government, and Radio Grenada became Radio Free Grenada. (“This is Radio Free Grenada, the Voice of the Revolution.”) It was heard on various 19 meter frequencies, including 15045, 15105, and 15370 kHz., around 2400. The inauguration of an Argentine broadcasting station in Antarctica in October was one of the biggest DX events of the year. LRA36, Radio Nacional Arcangel San Gabriel, operated from Basa Esperanza on 6029 kHz. It was surprisingly well heard at 0000 sign on, even though operating with only about 1 kw. It was off the air for several months each year. A new station came on from Surinam. Radio Apintie, Paramaribo, on 4794 kHz., was well heard when opening around 0830. Listeners were surprised when QSLs indicated that the power was only 50 watts. In 1980, the station moved to 4950 and then 5006 kHz. Another new station was the semi-autonomous government broadcaster XEPPM, Radio Educación, Mexico City, operating with 10 kw. on 6185 kHz., the channel formerly used by La Voz del Maestro. Radio Educación was a cultural station that had been on medium wave since 1967. Also making appearances from Mexico were XEUW, Radio Nucleo Oro, “La ‘U’ de Veracruz,” on 6020 kHz., and XEQM, “Tus Panteras,” Merida, on 6105 kHz. Other stations that were new on the air included ZYF906, Radio Clube de Rondonópolis, Brazil, on 2480 kHz.; ZYF907, Radio Clube Dourados, Brazil, 3375; ZYV71, Radio Por um Mundo Melhor, Governador Valadares, Brazil, 4855; OCX4E, Radio Tarma, Peru, 4770; OBX6M, Radio Melodia, Arequipa, Peru, on 5995; and HJPV, La Voz de Yopal, Colombia, on 5051 kHz. CP72, Radio Fides, La Paz, Bolivia, returned to 4845 kHz. after a long absence; and YVZV, Ondas Panamericanas, El Vigia, Venezuela, returned to 3215

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Few stations were more exciting to hear, then or now, than LRA36, Radio Nacional Arcangel San Gabriel, in the Argentine Antarctic. It came on the air in 1979.

kHz. after several years of silence. But gone were Colombians Emisora Nuevo Mundo (4755) and Radio Santa Fe (4965). Among the seldom-heard South American stations that became regular visitors during the year were CP62, Radioemisoras Bolivias, Oruro, 4755 kHz.; OBX7H, Ondas del Titicaca, Puno, Peru on 4921 kHz.; HCJM1, Radio La Voz de Triunfo, Otavalo, Ecuador, 3260; HCFB4, Radio Tropical, Esmeraldas, Ecuador, 3340; OBX5P, Radio Pampas, Peru, 4855; HCVC3, Radio Centinela del Sur, Loja, Ecuador, 4890; HCJC5, Ondas Azuayas, Cuenca, Ecuador, 4980; HCEV5, Radio Splendit, Cuenca, 5025; HCCL5, Ondas Cañaris, Azogues, Ecuador, 5046; Radio Esmeralda, Huanta, Peru, 5300; and CP161, Radio Stentor, La Paz, Bolivia, 6090. By year’s end, HCJB was experimenting on 26000 kHz. with a 100 watt Johnson Viking II ham transmitter that was heard far and wide, 24 hours a day. Damage to the quad antenna led to its replacement by a simple ground plane, and the transmitter soon moved to 26020 kHz. ZYE890, Radio Diario da Manha, Florianópolis, Brazil, 9675 kHz., became Radio Marumbí. Radiobras established a new English-language international service called Radio Nacional do Brasil. It operated with 250 kw. and offered a daily one-hour program to Europe, Africa and North America. Within a few years it developed into a modest, multilingual external service. And as a result of an increase in power and a move to 2370 kHz., the Falkland Islands Broadcasting Service was being heard more often in North America. In September, Radio Brunei left shortwave. China replaced the Wade-Giles system of spelling with the Pinyin system and Radio Peking became Radio Beijing. More important to DXers, China began registering its frequencies with the International Frequency Registration Board, the result being the availability of much previously unknown information

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Radio Brunei left shortwave in 1979.

about Chinese shortwave broadcasting. Radio Beijing’s foreign service broadcasts emanated from transmitters in Xian, Kunming, Beijing and Urumqi. Over 70 transmitters, some with power ranging up to 500 kw., were in use. Radio Ulan Bator could be heard in English from 1220 on 12070 kHz. Although this was supposedly a 250 kw. transmitter at Khonkhoryn, that much power could have been expected to produce a better signal. A new station from Kaohsiung, Taiwan was the Voice of Asia, 5980 kHz. Broadcasting in English, Indonesian, Chinese and Thai, it was a service of the government’s Broadcasting Corp. of China, and was intended for Asian listeners. The Vietnamese regional stations presented a fluid and confusing picture. However, stations known to be operating included Bac Thai and Cao Bang (6910 kHz.), Ha Tuyen (4822), Hoang Lien Son (5604), Lai Chau (4676 and 6006), Lang Son (5950), Son La (4770 and 6330), and Than Hoa (4884). The clandestine Voice of the People of Thailand left the air in July (it resurfaced in 1980 for two more years). Meanwhile, the bloody situation in Cambodia resulted in two Cambodian clandestines becoming the official voices of the government. The Vietnambased Voice of the National United Front of Kampuchea originally broadcast in support of the deposed left-wing Prince Norodom Sihanouk, but eventually became the voice of the Khmer Rouge. When the latter took power in 1975, the government station became known as the Voice of the United Front of Kampuchea, and it was heard on 9695 kHz., as well as other channels. When the Khmer Rouge were defeated in January 1979, the suc-

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cessor regime, which had operated the clandestine Voice of the People of Kampuchea for about a year, gave that name to the government station. The defeated Khmer Rouge returned to the air with a new station, the Chinese-supported Voice of Democratic Kampuchea. It was heard on 11600 and 11990 kHz. around 1200. And on December 4, a new Papua New Guinea station came on the air: Radio West Sepik, Vanimo, operating on 3205 kHz. with 2 kw.

6

1980–1989 Times in U.T.C.

1980 One hundred personnel and seven language services were threatened as a result of budget reductions at the BBC. All survived when it was decided to reduce expenditures on transmitters and studios instead. But it was a bad omen for shortwave’s future. Polish Radio Warsaw became Radio Polonia. And the Polish Pathfinders Station, Warsaw, on 6195 kHz., made a rare U.S. appearance when it was heard signing on at 0850. Many stations in the Soviet Union could be heard in the late afternoon or late night on the east coast, including Frunze (4050 kHz.), Dushanbe (4635), Petrozavodsk (4780), Baku (4785), Yerevan (4810 and 4990), Moscow (4825), Kiev (4940), Archangelsk (5015), Alma Ata (5035) and Tbilisi (5040). Still broadcasting from Switzerland was the United Nations broadcast in Russian, originating in New York but relayed from Geneva to Radio Moscow on single sideband at 1830–1840. The frequency was now 14500 kHz. On March 1, Grønlands Radio dropped all its shortwave frequencies except 3999 kHz., making it more difficult to hear. At the end of 1979, the Catholic station, Radio Renascença, which had been off shortwave for many years, returned to the air by way of a daily halfhour program for Portuguese emigrants in Europe, first over the Deutsche Welle Malta relay station, then via Sines. In December 1980 it commenced a daily two-hour program on its own new 100 kw. transmitter at Muge on 11885 kHz. Some additional European pirate stations were heard in the United states. From Ireland, there was Radio Condor International (6243 and 11463 kHz.), and one of the best heard and longest running European pirates, Radio Dublin (6315 kHz. and other nearby frequencies). Also getting their signals to North America were the U.K.’s Radio Impact (11400 kHz.), and Scotland’s Radio Woodstock (7315). Among the better-known U.S. pirates that started broadcasting during the year were WBLO (4020 kHz.), Syncom 40 and Syncom 48 (6225 and 6248), WONS (6955), WARG (6965), Moonshine Radio (7356), Radio Confusion (7365), Radio VPR (7410), and RX4M, the Voice of Clipperton (7375 and 21750). RX4M conjured up memories of RXKR, an unauthorized station which operated from a ship off Los Angeles in 1933 and whose broadcast band signal on 815 kc. was widely heard.¡ Kol Israel resurrected its prime time service to the Americas in February. The 243

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post–2300 UTC broadcasts were in English, Spanish, and Portuguese. Last heard a decade earlier, Dubai returned to the air with a booming signal on 21500 kHz. and other 13 meter frequencies. (“This is a test transmission from the United Arab Emirates Radio in Dubai. We would welcome reception reports from listeners wherever you may be. Reports will be acknowledged by a QSL-card.”) Dubai Radio & Colour TV, known as U.A.E. Radio (and later Emirates Radio), traced its history back to the old Voice of the Coast, but its signal now went forth over transmitters of 300 kw. The start of the Iran-Iraq war made Iran the target of even more clandestine stations than usual. Coming on the air in 1980 were the Free Voice of Iran, 9590 kHz., believed to be a CIA-sponsored station; Radio Iran, 9580 kHz., regarded by some as a sister station of Free Voice of Iran; and the widely heard Radio Vatan (Radio Homeland) on 9027 and 15555 kHz. All or some of these were believed to be operating from Egypt. The Voice of Iran, 11640 kHz., was inaugurated in 1981, as was the Voice of the Mujahedin e-Khalq on 7400 kHz. It was thought to emanate from Iraq. The year also saw the return of the Voice of the Iraqi Revolution, which used varying frequencies around 6885 and 7429 kHz., and the Voice of the Islamic Revolution in Iraq on 15270 kHz. In addition, the anti–Soviet Afghan clandestine, Radio Mujahedin Afghanistan, started broadcasting. It soon became the Voice of the United Muslim Fighters of Afghanistan (and later the Voice of Unity), and although it was heavily jammed, it could be heard in America on various channels, including 9710 and 15305 kHz. It too was believed to transmit from Cairo. After years off the air, ELBC, the Liberian Broadcasting System, returned to shortwave on 3255 kHz. where its 50 kw. transmitter put in a good signal until closedown at 2400. The Federal Radio Corp. of Nigeria opened new 50 kw. stations at Kaduna (4770 kHz.) and Ibadan (6050). They were heard in the United States at both 0430 opening and 2315 sign off. The Voice of Nigeria foreign service was on 15120 kHz. Save for occasional brief tests, Radio Chad, the apparent victim of fighting in the capital, was no longer heard on its regular channel of 4904.5 kHz. A new station came on the air from Cameroon. Radio Bafoussam, 4000 kHz., 20 kw., was audible at 0430 sign on and again at 2230 sign off, sometimes identifying in English as “This is Bafouusam, provincial station of Radio Cameroon.” In April 1980, after a protracted conflict, Southern Rhodesia became the independent nation of Zimbabwe. The best way to hear the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corp. (for a short time called the Zimbabwe-Rhodesia Broadcasting Corp.) was still via the transmitters at Gwelo on 3396 kHz. (Radio One, formerly the General Service) and 3306 kHz. (Radio Two, formerly the African Service), both of which opened at around 0330–0400. Although these were nominally 100 kw. senders, reception was generally poor. The ZBC began identifying as the Voice of Zimbabwe, and soon adopted a more strident line, identifying the U.S. and the U.K. as, respectively, “imperialist” and “colonialist.”2 The BBC set up a 100 kw. station at Lancers Gap in Lesotho for the joint use of the BBC and Radio Lesotho. The facility was run by personnel of Radio Lesotho’s parent organization, the Lesotho National Broadcasting Service. In September, after a long absence, Radio Lesotho reactivated 4800 kHz. with a signal that was much improved over that of its old 10 kw. transmitter. Soon thereafter, the BBC began relays from the station on 6190 and 9515 kHz.

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Radio South West Africa came on the air from Windhoek, Namibia, also called South West Africa, an area which South Africa considered still under a South African League of Nations mandate created after World War I. The station operated with 100 kw. on 3270, 3290 and 4965 kHz., and could be heard in America. As it had for many years, the Namibian independence group SWAPO (Southwest Africa People’s Organization) broadcast its Voice of Namibia freedom programs over a number of African government shortwave stations in Angola, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Congo-Brazzaville, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. (Namibia gained independence in 1990.) Also from southern Africa, listeners started hearing Capital Radio, a quasi-commercial station intended for South African listeners. It had come on the air from the South African “homeland” of Transkei at the end of December 1979. It operated on 3950 and 7160 kHz. and could be heard, albeit poorly, when it opened transmission at 0430. The station’s medium wave transmitter was plagued with technical problems which made reception in key South African broadcast markets difficult. Two new stations on the air from Central America were TICAL, Radio Rumbo, Cartago, Costa Rica, on 6076 kHz., and HRPC, Radio Luz y Vida, San Luis, Honduras, 3250 kHz. Also new was an Adventist station in Guatemala on 5978 kHz. It was TGMUA, the shortwave outlet of Union Radio which had been on medium wave and FM for about a year. Transmitter difficulties required limiting the output of the 10 kw. shortwave transmitter to about 2.5 kw. A second channel, TGMUB, 6090 kHz., came into use later. Radio Nacional de El Salvador reappeared on 9555 kHz. after some five years off the air. And Radio Clarin returned to shortwave in December on 11700 kHz. Some English was heard, including, on weekends, Rudy Espinal and his old program, “This Is Santo Domingo.” He reported that his first two programs drew 252 letters. Soon, however, the station’s presence on shortwave once again grew intermittent. Radio Nacional de Guatemala, 6180 kHz., broadcast English programs at the rather inconvenient hours of 0800 and 1000. The station identified as “TGW, the international service of the Voice of Guatemala.” The 1000 program was called “Guatescope.” The signal was very strong and the line was decidedly anti–Soviet. Radio Havana Cuba started transmitting an English program called La Voz de Cuba, as well as programs of Radio Moscow, on 600 kHz. medium wave. The transmitter produced harmonics well into the 5 MHz. range. For a short time in May and June, a break within the Sandinista leadership in Nicaragua led to some transmissions from a station calling itself La Voz de las Fuerzas Especiales de la Guerra Anti-Comunista. It operated on 6015 kHz., the same frequency as the inactive Honduran station, Radio Swan, and soon it was found that the station was using the old Radio Swan transmitter. It was closed down by the Honduran authorities. And another Cuban clandestine station was heard. Radio Mambí, La Voz de la Junta Patriotica Cubana, was on 7400 kHz. It was a professional-sounding station, and it gave a Caracas address. In 1985, Miami BCB station WGBS, by then owned by Cuban exile broadcasters, took the name Radio Mambí and promptly suffered horrific Cuban jamming. (A “Mambí” is a Cuban campesino who supported the fight for Cuba’s independence from Spain.) New South American stations included HCRN2, Radio Baha’i, Otavalo, Ecuador, on 2340 kHz. (moved to 4996 in 1982); OAX9N, Radio San Martin, Tarapoto, Peru, 4810

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Rudy Espinal’s English-language program on Radio Clarin was popular among SWLs.

kHz.; OAX9M, Radio Imagen, Tarapoto, Peru, a 1 kw. station on 5035 kHz.; OAX9L, Radio Rioja, Peru, 5045 kHz.; and ZYF272, Radio Nacional de Tabatinga, Brazil, on 4815. La Voz de Chile, the international service of Radio Nacional de Chile, left the air. But new was CE608, Radio Patagonia Chilena, at Coyhaique, in the far southern reaches of the country. The station operated on 6080 kHz. and often identified in English: “This is Radio Patagonia Chilena, the radio of the Eleventh Region, transmitting with our stations CD97 on the middle wave at 970 kc., and CE608, that’s 6080 kHz., in the international band at 49 meters, Coyhaique, Chile.” Another rarely heard Chilean station, CE610, Radio Calama, appeared on 6100 kHz. It was best heard around 1000. TODELAR station HJLB, La Voz del Tolima, Ibague, Colombia, reactivated on 6040 kHz. Other interesting stations heard during the year were OAX8I, Radio Oriente, Yurimaguas, Peru, 3284 kHz. (moved to 6190 the following year); OAX9G, Radio Moyobamba, Peru, 5015 kHz.; YVNL, Radio Sensación, San Antonio de los Altos, Venezuela, on 5999; CP160, Radio 21 de Diciembre, Catavi, Bolivia, 6082 kHz.; and OBZ4P, Radio Huayllay, Peru, on 6140 kHz. For about a week in March and April, Radio TV Hong Kong returned to the air for a few special, daily five-minute weather broadcasts for the Hong Kong-to-Manila South China Sea Yacht Race. It identified as “Radio Television Hong Kong operating on the shortwave frequency of 3940 kHz.” These broadcasts would be heard semi-annually through 1988 and irregularly thereafter.

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Radio-TV Singapore became the Singapore Broadcasting Corp. It used five shortwave frequencies, each simulcasting a parallel AM channel. The shortwave transmitters ranged from 10 to 50 kw., and the signals often reached North America. And although not very well heard, the national station of Cambodia, the Voice of the People of Kampuchea, was sometimes audible with English at 1200 on 11938 kHz., followed by French at 1215. As more information on Chinese broadcasting became available, and as Chinese stations began verifying reception reports, more listeners tuned for the more difficult to hear regional “people’s broadcasting stations.”3 Among these were Nei Menggu PBS, Xilinhot, Inner Mongolia, on 4010, 4950 and 6974 kHz.; Xinjiang PBS, Urumqi, on 4970; Gansu PBS, Lanzhou, on 6005.5; Heilongjiang PBS, Harbin, Manchuria, on 6148.5; Qinghai PBS, Xining, 6260; and Yunnan PBS, Kunming, on 6937. Also heard from China was BPM, the Shaanxi Astronomical Observatory time signal station on 15000 kHz. It was located near Xian. Its sister station, BPV, was in Shanghai. An interesting Chinese clandestine station was Radio Ba Yi (Radio First August), which came on the air for brief, ten-minute broadcasts at various hours on 12120 kHz. The station was critical of both the Chinese political leadership and the U.S., and while it appeared to be the voice of Army dissidents, the consensus was that it was run by Moscow. On July 30, the New Hebrides became the independent nation of Vanuatu, and Radio Vila became Radio Vanuatu. West coast listeners had surprisingly good reception of the station on 7260 kHz. Australian DXers were able to hear a radio station run by a Vanuatu rebel movement which had taken over the island of Espiritu Santo. Radio Vemarana oper-

When the Chinese people’s broadcasting stations started replying to listener’s letters, DXers were rewarded with exotic-looking QSLs like this one from Qinghai PBS, Xining, Qinghai Province.

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ated around 3.5 MHz. The insurrection was soon put down with the assistance of troops from other countries. In May, Radio New Zealand instituted a bi-weekly program, “New Zealand Calling,” especially for American listeners, departing from its practice of using shortwave solely to relay domestic programming. The new show included listeners’ letters, a DX report from Arthur Cushen, and information about New Zealand. And in nearby Australia, Radio Australia was receiving 15–20,000 letters per month from China, a number that dwarfed its resources to reply. In 1978 the station had received 25 letters from China.

1981 Radio Tallinn, in what was then the Estonian S.S.R., could be heard on 6085 kHz. around 2100. Radio Sweden became Radio Sweden International. And to the disappointment of DXers everywhere, Radio Andorra left the air. For a three-week period in December, Radio Netherlands replaced its satellite feed from Hilversum to the Madagascar relay station with a point-to-point single sideband transmission originating at Rambouillet, France. The transmitter power was 30 kw. More European pirates were heard in North America, including, from the U.K., Atlanta Radio International (6245 kHz.); from Scotland, Weekend Music Radio (6260); from the Netherlands, Radio Nolan (6270), ARTO Worldwide (6232), and Radio Jan Rap (6274); and from Ireland, South Dublin Radio (6243), Capital Radio (6268), and Westside Radio (6280). The broadcasting law in Italy had been successfully challenged in court, leaving a chaotic broadcasting scene in which many new private stations were able to operate in a semi-lawful manner. On shortwave these included the Italian Broadcasting Corp. (6275 kHz.) and Stazione Sperimentale (7385). Although there were relatively few new North American pirate stations, there was still much activity, and a shift of the North American “pirate band” from the 6.2–6.3 MHz. area to 7.3–7.5 MHz. was becoming evident. Among the more often reported stations were the Voice of the Pyramids (6241 kHz.), WPOT (6820), Voice of Revolutionary Vinco (7300), Radio Free New Jersey (7341), and Radio Free Wave (7425). In February, the Voice of Hope, a 12 kw. High Adventure Ministries station in southern Lebanon, four miles north of the Israeli border, began broadcasting Christian programming on 6215 and 6280 kHz. The shortwave transmitter was called the “King of Hope,” and it relayed the medium wave “Voice of Hope.” Studios were in a former French customs office in Marj-Ayoun, on the road to Beirut, and the staff, all Americans, were housed at the Arazim Motel in Metullah, Israel. Notwithstanding U.S. government opposition to the project, the station had been operating on medium wave since 1979. It had been constructed under the watchful eye of Major Saad Haddad, head of the Christian militia forces in southern Lebanon, and it was subject to periodic mortar and rocket attack from the PLO.4 Israel’s military station, Galei Zahal, which had been impossible to hear in the United States over its small transmitter on 2442 kHz., now appeared on 14728 kHz. with a good signal all evening and enjoyable U.S. and Israeli pop music. Soon it was on 18129 and 22660 kHz. as well. These transmissions lasted only a few months, however.

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The Qatar Broadcasting Service increased power to 250 kw. and was heard with test transmissions and requests for reception reports. And although the main transmitters of the Broadcasting Service of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia were in Riyadh, Radio Jeddah still had its own English-language program on 11855 kHz. Radio Malabo, Equatorial Guinea, 6250 kHz., became Radio Nacional de Guinea Ecuatorial. Radio Senegal, no longer heard on its long time channels of 4890 and 11890 kHz. and believed inactive, reappeared on 7210 kHz. at 0600. And Radiodiffusion-Television Voltaique, Ougadougou, Upper Volta, 4815 kHz., returned to the air after an absence. Radio Nigeria reportedly inaugurated new 500 kw. transmitters for its external service broadcasts. ELWA still operated an external service on many frequencies in the international bands, including 9550, 11830, 11860, and 11930 kHz. Africa No. One, Gabon, appeared in the tropical bands for the first time, 4810 kHz., and was by far the strongest signal on the 60 meter band. On the higher bands the station was heard carrying Radio France International’s African service, “Chaine Sud.” The 100 kw. Gabonese domestic service, La Voix de la Renovation, in Libreville, put in a strong signal on 4777 kHz. The Mauritius Broadcasting Corp. made some surprise summer appearances on 9709 kHz., as did Radio Moçambique on 11817 kHz. At 0350, Radio Zambia could be heard opening with its well-recognized Fish Eagle interval signal. The frequency, 4911 kHz., and the tuning signal, would remain in use for decades. The signal of La Voix de la Révolution, Bujumbura, Burundi, made it through some nights around 0300 on 3300 kHz. And a new anti–Ethiopian clandestine station, Voice of the Tigre Revolution, began broadcast-

Gabon was home not only to the domestic station, La Vox de la Renovation, but also to the high-power Africa No. One in Moyabi.

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ing on 15450 kHz. It was run by the Tigrean People’s Liberation Front, which sought the affiliation of Ethiopia’s Tigre Province with Eritrea. A new Central American station was HRXK, La Voz de la Mosquitia, Puerto Lempira, Honduras, on 4910 kHz. It was run by the Rev. Landon Wilkerson, who was a ham. Although the signal was fairly good, the Baptist station suffered from many recurring problems, and operated only intermittently. Following attacks against its facility by right wing paramilitaries, and the alleged discovery of arms at the station, the license of Radio Noticias del Continente, Costa Rica, was canceled. Newly heard from the same country was the 2 kw. station TIRN, Radio Nacional de Costa Rica, San Jose, on a crowded frequency, 6035 kHz. The clandestine scene in Central America was active.5 Offering more of the revolutionary exhortations and machine gun bursts that came to symbolize these stations, a new Salvadoran clandestine, Radio Liberación, the station of the FMLN (Frente Farabundo Martí Para la Liberación Nacional), held forth on 8243 kHz., putting in a respectable signal around 0100. The station was reported destroyed by government forces after the first few months of the year. However, it was soon succeeded by the FMLN’s new broadcasting arm, Radio Venceremos.6 It operated first around 7035 kHz., then around 6.7–6.9 MHz., and would become one of the best known clandestine broadcasters. Although the Salvadoran government several times reported having destroyed the station, it seemed to have nine lives and always managed to return to the air. It often sent posters, tapes, and other promotional materials to listeners from the Mexican and Nicaraguan addresses which it used. A soon to be well-known Nicaraguan clandestine station that started up in 1981 was Radio 15 de Septiembre. Operated by the “contras” based in Honduras, it put out a good signal on 5565 kHz. and was occasionally heard with brief English segments. Later it was learned that the U.S. supplied much of the station’s funding. Among the anti–Castro stations were Radio Trinchera, 7077 kHz., Radio Antorcha Martiana, 7088, and Radio Cuba Libre, 6990 kHz. A larger Cuban clandestine broadcaster that came to air in 1981 was La Voz del CID, “Cuba Independiente y Democratica.” It had a good signal, signing on at 0100 on 7355 kHz. Founded by Huber Matos, a one-time Castro loyalist who spent many years in prison after changing sides, CID was a more professional operation than most of the anti–Castro stations, and grew into a network of both clandestine and leased-time stations, each of which was named after a different Cuban historical figure. Among the broadcasters from which it leased time were Radio Clarin and Ecos del Torbes. Some of the anti–Castro stations operated from Florida and were very popular within the politically active Cuban community. The U.S. government was supportive of at least some of this activity. Justice Department prosecutions were minimal, leading to the establishment of authority in the FCC to issue civil fines for illegal broadcasting. However, even the FCC came under criticism from the ITU for what it felt was a tepid attitude toward unlicensed anti–Cuban broadcasting. On the northern coast of South America, the France Régions 3 station at Cayenne, French Guiana, inaugurated a higher power (10 kw.) transmitter on 5055 kHz. This greatly improved reception. The station also continued to operate on 3385 and 6170 kHz. (FR3, which operated the stations in the French colonies, became Radio Television Francaise d’Outre-Mer, or RFO, in 1983.) The Guyana Broadcasting Corp. was formed out of the Guyana Broadcasting Service (Action Radio) and the Guyana Broadcasting Co. Ltd.

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(Radio Demarara, the Voice of Guyana). Each station was said to still be carrying its own programming, however, and only 5950 kHz. (Action Radio) appeared to be active on shortwave. Although it had been on medium wave for four years as La Voz del Guaviare, new to shortwave was HJWA, Radio Transamazonica, San Jose del Guaviare, Colombia, 6051.5 kHz. (soon moved to 6035). Also new were ZYG365, Radio Jornal da Transamazônica, Altamira, Brazil, on 5025 kHz, and ZYG361, Radio Marajoara, Belem, Brazil, which had operated in the 19 meter band years before and now appeared on 4956 kHz. HCFF1, Radio Jesus del Gran Poder, Quito, Ecuador, on 5050 kHz., was heard for the first time in many years. Radio Illimani, La Paz, Bolivia, likewise returned after a long absence. Its frequencies were 4945 (CP7) and 6025 kHz. (CP5). Among other interesting South American stations heard were, from Peru, OBX7D, Radio El Sol de los Andes, Juliaca, on 3230 kHz.; OAX9E, Radio Tropical, Tarapoto, on 4935; OAX4P, Radio Huancayo, on 5955; OAX8Q, Radio Pucallpa, 6156; and OAX2L, Radio Satélite, Santa Cruz, Cajamarca, on 6727. Venezuela’s YVSD, Radio Turismo, Valera, Venezuela, was heard on 6178 kHz. And HCJM4, Radio Antena Libre, Esmeraldas, Ecuador, 3240 kHz., although on the air for several years, increased power to 1 kw. and improved its signal accordingly. LRA36, Radio Nacional Arcangel San Gabriel, in the Antarctic, began using a 19 meter band channel, 15476 kHz., which was better heard than 6029. And in February, Paraguay finally supplied a strong signal on shortwave when Radio Nacional del Paraguay began transmissions on 11915 kHz. (“Transmiten ZP1, ZPA1 y ZPB1, Radio Nacional del Paraguay.”) But modulation was distorted, a problem that would plague the station for many years. On July 1, the long-operating Malaysian communist clandestine station, Voice of the Malayan Revolution, became the somewhat less strident Voice of Malayan (later Malaysian) Democracy. (Another clandestine station, Voice of the People of Malaysia, run by a faction of the Malaysian communist party, had been operating since 1976 but was not heard in the United States.) The Gilbert Islands, now known as Kiribati, returned to shortwave in the form of Radio Kiribati, with transmissions intended for the distant Line Islands and Phoenix Islands. The 1 kw. transmitter, T3K1, located on the island of Betio, was sometimes surprisingly well heard on 16432 kHz. lower sideband around 0600. And to the delight of American DXers, Radio Cook Islands also put in a good signal during unexpected tests on 11760 kHz. in May. The station was heard until sign off around 0900.

1982 Radio Norway became Radio Norway International, and at mid year began testing its new 500 kw. shortwave transmitter at Kvitsøy, located on a small island group off the Norwegian coast. Getting the new technology to work properly was a challenge, and was complicated by local residents’ fears of the effects of the radiations Although Radio Denmark inaugurated a new 100 kw. transmitter at its Herstedvester site in May, the limited antenna capabilities and the urban location dictated its operation at the 50 kw. level, the

Listeners were sometimes rewarded by attractive station pennants, such as this one from Radio Huancayo, Peru.

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same power as the unit it was replacing. However, the new transmitter provided greater frequency flexibility than the old. Plans for a 500 kw. shortwave service from Denmark were shelved. Radio Prague’s site at Rimavska Sobota, in use since 1956, was upgraded from 100 to 250 kw., and soon another high-power Czech site, Velke Kostolany, came on line. The Trans World Radio station in Monaco increased power to 500 kw., as did Österreichischer Rundfunk in Austria. The Iceland State Broadcasting Service was being heard with good signals on 13797 kHz. at 1800–2000. And among the Europirates newly heard in North America during the year were U.K. stations Britain Radio International (6224 kHz.) and Radio East Coast Commercial (11580); Dutch pirates Radio Gerona (6287) and Free Radio Service Holland (7315); and Italian stations Radio Milan International (6221), Radio Time (6275), and Radio Pace, a Catholic station in Verona on 15475, supposedly operating with 3.5 kw. WRNO, New Orleans, Lousiana, the first private shortwave broadcasting station approved by the FCC in 20 years, took to the air on January 21. Its test frequencies were 6155, 11890, 11965, 15355, and 17895 kHz. By 1986, WRNO actually started appearing in some Arbitron ratings. Although the “Rock of the World” had ambitious plans for programming of a type seldom heard on shortwave (live college sports, network news, local cultural features, Acadian broadcasts to Canada), by 1989 over half the station’s income was from religious programs.7 Later, WRNO would be plagued by technical problems. CFVP, Calgary, Alberta, a rare catch for most DXers, replaced its 100 watt transmitter on 6030 kHz. with a new solid state unit of like power. The American Forces Radio and Television Service reverted to its pre–1969 name, the Armed Forces Radio and Television Service. The VOA leased time from Brazil’s Radiobras for the VOA Spanish transmission at 1130–1400. And a program exchange between the Voice of Free China, Taiwan, and WYFR provided VOFC listeners in North America with crystal clear reception over WYFR’s Florida transmitters, and DXers with an interesting new target in Taiwan. Save for news inserts, which were provided by satellite, WYFR programs were recorded on tape and air shipped to Taiwan. Interest in the pirate scene increased with the formation of the Association of Clandestine Radio Enthusiasts, a club dedicated to pirate broadcasting. Among the more frequently heard of the new North American pirates active during the year were Big Boom Radio (6840 kHz.), KCFR (7345), Radio Xenon (7357), Free Radio North America (7425), KQSB (7425), The Crystal Ship (7430), Radio Free San Francisco (7430), and Radio North Star International (13787). Still others were active in the area of 1620 kHz., e.g. KPRC, WART, WDX. Although pirate broadcasting declined a bit after the FCC put the Voice of the Voyager off the air in May, a half dozen pirates showed surprising coordination during a July 4th “America’s Birthday Pirate Festival” wherein they broadcast serially (on different frequencies) from around 0230 to 0700. There were similar events in later years. In the Middle East, Radio Oman increased power to 100 kw. The Iraqi communist party’s Voice of the Iraqi People, absent for a decade, returned to the air. Also active was the Voice of the Libyan People, claiming to be operated by opponents of leader Muammar Khadaffi and audible on 11365 kHz. at 2100–2200. It was said to be located in Sudan. In response, a new clandestine, the Voice of the Sudanese Popular Revolution, came on the

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air from Libya. It was the station of the Sudanese People’s Liberation Army (SPLA), and it could be heard in America on 15450 and 17940 kHz. A semi-clandestine Angolan station was A Voz da Resistência do Galo Negro, or Voice of the Resistance of the Black Cockerel. Operating on 4950 kHz., it was run by UNITA, Jonas Savimbi’s Angolan guerilla organization which was fighting the MPLA government. Often heard on the same frequency on days when Galo Negro was off was A Voz de Verdade, another anti-government broadcaster. The stations were thought to be located in South Africa. A licensed Angolan station that was surprisingly well heard was Emissor Provincial do Zaire, Bassacongo, on 4885 kHz. Also noted occasionally were Emissor Regional de Benguela, 6152 kHz., and Radio Nacional de Angola, 9535. The latter station was also heard near 4950 kHz., the channel used by Galo Negro and Verdade. From another former Portuguese colony, Cape Verde, in what appeared to be a relay arrangement with the frequency’s regular occupant, Radio Voz do São Vicente, Emissora Oficial da Republica de Cabo Verde (formerly Radio Clube Cabo Verde) was often heard at 0800 sign on on 7155 kHz. Radio Mogadishu, Somalia suddenly started appearing with a good signal at 0300, opening on the out-of-band channel 6790 kHz. Frequencies in this part of the shortwave spectrum would be home to many small Somali stations for decades to come. And although Radio Tanzania Zanzibar was much better heard on 3339 kHz. than it had been, DXers were wrong in thinking that it had increased power to 50 kw., as it had planned to do. Radio Chad was still off the air, but audible was Radio Moundou, located some 250 miles south of the capital, N’Djamena. It had been on medium wave for several years, and was now on 5288 kHz. shortwave. Though operating at only 2.5 kw. with a transmitter that was said to have once served the United States embassy in N’Djamena, the station could be heard opening at 0500. On September 15, the FCC raided two south Florida transmitter sites of Cuban clandestine La Voz del CID, putting both 5106 and 7355 kHz. off the air. The former was found to be a 1 kw. transmitter, the latter 500 watts, both modified Heathkits.8 And two new clandestine stations appeared in Central America. A new Nicaraguan clandestine station, La Voz de Sandino, was heard on 6220 kHz. It was run by Edén Pastora, “Comandante Zero,” head of the contra group that was based in Costa Rica, and it would be heard for several years. Radio Farabundo Martí was a new Salvadoran clandestine. Operating around 6.9 and 7.0 MHz., it would be on the air for a decade. From Honduras, long silent HRPX, El Eco de Honduras, in San Pedro Sula, was heard around 0400 on 6000 kHz., sometimes carrying the identification of its medium wave affiliate, Radio Variedades. After being off shortwave for many years, HIAZ, Radio Santiago, Dominican Republic, reappeared on a new frequency, 6048 kHz. And 4VEH dropped its use of all shortwave frequencies except 4930 kHz., a channel which was itself heard only intermittently. (The power on 4930 was approximately 1.5 kw.) The Falklands War provided some fascinating shortwave listening.9 The Falkland Islands Broadcasting Station, which by this time was being heard fairly often in the United States on 2370 kHz., was taken over by Argentine forces soon after the invasion of April 2. It was renamed LRA60, Radio Nacional Islas Malvinas, and stayed on the air, broadcasting various Argentine military-initiated announcements in English — restrictions on move-

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ments, driving on the correct side of the road, the introduction of pesos, the handing in of weapons, etc. Regular station staff thought that the sound of their familiar voices would give the people a morale boost. However, all transmissions were closed a few days after Britain bombed the airport on May 1, after which the station operated on wired network only save for one time when the medium wave transmitter was switched on for coverage of the Pope’s open-air mass in Buenos Aires. The Argentines surrendered on June 14, and the following day the station was back on 2370 kHz., albeit with reduced power. After repairing the damaged antenna, FIBS reopened the old 3958 kHz. frequency as well, plus an experimental FM channel.¡0 On April 22, 1982, an Argentine English-language psychological warfare station opened on 17740 kHz. The sultry-voiced announcer called herself “Liberty,” and although one had to strain to follow the content because of the muffled audio, the station was well heard in the United States with 45-minute transmissions at 2200 and 0000. “Liberty” was on the air for two months, and some DXers were even able to weedle prepared card confirmations from the Argentine defense ministry.¡¡ “Liberty’s” more professional-sounding British counterpart was the Spanish-language Radio Atlantico del Sur which was operated by the Ministry of Defence and transmitted on 9710 kHz. daily at 2300–0200 from the BBC Ascension Island relay station. It commenced broadcasting on May 19. Although it suffered some jamming, it was easily heard in the United States. Radio Atlantico del Sur had its own printed acknowledgment card for reception reports sent to a London post office box address that was announced over the air. The station closed soon after hostilities ended.

The Falklands war brought forth Radio Atlantico del Sur on the British side, and its counterpart, the Argentine station “Liberty.”

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The British Forces Broadcasting Service (BFBS), absent from shortwave since 1971, made a surprise return during the Falklands crisis with broadcasts of pop music and home messages to troops at 1100–1155 on 15105 kHz. It was also from Ascension. Although these broadcasts were aired for only a short time, they set a precedent for similar BFBS shortwave transmissions during later British military actions in the Gulf. After the British retook the Falklands, BFBS began broadcasting over the Falkland Islands Broadcasting Station on a shared-time basis, and some listeners were able to pick up BFBS programming on the FIBS channel of 3958 kHz. Also of interest during the Falklands War was the appearance of two Buenos Aires medium wave stations, LS5, Radio Rivadavia, and LS10, Radio del Plata, on 9690 and 11710 kHz. respectively, channels normally used by Radio Nacional de Buenos Aires. These broadcasts were intended for the Falklands. Another interesting Argentine station heard during the year was LV19, Radio Malargüe, 6160 kHz., audible around 1030. It was one of the dwindling number of private shortwave broadcasters still on the air from Argentina. HCJB put its first 500 kw. transmitter in service. It was a unit built completely by HCJB engineers in the United States. Two new Ecuadorean stations came on shortwave: HCVA5, Radio Panamericana, Quero, on 3290 kHz., and HCRP7, Radio Pastaza, El Puyo, on 3316. Other South American stations new to shortwave in 1982 included HJVK, Armonias del Caqueta, Florencia, Colombia, 4915 kHz., and several Peruvian stations: Radio Moderna, Celendin, 4300 kHz.; OAZ2A, Radio Los Andes, Huamachuco, 5030; and Radio Visión, Juanjui, 5360. Among the many other interesting Andean stations heard during the year were Peruvians OAX3P, Radio Tingo Maria, 4760 kHz.; OAX8X, Radio Amazonas (formerly Radio Samaren), Iquitos, 4815; OAX2G, Radio Ilucan, Cutervo, 5619; Radio Bambamarca, 5658; and OAX3L, Radio JSV, Huanuco, on 6060. Bolivia was still a prime DX target, and among the Bolivian stations heard were Radio Padilla, 3478 kHz.; CP136, Radio Abaroa, Riberalta, 4710; CP89, Radio Santa Ana, Santa Ana de Yacuma, 4886; and CP161, Radio Stentor, La Paz, 6195. YVOB, Radio Táchira, San Cristóbal, Venezuela, reactivated on 4832 kHz., and Radio Nacional de Venezuela increased its use of 9640 kHz., a channel which became an all-day regional shortwave service. Among the many other interesting Venezuelan stations heard during the year were YVAO, Radio Sucre, Cumaná, on 4960 kHz., and YVTE, Radio Valles del Tuy, Ocumare del Tuy, on 6129. In December, a new SWBC country was heard: Saipan. Beaming a rock music format to Japan was commercial “super rock” station KYOI, operating with 100 kw. on various channels, including 9670, 11900 and 15415 kHz. (“This is super rock, ‘yoi,’ KYOI, Saipan. This is a test of radio station KYOI, Saipan, on 11900 kHz.”) Yoi means good in Japanese. The programs were prepared in California, and the station’s sophisticated electronic equipment permitted it to operate with only one person on site. However, it was not a commercial success. Radio Japan conducted some single sideband tests. Two government broadcasting services on shortwave, the Philippine Broadcasting Service and Radio Pilipinas, “the Voice of the Philippines,” merged into the Maharlika Broadcasting System. A new All India Radio station came on line. Located at Aizawal in Mizoram state, it was on 5050 and 7295 kHz. The station in the Maldive Islands, by now known as the Voice of the Maldives, was

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Radio Union, 6115 kHz., was one of the best heard of the Peruvian stations.

reported to have left shortwave, as was super rare Or Sor, the Thai Royal Palace station on 6149 kHz. The Peihai Fishery Station in China was still operating, now on 8767 kHz. Once part of a weather station, it carried its own programs as well as some from the Guangxi People’s Broadcasting Station in Nanning. For 12 days in April, Radio TV Hong Kong was again on 3940 kHz. for the South China Sea Yacht Race. Although the twice-daily weather broadcasts were heard by only a few in North America, the brief biennial transmissions were sought by many. There were overseas reports that the station continued to operate sporadically on the frequency for some weeks after the race ended. Although it took a good receiver and a good location to hear any of the low power Indonesian “RPD” stations that operated between 2.3 and 4.7 MHz. and that were rapidly trading shortwave for medium wave, an Australian survey put their number at around 50. There were special DX tests from Radio Cook Islands on April 28–30 to commemorate “DXcursion,” a group of 18 New Zealanders and Australians who were visiting the island for a DX vacation. The frequency was 11760 kHz. (plus medium wave), and a few North American DXers were lucky enough to hear it. Special QSL cards were issued for the event.

1983 The BBC shortwave site at Rampisham went to 500 kw. Radio Norway International conducted single sideband tests. The United Nations designated 1983 as World Commu-

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nications Year. And to commemorate its 55th anniversary of regular broadcasting, and in recognition of World Communications Year, for 24 hours on April 30, Radio Netherlands operated a special amateur station. Although the pirate scene in Europe was still very active, fewer signals made it across the Atlantic. One that did was Radio Freedom International, Scotland, on 15040 kHz. Among the North American pirates reported during the year, all in the neighborhood of 7425 kHz., were WTDT, Radio Highlander, Voice of Democracy, WRAM, and Voice of To-Morrow, a station whose racist, anti-semitic programs would be heard periodically for a decade. In early July, tests were heard from a new religious station, KNLS, Anchor Point, Alaska. Regular broadcasting began later that month. Its programs were beamed to China and Russia, with one antenna centered on Beijing, the other beamed over the North Pole to the European Soviet Union, resulting in generally poor reception in North America. KGEI tried out a new antenna system on 6000 kHz. and asked for reception reports. (“This is station KGEI with a test transmission of a new antenna. For your QSL, please send a reception report to KGEI, P.O. Box 15, San Francisco, California, U.S.A.”) On October 1, 1983, the VOA site in Dixon, California, closed since 1979, was brought back into service for transmissions to Latin America. And CKZU, Vancouver, British Columbia, 6160 kHz., increased power from 500 watts to 1 kw. The Voice of Peace, the famous shipboard station of Israeli peace activist Abbie Nathan which had been on AM and FM since the early 1970s, began using shortwave. The ship was anchored about three miles off Tel Aviv, and the frequency was 6240 kHz. While the signal from the 400 watt transmitter was not very strong, under good conditions it was heard in the United States around 2400. It was on shortwave only until 1984, however. Nathan would scuttle the ship in 1993 following the Oslo Peace Accord. The clandestine Voice of the Iranian Revolution came on the air, transmitting in the 6350–6400 kHz. range. Another station, the pro-monarchist, anti–Khomeini Sedaye Nejate Iran (Voice of the Liberation of Iran) was operated by the Front for the Liberation of Iran and transmitted on 9032 and 11600 kHz. It was supported by the CIA, and it is believed to have operated from Egypt.¡2 And born of the extended fighting in Lebanon, a new station called the Voice of Arab Lebanon appeared. It operated first on 6204 kHz., then 6233, and finally 6400, and was audible at 0400 sign on. Like its Christian counterpart, Voice of Lebanon, on the air since 1977, it functioned more like an authorized station than a clandestine. Fighting put the station off the air in 1985. Two “Mediterranean” broadcasts were on shortwave. Radio Mediterranean was a multi-lingual program (Arabic, French, English) broadcast over the Deutsche Welle Malta station at 1800–1900 on 5960 kHz. It was a cooperative venture of Malta and Algeria. Radio Mediterranée Internationale, a joint French-Moroccan project, began broadcasting from Nador, Morocco in what used to be Morocco’s Spanish zone. Identifying as Radio Medi Un, it had been on medium wave since 1980. Now it was on 5950 kHz. shortwave, and soon on other frequencies as well. Radio Japan commenced relays via Africa No. One in Gabon, as did AWR, Swiss Radio International, and Voice of the Gospel, a program of the Lutheran World Federation which, until 1977, had operated Radio Voice of the Gospel in Ethiopia. Africa No. One claimed an audience of 12 million, and said that, according to polls taken in Libreville

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KYOI’s beam of a commercial rock format on shortwave from Saipan to Japan was not successful, in part because the 1970s boom in shortwave listening among Japanese youth was already over.

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

The Radio Mediterranean program was broadcast from the Deustche Welle relay station on Malta.

(Gabon), Douala (Cameroon), and Lomé (Togo), about half the African population of those cities tuned in at least several times a week.¡3 Radio Douala in the Cameroons returned to shortwave after a long absence. It was now on 4795 kHz. with 100 kw. After more than two years off the air, Radio Senegal reappeared on its old frequency of 4890 kHz. Radio Omdurman, in the Sudan, also absent from shortwave for some time, returned to its old frequency, 5039 kHz., where it could be heard at 0400 sign on. And in November 1983, Radio Nacional de São Tome e Principe (formerly Radio Clube de São Tome), inactive for more than a year, returned to the air on 4805 kHz., a frequency close to its old channel of 4807.5. Its operation would be erratic, however, and it was gone for good by the end of 1985. A new station was Radio Parakou, a regional station in Benin, on 5025 kHz. It could be heard opening at 0400 and closing around 2300, sometimes in parallel with the Cotonou station on 4870 kHz., sometimes with its own programs. Radio Nigeria was heard with a new educational service on 4932 kHz. around 2100. The frequency was an old Benin City channel. However, listeners were asked to send reception reports to Lagos, and replies came from Ibadan. It was gone by mid 1984. A clandestine station supporting one side of the competing forces in Chad and transmitting from Libya was Radio Bardai (the name of a town in Chad’s far north). Although heard poorly in America, the signal on 6009 kHz. could sometimes be found before the sta-

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tion’s 2020 sign off time. It was on the air until 1988. Libya used the same frequency for another anti-government station, Voix de la Revolution Populaire Voltaique, broadcasting against the government of Upper Volta.¡4 (Upper Volta changed its name to Burkina Faso in 1984.) And in June, a clandestine station called Radio Truth began broadcasting on 5015 kHz. It was directed against the Mugabe government in Zimbabwe, and although it gave a U.K. address, it was believed to be broadcasting from South Africa. It could be heard in North America at 0430 when it opened transmission with a distinct bird call and, “Good morning, Zimbabwe, and welcome to another program in our English language service of Radio Truth.” XEYU, Radio Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM), Mexico City, was reactivated with a 600 watt transmitter on 9600 kHz. It was a good year for reception of other hard-to-hear Mexican stations as well, including XEJN, Radio Huayacocotla, 2390 kHz.; the seldom-heard XEUJ, Linares, on 5982; XEUW, La “U” de Veracruz, 6020; XEXQ, Radio Universidad, San Luis Potosí, 6045; XEUDS, Radio Universidad de Sonora, Hermosillo, 6115; and XEWW, La Voz de la America Latina, Mexico City, on 6165 kHz. In the Caribbean, U.S. bombing during the American intervention in Grenada in October brought an end to Radio Free Grenada. The station later resumed broadcasting, but not on shortwave. In June, Jeff White’s inchoate shortwave station, Radio Earth, began airing an hourlong program of news and features, called “The World,” over Radio Clarin. It was sponsored by the Curacao Tourist Bureau and a Curacao hotel holding company, and was taped in the modest Radio Earth studio in the Curacao Hilton, after which the tapes were flown to Santo Domingo where news and music was inserted. The program included a segment called “This Is the Caribbean,” hosted by Rudy Espinal. Radio Earth switched to WRNO in November 1983 and relocated its production efforts to Evanston, Illinois. It then returned, both on air and physically, to Radio Clarin from September 1984 to March 1985 after a legal dispute with WRNO.¡5 In April, the old Costa Rican station, Radio Atenea, was sold, and its successor, TIRS, Radio Impacto, came on 6150 kHz. with a right wing line and a signal befitting its 20 kw. Owned by a group of Venezuelan businessmen known for their interest in the Nicaraguan contras, its office and studios were in San Pedro de Montes. The station had close ties with the FDN (Fuerza Democratica Nicaraguense ), and it seemed more interested in reaching listeners in Nicaragua (and later Panama) than Costa Rica. Eventually, Radio Impacto would have transmitters in three locations. The station moved to 5030 kHz. in 1988. One of its transmitter sites, Cahuita, would be purchased by Adventist World Radio in 1991.¡6 In October, another new station came on shortwave from Costa Rica. It was long time medium waver Radio Columbia in San Jose, and it put in a good signal both in the morning and at night over its 60 meter channel, 4825 kHz. (TILX). It would wander in frequency to 4940, then 5010. Among the year’s bumper crop of new Central American clandestine stations were two Nicaraguan contra operations. Radio Miskut, so named after a Miskito Indian chief, operated on frequencies around 6.9 MHz. and was first heard in January. Taking to the air around the same time was La Voz de Nicaragua Libre, which put in a good signal on 5750 kHz. from sign on at 0000. It was later heard on 6225 kHz., the same frequency as La Voz

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Radio Columbia was located in San Jose, Costa Rica. Its 10 kw. was more than that of most shortwave stations in Central America.

de Sandino, which appeared to be its sister station in ARDE (Alianza Revolucionaria Democratica). Opposing the regime in El Salvador was the new Radio Guazapa. It used a range of channels around 9.8 MHz., often jumping frequency by 10 kHz. in order to avoid jamming. And a “black” clandestine station thought to be operated by the Salvadoran government was the anti-communist Radio Soberania Nacional on 6960 kHz. Two other interesting clandestine stations appeared in the Americas during the year. One, Radio Free Surinam, was sponsored by the Council for the Liberation of Surinam, headquartered in Holland. Thought to be transmitting from Venezuela or somewhere in the Caribbean, it was aimed at the increasingly draconian activities of the Surinam military which had fomented a coup in February 1980. The station operated on 6850 kHz. and was well heard at 0100–0130. In 1985 it would broadcast via Radio Clarin, and it was also heard on the same transmitter used by La Voz del CID. Another new clandestine, not as well heard, was Radio Liberté, an anti–Duvalier station which broadcast to Haiti on Sundays and Wednesdays at 2100 and 2300 on the very busy frequency of 9610 kHz.¡7 A new Colombian shortwave station was the TODELAR outlet HJHZ, Radio Macarena, in Villavicencio. Its 5 kw. transmitter put in a very good signal on 5974 kHz. Radio Nacional de Venezuela broadened its shortwave activities and was heard often on 9540 and 11695 kHz., asking for reception reports. Among the less often-heard Venezuelan stations reported during the year were YVKD, Radio Mundial, Caracas, on 5050 kHz., and Catatumbo International, Maracaibo, on 9620. HCJB made its high power transmitters available to the government station, Radio Nacional del Ecuador, for the first time. and Radio Nacional was now heard on 15115 kHz.

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at 2200–0030. For two days in June, the hams at HCJB, like their Dutch counterparts in Holland, celebrated World Communications Year by putting a special ham station on the air. It was HC1JB, the same call letters used long ago by HCJB co-founder Clarence Moore. Two Peruvian stations taking to the shortwaves for the first time were OAX9U, Radio Bagua, Bagua Chica, on 3310 kHz., and OBX6B, Radio Concordia, Arequipa, on 9579. As always, there were loggings of numerous Andean stations. Among them were Peruvians OAX5F, Radio Huanta 2000, on 4755 kHz.; Radio Huayabamba, 6271; Radio Selva, Moyobamba, 7307; and Radio Estación 2000, Rioja, 9988 kHz. A station on around 6907 kHz. that was stumping DXers turned out to be Radio Cotorumi in Santa Cruz, Peru, operating with about 100 watts from an old Heathkit transmitter. From Ecuador, HCVN7, La Voz del Napo, Tena, was regularly heard on 3280 kHz. A less frequent visitor was Radio La Voz de la Juventud (“Radio RJ1”), Guachanamá, on 6520. And among the many Bolivians heard were CP182, Radioemisora Reyes, 4420 kHz.; CP178, Radio Cuarto Centenario, Tupiza, 5030; and Radio Ichilo, Villa Busch, 5076 kHz. For two years starting in mid–1983, DXers benefited from the work of Juan Carlos Codina, a DXer from Argentina, temporarily in Peru, who produced data on dozens of Peruvians and other Andean stations that had never been heard before, underscoring the richness of shortwave broadcasting in this part of the world. Many of the stations operated on out-of-band channels, suggesting that they were less than fully authorized. (Codina passed away in Holland in 1995.) The 250 kw. transmitter of a new station in Brazil, ZYG791, Radio Nacional de Manaus, on 4845 kHz., made it one of the strongest signals on the band. Brazil continued to be home to a huge number of shortwave broadcasters. A sampling of those heard includes ZYF276, Radio Nacional, Sao Gabriel, 3375; ZYF810, Radio Difusora do Maranhao, Sao Luiz, 4755; ZYG364, Radio Educadora Bragança, 4825; ZYG810, Radio Nacional, Boa Vista, 4875; ZYF693, Radio Araguaia, 4905; ZYG277, Radio Nacional, Porto Velho, 4945; and ZYE727, Radio Universo, Curitiba, on 6020. Argentine private stations Radio El Mundo and Radio Splendid left shortwave. Several Argentine stations were heard on sideband feeder frequencies such as 5882, 9115, 10680, and 15780 kHz. At times Radio Belgrano or Radio del Plata could be heard on one sideband while Radio Rivadavia was on the other. These transmissions were thought to be intended for Argentine personnel in the Antarctic or the Argentine interior. And now operating with what was believed to be 3.5 kw., and using (at different hours) both 2370 kHz. and the better-propagating 3958 kHz., the Falkland Islands Broadcasting Station could be heard almost routinely in the United States. Radio Thailand put in a good signal at 1130 and 2330 on 9650 kHz., and the Burma Broadcasting Service was a regular in the morning hours on 4725 kHz. From newly obtained information it was learned that Radio Ulan Bator, Mongolia, had eight shortwave transmitter sites operating in the tropical bands. These created some new targets for American listeners, but the stations were rarely heard here. A new Cambodian clandestine station opposing Vietnam’s involvement in the country was the Voice of the National Army of Democratic Kampuchea. It operated on 5200 kHz., and while it was supposedly located in a border area near Thailand, there was some evidence that it was transmitting from China. Two interesting Chinese clandestine stations were Radio Sparks and the Voice of the Liberation Army. They each broadcast a series of

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Getting a response from the Burma Broadcasting Service was usually a challenge.

brief (7–10 minute) programs several times a day, usually on 7 MHz. frequencies. Some believed that these and other similar anti–Mao broadcasts, which dated back to the 1960s, emanated from the Soviet Union, while others felt that Taiwan was the locus. The stations left the air in 1985, but resumed operation later.¡8 In October, VLI, the ABC station in Sydney, Australia that had broadcast on 6090 kHz. since 1948, suffered an equipment breakdown and closed down. A hard-to-hear station that drew the attention of many DXers was Radio Enga, Wabag, Papua New Guinea, a medium waver that had added a shortwave channel, 2410 kHz., in December 1982. Even under the best of conditions, and during the peak hours before its 1300 sign off, Radio Enga’s signal was weak.

1984 In Europe, Österreichischer Rundfunk conducted some single sideband tests, and the 10 kw. transmitter at Aldrans was moved to the main ORF shortwave site at Moosbrunn. RIAS in Germany was still on 6005 kHz. It had been using its Berlin transmitter (20 kw.) during the day and its Munich transmitter (100 kw.) at night. In 1984, the Berlin installation was upgraded to 100 kw. and Munich was dropped. Radio Berlin International in East Germany was utilizing three sites: Nauen (500 kw.), Königs-Wusterhausen (100 kw.), and Leipzig (100 kw.). A separate RBI German-language home service program, “Die Stimme der DDR,” was carried over the same transmitters. The Polish Pathfinders Station left shortwave, henceforth to be heard only on FM.

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Only a few new European pirates were heard in North America, one being Spectrum World Broadcasting, 7710 kHz., operating from the U.K. However, it was a busy year for North American pirates, with many new ones, including Radio Paradise International (6225 kHz.), Radio Angeline (6262), Samurai Radio (7375), Radio North Coast International (7410), KMA (7413), Voice of Laryngitis (7413), Radio Free Insanity (7415), Tangerine Radio (7415), WIMP (7420), Voice of Bob (7425), KRZY (7430), Radio Sinewave (7430), WBST (7432), WMTV (7435), Munchkin Radio (7525), Radio Morania (11800), and KQRP (15052). Long-time New Zealand pirate Kiwi Radio started appearing on U.S. pirate stations, some of which were now relaying the programs of other pirates. Ted Turner of CNN fame was said to be interested in establishing a network of shortwave transmitters. However, nothing came of it. The year 1984 also saw the promotion of the most famous shortwave station that never was—NDXE Global Radio. Its founder, 33year-old H. Dickson Norman, operating as the World Service Broadcasting Corp., had big plans. “In Dixie” was to be the world’s first privately owned “shortwave stereo” station and would feature live concerts, sporting events, news, call-in programs, kids shows, etc., all supported by commercial advertising. It would also run a mail order business for listeners. With headquarters in Opelika, Alabama, Norman planned “to take American and Alabama culture to the world.” The power of the station would be 100 kw. at first, then 500 kw. Members of the NDXE Listener’s Club were promised five issues of the NDXE newsletter (NDXE Planet), an NDXE license plate, and a T-shirt, all for $28. Other promotional items included bumper stickers, coffee mugs, and the promise of a 3-D holographic QSL for the station’s projected sign on during the summer of 1985. That target was pushed back to the fall, then to July 4, 1986, then October, then 1987, etc. In 1989 the FCC finally revoked Norman’s construction permit.¡9 Syria had been off shortwave for a long time, but the new 500 kw. transmitters of the Syrian Broadcasting & Television Service now gave it a strong presence on 12085 kHz. Iraq’s ITU registrations showed high power transmitters at four locations: 250 kw. at Abu Ghraib, and 500 kw. at Babylon, Salah el Deen, and Salman Pak. Libya was broadcasting a new English service to Africa called the Voice of Africa. And, as it had been doing for over a decade, the Cyprus Broadcasting Corp. still aired special broadcasts in Greek for the U.K. via the island’s BBC East Mediterranean Relay. The frequency for the twiceweekly broadcasts was 7130 kHz., and the time was 2215–2245. A new anti-government clandestine was Radio Iranian Toilers, a Tudeh (communist party) station, believed to be based in Afghanistan. In October, Ethiopia sponsored a second station of the SPLA (Sudanese People’s Liberation Army), this one called Radio of the Sudanese People’s Liberation Army, or Radio SPLA. It was on 9610 kHz. Radio Chad was heard again on 4904.5 kHz., now with 100 kw. and a strong signal. Radio Madagascar reactivated its 5010 kHz. channel, a frequency still in use today, and was heard opening at 0300. After about a year off the air, Radiodifusão Nacional, Guinea-Bissau, showed up on the odd frequency of 5475 kHz instead of its old channel of 5040. It was heard until 2400 sign off. In April, the “Servicio Internacional” of Radio Nacional de Guinea Ecuatorial, Bata, surprised listeners when it appeared on 7998 kHz. until 2130 closedown. It was more widely heard in October on 15106 kHz. (later 9553) carrying English-language evangelical programs around 2100. The programs were brokered by Pan American Broadcasting of

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There were many power upgrades in the mid–1980s. The Syrian Arab Republic Broadcasting Service inaugurated new 500 kw. transmitters in 1984.

This station’s name was a mouthful. Libya’s signal was strong, thanks to its 500 kw. transmitters.

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Cupertino, California and broadcast under the name Radio Africa. They would be heard intermittently in the 19 meter band for many years. Radio Syd had started out in 1959 as a Swedish offshore medium wave pirate operating aboard the Cheetah II. It relocated to Banjul, Gambia, and went on land, in 1968. In 1984, a special one time, half-hour broadcast originating from the station and transmitted via Gambia’s Cable & Wireless, Ltd. was arranged as part of the Nordic Open DX Championship. It was broadcast on September 21 at 2000–2015 on 7422 kHz. and at 2015–2030 on 7485, and although the signal was well heard on the east coast, few people knew about the broadcast. Soviet home service programs were heard over a Cuban transmitter put into service on 4765 kHz. for the benefit of Soviet personnel in that country. A twice-weekly half-hour was devoted to the Russian programs of other Soviet bloc stations as well, including, on a rotating basis, Berliner Rundfunk, Radio Prague, Radio Sofia, Radio Warsaw, Radio Bucharest, Radio Budapest, and Radio Ulan Bator. The rarely heard Mexican time station, XEQK, La Hora Exacta, Mexico City, was heard on 9555 kHz. with its lineup of time announcements, commercials and public service announcements. HIAZ, Radio Santiago, Dominican Republic, was heard on 9755 kHz., and HRMH, La Voz del Junco, Santa Barbara, Honduras, reactivated on 6075 kHz. Although TGNA, Radio Cultural, Guatemala City, was still on 3300 kHz., operations were intermittent and it was a treat when this venerable religious broadcaster made an appearance. Much stronger was Radio El Salvador which was heard with good signals in the morning on 5992 kHz. and at night on 9588. Although Central American and Caribbean clandestine activity had subsided somewhat, a new Nicaraguan clandestine, Radio Monimbó, appeared on 6230 kHz. at 0000–0100 and 0200–0300 with programming that was unusually well polished. Radio Sandino, Managua, Nicaragua, by now a mainstream medium wave broadcaster (though still affiliated with the FSLN), added a shortwave frequency, 6200 kHz., apparently to offset the contra stations that operated in the out-of-band range above 6.2 MHz.20 Radio Libertad Cubana and “Comandante David” reappeared around 6.9 MHz. with signal strength suggesting a Miami location. Radio Rebelde, a government medium wave staple in Cuba, appeared on shortwave following a merger of the Rebelde network and the Radio Liberación network. It put out a strong signal on 5025 kHz., a frequency on which the station is still operating with one of the strongest signals in the 60 meter band (now 50 kw.). As part of an effort to improve the infrastructure and economy of French Guiana, Télédiffusion de France (TDF), France’s state transmission company, opened a 500 kw. relay site in Montsinery, French Guiana. Strong signals from the Montsinery transmitter began appearing in January, usually carrying the programs of Radio France International. A new Ecuadorean station was HCVB7, Radio La Voz del Upano, Macas, on 5040 kHz. In subsequent years it would be heard with multiple, separately programmed frequencies, something unusual for a domestic South American shortwave station. Thirty-nine people from 10 countries participated in the first of a series of HCJB telephone call-in programs. At the mike were program host Ken MacHarg, “DX Partyline” host John Beck, news director Brian Seeley, and English service director Glen Volkhardt. And June 19, 1984 witnessed the last HCJB “DX Partyline” broadcast to be hosted by Clayton and Helen Howard, end-

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ing 22 years at the DXPL mike and 43 years at HCJB for the Howards. John Beck took over DXPL. After an absence of several years, YVKX, Radio Capital, Caracas, reactivated on 4850 kHz. A new station, Caracol Carreño, La Voz del Orinoco, came on the air from Puerto Carreño, Colombia. It operated on 5936 kHz. with 10 kw. In September, Radio Surinam International signed on, transmitting three times weekly at 1430–1530 on 17755 kHz. over the facilities of Radiobras in Brazil. The Andes boasted the usual complement of interesting stations. A new and powerful Peruvian, and one that would be heard for many years, was OAZ3B, Radio Ancash, Huaraz, on 4990 kHz. OAX2H, Radio Libertad de Trujillo, inactive since the 1960s, reappeared on its old frequency of 4910 kHz. Another strong station from Peru was OAX7Q, Radio Quillabamba, on 5025 kHz. Among the more challenging Peruvians, all of questionable legality, were Radio Colonial, Nuevo Cajamarca, 6139 kHz.; Estacion “C,” Moyobamba, 6323; and Radio Continente, Juanjui, on 8900. Two tough ones from Bolivia were Radio Emisora La Voz del Tropico, Villa Tunari, on 4458 kHz., and CP222, Radio San Jose, Oruro, 5985. Easier to hear was CP32, Radio Santa Cruz, on 6139 kHz. The Fujian Front Station, formerly called the People’s Liberation Army Station,

Periods of inactivity became increasingly common among Latin American broadcasters as budget pressures and equipment breakdowns took their toll. Some of the absences were long, as in the case of Radio Libertad de Trujillo, Peru, which returned to shortwave in 1984 after a 20-year absence.

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became the Voice of the Strait. Transmitting from Fuzhou, Fujian Province, China, the PLA station broadcast two services to Taiwan. And the Vietnam Radio & TV home service programs could be heard via Hanoi on 6450, 7420 and 10060 kHz.2¡ Radio Bangladesh increased power to 250 kw. and was heard testing on many new frequencies. Following the lead of KYOI, another new station came on the air from Saipan. This was Far East Broadcasting Co. station KFBS. The first of its several 100 kw. transmitters had been around since 1944 and had last been used by VOA Okinawa in 1977. In December, DXers were glad to hear the initial tests from the new Deutsche Welle relay station in Trincomalee, Sri Lanka. Tamil terrorist attacks in 1985 would cause the station to be abandoned temporarily. In September, the Radio Australia station at Darwin was brought back into regular use. And keen seekers of Australian DX wondered why they were hearing ABC Northern Territory news in single sideband at 0900–0915 on the odd frequency of 6840 kHz. It turned out to be VJY, the Telecom Australia station in Darwin. Basically a utility operation, the 500 watt station was known as the Outpost Radio Service and was used mainly for twoway communications with outback communities that lacked telephone service. It ceased carrying the news when the Northern Territory Shortwave Service opened in 1985. In Papua New Guinea, the National Broadcasting Commission moved most of its 120 meter band provincial stations to 90 meters, already home to most of the provincial PNG stations. By 1986, only Radio Enga was left on 120 meters.

1985 Following tests late in 1984, Radio Netherlands inaugurated a new transmitter site at Flevo. With four 500 kw. transmitters and one of 100 kw., it would be the station’s main shortwave transmitter base, with Lopik serving as a standby site. Radio Canada International replaced three of its obsolete 50 kw. transmitters with more powerful 100 kw. units, improving its signal to the south. And CBC station CKZN in St. John’s, Newfoundland, 6160 kHz., increased power from 300 watts to 1 kw. In the United States, two government surrogate-style radio services came on the air. Radio Free Afghanistan was a new 15-minute Dari-language program of Radio Free Europe–Radio Liberty. And on May 20, Cuban Independence Day, after years of planning and politicking within the executive and legislative branches, Radio Martí, a U.S. broadcasting service for Cuba, signed on. The long heralded station, transmitting first from the VOA medium wave site at Marathon, Florida on 1180 kHz. in the broadcast band (later from Saddlebunch Keys, and still later from a renovated Marathon site), delighted SWLs by unexpectedly showing up on shortwave as well via Greenville. The station was budgeted for a staff of 188. Less strident in tone than expected, Radio Martí’s presence had the effect of curbing some of the rhetoric and sloganeering common to the Cuban broadcasting scene.22 It was a banner year for new U.S. stations. Following seven months of intermittent testing, KCBI, Dallas, Texas, took to the air on July 28. Owned by the Criswell Center for Biblical Studies, which operated KCBI-FM, it transmitted with 50 kw. In addition to religious programming it featured music and talk about Dallas, and hoped to get some benefit

Flevo was the location of the new 500 kw. transmitter site of Radio Netherlands. The station came into regular use following tests in late 1984.

from the worldwide familiarity with the “Dallas” TV show. Its tuning signal was the opening bars of “The Eyes Of Texas Are Upon You.” WHRI, World Harvest Radio, South Bend, Indiana began testing. The 100 kw. transmitters were in Noblesville, about 115 miles from South Bend and eight miles from Indianapolis. The new religious station was owned by LeSEA Broadcasting (LeSEA is a

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Radio Free Afghanistan was a Dari-language program of Radio Free Europe–Radio Liberty.

contraction of “Lester Sumrall Evangelistic Association”). The company had started out with a South Bend FM station in 1968, and TV stations followed. WHRI commenced regular shortwave broadcasting on Christmas day. In August, Radio Earth’s “The World” program returned, this time as a three-hour Sunday show on KCBI. In order to regain an hour-long evening slot, in January 1986 Radio Earth moved again, this time to WHRI. “The World” included a number of segments of specific interest to DXers, including the rebroadcast of some DX programs.23 However, two months later White resigned as head of Radio Earth to begin a new station called Radio Discovery. Radio Earth would now be under the management of White’s business colleague, who said he was continuing with White’s plan to open a 25 kw. station on Curacao. Although after a two-month absence the program returned to the air for a short time on WHRI, the Curacao project never came to fruition and soon Radio Earth disappeared from the DX radar. Test transmissions were heard from another new station, this one in Bethel, Pennsylvania. WMLK, a religious station, operated from a renovated gas station which had been unoccupied for 30 years. WMLK utilized a 50 kw. broadcast band transmitter that had been converted to shortwave. The station was run by Elder Jacob O. Meyer, founder of the sect known as the Assemblies of Yahweh. The station would suffer from technical difficulties for most of its life. FCC crackdowns toward the end of the year stifled domestic pirate activity somewhat,

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but many operators were still willing to take a chance.24 These included (mostly circa 7.4 MHz.) Voice of Communism, WKUE, KNBS, Radio Lymph Node, KVOS (“Voice of the South”), Radio Dead Man, Radio Sound Wave, Phantom Broadcasting System, WYMN (“women”), Zeppelin Radio Worldwide, KKMO, Radio Woodlands International, KRZY, Secret Mountain Laboratory, KOLD, WPBR (“Pig Boy Radio”), and KROK. Sometimes pirate stations were heard talking to one another. An unusual station was KPF-941, 1622 kHz., in Yonkers, New York, an FCC–licensed remote link auxiliary transmitter utilized as a broadcast station by pirate Allan H. Weiner. Weiner was closed down by the FCC, but would captain another pirate, Radio Newyork International, in 1987, and a legitimate shortwave station, WBCQ, in 1998. The Democratic Yemen Broadcasting Service, Aden, was well heard at 0330 sign on, utilizing its 100 kw. transmitter on 6006 kHz. The Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran increased its maximum power from 350 kw. to 500 kw. In February, the Voice of the United Arab Emirates in Abu Dhabi began testing four new 500 kw. transmitters at Al Dhabbaya on various frequencies, including tropical band channels such as 4800 and 5010 kHz., plus many higher frequencies. (“The Voice of the United Arab Emirates Radio from Abu Dhabi invites listeners on this shortwave transmitter to monitor our trial service. They are kindly requested to send their feedback reports mentioning in particular the degree of reception, the date, and the location of reception to Voice of the UAE from Abu Dhabi, Trial Service, P.O. Box 63, Abu Dhabi, UAE.”) New from Italy was the small (by European standards) Adventist World Radio station in Forli. The 10 kw. transmitter could be heard in America around 2230 even though it was operating at only 2.5 kw. It was the first shortwave broadcast station owned by AWR, which had theretofore broadcast on shortwave exclusively through leased time arrangements. And conjuring memories of the 1950s when each IBRA Radio language service was headquartered in a different country, IBRA Radio broadcast an English program from “IBRA Radio North America” in Canada. The program was transmitted via Radio Mediterran in Malta. A coup in Sudan resulted in the cessation of broadcasts from the Voice of the Libyan People, which transmitted from Sudan. (It resumed operation from Egypt.) In return, Libya closed its Voice of the Sudanese Popular Revolution. Sudan also closed another clandestine broadcast called the Voice of the Free Sons of South Yemen. An attempted coup in Liberia in November led briefly to unfamiliar military announcements being heard over ELWA on 4760 kHz. Soon, however, the station returned to normal. La Voix du Zaire at Lubumbasi was difficult but not impossible to hear on 4750 and 7204 kHz. at 0400 sign on. Radio Botswana was heard on 3356 and 4820 kHz., reportedly having increased power to 50 kw. Some DXers were lucky to catch the Mauritius Broadcasting Corp. a few times around 0300 on 9710 kHz. Problems in obtaining parts for the 25-year-old transmitter would bring the station’s tenure on shortwave to an end in 1986. And the Voice of Kenya was heard testing on 4840, 7220, 9635 and 9725 kHz. Although at 250 kw. the new transmitters at Koma Rock were among the most powerful in Africa, they never met their potential, and signals from Kenya continued to be mediocre. Some Angolan stations could still be heard, although transmitter breakdowns and the often-limited availability of electricity made regular operations difficult. Emissor Regional do Huambo was on 5060 kHz.; Emissor Provincial do Moxico, Luena, was on 5191; and

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Emissor Regional do Lobito operated on 7172.25 And Radio Moçambique could be heard with a surprisingly good signal on 9618 or 9637 kHz. around 0330. XEQQ, La “Q” Mexicana, Mexico City, on 9680 kHz., was reactivated, relaying its medium wave outlet. An oddity was the shortwave reception of XEFAJ, Radio Consentida, Mexico City, a medium wave station operating on 1560 kHz. For several years it kept turning up in upper sideband on seemingly unauthorized shortwave frequencies like 4899, 6754, 7475, 7520 and 11480 kHz. For a short time a fake “Radio Venceremos” was heard, this one carrying the line of the Salvadoran government. Music transmissions were also used to jam the real Radio Venceremos. A new anti–Cuban clandestine, initially referred to simply as “Radio Nat King Cole” due to its propensity to play Nat King Cole Spanishlanguage ballads with no announcements, eventually began identifying as Radio Caiman. It was professional in style and thought to have CIA parentage. It had a very strong signal on 9960 kHz. Notwithstanding the year-end appearance of seldom-heard YVPA, Radio Yaracuy, San Felipe, Venezuela on its regular 4940 kHz. channel, the shortwave situation in Venezuela was illustrative of a trend that was becoming increasingly evident: the loss of Latin American shortwave broadcasters, particularly in the tropical bands. Ten Venezuelan tropical band stations were still on the air, but gone were ten others that had been active in recent years. (To reduce energy costs, Radio Yaracuy dropped shortwave in 1986.) C.R.E., Compañía Radiodifusora del Ecuador, Guayaquil, Ecuador, off the air since 1980, returned to shortwave on 4765 kHz. However, revealing the same trend noted above, a DXer in Colombia listed some 20 Ecuadorean shortwave stations that were off the air, and a like number in Colombia. Brazil continued to be home to a large number of shortwave stations. Among the dozens heard during the year were ZYG852, Radio Educadora de Limeira, 2380 kHz.; ZYF691, Radio Anhanguera, Goiânia, 4915; ZYF275, Radio Alvorada, Parintins, 4965; ZYG360, Radio Cultura do Pará, Belém, and ZYG850, Radio Difusora Presidente Prudente, both on 5045; and ZYE522, Radio Inconfidencia, Belo Horizonte, on 15190 kHz. The government still required stations to carry the hour-long A Voz do Brasil program at 2200. The program’s unpopularity led the government to attenuate the program’s propagandistic content and adopt a more journalistic style. Peru continued to produce a bumper crop of shortwave signals. Among the small stations which made it into DXers’ dens during the year were Radio El Porvenir, 3915 kHz.; Radio Grau, Huancabamba, 4005; Radio Gran Pajaten, Celendin, 4485; Radio San Juan de Chota, 5274; Radio Frecuencia San Ignacio, 5802; Radio Chota, 6296; Radio Estrella Polar, San Miguel de Pallaques, 6760; Radio Nuevo Cajamarca, Nuevo Cajamarca, 6960; and Radio Frecuencia 7, Celendin, 7010 kHz. New from Coyhaique, Chile was CE603, Radio Santa Maria, a station of only 1 kw. that was occasionally heard at 0930 sign on on 6030 kHz. The programming of Radio Montecarlo, Montevideo, Uruguay, began appearing on 11735 kHz. (CXA7), a channel of its sister station, Radio Oriental. And Radio Belgrano, Argentina, was bombed by a group of ten armed men. Right-wing political leaders referred to the station as “Radio Sandino” for its support of the Nicaraguan government. The long-running Voice of the Revolutionary Party for Reunification, a clandestine station operating from North Korea since 1970, was renamed Voice of National Salvation.

Radio Santa Maria, located far down the Chilean coast, was one of the southernmost shortwave stations in South America.

It transmitted around 4457 kHz. In June, a new clandestine broadcasting from South Korea to North Korea, the Voice of the People, came on the air on 3881 and 3912 kHz., and 6518 and 6600 kHz. Supposedly operated by the Korean Workers’ Union, it was actually run by the armed forces. And although Radio-TV Malaysia still had a shortwave installation in Penang, all shortwave transmissions from Malaysia’s mainland were now from Kajang.

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In December, the Australian Broadcasting Commission inaugurated the first of three shortwave stations of the new Northern Territory Shortwave Service. It was at Alice Springs, and although operating with 50 kw., the stations used “shower” antennas designed to limit their range to a 450 km. radius. This made these stations DX challenges. The frequencies of VL8A then (as now) were 2310 and 4835 kHz. Programming was from ABC stations in Darwin and Alice Springs, and from Aboriginal FM station 8KIN (known as CAAMA, the Central Australian Aboriginal Media Association).26

1986 As it had been doing for years, Radio Yugoslavia continued making its shortwave facilities available to stations of the country’s constituent “republics” for brief, weekly programs. These stations were Radio Ljubljana, Radio Novi Sad, Radio Pristina, Radio Sarajevo, Radio Skopje, Radio Titograd, Radio Zagreb, and Radio Koper-Capodistria. Most of these stations verified reports on their programs, making for some interesting targets for QSL hunters. In August, Radio Norway International began testing a 500 kw. transmitter from a new site, Sveio. The French-based Voice of Orthodoxy had begun broadcasting in 1981, transmitting Russian-language religious programs to the Soviet Union. It had originally broadcast over Africa No. One, and was now renting time over Radio Trans-Europe, Por-

The Soviet Union was the target of the religious programs of the Voice of Orthodoxy.

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tugal. And in the first of what would become many odd political shortwave pairings, Radio Beijing and Radio France International entered into an agreement whereby Beijing would be relayed from RFI’s French Guiana station and RFI programs would be carried over senders in China. The exchange began in April but was cancelled by a new French government. (It was reinstated in 1988.) Facing a six-fold increase in the cost of renting time on VOA transmitters, United Nations Radio left shortwave. Subsequent efforts to obtain funding to purchase its own transmitters were not successful, and thereafter U.N. Radio limited itself to providing U.N. programming on various individual stations around the world. In October, tests from the new station in Los Angeles, California, KVOH, were heard on 17775 kHz. Operated by High Adventure Ministries, which also ran the Voice of Hope in south Lebanon, the station beamed to Latin America. A planned High Adventure “China Clipper” shortwave ship to be anchored off Singapore never came to fruition. Although North American shortwave pirate activity was much reduced in 1986, some of the old pirates took to the air occasionally, along with some new ones, e.g. WKRU (6810 kHz.), U A (Underground America) Express (7140), TNFM (7370), Voice of Bob (7412), WGAT, “Gator Radio” (7423), WBBR (7438), KBFA, “Broadcasters of Free America” (7424), Canadian Club Radio (7440), and Radio Mauser (7490) For nine days in December, some SWBC DXers departed the SWBC bands to listen as the Voyager aircraft and its pilots, Dick Rutan and Jeana Yeager, made the first non-stop, unrefueled flight around the world. Reception was often good over the ten channels that the aircraft used to communicate with Voyager mission control at Edwards Air Force Base in the Mojave Desert (e.g. 6550, 8822, 13312 kHz.).27 A new station on shortwave was Radio Monte Carlo Middle East (“RMC Moyen-Orient”). The popular Middle Eastern service of Monaco’s Radio Monte Carlo had been broadcasting from Cyprus on medium wave since 1972. However, shortwave was new. The signal was transmitted from the Nador, Morocco site used by RMC’s partner station, Radio Medi Un. And though it was heavily jammed, the Afghan clandestine, Voice of Unity, could be heard on 11490 and 15685 kHz. It appeared to come from the same transmitter used by Voice of the Liberation of Iran. Although Radio Nigeria’s 500 kw. transmitters were inactive for want of spare parts, and most of the regional stations were operating at reduced power, other African countries were upgrading their shortwave facilities. Radio Burkina, Ougadougou, Burkina Faso, was now strong on 4815 kHz. with its 100 kw. transmitter. Radio Tanzania Zanzibar increased power from 10 kw. to 50 kw. and had a respectable signal until closedown at 1815 on 11735 kHz. And in May, Radio Abidjan, whose regular channels of 4940 and 11920 kHz. were believed off the air, reappeared with very strong signals on 4940, 6015, 9620, and 11920 kHz., identifying as Radio Cote d’Ivoire and seemingly using the new 500 kw. transmitter it had been promising. Radio Bertoua, Cameroon, was heard on 4750 kHz. after a long absence. Radio Malawi was a regular on 5995 kHz. around 0400. The Angolan clandestine station operated by UNITA, A Voz da Resistência do Galo Negro, brought new transmitters onto several new channels, including 5850 and 9450 kHz. It claimed that this new equipment was located in Jamba, a town under UNITA control. The station became very polished. The most reliable reception was still on 4973 kHz. (to which the station had moved from 4950), although

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eventually this channel, believed to operate from a separate transmitter in South Africa, would be phased out. Capital Radio in Transkei opened a new nighttime service known as Southern Sound. It was on 3930 kHz. The South African Broadcasting Corp. still offered a number of domestic shortwave services, some of which could be heard in America on 60 and 90 meters. Those most often reported were Radio South Africa, with separate English and Afrikaans channels (the English service left shortwave around this time); Radio Orion, a music channel; and Radio 5, successor to the former “LM Radio” in Mozambique. Radio Oranje was a mostly Afrikaans regional service for the Orange Free State and nearby areas, and it could also be heard on shortwave.28 From the Dominican Republic, HICN, Radio Antillas, Santo Domingo, a station with a habit of appearing briefly on shortwave and then disappearing for years, resumed operations, this time on 5955 kHz. It opened at 0900, but, true to form, it was soon gone. In 1985, Jeff White had announced plans to set up his own 50 kw. shortwave transmitter, most likely on Curacao. In the meantime, in March 1986, after leaving Radio Earth, he opened a new station in the Dominican Republic called Radio Discovery. At the outset it used a 50 watt ICOM transmitter on 15045 kHz. and various frequencies just above 6.2 MHz.29 By year’s end the power had increased to 1 kw. In May, the new Seventh-day Adventist station in Alajuela, Costa Rica, TIASD, Radio Lira, came on shortwave. Formerly on medium wave only, it was now on 15460 kHz. as well, using a 5 kw. transmitter which was operated at first on reduced power. (It would also broadcast on 5980 and 11870 kHz.) The call letters “ASD” stood for “Adventista Septimo Dia”; they would later be changed to TIAWR. The Alajuela facility became headquarters for AWR-Latin America (later called AWR-Pan America), under whose auspices both Radio Lira and Union Radio, the Adventist station in Guatemala, functioned autonomously within the AWR broadcasting network. Through prior ownerships, Radio Lira traced its origins back to the historic Costa Rican shortwave station TI4NRH. Another Central American station that signed on for the first time in 1986 was HRRI, Sani Radio, Puerto Lempira, Honduras. The frequency was 4755 kHz. “Sani” was a Miskito word for a string-like tree vine which children used with coconut halves to play telephone, and had come to mean “grapevine.” Sani Radio was a 10 kw. station funded by USAID. Two new stations came on the air from Colombia: La Voz del Ariari, a TODELAR medium wave station in Granada, now also on 5991 kHz.; and Radio Nueva Vida, Cúcuta, a 200-watt station using the unusual (and announced) frequency of 5530 kHz. (later 5569). It could be heard in both the morning and the evening. Columbia had joined the ranks of clandestine broadcasters in 1985. A few lucky Florida DXers heard Radio Marquetalia, La Voz de las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC), on 10544 kHz. Located about 100 miles northeast of Bogota, the station was destroyed by the Columbian military within a few months. In 1986, a right wing, anti-communist Colombian clandestine, La Voz de la Libertad, appeared for a short time on 7200 kHz. And another Nicaraguan clandestine appeared: La Voz de la UNO, a station of the Union Nicaraguense Oposición. It was on 5039 kHz. In May, HCJB’s “DX Partyline” had a 25th anniversary phone-in show. Fortunately for DXers’ phone bills, the station didn’t answer the phone until it was ready to put you on the air.

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New from Peru were OBX4M, Radio Programas del Peru, Lima, on 5979 kHz. Interesting Peruvians heard during the year included OAZ4B, Radio Altura, Chaupimarca, on 3340 kHz.; Radio Marginal, Tocache, on 4039; OAX2R, Radio Cutervo, 3390 kHz. (later 6690); La Voz de Cutervo, 5661; Radio Sensación, Huancabamba, 6792 (later 6895); Radio Sudamerica, Celendin, 7010; and Radio Amistad, Soritor, on 8515 kHz. Newly heard from Bolivia were Radio San Gabriel, La Paz, on 6080 kHz., and Radio El Mundo, Santa Cruz, on 6015. A tough one that a few DXers were lucky to hear when it was not QRMed by La Voz de Galapagos was Radiodifusoras Libertad, 4810 kHz., in the Department of Oruro. CP21, Radio La Plata, Sucre, surprised some DXers when its signal sometimes appeared around local noon on 9716 kHz. Two new Brazilians were ZYF204, Radio Verdes Florestas, Cruzeiro do Sul, 4865 kHz., and Radio Educadora da Bahia, Salvador, on 6020 kHz. (ZYE299) and 9515 (ZYE300). About a dozen Brazilian stations changed frequency when that country adopted a new schedule of frequency assignments for the 31 meter band. The Voice of Jinling, in Nanjing, China, came on the air on 4875 kHz. It was operated by the Jiangsu People’s Broadcasting Station, and it was the first time a local station had directed a special service to Taiwan. It could be heard signing on at 1200. At year’s end, Radio Japan began the upgrading of its Yamata station from 100 kw. to 300 kw. It also entered into an agreement with RCI for the exchange of air time. A strange Chinese clandestine station which had been broadcasting since 1977 and was believed to be located in Taiwan was New Star Broadcasting. It had several different services, each consisting of a mix of music and the recitation of numbers, seemingly a code of some kind. Among its frequencies were 8300, 9725, 11430, 13750, and 15388 kHz. It would be heard for many years. The Deutsche Welle relay station at Trincomalee, Sri Lanka, returned to the air on a limited basis. However, continued harassment, and the shortage of fuel, permitted the use of only one transmitter. And paralleling on a much smaller scale the practice used in Afghanistan, Lao National Radio’s French service to Europe at 1100–1130 was now relayed over the Soviet Union’s high power transmitters on 11870 and 15190 kHz. FEBC, Manila, was operating on shortwave from three sites. Bocaue, with transmitters of 2, 10 and 50 kw., and Iba with 100 kw., carried the overseas broadcasts, while a small transmitter at Baco was used for local coverage. During the events that led Philippine President Ferdinand E. Marcos to flee the country, Radio Veritas Asia was a rare source of objective news coverage. Although some felt it could have done more to help the anti–Marcos forces, it paid a heavy price when its transmitter plant was badly damaged by Marcos partisans, putting the station off the air. However, it had its revenge when it returned to shortwave with greatly increased power (250 kw.), thanks to assistance from the government, and the Catholic church, of Germany.30 And two new stations of Australia’s Northern Territory Shortwave Service came on the air. They were VL8K, Katherine, on 2485 and 5025 kHz., and VL8T, Tennant Creek, on 2325 and 4910.

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This QSL-card from Catholic station Radio Veritas Asia recognized the station’s important role in the “people’s revolution” of 1986.

1987 Radio Finland increased its transmitter capability from 250 kw. to 500 kw. The new transmitters were located at Preiviiki, about 15 km. from the Pori site. And Radio Luxembourg reportedly increased power from 250 kw. to 500 kw. on 6090 kHz., and dropped from 50 kw. to 10 kw. on 15350. An interesting low-power broadcaster in Europe was the French home service program, France Inter Régions, still available via a 4 kw. TDF transmitter at Allouis on 3945 kHz. Although it suffered jamming in Europe, it could be heard fairly well in North America at night. An increasing number of European pirate “stations” were in reality “programs” that were carried over a comparatively small number of transmitters. One that was heard in the United States was Radio Sovereign, which was carried over the transmitter of Radio Rainbow in Ireland on 6240 kHz. In August, the Ontario DX Association sponsored the ANARC conference in Mississauga, Ontario and arranged for a special ANARC broadcast over CFRX. A special QSL for the event also commemorated the station’s 50th anniversary on shortwave. CFRX had inaugurated shortwave transmissions in 1937, ten years after the commencement of its medium wave broadcasts. New stations continued to be built in the United States. Notwithstanding concerns by residents about harm from the electrical field and disruption of the view, in March, Christian Science Church station WCSN came on the air from Scotts Corners, Maine, 25 miles north of Bangor, and the “World Service” of the internationally respected newspaper of the First Church of Christ, Scientist (the Christian Science Church), headquartered in Boston, was born. The church’s shortwave efforts were under its broadcasting arm, the Herald Broadcasting Syndicate. The power was 500 kw. and the target areas for the station’s mix

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of news and Christian Science programming were Europe, Africa and the Middle East. One knowledgeable DXer described Scotts Corners as a crossing of two dirt roads. Although a few DXers heard them testing earlier on 15225 and 17715 kHz., “Superpower KUSW Radio Worldwide,” Salt Lake City, Utah, went on the air officially on December 26. Owned by Carlson Communications International, it was originally to be called KRSP Worldwide after Carlson’s KRSP AM and FM stations. President and General Manager Ralph J. Carlson was encouraged by Wall Street Journal reports that shortwave receiver sales were up by 50 percent and that the next 15 years would see the shortwave audience grow from 4 percent of the population to 20 percent. The format was to be news and pop music, with the promotion of Utah and western tourist attractions. (KUSW also had a mail order catalog of various consumer products made in the Rocky Mountains.) Alas, fate struck a blow against a sister broadcaster, KCBI, Dallas, Texas, which left the air in the summer after about two years of regular operation. Among the comparatively few North American pirates that were heard for the first time during the year were PMR Radio (7412 kHz.), Radio Free Willy (7415), and WDOG (7475). However, an event that would go down in pirate history occurred on July 24 when a shipboard pirate station calling itself Radio Newyork International appeared on 1620 kHz. and on 6240 kHz. shortwave. It operated from “the good ship Sarah” off Long Island, and its illegal status plus its strong signal (5 kw. on 1620, 300 watts on 6240) earned it much notoriety in the major media. It was short lived, however. FCC agents aboard a Coast Guard cutter put it off the air on July 28, arresting several of its operators including Allan Weiner of KPF-941 fame (see “1985”). It would return by way of WWCR in 1990.3¡

“From the west to the world” was the slogan of KUSW, Salt Lake City. Started with great hopes in 1987, the commercial station was sold to a religious broadcaster, Trinity Broadcasting Network, three years later.

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The Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran said that when a new construction project was completed it would be transmitting from six sites having numerous 500 kw. transmitters. (The last site, Sirjan, was completed in 1996.) Iran was still the target of much clandestine broadcasting. The Voice of the Liberation of Iran became Iran’s Flag of Freedom Radio and was heard on 9045 at 0330 sign on and in the afternoon on 15555 kHz. Also, a number of Iranian clandestines operated in the 3.9–4.3 MHz. range, but in North America these were heard less reliably than the higher frequency stations.32 The government station in Sudan began airing an anti–SPLA program called the Sudan People’s Armed Forces Program. It was an effort by government forces in the north to moderate some of the rhetoric against the SPLA, the opposition movement in the south. Soon it became National Unity Radio. A new clandestine beamed to Ethiopia and believed to be operating from Sudan was the Radio Voice of Ethiopian Unity, on the air at 1900–2000 on 7200 and 9660 kHz. The Voice of the Turkish Communist Party, in operation for some 20 years, closed down when party leaders were permitted to return to Turkey and organize a communist party there. And the Israeli army station, Galei Zahal, reappeared on shortwave, 13750 kHz., for a short time. Its signal was used as an audio source for Israeli telecommunications transmitters when the signal of the Israel Broadcasting Authority was unavailable due to an employee strike. Radiodiffusion-Television Malienne, Bamako, Mali, gave Beijing the use of two 100 kw. transmitters which China had refurbished, and the quality of Radio Beijing’s broadcasts to the Americas greatly improved. Radio Ghana, whose 100 kw. external service once had a significant presence in the international bands, was now operating with a maximum power of 50 kw., and was heard on 3350, 3366 and 4915 kHz. From nearby Liberia, the Liberian Rural Communications Network was heard for a short time on 3975 kHz. The LRCN was a USAID–supported project consisting of three rural medium wave stations that were fed programs from a 10 kw. single sideband shortwave transmitter in Monrovia. The station operated daily for brief periods on either 3975 or 3999.2 kHz. at night, 6145.5 or 6155 daytime, usually in local languages.33 Although Radio Discovery closed down at year’s end, several new stations came on the air from Central America and the Caribbean. One was a new Adventist-related station, HIAJ, Radio Amanecer, in Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic, on 6025 kHz. Another was a new Guatemalan religious station, TGMI, Radio Buenas Nuevas, located in San Sebastian Huehuetenango and using a 250 watt transmitter that had served as a standby unit at TGNA. (Power was soon increased to 1 kw.) And on September 14, Radio For Peace International, Santa Ana, Costa Rica, appeared for the first time. RFPI was a joint project of the World Peace University in Oregon and the University for Peace in Costa Rica. Temporarily running only 40 watts on 7380 kHz., soon it would be operating with 1 to 5 kw. on 13660 and other frequencies, some in single sideband. The station featured English- and Spanish-language programming on topics such as peace, world hunger, ecology, and human rights.34 There was new clandestine activity in Central America. In May, a Guatemalan clandestine, Voz Popular, appeared on 6950 kHz. It operated on Saturdays only at 0015–0045 and was sponsored by Unidad Revolucionaria Nacional Guatamalteca. An unusual station was La Voz de la URNG on 9966 kHz. Seemingly more of a communications station than a broadcaster, for 20–25 minutes each night it would transmit number groups, sometimes

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U.S.–based Radio For Peace International, Costa Rica, was a source of peace, human rights and environmental programs for 16 years.

followed by brief talks about the Guatemalan political or military situation. And Radio Liberación, on 5889 kHz., appeared to be a sister station to Radio 15 de Septiembre and a new name for La Voz de la UNO, the Nicaraguan clandestine which had been using that frequency. In the Spring, HCJB officially established its World Radio Engineering Center in Elkhart, Indiana. The facility, which had been in operation since 1985, provided Christian missionaries and Christian broadcasters around the world with shortwave transmitters and related assistance. Soon it would be supplying small FM transmitters and satellite broadcasting equipment as well. Ecuador had a new shortwave station, HCRI1, Radio Interoceánica, Santa Rosa, on 4840 kHz. And heard for a short time from Colombia was a station that had been on shortwave ten years earlier: HJKJ, Radio Sucesos, Bogota, on 6140 kHz. The Andes continued to provide numerous interesting DX opportunities. Among the stations reported in 1987 were, from Peru, Radio Marañon, Jaen, 4835 kHz.; Radio San Miguel, Huánchac, 4865; OAZ5C, Radio Huanta, 4890; OBX7H, Radio Ondas del Titicaca, Puno, 4922; Radio Nor Oriental, Santa Rosa de Huayabamba, 5272; and Radio Onda Popular, Bambamarca, 5274 kHz.; from Ecuador, HCJV7, Radio Ecos del Oriente, Lago Agrio, 3269 kHz.; and from Bolivia, Radio 16 de Marzo, Antequera, 4865 kHz., and CP81, Radio Luis de Fuentes, Tarija, 6141. On the air since 1962 but practically impossible to hear in North America on its old frequency of 5060 kHz., the Burmese Army Radio Station in Taunggyi, now seemingly morphed into the Maymyo Defense Forces Broadcasting Unit, was heard on 6570 kHz. with what was later learned to be a 10 kw. transmitter. Whether these were the same or sep-

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arate stations was long a mystery.35 Trans World Radio in Sri Lanka added shortwave to its existing medium wave broadcasts, transmitting via the 35 kw. senders of the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corp. at Ekala. However, this service ended in 1989. In March, KSDA, an Adventist World Radio station, came on the air from Agat, Guam. The target area was Asia and the power was 100 kw. The $5 million station was a big step for AWR, whose only other AWR–owned shortwave station was the small station in Forli, Italy. And in August, the BBC’s new 250 kw. East Asia Relay Station in Hong Kong began testing. The compact station was located in Tsang Tsui, an isolated spot in the western part of the New Territories, far from the city. On December 30, KYOI, Saipan was sold to the Christian Science Church, which wanted to use it to reach Asian and western Pacific targets. In deference to KYOI’s target audience, the youth of Japan, the station continued with a musical format for a while before shifting to a Christian Science programming format. A nice surprise was the appearance on shortwave of medium wave station WSZO, Majuro, the Marshall Islands. (“This is radio station WSZO, the Voice of the Marshall Islands, now concluding broadcasting here in the Marshalls.”) The purpose of the shortwave signal was to provide coverage for 24 atolls over a distance of 300 miles. The station used 6070 kHz. until 0530, when it changed to 4940 kHz., which was heard with a surprisingly good signal in the United States until 1000 sign off. But equipment problems took WSZO off shortwave in October 1988. Among the regularly heard Radio Republik Indonesia stations were Gorontalo on 3265 kHz.; Dili on 3306; Pontianak, 3395; Palu, 3960; Kendari, 4000; Padang, 4003; Serui, 4607; Ujung Pandang, 4753; Jakarta, 4775; Fak Fak, 4790; Ambon, 4855; Palembang, 4856, Wamena, 4867; Sorong, 4875; Jambi, 4927; Jogjakarta, 5046; and Sibolga, 5256.36 The two foreign service transmitters carrying the Voice of Indonesia on 11790 and 15150 kHz., though designed to operate at 100 kw., were old and seldom used at more than half power. New 250 kw. transmitters were said to be under construction. Although some of the 90 meter band stations in Papua New Guinea were using 10 kw., others were still operating at 2 kw. Over the next five years, all would be upgraded to 10 kw. However, in future years these stations suffered from recurring financial, technical and facilities deficiencies, as well as vandalism, which put them off the air for varying periods. Radio Australia had ended its use of the 10 kw. transmitter in Lyndhurst in 1986. The ABC continued to use the station for its domestic shortwave service until June 1987, when it too was dropped and the site closed. Time signal station VNG, also located at Lyndhurst, moved to Llandillo, New South Wales. While the move was underway, a new Australian time signal station was heard. A joint project of the Royal Australian Navy and the National Standards Commission, the unnamed station transmitted from near Canberra with 10 kw. on 6448 and 12982 kHz., Morse code only. Another time signal station occasionally heard was BSF, Taipei, Taiwan, on 15000 kHz.

