Breviloquium (Works of St. Bonaventure, Vol. 9)

BONAVENTURE TEXTS IN TRANSLATlON SERlES General Editor Robert J. Karris, O.F.M.

Volume IX BREVILOQUIUM

Franciscan Institute Publications Saint Bonaventure University

2005

WORKS of sT BONAVENTURE BREVlLOQUlUM

Introduction, Translation and Notes by Dominic V. Monti, O.F.M.

Franciscan Institute Publications The Franciscan Institute Saint Bonaventure University Saint Bonaventure, NY 14778

2005

Copyright © 2005 The Franciscan Institute St. Bonaventure University St. Bonaventure, New York

CONTENTS ix INTRODUCTION ............................................................ xiii

PREFACE ......................................................................

PROLOGUE ..................................................................... 1

All rights reserved. No part of the book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, without permission in writing from the publisher.

The Breadth of Holy Scripture .................................. 5 The Length of Holy Scripture ................................... 8 The Height of Holy Scripture .................................. 11 The Depth of Holy Scripture ................................... 13 The Mode of Procedure of Holy Scripture .............. 17 The Mode of Expounding Holy Scripture ............... 19 The Chapters of the Breuiloquium .......................... 23 Part One: On the Trinity of God .............................. 27

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Ashland, Ohio

A Summary of the Seven Topics of Theology .......... 27 What We Must Hold Concerning the Trinity of Persons and the Unity of Essence ................. 29 The Right Understanding of This Belief ................ 33 The Catholic Expression of This Belief.. ................. 37 The Unity of the Divine Nature In Relation to a Diversity of Manifestations .... 41 The Unity of the Divine Nature In Relation to Multiple Appropriations ............ 44 God's Omnipotence .................................................. 47 God's Wisdom, Predestination, and Foreknowledge ............................................ 49 God's Will and Providence ....................................... 53

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Part Two: On the Creation of the World ................. 59 The Production of the Universe .............................. 59 How Physical Nature Came Into Existence ........... 62 The Existence of Physical Nature ........................... 66 The Operation and Influence of Physical Nature ............................................. 69 The Manner in Which These Things Are Described in Scripture ................................ 72 The Production of the Higher Spirits ..................... 77 The Apostasy of the Demons ................................... 79 The Confirmation of the Good Angels..................... 81 The Production of the Human Soul ........................ 84 The Production of the Human Body ....................... 89 The Production ofthe·Whole Human Composite ... 93 The Completion and Ordering of the Whole World Once It Was Made .............. 96

lNrRODUCTION

The Incarnation in Regard to the Union of Natures ................................... How the Incarnation Came About ........................ The Incarnation in the Fullness of Time .............. The Fullness of Grace in Christ Considered in the Gifts in His Affections ....... The Fullness of Wisdom in the Intellect of Christ .................................. The Perfection of Merit in His Deeds .................... The Passion of Christ: The Condition of the One Who Suffered ......... The Passion of Christ: The Nature of His Sufferings .......................... The Passion of Christ: The Effects of His Sufferings...........................

VII

135 139 143 146 150 154 157 160 164

Part Five: On the Grace of the Holy Spirit ........... 169 Part Three: On the Corruption of Sin ..................... 99 The Origin of Evil in General.................................. 99 The Temptation of Our First Parents ................... 101 The Transgression of Our First Parents............... 104 The Punishment of Our First Parents .................. 107 The Contamination of Original Sin ...................... 109 On the Transmission of Original Sin.................... 112 The Cure of Original Sin ....................................... 115 The Origin of Actual Sin.... .................................... 11 7 The Origin and Division of the Capital Sins ........ 121 The Origin and Nature of Penal Sin ..................... 124 The Origin of Final Sins, Which are the Sins Against the Holy Spirit ... 127 Part Four: On the Incarnation of the Word .......... 131 The Reason Why the Incarnation of the Word of God Was Necessary or Fitting ..................... 131

Grace as a Gift of God ............................................ 169 Grace as the Condition of Meritorious Acts ......... 173 Grace Considered as a Remedy for Sin ................. 178 How Grace Branches Out Into the Habits of the Virtues ......................... 183 How Grace Branches Out Into the Habits of the Gifts ............................. 187 How Grace Branches Out into the Habits of the Beatitudes and Consequently of the Fruits and of the Spiritual Senses ........ 191 The Exercise of Grace as Regards What is to be Believed ..................................... 196 The Exercise of Grace as Regards What is to be Loved ......................................... 200 The Exercise of Grace as Regards Observing the Precepts and Counsels ............ 203 The Exercise of Grace as Regards Petition and Prayer .......................................... 206

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Part Six: On the Sacramental Remedy ................. 211 The Source of the Sacraments .............................. 211 How the Sacraments Have Varied ........................ 214 The Number and Division of the Sacraments ...... 218 The Institution of the Sacraments ........................ 221 The Administration of the Sacraments ................ 225 The Repetition of the Sacraments ........................ 229 The Nature and Integrity of Baptism ................... 232 On the Integrity of Confirmation .......................... 235 The Integrity of the Eucharist .............................. 238 The Integrity of Penance ........... ,........................... 245 The Integrity of Extreme Unction ........................ 250 The Integrity of Orders .......................................... 254 The Integrity of Matrimony .................................. 258 Part Seven: On the Repose of the Final Judgment ..................................... 265 The Judgment in GeneraL .................................... 265 The Antecedents of the Judgment: The Punishment of Purgatory ......................... 269 The Antecedents of the Judgment: The Suffrages of the Church ........................... 273 The Concomitants of the Judgment: The Conflagration of Fire ................................ 277 The Concomitants of the Judgment: The Resurrection of Bodies .............................. 281 The Consequents to the Judgment: The Infernal Punishment ................................ 286 The Glory of Paradise ............................................ 290 Indices Of Scripture Passages ............................................ 303 Of Church Fathers, Ecclesiastical Authors, and Glossae Of Philosophers, Jurists, and Historians

PREFACE

The origins of this book go back almost a decade. I had recently completed an earlier volume in this series,' when Brother Edward Coughlin, then Director of the Franciscan Institute, asked me if I would consider translating the Breviloquium. I accepted his invitation, working at it over the past years, amidst countless interruptions due to more immediate tasks and other responsibilities. When I first mentioned this project to my former professor, Bernard McGinn, he remarked: "Great! We really need a good annotated translation of the Breviloquium." I soon discovered what he meant. Mter completing a few of the chapters in Part 1, I found myself saying, "I'm translating Bonaventure's Latin into English, and it's still all Greek!" I had encountered for myself the remarkable "concentration of word and phrase" that Jacques G. Bougerol felt characterized this work.' In it Bonaventure's style is "simultaneously compact and highly complex; his sentences are long and stately, with rhythmically balanced phrases,'" making it very difficult to render into contemporary English.

lWritings Concerning the Franciscan Order, The Works of Saint Bonaventure V (St. Bonaventure, NY: The Franciscan Institute, 1994). 2Jacques Guy Bougerol, Introduction to the Works of Bonaventure,

trans. Jose de Vinck (Paterson, N.J.: St. Anthony Guild Press, 1963). 3Paula Jean Miller, "Marriage: The Sacrament of Divine-Human

Communion: Vol. l:A Commentary on St. Bonaventure's Breviloquium," (Quincy, IL: Franciscan Press, 1995), 6.

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Furthermore, the work is packed with technical medieval theological terms that seem like meaningless jargon to many contemporary readers unfamiliar with Scholastic categories. This led me to adopt an approach with which Father Zachary Hayes, who was named general editor of this series while my work was already in progress, fully agreed. And so I have not simply provided a translation, with a few basic notes indicating Bonaventure's major sources, as did the previous 1962 English translation of Jose de Vinck4 and the 1996 Italian translation in the Opera di San Bonaventura series.' Rather, I attempted to compose content notes as well, so that the reader might refer immediately to an explanation of an otherwise problematic passage. In light of the extensive notes in the body of the translation, the introduction to the volume is relatively modest, providing a general orientation to the work, its place in Bonaventure's overall theological effort, and some interpretative keys for the reader approaching it. This project has taken a long time to reach fruition and I have many people to thank for their assistance over the years. First of all, I acknowledge the Washington Theological Union for generously providing two semester-long sabbaticals, in 1997 and again in 2001, in which I did the bulk of the translation and notes. I am grateful, too , for the encouragement of my colleagues on the Bonaventure Texts in Translation Board, especially for the leadership of Zachary Hayes, who carefully edited the translation. No one knows Bonaventure's thought better than he, and

4The Breuiloquium, trans. Jose de Vinck, Works of St. Bonaventure II (Paterson, NJ: St. Anthony Guild Press, 1962). fiBreviloquio, trans. Mariano Aprea, Opera San Bonaventura: Opus coli Teologici, 2 (Rome: CittA Nuova Editrice, 1996).

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that fact helped greatly in capturing the most appropriate translation. Over the past several years, a number of scholars have used drafts of this translation in their classes: Ilia Delio of the Washington Theological Union, Michael Blastic and Oleg Bychkov of St. Bonaventure University, and Wayne Hellmann at Saint Louis University. They have detected a number of errors and made some helpful suggestions for which I am most grateful. In particular, I would like to acknowledge Professor James Ginther of Saint Louis for alerting me to Bonaventure's dependence on a work of Robert Grosseteste in the Prologue. And I must thank the editors of Franciscan Institute Publications for their patience as I brought this effort to completion. This year marks my fortieth anniversary as a professed Franciscan friar. Ail I look back over these years, my brothers in Holy Name Province deserve my special thanks for their constant affection and support. To them I dedicate this book. In a particular way, I will be ever grateful to those who encouraged my gifts during my formation years: Reginald Redlon, Boniface Hanley, Hugh Eller, Damian McElrath, Alexander DiLella, Regis DuffY, and Vincent Cushing. Iuveni quaerenti lucem Exempla erant et magistri Dominic V. Monti, O.F.M. St. Bonaventure University Feast of the Holy Trinity, 2005

INTRODUCTION ABBREVIATIONS

AC

Anselm of Canterbury: The Major Works. Edited by Brian Davies and G. R. Evans. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

PG

Patrologiae curs us completus. Series graeca. Edited by J. P. Migne. Paris, 1857-66. 161 volumes.

PL

Patrologiae cursus completus. Series latina. Edited by J. P. Migne. Paris, 1844-64. 221 volumes.

vg

Vulgate version of the Christian Bible. See Biblia Sacra iuxta Vulgatem Versionem. Edited by Robert Weber et al. Stuttgart: Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 1983.

WSA Works ofSaint Augustine. Edited by John E. Rotelle, O.S.A. Hyde Park, NY: New City Press, 1991- .

The Breuiloquium and the Itinerarium mentis in Deum are undoubtedly the two works of the Seraphic Doctor that have received the most sustained admiration over the centuries. To judge by the number of extant copies, the Breviloquium was the more popular of the two works in the Middle Ages, surviving in some 227 manuscripts.! Jean Gerson, Chancellor of the University of Paris, was one of those who testified to their impact: Two works of Bonaventure are composed with such a divine art of synthesis that nothing at all surpasses them, namely the Breviloquium and the Itinerarium . ... More than thirty years ago, I chose to familiarize myself with these two small treatises; since then I have read them often, frequently meditating on certain passages and even specific words. Now, at my age, I have the leisure to achieve my fondest desire: to begin to experience them afresh, for to me they always seem ever-new and enchanting."

IThe Itinerarium survives in some 138 manuscripts. Doctoris Seraphici Sancti Bonaventurae ... Opera Omnia V (Quaracchi: Collegium S. Bonaventurae, 1882-1902), xvii-xxxiii. Hereafter this edition will be referred to simply by the volume and page numbers within parentheses. 2J. Gerson, De libris legendis a monacho, 5-6, Opera J. Gerson CStrasbaurg, 1515), Fa!. XIX, G.

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In recent years, the fortunes of these two works have been somewhat reversed. Although there has been a considerable amount of research on the ltinerarium that has unfolded its riches for a contemporary audience, the Breviloquium has remained comparatively neglected. This is most unfortunate, for it is not only a brilliant compendium of Bonaventure's theology, but as Alexander Gerken has observed, "its literary genre is matched by nothing comparable in the whole of the Middle Ages."3 It is the purpose of this introduction, then, to provide a brief general understanding of this work so that contemporary readers might begin to open "this precious jewel box" of medieval thought for themselves.· SElTlNG AND PURPOSE

Scholars have generally maintained that Bonaventure completed the Breviloquium in 1257.5 Indeed, one of the earliest manuscripts containing the work explicitly dates it to that year.' Internal evidence definitely indicates that Bonaventure composed it after the Quaestiones disputatae de scientia Christi and de mysterio Trinitatis, most commonly assigned to 1254 and 1255 respectively.' We may

3Alexander Gerken, "Identity and Freedom: Bonaventure's Position and Method," trans. Myles Parsons, Greyfriars Review 4: 3 (1990): 95. 'M. J. Scheeben, Handbuch der Katholischen Dogmatik (Freiburg, 1933),1:432. 5Balduinus Distelbrink, Bonaventurae scripta: authentica dubia vel spuria eritice recensita (Rome: Istituto Storico Cappuccini, 1975), 3-4. 6Jacques G. Bougerol, Manuscrits franciscains de la Bibliotheque de 7royes (Grottaferrata: Collegii S. Bonaventurae ad Claras Aquas, 1982): 262: "Explicit breviloquium fratris Boneventure de ordine fratrum minorum ad intelligentiam sacre scripture et fidei christiane. Anno domini, M.CC.L.Vn." 7J. G. Bougerol,Introduction to the Works of Bonaventure, trans. Jose de Vinck (Paterson, NJ: St. Anthony Guild Press, 1964), 108; Distelbrink, 4,10,13. One piece of evidence is Bonaventure's treatment of the fullness

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s accept the common dating of1257, then, as fairly certain. This is significant, for during that year Bonaventure was coming to grips with a dramatic transition in his own life, as he moved from a university career to one of major pastoral responsibility. Within his literary corpus therefore, the Breviloquium occupies a pivotal position; in the words of one recent study, it is a "turning-point text or a borderline text" standing between two worlds." From one perspective, it is rightly viewed as the capstone of Bonaventure's twenty-year career as student and teacher at the University ofParis. lO He had arrived in the city in 1235 as a young student of arts. After completing his master's degree in 1243, he had joined the Friars Minor at Paris. His superiors quickly recognized his talents; after completing his novitiate year, he immediately commenced his theological education at the Franciscan School. One of the few friar students there actually matriculating for the University degree, Bonaventure began lecturing on the Bible in 1248, gradually progressing to the point where he assumed the duties of regent master of the Franciscan School of theology early in 1254. During

of wisdom of Christ's human intellect (pt. 4, chap. 6). This clearly reflects his Disputed Questions on the Knowledge of Christ, q. 7 (y, 37-43). This is a significant advance from his earlier position in the Sentences Commentary (3.14.2.3 [Y,312-317). 8Camille Berube is an exception to this consensus; he does not believe the Troyes manuscript is decisive, and would prefer a date several years later _ perhaps after the Itinerarium (1259) (De la philosophie a la sagesse chez Saint Bonaventure et Roger Bacon [Rome: Istituto Storico dei Cappuccini, 1976]), 117-118. . . 9Emmanuel Falque, Saint Bonaventure et l'entree de Dieu in theolog~e. Etudes de philosophie medievale (Paris: Librairie philosophique J. Vnn, 2000),25: "un texte charniere ou un texte frontiere." . lOFor a good brief summary of Bonaventure's career, see J. F. Qumn , "Bonaventure, St.," in Dictionary of the Middle Ages, ed. Joseph R. Strayer (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1983), 2:313-319.