1988 On February 29, standard frequency and time station MSF in Rugby, England, left shortwave, continuing its service on 60 kHz. only. Radio Sweden International dropped

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the “International” from its name, and at the end of the year it also ended its SSB test transmissions. Radio Polonia canceled its English service to North America, part of a general downsizing of a station whose signal was never heard very well. The BBC External Services as a whole were now referred to as the BBC World Service, a term theretofore limited to the BBC’s principal English-language service. And in an attempt to adopt a more modern, less stodgy persona, the BBC dropped some of its upper-crust, on-air affectations. Jamming by the Soviet Union and the eastern bloc countries had been declining since 1987 as a result of President Gorbachev’s glasnost polices. In a step that was almost inconceivable to cold war DXers, practically all jamming from the Soviet Union and its European allies was halted by the end of the year. This freed up transmitter time, some of which was devoted to expanding the coverage of national, regional and local Soviet broadcasting. Still included in the program lineup of one of the old shortwave cold warriors, Radio Tirana, were such favorites as “The Marxist-Leninist Movement Throughout the World is Growing in Scope and Strength” and “The Capitalist World In Disintegration.” The next few years would tell a different story. Relay arrangements among the big broadcasters continued to multiply. The VOA began using the Deutsche Welle 500 kw. transmitter at Wertachtel for some broadcasts. Deutsche Welle and Swiss Radio International (SRI) were heard via the Radiobras transmitters in Brazil. SRI exchanged time with Radio Beijing, and a like arrangement was negotiated between Radio Beijing and Radio Exterior de España. In August, Radio Japan began broadcasting via the RFI relay station in French Guiana, and RFI’s programs were sent out from the NHK station at Yamata. In February, the European shipboard pirate Radio Caroline, operating from the North Sea, added a shortwave frequency, 6210 kHz., to its several other services and was heard well in the United States during the evening hours. Named for Caroline Kennedy, the station was founded in 1964 and had gone through several incarnations, the latest aboard the ex-fishing trawler M/V Ross Revenge. At first identifying as “Caroline 558” (for its medium wave channel) and using a standard rock music format, it soon switched to a Christian pop music format originating from World Mission Radio of California. Later it returned to regular Radio Caroline programming. This phase of Radio Caroline’s life ended in August 1989 when a Dutch raiding party, acting in concert with British, French and Belgian authorities, confiscated the ship’s equipment and arrested some of its personnel. The station managed to return to the air in October, but on medium wave only. Although the European pirate scene was active, the signals of only a few new stations were heard across the Atlantic. Three that made it included Boyneside Radio in Ireland, on 6231 kHz., U.K. pirate Spectrum Leisure Communications on 25796 kHz., and U.K. pirate Radio Fax, whose 1 kw. transmitter was in Ireland and put in a surprisingly good signal on 6205 kHz. It was heard intermittently until 1992, and its operator, Trevor Brook, would wage a fruitless campaign with the British authorities for a private broadcasting license. The Italian Radio Relay Service, Milan, was not a pirate, but a legal station leasing time to other broadcasters on weekends over a 10 kw. transmitter purchased from the Swiss PTT. Heard in America in December on 7160 and 9860 kHz., its first programs were from Radio Earth and United Nations Radio. In 1990 the station switched from commercial to non-profit status under a new organizational structure called NEXUS.37

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Unsuccessful in repeated efforts to obtain a license to broadcast legally, U.K. Europirate Radio FAX had to be satisfied with operating illegally from a transmitter in Ireland. Its signal was often heard in the United States.

AFRTS left shortwave at the end of September, concluding that available cable and satellite circuits would provide better service at lower cost. However, antedating its widespread return to shortwave in 1998–2000 over various single sideband military transmitters, AFRTS programming could still be heard occasionally from transmitters of the U.S. Air Force located at Croughton Air Base in Barford, England. They operated on 9334, 13651, and 16454 kHz. lower sideband. North American pirate activity jumped in 1988, particularly toward the end of the year. The frequency 7415 kHz. was pirate radio central, and among the new stations heard on or near that channel were CBOR, The Crooked Man, Radio Chaos, Radio Comedy Club International, Radio Garbanzo, United World Radio, the Voice of Free Long Island, WRFT (“Radio Free Texas”), and WROX. Other new shortwave pirates included Falling Star Radio (6241 kHz.), WENJ (6250), Radio Free Indiana (7448), and Radio Atlantic (7470). The most active pirate during the year appeared to be an old timer, Radio Clandestine. However, the station claimed that many of the broadcasts were actually old Radio Clandestine programs being transmitted by others. In November, Radio Jordan increased power to 500 kw. and reception was now much improved in the station’s beam to North America and Europe around 1500 on 9560 kHz. And a two-hour English service relaying the FM “Capital Radio” service began from UAE Radio, Abu Dhabi, and was heard on 6170, 9595, and 11965 kHz.

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The Deutsche Welle relay station on Malta was host to yet another “Mediterranean” radio service, this one called Voice of the Mediterranean, a joint project of the governments of Malta and Libya. Its purpose was to strengthen relations between the two countries, and relations with other nearby countries, although by the time it opened, a pro-western government on Malta had succeeded the project’s original socialist godfathers. Headquartered in Valetta, Malta, it was on the air four hours daily, half in English, half in Arabic, on 9765 and 11925 kHz. For several years before 1980, Malta had carried Libya’s Voice of Friendship and Solidarity broadcasts, but these had been canceled due to deteriorating relations between the two countries. A new anti–Khadaffi clandestine station, different from Voice of the Libyan People, was Voice of the People. It operated on 11825 and 17960 kHz., and claimed affiliation with a group called the Libyan National Movement. The Voice of Revolutionary Ethiopia changed its name to the Voice of Ethiopia (and to Radio Ethiopia in 1994). And an Ethiopian clandestine, the Voice of Oromo Liberation, run by a group seeking the separation of the Oromo area of Ethiopia, came on the air, seemingly from Sudan. The 250 kw. BBC Indian Ocean Relay Station in the Seychelles opened in September. There were conflicting reports on the Radio Exterior de España station in the Canary Islands. Although it appeared that it had been dismantled and its frequencies transferred to Madrid, some reported hearing local identifications. The station had been dedicated to the REE external service. However, it had also carried at least one locally produced program, which may have been the source of the confusion. While the 250 kw. transmitters of Radio Uganda had been destroyed during fighting in that country, the station could still be heard on 5026 kHz., a 20 kw. transmitter operating at 10 kw., as well as on 4976 kHz. The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service was on 5980 kHz. at both 2300 and 0700, but reception was poor. Reception was usually no better from Radio Tanzania, whose English-language external service was sometimes audible on 9685 kHz. at 0330–0430. And although not always active, Radio Bukavu, Zaire, was sometimes heard at 0400 sign on on 4839 kHz. La Voix du Zaire was heard irregularly over the Kinshasa transmitter on 15245 kHz. The operating status of the smaller stations in Zaire, such as Radio Mbandaka, Radio Kananga, and Radio Mbuji-Mayi, was in doubt. A new Guatemalan station was TGVC, Radio K’ekchi, Fray Bartolome de Las Casas, on 4845 kHz. It broadcast mainly in Indian languages, and also carried VOA news in Spanish. It soon increased power from its original 250 watts to 5 kw. New from Colombia on shortwave was medium waver HJGD, La Voz del Rio Arauca, Arauca, which could be heard opening at 1000 on 4895 kHz. The first Colombian clandestine station to be widely heard in North America also appeared —Radio Patria Libre, 6765 kHz., said to be run by Ejército de Liberación Nacional, the “National Liberation Army.”38 Other new stations in the Americas included YVZR, Radio Continental, Barinas, Venezuela, on 4940 kHz., and OAZ2F, Radio Atahualpa, Cajamarca, Peru, on 4821.6 kHz. Technically a utility station but still of interest to SWBC listeners was a little-known Cuban station, CLX, of the Instituto Meteorologica, on 6995 kHz. It had ten-minute weather broadcasts several times a day, and gave its address and requested reports. Few replies were received, however. Other Latin American stations heard during the year included, from Peru, Radio Reina de la Selva, Chachapoyas, 3465 kHz.; Radio Frecuencia Lider, Bambamarca, 4418; and

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New to shortwave in 1988 was Radio Continental, Barinas, Venezuela, on 4940 kHz.

OAX5U, Radio La Voz de Huamanga, Ayacucho, on 6201 kHz.; and from Ecuador, HCVP2, Sistema de Emisoras Atalaya, Guayaquil, 4762 kHz. Many fewer stations were operating in Bolivia. Electricity was erratic, and layoffs in the mining regions had caused the closure of many stations there. The economic situation reduced the number of shortwave stations in Peru as well. Dozens of Brazilian stations continued to be heard, however, among them ZYG868, Radio Canção Nova, Cachoeira Paulista, Brazil, 4825 kHz.; and ZYG869, Radio Meteorologia Paulista, Ibitinga, on 4845. In a blow to DXers everywhere, the Falkland Islands Broadcasting Station transmitter on 3958 kHz. was destroyed by a hurricane, spelling the end to shortwave broadcasting by both the FIBS and the British Forces Broadcasting Service in the Falklands. On January 1, the Voice of Pujiang came on the air from Shanghai on 3280, 3990, and 4950 kHz. It broadcast to Taiwan, and could be heard signing on at 0955. DXers were surprised to hear Radio TV Hong Kong on 7290 kHz. with two daily broadcasts of two hours each in Vietnamese. The service, which followed some experimentation by RTVHK on 9685 kHz., was intended to advise Vietnamese boat people that persons arriving in Hong Kong illegally were unwelcome and would face detention and possible return to Vietnam. And in September, the Far East Network, Tokyo, a long time American radio presence, left shortwave. One of the better heard All India Radio regional stations was Shillong, which now operated with 50 kw. on 4795 kHz. Azad Kashmir Radio could still be heard via the Radio

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

The Voice of Pujiang was one of several government stations that broadcast to Taiwan, in this case from Shanghai.

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Pakistan transmitter at Rawalpindi on 4790 kHz. around 1300. DXers in Asia reported that the transmitter at Muzzafarabad on 3662 kHz. was also still operating, albeit intermittently. The Kampuchean government station, Voice of the People of Kampuchea, reactivated an old frequency, 4907 kHz. (Soon the country readopted its old name, Cambodia.) On the clandestine side, Voice of the Khmer, claiming to represent the non-communist Cambodian resistance that was fighting against the Vietnamese and against communism, was active on 6325 kHz., and could be heard in North America. In addition to Lao National Radio, which was audible on 6130 and 7112 kHz., the Laotian station in Savannakhet was still on 7385 kHz. In the recent past Laos had boasted a number of other hard-to-hear provincial stations, including Xieng Khoung (4990 kHz.), Houa Phan (4660), Champassak (6640), Udom Sai (4535), and Luang Prabang (7160). Now most were heard intermittently or not at all. And it appeared that only four Vietnam regionals were still active: Bac Thai (6615 kHz.), Cao Bang (6575), Hoang Lien Son (6712), and Son La (6323). In order to provide better service to Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands, Radio Australia moved three 10 kw. transmitters from the former Lyndhurst station to a new unmanned shortwave site in Brandon, Queensland, near the ABC transmitters of medium wave station 4QN, Townsville. And while not strictly a broadcast station, a few lucky DXers heard programs from the University of the South Pacific, Fiji, which used 9070 kHz. shortwave, along with satellite feeds, to send lectures to extension campuses on other islands, similar to the Australian outback “School of the Air.” The power of the Fiji station was 150 watts.

1989 As solar maximum approached, the little-used 11 meter band (26 MHz.) became suitable for long distance reception. Among the stations heard on 11 meters were Radio Liberty, Radio Norway, BBC, Radio RSA, and RFI. Grønlands Radio (Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa) left shortwave. The Iceland State Broadcasting Service beamed half-hour programs in Icelandic to Europe and North America and was commonly heard on a variety of out-of-band frequencies including 13770, 15770 and 17530 kHz. Radio Scandinavia returned via the Italian Radio Relay Service, which also hosted a weekly mailbag program. And in a December mystery that would remain unsolved, the signal of a medium wave station in the Azores, Radio Club de Angra, suddenly started appearing around 2100 on 13584 kHz. shortwave. It would continue to be heard into 1990. (It was probably a spurious signal resulting from the station’s co-location with a major U.S. Air Force transmitting facility.) An early sign of changes to come in Soviet broadcasting was Radio Moscow’s solicitation of commercial advertising in a program called “New Market” which promoted business contacts between foreign companies and the Soviet Union. In November, announcements over Radio Station Peace and Progress solicited commercial advertising and reminded listeners that the Peace and Progress signal covered five continents. Broadcasting policies throughout the Eastern European countries were liberalized, and Radio Free Europe correspondents began receiving permission to operate from within their for-

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mer target countries. And at year’s end, the anti–Chile Radio Magallanes broadcasts from the Soviet Union ceased. The new Radio Yugoslavia 500 kw. transmitter site at Bijeljina, Bosnia-Herzegovina, came on the air. At year’s end, Radiodifusão Portuguesa, Lisbon, inaugurated its first 300 kw. transmitter. Interference from the Russian woodpecker ended. And Radio Bucharest became Radio Romania International. European Christian Radio, a small evangelical station in Ravenna, Italy, near the Austrian border, had started operating late in 1985 with 100 watts on 7335 kHz. By 1989 the station, broadcasting in English, Albanian and Croatian, had raised power to about 7 kw. and now could be heard in the United States on 6205 kHz. In Ireland, a new law required all Irish pirates to leave the air by December 31, 1988 or face jail time and fines of up to £20,000, plus loss of eligibility to obtain newly authorized commercial broadcasting licenses. Almost all Irish pirate stations complied. However, Radio Dublin continued to broadcast. It was raided early in the year, but was heard on 6910 kHz. thereafter, albeit with a weaker signal. Scottish pirate Weekend Music Radio was quite active during the year on frequencies around 6312 kHz. and also on 15042. Also heard often was Radio Stella International, an Irish pirate on 6320 kHz. which purported to be located in Scotland. Other new Europirates heard in North America in 1989 included Radio Orang Utan, a Dutch pirate on 6206 kHz., and Radio Gemini, 6231 kHz., from the U.K. In April, RCI began relaying the programs of Radio Austria International and Radio Beijing on its transmitters in Sackville, New Brunswick. RCI programs were relayed via Radio Beijing. At home, RCI was suffering budget cuts. In November, the Crosley transmitters at the VOA facility in Bethany, Ohio, were taken out of service. They had been in use since the facility opened in September 1944, and in 1991 would be replaced by new 250 kw. senders of Brown-Boveri manufacture. It was another big year for new stations in the United States. In January a new religious station in Vado, New Mexico began testing on 11730 and 15140 kHz. KJES, “King Jesus Eternal Savior,” was a cooperative venture of “The Lord’s Ranch,” a working farm for delinquent teens, and Missionary Radio Evangelism of El Paso, Texas. Operations were intermittent for several years. The transmitter, which used 5 kw. at the start, eventually reached 50 kw. The program, which consisted of the robotic reading of a religious catechism, often by children, was one of the oddest on shortwave.39 In March, WSHB, a new 500 kw. sister operation of Christian Science Church station WCSN in Maine, came on the air from Cypress Creek, North Carolina. And in May, another new religious station was inaugurated. WWCR, “World Wide Christian Radio,” was based in Nashville, Tennessee. Co-located with the parent company’s medium wave station, WNQM, soon it would boast four 100 kw. transmitters. The mainstay of WWCR’s programming would be Christian preaching and right wing politics, leavened with some niche programs— DX, foreign “clandestine” programming, pseudo-pirates and the like. As one commentator put it, “[T]he programming mix at WWCR attracts an equally wide and diverse group of listeners the world over, with reaction to the varied programs ranging from extreme satisfaction to sheer disbelief. That the station has proven to be a lightning rod for various groups is indisputable.”40 North American pirate activity more than doubled, from about 50 active stations in

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The VOA station in Bethany, Ohio, celebrated 50 years on the air in 1992. Two years later it was closed down.

1988 to approximately 110 in 1989.4¡ Although a few stations were heard around 1620 kHz. (e.g. WHOT and WJDI) and 6.2-plus MHz. (WKND, WONR), 7415 kHz. and environs was still the main pirate perch, with these among the new stations most often heard: East Coast Pirate Radio, Free Radio One, KRUD, Pirate Radio Network, Radio Stardust International, Red Rose Radio, RFM (“Radio Free Massachusetts”), TRS (“The Radio Station”), Voice of the Abnormal, Voice of the Epileptic Catfish, Voice of Trailer Park Ministries, WBRI, WBST, WCPR, WHBH, WKRT, WKZP, WRKR, WTHC, WTNU, and Yuletide Radio. Stations that operated on other frequencies between 7345 and 7515 kHz. included CHGO, Hope Radio 16, Munchkin Radio, WHIP, and the Voice of Monotony. The Voice of the North was heard on 15045 kHz. As usual, there was much pirate activity on Halloween and the Fourth of July, two active periods for North American pirates. The year 1989 was also the first year when the comedic Voice of Pancho Villa appeared on 7375 kHz. at Saturday midnight at the Winter SWL Fest. The anticipated event has repeated itself annually ever since. Also on the U.S. shortwave front, WHRI was carrying the Radio Libertas program produced by the Croatian National Congress and the Croatian Committee for Human Rights in Mississauga, Ontario. Following the lead of the Voice of the Turkish Communist Party in 1987, the older Turkish communist party station, Bizim Radio, broadcasting since 1958 from various East European venues, left the air. Some stations were still heard from Angola. They sometimes carried Radio Nacional

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WWCR, Nashville, Tennessee, began operations in 1989. Soon “World Wide Christian Radio” would leaven its religious programming with patriot broadcasts and a variety of opposition, pseudo-pirate, and other niche programs.

programming, and so it was not unusual to hear Radio Nacional IDs on the few provincial frequencies still in operation. Listeners tuned in during the 2200–0200 time period in June were surprised to hear the Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service testing with strong signals on 3316 kHz. and playing transcriptions of various VOA, Deutsche Welle and Radio France International programs. The station was testing a new 10 kw. transmitter, and was also on 5980 kHz. Radio Zimbabwe left shortwave. Radio Nigeria’s neglected external service, once a powerful African voice, limped along, continuing a reduced-service regimen that had been the rule for several years. Of nine transmitters—five 500 kw., one 300 kw. and three 100 kw.— only one was operational, and then only on reduced power. Studios and other equipment were also in disrepair. ELBC, Monrovia, Liberia, returned to shortwave on 3255 and 6090 kHz. Radio Tanzania Zanzibar could be heard on its 49 meter band frequency, 6015 kHz., opening at 0300. The Radio Africa religious programs from Bata, Equatorial Guinea, now heard on 7190 kHz., were supplemented by a second set of programs called Radio East Africa, intended for that area. And Radio RSA ended the year with the New Year’s eve call-in show which had been its annual signature since 1977. XEOI, Radio Mil, Mexico City, reactivated on 6010 kHz. after a long absence, but suffered interference from various stations, including co-channel broadcaster YVSB, Radio Opposite: WSHB, Cypress Creek, South Carolina, was the second of the high-power Christian Science Monitor shortwave stations to take to the air. Opening in 1989, it followed the inauguration of its sister station, WCSN, Scotts Corners, Maine, by two years.

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Mil Cuarenta (1040), Mérida, Venezuela, one among the dwindling number of Venezuelan stations. Radio Belize, 3285 kHz., left shortwave,42 as did the Deutsche Welle shortwave relay station on Montserrat and its medium wave parent, Radio Antilles, which lost its DW funding and also suffered hurricane damage. In May, La Voz de Alpha 66, then operating on 6666 kHz., was shut down by the FCC. Alpha 66 was one of the oldest of the Cuban exile groups. The station had been closed down before, but always managed to reappear. This time it would close its clandestine radio operation for good, preferring instead to rent time on WHRI. In November, a new anti–Cuban broadcaster, La Voz de la Fundación, took to the air over Radio Clarin after the latter moved from 11700 kHz. to 9950 at Fundación’s request in order to avoid interference. Soon it would broadcast over WHRI as well. La Voz de la Fundación was a project of the Cuban American National Foundation, one of the largest and most influential Cuban freedom groups. HJIZ, Emisora Meridiano 70, Arauca, Colombia appeared on 4925 kHz. after a long absence. Radio Sutatenza, Bogota, Colombia was sold to CARACOL, which took over the Sutatenza frequencies— 5075, 5095, and 6075 kHz. And new on shortwave from Ecuador was medium waver HCPV6, Radio Centro, Ambato, now also on 3290 kHz. Some of the other South American stations reported during the year were the DXer-friendly OAX7J, Radio La Hora, Cuzco, Peru on 4860 kHz.; OAZ8H, Radio Nuevo Mundo, Pucallpa, Peru, 4882; Bolivians Radio Perla del Acre, Cobija, on 4600 kHz., and CP216, Radio Cosmos, Cochabamba, 6095; and ZYE726, Radio Novas de Paz, Curitiba, Brazil, on 9515 kHz. Unfortunately, the lack of funds at Ecuador’s La Voz de Galapagos meant that an equipment breakdown could not be repaired, and the station left shortwave, taking a shortwave radio country with it. The historic events at Tiananmen Square took place from April 15 to June 4. On the last day, alert SWLs would hear an astonishing announcement by one of Radio Beijing’s English-language announcers who informed listeners in graphic terms of the Chinese military’s assault on the square and protested “the gross violation of human rights and the most barbarous suppression of the people.”43 In September, a clandestine program, the Voice of June Fourth, was created by a group of Chinese students in Chicago. Transmitted on shortwave from Taiwan, it memorialized those who died at Tiananmen.44 Radio NYAB in Bhutan had become part of the Ministry of Communications and Tourism. It was renamed the Bhutan Broadcasting Service in 1986, by which time it was using 5 kw. on 6035 kHz. (and less power on 3995). It was heard only at relatively close range until 1989 when it appeared on 5025 kHz. with a higher power transmitter. The station could now be heard in America until sign off at 1500. Unfortunately, it was (and is) a notoriously poor verifier.45 The Deutsche Welle relay station at Trincomalee, Sri Lanka was back in full operation. The All India Radio station at Gauhati had been upgraded to 50 kw. And a new AIR station came on the air from Port Blair in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Its 10 kw. signal could be heard in North America on 4760 kHz. around dawn. The station shared the frequency with another new AIR station, Leh, which operated from Indian-controlled Kashmir, and was practically impossible to hear in America. The Vladivostok-based Russian service, Radio Station Tikhy Okean, intended for Russian sailors in the Pacific, was occasionally heard with a five-minute English segment

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on Saturdays around 0745 on a number of high frequency channels. In addition to its foreign service (Radio Pyongyang), the Korean Central Broadcasting Station operated many low-frequency shortwave outlets. Always difficult to hear and to identify with certainty, these included stations in such exotic-sounding places as Sariwon (2350 kHz.), Wonsan (3221), and Kanggye (3960), as well as Pyongyang itself. Two locations, Hamheung on 2400 kHz. and Hyesan on 2300, had left the air in 1988. In February, A3Z, the Tonga Broadcasting Commission, which for several years had made occasional use of 5030 kHz. as a feeder frequency for sending its medium wave programs to remote island groups, began regular broadcasting on the channel. It was an extremely difficult catch in the United States, both because of its low power (l kw.) and because Radio Impacto, Costa Rica, used the same frequency and often left its carrier on all night after concluding its programs. Some lucky DXers were successful in hearing Tonga in the early morning hours before an equipment failure put it off the air in June. It returned in August, but left the air for good in 1993. Christian Science Church station KYOI in Saipan closed down from July to October for transmitter improvements, and reopened with the new call letters, KHBI. In Papua New Guinea, Radio West Sepik, 3205 kHz., became Radio Sandaun. And at year’s end, Radio Enga, 2410 kHz., which had been off the air for many months, returned, now at 10 kw. rather than 2 kw.

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1990–1999 Times in U.T.C.

1990 Glasnost was in full bloom, the effects nowhere more evident than in the programming of Radio Moscow. The changes were dramatic, if at first somewhat halting. News programs, heretofore always sanitized by the party line, were more comprehensive and objective. Anti-communist political activities at home and abroad, and such topics as crime and social problems whose existence had rarely ever been acknowledged, were now standard fare, while much of the stultifying rhetoric of Soviet economic successes and communist superiority were gone.¡ The mood extended beyond the Soviet borders. In a step almost unthinkable a few years before, Radio Free Europe opened an office in Prague. At the end of March, Radio Prague terminated most of its external broadcasts, firing all personnel, partly for economic reasons, partly to purge communist influences. In March it returned as Radio Prague International, with staff and program output much reduced and using just four of its 11 transmitters. Prior to unification, West Germany still boasted five regional stations on shortwave: Süddeutscher Rundfunk, Stuttgart, 6030 kHz.; Bayerischer Rundfunk, Munich, 6085; Radio Bremen and Sender Freies Berlin, sharing time on 6190; and Südwestfunk, BadenBaden, on 7265. In addition, RIAS still operated on 6005 kHz. (the “American” station by now funded almost entirely by the West German government), and the Deustchlandfunk AM and FM network produced its own foreign-language programming which was carried over DW transmitters. In East Germany, in addition to Radio Berlin International (RBI) there was the Deutschlandsender home service (formerly “Die Stimme der DDR”) which operated on 6115 kHz.2 Fifteen minutes before 0000 on October 3, 1990, the day of German reunification, RBI signed off for good. The previous day it had identified as Radio Berlin International, “the voice of the disappearing German Democratic Republic.” While the East German shortwave plants at Nauen, Leipzig and Königs-Wusterhausen now joined Jülich and Wertachtel in the Deutsche Welle transmitter network, and DW was now heard over many former RBI frequencies, most of the East German employees were unable to transfer to DW due to budget limitations. Nauen would soon undergo a major renovation.3 296

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On the other side of the ledger, a Russian-language station called Radio Nadezhda (Radio Hope) was heard on 12055 kHz. It was sponsored by Inter-Movement, a militant organization of Russian-speaking, pro–Moscow groups active in Estonia, and it apparently operated from Soviet facilities. The signal was weak but audible in North America at the station’s 1630 sign on time. Radio Luxembourg replaced its 24 hour French service on 15350 kHz. with Englishlanguage programming, and at night could be heard with a signal much stronger than expected from its rated 10 kw. A new station in Pordenone, Italy was the Voice of Europe on 7556 kHz. And an interesting transmitter site that DXers liked to try for was the Bulgarian home service station at Stolnik. It operated on 7670 kHz., supposedly with 15 kw. After many years of broadcasting in English on Sunday only, Radio Norway International extended its modest English offering to Saturdays as well. (It would return to Sundays-only in 1993.) In February, Radio Denmark, which had installed a new 100 kw. transmitter seven years earlier, abandoned direct shortwave broadcasts in favor of sending its broadcasts over the transmitters of Radio Norway International. U.S. reception of European pirates became more frequent. New ones heard in 1990 included, from the U.K., Radio Gloria (6285 kHz.); from Ireland, Jolly Roger Radio (6229); from Holland, Radio Nova International (6273), Radio East Coast Holland (11490), Voice of the Netherlands (15045), Pirate Freaks Broadcasting Service (15050), and Quality Radio (15055); from Germany, Radio Rainbow (6240) and Radio Atlantis (7490); and from France, Radio Waves International (7440). The U.S. Information Agency created the Bureau of Broadcasting, which included the VOA and Radio Martí (as well as WORLDNET TV). All were now served by a single engineering office. And in December, KUSW, Salt Lake City, Utah, was sold to the Trinity Broadcasting Network and the station was reborn as KTBN. KUSW’s pop music format was replaced with a simulcast of the audio portion of TBN TV station KTBN. Said the TBN newsletter: “Thank God there will be no more Rock ’N’ Roll on KUSW. This station is getting SAVED. Praise the Lord!”4 North American pirate activity was half-again larger in 1990 than in 1989, with some 165 stations taking to the air. New pirates heard during the year, +/- 25 kHz. of 7415 kHz., included Action Radio, CSIC, East Coast Beer Drinker, Midnite Radio, One Voice Radio, Radio Beaver, Radio Mexico, Radio Outer Limits, Radio Wolf International, Voice of Bono, Voice of Oz, WLIS (“We Love Interval Signals”), WORK, WXZR, XERK, and many, many others. The former American pirate, Radio Newyork International— now “Radio New York International”— went legit, reappearing in September as a program on WWCR and Radio For Peace International. It was soon followed on WWCR by the old WHOTWFAT gang, now calling themselves Radio Free New York. The Malta-Algeria project, Radio Mediterranean, which had been broadcast via the Deutsche Welle relay station in Malta, came to a close. With the end of the Iran-Iraq war, some of the anti–Iran broadcasts over Iraqi facilities were dropped. Other anti–Iran stations continued from other locations, however, including Voice of Iranian Kurdistan, Voice of the Worker, Voice of the Iranian Revolution, Voice of the Communist Party of Iran, Radio Iran Toilers, and Iran’s Flag of Freedom Radio. Iraq continued carrying other “clandestine” and propaganda broadcasts, including Voice of Palestine (PLO), Voice of the Peninsula and Arab Gulf, Holy Medina Radio, and Voice of Arab Egypt.

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Listeners were tuning to Radio Baghdad’s English program after Iraq invaded Kuwait in August. There was also a special Tokyo Rose–style English broadcast from Radio Baghdad on 11860 kHz. Intended for American troops, it was called the “Voice of Peace.” “To the American soldier in the Saudi Arabian desert ... your children are waiting for you. Your wives are waiting for you. You might have a lover. She’s also waiting for you.... Why are you here? ... You must know that Iraq has the strongest army in the region.... Iraqi soldiers are the best trained in the whole world, and are ready to sacrifice their lives.” When the invasion began, Radio Kuwait broadcast appeals for help before disappearing for a month. When it returned it was under Baghdad’s control and carried various Iraqi home service programs. The BBC and the VOA increased their Arabic broadcasts to the Middle East (the VOA to 24 hours), and Radio Denmark, Radio Netherlands, Radio Thailand, All India Radio, and the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corp. all began special transmissions to their nationals in Iraq and Kuwait. Radio Australia and Radio France International broadcast messages from families and loved ones back home, as did the BBC in its special “Gulf Link” program. In many VOA transmissions, the State Department inserted a “Messages From Home” segment at eight minutes past the hour. It contained family messages to American hostages in Iraq and Kuwait. The Gulf War prompted a huge jump in public interest in shortwave. A medium that existed well below the radar for many years now received new attention in the popular press, with the activities of shortwave listeners chronicled in many articles. Among the most widely listened to stations during the buildup to the war were Radio Baghdad’s English program at 2000 on 13660 kHz., and the English broadcasts from Iran, Jordan and Saudi Arabia. VOA Arabic-language broadcasts were being jammed from Iraq. Kol Israel discussed how the buildup to the war was affecting ordinary Israelis, and the implications for the economy and the tourism industry. The British Forces Broadcasting Service, last heard during the Falklands crisis, returned to the air in support of Operation Granby, the British military component of the coming Gulf War. It was heard from August 1990 to February 1991. Programs consisted of three daily half-hour programs of popular music and greetings from loved ones, with many frequencies used, including 7125, 13745, 15205, 17695, 21500, and 21735 kHz. In 1991 these channels would also carry programming from the BBC’s Radio Four and Radio Five. Though not particularly well heard in the United States, Radio Sana’a and the Democratic Republic of Yemen Broadcasting Service, Aden, were consolidated into Republic of Yemen Radio when the two countries— the Yemen Arab Republic and the People’s Democratic Republic of Yemen, respectively — became the Republic of Yemen. Sana’a could sometimes be heard on 9779 at 0300 sign on; Aden was tougher on 7190. South West Africa gained independence, and in March the South West Africa Broadcasting Corp. (usually called Radio South West Africa) became the Namibian Broadcasting Corp. Budget cuts, and the perceived ability to rely on satellites and other technologies, led Radio RSA to end all shortwave broadcasts targeted outside Africa, effective May 1. (The station celebrated its 25th anniversary in 1991.) The final English broadcast to North America concluded with the playing of “Auld Lang Syne.” The several domestic shortwave services remained on the air. Radio Truth, the clandestine station on 5015 kHz. which broadcast against the Zimbabwean government, left the air in September. La Voix de la Révolution Congolaise, Brazzaville, returned to the air on 3265 and

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Listeners were happy when the British Forces Broadcasting Service, last heard during the 1982 Falklands crisis, returned to shortwave during the Gulf War.

4765 kHz. The fighting in Liberia closed down ELWA. July 6 was the first day that the station had been off the air since it commenced operation in 1954. By the middle of the month, some 22,000 refugees had crowded onto the ELWA campus. Non-essential staff were evacuated. All the buildings were destroyed.5 The VOA managed to remain on the air from Liberia during much of the civil war, but closed on September 17. During August and September it was sometimes heard communicating with Greenville over a 10 kw. upper sideband transmitter on 18515 and 20125 kHz. The VOA’s Africa Service was relayed temporarily from Africa No. One, Gabon, for one hour daily in order to partially compensate for the loss of the Liberian plant. A special transmission from ZHH, Radio St. Helena— a new SWBC radio country — was broadcast on October 6 over the 1.5 kw. Cable & Wireless station on the island. Arranged by the Stora-Tuna DX Klubb of Borlange, Sweden in connection with the Nordic DX Championship, and intended as a one-time event, it was widely promoted and surprisingly well heard on the frequency of 11092.5 kHz. (“This is the international service of Radio St. Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean.”)6 Thereafter the project’s organizers, Swedish DXers John Ekwall and Jan Tunér, traveled to the island, and the resulting contacts led to an annual “Radio St. Helena Day” transmission broadcast each October from 1992 to 1999 (except 1991 and 1995). It became one of the most widely anticipated shortwave events. In the Caribbean, Radio Netherlands conducted some SSB tests from its Bonaire relay station, and a new Dominican Republic station, HICV, Radio Barahona, appeared on 4930 kHz., but with a badly distorted signal. It would be heard, albeit infrequently, for years. Elections in Nicaragua brought an end to Sandinista rule. La Voz de Nicaragua was

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Listeners were surprised at the signal strength of Radio St. Helena, which was broadcasting over a 1,500 watt Cable & Wireless transmitter.

heard occasionally on 6002 kHz. Although the FSLN (Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional), by then having become a political party, retained control of Radio Sandino, equipment breakdowns kept the station off shortwave. The only other Nicaraguan shortwave station, Radio Zinica, formerly on 6120 kHz., was off shortwave as well, having lost its transmitter in a hurricane in 1988. Radio Impacto, Costa Rica, which operated mainly to oppose the Nicaraguan regime, left the air. Nicaraguan contra stations Radio Liberación and Radio 15 de Septiembre also closed down. Anti-Castro “clandestine” station La Voz de Alpha 66 started buying air time from WHRI and was widely heard on various WHRI frequencies during a daily half-hour program. HCJB was heard with very strong signals during SSB tests on 25950 kHz. The station consolidated almost all locally produced English programs into a one-hour block called “Studio 9.” The long running “Passport” was dropped, and “Happiness Is” was reduced from seven days to two. There were approximately 15 stations still on shortwave from Venezuela, roughly a third the number once on the air. And many of the active stations operated only intermittently. Although new Andean stations were few, Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru still had numerous stations operating in the shortwave bands. There were about 25 Ecuadorean stations nominally audible in North America, although some operated only intermittently.7 Among the more reliable were HCVN7, La Voz del Napo, Tena, on 3280 kHz.; HCRT6, Radio Paz y Bien, Ambato, on 4820; HCGM7, Radio Rio Amazonas, Macuma, 4870; HCQR1, Radio

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Quito, 4920; and HCVB7, La Voz del Upano, Macas, 5040. Putting in good signals when they were on the air were HCWE1, Radio Nacional Espejo, Quito, 4680 kHz., and HCEH3, Radio Nacional Progreso, Loja, 5057. Among the more difficult to hear Ecuadoreans were HCJV7, Ecos del Oriente, Lagos Agrio, 3270 kHz.; HCIR7, Radio Interoceánica, Santa Rosa de Quijos, 4840; and HCVS6, La Voz de Saquisili, 4900. Among the many Peruvian stations reported during the year were Radio Norandina, Celendin, 4460 kHz.; OAX7T, Radio Sicuani, 4826 kHz.; Radio La Merced, Tongol, 6755 (different from the Peruvian station of the same name on 4960 kHz.); and OAX6H, Radio Tacna, on 9486 kHz. A new Peruvian station was OAZ4N, Radio Cora, Lima, heard in both the mornings and evenings on 4915 kHz. During 1990, well-known Peruvian author Mario Vargas Llosa was an unsuccesful candidate for president of Peru. He was known to DXers as the author of Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter, a humorous novel inspired in part by his days in the 1950s as a student newswriter at Lima’s Radio Panamericana.8 Two new stations in Brazil were heard: ZYG366, Radio Sentinela da Amazônica, Obidos, 3285 kHz., and a new religious station, ZYE857, Radio Transamerica, Santa Maria, on 5965. Reactivated was Radio MEC, Rio de Janeiro, on 9600 (ZYE772) and 11950 kHz. (ZYE773). A new Argentine station, Radio Continental, in Buenos Aires, was heard on the feeder frequencies of 9115 and 15780 kHz. And new from Chile was CE609, Radio Esperanza, Temuco, on 6089 kHz. It was sometimes heard around 0900. The shortwave system in China was highly developed. Radio Beijing broadcast internationally in 40 languages over some 100 frequencies from several sites with transmitters ranging in power up to 500 kw. The domestic service, called the Central People’s Broadcasting Station, operated two networks, one with a mix of programs, the other concentrating on news and information. Two CPBS services targeted Taiwan, as did the Voice of the Strait (until 1984 the People’s Liberation Army Station in Fuzhou), the Voice of Jinling (Nanjing), and the Voice of Pujiang (Shanghai). Of particular interest to DXers were the many “People’s Broadcasting Stations,” regional senders bearing names like Fujian PBS (Fuzhou), Guangxi PBS (Nanning), Jianxi PBS (Nanchang), Nei Menggu PBS (Hohhot), Heilongjiang PBS (Harbin), Xinjiang PBS (Urumqi), and Xizang PBS (Lhasa, Tibet). Most of these stations could be heard in America, and, with some effort, would verify reception reports.9 Relay arrangements continued to grow. In April, Radio Korea began utilizing the RCI relay facilities in Sackville and vice versa; and Radio Beijing and Radio Moscow entered into an agreement to swap five hours of airtime daily. All India Radio began test broadcasts from its new shortwave facility in Bangalore. The 500 kw. transmitters were AIR’s most powerful. The clandestine Voice of Malaysian Democracy was reported to have left the air on January 1. In June, in nearby Sri Lanka, the Deutsche Welle relay station in Trincomalee again shut down due to fighting in the area. Consideration was given to closing the facility. However, the interruption proved only temporary (although another closedown, for seven months, would occur in 1995–96). Radio Television Francaise d’Outre-Mer (RFO), Tahiti, was still regularly heard on 6135, 9750, 11825 and 15170 kHz. The latter two frequencies, using 20 kw., were beamed northwest and were the best-heard channels in America. The 6135 kHz. channel was 4 kw., beamed north, while 9750, also 4 kw., was directed south. The other French voice in the Pacific, Radio Noumea, New Caledonia, which had been

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down to one frequency, 3335 kHz., left shortwave. Trouble in paradise was further exemplified by Radio North Solomons, Kieta, Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea, on 3325 kHz., which left the air in May after civil unrest led the PNG government to evacuate all employees. In January, after a decade of curtailment of its shortwave services, political instability in some of the small South Pacific nations caused Radio New Zealand to inaugurate a new, higher power (100 kw.) transmitter at Rangitaiki and expand its shortwave service under the name Radio New Zealand International. And in August, ZLXA, Print Disabled Radio, Levin, New Zealand, came on the air on 3935 kHz., relaying medium wave channel 2XA, 1602 kHz. The modest 1 kw. operation was the only domestic shortwave station in New Zealand. Several RPH (“Radio for the Print Handicapped”) medium wave stations existed throughout the country. Programming consisted mainly of readings of newspaper and magazine articles. It was renamed the Radio Reading Service in 1994.

1991 It was a year of upheaval in the Soviet Union. Between April and December, Estonia, Latvia, Belarus, Moldova and Ukraine in Europe, and Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan in Central Asia, declared their independence.¡0 And in the most unintended consequence of perestroika, on December 26 the Supreme Soviet repealed the 1922 declaration establishing the U.S.S.R. By December 31, the Soviet Union was no more, and the republics, including Russia, were sovereign, operating within a loose “Commonwealth of Independent States.” Estonia and Latvia declared independence in August. Radio Riga continued to be heard on its usual frequency of 5935 kHz., as did Radio Moscow relays over the Riga transmitters. Radio Tallinn continued operating on 5925 kHz., which was a good catch in America.¡¡ Lithuania had declared “sovereignty” in May 1989 and full independence in March 1990. Soviet troops moved into the country on January 11, 1991. The next day, shortwave listeners heard dramatic programming on the Radio Vilnius North American service: Although the Soviet military aggression was not so intensive today, the population of Lithuania continues suffering from it. Tonight, the Supreme Council of the Republic of Lithuania ... describes these actions as open military aggression which must be immediately stopped. At about 1 A.M. today, [Soviet] paratroopers seized an office of the country’s defense ministry in Vilnius. At about 5 A.M., Soviet armored personnel carriers surrounded the building of the Lithuanian Police Academy to the north of Vilnius. There is no precise information about the situation in the police academy building at the moment. Numerous reports coming from around Lithuania say the Soviet military blocked roads to stop traffic and to check the identity of those passing by the barriers. With the military and the pro–Moscow communists coordinating their actions, sabotage has continued since yesterday at Vilnius airport and Vilnius railway station. Some of the trains are surrounded by Soviet tanks.¡2

The Vilnius station, which transmitted over transmitters in Moscow, was closed down the following day and remained off the air for most of the rest of the month. When transmissions resumed on January 25 following Soviet consolidation of control in Lithuania, programming was still dramatically anti–Soviet, notwithstanding that the transmitting facilities were entirely controlled by the Soviets. Soviet soldiers remained in evidence at

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the station for seven months, and did not withdraw completely from the country until 1993.¡3 Radio Moscow became Radio Rossii, and cut backs in hours and languages, already underway, continued. It operated approximately 1,828 hours a week in 1991, a 30 percent reduction from 1988. The Moscow home service relays via Cuba came to an end. And Radio Station Peace and Progress closed in May. Despite its façade as the “voice of Soviet public opinion,” it had been well known as entirely a government propaganda outlet, even more hard-line than Radio Moscow, to which all of its employees were transferred. The changes in Soviet broadcasting were exemplified by “Vasily’s Weekend,” an irreverent half-hour of talk and music on Radio Moscow’s North American Service. It was hosted by Vasily Strelnikov, who held dual U.S.–Soviet citizenship and had lived most of his life in America. His playing of “I Saw Daddy Kissing Santa Claus” and “Christmas at Ground Zero” on “Vasily’s Christmas Show” of 1991, his last program for Radio Moscow, will long be remembered. (“I’m running out of dental floss, not that there’s much to floss out of your teeth around here.”) A product of American culture, he was not about to let the Soviet system keep him down. He went to work for a new Moscow FM outlet, Radio 7, and became a popular radio and TV figure.¡4 Volumes about the preferences of Russian listeners were spoken when Mikhail Gorbachev, returning from captivity in the Crimea after a failed coup in August, observed that he kept up with events by listening to the BBC, VOA and Radio Liberty. Soon thereafter, RFE-RL was invited to open offices in Moscow and elsewhere in Russia. In the United States, the questioning of RFE-RL’s raison d’etre in the post–Soviet era, and its shortwave service in particular, was fueled by such events as the establishment of an RFE-RL medium wave station in Czechoslovakia. Representing a huge break with the Soviet past, private broadcasting was now allowed, although “stations” did not own their own transmitters but utilized the services of the same government transmission network that serviced Radio Rossii and other government voices. Among the new private stations on shortwave were Radio Vedo, Volgograd, on 13710 kHz.; the right wing Moscow station, Radio Pamyat (“Memory”), on 12040; and Radio DVR (Far East Russia), Khabarovsk, on 5965 and 9560 kHz. Radio Ala, St. Petersburg, appeared on many frequencies, broadcasting Russian music. Much effort was spent trying to decode the meaning of the station’s name until listeners discovered the initials of the director —Alexander Leonovich Astafjev. In June, a private AM and FM broadcaster in Lithuania appeared on 9710 kHz. shortwave. Radiocentras transmitted once a month at 0600–0700 over the 50 kw. Sitkunai transmitter. A number of DXers managed to hear it during a special broadcast for participants in the Nordic DX Championship in October. Also interesting was Radio Georgia, Tbilisi, in the former Georgian S.S.R., whose foreign service could be heard weakly in English at 2000 on 11760 kHz. And turning history on its head, Russia now made its facilities available for relays of Deutsche Welle, which was soon heard broadcasting over transmitters in Irkutsk, Novosibirsk, Zhiguliev, and elsewhere. In the Balkans, Radio Tirana announced that it would accept advertising. Radio Varna, Bulgaria, a Sunday-only shortwave broadcast for mariners that originated from this Black Sea resort town, could be heard on 15330 kHz. from a Bulgarian Telecommunications Co. transmitter in Varna. In another sign of the times, the Bulgarian government advised that

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further use of its transmitters for the relay of Soviet programs would require payment in western rather than Soviet currency. Similar demands were received from other former Soviet republics. Fighting in Yugoslavia, which would lead to the country’s dissolution, led to a major realignment of shortwave broadcasting. WHRI, which was already carrying programs of the Croatian Radio Libertas, now also carried broadcasts of U.S.–based Radio Free Croatia. Croatia declared its independence from Yugoslavia in June. WHRI made itself available to carry some of the programs of the official Croatian station, Hrvatski Radio (Croatian Radio), Zagreb, which had no shortwave transmitter of its own. Soon, however, Hrvatski Radio was on the air 24 hours a day, seemingly direct from Zagreb over 10 kw. transmitters operating on 7240 and 9830 kHz. Radio France International began relaying its programs to Africa over Radio Budapest. In March, Belgium’s RTBF French-language external service closed down briefly. Its operations dated back to the Belgian Congo in World War II. Although it reopened several weeks later carrying French-language home service programs on a much-reduced schedule, it left shortwave again in 1992. Several religious broadcasters had found homes. IBRA Radio was broadcasting over Radio Trans-Europe, Portugal, as was the Voice of Orthodoxy, a French-based program for Orthodox Christians in Russia. (Later it would switch to Jülich, and still later to a transmitter in Kazakhstan.) Christ Vous Appelle, a French religious program, transmitted via the DW Malta station. Vatican Radio still operated several shortwave transmitters from within Vatican City itself, including an 80 kw. unit on 6245 kHz. (and later 4005). And RFE-RL opened a new relay station in Maxoqueira, Portugal. The site was to be one of the shortest-lived ever. It closed in 1994, its six 500 kw. transmitters transferred to the IBB site in Tinian which came on line in 1999. Among the pirates heard for the first time in North America were, from England, Midland Music Radio (6219 kHz.), Britain Radio International (6231), Radio London (6232), Radio Mi Amigo (6233), Radio Merlin International (6240), Live Wire Radio (6291), and Radio Harmony (6305); and Dutch pirates Radio Delta (6276) and Radio Tower (15050). And in March, the Northern Ireland Relay Service put on a special transmission to North America on 6273 kHz. It had been arranged by the NU-FT Special Transmissions Committee, and while reception conditions were not optimal, the station received 69 reception reports— the most it had ever received for one broadcast — and many DXers were able to add this new SWBC country to their totals. Radio Canada International had survived several budgetary cutbacks in the 1980s. Now, in a major cost-saving measure, almost half the RCI staff were fired, the budget was reduced from $21 million to $13.5 million, and RCI-produced programming was reduced from 232 hours weekly to 65, the balance replaced with CBC domestic programming. (One victim of the cutbacks was “SWL Digest.”)¡5 In other events at RCI, Ian McFarland ended his 24-year career at the station and moved to Japan to work in the Radio Japan English section. He would return from Japan in April 1993. And RCI and Radio Monte Carlo Middle East agreed that RCI would carry a 15-minute RMC Middle East program in Arabic in exchange for RCI time on RMC’s medium wave transmitter on Cyprus. And in Montreal, the programming heard on familiar CFCX, 6005 kHz., was now that of country and western station CIQC. (CIQC switched to a talk radio format in 1993.)

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VOA Europe had been inaugurated in 1985 as a fast-paced, American-style service for the 18 to 35-year-old age group in Europe, the first VOA effort in 30 years intended specifically for Europe. It was widely available on medium wave, FM and cable. With the Gulf War, VOA Europe was carried on shortwave for the first time, and would remain on shortwave until 1993. Radio Caroline, which had left shortwave, reappeared as a segment of Radio New York International’s program over WWCR. WWCR was home to a number of anti–Castro “disestablishment” broadcasters, including La Voz de la Junta Patriotica Cubana, La Voz de la Tribuna Libre, Voz de Directoria de Revolucionario Democratico Cubana, and Radio Voluntad Democratica.¡6 Anti-Castro programming was also heard for several hours a day over WRNO, which was up for sale and operating at a greatly reduced schedule. North American pirate operations stayed at about the same level as in 1990. The novelty of the pirates, and the relative ease of finding them (they occupied only a few narrow frequency ranges), made pirate DXing an increasingly popular shortwave listening niche. There was little new activity, however, most transmissions being by preexisting stations. Among the few new pirates were He Man Radio, WSKY, and Radio Free New England. The air component of the Gulf War began in January, the ground campaign in February. In North America the following was heard live from Kol Israel on January 18, while the country was under missile attack: Following a missile attack on Israel, residents of Israel are instructed to follow civil defense procedures. They are to put on their gas masks. Residents of Israel should put on their gas masks. They should go to their prepared protective room, close the room, seal the door and put a wet cloth at the base of the door. They should turn on their radio and listen for civil defense instructions. They should not remove their gas masks. They should not leave the room until further instructions. Residents of Israel should not, I repeat, not go to normal bomb shelters, but remain in specially prepared sealed rooms. And now we return to our regular news bulletin for our overseas listeners.¡7

When the allied attack began, the BBC had nonstop Gulf coverage in place of its usual programming, and RCI carried nonstop coverage of the CBC domestic service. The Australian navy instituted a “Gulf Link” program of pop music and messages from families over Radio Australia. And the Red Cross Broadcasting Service scheduled additional transmissions. From Baghdad one heard mostly threats and propaganda, and jamming. Iraq’s Mother of Battles Radio held forth on 8350 kHz. and other channels. Iraqi broadcasting activity declined during the air war. The main transmitter site at Salah el Deen was hit early, and soon only the transmitters in Kuwait and some low-powered Iraqi senders remained. Eventually those fell silent as well.¡8 A clandestine station called the Voice of Free Iraq could be heard with strong signals on 15600 and 17940 kHz. It was actually operated by the allied forces, with Egypt thought to be at least one of the transmitter sites. Within the year it was renamed, first the Voice of the Iraqi Opposition, then Voice of the Iraqi People (not to be confused with the pro-communist opposition station of the same name). It also announced as Republic of Iraq Radio — Voice of the Iraqi People, Republic of Iraq Radio also being the name of Baghdad’s official station. It would be on the air for years. Radio Bahrain started using shortwave transmitters located on its own territory. It had been broadcasting in Arabic and English on 15505 kHz. via Radio Kuwait since 1988. Now it had its own transmitters on 6010 and 9746 kHz., audible occasionally in America

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When it came on the air in 1991, Radio Bahrain represented not just a new station on shortwave, but a new shortwave radio country.

on the latter channel around 2000. In August, the Voice of Hope, the High Adventure Ministries station in southern Lebanon, added a new frequency, 11530 kHz., which it called “Wings of Hope.” Also in August, major cutbacks in transmission times took place at Kol Israel, and almost all broadcasts in the North American evening hours were canceled. However, the cuts were rescinded, a pattern that would repeat itself often in future years. A new broadcaster in Malabo, Equatorial Guinea, was Radio Africa 2000. The 10 kw. station was a joint project of the country’s Ministry of Culture and the government of Spain, its purpose being to elevate the cultural and educational levels of the country. It could be heard to 2130 sign off on 6907 kHz., and would be on the air until 1994. And at year’s end, in Botswana, the VOA inaugurated a 50 kw. shortwave transmitter at Moepeng Hill, about 20 km. from Selebi-Phikwe, a nickel and copper mining center not far from Francistown where the BBC had operated a relay station from 1965 to 1968. The VOA station, owned jointly by the VOA and Radio Botswana, had been operating on medium wave since 1981. A special first-day transmission on shortwave was broadcast on December 6. (“You are tuned to the inaugural broadcast from one of the Voice of America’s new transmitters in Botswana.”) DXers were pleased when the VOA issued a special QSL-card to commemorate the event. The installation of four additional 100 kw. shortwave transmitters soon followed in an effort to compensate for the loss of the VOA Liberia site in 1990. Several long-absent African stations returned. Radio Bertoua, Cameroon, on 4750 kHz., was reactivated and was heard to 2230 sign off. Radio Senegal restarted an old fre-

The VOA began shortwave transmissions from its Botswana relay station in 1991 with a special inaugural broadcast.

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quency, 4890 kHz., and put in a good signal in the early evening hours. Soon it was operating only irregularly, however. Radio Comoro, off the air for several years, resumed broadcasting on 3330 and 7260 kHz. and was heard by a few lucky DXers before disappearing again in 1992, this time for good. Radio Kisangani in Zaire, unheard for many years, was a summer surprise on the out-of-band frequency of 11455 kHz., where it was heard for several months at its sign on time of 0400. And ELBC, the Liberia Broadcasting System, using the slogan “Voice of Peace,” was on the air on 7275 kHz., where it was audible when it signed on at 0650. The original ELBC had closed down in 1990 because of the civil war. This ELBC was sponsored by the Economic Community of West African States Monitoring Group (ECOMOG), which had intervened in the Liberian civil war. An unrelated “ELBC,” operating on the original ELBC’s shortwave channels of 3255 and 6090 kHz., was run by rebel leader Charles Taylor. Hostile to ECOMOG, it was said to be located in Gbargna. In Ethiopia, the victory of the rebel coalition, the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), over the government left various rebel groups in control of different geographical areas, and the broadcasting situation in this lair of clandestine stations became ultra fluid. Both the Voice of the Broad Masses of Eritrea and the Voice of the Tigre Revolution became legitimate broadcasters. The Voice of the Tigre Revolution now announced its home as Mekelle in Tigre province. Broad Masses moved to, and operated openly from, Asmara, and became Eritrea’s official voice when the country became independent in 1993. Continuing on the air were two EPRDF stations which had begun broadcasting in 1990 —Voice of the Ethiopian People for Peace, Democracy and Freedom, and Voice of the Broad Oromo Masses. These stations shared the same transmitter on 6940 and 8000 kHz. For several months, Radio Netherlands tested from Bonaire in compatible, reduced-

There were several Liberian stations calling themselves ELBC. This one was run by the West African group ECOMOG, which had intervened in the Liberian civil war.

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carrier USB on 15560 kHz. Many Radio Norway International transmissions were also in compatible USB, and during the year Radio Havana Cuba tested on reduced carrier USB. A new station took to the shortwaves from the Dominican Republic. HIAQ, “La ’N’ 103,” Santiago, operated on 4800 kHz., simulcasting the station’s FM program. A new Nicaraguan station, Radio RICA (Radio Informaciónes de Centro America), appeared on 4920 kHz. However, by 1993 it had substituted FM for shortwave. Another new Nicaraguan station was Radio Miskut, Puerto Cabezas, a reincarnation of the Nicaraguan clandestine broadcaster of the same name which had come on the air in 1983. The new Radio Miskut was well heard on 4560 kHz. all evening (it moved to 5770 kHz. in 1993). Adventist World Radio, operator of R. Lira in Alajuela, Costa Rica, purchased some of the equipment of Radio Impacto, which had left the air in 1990, plus the Impacto transmitter site at Cahuita in an isolated area on the Atlantic coast, and went about relocating the AWR-Costa Rica transmitter base to Cahuita (save for one transmitter which remained in Alajuela and eventually wound up in Guatemala). Full use of Cahuita was achieved only in 1994 after transmitter modifications which took some of the units out of service for various periods. 4VEH, at the mercy of undependable electricity supplies in the best of times, was now off the air, waiting for parts for its 4930 kHz. transmitter. The last shortwave broadcaster in Haiti, it never returned to the air.¡9 The Colombian clandestine station, Radio Patria Libre, which often could be heard around 6300 kHz. at 0100, was being shadowed by a pro-government station identifying as “El Pueblo Responde.” Although Patria Libre was reported shut down by the Colombian army, it continued to appear for years (on, among other frequencies, 15050 kHz.). HCJB celebrated its 60th anniversary with a special-event ham station, HC60JB, which was on the air for three days in December. Among the smaller Andean stations heard during the yeaer were, from Bolivia, Radio Eco, Reyes, 4410 kHz.; CP142, Radio Movima, Santa Ana de Yacuma, 4473; CP90, Radio Juan XXIII, San Ignacio de Velasco, 4965; and CP48, Radio Libertad. La Paz, 5005 kHz.; and from Peru, Radio Juanjui, 6261 kHz., and Radio Santa Monica, Santiago de Chuco, 6670 kHz. More Argentine feeder stations were heard on single sideband, carrying programming from domestic AM stations LS4, Radio Continental; LR6, Radio Mitre; LS10, Radio del Plata; and LS5, Radio Rivadavia. The frequencies were 4588, 9115, and 15780 kHz. Relay arrangements continued to proliferate. The VOA began hiring air time on some Russian transmitters in the Far East. In a joint project with the Japanese government, the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corp. external service facilities were upgraded to 300 kw., and soon SLBC was relaying Radio Japan. The project also included four new 10 kw. transmitters which replaced units dating back to the 1950s. The programs of Radio Beijing were now relayed from Canada, Spain, the French relay base in French Guiana, Mali, Switzerland, and Russia. And Radio Pilipinas, the external service of the Philippine Broadcasting Service, inaugurated a daily two-hour shortwave service, one hour in English, one in Filipino, utilizing the VOA transmitters at Tinang. All India Radio opened a new 50 kw. shortwave facility at Gorakhpur to carry both home service and external service programs. The AIR station in Kohima was upgraded from 2 kw. to 50 kw., and Kingsway increased from 10 kw. to 20 kw. In China, the new China Huayi Broadcasting Co. came on the air from Fuzhou on 4830 and 6185 kHz. and could

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HC60JB was a special event ham station put on the air for a short time by HCJB personnel to celebrate HCJB’s 60th anniversary.

The broadcasts of the China Huayi Broadcasting Co., Fuzhou, Fujian Province, on China’s coast, were intended for Taiwan.

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be heard opening at 0955. Its broadcasts were intended for Taiwan. The anti–Beijing broadcast carried by Taiwan, the Voice of June Fourth, was replaced by another called the Voice of China. Now part of the California-based Foundation for China in the 21st Century, it is still on the air. In the Pacific, Radio North Solomons returned to the air on 3325 kHz., but now transmitting from Rabaul, New Britain, rather than Kieta, Bougainville, and sometimes identifying as Radio Bougainville. Transmitter difficulties led to only intermittent reception.

1992 The year saw several name changes. The Dutch-language service from Belgium, Belgische Radio en Televisie (BRTN), was renamed Radio Vlaanderen International. Radio Polonia reverted to its old name, Polish Radio Warsaw. Radio RSA became Channel Africa. Radio Beijing took the name China Radio International (CRI), and in 1993, China’s domestic network, the Central People’s Broadcasting Station, became China National Radio (CNR). In July, the Democratic Voice of Burma, a Norway-based Burma opposition group, began transmitting over Norway’s shortwave transmitters. In part this was a reaction to the plight of Burmese Nobel laureate Aung San Suu Kyi, who had been under house arrest since 1989. Democratic Voice of Burma would later use transmitters in Germany, New Zealand, the former Soviet Union, and other locations. Radio Luxembourg ceased its shortwave (and satellite) broadcasts in English on December 31. It had ended the English-language medium wave service for the U.K. a year earlier, but English had survived another year on shortwave. Radio Luxembourg had played an important part in the growth of commercial broadcasting and rock and roll, especially in England. Once the governmental broadcasting monopolies were broken, however, listeners and advertisers opted for the better reception that could be had from the numerous local stations that came on the air. Luxembourg kept broadcasting in French on 6090 kHz. and German on 15350. In November, London Calling, the BBC’s venerable program magazine which had been published since 1939, became a section of the new BBC Worldwide (which was double the price).20 Of greater significance to long-time BBC aficionados, on March 29 the Daventry site was closed after 67 years of operation. Most of the equipment was transferred to Woofferton, which was available because VOA, whose use of Woofferton dated back to 1943, no longer needed it.2¡ RCI started carrying a French and English program for Canadian peacekeeping forces in Yugoslavia. It was produced by the Canadian Forces Radio Network in Lahr, Germany. A similar program would be produced in 1993 for Canadian peacekeepers in Haiti. The number of private Russian stations increased. Some used shortwave exclusively, others in conjunction with medium wave and FM. Many operated in the 25 and 31 meter bands or higher, sometimes on multiple frequencies, and could be heard in America, albeit usually with modest signals. Business-related stations included New Wave Radio Station (Novaya Volna), Radio Galaxy, and Radio Rezonans. Radio Art, Radio Polis, Radio SNC, and Radio Space were mainly music stations. Religious stations included Radio Radonezh

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(Russian Orthodox) and Radio Aleph (Jewish). A women’s station was Radio Nadezhda (“Radio Hope,” different from the pro–Russian Estonian station of the same name that had operated two years earlier). Unfortunately, the newly adopted rules of capitalist economics would lead many of these stations to an early demise.22 Among the government stations of the former Soviet Union, a good catch was Radio Alma Ata, Kazakhstan, sometimes audible in English around 2130 on 5960 kHz. and other channels. Radio Yunost, the Soviet youth service which had been broadcast for many years, was heard on 4740 kHz., sometimes with commercials in English. English could also be heard from Radio Armenia. Many Ukrainian transmitters that had carried Radio Moscow programming were rededicated to the domestic and foreign transmissions of Radio Ukraine International. Once-unthinkable relay and leased time arrangements proliferated. In March, Adventist World Radio set up a Media Center in Tula, Russia and began broadcasting from Novosibirsk (and later three other Russian sites). In July, AWR discontinued its broadcasts from Radio Trans-Europe, a station from which it had transmitted since 1971. The signal of the Far East Broadcasting Co., operating as Far East Christian Broadcasting, was heard from Khabarovsk on 9560 kHz. In August, Radio Irina, the “Voice of Freedom,” a station devoted to democracy in Vietnam, was heard at 1400–1500 on 15580 kHz. utilizing a transmitter in Irkutsk. And in November, Radio Netherlands began relaying its programs via Russian transmitters in Chita, Irkutsk, and Petropavlovsk, and Tashkent in Uzbekistan. In late 1992 and early 1993, listeners tuning around the 11 meter band between 1400 and 1730 were surprised to hear pop music and ads in French on 25710, 25900 and 26070 kHz. After some sleuthing it turned out that the signals originated from a group of low power, narrowband FM ground-to-cable car transmitters in use at various French ski resorts. The stations announced as Radio Neige (“snow”) and carried audio from Radio Nostalgie, a French FM network. The signals were heard during the winter months for several years.23 A number of new Europirate stations were heard, including Irish stations DLR-106 (Dun Laoghaire Radio, 6220 kHz.) and Radio Shamrock International (6232), and Dutch stations Radio Ridiculous International (6253) and Radio Silverbird International (6235). Radio Fax reincarnated itself as Reflections Europe, a seven-hour, Sunday-only block of religious programs. It utilized the old Radio Fax frequency of 6205 kHz. and in later years would broadcast on 3910 and 12255 kHz. as well. Of uncertain locus was Radio Piraña International on 6273, 13950, and 21524 kHz. It was thought to be in Spain or Sweden. Wherever it was, it later moved to South America. Radio Caroline programming was heard on 6305 kHz., seemingly from a European pirate transmitter, location unknown. RCI was now heard via the BBC, Radio Austria International, Deutsche Welle, Radio Beijing, Radio Korea, and Radio Monte Carlo (Cyprus). Some BBC programs were now also relayed via Meyerton, South Africa, and Tashkent, Uzbekistan. Two new American religious stations began broadcasting. In March, 50 kw. WJCR (“Where Jesus Christ Reigns”), Upton, Kentucky, came on the air with a booming signal on 7490 kHz. and taking collect calls from anywhere in the world. In December, 500 kw. Catholic station WEWN in Vandiver, Alabama, began regular broadcasts. It was the shortwave branch of the Eternal Word Television Network (EWTN), which claimed to have the largest number of subscribers of any religious cable network in the world. It was founded

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in 1981 and led by cloistered Franciscan nun Mother M. Angelica. WEWN programming was entirely religious. Although its signals were powerful, soon after its inauguration it was found to be interfering with sheriff ’s office communications and left the air for three weeks while a solution was found. Most of WEWN’s programming was a simulcast of EWTN cable TV audio. And there were two American shortwave returnees. New Mexico’s KJES resumed broadcasting in June, although continuing transmitter difficulties made operations intermittent. And Dallas shortwave station KCBI returned in November after a five year absence. Now owned by Two-If-By-Sea Broadcasting Corp., it carried the preachings of Dr. Gene Scott, maverick pastor of Los Angeles University Cathedral, around the clock. Scott’s voice would become ever present on shortwave. His “University Network” could already be heard over WWCR, KVOH, the Voice of Hope in Lebanon, various Russian sites, and the Caribbean Beacon, Anguilla, on 1610 kHz. (which would add shortwave in 1996). A student of religious broadcasting described Scott’s style on his TV station a decade earlier this way (the FCC canceled its license in 1983): In any other profession, Dr. Gene Scott would be described as a clown prince.... Scott decked himself out in wide-brimmed cowboy hats, allowed his beard to grow to Santa Claus proportions, and smoked cigars with the fervor of Groucho Marx — not exactly standard issue, but not exactly forgettable either. He would augment his bizarre appearance with rambling discourses and wild parody routines about the things that irked him: taxes, labor unions, even fellow televangelist Jerry Falwell whom Scott dubbed Jerry the Fat. Scott’s program was taped in multihour segments and broadcast overnight by most stations carrying it, and he would spend the better part of each telecast threatening to stop preaching and to cease his show’s musical acts and parade of guest stars if viewers did not phone in financial contributions immediately, if not sooner.24

Shortwave listeners could relate. WWCR hosted a number of clandestine programs, including Radio Khalistan (Punjabi), the Voice of Kossovo, and Voice of Young Albanian Exiles. WHRI and WRNO carried Radio 16 Desanm, a Creole-language program supporting the government of the legitimately elected president of Haiti, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, who had been overthrown in a 1991 military coup. The program was reportedly produced in the Haitian embassy in Washington. Another pro–Aristide program, Radio Neg Mawon, was heard on Radio For Peace International. WRNO began carrying “American Dissident Voices,” an anti-semitic program of a group calling itself National Vanguard Radio, and the similarly far right “Voice of Freedom” program of Holocaust denier Ernst Zündel (also broadcast on WWCR). Since 1991, Jeff White of Radio Earth and Radio Discovery had been broadcasting programs over WRNO, WHRI and WWCR under the name Radio Miami International. Much of the output consisted of Cuban freedom programs. Now White bought Radio Clarin’s 50 kw. shortwave transmitter and, following some March on-air tests of the equipment in the Dominican Republic, shipped it to the U.S. Listeners were surprised to hear Tampa, Florida BCB station WFLA coming through on 25870 kHz. in the middle of the day. It was a frequency used to link the station’s studio with a remote unit. In future years similar transmissions from other non-shortwave stations would be heard on various 25 and 26 MHz. frequencies, e.g. KKOB, Albuquerque, New Mexico (25910 kHz.), WLW, Cinciannati, Ohio (26450), WJFP-FM, Fort Pierce, Florida (26470), WTVT-TV, Tampa, Florida (26150), and KTKA-TV, Topeka, Kansas

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(26400). (Some of these transmissions were part of the delay system used in call-in programs.) Pirate activity remained about the same as in 1991, with the following among the 7 MHz. stations heard for the first time during the year: Happy Hannukah, Hit Parade Radio, North Jersey Coast Radio, Pirate Radio Boston, Radio Airplane, Radio Azteca, Radio Chaos International, Voice of the Loon, Voice of the Night, WARI, WBBS, and WHIZ. Many of the older pirates were still on the air, and many other new ones were on just once or twice. An important new station was the North American Pirate Relay Service, which would relay many pirates over the next five years. Radio Baghdad returned most services to the air in January, including a North American service at 2300–0100. Radio Kuwait resumed operation in February, and would soon be carrying a daily program called “Our Missing POWs.” Around the same time, the Russian relays of Radio Afghanistan came to an end. Radio Afghanistan could still be heard via its own transmitters, which carried the domestic service from 0130 on 6100 and 7200 kHz. (the latter soon replaced by 4775), as well as an external service which operated on 9635 kHz. The Afghan clandestine, Voice of Unity, also closed down. However, a new Afghan clandestine, Radio Message of Freedom, appeared on 7090 kHz. The Palestine Liberation Organization’s Voice of Palestine was still on the air, as it had been since 1972. It did not have its own transmitter, but for years had been carried over the government stations of many Middle Eastern countries. In 1992 it was believed to be emanating from Algeria, Syria and Yemen. Two Palestinian clandestine stations were the Voice of the Popular Revolution in Palestine, which was believed to be coming from Libya, and the Hamas station, Voice of the Palestinian Islamic Revolution, thought to be based in Iran. It appeared that Swaziland Commercial Radio, which had adopted a religious programming format, had left shortwave. Rarely heard in North America, now it was no longer heard in southern Africa either. The signal from Radio Omdurman, Sudan, was surprisingly good during its English program at 1800–1900 on 9170 kHz. The Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service was still heard on its longtime frequency of 3316 kHz. And a few DXers were able to hear Radio Muhaburu, the clandestine voice of the Rwandan Patriotic Forces, an exile group that had invaded Rwanda in 1990. It was on 6340 kHz., signing on at 0400. Two new Dominican Republic stations were heard, both broadcasting from Santo Domingo. One was HIVR, Radio Cima 100, on 4962 kHz., the other HIAM, Radio Quisqueya on 6205. And HIAZ, Radio Santiago, was heard for the first time in a long time on 9877 kHz. Radio Surinam International, the weekly program over Radiobras, came to an end. And in Mexico City, XEWW, La Voz de la America Latina, and XEQQ, on 9680 kHz., closed. HRXK, La Voz de la Mosquitia, 4910 kHz., returned to the air after a long absence, though now transmitting only four hours a day and with but 100 watts. Heard for the first time in years was TIUCR, Radio Universidad de Costa Rica, San Jose, on 6105 kHz. And although its equipment was modest and outdated, TIQ, Radio Casino, Limon, Costa Rica, could still be heard on 5950 kHz. It would leave shortwave in 1996. Two former clandestine stations in El Salvador were legalized. Radio Farabundo Martí now operated on FM only, while Radio Venceremos continued on shortwave, 6300 kHz., but with less strident programming. Transmitter difficulties soon put Radio Venceremos

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off the air, however. Radio For Peace International, already with four transmitters at its disposal, added a fifth, increasing its maximum power from 5 kw. to a nominal 30 kw. And in October, Radio Nacional de España started broadcasting from its new 100 kw. shortwave relay station in Cariari, Costa Rica. In Ecuador, 3395 kHz., a frequency formerly used by Radio Zaracay, Santo Domingo de los Colorados, was now occupied by a new station in that town, HCOT1, Radio Catolica. A new Colombian station on shortwave was HJAM, Radio Buenaventura, on 4833 kHz. Also in Colombia, HJZO, Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia, Bogota, on 11822.5 kHz., was carrying an English program called “Colombia DX.” According to a survey taken in Bolivia, there were 54 active shortwave stations in the country.25 There were approximately 75 Peruvian shortwave stations whose signals made it to North America more or less regularly. Among the less often-heard were Radio Naylamp, Lambayeque, on 4300 kHz.; Ondas del Sur Oriente, Quillabamba, 5068; Radio Lider, Cajamarca, 5304; OAZ7C, Radio Universal, Cuzco, on 6093 kHz.; and many others. A small new military station in Burma, the Mayawadi Broadcasting Station, could be heard with surprising strength on 5973 kHz. around 1200. (The station is believed to have been hit by lightning in 1999, and was unheard thereafter.) All India Radio opened a new regional station in Jaipur, and the 50 kw. signal was heard in the morning hours and at 0030 sign on on 3345 and 4910 kHz. And FEBC, the Philippines, replaced several of its 40year-old 50 kw. transmitters with new units of 100 kw. Radio Aum Shinrikyo, the radio program of a Japanese religious sect, started transmitting from Russia. The group’s leader, Master Shoko Asahara, whose picture adorned the station’s QSL, had founded the group in 1987. Listeners could not know that Asahara would be sentenced to death in connection with a sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway in 1995. The Aum Shinrikyo broadcasts were canceled in March of that year. Eventually, Asahara’s appeal was rejected and he is awaiting execution. The 60 meter band was the source of many interesting morning signals. Radio Bhutan was now operating with 50 kw. and was often heard on 5025 kHz. West coasters were able to pick up Bhutan’s United Nations Radio program in English at 1415. The station would move to 5030 kHz. in 1993 when, without the co-channel interference from Cuba’s Radio Rebelde on 5025 kHz., it would be heard on the east coast as well around 1200. The Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corp. could sometimes be heard in the mornings with domestic service programming on 4870 and 4902 kHz. Radio Thailand’s external service was fairly regular around 1130 on 4830 kHz. Radio Phnom Penh, the informal name sometimes used by the Voice of the People of Cambodia, had unusually good signals on 4909 kHz., suggesting an upgraded transmitter. Radio Nepal was on 5005 kHz. And Radio TV Malaysia could be heard from several of its locations: Kuala Lumpur, Radio 6 (Tamil), on 4845 kHz.; Kota Kinabalu, Sabah on 4970; and Sarawak via Kuching on 4835 and 4950, and Sibu on 5005. The Miri station in Sarawak was on 6060 kHz., and other Kuala Lumpur channels were on 5965 kHz. (Radio 1, Malay), 6025 (Radio 5, Chinese) and 7295 (Radio 4, English). An Australian survey of active stations in Indonesia found RRI local or regional stations on about 50 different frequencies, plus “RPD” stations on a handful of others. While over the years the expanded use of FM and medium wave had reduced RRI’s shortwave presence, and many of the remaining transmitters were in poor shape, Indonesia remained

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among shortwave’s most exotic radio venues, and the favorite DX playground of Indonesian specialists. Radio place names like Pontianak, Fak Fak, Ambon, Sorong, Pekanbaru, Medan, Tanjungkarang, Palangkaraya, Wamena, Jambi, Gorontalo, Samarinda, and — a place which came into world consciousness after the Asian tsunami of 2004 —Banda Aceh, were all well known to the serious Indonesian DXer. Meanwhile, the high power RRI foreign service transmitters operated on a number of familiar frequencies whose daily use seemed to change almost at random. Transmissions were from Cimanggis, utilizing 100 kw. on 9525, 9680, 11750, and 11760 kHz., while 15150 kHz. was said to be 250 kw. from the same location. A new station came on the air from the Pacific island of Palau. KHBN was operated by George Otis’s High Adventure Ministries and was the newest part of the Voice of Hope network. It operated with about 5 kw. at first, but soon jumped to a full 100 kw. The rebel station Radio Free Bougainville went on the air in January. It was heard irregularly on 3880 kHz. by listeners “down under” and by a few on the west coast. Reportedly located at Arawa on Bougainville Island, the interim government of which had unilaterally declared independence from Papua New Guinea in May 1990, it operated under the guidance of Glenn Baxter’s Maine-based International Amateur Radio Network, with technical assistance from Australian amateur Sam Voron, VK2BVS.26 (Voron would be involved in another station, Radio Free Somalia, in 1993.) Radio Kiribati, from the former Gilbert Islands, was widely heard. It had changed frequency several times since returning to shortwave in 1981, and was now on 14917.6 single sideband (soon to change again to 17440, then to 9825). Originally owned by the government, it had gone private in 1987.

1993 The early 1990s were a time of developing constraints on international broadcasting, as costs increased and national budgets everywhere were under stress. Many stations suffered reductions in broadcast hours, and the elimination of some traditional language services (along with the addition of others). The BBC had discontinued its broadcasts in Japanese and reduced its transmissions to Latin America, but increased output in Chinese, Russian and Vietnamese. Radio Sweden had dropped Portuguese and reduced Spanish and French, while increasing programs in Estonian and Latvian. For the most part, however, changes netted out as losses rather than gains. This trend intensified in 1993. Radio Norway, Radio Vilnius, and Radio Tirana reduced their English-language programming. Radio Sweden replaced its international Swedish-language programming with home service relays. The RFE Hungarian and Afghan services were already gone, and Polish and Czech were now reduced. The VOA dropped Greek and German and cut back on Spanish and Portuguese. Radio Estonia dropped its modest external service all together. And notwithstanding its considerable investment in shortwave, Swiss Radio International reduced its reliance on the medium while expanding its satellite broadcasting. On January 1, Czechoslovakia split into two countries— the Czech Republic and Slovakia. Radio Prague continued broadcasting, while in the Slovakian capital of Bratislava

Russian transmitter operators did not know that Master Shoko Asahara, head of the group leasing time for Radio Aum Shinrikyo in 1992, would be responsible for the 1995 sarin gas attack in a Tokyo subway. The broadcast was quickly taken off the air.

During the 1990s, many DXers were surprised to hear the 1 kw. transmitter of Radio Kiribati from the former Gilbert Islands. The station had been in operation since 1981.

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a new station, Slovak Radio (later Radio Slovakia International), came on the air. Of Czechoslovakia’s three shortwave transmitter sites, one was in the Czech Republic (Litomsyl) and two were in Slovakia (Rimavska Sobota and Velke Kostolany). All Slovak Radio programming was from the Sovak sites, while Radio Prague, in addition to using Litomsyl, retained access to Rimavska Sobota. The year also saw the introduction from the Czech Republic of Radioropa-Info, a German all-news channel already available in Europe on cable and satellite. Radioropa tested at 0300–2300 via Litomsyl on 5975 and 5980 kHz., but soon left shortwave. Bosnia-Hercegovina had declared itself independent from Yugoslavia in 1992, and in November of that year a station called Radio Bosnia-Hercegovina was heard around 2200–0200 on 6220 kHz. (later 7240). Its location appeared to be Sarajevo. Radio Yugoslavia’s home service transmitter in Stubline, Serbia, was indisputably under Belgrade’s control. While Radio Yugoslavia’s 500 kw. external service transmitter was in Bijeljina, just across the border in Bosnia-Hercegovina, there were no breaks in Radio Yugoslavia’s access to it save for a few weeks in mid–1992. In order to clarify the complicated political situation in the region, Radio Yugoslavia would sometimes note that it was “the federal shortwave station.” It also carried a program prepared by the “Radio of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia-Hercegovina” (also called Republika Srpska). In addition, a program called Radio Bosnia-Hercegovina was heard over WHRI, paralleling the earlier access to the station by Croatian freedom groups. The BBC and Radio Korea established a relay exchange, as did Radio Ukraine International and RCI. Radio Sweden began using new 500 kw. transmitters. It also set up a special shortwave relay of its domestic service for Swedish soldiers in the Balkans. In March, Radio Sofia became Radio Bulgaria. Another private broadcaster in Moscow, Radio Centre, was heard on shortwave. A Swiss-based, German-language religious program, “Die Antwort,” purchased air time from Radio Belarus in Minsk. And in January a new station, Radio Moldova International, came on shortwave. Though based in Kishinev, Moldova, the station was transmitting over the Radio Romania International transmitters in Galbeni, Romania. In June 1992, a station called Radio Pridnestrovie had begun broadcasting on medium wave from Tiraspol in the breakaway Moldavian Republic of Transnistria, an area composed mainly of ethnic Russians and Ukraines which had declared itself independent of Moldova in 1990. The station had commandeered the 999 kHz. transmitter located at Maiac (usually referred to as Grigoriopol, a nearby town) which had previously carried regular Radio Moldova programming. In December, the station started using shortwave as well, identifying as Radio Dniester International. It could be heard in North America at 0330 on 7105 kHz., and later on other frequencies. It stayed on shortwave until the end of 1996. It returned in 2003 as Radio DMR, but at hours that made North American reception nearly impossible. Some international broadcasters have leased time on the powerful shortwave transmitters located at “Grigoriopol.” The political status of Pridnestrovie remains unresolved. In Italy, where the legality of private broadcasting was still ambiguous, two new shortwave stations were heard: Idea Radio, Genoa, 7380 kHz., and Radio Italia Internazionale, Spoleto, on 7140 kHz. The stations were said to be using 500 watts and 1 kw. respectively. A new pirate station in Northern Ireland, Riverside 101, was heard a number of times.

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Even Radio Tirana, hardest of the hard-line Soviet satellites, relaxed its programming during the post–Soviet thaw.

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Overall, however, pirate activity in Europe was much reduced, with few new stations heard in North America. In November, Jeff White’s long-planned shortwave station in Miami, WRMI, began testing with low power (400 watts) on 9955 kHz.27 In April, WWCR, Nashville, Tennessee, burned to the ground. It was rebuilt immediately, and was off the air for little more than a month, replacing all four of its transmitters within a year. Perhaps of greater consequence to DXers was the May fire at Radio Cook Islands which put that rarely heard station off shortwave for good. On May 28 and 29, the VOA station at Bethany broadcast four special transmissions on the occasion of the European DX Council meeting in the Canary Islands. These were on 10869 kHz. with 50 kw. of power. Three were in single sideband, and while the VOA said that the fourth transmission was the first stereo broadcast on shortwave (a different audio channel on each sideband), the difference was not readily discernible. Another stereo broadcast for the EDXC was made a year later. Radio Free Albania joined the WHRI program lineup, while WRNO carried Rush Limbaugh. A customer of both WRNO and WWCR was Brother R. G. Stair. Stair’s preachings would make his Overcomer Ministry a ubiquitous presence on shortwave. A project to equip a radio ship, the M/V Fury, to carry Brother Stair broadcasts, got underway, but eventually came to naught (see “1994”). Early in the year, both standalone anti–Castro stations like La Voz del CID (9940 kHz.) and Radio Caiman (9965), as well as broadcasters renting air time on licensed American stations such as WRNO and WHRI, started encountering jamming. Signal comparisons indicated that the jamming was least effective in Florida where the stations’ signals tended to be the strongest.28 North American pirate activity remained at about the same level as 1992. Counted among the new stations were Altered States Radio, Bob Dylan Radio, CRSM (“Radio Scottish Montreal”), Ground Level Network, Radio Doomsday, Radio Free Salvation, Solid Rock Radio, Witch City Radio, WJAM, WJLR, WREC, and XEROX (“Radio Duplicado”). The American pirates, many of which had long operated around 7415 kHz. because it was relatively interference free, now found themselves battling for space with licensed American stations operating in the area with FCC approval. These included WRNO, WSHB, WWCR, WJCR, WEWN, and even the VOA. Some of the pirates moved to the vicinity of 7465–7475 kHz., others closer to 7385 kHz. The Republic of Yemen Radio, Sana’a, was heard fairly well in English around 2100 on 9780 kHz. The Radio Free Afghanistan program from Radio Free Europe closed down. And in June, the VOA began broadcasting from its new facility in Briech, Morocco, 37 km. south of Tangier.29 Eventually Briech would have ten transmitters. Its predecessor station in Tangier was donated to Morocco, which continued to utilize it for Radiodiffusion Television Marocaine, as it had been doing for some time. Briech was also made available to RTM for some transmissions. The POLISARIO program, Voice of the Free Sahara, had been heard over Radio Algiers since the 1970s. Now a separate station, National Radio of the Saharan Democratic Arab Republic, on medium wave since approximately 1979, appeared on the shortwave frequency of 11520 kHz. The shortwave transmitter was believed to be co-located with the medium wave unit near Tindouf, Algeria. The station took the name of the inchoate state, formerly

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the Spanish Sahara, for which the Saharan exile government sought recognition. The station later moved to various 25 meter band channels, then to the area around 7.4 MHz., then to the 6.2–6.3 MHz. range. The South African all-night domestic service, Radio Orion, left the air. Other South African domestic services still on shortwave were Radio Oranje, Afrikaans Stereo, and Radio 2000. Radio Rwanda surprised listeners with a strong signal on 9610 kHz. at 0300 sign on. It was also heard well at 2100 sign off on 15430 kHz. DXers thought the broadcasts were being made from the Deutsche Welle relay station in Rwanda, which was undergoing modernization. However, it appeared that Radio Rwanda had replaced its old 50 kw. transmitter with a new one of 100 kw. And the transmissions of Radio Guinea, Conakry, long irregular, became standard fare around 0700 on 7125 kHz. While the old transmitter center at Kipe was being renovated, the station was running 100 kw. from the Sanfonja site, recently reconstructed with Russian help.30 Radio Moçambique was by now a rarity in North America, especially in the tropical bands, with many transmitters off the air or reduced to low power. However, sometimes the station could be heard around 0300 on several of its increasingly unstable 90 meter band frequencies— 3210, 3338 and 3370 kHz. Radio Burundi could be heard on 6140 kHz. around 0300, albeit also with a poor signal. Transmitter breakdowns had already taken the 3300 kHz. channel off the air, and the use of 6140 was erratic. ELWA, Monrovia, Liberia had returned to the air on FM in 1991, and in August 1993 reappeared on 4760 kHz. shortwave. The signal, which could be heard at 0600 sign on and 2200 closedown, was via a 10 kw. transmitter operating at about one-third power. Despite plans to return to the air with a 50 kw. transmitter inherited from KGEI in 1994, in May 1996 continued fighting would again put the station off the air. And Radio Djibouti, now unheard, reported that it had suffered an equipment breakdown. Angola’s presence on shortwave had been drastically reduced. While A Voz da Resistência do Galo Negro (VORGAN) was still on the air, the only other stations regularly heard were Radio Nacional de Angola, Luanda on 3375, 7245, 9535, and 11955 kHz. (as well as 4950, long a VORGAN channel), and Emissora Provincial de Benguela on 5041 and 6154 kHz. Radio Nigeria was down to four domestic shortwave stations, but all could be heard more or less regularly. These were Lagos on 3325 and 4990 kHz., Enugu on 3970 and 6025, Kaduna on 4770 and 6090, and Ibadan on 6050 kHz. In Chile, the shortwave facilities of Radio Nacional de Chile were up for sale (asking price: $1 million). A 1995 plan by a former KGEI program director to buy the eight transmitters and 22 acre antenna farm and set up a Radio Americas International would come to naught, although in November 1997 there were some test transmissions of “Radio Americas International” from Argentina over 15280 kHz., an old KGEI frequency. The decline of shortwave, and the wish to build a system of satellite feeds to Latin American AM and FM stations, led Trans World Radio to end its shortwave transmissions from Bonaire on July 1. However, there was some new activity from the Caribbean and points south. A station that had been off shortwave for decades, HIAS, Onda Musical, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, was putting in a good signal on 4780 kHz. until closedown at 0300. In July, a new Jeff White station, HRJA, R. Copán International, began transmitting from Honduras on 15675 kHz. with 100 watts (later 1 kw.). It was on for three hours a day, and for a limited period sold air time at the discounted rates of $25 per hour

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(one minute spots were $1). Soon it was carrying anti–Castro programming. And several new stations came on the air from the Andes: 10 kw. Radio Metropolitana, La Paz, Bolivia on 6195 kHz.; HCLE7, Radio Oriental, Tena, Ecuador on 4780 kHz.; and OAX4H, Radio Nacional del Peru, Lima, on 6095. DXers were surprised to hear LV19, Radio Malargüe, Argentina, on 6160 kHz., opening at a good level at 1000 and sometimes identifying in English. The 1 kw. station had been difficult to hear and had gone unreported for a long time. LRA31, Radio Nacional, Buenos Aires, also put in a reliable signal at 0900 sign on on 6060 kHz. In March, a new VOA station in Udon Thani province, Thailand (commonly referred to as “Udorn”), began testing. The power of the station, which was jointly owned by the United States and Thailand, was 500 kw., and DXers were happy to see the VOA repeat its Botswana practice and issue a special QSL-card for the occasion. Azerbaijan inaugurated a foreign service called the Voice of Azerbaijan, or “Radio Dada Gorgud,” after a Turkic hero. It could be heard in English at 1700 on 15240 kHz. Radio Japan started relaying its programs via the BBC facility in Singapore, while the Cambodian and Laotian-language programs of Radio France International were now relayed from Irkutsk. West coasters could sometimes hear NHK home service programming on the several low power relay stations (300–900 watts) which, after many years, were still on the air. They served as backup relays to NHK domestic network medium wave stations and were located in Fukuoka, Nagoya, Osaka, Sapporo and Tokyo. Some other cities had dropped shortwave in 1984–85. Radio Blagovest, a Russian religious program, was heard over Radio Veritas Asia in the Philippines. It had been broadcasting on Trans World Radio, Monaco. Trans World Radio resumed broadcasting on shortwave from Sri Lanka, this time using a 12.5 kw. shortwave transmitter at the Sri lanka Broadcasting Corp.’s medium wave site at Puttalam for four hours a day on 6035 kHz. TWR had to first repair the transmitter, which had been used by the government to jam Tamil Eelam rebel broadcasts, as well as to transmit a “black” clandestine program on behalf of the Eelam People’s Democratic Party. However, the TWR shortwave broadcasts ended in January 1995 when TWR was authorized a medium wave frequency. The external service of the SLBC was often heard well in English on 11835 kHz. around 1100. A new shortwave country was heard as All India Radio in Gangtok, Sikkim, began testing a 10 kw. transmitter on 3390 and 4775 kHz. Sikkim had been an Indian protectorate from 1947 until achieving Indian statehood in 1975. It would count as a separate radio country and it was a rare target for American DXers. AIR also inaugurated shortwave transmissions from Itanagar and Imphal in the country’s northeast, and from the tongue twisting city of Thiruvananthapuram (formerly Trivandrum) in the southern state of Kerala. “Thiru” was a 10 kw. installation, the other two were 50 kw. A number of other AIR shortwave installations would soon upgrade to 50 kw. Australian Armed Forces Radio (AAFR) began transmitting to Australian forces serving in Somalia and Cambodia and to troops aboard the HMAS Tobruk and the HMAS Canberra. At first these broadcasts were transmitted from the ABC station in Darwin. The service expanded, however, and soon it was transmitted on 40 kw. single sideband transmitters from the Australian naval facility at Belconnen, near Canberra, and the Harold E. Holt naval communications station near Exmouth, Western Australia. Programs consisted

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mainly of music, news, and recorded messages from home. When this service ended, AAFR became Australian Defence Forces Radio and beamed similar programs from Belconnen to Australian troops in Rwanda and to the RMAF/RAAF Base Butterworth (Royal Malaysian Air Force/Royal Australian Air Force) in Malaysia, and later to Papua New Guinea.3¡ On Christmas day, after a week of on-air tests, the new World Harvest Radio station, KWHR, came on the air from Naalehu, Hawaii, the southernmost point in the United States. Save for WWVH, it was the first shortwave broadcasting activity from Hawaii since the VOA station there closed in 1969. The Tonga Broadcasting Commission left the air. It returned to shortwave very briefly in 1997, but it went unnoticed and was soon the permanent victim of cyclone damage. And in December, Australian Broadcasting Corp. stations VLQ and VLM in Brisbane closed down, followed by VLW, Perth, in January 1994. These mostly 10 kw. stations (Brisbane also had a 50 kw. transmitter) had had a long presence in the 31 meter band. Perth, on 9610 kHz., had started broadcasting in 1939, and Brisbane, often heard on 9660 (and 4920), had a pedigree dating to 1943. At Perth, the engineers had been making their own parts to keep the transmitters on the air. These were the last of Australia’s domestic shortwave stations, save for the Northern Territory Shortwave Service which had begun operating in 1985.