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his teaching career, Bonaventure utilized the increasingly sophisticated techniques that had been developed over the preceding century in the urban theology schools of Western Europe we know as Scholasticism. lI The most fundamental of these techniques was that of methodical commentary on authoritative texts (lectio); the second, the systematic analysis and resolution of doctrinal and moral issues arising from those texts (quaestio and disputatio). Bonaventure proved himself a master ofthese techniques in his commentaries on the Biblical books of Ecclesiastes Luke, and John; his massive commentary on the Fou; Books of Sentences of Peter Lombard; and three series of disputed questions. But Scholastic theologians had also pioneered a third technique: the attempt to synthesize the diffuse results of lectio, quaestio and disputatio into a coherent and comprehensive presentation of Christian doctrine for instructional purposes. This was the task Bonaventure set for himself in the Breviloquium, and in this regard it stands unique among his works, presenting a concise synthesis of his mature teaching. But the reasons for its publication were not purely academic. In 1257 Bonaventure's professional teaching career effectively came to an end, for in February of that year the Franciscan general chapter had elected him General Minister of the Order. The pressing responsibilities of that office soon demanded his full attention. The Friars Minor were just beginning to emerge from a serious crisis in which their opponents, the secular masters ofthe University theology faculty, articulating the complaints of many of the clergy of Western Europe, had mounted a sustained attack on the new mendicant orders' pastoral ministry in

llMy description of the scholastic method draws on Bernard McGinn The Growth of Mysticism, vol. 2 of The Presence of God: A History of

Western Christian Mysticism (New York: Crossroad, 1994), 367.374.

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the church, indeed on their entire way oflife. 12 Given this volatile situation, Bonaventure wisely decided to maintain his principal residence at Paris for the next several years. Although he had traveled to Italy to confer with Pope Alexander IV after having received word of his election, he quickly returned to Paris. There, in August, Bonaventure and his Dominican colleague, Thomas Aquinas, were grudgingly accepted by the consortium of masters of theology into their number, marking an end to the long and bitter controversy. Bonaventure could then oversee the transfer of his seat in theology to his successor Gilbert of Tournai." It is Bonaventure's new responsibilities as General Minister of the Franciscan Order that provide another vantage point from whic~ to. view the Breviloquium, one that allows uS to apprecIate It as more than simply an academic contribution to theology. Over his years ofteaching, Bonaventure had become convmced that there was a critical need in the education of young friars and in this work he attempted to supply it.'4 Wt,y was a book like this necessary? By the 1250's, the number of Franciscans engaged in formal studies had increased exponentially. In virtually every large friary a lector was assigned to teach theology to the clerical members

12For a good recent summary of the conflict at Pa~s, see B~rt Roest,

A History of Franciscan Education, c.1210-1517 (L~lden: Bnil, 2000), 51-57. The standard detailed history of thIS earher phrase of thIS protracted conflict is M.-M. Dufeil, Guillaume de ~aint.A:mour et ia polemique universitaire parisienne, 1250-1259 (Pans: Edltions A. et J. Picard,1972). . . . W" 13For details, see roy introduction to Volume 5 m thIS senes, n~z.ngs Concerning the Franciscan Order (St. Bonaventure, NY: The FranCIscan Institute, 1994), 21·32. 14In this sense the Breviloquium may be compared to another work Bonaventure su~plied for the fonnational needs of friars, the Regula novitiorum. Cf Roest, 243~250>

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of the community so they would be well-equipped for their primary ministry of preaching and hearing confessions. Theology classes were an integral part oftheir weekly schedule. This created a constant demand for qualified friars to serve as lectors. To meet it, promising young friars were assigned to pursue theological studies at schools the Order had established, not only at the universities of Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge, but also in more than a dozen other studia generalia (general study centers) that had sprung up by this time." The curriculum in these other study centers largely replicated that of the university faculties of theology. To be qualified as a lector, a friar had to study theology for four years. For the first two he attended lectures on the Bible, then two more on the Four Books ofSentences of Peter Lombard.'· This was a top-notch education for the time, a fact recognized by a Papal privilege Bonaventure obtained shortly after his election that granted students who had completed the curriculum at the Order's studia generalia a license to teach theology, thus granting them an equivalent of a university degree.l7 However, by today's standards, young friars in the 1250's were singularly unequipped to embark on theologi-

15Roest, 6-42. In addition to the three Franciscan schools that were incorporated into University theology faculties, by the 1250's study

houses had been established in Bologna, Padua Florence Perugia Naples, Toulouse, Montpellier, Dijon, Magdebll!'...g, Cologne, Re~ensburg: Strasbourg, and Erfurt. These schools were 'general' in the sense that they attracted friar students from beyond their own provinces, even though some were effectively only regional. We are not certain precisely when each of these studia was officially designated 'general.' It is important to note that these study centers also were open to secular clergy. For the legislation governing the studia, see the Constitutions of Narbonne, 6.12-24 in Works of St. Bonaventure 5: 101-103 (note 127 on p. 102 must be corrected in light of Roest's study). "Roest, 87-97, 133-137. 17Exultante spiritu (23 March 1257),BullariumFranciscanum,2:208b, n. 317. Cf. Roest, 31.

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cal studies. We have to remember that parishes provided no formal religious instruction in the Middle Ages; catechisms designed for the reJigious education of youth would only be a product of the reforming spirit of the sixteenth century. In terms of exposure to the elements of Christian doctrine, candidates joining the Order might know only the Apostles' Creed. Certaiuly, during their novitiate year, young friars would be immediately immersed in a Biblically based religious culture. The daily rounds of the Liturgy of the Hours demanded that novices commit the Psalms to memory; they also quickly gained familiarity with other Biblical texts that occurred in the liturgy and the communal readings during meals. In addition, they would often hear thematic sermons that would elucidate doctrinal topics." Still, they would never have been exposed to any formal theological instruction. This situation was complicated by the fact that many young candidates were entering the Order after at least several years of university training." Their exposure to secular learning, both in terms of content and method, thus far exceeded their knowledge of their faith. Furthermore, the standard textbooks in theology - the Bible and Peter I,ombard's Sentences - did not present the same scientific clarity as textbooks in the arts, with their clear outlines and definite objectives. The Bible appeared to be a confusing and contradictory collection of stories, the Sentences a disorganized assemblage of arcane and sterile questions. Was there some unity and coherence in this subject matter -

"Roest, 250-258. . 19Already, the Order had passed legislation about 1242 mandatmg that no one should be admitted as a friar without having received competent instruction in grammar, logic, law, or medicine. Cf. C. Cenci, "De Fratrum Minorum Constitutionibus Praenarbonensis," Archivum Franciscanum Historicum 83 (1990): 75. Cf. Roest, 239.

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the Christian faith? It was such a logical and comprehensive presentation of Christian doctrine that Bonaventure set as his agenda in this treatise: This teaching [theologyl has been transmitted, both in the writings of the saints and in those of the doctors, in such a diffuse manner that those who come to learn about Sacred Scripture are not able to read or hear about it for a long time. In fact, beginning theologians often dread Sacred Scripture itself, feeling it to be as confusing, disordered, and uncharted as some impenetrable forest. That is why my colleagues have asked me, from my own modest knowledge, to draw up some concise summary ofthe truth oftheology. Yielding to their requests, I have agreed to compose what might be called a brief discourse [breviloquiuml. In it I will summarize not all the truths of our faith, but some things that are more opportune [for such studentsl to hold?O Bonaventure was not the only teacher who recognized the need for a logical synthesis of theology that both teachers and students could use. Such was also the goal ofthose who composed summae (summaries) oftheology. Bonaventure's own predecessors as masters of the Franciscan school had already provided such a magisterial synthesis, generally known as the Summa fratris Alexandri or Summa Halensis, to serve as a comprehensive theological encyclopedia for reference purposes. 21

2°Prologue, 6.5. 21This work was a team effort, compiled over the span of almost two decades (1238·1257) by Alexander of Hales, Jean of La Rochelle, Eudes Rigaud, William of Middleton, and perhaps other Franciscan lectors. 22S umma Theologica, Prol. (Parma, 1852), 1:1.

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Other contemporaries also stepped in to fill this gap; one of these was Thomas Aquinas, whose reasons for composing his celebrated Summa theologiae are remarkably similar to Bonaventure's own: It is the task of the teacher of Catholic truth to

instruct not only advanced students, but also beginners ... .It is thus our intention in this work to present those things that pertain to the Christian religion in a manner befitting the education of beginners.... Students in this science have not seldom been hampered by what they have found written in other authors, partly on account of the multiplicity of useless questions, articles, and arguments; partly also because the things they need to know are not taught according to the order oflearning, but according as the plan of the book might require or the occasion of disputing might offer.... Anxious, therefore, to overcome these and other obstacles, we will try ... to present those things pertaining to sacred doctrine briefly and clearly insofar as the matter will permit?' As the recent study of Emmanuel Falque points out, the stated goals of Bonaventure and Thomas are remarkably similar - a concern with beginners, the desire to achieve a brief and coherent synthesis. But the results are strikingly different. Most obvious is the sheer matter of size - the 512 questions of the Summa theologiae (without the Supplement) versus the 72 chapters of the Breviloquium. Thomas simply treats a great many more topics, and in a much more detailed way, than Bonaventure. But more importantly, there is a fundamental difference

"Falque, 34-35.

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in method between the two works. It is here that the originality and importance of Bonaventure's effort lies?' AB Alexander Gerken has observed: "It is not so much by reason of its contents but undoubtedly by reason of its method that the Breviloquium breaks the bonds of Scholastic theology."24 METHOO

When Thomas Aquinas set out to compose a synthesis of Christian doctrine for instructional purposes, he uti1ized the quaestio technique that had come to dominate the classrooms - as did Bonaventure's predecessors in the Franciscan school who composed the Summa fratris Alexandri. This technique employed what has been called the "dialectical" or "Scholastic" method,25 which began by posing a question about a certain issue. It then juxtaposed alternative solutions, first suggesting a tentative anSwer (the thesis) and enumerating various arguments that favored it (sic, "yes"), but then raising other reasons that seemed to oppose it (non, "no"). The master then "determined" the question, offering his own resolution of the issue at hand, showing why the arguments in favor of one side were persuasive while the others were not. This method became standard for teaching theology at the medieval universities. This quaestio technique was simultaneously being developed by masters in schools oflaw in order to decide which statutes should apply in a certain case.26 When applied to theology, the technique had the effect of ''bracketing'' Christian belief, creating a kind of 24Gerken, 95.

25For a good description of this method, see Edward Grant. God and Reason in the Middle Ages (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001),105-107. 26The masterpiece of this effort was Gratian's Decretum (c. 1140), which he entitled the Concordance of Discordant Canons.

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medieval ''hermeneutic of suspicion." It seemingly called accepted beliefs into question, and then attempted to reach a conclusion about them by logical analysis of evidence. Peter Abelard (d. 1142), who stands at the forefront of this method, justified it in the following words: We should like, as we proceed, to gather together diverse statements of the holy fathers that come to mind as involving some question by reason of the discrepancy they seem to contain: these may incite youthful readers to a strong effort in seeking for truth and make them keener by reason of their inquiry. For this is the first key of wisdom: constant and frequent questioning... .It is by raising a doubt we arrive at inquiry, and by inquiring we grasp truth." However, we must realize that this dialectical technique, although it has become "almost synonymous with what has come to be known as the Scholastic method,"" was not the only one that medieval theologians employed to probe the meaning of Christian faith. In an insightful article, Charles Burnett reminds us that Abelard himself, like all Scholastics, recognized that there were two modes of human reasoning: inductive and deductive, which he attributed to Aristotle and Plato respectively." The inductive method begins by examining particular instances and on that basis reaches universal conclusions; in contrast, the deductive method proceeds from evident first principles

"Peter Abelard, Sic et Non, pro!. (PL 178, 1349). "Grant, 105. 29Charles Burnett, "Scientific Speculations," in A History of TwelfthCentury Western Philosophy, Peter Dranke, ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), 151-176. The reference to Aristotle and Plato is on p. 152.

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to understand the particular. Medieval logicians believed that these two modes of human reasoning were complementary, leading to the same ultimate truth, but they also emphasized that their opposite starting points led to quite different types of conclusions. As Burnett explains, in an inductive reasoning process, the premises ofthe argument are based on one's experience of particulars, and in that sense, express opinion. The resultant conclusions are thus ''probabilis - a word that has the sense of 'able to be approved of by reliable opinions' or 'plausible' rather than 'probable' [in the modern sensel or 'provable.' Their validity must be judged on the basis of their rationality."" In a deductive reasoning process, on the other hand, the premises are not elicited from experience, "but intuited as self-evident axioms, and the arguments from these premises are 'necessary' and lead to 'demonstration."'31 Hugh of St. Victor neatly described the difference between these two modes of argumentation: Demonstration consists of necessary arguments and belongs to philosophers. Probable argument belongs to dialecticians and rhetoricians .... Probable argument is divided into dialectic and rhetoric, both of which contain invention and judgment as integral parts.... Invention and judgment integrally constitute argumentative logic. Invention teaches the discovery of arguments and the drawing up oflines of argUmentation. The science of judgment teaches the evaluation of such arguments and lines of argumentation." 30Burnett, 154. 3lBurnett, 154. 32Didascalicon, 2.30, trans. Jerome Taylor, The Didascalicon ofHugh of St. Victor: A Medieval Guide to the Arts (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961).81, alt.

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The quaestio technique we commonly associate with Scholasticism epitomizes what Hugh calls the dialectical method of "drawing up lines of argumentation" and "the evaluation of such arguments." This form of argumentation is based on an inductive process of marshalling particular pieces of evidence (Biblical texts, traditional authorities, philosophical opinions), which are then logically analyzed to arrive at general, but probable conclusions. Bonaventure shows himself a master of this mode of theological reasoning in his Commentary on the Sentences and especially in his three series of disputed questions; these were products of his classroom teaching, which demanded the quaestio technique. The Breviloquium, however, differs radically from Bonaventure's other works of systematic theology. In it he departs from the customary inductive mode of analysis, employing instead what his contemporaries regarded as a superior mode of reasoning, namely, the deductive method. To illustrate how this method works, let us examine a typical chapter in the Breviloquium, in which Bonaventure treats "the contamination of original sin."33 He begins his discussion of the topic, not by posing a question, but by simply declaring a tenet of Christian faith: "The human race is corrupted by original sin." He then goes on to specifY the exact nature ofthis corruption. U sing a phrase from Paul's Letter to the Ephesians, Bonaventure asserts that human beings come into the world as "children of wrath," waging a life-long struggle against bodily afflictions, ignorance and concupiscence, bearing the ultimate penalty of physical death and eternal separation from God. After enunciating the Christian doctrine of original sin, he goes on to suggest a ratio ad intelligentiam (a rational demonstration of its truth): sapart 3, chapter 5.

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Since the First Principle acts by its own power, according to its own law, and with itself as an end, it must therefore be utterly good and righteous, and hence most loving and most just. That is why all the ways of the Lord are mercy and truth, or judgment. 3' Now if God had created humankind in such wretchedness from the very beginning, he would have violated his own love and righteousness by oppressing his own handiwork with such miseries through no fault of its own. Nor would divine providence have governed us with kindness and justice had it afflicted us or permitted us to be afflicted with these miseries in the absence of sin. If it is certain, then, that the First Principle is most upright and merciful both in creating and in governing, it follows by necessity that God made humankind in the beginning free from guilt and misery. It also follows that in governing humankind, God cannot permit any distress to exist in us without some antecedent offense. 35 Bonaventure's reasoning here is totally deductive, appealing to no outside evidence whatsoever. He begins from an implicit premise: that one First Principle is the cause of all things. He has already demonstrated that premise in earlier chapters, as well as the fact that such a Principle cannot be conditioned from without; rather, all its actions must flow from its very being ("utterly good and righteous"). This premise then leads ''by necessity" through a chain of corollaries to his conclusion: that humanity is afflicted with such miseries, not through an arbitrary decision of a vindictive God, but as a fitting consequence of

"Ps 25:10 (Vg 24:10). 35Part 3, chapter 5.

INTRODUCTION

XXVII

its own freely chosen actions. The doctrine of original sin is thus logically demonstrated by showing that it flows necessarily from the nature of the First Principle itself. This is precisely Bonaventure's stated aim throughout the Breviloquium: Because theology is, indeed, discourse about God and about the First Principle, as the highest science and doctrine it should resolve everything in God as its first and supreme principle. That is why, in giving the reasons for everything contained in this little work or tract, I have attempted to derive each reason from the First Principle, in order to demonstrate that the truth of Sacred Scripture is from God, that it treats of God, is according to God, and has God as its end. 36 Bonaventure knew that in order to "demonstrate the truth of Scripture," he had to provide what we saw Hugh of St. Victor call "necessary arguments."" That is why his treatment of original sin emphasizes that the reasons for the doctrine flow ''by necessity" from the nature of the First Principle. What precisely did Bonaventure understand by "necessary" arguments? Where did he turn for models of a theology constructed on such a basis? To answer the first question, let us look more closely at the notion of 'demonstration.' Ironically, it was Aristotle, the thinker Abelard considered the exemplar of the inductive method, who stressed in his Posterior Analytics that deductive reasoning provides the only firm basis for truly scientific knowledge.

36Brevil., prol., 6.6. 37Didascalicon, 2.30, in the passage cited previously: "Demonstration consists of necessary arguments."

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ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVlLOQUlUM

This means that one comes to know things in more than a superficial or accidental way; it means understanding why things are the way they are. If one knows the causes on which a thing depends, then one can see that it has to be the way it is. As Aristotle explains, a demonstration begins from "premises which must be true, primary, immediate, and better known than, and prior to the conclusion, which is further related to them as effect to cause."'. In a demonstration, conclusions follow necessarily from the premises, although the premises themselves are indemonstrable. Boethius (d. 524), for centuries the main Latin conduit of Aristotle's ideas, described the kind of premise on which a demonstration is based as a "common conception of the mind," a self-evident truth that "people accept as soon as they hear it."" A "necessary argument," then, is simply one that draws out the inescapable corollaries of a self-evident premise. Let us now turn to the second question - where did Bonaventure look for examples of a theology constructed by means of 'demonstration'? For medieval theologians, the phrase "necessary arguments" immediately called to mind the individual often called "the father of Scholasticism," Anselm of Canterbury (d. 1109). Anselm re-invigorated a deductive style of reasoning in Western theology. Unlike Abelard, he does not begin his inquiry from a neutral starting point by "bracketing" beliefs but by plunging more deeply into the realities experienced in faith to uncover their rationale. As he explained to Pope Urban II, No Christian ought to argue how things that the Catholic Church believes with its heart and Confesses with its mouth are not so. Rather, by always aaposterior Analytics 1.2 (Bekker ed. 71h 20~21), as cited in Burnett, 155. "De hebdomadibus (PL 64, 1311B), as cited in Burnett, 157.

INTRODUCTION

XXIX

adhering to the same faith without hesitation, by loving it, and living according to it, a Christian humbly ought to seek, so far as one can, the reason how they are so.... For it is a fact that the more powerfully Holy Scripture nourishes us with things that feed us by obedience, the more accurately we are carried along to things that satisfY us intellectually.... Certainly, this is what I am saying: those who have not (first) believed, will not understand. For those who have not believed will not experience, and those who have not experienced, will not know.'o Anselm, then, out of his faith experience, sought to work out the inner logic of Christian beliefs in a way that would be convincing to those who doubt them. He explained that he wrote his Monologion and Proslogion "especially to show that necessary reasons apart from the authority of Scripture can establish things that we by faith hold about the divine nature and its persons."" He pressed this method of even further in his famous Cur Deus homo, in which he tried to show that even if we knew nothing of Christian revelation, it would still be necessary to postulate that God would have to become human in order to redeem sinful humanity.'z Although Anselm did not leave any immediate disciples, in the later twelfth and thirteenth centuries theologians resumed his quest for a priori demonstrations of Christian beliefs, despite the contemporary fascination with the new quaestio technique. One of these was Rich"De Incarnatione Verbi, 1 (PL 158, 253-254 [AC, 235-236 alt.]). 41De Incarnatione Verbi, 6 [Ae, 246]. 42Rene Roques, " La methode du 'Cur Deus Homo' de Saint Anselme de Cantorbery," Structures theologiques: De la Onose a Richard de SaintVictor (Paris: Ecole des Hautes Etudes, 1962),243-293.

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ard of St. Victor (d. 1173), who, like Anselm, would influence Bonaventure deeply. As he affIrmed in his treatise On the Trinity: "I believe, without a shadow of a doubt, that arguments which are not only probable (Le., those attained through the dialectical method), but actually necessary, are not lacking to explain anything whatsoever which has to be explained, even though these may elude our diligent inquiry."" These theologians had resources to assist them in this search that were unavailable to Anselm, namely a vast array of philosophical and scientific texts finally available in Latin translation. Most notable ofthese were that part ofAristotelian corpus that contemporaries called the "new logic," including the Posterior Analytics, a work which, as we have already mentioned, argued for the superiority of deductive reasoning as the base for truly scientific knowledge. But perhaps just as significant in this regard were a number of texts that actually embodied such a method: Euclid's Elements of geometry and a wide variety ofworks by syncretistic neo-Platonic authors, whose religious orientation made them especially appealing to medieval Christian theologians.14 Chief among these were the writings of the Pseudo-Dionysius, whose notion of hierarchy would exert a profound influence on Bonaventure's thought. But there was another important source ofmedieval neo-Platonism: works by Muslim authors. One particular Islamic text would have a major impact on both the concepts and the literary form of Bonaventure's Breviloquium. This was a small treatise, generally known as the Liber de causis (The Book of "De Trinitate, 1.4 (PL 196, 892). 44See the classic essay by M. D. Cheun, "The Platonisms of the Twelfth Century," in Nature, Man, and Society in the Twelfth Century, trans. Jerome Taylor and Lester Little (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 49-98.

INTRODUCTION

Causes), a Latin translation of an anonymous Arabic work, probably dating from the ninth century.45 This came into circulation in the Latin West sometime between 1170 and 1185 under the title of Liber Aristotelis de expositione

bonitatis purae (The Book ofAristotle Concerning the Pure Good), which immediately won it a wide audience. Despite this attribution, however, the Liber is actually a concise and creative re-working of the Elements ofTheology of the Neo-Platonic philosopher Proclus (d. 485). Working out of his belief in one Almighty God, the Muslim author has transformed Proclus' doctrine of impersonal cosmic emanation into a true doctrine of divine creation and providence. Within the brief space of thirty-one chapters, called propositions, the author unfolds the structure of the entire universe. Like other neo-Platonists, he works out of a profound sense that reality is a cosmos: an ordered, hierarchical totality structured according to basic metaphysical principles, of which the most important is the principle of causality. The first proposition lays the foundation for the whole treatise: that there is a first and highest cause which is prior to, immanent in, and subsequent to all other causes and their effects. AB the work progresses through a series of necessary arguments, the author makes clear that this First Principle, which is Goodness and Richness itself, extends its causal influence to all things, giving them being, overflowing its perfections on them, and governing them with an overarching providence. This work filled a real gap in the Aristotelian corpus, advancing the concept of the First Cause beyond that of a static "unmoved mover" to a dynamic creating principle. Despite the ecclesiastical ban on Aristotle's libri naturales (books of natu-

45Ibid" 89 91. This work has been translated by Dennis Brand, The Book of Causes, 2 nd ed. (Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1984), who provides a helpful introduction, 4-18. w

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ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVILOQUIUM

INTRODUCTION

ral philosophy), it was soon being studied avidly by theologians. 4' The striking aphoristic literary style of the Liber, as well as its message, made an impact as welL As one modern scholar describes it, The style of the Liber is characterized by a brevity which leaves no room for digression, rhetorical ornament, or appeal to authority. The method of the book is in accord with its systematic purpose. The propositions [chapters] seek to exhibit succinctly the structure of reality. Each proposition is accompanied by a brief comment which proves or at least explains the statement.... We have here a concatenation of interrelated statements, which resembles Euclid's work as a structured presentation of doctrine descending from higher to lower causes. 47 These words could aptly describe the Breviloquium itself; it is obvious that Bonaventure had the Liber de causis in mind when he developed his own treatise. 48 He was not alone in this attraction. Alan ofLille (d. 1202), the first great Paris theologian to use the work, had been in46Among the more significant of these was Alexander of Hales; Roger Bacon was lecturing on the Liber around 1245, when it was still officially banned from the classroom. The work became a required text in the Arts curriculum at the University of Paris in 1255. See Brant, 1-8.

"Charles H. Lohr, "The Pseudo-Aristotelian Liber de Causis and Latin Theories of Science in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries," Pseudo· Aristotle in the Middle Ages, ed. Jill Kraye, W F. Ryan, and C. B. Schmitt

(London: The Warburg Institute, 1986), 56.

.

As Etienne Gilson observed years ago, "Every time a philosophIcal or theological opuscule consists of concise aphoristic statements, often alliterative, and attended or not by a short commentary, the influence of the Book of Causes can at least be suspected." History of Christian 48

Philosophy in the Middle Ages (New York: Random House, 1955), 236.

xxxm

spired by the Liber to compose his Regulae de sacra theologia, which similarly is made up of a number of propositions with accompanying explanations and proofs. 4 ' What Bonaventure, like Alan before him, found seductive about the Liber de causis was its deductive method, which could provide precisely a "demonstration" of the premises of Christian faith rather than the "probable" arguments that resulted from using the quaestio technique. The dialectical method of the latter employed the arts of rational philosophy (grammar, logic, and rhetoric), which examine concepts and their organization into statements and judgments, thus determining "the truth of speech," or logical truth. The demonstrative method, on the other hand, was proper to natural philosophy, whose different branches (physics, mathematics, and metaphysics) examine "the truth of things," or ontological truth. 50 As Bonaventure explains, the several branches of natural philosophy all enlighten the mind "to know the causes of being." Specifically, he sees metaphysics as that science "concerned with the knowledge of all beings according to their ideal causes, tracing them back to the one first Prin-

490n this work, see G. R. Evans,Alan ofLille (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), 64-80. A similar work is the De arte fidei catholica of Nicholas ofAmiens. Nicholas' work differs somewhat from Alan's Regulae in that it is directly modeled on Euclid's Elements and thus attempts a demonstration ofthe truths of theology moregeometrico, with purely deductive reasoning from axioms. Alan's Regulae is modeled instead on the Liber de causis; although both of these works order their materials systematically. providing a demonstration or at least explanation for each proposition, they do not presuppose any axioms (Lohr, 61-62). The Breviloquium follows the pattern of the latter. 50S ee the selection from Hugh of St. Victor's Didascalicon cited previously, whose approach Bonaventure develops in his treatise De reductione artium ad theologiam [On the Reduction of the Arts to Theology], trans. Zachary Hayes, The Works of Saint Bonaventure, Volume 1 (St. Bonaventure, NY: The Franciscan Institute, 1996). On this distinction, see Hayes's commentary, 19.