KWHR began operating from Hawaii in December 1993. It was the first shortwave broadcasting from the islands in nearly 25 years.

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1994 The slow scaling back of international broadcasting was becoming more evident. Radio Netherlands dropped programming in Arabic, French and Portuguese. Radio Korea International dropped Portuguese and Italian. Radio Prague cut back its North American broadcasts. And at year’s end, Radio Luxembourg closed its shortwave service. On January 1, listeners to the old RIAS channel of 6005 kHz. started hearing identifications for DeutschlandRadio. The new station was the result of a merger of RIAS, Deutschlandfunk and the former East German station, Deutschlandsender Kultur. (DeutschlandRadio was renamed DeutschlandRadio Kultur in 2005.) Sender Freies Berlin dropped its shortwave service, which was broadcast over the Radio Bremen transmitter on 6190 kHz., and the VOA closed the last of its shortwave transmitters in Munich (Ismaning). The commercial Radio Metropolis, a 15-person FM station in Prague, started testing on shortwave in November with multi-lingual announcements on 6200 and 9470 kHz. The target areas were Europe, North Africa, the Middle East and North America. The station was supposedly transmitting with 40 kw. from Podebrady, a shortwave site dating back to 1936 which later was used for jamming. However, Radio Metropolis would leave the air in March 1995. (Podebrady was closed soon thereafter.) Radio Estonia, absent for about a year, returned to shortwave with a small external service on 5925 kHz. AWR began transmitting from the Rimavska Sobota and Velke Kostolany sites in Slovakia. Croatian Radio, Zagreb, increased the power of its shortwave transmitter base at Deanovec from 10 kw. to 100 kw. Radio Bosnia-Hercegovina appeared on the out-of-band frequency 6890 kHz. single sideband, soon replaced by 7108. The changes in the Russian broadcasting scene continued. In the midst of major cutbacks, the country’s foreign-language external service adopted a new name, the Voice of Russia. Soon only 50 of its 250 transmitters were operating. Listeners could also now hear a 35-minute Russian program from Radio Slavyanka, a station of the Russian Ministry of Defense. A special one-time shortwave broadcast from Radio Baltica, an AM and FM commercial station in St. Petersburg, Russia, was heard on 12070 kHz. Russia continued to be the source of many religious broadcasts. Radio Islamic Wave (formerly called Rukhi Miras), a program of the Islamic Centre of Moscow, was heard on 12075 kHz. An Iceland-based Christian station, Radio Alpha and Omega, began a onehour transmission on 9685 kHz. (It would broadcast via Jülich in 1996.) The Germanbased Universelle Welle programs were also broadcast from Russia.32 From Italy, a Catholic station, Radio Speranza, Modena, could be heard on 6233 kHz., relaying Vatican Radio. In April, Radio Austria International put a ham station, OE1XRW, on the air to commemorate International Marconi Day. The station would conduct a similar event a number of times in subsequent years, usually under the callsign OE1M, and would relay some of the contacts over its regular shortwave broadcast frequencies. Although pirate activity in Europe remained brisk, few new Europirates were heard in North America. One that was thought new, the Voice of Scotland on 6273 kHz., turned out to be a North American pirate hoax. In 1994, the International Broadcasting Bureau (IBB) was created within the USIA. It was controlled by a new Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG).33 It replaced the

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Bureau of Broadcasting (VOA and Radio Martí) and the Board for International Broadcasting (funding and oversight of RFE-RL), whose stations would now be part of IBB. U.S. government shortwave transmitting sites worldwide were now controlled by IBB. Having lost large sums in various media ventures, the Christian Science Church sold station WCSN in Maine, and its new owner, Prophecy Countdown of Mt. Dora, Florida, began broadcasting over the station as WVHA, World Voice of Historic Adventism. The Christian Science Church also reduced the use of its other shortwave stations. CFCX on 6005 kHz. replaced its simulcast of CIQC with the programs of CKOI, a French-language FM station in Montreal. Later, CIQC programming resumed. KCBI, Dallas, Texas got new call letters—KAIJ. It continued as a religious broadcaster. WRMI, Miami, Florida, began testing its 50 kw. transmitter in April on 9955 kHz. Regular broadcasts began in June, the flagship program being Jeff White’s “Viva Miami.” WRMI also carried the broadcasts of the anti–Castro La Voz de la Fundación. And the arrival of WWCR on 5065 kHz. was viewed as a threat to 60 meter band tropical band broadcasting, already on the decline. The station would appear on 2390 and 3315 kHz. in 1996, with 2390 devoted exclusively to Brother Stair. In June, budget constraints caused the Far East Broadcasting Co. to close down KGEI. The transmitters and antennas were purchased by other stations. And on November 14, the VOA’s Bethany relay station was closed. It had survived a threatened closure in September 1980, but this time it was not so lucky.34 The event was marked by the issuance of a special black-bordered last day QSL by one of the station’s engineers. Three of the Bethany transmitters were sent to the VOA site in Sri Lanka, then under construction. It was a busy year for Allan Weiner. In January, the 40 kw. transmitters and other broadcasting equipment aboard the M/V Fury, which was being refitted near Charleston, South Carolina for use by Brother Stair’s “Overcomer Ministry,” were seized by U.S. Marshalls at the request of the FCC which claimed it was being used for pirate broadcasts. Weiner, in charge of the project, vehemently denied the accusations. In 1998, another offshore broadcasting project in which Weiner was involved — the M/V Electra, so named after Marconi’s ship of the same name — appeared to hold promise, but also ended unsuccessfully. And in September 1994, after years rusting in Boston Harbor, the 33-year-old M/V Sarah, former home of Weiner’s Radio Newyork International, was blown up for a scene in a movie called “Blown Away.” Weiner had sold it to MGM to pay off debts. North American pirate activity was at an all time high, with approximately 220 shortwave pirate stations reported during the year, twice the number in 1989. Most 1994 pirates were holdovers from earlier years, but among the year’s new shortwave swashbucklers were Bob Marley Radio, Voice of the Runaway Maharishi, KDED, Quantum State Laboratory, Radio X, RBCN (Radio Bob’s Communication Network), Up Against the Wall Radio, and 6YVOS (“Voice of Smoke”). As it had done the year before, the North American Pirate Relay Service aired many pirates, and was probably the year’s most active pirate station. The pirates continued to be crowded by several powerhouse stations operating around 7415 kHz. In October, KVOH landed right on the frequency. Many pirates moved to the area around 6955 kHz. A station announcing as Radio Intercontinental (later Radio AR Intercontinental) began broadcasting from Armenia on 11790 kHz. and other frequencies. It appeared to carry leased time broadcasts, including those of the German evangelistic broadcasters Radio

KCBI, Dallas, Texas, continued its religious format after being sold, and becoming KAIJ, in 1994.

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Mitternachtsruf, Radio Voice of the Martyr, Missionswerk Werner Heukelbach and Lutherische Stunde. The regular government programs were broadcast under the name Radio Armenia or Araks Radio Agency. In 1995 they would take the name Voice of Armenia. There were about a dozen clandestine stations targeting Iran and a like number aimed toward Iraq, and of these, approximately a quarter represented one or another interest in Kurdistan. Some stations were regularly heard, while others, particularly those operating around 4 MHz., were a challenge in North America. Keeping track of all the stations was difficult. Among those often reported were, to Iran, Radio Azadi (Radio Freedom), Voice of the Mojahed (Voice of the Crusaders), and the U.S.–sponsored Voice of Freedom and Human Rights in Iran (formerly Iran’s Flag of Freedom Radio); and to Iraq, Voice of Iraq (broadcast from Syria), Voice of the Iraqi People (“Republic of Iraq Radio”), and Voice of the Islamic Revolution in Iraq. The Kurdish stations included, to Iran, Voice of Iranian Kurdistan, operated by the Iranian Kurdistan Democratic Party, and Voice of the Struggle for Iranian Kurdistan; and to Iraq, Voice of Iraqi Kurdistan, Voice of the Islamic Movement in Iraqi Kurdistan, Voice of the Kurdistan Revolution (People’s Democratic Party of Kurdistan), and Voice of the People of Kurdistan (run by the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan). Radio Mogadishu — Voice of the Masses of the Somali Republic (earlier called Voice of the Somali People), the Mohammed Farah Aidid station in Somalia, was reported opening at 0330 on 6870 kHz. The area of 6.6–7.0 MHz. would become a favorite for the “unofficial” stations representing the various factions in the Somali conflict. Soon there were two other “Radio Mogadishu’s.” Radio Mogadishu — Voice of the Somali Republic, and Radio Mogadishu — Voice of Somali Pacification, as well as Holy Koran Radio, were each loyal to a different group. In later years, the Aidid station, whose frequency could vary a great deal (as did the others), would occasionally be heard on the east coast around 2100 sign off. Unfortunately, most of the Somali stations operated with very low power and at hours that put them outside the range of American DXers. A new Ethiopian station, Radio Fana (“Torch”), was heard on 6210 kHz. It was run by the ruling Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front, and appeared to have replaced the transmissions of Voice of the Ethiopian People for Peace, Democracy and Freedom and Voice of the Broad Oromo Masses, which had been broadcasting in support of the ruling governmental coalition since 1990. And Radio Ethiopia began carrying the broadcasts of Radio Amahoro, the Voice of Peace, run by a group of Belgian-based charitable organizations promoting peace and reconciliation in Rwanda. The station was heard on 9560 kHz. at 0400, and it was also broadcast over Africa No. One, Gabon. Deutsche Welle began using the 500 kw. SENTECH relay transmitters in South Africa. SENTECH was a commercial telecommunications business which had been formed in 1992. Now a public corporation, at the time it was wholly owned by its main client, the South African Broadcasting Corp. The DW relay station in Rwanda went off the air in April due to fighting in the country, but returned in stages, starting with a 20 kw. relay of Radio Rwanda on 6055 kHz. and reaching full operation by January 1, 1995. Late in the year, Capital Radio, South Africa, left shortwave after its transmitters were damaged in a thunderstorm. It remained on medium wave, but it closed altogether in 1996. The stations in Cameroon were now seldom reported. Radio Garoua was still on

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5010 kHz., but operations from Buea, Bafoussam, Bertoua, Douala and Yaounde were intermittent at best, with stations coming on the air for a short time and then disappearing. The Radio Africa religious programs from Equatorial Guinea that were brokered by Pan American Broadcasting in Cupertino, California, made some periodic afternoon appearances on 15190 kHz. Meanwhile, Radio Nacional, Bata, was sometimes heard on 4926 kHz. in place of its regular frequency of 5005 kHz. And Radio Gabon reactivated its former 60 meter band frequency, 4830 kHz. An Asian listener confirmed that the Voice of Maldives had returned to shortwave and begun testing on 7350 kHz. at 0400–0800. It was never reported heard in North America, however. The Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corp., off shortwave since 1989, returned to the air in November with new 100 kw. transmitters, still using its old frequencies. Radio One was on 3396 kHz., Radio Two on 3306, and Radio Three on 4828 and 7175 kHz., although frequencies were often interchanged among the services. The best time to hear the station was at 0300 sign on or before 2200 sign off. A new religious station from the area was U.K.based Radio Christian Voice, Lusaka, Zambia. The 100 kw. station operated on 6065 kHz. (and later 3330), and could be heard to 2030 sign off. The government station, Radio Zambia, could also be heard on 4910 kHz. at 0250 sign on. Only one station was regularly on the air from the Dominican Republic — Adventist station HI1J, Radio Amanecer, Santo Domingo, on 6025 kHz. Others heard from time to time were HIAM, Radio Quisqeya, Santiago, 6205 kHz.; HIAQ, Radio Norte, Santiago, 4800; and HIVR, Radio Cima 100, Santo Domingo, 4960. Radio Dominicana, a new 20 kw. government station, had been planned as part of the Christopher Columbus 500th Anniversary celebration in 1992, but never came to air.35 It was a good year for Central America on shortwave. DXers were surprised to hear two new 1 kw., 60 meter stations from Honduras: HRQO2, Radio Internacional, San Pedro Sula, on 4930 kHz., and Radio HRET, Puerto Lempira, 4960 kHz. In addition, HRLW, Radio Litoral, La Ceiba, which had begun broadcasting in 1993 on 4830 kHz., started making regular appearances. A new Guatemalan evangelical station, TGLT, Radio Cultural Coatán, San Sebastian Coatán, came on the air on 4780 kHz. And the final broadcast from the 5 kw. transmitter at AWR’s transmitter site in Alajuela, Costa Rica, was made on April 15, 1994. The frequency was 11870 kHz. Fifteen new shortwave stations were reported active in Peru.36 A new station came on from Calceta, Ecuador. It was 400-watt HCOS4, Radio Stereo Carrizal on 3260 kHz. Also from Ecuador, HCJB conducted SSB tests on 21455 kHz. with a 1.5 kw. transmitter, and on 17490 kHz. with 30 kw. A special QSL was issued for 21455. And relays of Swiss Radio International via the 500 kw. transmitter in Montsinery, French Guiana commenced on July 21. LRA34, Radio Nacional Mendoza, Argentina, 6180 kHz., was heard for the first time in a very long time. It had a new 7.5 kw. transmitter, and was best at 0900 sign on. The Argentine time station, LOL, was heard a few times under WWV on 5000 kHz. Among the numerous Brazilian stations reported during the year, some of the less-often heard were ZYF204, Radio Alvorada, Rio Branco, 2460 kHz.; ZYG203, Radio Clube de Varginha, 3245; ZYF200, Radio Integração, Cruzeiro do Sul, 4765; and ZYG790, Radio Caiari, Porto Velho, 4785. The 25 meter band was still well-populated with Brazilian stations, including

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HRET, Puerto Lempira, was one of two new stations in Honduras in 1994. The other was Radio Internacional, San Pedro Sula.

ZYE726, Radio Universo, Curitiba, 11765 kHz.; ZYE441, Radio Anhanguera, Goiânia, 11830; and ZYE850, Radio Gaucha, Porto Alegre, 11915. The long-anticipated return to shortwave of the Indian state of Goa finally occurred. Last on shortwave in 1960 during the final days of Portuguese rule, the All India Radio project had been in the planning stages for years. The station was at Bambolim, near the state’s capital of Panaji, the same location used by Emissora de Goa in the Portuguese days. It was heard on both tropical band and international frequencies, but identifications were hard to pin down. An expected special service for Goans living abroad never materialized. India also increased the power of the shortwave stations in Bhopal, Hyderabad and Calcutta from 10 kw. to 50 kw., and jumped Shimla from 2.5 kw. to 50 kw. In February, new 250 kw. transmitters were placed in service by Radio Singapore International. The target audience was Southeast Asia. The Singapore domestic services— Radio One, City Sounds, as well as the Malay and Tamil home services— were now heard at much improved levels. However, two familiar 60 meter band channels, 5010 and 5052 kHz., were dropped. Radio Thailand began transmitting some of its programs over the new IBB Udorn transmitter, greatly improving reception in North America. The weather broadcasts from Bangkok Meteorological Radio, not reported for nearly 20 years, were heard again, now on 6765 kHz. Radio Korea became Radio Korea International. In February, a special edition of the

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Radio Korea “Shortwave Feedback” program featured a 10-minute segment prepared by the Samoa Broadcasting Service in Apia, Western Samoa, which verified reports direct. Though the transmitter was in Korea, it was interesting to hear a program from this exotic location. Under good conditions a number of Vietnamese regional stations could still be heard, albeit with increasingly unstable transmitters and frequencies always on the move. These included Gia Lai on 4789 kHz.; Son La on 4813; Kon Tum on 5070; Lai Chau on 5598 and 6700; Yen Bai, 6404; Cao Bang, 6587; and Bac Thai, 6629 kHz. KWHR in Hawaii carried “Sounds of Aloha” on Sundays. Produced at the Hilton Hawaiian Village Hotel, it gave some local flavor to what was otherwise KWHR’s standard religious fare. However, it was on the air for only a short time. Local Hawaiian programming on shortwave had last been heard in the late 1930s when the RCA point-to-point transmitters at Kahuka were used to relay the famous “Hawaii Calls” program to the mainland for rebroadcast over network BCB stations. These transmissions were often reported by shortwave listeners. In February, Radio United Bougainville, a station set up by the Papua New Guinea military on behalf of the Bougainville interim government, took to the air on 3880 kHz., a frequency used by the rebel Radio Free Bougainville, a station which, though reported defunct at the end of 1992, appeared to be still on the air. Radio United Bougainville operated with only 70 watts, and while its headquarters were on Buka, an island adjacent to Bougainville, it was supposedly transmitting from Loloho, a location on the east coast of Bougainville itself. And in September, fierce volcanic activity on New Britain Island in Papua New Guinea put Radio East New Britain, Rabaul, off the air for a month. The event spawned the “Volcanic Disaster Emergency Service,” heard 24 hours a day over the NBC station in Port Moresby on 4890 kHz., as well as some other PNG stations. A Pacific pirate, Kiwi Radio, was heard in North America. Operating on 7445 kHz., the station was located in Hastings, New Zealand, and usually operated with 350–700 watts. It was also known to relay the programs of other pirate stations. And to the dismay of many DXers, news that the Armed Forces Antarctic Network, unheard for nearly a decade, had returned to shortwave on 6160 kHz. turned out to be incorrect.

1995 The number of relay arrangements continued to grow. Both Radio Vlaanderen International (Belgium) and Radio Netherlands established relay swaps with Deutsche Welle. Radio Japan, already using the BBC sites in the U.K. and Singapore, added Ascension to the list. RAI, Italy had begun using Ascension in 1994, and now added the BBC station in Singapore. The BBC was relaying some of its programs via Australia and New Zealand, as well as Rimavska Sobota in Slovakia. (Radio Prague stopped using Rimavska Sobota for budgetary reasons.) And added to the customer list of SENTECH, South Africa, were Trans World Radio and the VOA. Some VOA programs were broadcast from Bulgaria, and the VOA even bought time on WHRI to replace coverage for Radio Martí that was lost when the IBB station in Bethany closed. While the Voice of Russia and Radio Ukraine International stopped using each other’s

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transmitters, otherwise the relay scene in the former Soviet Union was heating up. Many Voice of Vietnam broadcasts were now carried on Russian transmitters. Radio Netherlands expanded its use of Russian facilities to additional sites (and, to the delight of DXers, verified the sites on their QSLs). And though the BBC denied having anything to do with it, BBC programs in various languages were being heard from Azerbaijan. Religious programs were welcome on Russian facilities. Mukto Probaho, a Bengalilanguage evangelical program from IBRA Radio, was broadcast from Russia. And in an arrangement that would have been beyond impossible a mere five years earlier, Albania, once the hardest of the hard line Euro-Marxist countries, was now happily carrying the programs of Trans World Radio on both medium wave and shortwave. To meet budgetary limitations and new competitive pressures from deregulated media worldwide, the BBC regionalized the World Service, establishing five separate streams, the programs and broadcast times of each designed for a particular geographic area. Elsewhere in Europe, Radio Maryja, a Catholic FM station in Poland, appeared on Polish transmitters. The station, which would remain on shortwave from Poland for only a short time before reappearing on Russian transmitters, would come under criticism for its right wing views. In mid–January, fighting in Yugoslavia led to the closure of the Bijeljina transmitter site, located in Bosnia-Hercegovina. It returned to the air in April, however. Soon after, Radio Bosnia-Hercegovina appeared on a new 10 kw. transmitter on 7105 kHz. Ireland Overseas Broadcasting Ltd., Dublin, in cooperation with Radio Telefis Éireann (RTE), the Irish national broadcaster, commenced an exploratory effort to get Ireland back on shortwave by way of some RTE sports broadcasts over BBC transmitters. And TERACOM, the Swedish telecommunications authority, conducted the first of what would be many tests, over several years, on behalf of Radio Sweden. DXers were alerted to the tests by TERACOM e-mail announcements in the DX press, and TERACOM accepted, even preferred, reception reports by e-mail. Following threatened dissolution or consolidation with the VOA, RFE-RL survived, but only after a move from Munich to Prague and a staff reduction of more than half.37 And September 17 marked the last broadcast of the Radio Netherlands “Happy Station” Program.” It was an active shortwave year in Canada. By early in the year, CKFX, the 10 watt station in Vancouver, British Columbia on 6080 kHz., had left the air for repairs. Although it planned to resume operations, it never did. In March, CHNX, Halifax, Nova Scotia, returning to the air after a transmitter upgrade, was operating with a mere 28 to 40 watts, giving DXers an unusual QRP (low power) target on the station’s familiar channel of 6130 kHz. And in station makeovers, CFVP, the Edmonton, Alberta station on 6030 kHz., became CKMX, and CFCX was again relaying CKOI. Beginning in May, the CBC began carrying English programs of several shortwave broadcasters over its domestic AM network during the 1–6 A.M. period. The programming, called “CBC Radio Overnight,” was supplied by the World Radio Network satellite service. Each hour began with five minutes of live CBC news, followed by programs from Radio France International, Radio Netherlands, Radio Sweden, BBC, Deutsche Welle, Radio Australia, and other stations. This presented the public with an interesting albeit off-hour exposure to shortwave. North American listeners could hear it on CBC shortwave stations

TERACOM, Sweden’s national telecommunications authority, provided the transmission facilities for Radio Sweden’s broadcasts from that country. This is the control room of TERACOM’s Hörby shortwave station.

American SWLs have for many years enjoyed listening to the two CBC domestic shortwave stations, CKZN, St. John’s, Newfoundland, and CKZU, Vancouver, British Columbia.

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CKZN (St. John’s, Newfoundland) and CKZU (Vancouver, British Columbia), both on 6160 kHz. Yet another American religious station came on the air. The 50 kw. signal of WGTG (“With Glory To God”), McCaysville, Georgia, emanated from a transmitter and antenna that were homebrew but well designed. Soon Brother Stair and other preachers were enjoying a new shortwave outlet, as would, for a time, political broadcasters, including right wing voices. By 2000 the station had three transmitters in operation. After the Oklahoma City bombing on April 19, adverse publicity about right-wing programming caused WWCR to cancel at least one such program, “The Intelligence Report.” The station observed that “the adverse publicity against programs of this nature in the aftermath of the Oklahoma City bombing and indiscriminate killing of innocent people, including children, has caused us to reconsider our responsibility as a broadcaster.”38 However, the station continued to promote its broadcasts of “Christian and super-patriot programming from the free world to the whole world.” An attorney for the FCC noted that it would be looking into whether such stations violated federal regulations. While many far right broadcasters “deplored the bombing ... they also used it as an opportunity to spin out elaborate theories implicating the Government.”39 The four stations usually implicated in right wing programming were WINB, WHRI, WWCR, and WRNO. The Oklahoma City bombing caused the expansion of “Far Right Radio Review,” the RFPI program devoted to keeping an eye on far right shortwave radio.40 The IBB site in Dixon, California, which had served as a standby facility since being taken out of service in 1988, was now being used by Globe Wireless, an international maritime communications company. The IBB high power transmitters had been removed. And after 36 years of operation, the Voice of the Organization of American States (La Voz de la O.E.A.) closed down its shortwave service in order to concentrate on satellite operations. A special 10 kw. BCB station, KUSA, was set up at the site of the National Association of Broadcasters convention to demonstrate digital audio broadcasting, and even DXers who never left shortwave took the opportunity to drop down to 1660 kHz. in the expanded AM band and try for the Las Vegas broadcast. It was heard nationwide. Radio New York International left shortwave (over WWCR) for good. Pirate activity was high overall during the year, despite a several-month lull following a period of increased FCC enforcement activity. This high level of pirate broadcasting continued for two years, with stations now centered around 6955 kHz. Among the year’s new pirate entrants were Bullfrog Radio, Cellblock 13, East Coast Music Radio, Free Hope Experience, KOLD, Microdot Radio, Mystery Radio, Radio Free Euphoria, Radio Free Speech, Radio Garbanzo, and Voice of the Daleks. European pirate reception in North America was almost non-existent. Radio Jordan, whose programs were among the more entertaining on shortwave, could be heard in English until 1730 on 9560 kHz., and soon with an improved signal on 11690. Radio Alma Ata, Kazakhstan, had English at 0630 on 9560 kHz., which was thought to be via Ukraine. Iraq’s Mother of Battles Radio, first heard during the Gulf War and then suspended, reappeared. And Galei Zahal, the Israel Defense Forces station, which had been on shortwave briefly in 1981 and 1987, for a time became a regular presence on 8127 kHz. single sideband. La Voix du Zaire, Kinshasa, was on again, off again on 15245 kHz. The Kenya Broad-

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Radio Jordan can still be heard in the morning with its English-language pop music program.

casting Corp. was difficult to hear, but occasionally made it through on 4935 kHz. until 2110 sign off. The Ethiopian clandestine, Voice of Oromo Liberation, unheard for over two years, appeared on WWCR, then on WHRI. Free Voice of Ethiopian Unity was heard via Russia. And a new Sudanese clandestine station appeared. Thought to be broadcasting from Eritrea, Voice of Sudan was first on 9025 kHz., then on 8000. It was operated by the National Democratic Alliance, which opposed the military rulers who had taken control of Sudan in 1989. In order to provide better domestic radio reception around the time of the Tanzanian general elections in October, Radio Tanzania arranged for its signal to be relayed by SENTECH in South Africa over a 500 kw. transmitter on 15435 kHz., a frequency Tanzania had itself used until around 1979. Radio Tanzania could also be heard around 0300 on its own transmitter on 5050 kHz. In March, the Mexican station, XEJN, Radio Huayacocotla, 2390 kHz., was taken off the air for several weeks by the authorities. The reason was said to be “technical infractions.” However, the relationship of the government and the station, long an advocate for the local population, was strained. The only other Mexican stations on the air regularly were Mexico City broadcasters XEOI, Radio Mil, on 6010 kHz.: XEPPM, Radio Educación, on 6185; and XERMX, Radio Mexico International, on 9705 kHz. (and other channels). Opposite: Only a few stations in Mexico are still on shortwave. One is Radio Mil, Mexico City, on the crowded channel of 6010 kHz.

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Only five stations were now active in Venezuela: YVPP, Radio Frontera, San Antonio del Táchira, 4761 kHz.; YVOB, Radio Táchira, San Cristóbal, 4830; YVOI, Radio Valera, 4840; YVOC, Ecos del Torbes, San Cristóbal, 4980; and YVSB, Radio Los Andes, Mérida, 6010 kHz. One of the few new stations to come on the air in South America was HCAX3, Radio “El Buen Pastor,” Saraguro, Ecuador, a 1 kw. station on 4830 kHz. A local survey of the plans of 13 Ecuadorean broadcasters who had used shortwave in the fairly recent past revealed that ten wanted to return to shortwave. But it was mostly wishful thinking. Ecos del Combeima, Colombia, on 4785 kHz., began identifying as Radio Super de Ibague, and ZYE858, Radio Transamerica, Santa Maria, Brazil, on 11705 kHz. became Radio Nova Visão. Peru was still the shortwave capital of South America, although many Peruvian stations appeared to be operating without licenses. These included Radio San Francisco Solano, Huancabamba, on 4750 kHz.; Radio Huancabamba, 6281 (later 6535); Radio Altura, Huarmaca, on 6480; Radio Imperial, also in Huancabamba, on 6545; Radio La Voz de San Antonio, Bambamarca, 6627; and Radio San Ignacio, 6747. A new service, the Voice of Islam, was inaugurated over the Voice of Malaysia. Its purpose reportedly was to correct misconceptions about Islam. A new transmitter at Radio Vanuatu improved signals on both 3945 and 7260 kHz. And a number of 90 meter band Papua New Guinea stations were off the air, some for long periods. Thabye Radio, a station supporting the government and countering the Karen National Union rebel group, was broadcasting on 6355 kHz. from Kawthulay State in eastern Burma. The National Voice of Cambodia was heard at 1200 with its multi-lingual service on 11940 kHz. And intended for Cambodia on 5408 kHz. (formerly 5200) was the clandestine Radio of the Provisional Government of National Union and National Salvation of Cambodia. From October 1991 to July 1994 it had called itself Voice of the Great National Union Front of Cambodia. It had been formed out of a merger of two stations, Voice of Democratic Kampuchea (Khmer Rouge) and Voice of the National Army of Democratic Kampuchea (Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea). In 1997 its name changed again to Voice of the National United Army. It was believed destroyed in May 1998. Seekers of Indian signals had to get used to some new city names. Bombay changed its name to Mumbai, followed in 1996 by Madras, renamed Chennai, and in 2000 by the renaming of Calcutta, which became Kolkata.

1996 The relay race continued. WYFR and the BBC exchanged time. SENTECH started relaying Radio France International, and WRMI carried Spanish news from Kol Israel. Use of the transmitter at Sitkunai, Lithuania was reduced, with some Radio Vilnius programs now being broadcast via Jülich rather than Russia, at a 30 percent saving. It was a year of celebrating anniversaries: the 60th for Radio Bulgaria and Radio Prague, the 50th for Radio Canada International, and the 25th for Adventist World Radio. HCJB’s “DX Partyline” celebrated its 35th anniversary in May, the same month Radio Netherlands broadcast the 750th edition of “Media Network.” And on December 1, Trans World Radio founder Dr. Paul E. Freed died. Old timers still remembered TWR’s first station, the Voice of Tangier, which had come on the air in 1954.

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It was the 40th anniversary of Deutsche Welle’s Jülich transmitter site, destined soon to become the “world’s shortwave station” for the number and variety of broadcasters whose programs it would carry. DW officially dropped its own use of Jülich on December 31, utilizing it only occasionally thereafter. However, a planned Jülich shutdown in 1997 was canceled and Deutsche Telekom, the station’s owner, made the modern transmitter plant available for hire by other broadcasters. (Deutsche Telekom was created in 1996 when the telecommunications division of the Deutsche Bundespost was privatized.) The year also had many closedowns. Concluding that it could reach its target audience more economically through leased time or exchanged time arrangements with other stations, Deutsche Welle closed its Malta relay station on January 15 after DW’s contract with the Maltese government came to an end. Radio Bremen, Germany, 6190 kHz., closed, as did the IBB site in Gloria, Portugal. At year’s end, equipment problems put Radio Renascença, the Catholic station in Portugal, off shortwave as well. On July 31, the Carnarvon transmitter site of Radio Australia, originally intended for temporary use following Cyclone Tracy in 1974, was shut down as a cost-cutting measure. In September, the BBC closed its Lesotho shortwave relay station, replacing it with transmissions from SENTECH. The BBC facility was co-located with Radio Lesotho, which remained on shortwave. The BBC also remained on medium wave and FM from Lesotho. And on October 31, the Red Cross Broadcasting Service ceased operations. Some of the programs of Russian and Eastern European stations reflected their new interest in market economics. The Voice of Russia had its “New Market” program, Radio Bulgaria “Business and Finance,” Radio Prague “Economic Report,” Radio Slovakia “Business Report,” Radio Romania “Business Club,” etc.4¡ When the DW Malta relay closed, one of the station’s users, the joint Libya-Malta Voice of the Mediterranean, transferred the program to RAI, Italy and to transmitters in Russia. IBRA Radio hired time on Russian transmitters (and on FEBA in the Sechelles). AWR dropped the use of Velke Kostolany in Slovakia and canceled the last of its arrangements for Russian facilities, switching its leased time business to the Deutsche Telekom station in Jülich. Three different Irish groups started using shortwave on an intermittent basis. Reprising their 1995 broadcasts over BBC transmitters, Radio Telefis Éireann (RTE) made a few additional broadcasts, this time via Deutsche Telekom. In subsequent years, RTE’s broadcasts became daily and were heard from various transmitter sites, including Russia, SENTECH, WWCR and various BBC locations, before consolidating in 1999 on BBC sites. Mid-West Radio, an FM station in Ballyhaunis, Co. Mayo, was well heard during several experimental broadcasts to Europe, North Africa and North America, first on BBC transmitters, then via Jülich. They hoped to start a weekly transmission. And in October, West Coast Radio Ireland, Claremorris, Co. Mayo, began weekly English-language programs via Jülich. These would last until early 1998. Although the signals rarely reached North America, European listeners were surprised to hear Russian and Belarus FM stations via single or double sideband on shortwave channels such as 2352, 3376, 4855, and 5032 kHz. They turned out to be rebroadcasts from Belarus military communications installations, and would be heard for years. Radio Denmark, still broadcasting over the transmitters of Radio Norway International, resumed a modest English service with a 15-minute, twice-monthly program to cel-

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ebrate Cultural Year 1996 in Denmark. The program lasted only for the year, however. Norway, already transmitting the Democratic Voice of Burma, served as home to a sister station, the Voice of Tibet. The 15-minute daily program had at first transmitted via FEBA in the Seychelles, then from transmitters in the former Soviet Union. It was jammed by China, which broadcast its English-language “Easy FM” programming on the Voice of Tibet frequency. Among the Europirates that were reported heard were Radio Free London (6400 kHz.), the Dutch station Radio Blue Star (6297), Germany’s Radio Marabu (6250), and from Italy, Radio Internazionale (7500), one of the first stations to send its QSL via the internet. Many others made special tests for North America, but few were heard. WRMI began carrying the programs of some European pirate stations, as did the Italian Radio Relay Service (IRRS). One IRRS customer, Shortwave Radio Switzerland (later called Radio 510 International), broadcast the programs of other “free radio stations,” as well as its own, during its IRRS weekend broadcast. And a new evangelical station, U.K.–based United Christian Broadcasting, already available on satellite, turned out also to be a pirate. It was heard on weekends on 6199 kHz. Notwithstanding the transmitter’s dubious legitimacy, the station openly acknowledged that it was broadcasting with around 1.5 kw. from Ireland, Radio Canada International survived a threatened closedown and the layoff of its 125 employees. The CBC proposed to completely withdraw its funding as part of a CBC–wide cost cutting effort (the CBC provided half the RCI budget, the Foreign Affairs Department the other half ). An interim funding solution was found, but the instability of RCI funding continued.42 Radio Martí moved its headquarters from Washington to Miami. The VOA closed down its last single sideband feeders, which were beamed to Greece. Now all VOA programming for the relay stations were sent via satellite. And on December 31, VOA Europe came to an end. Although VOA Europe had been off shortwave for several years and had become mainly a cable and satellite service, its last programs were carried on shortwave, in some cases shortwave stereo (a different channel on each sideband). The U.S. government’s Radio Free Asia came on the air.43 RFA was aimed at the dictatorships of East Asia and was modeled after RFE-RL. Broadcasts were originally in Mandarin, and Cantonese, Tibetan, Burmese, Vietnamese, Khmer, Lao, Korean and Uyghur were soon added, all (except Uyghur) languages in which the VOA already broadcast. Frequencies and transmitter sites were kept secret at first in deference to some of the countries, including Armenia, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and others, whose transmitters hosted the broadcasts. The target countries denounced the station and jammed RFA transmissions. Some host countries would not permit specific language services to be broadcast from their territory, and the Thai government refused RFA permission to broadcast from the IBB station in that country. Some RFA programming was also carried over Christian Science station KHBI on Saipan, and KHBN, the High Adventure Ministries station on Palau, dedicated one transmitter exclusively to RFA. RFA also transmitted from the IBB station in Delano, plus KNLS (Alaska) and KWHR (Hawaii). Radio Free Asia retained its Hong Kong office when the territory was returned to China in 1997, and opened one in Phnom Penh in 1998. DXers were hearing AFRTS programming from U.S. Naval Air Station Roosevelt

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Roads, Puerto Rico, on 6739.5 kHz. USB. It was a relay of the AFRTS-affiliated AM station at Roosevelt Roads on 1200 kHz. A larger-scale return of AFRTS to shortwave would begin in 1998. And in February 1996, many shortwave listeners tuned down to the expanded AM band to hear “KTRK,” the unofficial call sign of a 5 kw. station of the Army Broadcasting Service which tested for about a week on 1670 kHz. from a truck at Fort Meade, Maryland prior to shipment of the station to Bosnia. KTRK requested reports by mail or phone and received 312 reports from the U.S. and 36 from other countries. WRMI began carrying a weekly program of the Khmer Community Rescue Association, Seattle, Washington. The first half-hour, in Cambodian, was called Thansour Thmey Radio, and was targeted to Cambodian immigrants in the United States. The second halfhour, intended for a general audience, was in English and was called Voice of Cambodia Radio International. The absence of FCC enforcement activities made it the busiest year yet for North American pirate radio. Some 280 shortwave pirates were heard, breaking the 1994 record by 27 percent. First timers heard included the Crooked Man, Jury Rigged Radio, KAOS, Pirate Radio Insanity, Radio Zebulon, Star Club Radio, Partial India Radio, Radio Albatross, Radio Tellus, WARR, and the Voice of Bizarro World. On Christmas Eve and for some time thereafter, 1620 kHz. pirate WJDI was heard nationwide with a remarkably powerful signal over what was said to be a 15 kw. transmitter located about 100 miles west of New York City. Radio Kuwait carried some local English-language programming from its FM outlet. “Living In America” and “Born in the U.S.A.” were favorites on July 4 as many local Kuwaiti listeners called in to send Americans their best wishes. With the Taleban now in control in Afghanistan, Radio Afghanistan became Radio Voice of Shariah and was heard opening at 0130 on 7200 kHz.44 An anti–Taleban “Radio Afghanistan” also operated for a time on 7100 kHz. Iran began tests from a new transmitter site, Sirjan, which was equipped with ten 500 kw. transmitters. And a new anti–Iranian clandestine station aimed at the Azeri population in the northwestern part of the country was the Voice of Southern Azerbaijan on 12090 kHz. The National and Independent Front of Southern Azerbaijan gave a Dutch telephone number. The station appeared to be active for several years, and returned to the air in 2003 before closing down at the end of that year. Since 1994, Abkhaz Radio had been broadcasting from Sukhumi, Abkhazia, a Russiansupported breakaway region in the former Georgian S.S.R. It had operated irregularly with a 5 kw. transmitter that had been used for jamming purposes in the Soviet days. The frequency was 9495 kHz. Now North American DXers began hearing its over-modulated signal coming on at 0330, and a few were rewarded with QSLs. In April, a new VOA facility on the island of São Tome came on the air. Officially inaugurated on June 4, it was located on the Pinheira Plantation, the site of the old Radio Nacional de São Tome, whose non-operational 4807 kHz. transmitter and antenna mast were still present when construction began. In addition to its transmissions in the international bands, VOA São Tome soon appeared in the tropical bands as well, on 4750 and 4950 kHz.45 A new Liberian station came on shortwave. It was the pro–Charles Taylor Liberia Communications Network in Totota, and it transmitted on 5000 kHz., WWV’s frequency.

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(“This test transmission is coming to you from the shortwave service of the Liberia Communications Network. It is coming to you from Totota, central Liberia, West Africa.”) Soon the station moved to 5100 kHz. and began identifying as Radio Liberia. Despite a power of only 10 kw., its signal was good around 2400 and after. From 1998 it would be heard on 6100 kHz., calling itself Radio Liberia International. Several African stations reappeared after absences of varying length: Radio Malawi on 3380 kHz.; Radio Cameroon, Yaounde, on 4850; Radio Benin, Cotonou, 4870 and 7210; La Voix du Sahel, Niamey, Niger on 5020 and 7155; and Radio Cote d’Ivoire, Abidjan, on 7215 kHz. Reception of Radio Zambia on 4910 kHz. was much improved, apparently thanks to new 100 kw. transmitters installed by China. A Nigerian clandestine broadcaster opposing the military government of Sani Abacha took to the air in June. It was called Radio Democrat International and it was run by a group called the National Democratic Coalition (NADECO). Although the Nigerian government claimed not to know the source of the station’s signal, DXers could easily tell that it was being transmitted by SENTECH. The station used 15120 kHz., an old Voice of Nigeria channel, before settling on 6205 kHz. In July it became Radio Kudirat International, named after Kudirat Abiola, the murdered wife of Nigeria’s imprisoned president-elect. Three other Nigerian clandestines would follow in 1997. In November, the Voice of Nigeria, the country’s external service which had last been heard in October 1995 operating on the single channel of 7255 kHz., returned to the air on 15120 kHz., utilizing one of five transmitters bought from Switzerland. The signal was widely heard. The 7255 kHz. channel returned in 1997. In September, the Afrikaans Stereo domestic service of the South African Broadcasting Corp. was relaunched as Radio Sonder Grense (“Radio Without Borders”). It was on 3320 kHz. The SABC’s Radio Oranje was privatized and sold to new owners. And Channel Africa survived a threatened closedown at the same time that SENTECH was installing new transmitters to accommodate foreign stations wishing to rent time. XEQM, “Tus Panteras,” Merida, Mexico, reappeared on its old channel of 6105 kHz. Showing on 5012 kHz. in May was Radio Pueblo in Santo Domingo, the Dominican Republic. Soon the station began identifying as HIMI, Radio Cristal International, Radio Pueblo being the name of the station’s medium wave outlet. Radio Cristal had been on 5010 kHz. many years earlier, and was now back, operating with 1 kw. In December, a new station from Honduras came on the air. It was U.S.–based HRMI, La Voz de Misiones Internacionales de Centro America (“Radio MI”), Tegucigalpa, on 5890 kHz. And while Radio Copán International, also in Honduras, had announced that it was closing on October 31, 1995, it was still heard occasionally on 7460 or 15675 kHz. until mid–1996, when it finally left the air. On December 28, 1996, Dr. Gene Scott’s station, the Caribbean Beacon, began broadcasting from Anguilla on 6090 and 11775 kHz. The station had been on medium wave (1610 kHz., 15 kw.) under other ownership since 1981. Ten years later it was sold to Scott, and it had been widely heard throughout North America even before Scott increased the power on medium wave from (by then) 50 kw. to 200 kw. By the end of 1996, the 100 kw. shortwave transmitter had been installed for over a year, but transmissions were delayed due to government concerns about radiation. Once on the air, Scott indicated that the station was operating with around 75 kw.

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A new station in Colombia was Ecos del Orinoco, Puerto Carreño, on 4905 kHz. From about 50 miles away, a new Venezuelan station took to the air. It was YVPA, Radio Amazonas, Puerto Ayacucho, on 4940 kHz., the same frequency assigned to Radio Continental in Barinas. Continental had sold its transmitter to Amazonas because electricity costs had made it too expensive to operate. Also from Colombia, FARC, the anti-government military organization, re-entered shortwave broadcasting with Voz de la Resistencia, which could be heard around 2200 on 6231 kHz. and intermittently for years on various 49 meter band channels. The other Colombian clandestine, Radio Patria Libre, was off the air (it would reappear in 1997).46 The Voice of Guyana, operated by the Guyana Broadcasting Corp. and chronically absent from the air for long periods, returned in May on both 3290 and 5950 kHz. The station’s local programming was always interesting to listen to. The Voice of Guyana would continue to appear and disappear for years to come. New from Peru was Radio Los Andes, Huarmaca, on 6479 kHz., and Radio LTC, a medium wave and FM station in Juliaca, now on 5980 kHz. shortwave. A new miners’ union station in Bolivia was Radio A.N.D.E.S., Uyuni, which could be heard at 1000 sign on on 4777 kHz. Each letter of the station’s name represented a province of the department of Potosí in which the union had members. Other interesting Bolivian stations reported included CP59, Radio Estación Frontera, Cobija, 4450 kHz.; CP185, Radio Paititi, Guayaramerin, 4684; CP213, Radiodifusoras Mineria, Oruro, 5927; and CP92, Radio Panamericana, La Paz, 6105

Radio Panamericana, La Paz, had one of the best signals from Bolivia.

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New on shortwave from Uruguay was CXA42, Emisora Ciudad de Montevideo, operating with 1.5 kw. on 9650 kHz. ZPA1, Radio Nacional del Paraguay, Asunción, was the only station regularly heard from that country. It operated on 9736 kHz. and was easily identifiable by its often-distorted audio. A less frequent visitor was ZPA5, Radio Encarnación, Asunción, sometimes audible around 0100 on 11940 kHz. A planned AWR 50 kw. shortwave station in Paraguay never materialized. In 1997, ZPA6, Radio Guairá, Villarrica, Paraguay, would upgrade its shortwave transmitter on 5975 kHz., and while it could be heard in South America, its signal did not reach further north. In September, Radio Republik Indonesia inaugurated nine new 250 kw. shortwave transmitters. Five were located at Bonto Sunggu, 19 km. south of Ujung Pandang, and were intended for domestic coverage, while the other four were at the main RRI external service site of Cimanggis, near Jakarta. And shortwave listeners discovered “Kang Guru Radio English.” An English-language, listener-friendly broadcast over many RRI domestic stations, the program was an Australian-funded foreign aid project intended to help Indonesians learn English. In April, the Radio TV Hong Kong weather transmissions for the South China Sea Yacht Race, not heard in North America since 1988, were again noted on 3940 kHz., this time over a higher power (7.5 kw.) transmitter at Cape d’Aguilar, Hong Kong’s major high frequency transmission center. The new BBC Asia Relay Station in Thailand was inaugurated in October by Prince Philip. It took over all transmissions from the BBC Hong Kong relay station on November 18, and full operation started on January 1, 1997. The Thai station was located in Nakhon Sawan Province, 250 km. north of Bangkok, and was equipped with four 250 kw. transmitters. As part of its arrangement with Thailand, the U.K. also funded an institute which provided media training to staff of the Thai national broadcasting system and other government agencies.

1997 Budget cuts led to service reductions at many shortwave stations, including Radio Vlaanderen International, Radio France International, and Deutsche Welle. As of January 1, the Radio Norway International transmitter site at Fredrikstad was being used only as a backup facility. It was closed down officially in October after a special commemorative broadcast. Radio Australia layed off many staff and eliminated some language services, placing greater reliance on the ABC domestic service, Radio National, for news and other programs, and concentrating on the internet as an alternate means of reaching listeners. There was some movement in the other direction. A political thaw between Russia and Taiwan led to the resumption of Russian-language broadcasts from the Voice of Free China, and some other stations expanded various language services. And shortwave came to the rescue of the BBC’s Albanian service after armed revolts in Albania brought the closure of the BBC’s FM transmitter there. Reliance on transmitters in foreign countries was not without risk. The BBC privatized its U.K.-based shortwave transmitters and the associated staff

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capacity, selling them to Merlin Communications International Ltd. [hereinafter “Merlin”], a company owned by former BBC World Service employees. Merlin also received a ten-year contract to operate the overseas relay transmitters (which remained under BBC ownership), with the right to sell spare air time to other broadcasters. A similar deal was made with another company for the BBC’s home service transmission business. Much of the world’s international shortwave activity, from Europe and elsewhere, now involved relays of one kind or another. Listeners were faced with a new reality. While it was getting increasingly difficult to know just where a signal was coming from, some of the relayed programming, not previously available on shortwave, was quite interesting, even if reliance on high power transmitters in places unrelated to the broadcaster’s location made the stations less worthy as DX targets. Some relays were old timers. Norway’s NOREA Radio, whose shortwave activities dated back to its broadcasts over the Voice of Tangier in the 1950s, was still heard over the latter’s successor station, Trans World Radio. But most relay arrangements were new. In June, the High Adventures Ministries Voice of Hope began transmitting its U.K.–based European Beacon service from Tbilisi, Georgia (and from Jülich starting in 1998). The Latvian State Radio & TV Centre, which provided Latvia’s shortwave transmission capability, was renting out time on its 5935 kHz. transmitter. In August it carried a six-hour MediaZoo program that was also broadcast over the U.K.–based satellite channel, Country Music Radio. Part of the program, which was produced by Eric Wiltsher, was devoted to playing tapes of old European pirates in commemoration of the date in 1967 when most British offshore pirates closed down pursuant to the Marine Offences Act. Croation Radio and Swiss Radio International were using the Deutsche Telekom transmitters in Germany, as was Brother Stair. Welle West, a station in Heinsberg, arranged for local people to send greetings to friends in the United States in a special Christmas Eve program broadcast from Jülich on 5905 kHz. And notwithstanding other corporate economies, DW reinaugurated its Nauen station, replacing its 500 kw. transmitters with state-of-the-art units of like power. The Nauen upgrade more than doubled DW’s overall transmitting capacity and permitted experimentation with digital shortwave broadcasting. HCJB and the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corp. were now being relayed by Merlin, which also carried Radio “E,” a Brussels-based program produced by a partnership of Europe’s international stations. In July, the Voice of Greece began transmitting via the IBB stations in Delano and Greenville. WRMI rebroadcast 15 minutes of Spanish news from Vatican Radio. And a new Irish shortwave initiative, Emerald Radio, a student project of Ballyfermot College, Dublin, broadcast a seven-part series of half-hour programs over WWCR. Emerald Radio broadcasts would reappear on WWCR from time to time for a number of years. World Music Radio from Denmark, long ago heard over Radio Andorra and before that as a pirate, commenced two, four-hour weekend broadcasts via SENTECH in May. The pop music broadcaster operated on 3345 and 6290 kHz., the latter channel audible in America up until the station’s 2200 sign off. WMR left the air by the end of August for lack of advertisers. Following up on reports circulating in Europe about the return of long-absent Radio Bayrak on Cyprus, North American listeners began hearing it on 6159 kHz. during a nar-

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row window just before it closed at 2200. Soon it left shortwave for equipment repairs, and did not return until 2001. In Italy, the RAI transmitters at Caltanissetta, Sicily were operating at low power: 3 kw. on 6060 kHz., 5 kw. on 7175 and 9515 kHz. Rome operated on both 6060 and 7175 at hours complementary to Sicily’s, and uncertainty as to the scheduling of each made it difficult to tell which station one was hearing. Caltanissetta had been on the air for many years and was a sought-after DX target because it counted as a separate radio country. A private Italian station, Radio Europe, in Pioltello, could be heard on 7306 kHz., and in September, the AWR station in Forli, Italy made some special DX tests as part of the AWR annual DX contest. The frequency was 7240 kHz. and the power was 2.5 kw. Although it was another year of high pirate activity in Europe, only a few signals crossed the Atlantic. These included the Irish station Laser Hot Hits on 6219 kHz. (later also on 3935 and 7415), and on 6300 kHz. the carryings on of Farmers From Holland. Increased Europirate operations in the 3895–3945 kHz. range on Friday and Saturday nights produced some loggings in North America, including the German pirate consortium, Level 48, on 3920 kHz. On a few occasions between October and December, a pirate station called Radio San Marino International made tests on 7580 and 11410 kHz. Some of these reached America, albeit at weak levels. San Marino is a sovereign enclave in Italy. Although the broadcasts were known to originate in Europe, the NASWA Countries List Committee was not convinced that the transmitter was actually in San Marino and would not approve it as a new radio country. In Canada, CHNX was still transmitting with only 50 watts. CFCX had left the air. In the U.S., LeSEA Broadcasting (WHRI) purchased WVHA, the Scott’s Corner, Maine transmitter site of Prophecy Countdown, which had bought the former Christian Science station WCSN and then gone bankrupt. The station now became WHRA. Continuing financial distress caused the Christian Science Church to leave the broadcast news business all together. Its two remaining shortwave stations, WSHB and KHBI, were put up for sale or lease. Fifty kilowatt WINB, off the air with equipment problems since April 1995, returned at the end of January, now on 11740 kHz., at first with reduced power. Engineers’ objections to WINB’s plans to adopt “patriot” programming were said to have contributed to delays in getting the station back on the air (the plans were dropped). The VOA conducted digital audio tests on shortwave from its Delano transmitters. It was assisted by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Lab, whose deep space operations had given it extensive experience in digital communications. And on April 22, WRNO founder Joe Costello died. Although the station had purchased a new transmitter, its signal quality was below par. Among the imaginative names of the year’s crop of new North American pirates were Anteater Radio, Cherokee Radio, FBI Radio, Indira Calling, Lounge Lizard Radio, Radio Xanax, Stereo Sound Radio, Voice of Green Acres, and Voice of Juliet. Juliet was on 7425 kHz., while all the rest were on 6955. In April, a new station, Radio Metallica, was heard with a super-strong, WJDI–like signal on 6955 kHz. The station was on the air often for an entire year. Although at one point it announced that it had moved its transmitter to a ship off the east coast, in fact Radio Metallica was the old WJDI transmitter, under new management and still land bound. Republic of Iraq Radio, the official voice of the Iraqi regime, broadcast in Arabic

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around 2000 on the odd frequency of 11292 kHz. Radio Iraq International, the country’s external service, could be heard in English at 0300 on 11787 kHz., but the station was on the air only intermittently. The Iraqi pan–Arab service, Mother of Battles Radio, was on 9715 kHz. An Arabic-language Catholic radio station, Voix de la Charite, appeared on 11715 kHz. at 0430–0500. It was a Lebanese FM station, some of whose programs were also heard on the FM band in Rome. It could now be heard on shortwave via the transmitters of Vatican Radio. Meanwhile, the Voice of Hope, the High Adventures Ministry station in south Lebanon, stayed on the air despite the loss of one transmitter in a fire. (The station would close in 2000.) On August 1, a new service from Tatarstan took to the air. Although the oil-rich territory had not broken away fully from Russia, it had declared its sovereignty in 1990 and considered its relationship with Russia one of voluntary association. Radio Tatarstan, later called the Voice of Tartarstan and “On the Tatarstan Wave,” was prepared in studios in Kazan and broadcast over transmitters in Samara (Samara is outside Tatarstan). Broadcasts were in Tatar and Russian, and were intended for ethnic Tatars living outside the area. Optimistic North American DXers tried for the Voice of Justice, a station which had come on the air in August from Stepanakert in Nagorno-Karabakh, a Christian Armenian enclave in Muslim Azerbaijan over which the two countries were fighting. The station operated on 9677 kHz. Though it was heard in Europe with its distinctive rough audio, the station’s signal was never reliably reported in North America. A few years later, one enterprising American DXer who heard the station while in Turkey managed to QSL it through the efforts of the head of an Armenian relief mission in Yerevan who made three visits to the station and finally obtained the prized QSL on the DXer’s behalf. It was a busy year on short wave in Africa. Radio Madagascar was occasionally heard with all night broadcasts on 5010 kHz. At 0300, the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corp. was on 5012 kHz., its 100 kw. transmitters operating first at 50 kw., then 25 kw., to preserve their life. Radio Chad was often heard on 6165 kHz. until sign off at 2200. Radio Mauritania, off its regular frequency of 4845 kHz. for some time, was now heard at good strength on 7245. Radio Nigeria reactivated an old Kaduna channel, 9570 kHz. Radio Nacional, Bata, Equatorial Guinea, whose transmitter on 15190 kHz. was usually devoted to U.S.–brokered “Radio Africa” religious programming, was heard with the domestic programming of Radio Nacional. And from Angola, VORGAN (A Voz da Resistência do Galo Negro) was now on 6095 kHz., putting in a good signal until 2100 close. It was also heard on 7090 kHz. around 0400, and later on 5985, then on 6220 kHz. In May, a rebel government took power in Zaire and renamed the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo (informally called Congo-Kinshasa to distinguish it from its next door neighbor, the Republic of the Congo, whose capital is Brazzaville). La Voix du Zaire on 15245 kHz. identified for a while as La Voix du Congo, eventually becoming Radio-Television Nationale Congolaise. A four-month civil war in Congo-Brazzaville ended in October with Radio Congo on 5985 kHz. identifying as Radio Congolaise de la Liberté. Three new Nigerian clandestine stations began operations. The hour-long weekly program of the Voice of Free Nigeria appeared in June. It was sponsored by the Indianapolisbased Free Nigeria Movement, and operated on 11680 kHz. via Jülich. It was on the air for

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a year. On June 30, Radio NADECO, which was run by the National Democratic Coalition, based in Washington, D.C., began airing daily 15-minute broadcasts over WWCR on 5070 kHz. It left the air in 1998. And in September, Radio New Nigeria appeared on 5910 kHz. It was a project of the Nigerian Advocacy Group for Democracy and Human Rights in Boston, and was believed to broadcast via Deutsche Telekom.47 It left the air in January 1998. As would be true for years to come, Ethiopia and Eritrea were still major targets of clandestine broadcasters. A new U.S.–based Ethiopian clandestine, Radio Voice of One Free Ethiopia, was heard on 12105 kHz. speaking against the governments of both Ethiopia and Eritrea. It was believed to transmit from Russia. A new anti-government Ethiopian broadcaster was Rainbow Radio, the Voice of Peace and Brotherhood, a weekly program produced by the Research and Action Group for Peace in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, and broadcast over Deutsche Telekom. In November, the broadcasts of two stations aligned against the government of Eritrea were on the air back-to-back on 9230 kHz. The Voice of Free Eritrea was run by an umbrella organization called the Eritrean National Alliance, and the Voice of Truth supported the Eritrean Islamic Jihad Movement. For a while the frequency was Eritrean clandestine headquarters, with another new one, the Voice of Democratic Eritrea, sponsored by the Eritrean Liberation Front Revolutionary Council, also appearing. The transmitter was believed to be in Sudan. (The Voice of Democratic Eritrea switched to Jülich in 2000 following a truce between Eritrea and Sudan. In 2003 it switched again, to Norway, which was leasing time on its transmitters.) While the VOA site in Monrovia, Liberia, closed down in 1990, was now serving as a displaced persons camp for some 27,000 people, two new Liberian stations appeared from the war torn country. In September, Star Radio came on the air. It could be heard in the United States signing on at 0500 on 5880 kHz. and closing at 2000 on 3400 kHz. (the frequencies were soon reversed). Star Radio was a project of Fondation Hirondelle, a Swiss NGO run by journalists and dedicated to bringing independent and impartial news to crisis areas. Star Radio was initially funded by USAID as a means of supporting Liberian elections, and on shortwave used a 10 kw. transmitter said to be operating at about 4 kw. It also operated on FM. In January 1998, as part of a broader media crackdown, the government ordered the station to stop broadcasting on shortwave, alleging that it was not properly authorized, that it had been distributing news via the internet without approval, and that certain information sent by shortwave might reach hostile groups. It returned after a month, but left again mid-year when its transmitter was struck by lightning. It returned in October 1998 on 5880 kHz. and soon canceled its internet news distribution, only to be closed down again on shortwave by the government the same month. In November, another new Liberian station, Radio Veritas, which had been broadcasting on FM for about five months, came on 3450 and 5470 kHz. shortwave with a 10 kw. transmitter. The station and its parent, the Catholic church of Liberia, would soon clash with the government, and the upshot would be the suspension of Radio Veritas broadcasts on shortwave. At year’s end, conflicts with the government put the station off the air until February 1998, when it returned. (“Radio Veritas, your friendly station, giving you the best service. For complete coverage of news and events, topics and issues of national concern, and religious radio programming, no one features a diversity of programming like we do.... We are the voice of truth.”)

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In 1996, a financial advisory service, the Atlanta-based Stocks and Funds Radio & TV Network, announced that it would broadcast via SENTECH “to 150 countries worldwide.” It came on the air in March 1997 as the Investment Channel, with an extensive schedule of broadcasts to Africa and the Middle East and an address and phone number in Liechtenstein. It featured economic and business news and some stock advertisements. The Africa beam was soon dropped, supposedly due to the difficulty of phone, FAX and mail services to Africa. The Investment Channel was gone entirely by May. A new station from Mexico City was XERTA, Radio Transcontinental de America, on 4800 kHz. A commercial venture intended for the U.S., Canada and the Americas, the signal quality did not match the station’s announced power of 50 kw. Over time, XERTA’s operation became intermittent and its signal quality deteriorated. A station that had been off shortwave for many years, TGWB, La Voz de Guatemala, Guatemala City, on 6180 kHz., was being heard again until 2300. In May, Radio Nacional de Venezuela, also long off shortwave, appeared on 9540 kHz. (YVNV). A new station from Colombia was HJCH, Colmundo Bogota, on 6065 kHz., a frequency formerly used by Radio Super. And HJOW, Radio Mira, Tumaco, Colombia, on 6014 kHz., was reactivated. A new station in Lima, Peru, Radio Comas TV, put in a comparatively good signal on 3250 kHz. with its 5 kw. transmitter. (The station moved to 4880 kHz. in 2000.) Although Peruvian authorities in at least one province were cracking down on illegal broadcasters, the underground radio industry continued to flourish in the remote parts of the Andes nation. Among the new stations heard were Radio Frecuencia Nueva, Santa Cruz, on 5305 kHz.; Radio San Juan, Lonya Grande, 5775 kHz.; Radio Huamachuco, 6676; Radio La Voz de las Huarinjas, Huancabamba, 7003; and Radio Difusora Paraton, Huarmaca, 7205 kHz. (later 6675). Two new South American pirates were Radio Cochiguaz and Radio Blandengue. The stations, whose mailing addresses were in Chile and Argentina respectively, were difficult to hear direct in America, but were available when relayed by some North American pirates and by WRMI. (Cochiguaz sometimes carried the programs of Blandengue, and both also carried the programs of other pirates.) WRMI would carry some other interesting South American relays, including another pirate, Radio Piraña International, as well as Radio La Colifata, run by residents of a neuropsychiatric hospital in Buenos Aires; “Mermelada Por la Pervada,” a program produced by kids in Rosario, Argentina; and Radio Pasteur, a student station. Also from Argentina was “De Colleción,” a program produced by Buenos Aires medium wave station LS11, Radio Provincia de Buenos Aires, and transmitted to Antarctica by Argentine feeders on frequencies such as 5400, 7720, 8098, 11133, and 13361 kHz., all in single sideband. Other Buenos Aires local stations heard on Argentine feeder frequencies—15820 kHz. became a favorite — during the next few years included LR5, La Red; Aspen 102 FM; Feeling FM 100.7; FM Soldados 88.9; Milennium FM; Radio Cien; LRL202, Radio Diez; Radio Nostalgie; Radio Planeta; LR4, Radio Splendid; and Radio Uno. The DX world was shocked to learn that the construction of a new airport in Quito would require HCJB to dismantle its transmitter base at nearby Pifo. The 110-acre site included 11 transmitters and 48 towers. This new reality, together with the declining role of shortwave broadcasting in international communications and the increased availability

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of other technologies, forced the station to reconsider its mission and its options. Future years would see a huge reduction in the shortwave giant’s on-air presence. On January 1, Radio Ulan Bator became the Voice of Mongolia. Running counter to the general trend, in August China Radio International opened a powerful new transmitter site in Urumqi, Xinjiang Province, followed by another in Kunming, Yunnan Province. And the Voice of Vietnam supplemented its Hanoi transmitter base with a second site, Son Tay, about 30 km. from Hanoi. Heard for several years by Asian DXers was Frontline Soldier Radio, a North Korean station featuring “national liberation” war dramas, patriotic songs, readings from Kim IlSung’s memoirs, etc., all aimed at North Korean soldiers. It was on the air irregularly at 1400–2000 on the odd frequencies of 2625 and 3025 kHz. shortwave and 1615 kHz. medium wave, but was rarely if ever heard in North America. DXers had a somewhat better chance of hearing the locally produced “Kamchatska Rybatska” program from Petropavlovsk, Russia, a good catch on 7300 kHz. Tamil Media Ltd., said to be composed of former BBC Tamil employees, formed the International Broadcasting Corp., which became known informally as IBC Tamil. The group began transmitting its own programs to Europe via satellite (eventually 24 hours a day), and to South Asia via a shortwave sender in Dushanbe, Tajikistan, one of the former

Even though they were usually high power stations, verifications received from local or regional Russian stations in the post–Soviet days still reflected something of the mystery of the communist era, especially when they were in Russian, as was this one from the “Kamchatska Rybatska” program that originated in Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky on Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula.

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Soviet republics in Central Asia, and later from Tbilisi, Georgia, and then via Deutsche Telekom and also from the Radio Netherlands station in Madagascar. A perceived bias toward the Tamil rebels in Sri Lanka, whose government hosted the Deutsche Welle relay station there, raised eyebrows in Sri Lanka and led to complaints to the German government, whereupon IBC Tamil moved to Russian transmitters. (For a time, a local Tamil clandestine station in Sri Lanka operated on the same frequency as IBC Tamil.) And the BBC dismantled its Hong Kong relay station prior to the return of the territory to China at midnight on June 30. The transmitters were relocated to the new BBC site in Thailand, to which the transmissions of the Hong Kong station had gradually been transferred. On June 30, the Darwin transmitter of Radio Australia was closed as part of an ABCwide belt-tightening. Overtures by Radio Free Asia for the use of the facility were rejected. And on September 19, Arthur Cushen, perhaps the world’s best-known DXer, died.

1998 The downsizing of many shortwave services continued. The Voice of Russia reduced its English-language coverage from 24 hours a day to 16, and on December 31, Radio Mayak ended its shortwave broadcasting all together. Télédiffusion de France reduced its transmitting hours by 30 percent. Radio Bulgaria dropped some transmissions and lowered the power on others. Radio Norway International dropped its sole weekly English program, Radio Portugal eliminated its modest English and French broadcasts, and Radio Estonia, 5925 kHz., again left shortwave. By the end of 1998, Sottens was the only shortwave site of Swiss Radio International that remained active. Beromunster had closed its shortwave transmissions in 1994, followed by Sarnen a year later, Schwarzenburg in March 1998 (after almost 60 years of service), and Lenk in October 1998. Most SRI transmissions were now via Deutsche Telekom. In 1997, Merlin Communications had created Merlin Network One (MNO), a service for independent program producers (usually pop music broadcasters) who might have difficulty finding air time elsewhere. Eric Wiltsher was MNO’s Executive Producer, and among the broadcasters that lined up to use the service were Radio Caroline, MediaZoo, Hard Country and the Rock Radio Network. A MediaZoo “Satellite Festival” was broadcast on shortwave in January 1998, and a special program commemorating Merlin’s first anniversary was aired in March. Also in 1998, MNO carried a Christmas Day special from Radio Napa, an FM station in Cyprus. In July 1999, MNO began airing Flat Earth Radio, an overseas shortwave project of Virgin Radio U.K. It was followed by Global Sound Kitchen., a cooperative effort of Virgin Radio and Levi Strauss, the jeans company. Unfortunately, Merlin Network One closed down in 2000. AWR began leasing time from SENTECH and from transmitters in Tbilisi, Georgia. Radio Prague was on the air for a half-hour daily via WRMI, which would later also carry some English-language programming from Radio Budapest, Radio Polonia, and Radio Slovakia International. Süddeutscher Rundfunk, Stuttgart (6030 kHz.), and Südwestfunk, Baden-Baden (7265), merged into the new Südwestrundfunk, which continued to operate on the predecessor stations’ shortwave channels. And in December, RTBF, Belgium’s French-language broadcaster, off shortwave since 1992, recommenced French transmissions to Africa via Jülich.

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The German station, Südwestrundfunk, was the result of the merger of Süddeutscher Rundfunk and Südwestfunk.

Although their signals rarely made it to America, Radio Belarus operated low power regional shortwave stations in Brest, Grodno and Mogilev. A new Europirate which carried the programs of other pirates was the Short Wave Relay Service. It broadcast on various frequencies in the international bands, including 11470, 11515, 15025, and 21450 kHz., and while some thought it was located in Firenze, Italy, others felt that it operated from several different locations. Radio Asia Canada, for some years a half-hour, Toronto-based Tamil-language AM program (and an unsuccessful AM license applicant), turned to shortwave to reach Sri Lanka, first via Russian transmitters. Soon it was broadcasting to North America from several Merlin sites, and then from Jülich. The schedule grew to ten hours daily, but Radio Asia Canada was gone by year’s end, in part due to concerns over its apparent sympathies for the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elam, a Sri Lankan terrorist group. Another Asian-oriented program was the English- and Hindi-language Sunrise Radio, a commercial FM station serving the Indian community in London which now sought an audience in India proper via Deutsche Telekom shortwave. In August, a new 50 kw. American shortwave station, WBCQ, began testing from Monticello, Maine. It started regular programming on September 8 on 7415 kHz. The FCC granted the WBCQ license notwithstanding a lifetime of pirate broadcasting by its owner, Allan Weiner, who had long believed that FCC licensing policies abridged his free speech and personal liberties.48 Over the years the station would offer air time to a multitude of organizations. While leftist alternative culturists were preferred, gospel broadcasters as well as neo–Nazis and other right wingers who could help pay the bills were also welcome. The year also saw a second new American shortwave station come on the air. Religious Opposite: In 1997, Merlin Communications, the private company that operated the BBC’s shortwave transmission facilities, established Merlin Network One to provide air time to small program producers. It was in operation for several years.

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broadcaster WWBS, Macon, Georgia, was a mom and pop operation run by Charles and Jo Ann Josey, two retired ham operators. The transmitter was a 50 kw. home-built unit, and the station featured local preachers. It took to the air in December. However, its urban location contributed to recurring problems of interference with other local activities, and it soon adopted a weekend-only schedule. Charles Josey died in 2003, and soon thereafter the station closed down. Also on the American religious front, Brother Stair was now purchasing major blocks of air time on WRMI. And WRNO suffered a fire, requiring the use of a back-up transmitter and resulting in a further degradation of the station’s signal. DXers were surprised to hear American Forces Network programming on 4278.5 and 12689.5 upper sideband. After much detective work it was found that it was coming from the Naval Computer and Telecommunications Area Master Station, Key West, Florida, an 8 kw. transmitter located in Saddlebunch Keys. This was one of several shortwave installations that would soon come into use for the benefit of U.S. Navy vessels and outlying military posts not served by suitable satellite systems. Among the year’s North American pirate newcomers, all operating on or near 6955 kHz., were Blind Faith Radio, K-Mart Radio, Radio Eclipse, Radio Freedom, Scream of the Butterfly (which would later broadcast legitimately over WRMI and WBCQ), Supercalifragilisticexpealedocious, Voice of Stupidity, WACK and WHYP. Among the most active shortwave pirates were WREC and Voice of the Pig’s Ear. October 30 and 31 saw the Great Halloween Pirate Massacre of 1998. The FCC tracked down and closed four pirate broadcasters in Massachusetts, Illinois, Texas and California. The operators received warnings. These were the first major FCC pirate enforcement actions since 1995, and, for a time, pirate operations declined. The IBB station at Rhodes dropped shortwave. (It continued to transmit on medium wave until its closure in May 2006.) The Arabic-language Radio Free Iraq, a project of RFERL, came on the air in October, as did a new RFE-RL Farsi service for Iran called Radio Azadi (“freedom”— not to be confused with the mid–1990s Iranian clandestine of the same name). Also new was the U.S.–based Radio Iran of Tomorrow, a clandestine broadcast believed to emanate from Moldova. The local program from Tajik Radio, Dushanbe, was a good Central Asian catch. It was sometimes audible around 0130 on 4635 and 4975 kHz. African signals were becoming fewer, but there were still interesting stations to hear. Radio Chad left its frequency of 4904.5 kHz., a beacon for decades, in favor of the less wellheard 6165 kHz. Radio Buea, Cameroon, reappeared on 3970 kHz. After years of intermittent operation, Radio Guinea, Conakry, seemed to have a new life on 6155, 7125 and 9650 kHz. The Voice of Kenya could be heard on both 4915 and 4935 kHz. at its opening at 0300. The rarely heard Radio Candip, Bunia, Congo-Kinshasa, still operated on 5066 kHz., albeit under rebel control starting in August. New from Sudan on 7000 kHz. was the Voice of Freedom and Renewal (also called Voice of New Sudan), run by the Sudan Alliance Forces, a Sudanese opposition guerilla group. And in October, Libya’s external service became the Voice of Africa and introduced some English and French programs. The death in June of Nigerian dictator Sani Abacha brought more Nigerian clandestine activity. The group behind the former Radio New Nigeria now set up a weekly halfhour program over WGTG called Radio SNBS, the Save Nigeria Broadcasting Service. And a thrice-weekly, hour-long time slot shared among groups supporting Nigerian democracy appeared on WHRA, 15460 kHz. It was variously known as Voice of Oduduwa, Radio

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Yoruba, Egbe Omo Yoruba, and Ogene Ndigbo Radio. By year’s end, Radio Kudirat International was the only Nigerian clandestine still on the air. It stopped broadcasting on December 31, but resumed operation for the period April-October 1999. Radio MINURCA, a station operated by the U.N. peacekeeping force in the Central African Republic, came on the air from Bangui in November on 9900 kHz. and could be heard in the late afternoon in the United States. The 20 kw. transmitter was operating at 12 kw., and the station was requesting reception reports. Set up to promote peace and security, enhance civic education, and help prepare the country for legislative elections, it had been on FM since July. It soon moved to 5900 and 9500 kHz. Transmitter problems led to a reduction in power to 1 kw. on one shortwave channel and 125 watts on the other by mid–1999. The station went off the air on February 1, 2000, when the U.N. mission ended. AWR began broadcasting over a 7.5 kw. transmitter at the Radio Netherlands relay site in Madagascar. Unfortunately for American DXers, the frequency, 3215 kHz., was occupied by WWCR at AWR’s 0300 sign on, the only time when reception would be likely. For two nights in May, WWCR vacated the channel at 0300–0330 so that DXers had a chance to hear the low power Madagascar signal, which many did. The AWR station increased power to 50 kw. in September. TGDF, La Voz de Atitlan, Santiago Atitlan, Guatemala, a shoe-string operation with a long presence on 2390 kHz., left both shortwave and medium wave, remaining on the air on FM only. Although new shortwave activity from the Spanish-speaking Americas had reached a low ebb, there were a few noteworthy developments. The anti–Castro clandes-

Radio MINURCA was run by the U.N. peacekeepers in the Central African Republic. It was on shortwave for a little more than a year.

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tine station, La Voz del CID, off the air for some time, reappeared on WRMI. In Costa Rica, a new station on shortwave was Emisora 88 Estereo, in Perez Zeledon. It relayed its 88.5 MHz. FM signal on 6071 kHz. In Chile, Radio Nacional de Chile had sold its transmitter plant to U.K.–based religious organization Christian Vision, the same group that operated Radio Christian Voice in Zambia. Voz Cristiana began testing from Chile in March on 21550 kHz. and other frequencies. The main studios were in Miami. And newly heard from Brazil was the evangelical station ZYE856, Sistema LBV Mundial, Porto Alegre, using 11895 kHz., a channel formerly used by Radio Rio Grande do Sul. Peru continued to be home to the most interesting array of shortwave stations in South America, licensed and unlicensed. Among the former were OAW3A, Radio Luz y Sonido, Huanuco, 3235 kHz., and OBX9K, Radio Horizonte, Chachapoyas, 5020 kHz. Among the latter stations, which typically operated out of band, were Radio Moderna, Celendin, 4500 kHz.; Radio Horizonte, Chiclayo, 4534; Radio Sudamerica, Cutervo, 5522; Radio Peru, San Ignacio, 5636; Radio Bethel, Arequipa, 5950; Radio Ondas del Rio Marañon, Aramango, 6520; and Radio Ondas del Rio Mayo, Nueva Cajamarca, on 6797 kHz. On January 1, the Voice of Free China became Radio Taipei International. Some of its programs for the Americas were now relayed over WYFR. The country’s other external service , the Voice of Asia, whose broadcasts were intended solely for the Asia-Pacific region, was still on the air. From mainland China, the Guanxi Foreign Broadcasting Station in Nanning, broadcasting in Cantonese and Vietnamese, could sometimes be heard on 5050 and 9820 kHz. In February, All India Radio inaugurated shortwave transmissions from Jeypore. The station was equipped with 50 kw. transmitters and was heard on 5040 kHz. AIR was also broadcasting on one frequency, 10330 kHz., from four sites simultaneously — Gauhati, Mumbai, Delhi, and Chennai. The technique reportedly produced good signals all over India. The channel was heard around the world as well. Radio Free Asia, which from its startup had been transmitting some programming over Christian Science station KHBI on Saipan, now bought the station, which for a time continued to carry some Christian Science programming in addition to that of RFA. The Far East Broadcasting Co., in the Philippines, celebrated its 50th anniversary, as did Radio New Zealand International, which presented a commemorative program while at the same time suffering budget-related service cutbacks. And in Papua New Guinea, where shortwave broadcasting was always in flux, about two-thirds of the stations were on the air more or less regularly, with the rest either inactive or operating unpredictably.

1999 It was a year of more anniversaries. Radio Ukraine International calculated that it was its 55th year of broadcasting. It was Radio Australia’s 60th year, and the Voice of Russia’s 70th if one included its earlier incarnations as Radio Moscow and Radio Centre. It was the last year for some stations, however. Radio Latvia made its last shortwave broadcast on July 31 (the transmitter was kept available for lease to other broadcasters). The VOA Poro site in the Philippines closed down its shortwave operations on September 30. (The million watt medium wave transmitter stayed on the air.) The Brazilian external service

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from Radiobras, never a strong presence on shortwave, disappeared altogether. And the Voice of the Strait, one of the mainland Chinese services for Taiwan, combined its two networks and reduced its broadcasting hours. Listeners started running into the wideband noise that was the analog signature of the new DRM (“Digital Radio Mondiale”) digital transmission mode. Although the signals were intended for test purposes rather than for general reception, the transmissions were in the regular international shortwave broadcasting bands. The stations experimenting with DRM were Radio Netherlands, Radio Canada International, Deutsche Welle, and the U.K.’s Merlin Communications. While budgetary problems caused Deutsche Welle to drop seven language services, there were also some positive events in Germany. A station not on shortwave for decades, Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk in Leipzig, now broadcast an all night service over Bayerischer Rundfunk, 6085 kHz. In both 1999 and 2000, another German domestic FM station, Radio RSG, Solingen, Germany, broadcast a special New Year’s day program via Jülich. Jülich also began carrying a new French-language religious program for Africa called Echos de la Vérité. It was prepared by Europresse, an evangelical publisher in Burgundy, France. While Deutschlandfunk had been merged into DeutschlandRadio in 1994, the Cologne service of the latter still identified as Deutschlandfunk, and on September 1 it began broadcasting on 6190 kHz., a shortwave frequency formerly used by Radio Bremen. And the programs of Universelles Leben (Universal Life) continued to be widely heard from transmitters in Russia, Lithuania, Germany and the U.S.A. (WRMI), as they had been for many years. The programs of the Würzburg-based Original Christianity community were broadcast under the names Radio Santec, Das Wort, and Cosmic Wave. Radio Vilnius, Lithuania, was heard testing from Sitkunai on 9710 kHz. with a new 100 kw. transmitter, installed to supplement the regular 50 kw. sender. It was to replace Jülich for the station’s broadcasts to North America, and also be available for lease to other broadcasters. And new via Merlin was Wales Radio International, a half-hour program presented three times a week for Europe, North America and Australasia. It was a Wales promotional project of Cynhyrchiadau Preseli Radio Productions, and its anchor program was called “Celtic Notes.” An interesting albeit seldom-heard station was Radio Racja, an FM station in Bialystok, Poland, now broadcasting on shortwave for two hours a day to Belarussians in Belarus and Poland. It could sometimes be heard around 0630 on 6035 kHz. via the regular Polish transmitters. On May 25, the Stubline transmitter of Radio Yugoslavia went off the air as a result of NATO bombing of nearby power plants. It had been carrying home service programming on 7200 kHz. The Bijeljina site remained operational. And Radio Netherlands provided transmission services to the Balkans for Radio 21, an independent Albanian-language web station in Pristina which had been closed down as a result of fighting in Kossovo. It had been denied a broadcast license by the Serbs, who raided the station just before NATO bombing began. Radio Netherlands carried programs from this “station in exile” on shortwave for two hours daily starting in June.49 In August, Radio Gardarika, a St. Petersburg FM station, carried out shortwave tests on the 200 kw. transmitters of the government telecommunications center in St. Petersburg, Centre of Broadcasting and Radio Communications No. 2. The station began regular weekend broadcasts in November. By the next month, however, financial problems

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The telecommunications center in St. Petersburg, Russia, issued its own verifications for the transmission of programs over its facilities.

had taken Radio Gardarika off the air. Also in November, the St. Petersburg transmitter station carried the programs of the new Russian government-produced program, Radiostantsiya Chechnya Svoboda, or Radio Free Chechnya. It was broadcast from other Russian transmitter sites as well. The Russian shortwave transmitter network, which carried broadcasts of the Voice of Russia, Radio Rossii, and a growing number of international broadcasters and standalone program producers, now included transmitting plants in Moscow, Chita, Ekaterinburg, Irkutsk, Kaliningrad, Khabarovsk, Komsomolsk-naAmure, Krasnodar, Novosibirsk, Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Samara, St. Petersburg, and Vladivostok.50 It was a slow year for European pirates. However, among the new ones whose signals reached North American shores were U.K. stations Radio Free London (5805 and 15070 kHz.), U.K. Radio International (6266), and Radio Ozone International and Britain’s Better Music Station (seemingly the same station, operating on 6200 kHz.); and Dutch broadcasters Radio Torenvalk (6261), and Radio Bandonica and Alfa Lima International, the latter two both on 11480 kHz. In future years, Alfa Lima would become one of the most frequently heard European pirate stations. It was around this time that CKZN, St. John’s, Newfoundland began carrying the morning programs of CFGB-FM, Goose Bay, Labrador. During the rest of the day CKZN’s “home” programs were those of CBN, St. John’s. WGTG joined WWCR in the tropical bands by beginning transmissions on 3270 kHz. upper sideband. In September, the Fundamental Broadcasting Network, formerly a client of WGTG, set up its own station, WTJC (“Work-

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ing Til Jesus Comes”), in Newport, North Carolina. The company’s parent BCB station was WOTJ in Morehead City, North Carolina. WTJC was on 9370 kHz., and at first operated its 50 kw. transmitter with 20 kw. And on October 1, the U.S. Information Agency was dissolved and its functions transferred to the State Department save for international broadcasting. VOA, Radio Martí, RFE-RL and Radio Free Asia remained under the control of a now-independent Broadcasting Board of Governors. Colorful names continued to be the rule among North American pirates, whose entrants this year included Betty Boop Radio, CERW (“Crazy Elmo’s Relay World”), Free Radio America, Ground Zero Radio, KIPM, Nexus Radio, WMPR (“MicroPower Radio”), Radio Bingo, Radio Free Oz, Scorch Radio, Voice of Captain Ron, Voice of Prozac, WMFQ, and WRX, all on or near 6955 kHz. A rare catch, Radio Tajikistan, Dushanbe, was reported heard on 11620 kHz. at 0330. Trans World Radio began relays from Armenia. An Iranian clandestine, Radio International, was heard on 7520 kHz., seemingly from Grigoriopol (later via Norway). It was the station of Ali Javadi, a political activist in the banned Worker-Communist Party of Iran. Javadi lived in the U.S., from which the station had recently been broadcasting (via WWCR). And in April, Galei Zahal, the Israel Defense Forces station located near Tel Aviv, last on shortwave in 1995, returned for good on 6442 kHz. upper sideband (it soon moved to 6898, then 6973). In future years it would also be heard on 7345 and 15785 kHz. October 23, 1999 was the date of what was expected to be the last of the special transmissions from Radio St. Helena, which had been broadcast from the Atlantic island most years since 1990. The station received over 700 reception reports and 400 e-mails for the broadcast. A new clandestine was the Voice of Peace and Democracy of Eritrea on 5500 and 6315 kHz. It opposed the Eritrean government and transmitted from the facilities of the Ethiopian station, Voice of the Tigre Revolution. At year’s end, another clandestine broadcaster, Voice of the Democratic Path of Ethiopian Unity, was heard on 11670 kHz. It was believed to be transmitting from Deutsche Telekom. And for a time during 1999, the ever-elusive La Voix du Peuple, Lubumbashi, Congo-Kinshasa, was heard opening at 0330 on 7205 kHz. Radio Mogadishu, Voice of the People, appeared on the unusual channel of 11204 kHz. upper sideband, and was heard around 0400 as well as at 2000 when English news for Europe was presented. The Zambia National Broadcasting Corp. also appeared on an unusual frequency, 6265 kHz. And DXers started hearing a seemingly intentional harmonic of Radio Botswana on 6712 kHz., twice its fundamental frequency of 3356 kHz. The station was audible until closedown at 2200. (The 3356 kHz. channel could not be heard at this hour). A station which had once boasted an extensive foreign service in the international bands, the Ghana Broadcasting Corp., was now down to only two frequencies that were audible in North America, 3366 and 4915 kHz., both heard regularly from 0530 sign on and before 2400 closedown. VORGAN (A Voz da Resistência do Galo Negro), last on 6220 kHz., had closed down on April 2, 1998, the result of a peace agreement in the country. It was to become an FM commercial station. Although reportedly it returned to the air on 5950, 7100, and 11830 kHz. in January 1999 as a result of renewed fighting, it disappeared from shortwave after a few months.

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In the Caribbean, the American Forces Network was now operating from the Naval Computer and Telecommunications Station, Isabela, Puerto Rico, on 6458.5 kHz. upper sideband and was widely heard. HIVR, Radio Cima 100, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, on 4960 kHz., switched to a bachata music format and became HIAH, Radio Villa, “La Sencilla,” heretofore on medium wave only. And in connection with new Chinese shortwave transmitters for Cuba, China Radio International’s programs were now relayed from the Caribbean island On the Spanish-speaking mainland, XEYU, Radio UNAM, Mexico City, made one of its periodic brief returns to the air on 9600 kHz. and for a time was audible until 0700 closedown. HRMI, La Voz de Misiones Internacionales de Centro America, off the air from Honduras for about a year, returned in mid 1999. In 2001 the station would move from 5980 to 5010 kHz. HRQO2, Radio Internacional, San Pedro Sula, Honduras, on 4930 kHz. began identifying as Radio Costeña, Ebenezer 12–20. And in November, the AWR shortwave facility at Cahuita, Costa Rica, was sold to the “University Network” of Dr. Gene Scott, whose preachings would now also be available on the well-known former AWR channels of 5030, 6150, 9725, and 13750 kHz. In South America, HJHZ, Radio Macarena, Villavicencio, Colombia on 5975 kHz. became Radio Autentica, part of an evangelical AM network. New stations from Peru included Radio Manantial, Jaen, 5773 kHz.; Radio Panorama, Lucmapampa, 5905; and Radio Super Nueva Sensación, Huancabamba, on 6675. North American DXers also started hearing a station which had begun broadcasting in 1998 —OBX7M, Radio Chasqui, Cuzco, on 5981 kHz. In April, a similarly named station came on the air from Bolivia. It was the 10 kw. Quechua-language station, Radio Mosoj Chaski, in Cochabamba, and it put in a good signal on 3310 kHz. at 0900 sign on. And in September, the Bolivian station Radio A.N.D.E.S. changed its name to Radio Mallku in order to avoid confusion with another Bolivian station, CP84, Radio Los Andes, in Tarija. Radio Mallku also changed its frequency from 4777 to 4796 kHz. A new South American pirate with the same Chilean address as Radio Cochiguaz added to the confusion of the South American pirate scene. It called itself the Andino Relay Service and it carried the programs of other pirates, South American and otherwise, as did Radio Cochiguaz itself. Radio Sin Fronteras and Dark Pampa Radio were heard via Cochiguaz. Radio Blandengue also carried Radio Sin Fronteras, as well as Emisora Z del Dragón, Radio Marabunta, and Radio Rayo del Sur. In February, after an absence of some months, LRA36, Radio Nacional Arcangel San Gabriel, in Antarctica, returned to the air on 15476 kHz. with a new 10 kw. transmitter. The tenfold increase in power provided an improved signal when the station could be heard. On several occasions the station stayed on past its usual 2400 closing time for the benefit of North American DXers. The IBB Iranawila relay station in Sri Lanka finally opened. The 500 kw. installation replaced the 10 kw. and 35 kw. transmitters at Ekala which had been used by the VOA for almost half a century. During its construction, Iranawila had encountered numerous problems, including a fire in 1996 and demonstrations and physical attacks from area residents fearful that it was a spy station, that it would become a military target, and that, once operational, its radiations would negatively impact local fishing. Brief tone tests had been conducted in 1997 and 1998. However, the station started testing in earnest in July 1999. DXers

Emisora Z del Dragón was one of a number of South American pirate stations heard in the U.S. Signals from these stations were weak, and good DX targets.

The U.S. International Broadcasting Bureau station in Iranawila, Sri Lanka, finally opened in 1999. It had been the target of protests and objections from residents concerned about the station’s impact on health and security.

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were pleased to discover an on-site employee of Marconi Communications Radio Systems, Inc. who was happy to provide QSLs. Use of Iranawila expanded during the year, and the VOA made its last transmission from Ekala on December 31.5¡ Two new California-based Vietnamese “clandestine” programs appeared on KWHR, Hawaii: the half-hour Radio Free Vietnam, and the hour-long Que Hong Radio. There were also two new Tamil stations that were transmitted from the Radio Netherlands station in Madagascar. They were Tamil-Oli Radio, until then operating on satellite only, and the Tamil Broadcasting Corp. Both were based in London. And while Radio Taipei International programs were being carried on Merlin transmitters in the U.K., Radio Australia began relaying some of its Indonesian programs via Taiwan. The Christian Science broadcasting organization, Herald Broadcasting, also put some Christian Science programming on the air from Taiwan, and Radiodifusão Portuguesa, Lisbon, used Taiwan to relay programs to Timor. Radio Australia also inaugurated a special hour long “Timor Hour” program for Australian troops in Timor. On the troubled island of Bougainville, rebels were reportedly operating Radio Independence Bougainville on 3850 kHz. It had replaced Radio Free Bougainville, whose operators had ceased broadcasting and joined the peace process. They were expected to join others in the formation of a Radio New Bougainville which, it was hoped, would contribute to stability on the island. The government’s Radio United Bougainville had stopped operating in 1998. But the stations of the Bougainville insurgency were just dreams for most American DXers. In January, IBB went into regular operation from its new transmission site on Tinian. (“This is a test transmission from an International Broadcasting Bureau station located on the island of Tinian in the western Pacific.”) Tinian was the takeoff point for American bombing raids on Japan, including delivery of the atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. It was the second IBB site in the Northern Marianas, the first being Saipan, next door. Radio Television Francaise d’Outre-Mer (RFO), Tahiti, long a shortwave stalwart, had been down to one frequency, 15170 kHz., for several years, and reception was usually poor. The station, which had well-established medium wave and FM channels, had planned to continue using shortwave until the transmitter gave up the ghost, which it did, to the dismay of many DXers, in 1999, taking a friendly station and an exotic radio country off shortwave. A like fate befell Radio Kiribati. Its operation had been erratic in 1998 due to a transmitter fault. The station planned to replace its 1 kw. transmitter with a 10 kw. unit in 1999. However, by the end of the year it had stopped transmitting on shortwave, and did not return. And in Indonesia, Ujung Pandang reverted to its old name of Makassar. The Radio Republik Indonesia station in the city operated on 4753 kHz. and was one of the most reliable of the tropical band Indonesian stations. Overall, however, the Indonesian presence in the tropical bands had dropped dramatically. Some 40 frequencies were now active, compared with 65 in 1997, 105 in 1985, and 171 in 1973.

8

2000–2008 Times in U.T.C.

2000 By the turn of the century, relays and leased-time broadcasting had become a major part of shortwave broadcasting. Illustrative of the arrangements that had come into being: In addition to its own relay stations in Portugal, Rwanda and Sri Lanka, Deutsche Welle was using relays in Canada and Russia, the Merlin relay in Antigua, and the Radio Netherlands transmitters in Bonaire and Madagascar. Radio Netherlands supplemented its stations at home, in Bonaire and Madagascar with relays from Germany, Russia, and the Merlin station in Singapore. While neither Radio Canada International nor Radio Japan had relay stations of their own, RCI made use of transmitters in Russia, South Korea, Portugal, Austria, Germany, China, Japan, the U.K., and Singapore, and Radio Japan was heard via Ascension, Canada, French Guiana, Gabon, Singapore, Sri Lanka, and the U.K. In addition to Radio France International’s relay station in French Guiana, RFI programs were relayed from China, Gabon, Japan, Russia, and South Africa. Swiss Radio International now had but one transmitter of its own, in Sottens. Most SRI transmissions were via Germany, French Guiana, the Vatican, and Singapore. Viewed through the other end of the telescope, Merlin transmitters around the world were carrying programs from Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, South Korea, Switzerland, and Taiwan, plus HCJB. Deutsche Welle was relaying programs from Croatia, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, and many others. Clients of SENTECH in South Africa included France, AWR, TWR, the BBC, and the World Beacon (U.S., see below). And transmitters in the former Soviet Union were carrying programming from Belgium, Canada, China, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Vietnam, the BBC, Herald Broadcasting, and others. To avoid the need for direct payments for its relays via Russia, the Vatican provided relay facilities for the Voice of Russia, the first major relay arrangement by the Vatican, which was soon relaying Swiss Radio International as well. Many relay providers also carried programs of numerous smaller broadcasters and program producers, including a large number of nominally “clandestine” broadcasters and one-time or short-term broadcasters. During the summer, Jülich carried a weekly halfhour program of InfoRadio, a Dutch station interested in reaching vacationing residents of the Dutch province of Noord-Brabant. On the occasion of the Berlin “Love Parade” in 361

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July 2000, Ostdeutscher Rundfunk Brandenburg, a network of FM stations headquartered in Potsdam-Babelsburg, broadcast its youth program, “Fritz Love Radio 2000,” over the Jülich transmitter. And in September, the religious station Radio Horeb, a satellite broadcaster in Immenstadt, Germany, conducted four test broadcasts via Jülich. In 1999, RTBF, Belgium, which had been broadcasting exclusively via Jülich, conducted some test transmissions on 9925 kHz. from its own transmitter in Wavre, Belgium. From March 2000, the Wavre transmitter was used to broadcast to Europe, with Jülich carrying programs for Africa. In 2001, Radio Vlaanderen International would end its long time use of the Wavre transmitter facility and rely exclusively on various relay facilities. The last “Media Network” program from Radio Netherlands was broadcast on October 26. As a result of budget cuts, Radio Austria International reduced its reliance on shortwave. In September, financial constraints caused Radio Moldova International, hitherto broadcasting via Romania, to cancel its shortwave service. Radio Ukraine International continued to close down some of its transmitting facilities. Croatian Radio dropped its relays over Deutsche Telekom, relying exclusively on its own transmitters at Deanovec, but resumed use of Deutsche Telekom in 2001 (by which time Croatian Radio was identifying as the Voice of Croatia). It was perhaps inevitable that the government of BosniaHerzegovina eventually would evict Radio Yugoslavia from the Bijeljina transmitter base which was located within Bosnian territory (although owned by Radio Yugoslavia). This it did in August 2000, but operations resumed in May 2001, only to halt again in December of that year. Radio Stalitsa, the Minsk FM service of the state broadcaster, could sometimes be heard over Radio Belarus shortwave. TERACOM in Sweden carried a series of half-hour, Spanish-language programs called Radio La Voz del Pueblo prepared by Stockholm FMer Iglesia del Pueblo. There were some digital tests over the Radio Norway International transmitters at Sveio. During one weekend in May, Radio Mayak, the Russian home service broadcaster which had left shortwave at the end of 1998, conducted some tests on 15410 kHz. via a Russian transmitter in Novosibirsk, making the station again audible briefly in North America. And at year’s end, Radio Radonezh, the Russian Orthodox church station, off shortwave for almost ten years, began experimental broadcasts for the Ukraine, Belarus and Moldova on 6245 kHz., apparently over a transmitter located in Russia. Merlin was to commence broadcasting the programs of Earth One, a project of a London-based multimedia production company called Global Vision Network. The target area was rural Africa, and the dreamy goal was to serve “a world of nations broadcasting to one another” rather than one nation broadcasting to the world. Although supposedly a number of high profile figures were connected with the project, it does not appear that Earth One ever came to air. Europirate loggings on this side of the Atlantic picked up. Among the stations heard for the first time were, from Holland, Black Arrow and Radio Foxfire (both on 6235 kHz.), Radio Titanic International (6261), Union Radio (6286), Radio Spaceman (6305), and Radio Sunflower (15810); from Belgium, Radio Borderhunter (6209, and later 15795); and from the U.K., Radio Nova International (6280). Two German stations were heard, Radio East Side International (6245 kHz.) and Radio Skyline, the latter relayed over Radio Blue Star on 6306. Alfa Lima International was active, calling itself the Dutch Relay Service,

In addition to leasing time on transmitters outside Belgium, both Belgian broadcasters, RTBF and Radio Vlaanderen International, also used the Wavre transmitter within the country.