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ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVILOQUIUM

ciple from which they proceed, that is, to God, in as far as God is the Beginning, the End, and the Exemplar."" The summit of that metaphysics available to natural reason, explicated in the Liber de causis, is when the mind achieves knowledge of a first and highest Principle (principium primum et summum), a self-diffusive goodness which is the source of all that exists. But for Bonaventure, such knowledge is the starting point for another, more profound kind of metaphysics, a specifically theological metaphysics.52 The First Principle that is dimly perceived by natural philosophy the Christian has come to experience dramatically in the person of Jesus Christ. 53 Christian faith reveals a deeper, theological metaphysics centered on the Word of God, which reveals the true character of the first and highest Principle through the foundational mysteries of the Trinity and the Incarnation. 54 Through faith, we come to recognize that the First Principle has created all things through the Word precisely to

"De red. art., 4 (Hayes, 41-43). 52Cf. Brevil .. pt. 1, chap. 2: "Theology is also the only perfect wisdom, for it begins with the supreme cause as the principle of all things that are caused - the very point at which philosophical knowledge ends." The distinction between a philosophical and a theological metaphysics in Bonaventure's thought was first developed in the seminal article of Zachary Hayes, "Christology and Metaphysics in the Thought of Bonaventure," in Celebrating the Medieval Heritage: A Colloquy on the Thought ofAquinas and Bonaventure, ed. David Tracy, The Journal of Religion, Supplement 58 (1978): 882-896, along with the response by Ewert Cousins (897-8104). 53As Bonaventure states, in Scripture the ultimate principle of all knowledge [the self-diffusive Good] is "clearly revealed," while in the books of other sciences it "lies hidden" and is seen only partially. De red. art., 26 (Hayes, 61). 54Bonaventure emphasizes that the "truth to which we are bound to assent by faith ... is divine truth as it exists in its own proper nature or in its assumed human nature .... Thus the articles of faith that are the foundations of belief are concerned either with the Godhead or with the humanity [of Christl." Brevil., pt. 5, chap. 7.6.

INTRODUCTION

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communicate itself personally to its creatures in order to draw them into the mystery of its own overflowing Love: The Word expresses the Father and the things made through him, and he is foremost in leading us to the unity of the Father who brings all things together. For this reason he is the Tree of Life, because through this center (medium), we return and are given life in the fountain of life ... This is the metaphysical center that leads back and this is the sum total of our metaphysics: it is about emanation, exemplarity, and consummation, that is, to be illumined by spiritual rays and to be led back to the Highest Source (principium).And thus you will be a true metaphysician.55 Bonaventure provided two ways through which to approach this theological metaphysics: one more inductive, from a knowledge of creatures; the other deductive, from the experience offaith itself. Gerson, that perceptive reader of Bonaventure, reCOgnized that the difference between the Itinerarium and the Breviloquium lies in the fact that these two works present different but complementary ways of coming to know God." The Itinerarium "proceeds from creatures to God by means of six successive stages until attaining anagogical ecstasies."" In contrast, the "Hexaem. 1. 17 (V: 332). 56J. Gerson, De Ubris legendis a monacho, 5-6, Opera J. Gerson (Strasbourg, 1515), Fo!. XIX, G: "... Breviloquium et Itinerarium in quibus processum est duabus viis cognosendi Deum. Primus namque horum duorum tractatum procedit a primo principio, quod Deus est, usque ad alias veritates sub Deo creditas et habitas. Alius econtra progreditur a creaturis ad Creatorem per sex gradus scalares usque ad anagogicos excessus." 57"It is in harmony with our created condition that the universe itself might serve as a ladder by which we can ascend into God .... [Finally], after our consideration of the attributes of God [as First Being], the

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVlLOQUIUM

Breviloquium "proceeds from the First Principle, which is God, to arrive at [an understanding of] the other truths believed and possessed in light of God." Its starting point is the experience of Christian faith itself, which is based on the self-revelation of the Trinity within human beings and their acceptance of that revelation. '8 Both works employ Bonaventure's characteristic method of reductio (the "reduction" or "retracing" of things to their origin)." As Bougerol explains it, The reduction is not merely a technique - it is the soul of the return to God; and since all knowledge depends on principles, and principles are born within us under the regulating and motivating action of divine ideas, the certitudes which seem most capable of being self-sufficient are necessarily linked, by means of the first principles, with the eternal reasons and their divine foundation. To reduce, then, the truth of any judgment amounts to bringing back this judgment, from condition to condition, to the eternal reasons upon which it is established .•0 The technique of reductio, however, operates differently in the Itinerarium and the Breviloquium. In the eye of intelligence must be raised to the contuition of the most Blessed Trinity." Itin. 1.2,6.l. 58Brevil., prol., 2. The distinction between these two ways of arriving at a knowledge of God is concisely described by Francisco Chavero Blanco, Imago Dei: Aproximacion a la Antropologia Teologica de San Buenaventura (Murcia: Publicaciones del Instituto Teologico Franciscano. 1993). 196·20l. 590n the notion of reductio, basic to Bonaventure's theology, see Bougerol, Introduction, 75-77. For more detail see Guy Allard "La technique de la Reductio chez Bonaventure" in S. Bonaventura i2741974, vol. 2, ed. Jacques G. Bougerol (Rome: Collegio S. Bonaventura Grottaferrata. 1974). 395·416. 6°Bougerol, Introduction, 76.

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Itinerarium, "as the mind speculates the various 'gradus' of the created order, it increasingly perceives the relationship of all reality to God. In this way the reductio leads from the inferior through the intermediate to the superior"" As one comes to know the layers of reality in everdeeper ways, one arrives at a philosophical, and finally a theological, metaphysics. The Breviloquium, in contrast, is grounded in theological metaphysics. It begins with the mystery of the Trinity, and from there proceeds to "reduce" or ''retrace" the various beliefs proposed in the Catholic tradition to the foundational mystery of the self-diffusive First Principle in order to demonstrate how they alliogically flow from it. "Although theology is broad and varied in content," Bonaventure intends to show that "it is nevertheless a single science."·2 For since theology is "discourse about God and about the First Principle, as the highest science and doctrine it should resolve everything in God as its first and supreme principle."·' As Gerken aptly states, Bonaventure's method of reductio "proves nothing, but shows something. It shows, namely, what is [already1 present in cognition."64 Following the path blazed by Anselm's Proslogion, written "from the point of view of one seeking to understand what he believes,"·' in the Breviloquium Bonaventure intends to provide his readers with a means of meditating on their

61Jay M. Hammond, "Order in the Itinerarium Mentis in Deum," Appendix to J. A. Wayne Hellmann, Divine and Created Order in Bonaventure's Theology (St. Bonaventure, NY: The Franciscan Institute, 2001).212. 62Brevil. 1.1. 63Brevil., prol. 6.6. 64Gerken, 64. 65Proslogion, proem. (AC, 83). It is no accident that Bonaventure closes the Breviloquium with a long quotation from the Proslogion. On Anselm's influence on Bonaventure, see J. G. Bougerol, "Saint Bonaventure et Saint Anselme," Antonianum 41 (1972): 333-361.

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ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVILOQUIUM

experience of God as self-diffusive Good so they might come to understand how all "the things the Catholic Church believes with its heart and confesses with its mouth" logically flow from the one foundational mystery of the Triune God revealed in Jesus Christ. 66 We must now proceed to a brief description of how Bonaventure goes about this task. CONTENT

A number ofthe earliest manuscripts ofthis work give it a fuller title: Breviloquium ad intelligentiam sacrae scripturae et fidei christianae ("a brief discourse on understanding Holy Scripture and the Christian faith").6' This indicates that Bonaventure's readers quickly recognized that the treatise comprises two distinct parts. These differ radically from a literary point of view and seem, at first glance, to have two distinct objectives. The first, the Prologue, is an articulate introduction on how to interpret the Bible, inspired by Augustine's De doctrina christiana. M.D. Chenu has called it "the most beautiful program of sacred hermeneutics proposed in the 13th century."6B In contrast, the second part of the work, as already mentioned, is a dense, finely-tuned systematic exposition of the major themes of Catholic doctrine. What, if any, is the connection between these two seemingly autonomous parts? For years, authors have seen very little. In a seminal 1940 article, Pedro Bordoy-Torrents uncovered marked stylistic differences between the Prologue and chapters 1 and 2 of Part I, on the one hand, and chap-

66The quoted phrase is from the passage cited from Anselm previously.

Among these is the Troyes manuscript cited above. SSM_D. Chenu, La theologie comme science au XlIIe siecZe (Paris: J. Vrin, 1957), 54: "Ie plus beau programme d'hermeneutique sacree qu'ait propose Ie XIIIe siecle." 67

!NTRODuCTION

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6 ter 5 of Part I to the end of the work, on the other. ' He observed that in several ways the Prologue does not really seem to fit the Breviloquium: first of all, it is much too lengthy when compared with the bo~y of the t~xt; on the other, it reads like a lyrical narrative m comparIson to the tightly organized arguments that follow. He conclud~d that the Prologue was probably a revision of a universIty sermon Bonaventure gave earlier in his career, probably the "praise of Sacred Scripture" required when he was installed as a Biblical bachelor. Most scholars have followed this line of thought, concluding that Bonaventure combined the two parts when he published the Breviloquium,. but that they remained but loosely connected and contamed quite different approaches to theology. For example, in his Introduction to the Works ofBonaventure, Jacques Bougerol goes so far as to split his treatment of the Breviloquium between two different chapters. He examines the Prologue as enunciating the principles of Biblical interpretation necessary for understanding Bonaventure's exegetical works; in this regard he accepts Chenu's verdict that t~e Prologue is "clearly the program and the method of a BIblical expositor, an exegete."'· On the other hand, Bougerol describes the body of the Breviloquium as Bonaventure's "manual of theology," summarizing his teaching in th; Commentary on the Sentences and disputed questions .. Bougerol recognizes that in both sections Bonaventure IS trying to explain "the truth of theology," but in th~ Prologue he is considering theology as the revealed Wlsdom

69PMM. Barday-Torrents, "Technicas diverge~tes en la redaccion del Breviloquio de S. Bonaventura," Cientia .~om"sta (1940): 442-451. He sees chapters 3 and 4 as forming a transltion between the two pa~s. 70Chenu, La theologiel 54: "mais sont programme et methode dun expositor, d'un exegete." 7lBougerol, Introduction, 88-94; 108-112.

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ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVILOQUIUM

INTRODUCTION

of God (Scripture), while in the body of the text, he considers it as the human attempt to penetrate divine revelation. More recently, several scholars have re-examined this question, suggesting that Bonaventure did intend the Prologue - whether a revision of an earlier sermon or not - precisely to serve as the introduction to the systematic body of the treatise. They do not believe that Scripture and systematic theology can be as neatly distinguished as Bougerol would have them.72 Despite the vast differences in style, both sections of the Breviloquium share the same basic understanding of the nature oftheology.73 Bonaventure makes it clear that for a Christian any attempt to do 'theology' - that is, to speak meaning: fully of God, must flow from one's personal acceptance of God's self-communication. This is evident in the introductory paragraphs of the Prologue. 74 Citing Paul's Letter to the Ephesians, Bonaventure begins by "bowing my knees to the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ," for he wishes to remind theologians of their natural incapacity to comprehend the divine mystery.75 The basic doctrines of Christianity - above all, its conviction that God is Love - are not the result of any "human inquiry," but are revealed by "the Father of lights." Furthermore, this revelation is not primarily something that can be objectified - words written down in sacred texts - but experiential, the "inflowing of the Most Blessed Trinity," the self-

XLI

communication of God to the depths ofthe human spirit. In short, Bonaventure views theology, "a knowledge of the First Principle," as ultimately "a science founded upon faith and revealed by the Holy Spirit."7. Theology thus speaks of God, the First Principle, as known by faith. But what does faith know? It is important to grasp the way Bonaventure understands the 'object of faith' (credibile), as it is key for understanding the underlying connection between the two sections of the Breviloquium. Already, in his Commentary on the Sentences, Bonaventure explained that the virtue of faith, Sacred Scripture, and systematic theology all are focused on the same 'object' - God as known by faith - but in a progressively deepening manner.77 The virtue of faith is foundational for the other two. A person comes to faith through the gift of the Holy Spirit; in doing so, grace transforms the human mind, conforming it to the divine knowledge in a deeper way. Through an illumination of the First Truth, the Uncreated Word of God, the mind comes to ex-. perience or 'taste' the divine mystery in a manner unavailable to natural reason. In the words of Hans Urs von Balthasar,. Bonaventure views faith as "an inspired, imprinted Word of God, a ray of the Spirit's light in US"78 Here von Balthasar is alluding to one of the richest motifs in Bonaventure's theology, the three different dimensions of the Word of God. In his Collations on the Hexaemeron, Bonaventure states: "The key of contemplation is a three-fold understanding-that of the Uncreated

"Berube, 91-162, esp.117-130; Chavero Blanco 210-221' Falque 31-

52.

'

.

,

73For a good brief description of Bonaventure's understanding of theology, see Charles Carpenter, Theology as the Road to Holiness in

St. Bonaventure (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1999), 18-27. 74Brevil .• Prol, 1-5. 75 C,f. Brevil., pt. 5, chap, 7.4: "The truth of the First Principle is mfimtely greater than all created truth and infinitely more radiant o

than any light of our [human] understanding."

76Breuil., pt.!, chap.!; ProI,3.2. 71Jn 1 Sent., proem., q. 1, ad 5-6 ev,8).

78The Glory of the Lord, val.lI, Studies in Theological Styles: Clerical Styles (New York: Crossroad, 1984). 280. Bonaventure calls faith "a presence of God in the soul that transmits a kind of knowledge that is like a resemblance, not abstracted, but imprinted" In 1 Sent., 3.1.1. ad 5 (I, 69-70).

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ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVIWQUlUM

Word through which all things were made, that of the Incarnate Word through which all things are restored, and that of the Inspired Word, through which all things are revealed."'· The Uncreated Word, the full and total expression of the self-diffusion of the Father, is also the exemplar of the countless ways that the Father chooses to express himself in creation. Therefore, in the words of Zachary Hayes, "if all things are constituted in being through the [Uncreated] Word, and if i(is impossible to understand a creature except through that by which it is made, then in some way the Word is involved in all genuine knowledge at whatever level."" Here Bonaventure is giving expression to a common Scholastic maxim: "the principle of being and knowing are the same."81 Without the illumination ofthe Word, humanity would know nothing of the underlying structures of the universe, and yet sinful human beings have failed to recognize the source of their knowledge and trace it back to its First Principle. As a result, they can no longer read the ''book of creation" effectively.82 It is only with the coming of the Incarnate Word that the relationship of human beings to God has again become clear. Through Christ's gift of the Spirit, the human mind is gradually set aright to again perceive reality in light of its source and thus arrive at their end. When Bonaventure uses the term, "the Inspired Word," he is referring to the fact that the eternal Word of God , the source of all understanding, has again become actively present in the human spirit through the working of God's Holy Spirit.

79Hexaem., 3.2 (V, 343). Cf. Hexaem., 9.1-8, ltin., 4.3, Brevil., 4.1, De donis, 1.5-7 (Y, 372-74, 306, 242, 458). 8°Hayes, ('Christology and Metaphysics," 892. "Hayes, 891. Cf. Hexaem., 1.13 (V, 331). 82Breuil., pt. 2, chap. 12; Hexaem., 13.12 (V, 390).

INTRODUCTION

XLIII

This is why at the beginning of the Breviloquium Bonaventure chooses to emphasize the Pauline passage, "may Christ dwell in your hearts through faith." For through faith, we truly know Christ, "the Inspired Word," present and living within us, and thus, in at least an implicit way, the mysteries of the Trinity and the Incarnation, the core truths of the Christian faith. 83 Faith thus gives the believer an intuitive insight into these fundamental truths of reality. For in Christ, we know the mystery of God's own being, that God is Love. The transcendent mystery we call God consists of an infinitely rich primal source ('the Father') that overflows to produce a Word embodying its Goodness; in turn, these two - the Father and Son - freely give themselves in the Spirit of love to each other. But the mystery of God also involves the fact that this Trinity wishes to communicate itself outside itself, creating other beings to which it can pour out its love. Faith thus comes to grasp that the First Principle underlying the universe is self-communicating Goodness: the source of all things, reflected in all things, drawing all things back into the overflowing love that is its very being. This self-giving Goodness the Christian has experienced concretely in the Word Incarnate, Jesus Christ, who has poured out his life for us. All these mysteries are contained in the "knowledge of Christ" and they are the 'object of faith' that came to expression through the apostles in the Creed. 84

83Brevil., prol., 2. Cf. pt. 7. chap. 7.4.: "that truth, to which we are bound to assent by faith, is divine truth as it exists in its own proper nature or in its assumed human nature." Cf. Hexaem., 8:4-5: "Now the scope of faith consists in two things: the extreme of height and the extreme of depth.. , The height of faith consists in understanding the eternal God; its depth, in knowing God made human." 84Brevil., pt. 5, chap. 7.7-8.

XLIV

ST. BONAVENTURE'SBREVILOQUlUM

This inner, personal knowledge of God achieved through faith in Christ has an integral and reciprocal relation with Sacred Scripture. Bonaventure emphasizes that "faith comes through hearing" the preaching of the Gospel, and that the authoritative expression of Christ's Word is contained in the Holy Scripture. 85 The fact that one comes to know Christ in faith is dependent on one's obedience to the inspired words of Scripture as proclaimed by the Church." For Bonaventure, the Scriptures present the object of faith (credibile) precisely as demanding the response of faith: "the whole content with which the canonical books are concerned is the body of faith as such {credibile ut credibile)."87 But on the other hand, it is only if one believes in Christ that one can interpret the Bible correctly, for its words, spoken by the Inspired Word active in its human authors, ultimately witness to the mystery of the Uncreated Word that has become Incarnate in the person ofChrist.88 The light offaith in Christ and God's revelation in Scripture are necessary for each other: without Scripture, faith would be vague and uncertain; without faith in Christ, the words of Scripture communicate nothing.

85Hexaem., 8.2: "No one is taught in matters offaith except through God, and this comes about through God's voice ... as the Apostle wrote to the Romans, 'faith depends on hearing.'" Ibid., 9.6-8. 86Brevil., pt. 5, chap. 7.5: "For our faith in [the First Principle] to be firm, our soul must be lifted up bytbe light of truth and fortified by the testimony of authority. The first is realized through infused faith, the second by the weight of Scripture ... Authority, then, gives support to faith, and faith gives assent to authority. Now, authority resides primarily in Holy Scripture, all of which was written down by the Holy Spirit for the sake of directing the Catholic faith." B7Brevil., pt. 1, chap. 1.4. In his Sentence Commentary, Bonaventure states that Scripture may be properly called "divine truth as clothed with the authority of the revealing God." In 1 Sent., proem., 1 (I, 8). BBBrevil., prol., 2.

INTRODUCTION

XLV

For Bonaventure, "Sacred Scripture or theology is a science that imparts to us wayfarers as much :no~ledge of the First Principle as we need to be saved. Scnpture does not tell us everything about the mys~ery ofGod and God's world _ but it does reveal that the First PrmcIple IS an infinite mystery of self-communicative love. God:s Word _ as Uncreated and Incarnate - to whom the Scnptures testify _ is a Word who has formed creatures in .order to share the divine life and who became human to bnng them that life in its fullness. "The Word express~s the Fath~r and the things made through him, and he IS foremo~t m leading uS to the unity of the Father who bri~gs al~ thmgs ~"8' The words of Scripture tell of th,S saVIng purt ogethe <. "s dS' pose of the self_communicating <:,od. ~~ so ac~e cnpture proceeds, by supernatural mspIratIon, to gIVe us .human wayfarers as much knowledge as we nee~ to achieve Its teaching exists so that we mIght become · sa1vat IOn. . . . . .' fi' t saved."'. Bonaventure's pnncIples or m erbe dn. goo d a . . ' . preting the Bible in the Prologue reflect thIS. conVIctIOn, and as such, are faithful to the teaching of h,S predecessors in the Franciscan school at Pa;is. They emphasIz~d that Scripture has been providentIally des:gned for ItS purpose ofleading people to the fullness of hfe. T~e mar'd th' of Scripture: the multiplicity of its hterary l veous ep . . 'dd t'l't styles the concreteness of its imagery, ItS VIVI e aI ,IS seemi~gly unsophisticated style - is so that the message of salvation may reach the largest number of people possible and to move their hearts to action, not simply present an abstract doctrine.91 This is also why theology cannot be

"Hexaem. 1. 17 (V: 332). 90Brevil prol, 3; 5.2. 11th 91Cf B ., il 4 3 On these points Bonaventure follows c ose y e

h:n r~~ the' Summa fratris Aiexandri. Cf. Alexandri de Hales: ~:~~agTheologica (Quaracchi: Collegium S. Bonaventurae, 1924), Trac.

intro.,1.4.4.3·4 (1: 10-12).

XLVI

ST. BONAVENTURE'SBREVILOQUIUM

scientific in the same way as other sciences, for it deals with particular facts of history, not general conclusions. But this is precisely why Scripture employs the mode of authority: its certainty is not the result of rational analysis in the manner of other sciences; rather, it uses the modes of narration and examples to invite people to respond in faith to God's Word.92 If Scripture presents the credibile - God's self-communication - as something to which we must respond to in faith (credibile ut credibile), the work ofthe theologian is to present it in a way that is intelligible (credibile ut intelligibile). Citing Augustine in this regard, Bonaventure states: "what we believe we owe to authority, what we understand, to reason."" He believed it was his task as a theologian to attempt to help people understand their faith experience. As we have already seen, Bonaventure composed the Breviloquium precisely to "give reasons" so that those beginning the study of theology "might understand the truths offaith."'4 However, we must remember that when Bonaventure speaks of theologians "giving reasons" in order to understand faith, he does not mean that they attempt to balance the claims offaith and reason or simply use the fruits of rational inquiry ('natural philosophy') to understand the truths of faith. For just as Scripture cannot be understood properly without faith in Christ, so too theology can only be done from within the new intellectual perspective

INTRODUCTION

XLVII

achieved through faith in Christ. The theologian works out of'the light offaith' - an emanation ofthe divine light within the human mind which changes one's view of reality. For Bonaventure, as Anselm before him, theology is above all the intellectus fidei - an attempt to understand more deeply the experience of faith, an attempt in which God's indwelling Spirit gradually enlightens the human mind beyond its natural capacities to grasp the ultimate nature of reality: The object of faith is above reason ... as acquired knowledge, but not above reason elevated by faith and by the gifts of knowledge and understanding. For faith elevates the mind to assent (to God's selfcommunication); knowledge and understanding elevate to understanding what is believed."" The theologian may well use the insights of scientific and philosophical inquiry, but as integrated into the perspective of the light offaith. ,. Let us look once again at Bonaventure's procedure in the body of the Breviloquium from this perspective. In each chapter, Bonaventure first states some aspect of the 'object of faith' (credibile ut credibile) as proclaimed in the Scriptures or the Church's tradition: "the true faith prescribes," "sacred'doctrine teaches," "Holy Scripture teaches

95ln 1 Sent., proem., 2, ad 5 (I, 11). Of. Carpenter, "Reason alone is incapable of making the object of faith understandable. But, again, reason elevated by faith and the gifts of the Holy Spirit is rendered apt

"Summa fratris Alexandri., 1.4.4.1-2 (1: 7·10). See Brevil. 5.1-3. 93Brevil.,. pt. I, chap, 1.4. 94Brevil .• prol., 6.5. Of. Hexaem., 10.4: ''Note that some objects of faith

to undertake such a task" (25). 96As Hayes explains, "There is a level of metaphysics which is carried out by the theologian applying philosophical tools to faith ... This is

are not understandable through reason, they are particular facts, such as Abraham begot Isaac; other objects of faith should be understood

the point where faith draws to itself the entire philosophical instrumentum so as to obtain a properly theological understanding of

(quodam autem credibilia Bunt intelligenda), and when they are

the world of faith. At this level, the light of reason is subjected to the light of faith ("Christology and Metaphysics," S84).

understood, they are supported by solid reasons."

XLVIII

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVlLOQUIUM

us," "the following must be held [by faith]," etc. He then goes on to suggest some "reason" or "explanation" so his readers might understand why this is the case (credibile ut intelligibile), drawing these reasons from what the Christian faith knows of God. If we return to what was said above about the medieval scientific method of deductive reasoning, we can say that for Bonaventure the fundamental insight into the nature of the self-communicative God of Love that comes from "knowing Christ through faith" functions as the indemonstrable self-evident premise (the First Principle) for the "demonstration" of the other truths of faith. The logic makes sense only if one has seen the truth of the premise, a vision only possible through "the light of faith." The way Bonaventure constructs these arguments into a comprehensive synthesis reflects his fundamental theological metaphysics: "The Word expresses the Father and the things made through him, and he is foremost in leading us to the unity of the Father who brings all things together....This is the sum of Our metaphysics: emanation, exemplarity, and consummation."·' Thus, the Breviloquium's_structure reflects the Neo-Platonic framework of exitus (a 'going out') and reditus (a return) according to which all things emanate from the ultimate good over the course of time and return to their source in the fullness of time. The first three parts of the Breviloquium describe the process of exitus ('going out'). Part I locates the origin of this process in the fact that God is Triune: the Highest and First Principle is itself a mystery of self-diffusive love. The Father, the unbegotten fountain-fullness of goodness totally communicates that goodness to the Son; these two freely love each other in the Spirit. Part II goes on to con-

"Hexaem., 1. 17 (V: 332).

INTRODUCTION

XLIX

sider the "going out" ofthe universe from God through the Word. As the full expression of the Father's goodness the Word is 'singular' but at the same time it expresses the infinitely multiple possible things that God creates. Because it exists "in the Word," Bonaventure stresses the harmonious nature of creation and its essential orientation toward its divine source and goal. He also emphasizes the unique status ofthe rational creature, which can grasp adequately, albeit not completely, the truth and goodness of beings in such a way that it is drawn to their divine source as their ultimate fulfillment. Part III describes the negative dimension of the exitus, the "falling away" of creation through sin, which has had a devastating impact on human beings, in that it has rendered them incapable of grasping the deeper significance of reality and taking the steps necessary to achieve their fulfillment in God. It is precisely at the mid-point in the process, at the bottom of the descent away from God, that the Incarnation occurs; Part IV describes how God's Word became human to initiate the reditus (return) of creation to its source, by revealing again to fallen humanity the true meaning of their existence and through his death and resurrection empowering them to rise again to God. The remainder of the Breviloquium details the process ofthe'return.' This is accomplished through the grace of the Holy Spirit (Part V), which transforms human beings interiorly so they might love God. Concretely, this grace is mediated through the created means ofthe sacraments (Part VI); these are providentially designed to assist human beings in all the various situations oflife; finally, Part VII describes the 'end' - the final and ultimate return of all things into the fullness of divine life. Thus, in its own way, Bonaventure's effort to reflect on the unity of Christian faith in this "brief discourse" achieves what he said about Scripture itself:

L

ST. BONAVENTURE'SBREVlLOQUIUM

And so the whole course of this world is shown to run in a most orderly fashion from beginning to an end, like an artfully composed melody. In it, one can contemplate ... the diversity, multiplicity, and symmetry, the order, rectitude, and exceilence, of the many judgments that proceed from the divine wisdom governing the universe. Just as no one can appreciate the loveliness of a song unless one's perspective embraces it as whole, so none of us can see the beauty of the order and governance of the world without an integral view of its course.'s In our own day, the great theologian Henri de Lubac observed: "The Breviloquium of Saint Bonaventure, in its harmonious density, manifests a power of total synthesis, perhaps never equaled."" As Gerson said long ago, it does not make for easy reading, yet its riches "remain ever-new and enchanting."