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on 15070 kHz. And a group of European pirates shared 6295 kHz. on Easter Sunday and were heard in North America around 0000. Although it had some earmarks of a pirate, the new Scandinavian Weekend Radio in Virrat, Finland, was a fully licensed private station. It was authorized to operate one weekend a month with 50 or 100 watts on 5990, 6170, 11690, and 11720 kHz. Starting with its November broadcast, the 11 MHz. channels utilized a special antenna beamed to North America, permitting a number of stateside DXers to hear the station on those high frequencies. It would remain a rare catch, but good conditions made occasional reception possible. The American Forces Network increased the number of naval stations carrying AFRTS programs. In addition to existing transmissions from Florida and Puerto Rico, DXers were now able to hear AFN from Sigonella, Sicily; Barrigada, Guam; Diego Garcia; and Lualualei, Hawaii. Each station typically had a daytime frequency and a nighttime frequency, all on various out-of-band channels in the 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, and 13 MHz. bands, and all in single sideband. It had been a long time since DXers were treated to such a feast of new stations. Most were well heard despite their low power (which was believed to be 10 kw. or less), although Diego Garcia, home to a U.S.–U.K. military base in what is called the British Indian Ocean Territory, was a particular challenge. There were no local station identifications, so listeners had to determine station location by checking the AFN website and testing the information there against the propagational feasibility of their reception. AFN accommodated DXers by setting up a QSLing system that invited reception reports by both e-mail and postal mail. WGTG changed its call letters to WWFV (“World Wide Freedom’s Voice”). Soon it was experimenting with radioteletype broadcasts for the hearing impaired. At year’s end the station relocated from McCaysville, Georgia to Manchester, Tennessee, and obtained the new call letters WWRB (“World Wide Radio [later “Religious”] Broadcasting”). WRNO, by now barely audible on a very low-power transmitter, was sold to Dr. Robert Mawire, a Texas preacher and founder of Good News World Outreach. Brother Stair of the Overcomer Ministry was using most of WRNO’s broadcast time. Allan Weiner began another seagoing project, outfitting the M/S Katie in Boston harbor for use as a WBCQ floating studio. And WRMI continued to add new Spanish-language opposition groups to its program lineup, including anti–Castro exile broadcasters La Voz de CAMCO (Cuban American Military Council) and Cuba Siglo XXI, and La Resistencia Democratica Peru, which promoted free elections and freedom of speech in that Andean nation. Downsizing at the VOA meant a realignment of priorities. The venerable broadcaster reduced output in many languages and eliminated 51 positions. On the DX side of VOA, for one day only in November, when Merlin’s Ascension station was being repaired, the VOA moved one of its Spanish programs to Sackville, the only time VOA had ever broadcast from that site. A measure of the commoditization of shortwave time, Sackville was also now relaying the Voice of Vietnam, which had canceled some of its relays from Russia. A Christian advertising agency, Affiliated Media Group of Jacksonville, Florida, opened the World Beacon, a broker of various American ministry programs (many of them African American) which it put on the air via Merlin, SENTECH, and Russia. The African service was called the African Beacon and the European Service the European Beacon. A Russian

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Beacon was begun in 2001. However, the World Beacon project ceased operations in April 2002 in order, it said, to concentrate on its domestic business. In September, United Nations Radio, off the air since 1986 save for itinerant programming on various mostly local stations around the world, returned to shortwave with a pilot service via Merlin and SENTECH. The content was modest — daily 15 minute programs in each of English, French and Arabic. New names gracing the roster of North American pirates during the year included Fight For Free Radio, the Jean Chretien Station, KRMI (“Radio Michigan International”), Raven Radio, Sycko Radio, and Voice of Green Acres, all on 6950 or 6955 kHz. In May, as a result of escalated fighting and the withdrawal of Israeli troops, High Adventure Ministries dismantled its medium wave and shortwave installation in southern Lebanon. Although the station hoped to set up at another nearby location, it elected to replace the shortwave broadcasts with transmissions from Jülich, where it continued to identify as the Voice of Hope. It remained on FM from Israel; plans for shortwave from Liberia or Nigeria never came to fruition. Its departure left the Christian station, Voice of Lebanon, 6550 kHz., the only active shortwave broadcaster in Lebanon. The Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran had a special service for Central Asia called the Voice of Khorasan. It originated from the station’s studios in Mashad, the capital of Khorasan province in the northeast. Radio Kuwait’s English service sometimes relayed the country’s “Super Station FM 99.7.” And a new pro-western station began broadcasting to Iran —Radio Voice of Iran (Radio Sedaye Iran). It was based in California, and broadcast on 12065 kHz. via the TDF transmitters in Issoudon, France. The Polisario station, National Radio of the Saharan Democratic Arab Republic, was now heard on various 7 MHz. channels, e.g. 7100, 7450, 7470, and 7500 kHz. During the following years it would move to 6 MHz., eventually settling on 6300 and vicinity. A few DXers caught the broadcasts of Radio Tele-Liberté, a station run by the Congolese Liberation Movement in Congo-Kinshasa. It could be heard around 2300 sign off on 15725 kHz., and was said to be located in Gbadolite, in the country’s northeast. The Uganda-supported station was accused of broadcasting inflammatory messages similar to those of the local Kigali hate station, Radio Mille Colline. And two more Ethiopian opposition stations, Voice of the Ogadeni People, and Voice of Ethiopian Medhin (Voice of Ethiopian Salvation), appeared on Deutsche Telekom frequencies, joining five other Ethiopian-Eritrean stations then on the air over the German station. Soon there was another, Radio Xoriyo, a project of the Ogaden National Liberation Front. The anti-government Voice of Sudan, 8000 kHz., which had been broadcasting from Eritrea, closed down as a result of improved relations between the two countries. Radiodiffusion-Television Tunisienne increased power from 100 to 500 kw. In February, ELWA, which had resumed low power FM broadcasts from Liberia in October 1997, returned to shortwave as well with a 1 kw. sender on 4760 kHz. which, under good conditions, put in a surprisingly good signal in America at 0600 sign on. The power supply and the transmitter, which had been manufactured at the HCJB engineering facility in Elkhart, Indiana, were brought into the country in one suitcase each. By now the station was well along in transferring control and funding of its operation to Liberian nationals. Also in Liberia, on March 15, 2000, Star Radio, off shortwave since 1998 but still on FM, was closed down completely, the government unhappy with its news, talk, and political programs.

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Radio Veritas, Liberia, was ordered of the air at the same time. It returned on FM after promising better cooperation with the government. However, shortwave remained silent. Things were busy at the Radio Netherlands relay station in Madagascar. On January 1, it began hosting a new Sudanese opposition broadcaster, Radio Voice of Hope. Sponsored by the New Sudan Council of Churches, with programs produced in Holland and Uganda, it broadcast weekly to war-torn southern Sudan. Soon it was being heard in North America on Saturdays at 0430 on 12070 and 15320 kHz. It changed its name to Radio Nile in 2004. Just prior to the June elections in Zimbabwe, an opposition station called Radio Voice of the People appeared on 7215 kHz. (later 7120). The source of the signal was uncertain at first, but transmitter usage schedules for the Madagascar site, together with denials from Merlin and SENTECH and detailed coverage of the station on Radio Netherlands’ “Media Network,” seemed to point the way. Radio Netherlands eventually acknowledged its role in the broadcasts. And on July 14, Radio Ecclesia, the Catholic station in Angola, began broadcasting for one hour daily from the Madagascar site and another hour from the Radio Netherlands headquarters transmitter in Flevo. Radio Ecclesia had returned to FM in 1997 after having been forced off the air due to political events some 22 years earlier when it had been on shortwave with its own transmitter. Now it was again suffering official harassment due to its independent editorial policy and its coverage of the civil war in Angola. This time Radio Netherlands made no secret of the origins of the Radio Ecclesia signal. The relay lasted only about ten days due to technical problems in transmitting the audio from Angola, but it returned via Deutsche Telekom in April 2001 and remained on the air for a year before switching its hour-long shortwave offering to the SENTECH transmitters. It would stay on the air from Meyerton until 2004. On Easter morning, a fire caused extensive damage to the generators at the Radio Netherlands Bonaire relay station. No one was hurt, and the station returned two transmitters to the air in a little over a week. Until full operations resumed, Radio Netherlands hired some time over Merlin, Jülich and WSHB. Later in the year a fire put the TDF relay station in French Guiana off the air for months. Many of its broadcasts were temporarily transferred to the TDF station in Issoudon, France and the Radio Netherlands station on Bonaire. A new station in Guatemala was TGAV, Radio Verdad, Chiquimula, operating on 4052 kHz. with 800 watts. It was well heard around 1100. Radiodifusora Nacional de Colombia returned to an old 31 meter band channel, 9635 kHz. (HJZO). The appearance of another new Colombian station, the military’s Colombia Estereo, relaying FM programming from Cadena Radial del Ejercito Nacional in Bogota and using the old channel of La Voz del Rio Arauca, 4895 kHz., was welcomed. Soon, however, it would leave the air, not to return for a year, and then only intermittently. Although there were nominally a dozen stations in Colombia still using shortwave, many took to the air infrequently, making the country’s presence on shortwave a small one. HCJB conducted some DRM tests. And to the dismay of pirate radio aficionados, a new Peruvian station, Radio La Voz del Campesino, Huarmaca, began broadcasting on the main pirate shortwave frequency of 6955 kHz. Its signal was strong enough to cause interference around 0100, and many pirate operators moved to 6950 or 6925 kHz.

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A new station from Guatemala in 2000 was Radio Verdad, Chiquimula. Usually operating with just a few hundred watts, the station received reception reports from almost 50 countries.

Among other new Peruvian stations heard during the year were Radio Imperio, Chiclayo, on 4388 kHz. (it became Radio Vision in 2005); Radio Superior, Bolivar, 5300; Radio Andina, Huancabamba, 6672; and Radio Ondas del Pacifico, Ayabaca, 6782 kHz. Radiodifusora Comercial Naranjos, Rioja, was reactivated on 4300 kHz. And once an unlicensed station of the Catholic church operating on 5235 kHz., OAW6B, Radio San Antonio, Callalli, was now fully licensed and broadcasting on 3375 kHz. Two interesting Brazilian stations heard during the year were ZYF906, Radio Clube, Rondonópolis, on 4955 kHz., and ZYG685, Radio Copacabana, Rio de Janeiro, on 5013. A new Bolivian station was Radio Yura, on 4716 kHz. A nearby frequency, 4732 kHz., yielded reception of another Bolivian, Radio La Palabra, in Santa Ana del Yacuma. In July, World Falun Dafa Radio (later called Fang Guang Ming Radio), the broadcasting arm of the banned Chinese spiritual group Falun Gong, began broadcasts to China on a variety of highly changeable frequencies, including 9370, 12140, 13580, and 15680 kHz. The station was believed to be using transmitters in Bulgaria, which had now joined the ranks of the relay providers, and Tajikistan, among other places. However, the frequency broker, Transmitter Documentation Project, a Belgian effort to document the history of shortwave transmitters worldwide which had begun publishing its findings in 1994 and later became a leased time broker, would not disclose transmitter locations. Later the station would broadcast via KWHR. World Falun Dafa Radio immediately became the target of Chinese jamming. The Miri station of Radio Malaysia Sarawak was believed off shortwave. The Bhutan

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

Broadcasting Service began a weekday “morning” broadcast and DXers started looking for it at 0100 on 6035 kHz. The Korean Central Broadcasting Station in North Korea still operated a number of low power, regional shortwave outlets in the 75, 90 and 120 meter bands, all good catches in the United States. These were located in Chongjin (3940 kHz.), Hamhung (3220), Hyesan (3920), Kangaye (3960), Sariwon (2350), and Wonsan (3970). Rarely heard in North America was the Philippine Broadcasting Service station in Quezon City on 9580 kHz. It carried the programming of medium wave station DZRB. The Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corp. reduced its broadcasting hours on several tropical band channels. On the international bands, the SLBC was heard with a surprisingly good signal during eastern North American evenings, as it had been for many years, opening at 0030 on 15425 kHz. Also from South Asia, a clandestine station that could occasionally be heard on the west coast at 1300 sign on was the Voice of Jammu and Kashmir Freedom. Its signal on 5100 kHz. was believed to be transmitted from Radio Pakistan’s high power transmitter site in Islamabad. The station opposed Indian control of Kashmir. Operating at just half its rated 10 kw. power (and awaiting a new transmitter), the Solomon Islands Broadcasting Corp., 5020 kHz., remained one of the most reliable of the Pacific signals. This would change over the next few years as the station’s independent editorial policy would bring it into conflict with the government, which greatly reduced its funding. And in a move that surprised both the press and the parliament in Australia and set off concerns about heightening tensions with nearby countries, Radio Australia’s Darwin site was sold (and the transmitters leased for ten years) to Christian Voice, the English service of the U.K.–based religious broadcaster Christian Vision which was already operating stations in Chile and Zambia. (Christian Vision media was renamed CVC in 2005.) The Australia station identified as Voice International. It came to air in October 2000. In May 2001, Radio Australia would start leasing back some broadcast time over its own transmitters.

2001 Relay arrangements continued to grow. Radio Australia took out time over the IBB station on Tinian, and Radio Sweden and Radio Canada International began relaying each other’s programs. Cutbacks also continued. Radio Austria International suffered deep budget reductions but managed to stay on the air. Swiss Radio International dropped its shortwave broadcasts to North America, Europe and Asia in favor of a heightened internet presence, but continued broadcasting to areas of the world where use of the internet was less feasible, e.g. the Near East, Africa, and South America. And in September, Rikisutvarpid, Iceland, temporarily suspended shortwave broadcasts. They were restarted in December. Completion of an antenna upgrade at Sitkunai caused Radio Vilnius to drop its Jülich relays and rely solely on its own transmitters. AWR ended its use of the Slovakia relay at Rimavska Sobota. On December 31, the 2.5 kw. AWR shortwave transmitter in Forli, Italy, closed down. It had been on the air since 1985, but AWR air time lease arrangements with Deutsche Telekom and ORF in Austria made the little station redundant. And on May 25, the 250 kw. IBB station at Playa de Pals, Spain, long used for Radio Liberty broadcasts

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and sometimes the source of conflict with the Spanish government, left the air, its transmissions moved to other sites. The Playa de Pals facilities were preserved until March 2006 when the buildings and antennas were demolished. Merlin Communications was purchased by Vosper Thornycroft Holdings PLC. The company, whose roots were in shipbuilding, was involved in civil and defense contracting, communications, and training, and had 7,500 employees worldwide. In 2002 it became the VT Group. Merlin became VT Merlin Communications, and later VT Communications. (It is referred to below as VT Comm.) More important to American listeners, on July 1 the BBC World Service dropped its broadcasts to North America and the South Pacific, based in part on a finding that 88 percent of its North American audience listened on FM rather than shortwave. This was the latest development in the BBC’s increased migration to FM and the internet, save in parts of the world where those alternatives were unavailable. There ensued a substantial but ultimately unsuccessful listener effort to change the BBC’s mind because its research into the efficacy of alternative technologies was believed flawed.¡ BBC broadcasts to other areas could still be heard in North America, albeit without the reliability of the North American beam. To make the point that they did not think shortwave a thing of the past, Radio Netherlands immediately began transmitting a “Shortwave Showcase” service to North America at the times and on the same frequencies (rented from VT Comm) which were vacated by the BBC. This lasted for two weeks, and led to the inauguration of a new Radio Netherlands morning broadcast to North America. The cessation of broadcasts to North America notwithstanding, the BBC still had a huge presence on shortwave. In addition to using VT Comm’s extensive transmitter network at home and abroad, it could be heard on shortwave from leased transmitters in Russia, Germany, Australia, the U.S., South Korea, South Africa, Canada, Taiwan, Japan, Moldova, Tinian, and Uzbekistan. In January, the General Board of Global Ministries of the United Methodist Church in New York City started broadcasting music and cultural programs to Africa via Deutsche Telekom under the name Radio Africa International. The emphasis was on social welfare rather than religion, and the station remained on the air for about three years. At year’s end, another Radio Afrika International, a program that had been broadcast over certain Austrian AM and FM channels for four years, appeared on the ORF shortwave transmitter in Moosbrunn, Austria. It offered free air time to African broadcasters in an effort to overcome stereotypes about Africa found in the European media. It remained on the air until June 2003. In addition to carrying Radio Rossii, Voice of Russia, and other Russian services, dozens of major foreign broadcasters were now being relayed over the Russian shortwave network, along with many smaller broadcasters. Religious stations such as TWR, World Beacon, and Dr. Gene Scott’s University Network also rented time on the Russian network. In addition, foreign relay time was available from Armenia, Moldova (Grigoriopol), Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, all countries of the former Soviet Union Some private Russian stations returned to the air. In February, Radio Gardarika, a St. Petersburg FM station, last on shortwave in 1999, conducted some test transmissions on 6230 kHz. The station identified as Radio Studio. There were tests to North America in

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Radio Africa International was a project of the United Methodist Church. It broadcast via Deutsche Telekom.

July, followed by a series of broadcasts during the Christmas season of 2002 and quarterly broadcasts later. And at Christmas time 2001, the Russian station, Radio Centre, last heard in 1993, conducted some test broadcasts to North America on 5925 kHz. A number of short-term broadcasting projects were begun. A new religious broadcaster was the U.K.–based Radio Ezra, produced by John D. Hill’s “Water Into Wine Ministry.” It would broadcast several series of weekly programs, initially on transmitters believed to be in Bulgaria, later from Russia. The final series ended in 2004. German FMer Hamburger Lokalradio presented a series of programs via Jülich. (These broadcasts would be conducted in future years as well.) A German pop music station, Eurosonor Radio, operated for a time on Saturdays at 2000–2100 on 7590 kHz., renting time first from Bulgaria, then from Russia. And in April, Everest Radio, an hour-long program for the Nepali community in Britain and beyond, began broadcasting four days a week via Austria on 7235 kHz. Everest Radio was unable to sustain itself financially, however, and closed after ten months. It was a year of modest success on the Europirate front in North America. Among the new stations heard were, from Holland, Radio Casanova (6240 kHz.), Bloemenkwekerij (6245), Tower Radio (6306), Astoria Radio (6399), Classic Rock Radio (7470), and Mike Radio (9290); from Germany, Radio Marabu (6210), and Radio Grüne Welle in Italy’s South Tyrol (relayed by Marabu); and from the U.K., Swinging Radio England (6276). Some European pirates were heard in the 21 MHz. band. These included Germany’s Radio East Side on 21880 kHz., and Dutch brigands Alfa Lima International, Radio Cupido,

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and Radio Omroep Zuid, all on 21890. And a Europirate oldie, Radio Caroline, began broadcasting a one-hour program four days a week over WBCQ on 7415 kHz. In Canada, RCI suffered another round of budget cuts and reductions in news and live programs. CHNX had been off the air for several months in 2000, but repairs brought it back in October of that year with a power of just 40 watts. Shortwave contributed nothing to the station’s revenue picture, however, and it was dropped for good in 2001. CHNX had been a beacon on 6130 kHz. since 1929 (and on medium wave since 1926). In one of the more unusual shortwave events of the year, a virulent right-wing pirate (some called it a clandestine), KSMR, “Kentucky State Militia Radio,” “your First Amendment station,” was heard nationwide in March on 3260 and 6900 kHz. upper sideband (and later on 12182). It opened broadcasts with the “Take My Gun From My Cold Dead Hands” theme song, followed by talk, “The Militia Hour,” and similar programming. When the “Kentucky State Militia” disowned the station it changed its name to United Patriot Radio. It was heard nightly until June, when the station operator, white supremacist “Major Steve Anderson,” said he was closing down due to lack of support from other militias. It would continue to operate intermittently, however, until October when Anderson was involved in a shooting incident during a routine traffic stop by a Kentucky state police officer. Anderson was on the run until he was arrested in November 2002. Various bombs and similar devices were found in his home and truck, and following a guilty plea he was sentenced to 15 years in prison. (A North American pirate station on 6955 kHz., United Patriot Radio Bingo, parodied the station in August.) Among the novel names in the North American pirate genre of 2001 were Buckwheat Radio, Crunch Radio, KTVI, Melvin Malfunction Radio, Mystery Science Radio, Paragon Radio, Radio Neptune, Whack Radio, WHPP, Take It Easy Radio, and Z-100. All operated on or near 6925 or 6950 kHz. Radio Kuwait was now broadcasting a daily two-hour program in Tagalog for the benefit of Philippine workers in the country. It was called Radio Pinoy. VT Comm took over the operation of the United Arab Emirates’ 500 kw. shortwave transmitter site at Al Dhabbaya, Abu Dhabi, which had come on line in 1985. Now it would be available for use by other broadcasters, and soon the programs of BBC, RCI, RFI, Radio Japan, Radio Korea International, and many others were heard via Al Dhabbaya. Abu Dhabi’s own shortwave service, Voice of the United Arab Emirates, was dropped in 2002. The assault on the Taleban in Afghanistan led to the destruction of the Voice of Shariah. In November, in the absence of Afghan mass media, a U.K.-based group began broadcasting an hour-long daily service of moderate political opinion called Radio Voice of Afghanistan. It was on the air from a Russian transmitter site on 9950 kHz. and later via Austria, and was the idea of a Saudi-based Afghan businessman who supported the station through the non-profit Afghan Broadcasting Co. Intended as a three-month project, it broadcast until July 2002. More interesting to DXers was a Pashto- and Dari-language signal on 8700 kHz. upper sideband identifying as Information Radio. The signal appeared at first to be coming from the American military’s Commando Solo aircraft flying over Afghanistan as part of the post–911 Operation Enduring Freedom. Later, however, it was believed to have been transferred to Bagram or another land-based military facility. The frequency was noted in leaflets dropped by the military to the Afghan population. Commando Solo was an EC-130 “psy-

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chological warfare” aircraft flown by the 193rd Special Operations Group of the Pennsylvania National Guard, Middletown, Pennsylvania, on duty on Afghanistan. In 1994 some American DXers in southern states had heard the 193rd’s Radio Democracy in the broadcast band (1035 kHz.) in connection with the U.S. occupation of Haiti and the reinstallation of President Aristide. Turkmen Radio in Ashkabad, Turkmenistan, could sometimes be heard on 5015 kHz. around 2200 and 0130. On a good night, Radio Tajikistan, Dushanbe, could also be heard, opening at 0100 on 7245 kHz. And Radio Bayrak, in Northern Cyprus, reappeared on shortwave. With careful tuning it was audible in America on 6150 kHz. during a brief window before the station’s 2200 sign off. Two interesting stations which were on the air at times which, unfortunately, precluded North American reception, were Radio Hara (“We”), Dusheti, Georgia, 4875 kHz., a station sponsored by the Institute of Georgian-Abkhazian Relations in Tbilisi and devoted to Georgian-Abkhazian reconciliation, and the interestingly named Radio Miks-Master, 4940 kHz., at first thought to be a private station but actually a service of the Russian state broadcaster in Yakutsk. In February, Radio Bopeshawa (“Forward”) was founded by the Worker-Communist Party of Iraq. Named after the party’s newspaper, it was a reincarnation of the Voice of the Worker-Communist Party which had been operating since 1996. (The Worker-Communist Party of Iran was already running a station, called Radio International.) The hourlong program was on the air four days a week from a transmitter in Bulgaria, and was heard for about a year. (Reports that it had returned to the air in 2003 were never confirmed.) Russia was believed the source of the 15770 kHz. signal of a new clandestine station for Kurdish areas, Denge Mezopotamya, or Voice of Mesopotamia. Russia was also thought to be the host for a new anti-government Iranian broadcaster, Radio Barabari (“Equality”). Later it was broadcast from Sitkunai, Lithuania. New over the same transmitter was Radio Payam-e Doost (“Message From A Friend”), a Baha’i broadcast intended for Iran. Also new from the Middle East, and believed broadcasting via Russia, was The Arabic Radio, a pro-human rights broadcast carrying material from the Syrian Human Rights Committee (which, however, denied any connection with the broadcasts). The shortwave operations of many African broadcasters were becoming irregular, with stations sometimes disappearing for weeks or months at a time. Among these were the Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service, 3316 kHz.; Radio Malawi, 3380 and 7130; Radio Congo (Brazzaville), 4765; Radio Lesotho, 4800; Radio Burkina, 4815 (soon relocated to 5030); Radio Botswana, 4820 (whose transmitter problems soon put it off the air for good); the Kenya Broadcasting Corp. on 4885, 4915 and 4835 kHz.; Radio Nacional de Angola, 4950; and Radio Burundi on 6140 kHz. There were occasional loggings of Radio Moçambique on 3210 kHz., but the country was nearing extinction on shortwave. In Congo-Kinshasa, Radio Bunia, 5066 and 6828 kHz., and Radio Bukavu, 6713 kHz., were still active but were among the rarest of stations that American DXers could hope to hear. Radio Kahuzi, 6210 kHz., an 800 watt station in Bukavu, was also operational but was not heard here. Listeners had last known of the breakaway region of Nigeria called Biafra in 1967–70 when war in Nigeria gave birth to Radio Biafra. Now a station calling itself the Voice of Biafra appeared on 12120 kHz. The weekly hour-long program in Igbo and English promoted Biafran nationalism, and was broadcast over a Russian transmitter. Another Nige-

Headquarters for Information Radio, broadcasting from Afghanistan, was the 193rd Special Operations Wing of the Pennsylvania National Guard assigned to the Air Force Special Operations Command. Some of the broadcasts came from the unit’s “Commando Solo” aircraft, an airborne radio and TV facility.

Nigeria has been home to many shortwave stations. Of late, the Voice of Nigeria, the country’s external service, seems to have overcome some of the technical difficulties that plagued it in the past.

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ria-related signal appeared in the form of Christian broadcaster Salama Radio International, a project of Harvestime Ministries in England which had a small production staff in Jos, Nigeria. It transmitted on 15475 kHz. from the VT Comm station in Woofferton, U.K. (and later from Sackville, Canada and Rampisham, U.K.). It stayed on the air until 2003, and resumed broadcasting for part of 2005. And the Voice of Nigeria, whose presence on the higher frequencies was notoriously unreliable, was again active on an old frequency, 15120 kHz. (and soon 17800). Two new anti-government Ethiopian clandestines began broadcasting half-hour programs on WWCR. They were Voice of Tigrayans in North America, and Voice of the Martyrs (which merged into Dejen Radio). Another new Ethiopian clandestine was Netsanet Radio, which presented an hour-long program twice a week from Russia on 12110 kHz. A fourth was Radio Solidarity on 15275 kHz. It was sponsored by Tigrayan International Solidarity for Justice and Democracy, and transmitted from Jülich. Intermittent operations had become standard among many of the Spanish-speaking stations of the Americas. Heard on and off were HCOS4, Radio Stereo Carrizal, Ecuador, 3260 kHz.; HCVC3, Radio Centinela del Sur, Loja, Ecuador, 4770 kHz.; XERTA, Radio Transcontinental de America, Mexico City (heard on various frequencies in the 60 meter band before settling on 4810 kHz.); HRMI, Radio Misiones Internacionales, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, 5010 (later 3340); TIFC, Faro del Caribe, San Jose, Costa Rica, 5054; and ZPA1, Radio Nacional del Paraguay, Asuncion, 9737 kHz. As it had in 2000, Guatemala hosted another new broadcaster in 2001, Radio Amistad, an unlicensed 500 watt Baptist station in San Pedro La Laguna. It was also on FM, and used 4699 kHz. shortwave to reach beyond the surrounding mountains. On the other side of the ledger, however, it appeared that TGTZ, Radio Tezulutlan, Cobán, had gone silent. La Voz de la Fundación, the long-running anti–Castro broadcaster most recently heard on WHRI and WRMI, left the air, in part due to the financial problems of its parent organization, the Cuban-American National Foundation. However, it would reactivate in 2002 over WRMI. Meanwhile, a Sunday talk show in Venezuela called “Aló Presidente,” hosted by the country’s President, Hugo Chavez, was now carried over both Radio Havana Cuba and Radio Rebelde, in addition to many Venezuelan AM and FM stations. The 10 kw. RFO, Radio Television Francaise d’Outre-Mer, in Cayenne, French Guiana, long heard on 5055 kHz., closed down, leaving only the high-powered TDF station at Montsinery on the air from that country. Ecuadorean station HCVN7, La Voz del Napo, Tena, on 3280 kHz., began carrying the programs of the Catholic FMer, Radio Maria, during the late night hours. HCJB’s “DX Partyline” celebrated its 40th anniversary. The station’s low power transmitter on 21455 kHz. was now operating with 12 kw. Careful listening brought a few DXers one of the infrequent transmissions of the South American pirate Radio Piraña International on 11420 upper sideband. And heard for about a week with a good signal on 7380 kHz. was a station identifying as Idea Radio, Bogota, Colombia. It claimed to be using a 10 kw. transmitter, and traced its roots back to the station of the same name and frequency which had broadcast from Genoa, Italy in 1993. The Brazilian Senate took to shortwave by way of ZYE773, Radio Senado, theretofore on FM only. Programming was music and coverage of federal Senate activities. Transmitted over the Radiobras 250 kw. senders in Brasilia, it was well-heard on 5990 kHz. Also

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new was CWA155, Banda Oriental, a shortwave program of medium waver CW155, Radio Sarandi del Yí, in Durazno, Uruguay. The program was on the air daily at 0100–0300 over the station’s 2 kw. shortwave transmitter on 6154 kHz., and, while it was heard in Europe, it eluded American DXers. So did a new Chilean station, CE601, Radio Parinacota, Putre, on 6010 kHz., a busy frequency. A Cambodian opposition party, the Sam Rangsi Party, commenced a weekly hour-long broadcast called the Voice of Justice. It was on 15455 kHz., and originated from an otherwise unidentified “democratic country not very far from Cambodia.” Broadcasting to the Cambodian population of southern Vietnam was Voice of Khmer Krom Radio, 15725 kHz. It was sponsored by the Khmers Kampuchea-Krom Federation in California, and it was believed to be using transmitters in Russia. Two new Vietnam opposition broadcasts were heard. One was the half-hour program of New Orleans–based Radio Free Vietnam (different from the broadcaster of the same name headquartered in California). Its signal was thought to be coming from Tashkent. The other was the hour-long Radio Chan Troi Moi (New Horizon Radio), which was based in Japan and transmitted from Palau. At year’s end, Taiwan’s service for Asia, the Voice of Asia, closed down. Radio Taipei International continued broadcasting. It would change its name to Radio Taiwan International in 2003. Radio Pyongyang became the Voice of Korea. The All India Radio station in Jeypore returned to shortwave after a two-year absence. Japanese time signal station JJY ended its shortwave broadcasts on March 31 (it continued to operate on 40 and 60 kHz. and the internet). In its place in July came a new time signal station on 5006 and 8006 kHz., JG2XA, operated by the Sugadaira Space Radio Observatory, University of Electro-Communications, Tokyo. With only 200 watts, it was a rare catch in the United States. The well-heard Radio Corp. of Singapore channel on 6150 kHz. carried the Singapore domestic service known as News Radio 938 (renamed 938 Live in 2005). Vietnamese regional stations in Son La, Lao Cai, Cao Bang, Lai Chau and Ha Giang were still active. And west coast listeners able to hear the Sichuan People’s Broadcasting Station in Chengdu, China on 6060 kHz. around 1000 were happy to hear them identify in English as “Voice of Golden Bridge” during their “Life, Travel and City Service.” In the Pacific, the call letters of KHBN, the High Adventure Ministries station on Palau, were changed to the exotic T8BZ. Most of the programming was now supplied by a church in Hong Kong. And among the real Pacific exotica, only a few Indonesian “RPD” stations remained on shortwave. Ngada on 2899 kHz., Manggarai on 2960, Halmahera Tengah on 3215, and Sumbawa Besar on 3542 were all extremely rare catches. As with their African and Latin American counterparts, many Radio Republik Indonesia stations were now operating only intermittently. These included Bukittinggi on 3232 kHz., Merauke on 3905, Manokwari on 3987, Kendari on 4000, Fak Fak on 4789, and Palu on 7234 kHz.

2002 At the start of the year the staff of Radio Norway International was disbanded and the station’s international shortwave programming replaced with domestic fare, saving $5 million. On March 23, the shortwave staff of Radio Denmark, originally established in

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1948 to serve Danish expatriates, suffered a like fate, and the relays of Radio Denmark programs via Norway also reverted to Danish home service programs. Norkring, the owners of the transmitters in Kvitsøy and Sveio, Norway, sought outside customers for their air time. One Norkring customer was the post–Taleban Afghan government station, Radio Afghanistan. Its own shortwave transmitter had been destroyed in the war. VT Comm arranged for it to begin broadcasting again in late May via both Kvitsøy (18940 kHz.) and Al Dhabbaya, Abu Dhabi (15240). Radio Exterior de España reduced its nightly hour-long English program to North America from three airings to one. In October, Radio Finland ended its English, French and German programming, leaving Russian as its sole foreign-language service on shortwave. The station had begun relaying the programming of some of its domestic stations on shortwave, making for interesting DX targets (but for the broadcasting hours, which did not favor North American reception). In September, Radio Yugoslavia resumed broadcasting from Bijeljina in neighboring Bosnia-Hercegovina. And while Greenland returned to shortwave by way of two daily onehour broadcasts of Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa, the signal of the leased 200-watt transmitter operated by Ammassalik Radio, a coastal maritime station in Tasiilaq, although occasionally audible in Europe on 3815 kHz. upper sideband, eluded DXers in North America. A new religious broadcaster, Bible Voice Broadcasting Network, a U.K.–U.S.–Canadian partnership, began sending gospel programming over transmitters in Russia. BVB was the successor to High Adventure Ministries, and had been inspired by the Voice of Hope,

This QSL was issued by the German DX organization ADDX, Assoziation Deutschsprachiger Kurzwellenhörer, for a program over HCJB. It honored the station’s 70th anniversary and ADDX’s own 35th.

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the High Adventure station in south Lebanon, which left the air in 2000. Today BVB broadcasts via transmitters in Germany, Russia and the U.A.E. Also new was Gospel For Asia, a religious broadcaster which would eventually transmit programs in over 90 South Asian languages. It utilized transmitters in Germany and the VT Comm–operated transmitters in Al Dhabbaya. And long time Stockholm-based religious shortwave broadcaster IBRA Radio was heard with Arabic-language Christian programming for the Middle East and Africa under the name Radio Ibrahim. It was transmitted from Russia, Jülich, and HCJB. Heard via the Italian Radio Relay Service were several special programs from Radio Rasant, a broadcasting project of 14–15 year old students at the Städtische Realschule in Sundern, Germany. The station would return to the air a few times in later years. Although Radio Latvia had left shortwave three years earlier, Laser Radio in the U.K. was on the air on Sundays from the 100 kw. Ulbroka, Latvia transmitter on 9290 kHz. (Later, Laser became Euronet Radio and subleased its Ulbroka time to other broadcasters, such as European Music Radio.) And while in general it was a slow year in America for new European pirate stations, some Dutch pirates were heard, including Power AM (6210 kHz.), Radio Mazda (6258), Radio Skyline (6298), Mike Radio (9290), Radio Scotland International (6270), Radio Shadowman (6300), Radio Piepzender (6307), and Sensation AM (15705). IBB was now leasing more than 60,000 hours of air time a year, about 13 percent of its total broadcast time, from 20 different sites around the world. Most of it was on shortwave, although medium wave leases were increasing.2 WYFR also began purchasing air time from VT Comm, which placed WYFR programs on various transmitters around the world. Taiwan and France entered into a mutual relay agreement. Adventist World Radio also began using relay transmitters on Taiwan. And the Voice of Vietnam commenced relays from Austria. There was a good deal of activity among American religious stations. In April, WJCR, in Upton, Kentucky, came under the new ownership of Word Broadcasting Network and became WJIE (“Where Jesus Is Exalted”). The station’s transmitters were in need of repair and were frequently off the air. A new Kentucky-based religious broadcast was Tomorrow’s News–Today, heard on 7590 kHz. from Russia and also via WWCR and WWFV. The Fundamental Broadcasting Network (FBN), operator of WTJC in Newport South Carolina, opened a second station, WBOH, located a few miles away from the WTJC installation. WBOH was on 5920 kHz. For a time, FBN also broadcast some programs via Sitkunai, Lithuania. And the omnipresence of Brother Stair, leader of the widely heard Overcomer Ministry, was demonstrated when his recorded programs continued unabated during his incarceration on various charges. Civil and criminal problems followed the preacher, and one refugee of the Stair Christian community in Walterboro, South Carolina started his own hour-long shortwave program, Remnants Hope Ministry, which was broadcast over WBCQ and Deutsche Telekom. Transmitter problems put CFRX, Toronto, temporarily off 6070 kHz., a condition that would recur over the next few years. The station had been simulcasting its medium wave signal on the frequency since 1937. However, management now had little interest in shortwave broadcasting. One of the rarest of Canadian stations was still on the air. CFVP in Calgary, Alberta, a 100 watt station on 6030 kHz., relayed medium waver CKMX. The best

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time to hear it in the United States was after Sunday midnight when the frequency, occupied by Radio Martí and Cuban jamming on other days, was clear. Among the many new pirates heard on or near 6950 kHz. were All Pirate Radio, Captain Morgan Radio, KBLK, KMUD, KRPS, the Montana Audio Relay Service, Oxycontin Radio, Power 95, Radio Pigmeat International, Radio Time Machine, Voice of the New World Order, Voice of the Tiki, WJFK, WRAY, and a station that said it was a veteran of 20 years of Easter broadcasts, WBNY, “Radio Bunny.” VT Comm moved the now-obsolete BBC Eastern Relay Station from Masirah Island to a new site, A’Seela, overlooking the Arabian Sea from the Omani mainland. Masirah was closed in October. The BBC had a ten-year lease on the new site, which included three 250 kw. shortwave transmitters as well as high power medium wave senders. Congress had authorized a new Pashto-Dari language service to be produced by Radio Free Europe. Called Radio Free Afghanistan, it took to the air on January 30. A plan for a Radio Free Chechnya to be broadcast over Radio Liberty was shelved. In May, shortwave listeners were surprised to hear Radio Sawa (“together”), the U.S. government’s new fast-moving Arabic service which replaced the traditional VOA Arabic-language programming (and caused some observers to complain that the VOA’s target audience was changing from opinion makers to teenagers). The Radio Sawa program was basically popular music leavened with periodic news bulletins. Plans for the new service had been well-publicized, but it was believed that it would be available on medium wave and FM only. Radio Sawa was followed in December by Radio Farda. A joint project of the VOA and RFE-RL, Radio Farda was a Persian-language service beamed to Iran, and replaced RFE-RL’s existing service in Persian3 known as Radio Azadi. As with Radio Sawa, Radio Farda was intended mainly for the under-30 set. There appeared to be two Iranian clandestines called Voice of Komala. One, on 3928 and 4615 kHz., was run by a breakaway group of the Communist Party of Iran. The other was run by the Kurdish wing of the party and transmitted on a leased time basis from Norway on 7560 kHz. Other new clandestine broadcasts intended for the Middle East and East Africa included the Voice of Eritrea, 21550 kHz., run by Millenium Voice, an exile newspaper in Germany; the Voice of Free Lebanon on 11515 kHz., sponsored by the Frenchbased Rally For Lebanon and the Free Patriotic Movement and believed to be transmitted via TDF in France; and an Islamic opposition station aimed at Saudi Arabia, the Voice of al–Aslah, or Voice of Reform, run by the Movement for Islamic Reform in Arabia, a British group, and transmitted from Norway. And a station called Radio DAT began broadcasting for two hours a day in opposition to the government of Kazakhstan. The signal was on 9775 kHz. and appeared to be coming from the transmitter at Sitkunai, Lithuania. In December, the Commando Solo aircraft, which had returned to the U.S. from Afghanistan in March 2001, brought Information Radio back on the air, this time for Iraq. Reportedly transmitting from the skies near that country, and also from ground and seaborne platforms, the station operated on 4500, 9715, and 11292 kHz. While careful tuning sometimes produced signals on 9715 kHz. in North America, reception was poor compared to the Afghan broadcasts of the year before.4 New United Nations stations in Africa made interesting DX targets. Radio UNMEE, a project of the U.N. Mission in Eritrea and Ethiopia, had started broadcasting in 2001 over Voice of the Broad Masses of Eritrea. Those broadcasts ended in October of that year, but

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the station returned in mid 2002 with a weekly one-hour program over the high-power VT Comm station in Al Dhabbaya. In West Africa, Radio UNAMSIL, the station of the U.N. Assistance Mission in Sierra Leone, had operated from Freetown on FM since September 2000. Now it was also on 6137 kHz. shortwave, and the 1 kw. transmitter could be heard in the United States, albeit poorly, around 0400–0600. In Central Africa, Radio Okapi, operated by the U.N. Observer Mission in the Congo (MONUC), came on the air from Kinshasa in February. The Okapi, an animal resembling both the zebra and the giraffe, is a symbol of peace. Radio Okapi was a joint project of the U.N. and Fondation Hirondelle, the sponsor of the former Liberian station, Star Radio. It was the first time the U.N. joined with an NGO in a radio-related peacekeeping project. Radio Okapi was on FM at first, adding shortwave in March, and could be heard in North America around 2130 on 9550 kHz. using what the station said was only 100 watts. In September, it moved to 6030 and 11690 kHz. and increased power to 10 kw. Shortwave transmissions became irregular toward the end of 2003, and by early 2005 Radio Okapi had transferred shortwave operations to the high-power SENTECH transmitters in South Africa. Radio Okapi is said to be the most popular station in the Congo.5 Meanwhile, the government station in Kinshasa, Radio Television Nationale Congolaise, was leasing five hours of air time daily from Africa No. One in Gabon. Libya dropped the use of its own transmitters for its external service, the Voice of Africa, in favor of leasing time over the TDF transmitters in Issoudon, France. TDF also carried Libyan domestic programming. And in August, Radio Veritas, Monrovia, Liberia, was allowed to return to the air and was soon heard on one of its old frequencies, 5470 kHz. It went off again in mid 2003, but returned two years later. Still on the air from Liberia was the Liberia Communications Network, audible on 6100 kHz. at 0630 sign on and also identifying at various times as Radio Liberia, Radio Liberia International, and the Voice of Liberia. The Somali shortwave scene was as confusing as ever, reflecting the country’s decadelong rule by various independent militias and the self-creation of several “states” within the state (“Puntland” and “Somaliland” being two). The stations—Radio Baydhabo, Radio Mogadishu, Radio Galkayo, Radio Banaadir, and, in 2004, Radio Shabelle in Mogadishu — operated on various frequencies in the 6.7–7.1 MHz. range. Radio Hargeisa, in the “Republic of Somaliland,” was on 7530 kHz. (and confirmed reception reports via the Somaliland consulate in Bergheim, Germany). These were all low power operations, and the stations usually operated at times that made North American reception impossible.6 On the African freedom front, a new Nigerian clandestine station was heard in May. Jakada Radio International seemed to be coming from the same Russian transmitter site as Voice of Biafra. The pro-democracy Jakada was said to be run from Spain by Nigeria’s former ambassador to that country. The offices of Radio Voice of the People in Harare, Zimbabwe, were bombed and raided. The station, unwelcome by the government, was still transmitting via the Radio Netherlands transmitter plant on Madagascar. Another prodemocracy station aimed at the regime in Zimbabwe was SW Radio Africa. Although the station did not announce its location, and Madagascar was the first suspect, soon it was widely assumed to be broadcasting via SENTECH in South Africa, first on 6145 kHz., later on 4880 and 3230. In the target country itself, Radio Zimbabwe’s shortwave service was

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rejuvenated and its channels renamed. National FM (formerly Radio Four) was heard on 4828 kHz., and “Radio Zimbabwe” (formerly Radio Two) was on 6045 kHz. Zimbabwe reappeared on an old frequency, 3306 kHz., in 2004, and on that channel’s harmonic, 6612 kHz., in 2005. One of the most unusual marriages of programming and transmitter site was the Korean-language church service heard in North America on Fridays until around 2230 on 6715 kHz. It confounded listeners for weeks until it was found to be coming from the Full Gospel Las Palmas Church in Las Palmas, Gran Canaria, Canary Islands. The church was broadcasting three times weekly over a 100 watt transmitter for the benefit of Korean fishermen. New activity among stations in Central and South America and the Caribbean was by now a rarity. However, there were some developments. The domestic programming of the Cuban medium wave network, Radio Reloj, began appearing on some Radio Havana Cuba frequencies around 0700 after RHC closed. Radio Rumbos, Venezuela, not on shortwave for years, returned to 4970 kHz. for a time. And a station in El Salvador, YSDA, Radio Imperial, in Sonsonate, was found to be operating intermittently on 17835 kHz., mainly to maintain its license for the 1.5 kw. shortwave transmitter. At first thought to be a harmonic, sometimes it could be heard around 2000, usually with a fadey, undermodulated signal. Well-heard on 6065 kHz. was a new Colombian station, La Voz de tu Conciencia. It had been operating on AM for some time as Radio Alcaraván. The station’s 5 kw. shortwave transmitter, formerly owned by Colmundo Bogota, had been moved to Lomalinda in guerilla territory, one of the goals of the station’s operator, Russ Stendal, being to bring religion and non-violent thinking to bear on the country’s civil strife. The station soon moved to 6060 kHz., then to 6010. An interesting new station in Argentina was the Christian station Radio Baluarte. Operating with 1 kw. on 6215 kHz., it was located in Puerto Iguazú, where Paraguay, Brazil and Argentina meet. It served all three countries, and, when it could be heard in the United states, which was usually around 2300, it was often broadcasting in Portuguese. Identifying the station was tricky because it sometimes carried programming of its medium wave outlet, which was called Radio Maranatha, or its FM channel, which identified in Portuguese as Futuro FM and in Spanish as Cultura FM. In later years, the station’s operation became intermittent. And from Paraguay, medium wave station ZP20, Radio America, Ñemby, began experimental shortwave transmissions on various frequencies around 7.3, 9.9 and 15 MHz. with a power ranging from one watt to 1 kw. The head of the station was the same former KGEI employee who had planned to purchase the site of Radio Nacional de Chile in 1995 and set up a Radio Americas International. Many DXers pursued the Radio America signal, which remained unheard for all who tried for it. In March, the Japan Short Wave Club celebrated its 50th anniversary, and in May the Belgian club DX-Antwerp celebrated its 20th anniversary, both with special programs over various stations. A new Laotian clandestine station was Hmong Lao Radio, a program of the Minnesota-based United Lao Movement for Democracy. It broadcast over Russian transmitters (and later also from Taiwan, the U.K. and WHRI). Radio Station Tikhy Okean in

La Voz de tu Conciencia came on the air from Lomalinda, Colombia in 2002. With a goal of facilitating peace in areas of the country affected by guerilla activity, the religious station, also on medium wave and FM, added a second shortwave channel in 2005.

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Vladivostok, on the air since 1963, had been reduced to a skeleton staff in 2000. For a while in 2001 it was heard occasionally around 0800. By 2002, however, it had left shortwave. Long one of the most exotic shortwave venues, Tibet was now heard in English. The Xizang People’s Broadcasting Station in Lhasa, calling itself in English the China Tibet People’s Broadcasting Co., broadcast the “Voice of Holy Tibet,” a program for Englishspeaking tourists. It was on the air at 1100 and 1630 over such regular Lhasa frequencies as 4905, 4920, 5240, and 9490 kHz. The station also became a friendly, dependable verifier.7 And from another exotic venue, Jammu, Kashmir, All India Radio inaugurated a 50 kw. transmitter on 4830 kHz. The station had been off shortwave for years. DXers were surprised to learn that, notwithstanding the return of Hong Kong to Chinese Communist control in 1997, the Royal Hong Kong Yacht Club still existed, and that the South China Sea Yacht Race weather broadcasts, which originated at Radio TV Hong Kong but had not been heard since 1996, were supposed to be on the air for several days starting on March 28. Although they were never reported heard, a similar yacht race broadcast in October was. Unfortunately for American DXers, the transmission times favored European rather than North American reception. European DXers also heard yacht race broadcasts in April 2003 on 3940 kHz. The yacht race signals were heard again in North America on 8749 kHz. upper sideband during races in April and October of the following year. Although by this time the broadcasts no longer originated at Radio TV Hong Kong, the transmissions were still good DX because QSLs from the Cape d’Aguilar transmitting station gave the power as 1.5 kw. The high power transmissions of Indonesia’s external service, the Voice of Indonesia, and the Radio Republik Indonesia domestic service, usually operated on one or more of 9525, 9680, 11760, 11785, 15125, and 15150 kHz., although assigning particular services to particular channels appeared to be a free form, ever-changing exercise. Australian time signal station VNG closed on December 31. Radio New Zealand International began carrying a two-hour weekend program called New Zealand Forces Radio. A joint project of the New Zealand Defence Force and the Armed Forces Canteen Council, it was intended for New Zealand troops serving in various Asian and Pacific locations. And some local ex-combatants who were unhappy with the end of the civil war on Bougainville relaunched Radio Free Bougainville, renaming it Radio Independent Mekamui after the breakaway “republic” of the same name. It operated on the old Radio Free Bougainville frequency of 3850 kHz.

2003 In Europe, Radio Yugoslavia became the International Radio of Serbia and Montenegro, reflecting the names of the two remaining parts of the former Yugoslavia. And Polish Radio Warsaw was again calling itself Radio Polonia. The Voice of Russia began broadcasting a new youth-oriented service called Russkoye Mezhdunarodnoye Radio, or Russian International Radio, a joint project with Russkoye Radio, a large Russian commercial FM network. In 2002, Radio Luxembourg, off shortwave since 1994, had tested for one day on its old 6090 kHz. channel in anticipation of returning to shortwave in DRM format. More tests were conducted in 2003, and soon Radio

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The International Radio of Serbia and Montenegro became International Radio Serbia in 2006 when Montenegro achieved independence. This card was issued in 2004.

Luxembourg returned to regular shortwave broadcasting with a DRM–only signal on 6090 kHz. (soon moved to 6095). Ongoing DRM test broadcasts were also being conducted by the BBC, Deutsche Welle, Radio Netherlands, Radio Kuwait, Radio Canada International, Christian Voice, Voice of Russia, Vatican Radio, and Radio Sweden. Deutsche Welle was transmitting in DRM mode on 3995 kHz., rendering the frequency unuseable by amateur radio operators, with whom shortwave broadcasters shared the 75 meter band. On the relay front, the IBB placed some of its RFE-RL programs on a transmitter in Jászberény, Hungary. The Italian Radio Relay Service appeared to be using the transmitters of Deutsche Telekom, or senders in Russia or Eastern Europe, for some of its broadcasts. It also created two specialized departments: European Gospel Radio, for religious groups interested in using shortwave, and International Public Access Radio, for other small program producers. IRRS customers in 2003 included Radio Six International, a music station in Scotland which in 2004 would also broadcast over WBCQ. Later in the year, IRRS would close down its transmitters in Italy and lease time over transmitters in other countries. A new religious broadcaster on Deutsche Telekom was Missionswerk Friedensstimme in Gummersbach, Germany. It broadcast in Russian to Baptists in the former Soviet Union. The Transmitter Documentation Project now had its own weekly hour-long program of Belgian dance music called TDP Radio. Although the transmitter site was unspecified, Norway and Russia, broadcasting venues sometimes used by TDP clients, were suspected. Events continued to portend the decline of shortwave. It was a mixed year for Deutsche Welle. While the station celebrated its 50th birthday in June and moved its headquarters from Cologne to a new broadcasting house in Bonn, financial constraints, coupled with an

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Missionswerk Friedensstimme in Germany was one of numerous religious broadcasters renting air time on available shortwave transmitters (in this case, Deutsche Telekom).

interest in expanding its network of local rebroadcasters, led to the cancellation of all DW’s English-language analog shortwave transmissions to North America, Australia and New Zealand. At the same time, DW increased its output of DRM broadcasts, making more transmitters DRM capable and becoming the first station to have scheduled daily DRM transmissions (including a nightly half-hour in English to North America). Radio Norway International closed its shortwave transmissions on December 31, taking the Radio Denmark relays with it. Radio Denmark listeners were referred to the station’s satellite, internet, and medium wave services. On the same date, the IBB closed its 50-plus-year-old transmitter plant at Holzkirchen, Germany, leaving Lampertheim and Biblis still in operation from that country. Around the same time, RFE-RL closed six language services to Central and Southeastern Europe and cut over 100 staff positions. Poland’s Radio Maryja and Ireland’s Radio Telefis Éireann, both of whose programs had been relayed from various sites, also left shortwave, as did the Malta program, Voice of the Mediterranean, once a joint Malta-Libya project which had transmitted over the DW Malta station since 1988. Two and one-half years later its managing director, by then Malta’s ambassador to Ireland, would be accused of extravagant spending during his three years at the station’s helm. A favorite target of DXers, the RAI station in Caltanissetta, Sicily, closed down in May. Radio Netherlands, Radio Romania International, and Adventist World Radio all reduced their broadcasting hours. On June 30, Radio Austria International closed down

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as a distinct service, although its parent, Österreichischer Rundfunk, continued to broadcast the German-language domestic program, Österrreich One, along with some 15-minute English broadcasts, on shortwave from Moosbrunn (and Sackville). Sender Freies Berlin, off shortwave since 1994, merged with Ostdeutscher Rundfunk Brandenburg to form a new organization called Rundfunk Berlin-Brandenburg. The new station could be heard on shortwave because some of its news programs were carried by Südwestrundfunk on 7265 kHz. Listeners were pleased that instead of closing at the end of 2002 as planned, Bayerischer Rundfunk, on 6085 kHz., stayed on the air, changing to all-news programming called B5 Aktuell. Notwithstanding dozens of Dutch pirate raids (involving shortwavers as well as medium wave and low power FM stations), a few new Dutch pirates were heard in North America —Enjoy Radio (6294 kHz.), Radio Online (6339), and Radio Spaceshuttle International (15775). The German pirate Crazy Wave Radio (6955 kHz.), was heard, as was the U.K.’s WNKR (West & North Kent Radio, 6285 kHz.). And in April, a pirate relay of a Tuscany FM station, Radio Tres Network, was heard on 6955 kHz. Notwithstanding the use of this North American pirate frequency, the signal appeared to be coming from Europe. A new AFRTS transmitter came on the air from the U.S. naval site at Grindavik, Iceland. It was well heard in America on 7590 and 13855 kHz. WWRB, which had once planned to be 100 percent commercial, announced that over time it would replace all patriot programming with religious content. And in October, the National Association of Shortwave Broadcasters, a trade organization of U.S. shortwave stations, started broadcasting the weekly, half-hour Voice of the NASB program in both analog and DRM format, in part to promote DRM, which was a major focus of the group. The program was transmitted in analog format over WRMI and in DRM from the VT Comm transmitter in Rampisham, U.K. In 2004, Rampisham was replaced with Sackville and the analog broadcast was replaced with a monthly update of NASB news on HCJB’s “DX Partyline,” which was also carried on WRMI. The DRM broadcasts ended in 2005. Among the pirates reported heard on or near 6950 kHz. during the year were Big Thunder Radio, Grass Cutter Radio, Happy Halloween, Iron Man Radio, Undercover Radio, Sunshine Radio, Voodoo Radio, Wacko Radio, WAIR, Wild Imagination Radio, WMOE, and WSDW (“Shadow Radio”). And the World Trade Organization, meeting in Cancun in September, brought out an interesting political pirate station militating against globalization and corporate domination. It was Radio Free Cascadia International, a late 90s FM pirate that had operated from Eugene, Oregon until it was closed down by the FCC in 2001. Now it returned for five days on 15045 kHz. from an unknown North American location. In February, the British Forces Broadcasting Service resumed operations on shortwave for U.K. troops in Operation Telic, the British component of the Iraq invasion, who were beyond the range of BFBS land-based FM transmitters. BFBS broadcast daily from various U.K. and Russian sites until closing down in May. Radio Exterior de España also aired a special program, “Aquí España,” for its troops in Iraq. Radio Bahrain, seldom heard on shortwave during the decade of the 90s, reappeared on its old frequency of 9745 kHz. It was a difficult catch due to its weak signal and the interference from other stations, including HCJB, a long-time occupant of the channel. And late in the year, following the pattern set with Radio Sawa and Radio Farda, the VOA began

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broadcasting a new youth-oriented Urdu-language program to Pakistan. It was called Radio Aap Ki Dunya (“Your World”). Radio Aap Ki Dunya launched officially in May 2004. An hour-long broadcast of the New York–based Afghanistan Peace Association called Radio Amani was on 15615 kHz. from Russia. In March, a new broadcast intended for Iran and the Iranian diaspora appeared. It was Radio Yaran (“friend”), operated by the California-based American Farsi Net Link, which was new to shortwave but had been on satellite and the internet for some time. The transmissions came first from Norway, then from Russia. By September, however, Radio Yaran had left shortwave. The Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran began a service in Hebrew called the Voice of David. Some of Iran’s English programs were now called the Voice of Justice. Radio Jordan was still well heard in English, albeit with some interference, in the mornings around 1400–1700 on 11690 kHz. However, Radio Kuwait dropped its daily English-language broadcasts. In the Central African Republic, Radio Ndeke Luka (“Bird of Luck”) had replaced Radio MINURCA when the latter left the air coincident with the end of the U.N. mission in the country on February 1, 2000. Radio Ndeke Luka had begun broadcasting on FM in October 2000, but did not begin using shortwave until September 2003 when a relay via VT Comm’s U.K. transmitter in Woofferton (later Al Dhabbaya) was established. The station was another collaborative effort of the U.N. and Fondation Hirondelle, and was well heard in the United States. The Kenya Broadcasting Corp. was down to one shortwave channel, 4915 kHz., which could sometimes be heard opening at 0300. The only shortwave station now heard from Angola was Radio Nacional de Angola on 4950, 7215, and 11955 kHz. More African stations were operating intermittently, sometimes disappearing for months at a time. A few who made returns in 2003 included Radio Centreafrique, Bangui, Central African Republic, on 5035 and 7220 kHz.; Radio Lomé, Togo, on 5047 kHz; and Radio Gabon, on its old frequency of 4777 kHz. The Zambia National Broadcasting Corp. moved from 6265 kHz. to 5915. In June, it would also reappear on an old channel, 4910 kHz., opening at 0245 and closing at 2200. Radio Tanzania Zanzibar began carrying an English news bulletin from “Spice FM” at 1800 on 11735 kHz. It could often be heard in North America. And concerns over continuing repression in Zimbabwe led the VOA to begin a special program for that country called Studio 7. On March 29, with aging equipment, increasing costs, and encroaching development, the Far East Broadcasting Association closed its shortwave station in the Seychelles, which had been operating since 1969, choosing to place its programs on leased transmitters instead. The Voice of Ethiopia was a new weekly, one-hour English-language program of a U.S. group called Democracy Frontiers. It appeared to be broadcasting from Norway.8 And although it was on the air for only a short time, a station called Radio Togo Libre was heard on 12125 and 21760 kHz. It was believed to be transmitting via SENTECH in South Africa. In July, the Sudan Radio Service began broadcasting for two hours daily via VT Comm transmitters in the U.K. The station was run by the USAID-supported Education Development Center, Inc. (EDC) in Washington, D.C., a firm specializing in distance learning. The studios were in Nairobi, Kenya. The SRS goal was to support peace and development in the country by providing information on health, education, agriculture, and cultural

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issues. (Another EDC project, Southern Sudan Interactive Radio Instruction Program, would broadcast via VT Comm in 2006.) And in September, a German-based Uganda opposition station, Radio Rhino International-Africa, began broadcasting over the Jülich transmitter. It supported the Uganda People’s Congress and its leader, ex–Ugandan President Milton Obote. Although Obote died in October 2005, the station continued to broadcast. In March, WJIE attempted to put a station on the air from Liberia. The Voice of Liberty operated intermittently on 11515 kHz., simulcasting the station’s FM signal. It was using the Voice of Hope transmitter once located in southern Lebanon, now operating at 10 kw. but suffering technical problems. Plans to install one of the 100 kw. FEBA transmitters from the Seychelles came to naught, and the station disappeared in 2004. Many Spanish-language stations reactivated, albeit not usually for long. These included Radio Naylamp, Lambayeque, Peru, now on 4335 kHz.; HCVC3, Radio Centinela del Sur, Loja, Ecuador, on 4772; HIAS, Onda Musical, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic, on 4780 kHz.; HJQA, Ondas del Orteguaza, Florencia, Colombia, 4975; OAZ2A, Radio Los Andes, Huamachuco, Peru, 5030; OAX7O, Radio Onda Imperial, Cuzco, Peru, 5055; Radio Ondas del Suroriente, Quillabamba, Peru, 5067 (later 5121); HJOQ, La Voz de los Centauros, Villavicencio, Colombia, on 5955; XEQM (now carrying the programs of Sistema RASA’s Candela FM), Merida, Mexico, 6105; HJQE, Radio Melodia, Bogota, Colombia, on 6140 kHz.; and TIUCR, Radio Universidad de Costa Rica, San Jose, 6105 kHz. Also among the returnees were the Voice of Guyana on 3290 kHz., and Radio Apintie, Surinam, 4990 kHz., which now had a new, higher-power transmitter but continued to operate intermittently. Two new Peruvian stations came to air: Radio Macedonia, Arequipa, on 4890 kHz., and OAZ7B, Radio Santa Monica, Cuzco, Peru, on 4965. Newly heard in North America was Radio Cielo, Chiclayo, Peru, on 5628 kHz., and the new Radio-TV Uncia in Uncia, Bolivia, on 4722 kHz. And from Brazil, a new station was ZYG850, Radio Guarujá Paulista, Guaruja. At first on 5045 kHz., soon it was also using the transmitter of ZYG860, Radio Club de Marilia, on 3235 kHz., plus a second transmitter in Guaruja on 3230 kHz. The station also tested on 5930 kHz. A long-time shortwave broadcaster from Central America, TGNA, Radio Cultural, Guatemala City, left shortwave, closing both its 3300 and 5955 kHz. channels. It had stayed on shortwave intermittently, but now it was too expensive to keep the transmitters on the air for a shrinking shortwave audience. (A few impromptu shortwave transmissions from TGNA were reported in 2004 and 2005.) Radio Miskut, Puerto Cabezas, Nicaragua, was off the air with transmitter problems. And in November, Radio For Peace International in Costa Rica went silent after the University for Peace withdrew its support and cut off resources. The reasons for the shut down ranged from philosophical and political issues to unpaid bills. The station reverted to webcasting. Listeners were shocked to learn that, as a result of a broad reexamination of its mission and its budget, HCJB’s plan to rebuild its transmitter site at a new location for the short term had been scrapped and that as of June 1 the Ecuadorean powerhouse would greatly reduce its presence on shortwave. All HCJB English-language programming to the Americas and Europe was dropped, save for one morning broadcast to the Americas and some English-language teaching programs. Henceforth, the emphasis would be on Latin

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America, satellite broadcasting, the internet, and local rebroadcasting. Few shortwave stations had deeper roots than HCJB, and its decision to move away from shortwave made stark the continuing decline of the medium. China was a shortwave contrarian. Some 19 new 500 kw. shortwave transmitters were installed there by the French firm, Thales Broadcast and Multimedia (formerly Thomcast), greatly increasing China‘s presence on the shortwave bands. Regrettably, some of the transmitters appeared also to be used for “firedrake” jamming. At a more modest level, the assistance of Japanese development aid permitted Mongolian National Radio and TV to upgrade its domestic shortwave service by the addition of a 50 kw. transmitter in Ulan Bator and 10 kw. senders in the former shortwave sites of Altai and Murun. The latter two remained elusive DX targets in North America, however, as did Radio TV Malaysia, Sabah, which was down to one shortwave channel which it planned to continue using until the transmitter gave out. And the All India Radio station at Port Blair, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, was operating at about half power (5 kw.), a condition that would last until early 2004. On July 1, Radio Taipei International became Radio Taiwan International. In Japan, the Nihon Short-Wave Broadcasting Co., Japan’s longtime commercial shortwave broadcaster, changed hands, and on October 1 became the Nikkei Radio Broadcasting Corp. In 2004 the station, known as Radio Tampa (“Tampa” means shortwave), became Radio Nikkei. In August, the North Korean clandestine station broadcasting to South Korea, Voice of National Salvation, left the air. It had been operating under various names since 1967. When South Korea did not reciprocate by terminating its propaganda broadcasts to the north, North Korea devoted the old Voice of National Salvation frequencies to relays of the Korean Central Broadcasting Station. This was done ostensibly on behalf of the “National Democratic Front of South Korea,” which appeared to be a North Korean government operation. A new Urdu-language Kashmir freedom station was Radio Sadaye Kashmir on 6100 and 9890 kHz., broadcasting from a 100 kw. transmitter in Delhi. And a new anti-government Vietnamese broadcaster, Degar Voice, began a half-hour, three-day-a-week transmission intended for the Montagnards of Vietnam. It was broadcast over a Russian transmitter, and it was a project of the Montagnard Foundation of Spartanburg, South Carolina, whose mission was to preserve the lives and culture of the Montagnard (Degar) people. On January 5, 2003, HCJB began broadcasting from its new site at Kununurra, Australia. The station operated separately from HCJB–Ecuador and called itself HCJB Australia, “The Voice of the Great South Land.” The target areas were Asia and the Pacific, and reception in the United States was mediocre at best. The initial broadcasts were at 25 kw., but soon the station was transmitting with 50–75 kw. And Humpty Doo in Australia’s Northern Territory was the location of a new station, the Community Development Radio Service, run by Aboriginal Resource and Development Services (ARDS). Operating on 5050 kHz. with 400 watts (less for a time), “ARDS” was on the air 24 hours a day and maintained close contact with listeners, who could request that particular programs be developed. The ARDS station was directed to northeast Arnhem Land, whose aboriginal population of approximately 7,000 was in need of assistance

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on health and community education. Careful listening and good conditions produced weak signals from ARDS for a few lucky west coast DXers. Early in the year, the increasing cost of power led Radio New Zealand International to reduce its broadcast hours and cut back power from 100 kw. to 50 kw. At mid year, damage from a lightning strike necessitated the lease of broadcast time over Radio Australia’s transmitters. By year’s end, however, RNZI had fully recovered and gone to 24 hour operation.

2004 Radio Budapest closed one of its two transmitter sites, Székesfehérvár, leaving Jászberény in operation. Radio Cairo reduced its operations. The shortwave service of Südwestrundfunk on 6030 and 7265 kHz. shut down. And at the end of October, Swiss Radio International closed its last Swiss-based transmitter (Sottens), canceled its arrangements for relays from Jülich and Montsinery, and left shortwave completely, choosing to serve its international audience by way of the internet. Switzerland had been on shortwave since 1935. The news was not all bad. China completely rebuilt the Radio Tirana transmitting center at Cerrik, replacing the old transmitters with six 150 kw. units. The site was then devoted to relaying China Radio International, while Radio Tirana began using two new Chinese-supplied 100 kw. shortwave transmitters at Shijak. China was also installing new 100 kw. transmitters at the Radio Havana Cuba transmitter site at Bauta, near Havana. CRI also began transmitting from a new high power site in China, Kashi-Kashgar. And in a sign of the changing times, China National Radio’s domestic CNR-2 service could often be heard identifying in English as China Business Radio. The Russian Orthodox Church station, Radio Radonezh, last heard in 2001, resumed shortwave broadcasts with a three-hour daily transmission to Ukraine, Belarus and Eastern Europe over a transmitter in Novosibirsk. Voice Africa, part of the Christian Vision organization in the U.K., conducted some test broadcasts for Africa from transmitters in Bulgaria. Another religious broadcaster, “Leading the Way,” a stateside ministry of Dr. Michael Youssef of the Church of the Apostles, Atlanta, Georgia, had been in existence as a local program in Atlanta since 1988. Later, dual-language translations of the English programs were carried by various stations throughout the world, and now the Farsi program was being heard via VT Comm transmitters in the U.K. Radio Filia was heard over the Voice of Greece. It was a multi-lingual service for immigrants heretofore carried only on medium wave and FM. A U.K. music station, Europa Radio International, was broadcasting via Ulbroka, Latvia. It left the air in October 2005. And for a few months starting in October, Radio Cimarrona, a weekly hour-long program in Spanish produced by Colectivo de Radio Independiente Testimonios, a left-wing Uruguayan group in Germany, broadcast via Jülich. Its inauguration coincided with the general elections in Uruguay. The station was intended as an alternative to the transnational information sources which it said dominated the world. In May, a licensed private station in Denmark, World Music Radio, began testing on 5815 kHz. with 6 kw. and on 15810 kHz. with 500 watts. WMR had started out in 1967 as

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a pirate station. Later it leased time from stations in Andorra, Italy, Ireland and South Africa (SENTECH). Its 2003 incarnation, now with its own transmitter, broadcast only pop music. The 15810 kHz. channel was dropped in June due to local interference problems, but 5815 continued, adopting a weekends-only schedule in August. It was fairly well heard in America. However, it had little success in attracting advertisers, and it ended transmissions in January 2005 save for a few brief later broadcasts. Although the Europirate scene was generally quiet during the year, a number of Dutch pirates were heard in North America for the first time, including Antonio Radio (6275 kHz.), Radio Digital (6301), Radio Diamond (6305), and Radio Powerliner (6308). One of the more interesting pirates was Mystery Radio on 6220 kHz., an all-music pirate station believed to be in Italy and heard unusually well during its frequent operations. Also heard at year’s end (and in early 2005) broadcasting from “southern Europe” was Radio Malaisy (6310 kHz.), which said it was transmitting with 1 kw. In February, the VOA dropped ten language services beamed to Central and Southeastern Europe. Also in February, Herald Broadcasting station WSHB in Cypress Creek, South Carolina, the last of the Christian Science network stations that once included transmitters in Maine and Saipan, left the air. It was sold to LeSEA Broadcasting (WHRI), and returned to the air in June with WHRI programming. Soon WSHB adopted WHRI’s call letters, and the WHRI transmitter plant in Noblesville, Indiana was shuttered. The Christian Science Church retained a small shortwave presence by way of two twice-weekly programs from Jülich: the half-hour French-language program, “Le Heraut de la Chritian Sience,” and the hour-long Christliche Wissenschaft program of the Christian Science Church in Germany. KVOH in California was now owned by a Spanish-language church in Los Angeles, Iglesias de Restauración, and was operating under the name La Voz de Restauración. KTBN, still simulcasting Trinity Broadcasting Network TV audio, was announcing on air that it was near closure. Brother Stair’s programs over WBCQ ended in June, but were soon restarted over the now LeSEA–owned WSHB. WBCQ also conducted the first remote broadcasts originating live from the M/S Katie in Boston Harbor. WRMI began carrying programming from the satellite broadcaster World Radio Network as filler during certain unsold broadcast hours. This permitted listeners to hear broadcasts from some stations they would not be able to hear directly, such as Radio Guangdong in China. WRMI continued to carry WRN content from time to time as air time permitted. And among the North American pirates heard during 2004 around 6925 and 6950 kHz. were Cell Phone Radio, Channel Z Radio, James Bond Radio, Old Vampire Radio, Pink Puma Radio, Radio First Termer, Radio Free Ancaster (later called Ann Hoffer Radio), Radio Three, Smooth Blues Radio, WBMR (Black Mountain Radio), WBST, WDVL, WEAK, and Y-108. The VOA had opened a new medium wave station in Kuwait in 1996. Now three 250 kw. shortwave transmitters formerly located at the Gloria, Portugal site were transferred to Kuwait and in July the IBB Kuwait station began using shortwave. DXers were happy to learn that the station would verify reports direct. There were several events related to Afghanistan. The VOA renamed its Dari and Pashto broadcasts to Afghanistan Radio Ashna (“voice”). A new Afghan broadcaster, Salaam Watandar, was heard. The goal of its parent organization, Internews, was to promote inde-

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The mission of Salaam Watandar was to support the establishment of an independent media environment in Afghanistan by setting up an infrastructure of local FM stations. It leased time on shortwave transmitters in the U.K., Russia, and elsewhere.

pendent media through training, production, and the improvement of infrastructure and media laws and policies. The Internews objective in Afghanistan was to help set up a network of 40 independent FM stations. Salaam Watandar was a satellite-provided national program, half music, half news and information, intended to be rebroadcast by those stations. The programs, entirely in Pashto and Dari, were also transmitted over shortwave, at first from VT Comm transmitters in the U.K. and Al Dhabbaya, then from transmitters in Russia. The U.S. Information Radio broadcasts in Afghanistan appeared now to have become a local service called Radio Solh (“peace” in Dari), and in October the Radio Solh broadcasts in Pashto and Dari made appearances throughout the day on a variety of frequencies in the 31, 25, 19, 16 and 13 meter international shortwave bands. The powerful signals were coming from Vt Comm transmitters in the U.K. and Abu Dhabi. A new daily, hour-long clandestine broadcast for Iran was Radio Pedar (“father”), produced by Channel One TV in California and transmitted via VT Comm transmitters in the U.K. Another new one beamed to Iran was the daily half-hour program of Radio Seda-ye Melat-e Iran, or Radio Voice of the Iranian Nation. It was a democracy-oriented, youthrun service variously thought to be transmitting from Bulgaria, France or Egypt. (An anti–Shah station of the same name had operated in 1964–70.) In October, the Farsi-language Radio Sedayeh Zan, the Voice of Women, operated by the Boston-based Women’s Forum Against Fundamentalism in Iran, came to air over the Jülich transmitters. And else-

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where in the Middle East, in June, Radio Free Syria, a project of the U.S.–based Reform Party of Syria, began broadcasting an hour-long weekly program from Jülich. An interesting station whose signal was heard in Europe but only rarely in America was known as Radio One, or CMF Radio (Coalition Maritime Forces Radio). The service was run by the Maritime Liaison Office (MARLO), headquartered in Bahrain, and its mission was to facilitate information exchange between U.S. naval vessels and commercial shippers in the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, the Arabian Sea, and waters near the Horn of Africa. Broadcasts were in upper sideband on 6125 and 15500 kHz. (and later 9133 and 18727) over low-power (supposedly 250-watt) ship-borne transmitters. A plan to use high power VT Comm transmitters never came to fruition. Most of the ten hours of daily programming consisted of music and announcements in local languages, including promotions for the “Rewards for Justice” program, which offered cash rewards for information about anti–U.S. terrorism activities. Although it had come on the air in 2003, it was 2004 before DXers discovered Radio Peace, a Christian evangelical station located close to “New Site,” a settlement near Narus, Sudan. Radio Peace was run by two Virginia-based groups, the Persecution Project Foundation, and Educational Media Corp., a non-profit group focusing on religious media development in Africa and Asia. The 1 kw. station was on the air four hours a day and was audible weakly on 4750 kHz. at 0230 sign on. In 2005 it added a second transmitter of 2.5 kw. on 5895 kHz. Another station called Voice of New Sudan, also located near “New Site,” reportedly conducted some tests on 9310 kHz., but nothing more was heard from it. The Namibian Broadcasting Corp., off shortwave for most of 2003, returned to the air. For a while in late 2004 and early 2005, the Zambia National Broadcasting Corp. was heard well on the odd channel of 4500 kHz. while testing a refurbished 100 kw. transmitter. Also at year’s end, powerful albeit distorted transmissions from Radio Centreafrique, Bangui, Central African Republic, were heard on 9590 kHz. It was soon learned that the transmissions were coming from the TDF station at Issoudon, France. Stations targeting East Africa continued to multiply, all of them broadcasting over high power relay transmitters. The thrice-weekly, half-hour Radio Mustaqbal broadcast, a project of Education Development Center, Inc. (the same organization that sponsored the Sudan Radio Service), was intended to serve Somali refugees in Ethiopia and appeared to be transmitting from SENTECH and from the VT Comm station in Al Dhabbaya. The Voice of Liberty, a new Eritrean opposition station, was on the air for two hours weekly on 12120 and 15675 kHz., seemingly from a Russian transmitter. And beamed to Ethiopia were two stations supported by the Oromo Liberation Front: the Voice of Oromo Liberation, on the air since 1988 and now transmitting from Jülich, and the new Radio Voice of the Oromo Liberation Front. Broadcasting twice weekly in support of human rights in the Western Sahara, the hourlong Spanish- and Arabic-language Radio for Peace, produced in Italy, was transmitted over an IRRS-brokered transmitter on 15665 kHz. And aimed to an audience much farther south, Minivan Radio, a daily one-hour Dhivehi-language broadcast for Maldive Islanders, began transmitting first from what appeared to be Russia or Eastern Europe, then from Germany. It was a project of the U.K.–based Friends of Maldives which was concerned with the state of human rights and democracy in the islands. XERMX, Radio Mexico International, closed its shortwave service. And the disman-

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tling of some of the HCJB antennas at Pifo was begun. Thirty towers were due to come down by the end of 2007. Construction of a new shortwave facility would depend on the worldwide acceptance of DRM. Radio Rebelde, Cuba, on 5025 kHz., increased power from 10 to 50 kw. Cuba expanded its Sunday relay of Venezuela’s “Aló Presidente” program and now started carrying Radio Nacional de Venezuela at various times during the day. The Venezuelan station invited reports to its Caracas address, giving no hint that the transmissions were actually coming from Havana. Reports from DXers in South America suggested that there were now roughly 50 active shortwave stations in Peru. Elsewhere in the Andes, three new Bolivian stations were heard. Radio Virgen de Remedios, a new Catholic station in Tupiza, operated on 5500 kHz. Radio Municipal, Caranavi, was on 4845 kHz., and Radio Chicha, Tocla, was on 4763. Back on the air after more than two years of inactivity were CP5, Radio Illimani, La Paz, on 6025 kHz., and HJHZ, Radio Macarena, Villavicencio, Colombia, on 6090 kHz. HCVB7, La Voz del Upano, Macas, Ecuador, was still active, albeit heard poorly, on 5040 kHz., and now reactivated two old frequencies, 4870 and 6000 kHz., the latter a new transmitter located at Lago Agrio. The transmissions on both new frequencies turned out to be short lived. And still heard occasionally on 6239 kHz. was the Colombian clandestine station, Voz de la Resistencia. ZYE858, Radio Trans Mundial, Sao Paulo, Brazil, tested its 50 kw. transmitter on 11735 kHz. in a series of special test broadcasts which, due to the broadcast times, were not well received in North America, notwithstanding the power. And the shortwave scene in Uruguay was changing almost daily. Most stations were off the air, and those that were on were seldom heard in America, partly because of daytime-only broadcast hours. Those still using shortwave, at least intermittently, were SODRE (9620 kHz.), Emisora Ciuded de Montevideo (6010), and Radio Montecarlo (6140). Radio Thailand’s broadcasts to North America were now reaching their target by way of relays from Delano and Greenville. The parallel direct transmissions from Udorn were soon canceled. Radio Station Tikhy Okean in Vladivostok, Russia, off shortwave since 2002, conducted some test transmissions before inaugurating a regular 25-minute daily transmission in 2005. Two new All India Radio services were heard on shortwave: a 24hour news channel, and FM Gold, a service of light music and talk. FM Rainbow, a lively pop music channel, was also heard on AIR shortwave. The international service of Lao National Radio was still on 7145 kHz. The familiar national service channel of 6130 kHz. was also still in operation and was often heard with the familiar seven gongs at 1200 signifying 7:00 P.M. in Laos. At the regional level, it appeared that the Houa Phan station in Xam Neua, 4649 kHz., was the only Laotian regional station still on the air. A new Vietnamese clandestine station was the French-based Radio Quê Me, transmitting for a half-hour weekly via Tashkent. At least two regional stations were still operating in Vietnam: Dien Bien Phu on 6379 kHz. (replacing Lai Chau as the provincial capital), and Son La on 4740 kHz. The status of the others was uncertain. On Taiwan, the Voice of Han began broadcasting to mainland China on 9745 kHz., using its own transmitters. The station was operated by the Department of Defense, and had heretofore operated on medium wave only. It traced its history to the Voice of the

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This QSL verifies reception of Radio Station Tikhy Okean (“Pacific Ocean”). Based in Vladivostok, it served Russian mariners. It resumed regular operations in 2005 after a three-year absence.

Armed Forces station which operated from mainland China in 1942 and later moved to Kaohsiung, Taiwan, from which it operated for a time on shortwave and medium wave. The stated goal of San Francisco–based “Sound of Hope” was to bridge the Asian and Western cultures by providing honest and objective Chinese-language news and cultural programs. The several hours of daily programming on shortwave were a supplement to the AM and FM stations in the United States and Australia which carried Sound of Hope programs. It appeared that the Sound of Hope was being transmitted from Taiwan and Russia (it would later broadcast from KWHR), and the number of frequencies used soon expanded (and included several channels that were well out-of-band). Although it did not consider itself a clandestine station, it was treated as such by mainland China, which jammed the programs intensely. In September, the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corp., which had ceased all domestic medium wave broadcasting in 2003 in favor of FM, now closed all its domestic shortwave channels. The reason was said to be the high cost of electricity. In June, a new religious station came to air in Papua New Guinea. The Catholic Radio Network operated 24 hours a day from Vanimo on 4960 kHz., and its 1 kw. of power was enough to reach western parts of North America. In addition to programming from its FM network, it also carried programs from Vatican Radio and the U.S. Eternal Word Television Network.

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2005 Radio Sweden inaugurated special broadcasts for the many Swedish tourists caught in the December 2004 Asian tsunami. Radio 555, an alliance of several private Dutch stations, broadcast a one-day tsunami fund-raising program over various local stations, the internet, and shortwave (from Jülich). It raised 5 million euros. Radio Australia put the “Reach Out to Asia” concert, a national fund-raising telethon, on shortwave. All India Radio put its FM Rainbow service on 11585 kHz. especially for the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. And the BBC had three minutes of silence. Amateur radio operators provided important emergency service during the tsunami. Well-known SWBC DXer (and ham operator) Victor Goonetilleke, who was President of the Radio Society of Sri Lanka, accepted honors from the governments of India and Sri Lanka, and amateur radio associations in India, Germany, the Netherlands and Japan, for his work and that of his ham colleagues during the event. Radio Kanal Sodruzhestvo was a new Russian-language service of Golos Rossii intended for Russian minorities in the states of the former Soviet Union. A new religious broadcaster with a weekly one-hour program over Germany’s 250 kw. Wertachtel transmitter was the German Freie Volksmission Krefeld, in Krefeld, Germany. An FM station in Slovakia called Radio Tatras International conducted some broadcasts over the Ulbroka, Latvia transmitter. Also heard in North America via Ulbroka were the German stations StörSender, Radio Casablanca, and Radio 73, and the U.K.’s Europa Radio International. In August 2005, Norkring, the Norwegian telecommunications agency, returned the country to shortwave broadcasting with DRM tests from Kvitsøy for the BBC. Bayerischer Rundfunk planned to close its shortwave service by year’s end. However, it remained on 6085 kHz., in May 2005 reducing power from 100 to 10 kw. and converting to all-DRM format. In March, Belgium’s Radio Vlaanderen International, since 2001 broadcasting on shortwave solely via foreign relays, dropped its foreign-language transmissions, leaving only a few hours of Dutch domestic programming on shortwave. The BBC announced that ten language services would close by March 2006. Several were gone by year’s end, and the rest followed. Wales Radio International left shortwave. International Radio of Serbia and Montenegro dropped its services to areas outside Europe (including North America). And Joe Adamov passed away. He had been a commentator for Radio Moscow and the Voice of Russia for over a half-century, and the host of the English-language “Moscow Mailbag” program for almost as long.9 Dutch pirates heard for the first time included Orion Radio (6224 kHz.), Radio Blackbird (6245), Radio Boomerang (6310), and Radio Alpenroos (9269). And the rare Welsh pirate, Valley Wave International, made several appearances on 6290 and 6306 kHz. In the September aftermath of Hurricane Katrina, shortwave listeners were surprised to hear live New Orleans programming relayed on various shortwave frequencies by WHRI. WWL, 870 kHz., was the lead station of an impromptu consortium of New Orleans BCB stations called United Radio Broadcasters of New Orleans (URBONO). The goal was to provide reliable emergency information, and URBONO programming consisted of live newscasts and call-ins, virtually all hurricane-related. It continued to be heard on WHRI

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For a month after Hurricane Katrina, shortwave station WHRI carried the hurricane-related programming of URBONO, a consortium of local New Orleans stations.

shortwave until October. DXers were happy to learn that URBONO authorized the International Radio Club of America, a national BCB club, to verify listener reports on the URBONO broadcasts, including the shortwave signal. WJIE in Kentucky was no longer heard. Hurricane Katrina caused some damage to WRNO, whose signal had been poor for years. While waiting for an insurance settlement, the station’s owner, a Texas preacher, indicated that he was looking forward to getting back on the air in order to send an Arabic-language Christian message to the Middle East. Tests of a new transmitter were always just around the corner. VOA greatly reduced the use of its Greenville transmitter plant. VOA made news when it was learned that the VOA newsroom in Washington was closed during late night hours and that English news broadcasts during that period were prepared in Hong Kong, China (final editorial responsibility remained in Washington).¡0 And notwithstanding the death of televangelist Dr. Gene Scott on February 21, his recorded voice continued to be broadcast over WWCR, KAIJ, the Caribbean Beacon in Anguilla, and Scott’s “University Network” transmitters in Costa Rica. A wide array of colorfully named new pirate signals on or near 6925 kHz. proved that pirate radio was alive and well in North America. The year’s crop included America World Break, Derby Shortwave Radio, KAMP, KCBM, KC3, KSUR, K-ZAP, The Mule, Pirate Radio Boston, Radio Copycat, Radio FCC, Radio Novocain, Robot Radio, Weather Radio, Voice of NOAA (relaying NOAA weather radio broadcasts from various cities), WHGW, WKIL, WRQK, WSPY, XB37, and Yosemite Sam. The well-publicized transmissions of the

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Voice of the Islands were widely heard on 13887 kHz. The station claimed to be operating with 500 watts from Pelee Island, Ontario. Holiday pirates included Old Turkey Radio, North Pole Radio, and the Peter Cottontail Station. And The Crystal Ship, last heard in 1983, returned to the air. Emirates Radio, Dubai, left shortwave. Radio Georgia, the foreign service of the Georgia National Broadcasting Corp., was always difficult to hear in the United States. It had survived a planned closure in 2004. This time, however, financial and technical factors appeared to have sealed the station’s fate and brought its foreign service broadcasts to an end. In Iraq, the no-fly zone established in 1992 had permitted the various Kurdish “clandestine” stations to operate fairly openly. Those still being heard (albeit not usually very well in America) included Voice of the People of Kurdistan (4025 kHz.), Voice of Independent Kurdistan (4160), Radio Roj (6315), and Voice of Iraqi Kurdistan (6340).¡¡ A new clandestine program for Iran was Seda-ye Jambushi Iran e Farda, a project of the California-based Iran of Tomorrow Movement (“S.O.S. Iran”), already on satellite TV. On 7490 kHz., it was thought to broadcast from Moldova. Relay transmitters carried the programs of a plethora of new clandestine broadcasters supporting various African political movements. Beamed to Eritrea was the Voice of Delina, a project of the Tesfa Delina Foundation in California and believed to be transmitted from Russia or Bulgaria on 15650 kHz.; and the hour-long Voice of the Democratic Alliance, which appeared to broadcast from Radio Ethiopia. Intended for Ethiopia were the broadcasts of Tensae Ethiopia (Voice of Unity), 15660 kHz., and the Washington, D.C.based Radio Voice of ENUF (Ethiopian National United Front), on 12120 kHz. Both utilized Russian transmitters. Somalia was the target of Radio Horyaal, 12140 kHz., also transmitting from Russia, and the California-based Radio Waaberi, broadcasting for a halfhour on Fridays on 17550 kHz. from Jülich. Seeking to reach Gambia, another U.S.–based group, the National Alliance for Democracy and Development, came on shortwave with a weekly half-hour opposition program called the Gambia Democracy Project. It was transmitted from Jülich. VT Comm sites in the U.K. were the source of the signals of the Senegal-based, pro-democracy and development West Africa Democracy Radio. It conducted some test transmissions in August and October, and began regular two-hour (then four-hour) weekly broadcasts in English and French in November. And in October, Radio Free Southern Cameroons, sponsored by the Southern Cameroons National Council and seeking independence for southern Cameroon, began broadcasting a weekly one-hour program over a Russian transmitter on 12130 kHz. Radio Djibouti, off shortwave since about 1993, returned in March, thanks to the United States which agreed to renovate the station’s shortwave and medium wave transmitters in exchange for the lease of a site for a large VOA medium wave transmitter. The frequency was Djibouti’s old channel of 4780 kHz., but the power was now 50 kw., up from the old 20 kw. The best time to hear it was at 0300 sign on. Star Radio, Liberia, off shortwave since 1998 and off the air entirely for five years, was allowed to resume transmissions. Solely on FM at first, in July it added three hours of shortwave daily, but now via the VT Comm station on Ascension Island (later Rampisham) rather than its own transmitter. The Radio Nigeria station in Abuja, the nation’s capital, had reportedly come on shortwave in 2001, but its operations had been limited at best and

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the station had been largely unheard. In June, North American listeners started hearing it on 7275 kHz. around 0530, after Tunisia left the channel. And the Radio Africa religious broadcasts from Equatorial Guinea continued to make frequent appearances on 15190 kHz. The target of Radio Africa was West Africa. The station also presented itself as Radio East Africa during programs for that part of the continent, and Radio Africa No. 2 for southern Africa. In the runup to the Zimbabwe elections, opposition broadcaster SW Radio Africa operated from various VT Comm–arranged relay sites, changing frequencies often to avoid the jammers which were making reception extremely difficult. Limited funding and increased costs for the use of multiple relay sites caused SW Radio Africa to leave shortwave in July. It remained on medium wave and the internet, and returned to shortwave in March 2006 via the Meyerton relay station in South Africa, and later reinstated frequencies from several other relay sites. The other Zimbabwean opposition broadcaster, Radio Voice of the People, still operating from Madagascar, also suffered heavy jamming, but stayed on the air. Recorded material replaced new programming in December after the station was raided and its staff arrested (the charges were eventually dismissed).¡2 In Central America, the Caribbean and environs, the BBC and DW closed their joint relay station in Antigua in March. HRVC, La Voz Evangelica, Tegucigalpa, Honduras, off its long-time frequency of 4820 kHz. for several years due to the cost of new tubes, returned to the air, now using 2 kw., less than half its former 5 kw. power. Although R. Huayacocotla, Mexico, finally received an FM license after many years of trying, it also remained on shortwave. And a new anti–Castro broadcast appeared on the air over WRMI. Called Radio Republica, the highly professional broadcasts were produced by the Directorio Democrático Cubano in Hialeah, Florida. Soon the station was on for some ten hours a day, also utilizing relay facilities in Germany and Canada, and perhaps elsewhere. The Bogota, Colombia station on 6140 kHz., formerly Radio Melodia, now announced as Radio Lider. It was still part of the Cadena Melodia de Colombia, and simulcasted the programming of the network’s AM station on 730 kHz. Radio Lider disappeared and reappeared repeatedly throughout the year and thereafter. Also from Colombia, La Voz de tu Conciencia, 6010 kHz., brought to air a second transmitter, on 5910 kHz. It carried the station’s FM service, Marfil Estéreo. And save for the Radio Nacional de Venezuela programming broadcast on Cuban transmitters, YVPA, Radio Amazonas, Puerto Ayacucho, Venezuela, 4940 kHz., was now the only Venezuelan broadcaster on shortwave, and even it was often inactive. A few new South American stations appeared, including Radio Chaski, Otavalo, Ecuador, on 4909 kHz., and Radio Santa Ana, in the Cuzco Department of Peru, on 4965 kHz. Radio Santa Ana fooled some listeners because it carried programming from Radio Nacional del Peru in the mornings. Two new stations appeared from Bolivia —Radio Estambul, Guayaramerin, on 4498 kHz., and Radio Tacana, Tumupasa, on 4781 kHz. Reception of both was difficult in the United States. The National Radio of Cambodia had left shortwave. And although it was Radio Japan’s 70th anniversary, DXers were not celebrating when they learned that, at the end of May, NHK had closed the remaining stations on the network of low-power domestic shortwave relays that had operated for decades. The power of these outlets in Sapporo, Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka and Fukuoka, 300 to 900 watts, had made them favorite DX targets.

DXers were disappointed when, in 2005, NHK closed the last of the low-power shortwave relay stations that had been operating in Japan since after the war.

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

Radio TV Malaysia simulcasted some of its domestic FM programming on RTM’s 100 kw. shortwave transmitters, providing interesting listening for those able to pick up the signals. The several RTM networks were rebranded in 2005. Radio 1, broadcasting in Malay on 5965 kHz., became Nasional FM; the English Radio 4 on 7295 kHz. became Traxx FM; and Radio 7, in Malay and local languages on 6025 kHz., was now Asyik FM. The RTM local-language station in Kuching, Sarawak on 7270 kHz. became Wai FM, while the Malay service on 5030 and 7130 kHz. identified as Sarawak FM. Budget cuts at Radio Taiwan International led to layoffs and the elimination of some services. However, Taiwan was generating new interest in the DX world. Although it was heavily jammed and difficult to hear in North America, the Fu Hsing Broadcasting Corp., operated by Taiwan’s Department of the Interior, was now transmitting some of its programs to the mainland on a shortwave frequency of 15250 kHz., 10 kw. Taiwan’s Central Broadcasting System also leased time to a California organization, Trans World Broadcasting Ministry (no relation to Trans World Radio), for a daily one-hour religious broadcast to the mainland. Also heard via CBS transmitters was Little Saigon Radio, a program heard on some BCB stations in California and Texas and on the internet, and now broadcasting two daily half-hour programs, one via Taiwan, the other from the VT Comm relay station in Thailand. Taiwan was also the source of the signal of a weekly half-hour evangelical program based in Duluth, Georgia called Truth for the World, and the ten-minute, twice-daily program, Voice of China Reborn. North Korea became the target of several interesting broadcasters, all of which seemed to coordinate their broadcasting times and frequencies. One was Free North Korea Broadcasting (FNKB). Run by “One Korea,” a group of defectors interested in human rights and democratization in North Korea, it had begun in 2004 as an internet broadcaster operating out of a basement apartment-studio in Seoul. It moved to shortwave in 2005. While the project’s organizer said that the transmitter was in Mongolia, FNKB appeared to be transmitted from Taiwan. A second broadcaster, Open Radio for North Korea, borrowed the name of the official station in Pyongyang, calling itself the “Free Korean Central Broadcasting Station.” It sold time to South Koreans wishing to send messages to those in the north, and transmitted over KWHR, Hawaii. In October, the most interesting of these North Korean-targeted broadcasters took to the air. Shiokaze, or “Sea Breeze,” was run by a Japanese group called the Investigation Commission on Missing Japanese Probably Related to North Korea. The purpose of the daily broadcasts, which were in Japanese, Korean, Chinese and English, was to reach Japanese citizens who had been abducted by North Korea during the period 1977–83. These abductions were for various purposes (one apparently being to teach Japanese), and had been admitted by North Korea in 2002. The broadcasts included a reading of the list of the names, ages and approximate abduction dates of the abductees, plus abduction-related news. The transmissions, which are still on the air, were believed to have emanated from leased transmitters in Russia before being moved to Taiwan. The American Forces Network station in Diego Garcia, by now rarely heard (if still on the air at all), reappeared in December with surprisingly good signals on both 4319 and 12579 kHz. upper sideband, and DXers were happy to discover that the station was willing to verify reports direct from this remote island. Said their QSL, “Don’t worry about the world ending today, it’s already tomorrow in Diego Garcia.” A new Vietnamese broadcaster

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“Shiokaze” sought to reach Japanese citizens in North Korea who had been abducted from Japan by the North Korean government in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It began broadcasting in 2005.

was California-based Radio Hoa-Mai. Its half-hour program was on the air twice weekly over KWHR, Hawaii. China’s Guangxi Foreign Broadcasting Station, Nanning, with broadcasts for Vietnam, was sometimes heard on 5050 and 9820 kHz. And DXers were happy to hear that the Bhutan Broadcasting Service had dropped its plans to leave shortwave and was making extensive repairs to its 50 kw. transmitter instead. A new Christian station in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea called Wantok Radio Light (Wantok means “friend” in pidgin), on FM since 2002, started broadcasting on 7120 kHz. shortwave in May 2005. In getting its 1 kw. transmitter on the air it had received technical assistance from the HCJB World Radio Engineering Center in Elkhart, Indiana. In order to maximize reception in Papua New Guinea, the antenna intentionally reduced the long distance properties of the signal, making the station a challenge for DXers, particularly those on the east coast. (The station moved to 7325 kHz. in 2007.) For a few weeks, the Australian Broadcasting Corp.’s domestic programming for Western Australia was heard on 7875 kHz. upper sideband. It turned out to be coming from the Australian Defence Forces Radio station at Exmouth. Also in Australia, work commenced on the replacement of the 20-year-old, 50 kw. shortwave transmitters of the Northern Territory Shortwave Service in Alice Springs, Katherine and Tennant Creek. The new transmitters were 100 kw. units, but they continued to be operated at 50 kw. During the resulting service outages, the Shepparton transmitter carried Northern Territory programming on 6080 and 11880 kHz. and was heard worldwide.