98Brevil .• prol, 2.4. 99Exegese medievale, Part 2, 1 (Paris: Aubier, 1961),425.

BREVILOQUIUM PROLOGUE 1. For ·this reason I bow my knees before the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, from whom every fatherhood in heaven and on earth takes its name, that he would grant you, according to the riches of his glory, to be strengthened through his Spirit with power in your inner being, and that Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith; that being rooted and grounded in love, you may be able to com· prehend, with all the saints, what is the breadth and length, height and depth, and to know the love of Christ that surpasses all knowledge, so that you may be filled with all the fullness of God. 1 In these words, the great "doctor of the Gentiles and preacher of truth," filled with the Holy Spirit as a chosen and sanctified instrument,' discloses the source, procedure, and purpose of Holy Scripture, which is called theology. 3 For he intimates that Scripture takes its origin from an inflowing of the Most Blessed Trinity; that its manner of

'Eph 3:14-19. 2 Antiphon for the Magnificat on the feast of the Conversion of St. Paul (Jan. 25); cf. Acts 9:15. 3 Bonaventure uses here an earlier Scholastic terminology that identified Christian theology with Scripture. Further on (pt. 1, chap. 1), he distinguishes another sense of theology, i.e., systematic reflection on God's revelation.

2

ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVILOQUIUM

proceeding corresponds to the demands of our human capacities; and that its purpose or fruit is a superabundance of overflowing happiness. 2. Scripture does not take its starting-point in human inquiry; rather it flows from divine revelation, coming down from the Father of lights, 4 from whom every fatherhood in heaven and on earth receives its name. It is from him, through his Son, Jesus Christ, that the Holy Spirit flows also into us. It is through that same Spirit, who apportions gifts and allots to each one according to his will,s that faith is given, and it is through faith that Christ dwells in our hearts. This is the knowledge of Jesus Christ, from which source the authority and the understanding of all Sacred Scripture flow. Hence, no one can begin to comprehend it, unless that person has first been infused with faith in Christ - the lamp, the door, and the very foundation of all Scripture. 6 For as long as we are away from the


PROLOGUE

3

Lord,' it is faith that, of all the supernatural illuminations, is the foundation that supports us, the lamp that directs us, and the door that lets uS enter. It is according to the measure of faith, furthermore, that any wisdom given US by God must be gauged, lest anyone be wiser than it behooves to be wise, but to be wise with sober judgment, each according to the measure of faith that God has assigned .• And so, as the Apostle clearly intimates in the first part of the text with which we began, it is by meanS of faith that the knowledge of Sacred Scripture is given to us according to the measure of the Blessed Trinity's inflowing.' 3. The procedure of Sacred Scripture - unlike the other sciences - is not confined by the laws of reasoning, defining, or making distinctions, nor is it limited to only one aspect of the universe.1O Rather, it proceeds, by supernatural inspiration, to give us human wayfarers as much knowledge as we need to achieve salvation. And so, in language that is sometimes literal, sometimes symbolic, as in a kind of summa, it describes the contents of the entire universe, and so covers the breadth; it narrates the course of history, thus comprehending the length; it portrays the exce:lence of those who will ultimately be saved, thus manIfesting the height; and it depicts the misery of those who will be damned, thus plumbing the depth, not only of the universe, but of the very judgments of God. In this way it describes the breadth and length and height and depth of the entire universe, insofar as it is expedient to have knowl-

72 Cor 5:6.

'Rom 12:3. 'Cf. Hexaem., 8·12 (V, 368-87); In 3 Sent., 23-25 (III, 469·553). "Cf. Aristotle, PosteriorAnaiytics, 1.1-3 (Bekker ed. 71a 1-75b 25); Metaphysics, 6.1 (1025b 1 ·1026a 31). Scripture thus differs from the Aristotelian model of science in its method as well as its source.

4

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVlWQUlUM

edge of it for salvation. Furthermore, in the way it unfolds, Scripture reflects this same four-fold pattern, as will be described below. This manner of proceeding was demanded by the very nature of our human capacities, for our mind was made to grasp many and great things in a truly magnificent way. Like a certain noble mirror, it was designed to reflect the whole complex of created reality, not only naturally but also supernaturally. Thus, the procedure of Sacred Scripture may be considered as fully responding to the demands of our human faculties. 4. Finally, the purpose or fruit of Sacred Scripture is not simply any kind, but the fullness of everlasting happiness. For these are writings whose words are of eternal life; they were recorded, not only that we might believe, but also that we might possess that life everlasting,l1 in which we shall see and love and our desires will be completely satisfied. Then we shall really know that love which surpasses all knowledge, and thus be filled with all the fullness of God. This is the fullness to which the divine Scriptures would lead us, as is truly said in the words of the Apostle I have cited above. This, then, must also be the goal and the intention with which the Holy Scripture is studied, taught, and even heard. 5. That we may attain this fruit and goal rightly, by the straight path of Scripture itself, we must begin at the source. That is, we must reach out in true faith to the Father of lights, bending the knee of our hearts, so that through his Son and in the Holy Spirit, he might give us a true knowledge of Jesus Christ, and together with this knowledge, love for him. Thus, by knowing and loving Christ, by being confirmed in faith and rooted in love, we

PROLOGUE

may be able to know the breadth, length, height and depth of that same Holy Scripture, and through such knowledge attain the all-surpassing knowledge and measureless love of the Blessed Trinity. This is the aim of the longings of all the saints; this is the resting place and the fulfillment of all that is true and good. 6. Once our desires and intentions are fixed upon this end of Holy Scripture,'2 once we have both believed in their Source and invoked him, it remains for us to explore their unfolding, which regards their breadth, length, height, and depth, following the path and order of the Apostle's text. The breadth of Scripture refers to the variety of its parts; the length, to its description oftimes and ages; the height, to its account of the ordered levels of hierarchies; the depth, to the multiplicity of its mystical senses and interpretations. SECTION

1

THE BREADTH OF HOLY SCRIPTURE

1. If we wish to behold the breadth of Sacred Scripture, the first thing we discover is that Scripture is divided into two Testaments, namely the Old and the New. The Old is replete with many books: legal, historical, sapiential, and prophetic. There are five books in the first group, ten in the second, five in the third, and six in the fourth, for a total of twenty-six books." Similarly, the New Testament has books corresponding to these, arranged in

On the end of Scripture, see Hexaem., 14.7-12 (V, 394-95). There was no standard division of the Biblical canon among medieval theologians; this one, into four types of writings, seems to have been first suggested by Bonaventure. With regard to the Old Testatment, his first group (legal books) was the Jewish Torah, the five books of the Pentateuch; his ten historical books included Joshua, Judges, Kings I-IV, Chronicles I-II, Ezra-Nehemiah, Job, Tobit, Judith, 12

13

11 John 6:68; cf John 20:31. In Aristotelian terms, theology is a practical, not purely speculative, science. cr. In 1 Sent., proem.3.ad 1-3 (1,13). On the end of Scripture, see Hexaem. 14.7-11 (V,394-95).

5

6

PROLOGUE

ST. BONAVENTlJRE'SBREVILOQUIUM

the same fourfold division. The Gospels correspond to the legal books; the Acts of the Apostles, to the historical; the letters of the Apostles, especially Paul, to the sapiential; and the Apocalypse, to the prophetic. Thus there is a wondrous concordance between the Old and New Testaments, not only in the consistency of meanings, but also in their fourfold division. This concordance is what was prefigured and signified by Ezekiel, who saw the wheels of four faces and a wheel within each wheeL For the Old Testament is contained in the New, and the New in the Old. The legal and evangelical books have the face of a lion, because of their powerful authority; the historical, the face of an ox, because of their convincing strength; the sapiential, the face of a man, because of their keen wisdom; the prophetic, the face of an eagle, because of their penetrating vision.'4 2. Now it is fitting that Sacred Scripture is divided into an Old and a New Testament, and not into practical and theoretical branches in the manner of philosophy. 15 This is because Scripture is properly founded in that knowledge which stems from faith,'6 which virtue grounds morality, justice, and all right living; therefore, one cannot segregate in [Scripture] the knowledge of things we should believe from the knowledge of morals. It is thus

Esther, and Maccabees I-II; the five sapiential books included Proverbs,

Ecclesiastes (Qoheleth1, the Song of Songs, Wisdom, and Sirach; the six prophetic books comprised Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, the Psalms [because they point to Christ], and the Twelve Minor Prophets [as in the Jewish tradition, considered as a unit]. This same fourfold division was used later by Matthew ofAquasparta,lntroitus ad sacram Scripturam, nn. 22-27, in Quaestiones disputatae De {iJie etDe cognitione (Bib!. Fran. Scho!., 1 [Quaracchi, 19571, 18·21). "Ez 1:4·21. Cf. Gregory the Great,InEzechielem, 1.6.12 (PL 76: 834A). "Cf. Aristotle, Metaphysics, 2.3 (993b 19-21); Nicomachean Ethics, 6.7 (1l41b 1-16). "Cf. In 3 Sent., 23.1.1 (III, 471).

7

distinguished from philosophy, which does not .onl y treat the truth of morals, but also considers the truth lll. a purely speculative fashion. Thus, because Holy Scripture IS kn~wl­ edge that moves one to good and recalls one from ev~l, .a goal accomplished by fear and by love, it follows ~hat It .IS divided into two Testaments which, "to put it bnefly, dlf"17 fer as fear does f rom 1ove. 3. Now, there are four ways a person may be prompted toward good and drawn away from evil: namely, by the precepts of a most powerful authority, by the teachmgs of a most wise truth, by the examples and benefi~s of a most innocent goodness, and finally, by a combin~tlOn of these three ways. That is why the four kinds of ScrIptural books were handed down in both the Old and New Testaments, as they correspond to these four ways. The legal bo~ks move people by the precepts. of a most po~ent authOrIty; the historical, by the examples of a most mnocent goodness. the sapiential, by the teachings of a most prudent truth; and the prophetic, by a combination of the foregoing, as their content clearly illustrates. Hence the.se latt.er are, as it were, a recalling of all legal and doctrInal WISdom. . h 4. Holy Scripture, then, is like a vast nver ~ at c~ntinually grows in size by the addition of many t~lbutanes as its course lengthens. Scripture first began Wlth the legal books. Later, the streams of wisdom f?und m the hIStorical books were added to it. The teachmgs of the most wise Solomon followed; then, those of the holy prophets. Finally, the teaching ofthe Gospel waS ~evealed, uttered by the lips of Christ incarnate, set down m WrItIng by t.he evangelists, and related by the holy apo~t~es, togethN Wlth the other testimonies that the Holy Splnt, descendmg on

"Augustine, Contra Adimantum, 17.2 (PL 42: 159). Cf. below, pt. 5, chap. 9.3.

8

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVILOQUIUM

them, taught us through them. Thus, the apostles, instructed in all the truth by the Spirit according to the divine promise,18 could give the Church of Christ the entire doctrine of saving truth, and by completing Holy Scripture, extend the knowledge of that truth. SECTION

2

THE LENGTH OF HOLY SCRIPTURE

1. Sacred Scripture also possesses length, which consists of its description of times and ages from the beginning of the world until the Day of Judgment. It considers the world's course through three times: the time of the law of nature, that of the written law, and that of grace." Within these~ three times, it also distinguishes six ages: the first from Adam to Noah, the second from Noah to Abraham, the third from Abraham to David, the fourth from David to the Babylonian exile, the fifth from the exile to Christ, the sixth from Christ until the end of the world; the seventh, which runs concurrently with the sixth, commences with the repose of Jesus in the tomb, and lasts until the general resurrection, which marks the beginning ofthe eighth?O Thus Scripture traverses the greatest possible length, since it begins with the origin of the world and time in the first chapter of Genesis and continues until the end of the world and time in the closing chapters of the Apocalypse. 18Cf. John 16:13. 18 Augustine, De Trin. 4.4.7 (PL 42: 892-93); Hugh of St. Victor, De sacram. 1.8.3 (PL 176: 307). 20 Cf. Hugh of St. Victor, De sacram. 1.8.3; 2.2.1 (PL 176: 307, 415); these six ages of the world are based on Augustine, De Gen. contra Manich. 1.23 (PL 34: 190-193); De Gen. ad litt., 4.11.21: "It was on the Sabbath Day that he rested in the tomb" (PL 34: 304), trans. John Hammond Taylor, The Literal Meaning ofGenesis,ACW 42 (New York: Newman Press, 1982), 116-17.

PROLOGUE

9

2. The full compass of time, running according to a triple law - innately given, externally imposed, and infused from above - rightly passes through seven ages, reaching its consummation at the end of the sixth. For in this way the course of the macrocosm corresponds with that of the microcosm - namely, of the human being, for whose sake the larger world was created. 21 The world's first age, when the material world was formed, the demons fell, and the angels were confirmed in good, fittingly parallels the first day of creation, when light was made and separated from the darkness. The second age, when the wicked perished in the flood and the good were placed in the ark, parallels the second day, when the firmament was established, separating the waters. The third age, when Abraham was called and the synagogue begun, that it might be fruitful and bring forth offspring for the worship of God, corresponds to the third day, when land appeared and brought forth vegetation. The fourth age, in which the kingdom and the priesthood flourished because David augmented the worship of God, corresponds to the fourth day, when the heavenly lights and the stars were formed. The fifth age, in which the exiles were scattered and spread through many nations, corresponds to the fifth day, in which the production of the fishes from the waters was accomplished. The sixth age, in which Christ, the true image of God, was born in human likeness, corresponds to the sixth day, in which the first human being was formed. The seventh age, which is the everlasting rest of souls, corresponds to the seventh day, on which God rested from all the work that he had done. 22

21 Aristotle, Physics 2.2 (194a 34-35). Cf. In 2 Sent., 15.2.1 (Il, 38284). Bonaventure will develop the theme of the human person as microcosm in pt. 2 of the Breuiloquium. "Gen 2:2. Cf. Hexaem. 16 (Y,403-08).