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2006 The IBB Kavala (Greece) station left the air in May, as did Rhodes (which had been operating solely on medium wave since dropping shortwave in 1998). As a result, the Voice of Greece lost access to Kavala, and its relays over the IBB Greenville and Delano transmitters came to an end as well. The American Forces Network station in Iceland left the air at mid year when the U.S. military withdrew most of its forces from the country. YLE, Radio Finland, ended all shortwave broadcasting on December 31. Radio Slovakia closed its shortwave broadcasting on June 30, but returned four months later. The BBC further reduced the number of its foreign language services. In addition, its special shortwave program for the Falkland Islands, “Calling the Falklands,” was cancelled after 62 years on the air. It was a year of major developments at Deutsche Welle. The DW budget was at low ebb. As a result of research which suggested that many more listeners in North America listened on the internet than on shortwave, on October 29 DW ended all German-language shortwave broadcasting to North America save for a half-hour DRM relay in German via Canada. English had been dropped in 2003. In addition, at year’s end, services in ten Eastern European languages, and Turkish, were terminated, and DW ended its use of the Wertachtel transmitter site (it remained available for lease to other broadcasters). More significantly, CVC International, the Christian Vision media arm, purchased the entire Jülich transmitter site, announcing that it would begin using it in 2008. In the meantime, Jülich remained available for Deutsche Telekom’s leased-time clients (DW had stopped using it for its own programs at the end of 1996). The BBC began airing five hours of programming daily over WHRI. Radio Prague had taken out relay time from Russia, Canada, the VT Comm station on Ascension, and WRMI. As a result of increasing concerns about the quality of signals emanating from its aging shortwave plant, in October Radio Polonia closed down its own transmitters and began leasing air time from Germany and France. And in an odd development, the Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran, with many high power transmitters of its own, began renting some air time on the transmitter at Sitkunai, Lithuania. The cornerstone of a new RFE-RL headquarters building in Prague was laid. RTBF (Belgium) dropped its Jülich relays, but began DRM tests from Wavre. Radio Nacional de España, Voz Cristiana in Chile, Radio Romania International, and Radio Prague also began experimental broadcasts in DRM, and the TDF high-power transmitter site at Montsinery, French Guiana began testing in DRM as well. It was Radio Bulgaria’s 70th anniversary. And with the independence of Montenegro, one of the constituent states of Serbia and Montenegro, the International Radio of Serbia and Montenegro changed its name to International Radio Serbia. The 500 kw. Bijeljina station was off the air for maintenance. However, programming continued from a 10 kw. mobile transmitter at Stubline. Radio Telefis Éireann returned to shortwave in September with some short-term Irish sports coverage, believed to be broadcast over VT Comm transmitters. Latvia remained on the air via RNI Radio Ltd., licensee of the Ulbroka shortwave transmitter on 9290 kHz. It began relays of various broadcasters on weekends, but the hours of operation made the signal difficult to hear in North America. Several French-language religious broadcasters were observed on shortwave. From

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Radio Réveil & Paroles de Vie was one of several French-language religious broadcasters. Based in Switzerland, it transmitted via Jülich.

Canada, Église du Christ transmitted a weekly half-hour program in French via the VT Comm transmitters in the U.K. Radio Réveil & Paroles de Vie was a Swiss-based program, also a half hour, transmitted from Jülich. And Impact du Plein Evangile, from France, broadcast over Africa No. One in Gabon. Only a few new Europirates were heard. The only shortwave pirate in Norway, Fox 48, was heard on 6306 kHz. Dutch pirate Radio Ramona made an appearance on 6400 kHz., and Germany’s Radio IRF 510 was logged on 6875. The Irish pirate station, Laser Hot Hits, often heard in America on 6220 kHz., was raided in August, relegating the station to internet broadcasting and relays via other pirates. And in May, the Danish Shortwave Club International had a special 50th anniversary jubilee broadcast over Italian pirate station Mystery Radio, also on 6220 kHz. It was widely heard in North America and elsewhere. In September, the VOA opened a new Pashto-language broadcast to the Afghan-Pakistan border area. It was called Deewa Radio (“light”) and it was available for an hour a day on shortwave, 24/7 on FM. Meanwhile, IBB greatly reduced the frequency hours of many of its services, including VOA and Radio Martí, and VOA English language programming, already reduced over the past few years, came under further threat. KAIJ, Dallas, Texas, got new life as it installed new equipment at its studios in Murfreesboro, Tennessee, and broadened its religious programming from all–Gene Scott (deceased in early 2005) to a 24-hour mix of Scott, Spanish-language religious programs, and Genesis Communications Network talk radio. (“Broadcasting from the ‘Big D,’ this is

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the new KAIJ, Dallas, U.S.A. KAIJ broadcasts on 9480 kHz. daytime and 5755 kHz. nighttime, U.S.A.”) In Canada, transmitter problems took CFRX off the air. In November, Radio Canada International reduced its English-language programming, including CBC domestic programs, to the United States. In addition, RCI adopted a new mission: reaching current and prospective immigrants to the country. As a result, it began broadcasting foreign-language programming toward the United States. The Voice of Joy Music Hour was a one-hour program being transmitted on weekends from Sackville. It was devoted to the tradition of acapella-style Sacred Harp singing. After the initial series of programs, it switched to a transmitter in Russia with the goal of reaching the Mideast. New North American pirates heard during the year on or near 6925 kHz. were many, and included Cherokee Asylum Radio, Dr. Who, Good Times Radio, Global Radio Journal, KOF, Lizard King Radio, MAC Shortwave (also heard on 3200 kHz.), Northwoods Radio, Old Vampire Radio, Omaha One Radio, Possum Hunt Radio, Progressive Music Radio, Radio Free Whatever, “Radio Is My Friend, My Friend Is Radio,” Radio Sixpack, Radio Stickman Shortwave, Random Radio, Robot Radio, Touch Tone Radio, Voice of Influenza, Voice of the Lutefisk, Voice of the Rodent, WBZO, WDDR, WEKG, and WTPR (“Tire Pressure Radio”). On January 1, Radio Tashkent International, Uzbekistan, which had broadcast internationally on shortwave for more than a half century, closed its shortwave service. Uzbekistan’s shortwave facility remained in use for relays of foreign broadcasters, however. Radio Tashkent International continued broadcasting on the internet for three months, then closed that service. And in nearby Armenia, the Voice of Armenia, also known as Public Radio of Armenia, announced that it would be leaving shortwave at the end of October. Although the broadcasts to Europe and South America did end, transmissions to the Middle East from the Yerevan site on 4810 kHz., and relays of foreign broadcasters from the Gavar site, remained on the air. Some lucky DXers caught the local verison of Radio Solh, or Radio Peace, believed to be transmitting from the Bagram military base in Afghanistan, on 9345 kHz. In December, the Broadcasting Service of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia put its facilities at the disposal of the Gulf Cooperation Council for special “Voice of the Cooperation Council” shortwave broadcasts during the GCC’s summit meeting. Two new Iranian clandestine broadcasters started up over Russian transmitters. The Dutch-based, youth-oriented Radio Zamaneh put in a powerful signal in North America on 6245 kHz. until sign off at 2100. The operating hours and frequency of Radio Democracy Shorayee did not provide good reception in North America. Radio Algeria had been largely unheard during the early part of the decade, and disappeared altogether in 2003. In January 2006 it restarted shortwave broadcasts by putting one of its domestic services on the air from relay transmitters in Issoudon, France and the VT Comm transmitters in the U.K., before settling on VT Comm. New to shortwave was a clandestine broadcaster targeting Libya. Sawt al-Amal, or Voice of Hope, had left its satellite channel in 2005 due to Libyan jamming, and now its shortwave signal, believed to be coming from Grigoriopol, suffered a similar fate. Some of the jamming, believed to originate from Libya itself, was of the typical noise variety. In addition, multiple interfering transmissions of Libya’s own Voice of Africa service appeared

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to originate in France (the leased transmission site for Libya’s Voice of Africa broadcasts), and another intentionally interfering signal carrying African music was believed to emanate from Africa No. One in Gabon. There were reports that Col. Khadaffi had contracted to upgrade Africa No. One, and perhaps buy it. The station’s signal quality had been deteriorating for some time. Sawt al-Amal disappeared from shortwave in 2007. La Voix du Sahel, Niger, reappeared on 9705 kHz. after several years absence. Radio Nigeria announced one of its periodic shortwave upgrade plans, this time for new 250 kw. Thomson transmitters to be installed near Abuja. The new transmission center would have DRM capabilities. Clandestine programs intended for the Horn of Africa continued to proliferate. New for 2006 were Voice of the Ethiopian People, a one-hour program transmitted twice weekly from Russia, and Voice of Oromia Independence, a weekly half-hour program transmitted from Germany. And the crisis in Darfur caused the BBC to inaugurate a special 15minute broadcast (soon expanded to 30 minutes) called Darfur Salaam. A humanitarian aid program focusing on such topics as disease prevention, human rights, and food security, it was a project of the BBC World Service Trust which worked to improve life in developing countries through the innovative use of media. The program was transmitted via various VT Comm relay stations. And the Radio Nile broadcasts to the Sudan from the Radio Netherlands transmitter site in Madagascar came to an end. Radio St. Helena Day, last celebrated in 1999, was revived. Robert Kipp, an enterprising DXer in Germany, raised the funds for a 1 kw. transmitter, antenna, and related equipment, shipped it to the island, and went there himself to install it, all with Radio St. Helena’s cooperation. DXers were glad to hear the station again on November 4, 2006, and hoped that the event would be repeated in future years. Radio Netherlands began a major reconstruction project of its nearly 40-year-old Bonaire relay station, including replacement of the transmitters. In May, flooding in Surinam led Radio Netherlands to initiate an international shortwave relay of the programs of a small FM station in Totness, Surinam called Radio Boskopoe. The relays, via Bonaire, permitted the Surinam station to be heard throughout the country (and worldwide). The relays lasted several weeks. For some time, the website of a station calling itself Radio Insurgente, “the voice of those without a voice,” had announced that the station was operating from Chiapas, southern Mexico, at 2100 on Fridays on 6.0 MHz. It was run by Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, the Zapatista liberation movement. In January the station was finally heard by a few lucky American DXers. Signals were weak, but in what had become a world of leased-time “clandestine” broadcasters operating largely in the open via high power transmitters, it was nice to be reminded that there were still some real clandestine stations on the air. At year’s end, XEYU, Radio UNAM, Mexico City, operating intermittently for years on 9600 kHz., began testing a 10 kw. transmitter obtained a year earlier from XERMX when that station closed. Initial tests produced only weak signals, even in North America, but reception improved somewhat in 2007 when the station could be heard with classical music. In Ecuador, Radio Quito, long absent from 4920 kHz., reappeared. And save for some limited English-as-a-second-language programming, HCJB broadcast its last English-lan-

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guage program from Quito on May 6. A new Peruvian station was Radio Triple SH, San Ignacio, on 5700 kHz., sometimes identifying as Radio Frecuencia or Radio San Ignacio. Although two new shortwave stations came on air from Bolivia —Radio Cooperativa, Huanuni, on 5983 kHz., and Radio Logos, Santa Cruz, on 6165 (a sister station to CP318, Radio Centenario “La Nueva” on 4865 kHz.)— they were unheard in America. Also in Bolivia, Radio Illimani on 6025 kHz. joined a new government network called Radio Patria Nueva. In Brazil, Radio Capixaba, Vitória, 4935 kHz., and ZYG525, Emissora Rural, Petrolina, on 4945, were reactivated, as were the shortwave frequencies of Radio Globo, Rio de Janeiro, on 6030 and 11805 kHz., and Radio Inconfidencia on 6010. ZYG201, Radio Difusora de Poços de Caldas, 4945 kHz., left the air. All India Radio moved several of its 90 meter band shortwave stations— the 50 kw. senders at Bhopal and Shimla, a 20 kw. transmitter in Delhi, and the 10 kw. station in Gangtok, Sikkim — to new 60 meter band frequencies. China Radio International gained its own dedicated 24-hour channel in DRM test transmissions in London on 26 MHz. The Voice of Vietnam was now broadcasting via the VT Comm transmitter at Skelton in the U.K., in addition to the relay from Moosbrunn, Austria. Trans World Radio-India was broadcasting in dozens of languages, some on shortwave via KTWR on Guam and transmitters in Russia. A second Falun Gong station, Ming Hui Radio (“clear wisdom”), came on the air, suffering heavy jamming from China. And a second clandestine broadcast to the Hmong community in Laos and the United States was Moj Them Radio. It broadcast a half-hour program twice weekly from Taiwan. Radio Australia’s Brandon transmitter was slated for conversion to DRM to serve as a point-to-point program source for local rebroadcasters in Asia. During several cyclone emergencies, the Radio Australia transmitter at Shepparton was heard on 6020 and 11650 kHz. with special relays of ABC Far North (Cairns) and the local ABC Brisbane station, neither of which was normally heard on shortwave. And on February 3, Keith Glover, who had been with Radio Australia since 1947, passed away. Host of the station’s popular mailbag program until it left the air in 1980, he had been a familiar voice to generations of SWLs. Radio New Zealand International commenced a DRM service for Pacific rebroadcasters, while still providing normal analog shortwave signals for individual listeners. In Papua New Guinea, the National Broadcasting Corp. announced a major program to renovate its provincial stations. However, lack of funds took the old standby NBC station at Port Moresby on 4890 and 9675 kHz. off the air in November.

2007 On April 30, Deutsche Telekom ceased using the Nauen transmitter site for Deutsche Welle programming. Henceforth, Nauen would be available only for lease by other Deutsche Telekom customers. And in a move that would have been considered unthinkable a few years earlier, Deutsche Welle moved most of its transmitting business to VT Comm, which proceeded to upgrade its facilities in the U.K. to accommodate DW’s needs. As a result, Deutsche Welle no longer broadcast from any transmitters in Germany, only from its relay stations in Rwanda, Sri Lanka and Portugal and the VT Comm worldwide network.

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Rikisutvarpid, Iceland, left shortwave on June 30. RAI International, Italy, on shortwave since the 1930s, terminated all its international shortwave broadcasts effective September 30. In October, the IBB transmitter site in Delano, California closed down, leaving partially operating Greenville the only remaining IBB transmitter base in the United States. And Radio Netherlands dropped use of its Flevo transmitter site for the transmission season beginning on October 28. Flevo, in use since 1985, was by now privatized, and it was less expensive for Radio Netherlands to lease time from other broadcasters. At least for the time being, the station would rely on its Bonaire and Madagascar relays, and on leased time over transmitters in some 16 locations worldwide. The future role of Flevo was uncertain. In addition, on July 1, Radio Budapest terminated all its foreign service programming, in all languages, replacing it with home service relays. Also in July, DeutschlandRadio-Kultur, 6005 kHz., a venerable frequency once used by RIAS, left shortwave for good after a fire damaged the station’s Berlin-Britz transmitter. Deutschlandfunk, 6190 kHz., located at the same site, was not affected. And United Nations Radio, which in 2000 had restarted a modest service over leased transmitters after 14 years off the air, again left shortwave. The BBC World Service celebrated its 75th anniversary. Russia continued to be a major source of leased time. As the year began, transmitters at 18 locations in Russia and the other countries of the former Soviet Union (except the Baltic countries) were carrying broadcasts of 33 foreign organizations, including 11 major broadcasters that also had transmit-

The IBB station in Delano closed in October 2007. Soon thereafter, IBB announced that its Morocco relay station, built in 1993 to replace the old Tangier station, would close in 2008.

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ters of their own, five religious broadcasters that operated exclusively on a leased-time basis, and 17 opposition groups. The seldom-heard Polish station, Radio Racja, expanded its shortwave service, leasing time over the transmitter in Sitkunai, Lithuania to supplement its broadcasts from Warsaw. DXers hearing degraded audio on several Voice of Greece frequencies were surprised to learn that the transmissions were tests from a 10 kw. transmitter operated by Olympia Radio, a coastal station in Pyrgos. The tests lasted two months, and the station turned out to be very friendly to DXers. In November, DXers were surprised to hear Radio DMR, now identifying as Radio PMR, in Tiraspol, the Pridnestrovian Moldavian Republic. Not audible in America since 1996, it was now beaming a 45-minute program to Europe and North America multiple times each day, including 15 minutes of English. Signals on 6240 and 7370 kHz. were strong. In December, the Bijeljina transmitter site in Bosnia-Hercegovina returned to the air following repairs. It carried the programs of International Radio Serbia. Also at year’s end, tests on behalf of WYFR were conducted from the Pori transmitter in Finland, which had been off shortwave since the end of 2006. A former Dutch pirate that traced its history to 1974, KBC Radio, began operating for an hour on Saturdays over the Sitkunai transmitter. The frequency was 6255 kHz., and the signal quality matched the station’s slogan, “The Mighty KBC.” In October, KBC started carrying the programs of another Dutch station, Radio Mi Amigo 192, every other week. Programming heard in North America over the Ulbroka, Latvia transmitter on 9290 kHz. included the Radio SWH program, “Latvia Today”; the German stations Radio Marabu and Radio Casablanca; and the U.K.’s Laser Radio, to name a few. The Netherlands was home to nearly all the new European pirate signals heard during the year. These included Radio Bonofox (6300 kHz.), MRF Radio (6306), Extreme Radio (6339), Westcoast AM (6374), and Radio Blue House, a Finnish pirate broadcasting from Holland on 6310 kHz. Radio Odyssey, a Greek pirate, also operating on 6310, was heard as well, the first signal from a Greek pirate to make it across the Atlantic . It was the VOA’s 65th birthday. It opened a new service in Somali, a language in which it had last broadcast in 1994. In a sign of the times, the weekly “Talk to America” call-in program, on the air since 1994, was replaced with “T2A,” a weekly web chat. And the Broadcasting Board of Governors was seeking Congressional approval in the fiscal 2008 budget to substantially reduce or eliminate VOA broadcasts in English and 15 other languages, increase VOA TV coverage, and eliminate 150 positions. Eleven former VOA directors signed a joint letter in opposition. There was the usual crop of new North American pirate stations, most of which operated only once or a few times. Among 2007’s new broadcasting wannabes (all on 6925 kHz.) were Bull Ring Radio, Long Range Radio, Maple Leaf Radio, Mind Botch Radio, Purple Control Radio, Radio Ice Cream, Radio Paisano, Random Radio, Real Pirate Radio, Robot Radio, Truck Driving Man, WAIR, WDR (World Domination Radio), WEGR, WORI, WPER, WSKO, and WTCR (Twentieth Century Radio). The Voice of Turkey celebrated its 70th year of external broadcasting. Transmission of Libya’s Voice of Africa service was now over apparently new transmitters at TripoliSabrata, replacing the station’s leased-time arrangement with TDF in France. And both Kuwait and Saudi Arabia returned their English-language services to shortwave. Radio

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Kuwait had dropped its English program in 2003. Now it was heard for three hours to Asia and three to Europe and North America. Unfortunately, the two-hour English block of the Broadcasting Service of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was on at a time that did not favor North American reception. The Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corp. stepped up broadcasts on several of its frequencies in anticipation of starting a new service. Variously called Studio 24/7, News 24 and the Voice of Zimbabwe, it was intended to combat opposition broadcasts and VOA’s “Studio 7,” which was beamed to the country. Despite several announcements of forthcoming startups, and some music tests, the service never began in earnest. In October, Radio Miraya (“mirror”), a Juba FM station of the U.N. Mission in Sudan, began using shortwave as well. The frequency, 9825 kHz., could be heard, albeit poorly, in the United States during the latter part of the station’s several-hour shortwave transmission ending at 1600. Broadcasts were arranged by NEXUS-IRRS in Italy, and were believed to come from Slovakia. Several new low power stations came on the air. Dunamis Shortwave was a Christian station located in Mukondo, Uganda. It was affiliated with the Bible Voice Broadcasting Network. Previously on FM only, now it also operated with 1 kw. on 4750 kHz., the same channel as Radio Peace in nearby Sudan. Radio Bana began operating from Asmara, Eritrea on 5100 kHz. It was run by the Adult Education and Media Department of the government’s Ministry of Education. Unfortunately, the hours of operation made reception of these stations nearly impossible in the United States. Also new was Radio ICDI (Integrated Community Development International), Boali, Central African Republic, on 6030 kHz. Although a difficult frequency for North American reception, DXers were hopeful that the 1 kw. signal might be heard on Monday mornings when Radio Martí and its shadow jammer were off the frequency. However, there were no North American reports of reception of the station. Three Ethiopian opposition broadcasters took to the air: a U.S.–based operation called Andenet Le Democracy Radio; Voice of the Patriots, operated by the EPPF (Ethiopian People’s Patriotic Front); and the Exiled Holy Synod of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church. The broadcasts were aired at 1600–1700 on different days of the week from a transmitter in Samara, Russia. Another new clandestine program was the short-lived, two-hour, Hausalanguage Radio Saa, which sought to reach Nigeria from the TDF transmitters in Issoudon, France. The Maldives opposition station, Minivan Radio, left shortwave in March in hopes of obtaining an FM license. It continued on the internet, and returned to shortwave for the month of August in advance of a national political referendum.¡3 In May, a new broadcaster called Cotton Tree News appeared on VT Comm’s Ascension Island frequency, 9525 kHz., at 0730 UTC, just after the (now-shortened) program of Star Radio, Liberia, on the same transmitter. Cotton Tree News turned out to be a journalism training project of Fourah Bay College in Freetown, Sierra Leone, and, like Star Radio, was sponsored in part by Fondation Hirondelle. It was led by George Bennett, former head of Star Radio. The station moved to 13760 kHz. (Rampisham) in August. It was reported that China would be supplying new FM and shortwave transmitters to the Liberian Broadcasting System. This was believed to be the same station that had last been heard operating on 6100 kHz. but was now off the air. Two tests from Radio St. Helena were conducted in 2007 but were not heard in North

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America. However, a 71 ⁄2 hour broadcast, celebrating the station’s 40th anniversary and its 10th international shortwave broadcast, was held on December 15 and was heard throughout North America and other parts of the world. Radio Amanecer was still on 6025 kHz. It was the only shortwave broadcaster regularly active from the Dominican Republic. A new station in Bolivia made for a nice June surprise. Radio Universitaria, Cobija, was on 4732 kHz., and could be heard opening at 1000 and closing at 0200. In November another Bolivian station, Radio Loyola, Sucre, formerly medium wave-only, appeared on 5996 kHz. shortwave. However, reception in North America was difficult. In Brazil, ZYF904, Radio Educação Rural, Campo Grande, on 4755 kHz., became Radio Imaculada Conceicão. ZYG852, Radio Educadora, Limeira, 2380 kHz., was still reported occasionally. It appeared to be the last Brazilian station on 120 meters. And HCJB in Quito began testing in DRM mode with a 4 kw. transmitter. All India Radio also commenced shortwave tests in DRM using a 150 kw. transmitter. It announced future plans to install 32 new and replacement regional transmitters that would be DRM capable. And the Bhutan Broadcasting Service replaced its 50 kw. transmitter and began testing a new 100 kw. DRM–capable unit in May. Even at the higher power, it was a rare catch in America at the optimal hour for reception, 0000, on 6035 kHz. Despite the decreased use of shortwave, it could still prove itself an important communications medium. During the Myanmar crisis that began in September, the VOA and Radio Free Asia doubled their daily broadcast hours in Burmese (from 11 ⁄2 to three hours and two to four hours respectively). The stations claimed a weekly audience of 20 percent of adults in Burmese cities. The Democratic Voice of Burma, which had broadcast over

The Democratic Voice of Burma stepped up its activities during the 2007 tensions in the country. The Norway-based opposition group has been broadcasting since 1992.

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various shortwave relay sites for 15 years, reportedly increased its transmissions from two hours a day to nine, although it appeared that the additional time was on satellite rather than shortwave. China Radio International was broadcasting from multiple sites in China and also leasing time over transmitters in Albania, Canada, Chile, Cuba, and Spain. As a result of budget cuts, in October Radio Japan reduced or eliminated many shortwave broadcasts, preferring to emphasize international satellite TV. Save for English and Russian, all languages to Europe, including Japanese, were eliminated; the Japanese services to North America and Hawaii were dropped; and English to Asia, Central America, the Middle East and North Africa was canceled. Along the lines of the several stations already beaming to North Korea, the Japanese government began sponsoring a half-hour program called Furusato no Kaze (“wind of the hometown”). It was originally planned to transmit from the NHK facility at Yamata. However, it came on the air in March by way of the same leased-time transmitters in Taiwan that were used by the other stations. In addition, two daily half-hour broadcasts of Radio Free Chosun, another clandestine broadcast aimed at North Korea, were heard. The station said it had been on shortwave since 2005. Also new were two U.S.–based religious programs in the Hmong language, the exotically named Suab Xaa Moo Zoo, broadcast from Taiwan, and Hmong World Christian Radio, broadcast over WHRI. The number of domestic Radio Republik Indonesia stations still on shortwave was decreasing. Among the stations still heard by those in favorable locations were Biak (4920 kHz.) Fak Fak (4790), Gorontalo (3266), Kendari (3995), Makassar (4750), Manado (3215), Manokwari (3987), Nabire (6125), Palangkaraya (3325), Pontianak (3976), Serui (4605), Ternate (3345), and Wamena (4870). In the Pacific, the Solomon Islands Broadcasting Corp., absent for some time, was heard again on 5020 kHz., albeit with a weak signal. Radio Australia joined those testing in DRM, broadcasting some programs for the Pacific on a transmitter of about 8 kw. located at Brandon. And while not broadcast stations, DXers were happy to come across the marine weather broadcasts from the Australia Bureau of Meteorology stations VMC, Charleville, Queensland, on 6507 and 8176 kHz., and VMW, Wiluna, Western Australia, on 6230 and 8113 kHz., all single sideband. In March, Japanese DXers reported hearing tests from a new missionary station in Pohnpei, Micronesia, on 4755 kHz. The 1 kw. station, operated by Pacific Missionary Aviation, went off shortwave within a few months, later returning on FM. It began testing again on shortwave in October, identifying as PMA, The Cross Radio, and some North American SWLs were able to hear it. NASWA recognized Micronesia as a new radio country. As the year ended, ELWA began testing a new 5 kw. transmitter; and Radio Chad, still on shortwave but absent from its old frequency of 4904.5 kHz. for nearly a decade, returned to the channel with a powerful signal, said to be from a 250 kw. transmitter. And a new religious station in Huancayo, Peru, Radio Manantial, appeared on 4991 kHz. It also operated on medium wave and FM.

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2008 The trends of the recent years continued during the first half of 2008. The BBC’s declining reliance on shortwave evidenced itself again in February when it eliminated its Englishlanguage shortwave broadcasts to Europe. Simon Spanswick, chief executive of the London-based Association for International Broadcasting, was quoted as saying that it “probably sounds the death knell for traditional analog shortwave broadcasting in the developed world.” In the same month, BBC shortwave broadcasts to the Caribbean were dropped, and the station’s broadcasts to East and Southeast Asia were reduced. Also in March, IBB ceased using its station in Morocco (it was to be turned over to the Moroccan government), and Kol Israel left shortwave save for a daily program in Farsi for Iran. Radio Singapore International left shortwave at the end of July. There were rumors of other possible closings, including CKZU in Vancouver, British Columbia, Radio Exterior de España, Radio Tirana, and the Russian high-power transmitting station in Samara. Two U.S. religious shortwave stations, KTBN and KAIJ, were no longer heard. Radio Station Tikhy Okean in Vladivostok, Russia appeared to have again left shortwave. The Ugandan station Dunamis Shortwave, which had opened in 2007, was also off shortwave, awaiting equipment repairs, as was the Catholic Radio Network station in Vanimo, Papua New Guinea. The equipment at Radio Vanuatu was in poor condition, and the station was rarely heard. Responding to political events in the target areas, VOA increased its broadcast hours in Somali, Swahili, Urdu and Amharic, and both VOA and Radio Free Asia stepped up broadcasts to Tibet. RFE-RL reestablished shortwave frequencies for Armenia after its FM affiliate there was taken off the air by the authorities during a March state of emergency. “Easy FM,” a China Radio International English-language service for Beijing, was appearing on various CRI international shortwave channels. Powerful signals from China Radio International populated numerous frequencies, as did the Chinese “firedrake” jammers, which concentrated on Chinese-language broadcasters out-of-favor with Beijing. Radio Bulgaria began a six-month test of DRM shortwave for Europe. Radio Finland conducted some further tests from its mothballed transmitter site in Pori, this time for the Overcomer Ministry (Brother Stair). And signals from Radio Nacional de Angola on 4950 kHz. improved, leading to speculation that a long-expected new transmitter might be in operation. The U.N. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs started a broadcast to Somalia called Radio IRIN. The program of the Nairobi-based Integrated Regional Information Networks was carried over transmitters in France, South Africa and Abu Dhabi. Germany’s Wertachtel transmitters were the source of a new religious broadcaster seeking to reach Cameroon. It was called Sawtu Linjiila. Two new broadcasts targeting North Korea were heard: North Korea Reform Radio, transmitting from Taiwan, and Voice of Free Radio, transmitting from Armenia. A religious program for North Korea, Voice of the Wilderness, also emanated from the Taiwan shortwave transmitters. Some of the other programs beamed to North Korea were now broadcast over transmitters in Australia and countries of the former Soviet Union, and some of the Shiokaze (“Sea Breeze”) programs were now transmitted from Japan’s high-power shortwave station at Yamata. European listeners were hearing a new German station, Radio 700, Euskirchen, test-

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ing over a 1 kw. transmitter located in Kall-Krekel. The frequency, 6005 kHz., had been a well-known channel for RIAS, and, later, DeutschlandRadio-Kultur, before a fire took the latter’s high-power transmitter off the air in 2007. American DXers were surprised to hear a shortwave pirate station in Spain. It was Radio Barretina, 6311 kHz., and until it was closed by the authorities in April it was relaying the Spanish FM station, Radio l’Arboç. A few transmissions of another pirate station, Radio Arctica, concerned with the effects of climate change in the Arctic, were heard at the end of January on 6275 kHz. And from Peru, a “Radio Nueva Atlántida” appeared on 4790 kHz., the channel of the seldom-heard Radio Atlántida in Iquitos. Startup of a number of new shortwave stations was anticipated. Radio Nacional de Venezuela, which in recent years had broadcast on shortwave solely via transmitters in Cuba, was building its own 100 kw. shortwave facility in Calabozo, Guárico state. Two new religious stations in the United States, one in Tennessee and one in Oregon, were under development. World Christian Broadcasting, the parent organization of KNLS, Alaska, was constructing a new 100 kw. shortwave station on Madagascar. And Radio Romania International was upgrading its shortwave transmission facilities. Two shortwave regulars, CFRX, 6070 kHz., and the Ghana Broadcasting Corp., 4915, both absent from shortwave since 2006 due to equipment problems, indicated that new transmitters were in the offing. Radio Nigeria was likewise promising an upgraded shortwave presence.

9 The Changing Shortwave Environment Shortwave is not dead — but we cannot rely on it for the long term.¡ Colin M. Wilding BBC World Service

Shortwave listening, past and present, has been impacted by many technological and political factors. These same factors are likely to dictate its future.

The Years 1945–1987 INTERNATIONAL BROADCASTING Following the experimentation of the 1920s, shortwave broadcasting developed quickly, and there was hope that it might have a major role in broadcasting. By 1939, international foreign language programming was available from 25 countries.2 Expansion continued through the war years, when shortwave broadcasting became a major propaganda medium.3 By 1945, the BBC was the world’s leading international broadcaster, transmitting 682 hours per week in 39 languages. There then began a long period of growth in both international and tropical band shortwave broadcasting. In the latter part of the 1940s, most shortwave broadcasting was from Europe, and many stations were still comparatively small, semi-experimental affairs, usually operating at well below 50 kw. and often on out-of-band frequencies. As relative political stability returned to the postwar world, stations began installing new, more powerful transmitters. By 1950 the Soviet Union was transmitting 533 hours of weekly programming in its external services. Comparable figures for western countries were: the United States, 497 hours; France, 198; Australia, 181; Italy, 170; the Netherlands, 127; and Canada, 85. In the Communist orbit the figures were lower: Poland, 131 hours; Czechoslovakia, 119; Yugoslavia, 80; Hungary, 76; and Bulgaria and Romania, 30 each. China transmitted 66 hours of external service programming weekly.4 414

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The cold war was the biggest factor in the development of the major postwar shortwave broadcasting efforts. Surrogate broadcasters such as Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberation appeared for the first time, as did VOA relay stations in foreign countries. Radio Moscow expanded, and jamming became intense. Numerous countries, big and small, enlarged their shortwave broadcasting efforts in order to preserve national pride and not be left out of the increasingly cacophonous international radio scene. Soon 100 kw. senders became the standard among the major international stations. Germany and Japan recommenced their international shortwave services during the 1950s. The first Middle Eastern clandestine stations appeared mid-decade, the start of a broadcasting phenomenon in that part of the world that has continued up to the present. Following the example of HCJB by two decades, the 1950s also saw the birth of many of the religious stations that became well known to shortwave listeners. Expansion of shortwave continued in the 1960s. By the start of the decade the Soviet Union had nearly doubled its 1950 broadcasting hours. The United States had tripled its hours, and Radio Peking had increased its hours tenfold. By the end of the decade, both China and the Soviet Union would double their hours yet again. Many other big- and middle-power stations also saw large increases in shortwave output.5 The decolonization of Africa resulted in increased Soviet and western broadcasts to that continent. Latin America received increased attention, as did the Middle East. Conflicts in various places— the invasion of Czechoslovakia, the Arab-Israeli war, the Cuban missile crisis— spawned increased shortwave broadcasting, a pattern that would be repeated over the years. The power stakes got bigger in 1962 when the VOA installed 250 kw. transmitters at its Greenville site. During that decade, many other countries upgraded their transmission facilities, usually from 100 to 250 kw. The VOA, the BBC, and a few others opened new relay sites. With some exceptions, growth of the larger international shortwave stations was slower in the 1970s and later. There were many individual gains and losses among the various language services of particular broadcasters. The availability of satellite technology to provide program content for distant transmitters facilitated the construction of new relay bases. A half-dozen new high-power relay sites opened, and a few closed; stations started using 500 kw. transmitters; and there was increasing cross-use of transmitter time among the large western broadcasters. Traditional station names gave way to “Radio Canada International,” “Radio France International,” “Swiss Radio International,” etc.6 The early 1970s saw the start of the clandestine broadcasting to Iran and Iraq that would remain intense for decades. From 1969 to 1975, there was much clandestine activity in Southeast Asia, and during the same period many nominally clandestine “liberation” programs were broadcast over mainline African stations. From 1975 to 1985, Cuba was again the target of extensive clandestine broadcasting, as were the countries of Central America from 1978 to the early 1990s, and the Horn of Africa from 1978 to the present. The 1970s were also the start of the proliferation of domestic North American shortwave pirates, and of North American reception of their European counterparts. Although there were many increases of power, and some new relay stations, the level of international broadcasting remained generally steady during most of the 1980s. In the United States, the introduction of Radio Martí evidenced a Congressional interest in specialized broadcasting services that would expand in the future. More important to short-

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wave listeners, shortwave caught the eye of religious and commercial broadcasters in the United States, who entered the field as the FCC relaxed its attitude toward private shortwave broadcasting.

DOMESTIC BROADCASTING For DXers, the domestic stations were among the most interesting on the shortwave bands. Many broadcast in the tropical bands. Tropical band broadcasting had grown during the war and the postwar years. Mornings and evenings brought signals from Latin America, Africa and Asia at nearly every 5 kHz. in the 60 and 90 meter bands. There was a surprising number of English-language programs from private Latin American stations in the 1950s. However, the demise of private broadcasting in Cuba following Castro’s takeover was a reminder that the private shortwave broadcasting culture that flourished in Latin America was not inviolate. At the start of the 1950s, much of Africa was still heavily colonized. Independence came to many countries in the latter 1950s and early 1960s. It was often accompanied by the enhanced visibility of shortwave broadcasting from the former colonies, and there were many interesting stations to hear. In the 1960s, a few African states, such as Senegal, Ghana, Nigeria, and Zaire established external services of varying size. Most would collapse, or operate only intermittently, as economics caught up with national pride. The decade also saw the inauguration of an entire network of small shortwave stations in Papua New Guinea, and the discovery of new tropical band stations in Indonesia, much of whose shortwave broadcasting was still uncharted.

Not all domestic shortwave broadcasting was on the tropical bands. As today, the 49 meter band was also home to many domestic stations. ZNS, Nassau, the Bahamas, operated on 6090 kHz.

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Portending the decline in domestic shortwave broadcasting that would accelerate in the future, the 1970s saw the end of shortwave activity in Brunei, Fiji, Gambia, Martinique, and Reunion, the disappearance of many Angolan stations, and the closure of shortwave stations in other countries. Andorra, Mauritius and others followed in the 1980s. The news was not all bad. Some new countries came on shortwave — Bhutan, Spanish Sahara, and Lesotho in the 1970s, Alaska (usually considered a separate radio country), the Marshall Islands (briefly), Namibia, and Saipan in the 1980s— as did new stations in countries already on shortwave. The overall trend was in the other direction, however, and the appearance of a new station was increasingly a cause for celebration. The decline in tropical band usage was most dramatic among the Latin American stations. By the early 1970s, the steep drop of shortwave activity in places like Haiti and Nicaragua had already taken place. By the end of the decade, the World Radio TV Handbook listed 45 percent fewer Central American shortwave stations than in 1955, and not all of those claiming to be active actually were. There was still extensive shortwave activity in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela and Brazil, with new stations coming on the air often enough to keep DXers’ attention. However, the decline of shortwave activity even in those countries was becoming apparent. There had been 420 active tropical band transmitters in Central and South America and the Caribbean in 1973. In 1985 the number was 300.

Circuito RPC, 9685 kHz., was one of the comparatively few shortwave stations operating in Panama. The last one was La Voz del Baru, which left the air around 1964.

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

1988 and After To the shortwave listener who had been active during the growth years, the events of 1988 and later could hardly have been more dramatic. The collapse of the Soviet Union and the communist governments of Eastern Europe brought with it a proliferation of private domestic broadcasters, most on medium wave and FM but some on shortwave. The tiresome, ideological radio culture of the Soviet years gave way to a more relaxed, commercial sound, even on government-run stations. On the international shortwave bands, the bulk of the jamming, which emanated mainly from Russia and its satellites, came to an end (it continued from China and a few other countries). Shortwave transmission time became a commodity. The use of another broadcaster’s transmitters, usually located closer to the target area, improved reception and lowered costs. Long-standing cultural and political barriers soon gave way to market forces as relay arrangements, inconceivable but a few years before, proliferated: Spain transmitting from China, China from Switzerland, North Vietnam from Canada, Germany and the Netherlands from Russia, Russia from China and vice versa, and endless other previously implausible pairings. Soon, anyone with the necessary funds could rent time on shortwave transmitters around the world, many of whose governmental or private operators wanted

The religious broadcaster Voice of Hope has leased broadcast time over transmitters in the former Georgian S.S.R.

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to enhance revenues. Numerous “opposition,” religious, specialty or vanity broadcasters, some large but many too small to operate their own stations, rented blocks of air time over shortwave transmitters in Germany, France, England, Russia, and elsewhere. It was a time of worldwide budget constraints, and most shortwave stations, large and small, were impacted. Staff were laid off, and stations reduced their transmissions, took transmitters out of service, sold their transmitter plants, or closed down. The BBC privatized its shortwave transmitting network. Lost to shortwave during these and subsequent years were such stations as the Armed Forces Radio & Television Service (it later resumed a modest presence), Far East Network, Radio RSA’s service to countries outside Africa, the Christian Science Monitor shortwave stations, KGEI, the Red Cross Broadcasting Service, Radio Norway International, Radio Tashkent, Radio Finland, and many others. There were major cutbacks at the Voice of Russia, and Radio Station Peace and Progress, a longtime hardline Soviet voice, closed down. The BBC dropped its broadcasts to North America in 2001; Deutsche Welle did likewise in 2003 (English) and 2006 (German). And by 2007, HCJB was well on its way to dismantling, both literally and figuratively, its shortwave facilities in Ecuador. To be sure, while most new shortwave broadcasters were of the leased-time variety, some new stations of the traditional kind came on the air — a new HCJB station in Australia, several U.N.-sponsored stations in Africa, a number of small AFRTS stations, some new broadcasters in the Pacific, and a number of new stations in Africa, India, and Latin America. Eight new relay sites operated by the BBC and IBB were opened, about the same number as were retired. America expanded its surrogate broadcasting efforts, creating Radio

While drastically reducing its shortwave facilities in Ecuador, HCJB opened a new shortwave station in Kununurra, Australia in 2003.

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

Free Asia and various separately named services such as Radio Sawa, Radio Farda, and others. Shortwave broadcasting was reactivated from Hawaii, Djibouti, and the former Goa, and there were some new radio countries— Sikkim, Bahrain, Eritrea, Anguilla. But many more countries left shortwave. Some, such as the Falkland Islands, New Caledonia, Greenland, Tonga, Haiti, Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Okinawa, Sicily, the Cook Islands, Grenada, Tahiti, Kiribati, were mainly DX targets. Others, such as Norway, Denmark, Switzerland, Italy, and Luxembourg, were home to well-known shortwave broadcasters. A few stations, such as those in Algeria, Libya and Poland, chose to move their broadcasts entirely to rented facilities outside their territories. In 2007, Deutsche Welle, successor to one of shortwave broadcasting’s pioneer stations and a major shortwave presence for decades, dropped the last of its transmissions from German transmitter sites, remaining on the air solely via its relay stations and the worldwide transmission facilities of VT Communications in England. The transmitters in Germany were rented to other broadcasters. On the tropical bands, the decline in shortwave broadcasting accelerated. Between 1985 and 2007, the number of active tropical band transmitters dropped a dramatic 63 percent, from 819 to 307, and many of those still on the air operated erratically. Some stations held on as long as their transmitters were working, succumbing when repairs were needed. The result has been a general emptying of the tropical bands. Some stations, often those with a long-standing tropical band presence, remain on the air, but their numbers are comparatively few. The days, as recent as the 1980s, when an abundance of tropical band stations could provide the DXer with an armchair adventure a day, are now history. The number of regularly active shortwave stations transmitting from some Latin American countries tells the story: Chile, three; Colombia, two; the Dominican Republic, two; Venezuela, one. The numbers are larger in Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil, but the trend

In 2007, Radio Amazonas was the last shortwave station operating regularly from Venezuela.

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is the same, and new stations are few. The 300 active tropical band transmitters in Central and South America and the Caribbean in 1985 became 131 in 2007, a drop of 56 percent.

The New World of Shortwave Broadcasting 7 The dynamics of shortwave broadcasting today have changed in nearly every aspect, and have become more complex. They have been impacted by several factors.

THE END OF THE COLD WAR In addition to its impact on jamming and its liberalizing influence on broadcasting generally, the end of the cold war reduced the momentum that shortwave broadcasting had long enjoyed. Since World War II, the biggest players on the shortwave scene were the main cold war protagonists— the United States, the Soviet Union, and their allies.8 Propaganda was a major currency of the cold war, and whatever other objectives shortwave broadcasting may have served, the war years had shown its usefulness as a propaganda tool. The extensive shortwave broadcasting efforts of both sides set a table at which many other countries wanted a place. If nothing else, shortwave broadcasting became a matter of national pride, and soon everyone was in it. Growth led to more growth, with governmental inertia providing sustenance on both the policy and financial sides, and with little hard evaluation of results. The end of the cold war brought the missions of major players like the Voice of America into question, and robbed many lesser shortwave broadcasters of the comfortable status they enjoyed. As resources got tight and oversight increased, even the often-small budgets of the shortwave broadcasters came under scrutiny. Questions about shortwave’s efficacy followed. Stations were reminded of what they already knew, namely, that many governments knew little of what their own country’s shortwave service was all about. Longtime complaints about historically modest funding notwithstanding, many stations had enjoyed the benefits of anonymity. Now, with other governmental functions taking priority, and international tensions reduced, they had difficulty mounting a convincing defense of their operations.

THE EXPANSION OF DOMESTIC BROADCASTING It is widely acknowledged that most radio listeners prefer domestic radio to international radio. It is more relevant to, and culturally compatible with, their lives, and reception is usually better. People turn to international radio when they lack meaningful choice or when domestic radio is inadequate for some reason. This is why international radio listening has usually spiked during times of crisis. Listeners seek more extensive or more objective news than they can get at home. In many countries, long-standing governmental monopolies on broadcasting led to few stations and unimaginative programming. Domestic broadcasting in the communist world was particularly stultifying. In this environment, listeners looked to international stations, often on shortwave. Reduced regulation, and the introduction of private broadcasting — the rule in the

The budget cuts and reorganizations suffered by Radio Canada International for decades presaged the fate that would befall other broadcasters in the post-cold war era.

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United States but the exception in most parts of the world —changed the domestic broadcasting scene worldwide. Although this expansion was well underway in many places before the end of the cold war, it took a leap when communism fell. Stations multiplied, new, more energetic formats replaced old, commercial competition led to better production values, and domestic radio became more attractive, particularly to the youth, who comprised a large part of the audience. This expansion was fed by advances in technology which increased the number of broadcasting platforms and the portability of radio reception, making it easier to reach a large public. As receivers became smaller, cheaper and more available, listening to the radio became more convenient. All of this constituted a challenge to international broadcasting in general, and shortwave in particular. In many places, the need once served by international broadcasting was now met by improved domestic broadcasting. In the face of these factors, plus budget constraints, shortwave broadcasting was cut back —fewer target areas, fewer languages, fewer transmitters, fewer broadcast hours. Niche groups— religious, “opposition”— along with people living in places where the radio revolution had been slow to take root (usually the third world), now made up a larger part of the targeted audience.

OTHER MEDIA The availability of new broadcasting media, and the convergence of delivery systems (free-to-air stations over the internet, TV and radio via cable, etc.) have had a dramatic effect on shortwave listening.9 Radio listening in general has also been impacted by other entertainment technologies, such as portable CD and MP3 players. Surely the terrestrial medium with the greatest impact on radio has been television. Radio listening of all kinds declines as TV watching increases. In recent years, free-to-air TV has been supplemented by cable TV and satellite TV. Because of the high cost of TV production, relatively few international broadcasters have been able to enter the TV market. Second in impact has been the expansion of medium wave and FM radio. FM, with its superior fidelity, has long been popular in the developed world. It has now found a foothold elsewhere, particularly in urban areas where the service of large populations is compatible with FM’s short range. Traditional medium wave radio has also expanded. Many countries that used to depend on shortwave for coverage can now reach their populations by more robust medium wave and FM networks, reducing the number of listeners to shortwave and eventually making the shortwave outlets redundant. As FM broadcasting increases, FM receivers become the radios of choice at home, and demand for shortwave sets declines. This in turn makes it more difficult for international broadcasters to develop a shortwave audience within the country, and soon shortwave broadcasting both from within and without becomes passé. Many of the larger international broadcasters have jumped on the FM-medium wave bandwagon and sought FM and medium wave rebroadcasting arrangements in their target areas.¡0 Some of the larger broadcasters have established dedicated local FM stations in their target areas. Many of these stations carry their programs exclusively, 24 hours a day. (Radio Australia has eleven 24-hour FM stations throughout the Pacific and two in Cambodia.) Nigel Chapman, Director of the BBC World Service, in 2005 urging an expanded

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FM presence in the world’s urban areas, referred to short wave in such areas as “increasingly an irrelevance” and medium wave as “an intermittent solution.”¡¡ In many cases, however, the broadcaster must rely on locally run stations to carry some of its programming. This can yield uneven results because it is the local station that usually controls the programs chosen for rebroadcast, the hours, publicity, advertising, continuity, local announcements, etc. To the local broadcaster, foreign programming may be little more than filler. Originating broadcasters are also subject to restrictive laws or policy dictates of local governments which may withhold or suspend permission to broadcast based on objections to content or an antipathy to foreign broadcasters generally. One of the higher-tech alternatives to shortwave is satellite broadcasting.¡2 Once used largely for distributing content to terrestrial broadcasters, direct-to-home satellite broadcasting is now well established. Satellites carry a plethora of stations, mainly TV, but also some of the major shortwave broadcasters. At least one subscription service, World Radio Network, specializes in satellite rebroadcast of many international shortwave stations. An example of the cross-platform delivery that is now possible, WRN is also available on other satellite systems (including Sirius and WorldSpace), on certain medium wave and FM stations and cable services, and on the internet. Completing the circle, some WRN programming is also carried on WRMI shortwave. While not radio in the traditional sense, internet broadcasting is the newest medium for reaching listeners. With a broadband connection, one can now tune in a huge number of stations from all parts of the world, many on a 24-hour basis. Dedicated internet users can subscribe to podcasts and enjoy archived programs on demand, and those with WiFi networks can avail themselves of new “internet radios” which give internet listening some of the look and feel of traditional radio. Internet broadcasting tends to be complementary to other platforms. It can become congested, and the more listeners, the more costly the bandwidth.¡3 Additionally, in many parts of the world, computer ownership, electrical and telephone service, and internet availability, are limited. Even where they are not, computer use does not automatically translate into internet listening. But the internet is a tempting alternative to stations wishing to broadcast internationally while also reducing costs. Both satellite and internet broadcasting offer high quality, interference-free audio. Internet radio in particular provides a much larger range of stations than is available on shortwave. Some stations that have migrated to satellite or the internet have increased their broadcast hours over what they offer on shortwave. However, these platforms are still largely the province of the technological cogniscenti, those with high motivation to listen, and those who can afford the technology. Most listeners, even in the developed world, do not listen to the radio on satellite or the internet. In an online survey done in 2000, Radio Canada International discovered that 85 percent of the respondents listened to RCI primarily on shortwave. In 2007, VOA calculated its combined weekly audience (all media, including TV) at 116 million. The radio audience (not just shortwave) was 76 million. The internet audience was a little over one million. Also worth noting are Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB), which has had its greatest success in the United Kingdom but is also undergoing trials elsewhere, and “HD” radio, the FCC–approved “In Band On Channel” AM and FM digital radio service that is becoming available in the United States. Although these services are still problematic in many

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ways and have little direct impact on international broadcasting, they are illustrative of the changes that are taking place in domestic broadcasting. Some radio broadcasters can also be heard on cable, a popular “radio” distribution vehicle in some countries. The availability of alternative platforms has caused many of the surviving shortwave broadcasters to take a multimedia approach. By 2000, Radio Netherlands was describing itself not as a radio station but as “a multimedia information provider utilizing audio, video and text to deliver programs via a full range of delivery methods.”¡4 Recent history has shown that reliance on shortwave declines as the use of other media vehicles increases. Summarizing the work of BBC Monitoring, its director made this point in 2005: A tiny and vanishing fraction of our work is on HF [shortwave] nowadays.... The vast majority of our radio comes via FM, and probably 30 percent of our sources now are internet-based. We still have our overseas units and remote receivers but there’s little if any shortwave; the world’s moved on. It’s almost all FM, the web and television now, and television is becoming predominant for news.¡5

THE IMPACT ON AUDIENCE AND BROADCASTER To be sure, in the expanding media environment, shortwave’s advantages may be overlooked. While it lacks the audio quality of the newer media, and it is subject to the uncertainties of propagation, and finding stations may require a bit more skill, there is no gainsaying that shortwave has many benefits. Graham Mytton likes to cite John Tusa, former director of the BBC World Service, for the observation that if the technology of shortwave were to have been invented or discovered today, people would be amazed by what it could do. “But it is old,” notes Mytton. “[I]t was invented and its properties discovered by Marconi 100 years ago. Therefore surely it must be past its ‘sell-by date.’”¡6 Chief among shortwave’s strengths is that can reach anywhere, crossing all political and social barriers, while remaining under the exclusive control of the sender. Medium wave and FM rebroadcasting, satellite transmission, and the internet are all susceptible to thirdparty interdiction — rebroadcasting, by local station and governmental gatekeepers; satellite, by jammers or satellite owners; the internet, by website blocking. Broadcasters have learned this the hard way. The BBC has had its FM signals blocked by governmental action in Albania, Serbia and Tajikistan, to name a few, and its satellite TV broadcasts frustrated by the satellite’s owner or by an unwilling broadcast partner. In 2007, the BBC apparently lost the last of its FM outlets in Russia. In Moscow, the BBC, Deutsche Welle, and Radio France International lost their medium wave channels for a time. The government, the number of Russian stations carrying rebroadcasts of VOA dropped from 42 in 2005 to five in 2006. The number for RFE-RL dropped from 30 to four.¡7 RFE-RL was forced off the local airwaves in Armenia during 1994–1998, and again in 2007, the same year Niger effected a month-long suspension of Radio France International for reasons of perceived bias. And website filtering is common in China and Iran.¡8 Jamming of shortwave signals is, of course, possible, as the cold war demonstrated, but with a determined effort one or more frequencies usually gets through, and the economics of large scale jamming have meant its demise in all but a few places. While reaching millions of people simultaneously, shortwave, like radio in general, is at the same time a more personal medium than TV, and one that remains private. There is no need for outside satellite dishes (banned in some countries), and no risk of leaving web

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tracks. It is also portable, immune to the overload problems of popular websites, and demanding of relatively straightforward apparatus. And it is free. There’s a lot of interest in new technologies but collectively they’re still small beer. In terms of critical mass of coverage, and the fact that HF transcends national boundaries, it’s still central. It’s easy to cite local FM as the new mode, but look at what can happen in practice. FM licences get pulled because of some local disagreement, or the station goes off the air for some reason. HF broadcasting transcends that sort of thing, and in some sort of emergency or crisis we can get an HF outlet up and running in a matter of hours. In our view [VT Communications] a lot of people see HF broadcasting from a purely Western perspective and think of it as primitive technology. But a huge number of people in various parts of the world still rely on it, for two good reasons. One is they want to learn English, and shortwave is still a very good way to do that. The other is that they want unbiased news.¡9

Notwithstanding these advantages, however, shortwave is clearly on the decline.20 The number of shortwave transmitter hours per day coordinated by the High Frequency Coordinating Conference in 2006 was slightly below 16,000, down 15 percent from its 2002 peak (some of the reduction may be credited to better frequency management and a resultant need for fewer multiple frequencies). To be sure, there is still much international shortwave broadcasting going on. The primary target area is now Asia, to which 41 percent of the broadcasts are beamed, followed by Europe, 23 percent; Africa, 17 percent; South America, 11 percent; and North America a mere 8 percent. Shortwave programs are transmitted from these same areas in very roughly similar proportions: from Asia, 42 percent; Europe, 32 percent; North America, 14 percent; Africa, 10 percent, and South America, 2 percent.2¡ And shortwave broadcasting is still useful in rural and undeveloped societies where medium wave or FM reception is problematic, and it permits expatriates— peace keepers, relief workers, diplomatic personnel, business executives— to stay in touch with home. The largest audiences appear to be in Africa, the Middle East and South Asia. However, overall, shortwave use is getting lower, and serving more limited audiences.22 And while the “elites” still constitute a strong audience for international broadcasting generally (including shortwave), the shortwave audience is now made up predominantly of others.23 Stations have dropped their broadcasts to places where there is a rich media environment but small use of shortwave, i.e. North America and Europe. By 2005, IBB had little shortwave broadcasting to Eastern Europe, none to Western Europe. In 2007, 45 percent of VOA’s audience was in Africa.24 The BBC dropped its North American broadcasts in 2001, Deutsche Welle in 2006. IBB broadcasts to Asia were up. Recently installed shortwave antennas in Kuwait were all beamed to Asia.25 Only China seems to be bucking the trend. Much of the new shortwave transmitting equipment that has been bought in recent years has been purchased by China. (Some believe it has permitted China to step up its jamming activities.) Trends show a reduction in shortwave listenership in favor of other media. In Russia, VOA listenership was around 13 percent during the cold war, practically all on shortwave. In 1995 the figure was 5 percent, with many, even then, listening on local outlets rather than shortwave. Only 3 percent were listening to the VOA Czech service on shortwave, compared to 53 percent on medium wave and 44 percent on FM. Of VOA’s Estonian audience, 64 percent listened to the FM-only evening broadcast. Thirty-eight percent listened to the morning broadcast, which was on both shortwave and FM, but 29 percent listened on

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shortwave, 71 percent on FM.26 In a 2003 survey of VOA senior managers, shortwave received mediocre ratings as a delivery vehicle (see chart below).27 Effectiveness of Various Delivery Vehicles

Shortwave AM/FM TV Internet

Very Effective

Generally Effective

As Effective as Ineffective

Generally Ineffective

Very Ineffective

0 5 2 5

9 10 9 14

8 3 6 6

6 1 1 2

0 1 0 1

At least-weekly shortwave listening has declined in many places, e.g. in Bosnia from 14 percent in 2001 to 4 percent in 2005, in China from 4 percent in 2002 to 3 percent in 2005, in Kuwait from 12 percent in 2003 to 1 percent in 2005. Ownership of shortwave receivers has also dropped — in China from 13 percent in 2002 to 4 percent in 2005, in Kuwait from 46 percent in 2003 to 15 percent in 2005. The story has been different in a few places. Weekly use of shortwave in Nigeria increased from 29 percent in 2003 to 45 percent in 2005, and shortwave set ownership increased from 54 percent to 63 percent.28 Drops in shortwave set ownership had been taking place over many years. In 1993, 35 percent of households in Brazil had a shortwave set, down from 60 percent only five years earlier.29 The downward trend notwithstanding,30 in actual numbers audiences are still large, even if smaller than before. In 2006, of the VOA’s estimated radio audience of 85 million, 57 percent still listened on shortwave, 29 percent on FM, and 13 percent on medium wave. That is a shortwave audience of 48 million people.3¡ And globally, if not in every target area, shortwave is still the medium of choice for most listeners, notwithstanding competition from FM et al. “Most listening to international radio broadcasting is on shortwave.... This simple statement was true [in 1985] and it is equally true today.... The proportion of people today tuning in to international radio services on shortwave may be smaller than it was twenty years ago, but of one thing I am fairly certain — shortwave listeners are still in the majority.”32 In 1997, over 85 percent of Deutsche Welle’s German-language audience listened on shortwave.33 A 2003 VOA on-air survey that brought responses from 109 countries revealed that 58.5 percent were listening on shortwave, compared with 16 percent on local medium wave or FM, 15 percent over VOA high-power medium wave relays, 9.4 percent on the internet, and a mere .4 percent on satellite. Save for those in the United States, many with internet access still preferred shortwave because of high local internet charges and bandwidth issues.34 Other data bear out these results.35 As one BBC executive put it recently, “[I] do think that short-wave usage is declining over the long term, and that it will continue to decline as a proportion of the World Service audience. Having said that, [the BBC’s] view is that it’s declining rather more slowly than we thought it would five years ago.”36 The numbers reflect what long time shortwave listeners know from their experience. Cutbacks and closures are increasing. Increasing numbers of broadcasters are among shortwave’s now-missing voices, and many countries are no longer available on shortwave. At one time, prognosticators saw a silver lining for DXers in the decline of international short-

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wave broadcasting —fewer large stations and less band congestion would make it easier to hear the smaller stations. But now the number of smaller stations is decreasing as well. Shortwave’s decline has been most stark on the tropical bands. Where stations once abounded, there is now a growing silence. New tropical band stations are few, and old ones are dropping from sight as costly repairs on aging transmitters make for difficult choices that are seldom resolved in shortwave’s favor. One knowledgeable observer has calculated that a linear continuation of present trends would mean the end of tropical band broadcasting in the year 2029.37 Other problems confront international stations as well. Shortwave installations located in once pastoral areas now suffer from urban encroachment, the land coveted by commercial interests. Nearby residents are concerned about little-understood but widely perceived dangers of radiation from large antennas. In 2005, two Vatican Radio officials were found guilty of exceeding the Vatican’s electromagnetic emission standards at the station’s transmitter plant. (The decision is on appeal.) Factors like these, together with the increasing cost of fuel and electrical power, discourage the construction of new stations or the maintenance of old ones. One strategy which international broadcasters have utilized to meet the increasing challenges is improved organization and collaboration. Most international stations have been government operations, and there was relatively little professional interaction among them. This has changed in recent years, and through a sharing of ideas and experiences, and the discussion of common problems, a more nuanced understanding of international broadcasting has developed. The High Frequency Coordinating Conference, and the National Association of Shortwave Broadcasters, were mentioned earlier. Also worthy of note are the Conference of International Broadcasters’ Audience Research Services (CIBAR) and the Association for International Broadcasting (AIB).38 Headquartered in Germany, CIBAR was established in the early 1980s as an informal group devoted to improving understanding of audience research and audience relations among international broadcasters. It promotes research, standards, and collaboration among members. An early mission of the U.K.–based AIB, which was founded in 1993, was to promote international radio to the public. Over time its focus turned more toward the industry, and today its members include the world’s major international radio and TV broadcasters and many supporting technology and service companies. A number of seminars on various aspects of international broadcasting have helped build a wider understanding of the issues that international broadcasters face. Principal among these were the six biennial “Challenges for International Broadcasting” conferences held in various Canadian venues from 1990 to 2000. Prompted by the changing face of postcold war international broadcasting, the multi-day meetings were attended by academics and practitioners from around the world, and even a few listeners. These activities have generated new interest in international broadcasting, as well as a new body of literature on the subject. In recent years the CIBAR annual conference has been followed by a conference publication containing articles by presenters.39 The “Challenges” conferences likewise spawned publications containing a wealth of academic and Opposite: Radio Denmark was a favorite of SWLs for many years. It dropped use of its own transmitters in 1990 in favor of broadcasting via Norway. It left shortwave altogether at the end of 2003.

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practical insights on international broadcasting.40 The proceedings of the 1991 conference, “Turning Up the Volume On International Radio,” sponsored by the Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington, D.C., is another often-cited compilation.4¡ In its early days, the AIB published a Global Radio Guide for the public. It has become the AIB Directory of Global Broadcasting, and it contains extensive industry contact data. The AIB also issues a quarterly magazine called The Channel. Its focus on TV, satellite, programming, technology, and the changing media scene, and the infrequent references to shortwave, are illustrative of how the scope of international broadcasting has broadened in recent years. From these efforts has come the identification of many challenges besides those already mentioned.42 These include “remissioning”— reconsidering a station’s purpose and who its audience is; improving audience research, and using it to make a better case for international broadcasting with station decision makers; functioning more effectively in a highly competitive, more political environment; meeting the constant threat of reorganization, or elimination of the international broadcasting function altogether; promoting inter-broadcaster cooperation in place of competition; and finding new sources of funding. The traditional weakness of shortwave programming has also received increased attention by broadcasting professionals, though seemingly more in theory than practice.43 To the listener, shortwave programming, including news, its longtime staple, too often still comes up short. While there is an increasing awareness that “content is king” and that stations must produce better quality programming, save for the elimination of the ideological fare of Soviet days, changes have not been as dramatic as might have been hoped for. One commentator has observed that “[i]n the past, shortwave broadcasts had a sharper edge and a greater feeling of urgency, while today, many of the broadcasts sound very similar across the globe.”44 Two program-related disadvantages which burden international broadcasters in the competition for the listener’s attention deserve mention. One is that international broadcasts on shortwave are typically of short duration. The usual pattern is for a station to broadcast for a half hour or an hour, sometimes more, in a particular language to a particular target area. As a practical matter, the shortwave listener must listen by appointment. Spontaneous tuning of a favorite station — the usual case when listening to domestic radio— is rarely possible on shortwave (although it was often within reach in the days when a few shortwave stations, such as the BBC and Radio Moscow, were ubiquitous). Second, international shortwave broadcasting has developed as a news and information medium. To compete effectively with most domestic stations would require adoption of an entertainment format, a re-engineering that may be beyond the ken of most stations and their governmental sponsors. Unfortunately, some of the stations with the best programming, such as the BBC and Deutsche Welle, have adopted a lower profile on shortwave. That government broadcasters have taken to refer to themselves as “public broadcasters,” perhaps to stress their independence and gain some advantage from a new cachet, has made little difference. “Programming all too often sounds as if it was produced by a committee using formulas. Too many programs have no relevance to listeners in target areas, and the broadcasters don’t seem to realize that what works in their home country or culture doesn’t necessarily work with overseas listeners.”45 Jonathan Marks suggests that international broadcasters who

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concentrate on production, and use whatever distribution vehicles are appropriate and available — not necessarily shortwave, and not necessarily owned by the broadcaster itself — may have the best overall chance of securing an audience.46

DIGITAL RADIO MONDIALE To some, at least part of the answer is DRM. Its problems notwithstanding (see p. 49), hope for it has been high, at least among its supporters and promoters. Speaking in 2003, Peter Senger, Chairman of the DRM Consortium, said that “DRM’s introduction will forever alter the course of radio broadcasting. The fading, noise and interference that have hampered analogue broadcasting for decades will be replaced by DRM’s excellent reception quality. DRM will create exciting new opportunities for broadcasters to expand their audiences and increase time spent listening.”47 And the stakes are high. Adil Mina, General Manager of Continental Electronics and later Chairman of the U.S.A. DRM Steering Board, has observed that “[s]hortwave will die without DRM. Analog shortwave transmitter sales are way down. DRM is a savior for shortwave.”48 Even in the best of circumstances, it is difficult to predict how, or if, technological advances and consumer tastes will converge. In the case of DRM, the absence of receivers has made prognostication impossible. However, given the overall drop in shortwave broadcasting and shortwave listening, and the expansion of competing media worldwide, at this time predictions of a strong future for DRM in international shortwave broadcasting are mainly the preserve of the optimists.49 The DRM Consortium is now promoting DRM in non-shortwave contexts— as a vehicle for revitalizing medium wave broadcasting or improving the quality of FM reception. A number of DRM medium wave stations are now operating in Europe, Australia, China and elsewhere (not without concerns for the increased level of interference produced by DRM). The DRM Consortium has extended development of DRM up to 120 MHz. in order to encompass FM. Piggybacking shortwave on the huge medium wave and FM listening base may well be DRM’s best path to success. Another proposal is to supplement the overcrowded medium wave and FM bands with alternative, low power (100 to 1,000 watts), community or niche DRM services in the 26 MHz. shortwave band. Tests of DRM’s 26 MHz. capabilities are being conducted in various locations, and a few stations in England, France, Germany and Luxembourg have 26 MHz. experimental transmissions on the air. Some have even suggested a 26 MHz. broadcasting service for the United States. Broad use of DRM for local broadcasting in the 26 MHz. band would likely require regulatory action to make such operation compatible with the band’s present allocation to international broadcasting. One of the more successful uses of DRM has been by Radio New Zealand International, which uses it to transmit programs for rebroadcast by partner stations in the Pacific. This, and the high quality of American DRM reception from the Sackville (New Brunswick) and Montsinery (French Guiana) transmitter sites, suggest that DRM’s future may lie in shortrather than long-haul transmission. DRM has also announced cooperative arrangements with the DAB industry in hopes of tapping into the relatively successful DAB receiver market in the U.K. by way of receivers capable of receiving both formats (dual-purpose chips are now available). In fact, receivers that offer both DAB and DRM reception currently are the option of choice of those pro-

432

Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

moting DRM. (This has little relevance in the United States, where AM “HD” digital radio bears no resemblance to the digital DAB system in use elsewhere.) The DRM industry has also recognized that the availability of on-air DRM programming is an important factor in the development of a DRM receiver market. In 2004, according to the DRM Consortium, there were about 50 stations or program services broadcasting in DRM, for a total of about 500 hours per day (mostly to Europe).50 In February 2007, the number was 763 hours of DRM programming available daily from the 20 countries. Of that number, 437 hours, or 57 percent, were on shortwave, the balance mostly on medium wave. The shortwave hours were divided about evenly between international shortwave broadcasts and local or regional (usually 26 MHz.) operations. The center of DRM activity was Europe, which was the target of 86 percent of the DRM hours on all bands (and most of the DRM medium wave broadcasting), and the crucible of DRM’s hoped-for success.5¡ Radio Luxembourg, a major European broadcaster, was transmitting the most shortwave hours daily in DRM (48). In later months, Australia and India began DRM tests. No American shortwave broadcasters, governmental or private, use DRM, and only 24 hours of DRM broadcasting, or 5 percent of the shortwave total, are beamed to North America. China, which has expanded its international shortwave broadcasting capability while other countries have reduced theirs, and which still has a domestic shortwave broadcasting service, is said to be interested in DRM, and this might prompt interest in DRM on the part of countries wishing to broadcast to China.52 And some stations have gotten into DRM through leased time arrangements rather than investing in their own DRM transmitters. (The U.S.A. DRM Group itself sponsored a series of member-produced programs over DRM transmitters operated by VT Communications and Radio Canada International.) DRM supporters are aware, however, that it is distinct programming, rather than the rebroadcast of material already available in analog format, that has led to DAB’s relative success in the U.K. DRM-only programming is not yet a reality. While much seems possible, DRM for shortwave is being sponsored mainly by technical people within the equipment industry and among the broadcasters. Whether their enthusiasm will spill over to bottom-line, market-driven, audience-focused managers who are prone to eschew shortwave broadcasting altogether remains to be seen. Jonathan Marks has said that “DRM cannot reverse AM’s [short, medium and longwave] plummeting popularity with just the technology. Relevant, fresh, programming (and clever marketing to support them) is essential to revitalize the market. So far ... my research shows that these aspects are going seriously wrong. DAB is perfect proof that technology alone is not a driving factor for the public.”53 Some skeptics say that DRM is a niche product that cannot survive on its own in the present radio environment, even were receivers available.54 In any case, those in Asia and Africa who most rely on international shortwave will surely be the last to have DRM, just as they are the last to have FM, satellite, and the internet.55 As an observer from the BBC Monitoring Service has noted, “The future may not lie with international broadcasting on shortwave. Declining numbers of stations and listeners; little in the way of alternative programming; threats from interference; and a target audience, many of whom earn less than a dollar a day, all add up to a considerable challenge for the proponents of DRM.”56 As for the overwhelming number of shortwave listeners in North America, right now DRM is mainly a source of interference.

9. The Changing Shortwave Environment

433

THE FUTURE KDKA broadcasting pioneer Frank Conrad said in 1940 that he was “convinced that if radio broadcasting is to continue to expand, and I have no doubt that it is, then the short wave-lengths offer the only road to that expansion.”57 Jim Vastenhoud of Radio Netherlands was closer to the mark in 1978. “[S]hortwave broadcasting,” he said, “is going to stay for a long time, and will only become obsolete if a worldwide coverage is achieved with a means of mass communication giving better reliability and a better audio quality.”58 Although within the shortwave broadcasting and shortwave listening communities of the last 40 years or so, predictions of shortwave’s future viability have usually been optimistic, prognostications were limited to a decade or two, even during shortwave’s growth years.59 The flowering of powerful new media vehicles, while not predictable in its technological specifics or its impact, was not unexpected. Satellite technology in particular made many people stop and think. On the other hand, the demise of the Soviet Union and the eastern bloc was unexpected, and the impact of the relaxation of media regulation worldwide has surely exceeded expectations. While among shortwave enthusiasts there will always be hope for a resurgence of shortwave broadcasting, the absence of a shortwave constituency in most countries, the retirement of shortwave-savvy personnel, competing budgetary priorities, the march of other technologies, competition from national broadcasters, and other factors noted above, make this an unlikely possibility. On the tropical bands, the jury is already in. The heart of the future on the higher bands would seem to be leased-time arrangements. Countries wishing to stay on the air will be able to do so without committing themselves to a large scale transmitting plant of their own. Britain’s VT Communications and a few other large scale telecommunications companies may be able to make their shortwave operations pay if the customer base is large enough and if they are also able to offer other telecommunications capabilities. Although shortwave would now be subject to the same gate keeping as other media, these companies at least provide a vehicle for broadcasters wishing to maintain a shortwave presence, whether as a primary or a backup system. They also provide a crisis broadcasting capability. Radio, including shortwave, is often said to be at its best during political, economic or military crises, and natural disasters.60 International broadcasters have the expertise, the language skills, the technical ability, and the worldwide distribution systems necessary to get information to target areas quickly. Often they also provide a measure of credibility not otherwise available. There are several dimensions to “crisis” shortwave. Listenership may increase among those caught in a hostile environment, or there may be a broader increase in listeners who want more information about the events. Stations may wish to make special broadcasts to the general population, or to military forces, in the crisis area. And if electricity, cable lines, cell phone towers, etc. have been disrupted, radio, often portable radio, may be the only choice. Crisis broadcasting is often accompanied by a spike in demand for shortwave radios. There are many examples of crisis broadcasting: the Gulf War, when there were special broadcasts to troops in the area and when western stations enjoyed large audience increases in the Middle East and elsewhere; the Tiananmen Square events of 1989, which saw similar increases in BBC and VOA audiences in China; the Falklands War; the conflict in Timor; and the 2004 Asian tsunami. In World War II and the Korean War, families were

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Broadcasting on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today

happy to learn from shortwave listeners of on-air messages from loved ones being held as POWs. Westerners trapped in Kuwait in 1990 relied on shortwave for news and for information about possible routes of escape.6¡ By learning over the radio that they have not been forgotten, hostages in Lebanon, Gaza, South America and elsewhere have gained hope.62 And there is a lesson in Mikhail Gorbachev’s reliance on the BBC, VOA and Radio Liberty during an attempted coup in 1991. Although shortwave will likely continue to be a useful alternative in times of crisis, of necessity this will be a secondary use and will not by itself justify the maintenance of major shortwave broadcasting infrastructures in individual countries. Regularly scheduled newsand-entertainment shortwave services, whether broadcaster-owned or leased-time, and an audience that has shortwave receivers and knows how to use them, will be essential to the continuing viability of shortwave broadcasting, whether in normal times or in crises. Even if DRM proves successful and is able to compete with other media on audio quality, it seems clear that, absent a doomsday event that severs telephone cables and satellite channels or otherwise untethers the world from the international communication vehicles on which it increasingly relies, shortwave broadcasting will remain a specialized function, serving ever smaller audiences.

*

*

*

In 1995, RCI on-air host Ian McFarland said this about shortwave listening: There are, no doubt, many different shades to the magic of shortwave for different people. It can be something as simple as just being able to hear a radio broadcast from a country that you’ve only seen on a world map. Or, it can be having the opportunity to hear about things that are happening around the world, things that you’d never in a million years hear about any other way.... [T]here’s also the pleasure of hearing the far away voices who have become “good friends” over the many years that they hosted favourite programs— people like Eddie Startz on Radio Netherlands’ Happy Station program and Keith Glover on Radio Australia’s mailbag program.63

Now, over a decade later, and after all the changes in the shortwave landscape, it is still the magic of pulling a distant signal out of the air and connecting with a far away place that makes shortwave unique, and not replicable by the new media. Leslie Baily, wireless correspondent of England’s Yorkshire Evening News, captured the essence of it at the 1925 opening of long wave station 5XX in Daventry, a town which, two years later, would host the first BBC experimental shortwave transmissions. “Here, outside in the night air,” he wrote, “all was quiet. Silence — and yet one felt the mystery of these invisible waves, the miracle of the hidden voices, sweeping out through the night.”64 Nowhere was the miracle greater than on the short waves.

Appendix: Stations by the Year Stations can be located in this book by Year or operation. Countries are usually listed by their modern names. Where a station has operated under multiple names, the names are grouped together. Relays of one station by another (“relays of other broadcasters”) may be shown under the name of the relaying station or organization, or as a separate entry, as appropriate. General information about a country or its broadcasting is contained in the last listing under the country (“general”). Miscellaneous entries, as well as entries for clandestine, religious, educational and cultural broadcasters not indexed under particular countries, are at the end of the appendix. The parent transmitting stations for broadcasters listed under “Clandestine, opposition, and ‘freedom’ broadcasters” are not indexed separately from the name of the broadcaster, even if the transmitting station is mentioned in the text. Abbreviations: Cl. = Club, Clube; Em. = Emisora, Emissora; Intl. = Internacional, International; Nacl., Natl. = Nacional, National, Nationale; R. = Radio; Rdf. = Radiodifusão, Radiodifusion, Radiodifusora. Bold = illustration.

Country Listings Aden (South Yemen): Aden Broadcasting Svc., South Arabian Broadcasting Svc., South Yemen Broadcasting Svc., Democratic [Republic of ] Yemen Broadcasting Svc., Republic of Yemen Radio 1963, 1967, 1990; ZNR 1945. Afghanistan: Information Radio (Commando Solo) 2001, 2001, 2004; R. Kabul, R. Afghanistan, R. Voice of Shariah 1951, 1958, 1959, 1967, 1967, 1979, 1996, 2001, 2007 (relayed by other broadcasters 1979, 1992, 2002); R. Solh (R. Peace) 2004, 2006; Salaam Watandar 2004, 2004. Alaska: KNLS 1983, 2008; relays of other broadcasters 1996. Albania: BBC 1997; Gjirokaster 1975; R. Tirana, Rdf. TV Albanaise 1946, 1953, 1955, 1959, 1961, 1967, 1968, 1975, 1988, 1991, 1993, 1993, 2004, 2008 (relayed by other broadcasters 1953, 1962); relays of other broadcasters 1968, 1978, 1995, 2004, 2007; other stations 1951. Algeria: R. Algeria, R. Algiers, Rdf. TV Algerienne 1946, 1952, 1958, 1959, 1966, 1971, 1979, 1993, 2006 (relayed by other broadcasters 2006); R. France 1945, 1946; R. Mediterranean 1983, 1983, 1990; VOA 1945, 1947. Andorra: Andorradio 1959; R. Andorra, R. Andorra Intl. 1945, 1946, 1976, 1976, 1978, 1979, 1981 (relays of other broadcasters 1976, 1978, 1979). Angola: A Voz de Angola 1971, 1975; A Voz da Resistência do Galo Negro (Voice of the Resistance of the Black Cockerel) (VORGAN) 1982, 1986, 1993, 1997, 1999; A Voz do Zaire, Voz de Angola Livre 1974, 1975; Em. Oficial, R. Nacl. de Angola 1959, 1960, 1965, 1971, 1975, 1976, 1982, 1989, 1993, 2001, 2003, 2008; Em. Provincial do Zaire 1982; Estaçao Radio Difusora 1948, 1948; R. Cl. de Angola 1945, 1948, 1952, 1957, 1958, 1965; R. Cl. de Benguela, Em. Regional de Benguela, Em. Provincial de Benguela 1947, 1965, 1968, 1974, 1982, 1993; R. Cl. do Bie 1948, 1974; R. Cl. de Cabinda, Em. Regional da Cabinda 1965, 1974, 1978; R. Cl. do Cuanza Sul 1952, 1961, 1965, 1968; R. Cl. do Huambo, Voz de Revolucão, Em. Regional do

435

436

Appendix

Huambo 1948, 1950, 1957, 1965, 1970, 1975, 1985; R. Cl. da Huila 1948, 1958, 1965, 1968, 1970; R. Cl. do Lobito, Em. Regional do Lobito 1965, 1965, 1974, 1978, 1985; R. Cl. de Malanje, Em. Regional de Malanje 1947, 1965, 1978; R. Cl. de Moçamedes, Em. Regional de Moçameses 1948, 1978; R. Cl. do Moxico, Em. Provincial do Moxico 1965, 1974, 1985; R. Comercial de Angola 1965, 1974; R. Diamang 1948, 1961, 1961, 1965; R. Ecclesia 1955, 1962, 1965, 1971, 1974, 1976, 2000; relayed by other broadcasters 2000; other stations 1959, 1965; general 1975. Anguilla: Caribbean Beacon 1992, 1996, 2005. Antarctica: Armed Forces Antarctic Network 1974, 1994; R. Nacl. Arcangel San Gabriel 1979, 1979, 1981, 1999. Antigua: BBC-Deutsche Welle Caribbean Relay, Caribbean Relay Co. Ltd. 1976, 2005; relays of other broadcasters 2000. Argentina: feeder transmissions 1978, 1983, 1990, 1991, 1997; LOL 1956, 1994; LRA 1945, 50; Rdf. Argentina al Exterior (RAE) 1958, 1968; R. Americas Intl. 1993; R. Baluarte, R. Maranatha, Futuro FM, Cultura FM 2002; R. Belgrano 1946, 1950, 1956, 1963, 1967, 1967, 1977, 1983, 1985; R. Continental 1990, 1991; R. del Estado 1953, 1956; R. del Plata 1982, 1983, 1991; R. El Mundo 1945, 1950, 1953, 1956, 1967, 1977, 1977, 1983; R. Malargüe 1982, 1993; R. Nacl. de Buenos Aires 1982, 1993; R. Nacl. de Mendoza 1974, 1994; R. Rivadavia 1978, 1982, 1983, 1991; R. Splendid 1946, 1950, 1953, 1956, 1963, 1977, 1983, 1997; Servicio Radiofonico Intl. et al. 1950, 1953, 1956; other stations 1945, 1948, 1990, 1997. Armenian S.S.R.: R. AR Intercontinental 1994; R. Yerevan, R. Armenia, Araks Radio Agency, Voice of Armenia, Public Radio of Armenia 1952, 1955, 1963, 1978, 1992, 1994, 2006 (relays of other broadcasters 1996, 1999, 2001, 2006, 2008); Yerevan 1976, 1980; general 1991. Ascension Is.: BBC Atlantic Relay Stn. 1966; relays of other broadcasters 1974, 1995, 2005, 2006, 2007. Australia: “Australia Calling,” R. Australia 1945, 1949, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1961, 1964, 1968, 1969, 1970, 1974, 1976, 1980, 1990, 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2005, 2007 (“Gulf Link” 1991; relayed by other broadcasters 1999, 2001; relays of other broadcasters 1995, 2001; “Timor Hour” 1999, 2008); Australia Bureau of Meteorology 2007; Australian Armed Forces Radio (AAFR) (HMAS Tobruk, HMAS Canberra), Australian Defence Forces Radio 1993, 2005; Australian Broadcasting Corp. 2005; Community Development Radio Svc., Aboriginal Resource and Development Svcs. (ARDS) 2003; HCJB Australia 2003; Inland Short-Wave Svc. 1945, 1948; Belconnen (AAFR) 1993; Brandon 1988, 2006, 2007; Brisbane 1945, 1951, 1993, 2006; Cairns (ABC Far North) 2006; Carnarvon 1974, 1975, 1996; Central Australian Aboriginal Media Assn. (CAAMA) 1985; Christian Voice, Voice Intl. 2000; Darwin 1968, 1969, 1974, 1975, 1984, 1993, 1997, 2000; Exmouth (AAFR) 1993, 2005; Glover, Keith 2006; Gnangara 1974; Lyndhurst 1945, 1968, 1987; Melbourne 1945, 1968, 1974; Northern Territory Shortwave Svc. 1984, 1985, 1986, 1993, 2005; Perth 1945, 1964, 1993; R. National 1997; R. Puckapunyal 1956; Royal Australian Navy & Natl. Standards Commission time stn. 1987; Shepparton 1945, 1968, 1974, 2006; Telecom Australia, Darwin; Outpost Radio Svc. 1984; Sydney 1948, 1983; VNG 1964, 1987, 2002; 8DR 1974. Austria: KOFA (Blue Danube Network) 1946, 1946; Österreich One 2003; R. Afrika Intl. 2001; R. Wien, Österreichischer Rundfunk (ORF), R. Austria Intl. 1946, 1955, 1956, 1962, 1966, 1972, 1975, 1982, 1984, 1994, 2000, 2001, 2003; relayed by other broadcasters 1989, 2003; relays of other broadcasters 1992, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2006; Schulungssender Österreichischen Bundesheeres, Austrian Army Radio Station 1972, 1972. Azerbaijan S.S.R.: Baku 1955, 1958, 1976, 1980; R. Baku 1958, 1964, 1965, 1976, 1978; R. Dada Gorgud, Voice of Azerbaijan 1993; Voice of Justice 1997; relays of other broadcasters 1995; general 1991. Azores: Em. National, Em. Regional dos Açores 1945, 1947, 1953, 1956, 1976; R. Cl. de Angra 1989. Bahamas: ZNS 1945. Bahrain: Coalition Maritime Forces Radio, R. One, CMF Radio 2004; R. Bahrain 1991, 1991, 2003; relayed by other broadcasters 1991. Balearic Islands: R. Menorca 1949. Bangladesh: R. Bangladesh 1971, 1971, 1984. Barbados: Barbados Rediffusion Svc. 1948; Cable & Wireless 1948, 1962, 1970. Belgium: Belgian National Broadcasting Service (ORU), Rdfn.-TV Belge, “World’s Fair Radio” 1952, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1957, 1962, 1968, 1974, 1976; Belgische Radio en Televisie (BRT, BRTN), R. Vlaanderen Intl. [Dutch] 1976, 1992, 1997, 2000, 2000, 2005 (relayed by other broadcasters 1995, 2000); R. “E” 1997; Rdf. TV Belge (RTB, RTBF) [French] 1976, 1991, 2000, 2000, 2006 (relayed by other broadcasters 1998, 2000, 2006); Transmitter Documentation Project 2000, 2003; TDP Radio 2003; general 1946. Belize (British Honduras): Br. Honduras Broadcasting Svc. (ZIK), R. Belize 1947, 1952, 1953, 1961, 1972, 1976, 1989.