11 PROLOGUE

10

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVILOQUIUM

3. These seven ages are thus distinguished by the signs found in their beginnings, whereby they correspond to the days of the world's creation. The first age is also called infancy, for just as our infancy passes into oblivion, so all memory of this first age was drowned in the flood. 23 The second is called childhood, because as we begin to talk at that age, correspondingly, it witnessed the separation of tongues. The third is called adolescence, because as the procreative power becomes active then, so in this age Abraham was summoned, receiving both circumcision and the promise of offspring. The fourth is called young adulthood, for just as then we are in our prime, so too in this age the synagogue flourished under the kings. The fifth is called decline, for as in our declining years one's powers diminish and beauty fades, so the exile witnessed the diminishment of the Jewish priesthood. The sixth is called old age, for just as human old age is linked with death but also possesses insight and wisdom, so too this sixth age of the world ends with the Day of Judgment, but in it wisdom advances through the teaching of Christ." 4. And so the whole course of this world is shown by Scripture to run in a most orderly fashion from beginning to end, like an artfully composed melody. In it, one can contemplate, by means of the succession of events, the diversity, mUltiplicity, and symmetry, the order, rectitude, and excellence, ofthe many judgments that proceed from

. h . 25 Just as no the divine wisdom governmg t e UnIverse. , e can appreciate the loveliness of a song unless one s on . h 1 one of uS can see Id 'thperspective embraces It as woe, so n the beauty of the order and governance of the wor t an integral view of its course. But since no mortal hves ~:n enough to see all this with bodily eyes, nor can .any . di~ .dual foretell the future, the Holy Spirit has proVlded . h length correm Vl us with the book of Sacred Scnpture, ':' ose sponds to God's governance of the UnIverse.

w:

SECTION 3 THE HEIGHT OF HOLY SCRIPTURE

1 Sacred Scripture, as it unfolds, also po.ssesse~ a height, which consists of the descriptio~ ofthe hlerar~le.~ in their ordered ranks. These hierarchIes are the edcc et~ d th d' 'ne - or in other wor s, e · e IVl 1 t" 126 The astical, the ange1lC, an sub-celestial, the celestial, and the superce es la.. i first is described clearly, the second somewhat .mo~e m~ tly and the third more obscurely still. From ItS escr~p­ rec , . h see that ScrIption of the ecclesiastical hlerar~ ~,we can r that it . . lofty and from its descnptlOn of the ange lC t ure IS , . fth d" that It . loftier still and from its descriptlOn 0 e IVlne S h ~: most exalted. Thus we can say with the prophet: uc

Cf. Augustine, Epist. 138.1.5. (PL 33; 52~;~n dependence on the This passage reveal~ Bo~av~~~ur~~s Bon!venture conceived of writings of the Pseudo-Dl~n!SlUS, 11 eborate system of diverse yet all reality as structure In an e a ast living organism . .. a chain interrelated levels. "The cos~o~was a vb' of the hierarchy pass on of mediation in which the ~lg er r.ne~ ~:neath them." See Zachary [divine] influences to those(Nmunedy; lakt~py ulist Press 1981),16-17. See Th H'd,den Center ew or . a , ., . Hayes, e' (II 237-41)' Hugh of St. Victor, Expos
Gen 7:21ff. Cf. Augustine, De Gen. contra Manich., 1.23.35: ''This age should be regarded as the infancy of the whole world ... the flood came like the evening of this day, because our infancy too is wiped out by the flood of forgetfulness" (PL 34: 190), trans. Roland Teske, On Genesis, FC 84 (Washington, 1991), 83·84. SeeJ. de Ghellinck, "Iuventus, gravitas, senectus," Studia Mediaeualia. in Honorem R. J. Martin (Bruges: n.p., 1948), 39·59. 24 This Augustinian imagery (De Gen. contra Manich. 1.23 [PL 34: 190]), is further developed by Bonaventure in Hexaem" 15.12-18 (V, 400). 23

26

12

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVILOQUlUM

knowledge is too wonderful for me; it is so high that I cannot attain it.27 2. This is certainly true enough. While things have existence in matter, they have existence also in the soul through acquired knowledge, through grace, and through glory; and they have existence in the Eternal Art.28 Now philosophy is concerned with things as they exist in nature, or in the soul by innate or acquired knowledge, but theology, insofar as it is a science founded upon faith and revealed by the Holy Spirit, deals with things which concern grace and glory, and even eternal Wisdom. Theology, therefore, subjects philosophical knowledge to itself, borrowing from the nature of things what it needs in order to construct a mirror for the representation of divine realities. Thus, it erects a ladder, as it were, set up on earth but whose top touches heaven. 29 All this is done through that one Hierarch, Jesus Christ, who, by reason of the human nature he assumed, is Hierarch in the ecclesiastical hierarchy, but also in the angelic hierarchy, and is the middle person of that supercelestial hierarchy of the Blessed Trinity. Through him, from the very height of God, the grace of unction descends not only upon the beard, but even to the skirt of his garment: 30 not only upon the heavenly Jerusalem, but even to the Church Militant. 3. For there is great beauty in the world machine;31 and far greater beauty in the Church, which is adorned

"Ps 139:6; Cf. In 1 Sent., 36.2.2 (1, 625); Augustine, De Gen. ad litt., 2.8.16-19; 4.29.46 and 31.48 (PL 34: 269-70, 315, 316). 28 In Bonaventure's writings, the Eternal Art means the Wisdom of God as it exists in the Word, containing in perfection all things that the Father wishes to bring forth in the work of creation. 29Gen 28:12. sops 133:2. Cf. In 3 Sent., 13.2.1-3 (III, 283-90); 31This metaphor of"world machine" will be developed by Bonaventure in pt. 2, chaps. 1-5.

PROLOGUE

13

with the splendor of the gifts of holiness; but an even greater beauty lies in that heavenly Jerusalem; and the greatest beauty of all is to be found in that supreme and most blessed Trinity. Not only, then, do the Scriptures possess a most lofty subject matter, which engages our mind and raises aloft its vision, but they themselves are most elegant, delighting the intellect in a certain wondrous manner;32 thus, as they deepen this pleasure more and more, they ready us for contuitions33 and anagogical visions of divine marvels. SECTION

4

THE DEPTH OF HOLY SCRIPTURE

1. Finally, Scripture has depth, which consists in the multiplicity of its mystical understandings. For, besides its literal meaning, in many places it can be interpreted in three ways: allegorically, morally, and anagogically. Allegory occurs when by one thing is indicated another which is a matter of belief. The tropological or moral understanding occurs when, from something done, we learn something else that we should do. The anagogical meaning, a kind of "lifting upwards," occurs when we are shown what it is we should desire, that is, the eternal happiness of the blessed. 34

"Augustine, Enarrat. in Ps. 32, 2.25 (PL 36: 298). 33 Contuition might be translated as "concomitant gaze, insight, or grasp.» Bonaventure uses it to describe the act of knowing peculiar to human beings, in which the soul has an implicit, if not necessarily clear, grasp of Truth itself, the Uncreated Word or Eternal Art, as it comes to mow any sensible reality. See Bernard McGinn, The Flowering of Mysticism: Men and Women in the New Mysticism, 1200-1350 (New York: Crossroad, 1998), 109. Cf. alsoBc. Chr., q. 4; Red. art. 18 (V, 22-24, 324). 34 In this section Bonaventure summarizes the heritage of patristic and earlier medieval Biblical interpretation; the basic textbook on

14

ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVlLOQUIUM

2. It is right that Scripture should have this three-fold sense over and above the literal sense, for this is appropriate to the subject matter of Scripture, its hearer or student, its origin, and its end. It is appropriate to its subject matter, for this is a teaching, which deals with God, with Christ, with the works of redemption, and with the content of belief. In terms of its substance, its subject is God; in terms ofits virtue, Christ; in terms of the action described, the works of redemption; and in terms of all these things together, the content of belief. 35 Now, God is three and one: one in essence and three in person. Therefore, Scripture, which is concerned with God, contains within the unity of the letter a threefold understanding. The same is true of Christ: though the Word is one, all things are said to have been made through him,'· and shine forth in him, so that his wisdom is both manifold and one. 37 Similarly, though the works of redemption are many, they all look toward the one principal offering of Christ. Finally, the content of belief as such sheds its light in different ways according to the differing states of believers. Scripture, then, responding to all these circumstances, gives us many-faceted meanings in the one text. 3. The manifold meaning of Scripture is also appropriate to its hearer. For no one is a suitable hearer of Scripexegesis for medieval Christians was Augustine's De doctrina christiana; this had been updated by Hugh of St. Victor's Didascalicon (here 5.2 [PL 176: 789C· 790C]). These three classic spiritual senses were distinguished by John Cassian in his Conferences (14.8 [PL 49: 962-65]). For a good treatment of the development of this style of exegesis, see G. W. H. Lampe and Jean Leclercq, "The Exposition and Exegesis of the Scripture ... to St. Bernard," in The Cambridge History of the Bible (Cambridge: University Press, 1969), Volume 2, 155-197. "Cf. In 1 Sent., proem.1 (1, 7); In 3 Sent., 1.2-3, 2.1-3 (III, 539-551). 36John 1:3. "Cf. Sc. Chr., 7 (V,37-43).

PROLOGUE

15 38

ture without being humble, pure, faithful, and attentive. So, as a deterrent to pride, under the husk of the obvious literal meaning are hidden profound mystical understandings. This depth of meaning lying within the humble letter of the text abashes the arrogant, keeps out the unclean, drives away the deceitful, and arouses the idle to an understanding of the mysteries. '9 Also, the hearers of this doctrine are not all of one kind, but are of all types for every person who would be saved should know something ofit ..• Therefore, Scripture has a manifold meaning so that it may win over every mind, meeting each at its own level while remaining superior to all, illuminating and setting afire with shafts of love every mind that searches it with care. 4. The manifold meaning of Scripture is also appropriate to its source. For it came from God, through Christ and the Holy Spirit, who spoke through the prophets and the other holy people who committed this teaching to writing.41 Now God speaks not with words alone, but also through deeds, because with God to say is to do, and to do is to say. All created things, being the result of God's action, point towards their cause. So, in Scripture, which has been handed on to us by God, deeds no less than words have meaning. Again, Christ the teacher, lowly though he waS in the flesh, remained exalted in his divinity. It was fitting, therefore, that he and his teachings should be humble in word yet profound in meaning, so that just as Christ was wrapped in swaddling clothes, so the wisdom of God in Scriptures should be enveloped in humble images.42 Finally, the Spirit gave enlightenment and revela-

"Augustine,De doct. christ. 2.41.62 (PL 34: 64-65). 39 Ibid. 2.6.7 ff. (PL 34: 38-39).
16

ST. BONAVENTURE's BREVILOQUIUM

tions to the hearts of the prophets in various ways. No mind can remain hidden from the Spirit of God, who has been sent to teach the truth in its entirety. Hence, it is fitting that the Spirit's teaching should harbor several meanings within a single passage. 5. This multiplicity of meanings is equally appropriate to the end of Scripture. For Scripture was given so that we human beings might be guided in what we must know and what we must do, so that we might come at last to the things for which we should hope. Because all creatures have been made to serve us in our ascent to our heavenly homeland,43 Scripture takes on the various aspects of creatures, so that through them it might teach us the wisdom, which guides us to eternal life. But we will not be guided to eternal life unless our intellect knows the truth we should believe, unless our will chooses the good that we should do, and unless our affections yearn to see God and to love and enjoy him. Thus, Sacred Scripture, given to us by the Holy Spirit, takes up the book of creation, making it relate to its own end through a three-fold manner of understanding. The tropological meaning lets us know what we should resolutely do; the allegorical meaning, what we should truly believe; the anagogical meaning, what we should desire for our eternal delight. In this way, cleansed by virtuous deeds, illumined by radiant faith, and made perfect by burning love, we may come at last to the prize of eternal happiness.

43

Cf. In 3 Sent., 15.2.1 (II, 327-29).

PROLOGUE

SECTION

17

5

THE MODE OF PROCEDURE OF HOLY SCRIPTURE

1. Among all the many kinds of wisdom that are contained in the breadth, length, height, and depth of Sacred Scripture, there is one common way of proceeding: that of authority. Grouped within this are the modes of narration, precept, prohibition, exhortation, instruction, threat, promise, supplication, and praise. All of these modes may be placed under the one general mode of proceeding by authority, and quite rightly so. 2. For this teaching exists so that we might become good44 and be saved, and this is not achieved through bare speculation, but by an inclination of the will. Sacred Scripture, therefore, had to be handed down in the way that would most incline us [to this end]. Now, the affection is moved more strongly by examples than by arguments, more by promises than by reasoning, more by devotions than by definitions. That is why Scripture had to avoid the mode of proceeding by definition, division, and synthesis, in order to prove the properties of some subject, as do the other sciences. 45 Rather, "it had to adapt its own modes to the various dispositions of peoples' minds that incline those minds differently. Thus, if some are not moved to heed precepts and prohibitions, they may be moved by the examples narrated; if they are not moved by these, they may be moved by the benefits held out to them; and if they are not swayed by these, they may be moved by wise admonitions, trustworthy promises, or terrifying threats, and thus be stirred to devotion and the praise of

44The end afmaral science, according to Aristotle (Nicomachean Ethics 2.2 [ll03b 28]). Cf. Bonaventure, In 1 Sent., proem., q. 3 (I, 12·13). "Aristotle, Posterior Anolytics, 1.2 and 7 (71b 8·71b 4; 75a 39·b 6). Cf.Augustine,De doct. chris. 2.31 and 36, 48 and 54 (PL 34: 58 and 60).

18

ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVILOQWUM

God, thereby receiving grace which will guide them in virtuous deeds. 3. Now, these narrative modes cannot proceed by way of certitude based on reasoning, because particular facts do not admit of formal proof." Therefore, lest Scripture seem doubtful and consequently lose some of its power to move us, God has given it, in place of a certitude based on reasoning, a certitude based on authority, which is so great that it surpasses the keenest of human minds. The authority of someone who can deceive and be deceived is not absolutely certain; but there is no one who cannot be deceived and is incapable of deceiving but God and the Holy Spirit. That is why Sacred Scripture, so that it might be perfectly authoritative, as it should be, was handed down not though human inquiry but by divine revelation. 4. No passage of Scripture, then, should be dismissed as useless, scorned as false, or rejected as evil, for its allperfect author, the Holy Spirit, could not say anything false, superfluous, or trivial. This is why heaven and earth will pass away, but the words of Sacred Scripture will not pass away without being fulfilled. 4 ' For until heaven and earth pass away, not one letter, not one stroke of a letter, will pass from the law, until it all is fulfilled, as our Savior affirms. Therefore, whoever breaks what Scripture teaches, and so teaches others, will be called least in the kingdom of heaven; but whoever does and teaches it will be called great in the kingdom of heaven. 48

46 Aristotle,Posterior Analytics 1.18:"It is sense perception alone which is adequate for grasping the particulars: they cannot be the object of scientific knowledge" (81b 6-7), trans. Richard McKeon, The Basic Works ofAristotle (New York: Random House, 1941), 136. Cf. Bonaventure,In 3 Sent., 24.dub. 3 (III, 530). "Matt 24:25. "Matt 5:18-19.