Appendix

437

Benin (Dahomey): R. Cotonou, R. Dahomey, La Voix de la Révolution, R. Benin 1956, 1959, 1961, 1969, 1973, 1975, 1976, 1983, 1996; R. Parakou 1983. Bhutan: R. NYAB, R. Bhutan, Bhutan Broadcasting Svc. 1974, 1989, 1992, 2000, 2005, 2007. Bolivia: La Cruz del Sur 1951, 1951; Radioem. Bolivia 1966, 1979; R. Abaroa 1982; R. Altiplano 1963, 1972; Radio A.N.D.E.S., R. Mallku 1996, 1999; R. Centenario [“La Nueva”] 1972, 1977, 2006; R. Fides 1972, 1979; R. Illimani, R. del Estado 1967, 1981, 2004, 2006; R. La Plata 1986; R. Loyola 2007; R. Mamoré 1972; R. Mosoj Chaski 1999; R. Nacl., Cochabamba 1976; R. Nacl., Huanuni 1976; R. Paititi 1996; R. Panamericana 1996, 1996; R. Patria Nueva 2006; R. Perla del Acre 1989; R. Pio XII 1961, 1965 1966; R. Riberalta 1972; R. San Gabriel 1986; R. San Jose 1984; R. Santa Cruz 1984; R. Universitaria 2007; R. Yura 2000; other stns. 1972, 1975–1977, 1979, 1980, 1982–1984, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1996, 1999, 2000, 2003–2006; general 1947, 1965, 1974, 1988, 1992. Bosnia-Herzecogvina: Bijeljina 1989, 1993, 1995, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2006, 2007; R. Bosnia-Hercegovina 1993, 1994, 1995. Botswana (Bechuanaland): BBC Central African Relay Stn. 1965, 1968, 1991; R. Botswana 1968, 1985, 1999, 2001; VOA 1991, 1991; ZNB/ZND, R. Bechuanaland 1947, 1965. Brazil: “A Voz do Brasil” 1951, 1961, 1969, 1985; Agencia Nacl., PSF/PSH 1945, 1961; Radiobras 1975, 1979, 1999, 2001 (relays of other broadcasters 1982, 1984, 1988, 1992); R. Aparecida 1957, 1966, 1969; R. Bandeirantes 1953; R. Bare 1952; R. Brasil Central 1967, 1974; R. Canção Nova 1988; R. Cl. de Pernambuco 1945, 1974; R. Cl. do Para 1954; R. Cl. Ribeirão Preto 1957; R. Cultura da Bahia 1957; R. Difusora do Amazonas 1963; R. Diario da Manha 1958; R. Gaucha 1974, 1994; R. Gazeta 1954; R. Globo 1958, 2006; R. Guarujá 1957; R. Guarujá Paulista 2003; R. Inconfidencia 1985, 2006; R. Jornal do Comercio 1948, 1950; R. Marajoara 1959, 1981; R. Maua 1955; R. Mayrink Veiga 1956, 1965; R. Ministério da Educaçao, R. MEC 1948, 1956, 1971, 1990; R. Nacl. da Amazônia 1977; R. Nacl. de Brasilia 1960, 1968, 1972, 1974, 1977; R. Nacl. do Brasil 1979; R. Nacl. de Manaus 1983; R. Nac. Rio de Janeiro 1945, 1960; R. Panamericana 1959; R. Poti 1952, 1969; R. Quitandinha 1951, 1951; R. Relogio Federal 1953; R. Ribeirão Preto 1973; R. Rio Mar 1961; R. Senado 2001; R. Tabajara 1961; R. Tamoio 1947; R. Timbira 1955, 1966, 1969; R. Trans Mundial 2004; R. Tupi 1957; R. Universitária Santos Dumont 1959, 1970; R. Universo 1994; other stations 1948, 1951, 1953, 1954, 1956–1959, 1961, 1962, 1966, 1971, 1973, 1974, 1978–1981, 1983, 1985, 1986, 1988–1990, 1994, 1995, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007; general 1947, 1950, 1954, 1955, 1975. Brunei: R. Brunei 1979, 1979. Bulgaria: Bulgarian Telecommunications Co. 1991; R. Rodina 1946; R. Sofia, R. Bulgaria 1946, 1950, 1953, 1996, 1998, 2006, 2008 (relayed by other broadcasters 1984); R. Varna 1991; relays of other broadcasters 1951, 1953, 1962, 1995, 2000, 2001, 2004. Burkina Faso (Upper Volta): R. Haute-Volta, La Voix de la Renovation, Rdf.-TV Voltaique, R. Burkina 1959, 1976, 1981, 1986, 2001. Burma: Burmese Army Radio Stn. 1987; Mayawadi Broadcasting Stn. 1992; Maymyo Defense Forces Broadcasting Unit 1987; R. Rangoon, Burma Broadcasting Svc. 1945, 1946, 1957, 1958, 1969, 1983, 1983; Thabye Radio 1995. Burundi: R. CORDAC 1963, 1966, 1974, 1977; R. Usumbura, R. Burundi, La Voix de la Révolution 1962, 1962, 1965, 1973, 1981, 1993, 2001. Byelorussian S.S.R.: low power stations 1998; ,ilitary transmissions 1996; R. Minsk, R. Belarus 1978, 1998, 2000; R. Stalitsa 2000; relays of other broadcasters 1993, 1999; general 1991. Cambodia: R. Cambodge, R. Phnom Penh, Rdf. Natl. Khmere,Voice of the United Front of Kampuchea, Voice of the People of Kampuchea, Voice of the People of Cambodia, Natl. Voice of Cambodia, Natl. Radio of Cambodia 1950, 1962, 1966, 1971, 1979, 1980, 1992, 2005. Cameroon: R. Bafoussam 1980, 1994; R. Bertoua 1977, 1986, 1991, 1994; R. Buea, Cameroon IV 1963, 1977, 1994, 1998; Radio-Cameroun 1959; R. Douala 1948, 1950, 1959, 1983, 1994; R. Garoua 1959, 1960, 1994; R. Yaounde 1957, 1959, 1960, 1967, 1977, 1994, 1996; general 1959. Canada: Canadian Forces Radio Network 1992; CBC Intl. Svc., R. Canada Intl. 1945, 1953, 1955, 1965, 1966, 1969, 1970, 1971, 1972, 1977, 1979, 1985, 1989, 1991, 1996, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2006; (Earle Fisher 1972; Ian McFarland 1991; Bob MacGregor 1972; relayed by other broadcasters 1966, 1971, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 2000, 2001; relays of other broadcasters 1971, 1974, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2006, 2007; “DX Digest,” “SWL Digest” 1977, 1991); “CBC Radio Overnight” 1995; CBCVercheres 1948, 1953; CBRX, CBUX, CKZU 1949, 1953, 1983, 1995, 2008; CFCX 1945, 1948, 1963, 1991, 1994, 1995, 1997; CFRX 1945, 1970, 1987, 2002, 2006, 2008; CFVP, CKMX 1945, 1966, 1978, 1982, 1995, 2002; CHNX 1974, 1995, 1997, 2001; CHU 1948, 1954, 1990; CIQC 1991, 1994; CJCX 1953, 1964, 1973; CKFX

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Appendix

1950, 1978, 1978, 1995; CKOI 1994, 1995; CKRO/CKRX 1945; Intuit Neepingit (“Voice of the Arctic”) et al. 1967; R. Asia Canada 1998; “Northern Messenger,” Northern Svc. 1957, 1958, 1969, 1969; Vancouver 1958; VED (CBX) 1950; VE9AI/CJCA 1945, 1958; VONH, CBNX, CKZN 1945, 1949, 1953, 1985, 1995, 1995, 1999; VONW (CKA36) 1953. Canary Islands: Centro Emisor del Atlántico (RNE) 1964, 1988; Full Gospel Las Palmas Church 2002; La Voz de la Isla de la Palma 1960; R. Atlantico 1954, 1955, 1960; R. Cl. Tenerife 1945, 1946, 1960. Cape Verde Islands: R. Barlavento, R. Voz do São Vicente 1960, 1960, 1975, 1982; R. Cl. [de] Cabo Verde, Em. Oficial da Republica de Cabo Verde 1946, 1969, 1975, 1982; R. Cl. Mindelo 1954, 1975. Central African Republic (Oubanggi-Chari): R. Bangui, R. Centreafrique 1959, 1973, 1977, 1977, 2003, 2004; relayed by other broadcasters 2004; R. ICDI 2007; R. MINURCA 1998, 1998; R. Ndeke Luka (“Bird of Luck”) 2003. Chad: R. Chad 1951, 1959, 1971, 1973, 1973, 1980, 1982, 1984, 1997, 1998, 2007; R. Moundou 1982. Chile: La Voz de Chile, Voice of Chile, Voice of Free Chile 1974, 1980; R. Agricultura 1977; R. Americas Intl. 1993, 2002; R. Calama 1956, 1980; R. Colo Colo 1976; R. Cooperativa Vitalicia 1956; R. Corporación 1951, 1973; R. Diego Portales, R. Portales 1959, 1966, 1973; R. Esperanza 1990; R. Nacl. de Chile 1974, 1980, 1993, 1998, 2002; R. Parinacota 2001; R. Patagonia Chilena 1980; R. Presidente Balmaceda 1957, 1975; R. Santa Maria 1985, 1985; R. Sociedad Nacl. de Agricultura 1955; R. Sociedad Nacl. de Mineria 1946; R. Universidad de Concepción 1973; R. Yungay 1954; Voz Cristiana 1998, 2000, 2006 (relays of other broadcasters 2007); other stations 1945, 1951. China: BPM, Shaanxi Astronomical Observatory 1980; BPV 1958, 1980; Central Broadcasting Administration 1947; Central People’s Broadcasting Stn., China Natl. Radio 1990, 1992, 2007; Chicom I 1970, 1970; China Business Radio 2004; China Huayi Broadcasting Co. 1991, 1991; “Easy FM” 1996, 2008; Guangxi Foreign Broadcasting Stn. 1998, 2005; Harbin 1974, 1980; Kunming 1974, 1979, 1980, 1997; Lanzhou 1974, 1980; Lhasa 1959, 1971, 1974, 2002; Peihai Fishery Stn. 1974, 1982; People’s Liberation Army Stn., Fujian Front Stn., Voice of the Strait 1967, 1984, 1990, 1999; Qinghai 1980; Quangxi PBS 1982; R. Peking, R. Beijing, China Radio Intl. 1950, 1951, 1953, 1959, 1962, 1963, 1968, 1970, 1974, 1979, 1989, 1990, 1992, 1997, 2003, 2008 (relayed by other broadcasters 1968, 1978, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1999, 2000, 2004, 2006; relays of other broadcasters 1962, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1992, 2000); R. Quangdong 2004; R. Tibet 1950; Sichuan PBS (“Voice of Golden Bridge”) 2001; Urumqi 1974, 1979, 1980, 1997; Voice of Jinling (Jiangsu PBS) 1986, 1990; Voice of Pujiang 1988, 1988, 1990; XGOA 1949; XGOY 1945, 1946, 1947; Xilinhot 1980; Xian 1979; Xining 1974, 1980; Xizang PBS, China Tibet People’s Broadcasting Co., “Voice of Holy Tibet” 2002; XMHA 1946; XNCR 1946; XORA 1945; XTPA 1945, 1946; other stations 1945, 1946, 1948, 1949, 1958, 1963, 1974, 1990; general 1947, 1949, 1968, 1979. Colombia: Brisas del Citará 1973; Ecos del Atrato 1975; Ecos del Combeima 1976, 1995; Em. Atlantico 1969; Em. Nueva Granada 1945; Em. Nuevo Mundo 1948, 1979; Em. Unidas 1951; La Voz de Antioquia 1946, 1949; La Voz de Bogota 1947, 1960; La Voz de Cali 1956, 1971; La Voz del Caqueta 1970; La Voz de los Centauros 1975, 2003; La Voz del Choco 1958; La Voz del Cinaruco 1972; La Voz de Colombia 1945, 1951; La Voz de tu Conciencia 2002, 2002, 2005; La Voz de Cúcuta 1953; La Voz del Guaviare 1981; La Voz del Huila 1974; La Voz del Llano 1962; La Voz del Norte 1952, 1964, 1977; La Voz del Rio Cauca 1969; La Voz de la Selva 1974; La Voz del Tolima 1955, 1980; La Voz de la Victor 1948, 1968; Marfil Estéreo 2005; Ondas del Meta 1968; R. Alcaraván 2002; R. Autentica 1999; Bucaramanga 1957, 1968, 1977; R. Colosal 1968; R. Continental 1950, 1971; R. El Sol 1971; R. Guatapurí 1969; R. Lider 2005; R. Macarena 1983, 1999, 2004; R. Melodia 1978, 2003; R. Neiva 1968, 1976; R. Pacifico 1948, 1952, 1956; R. Santa Fe 1961, 1979; R. Super de Bogota 1971; R. Super de Cali 1975; R. Super de Ibague 1995; R. Super de Medellin 1973; R. Surcolombiana 1974; R. Sutatenza 1953, 1953, 1961, 1976, 1989; R. Transamazonica 1981; R. Villavicencio 1964; Rdf. Nacional de Colombia 1945, 1950, 1967, 1992, 2000; Transmisoras Caldas 1957; other stations 1946–1948, 1951–1956, 1959–1961, 1963, 1970, 1975, 1976, 1979, 1980, 1982, 1984, 1986- 1989, 1992, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2002, 2003. Comoros: Rdf. TV Francaise, Dzaoudzi 1975; Rdf. TV Francaise, Moroni; R. Comoro 1975, 1991; general 1959, 1975. Congo, Democratic Republic of (Belgian Congo, Zaire): Pt. Noire 1976; R. Bukavu 1959, 1961, 1988, 2001; R. Bunia 2001; R. Candip 1977, 1998; R. College 1952, 1965; R. Congo, R. Natl. Congolaise, La Voix du Zaire, La Voix du Congo, R.-TV Natl. Congolaise 1961, 1968, 1972, 1988, 1995, 1997 (relayed by other broadcasters 2002); R. Congo Belge (OTH, OTM) 1945, 1951, 1952, 1954, 1957; R. Congolia 1945; R. Coquilhatville (Mbandaka) 1959, 1961, 1988; R. Elisabethville, R. Elisabeth 1948, 1952, 1957; R. Kahuzi 2001; R. Katanga, R. Interprovinciale du Katanga, La Voix de la Fraternité Africaine, R. Lubumbashi, La Voix du

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439

Zaire, La Voix du Peuple 1960, 1961, 1963, 1965, 1967, 1968, 1972, 1973, 1985, 1999; R. Kisangani 1991; R. Leo 1952, 1961, 1965; R. Luluabourg (Kananga) 1959, 1988; R. Mbuji-Mayi 1974, 1988; R. Okapi 2002; R. Stanleyville 1957, 1961; R. Tele-Liberté 2000; R. UFAC 1957, 1965; Rdfsn. Natl. Belge (OTC) 1945, 1946, 1948, 1949, 1952, 1954, 1960 (relays of other broadcasters 1945); other stations 1961; general 1971, 1997. Congo, Republic of: R. Brazzaville, ORTF, R. A.E.F., R. Inter-Equatoriale, R. Congo, La Voix de la Révolution Congolaise, Rdf. TV Congolaise, R. Congolaise de la Liberté 1945, 1947, 1951, 1953, 1955, 1959, 1963, 1963, 1967, 1972, 1973, 1990, 1997, 2001; general 1959. Cook Islands: R. Rarotonga, R. Cook Islands 1955, 1955, 1965, 1974, 1976, 1981, 1982, 1993. Costa Rica: AWR 1986, 1991, 1994, 1999; La Voz de Costa Rica 1952; La Voz de la Victor 1946, 1955, 1967; R. Atenea, R. Centroamericana 1968, 1976, 1983; R. Athenea 1953; R. Capital 1970; R. Casino 1958, 1966, 1992; R. Columbia 1983, 1983; R. Cristal, R. Reloj 1953, 1959, 1970, 1977, 1977 (“Aqui Costa Rica” 1977); Radio For Peace Intl. 1987, 1987, 1992, 1995, 2003 (“Far Right Radio Review” 1995 (relays of other broadcasters 1990, 1992); R. Impacto 1983, 1989, 1990, 1991; R. Lira 1986, 1991; R. Monumental 1963; R. Nacl. de Costa Rica 1981; R. Nacl. de España (Cariari relay stn.) 1992; R. Noticias del Continente 1979, 1981; R. Rumbo 1980; R. Universidad de Costa Rica 1974, 1992, 2003; TIFC 1949, 1954, 1955, 2001; TI4NRH 1945, 1979, 1986; University Network (Dr. Gene Scott) 1999, 2005; other stations 1952, 1979, 1998; general 1947. Croatia: Hrvatski (Croatian) Radio, Voice of Croatia 1991, 1994, 2000 (relayed by other broadcasters 1991, 1997, 2000). Cuba: Cadena Oriental 1947; Circuito CMQ 1945, 1957, 1960; Instituto Meteorologica (CLX) 1988; R. Aeropuerto 1957, 1960; R. Cadena Suaritos 1949, 1950; R. Havana Cuba 1961, 1973, 1974, 1980, 1991, 2001, 2002, 2004 (relayed by the other broadcasters 1979); R. Liberación 1984; R. Oriente 1959; R. Progresso 1947, 1953, 1957, 1960; R. Rebelde 1958, 1959, 1960, 1984, 1992, 2001, 2004; R. Reloj 2002; R. Salas 1950, 1960; Union Radio 1949, 1959; other stations 1945, 1957, 1960, 1961; relays of other broadcasters 1979, 1980, 1984, 1999, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008; general 1947, 1953, 1958. Curacao: PJC2 1951; R. Curom 1945, 1960, 1970; TWR 1962. Cyprus: Bayrak Radio, R. Bayrak 1964, 1975, 1978, 1997, 2001; BBC East Mediterranean Relay 1957, 1969 (relays of other broadcasters 1957, 1969, 1984, 1991, 1992); Cyprus Broadcasting Corp. 1969, 1984; Near East Arab Broadcasting Stn. (Sharq al Adna) 1945, 1946, 1948, 1954, 1957, 1964; R. Napa 1998. Czechoslovakia: Podebrady 1994; Radioropa-Info 1993; R. Prague, R. Prague Intl. 1953, 1955, 1956, 1968, 1982, 1990, 1994, 1996, 2006 (relayed by other broadcasters 1984, 1995, 1998, 2006); “R. Free Prague” 1968; R. Metropolis 1994; general 1968, 1993. Denmark: R. Denmark 1946, 1947, 1948, 1953, 1960, 1970, 1982, 1990, 2002, 2003 (Marianne Linard 1969; relayed by other broadcasters 1990, 1996, 2002, 2003); World Music Radio 1976, 1997, 2004. Diego Garcia: AFRTS, AFN 2000, 2005. Djibouti: R. Djibouti 1956, 1959, 1963, 1967, 1971, 1993, 2005. Dominican Republic: HIN 1965; HI9B 1946; La “N” 103 1991; La Voz de las Fuerzas Armadas 1970; La Voz de la O.E.A. 1965; La Voz del Papagayo 1968, 1970; La Voz de la Romana 1964, 1968; La Voz del Yaque 1955; La Voz del Yuna, La Voz Dominicana, R. Sto. Domingo, R. Sto. Domingo Libre, Radio-TV Dominicana 1949, 1953, 1958, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1970; Onda Musical 1958, 1993, 2003; R. Amanecer 1994, 2007; R. Antillas 1966, 1971, 1986; R. Barahona 1990; R. Caribe 1952, 1960, 1963, 1965; R. Cima [100], R. Villa 1992, 1999; R. Clarin 1970, 1974, 1975, 1976, 1978, 1980, 1980, 1981, 1983, 1989, 1992 (Rudy Espinal 1976, 1978, 1980, 1983); R. Comercial 1963, 1966; R. Cristal [Intl.], R. Pueblo 1967, 1969, 1996; R. Discovery 1986, 1987, 1992; R. Exitos 1969; R. Hit Musical 1958; R. Mil 1966, 1977; R. Nacional 1960; R. Norte 1974, 1994; R. Quisqueya 1992, 1994; R. Santiago 1970, 1982, 1984, 1992; other stations 1946, 1948, 1953, 1956, 1957, 1977, 1994; general 1961. Ecuador: C.R.E. 1956, 1985; Escuelas Radiofónicos Populares 1976; Estación HC2RL 1945; HCJB 1945, 1946, 1947, 1950, 1951, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1961, 1967, 1968, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1990, 1991, 1991, 1994, 1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007 (John Beck 1984; “DX Partyline” 1984, 1986, 1996, 2001, 2003; Helen and Clayton Howard 1984; Ken MacHarg 1984; relayed by other broadcasters 1997, 2000; relays of other broadcasters 1959, 1983, 2002; Brian Seeley 1984; Glen Volkhardt 1984); Instituto Oceanográfico de la Armada (HD2IOA) 1977; La Voz de las Caras 1953, 1977; La Voz de Esmeraldas 1965; La Voz de Galapagos 1970, 1986, 1989; La Voz del Napo 1983, 1990, 2001; La Voz del Rio Carrizal 1969, 1974; La Voz del Rio Tarqui 1967; La Voz de Saquisili 1965, 1990; La Voz del Triunfo 1967; Ondas Quevedeñas 1965; R. Atalaya 1957; R. Baha’i 1980; R. Casa de la Cultura 1953; R. Catolica 1958, 1970, 1992; R. Centinela del Sur 1979, 2001, 2003; R. Cenit 1969; R. Chaski 2005; R. Difu-

440

Appendix

sora del Ecuador 1965; R. “El Buen Pastor” 1995; R. Federación 1977; R. Interoceánica 1987, 1990; R. Iris 1964; R. Jesus del Gran Poder 1971, 1981; R. La Voz del Upano 1984, 1990, 2004; R. Luz y Vida 1976; R. Maria 2001; R. Nacl. Espejo 1956, 1990; R. Pastaza 1982; R. Paz y Bien 1972, 1990; R. Progreso; R. Quito 1959, 1964, 1990, 2006; R. Rio Amazonas 1972, 1990; R. Vigo 1960; R. Zaracay 1964, 1992; Rdf. Nacl. del Ecuador 1961 (relayed by other broadcasters 1983); other stations 1945, 1946, 1948, 1949, 1952–1954, 1956, 1958, 1959, 1961, 1965, 1969, 1970, 1976–1979, 1981–1983, 1987–1990, 1993, 1994, 2001; general 1972, 1985, 1990, 1995. Egypt: Egyptian Broadcasting Svc., R. Cairo 1952, 1953, 1955, 1958, 1976, 2004; Forces Broadcasting Svc. (JCPA) 1945; SUX 1945; United Arab Republic Broadcasting Svc. 1958; Voice of the Arabs 1953. El Salvador: Deutsche Welle relay station 1970; La Voz de El Salvador 1949; R. Comercio, La Voz del Comercio 1968; R. Farabundo Martí 1982, 1992; R. Imperial 2002; R. Nacl. de El Salvador, R. El Salvador 1953, 1961, 1968, 1980, 1984; R. Venceremos 1981, 1985, 1992; other stations 1953. Equatorial Guinea: Em. de Rdf. de Santa Isabel, La Voz de Guinea Ecuatorial, R. Malabo, R. Nacl. de Guinea Ecuatorial (Malabo) 1953, 1957, 1966, 1974, 1981; R. Africa, R. East Africa, R. Africa No. 2 1984, 1989, 1994, 1997, 2005; R. Africa 2000 1991; R. Atlantica 1947, 1953; R. Calatrava 1958; R. Ecuatorial, R. Nacl. de Guinea Ecuatorial (Bata) 1956, 1957, 1964, 1979, 1984, 1994, 1997. Eritrea: R. Bana 2007; R. UNMEE 2002; Voice of the Broad Masses of Eritrea 1979, 1991, 2002. Estonian S.S.R.: R. Nadezhda (R. Hope) 1990, 1992; R. Tallinn, R. Estonia 1978, 1981, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1998; general 1991. Ethiopia: ETLF, R. Voice of the Gospel 1961, 1963, 1977, 1983; R. Addis Ababa, Voice of Ethiopia 1945, 1951, 1958, 1960, 1968; R. Fana (“Torch”) 1994; R. Voice of Revolutionary Ethiopia, Voice of Ethiopia, R. Ethiopia 1977, 1979, 1988, 1994 (relays of other broadcasters 1994); Voice of the Tigre Revolution 1981, 1991, 1999. Falkand Islands: BFBS 1982, 1988; Falkland Islands Broadcasting Svc. [Stn.] 1958, 1972, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1988 (John Beaver, Hank Bennett 1958); R. Nacl. Islas Malvinas 1982; general 1982. Fiji Islands: Fiji Broadcasting Commission [Co.], R. Fiji 1953, 1954, 1965, 1972; University of the So. Pacific 1988. Finland: Finnish Broadcasting Corp. [Svc.], R. Finland 1945, 1948, 1953, 1968, 1976, 1978, 1987, 2002, 2006, 2008; Scandinavian Weekend Radio 2000. France: France Régions 3, R. TV Francaise d’Outre–Mer (RFO) 1975, 1978, 1981, 1990, 1999, 2001; Rambouillet (R. Netherlands) 1981; R. Neige, R. Nostalgie 1992; Rdf. Francaise, ORTF et al., R. France Intl. 1945, 1946, 1953, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1981, 1985, 1989, 1990, 1995 (relayed by other broadcasters 1986, 1988, 1991, 1993, 1996, 2000, 2001, 2002); Télédiffusion de France (TDF) 1975, 1984, 1997 (relays of other broadcasters 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006, 2007, 2008). Gabon: Africa No. One 1946, 1979, 1981, 1983, 2006 (relays of other broadcasters 1983, 1986, 1990, 1994, 2000, 2002, 2006); Rdf. TV Gabonaise (Franceville) 1973; R. Gabon, La Voix de la Renovation 1959, 1968, 1970, 1981, 1981, 1994, 2003. Gambia: Cable & Wireless 1984; R. Gambia 1948, 1964, 1971, 1975; R. Syd 1984. Georgian S.S.R.: Abkhaz Radio 1996; R. Hara (“We”) 2001; Tbilisi 1946, 1959, 1976, 1980; R. Tbilisi, R. Georgia 1969, 1978, 1991, 2005; relays of other broadcasters 1997, 1998; general 1991. Germany (East & West, incl. Berlin): American Forces Network 1945, 1947, 1957; ARD 1953; Bayerischer Rundfunk 1955, 1964, 1990, 1999, 2003, 2005; Berlin I & Berlin II 1953; Berliner Rundfunk 1947 (relayed by other broadcasters 1984); Biblis 1950, 2003; British Forces Network 1946; B5 Aktuell 2003; Deutsche Bundespost, Deutsche Telekom 1996 (relays of other broadcasters 1988, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008); Deutsche Welle 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1964, 1970, 1972, 1989, 1990, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2003, 2006, 2007 (relayed by other broadcasters 1971, 1988, 1991, 1994, 2000, 2007); Deutschlandfunk 1990, 1994, 1999, 2007; DeutschlandRadio, DeutschlandRadio Kultur 1994, 1999, 2007, 2008; Deutschlandsender 1953, 1958, 1990; Deutschlandsender Kultur 1994; “Die Stimme der DDR” 1984, 1990; Eurosonor Radio 2001; Hamburger Lokalradio 2001; Hessischer Rundfunk 1965; Holzkirchen 1951, 2003; Lampertheim 1950, 1953, 2003; Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk 1946, 1999; Norddeutscher Rundfunk 1964; Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk 1947, 1951, 1953; Ostdeutscher Rundfunk Brandenburg 2000, 2003; R. Berlin Intl. (RBI) 1959, 1964, 1972, 1978, 1984, 1990; R. Bremen 1990, 1994, 1996, 1999; R. Casablanca 2005, 2007; R. Cimarrona 2004; R. DDR 1956; R. Horeb 2000; R. Marabu 2007; R. München 1947; R. Rasant 2002; R. RSG 1999; R. 1973 2005; R. 19700 2008; R. Stuttgart 1947; R. Volga 1948; RIAS 1949, 1951, 1964, 1964, 1968, 1984, 1990, 1994, 2007, 2008; Rundfunk Berlin-Brandenburg 2003; Sender Freies Berlin 1973, 1990, 1994, 2003; Staatliches Rundfunkomitee 1953;

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Stör-Sender 2005; Süddeutscher Rundfunk 1953, 1973, 1990, 1998; Südwestfunk 1946, 1973, 1990, 1998; Südwestrundfunk 1998, 1998, 2003, 2004; VOA 1948, 1949, 1967, 1994; Welle West 1997; “Zeesen” 1945, 1946. Ghana (Gold Coast): Gold Coast Broadcasting Svc. (ZOY), Ghana Broadcasting Sys. [Corp.], R. Ghana 1945, 1953, 1953, 1956, 1957, 1960, 1964, 1968, 1973, 1987, 1999, 2008. Gilbert & Ellice Islands (Kiribati): R. Tarawa, Voice of Tarawa, R. Kiribati 1959, 1966, 1968, 1970, 1981, 1992, 1993, 1999. Goa: All India Radio 1994; Em. da Goa 1949, 1952, 1959, 1960, 1994. Greece: Greek Armed Forces stns. 1950, 1955, 1966, 1970, 1972; Olympia Radio 2007; R. Athens, Natl. Hellenic Broadcasting Inst., ERT, Voice of Greece 1946, 1948, 1954, 1956, 1965, 1972, 2004, 2006, 2007 (relayed by other broadcasters 1997, 2006); R. Filia 2004; Radiophonikos Stathmos Makedonias 1976; USCGC Courier (Rhodes) 1952, 1952, 1959, 1964; VOA, IBB Kavala 1972, 2006; VOA, IBB Rhodes 1964, 1998, 2006; VOA Thessaloniki 1953, 1964, 1972, 1976. Greenland: Ammassalik Radio 2002; Grønlands Radio (OXI), Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa 1948, 1951, 1958, 1965, 1970, 1980, 1989, 2002. Guadeloupe: R. Guadeloupe 1945, 1953. Guam: AFRTS, AFN 2000; commercial phone relays of broadcasters 1945; KSDA 1987; KTWR 1977, 2006. Guatemala: AWR 1980, 1986; Broadcasting Tropical 1945; La Voz de Atitlan 1971, 1998; La Voz de Guatemala 1945, 1949, 1997; La Voz de las Americas 1955; La Voz de Nahuala 1969; La Voz de Quezaltenango 1947, 1968; La Voz del Yuna 1945; R. Amistad 2001; R. Buenas Nuevas 1987; R. Chortis 1966; R. Cultural Coatán 1994; R. Internacional 1951; R. K’ekchi 1988; R. Mam 1975, 1976; R. Maya Barillas 1967; R. Nacl., R. Nacl. de Guatemala 1976, 1980; R. Nacl. Quetzaltenango 1961, 1962, 1968; R. Nuevo Mundo 1955; R. Quetzal 1957; R. Tezulutlan 1972, 2001; R. Verdad 2000, 2000; TGNA 1950, 1954, 1955, 1976, 1984, 2003; Union Radio 1980, 1986; other stations 1945, 1946, 1949, 1952, 1953, 1956, 1957, 1960, 1977 general 1952, 1962. Guiana (British): Guyana Broadcasting Corp., Voice of Guyana 1981, 1996, 2003; Guyana Broadcasting Svc., Action Radio 1971, 1981; ZFY, Voice of Guiana, Guyana Broadcasting Co. Ltd., R. Demarara 1945, 1952, 1953, 1967, 1967, 1981; ZJA6 1952; other stations 1945. Guiana (French): France Inter Régions 1987; R. Cayenne, France Régions 3, RFO 1953, 1954, 1959, 1968, 1981, 2001; Télédiffusion de France (TDF) 1984, 2000, 2001, 2006 (relays of other broadcasters 1986, 1988, 1991, 1994, 2000, 2004). Guinea: R. Conakry, Rdf. Nationale, Voix de la Révolution, R. Guinea 1956, 1959, 1960, 1962, 1966, 1970, 1971, 1993, 1998. Guinea-Bissau: R. Bissau (CQM), Em. da Guiné, R. Bissau, Rdf. Nacl. 1946, 1948, 1958, 1959, 1967, 1977, 1984. Haiti: La Voix de la Ave Maria 1978; La Voix de la Vie Marie 1959; R. Caraibes 1960; R. Citadelle 1952, 1973, 1978; R. Commerce 1951, 1953, 1955, 1965; R. Democracy (Commando Solo) 2001; R. Haiti (HH3W) 1945, 1950; R. Lumiere 1959, 1963, 1970; R. Natl. 1978; 4VEH 1950, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1959, 1960, 1962, 1968, 1969, 1978, 1982, 1991; other stations 1947, 1950, 1952, 1953, 1955, 1957, 1966, 1967, 1970. Hawaii: AFRTS, AFN 2000; “Hawaii Calls” 1952, 1965, 1994; KWHR 1993, 1993, 1994 (relays of other broadcasters 1996, 1999, 2000, 2004, 2005); RCA Kahuku relays 1945, 1994; “Sounds of Aloha” 1994; VOA 1945, 1946, 1949, 1967, 1969, 1993; WWVH 1948, 1967, 1971, 1993. Honduras: “Alma Tica” (TIGPH) 1947; El Eco de Honduras 1947, 1958, 1982; La Voz de Atlantida 1951; La Voz Evangelica 1966, 2005; La Voz de Honduras 1945, 1959; La Voz del Junco 1958, 1984; La Voz de Lempira 1947; La Voz de Misiones Intls. de Centro America, R. Misiones Intls. 1996, 1999, 2001; La Voz de la Mosquitia 1981, 1992; La Voz de Occidente 1958, 1972; La Voz de Suyapa 1960; R. Copán Intl. 1993, 1996; R. HRET 1994, 1994; R. Intl., R. Costeña, Ebenezer 12–20 1994, 1999; R. Lux 1969; R. Luz y Vida 1980; R. Progreso 1951; R. San Isidro 1972; R. Suyapa 1952; R. Swan 1975, 1980; R. Tegucigalpa 1958; Sani Radio 1986; other stations 1950, 1951, 1954, 1955, 1958, 1959, 1963, 1964, 1966, 1975, 1982, 1994. Hong Kong: BBC East Asia Relay Stn. 1987, 1996, 1997; R. Hong Kong (ZBW), R. TV Hong Kong 1945, 1947, 1953, 1954, 1964, 1968, 1980, 1982, 1988, 1996, 2002; other stations 1945. Hungary: R. Budapest 1950, 1951, 1953, 1974, 2004, 2007 (relayed by other broadcasters 1951, 1984, 1998); relays of other broadcasters 1991, 2003. Iceland: AFRTS, AFN 2003, 2006; Iceland State Broadcasting Svc. (TFJ), Reykjavic Radio 1945, 1951, 1965, 1973, 1982, 1989, 2001, 2007. India: All India Radio 1946, 1947, 1953, 1966, 1971, 1990, 1991, 2004, 2007; Aizawal 1982; Bhopal 1959,

442

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1972, 1975, 1994, 2006; Bombay (Mumbai) 1945, 1946, 1959, 1972, 1975, 1995, 1998; Calcutta (Kolkata) 1945, 1946, 1959, 1975, 1994, 1995; Delhi 1975, 1998, 2006; FM Gold 2004; FM Rainbow 2004, 2005; Gauhati 1959, 1972, 1975, 1989, 1998; Gorakhpur 1991; Hyderabad 1958, 1959, 1975, 1994; Imphal 1993; Itanagar 1993; Jammu (Kashmir) 2002; Jaipur 1992; Jeypore 1998, 2001; Kingsway 1991; Kohima 1975, 1991; Kurseong 1972, 1975; Leh 1989; Lucknow 1959, 1975; Madras (Chennai) 1945, 1946, 1959, 1972, 1972, 1975, 1995, 1998; Port Blair 1989, 2003; Ranchi 1959, 1975; Shillong 1988; Gangtok (Sikkim) 1993, 2006; Simla, Shimla 1959, 1975, 1994, 2006; Srinagar 1975; Thiruvananthapuram 1993; TWR 2006. Indonesia: Ambon 1957, 1965, 1971, 1987, 1992; Banda Aceh 1992; Bandung 1946, 1949, 1971; Denpasar 1960; Djakarta, Jakarta 1949, 1958, 1960, 1987; Jambi 1971, 1987, 1992; Jogjakarta 1955, 1957, 1971, 1987; “Kang Guru Radio English” 1996; Kendari 1987, 2001, 2007; Makassar (Ujung Pandang) 1946, 1949, 1952, 1957, 1965, 1971, 1987, 1999, 2007; non–RRI stns. (“RPDK”) 1971, 1973, 1974, 1982, 1992, 2001; Pakanbaru 1966, 1992; Palembang 1949, 1957, 1971, 1971, 1987; Pontianak 1947, 1971, 1987, 1992, 2007; PMA 1947; R. Angatan Udara 1952, 1958; R. Balikpapan 1946; R. Djakarta 1949; R. Nusantara 1947; Radio Republik Indonesia et al. 1946, 1947, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1955, 1959, 1967, 1976, 1977, 1996, 1999, 2002; Surabaya 1949; Surakarta 1957, 1960, 1971; Voice of Indonesia 1946, 1947, 1951, 1953, 1987, 2002; other stations 1945, 1948, 1949, 1957, 1960, 1987, 1992, 2001, 2007. Iran: R. Tabriz 1947, 1960; R. Teheran (EPA, EPB), R. Iran, Voice of Iran, Voice of the Islamic Republic of Iran 1945, 1951, 1957, 1970, 1979, 1985, 1987, 1990, 1996, 2000, 2003 (relayed by other broadcasters 2006); Voice of David 2003; Voice of Justice 2003; Voice of Khorasan 2000. Iraq: Information Radio (Commando Solo) 2002; Mother of Battles Radio 1991, 1995, 1997; YI5KG, Iraqi Broadcasting Stn., R. Baghdad, Republic of Iraq Radio, R. Iraq Intl. 1945, 1952, 1958, 1962, 1971, 1977, 1978, 1984, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1997; Voice of the Masses 1971; “Voice of Peace” 1990. Ireland: Emerald Radio 1997; Ireland Overseas Broadcasting Ltd. 1995; Mid-West Radio 1996; R. Éireann, R. Telefis Éireann (RTE) 1945, 1947, 1952 (relayed by other broadcasters 1995, 1996, 2003, 2006); West Coast Radio Ireland 1996. Israel (and Palestine): Forces Broadcasting Svc. (JCKW) 1945; Galei Zahal 1952, 1954, 1981, 1987, 1995, 1999; Israel Broadcasting Authority (IBA) 1965, 1987; Kol Israel (Voice of Israel) 1948, 1949, 1950, 1954, 1955, 1965, 1968, 1972, 1973, 1977, 1979, 1980, 1990, 1991, 2008 (relayed by other broadcasters 1996); Kol Zion Lagolah 1950; Near East Arab Broadcasting Stn. (Sharq al Adna) 1945, 1946; pre-independence stations 1948, 1949. Italy: AFRTS, AFN 2000; Allied Forces Headquarters 1945; AWR Forli 1985, 1987, 1997, 2001; Caltanissetta 1952, 1954, 1970, 1997, 2003; EIAR 1946; European Christian Radio 1989; Idea Radio 1993, 2001; Italian Radio Relay Service (IRRS, NEXUS) 1988, 2003 (European Gospel Radio 2003; International Public Access Radio 2003; relays of other broadcasters 1988, 1989, 1996, 2002, 2004, 2007); R. Europe 1997; R. For Peace 2004; R. Italia Internazionale 1993; R. Italiana, RAI 1947, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1997, 2007 (relayed by other broadcasters 1995); R. Speranza 1994; Milan 1952; Palermo 1952, 1954; relays of other broadcasters 1996, 2000; Voice of Europe 1990. Ivory Coast: R. Abidjan, R. Cote d’Ivoire 1952, 1954, 1954, 1959, 1960, 1967, 1968, 1973, 1986, 1996. Jamaica: Cable & Wireless 1947; R. Jamaica (ZQI), Jamaica Broadcasting Co. Ltd. 1945, 1947, 1950, 1950, 1957. Japan: Far East Network 1951, 1954, 1964, 1964, 1988; “Furusato no Kaze” (“Wind of the Hometown”) 2007; Intl. Telecommunications Co. of Japan 1946; JG2XA 2001; JJY 1956, 2001; JOAK 1946; low power stations 1946, 1951, 1975, 1993, 2005, 2005; NHK 1946, 1951, 1960; Nihon Short-Wave Broadcasting Co. Ltd., R. Tampa, R. Nikkei 1954, 1955, 1961, 1962, 2003; R. Japan 1951, 1953, 1955, 1958, 1963, 1982, 1986, 1991, 2005, 2007 (relayed by other broadcasters 1978, 1983, 1986, 1988, 1991, 1993, 1995, 2000, 2001); R. Tokyo 1945, 1945; relays of other broadcasters 1986, 1988, 2000, 2001, 2008; “Shiokaze” (“Sea Breeze”) 2005, 2005, 2008; U.S. Army Signal Corps stns 1946; Voice of the United Nations Command 1951; WLKS 1947; WVTR (Armed Forces Radio Network) 1946, 1946, 1951. Jordan: Hashemite Jordan Broadcasting Svc., R. Jordan 1951, 1960, 1965, 1988, 1990, 1995, 1995, 2003. Karelo-Finnish S.S.R.: Petrozavodsk 1959, 1972, 1980. Kazakh S.S.R.: Alma Ata 1955, 1980, 1992; R. Alma Ata 1962, 1967 (relayed by other broadcasters 1995); relays of other broadcasters 1991, 2001; general 1991. Kenya: African Broadcasting Svc. 1956, 1957; Forces Broadcasting Svc. 1949, 1952; Cable & Wireless, VQ7LO 1945, 1952, 1956; Kenya Broadcasting Corp. 1995, 2001, 2003; Voice of Kenya 1967, 1968, 1970, 1985, 1998. Kirghiz S.S.R.: Frunze 1980; general 1991.

Appendix

443

Korea (North): Frontline Soldier Radio 1997; Korean Central Broadcasting Stn. 1989, 2003, 2005; low power stns. 1989, 2000; “Natl. Democratic Front of South Korea” 2003; R. Pyongyang, Voice of Korea 1954, 1965, 1968, 1971, 2001; Voice of the Revolutionary Party for Reunification, Voice of Natl. Salvation 1973, 1985, 2003. Korea (South): Armed Forces Korea Network 1955; Korean Broadcasting Sys. (HLKA), Voice of Free Korea, R. Korea, R. Korea Intl. 1946, 1948, 1953, 1956, 1958, 1965, 1973, 1976, 1994 (relayed by other broadcasters 1990, 1993, 2000, 2001); Radio Stn. Vagabond, R. Stn. Homestead 1955; relays of other broadcasters 1990, 1992, 1993, 1994, 2000, 2001; Voice of Hope, Echo of Hope 1968, 1973; Voice of the United Nations Command 1954. Kuwait: IBB 2004; Radio Kuwait 1960, 1962, 1968, 1969, 1990, 1992, 1996, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2007; R. Pinoy 2001; relays of other broadcasters 1991; general 1991. Laos: Champassak 1988; R. Lao, Rdf. Natl. Lao, Lao Natl. Radio 1953, 1956, 1974, 1974, 1976, 1988, 2004 (relayed by other broadcasters); Houa Phan 1976, 1988, 2004; Luang Prabang 1976, 1988; Pakse 1976; Savannakhet 1976, 1988; Udom Sai 1988; United Lao Races 1971; Xieng Khouang 1976, 1988. Latvian S.S.R.: Latvian State Radio & TV Centre 1997 ; RNI Radio Ltd. 2006; R. Riga, R. Latvia 1978, 1991, 1999, 2002; R. SWH, “Latvia Today” 2007; relays of other broadcasters 1997, 1999, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007; general 1991. Lebanon: R. Levant, Lebanese Broadcasting Stn., R. Lebanon 1945, 1955, 1962, 1966, 1978; Voice of Arab Lebanon 1983; Voice of Hope 1981, 1991, 1997, 2000, 2002, 2003 (relays of other broadcasters 1992); Voice of Lebanon 1977, 1983, 2000; Voix de la Charite 1997. Lesotho: BBC 1980, 1996; R. Lesotho, Lesotho Natl. Broadcasting Svc. 1971, 1977, 1980, 1996, 2001. Liberia: ELBC 1950, 1960, 1965, 1980, 1989, 1991 (relays of other broadcasters 1965, 1968); ELBC (ECOMOG) 1991, 1991; ELBC (Charles Taylor stn.) 1991; ELWA 1951, 1955, 1957, 1960, 1960, 1962, 1967, 1969, 1981, 1985, 1990, 1993, 2000, 2007; Liberia Communications Network, R. Liberia [Intl.], Voice of Liberia, Liberian Broadcasting Sys. 1996, 2002, 2007; Liberian Rural Communications Network 1987; R. Veritas 1997, 2000, 2002; Star Radio 1997, 2000, 2005 (relayed by other broadcasters 2005, 2007); VOA 1959, 1962, 1964, 1990, 1991, 1997; Voice of Liberty 2003. Libya: Forces Broadcasting Stn. 1953; Libyan Broadcasting Svc., Socialist People’s Libyan Arab, Jamahiriyah Broadcasting Corp., R. Jamahiriya 1962, 1971, 1977, 1984; R. Tripoli 1957; Voice of Africa 1984, 1998, 2002, 2006, 2007 (relayed by other broadcasters 2002); Voice of Friendship and Solidarity 1988; Voice of the Mediterranean 1988, 1996, 2003. Lithuanian S.S.R.: Radiocentras 1991; R. Vilnius 1966, 1978, 1991, 1993, 1996, 1999, 2001; relays of other broadcasters 1999, 2002, 2006, 2007; Sitkunai 1991, 1996, 1999, 2001; general 1991. Luxembourg: R. Luxembourg 1945, 1946, 1951, 1953, 1965, 1973, 1973, 1987, 1990, 1992, 1994, 2003. Macao: R. Cl. de Macao 1945; R. Vila Verde 1951. Madagascar: R. Netherlands relay stn. 1971, 2007 (relays of other broadcasters 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002); R. Tannanarive, Rdf. Natl. Malgache 1945, 1948, 1957, 1957, 1959, 1964, 1965, 1967, 1984, 1997; World Christian Broadcasting 2008. Malaysia: BBC Far Eastern Station 1956, 1978; British Far Eastern Broadcasting Svc. 1947, 1950, 1956; British Military Administration Stn., R. Malaya, Radio TV Malaysia 1945, 1946, 1947, 1959, 1963, 1969, 1973, 1985, 1992, 2005; Voice of Britain 1947, 1947; Voice of Islam 1995; Voice of Malaya, Voice of Malaysia, “Suara Malaya” 1963, 1973; general 1959. Malawi: Fed. Broadcasting Corp., R. Malawi, Malawi Broadcasting Corp. 1964, 1967, 1972, 1986, 1996, 2001; Lakeland Radio 1972. Maldive Islands: Maldives Islands Broadcasting Svc., R. Maldives, Voice of the Maldives 1968, 1973, 1974, 1982, 1994; Malé Cineco Radio 1965. Mali: (French Sudan) R. Bamako, R. Soudan, R. Mali, Rdf.-TV Malienne 1950, 1959, 1965, 1970, 1976, 1987; relays of other broadcasters 1987, 1991. Malta: Deutsche Welle relay stn. 1972, 1974, 1975, 1996 (relays of other broadcasters 1974, 1975, 1980, 1983, 1988, 1991, 2003); Forces Broadcasting Svc. 1948, 1950; “Malta Calling” 1975; R. Mediterran 1975 (relays of other broadcasters 1985); R. Mediterranean 1983, 1990; Voice of the Mediterranean 1988, 1996, 2003; Xandi Malta, Telemalta Corp. 1975. Manchuria (China): MTCY 1945; Mukden 1956; XNNR 1948. Marshall Islands: WSZO 1987. Martinique: R. Martinique, Rdf. Francaise, ORTF, France Régions 3 1945, 1954, 1959, 1960, 1968, 1978.

444

Appendix

Mauritania: R. Mauritanie, Rdf. Natl. 1959, 1967, 1976, 1997. Mauritius: Mauritius Broadcasting Svc. 1948, 1950, 1951, 1959, 1967, 1972, 1981, 1985. Mexico: El Eco de Sotavento, R. Nucleo Oro (XEUW) 1955, 1979; El Heraldo de Sonora (XEBR) 1955; Las Em. de America (XEBT) 1946; La Hora Exacta (XEQK, XETT) 1955, 1963, 1984; La Voz de la America Latina (XEWW) 1945, 1951, 1971, 1983, 1992; R. Eco de Sotavento, La “U” de Veracruz (XEUW) 1971, 1983; R. Educación (XEPPM) 1979, 1995; R. Huayacocotla (XEJN) 1966, 1971, 1983, 1995, 2005; R. Mante (XECMT) 1958; R. Mexico [Intl.] (XERMX) 1969, 1975, 1995, 2004, 2006; R. Mil (XEOI) 1955, 1971, 1989, 1995, 1995; R. Transcontinental de America (XERTA) 1997, 2001; R. UNAM (XEYU) 1983, 1999, 2006; R. Univ. de Sonora (XEUDS) 1963, 1983; Rdfs. Comerciales (XERR) 1962; Rdf. Mexico (XEXE) 1957; other stations 1945, 1948, 1951, 1952, 1955, 1957, 1958, 1964, 1965, 1971, 1974, 1979, 1983, 1985, 1992, 1996, 2003. Micronesia: Pacific Missionary Aviation, The Cross Radio 2007. Moldova: R. Moldova 1993; R. Moldova Intl., relayed by other broadcasters 1993, 2000; R. Pridnestrovie, R. Dniester Intl., R. DMR, R. PMR 1993, 2007; relays of other broadcasters 2001 general 1991, 1993. Monaco: R. Monte Carlo 1946, 1947, 1955, 1986; TWR 1954, 1960, 1982 (relays of other broadcasters 1993). Mongolia: Mongolian Natl. Radio and TV 2003; R. Ulan Bator, Voice of Mongolia 1959, 1966, 1973, 1979, 1997, 2003 (relayed by other broadcasters 1984); other stations 1983, 2003. Montserrat: Antilles Radio Corp. 1977; BBC-Deutsche Welle Caribbean Relay, Caribbean Relay Co. Ltd. 1976, 1977, 1989; R. Antilles 1977, 1989; R. Montserrat 1952. Morocco: (French) R. Maroc, Moroccan Broadcasting Sys., Rdf. TV Marocaine 1945, 1954, 1959, 1962, 1976, 1993; R. Méditerranée Internationale 1946; R. Monte Carlo Moyen-Orient 1946; VOA, IBB 1993, 2008. Morocco (Spanish): R. Ceuta 1955; R. Tetuan, R. Dersa 1946, 1954; R. Mediterranée Intl. (R. Medi Un) 1983; R. Monte Carlo Middle East 1986 (relayed by other broadcasters 1991). Mozambique: Beira 1972; Em. do Aero Clube da Beira 1947, 1955, 1975; “LM Radio” 1975, 1986; Nampula 1954, 1972; Porto Amelia 1972; R. Cl. de Moçambique, R. Moçambique 1945, 1947, 1947, 1955, 1956, 1960, 1968, 1970, 1975, 1981, 1985, 1993, 2001; R. Pax 1955, 1966, 1970, 1975; Quelimane 1972; general 1975. Namibia: South West Africa Broadcasting Corp., R. South West Africa, Namibian Broadcasting Corp. 1980, 1990, 2004. Nepal: R. Nepal 1951, 1959, 1967, 1968, 1973, 1974, 1992. Netherlands: InfoRadio 2000; KBC Radio 2007; PCJ, R. Netherlands 1945, 1946, 1953, 1955, 1963, 1964, 1966, 1973, 1973, 1981, 1983, 1985, 1985, 1990, 1994, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2007, 2008 (“Happy Station” 1946, 1964, 1969, 1975, 1995; “Media Network” 1996, 2000; relayed by other broadcasters 1992, 1995, 2000; relays of other broadcasters 1999, 2000; Tom Meyer 1969, 1975; Eddie Startz 1946, 1969, 1975); R. Mi Amigo 11992 2007; R. 555. Netherlands Antilles (Bonaire): R. Netherlands 1964, 1969, 1990, 1991, 2000, 2006, 2007 (relays of other broadcasters 2000, 2006); TWR (PJB) 1964, 1993. Netherlands New Guinea: R. Biak, RONG, R. Sorong 1947, 1948, 1950, 1955, 1958. New Caledonia: R. Noumea 1945, 1950, 1959, 1961, 1964, 1970, 1990. New Hebrides (Vanuatu): R. [Port] Vila, R. Vanuatu 1966, 1971, 1971, 1995, 2008. New Zealand: New Zealand Broadcasting Svc., R. New Zealand [Intl]. 1945, 1948, 1958, 1976, 1980, 1990, 1998, 2002, 2003, 2006 (New Zealand Forces Radio 2002;relays of other broadcasters 1992, 1995); Print Disabled Radio, R. Reading Svc. 1990. Nicaragua: La Voz de Leon 1946; La Voz de Nicaragua 1952, 1979, 1990; La Voz de la Sultana 1947; R. Atlantico, R. Zinica 1957, 1967, 1972, 1977, 1979, 1990; R. Difusora Nacl. 1969; R. Hernandez de Cordoba 1965; R. Miskut 1991, 2003; R. Nacl., Rdf. Nacl. de Nicaragua 1972, 1977, 1978; R. Philips 1957; R. RICA 1991; R. Sandino 1979, 1984, 1990; R. Sport, R. 1951990 (YNWW) 1946, 1965; R. Zelaya 1967; other stations 1945–1947, 1952, 1956, 1958, 1972. Niger: R. Niger, La Voix du Sahel 1959, 1976, 1976, 1996, 2006. Nigeria: Abuja 2005; Benin City, Bendel Broadcasting Svc. 1969; Calabar, Cross River Radio 1971; Nigerian Broadcasting Svc. [Corp.], Federal Radio Corp. 1952, 1954, 1957, 1960, 1978; East Central State Broadcasting Svc. 1970; Eastern Nigerian Broadcasting Svc. 1960, 1967; Educational Svc. 1983; Enugu 1952, 1957, 1993; Ibadan 1952, 1980, 1993; Ilorin, Kwara State Broadcasting Corp. 1977; Jos, Plateau Broadcasting Corp. 1977; Kaduna 1952, 1954, 1980, 1993, 1997; Lagos 1993; Maidugari, R. Borno 1971; Owerri, Imo Broadcasting Svc. 1979; Radio-TV Kaduna 1962, 1973; R. Biafra, Voice of Biafra 1967, 1969, 1970, 2001; R.

Appendix

445

Nigeria 1950, 1962, 1963, 1965, 1967, 1977, 1981, 1986, 1989, 1993, 2006, 2008; Sokoto, Rima Radio 1973; Voice of Nigeria 1962, 1980, 1996, 2001, 2001; Western Nigeria Radiovision Svc. 1960. Norway: Norkring 2002; R. Norway, Norsk Rikskringkasting, R. Norway Intl. 1946, 1948, 1951, 1953, 1955, 1962, 1975, 1976, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2003; relays of other broadcasters 1990, 1992, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2005; Ukesenderen 1948. Okinawa: Voice of the United Nations Command 1967; VOA 1953, 1967, 1977, 1984. Oman: BBC Eastern Relay Stn. 1978, 2002; R. Oman 1975, 1982. Pakistan: Azad Kashmir Radio 1949, 1972, 1988; Dacca 1954, 1955, 1971; Karachi 1954, 1955; R. Pakistan 1948, 1949, 1951, 1953, 1954, 1966, 1966, 1973, 1975, 2000; Peshawar 1949, 1954; Lahore 1949, 1954; Multan 1949; Rawalpindi 1954, 1972, 1988. Palau: KHBN, T8BZ 1992, 2001; relays of other broadcasters 1996. Panama: Circuito RPC 1958; La Voz de la Victor 1945, 1947; La Voz de Panama 1955; La Voz del Baru 1957, 1964, 1970; Onda Popular 1961; R. Atlantico 1946, 1955; R. Miramar 1949; R. Nacional 1952; R. Teatro 1945; USCGC Courier 1952, 1952; Voice of Central America (HOX) 1946, 1946, 1947, 1953; other stations 1946, 1949, 1950, 1953; general 1947, 1953, 1970. Papua New Guinea: Australian Administration Broadcasting Svc. 1969; Australian Broadcasting Commission (Port Moresby) 1948, 1963; Catholic Radio Network 2004, 2008; National Broadcasting Corp. 2006; R. Bougainville, R. North Solomons (R. Bougainville) 1968, 1977, 1990, 1991; R. Central District 1974; R. Chimbu (R. Simbu) 1973; R. Daru 1965, 1966; R. Enga 1983, 1984, 1989; R. Goroka 1965, 1971; R. Kerema, R. Gulf 1964, 1971; R. Madang 1971; R. Manus 1975; R. Morobe 1971; R. Mount Hagen, R. Western Highlands 1966, 1971; R. New Bougainville 1999; R. New Ireland 1973; R. Northern District (R. Popondetta) 1972; R. Rabaul, R. East New Britain 1961, 1966, 1975, 1994; R. Samarai (R. Milne Bay) 1967, 1971; R. Southern Highlands 1973; R. United Bougainville 1994, 1999; R. West New Britain 1973; R. West Sepik (R. Sandaun) 1979, 1989; R. Wewak, R. East Sepik 1963, 1964, 1975; Wantok Radio Light 2005; general 1984, 1987, 1994, 1995, 1998. Paraguay: AWR 1996; Ems. Paraguay 1977; R. America 2002; R. Charitas 1968; R. Encarnación 1946, 1957, 1970, 1996; R. Guaraní 1956, 1962; R. Nacl. del Paraguay 1974, 1981, 1996, 2001; R. Paraguay 1971; R. Teleco 1946, 1946, 1965; other stations 1978, 1996. Peru: Ondas del Titicaca 1979; R. America 1957, 1969, 1973; R. Andahuaylas 1976; R. Ancash 1984; R. Andina 1962; R. Atlántida, “R. Nueva Atlántida” 1958, 2008; R. Cajamarca 1959; R. Chanchamayo 1965; R. Chasqui 1999; R. Chinchaycocha 1973; R. Comas TV 1997; R. Continental, R. Continental de Arequipa 1948, 1965, 1969; R. Cora 1990; R. Cultural Amauta 1977; R. Delcar 1948; R. Eco 1967; R. El Sol 1952, 1955, 1977; R. El Sol de los Andes 1981; R. Horizonte 1998; R. Huancavelica 1961; R. Huancayo 1981, 1982; R. Huanta 1987; R. Huanta 2000 1983; R. Imagen 1980; R. Inca 1965; R. Juliaca 1975; R. La Cronica 1957, 1973; R. La Hora 1962, 1989; R. Libertad de Trujillo 1984, 1984; R. Loreto 1958, 1969; R. Los Andes 1982; R. Luz y Sonido 1998; R. Madre de Dios 1975; Manantial 2007; R. Nacl. del Peru 1945, 1951, 1955, 1970, 1993, 2005; R. Nor Peruana 1968; R. Ondas del Titicaca 1987; R. del Pacifico 1964, 1969; R. Panamericana 1958, 1970, 1990; R. Pucallpa 1964, 1981; R. Quillabamba 1984; R. Rioja 1980; R. San Jose, La Voz de la Selva 1974; R. San Martin 1980; R. Santa Rosa 1968, 1977; R. Sideral 1966; R. Tacna 1955, 1990; R. Tarma 1979; R. Tawantinsuyo 1965; R. Tropical 1962, 1981; R. Union 1965, 1970, 1982; R. Universal 1947, 1992; R. Victoria 1955, 1970; other stations 1945, 1946, 1952, 1954, 1955, 1958, 1959, 1965, 1973–1977, 1979–1992, 1994–2000, 2003, 2005, 2006; general 1965, 1992, 1997, 2004. Philippines: AFHQ/WVLC 1945; FEBC 1949, 1949, 1951, 1958, 1960, 1969, 1986, 1992, 1994, 1998; KYBU, DYBU, DZH3 1949; KZPI, DZPI, DZH3 (Philippine Broadcasting Co.) 1947, 1949; KZRC (Voice of Cebu) 1947, 1951; KZRH, DZRH, DZH2 (Voice of the Philippines) 1945, 1946, 1949; KZRM 1946; Maharlika Broadcasting Sys. 1982; Philippine Broadcasting Svc. 1965, 1982, 1991, 2000; R. Free Asia 1951, 1953; R. Veritas, R. Veritas Asia 1975, 1986, 1986 (relays of other broadcasters 1993); Republic Broadcasting Sys. 1951; South East Asia Radio Voice (SEARV) 1965, 1965; VOA, IBB 1947, 1949, 1954, 1967, 1968, 1999 (relays of other broadcasters 1991); Voice of the Philippines, R. Pilipinas 1968, 1971, 1982, 1991; other stations 1945. Pirates (Europe et al.): Note: Due to their numbers, most pirates in Europe and elsewhere outside North America are not included in this index from the year 11991979 on. See each year’s narrative for a list of pirates newly active that year. Alfa Lima Intl. 1999; Andino Relay Svc. 1999; Em. Z del Dragón 1999, 1999; European Music Radio 1979; Free Radio Broadcasting Co. 1978; Idea Radio 2001; Kiwi Radio 1984, 1994; Laser Hot Hits 1997, 2006; Mystery Radio 2004, 2006; No. Ireland Relay Svc. 1991; Barretina 2008; R. Blandengue 1997, 1999; R. Caroline, World Mission Radio 1988, 1991, 1992, 1998, 2001; R. Cochiguaz 1997, 1999; R. Dublin 1980, 1989; R. Fax 1988, 1988; R. Nordsee Intl., RNI, R. MEBO II 1970, 1970, 1971,

446

Appendix

1977 (Edwin Bollier 1970; Erwin Meister 1970); R. Piraña Intl. 1992, 1997, 2001; R. San Marino Intl. 1997; Reflections Europe 1992; Short Wave Relay Svc. 1998; United Christian Broadcasting 1996; Voice of Peace 1983; general 1978, 1989, 1997. Pirates (North American): Note: Due to their numbers, most North American pirates are not included in this index from the year 11991973 on. See each year’s narrative for the names of pirates newly active that year. The Crystal Ship 1982, 2005; KSMR, Kentucky State Militia Radio, United Patriot Radio 2001 (“Major” Steve Anderson 2001); North American Pirate Relay Svc. 1992, 1994; PRN 1979; Purple Pumpkin Radio 1971, 1972; R. Arctica 2008; R. Clandestine 1978, 1988; R. Free America 1973; Dr. Carl McIntyre 1973; R. Free Harlem 1967; R. Newyork [New York] Intl. 1985, 1987, 1990, 1991, 1994, 1995; M/V Sarah 1987, 1994; R. Phoenix 1966; R. U.S.A. 1979; Voice of the Voyager 1978, 1982; WBBH 1966; WBCQ 1985, 2000; M/V Katie 2000, 2004 (relays of other broadcasters 2001); WFAT, R. Free New York 1978, 1990 (Peter Cavalieri 1978); WJDI, R. Metallica 1996, 1997; WJMS (Voice of the Purple Pumpkin) 1969, 1971; WRVU 11991971; WXWL 1972; WYBH 1972; general 1981, 1982 , 1985, 1989, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1998. Poland: Polish Pathfinders Stn. 1965, 1974, 1980, 1984; Polskie [Polish] Radio Warsaw, Radio Polonia 1945, 1951, 1953, 1955, 1967, 1980, 1988, 1992, 2003 (relayed by other broadcasters 1984, 1997, 2006); R. Maryja 1995, 2003; R. Racja 1999 (relayed by other broadcasters 2007); relays of other broadcasters 1951, 1995. Portugal: Em. Nacl., R. Portugal, Rdf. Portuguesa 1945, 1945, 1953, 1962, 1966, 1967, 1976, 1989, 1998 (relayed by other broadcasters 1999); Gloria 1954, 1996, 2004; Maxoqueira 1991; R. Cl. Português 1945; R. Renascença 1945, 1980, 1996 (relayed by other broadcasters 1980); R. Trans-Europe (Sines) 1970, 1971, 1973, 2007 (relays of other broadcasters 1971, 1978, 1980, 1986, 1991, 1992, 2000); Secretaria de Estado da Informação e Turismo (SEIT) 1973; “Voice of the West” 1967. Puerto Rico: AFRTS, AFN 1996, 1999; TWR 1962. Qatar: Qatar Broadcasting Svc. 1981. Reunion: R. St. Denis, R. Reunion, ORF, France Régions 3 1953, 1959, 1966, 1975. Romania: R. Bucharest, R. Romania Intl. 1954, 1954, 1996, 2003, 2006, 2008 (relayed by other broadcasters 1984); R. Dacia 1947; R. Romania Libra 1947; elays of other broadcasters 1993, 2000. Rwanda: Deutsche Welle relay stn. 1963, 1965, 1993, 1994, 2007 (relays of other broadcasters 1994); R. Mille Colline 2000; R. Rwanda 1962, 1972, 1993 (relayed by other broadcasters 1994); general 1962. Sabah: R. Sabah, R. [TV] Malaysia Sabah 1954, 1960, 1969, 1972, 1973, 1973, 1992, 2003; general 1959. Saipan: KFBS 1984; KHBI 1989, 1997, 1998 (relays of other broadcasters 1996); KYOI 1982, 1983, 1984, 1987, 1989 Samoa: Samoa Broadcasting Svc. 1994. São Tome: R. Cl. de São Tome, R. Natl. de São Tome e Principe 1950, 1961, 1967, 1983, 1996; VOA, IBB 1996. Sarawak: R. Sarawak, R. Malaysia Sarawak 1954, 1958, 1960, 1969, 1974, 1976, 1992, 2000, 2005; general 1959. Saudi Arabia: R. Jeddah 1981; Saudi Arabian Broadcasting Svc., Broadcasting Svc. of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 1950, 1959, 1964, 1973, 1981, 1990, 2007; Voice of the Cooperation Council (Gulf Cooperation Council) 2006. Senegal: R. Dakar, R. Mali, R. Senegal et al. 1945, 1948, 1950, 1953, 1956, 1959, 1960, 1960, 1966, 1974, 1983, 1991; R. Mauritanie 1959; R. Ziguinchor 1962. Seychelles: BBC Indian Ocean relay Stn. 1988; FEBA 1969, 1975, 1975, 2003 (relays of other broadcasters 1996). Sierra Leone: Cotton Tree News 2007; Deutsche Welle-SLBS relay stn. 1974; experimental broadcasts 1951; R. UNAMSIL 2002; Sierra Leone Broadcasting Svc. (SLBS), R. Sierra leone 1956, 1971, 1988, 1989, 1992, 2001. Singapore: BBC Far Eastern Station 1947, 1978; BBC Far Eastern Relay Stn., Merlin-VT 1978 (relays of other broadcasters 1993, 1995, 2000); British Far Eastern Broadcasting Svc. 1947, 1950, 1956; Forces Broadcasting Svc., BFBS 1953, 1966, 1968, 1971; Headquarters Radio (SEAC) 1946, 1947; R. Shonan 1945; R. Singapore, R. TV Singapore, Singapore Broadcasting Corp., R. Singapore Intl., R. Corp. of Singapore 1959, 1971, 1980, 1994, 2001; ZHP 1945; general 1959. Slovakia: R. Tetras Intl. 2005; Slovak Radio, R. Slovakia Intl. 1993, 1996, 2006 (relayed by other broadcasters 1998); relays of other broadcasters 1994, 1995, 1996, 2001, 2007. Solomon Islands: Solomon Islands Broadcasting Svc. 1956, 1956, 1961, 1969, 1970, 1974, 2000, 2007.

Appendix

447

Somalia (British Somaliland, Italian Somaliland): Holy Koran Radio 1994; R. Mogadishu, R. Mogadiscio 1953, 1965, 1967, 1970, 1970, 1975, 1979, 1982; R. Mogadishu–Voice of the Masses of the Somali Republic 1994; R. Mogadishu–Voice of the People 1999; R. Mogadishu–Voice of Somali Pacification 1994; R. Mogadishu–Voice of the Somali Republic 1994; R. Somali, R. Hargeisa 1946, 1953, 1958, 1973, 1975, 1976, 2002; other stations 2002; general 1994, 2002. South Africa: Afrikaans Stereo, R. Sonder Grense 1993, 1996; Afrikaans Svc. 1961; Capital Radio (Transkei) 1980, 1986, 1994; R. Five 1975, 1986; R. Oranje 1986, 1993, 1996; R. Orion 1986, 1993; R. RSA, Voice of South Africa, Channel Africa 1966, 1967, 1977, 1989, 1990, 1992, 1996; R. South Africa 1961, 1986; R. 2000 1993; relays of other broadcasters (through 1993) 1992; SABC 1945, 1950, 1956, 1961, 1966, 1975, 1994; SENTECH 1994, 1996 (relays of other broadcasters 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2008); Southern Sound 1986; Springbok Radio 1950, 1961, 1970, 1979; ZRB 1948; ZUO 1956. Spain: La Voz de Juventud 1946; R. Falange de Alicante 1946, 1949; R. Nac. de España, Voice of Spain, R. Exterior de España 1945, 1946, 1950, 1951, 1953, 1956, 1970, 1979, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2008 (relayed by other broadcasters 1988); R. Calatrava 1958; R. Cordoba 1946; R. Liberty (Playa de Pals) 1959, 2001; R. Mediterraneo 1946; relays of other broadcasters 1988, 1991, 2007; Sociedad de Rdf. Intercontinental 1947; other stations 1951, 1953, 1955, 1957, 1959. Spanish Sahara: R. Sahara 1971, 1972, 1975. Sri Lanka (Ceylon): Deutsche Welle relay stn. 1984, 1986, 1989, 1990, 1997, 2007; Marconi Communications Radio Systems, Inc. 1999; R. Ceylon, Ceylon Broadcasting Corp., Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corp. 1949, 1951, 1953, 1958, 1958, 1964, 1972, 1987, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 2000, 2004 (relayed by other broadcasters 1997; relays of other broadcasters 1991); R. SEAC 1945, 1947, 1949; TWR 1987, 1993; VOA, IBB 1953, 1964, 1967, 1994, 1999, 1999; ZOH, Ceylon Broadcasting Stn 1945; general 1997. St. Helena: R. St. Helena 1973, 1990, 1990, 1999, 2006, 2007 (Jan Tunér 1990; Stora-Tuna DX Klubb 1990); Cable & Wireless 1990. St. Vincent: VP2SA 1954. Sudan (former Anglo-Egyptian Sudan): R. Khartoum , R. Sudan, R. Omdurman 1945, 1950, 1955, 1966, 1977, 1983, 1992; R. Miraya 2007; R. Peace 2004, 2007; Sudan People’s Armed Forces Program, National Unity Radio 1987; Voice of New Sudan 2004. Surinam: AVROS 1945, 1948, 1957, 1960; R. Apintie 1979, 2003; R. Boskopoe 2006; R. SRS 1977; R. Surinam Intl. 1984, 1992. Swan Island: R. Americas 1960, 1961, 1966, 1968; R. Swan 1954, 1960, 1961, 1966. Swaziland: Swaziland Commercial Radio, Swazi Music Radio, Swazi Radio, Radio S-R 1972, 1992; TWR 1974, 1974. Sweden: R. La Voz del Pueblo 2000; R. Scandinavia 1978, 1989; R. Sweden, Swedish Broadcasting Corp., R. Sweden Intl. 1945, 1946, 1946, 1947, 1949, 1951, 1951, 1953, 1955, 1956, 1963, 1973, 1981, 1988, 1993, 1995, 2003, 2005 (relayed by other broadcasters 2001; Arne Skoog 1946; “Sweden Calling DXers” 1946, 1959); Swedish Telecommunications Administration, TERACOM 1976, 1995, 1995 (relays of other broadcasters 2000, 2001). Switzerland: Intl. Red Cross Stn., R. Inter Red Cross, Red Cross Broadcasting Svc. 1949, 1951, 1965, 1991, 1996; relays of other broadcasters 1988, 1991; Shortwave Radio Switzerland (R. 19510 Intl.) 1996; Swiss Broadcasting Corp., Swis Short Wave Service, Swiss Radio Intl. 1945, 1946, 1949, 1953, 1955, 1956, 1965, 1968, 1972, 1976, 1978, 1993, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2004 (relayed by other broadcasters 1983, 1988, 1994, 1998, 2000); United Nations Radio 1948, 1955, 1966, 1980. Syria: Damascus Broadcasting Stn., Syrian Broadcasting & TV Svc. 1948, 1951, 1955, 1958, 1984, 1984; United Arab Republic Broadcasting Svc. 1958. Tadzhik S.S.R.: Dushanbe 1980 (relays of other broadcasters 1997, 2000, 2001); R. Dushanbe, Tajik Radio, R. Tajikistan 1965, 1998, 1999, 2001; general 1991. Tahiti: R. Cl. de Oceania, R. Tahiti, RFO 1945, 1949, 1949, 1950, 1956, 1958, 1959, 1968, 1971, 1990, 1999. Taiwan: Armed Forces Radio Taiwan 1955, 1964; Broadcasting Corp. of China 1955, 1979; BSF 1987; Central Broadcasting Sys. 2005; Chinese Air Force Broadcasting Stn., Voice of the Chinese Air Force 1950, 1968, 1976; Fu Hsing Broadcasting Corp. 2005; R. Liberation-R. Liberty 1955, 1974; relays of other broadcasters 1982, 1989, 1991, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2007, 2008; Voice of Asia 1979, 1998, 2001; Voice of Free China, R. Taipei Intl., R. Taiwan Intl. 1949, 1953, 1997, 2001, 2003, 2005 (relayed by other broadcasters 1982, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002); Voice of Han 2004; Voice of MAAG 1955; Voice of Righteousness 1950, 1968, 1968.

448

Appendix

Tangier: Danmarks Reklame Radio 1954; Dux Radio 1952; IBRA Radio 1955, 1955, 1956, 1959; NOREA Radio 1957, 1959; Pan American Radio 1946, 1950; R. Africa 1946, 1949, 1952, 1955; R. Africa Tangier 1946, 1958, 1970; R. Eurafrica, Radio-Inter-Africa 1958, 1958; R. International 1946, 1947, 1947, 1953, 1954; R. Tanger 1946, 1947 (Herbert R. Southworth 1946); R. Tanger Intl. 1946; Voice of Intl. Evagelism 1954; Voice of Tangier, TWR 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1959, 1960, 1996 (Dr. Paul E. Freed 1996); VOA 1949, 1953, 1954, 1959, 1964, 1976, 1993; general 1946. Tanzania: R. Dar es Salaam, Tanganyika Broadcasting Svc., R. Tanzania 1953, 1955, 1967, 1972, 1988, 1995 (relayed by other broadcasters 1995). Thailand: Bangkok Meteorological Radio 1973, 1994; BBC East Asia Relay Stn., Merlin-VT 1996, 1997 (relays of other broadcasters 2005); Thai Army Signal Corps Radio Svc. (HS1JS) 1953; Thai Natl. Broadcasting Stn., Thai Overseas Broadcasting Stn. (HS8PD, HSK9), R. Thailand 1949, 1953, 1955, 1965, 1966, 1972, 1983, 1990, 1992, 1994 (relayed by other broadcasters 2004); Thai Natl. Police Stn. 1958; Thai Royal Palace Stn. 1982; Thai TV Broadcasting Stn., Thai TV Co. 1958, 1972; R. Bangkok 1946; VOA, IBB 1993, 1994. Timor: Em. de Rdf. de Timor Portugues 1969, 1972, 1975l RRI Kupang 1975. Tinian: IBB 1991, 1999 (relays of other broadcasters 2001). Togo: Lama-Kara 1975, 1975; R. Lomé, R. Togo, Rdf. du Togo 1957, 1959, 1964, 1967, 2003. Tonga: Tonga Broadcasting Commission 1989, 1993. Trieste: Forces Broadcasting Svc. 1953. Trinidad: R. Trinidad 1947, 1952, 1959. Tristan da Cunha: ZOE, Tristan Radio 1968. Tunisia: Rdf.-TV Tunisienne, R. Tunis 1960, 1969, 1979, 2000. Turkey: R. Ankara (TAP), Voice of Turkey 1945, 1947, 1950, 1953, 1965, 1975, 1976, 2007; low power stations 1952, 1953, 1971; Türkiye Polis Radyosu 1973; Voice of Meteorology 1971. Turkmen S.S.R.: Ashkabad 1951, 1955; R. Ashkabad, Turkmen Radio 1967, 2001; general 1991. Turks & Caicos Islands: Cable & Wireless, Turks Island Radio 1971, 1973, 1976. Uganda: Dunamis Shortwave 2007, 2008; R. Uganda 1955, 1962, 1963, 1975, 1978, 1988. Ukrainian S.S.R.: Kiev 1976, 1980; R. Kiev, R. Ukraine Intl. 1962, 1964, 1978, 1978, 1992, 1999 (relayed by other broadcasters 1993, 1995); relays of other broadcasters 1993, 1995; general 1991. United Arab Emirates: Abu Dhabi Broadcasting Svc., Voice of the United Arab Emirates, U.A.E. Radio 1971, 1972, 1985, 1988, 2001; Al Dhabbaya relay stn. 2001 (relays of other broadcasters 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2008); Capital Radio 1988; Voice of the Coast, Dubai Radio, Dubai Radio & Colour TV, U.A.E. Radio, Emirates Radio 1970, 1971, 1980, 2005. United Kingdom: ABSIE 1945; BBC Monitoring Svc. 1974; BBC 1945, 1946, 1947, 1951, 1953, 1956, 1960, 1964, 1965, 1966, 1968, 1973, 1980, 1983, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1997, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2008 (“Calling the Falklands” 2006; Crowborough 1962; “Darfur Salaam” 2006; Daventry 1953, 1966, 1992; “Gulf Link” 1990; London Calling, BBC Worldwide 1968, 1992; R. Four 1990; R. Five 1990; Rampisham 1953, 2003, 2005; relayed by other broadcasters 1945, 1965, 1968, 1974, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1996, 2000, 2001, 2002; Skelton 1953, 2006; Woofferton 1949, 1953, 1992); BFBS 1990, 1990, 2003 (relayed by other broadcasters 2003); China Radio Intl. (DRM) 2006; Christian Vision, CVC 1998, 2000, 2004 , 2006; Earth One 2000; Euronet Radio 2002; Europa Radio Intl. 2004, 2005; European Music Radio 2002; Everest Radio 2001; Global Vision Network 2000; Laser Radio 2002, 2007; Media Zoo, Country Music Radio 1997, 1998; Merlin-VT 1997, 1999, 2001, 2002 (Merlin Network One 1998, 1998; relays of other broadcasters 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007); MSF 1950, 1988; R. Six Intl. 2003; R. Voice of Afghanistan 2001; R. Wales Intl. 1999, 2005; “Celtic Notes” 1999.; relays of other broadcasters 1962, 1966, 1974, 1992, 1993, 1995, 1996, 2003, 2005, 2006; Sunrise Radio 1998; Tamil Broadcasting Corp. 1999; Tamil Media Ltd., Intl. Broadcasting Corp., IBC Tamil 1997; Tamil Oli Broadcasting Corp. 1999; Tatsfield 1974; Virgin Radio U.K., Flat Earth Radio 1998; “Voice of Britain” ship project 1968; VOA 1949; other stations 1998. Uruguay: Difusoras del Uruguay 1974, 1977; Em. Ciudad de Montevideo 1996, 2004; SODRE 1946, 1968, 1974, 1977, 2004; R. Carve 1953, 1974; R. El Espectador 1957, 1974, 1977; R. Montecarlo 1985, 2004; R. Nacl. del Uruguay 1946; R. Oriental 1974, 1985; R. Sarandi 1957, 1960; R. Sarandi del Yí, R. Oriental 2001; R. Sport 1977; other stations 1953, 1974, 1977. United States: AFRTS, American Forces Network (AFN) 1946, 1955, 1964, 1969, 1969, 1982, 1988, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006; American Dissident Voices, Natl. Vanguard Radio 1992; Board for International Broadcasting 1973; Broadcasting Board of Governors 1994, 1999, 2007; Bureau of Broadcasting 1990;

Appendix

449

Cadena Panamericana (NBC) 1946; Eternal Word Television Network 1992, 2004; Greenville (Edward R. Murrow Transmitting Stn.) 1962, 1964, 1985, 1990, 1997, 2004, 2005, 2007 (relays of other broadcasters 2006); Information Radio (Commando Solo) 2001, 2002; Intl. Broadcasting Bureau (IBB) 1991, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2008; Investment Channel 1997; ITT, Brentwood, New Jersey 1967. ________, KAIJ 1994, 1994, 2006, 2008 (relays of other broadcasters 2005); KCBA, KCBR (Delano) 1946, 1963, 1964, 1996, 1997, 2004, 2007, 2007 (relays of other broadcasters 2006); KCBI 1985, 1987, 1992, 1994 (relays of other broadcasters 1992); KFRN 1960; KGEI, “Voice of Friendship” (Belmont) 1946, 1953, 1958, 1960, 1962, 1963, 1963, 1968, 1983, 1993, 1994, 2002; KJES 1989, 1992; KNBH (Dixon) 1963, 1979, 1983, 1995; KTBN 1990, 2004, 2008; “KTRK,” Army Broadcasting Svc. 1996; KUSA 1995; KUSW 1987, 1987, 1990; KVOH 1986, 1994, 2004 (relays of other broadcasters 1992). __________, La Voz de Restauración 2004; Maury Is., Washington 1962; “Music U.S.A.,” “VOA Jazz Hour” 1955; M/V Electra 1994; M/V Fury 1993, 1994; NAVE 1947; NCLG 1946; NDXE 1984; Office of War Info. 1945; Press Wireless 1956; R. Earth 1983, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1992; R. Farda 2002; R. Free Asia 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2007, 2008; Radio Free Europe-Radio Liberty (R. Liberation) 1950, 1950, 1951, 1953, 1954, 1956, 1957, 1959, 1963, 1964, 1973, 1975, 1985, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1999, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2008 (R. Azadi 1998, 2002; R. Farda 2002; R. Free Afghanistan 1985, 1985, 1993, 2002; R. Free Chechnya 2002;R. Free Iraq 1998; relayed by other broadcasters 2003, 2008); R. Martí 1985, 1990, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1999, 2001, 2006; R. New York Worldwide 1966; RCA “R. Central,” Rocky Point, Long Island 1967; “Radio Row,” New York 1966; Remote transmitters (25–26 MHz.) 1992; right wing programming 1989, 1995; Trinity Broadcasting Network 1990, 2004; Turner, Ted 1984; United Nations Radio 1946, 1948, 1955, 1966, 1986, 1988, 1992, 2007 (relayed by other broadcasters 2000); United Radio Broadcasters of New Orleans (URBONO) 2005, 2005 U.S. Information Agency 1953, 1999. __________, VOA 1945, 1953, 1954, 1965, 1974, 1985, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1996, 1999, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 (Deewa Radio 2006; KK2XEZ transmitter test 1955; “Messages From Home” 1990; portable in Arizona 1963; post-war stations 1946;R. Aap Ki Dunya (“Your World”) 2003; R. Ashna 2004; R. Farda 2002; R. Sawa 2002; relayed by other broadcasters 1945, 1962, 1974, 1981, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1995, 2000; relays of other broadcasters 1974, 2004; “Studio 7” 2003, 2007; transmitter identifications 1968, 1976; “VOA Europe” 1991, 1996); “Voice of the Blue Eagle” 1965; “Voice of Freedom” 1992; Voice of Maritime Labor 1956; Voice of the NASB 2003; Voyager aircraft 1986; Voz de la O.E.A. 1957, 1995. __________, WBCQ 1998 (relays of other broadcasters 1998, 2002, 2003, 2004); WBOH 2002; WBT 1963; WCSN 1987, 1994; WDSI (Brentwood) 1962; WDSI (W2XE) (Wayne) 1962; Weiner, Alan H. 1985, 1994, 1998, 2000; WEWN 1992, 1993; WFLA 1992; WGEO (W2XAD, W2XAF) (Schenectady) 1962; WGTG 1995, 1999, 2000 (relays of other broadcasters 1995, 1998); White, Jeff 1983, 1985, 1986, 1992, 1993, 1994; WHRA 1997 (relays of other broadcasters 1998); WHRI 1985, 1989, 1995, 1996, 2004 (relays of other broadcasters 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1995, 2001, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007); WINB 1962, 1964, 1995, 1997; WJCR 1992, 1993, 2002; WJIE 2002, 2003, 2005; WLWO (Mason & Bethany) 1946, 1949, 1954, 1963, 1989, 1989, 1993, 1994, 1995; WMLK 1985; W3XL, WNBC, WBOU (Bound Brook) 1946, 1955, 1964, 1966; WNYW 1966, 1967, 1973; WRMI, R. Miami Intl. 1992, 1993, 1994 (relays of other broadcasters 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005); WRNO 1982, 1983, 1991, 1993, 1995, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2005 (Joe Costello 1997; relays of other broadcasters 1991, 1992, 1993, 2000); WRUL (W1XAL) 1945, 1946, 1948, 1949, 1950, 1952, 1955, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1965, 1966, 1973, 1977; WSHB 1989, 1989, 1993, 1997, 2004 (relays of other broadcasters 2000); WTJC 1999, 2002; WVHA 1994, 1997; WWBS 1998; WWCR 1989, 1989, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1998, 1999 (relays of other broadcasters 1987, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2001, 2002, 2005); WWFV 2000 (relays of other broadcasters 2002); WWL 2005; WWRB 2000, 2003; WWV 1945, 1950, 1966, 1967, 1970, 1971, 1974, 1994 (KC2XIO 1970); WYFR 1973, 1977, 1977, 1979 (relayed by other broadcasters 1982, 1996, 2002; relays of other broadcasters 1982, 1996); W8XAL 1948, 1954. U.S.S.R. (Russia): Adamov, Joe 1957, 2005; Archangelsk 1980; AWR 1992; Center of Broadcasting and Radio Communications No. 2 (St. Petersburg) 1999, 1999; Far East Christian Broadcasting 1992; Gorbachev, Mikhail 1991; “Kamchatska Rybatska” 1997, 1997; Khabarovsk 1945, 1951, 1952, 1955, 1958, 1963, 1992, 1999; Komsomolsk 1945, 1955, 1999; Leningrad 1945; Magadan 1945, 1955, 1958, 1963; Moscow 1976, 1980, 1999; New Wave Radio Stn. 1992; Petropavlovsk 1945, 1951, 1964, 1999; R. Ala 1991; R. Aleph 1992; R. Art 1992; R. Baltica 1994; R. Centre 1945, 1948; R. Centre [private] 1993, 2001; R. DVR 1991; R. Gardarika, R. Studio 1999, 2001; R. Galaxy 1992; R. Islamic Wave (Rukhi Miras) 1994; R. Kanal Sodruzhestvo 2005; R. Leningrad 1978; R. Magallanes 1975, 1989; R. Mayak 1997, 2000; R. Miks-Master 2001; . Moscow, R. Rossii 1948, 1950, 1952, 1953, 1957, 1964, 1967, 1973, 1978, 1980, 1989, 1990, 1999, 2001, 2005 (relayed by other broadcasters 1951, 1979, 1980, 1990, 1991, 1995); R. Nadezhda 1992; R. Pamyat 1991; R. Polis 1992;

450

Appendix

R. Radonezh 1992, 2000, 2004; R. Rezonans 1992; R. Slavyanka 1994; R. SNC 1992; R. Space 1992; R. Stn. Peace and Progress 1967, 1989, 1991; R. Tatarstan, Voice of Tatarstan, “On the Tatarstan Wave” 1997; R. Vedo 1991; “Radiostantsiya Atlantika” 1967; “Radiostantsiya Chechnya Svoboda” (R. Free Chechnya) 1999; “Radiostansiya Rodina” 1964, 1967; “Radiostantsiya Tikhy Okean” 1967, 1974, 1989, 2002, 2004, 2004, 2008; “Radiostantsiya Yunost” 1967, 1992; relays of other broadcasters 1979, 1986, 1990–2008; Russkoye Mezhdunarodnoye Radio (Russian Intl. Radio), Russkoye Radio 2003; Sputnik I & II 1957, 1957; “Vasily’s Weekend” (Vasily Strelnikov) 1991; Vladivostok 1955, 1963, 1999; Voice of Russia 1994, 1996, 1998, 1999, 2001, 2003, 2005; “woodpecker” 1976, 1989; other transmitter sites 1955, 1963, 1992, 1999, 2008; general 1990, 1991, 1992, 1994. Uzbek S.S.R.: R. Tashkent [Intl]. 1952, 1955, 1962, 1962, 1978, 2006; relays of other broadcasters 1992, 2001, 2006; general 1991. Vatican: Vatican Radio (HVJ) 1945, 1952, 1953, 1957, 1978, 1991, 2003 (relayed by other broadcasters 1997, 2004; relays of other broadcasters 1997, 2000). Venezuela: “Aló Presidente” 2001, 2004; Ecos de Puerto Martinez 1973; Ecos del Torbes 1969, 1970, 1981, 1995; Ecos del Zulia 1954; Escuelas Radiofonicas de Venezuela 1965; La Voz de Carabobo 1965; La Voz del Táchira, R. Táchira 1946, 1967, 1973, 1982, 1995; La Voz del Tigre 1948, 1965; La Voz de la Patria 1952, 1961; Ondas del Lago 1952; Ondas Panamericanas 1966, 1966, 1979; Ondas Populares 1946; Ondas Porteñas 1961; R. Amazonas 1996, 2005; R. Angostura 1971; R. Barquisimeto 1947, 1957, 1958; R. Caracas 1945, 1971; R. Continental 1988, 1988, 1996; R. Continente 1948, 1970; R. Cultura 1958, 1959, 1966; R. Juventud 1965, 1973, 1974; R. Lara 1971; R. Nacl. de Venezuela 1961, 1971, 1974, 1975, 1982, 1983, 1997, 2008 (relayed by other broadcasters 2004, 2005, 2008); R. Rumbos 1952, 1953, 1969, 2002; R. Sucre 1958, 1982; R. Tropical 1965; R. Trujillo 1948, 1966; R. Universidad 1952, 1970; R. Valera 1946, 1960, 1995; R. Valles del Tuy 1969, 1982; R. Yaracuy 1952, 1985; Rdf. Nacional 1945, 1952; Rdf. Venezuela 1966; YVTO, Observatorio Naval Cagigal 1969; other stations 1946–1948, 1952, 1954, 1957, 1959, 1960, 1965, 1967, 1969–1971, 1974, 1975, 1977, 1980, 1981, 1983, 1984, 1988, 1989, 1995; general 1949, 1955, 1985, 1990. Vietnam (North and post-unification): Liberation Radio 1975; R. France-Hanoi 1949; R. Hanoi 1969; R. Hirondelle 1953, 1955; Voice of Vietnam 1955, 1965, 1970, 1984, 1997 (relayed by other broadcasters 1995, 2000, 2002, 2006); other stations 1950, 1972, 1977, 1979, 1988, 1994, 2001, 2004. Vietnam (South before unification): R. France-Asie 1950, 1955, 1956; R. Hirondelle, Voice of the Vietnam Natl. Army 1955; R. Saigon 1945, 1947, 1948, 1950; Voice of Vietnam 1950, 1956; R. VTVN 1958, 1958, 1965; other stations 1947, 1950. Windward Islands: R. Grenada, R. Free Grenada 1973, 1979, 1983; Windward Islands Broadcasting Svc. 1955, 1956, 1960, 1973. Yemen (North Yemen): R. Sana’a, Republic of Yemen Radio 1952, 1956, 1963, 1965, 1990, 1993. Yugoslavia: Intl. Radio of Serbia and Montenegro, Intl. Radio Serbia 2003, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007; “Radio of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia-Hercegovina” 1993; R. Belgrade, R. Yugoslavia 1946, 1952, 1953, 1986, 1989, 1993, 1999, 2000, 2002; R. 21 1999; regional stations 1986; YUA 1945. Zambia (No. Rhodesia): Federal Broadcasting Corp. of Rhodesia & Nyasaland 1958, 1961; No. Rhodesia Broadcasting Stn. (ZQP), Central African Broadcasting Stn., R. Zambia, Zambia Broadcasting Svc., Zambia Natl. Broadcasting Corp. 1946, 1946, 1954, 1958, 1968, 1972, 1973, 1981, 1994, 1996, 1999, 2003, 2004; R. Christian Voice 1994, 1998, 2000. Zanzibar: R. Zanzibar, Zanzibar Broadcasting Svc., R. Tanzania Zanzibar 1956, 1959, 1970, 1971, 1982, 1986, 1989, 2003 (Omar M. Omar 1970); “Spice FM” 2003. Zimbabwe (So. Rhodesia): Federal Broadcasting Corp. of Rhodesia & Nyasaland 1958; Federal Broadcasting Svc. 1958; Rhodesia Broadcasting Corp., Zimbabwe-Rhodesia Broadcasting Corp., Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corp., Voice of Zimbabwe, R. Zimbabwe 1968, 1969, 1980, 1989, 1994, 1997, 2002, 2007; ZEAF 1952; general 1945, 1980.

Specialty Listings Clandestine, opposition, and “freedom” broadcasters Algerian Renaissance Movement 1959; Andenet Le Democracy Radio [Ethiopia] 2007; The Arabic Radio [Syria] 2001; A Voz da Resistência do Galo Negro (Voice of the Resistance of the Black Cockerel) (VORGAN) [Angola] 1982, 1986, 1993, 1997, 1999; A Voz de Liberdade [Angola] 1972; A Voz de Verdade [Angola] 1982; Bizim Radio (“Our Radio”) [Turkey] 1972, 1989; Chinese Patriot Radio 1953; CMQ Libre [Cuba] 1961; Cuba Siglo XXI 2000; Cuban

Appendix

451

Freedom Committee 1960; Degar Voice [Vietnam] 2003; Dejen Radio [Ethiopia] 2001; Democratic Voice of Burma 1992, 1996, 2007, 2007; Denge Mezopotamya (Voice of Mesopotamia) [Kurdistan] 2001; Deutsche Kurzwellensender Atlantik [Germany] 1945; Eelam People’s Democratic Party broadcasts [Sri Lanka] 1993; “El Pueblo Responde” [Colombia] 1991; Exiled Holy Synod of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church 2007; Free Greek Radio 1953; Free North Korea Broadcasting 2005; Free Voice of Ethiopian Unity 1995; Free Voice of Iran 1980; Gambia Democracy Project 2005; Hmong Lao Radio 2002; Holy Medina Radio [Saudi Arabia] 1990; Jakada Radio Intl. [Nigeria] 2002; Jordan People’s Radio 1958; “Kiss Me Honey” stn. [Iran] 1964; La Resistencia Democratica Peru 2000. __________, La Voce Italiano d’Istria [Yugoslavia] 1957; La Voix Libre du Peuple de Guinée [Guinea] 1971; La Voz de Alpha 1966 [Cuba] 1989, 1990; La Voz de CAMCO [Cuba] 2000; La Voz del CID [Cuba] 1981, 1982, 1983, 1993, 1998; La Voz de Cuba 1978; La Voz de Cuba Libre 1958, 1961; La Voz de las Fuerzas Especiales de la Guerra Anti–Comunista [Nicaragua] 1980; La Voz de la Fundación [Cuba] 1989, 1994, 2001; La Voz de Guanacaste Libre [Costa Rica] 1955; La Voz de la Junta Patriotica Cubana 1991;La Voz de la Liberación [Guatemala] 1954; La Voz de la Libertad [Colombia] 1986; La Voz de Nicaragua Libre 1983; La Voz de la Resistencia Chilena 1975; La Voz de Sandino [Nicaragua] 1982, 1983; La Voz de la Tribuna Libre [Cuba] 1991; La Voz de la UNO, R. Liberación [Nicaragua] 1986, 1987, 1990; La Voz de la URNG [Guatemala] 1987. __________, “Liberty” [Falkland Islands] 1982; Minivan Radio [Maldive Islands] 2004, 2007; Moj Them Radio [Laos] 2006; National Radio of the Saharan Democratic Arab Republic [Spanish Sahara] 1979, 1993, 2000; National Voice of Iran 1964, 1976; Netsanet Radio [Ethiopia] 2001; New Star Broadcasting [China] 1986; North Korea Reform Radio 2008; Open Radio for North Korea 2005; Peyk-e Iran (“Courier of Iran”) 1964, 1976; Proletarian Battle Division [China] 1974; Que Hong Radio [Vietnam] 1999. __________, R. Abdala [Cuba] 1977; R. Afghanistan 1996; R. Amani [Afghanistan] 2003; R. Andala [Indonesia] 1958; R. Antorcha Martiana [Cuba] 1981; R. Atlantico del Sur [Falkland Islands] 1982, 1982; R. Azadai [Iran] 1994; R. Bardai [Chad] 1983; R. Ba Yi (R. First August) [China] 1980; R. Baikal [Far East] 1957; R. Barabari [Iran] 2001; R. Bopeshawa [Iraq] 2001; R. Bosnia-Hercegovina [Yugoslavia] 1993; R. Caiman (“R. Nat King Cole”) [Cuba] 1985, 1993; R. Chan Troi Moi (“New Horizons Radio”) [Vietnam] 2001; R. Cuba Libre 1960, 1961, 1975, 1981; R. DAT [Kazakhstan] 2002; R. Debunk [German] 1945; R. Democracy Shorayee [Iran] 2006; R. Democrat Intl., R. Kudirat Intl. [Nigeria] 1996, 1998; R. Dili [Timor] 1975; R. España Independiente 1946, 1955, 1970, 1970, 1972, 1977; R. Euzkadi [Basque Spain] 1951, 1965, 1965, 1977 R. Fana (“Torch”) [Ethiopia] 1994; R. Farabundo Martí [El Salvador] 1982, 1992; R. Fighters [China] 1972; R. Free Albania 1993; R. Free and Fighting Algeria 1957, 1959; R. Free Bougainville, R. Independent Mekamui 1992, 1994, 1999, 2002; R. Free Chosun [No. Korea] 2007; R. Free Croatia 1991; R. Free Cuba 1957; R. Free Japan 1952; R. Free Russia (NTS), Voice of Free Russia (NTS) 1954, 1960, 1963; R. Free Somalia 1992; R. Free Southern Cameroons 2005; R. Free Surinam 1983; R. Free Syria 2004; R. Free Vietnam [California-based] 1999; R. Free Vietnam [New Orleans-based] 2001; R. Gusano [Cuba] 1961; R. Guazapa [El Salvador] 1983; R. Horyaal [Somalia] 2005; R. Independence Bougainville 1999; R. Insurgente [Mexico] 2006; R. International [Iran] 1999, 2001; R. Iran 1980; R. Iran of Tomorrow 1998; R. Iranian Toilers 1984, 1990; R. Irina (Voice of Freedom) [Vietnam] 1992; R. Khalistan [India] 1992; R. Kulmis (R. Unity), R. Halgan [Somalia] 1979; R. Liberación (El Salvador) 1981; R. Liberación, R. Rebelde [Honduran] 1959; R. Liberation, Liberation Radio [Vietnam] 1966, 1970, 1975; R. Libertad [Cuba] 1961, 1963, 1968, 1968; R. Libertad Cubana 1978, 1984; R. Libertas [Croatian] 1989, 1991; R. Liberté [Haiti] 1983; R. Libre [Cuba] 1965; R. Libre de Cuba 1958; R. Muhaburu [Rwanda] 1992; R. Mambí, La Voz de la Junta Patriotica Cubana 1980; R. Marqeutalia, la Voz de las Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia (FARC) 1986; R. Maubere [Timor] 1975; R. Message of Freedom [Afghanistan] 1992; R. Miskut [Nicaragua] 1983; R. Monimbó [Nicaragua] 1984; R. Mujahedin Afghanistan, Voice of the United Muslim Fighters of Afghanistan, Voice of Unity 1980, 1986, 1992; R. Nacl. [Nicaragua] 1979; R. NADECO [Nigeria] 1997; R. Neg Mawon [Haiti] 1992; R. New Nigeria 1997; R. Patria Libre [Colombia] 1988, 1991, 1996; R. Payam-e Doost (“Message From A Friend”) [Iran] 2001; Radio of the Patriots [Iran] 1973; R. Pedar [Iran] 2004; Radio of the Provisional Government of Natl. Union and Natl. Salvation of Cambodia, Voice of the Great Natl. Union Front of Cambodia, Voice of the Natl. United Army 1995; R. Portugal Libre 1963, 1972, 1974; R. Quê Me [Vietnam] 2004; R. 15 de Septiembre [Nicaragua] 1981, 1987, 1990; R. Rebelde [Cuba] 1978; R. Republica 2005; R. Rhino Intl. [Uganda] 2003; R. Roj [Kurdistan] 2005; R. Saa [Nigeria] 2007; R. Sadaye Kashmir 2003; R. Seda-ye Melat-e Iran (R. Voice of the Iranian Nation) 2004; R. Sedayeh Zan (Voice of Women) [Iran] 2004; R. Sandino [Nicaragua] 1978, 1979; R. 16 Desanm [Haiti] 1992; R. SNBS (Save Nigeria Broadcasting Svc.) 1998; R. Soberania Nacl. [El Salvador] 1983; R. Socialist Albania 1959; R. Sol-

452

Appendix

idarity [Ethiopia] 2001; R. Sparks [China] 1972, 1983; R. Stanica Yugoslovenskich 1951; R. of the Sudanese People’s Liberation Army (R. SPLA) 1984; R. Togo Libre 2003; R. Trinchera [Cuba] 1981; R. Truth [Zimbabwe] 1983, 1990; R. Vatan (R. Homeland) [Iran] 1980; R. Vemerana [Vanuatu] 1980; R. Venceremos [El Salvador] 1981, 1985, 1992; R. Voice of ENUF [Ethiopia] 2005; R. Voice of Ethiopian Unity 1987; R. Voice of Hope, R. Nile [Sudan] 2000, 2006; R. Voice of Iran (R. Sedaye Iran) 2000; Voice of al-Aslah (Voice of Reform) [Saudi Arabia] 2002; R. Voice of One Free Ethiopia 1997; R. Voice of the Oromo Liberation Front 2004; R. Voice of the People [Zimbabwe] 2000, 2002, 2005; R. Voluntud Democratica [Cuba] 1991; R. Voz de Liberdade [Portugal] 1966; R. Waaberi [Somalia] 2005; R. Xoriyo (Ethiopia) 2000; R. Yaran [Iran] 2003; R. Zamaneh [Iran] 2006. __________, Rainbow Radio, Voice of Peace and Brotherhood [Ethiopia] 1997; Sawt al-Amal (Voice of Hope) [Libya] 2006; Seda-ye Jambushi Iran e Farda [Iran] 2005; Sedaye Nejate Iran (Voice of the Liberation of Iran), Iran’s Flag of Freedom Radio, Voice of Freedom and Human Rights in Iran 1983, 1986, 1987, 1990, 1994; Studio III [Indonesia] 1959; Suab Xaa Moo Zoo [Lao] 2007; SW Radio Africa [Zimbabwe] 2002, 2005; Tensae Ethiopia (Voice of Unity) [Ethiopia] 2005; Thansour They Radio [Cambodia] 1996. __________, Voice of Arab Egypt 1990; Voice of Biafra [Nigeria] 2001, 2002; Voice of the Broad Masses of Eritrea 1979, 1991, 2002; Voice of the Broad Oromo Masses [Ethiopia] 1991, 1994; Voice of Cambodia Radio Intl. 1996; Voice of China 1991; Voice of China Reborn 2005; Voice of the Communist Party of Iran 1990; Voice of Delina [Eritrea] 2005; Voice of the Democratic Alliance [Eritrea] 2005; Voice of Democratic Eritrea 1997; Voice of Democratic Kampuchea [Cambodia] 1979, 1995; Voice of the Democratic Path of Ethiopian Unity 1999; Voice of Eritrea (Milennium Voice) 2002; Voice of the Eritrean Liberation Front 1977; Voice of the Eritrean Revolution 1977; Voice of Ethiopia 2003; Voice of Ethiopian Medhin (Voice of Ethiopian Salvation) 2000; Voice of the Ethiopian People 2006; Voice of the Ethiopian People for Peace, Democracy and Freedom 1991, 1994; Voice of Fatah [Palestine] 1972; Voice of Fighting Angola, Voice of the Angolan Revolution 1972; Voice of Free Africa [Southern Africa] 1958; Voice of Free Angola 1972; Voice of Free Egypt 1958; Voice of Free Eritrea 1997; Voice of Free Ethiopia 1977; Voice of Free India 1945; Voice of Free Indonesia 1946; Voice of Free Iraq, Voice of the Iraqi Opposition, Voice of the Iraqi People, Republic of Iraq Radio-Voice of the Iraqi People 1991; Voice of Free Lebanon 2002; Voice of Free Nigeria 1997; Voice of Free Radio [No. Korea] 2008; Voice of the Free Sahara [Spanish Sahara] 1979, 1993; Voice of the Free Sons of South Yemen [Aden; So. Yemen] 1985; Voice of the Free South [Aden; So. Yemen] 1971; Voice of Freedom and Renewal, Voice of New Sudan 1998; oice of Independent Kurdistan 2005; Voice of Iran 1980; Voice of Iranian Kurdistan 1973, 1990, 1994; Voice of the Iranian Nation 1973; Voice of the Iranian Revolution 1983, 1990; Voice of Iraq 1958, 1994; Voice of Iraqi Kurdistan 1973, 1994, 2005; Voice of the Iraqi People 1960, 1982, 1991; Voice of the Iraqi People–Republic of Iraq Radio 1994; Voice of the Iraqi Revolution 1980; Voice of the Islamic Revolution in Iraq 1980, 1994; Voice of the Islamic Movement in Iraqi Kurdistan 1994; Voice of Jammu and Kashmir Freedom 2000; Voice of June Fourth [China] 1989, 1991; Voice of Justice [Middle East] 1958; Voice of Justice [Cambodia] 2001; Voice of the Khmer [Cambodia] 1988; Voice of Khmer Krom Radio [Vietnam] 2001; Voice of Komala [Iran] 2002; Voice of Kossovo [Yugoslavia] 1992; Voice of the Kurdistan Revolution 1994; Voice of the Liberation Army [China] 1972, 1974, 1983; Voice of the Liberation Fronts of Western Somalia and Abo [Ethiopia] 1979; Voice of Liberty [Eritrea] 2004; Voice of the Libyan People 1982, 1985; Voice of the Malayan Revolution, Voice of Malayan [Malaysian] Democracy 1970, 1981, 1990; Voice of the Martyrs [Ethiopia] 2001; Voice of the Mojahed (Voice of the Crusaders) [Iran] 1994; Voice of the Mujahedin e-Khalq [Iran] 1980; Voice of Namibia 1980; Voice of the Natl. Army of Democratic Kampuchea [Cambodia] 1983, 1995; Voice of the Natl. United Front of Kampuchea [Cambodia] 1970, 1975, 1979; Voice of Oduduwa, R. Yoruba, Egbe Omo Yoruba, Ogene Ndigbo Radio [Nigeria] 1998; Voice of the Ogadeni People [Ethiopia] 2000; Voice of Oromia Independence [Ethiopia] 2006; Voice of Oromo Liberation [Ethiopia] 1988, 1995, 2004; Voice of Palestine, Voice of the Palestinian Revolution [PLO] 1972, 1990, 1992; Voice of the Palestinian Islamic Revolution [Hamas] 1992; Voice of the Pathet Lao 1972; Voice of the Patriotic Militiamen’s Front [Vietnam] 1967; Voice of the Patriotic Neutralist Forces [Lao] 1972; Voice of the Patriots [Ethiopia] 2007; Voice of Peace and Democracy of Eritrea 1999; Voice of the Peninsula and Arab Gulf [Arabian Peninsula] 1990; Voice of the People [Libya] 1988; Voice of the People [No. Korea] 1985; Voice of the People of Burma 1972; Voice of the People of Kampuchea [Cambodia] 1979; Voice of the People of Kurdistan 1994, 2005; Voice of the People of Malaysia 1981; Voice of the People of Thailand 1972, 1979; Voice of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Eritrea 1979; Voice of the Popular Revolution in Palestine 1992; Voice of Southern Azerbaijan [Iran] 1996; Voice of the Storm [Palestine] 1972; Voice of the Struggle of Iranian Kurdistan 1994; Voice

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of Sudan 1995, 2000; Voice of the Sudanese Popular Revolution 1982, 1985; Voice of Tibet 1996; Voice of Tigrayans in North America [Ethiopia] 2001; Voice of the Tigre Revolution [Ethiopia] 1981, 1991, 1999; Voice of Truth [Eritrea] 1997; Voice of Truth [Greece] 1972, 1974; Voice of the Turkish Communist Party 1972, 1987, 1989; Voice of the United Front of the Peoples of Iran 1973; Voice of Vietnam 1949; Voice of the Worker [Iran] 1990; Voice of the Worker-Communist Party (Iraq) 2001; Voice of Young Albanian Exiles 1992; Voix de la Revolution Populaire Voltaique [Burkina Faso] 1983; Voz de Directoria de Revolucionario Democratico Cubana 1991; Voz Popular [Guatemala] 1987; Voz de la Resistencia [Colombia] 1996, 2004. __________, West Africa Democracy Radio [Senegal] 2005; Yemeni Royalist Radio [Aden; So. Yemen] 1971; general, Cuba 1981; Iran 1994; Iraq 1994; Kurdistan 1994. Educational and cultural broadcasters: R. Amahoro, Voice of Peace [Rwanda] 1994; R. Hoa-Mai [Vietnam] 2005; IRIN 2008; Little Saigon Radio 2005; R. Mustaqbal [Ethiopia] 2004; “Sound of Hope” [China] 2004; Southern Sudan Interactive Radio Instruction Program 2003; Sudan Radio Svc. 2003. Miscellaneous: American Shortwave Listeners Club 1967; Assn. for International Broadcasting 2008; Assn. of North American Radio Clubs (ANARC) 1964; Australian DX Radio Club 1947; Baxter, Glenn (International Amateur Radio Network) 1992; Boord, Ken 1948, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1960, 1962; British colonial broadcasting 1954; British Short Wave League 1948; call-in programs 1984, 1986, 1989; Central American stations 1979; clubs, other 1955; Codina, Juan Carlos 1983; Cushen, Arthur 1997; Danish Short Wave Club 1947, 1958, 2006; digital broadcasting, DRM 1995, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008; “Down Under” DX Circle 1976; DX-Antwerp 2002; Ekwall, John 1990; European DX Council 1993; Fondation Hirondelle 1997, 2002, 2003, 2007; Gatti-Hallicrafters Expedition 1948; Goonetilleke, Victor 2005; Intl. Short Wave Club (ISWC) 1947, 1948, 1949, 1954, 1955, 1967; Intl. Short Wave League (ISWL) 1948, 1949, 1951, 1967; jamming 1978, 1988, 1990, 1993, 1994, 1996, 2003, 2006, 2008; Japan Short Wave Club 2002; Kary, Paul 1958; Lord, Carleton 1954; National Assn. of Shortwave Broadcasters 2003; National Radio Club (NRC) 1956; Newark News Radio Club (NNRC) 1947, 1954, 1956, 1957; New Zealand Radio DX League (NZRDXL) 1956; Nibi-Nibi 1958; North American Shortwave Assn. (NASWA) 1964, 1969, 1974, 1997; Perolo, Jack 1962; Popular Electronics 1964; POW messages 1951, 1968, 1969; Radio News, Radio & Television News 1946, 1947, 1953; Shasiland 1966; sideband broadcasts 1964, 1973, 1976, 1977, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1994, 1999; SORAFOM, OCORA, ORTF 1959, 1959; Spanswick, Simon 2008; special programs for clubs et al. 1947, 1948, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1959, 1960, 1962, 1964, 1967, 1969, 1974, 1982, 1987, 1993; Thales Broadcast and Multimedia (Thomcast) 2003; Universal Radio DX Club (URDXC) 1947, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1959; Vargas Llosa, Mario 1990; Voron, Sam 1992; World Communications Year 1983; World DX Friendship Year (11991973) 1973; World Radio Network 1995, 2004; WRTH 1947. Religious broadcasters: AWR 1971, 1975 , 1979, 1983, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998, 2001, 2002, 2003; Bible Voice Broadcasting Network 2002; Christ Vous Appelle 1991; Christian Science broadcasting 1987, 1989, 1994, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2004; Christliche Wissenschaft 2004; “Die Antwort” 1993; Echos de la Vérité 1999; Église du Christ 2006; Emetteur Protestant International 1978; Freie Volksmission Krefeld 2005; Fundamental Broadcasting Network 2002; Good News World Outreach 2000; Gospel For Asia 2002; High Adventure Ministries 1981, 1986, 1991, 1992, 1996, 1997, 2000, 2002; Hmong World Christian Radio 2007; IBRA Radio 1971, 1975, 1985, 1991, 1995, 1996, 2002; Impact du Plein Evangile 2006; “Le Heraut de la Chritian Sience” 2004; “Leading the Way” 2004; Lutherische Stunde 1994; Ming Hui Radio [Falun Gong] 2006; Missionswerk Friedensstimme 2003, 2003; Missionswerk Werner Heukelbach 1994; Mukto Probaho 1995; NOREA Radio 1959, 1959, 1997; Overcomer Ministry (Bro. Stair) 1993, 1994, 1995, 1997, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2008; R. Africa Intl. 2001, 2001; R. Alpha & Omega 1994; R. Aum Shinrikyo 1992, 1993; R. Blagovest 1993; R. Ezra 2001; R. Ibrahim 2002; R. Mitternachtsruf 1994; R. Réveil & Paroles de Vie 2006, 2006; R. Voice of the Martyrs 1994; Remnants Hope Ministry 2002; Salama Radio Intl. 2001; Sawtu Linjiila 2008; Tomorrow’s News–Today 2002; Trans World Broadcasting Ministry 2005; Truth For the World 2005; TWR 1954, 1955, 1956, 1957, 1959, 1960, 1962, 1964, 1974, 1977, 1987, 1993, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2001 (Dr. Paul E. Freed 1996); United Christian Broadcasting 1996; Universelle Welle 1994; Universelles Leben, R. Santec, Das Wort, Cosmic Wave 1999; University Network (Dr. Gene Scott) 1992, 1996, 1999, 2001, 2005; Voice of the Gospel 1983; Voice of Joy Music Hour 2006; Voice of Orthodoxy 1986, 1986, 1991; Voice of the Wilderness 2008; Vox Fidei 1978; World Beacon, African Beacon, European Beacon, Russian Beacon 2000, 2001; World Falun Dafa Radio, Fang Guang Ming Radio [Falun Gong] 2000.

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Chapter Notes Preface

dated, the technical side of BBC operations at home and abroad is covered exhaustively in Edward Pawley, BBC Engineering (London, England: BBC, 1972). The transmission side of BBC operations was described more recently in Norman Shacklady and Martin Ellen, On Air: A History of BBC Transmission (Orpington, Kent, England: Wavechange, 2003). For an interesting albeit brief look at the BBC from the inception of the Empire Service through World War II, see “The BBC Tradition,” Monitoring Times, December 1988, p. 6. Other interesting articles include Beresford Clark, “The BBC’s External Services,” International Affairs [Royal Institute of International Affairs], Vol. 35, No. 2 (April 1959), p. 170; Jeff Chanowitz, “The Yardstick of Excellence: The BBC World Service,” Monitoring Times, September 1992, p. 14 (about Bush House); and Chris Brand, “Tales from Bush House,” Monitoring Times, September 2002, p. 10 (about restructuring and new initiatives). 3. The story of Radio Bari is told in Callum A. MacDonald, “Radio Bari: Italian Wireless Propaganda in the Middle East and British Countermeasures, 1934–38,” Middle East Studies, Vol. XIII, May 1977, p. 195. One writer has observed that the BBC entered foreign-language broadcasting mostly on its own initiative, the British government appearing indifferent to, or at least slow to be convinced of, its value. Donald R. Browne, “Going International: How BBC Began Foreign Language Broadcasting,” Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 60, No. 3 (Autumn 1983), p. 423. Once planning got under way, however, the Foreign Office seemed more intent than the BBC itself about protecting the BBC’s credibility — which had been earned at home — in the new world of shortwave “propaganda” broadcasting. Philip M. Taylor, The Projection of Britain — British Overseas Publicity and Propaganda, 1919–1939 (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 181–215. 4. Said an Algerian listener: “Here in Zemmourah, the price of a radio depends on whether one can locate your station on the set. If so, it is worth its price. If not, the radio is worthless.” It was said that in Niger, nomads would barter a camel for a radio, but only if it would receive the BBC. See Bernard Bumpus, “Broadcasting and Audience Research in the Middle East,” Bulletin [British Society for Middle Eastern Studies], Vol. 6, No. 9 (1979), p. 13. This reputation notwithstanding, one observer has expressed the view that, at least through World War II, the BBC functioned largely as an arm of the nation’s propaganda effort and was greatly influenced by the Foreign Office and the Treasury. The ins and outs of these relationships are the

1. Christopher H. Sterling, “CBQ Review Essay (Part One), Overall Histories of International Radio Propaganda,” and “CBQ Review Essay (Part Two), International Radio Propaganda in World War II,” both in Communication Booknotes Quarterly, Vol. 35, No. 3 (Summer 2004), p. 151 and p. 166 respectively. 2. James Wood, History of International Broadcasting (Stevenage, Herts., U.K.: Peter Peregrinus, 1992); James Wood, History of International Broadcasting, Vol. 2 (Stevenage, Herts., U.K.: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2000). 3. Julian Hale, Radio Power: Propaganda and International Broadcasting (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1975). 4. Donald R. Browne, International Broadcasting: The Limits of the Limitless Medium (New York, NY: Praeger, 1982). 5. George A. Codding, Jr., Broadcasting Without Barriers (Paris, France: UNESCO, 1959). 6. Bernard Bumpus and Barbara Skelt, Seventy Years of International Broadcasting (Paris, France: UNESCO, 1984). 7. Robert S. Fortner, International Communication: History, Conflict, and Control of the Global Metropolis (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1993).

Chapter 1 1. From a newspaper clipping cited in Universalite, January 1, 1959, p. WEST-4. 2. The definitive work on British broadcasting in general is Asa Briggs, The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom (London, England: Oxford University Press), which is in five volumes: Vol. I, The Birth of Broadcasting (1961); Vol. II, The Golden Age of Wireless (1965); Vol. III, The War of Words (1970); Vol. IV, Sound and Vision (1978); and Vol. V, Competition (1995). Numerous books have been written about the BBC. Among the more interesting are: Gerard Mansell, Let Truth Be Told: 50 Years of BBC External Broadcasting (London, England: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1982); Asa Briggs, The BBC: The First Fifty Years (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1985); Andrew Walker, A Skyful of Freedom: 60 Years of the BBC World Service (London, England: Broadside, 1992); and John Cain, The BBC: 70 Years of Broadcasting (London, England: BBC Information Services, 1992). Although now somewhat

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subject of Helen L. Giblin, The BBC External Services: National Priorities and the Development of the Language Services 1932–1946, master’s thesis (Houston, TX: University of Houston, School of Communication, 1994). 5. Donald R. Browne, International Broadcasting: The Limits of the Limitless Medium (New York, NY: Praeger, 1982), Chapter 6. 6. The most detailed book about the early history of the VOA and the development of its transmitting facilities is Robert William Pirsein, The Voice of America: A History of the International Broadcasting Activities of the United States Government, 1940–1962 (New York, NY: Arno, 1979) (Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, 1970). Relevant legislative developments from 1945 to 1948 are covered in Burton Paulu, Factors in the Attempts to Establish a Permanent Instrumentality for the Administration of the International Broadcasting Services of the United States, Ph.D. dissertation (New York, NY: New York University, School of Education, 1949). Broader examinations of the VOA’s mission and the forces that have buffeted it over the years include Donald R. Browne, The Voice of America: Policies and Problems (Lexington, KY: Journalism Monographs, No. 43, Association for Education in Journalism, February 1976); Laurien Alexandre, The Voice of America: From Detente to the Reagan Doctrine (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1988); Holly Cowan Shulman, The Voice of America: Propaganda and Democracy, 1941–1945 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990); David F. Krugler, The Voice of America and the Domestic Propaganda Battles, 1945–1953 (Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2000); and Alan L. Heil, Jr., Voice of America: A History (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2003). Heil worked for the VOA from 1962 to 1998 and presents an interesting insider’s account emphasizing people, programs and events in VOA’s history. Worthwhile articles about the VOA include Gerry L. Dexter, “Big Daddy: A Worldwide Look at the Voice of America,” Popular Communications, June 1986, p. 10, and Jeff Chanowitz, “The VOA at 50 — A Year of Celebration and Change,” Monitoring Times, July 1992, p. 8. 7. For an inside look at VOA operations the year after it was established, see Leonard Carlton, “Voice of America: The Overseas Radio Bureau,” Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 7, No. 1 (Spring 1943), p. 46. 8. For a good discussion of these issues (favoring a consolidated, “journalistic” approach), see Mark Hopkins, “A Babel of Broadcasts,” Columbia Journalism Review, Vol. 38, No. 2 (July-August 1999), p. 44. 9. See Robert S. Fortner, Public Diplomacy and International Politics (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1994); Wilson P. Dizard, Jr., Inventing Public Diplomacy: The Story of the U.S. Information Agency (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004). 10. 22 U.S.C. 6202(c). 11. See David Frederick Krugler, The Voice of America and the Republican Cold War, 1945 to 1953, Ph.D. dissertation (Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, 1997). 12. See Kim Andrew Elliott, “Too Many Voices of America,” Foreign Policy, No. 77 (Winter 1989-90), p. 113, and in Howard Aster, ed., Challenges for International Broadcasting (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1991), p. 117. 13. For a good discussion of strategic changes in U.S. international broadcasting, see Monroe Price, “Public Diplomacy and the Transformation of International Broadcasting,” 21 Cardozo Arts & Ent. L. J. 51 (2003). U.S. international broadcasting efforts were summarized in Brian Conniff, “New Directions in U.S. International Broadcasting,” Foreign Service Journal, January 2004, p. 20. 14. An early iteration of these issues is found in Browne,

supra note 6. For recent discussions of issues in U.S. government international broadcasting, see Sanford J. Ungar, “Pitch Imperfect,” Foreign Affairs, May-June 2005, p. 7, with rebuttal and surrebuttal in “His Master’s Voice?” Foreign Affairs, July-August 2005, p. 201; and Alan L. Heil, Jr., Local Voices/Global Perspectives: Challenges Ahead for U.S. International Media (Washington, DC: Public Diplomacy Council, School of Media and Public Affairs, The George Washington University, 2008). The book had its origins in a conference, “International Broadcasting: The Public Diplomacy Challenge” held on November 16, 2006. The issues are also among those addressed in the writings of IBB audience research analyst Kim Andrew Elliott, who is well-known in the shortwave listening community. See http://www.kimandrewelliott.com. 15. See Kim Andrew Elliott, “Opinion: VOA Should Broadcast in English,” Radio World, April 7, 2004, and Kim Andrew Elliott, “No Comprendo: Why the World’s Largest English-speaking Country Should Broadcast to the World in English,” Radio Netherlands Media Network, February 16, 2006, both available at http://www.kimandrewelliott.com/ index.php?s=Writings. 16. The station’s history through the 1970s is the focus of Arthur Siegel, Radio Canada International: History and Development (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1996). The story is taken through 1985 in James L. Hall, Radio Canada International: Voice of a Middle Power (East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 1997); through 2001 in Wasim Ghani, The Success Prospect of a Canadian Foreign Language International Radio Service, master’s thesis (Toronto, Ontario: Ryerson University & York University, 2002); and to the present in Elzbieta Olechowska, The Age of International Radio: Radio Canada International (1945– 2007) (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 2007). A brief telling of the CBC-RCI story is Andrew K. Finnie, Radio Canada International, 1945–1995 (Montreal, Quebec: Radio Canada International, 1996). 17. Keith Spicer, Chairman of the Canadian Radio-Television and Telecommunications Commission, in Siegel, supra note 16 at p. 175, quoting Report, Standing Senate Committee on Transport and Communications on the Mandate of Funding Radio Canada International, June 1994. 18. One writer has stated that the idea for the International Service was born in 1942 as part of a plan to ensure that a British government in exile in Canada, should it be needed, could maintain contact with the people of Britain. See Ian McFarland, “Radio Canada International: Canada’s Underrated Ambassador,” Broadcast Technology [Canada], September 1994, p. 36. 19. One estimate was a 75 percent reduction in audience during the years following the 1991 cuts. Ian McFarland, DX Ontario, April 1996, p. 10, and September 1996, p. 6, citing BBC World Service audience research. 20. A concise history of Radio Australia is found in a publication that was produced by the station on the occasion of its 30th anniversary: The Constant Voice (2d ed., 1969), pp. 29–37. (The first edition was published five years earlier.) A comprehensive study of the organizational and political history of Radio Australia, titled in recognition of the controversy which has often surrounded Australia’s overseas broadcasting service, is Errol Hodge, Radio Wars: Truth, Propaganda and the Struggle for Radio Australia (Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1995). For a more contemporary look at Radio Australia, see Andrew M. Clark, The Use of International Radio Broadcasting by Regional Powers in the Post-Cold War Era: A Case Study of Radio Australia and All India Radio, Ph.D. dissertation (Gainesville, FL: University of Florida, 2003). 21. The circumstances facing Radio Australia in recent

Notes. Chapter 1 years, and its plans for the future, are described in John A. Figliozzi, “Radio Australia Looks to the Future,” Monitoring Times, February 1999, p. 18. 22. The history of Holland’s experimentation with shortwave broadcasting is recounted in detail in Robert D. Haslach, Netherlands World Broadcasting (Media, PA: Lawrence Miller, 1983). For a condensed version, see Robert Haslach, “Netherlands World Broadcasting,” Shortwave Guide, October 1984, p. 23; and Milton Hollstein, “Tiny Holland’s Mighty Radio Voice,” Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 51 (Autumn 1974), p. 486. The history of the station was told more recently in Jeffrey M. Poulin, “Radio Netherlands Hits the Big ‘5-0,’” Monitoring Times, August 1997, p. 8. 23. For a short but well-done history of shortwave broadcasting in Germany, see Manosij Guha, “Radio in Germany — From Spark-Gap to Digital Shortwave,” Monitoring Times, April 2003, p. 10. 24. This was ARD (Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlichrechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland), founded in 1950. See Frank Starrost, “The West German öffentlich-rechtliche Broadcasting System,” reprinted in Review of International Broadcasting, No. 134 (1990), p. 12. 25. See H.J. Felbick (revised by W. Krämer), Deutsche Welle Engineering (Cologne, Germany: Deutsche Welle, 3d ed. 1979), pp. 8–9. 26. An interesting analysis of commercial, mostly medium wave, regional broadcasting, including a list of stations, is Donald R. Browne, “International Commercial Radio Broadcasting: Nation Shall Speak Profit Unto Nation,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Spring 1986), p. 195. A good description of thirdworld broadcasting and how and why it developed as it did is Elihu Katz and George Wedell, Broadcasting in the Third World — Promise and Performance (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1977), pp. 41–97. 27. Anker Petersen, “Trends in Tropical Bands Broadcasting 2007,” Short Wave News, July–August 2007, p. 22; NASWA Journal, July 2007, p. 17. Strictly speaking the table does not represent transmitters, but rather the sum total of all the individual frequencies on which the transmitters operate. These figures include not just the tropical bands per se but also out-of-band channels between the tropical bands on which broadcast stations operate. They do not include certain clandestine stations and international stations. Petersen has written extensively on the state of the tropical bands. For his primers on tropical band broadcasting and DXing, see Anker Petersen, “Tropical Bands DX-ing,” 1985 WRTH, p. 589, and Anker Petersen, “DXing in the Tropical bands,” Short Wave News, June 1999, p. 24. For discussions of the figures in the table, as well as figures for other years, see articles by Petersen as follows: Short Wave News, September 2000, p. 26; May 2001, p. 24, November 2002, p. 20; November-December 2003, p. 31; September 2004, p. 16; August 2005, p. 18; August-September 2006, p. 26; and July-August 2007, p. 22; and NASWA Journal, November 2001, p. 10; November 2002, p. 8; November 2003, p. 16; August 2005, p. 17; August 2006, p. 14; and July 2007, p. 17. 28. The Americas are one of the few places where commercial private broadcasting rather than governmental broadcasting took root and thrived. For the reasons behind this phenomenon, and its successes and failures, see Elizabeth Fox, ed., Media and Politics in Latin America — The Struggle for Democracy (London, England: SAGE, 1988). See also James Schwoch, The American Radio Industry and Its Latin American Activities, 1900–1939 (Urbana and Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1990), pp. 96–

457

123, for a discussion of the impact of American culture and commercial interests on the growth of radio broadcasting in a number of Latin American countries. 29. An informative analysis of the technological, cultural, politico-economic and missiological environment of religious shortwave broadcasting is Robert S. Fortner, “Saving the World? American Evangelicals and Transnational Broadcasting,” in Quentin J. Schultze, ed., American Evangelicals and the Mass Media (Grand Rapids, MI: Academie, 1990), p. 307. For two interesting overviews of the activities of the principal religious shortwave broadcasters, see Reg Kennedy, “The Radio Missionaries,” 1979 WRTH, p. 71; and Kenneth MacHarg, “International Voices of Faith,” Monitoring Times, March 1988, p. 6. MacHarg is a minister and was a well-known shortwave personality while working at HCJB. 30. See Donald R. Browne, “International Religious Broadcasting and the Third World,” in Howard Aster, ed., Challenges for International Broadcasting (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1991), p. 99. 31. For an overview of religious broadcasting in America, see Dennis N. Voskuil, “The Power of the Air: Evangelicals and the Rise of Religious Broadcasting,” in Schultze, ed., supra note 29 at p. 69; and Hal Erickson, Religious Radio and Television in the United States, 1921–1991: The Programs and Personalities (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1992), pp. 1–17. Its birth and development are described in more detail in George H. Hill, Airwaves to the Soul: The Influence and Growth of Religious Broadcasting in America (Saratoga, CA: R&E, 1983); and Bob Lochte, Christian Radio (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 2005). 32. However, the audience for religious radio in the United States traditionally has been composed mainly of those who are already adherents, with radio serving mainly to reinforce existing religious connections. Ronald L. Johnstone, “Who Listens to Religious Radio Broadcasts Anymore?” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. XVI, No. 1 (Winter 1971-72), p. 91. 33. The history of HCJB, written from a missionary perspective, has been the subject of several books: Clarence W. Jones, Radio, the New Missionary (Chicago, IL: Moody, 1946); Frank S. Cook, Seeds in the Wind (Miami, FL: World Radio Missionary Fellowship, 1961); Lois Neely, Come Up to This Mountain (Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House, 1980); Marilee Dufendach, ed., Catch The Vision (Opa Locka, FL: World Radio Missionary Fellowship, 1989); Janet Benge and Geoff Benge, Clarence Jones: Mr. Radio (Seattle, WA: YWAM, 2006); and Vision to Reach the World (Colorado Springs, CO: HCJB Global, 2006). For a more dispassionate view, see Timothy H. B. Stoneman, Capturing Believers: American International Radio, Religion, and Reception, 1931–1970, Ph.D. dissertation (Atlanta, GA: Georgia Institute of Technology, School of History, Technology and Society, 2006). For more on HCJB, see Gerry L. Dexter, “Goliath of the Andes,” Popular Communications, July 1983, p. 12; Kenneth D. MacHarg, “HCJB 1931–1991: A Celebration of Beginnings,” Monitoring Times, November 1991, p. 18; and Valter Auiar, “Sounds from the Equator — HCJB, Quito, Ecuador,” Monitoring Times, June 1997, p. 24. 34. For a detailed analysis of several well-known African shortwave religious broadcasters— ELWA, Radio Voice of the Gospel, Radio CORDAC, FEBA and TWR — see James Michael Kushner, International Religious Radio Broadcasting in Africa: Program Policies and Problem Areas, Ph.D. dissertation (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, Mass Communications, 1976). The history of TWR, HCJB and FEBC is covered in James Calvin King, A Survey and Analysis of the Major International Evangelical Short Wave Broadcasters: Trans World Radio, HCJB and the Far East

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Broadcasting Company, Ph.D. dissertation (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, speech, 1973). 35. In a critique, TIFC and TGNA were exceptions to the mediocre marks earned by Central American evangelical broadcasters. Dennis A. Smith, “The Gospel According to the United States: Evangelical Broadcasting in Central America,” in Schultze, ed., supra note 29 at p. 289. 36. See Kevin Sullivan, “In the World’s Rural Outposts, A Shortwave Channel to God,” Washington Post, October 7, 2007, p. A1, www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/ article/2007/10/06/AR2007100601253.html. 37. The definitive work on pre–VOA American shortwave broadcasting is Michael Kent Sidel, A Historical Analysis of American Short Wave Broadcasting, 1916–1942, Ph.D. dissertation (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University, Speech, 1976). Jerry Ray Redding, American Private International Broadcasting: What Went Wrong and Why, Ph.D. dissertation (Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, Mass Communication, 1977), focuses on the interplay of private broadcasters, regulatory agencies and other parts of government, and while not as richly detailed as Sidel, brings the discussion into the 1970s. Briefer treatments include Douglas A. Boyd, “The Pre-History of the Voice of America,” Public Telecommunications Review, Vol. 2, No. 6 (December 1974), p. 38; J.O. Weldon, “The Early History of U.S. International Broadcasting from the Start of World War II,” IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, Vol. 34, No. 2 (June 1988), p. 82; Steven P. Phipps, “The Commercial Development of Short Wave Radio in the United States, 1920– 1926,” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Vol. 11, No. 3 (1991), p. 215; plus the several works on American shortwave broadcasting to Latin America (see note 40 infra). 38. A fascinating account of the experimental days of American shortwave broadcasting is The Reminiscences of Donald G. Little (New York, NY: Oral History Research Office, Columbia University, 1984 [microfiche]). Little was an engineer, designer and manager at Westinghouse from 1919 to 1951. Included in this work are three informative appendices: a Westinghouse publicity release about Dr. Frank Conrad, a Westinghouse history of radio broadcasting and KDKA, and “The Story of Short Waves,” an address delivered by Conrad in 1940. The Conrad address can also be found in Science, New Series, Vol. 91, No. 2354, February 9, 1940, p. 131. 39. “American Short Wave Broadcasting—What’s Wrong with It?” Short Wave & Television, September 1938, p. 265. 40. This subject has benefited from considerable attention. Two excellent books are Fred Allan Fejes, Imperialism, Media, and the Good Neighbor: New Deal Foreign Policy and United States Shortwave Broadcasting to Latin America (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986) (Ph. D. dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois, 1982); and James Schwoch, The American Radio Industry and Its Latin American Activities, 1900–1939 (Urbana & Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1990). Both put American broadcasting activities in the broader context of American commercial and cultural influences on Latin America, which some have called media imperialism. Schwoch discusses relevant events preceding the birth of broadcasting, while Fejes focuses on shortwave activities on the ground. Other worthwhile literature on this topic includes Lenore Emily Franz, Short-Wave Communications to Latin America, master’s thesis (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, speech, 1947); E. Roderick Deihl, “South of the Border: the NBC and CBS Radio Networks and the Latin American Venture, 1930–1942,” Communication Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 4 (Fall 1977), p. 2; Michael B. Salwen, “Broadcasting to Latin America: Reconciling Industry-Government Func-

tions in the pre–Voice of America Era,” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1997), p. 67; and Robert A. Rabe, “Selling the Shortwaves: Commercial and Shortwave Broadcasting to Latin America and the Limits of the ‘American System,’” an unpublished paper presented by the author, then a Ph.D. student at the University of Wisconsin, at the 86th Annual Conference of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication in 2003, and available from AEJMC. 41. A discussion of the role of the Coordinator of InterAmerican Affairs in American shortwave broadcasting from 1940 to 1945 may be found in History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs: Historical Reports on War Administration (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1948). 42. See Don R. Browne, “WINB: A Private ‘Voice of America,’” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Spring 1972), p. 147; and Hans Johnson, “WINB — Surviving on Shortwave,” Monitoring Times, March 2000, p. 14. The “culture” rule is contained in FCC Rule 73.788(a), 47 CFR Ch. 1, Part 73. 43. For a discussion of the WRNO approval in the context of the regulatory environment at the time, see Ronald Garay, “WRNO Worldwide: A Case Study in Licensing Private U.S. International Broadcast Stations,” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 26, No. 3 (Summer 1982), p. 641. 44. FCC Rule 73.788(a). For discussion of a proposed domestic shortwave service, see Bob Grove, “A Domestic Shortwave Service—Pro and Con,” Monitoring Times, November 2000, p. 108; and Bob Grove, “Dialogue on Out-ofBand Broadcasting,” Monitoring Times, February 2001, p. 92 (quoting a letter from Stanley Leinwoll). 45. G. Jacobs, “The Renaissance of Privately Licensed Short-Wave Broadcast Stations in the United States,” IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, Vol. 34, No. 2 (June 1988), p. 87. 46. See Tom Kneitel, “Who Speaks on Shortwave for Americans?” Popular Communications, May 1991, p. 4. 47. James Careless, “The Odd World of U.S. Shortwave,” Radio World Online, April 7, 2004, http://www.rw online.com/reference-room/special-report/05_rwf_short wave_2.shtml. 48. Black stations have also been found on medium wave, e.g. the East German Deutscher Freiheitssender 904 and Deutscher Soldatensender 935, feigning their location as West Germany. Fred L. Casmir, “Two Unusual East German Radio Stations,” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. XII, No. 4 (Fall 1968), p. 323. 49. David A. Hennes, U.S. International Broadcasting: An Assessment for Reform (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, August 2, 1991 [revised September 9, 1991]). 50. For a detailed snapshot of these broadcasts in 1974, see James M. Kushner, “African Liberation Broadcasting,” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Summer 1974), p. 299. The activity of some of the broadcasters from 1976 to 1984 is summarized in Review of International Broadcasting, No. 98 (1985), pp. 5–7. 51. See Howard H. Frederick, Cuban-American Radio Wars (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986); Gerry L. Dexter, “Cuban Clandestines,” FRENDX, July 1981, p. 2; and Gerry L. Dexter, “The Anti-Castro Broadcasters,” Popular Communications, October 1994, p. 22. 52. See, e.g., Gerry L. Dexter, “Revolutionary Radio in Latin America,” Popular Communications, September 1982, p. 22; Peter Bunn, “Shortwave War in Central America,” DX Reporter, June 1985, p. 4, reprinted and condensed from Amateur Radio Action, Vol. 7, No. 11 (1984); Michael B. Goetsch, “A Review of the Clandestines of the Western

Notes. Chapter 1 Hemisphere,” DX Reporter, November 1985, p. 3; Marc Techner, “Tuning in El Salvador’s Civil War,” International Radio, February 1986, p. 13; and George Wood and Hermod Pedersen, “The Radio War in Nicaragua,” Monitoring Times, September 1988, p. 12. 53. The Iranian clandestine scene in 1989 is detailed in Gerry L. Dexter, “The War of the Words,” Popular Communications, September 1989, p. 8. The political history of Iran, Iraq and Kurdistan and some of the clandestine stations that resulted are the subject of Charles Sorrell, “Kurdish Voices,” Monitoring Times, May 1992, p. 17; and Hans Johnson, “Lifting the Veil: DXing the Clandestine Stations of Iran, Iraq and Kurdistan,” Proceedings (Stillwater, OK: Fine Tuning Special Publications, Vol. 5, 1992–93), p. F28.1. 54. Mathias Kropf, who from 1983 to 1995 was the editor of the “Clandestine News” column of the Danish Short Wave Club’s bulletin, Short Wave News, has tracked the broadcasting hours of clandestine stations since 1986, and his findings have appeared in various shortwave publications. The Kropf figures are based on a one-month snapshot, taken in December of each year. They are not an analysis of year-long activity. 55. Early articles on the subject included J. David Lewis, “Revolution by Radio— How Radio Helped Castro,” The NAEB Journal, Vol. 19, No. 6, November-December 1960, p. 47; and Thomas Kent, “Clandestine Broadcasters,” Popular Electronics, November 1967, p. 49. Most articles appeared after 1970, e.g., William A. Matthews, “Clandestines— The Political Voice of Radio,” How to Listen to the World 1971 (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-Television Handbook, 6th ed. 1971), p. 136; Lawrence E. Magne, “Broadcasting Stations of Clandestine, Exile, Intelligence, Liberation, and Revolutionary Organizations,” How to Listen to the World (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 7th ed. 1973), p. 126; John Zimmerman, “Radio Propaganda in the Arab-Israeli War 1948,” Wiener Library Bulletin, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Winter 1973-74), p. 2; C.M. Stanbury II, “DXing the Clandestine Shortwave Stations,” Popular Electronics, October 1974, p. 53; Donald R. Browne, “The Voices of Palestine: A Broadcasting House Divided,” Middle East Journal, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Spring 1975), p. 133; Lawrence E. Magne, “Clandestine Broadcasting Stations 1975,” 1976 WRTH, p. 55; Carol Feil, “Listening to Clandestine Transmissions in Europe,” 1977 WRTH, p. 22; Lawrence Soley, “Radio: Clandestine Broadcasting, 1948–1967,” Journal of Communications, Vol. 32 (Winter 1982), p. 165; Lawrence C. Soley, “The Political Context of Clandestine Radio Broadcasting in 1981,” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Summer 1983), p. 233; John Santosuosso, “Unauthorized Radio,” in The Shortwave Book (Media, PA: Lawrence Miller, 1984), p. 35; Gerry L. Dexter, “The Shadow Broadcast Empire!” Popular Communications, April 1986, p. 10; Gerry L. Dexter, “Broadcasting from the Shadows,” 1987 WRTH, p. 565; Mathias Kropf, “Clandestine Radio Survey,” 1993 WRTH, p. 576; and Douglas A. Boyd, “Hebrew-Language Clandestine Radio Broadcasting During the British Palestine Mandate,” Journal of Radio Studies, Vol. 6, No. 1 (1999), p. 101. 56. The history of European and North American pirate broadcasting is chronicled in detail in Andrew R. Yoder, Pirate Radio Stations: Tuning in to Underground Broadcasts (Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Tab, 1990), and Andrew R. Yoder, Pirate Radio Stations — Tuning in to Underground Broadcasts in the Air and Online (New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2002). For a shorter version of the story, see Tom Kneitel, “The Outlaw Callbook,” Popular Communications, February 1984, p. 26. 57. Britain’s International Short Wave League spoke out early against pirating (one British pirate had the interest-

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ing call letters GO2HEL). Said the League’s leadership: “[A]ny ISWL member involved in proceedings of this nature will, upon exposure be instantly dismissed from membership of the ISWL. No reputable listener organization will tolerate such nefarious activities, and if any league member reading these words has in his possession, or contemplates using any transmitting apparatus, he should dismantle it at once. In a recent case brought to our notice, the culprit was an ISWL member; needless to say, he is no longer among us.” Short Wave News [ISWL], June 1950, p. 153. Presumably he was just dropped from the club. 58. Ulf Halenius, “Off-Shore Radio Stations,” How to Listen to the World 1971 (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 6th ed., 1971), p. 132. 59. Donald R. Browne, “The BBC and the Pirates: a Phase in the Life of a Prolonged Monopoly,” Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 48, No. 1 (Spring 1971), p. 85; and Eric Gilder, The History of Pirate Radio in Britain and the End of BBC Monopoly in Radio Broadcasting in the United Kingdom, master’s thesis (Denton, TX: North Texas State University, 1982). 60. Lawrence Soley, Free Radio — Electronic Civil Disobedience (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1999), p. 54–60. 61. The three conferences, as well as the 1947 Atlantic City Conference, are described in detail in George Arthur Codding, Jr., The International Telecommunication Union— An Experiment in International Cooperation (Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1952). 62. John D. Tomlinson, International Control of Radiocommunications [1945] (New York, NY: Arno, 1979 [reprint]), p. 220. For an interesting look at the regulation of shortwave broadcasting immediately following the Cairo conference, see Howard S. LeRoy, “Treaty Regulation of International Radio and Short Wave Broadcasting,” American Journal of International Law, Vol. 32, No. 4 (October 1938), p. 719. 63. Reginald Smith, “The International Frequency Registration Board (I.F.R.B.),” 1968 WRTH, p. 42. 64. Francis Lyall, “Communications Regulation: The Role of the International Telecommunication Union,” Journal of Information, Law & Technology, an electronic law journal sponsored by the University of Warwick et al. in England. The article may be found at http://www2.war wick.ac.uk/fac/soc/law/elj/jilt/1997_3/lyall/. 65. For an inside look at HFCC conferences, see NASB Newsletter, November 2001; and Jeff White, “HFCC Conference,” NASWA Journal, November 2002, p. 10. 66. Stanley Leinwoll, Hugh Fallis and William Edwards, “The Hope of International Broadcasting (The World Administrative Radio Conference 1979),” 1978 WRTH, p. 36. For discussion of the state of the shortwave bands and the need for sound frequency management, see S.B. Duke, “The Struggle for Frequencies,” How to Listen to the World, 1966/67 (Hellerup, Denmark: World Publications, 1967), p. 48; and S.B. Duke, “The Management of the Radio Spectrum,” How to Listen to the World (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 8th ed. 1974), p. 8, and World DX Guide (London, England: Billboard, 1978), p. 162. 67. Willi Menzel, “Broadcasting After the World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC), Geneva, 1979,” 1981 WRTH, p. 34. 68. Willi Menzel, “The Future of Shortwave Broadcasting,” WRTH Newsletter, May 1987, p. 3. See also Gerry Dexter, “DXing the Out-of-Banders,” Popular Communications, May 1990, p. 8. 69. Bob Grove, “Dialogue on Out-of-Band Broadcasting,” Monitoring Times, February 2001, p. 92 (quoting a letter from Stanley Leinwoll). 70. The fee is charged for each of the two broadcasting

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seasons, and is based on the number of hours in a 24 hour period that a station uses a frequency, e.g. if a frequency is used for six hours per day during a given season, the charge for that season is the hourly rate times six. The hourly rate, which began at $35 per hour, is presently $60. 71. O. Lund Johansen, Kørtbolge-Haandbog (Copenhagen, Denmark: O. Lund Johansen, 1945), pp. 23–37. 72. Reportedly, Radio Peking had earlier been using 240 kw. in some transmissions, and the VOA stations at Delano and Dixon 200 kw. 73. Francis S. Ronolds, Jr., “The Future of International Broadcasting,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, November 1971 (No. 398), p. 71. 74. Bernd Trutenau, “Still Riding the Airwaves: The USSR’s Superpower Transmitters,” Monitoring Times, December 2003, p. 16. 75. Shown are the years when the stations operated on shortwave. Stations often operated on medium wave as well, sometimes in years when they were not on shortwave. Dashes indicate that the station is still on the air. 76. The Briech station went out of IBB service in March 2008. 77. The USCGC Courier transmitted briefly from Panama and then relocated to Rhodes. 78. During its life the station has been at various times at Jurong and Kranji in Singapore and Tebrau in Malaysia. 79. The station was owned by the government of the United Arab Emirates but managed by Merlin Communications, the BBC transmitter management organization. 80. A joint project of the BBC and Deutsche Welle. 81. This 250 kw. installation appears to have been a cooperative albeit short-lived venture between DW and the Sierra Leone Broadcasting Service. 82. Political instability in Sri Lanka kept the Trincomalee station off the air for several long periods until the mid–1990s. 83. For a primer on jamming, see Ranjan Borra, “The Problem of Jamming in International Broadcasting,” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. XI, No. 4 (Fall 1967), p. 360; and Stanley Leinwoll, “Jamming — Past, Present, and Future,” 1980 WRTH, p. 38. Discussions of the early years of jamming may be found in Maury Lisann, Broadcasting to the Soviet Union: International Politics and Radio (New York, NY: Praeger, 1975); Walter L. Hixson, Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Culture, and the Cold War, 1945–1961 (New York, NY: St. Martin’s, 1997), pp. 29–86; and Michael Nelson, War of the Black Heavens (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1997), pp. 20–46 and 116–136. Events in the 1980s are discussed in Alvin A. Snyder, Warriors of Disinformation (New York, NY: Arcade, 1995), pp. 164–185; and Richard W. Carlson, “No More Static—People in Glasnost Houses Shouldn’t Jam Broadcasts,” Policy Review, Vol. 43, No. 1 (Winter 1988), p. 80. For a post–Soviet look at the techniques, technology and administration of the Soviet jamming system, see Rimantas Pleikys, Jamming (Vilnius, Lithuania: Rimantas Pleikys, 1998). An extensive bibliography on the topic and an archive of documents is found at http://www.radiojamming.info/. 84. See Harry Caul, “Inside Soviet Jamming Stations,” Popular Communications, December 1983, p. 36. For a post–cold war look at how jammers operated, see Rimantas Pleikys, “Jamming Wall,” Monitoring Times, November 1998, p. 16. 85. An in-depth analysis of Soviet jamming and its relationship to internal and external events in the Soviet Union may be found in Lisann, supra note 83. 86. George Haydon, “A Strange Turn for the Jammers,” Electronics Illustrated, November 1965, p. 10. 87. An interesting jamming footnote was the “back-

wards broadcasts” of Radio Peking that were heard from the early 1970s well into the 1980s. Listeners sometimes heard Radio Peking programs being played backwards. These broadcasts were not themselves jammed. One theory was that, knowing its regular programs would be jammed, Radio Peking transmitted backwards on a few channels hoping that they would stay clear so the Russian government could monitor the programs, play them back forward, and maintain an official awareness of current pronouncements from Peking. The mystery was never solved, however. 88. Gerry L. Dexter, “The Jamming Stops— Free Air at Last,” Popular Communications, June 1989, p. 10. 89. R. Eugene Parta, Discovering the Hidden Listener (Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 2007), p. xx. 90. International Short Wave Radio, February 1958, p. 1. 91. Universalite, November 1, 1956, p. 2. 92. Universalite, April 15, 1956, p. 2. 93. Universalite, October 1, 1956, Eastern Section, p. 2. 94. International Short Wave Radio, May 1958, p. 1. 95. NNRC Bulletin, June 1958, p. SWBC-1. 96. International Short Wave Radio, December 1958, p. 4. 97. International Short Wave Radio, June 1960, p. 4. 98. Gerry L. Dexter, “The Jamming Stops— Free Air at Last,” Popular Communications, June 1989, p. 10. 99. Jack White, “The Future of SSB for International Broadcast Stations,” 1971 How to Listen to the World (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 6th ed. 1971), p. 22; Wim van Amstel, “SSB: Facts, Fiction and Fairy Tales,” 1982 WRTH , p. 576. 100. For a more complete rundown, see Gerry L. Dexter, “Snaring the Sidebanders,” Popular Communications, December 1995, p. 10; and Gerry Dexter, “Snaring the Sidebanders,” Popular Communications, March 2002, p. 10. 101. Kim Andrew Elliott, “DRM at the SWL Fest Worked, Except When It Didn’t Work” NASWA Journal, April 2007, p. 27, and http://www.kimandrewelliott.com/ index.php?id=1213. 102. NASB Newsletter, March 2004. 103. As would be the case with several DRM receivers, Germany’s Starwaves W37 offered DRM and DAB reception. However, this high-end unit appears never to have gotten much beyond the prototype stage. The Mayah DRM-2010, a DRM-capable portable, cost over $800, received low marks, and soon disappeared from the scene. One of its Hong Kong co-developers, Himalaya Electronics, produced the DRM 2008, and more recently the DRM 2009. And Sangean introduced its futuristic-looking DRM40 portable (also marketed as the Roberts MP40), but never brought it to the United States. 104. Kevin Ryan, Morphy Richards Digital Radio Evaluation Report, May 2007, quote at p. 23, available at http:// www.k-i-s-ltd.com/cgi-bin/cp-app.cgi; Chris Mackerell, “Review of the Morphy Richards Digital Radio 27024,” New Zealand DX Times, April 2007, p. 45; Kevin Ryan, “Morphy Richards DRM Radio Examined,” Monitors Monthly [U.K.], February 2007, p. 16; Andrew Tett, “From Ether to Speaker — Review Special,” Communication, December 2006, p. 6. 105. For a discussion of international broadcasting in the post–Soviet years, see Hennes, supra note 49; and Arlyn T. Anderson, Shortwave Broadcasting in a New World Order: An Historical Examination of the Influence of Satellite Radio and Internet Radio on Shortwave Broadcasting Since the End of the Cold War, Ph.D. dissertation (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma, 2004). 106. For snapshots of what was being broadcast at the

Notes. Chapter 2 time, see Daniel Lorenzetti, “New Comrades on the Bloc,” 1991 Passport, p. 21. 107. Charles Brian Goslow, “Baltic Voices of Independence,” Monitoring Times, November 1991, p. 8; George Wood, “Radio in Free Estonia,” Monitoring Times, August 1992, p. 8; Jeff Chanowitz, “Looking Back — Eastern Europeans Gain Perspective on the Past,” Monitoring Times, March 1993, p. 8; and Don Watson, “Broadcasters Get a Hand from the West,” Monitoring Times, March 1993, p. 12. 108. Messenger, November 1990, p. 41. 109. Messenger, September 1991, p. 43. 110. John Fisher, “Private Broadcasting Stations in Russia,” DX Ontario, March 1992, p. 60; John Fisher, “Independent Radio in Russia (An Update),” DX Ontario, October 1992, p. 70. For later descriptions of shortwave broadcasting in the former Soviet Union, see John Fisher, “Shortwave Radio in Russia,” Proceedings (Stillwater, OK: Fine Tuning Special Publications, Vol. 6, 1994–95), p. F35.1; Gayle Van Horn, “New Voices from a Former Super Power,” Monitoring Times, May 2003, p. 10; Bernd Trutenau, “Still Riding the Airwaves: The USSR’s Superpower Transmitters,” Monitoring Times, December 2003, p. 16; Bernd Trutenau, “Domestic Shortwave Broadcasting in Russia,” Monitoring Times, February 2004, p. 16; and Bernd Trutenau, “Domestic Shortwave Broadcasting in Russia,” Monitoring Times, January 2007, p. 16. 111. Monitoring Times, January 1991, p. 24. 112. Banga [bulletin of the Lithuanian DX Club], referenced in the ANARC Newsletter, October-November 1989, p. 14. 113. Jeff Chanowitz, “International Broadcasting in the Post Cold War Era,” Monitoring Times, September 1994, p. 10. 114. Comment of RFE-RL President Eugene Pell at the conference “The Future of International Broadcasting in the Age of Glasnost,” Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, April 17–19, 1989, as reported in ANARC Newsletter, April-MayJune 1989, p. 9. 115. Relay broadcasting in 1986 is described in Gerry L. Dexter, “Relay Race,” Popular Communications, December 1986, p. 10. 116. A matrix showing relay agreements in 1987 is found in Richard Dixon, “1998—The Year of the Relay Exchanges!” 1989 WRTH, p. 542. For relays in effect in 1991, see Gerry L. Dexter, “Relay Races,” Popular Communications, July 1991, p. 9. 117. Gerry Dexter, “Relay Madness!” Popular Communications, July 2002, p. 8. 118. Glenn Hauser, “Secrecy Infests Shortwave Relay Deals,” Monitoring Times, March 2003, p. 92. 119. Radio & Television News used EST until March 1955 when it switched to GMT. However, it dropped its shortwave coverage the following month. Its sister publication, Popular Electronics, adopted GMT when it began carrying shortwave news in its first issue (October 1954), but reverted to EST in April 1955 and continued using EST until January 1966. The Newark News Radio Club used EST until November 1965. The Universal Radio DX Club was the first major American club to switch from EST to GMT, which it did in March 1955. The American Short wave Listeners Club and the North American Short Wave Association used GMT from their creation in 1959 and 1961 respectively.

Chapter 2 1. The period from the first experimental shortwave transmissions from Japan in 1926 to the closing of Radio

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Tokyo in 1945 is chronicled in detail in Jane Robbins, Tokyo Calling: Japanese Overseas Radio Broadcasting, 1937–1945 (Firenze, Italy: European Press Academic Publishing, 2001). The official version of events is found in The History of Broadcasting in Japan (Tokyo, Japan: Radio & TV Culture Research Institute, NHK, 1967); 50 Years of Japanese Broadcasting (Tokyo, Japan: Radio & TV Culture Research Institute, NHK, 1977 [includes a detailed time line]); and Broadcasting in Japan: Twentieth Century Journey from Radio to Multimedia (Tokyo, Japan: NHK, 2002 [also includes a timeline]). Also of interest is L.D. Meo, Japan’s Radio War on Australia, 1941–1945 (Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 1968). 2. Broadcasting and the Australian Post Office 1923–1973 (Canberra, Australia: Postmaster-General’s Department, 1973), p. 12. 3. The broadcasting scene in China from before the war to the years soon after is described in Harrison Forman, “The Voice of China,” Collier’s, June 17, 1944, p. 14; Dorothy Holloway, “China Looks Ahead in Radio,” Radio News, September 1945, p. 62; and Radio & Television News, October 1948, p. 70. It is brought up to date in Manosij Guha, “China’s Radio: Size Matters,” 2006 Passport, p. 10. 4. The story of the station’s first 50 years is told in Richard Nichols, Radio Luxembourg — The Station of the Stars (London, England: W.H. Allen, 1983). 5. U.L. Baruah, This Is All India Radio (New Delhi, India: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1983), p. 7. See also G.C. Awasthy, Broadcasting in India (Bombay, India: Allied Publishers Private, 1965). The history of shortwave broadcasting in India is described in detail in Manosij Guha, “Egmore to Aligarh: Indian Radio’s 78 Years,” 2002 Passport, p. 12, and Manosij Guha, “‘This Is All India Radio,’” 2002 Passport, p. 26. For a contemporary look at All India Radio, see Andrew M. Clark, The Use of International Radio Broadcasting By Regional Powers in the Post-Cold War Era: A Case Study of Radio Australia and All India Radio, Ph.D. dissertation (Gainesville, FL: University of Florida, 2003). 6. Fung Chien, Director, XGOY, quoted in Radio & Television News, October 1948, p. 160. 7. For the complete history of WRUL, based in part on interviews with the station’s founder, see Andre J. E. Mostert, Jr., A History of WRUL — The Walter S. Lemmon Years, 1931–1960, master’s thesis (Salt Lake City, UT: Brigham Young University, Dept. of Communications, 1969). The story is told in brief in Alice Brannigan, “WRUL: The Forgotten ‘Voice of Freedom,’” Popular Communications, June 1996, p. 12. 8. Maynard Owen Williams, “Back to Afghanistan,” National Geographic, October 1946, pp. 517, 544. 9. CFCF, the medium wave parent of CFCX, was originally XWA, the first licensed broadcast station in Canada. CFCX had been known as VE9DR. See Alice Brannigan, “Station XWA: World’s First Broadcaster?” Popular Communications, March 2000, p. 20. 10. Radio & Television News, September 1951, p. 128. 11. For a brief history of broadcasting in Angola, see Michael P. Mahoney, “Shortwave Panorama,” SPEEDX, February 1973, p. 42 (adapted from an article in the June 1970 issue of the Radio Portugal DX Club bulletin). 12. An interesting explanation of the shortwave broadcasting environment in Peru and its relationship to the country’s history, population and geography is provided in Don Moore, “Peru: DXing the Land of the Incas,” Monitoring Times, September 1989, p. 10. 13. For a concise history of broadcasting in the Dominican Republic, see Cesar Objio, “Radiodiffusion in the Do-

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minican Republic,” FRENDX, April 1966 (“Shortwave Center”). 14. Adrian M. Peterson, “The Tiniest Shortwave Station in the World!” Popular Communications, May 1990, p. 36; Don Moore, “The Unique Story of TI4NRH,” Monitoring Times, March 1993, p. 18. 15. By the late 1940s, Circuito CMQ was Cuba’s most popular network, and Radio Havana Cuba-Cadena Azul was its strongest competitor. The genesis of CMQ is described in detail in Michael B. Salwen, “The Origins of CMQ: Pre-Castro Cuba’s Leading Radio Network,” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Vol. 13, No. 3 (August 1993), p. 315. 16. See Alice Brannigan, “Broadcasting from the Outlaw Empire,” Popular Communications, April 2000, p. 16, for an interesting account of the broadcasting and political situation in Manchuria during the years that MTCY operated on shortwave. 17. The wartime broadcasting environment in Holland was described in a September 2, 1945, letter from S.B. Breimer, an engineer at the station, to NNRC shortwave editor James J. Hart, whose report was the first one from America following the resumption of broadcasting. “Thank God the war is over comes from the depth of our hearts, and you can imagine how thankful we all are to the U.S.A. for all it has done in the war for Holland and the entire world. Now something about the history of PCJ. In May, 1940, when you heard its last program, PCJ was blown up by the Dutch military people before the Huns came to occupy it, but they had too little material to do the job perfectly. ¶The Germans started to bring the station in working order again, and they succeeded by the end of 1940. Then they pressed the operators to do their job and began to send their Nazi propaganda to the world. ¶PCJ has a beam antenna on 31.28 meters fitted to two wooden towers 60 m. high. The towers are anchored to a steel bridge which can be turned on a rail system. The beam can also be directed to any country by means of electric motors near the wheels of the bridge. During the Winter of 1943-44, one feeder junction feeding half of the beam and half of the reflector burned out due to a heavy snowfall. The operators, who were always worked by the Germans with guns and pistols at their backs, repaired the junction but twisted two wires of the open spaces feeder line in one tower. The result was that half of the beam and half of the reflector were shifted 180 degrees in phase and the direction of the beam 90 degrees. And the Germans in charge had not the slightest idea as to what had been done and the Nazi propaganda never reached the target for which it was intended. ¶Many of the PCJ operators were working with the underground and they keyed instructions to the RAF to shoot up the transformers of the station. In the late Summer of last year the RAF came over and spread bullets over the station. Many transformers were hit and the station was silent up until now. One Dutchman was killed; another with a broom on his shoulder escaped injury but the broom was shot away from the handle. We thank you very much for your report.” NNRC Bulletin, October 15, 1945, p. 13. 18. Radio News, January 1946, p. 108. 19. The advance of radio in Burma is treated in Manosij Guha, “Myanmar I: Freedom Takes a Holiday,” 2004 Passport, p. 12, and Manosij Guha, “Myanmar II: Battle of the Earwaves,” 2004 Passport, p. 26. 20. For detailed and entertaining accounts of the development of the Forces Broadcasting Service around the globe, see Doreen Taylor, A Microphone and a Frequency: Forty Years of Forces Broadcasting (London: William Heinemann, 1983), and Alan Grace, The Link with Home—Sixty Years of Forces Radio (London, England: Services Sound

and Vision, 2003). See also Alan Grace, This is the British Forces Network — The Story of Forces Broadcasting in Germany (Stroud, England: Alan Sutton, 1996). 21. The complicated history of this station, which eventually morphed into the BBC East Mediterranean Relay, is recounted in detail in Douglas A. Boyd, “Sharq al-Adna/The Voice of Britain,” Gazette: The International Journal for Communication Studies, Vol. 65, No. 6 (2003), p. 443. It is also discussed in Gerard Mansell, Let Truth Be Told: 50 Years of BBC External Broadcasting (London, England: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1982), p. 230; Peter Partner, Arab Voices: The BBC Arabic Service, 1938–1988 (London, England: BBC External Services, 1988); and Douglas A. Boyd, Broadcasting in the Arab World: A Survey of the Electronic Media in the Middle East (Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1993), pp. 326–328. 22. The history of the Delano station is recounted in Charles J. Korolden, “Voice of America Packs a Punch,” Monitoring Times, April 1991, p. 22. 23. Donald R. Browne, “The World in the Pentagon’s Shadow,” Educational Broadcasting Review, Vol. 5, No. 2 (April 1971), p. 31. AFRS became the Armed Forces Radio and Television Service in 1954. The most comprehensive history of AFRTS is Theodore Stuart DeLay, Jr., An Historical Study of the Armed Forces Radio Service to 1946, Ph.D. dissertation (Los Angeles, CA: University of Southern California, 1951). Other historical accounts include Edward M. Kirby and Jack W. Harris, Star-Spangled Radio (Chicago, IL: Ziff-Davis, 1948), and Trent Christman, Brass Button Broadcasters (Paducah, KY: Turner, 1992). See also Patrick Morley, “This Is the American Forces Network [Europe]” (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001). 24. Douglas A. Boyd & John Y. Benzies, “SOFIRAD: France’s International Commercial Media Empire,” Journal of Communication, Vol. 33, No. 2 (Spring 1983), p. 56; Raymond Kuhn, The Media in France (London, England: Routledge, 1995), pp. 92–95. 25. The author is indebted to Henrik Klemetz of Sweden for sharing his considerable research on the Tangier stations, some of which is reflected in Henrik Klemetz, “Casbah Radio,” 2008 Passport, p. 10. 26. The history of broadcasting in Korea was rocky. See Manosij Guha, “Korea: Ancient Kingdom Makes Waves,” 2007 Passport, p. 31. 27. NNRC Bulletin, November 1, 1946, p. 27. 28. Shuying Xie, People’s Republic of China’s International Broadcasting: History, Structure, Policy and Politics, master’s thesis (Houston, TX: University of Houston, 1992), pp. 11–39. 29. For a summary of the history of Irish shortwave broadcasting, see Ralph Perry, “The Sad Saga of Radio Telefis Éireann’s Short-Lived Shortwave,” FRENDX, April 1972, p. SWC-3, adapted from Maurice Gorgham, “Forty Years of Irish Broadcasting” (Dublin, Ireland: Talbot, 1967). 30. Radio News, April 1947, p. 113. 31. Radio & Television News, October 1950, p. 61. 32. Radio & Television News, August 1950, p. 124; October 1951, p. 152. 33. Margaret Ballingall, BFEBS Program Executive, quoted in Radio & Television News, November 1948, p. 65. 34. Detailed information on the introduction of BBC relay stations worldwide through 1973 may be found in Gunhard T. Kock, “The BBC Relay Stations: An Introduction for DXers,” How to Listen to the World (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 7th ed., 1973), p. 100. 35. Dunlop’s life, including his work at XGOY in 1947 and 1948, is the subject of Roy Dunlop, In All Directions: An Autobiography (Cambridge, England: Graham-Cameron, 1986).

Notes. Chapter 3 36. Radio News, May 1948, p. 136. 37. Dunlop, supra note 36 at p. 189. 38. The author thanks Eric Hitchcock of South Croydon, Surrey, U.K., for a draft copy of his book, Radio SEAC’s Transmitters (2007), which contains much otherwise unobtainable information about Radio SEAC. Hitchcock once worked at the station. 39. Radio News, February 1947, p. 64. 40. Jerry Berg, “History and Mystery of Shortwave Broadcasting in Equatorial Guinea,” Monitoring Times, October 1995, p. 28. 41. Attilio Gatti, “To the ‘Mountains of the Moon’” (Chicago, IL: International Harvester, undated [probably 1948]). For an interesting description of the expedition, see Mike O’Brien, “Gatti-Hallicrafters: The First Grand Ham DXpedition,” Electric Radio, March 1992, p. 12; see also Max de Henseler, The Hallicrafters Story (Charleston, WV: Antique Radio Club of America, 1991), pp. 133–135; and Chuck Dachis, Radios by Hallicrafters (Atglen, PA: Schiffer, 2d ed. 1999), p. 18. 42. An excellent overview of Haganah, Irgun and Stern Gang broadcasting before the establishment of the state of Israel is Douglas A. Boyd, “Hebrew-Language Clandestine Radio Broadcasting During the British Palestine Mandate,” Journal of Radio Studies, Vol. 6, No. 1 (1999), p. 101. The point-counterpoint of Arab and Israeli radio broadcasting during the founding of Israel is the subject of John Zimmerman, “Radio Propaganda in the Arab-Israeli War 1948,” Wiener Library Bulletin, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Winter 1973-74), p. 2. 43. Short Wave News [ISWL], January 1948, p. 24. 44. Short Wave News [ISWL], April 1948, p. 103. 45. The station’s early history is recounted in Donald R. Browne, The History and Programming Policies of RIAS: Radio in the American Sector of Berlin, Ph.D. dissertation (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, 1961); and Don R. Browne, “RIAS Berlin: A Case Study of a Cold War Broadcast Operation,” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 10, No. 2 (Spring 1966), p. 119. 46. The NBS would not change frequency because W8XAL had been used to determine daily ionospheric absorption for the armed forces during all of World War II. Since field intensity records of the station on this frequency had been made continuously since 1937, a change of frequency would have impaired the usefulness of the data collected. Radio & Television News, February 1949, p. 142. 47. NNRC Bulletin, June 6, 1949, p. SW-1. 48. For more on broadcasting from Taiwan, see Pai-ting Lin, “The Historical Development of the Republic of China’s Domestic and International Broadcasting and Its Political Role,” master’s thesis (Houston, TX: University of Houston, 1996); and Manosij Guha, “Taiwan: China on the Edge,” 2007 Passport, p. 10. 49. Radio & Television News, March 1949, p. 133. 50. The story of FEBC’s founding and its first 20 years is told in Gleason H. Ledyard, Sky Waves (Chicago, IL: Moody, 1968).

Chapter 3 1. Michael Nelson, War of the Black Heavens (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1997), p. 46. The origins and development of RFE-RL are recounted in detail in, among others, Sig Mickelson, America’s Other Voice: The Story of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty (New York, NY: Praeger, 1983); and Arch Puddington, Broadcasting Freedom — The Cold War Triumph of Radio Free Europe

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and Radio Liberty (Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2000). 2. In a 1969-70 study of over 4,000 Eastern Europeans visiting the West and interviewed before returning to their home countries, the majority rated RFE the most reliable source of both domestic and foreign political events. The Reliability of Radio Free Europe, December 1970 (RFE). This reputation would grow. R. Eugene Parta, “How Our Listeners See Us: The Evolving Image and Position of Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty from the Cold War to the Present,” in Oliver Zöllner, ed., Reaching Audiences Worldwide—Perspectives of International Broadcasting and Audience Research (Bonn, Germany: CIBAR, 2003), p. 65. The effectiveness of RFE-RL, as gleaned from documents in Russian and Eastern European archives, is the subject of “Cold War Broadcasting Impact,” a summary of a conference held at the Hoover Institution, Stanford University, October 13–16, 2004; see http://www.hoover.org/research/ conferences/3042321.html. 3. Ian K. Mackay, Broadcasting in Nigeria (Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University Press, 1964), p. 4. 4. Kohava Simhi, The Historical Development of Kol Israel as an International Broadcaster, master’s thesis (Houston, TX: University of Houston, School of Communication, 1993). 5. A concise summary of the development of broadcasting in Argentina, including its pre–KDKA antecedents, can be found in Don Moore, “Radio with a Past,” Monitoring Times, January 1995, p. 24. 6. Radio & Television News, May 1950, p. 54. 7. Radio & Television News, April 1950, p. 62; May 1950, p. 164; June 1950, p. 144. 8. Radio & Television News, June 1951, p. 56. 9. For more about international broadcasting by the Red Cross, see Nicolas Sommer, “The Red Cross Broadcasting Service,” 1983 WRTH, p. 593; “Floods, Famine and War: The World of the Red Cross,” The Shortwave Guide, December 1984, p. 14; and Gerry Dexter, “Red Cross Broadcasts—Here’s How to Tune Them In,” Popular Communications, February 1990, p. 34. 10. Radio & Television News, January 1951, p. 67. 11. For a detailed description of the development of portable missionary receivers at two other stations, HCJB and ELWA, see Timothy H.B. Stoneman, Capturing Believers: American International Radio, Religion, and Reception, 1931–1970, Ph.D. dissertation (Atlanta, GA: Georgia Institute of Technology, School of History, Technology and Society, 2006). 12. NNRC Bulletin, October 1951, p. SW-8; George H. Greene, Jr., president, Committee for a Free Asia, quoted in Radio & Television News, October 1951, p. 142; Radio & Television News, November 1951, p. 128. 13. Donald R. Browne, International Broadcasting: The Limits of the Limitless Medium (New York, NY: Praeger, 1982), p. 149. A comparison of the station’s operation with that of Radio Free Europe before the CIA provenance of both stations was known is Donald Feinstein, “Free Voices in the Battle for Men’s Minds,” Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 31 (Spring 1954), p. 193. 14. NNRC Bulletin, September 1951, p. SW-3. 15. The history of Egyptian broadcasting — domestic, regional and international—from its earliest days is related in Douglas A. Boyd, Egyptian Radio: Tool of Political and National Development (Lexington, KY: Journalism Monographs, No. 48, Association for Education in Journalism, February 1977). 16. Some interesting vignettes about life aboard the Courier are contained in Paul R. McKenna, “Vagabond Able,” Naval History, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Spring 1991), p. 25.

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17. The history of the agency is described in detail in Wilson P. Dizard, Jr., Inventing Public Diplomacy — The Story of the U.S. Information Agency (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004). 18. Radio & Television News, October 1952, p. 134. 19. For an interesting collection of stories, “some semi technical, some serious, some sad and some very funny,” about the Skelton station and the surrounding area, see Ken Davies, Skelton, Penrith and the World, 1943–1993 (Carlisle, Cumbria, England: Cumbria County Council, 1995). Reminiscences, and details of Skelton operations, are found in G.P. Lowery, “Skelton Transmitting Station 1942 to 1998 — Over Half a Century of Shortwave Broadcasting,” http://www.bbceng.info/Operations/transmit ter_ops/Reminiscences/skelton/sk1.htm. 20. A near-encyclopedic history of the Woofferton station is Jeff Cant, 50 Years of Transmitting at BBC Woofferton, 1943–1993 (2006), at http://www.bbceng.info/Opera tions/transmitter_ops/Reminiscences/Reminiscences.htm. 21. Arbeitsgemeinschaft der Öffentlichrechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. 22. James Critchlow, Radio Hole-in-the-Head/Radio Liberty: An Insider’s Story of Cold War Broadcasting (Washington, D.C.: American University Press, 1995), p. 55. For another look at Radio Liberty’s colorful history, see Gene Sosin, Sparks of Liberty: An Insider’s Memoir of Radio Liberty (University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University, 1999). Additional information is contained in Michael Nelson, War of the Black Heavens (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1997). 23. For more details on the activities and policies of the Voice of the Arabs, see Douglas A. Boyd, Broadcasting in the Arab World (Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1993), pp. 28–29 and 315–324. Britain and America attempted to mount counter broadcasts from Iraq, Jordan and elsewhere, but with small effect. James Vaughan, “Propaganda by Proxy? Britain, America, and Arab Radio Broadcasting, 1953–1957,” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Vol. 22, No. 2 (June 2002), p. 157. 24. C. Issawi, Egypt in Revolution: An Economic Analysis (London, England: Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 217, quoted in Boyd, supra note 23 at p. 29. 25. 50 Years of Broadcasting in Ghana (Accra, Ghana: Ghana Broadcasting Corp., 1985), p. 54. 26. Len Usher and Hugh Leonard, The is Radio Fiji: Twenty-Five Years of Service, 1954 –1979 (Suva, Fiji: Information Services South Pacific [for Fiji Broadcasting Commission], 1979), p. 10. 27. Norman Lindhurst, “West Germany Radio Wins Listeners in Soviet Zone,” North American Newspaper Alliance, quoted in NNRC Bulletin, January 1955, p. SW-4. 28. For more on Radio Free Russia, see Gregg Calkin, “Radio Free Russia — Narodno Trudovi Soyuz (NTS),” FRENDX, October 1966 [“Shortwave Broadcast Center”]; and Gregg Calkin, “Narodno Trudovi Soyuz,” FRENDX, July 1968, p. 17. 29. Malcolm M. Thompson, The Beginning of the Long Dash: A History of Timekeeping in Canada (Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 1978), p. 134–168. 30. The TWR journey, which has included shortwave stations in Tangier, Monaco, Bonaire, Swaziland and Guam, is summarized in Gerry L. Dexter, “It Started in Tangiers,” Popular Communications, January 1987, p. 10; and Charles Sorrell, “It Started in Tangier,” Monitoring Times, April 1992, p. 14. For more detailed discussion from the founder’s point of view, see Paul E. Freed, Towers to Eternity (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1967, 1979 and 1994); and Paul E. Freed, Let the Earth Hear (Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1980).

31. Radio & Hobbies [Australia], April 1954, p. 98. For an interesting account of Britain’s development of broadcasting stations in its African colonies in the 1940s and 1950s, see Charles Armour, “The BBC and the Development of Broadcasting in British Colonial Africa 1946– 1956,” African Affairs, Vol. 83, No. 332 (July 1984), p. 359. 32. An account of the creation, use and impact of La Voz de la Liberación may be found in Don Moore, “Revolution! Radio’s Role in the Overthrow of Guatemala,” Monitoring Times, April 1989, p. 6. The CIA’s role in the station is described in David Atlee Phillips, The Night Watch (New York, NY: Atheneum, 1977), pp. 30–54. 33. Carleton Lord, “Leaves from a DXer’s Scrapbook,” NNRC Bulletin, February 1954, p. SF-1. 34. There had been experimental shortwave broadcasting in Austria as far back as the 1920s. A 50 kw. transmitter had been on order in 1938, but the war prevented the establishment of a shortwave service at that time. See William Pell, “Radio Austria International: A Broadcaster Profile,” Monitoring Times, October 1989, p. 12. The history of shortwave broadcasting in Austria is recounted in William A. Matthews, “Austria Calling,” FRENDX, December 1971, p. SWC-3. 35. Conover is biographied in Terence M. Ripmaster, Willis Conover — Broadcasting Jazz to the World (Lincoln, NE: iUniverse, 2007). 36. The start of ELWA is described in Jane Reed and Jim Grant, Voice Under Every Palm (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1968). 37. The development of Radio Thailand and other stations in the country are described in Manosij Guha, “Thailand — Radio Active!” 2005 Passport, p. 10. 38. Universalite, March 1, 1954, p. 3. 39. The post–Soviet era has produced new information and analysis about the event. See, e.g., Charles Gati, Failed Illusions (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center, 2006), and Johanna Granville, “Radio Free Europe and International Decision-Making During the Hungarian Crisis of 1956,” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Vol. 24, No. 4 (2004), p. 589. Gati says that RFE was very popular in Hungary and throughout Eastern Europe. It was hardline and tended to exaggerate and was not wellinformed on events on the ground during the uprising. Granville concludes that RFE was a significant precipitant of Soviet intervention. 40. Adrian Peterson, “Voice of America, Hicksville, Long Island, New York,” NASWA Journal, May 2006, p. 19. 41. The history of the station, with a time line, is presented briefly in Norman Shacklady and Martin Ellen, On Air: A History of BBC Transmission (Orpington, Kent, England: Wavechange, 2003), pp. 44–47. 42. The history of this important Cuban station is described in Michael B. Salwen, “The Origins of CMQ: pre– Castro Cuba’s Leading Radio Network,” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Vol. 13, No. 3 (August 1993), p. 315. 43. Lawrence C. Soley and John S. Nichols, Clandestine Radio Broadcasting — A Study of Revolutionary and Counterrevolutionary Electronic Communication (New York, NY: Praeger, 1987), pp. 71–73. 44. Kary’s material appeared in other publications as well. In 1960 he received a special citation for his work from the Newark News Radio Club. 45. Soley and Nichols, supra note 43 at p. 169. Castro’s use of radio during and after his rise to power is detailed in J. David Lewis, “Revolution by Radio— How Radio Helped Castro,” The NAEB Journal, Vol. 19, No. 6, November-December 1960, p. 47; Don Jensen, “Clandestine Radio Operations in the Cuban Revolutionary and Counter-Rev-

Notes. Chapter 4 olutionary Movement, 1953–1965 — Part I, Revolutionary (pro-Castro) Radio Activities” (DXplorer Radio Association, 1965 [unpublished]); and Don Moore, “Rebel Radio and the Rise of Fidel Castro,” Monitoring Times, April 1993, p. 8. See also “Radio Rebelde: Voice of Revolutionary Army,” The Militant, Vol. 60, No. 17 (April 29, 1996), http://www.themilitant.com/1996/6017/6017_12.html. 46. Universalite, January 1, 1958, p. 2. 47. Universalite, January 15, 1959, p. WEST-6; “DXing’s 7 Greatest Hoaxes,” Radio-TV Experimenter, June-July 1968, p. 83; John Callarman, “Nibi Nibi: Hoax or Satire?” FRENDX, May 1973, p. SWC-1, reprinted in FRENDX, September 1984, p. 2, and NASWA Journal, April 1995, p. 11. Nibi-Nibi traces its origins to a 1958 MAD Magazine spoof of National Geographic magazine. 48. Soley and Nichols, supra note 43 at p. 71. 49. At various times also called Radio Dakar, Radio Dakar-Inter, Radio-Inter AOF and Radio-Mali-AOF. 50. Don Moore, “The Day the Martians Landed — Or Stories They Never Tell on HCJB,” Monitoring Times, October 1992, p. 26. 51. Universalite, October 1, 1959, p. WEST-2.

Chapter 4 1. E.g., Tom Kneitel, “Radio Swan — The Thorn in Castro’s Side,” Popular Electronics, March 1961, p. 52; Hank Bennett, “What Are the Facts About Radio Swan?” Popular Electronics, March 1962, p. 77; C.M. Stanbury II, “Short Wave Fraud Finder,” Electronics Illustrated, May 1963, p. 70; C.M. Stanbury II, “The Listener,” Electronics Illustrated, May 1963, p. 100; C. M. Stanbury II, “The Listener,” Electronics Illustrated, May 1966, p. 76; Tom Kneitel, “Confessions of a Radio Swan Hoaxer,” Electronics Illustrated, May 1967, p. 98; Ken Simon, “The Real Truth About Radio Americas!” Radio-TV Experimenter, August-September, 1967, p. 41; Tom Kneitel, “Radio Americas and the CIA,” Electronics Illustrated, September 1967, p. 27; Tom Kneitel, “EI Visits Radio Americas,” Electronics Illustrated, July 1968, p. 45. A detailed treatment of the origins and development of Radio Swan and Radio Americas can be found in Don Jensen, “Radio Swan and Radio Americas” (1965 [unpublished]). For later tellings of the Radio Swan story, see Gerry L. Dexter, Clandestine Confidential (Columbus, OH: Universal Electronics, 1984), p. 22; Tom Kneitel, “Inside The CIA’s Secret Radio Paradise: Part I,” Popular Communications, November 1985, p. 16, and “Part II,” December 1985, p. 18; Alice Brannigan, “The Mystery Station On ‘Island X,’” Popular Communications, July 1998, p. 13; Alice Brannigan, “Radio Swan: At Last, (Most of ) the Story!” Popular Communications, June 1999, p. 8; and Jon Elliston, “Bay of Pigs Radio War Revealed,” Popular Communications, April 2001, p. 6. The story of Radio Swan has also been told within the intelligence community. See David Wise and Thomas B. Ross, The Invisible Government (New York, NY: Random House, 1964), pp. 328–337; David Atlee Phillips, The Night Watch (New York, NY: Atheneum, 1977), p. 85–111; and “Brief History of Radio Swan,” reproduced in Jon Elliston, ed., Psywar on Cuba: The Declassified History of U.S. Anti-Castro Propaganda (Hoboken, NJ: Ocean, 1999), p. 59, and on the web at http://www. cubapolidata.com/ach/ach_taylor_report.html#2. 2. Richard E. Wood, “Radio in Haiti,” FRENDX, June 1968, pp. 11, 12. 3. C.M. Stanbury, The Universalite, May 1960, p. 3. For a detailed history of pre–Castro radio and TV broadcasting in Cuba, and an analysis of the run-up to the nationalization of the mass media in the early 1960s, see Michael

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B. Salwen, Radio and Television in Cuba: the Pre-Castro Era (Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1994). 4. A more complete picture of anti–Castro broadcasting activities in the years following the revolution is contained in Don Jensen, “Clandestine Radio Operations in the Cuban Revolutionary and Counter-Revolutionary Movement, 1953–1965 — Part II, Counter-Revolutionary (anti–Castro) Radio Activities” (DXplorer Radio Association, 1965 [unpublished]). Documents on the subject of American-supported radio broadcasting against Cuba in the 1960s, 1980s and 1990s may be found in Elliston, ed., supra note 1. 5. John Futch, “When the Arabs Came to Guayaquil,” SWL, May 1961, p. 3. 6. The history of the station to 1963 is described in Don R. Browne, “Radio Guinea: A Voice of Independent Africa,” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 7, No. 2 (Spring 1963), p. 113. 7. For a DXer’s view of the transition, see Bill Sparks, “Cuba — The DXer’s Nightmare,” FRENDX, November 1966 (“Shortwave Broadcast Center”). 8. For discussions about Radio Libertad, see “Radio Libertad—La Voz Anti-Comunista de America,” FRENDX, September 1967 (“Shortwave Broadcast Center”); Don Jensen, “Radio Libertad on Andros?” FRENDX, December 1967 (“Shortwave Broadcast Center”); C.M. Stanbury II, “In Search of Libertad,” Electronics Illustrated, March 1968, p. 56; “Radio Libertad — A REAL Mystery Station,” Electronics Illustrated, September 1969, p. 50; and William A. Matthews, “Clandestines—The Political Voice of Radio,” How to Listen to the World 1971 (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-Television Handbook, 6th ed. 1971), p. 136. 9. For an interesting overview of the modern broadcasting scene in some of the smaller Pacific islands, with an emphasis on the role of the news, see Robert Seward, Radio Happy Isles—Media and Politics at Play in the Pacific (Honolulu, HI: University of Hawai’i Press, 1999). 10. For a history of the broadcasting system in Papua New Guinea, see Ian K. Mackay, Broadcasting in Papua New Guinea (Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 1976). 11. Hank Bennett, “VOA Greenville—On the Air,” Popular Electronics, July 1963, p. 67. 12. Hank Bennett, “Radio New York Worldwide,” Popular Electronics, August 1965, p. 81. 13. The development of the VOA transmitter sites in the United States and around the world was detailed in a booklet published by the Australian Radio DX Club in 1977, “Voice of America Relay Bases.” Written by Adrian M. Peterson to mark the 35th anniversary of the founding of the VOA, it was also serialized in the February to September (except July) 1977 and May 1978 issues of SPEEDX. 14. The station’s history from its inception to its demise during the Liberian civil war is recounted in Patricia A. Holmes, “The Voice of America in Liberia: The End of the Road,” Liberian Studies Journal, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1992), p. 79. 15. The story of the station’s development and its demise in 1977 at the hands of a new revolutionary government is told in exhaustive detail in Manfred Lundgren, Proclaiming Christ to the World: The Experience of Radio Voice of the Gospel, 1957–1977 (Geneva, Switzerland: Lutheran World Federation, 1983). Lundgren was the station’s director during its final six years. 16. “Ghana Gets Shortwave Broadcasting Station,” FRENDX, September 1967 (“Shortwave Broadcast Center”). 17. Susan Peterson, “TWR’s Voice in the Caribbean,” Monitoring Times, April 1992, p. 18. (Quoted with the permission of MT.) 18. For the full story of Radio Euzkadi, see Don Jensen, “The Radio Euzkadi Mystery — Solved!” Electronics Illus-

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Notes. Chapter 4

trated, March 1971, p. 74; Don Jensen, “The Mysterious Radio Euzkadi—40 Years of Deception!” Popular Communications, May 1983, p. 24; and Gerry L. Dexter, Clandestine Confidential (Columbus, OH: Universal Electronics, 1984), p. 10. 19. The Blue Eagles were the predecessors of today’s U.S. Air Force “Commando Solo” aircraft. For more on the Blue Eagle transmissions, see “The Fantastic Flight of the Blue Eagle,” Electronics Illustrated, May 1966, p. 27; “The True Story of the Voice of the Blue Eagle,” FRENDX, June 1967 (“Shortwave Broadcast Center”) and “Voice of the Blue Eagle—Addendum,” FRENDX, July 1967 (“Shortwave Broadcast Center”); C.M. Stanbury II, “DX on Wings,” Radio-TV Experimenter, April-May 1968, p. 65; Harry Caul, “The Amazing Flight of the Blue Eagle,” Popular Communications, August 1984, p. 32; and Jim Pogue, “Radio Democracy—Up and Flying Over Haiti,” Monitoring Times, September 1994, p. 14. 20. For an explanation of the planned system of Deutsche Welle relay stations, and a description of the Kigali station, see G. Roessler, “Relay Stations,” 1969 WRTH Summer Supplement, p. 6. 21. DXplorer Radio Association, “An Account of Radio Activity in Dominican Revolution,” FRENDX, July 1965 (“Shortwave Center”); César Óbjio, “The Radio Fight in Santo Domingo,” FRENDX, December 1965 (“Headquarters”); and César Óbjio, “Santo Domingo, Afterwards ,” FRENDX, February 1966 (“Headquarters”). 22. Don Jensen, “Radio in Lima, Peru,” FRENDX, September 1965 (“Headquarters”). 23. Don Jensen, “Sketches of South American Radio,” FRENDX, October 1965 (“Headquarters”). For an early treatment of the Peruvian shortwave scene, see Richard E. Wood, “Broadcasting in Peru,” FRENDX, August 1968, p. 14. 24. A comprehensive description of the Bolivian shortwave broadcasting scene at the time can be found in “An Analysis of the Bolivian Broadcasting Situation—1955–67, With Special Reference to Clandestine Stations,” FRENDX, Part I, June 1967 (“Shortwave Broadcast Center”); Part II, July 1967; Part III, August 1967. The history of Bolivian broadcasting is also addressed in Don Moore, “Radio Under the Gun,” Monitoring Times, June 1994, p. 14. 25. Bill Graham, “The Mysterious Pirate WBBH,” FRENDX, November 1966 (“Shortwave Broadcast Center”); Tom Kneitel, “WBBH, The Station with Everything ... Except a License,” Electronics Illustrated, November 1968, p. 82; and Tom Kneitel, “WBBH: The Classical Music Pirate,” Popular Communications, January 1985, p. 28. 26. For an interesting history of South African shortwave broadcasting, see Colin Miller, “Shortwave History of South Africa,” Monitoring Times, November 1995, p. 14. The development of radio in South Africa in the 1920s and 1930s is the subject of Eric Rosenthal, You Have Been Listening ... (Cape Town, South Africa: Purnell & Sons, 1974). The history of the SABC to 1968 is recounted in detail in Peter Blythe Orlick, The South African Broadcasting Corporation: An Historical Survey and Contemporary Analysis, Ph. D. dissertation (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University, 1968). The role of Radio RSA in defending South Africa against the worldwide criticism of apartheid was described in a content analysis of the station’s programs. See Philo C. Wasburn, “The Counter-Propaganda of Radio RSA: The Voice of South Africa,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Vol. 33, No. 2 (Spring 1989), p. 117. For a content analysis of Radio RSA news broadcasts to North America, see Donald R. Browne, “Something New Out of Africa? South African International Radio’s Presentation of Africa to Listeners in North America,” Journal of African Studies, Vol. 14, No. 1, (Spring 1987), p. 17.

27. Alex Cruickshank and Peter Stebbings,” “This is the BBC Atlantic Relay Station,” How to Listen to the World (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 8th ed., 1974), p. 91, 94. See also Stephen W. Worden, “Leapfrogging the Atlantic — A Visit to Earth’s End: The BBC Relay Station on Ascension Island,” Monitoring Times, May 1995, p. 9; and Norman Shacklady and Martin Ellen, On Air: A History of BBC Transmission (Orpington, Kent, England: Wavechange, 2003), pp. 166–170. 28. Don Jensen, “Shasiland ... the DXer’s Dream That Almost Was,” Radio-TV Experimenter, August-September 1968, p. 51; and Don Jensen, “CARA’s Adventures in Shasiland,” Popular Communications, January 1987, p. 38. 29. C.M. Stanbury II, “Shortwave Broadcasting in Canada’s Arctic,” SWL, February 1968, p. 8. 30. For a detailed history of Radio Biafra, see Don Jensen, “The Life and Death of Radio Biafra,” Popular Communications, September 1987, p. 26. See also “Biafra Broadcasting Corp.—End of an Era,” FRENDX, April 1970 (“Short Wave Center”). 31. For a detailed account of monitoring during the Czech crisis, see Don Jensen, “Crisis in Czechoslovakia,” FRENDX, October 1968, p. 12. The story of the Free Czech radio scene during the Russian invasion is also covered in Russell Roberts, “The 20 Incredible Days of Free Czech Radio,” Electronics Illustrated, July 1969, p. 88; Gerry L. Dexter, “Free Czech Radio,” Popular Communications, March 1984, p. 16; and Don Moore, “Twenty-Five Years Ago in Prague,” Monitoring Times, August 1993, p. 18. 32. Broadcasting in the Seventies (Rhodesia Broadcasting Corp., circa 1970), p. 1. 33. John Kimberley, “‘This is Radio Peking,’” Popular Electronics, April 1969, p. 59. 34. When Radio Bougainville came on the air, NASWA shortwave editor Richard E. Wood received the following letter from fellow DXer Alvin V. Sizer of North Haven, Connecticut: “I was especially interested in your report of Radio Bougainville. I too heard Radio Bougainville, and long before you did. Only there was a slight difference. When I heard it, it was the year 1944 and I was on the island with a lot of Aussies and still a goodly number of Japanese soldiers. And Radio Bougainville was a local station operated on [medium wave] by the Armed Forces Special Services for the troops, employing mainly transcriptions from the states. I had a real chuckle when the ‘Log Report’ demanded of a Bougainville listener, ‘What town’? There certainly was no town on the island when I was there, just some native settlements. We had nothing but boredom and our radio station was one of our rare sources of entertainment. There was a supposedly extinct volcano which was supposed to erupt someday, according to GI rumors, but never did. We actually hoped it would ... anything to get us off the damn island!” “Radio Bougainville, Mark One,” FRENDX, September 1968, p. 15. 35. P.W.R. Homfray, “R. Australia’s Darwin Station,” 1970 WRTH, p. 46. 36. Gregg A. Calkin, FRENDX, October 1969 (“Newsroom”). 37. The station’s beginnings are described in David Winter, Seychelles Calling (Woking, Surrey, England: Far East Broadcasting Assn., 1971). 38. For details of the station, see “Dutch World Broadcasting System to Operate New Relay Station on the Island of Bonaire,” 1969 WRTH, p. 39; and Jonathan Marks, “Radio Netherlands Bonaire Relay Station,” DX Reporter, October 1989, p. 22. General issues surrounding the use of shortwave broadcast relay stations are discussed in Jim Vastenhoud, “Relay Stations,” 1976 WRTH, p. 10.

Notes. Chapter 5

Chapter 5 1. RNI’s early comings and goings in terms of location and frequency are recounted in the NNRC Bulletin, October 1970, p. 5, and November 1970, p. 5; see also Paul Harris, Broadcasting from the High Seas: The History of Offshore Radio in Europe, 1958–1976 (Edinburgh, Scotland: Paul Harris, 1977), pp. 267–278. 2. See George Schnabel, “Radio and the Peruvian Earthquake” and “News Coverage of the Peruvian Earthquake Wind Up,” FRENDX, August 1970 (“Shortwave Center”); and “Radio and the Peruvian Earthquake Follow-Up,” FRENDX, October 1970 (“Shortwave Center”). 3. The events were recounted in “The Bombing of RNI,” FRENDX, September 1971, p. SWC-4. 4. A capsule view of AWR shortwave operations for the first 25 years may be found in Adrian M. Peterson, “Adventist World Radio 25th Anniversary,” NASWA Journal, October 1996, p. 23; see also Adrian M. Peterson, “Seventy Years with Adventist Radio,” DX Ontario, September 1993, p. 63. 5. The on-air status of these low-power stations was always in question. For a list of those believed to be operating, see FRENDX, October 1974, p. LR-3; also see Guide to Turkish S.W. Low Power Stations (Neath, Glamorgan, U.K.: British Association of DXers, 1972). 6. See Supratik Sanatani, “A Visit to the Aligarh Relay of All India Radio Overseas Services,” Monitoring Times, February 1989, p. 18. 7. The decline of BFBS on shortwave was addressed in Don Jensen, “Tommy’s Dying Voice,” Radio-TV Experimenter (and Science & Electronics), June-July 1969, p. 80. 8. The origins of the station are recounted in “The Swaziland Commercial Radio (Pty.) Ltd.— Swazi Radio,” FRENDX, June 1972, p. SWC-4. 9. For snapshots on broadcasting in Guatemala around this time, see Richard E. Wood, “Broadcasting in Guatemala,” How to Listen to the World (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 7th ed. 1973), p. 79; and Gregg A. Calkin, “Shortwave Broadcasting in Guatemala,” FRENDX, April 1973, p. SWC-1. 10. For a brief outline of the Ecuadorean scene at the time, see Richard E. Wood, “Broadcasting in Ecuador,” How to Listen to the World 1971 (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-Television Handbook, 6th ed. 1971), p. 99. 11. A description of the mixed governmental-commercial broadcasting extant in Thailand at the time is found in Glenn Hauser, “Broadcasting in Thailand,” How to Listen to the World 1971 (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-Television Handbook, 6th ed. 1971), p. 101. 12. See James M. Kushner, “African Liberation Broadcasting,” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Summer 1974), p. 299. 13. The complexities of Palestinian opposition broadcasting, which began in 1965, are detailed in Donald R. Browne, “The Voices of Palestine: A Broadcasting House Divided,” Middle East Journal, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Spring 1975), p. 133. 14. An Italian DXer suggested the idea. Harry van Gelder, producer of the Radio Netherlands “DX Jukebox” program, picked it up and soon the designation was adopted by stations and listener groups around the world. Van Gelder then suggested that 1974 be designated World DX Handicapped Aid Year. Although this idea came too late in 1973 to generate much worldwide interest, Radio Netherlands focused support on it in 1974, using the title World DX Handicapped Aid Campaign to de-emphasize any limitation to 1974. Arne Skoog of “Sweden Calling DXers” suggested designating 1976 as World DX Club Year

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and 1978 as International Broadcasters Year. The Association of North American Radio Clubs (ANARC) supported these proposals. ANARC, the European DX Council, and the Handicapped Aid Program also designated 1981 as World DXing for the Disabled Year. Year naming died out until 1990 when Tiare Publications urged shortwave editors and writers to promote the second full week of March as an annual Shortwave Radio Week. A few clubs did, but it never caught on. 15. The story of Radio Free America, told from ground level, is found in Larry Magne, “‘Radio Free America,’ Aired for One Day on 1160 kHz., to be Reactivated on Shortwave,” FRENDX, October 1973, p. CB-1; Larry Magne, “Radio Free America Silent, May Reactivate Shortly,” FRENDX, November 1973, p. CB-1; NNRC Bulletin, October 1973, p. BCB1a; NNRC Bulletin, November 1973, p. BCB-3a; and Don Jensen, “Radio Free America — A ‘Red, Right and Blue’ Political Pirate,” Popular Communications, October 1988, p. 23. McIntyre died in 2002 at age 95. 16. Don Moore, “Peru: DXing the Land of the Incas,” Monitoring Times, September 1989, p. 10. 17. Jan Edh, “Listening to Indonesia” (Part C), 1976 WRTH, pp. 21, 26 (“Listen to the World”). 18. See “DW-Relay Station Malta,” SPEEDX, December 1975, p. 40 (adapted from the DW publication “Hallo Friends”); and Charles Sorrell, “Deutsche Welle’s Malta Relay,” Monitoring Times, May 1993, p. 12. 19. See Don Moore, “Ice Cold Radio—Broadcasting and the Byrd Expeditions to Antarctica,” Monitoring Times, January 2000, p. 14. Byrd’s shortwave transmissions were relayed to the United States via Buenos Aires, Argentina, and carried nationwide over WABC and the CBS radio network. 20. A detailed treatment of broadcasting in China at the time is Dan Jamison, “The Inside Story ... Broadcasting in China,” FRENDX, Pt. I, October 1974 [“Shortwave Center”]; Pt. II, November 1974. 21. An entertaining and informative audio history of LM Radio can be found at the website of the LM Radio Museum and Sound Archive, http://www.lmradio.org/. 22. For an outline of governmental broadcasting in Brazil, see Valter Aguiar, “Rádio Nacional do Brasil,” Monitoring Times, March 1994, p. 14. 23. The Philippines broadcasting scene at the time is described in Charles A. Taylor, “Broadcasting in the Philippines,” 1976 WRTH, p. 31 [“Listen to the World”]. 24. For a detailed account of clandestine broadcasting in 1975, see Lawrence E. Magne, “Clandestine Broadcasting Stations 1975,” 1976 WRTH, p. 55 (“Listen to the World”). 25. The technical aspects of the Antigua project are summarized in R.E. Bliss, “Caribbean Relay Station,” SPEEDX, December 1976, p. 51 (originally appearing in Communications & Broadcasting, Vol. 2, No. 3, published by Marconi Communications Systems). 26. Shortwave broadcasting during the Guatemalan earthquake is recounted in Glenn Hauser, “Earthquake — Terremoto Guatamalteco,” FRENDX, March 1976, p. 10. 27. See “Radio Earth’s Rudy Espinal Talks About His Life, His Country and Maybe Even a New Shortwave Station for the Caribbean,” The Shortwave Guide, January 1985, p. 10. 28. Eugénie Aw, “Lessons from a Little-Known Experience: Radio Candip,” in Bruce Girard, ed., A Passion for Radio: Radio Waves and Community (Montreal, Quebec: Black Rose, 1992). 29. See Colin Miller, “KTWR Guam Celebrates 25,” Monitoring Times, October 2002, p. 21.

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Notes. Chapter 6

30. A good summary of Soviet broadcasting services is Gerry L. Dexter, “Soviet Broadcasting — An Inside Look!” Popular Communications, February 1985, p. 8. 31. “The Sound of Silence on WFAT, Pirate Radio,” The New York Times, April 21, 1979, p. 27. 32. The Dixon station was originally operated by NBC and carried the call signs KNBA, KNBI, KNBX, and KNBC. Dixon was a sister station to the VOA Delano facility and was of similar design and construction. At the time of its closing it had ten transmitters. Adrian Peterson, “VOA Dixon — The End of an Era,” SWL, November 1979, p. 43. 33. The history of shortwave broadcasting from Scituate, dating to 1929, is described in Adrian M. Peterson, “Scituate Obituary,” SPEEDX, August 1980, p. 44. 34. The history of broadcasting in Afghanistan is summarized in Adrian M. Peterson, “A Modern Medium: An Ancient Nation — Special Report on Broadcasting in Afghanistan,” Popular Communications, March 1989, p. 8. 35. For a brief station profile, see Charles Sorrell, “Via Moyabi,” Monitoring Times, March 1988, p. 17. Shortwave broadcasting in Gabon generally is covered in Colin Miller, “Gabon — Beaming Light Through ‘The Heart of Darkness,’” Monitoring Times, January 1996, p. 14. 36. For one opinion on the station’s supposed left-wing, Argentine origins, see Roberto H. Iglesias, “Who’s Behind Radio Noticias del Continente?” Review of International Broadcasting, January 1980, p. 37. 37. The station’s history is recounted in Don Moore, “The Unique Story of TI4NRH,” Monitoring Times, March 1993, p. 18. 38. Radio Sandino’s broadcast history is summarized in Glenn Hauser’s “DX Listening” column, Popular Electronics, November 1979, p. 104. A day-by-day account of Radio Sandino’s broadcasts from May through July 1979 is found in FRENDX, July 1979, pp. 24–26, and August 1979, pp. 22–23.

Chapter 6 1. Tom Kneitel, “Our Radio Pirate, 1933 Vintage,” Electronics Illustrated, March 1969, p. 49; Tom Kneitel, “The World’s First High Seas Pirate Broadcaster!” Popular Communications, August 1983, p. 10. See also William J. Martin, “RX4M — Anatomy of a Pirate Bust,” Monitoring Times, May 1985, p. 22. 2. The early history of the ZBC is described in Lorraine Garwe, Moving Beyond the BBC Model: An Analysis of the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation, master’s thesis (Ottawa, Ontario: Carleton University, Journalism, 1993). 3. See Michael Willis, “DXing China,” 1981 WRTH, p. 583. 4. The story behind the station is told by its founder in George Otis, Voice of Hope (Van Nuys, CA: High Adventure Ministries, 1983). The Voice of Hope and Otis’s later station, KVOH shortwave in California, are described in Gerry L. Dexter, “High Adventure Radio,” Popular Communications, March 1987, p. 10, and Everett L. Slosman, “KVOH—Neither Bombs Nor Bullets,” Monitoring Times, May 1989, p. 10. 5. Professor Lawrence C. Soley, who has written extensively on clandestine broadcasting, presented a detailed description of clandestine broadcasting in all parts of the world in 1981 in Lawrence C. Soley, “The Political Context of Clandestine Radio Broadcasting in 1981,” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Summer 1983), p. 233. 6. One version of the story of Radio Venceremos is told in José Ignacio López Vigil, Rebel Radio (Willimantic,

CT: Curbstone, 1994). The history of the station is also recounted in Owen Williamson, “‘We Will Win’— Radio Venceremos: An Inside Look at a Rebel Broadcaster,” Popular Communications, October 1984, p. 24. 7. WRNO’s history and program lineup were summarized in Gerry L. Dexter, “WRNO Worldwide,” Popular Communications, December 1989, p. 12. See also “WRNO— We’re the Rock of New Orleans!” 1982 WRTH, p. 580; and Ronald Garay, “WRNO Worldwide: A Case Study in Licensing Private U.S. International Broadcast Stations,” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 26, No. 3 (Summer 1982), p. 641. 8. For a more detailed description of the CID bust, see William J. Martin, “The Anti-Castro Cubans and the FCC,” Monitoring Times, February 1985, p. 4. 9. For a summary of shortwave monitoring of the Falklands crisis, see Glenn Hauser, “Monitoring the Falklands Crisis,” Popular Electronics, September 1982, p. 94. 10. Letter from Patrick J. Watts, broadcasting officer, FIBS, DX Ontario, October 1982, p. 34. 11. See Don Jensen, “‘Liberty’ and the Falklands Radio War,” Popular Communications, November 1983, p. 42; and Glenn Hauser, “‘Liberty,’ Argentina’s Psyops Station,” Monitoring Times, October 2002, p. 36. 12. Bob Woodward, Veil: The Secret Wars of the CIA, 1981–1987 (New York, NY: Simon & Schuster, 1987), p. 480. The complex Iranian clandestine situation in the mid– 1980s is detailed in Gerry L. Dexter, “Iranian Close-Up,” Popular Communications, February 1986, p. 16. 13. WRTH Newsletter, May 1983, p. 9. 14. Libya’s mid–1980s shortwave activities, public and clandestine, are summarized in Gerry L. Dexter, “Shortwave’s Libyan Connection,” Popular Communications, October 1986, p. 10. 15. Jeff White, “The Birth of Earth,” The Shortwave Book (Media, PA: Lawrence Miller, 1984), p. 22; Jeff White, “Presenting ‘The World’ to the World — The Story of Radio Earth,” 1984 WRTH, p. 607; “In Court: Radio Earth vs. WRNO,” The Shortwave Guide, October 1984, p. 4; “Radio Earth — The End of Clarin & Phase One,” The Shortwave Guide, April 1985, p. 10; Interview with Jeff White, Messenger, December 1985, p. 17. In 1985, White published “Santo Domingo Journal,” an account of his experiences while living in the Dominican Republic in 1984 and 1985. See Jeff White, Santo Domingo Journal (Media, PA: Lawrence Miller, 1985). The book was reviewed by Larry Miller in “Jeff White’s Santo Domingo Journal,” The Shortwave Guide, June 1985, p. 12. 16. The details of Radio Impacto’s operation remain murky. For what is known about the station, see Don Moore, “The Last Days of Radio Impacto,” Monitoring Times, February 1992, p. 12. 17. A detailed country-by-country description of the clandestine broadcasting scene in 1983 is contained in Gerry L. Dexter, “Clandestine Communique,” Popular Communications, November 1983, p. 32. 18. The topic of Chinese clandestine stations is covered in detail in “An Investigative Report on Mysterious Chinese Clandestine Stations” on the website of the Asian Broadcasting Institute, http://www.246.ne.jp/~abi/chi clae1.htm. 19. For the background on Norman and the station, see Gerry L. Dexter, “Here’s Station NDXE,” Popular Communications, May 1985, p. 32; and “A Look at NDXE’s Planned Equipment,” Popular Communications, January 1988, p. 32. 20. The history of Radio Sandino is summarized in George Wood, “Rock and Revolution — Radio in Nicaragua,” 1983 WRTH, p. 604.

Notes. Chapter 7 21. A good summary of the Vietnamese shortwave picture in the mid–1980s is Gerry L. Dexter, “Vietnam Voices,” Popular Communications, June 1985, p. 32. 22. The history of Radio Martí’s development is told in Gerry L. Dexter, “The Amazing Log of Radio Marti,” Popular Communications, November 1985, p. 8. 23. Jeff White, “Radio Earth: Back in the Saddle Again,” International Radio, February 1986, p. 33. 24. FCC practice in dealing with pirates is described in Harold Ort, “Big Brother Is Listening—How the FCC Captures Pirates,” Popular Communications, June 1988, p. 22. 25. For a review of the shortwave situation in Angola in the mid–1980s, see Gerry L. Dexter, “Angola’s Elusive Voices,” Popular Communications, April 1987, p. 8. 26. The history and problems of aboriginal radio are described in Donald R. Browne, “Aboriginal Radio in Australia: From Dreamtime to Prime Time?” Journal of Communications, Vol. 40, No. 1 (Winter 1990), p. 111. 27. Michael Scofield, “Monitoring Voyager Communications,” Popular Communications, July 1987, p. 14. 28. For a summary of South African shortwave broadcasting at the time, including authorized and clandestine stations, see Gerry L. Dexter, “Broadcasting in South Africa,” Popular Communications, July 1985, p. 8. 29. “And Then There Were 2 ... Radio Earth & Radio Discovery,” International Radio, May 1986 (unpaginated). 30. The role Radio Veritas played during the conflict is detailed in Bryan Johnson, The Four Days of Courage (New York, NY: Free Press, 1987), pp. 169–189; and Miguel Quiachon Rapatan, “The Silence of the Shepherd: Media and Church Leadership during the Philippine ‘People Power’ Revolution,” in Nancy Lynch Street and Marilyn J. Matelski, Messages from the Underground: Transnational Radio in Resistance and in Solidarity (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997), p. 65. 31. The story of Radio Newyork International is told in Edward Teach, “RNI: The Inside Story,” Popular Communications, November 1987, p. 10; Allan H. Weiner, “Radio with a Conscience —‘The Radio New York International Story,’” Popular Communications, April 1988, p. 14; and Karl J. Zuk, “RNI Radio Sarah: What Really Happened?” Popular Communications, March 1989, p. 20. 32. The Iranian clandestine scene in 1989 is detailed in Gerry L. Dexter, “The War of the Words,” Popular Communications, September 1989, p. 8. 33. William E. MacKie, Ph.D., “Liberia’s Radio War — The Liberian Rural Communications Network,” Popular Communications, February 1990, p. 10. 34. RFPI’s origins and developmental years are described in Gerry Dexter, “RFPI—Radio with a Difference,” Popular Communications, February 1991, p. 30; and Stan Barr, “An Interview with Radio for Peace International,” Monitoring Times, July 1993, p. 14. 35. A visit to the station is recounted in Adrian M. Peterson, “We Visit: The Burma Mystery Station,” Popular Communications, September 1988, p. 28. 36. For an outline of the Indonesian broadcasting structure, see David Foster, “Indonesian Broadcasting Kaleidoscope,” 1984 WRTH, p. 599; Jalan Kebon Subrata, “A Hazy Look at Indonesia’s Unexplored Broadcasting Maze,” Monitoring Times, October 1988, p. 14; and Bill Sparks, “A Javan Fantasy — The DXer’s View of Java,” Proceedings (Stillwater, OK: Fine Tuning Special Publications, Vol. 2, 1989), p. F5.1 (about the “RPD” stations in Java). 37. For a detailed account of the station’s startup, see Bob Zanotti, “Welcome to NEXUS-IRRS—Part 1: The Idea Is Born,” Monitoring Times, January 2003, p. 10; and Bob Zanotti, “Welcome to NEXUS-IRRS — Part 2,” Monitoring Times, February 2003, p. 14.

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38. The Colombian clandestine scene from 1988 to 1994 is described in Henrik Klemetz, “Broadcasting Battlefield,” Monitoring Times, December 1994, p. 16. 39. See Hans Johnson, “KJES,” Monitoring Times, July 2001, p. 17. 40. Dr. Jerry Plummer, “WWCR — World Wide Christian Radio— Fifteen Plus Years on the Air,” Monitoring Times, March 2006, p. 14, 16; see also Gerry L. Dexter, “WWCR: Shortwave from Nashville,” Popular Communications, February 1992, p. 9. 41. The source of these figures, and the parallel data reported through 1995, is the Pirate Radio Directory which chronicled pirate activity from year to year. 42. For a close look at the operation of Radio Belize up to this time, see Don Moore, “Caribbean Beat in Central America: Radio Belize,” Monitoring Times, January 1989, p. 6. 43. The shortwave coverage of the Tiananmen events was critiqued by a CIDX member on the ground in China, in the Messenger, September 1989, p. 27; DX Ontario, September 1989, p. 22; and Review of International Broadcasting, No. 131 (1989), p. 5. The VOA had great impact on the events. Zhou He and Jianhua Zhu, The “Voice of America” and China: Zeroing in on Tiananmen Square (Columbia, SC: Journalism Monographs, No. 143, Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, February 1994). 44. “Voice of June Fourth,” Monitoring Times, June 1990, p. 6. 45. Two succinct histories of the station are Manosij Guha et al., “Bhutan Radio: Living on Thimpu Time,” 2001 Passport, p. 12, and Steven L. Herman, “Bhutan Broadcasting Service — Voices from the Roof of the World,” Popular Communications, January 2008, p. 10. For an account of a visit to Radio Bhutan, see Sudipto Ghose and Prodyut Banerjee, “Drik Yul’s Voice on Shortwave,” Review of International Broadcasting, No. 103, 1985, p. 31.

Chapter 7 1. The changes in eastern bloc shortwave are described in Gerry L. Dexter, “Back in the USSR — Tuning in on Change in the Soviet Union,” Popular Communications, July 1990, p. 9; and Daniel Lorenzetti, “New Comrades on the Bloc,” 1991 Passport, p. 21. 2. Charles Sorrell, “DXing the Other Germans,” Monitoring Times, February 1990, p. 18. 3. A pre-renovation visit to Nauen is recounted in Gene Greneker, “A Visit to the Cradle of German Radio Broadcasting,” Popular Communications, January 1993, p. 14. See also Harald Kuhl, “Deutsche Welle’s Nauen Digital Shortwave Station,” Monitoring Times, November 1997, p. 8; and Adrian M. Peterson, “The ‘Nauen’ Station in Germany,” NASWA Journal, August 2001, p. 20. For a description of DW programming after unification, see Dean B. Mahin, “Deutsche Welle: Reporting the News as It Is—For Better or Worse,” Monitoring Times, August 1994, p. 14. 4. Review of International Broadcasting, No. 135 (1990), p. 7. 5. Kathy Johnson, “The Last Days of ELWA” (as told to Jerry Klinck), NASWA Journal, March 1991, p. 13; and Gerry Dexter, “Listening for Liberia — Tuning in on This Troubled Land to Find Out What’s Behind the Headlines,” Popular Communications, December 1990, p. 10. 6. See Richard A. D’Angelo, “Radio St. Helena — The DX Event of 1990,” NASWA Journal, April 1991, p. 13. A

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Notes. Chapter 7

look inside the station and a brief historical review of broadcasting on St. Helena is contained in Manfred Rippich, “A Radio Service for Saints,” Popular Communications, November 2001, p. 6. 7. Don Moore, “Beyond HCJB — Going after the Real DX in Ecuador,” Monitoring Times, April 1990, p. 10. The shortwave stations associated with the various “broadcasting families” of Ecuador are covered in Richard McVicar, “It’s in the Family: Ecuador on Shortwave,” Proceedings (Stillwater, OK: Fine Tuning Special Publications, Vol. 5, 1992–93), p. F27.1. 8. Mario Vargas Llosa, Aunt Julia and the Script Writer (New York, NY: Avon, 1982). It was published in Spanish in 1977 as La Tía Julia y el Escribidor and translated into English in 1982. See reviews by Ralph Perry, “Love and Lunacy in Lima,” FRENDX, May 1984, p. 9, and Don Moore, NASWA Journal, June 1994, p. 9. 9. The organization of the Chinese broadcasting system was described a few years earlier by Bob Padula in “A Fresh Look at the Central People’s Broadcasting Station,” Australian DX News, September 1986, reprinted in DX Listening Digest, No. 12 (1987), p. ER0241. 10. A review of shortwave broadcasting activities in the lands of former-Soviet Central Asia may be found in Manosij Guha, “Central Asian Radio: [country],” 2000 Passport, p. 26 (Tajikistan), 36 (Uzbekistan), 44 (Kyrgyzstan), 52 (Kazakhstan). 11. Dr. Peter Hadley, “Breakaway Republics: Tuning in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia,” Monitoring Times, July 1990, p. 10. Estonia’s radio history, and a snapshot of post–Soviet broadcasting there, are contained in George Wood, “Radio in Free Estonia,” Monitoring Times, August 1992, p. 8. 12. Messenger, February 1991, p. 40. 13. The situation in Lithuania was detailed in Charles Brian Goslow, “Radio Vilnius,” Popular Communications, August 1991, p. 24; Charles Brian Goslow, “Baltic Voices of Independence,” Monitoring Times, November 1991, p. 8; and James Hydzik, “Lithuania Radio,” Monitoring Times, September 2006, p. 16. 14. Fred Kaplan, “The Hottest DJ in Moscow,” The Boston Globe, December 28, 1994, p. 25. 15. The response to the news by RCI staffers is described in Wojtek Gwiazda, “The Last Days of Radio Canada International,” Monitoring Times, May 1991, p. 8. Gwiazda was one of the founders of the Coalition to Restore Full RCI Funding (later renamed the RCI Action Committee), an employee union initiative intended to preserve RCI funding. 16. A snapshot of the Cuban/anti–Cuban broadcasting scene at the time is contained in J.J. Jessup, “Monitoring Cuba — To and Fro,” Monitoring Times, January 1991, p. 14; see also Michael Matus, “A California Yankee Visits Radio Havana Cuba,” Monitoring Times, September 1991, p. 10. 17. Messenger, February 1991, p. 36. 18. Mitch Sams, “A Quick Analysis of Shortwave Radio and the Gulf War,” NASWA Journal, April 1991, p. 25. 19. For a list of the shortwave stations that had been on the air from Haiti, see Adrian Peterson, “Going ... Going ... Gone!” Monitoring Times, July 1994, p. 20. 20. BBC on Air— essentially an upgraded version of London Calling—replaced BBC Worldwide in 1996 and was published through 2004 when it was supplanted by internet vehicles. 21. The history of the Daventry station is recounted in B.J. Bale, “The BBC Shortwave Station Daventry,” 1976 WRTH 1976, p. 16 (“Listen to the World”); and Norman Tomalin, Daventry Calling the World (Whitby, No. Yorkshire, England: Caedmon of Whitby, 1998).

22. See Gerry L. Dexter, “DXing Russia’s New Voices,” Popular Communications, August 1990, p. 27. 23. Alan Roberts, “Digging Out Radio Neige,” Messenger, April 1993, p. 34; Alan Roberts, “Radio Neige — More Information,” Messenger, February 1995, p. 43. 24. Hal Erickson, Religious Radio and Television in the United States, 1921–1991: The Programs and Personalities (Jefferson, NC: McFarland, 1992), p. 164. 25. For more on Bolivian shortwave around this time, see Kevin Atkins, “Shortwave Broadcasting in Bolivia: A Geopolitical Perspective,” Proceedings (Stillwater, OK: Fine Tuning Special Publications, Vol. 4, 1991), p. F21.1. 26. See Arthur Cushen, “Radio Free Bougainville Broadcasts the Plight of the People,” Monitoring Times, February 1993, p. 16. 27. Miami AM-FM station WQBA had the same idea a decade earlier. See Glenn Hauser, “Radio Miami Plans & Background,” Review of International Broadcasting, June 1982, p. 2. 28. See Larry Van Horn, “The United States-Cuba Broadcast War Heats Up,” Monitoring Times, October 1994, p. 30. The anti–Castro broadcasting of the past and thenpresent was detailed in Gerry L. Dexter, “The Anti-Castro Broadcasters,” Popular Communications, October 1994, p. 22. 29. See Philip Gebhardt, “A Familiar Voice in Africa — VOA’s Tangier Relay Station,” Monitoring Times, September 1995, p. 28. 30. See Mikhail Timofeyev, “Russians in the Savannah,” Monitoring Times, July 1995, p. 28. 31. For a brief history of Australian military broadcasting, see Adrian M. Peterson, “Australian Army Radio: Morale Booster for the Troops,” Monitoring Times, October 1993, p. 20. 32. The Russian shortwave broadcasting scene at the time is described in more detail in John C. Fisher, “Shortwave Radio in Russia,” Proceedings (Stillwater, OK: Fine Tuning Special Publications, Vol. 6, 1994–95), p. F35.1. 33. For a summary of BBG organization and jurisdiction in 2004, see Brian Conniff, “New Directions in U.S. International Broadcasting,” Foreign Service Journal, January 2004, p. 20. 34. The station’s history is presented briefly in John Vodenik, “Voice of America: The Bethany Story,” Messenger, April 1995, p. 7. 35. For more on Dominican Republic shortwave broadcasting at this time, see Adrian M. Peterson, “The Dominican Scene on Shortwave,” Monitoring Times, February 1994, p. 18. 36. Henrik Klemetz, “Taking the Pulse of ... Shortwave in Latin America,” Monitoring Times, August 1995, p. 14. 37. The issues surrounding reform of American post–Cold War international broadcasting are outlined in John E. Tedstrom, Beyond Consolidation: U.S. Government International Broadcasting in the Post-Cold War Era (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1994). 38. “Patriot Programming Attracts Scrutiny,” Monitoring Times, July 1995, p. 92. 39. Sara Rimer, “New Medium for the Far Right,” The New York Times, April 27, 1995, p. A1; see also George Johnson, “The Conspiracy That Never Ends,” The New York Times, April 30, 1995, p. E5. 40. The right wing shortwave scene was summarized in Glenn Hauser, “OKC: The Radio Aftermath,” Monitoring Times, July 1995, p. 26. 41. For a fuller list of programs on business and economics around this time, see John Figliozzi, “Tracking the Global Economy,” Monitoring Times, November 1998, p. 61.

Notes. Chapters 8 and 9 42. The crisis is described in Ian McFarland, “Will the Sun Set ... on Radio Canada?” Monitoring Times, March 1996, p. 9; and Ian McFarland, “Radio Canada International — Canada’s Never-Say-Die International Radio Voice,” Monitoring Times, September 1999, p. 14. The dynamics of RCI funding from the 1990s to the present are detailed in Elzbieta Olechowska, The Age of International Radio: Radio Canada International (1945–2007) (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 2007), pp. 17–42. 43. For background on RFA, see Nancy Lynch Street, “From ‘The Goddess of Democracy’ to Radio Free Asia” (p. 141) and “From Radio Free Asia to the Asia Pacific Network ... and Back Again” (p. 157), in Nancy Lynch Street and Marilyn J. Matelski, Messages from the Underground: Transnational Radio in Resistance and in Solidarity (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997). 44. For a brief history of Afghan shortwave broadcasting, see Manosij Guha, “Afghanistan: Jihad of the Airwaves,” 2000 Passport, p. 14. 45. The station’s operation is described in Anker Petersen, “Visit to the Voice of America in São Tome,” Short Wave News, July 2003, p. 18. 46. Clandestine radio in Colombia in the mid–1990s is described in Henrik Klemetz, “Broadcasting Battlefield,” Monitoring Times, December 1994, p. 16. In a number of instances, reception of shortwave signals eased the plight of captives of the Colombian guerillas. See Henrik Klemetz, “Shortwave Brings Hope to Hostages,” Monitoring Times, January 1997, p. 22. 47. Hans Johnson, “Nigerian Troubles Spawn New ‘Clans,’” Monitoring Times, February 1998, p. 15. 48. Weiner’s pirate history is outlined in Tom Kneitel, “The Day the Falling Star Network Fell,” Popular Communications, July 1988, p. 16, and in more detail in Allan H. Weiner (as told to Anita Louise McCormick), Access to the Airwaves: My Fight for Free Radio (Port Townsend, WA: Loompanics Unlimited, 1997). The story is told in short form by Donald Kreis in “Alan Weiner — The Notorious Radio Pirate of Monticello, Maine,” Monitoring Times, October 1989, p. 18. 49. The broader story of radio at the time of the Kosovo crisis is told in Andy Sennitt, “The Kosovo Conflict — The Media & the Balkans Crisis,” 2000 WRTH, p. 54. 50. The history of the system’s development is summarized in Bernd Trutenau, “Still Riding the Airwaves: The USSR’s Superpower Transmitters,” Monitoring Times, December 2003, p. 16. 51. For an overview of all the shortwave broadcasting facilities in Sri Lanka, see Victor Goonetilleke, “Broadcasting Out of Sri Lanka,” Monitoring Times, September 2004, p. 12.

Chapter 8 1. The listener effort included a dedicated website, http://www.savebbc.org. Two excellent analyses of the BBC’s decision, one by Richard D. Cuff, editor of NASWA’s “Easy Listening” column, and the other by NASWA Executive Council member Ralph Brandi (“An Open Letter to the BBC World Service”), may be found in the NASWA Journal, June 2001, p. 5 and 13 respectively. The BBC’s decision, and the reaction to it from within the shortwave community, is described in Arlyn T. Anderson, Shortwave Broadcasting in a New World Order: An Historical Examination of the Influence of Satellite Radio and Internet Radio on Shortwave Broadcasting Since the End of the Cold War,

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Ph.D. dissertation (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma, 2004), pp. 148–175; and Arlyn T. Anderson, “Changes at the BBC World Service: Documenting the World Service’s Move from Shortwave to Web Radio in North America, Australia, and New Zealand,” Journal of Radio Studies, Vol. 12, No. 2 (November 2005), p. 286. For more on the BBC’s termination of its broadcasts to North American, see John Figliozzi, “The BBC Should Reconsider,” Monitoring Times, July 1001, p. 92; and “A Message from Mark Byford, director, BBC World Service” [“Letters to the Editor”], Monitoring Times, August 2001, p. 6. 2. NASB Newsletter, February 2002. 3. RFE-RL and VOA called the language of Iran Persian rather than Farsi, consistent with some authorities who advise that Farsi, the commonly used English form of the name, is incorrect. See, e.g., http://www.iranian.com/ Features/Dec97/Persian/ and http://www.iranian.com/ Rezakhani/2005/March/Persian/index.html. 4. For a detailed account of this operation, see Mika Mäkeläinen, “Shock and Awe on the Air,” http://www. dxing.info/profiles/clandestine_information_iraq.dx. 5. See Jeffrey Heyman, “United Nations Peacekeeping Radio Stations—Propaganda for Peace,” Monitoring Times, November 2006, p. 9; and Michelle Betz, “Radio as Peacebuilder: A Case Study of Radio Okapi in the Democratic Republic of Congo,” Great Lakes Research Journal (online), Vol. 1, December 2004, p. 38, http://www.glrj.com/. 6. The Somalia broadcasting situation in 2000 was described in Hans Johnson, “Somalia on Shortwave,” Monitoring Times, June 2000, p. 24. 7. The history of broadcasting in Tibet is the subject of Manosij Guha, “Tibet: Making Waves Atop the World,” 2006 Passport, p. 39. 8. For a review of the shortwave broadcasting scene in Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia and Sudan in 2003, including clandestines, see Gerry L. Dexter, “Sounds from the Horn,” Popular Communications, March 2003, p. 8, and a series of articles by Hans Johnson in the 2003 Passport: “Ethiopia: Exiles Zap Media policy,” p. 10; “Eritrea: Africa’s Newest Nation,” p. 24; “Sudan: Millions Perish in Strife,” p. 32; and “Somalia: Clans Clash by Radio,” p. 41. 9. Adamov offered some reflections on his career in Joe Adamov, “Adamov,” Monitoring Times, October 1995, p. 12. 10. See John Figliozzi, “The Shrinking BBC and VOA,” Monitoring Times, June 2005, p. 36. 11. A fuller description of the Kurdish shortwave scene at the time is found in Gerry Dexter, “Kurdish Waves,” Popular Communications, February 2005, p. 12. 12. The station’s history is recounted in Richard A. D’Angelo, “Radio Voice of the People — Zimbabwe’s Alternative Voice,” Monitoring Times, November 2007, p. 13; and “Radio Voice of the People,” 2008 WRTH, p. 38. 13. The clandestine shortwave scene in 2007 is summarized in Gayle Van Horn, “Clandestine Radio— Voices for Change,” Monitoring Times, November 2007, p. 8.

Chapter 9 1. Colin M. Wilding, senior analyst, BBC World Service, “151 Million Listeners— But What Does It Mean?” in Oliver Zöllner, ed., An Essential Link with Audiences Worldwide — Research for International Broadcasting (Cologne, Germany: Deutsche Welle/VISTAS, 2002). 2. Bernard Bumpus and Barbara Skelt, Seventy Years of International Broadcasting (Paris, France: UNESCO, 1984), p. 31.

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3. See Thomas Grandin, The Political Use of the Radio (New York, NY: Arno and The New York Times, 1971, a reprint of the original, which was published in 1939 by the Geneva Research Centre, Geneva, Switzerland); Charles J. Rolo, Radio Goes to War (New York, NY: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1942); and K.R.M. Short, ed., Film & Radio Propaganda in World War II (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1983). 4. Bumpus and Skelt, supra note 2, Appendix. 5. Francis S. Ronalds, Jr., “The Future of International Broadcasting,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, No. 398 (1971), p. 71. 6. See Richard E. Wood, “Trends in the Naming of International Broadcasting Stations,” in E. Wallace McMullen, ed., Pubs, Place-Names, and Patronymics (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University [The Names Institute]), p. 192, reprinted in SPEEDX, July 1980, p. 42. 7. For an early discussion of this topic, see Douglas A. Boyd, “The Effects of New Media, Political Developments, and Social Change on International Radio Consumption Patterns,” in Howard Aster, ed., Challenges for International Broadcasting (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1991), p. 65. 8. The U.S.-Soviet and U.S.-Cuban “radio wars” and the jamming, diplomacy, reprisals, and other strategies associated with it are described in Hazel G. Warlaumont, “Strategies in International Radio Wars: A Comparative Approach,” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, Vol. 32, No. 1 (1988), p. 43. 9. See Sherwood H. Demitz, “International Broadcasting Faces the Challenge of the New Media,” in Michael O’Hara Garcia, ed., Turning Up the Volume on International Radio (Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1991). The “Turning Up the Volume” conference was summarized in Jeff Chanowitz, “Turning Up the Volume on Shortwave Radio,” Monitoring Times, October 1991, p. 22. 10. Rebroadcasting, either by relaying on-air shortwave broadcasts or playing transcriptions provided by foreign stations, is not new. During World War II it was used extensively, particularly in Latin America, by German and U.S. broadcasters. Rolo, supra note 3 at p. 234; Lenore Emily Franz, Short-Wave Communications to Latin America, master’s thesis (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, 1947), p. 103); Fred Allan Fejes, Imperialism, Media, and the Good Neighbor: New Deal Foreign Policy and United States Shortwave Broadcasting to Latin America, Ph.D. dissertation (Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, 1982), p. 141. 11. “Transforming BBC World Service for a Digital Age: A Strategy for 2020 and Beyond,” October 25, 2005, http: //www.bbc.co.uk/atw/wschange/what_changes/Nigels_mes sge.shtml. 12. See Arlyn T. Anderson, Shortwave Broadcasting in a New World Order: An Historical Examination of the Influence of Satellite Radio and Internet Radio on Shortwave Broadcasting Since the End of the Cold War, Ph.D. dissertation (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma, 2004), in particular chapters 9 and 11. 13. Arthur D. Little Study, quoted in NASB Newsletter, July 2006. 14. John Figliozzi, “Things Learned at the Shortwave Winterfest,” Monitoring Times, May 2000, p. 69. 15. Dr. Chris Westcott, quoted in “The Future of Radio,” 2006 WRTH, p. 50. 16. Graham Mytton, “International Radio Continues to Depend on Shortwave: An Evaluation of Its Myths of Decline,” in Oliver Zöllner, ed., Targeting International Audiences—Current and Future Approaches to International

Broadcasting Research, 2004 (Bonn, Germany: CIBAR, 2005), pp. 153, 163; and NASB Newsletter, May 2005. 17. Comment of Myrna Whitworth, former acting director and director of programming, VOA, Panel Two, “International Broadcasting: The Public Diplomacy Challenge,” a conference sponsored by the Public Diplomacy Council and the School of Media and Public Affairs, George Washington University, on November 16, 2006, available at http://www.publicdiplomacycouncil .org/uploads/ Microsoft_Word_-_Forum_International_Bcasting_ Transcript_Panel_Two.pdf. 18. Kim Andrew Elliott, “A Comparison of the Four Media of International Broadcasting,” presentation to the Broadcast Education Association, April 5, 2002, http:// www.kimandrewelliott.com/index.php?s=Writings. 19. Interviewees of VT Communications, quoted in “The Future of Radio,” 2006 WRTH, p. 50. 20. See Doreen Carvajal, “Shortwave Radio Era Looks Short-lived,” International Herald Tribune, September 25, 2006, p. 11, and http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/09/24/ business/radio25.php. 21. Arthur D. Little Study, 2006, cited in “Will DRM Boost the Shortwave Market?” NASB Newsletter, July 2006. 22. Stephen Hegarty, deputy research director, InterMedia, “Shortwave Around the World,” NASB Newsletter, May 2006. 23. Comment by Graham Mytton, in Elzbieta Olechowska and Howard Aster, eds., Challenges for International Broadcasting — Identity, Economics, Integration (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1995), p. 302. 24. House Report Accompanying H.R. 5672, 109th Congress, 2d Session, Report 109–520, June 22, 2006, p. 128. 25. NASB Newsletter, May 2005. 26. Kim Andrew Elliott “Shortwave Broadcasting Begins Its Long Slow Fade (but International Broadcasting Endures),” 1995 WRTH, p. 572. 27. U.S. International Broadcasting: New Strategic Approach Focuses on Reaching Large Audiences But Lacks Measurable Program Objectives (Report to the Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives) (Washington, D.C.: U.S. General Accounting Office, July 2003), p. 34. 28. Hegarty, supra note 22. 29. Elliott, supra note 26. 30. Colin M. Wilding, “Shortwave: Facing the Facts,” in Zöllner, Targeting International Audiences, supra note 16 at p. 165. 31. However, the shortwave percentage for 1999 had been 85 percent (FM was 10 percent). David Jackson, director, Voice of America, quoted in “The Future of Radio II,” 2007 WRTH, p. 32. 32. Graham Mytton, “International Radio Continues to Depend on Shortwave: An Evaluation of Its Myths of Decline,” in Zöllner, Targeting International Audiences, supra note 16 at p. 153; Listening In, April 2005, p. 4; and NASB Newsletter, May 2005; see also Graham Mytton, “Trends in Audiences to International Radio Broadcasts and the Future,” in Aster, Challenges (1991), supra note 7 at p. 132. 33. Dieter Weirich, director general, Deutsche Welle, in “Shortwave for the Future,” Monitoring Times, November 1997, p. 12. 34. NASB Newsletter, January 2004. 35. In 2001, a poll of visitors to Radio Canada International’s website indicated that 85 percent listened to RCI primarily on shortwave. Richard D. Cuff, “Don’t Count Shortwave Out Just Yet,” NASWA Journal, January 2001, p. 5. In 2005, Deutsche Welle claimed a combined radio and TV audience of 63 million, of whom some 55 million were

Notes. Chapter 9 listening on shortwave. Dr. Peter Senger, quoted in “The Future of Radio,” 2006 WRTH, p. 50. The same year, twothirds of those listening to the BBC World Service were tuned to shortwave, compared with about one-third on FM. In 2007 the shortwave figure was 58 percent. BBC information leaflet prepared for the 2007 World Radiocommunication Conference, “Shortwave Radio: Alive and AllImportant,” http://www.hfcc.org/pro/index.html. 36. Nigel Chapman, director, BBC World Service, quoted in “The Future of Radio II,” 2007 WRTH, p. 32. 37. Anker Petersen, “Trends in Tropical Bands Broadcasting 2007,” Short Wave News, July-August 2007, p. 22; NASWA Journal, July 2007, p. 17. 38. The activities of another group, the “International Broadcasting Group,” active since 1976, are related in Elzbieta Olechowska, The Age of International Radio: Radio Canada International (1945–2007) (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 2007), pp. 114–124. The group’s general purpose was to further the recognition of international broadcasting as a medium distinct from the domestic broadcasting of the stations’ parent organizations. 39. Oliver Zöllner, ed., An Essential Link with Audiences Worldwide — Research for International Broadcasting (Cologne, Germany: Deutsche Welle/VISTAS, 2002); Oliver Zöllner, ed., Reaching Audiences Worldwide — Perspectives of International Broadcasting and Audience Research, 2001/2002 (Bonn, Germany: CIBAR, 2003); Oliver Zöllner, ed., Beyond Borders — Research for International Broadcasting, 2003 (Bonn, Germany: CIBAR, 2004); and Oliver Zöllner, ed., Targeting International Audiences — Current and Future Approaches to International Broadcasting Research, 2004 (Bonn, Germany: CIBAR, 2005). 40. Howard Aster, ed., Challenges for International Broadcasting (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1991); Francois Demers, Howard Aster and Elzbieta Olechowska, eds., Challenges for International Broadcasting—New Democracies: the Means and the Message (Cap-Rouge, Quebec: Les Presses Inter Universitaire, 1993); Elzbieta Olechowska and Howard Aster, eds., Challenges for International Broadcasting — Identity, Economics, Integration (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1995); Howard Aster and Elzbieta Olechowska, eds., Challenges for International Broadcasting—The Audience First? (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1998); Elzbieta Olechowska and Howard Aster, eds., Challenges for International Broadcasting V — New Tools, New Skills, New Horizons (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1999); and Elzbieta Olechowska and Howard Aster, eds., Challenges for International Broadcasting VI—Programming: The Heart of International Radio (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 2001). 41. Garcia, supra note 9. 42. For a good discussion of the issues facing international broadcasters, and the role of shortwave, see John Figliozzi, “A Turning Point for International Broadcasting?” Monitoring Times, January 1999, p. 22; John Figliozzi, “Charting a Future for International Radio Broadcasting— I,” Monitoring Times, December 1999, p. 65; and John Figliozzi, “Charting a Future for International Radio Broadcasting—II,” Monitoring Times, January 2000, p. 69. 43. The subject of shortwave programming is covered in more detail in Chapter 2 of Listening on the Short Waves, 1945 to Today. 44. Anderson, supra note 12 at p. 82. 45. Harry Helms, “Are Shortwave Broadcasters Failing Listeners?” Monitoring Times, November 2002, p. 92, quoted with the permission of MT. 46. Communication with the author, November 2007. 47. NASB Newsletter, July 2003, quoting Senger speak-

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ing at the 2003 World Radiocommunication Conference, Geneva, Switzerland. 48. NASB Newsletter, May 2005. For a concise history of the shortwave transmitter industry, see James Wood, History of International Broadcasting, Vol. 2 (Stevenage, Herts., U.K.: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2000), chapters 22 and 23. 49. See Eric Bueneman, “DRM Is Not the Answer to Shortwave’s Woes,” NASWA Journal, November 2005, p. 15. 50. NASB Newsletter, March 2004. 51. For a detailed review of DRM broadcasting in Europe at the end of 2006, see Bernd Trutenau, “DRM Broadcasts in Europe,” Monitoring Times, November 2006, p. 15. 52. NASB Newsletter, May 2004, and June 2004. 53. Critical Distance Gossip E-zine, September 2004, p. 3. 54. E.g., “The Future of Radio II,” 2007 WRTH, p. 32. 55. Mytton, “International Radio Continues to Depend on Shortwave,” supra note 16 at p. 153; and NASB Newsletter, May 2005. 56. Martin Peters, BBC Monitoring Research, November 26, 2004, reprinted in Listening In, December 2004, p. 5, and NASWA Journal, October 2005, p. 12. 57. Frank Conrad, asst. chief engineer, Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co., “The Story of Short Waves,” Science (New Series), Vol. 91, No. 2534 (Feb. 9, 1940), p. 131. 58. Jim Vastenhoud, “Is There a Future for Shortwave Broadcasting?” in Jim Vastenhoud (arranger and compiler) and Jens M. Frost (ed.), World DX Guide (London, England: Billboard, 1978), p. 174. 59. E.g., Edgar T. Martin and George Jacobs, “The Future of Shortwave Broadcasting,” SWL, Pt. I, December 1968, p. 2; Pt. II, January 1969, p. 1; Pt. III, March 1969, p. 3; Edgar T. Martin and George Jacobs, “Shortwave Broadcasting in the 1970’s,” How to Listen to the World 1971 (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-Television Handbook, 6th ed. 1971), p. 4; Lawrence E. Magne, “International Broadcasting in the 1980s,” 1977 WRTH, p. 18; George Jacobs, “International Broadcasting, It’s Alive and Kicking on the Shortwave Bands,” 1979 WRTH, p. 36; Kim Andrew Elliott, “Shortwave Broadcasting Begins Its Long Slow Fade (but International Broadcasting Endures),” 1995 WRTH, p. 572. 60. For a discussion of the subject, see Chapter 3, “World Conflicts and International Broadcasting,” in Elzbieta Olechowska and Howard Aster, eds., Challenges for International Broadcasting VI — Programming: The Heart of International Radio (Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 2001), p. 67. 61. Philip Shenon, “Shortwave Radios: More Powerful, More Portable,” The New York Times, December 2, 1990, pp. XX–3. 62. See John Tusa, A World in Your Ear (London, England: Broadside, 1992), pp. 16–24 (“Listening in Captivity”); Henrik Klemetz, “Shortwave Brings Hope to Hostages,” Monitoring Times, January 1997, p. 22. 63. Ian McFarland, “The Broadcaster’s Forum,” DX Ontario, October 1995, p. 70. 64. Reported in the BBC program “The Story of Scrapbook,” November 1957, and cited in Asa Briggs, The BBC: The First Fifty Years (Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 82, and Asa Briggs, The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom, Vol. 1— The Birth of Broadcasting (London, England: Oxford University Press, 1961), p. 224.

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Selected Bibliography Books and Other Major Works

Browne, Donald R. The Voice of America: Policies and Problems. Lexington, KY: Journalism Monographs, No. 43, Association for Education in Journalism, February 1976. Bryant, John H., Guy Atkins, Kevin Atkins, Elton Byington, David M. Clark and Fritz Mellberg, eds. Proceedings. Stillwater, OK: Fine Tuning Special Publications, Vol. 1, 1988; Vol. 2, 1989; Vol. 3, 1990; Vol. 4, 1991; Vol. 5, 1992–93; Vol. 6, 1994–95. Bumpus, Bernard, and Barbara Skelt. Seventy Years of International Broadcasting. Paris, France: UNESCO, 1984. Cain, John. The BBC: 70 Years of Broadcasting. London, England: BBC Information Services, 1992. Cant, Jeff. 50 Years of Transmitting at BBC Woofferton, 1943–1993. 2006, http://www.bbceng.info/Operations/ transmitter_ops/Reminiscences/Reminiscences.htm. Childs, Harwood L., and John B. Whitton, eds. Propaganda by Shortwave. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1942. Christman, Trent. Brass Button Broadcasters. Paducah, KY: Turner, 1992. Clark, Andrew M. The Use of International Radio Broadcasting by Regional Powers in the Post–Cold War Era: A Case Study of Radio Australia and All India Radio, Ph.D. dissertation. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida, 2003. Codding, George A., Jr. Broadcasting Without Barriers. Paris, France: UNESCO, 1959. Codding, George Arthur, Jr. The International Telecommunication Union — An Experiment in International Cooperation. Leiden, Netherlands: E.J. Brill, 1952. The Constant Voice. Melbourne, Australia: Australian Broadcasting Corp. and Radio Australia, 1st ed. 1964; 2d ed. 1969. Critchlow, James. Radio Hole-in-the-Head/Radio Liberty: An Insider’s Story of Cold War Broadcasting. Washington, D.C.: American University Press, 1995. Davies, Ken. Skelton, Penrith and the World, 1943–1993. Carlisle, Cumbria, England: Cumbria County Council, 1995. Delay, Theodore Stuart, Jr. An Historical Study of the Armed Forces Radio Service to 1946, Ph.D. dissertation.

Alexandre, Laurien. The Voice of America: From Detente to the Reagan Doctrine. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1988. Anderson, Arlyn T. Shortwave Broadcasting in a New World Order: An Historical Examination of the Influence of Satellite Radio and Internet Radio on Shortwave Broadcasting Since the End of the Cold War, Ph.D. dissertation. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma, 2004. Aster, Howard, ed. Challenges for International Broadcasting. Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1991. _____ and Elzbieta Olechowska, eds. Challenges for International Broadcasting — The Audience First? Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1998. Awasthy, G.C. Broadcasting in India. Bombay, India: Allied Publishers Private Ltd., 1965. Bailey, Alan. 2008 — It Was Great. U.K.: Alan Bailey, 2006. Baruah, U.L. This Is All India Radio. New Delhi, India: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1983. BBC Annual, BBC Handbook, BBC Yearbook. London, England: BBC, various eds., 1928–1969. Boyd, Douglas A. Broadcasting in the Arab World: A Survey of the Electronic Media in the Middle East. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1993. _____. Egyptian Radio: Tool of Political and National Development. Lexington, KY: Journalism Monographs, No. 48, Association for Education in Journalism, February 1977. Briggs, Asa. The BBC: The First Fifty Years. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 1985. _____. The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom. London, England: Oxford University Press, Vol. I, The Birth of Broadcasting (1961); Vol. II, The Golden Age of Wireless (1965); Vol. III, The War of Words (1970); Vol. IV, Sound and Vision (1978); Vol. V, Competition (1995). Broadcasting in Japan: Twentieth Century Journey from Radio to Multimedia. Tokyo, Japan: NHK, 2002. Broadcasting Stations of the World. Washington, D.C.: Foreign Broadcast Information Service, published periodically, 1945–74.

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476

Selected Bibliography

Los Angeles, California: University of Southern California, 1951. Demers, François, Howard Aster and Elzbieta Olechowska, eds. Challenges for International Broadcasting — New Democracies: The Means and the Message. Cap-Rouge, Quebec: Les Presses Inter Universitaire, 1993. Dexter, Gerry L. Clandestine Confidential. Columbus, OH: Universal Electronics, 1984. Dizard, Wilson P., Jr. Inventing Public Diplomacy: The Story of the U.S. Information Agency. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2004. Emery, Walter B. National and International Systems of Broadcasting: Their History, Operation and Control. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 1969. Fejes, Fred Allan. Imperialism, Media, and the Good Neighbor: New Deal Foreign Policy and United States Shortwave Broadcasting to Latin America, Ph. D. dissertation. University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, 1982. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986. 50 Years of Japanese Broadcasting. Tokyo, Japan: Radio & TV Culture Research Institute, NHK, 1977. Finnie, Andrew K. Radio Canada International, 1945– 1995. Montreal, Quebec: Radio Canada International, 1996. Fortner, Robert S. International Communication: History, Conflict, and Control of the Global Metropolis. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1993. Fox, Elizabeth. Latin American Broadcasting — From Tango to Telenovela. Luton, England: John Libbey, 1997. _____, ed. Media and Politics in Latin America — The Struggle for Democracy. London, England: SAGE, 1988. Franz, Lenore Emily. Short-Wave Communications to Latin America, master’s thesis. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, speech, 1947. Frederick, Howard H. Cuban-American Radio Wars: Ideology in International Communications. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986. Freed, Paul E. Let the Earth Hear. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1980. _____. Towers to Eternity. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1967, 1979 and 1994. Frost, J.M., ed., How to Listen to the World 1969/70 (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-Television Handbook, 5th ed. 1969); How to Listen to the World 1971 (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 6th ed. 1971); How to Listen to the World (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 7th ed. 1973); How to Listen to the World (Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 8th ed. 1974). This series is numbered irregularly; it began under O. Lund Johansen, ed. Garcia, Michael O’Hara, ed. Turning Up the Volume on International Radio. Washington, D.C.: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 1991. Ghani, Wasim. The Success Prospect of a Canadian Foreign Language International Radio Service, master’s thesis. Toronto, Ontario: Ryerson University and York University, 2002.

Giblin, Helen L. The BBC External Services: National Priorities and the Development of the Language Services 1932–1946, master’s thesis. Houston, Texas: University of Houston, School of Communication, 1994. Gilder, Eric. The History of Pirate Radio in Britain and the End of BBC Monopoly in Radio Broadcasting in the United Kingdom, master’s thesis. Denton, Texas: North Texas State University, 1982. Grace, Alan. The Link with Home—Sixty Years of Forces Radio. London, England: Services Sound and Vision, 2003. Grandin, Thomas. The Political Use of the Radio, New York, NY: Arno and The New York Times, 1971, a reprint of the original, which was published in 1939 by the Geneva Research Centre, Geneva, Switzerland. Hale, Julian. Radio Power: Propaganda and International Broadcasting. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1975. Hall, James L. Radio Canada International: Voice of a Middle Power. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 1997. Harris, Paul. Broadcasting From the High Seas: The History of Offshore Radio in Europe, 1958–76. Edinburgh, Scotland: Paul Harris, 1977. Harris, Paul. To Be a Pirate King. Aberdeen, Scotland: Impulse, 1971. _____. When Pirates Ruled the Waves. London, England: Impulse, 4th ed. 1970. Haslach, Robert D. Netherlands World Broadcasting. Media, PA: Lawrence Miller, 1983. He, Zhou, and Jianhua Zhu. The “Voice of America” and China: Zeroing in on Tiananmen Square. Columbia, SC: Journalism Monographs, No. 143, Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, February 1994. Head, Sydney W. World Broadcasting Systems—A Comparative Analysis. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1985. _____, ed. Broadcasting in Africa. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1974. Heil, Alan L., Jr. Voice of America: A History. New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 2003. Hennes, David A. U.S. International Broadcasting: An Assessment for Reform. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, August 2, 1991, revised September 9, 1991. Hill, George H. Airwaves to the Soul: The Influence and Growth of Religious Broadcasting in America. Saratoga, CA: R&E Publishers, 1983. _____ and Lenwood Davis. Religious Broadcasting, 1920–1983: A Selectively Annotated Bibliography. New York, NY: Garland, 1984. The History of Broadcasting in Japan. Tokyo, Japan: Radio & TV Culture Research Institute, NHK, 1967. History of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs: Historical Reports on War Administration. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1948. Hitchcock, Eric. Radio SEAC’s Transmitters, draft. South Croydon, Surrey, U.K.: 2007. Hixson, Walter L. Parting the Curtain: Propaganda, Cul-

Selected Bibliography ture, and the Cold War, 1945–1961. New York, NY: St. Martin’s, 1997. Hodge, Errol. Radio Wars: Truth, Propaganda and the Struggle for Radio Australia. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Howell, W.J., Jr. World Broadcasting in the Age of the Satellite. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1986). IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, Special Issue on Short-Wave Broadcasting. Vol. 34, No. 2. New York, NY: IEEE Broadcast Technology Society, June 1988. Jensen, Don. “Clandestine Radio Operations in the Cuban Revolutionary and Counter-Revolutionary Movement, 1953–1965—Part I, Revolutionary (pro– Castro) Radio Activities,” “Part II, Counter-Revolutionary (anti–Castro) Radio Activities.” DXplorer Radio Association, 1965, unpublished. _____. “Radio Swan and Radio Americas.” 1965, unpublished. Johansen, O. Lund, ed. How to Listen to the World (Hellerup, Denmark: World Radio Handbook [or World Radio-Television Handbook], 1st ed., undated, c. 1950; 2d and 3d eds., undated, c. 1952; 4th and 5th eds., undated, c. 1953); How to Listen to the World (Hellerup, Denmark: World Radio-Television Handbook, 6th ed. 1956); How to Listen to the World (Hellerup, Denmark: O. Lund Johansen, 7th ed., 1959 and 1960); How to Listen to the World “5” (Hellerup, Denmark: O. Lund Johansen, undated, c. 1962); How to Listen to the World, 1963/64 “6” (Hellerup, Denmark: O. Lund Johansen, 1963); How to Listen to the World, 1965/66 “11” (Hellerup, Denmark: World Pubs., 1965); How to Listen to the World, 1966/67 “12” (Hellerup, Denmark: World Pubs., 1967). This series is numbered irregularly; it continued under J.M. Frost, ed. _____. Kørtbolge-Haandbog. Copenhagen, Denmark: O. Lund Johansen, 1945. Jones, Clarence W. Radio, The New Missionary. Chicago, IL: Moody, 1946. King, James Calvin. A Survey and Analysis of the Major International Evangelical Short Wave Broadcasters: Trans World Radio, HCJB and the Far East Broadcasting Company, Ph.D. dissertation. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan, 1973. Kirby, Edward M., and Jack W. Harris. Star-Spangled Radio. Chicago, IL: Ziff-Davis, 1948. Krugler, David F. The Voice of America and the Domestic Propaganda Battles, 1945–1953. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2000. Krugler, David Frederick, The Voice of America and the Republican Cold War, 1945 to 1953, Ph.D. dissertation. Urbana-Champaign, IL: University of Illinois, 1997. Kushner, James Michael. International Religious Radio Broadcasting in Africa: Program Policies and Problem Areas, Ph.D. dissertation. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, Mass Communications, 1976. Ledyard, Gleason H. Sky Waves. Chicago, IL: Moody, 1968. Lent, John A., ed. Broadcasting in Asia and the Pacific. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1978.

477

Lin, Pai-ting. The Historical Development of the Republic of China’s Domestic and International Broadcasting and Its Political Role, master’s thesis. Houston, Texas: University of Houston, 1996. Lisann, Maury. Broadcasting to the Soviet Union: International Politics and Radio. New York, NY: Praeger, 1975. Lowery, G.P. Skelton Transmitting Station 1942 to 1998 — Over Half a Century of Shortwave Broadcasting, http://www.bbceng.info/Operations/transmit ter_ops/Reminiscences/skelton/sk1.htm. Lundgren, Manfred. Proclaiming Christ to the World: The Experience of Radio Voice of the Gospel, 1957– 1977. Geneva, Switzerland: Lutheran World Federation, 1983. Mackay, Ian K. Broadcasting in Australia. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 1957. _____. Broadcasting in Nigeria. Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University Press, 1964. _____. Broadcasting in Papua New Guinea. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 1976. Magne, Lawrence, ed. Passport to World Band Radio. Penn’s Park, PA: International Broadcasting Services, various annual eds., 1988–2008. _____. Radio Database International. Penn’s Park, PA: International Broadcasting Services, various eds., 1985–87. Mansell, Gerard. Let Truth Be Told: 50 Years of BBC External Broadcasting. London, England: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1982. McPhail, Thomas L. Electronic Colonialism—The Future of International Broadcasting and Communication. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 2d. ed. 1987. Meo, L.D. Japan’s Radio War on Australia, 1941–1945. Melbourne, Australia: Melbourne University Press, 1968. Mickelson, Sig. America’s Other Voice: The Story of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. New York, NY: Praeger, 1983. Morley, Patrick. “This Is the American Forces Network [Europe].” Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001. Mostert, Andre J.E., Jr. A History of WRUL—The Walter S. Lemmon Years, 1931–1960, master’s thesis. Salt Lake City, UT: Brigham Young University, Dept. of Communications, 1969. Nelson, Michael. War of the Black Heavens. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1997. Nichols, Richard. Radio Luxembourg — The Station of the Stars. London, England: W.H. Allen, 1983. Olechowska, Elzbieta. The Age of International Radio: Radio Canada International (1945–2007). Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 2007. _____ and Howard Aster, eds. Challenges for International Broadcasting — Identity, Economics, Integration. Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1995. _____. Challenges for International Broadcasting V — New Tools, New Skills, New Horizons. Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1999. _____. Challenges for International Broadcasting VI — Programming: The Heart of International Radio. Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 2001.

478

Selected Bibliography

Orlick, Peter Blythe. The South African Broadcasting Corporation: An Historical Survey and Contemporary Analysis, Ph. D. dissertation. Detroit, Michigan: Wayne State University, 1968. Parta, R. Eugene. Discovering the Hidden Listener. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 2007. Partner, Peter. Arab Voices: The BBC Arabic Service, 1938–1988. London, England: BBC External Services, 1988. Paulu, Burton. Factors In the Attempts to Establish a Permanent Instrumentality for the Administration of the International Broadcasting Services of the United States, Ph.D. dissertation. New York, NY: New York University, School of Education, 1949. Pawley, Edward. BBC Engineering. London, England: BBC, 1972. Peterson, Adrian M. Voice of America Relay Bases. Box Hill, Vic., Australia: Australian Radio DX Club, 1977; also serialized in the February to September (except July) 1977 and May 1978 issues of SPEEDX. Pirsein, Robert William. The Voice of America: A History of the International Broadcasting Activities of the United States Government, 1940–1962, Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, 1970. New York, NY: Arno, 1979. Pleikys, Rimantas. Jamming. Vilnius, Lithuania: Rimantas Pleikys, 1998. Puddington, Arch. Broadcasting Freedom — The Cold War Triumph of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2000. Redding, Jerry Ray. American Private International Broadcasting: What Went Wrong and Why, Ph.D. dissertation. Columbus, OH: Ohio State University, Mass Communication, 1977. Reed, Jane, and Jim Grant, Voice Under Every Palm. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1968. The Reminiscences of Donald G. Little. New York, NY: Oral History Research Office, Columbia University, 1984, microfiche. Ripmaster, Terence M. Willis Conover — Broadcasting Jazz to the World. Lincoln, NE: iUniverse, 2007. Robbins, Jane. Tokyo Calling: Japanese Overseas Radio Broadcasting, 1937–1945. Firenze, Italy: European Press Academic Publishing, 2001. Rolo, Charles J. Radio Goes to War. New York, NY: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1942. Rosenthal, Eric. You Have Been Listening ... . Cape Town, South Africa: Purnell & Sons, 1974. Salwen, Michael B. Radio and Television in Cuba: The Pre-Castro Era. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press, 1994. Schwoch, James.The American Radio Industry and Its Latin American Activities, 1900–1939. Urbana and Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1990. Shacklady, Norman, and Martin Ellen. On Air: A History of BBC Transmission. Orpington, Kent, England: Wavechange, 2003. Short, K.R.M., ed. Film & Radio Propaganda in World War II. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1983.

Shulman, Holly Cowan. The Voice of America: Propaganda and Democracy, 1941–1945. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990. Sidel, Michael Kent. A Historical Analysis of American Short Wave Broadcasting, 1916–1942, Ph.D. dissertation. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University, 1976. Siegel, Arthur. Radio Canada International: History and Development. Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1996. Simhi, Kohava. The Historical Development of Kol Israel as an International Broadcaster, master’s thesis. Houston, Texas: University of Houston, School of Communication, 1993. Soley, Lawrence. Free Radio—Electronic Civil Disobedience. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1999. Soley, Lawrence C. Radio Warfare: OSS and CIA Subversive Propaganda. New York, NY: Praeger, 1989. _____ and John S. Nichols. Clandestine Radio Broadcasting —A Study of Revolutionary and Counterrevolutionary Electronic Communication. New York, NY: Praeger, 1987. Sosin, Gene. Sparks of Liberty: An Insider’s Memoir of Radio Liberty. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University, 1999. Stoneman, Timothy H.B. Capturing Believers: American International Radio, Religion, and Reception, 1931–1970, Ph.D. dissertation. Atlanta, Georgia: Georgia Institute of Technology, School of History, Technology and Society, 2006. Taylor, Doreen. A Microphone and a Frequency: Forty Years of Forces Broadcasting. London: William Heinemann, 1983. Tomalin, Norman. Daventry Calling the World. Whitby, North Yorkshire, England: Caedmon of Whitby, 1998. Tomlinson, John D. International Control of Radiocommunications [1945]. New York, NY: Arno, 1979 (reprint). Tyson, James L. U.S. International Broadcasting and National Security. New York, NY: Ramapo, 1983. Usher, Len, and Hugh Leonard. This Is Radio Fiji: Twenty-Five Years of Service, 1954 –1979. Suva, Fiji: Information Services South Pacific (for Fiji Broadcasting Commission), 1979. Vision to Reach the World. Colorado Springs, CO: HCJB Global, 2006. Walker, Andrew. A Skyful of Freedom: 60 Years of the BBC World Service. London, England: Broadside, 1992. Winter, David. Seychelles Calling. Woking, Surrey, England: Far East Broadcasting Assn., 1971. Wood, James. History of International Broadcasting. Stevenage, Herts., U.K.: Peter Peregrinus, 1992. _____. History of International Broadcasting, Vol. 2. Stevenage, Herts., U.K.: Institution of Electrical Engineers, 2000. World Radio TV Handbook, published annually from 1947 to 2008; originally edited and published by O. Lund Johansen in Hellerup, Denmark, later edited by others and published in varying venues; also WRTH Summer Supplement, annually, 1959–66, and WRTH Summer Edition, annually, 1967–71.

Selected Bibliography Xie, Shuying. People’s Republic of China’s International Broadcasting: History, Structure, Policy and Politics, master’s thesis. Houston, Texas: University of Houston, 1992. Yoder, Andrew R. Pirate Radio Stations: Tuning in to Underground Broadcasts. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Tab, 1990. _____. Pirate Radio Stations — Tuning in to Underground Broadcasts in the Air and Online. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Zöllner, Oliver, ed. Beyond Borders—Research for International Broadcasting, 2003. Bonn, Germany: CIBAR, 2004. _____. An Essential Link with Audiences Worldwide — Research for International Broadcasting. Cologne, Germany: Deutsche Welle/VISTAS, 2002. _____. Reaching Audiences Worldwide — Perspectives of International Broadcasting and Audience Research, 2001/2002. Bonn, Germany: CIBAR, 2003. _____. Targeting International Audiences—Current and Future Approaches to International Broadcasting Research, 2004. Bonn, Germany: CIBAR, 2005.

Articles “American Short Wave Broadcasting — What’s Wrong with It?” Short Wave & Television, September 1938, p. 265. Anderson, Arlyn T. “Changes at the BBC World Service: Documenting the World Service’s Move from Shortwave to Web Radio in North America, Australia, and New Zealand.” Journal of Radio Studies, Vol. 12, No. 2 (November 2005), p. 286. Armour, Charles. “The BBC and the Development of Broadcasting in British Colonial Africa 1946–1956.” African Affairs, Vol. 83, No. 332 (July 1984), p. 359. Asian Broadcasting Institute, “An Investigative Report on Mysterious Chinese Clandestine Stations.” http:// www.246.ne.jp/~abi/chiclae1.htm. Bale, B.J. “The BBC Shortwave Station Daventry.” In J.M. Frost, ed., 1976 World Radio TV Handbook. Hvidovre, Denmark: Billboard, 1976, p. 16 (“Listen to the World”). Betz, Michelle. “Radio as Peacebuilder: A Case Study of Radio Okapi in the Democratic Republic of Congo.” Great Lakes Research Journal (online), Vol. 1, December 2004, p. 38, http://www.glrj.com/ Borra, Ranjan. “The Problem of Jamming in International Broadcasting.” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. XI, No. 4 (Fall 1967), p. 360. Boyd, Douglas A. “Hebrew-Language Clandestine Radio Broadcasting During the British Palestine Mandate.” Journal of Radio Studies, Vol. 6, No. 1 (1999), p. 101. _____. “The Pre-History of the Voice of America.” Public Telecommunications Review, Vol. 2, No. 6 (December 1974), p. 38. _____. “Sharq al-Adna/The Voice of Britain.” Gazette:

479

The International Journal for Communication Studies, Vol. 65, No. 6 (2003), p. 443. _____ and John Y. Benzies, “SOFIRAD: France’s International Commercial Media Empire.” Journal of Communication, Vol. 33, No. 2 (Spring 1983), p. 56. Brannigan, Alice. “Broadcasting from the Outlaw Empire.” Popular Communications, April 2000, p. 16. _____. “Radio Swan: At Last, (Most of ) the Story!” Popular Communications, June 1999, p. 8. “Brief History of Radio Swan.” In Jon Elliston, ed., Psywar on Cuba: The Declassified History of U.S. AntiCastro Propaganda. Hoboken, NJ: Ocean, 1999, p. 59, and at http://www.cubapolidata.com/ach/ach_ taylor_report.html#2. Browne, Donald R. “The BBC and the Pirates: A Phase in the Life of a Prolonged Monopoly.” Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 48, No. 1 (Spring 1971), p. 85. _____. “Going International: How BBC Began Foreign Language Broadcasting.” Journalism Quarterly, Vol. 60, No. 3 (Autumn 1983), p. 423. _____. “International Commercial Radio Broadcasting: Nation Shall Speak Profit Unto Nation.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, Vol. 30, No. 2 (Spring 1986), p. 195. _____. “International Religious Broadcasting and the Third World.” In Howard Aster, ed., Challenges for International Broadcasting. Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1991, p. 99. _____. “The Voices of Palestine: A Broadcasting House Divided.” Middle East Journal, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Spring 1975), p. 133. _____. “WINB: A Private ‘Voice of America.’” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Spring 1972), p. 147. _____. “The World in the Pentagon’s Shadow.” Educational Broadcasting Review, Vol. 5, No. 2 (April 1971), p. 31. Bumpus, Bernard. “Broadcasting and Audience Research in the Middle East.” Bulletin (British Society for Middle Eastern Studies), Vol. 6, No. 9 (1979), p. 13. Careless, James. “The Odd World of U.S. Shortwave.” Radio World Online, April 7, 2004, http://www.rwon line.com/reference-room/special-report/05_rwf_ shortwave_2.shtml. Carlton, Leonard. “Voice of America: The Overseas Radio Bureau.” Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 7, No. 1 (Spring 1943), p. 46. Carvajal, Doreen. “Shortwave Radio Era Looks Shortlived.” International Herald Tribune, September 25, 2006, Finance, p. 11, and http://www.iht.com/arti cles/2006/09/24/business/radio25.php. Chanowitz, Jeff. “International Broadcasting in the Post Cold War Era.” Monitoring Times, September 1994, p. 10. Chapman, Nigel. “Transforming BBC World Service for a Digital Age: A Strategy for 2020 and Beyond.” October 25, 2005, http://www.bbc.co.uk/atw/ws change/what_changes/Nigels_messge.shtml. “Cold War Broadcasting Impact.” Conference held at the Hoover Institution, Stanford University, October 13–16, 2004, http://www.hoover.org/research/ conferences/3042321.html.

480

Selected Bibliography

Conniff, Brian. “New Directions in U.S. International Broadcasting.” Foreign Service Journal, January 2004, p. 20. Conrad, Frank. “The Story of Short Waves.” An address delivered in 1940, in Science, New Series, Vol. 91, No. 2354, February 9, 1940, p. 131. Deihl, E. Roderick. “South of the Border: the NBC and CBS Radio Networks and the Latin American Venture, 1930–1942.” Communication Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 4 (Fall 1977), p. 2. Dexter, Gerry L. “The Anti-Castro Broadcasters.” Popular Communications, October 1994, p. 22. _____. “Back In the USSR — Tuning in on Change in the Soviet Union.” Popular Communications, July 1990, p. 9. _____. “Cuban Clandestines.” FRENDX, July 1981, p. 2. _____. “The Jamming Stops— Free Air at Last.” Popular Communications, June 1989, p. 10. _____. “Kurdish Waves.” Popular Communications, February 2005, p. 12. _____. “Relay Madness!” Popular Communications, July 2002, p. 8. _____. “Relay Races.” Popular Communications, July 1991, p. 9. _____. “Sounds from the Horn.” Popular Communications, March 2003, p. 8. Dixon, Richard. “1988 — The Year of the Relay Exchanges!” In Andrew G. Sennitt, ed., 1989 World Radio TV Handbook. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Billboard, 1989, p. 542. Duke, S. B. “The Management of the Radio Spectrum.” In How to Listen to the World. Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 8th ed. 1974, p. 8, and World DX Guide. London, England: Billboard, 1978, p. 162 (same article). _____. “The Struggle for Frequencies.” In How to Listen to the World, 1966/67. Hellerup, Denmark: World, 1967, p. 48. Elliott, Kim Andrew. “A Comparison of the Four Media of International Broadcasting.” Presentation to the Broadcast Education Association, April 5, 2002, http: //www.kimandrewelliott.com/index.php?s=Writings. _____. “New Structures and Strategies for United States International Broadcasting.” Medford, MA: Edward R. Murrow Center of Public Diplomacy, Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Tufts University, 1991. _____. “No Comprendo: Why the World’s Largest English-speaking Country Should Broadcast to the World in English.” Radio Netherlands Media Network, February 16, 2006, available at http://www.ki mandrewelliott.com/index.php?s=Writings. _____. “Opinion: VOA Should Broadcast in English.” Radio World, April 7, 2004, available at http://www. kimandrewelliott.com/index.php?s=Writings. _____. “Shortwave Broadcasting Begins Its Long Slow Fade (but International Broadcasting Endures).” In Andrew G. Sennitt, ed., 1995 World Radio TV Handbook. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Billboard, 1995, p. 572. _____. “Too Many Voices of America.” Foreign Policy, No. 77 (Winter 1989-90), p. 113, and in Howard

Aster, ed., Challenges for International Broadcasting. Oakville, Ontario: Mosaic, 1991, p. 117. Figliozzi, John. “Charting a Future for International Radio Broadcasting—I.” Monitoring Times, December 1999, p. 65; “II.” Monitoring Times, January 2000, p. 69. Fisher, John. “Shortwave Radio in Russia.” Proceedings (Vol. 6, 1994–95), p. F35.1. Forman, Harrison. “The Voice of China.” Collier’s, June 17, 1944, p. 14. Fortner, Robert S. “Saving the World? American Evangelicals and Transnational Broadcasting.” In Quentin J. Schultze, ed., American Evangelicals and the Mass Media. Grand Rapids, MI: Academie, 1990, p. 307. Garay, Ronald. “WRNO Worldwide: A Case Study in Licensing Private U.S. International Broadcast Stations.” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 26, No. 3 (Summer 1982), p. 641. Granville, Johanna. “Radio Free Europe and International Decision-Making During the Hungarian Crisis of 1956.” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Vol. 24, No. 4 (2004), p. 589. Guha, Manosij. “China’s Radio: Size Matters.” In Lawrence Magne, ed., Passport to World Band Radio. Penn’s Park, PA: International Broadcasting Services, 2006, p. 10. _____. “Radio in Germany — From Spark-Gap to Digital Shortwave.” Monitoring Times, April 2003, p. 10. Hajkowski, Thomas. “The BBC, the Empire, and the Second World War.” Historical Journal of Film, Radio & Television, Vol. 22, No. 2 (June 1, 2002), p. 135. Halenius, Ulf. “Off-Shore Radio Stations.” In How to Listen to the World 1971. Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 6th ed., 1971, p. 132. Hauser, Glenn. “Monitoring the Falklands Crisis.” Popular Electronics, September 1982, p. 94. Holloway, Dorothy. “China Looks Ahead in Radio.” Radio News, September 1945, p. 62. Holmes, Patricia A. “The Voice of America in Liberia: The End of the Road.” Liberian Studies Journal, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1992), p. 79. Hopkins, Mark. “A Babel of Broadcasts.” Columbia Journalism Review, Vol. 38, No. 2 (July–August 1999), p. 44. “International Broadcasting: The Public Diplomacy Challenge.” Conference sponsored by the Public Diplomacy Council and the School of Media and Public Affairs, George Washington University, November 16, 2006, http://publicdiplomacycouncil. org/ uploads/Microsof t_Word_-_Forum_Interna tional_Bcasting_Transcript_Panel_Two.pdf.

Jacobs, G. “The Renaissance of Privately Licensed Short-Wave Broadcast Stations in the United States.” IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, Vol. 34, No. 2 (June 1988), p. 87. Jensen, Don. “The Life and Death of Radio Biafra.” Popular Communications, September 1987, p. 26. _____. “When Radio Is Forbidden.” In Lawrence Magne, ed., Passport to World Band Radio. Penn’s Park, PA: International Broadcasting Services, 1990, p. 61.

Selected Bibliography Jones, Tony, Jock Elliott and Lawrence Magne. “Techs, Skies and Audiotape: Is Shortwave Being Replaced?” In Lawrence Magne, ed., Passport to World Band Radio. Penn’s Park, PA: International Broadcasting Services, 1995, p. 61. Kennedy, Reg. “The Radio Missionaries.” In J.M. Frost, ed., 1979 World Radio TV Handbook. Hvidovre, Denmark: Billboard, 1979, p. 71. Klemetz, Henrik. “Casbah Radio,” in Lawrence Magne, ed., Passport to World Band Radio. Penn’s Park, PA: International Broadcasting Services, 2008, p. 10. Kock, Gunhard T. “The BBC Relay Stations: An Introduction for DXers.” In How to Listen to the World. Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 7th ed., 1973, p. 100. Kushner, James M. “African Liberation Broadcasting.” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Summer 1974), p. 299. Leinwoll, Stanley. “Jamming — Past, Present, and Future.” In J.M. Frost, ed., 1980 World Radio TV Handbook. Hvidovre, Denmark: Billboard, 1980, p. 38. Lewis, J. David. “Revolution by Radio— How Radio Helped Castro.” The NAEB Journal, Vol. 19, No. 6, November-December 1960, p. 47. Lorenzetti, Daniel. “New Comrades on the Bloc,” in Lawrence Magne, ed., Passport to World Band Radio. Penn’s Park, PA: International Broadcasting Services, 1991, p. 21. Lyall, Francis. “Communications Regulation: The Role of the International Telecommunication Union.” Journal of Information, Law & Technology, an electronic law journal sponsored by the University of Warwick et al., in England. The article may be found at http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/law/elj/jilt/ 1997_3/lyall/. MacDonald, Callum A. “Radio Bari: Italian Wireless Propaganda in the Middle East and British Countermeasures, 1934–38.” Middle East Studies, Vol. XIII, May 1977, p. 195. MacHarg, Kenneth.“International Voices of Faith. Monitoring Times, March 1988, p. 6. Magne, Lawrence E. “Broadcasting Stations of Clandestine, Exile, Intelligence, Liberation, and Revolutionary Organizations.” In How to Listen to the World. Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-TV Handbook, 7th ed. 1973, p. 126. _____. “Clandestine Broadcasting Stations 1975.” In J.M. Frost, ed., 1976 World Radio TV Handbook. Hvidovre, Denmark: Billboard, 1976, p. 55 (“Listen to the World”). Mäkeläinen, Mika. “Shock and Awe on the Air.” http: //www.dxing.info/profiles/clandestine_information_ iraq.dx. Marks, Jonathan. “Getting the Message Across— Programmes on Shortwave.” In J.M. Frost, ed., 1980 World Radio TV Handbook. Hvidovre, Denmark: Billboard, 1980, p. 577. _____. “Thank You Both for Listening.” In J.M. Frost, editor-in-chief, 1986 World Radio TV Handbook. Hvidovre, Denmark: Billboard, 1986, p. 605. Matthews, William A. “Clandestines— The Political

481

Voice of Radio.” In How to Listen to the World 1971. Hvidovre, Denmark: World Radio-Television Handbook, 6th ed. 1971, p. 136. McFarland, Ian. “Radio Canada International: Canada’s Underrated Ambassador.” Broadcast Technology (Canada), September 1994, p. 36. McKenna, Paul R. “Vagabond Able.” Naval History, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Spring 1991), p. 25. McVicar, Richard. “It’s in the Family: Ecuador On Shortwave.” Proceedings (Vol. 5, 1992–93), p. F27.1 Moore, Don. “Ice Cold Radio— Broadcasting and the Byrd Expeditions to Antarctica.” Monitoring Times, January 2000, p. 14. _____. “The Last Days of Radio Impacto.” Monitoring Times, February 1992, p. 12. _____. “Rebel Radio and the Rise of Fidel Castro.” Monitoring Times, April 1993, p. 8. _____. “The Unique Story of TI4NRH.” Monitoring Times, March 1993, p. 18. Mytton, Graham. “International Radio Continues to Depend on Shortwave: An Evaluation of Its Myths of Decline.” In Oliver Zöllner, ed., Targeting International Audiences—Current and Future Approaches to International Broadcasting Research, 2004. Bonn, Germany: CIBAR, 2005, p. 153; and NASB Newsletter, May 2005. “Patriot Programming Attracts Scrutiny.” Monitoring Times, July 1995, p. 92. Petersen, Anker. “Trends in Tropical Bands Broadcasting 2007.” Short Wave News, July–August 2007, p. 22; NASWA Journal, July 2007, p. 17. Phipps, Steven P. “The Commercial Development of Short Wave Radio in the United States, 1920–1926.” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Vol. 11, No. 3 (1991), p. 215. Pleikys, Rimantas. “Jamming Wall.” Monitoring Times, November 1998, p. 16. Price, Monroe. “Public Diplomacy and the Transformation of International Broadcasting.” 21 Cardozo Arts & Ent. L.J. 51 (2003). Rabe, Robert A. “Selling the Shortwaves: Commercial and Shortwave Broadcasting to Latin America and the Limits of the ‘American System.’” Unpublished paper presented at the 86th Annual Conference of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication in 2003, and available from AEJMC. Rapatan, Miguel Quiachon. “The Silence of the Shepherd: Media and Chucrh Leadership During the Philippine ‘People Power’ Revolution.” In Nancy Lynch Street and Marilyn J. Matelski, Messages From the Underground: Transnational Radio in Resistance and in Solidarity. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997, p. 65. Rawnsley, Gary David. “Cold War Radio in Crisis: The BBC Overseas Services, the Suez Crisis and the 1956 Hungarian Uprising.” Historical Journal of Film, Radio & Television, Vol. 16, No. 2 (June 1996), p. 197. Ronolds, Francis S., Jr. “The Future of International Broadcasting.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, November 1971 (No. 398), p. 71.

482

Selected Bibliography

Roessler, G. “Relay Stations.” In J.M. Frost, ed., 1969 World Radio TV Handbook Summer Edition. Hellerup, Denmark: World Radio-Television Handbook, 1969, p. 6. Salwen, Michael B. “Broadcasting to Latin America: Reconciling Industry-Government Functions in the pre–Voice of America Era.” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Vol. 17, No. 1 (1997), p. 67. _____. “The Origins of CMQ: Pre-Castro Cuba’s Leading Radio Network.” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Vol. 13, No. 3 (August 1993), p. 315. Sams, Mitch. “Shortwave Broadcasting in the 1980s: A Hobby Perspective.” Proceedings (Vol. 4, 1991), p. F25.1 Smith, Dennis A. “The Gospel According to the United States: Evangelical Broadcasting in Central America.” In Quentin J. Schultze, ed., American Evangelicals and the Mass Media. Grand Rapids, MI: Academie, 1990, p. 289. Smith, Reginald. “The International Frequency Registration Board (I.F.R.B.).” In J.M. Frost, ed., 1968 World Radio TV Handbook. Hellerup, Denmark: World Radio-Television Handbook, 1968, p. 42. Soley, Lawrence C. “The Political Context of Clandestine Radio Broadcasting in 1981.” Journal of Broadcasting, Vol. 27, No. 3 (Summer 1983), p. 233. _____. “Radio: Clandestine Broadcasting, 1948–1967.” Journal of Communications, Vol. 32 (Winter 1982), p. 165. Sorrell, Charles. “Kurdish Voices.” Monitoring Times, May 1992, p. 17. Sparks, Bill. “A Javan Fantasy — The DXer’s View of Java.” Proceedings (Vol. 2, 1989), p. F5.1. Starrost, Frank. “The West German öffentlich-rechtliche Broadcasting System.” Reprinted in Review of International Broadcasting, No. 134 (1990), p. 12. Sterling, Christopher H. “CBQ Review Essay (Part One), Overall Histories of International Radio Propaganda,” and “CBQ Review Essay (Part Two), International Radio Propaganda in World War II.” In Communication Booknotes Quarterly, Vol. 35, No. 3 (Summer 2004), p. 151 and 166 respectively. Taylor, Charles A. “Broadcasting in the Philippines.” In J.M. Frost, ed., 1976 World Radio TV Handbook. Hvidovre, Denmark: Billboard, 1976, p. 31 (“Listen to the World”). Trutenau, Bernd. “Domestic Shortwave Broadcasting in Russia.” Monitoring Times, February 2004, p. 16. _____. “Domestic Shortwave Broadcasting in Russia.”Monitoring Times, January 2007, p. 16. _____. “Still Riding the Airwaves: The USSR’s Superpower Transmitters.” Monitoring Times, December 2003, p. 16. Vastenhoud, Jim. “Relay Stations.” In J.M. Frost, ed., 1976 World Radio TV Handbook. Hvidovre, Denmark: Billboard, 1976, p. 10 (“Listen to the World”). Vaughan, James. “Propaganda by Proxy? Britain, America, and Arab Radio Broadcasting, 1953–1957.” Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television, Vol. 22, No. 2 (June 2002), p. 157. Weldon, J.O. “The Early History of U.S. International

Broadcasting from the Start of World War II.” IEEE Transactions on Broadcasting, Vol. 34, No. 2 (June 1988), p. 82. Wilding, Colin M. “151 Million Listeners— But What Does It Mean?” In Oliver Zöllner, ed., An Essential Link with Audiences Worldwide — Research for International Broadcasting. Cologne, Germany: Deutsche Welle/VISTAS, 2002. _____. “Shortwave: Facing the Facts.” In Oliver Zöllner, ed., Targeting International Audiences—Current and Future Approaches to International Broadcasting Research, 2004. Bonn, Germany: CIBAR, 2005, p. 165. Wood, George. “The DXers Guide to the Future.” In J.M. Frost, editor-in-chief, 1986 World Radio TV Handbook. Hvidovre, Denmark: Billboard, 1986, p. 601; and “The DXers Guide to the Future — Part II,” in Andrew G. Sennitt, ed., 1995 World Radio TV Handbook. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Billboard, 1995, p. 574. Zimmerman, John. “Radio Propaganda in the Arab-Israeli War 1948.” Wiener Library Bulletin, Vol. 27, No. 1 (Winter 1973-74), p. 2.

Websites Jamming, http://www.radiojamming.info/. Kim Andrew Elliott, http://www.kimandrewelliott.com.

Periodicals RADIO- AND DX-RELATED MAGAZINES DX Listening Digest Electronics Illustrated The International Shortwave Listener’s Program Guide, The Shortwave Guide, International Radio Monitoring Times Popular Communications Popular Electronics Radio News, Radio & Television News Review of International Broadcasting

CLUB PUBLICATIONS, ET AL. The ACE, The Monthly ACE (Assn. of Clandestine Radio Enthusiasts) Communications (British DX Club) CONTACT (World DX Club) DX Ontario, Listening In (Ontario DX Assn.) FRENDX, NASWA Journal (North American Shortwave Assn.) International Short Wave Radio (International Short Wave Club) The Messenger (Canadian International DX Club) NNRC Bulletin (Newark News Radio Club) Short Wave News (Danish Short Wave Club International)

Selected Bibliography SPEEDX (Society for the Preservation of the Engrossing Enjoyment of DXing) SWL (American Shortwave Listeners Club) Union of Asian DXers Universalite (Universal Radio DX Club)

NEWSLETTERS Bandspread (British Assn. of DXers) Clandestine Confidential Newsletter “Down Under” DX Survey (“Down Under” DX Circle) DX South Florida, Mosquito Coast News Fine Tuning NASB Newsletter (Natl. Assn. of Shortwave Broadcasters)

Numero Uno, DXplorer OZDX [Australia] QTH Africa Radio News Bulletin Sweden Calling DXers Tropical DX Newsletter USSR High Frequency Broadcast Newsletter

Other Publications World Radio Bulletin WRTH Downlink WRTH Newsletter

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Index Numbers in bold italics indicate pages with illustrations. lays 58; commercial relays 58–60, 418–19; leased time broadcasting 60–62, 418–19, 433 Conference of International Broadcasters’ Audience Research Services (CIBAR) 429 Conrad, Frank 433 crisis broadcasting 433–34 Cushen, Arthur 48 Cyprus Broadcasting Corp. 58

Adventist World Radio 23, 24, 25; relays 58, 59 Africa Number One 58 Al Dhabbaya 26 Alfa Lima International 36 American Forces Network 49 American Shortwave Listeners Club 48 Armed Forces Radio & Television Service 419 Association for International Broadcasting (AIB) 429; publications 430 Association of Clandestine Radio Enthusiasts (ACE) 38 Australian Armed Forces Radio 49

decline of shortwave broadcasting 22–23, 419–21, 426– 30 Democratic Voice of Burma 34 Deutsche Kurzwellensender Atlantik 31 Deutsche Telekom 20, 57 Deutsche Welle 18–21, 19, 54; audience 426, 427, 427n; changes in recent years 20; DRM 51; East German broadcasting 20, 54; frequency coordination 40; power 42; privatization 57; programming 430; reduction of services 20, 419; relays 20, 42, 44, 58, 60, 420, 425 digital broadcasting, non-shortwave 50, 424–25, 431– 32 digital shortwave broadcasting, Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM) 30, 49–52, 431–32; DRM Consortium 49, 431; receivers 51–52, 52; U.S.A. DRM Group 51, 431, 432 domestic shortwave broadcasting 21–23, 416–17; impact of expansion of domestic broadcasting on shortwave 421–23 DRM Consortium 49, 431 “DX Jukebox” 18 “DX Partyline” 24

Baily, Leslie 434 bands, shortwave 38–39, 41–42 BBC 10–11, 54, 414, 430, 434; Ascension Island relay 42; audience 426, 427n, 433, 434; DRM 51; G5SW 10, 10; power 42–43; privatization 57, 419; programming 11, 430; reduction of services 419; relays 44, 58, 59, 62, 415, 419, 425; reputation 11; single sideband 49 BBC Monitoring Service 425 Bear, Arthur E. 47–48 benefits of shortwave broadcasting vs. other media 425–26 Bennett, Hank 48 Bizim Radio 33 Boord, Ken 48 Broadcasting Board of Governors 12, 56 “Challenges” conferences 429 China Huayi Broadcasting Co. 55 China Radio International 21 Christian Science broadcasting 25, 26, 419 Christian Vision 51 Circuito RPC 417 clandestine broadcasting 30–35, 415; literature 34–35; Monitoring Times 35; nongovernmental leased-time broadcasting 33–35, 433; nongovernmental standalone broadcasting 33; nonsurrogate governmental broadcasting 33; Popular Communications 35; postwar periods of activity 34, 415; surrogate governmental 32; weekly hours 34 cold war, end of 52–55, 418–21; commoditization of shortwave 57–62, 418; impact of expansion of domestic broadcasting on shortwave 421–23; impact of other media 423–25; impact on communist broadcasters 53–54, 418, 421; impact on western broadcasters 55–57, 421 commoditization of shortwave 57–62, 418; affinity re-

East German broadcasting 20 ELWA 24, 26 ETLF 24, 26 European Music Radio 36 Far East Broadcasting Association (Seychelles) 24, 61 Far East Broadcasting Co. (Philippines) 24, 59 Far East Network 419 FCC, and pirate broadcasting 38; frequency coordination 30, 40, 41; private broadcasting 29–30 5XX 434 FM, impact on shortwave 23–24 4VEH 24, 26 Free Radio Broadcasting Co. 35 frequency allocation and management 38–41 future 433–34

485

486

Index

“G6” 40 Galei Zahal 49 General Electric 27 Gorbachev, Mikhail 54 Gustav Siegfried Eins 31 HCJB 24, 25, 26, 415; DXers 24; Kununurra 24, 419, 419; reduction of services 419; single sideband 49 High Frequency Coordination Conference (HFCC) 30, 40–41, 426, 429 history, shortwave, pre–1945 414 IBC Tamil 61 IBRA Radio 25 Information Radio 49 International Broadcasting Bureau (IBB) 41, 426 international broadcasting, general 9–21, 414 et seq. “International Broadcasting Group” 429n International Frequency Registration Board (ITU) 39–41 international radio conferences, early 38–39 International Short Wave Club, anti-jamming campaign 47–48 International Telecommunication Union (ITU) 22, 39–41 internet, impact on shortwave broadcasting 424 jamming and other signal interdiction 44–48, 418, 425; anti-jamming campaign 47–48; backwards broadcasts 46n; by the Soviet Union and its satellites 45–46, 54; by other countries 46–47, 55 Japan Short Wave Club 48 Jolly Roger Radio 36 Jones, Clarence W. 24 KBS World Radio 61 KCBI 25 KDKA 28 KFBS 25 KGEI 24, 29, 419 KHBI 25 KHBN 25 Kiwi Radio 36 KJES 25 KNLS 23, 25 Kol Israel 20 KSDA 25 KTBN 23, 25 KTWR 30 KUSW 24, 25, 30 KVHF 37, 38 KVOH 25 KWHR 25 KYOI 25, 30 Larson, Reuben E. 24 Laser Hot Hits 36 leased time broadcasting 25–26, 60–62, 433 Legge, Roger 39, 40 “Liberty” 31 Live Wire Radio 36 Marks, Jonathan 430–31, 432 McFarland, Ian 434 “Media Network” 18 media, non-shortwave, impact on shortwave 423–25, 427 medium wave, impact on shortwave 423 Merlin Communications International, Ltd., VT Communications 11, 20, 40, 57, 60–61, 420, 432, 433

Mina, Adil 431 Monitoring Times 35, 38 Mystery Radio 37 Mytton, Graham 425 names, station 63, 415 National Association of Shortwave Broadcasters (NASB) 30, 429 National Radio of the Saharan Democratic Arab Republic 33 New British Broadcasting Station 31 New Zealand Radio DX League 48 Newark News Radio Club 48 news and information medium 11, 430 NOREA Radio 25 Northern Ireland Shortwave Relay Service 36 out-of-band broadcasting 39, 41 Pan American Broadcasting 23 Pirate Radio New England (PRN) 37 pirate broadcasting 35–38; Association of Clandestine Radio Enthusiasts (ACE) 38; European 35–37, 415; frequencies 38; literature 38; Monitoring Times 38; North American 37–38, 415; Popular Communications 35, 38 Popular Electronics 48 POW monitoring 433–34 power 41–42, 415 privatization 57, 419 programming 20–21, 430–31; Cuban “freedom” 30; patriot 30 Purple Pumpkin Radio 37 Radio Ala 54 Radio Aum Shinrikyo 61 Radio Australia 15, 16–17; “Australia Calling” 16; Darwin 42; mission and organization 16–17; power 42– 43; relays 62, 423; transmitter sites 16 Radio Austria International 20 Radio Bari 10 Radio Beijing, Radio Peking 55, 58, 415 Radio Berlin International 53, 54, 55 Radio Biafra 33 Radio Blue Star 36 Radio Borderhunter 36 Radio Canada International, CBC 13–15, 14, 422; audience 424; DRM 51, 431, 432; frequency coordination 40; mission and funding 14–15, 56; relays 14–15, 58 Radio Caroline 36 Radio Cochiguaz 37 Radio Condor International 36 Radio Denmark 20, 428 Radio Dublin 36, 36 Radio DVR 54 Radio East Coast Holland 36 Radio España Independiente (Spain) 33, 34, 47 Radio Euzkadi (Spain) 33, 34, 47 Radio Finland 20, 419 Radio for Peace International 49 Radio France International 20, 51; relays 44, 58, 62, 425 Radio Free Asia 32, 56, 56, 62, 419–20 Radio Free Chechnya 33 Radio Free Europe 32, 415 Radio Free London 37 Radio Free Russia 33 Radio Free Vietnam 60 Radio Galaxy 54

Index Radio Impact 37 Radio Inconnue 31 Radio Iran 59 Radio Japan 58 Radio Kiribati 49 Radio Kuwait 51 Radio Liberation (pirate) 38 Radio Liberation (Vietnam) 33 Radio Liberty, Radio Liberation 32, 32, 54, 415, 434 Radio Luxembourg 432 Radio Magallanes 33 Radio Martí 32, 47, 415 Radio Martinique 21 Radio Maryja 59 Radio Miami International 60, 61 Radio Moscow 21, 53, 415, 430; relays and relay stations 58 Radio Nacional de España, Radio Exterior de España 20; relays 44, 58 Radio Netherlands 17–18, 17, 425; DRM 51; DX programs 18; frequency coordination 40; privatization 57; relays 18, 44, 44, 57, 58; single sideband 49; Startz, Edward 18 Radio New Zealand International 51, 431 Radio Nordsee International 35 Radio Norway 20, 419 Radio Okapi 60 Radio Pamyat 54 Radio Piraña International 37 Radio Polis 54 Radio Portugal 20, 59 Radio Prague 21 Radio Regulations Board (ITU) 39–41 Radio Rio Amazonas 420 Radio RSA 20, 419; power 42 Radio San Marino 36 Radio Sparks 31 Radio Station Peace and Progress 419 Radio Stella International 36 Radio Swan 31, 33 Radio Sweden 20 Radio Tashkent 419 Radio Telefis Éireann 61 Radio UNMEE 60 Radio Vedo 54 Radio Veritas Asia 24 Radio Zamaneh 61 Radiobras 59 RAI 20 Red Cross Broadcasting Service 419 relays and relay stations 11, 14, 18, 43–44, 415, 419; affinity relays 58; commercial relays 58–59, 418–20; leased time broadcasting 60–62, 418–19, 433; table of shortwave relay stations 43–44 religious broadcasters 23–26, 415 RFE-RL 55, 425 Russia (and the Soviet Union), frequency coordination 40; power 42, 43 RX4M 38 satellite broadcasting 415, 424, 433 Scott, Dr. Gene 24 Senger, Peter 431 SENTECH 59, 59 single sideband 48–49, 50 Sound of Hope 47, 60 South East Asia Radio Voice 24 Stair, Brother 24 Star Radio 60

487

Sudan Radio Service 60 surrogate broadcasting 12–13 “Sweden Calling DXers” 48 Swedish Radio International 51 Swinging Radio England 36–37 Swiss Radio International et al. 20; power 41, 42; relays 58 “SWL Digest” 14 technologies, competing 56, 423–27 TGNA 24, 26 TIFC 24, 26 time, format used in publications 62 Trans World Radio 24; Bonaire 42; power 42; relays 59 Transmitter Documentation Project (TDP) 60 tropical bands 22–23, 39, 41, 51, 417, 420–21, 429, 433 “Turning Up the Volume on International Radio” 430 Tusa, John 425 TV’s impact on shortwave 423 United Nations Radio 60 U.S. Congress 56, 415 U.S. Information Agency 12 U.S. private shortwave broadcasting: early history 26–30; early stations 26–28; FCC attitude toward 29–30, 415–16; postwar 29–30; specialized programming 28–29; wartime 28–29 U.S.A. DRM Group 51, 431, 432 Universal Radio DX Club 48 Vastenhoud, Jim 433 Vatican Radio 24, 51, 429; relays 59 Voice of America 11–13, 12, 29, 54; audience 424, 426–27, 433, 434; English 12; frequency management 39; Greenville 42, 415; organization 12, 55; power 42, 415; relays and relay stations 11, 43, 58, 59, 415, 425; role and mission 11–13, 56–57; specialized and surrogate services 12–13, 32, 56, 415, 420 Voice of Greece 20 Voice of Hope (Georgia) 418 Voice of Hope (Lebanon) 24 Voice of National Salvation (Korea) 33 Voice of Nigeria 42 Voice of Oromo Liberation (Ethiopia) 34 Voice of Pujiang 55 Voice of Russia 51, 419 Voice of Tangier 24 Voice of the People (Korea) 33 Voice of Tibet 47 Voice of Turkey 20 Voice of Vietnam 59, 61 A Voz da Resistência do Galo Negro (Angola) 33 VT Communications see Merlin Communications International, Ltd. Wales Radio International 61 WARC 37 WBCQ 24, 30 WCPR 37 WCSN 25 WDAB 38 Weekend Music Radio 36 WEWN 23, 25 WFAT 37 WGTG 25 WHRI 23, 25 WINB 23, 29–30 WJCR 25

488 WMLK 23, 25 WNYW 24 World Administrative Radio Conferences, World Radiocommunication Conferences 41, 49, 51 World Beacon 23 World DX Club 48 World Radio Network (WRN) 424 World Radio TV Handbook 48 WRMI 24, 30, 47, 59, 424

Index WRNO 24, 30 WRUL 11, 24, 28, 29, 29 WSHB 25 WTJC 25 WWBS 25 WWCR 23, 25 WYFR 23, 24 ZNS, Bahamas 416