PROLOGUE

SECTION

19

6

THE MODE OF EXPOUNDING HOLY SCRIPTURE

1. Because Scripture has this special mode of proceeding, it should be understood and expounded i? a way that corresponds to it. Since it hides several meanmgs under a single text, the expositor must bring hidden things to light;49 that is, once a meaning has been brought forth, to clarify it through another, more evident Scriptural passage. For instance, if I were expounding the words of the Psalm [35:2]: Take hold of arms and shield, and rise up to help me, and wanted to explain what is meant by the divine 'arms,' I would say that these are God's truth and good will. I would then use a more explicit Biblical passage to prove that this is so. For it is written elsewhere:

You have crowned us, as with a shield of your good w,ll, and again, His truth shall compass you with a shield. 50 No one will find this kind of thing an easy task except by long practice in reading the text, committing its literal sense to memory. Otherwise that person will never have any real capacity to expound the Scriptures. One who is too proud to learn the letters that make up a word can never understand the meaning of those words or of grammatical constructions; so too, the one who scorns the letter of Sacred Scripture will never rise to interpreting its spiritual meanings. 2. The interpreter should realize, however, that one should not look for an allegorical sense everywhere, and that not everything should be given a mystical interpretation. In this regard, it must be noted that Holy Scrip-

"Job 28:11. 50PS

5:13; 91: 5. Cf. Hexaiim., 19 (V, 419-24).

20

ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVILOQUIUM

ture has four parts. 51 The first deals in a literal way with forms of beings in this world, but through them also signifies our redemption, as appears in the accounts of the world's creation. A second treats the actions and wanderings of the people ofIsrael, through which it points to the redemption of the whole human race. The third, using plain words, signifies and expresses all that concerns our redemption in terms of faith and morals. The fourth announces the mystery of this salvation, partly in plain words and partly in those that are enigmatic and obscure. Consequently, a uniform method of exposition should not be used in explaining these various parts of Scripture. 3. Therefore, in explaining Holy Scripture the interpreter should be guided by three rules, which may be drawn from St. Augustine's book, On Teaching Christianity.52 The first is this: where the primary signification of the words denote created realities or individual acts of human behavior, in the first instance they refer to the facts signified by these words, but then secondly to the mysteries of our redemption. But where the primary signification of the words expresses some aspect of faith or love, then one has no need to look for any allegorical meaning. The second rule is this: when the words of Scripture signifY created realities or an aspect of the life of the people of Israel, there the interpreter must use some other part of Scripture to find what each thing signifies, and then elicit the meaning of that passage using words which

51 The rest of this paragraph is taken from Robert Grosseteste, De cessatione legalium, 1.9.4, ed. Richard Dales and Edward King, Auctores Britannici Medii Aevi, 7 (London: Oxford University Press, 1986),49. " Although ultimately culled from Augostine (De doct. chris. 3.10.14 If.; 2.9.14 [PL 34: 71 If. and 421. the "rules" Bonaventure cites in this section (including the example from the Song of Songs) simply condense those proposed by Grosseteste in De cessatione legalium, 1.9.5-8 [49511.

PROLOGUE

21

plainly signifY some truth of our faith or of some correct principle of morality. For instance, if the text says: The sheep all bear twins,53 the interpreter must show that here 'sheep' mean human beings, and 'twins,' the two kinds of love. The third rule is this: When a certain Scriptural passage has a possible literal and spiritual meaning, the interpreter ought to judge whether that passage relates better to the literal or to a spiritual meaning - if, that is, it cannot be accepted in both senses. For ifit can be accepted in both senses, then it ought to be given both a literal arid a spiritual interpretation. But if it is capable of only one interpretation, then it must be taken in the spiritual sense alone. Examples of this are the statements that the law of the Sabbath has perpetual force, that the cultic priesthood is eternal, that Israel's possession of the land is unending, and that the covenant of circumcision is everlasting. 54 All of these statements have to be referred to their spiritual meaning. ' 4. And, bearing on this: If one is to advance through the forest of Sacred Scripture, hacking with an ax and thus laying it open, it is first necessary to have acquired a knowledge of the explicitly expressed truth of the actual text of that Holy Scripture. In other words, one needs to know how Scripture describes the beginnings, progress, and final end of the two groups of people who confront each other from opposing sides: the good, who humble themselves in this world, so that they might be exalted forever in the world to come, and the wicked, who exalt themselves in this world, but who will be crushed eternally in the next. 55 53 Cant 4:2. The ''two kinds oflove" are love of God and love of neighbor. 54References are, respectively. Ex 12:14, Ex 40:13, Gen 17:8, and Gen 17:13. "C£ Matt 25: 31-46; 23: 12.

22

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVIWQUlUM

Scripture, then, deals with the whole universe: the highest and the lowest, the first and the last, and everything that comes between. In a sense, it takes the form of an intelligible cross on which the entire world machine can be described's and in some way seen in the light ofthe mind. To understand this cross, one must know about God, the First Principle of all things, about the creation of those things, about their fall, about their redemption through the blood of Jesus Christ, about their reformation through grace, about their healing through the sacraments, and finally, about their remuneration through punishment or everlasting glory. 5. However, this teaching [God's plan of salvation] has been transmitted, both in the writings of the saints and in those of the doctors, in such a diffuse manner that those who come to learn about Sacred Scripture are not able to read or hear about it for a long time. In fact, beginning theologians often dread Sacred Scripture itself, feeling it to be as confusing, disordered, and uncharted as some impenetrable forest. That is why my colleagues have asked me, from my own modest knowledge, to draw up some concise summary of the truth of theology. Yielding to their requests, I have agreed to compose what might be called a brief discourse [breviloquium]. In it I will summarize not all the truths of our faith, but some things that are more opportune [for such students] to hold. At the same time, I have added, under each topic treated, some explanation so that they might understand it. 6. Because theology is, indeed, discourse about God and about the First Principle, as the highest science and doctrine it should resolve everything in God as its first and supreme principle. That is why, in giving the reasons for everything contained in this little work or tract, I have

PROLOGUE

23

attempted to derive each reason from the First Principle, in order to demonstrate that the truth of Sacred Scripture is from God, that it treats of God, is according to God, and has God as its end" It will be seen, therefore, that this science has true unity and order, and that it is not improperly called theology. If, therefore, anything here is found to be imperfect, obscure, superfluous, or inaccurate, let indulgence be granted because of my pressing business, brevity of time, and poverty of knowledge; if anything is found to be good, let honor and glory be referred to God alone." In order to make sure that the development is lucid, I have taken the trouble to set down in advance the particular chapter headings, to aid the memory and give a clearer prospect of what will be treated. There will be in this work seven parts, containing in all seventy-two chapters. Here ends the Prologue THE CHAPTERS OF THE BREVILOQUIUM

The first part, on the Trinity of God, has nine chapters. These are: First, a summary of the seven topics of theology. Second, what we must hold concerning the Trinity of persons and the unity of essence. Third, the right understanding of this belief. Fourth, the Catholic expression of this belief. Fifth, the unity of the divine nature in relation to a diversity of manifestations. Sixth, the unity of the divine nature in relation to multiple appropriations. 57 Or, in Aristotelian terms, that God is the efficient, material, formal, and final cause of theology.

56

Again, on this metaphor, see Part II, chapters 1-5,

"I Tim 1:17.

24

ST. BONAVENTURE'SBREVJWQUlUM

Seventh, God's omnipotence. Eighth, God's wisdom, predestination, and foreknowledge. Ninth, God's will and providence. The second part, on the creation of the world, has twelve chapters. These are: First, the production of the universe. Second: how physical nature came into existence. Third, the existence of physical nature. Fourth, the operation and influence of physical nature. Fifth, the manner in which these things are described in Scripture. Sixth, the production of the higher spirits. Seventh, the apostasy of the demons, Eighth, the confirmation of the good angels. Ninth, the production of the human soul. Tenth, the production of the human body. Eleventh, the production of the whole human composite. Twelfth, the completion and ordering of the whole world once it was made. The third part, on corruption of sin, has eleven chapters. These are: First, the origin of evil in general. Second, the temptation of our first parents. Third, the transgression of our first parents. Fourth, the punishment of our first parents. Fifth, the contamination of original sin. Sixth, the transmission of original sin. Seventh, the cure of original sin. Eighth, the origin of actual sin. Ninth, the origin and division of the capital sins. Tenth, the origin and nature of penal sin. Eleventh, the origin offinal sins, which are sins against the Holy Spirit.

PROLOGUE

25

The fourth part, on the Incarnation of the Word, has ten chapters: First, the reason why the Incarnation ofthe Word of God was necessary or fitting. Second, the Incarnation with regard to the union of natures. Third, how the Incarnation came about. Fourth, the Incarnation in the fullness of time. Fifth, the fullness of grace in Christ considered in the gifts in his affections. Sixth, the fullness of wisdom in the intellect of Christ. Seventh, the perfection of merits in his deeds. Eighth, the passion of Christ with respect to the condition of the one who suffered. Ninth, the passion of Christ with respect to the nature of his sufferings. . Tenth, the passion of Christ with respect to the effects of his sufferings. The fifth part, on the grace of the Holy Spirit, has ten chapters: First, grace as a gift of God. Second, grace as the condition of meritorious deeds. Third, grace considered as a remedy for sin. Fourth, how grace branches out into the habits of the virtues. Fifth, how grace branches out into the habits of the gifts. Sixth, how grace branches out into the habits of the beatitudes, and consequently, of the fruits and of the spiritual senses. Seventh, the exercise of grace as regards what is to be believed. Eighth, the exercise of grace as regards what is to be loved.

26

ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVILOQUIUM

Ninth, the exercise of grace as regards observing the precepts and counsels. Tenth, the exercise of grace as regards petition and prayer. The sixth part, on the sacramental remedy, has thirteen chapters: First, the source of the sacraments. Second, how the sacraments have varied. Third, the number and division of the sacraments. Fourth, the institution of the sacraments. Fifth, the administration of the sacraments. Sixth, the repetition of the sacraments. Seventh, the nature and integrity of Baptism. Eighth, the integrity of Confirmation. Ninth, the integrity of the Eucharist. Tenth, the integrity of Penance. Eleventh, the integrity of Extreme Unction. Twelfth, the integrity of Order. Thirteenth, the integrity of Matrimony. The seventh part, on the repose of the final judgment, has seven parts: First: the judgment in general. Second: the antecedents of the judgment: the punishment of purgatory. Third: the antecedents of the judgment: the suffrages of the Church. Fourth: the concomitants ofthe judgment: the conflagration of fire. Fifth: the concomitants of the judgment: the resurrection of bodies. Sixth: the consequents to the judgment: the infernal punishment. Seventh and last: the glory of paradise.

PART

I

ON THE TRINITY OF GOD

CHAPTER

A

1

SUMMARY OF THE SEVEN TOPICS OF THEOLOGY

1. In the beginning,' we should understand that sacred doctrine, namely theology, which deals principally with the First Principle - God, three and one - comprises seven topics in all: first, the Trinity of God; second, the creation of the world; third, the corruption of sin; fourth, the Incarnation of the Word; fifth, the grace of the Holy Spirit; sixth, the healing of the sacraments; and seventh, the repose of the final judgment. 2. The reason for this is as follows. Sacred Scripture or theology is a science that imparts to us wayfarers as much knowledge ofthe First Principle as we need to be saved.' 1 The Latin word-play in this opening paragraph is virtually impossible to capture in English. Bonaventure begins his summary of theology with the opening words of the book of Genesis and the Gospel of Johri: 'in the beginning,' in principia. However, the Latin word principium does not simply mean 'beginning,' but also 'principle.' The origin of all things - God - is also their principle, thus the only basis from which to come to understand reality. 2Bonaventure has already specified the characteristics of this science. It is founded not on "human inquiry, but on divine revelation" (Prol., 2), and has as its purpose "that we might become good and be saved" (Prol., 5.2). Its method is "neither restricted according to the laws ofreasoning, defining, or making distinctions, nor is it limited to only one aspect of the universe" (Prol. 3).

28

Now God is not only the principle and effective exemplar of all things in creation, but also their restorative principle in redemption and their perfecting principle in remuneration. Therefore, theology does not deal simply with God the Creator, but also with the process of creation and creatures themselves. Furthermore, the rational creature, which is in a certain sense the end of all the others, did not stand firm, but fell and hence needed to be restored. It therefore follows that theology must also deal with the corruption of sin, with the physician, with [spiritual] health and its medicine, and finally with that perfect recovery which will be in [the repose of] glory, when the wicked have been cast into their punishment. Thus theology is the only perfect science, for it begins at the very beginning, which is the First Principle, and continues to the very end, which is the everlasting reward; it proceeds from the summit, which is God Most High, the Creator of all things, and reaches even to the abyss, which is the torment of hell. 3. Theology is also the only perfect wisdom, for it begins with the supreme cause as the principle of all things that are caused - the very point at which philosophical knowledge ends. But theology goes beyond this, considering that cause as the remedy for sins; and it leads back to it, considering that cause as the reward of meritorious deeds and the goal of [human] desires. In this knowledge one finds perfect taste," life, and the salvation of souls; that is why all Christians should be aflame with longing to acquire it. 3 For Bonaventure, theology cannot be a mere intellectual or speculative knowledge, but an experiential knowledge or wisdom, by which one tastes or savors the truth. He develops the idea of saving study in Hexaem. 19, observing further (Ibid., 22.21): I'Blessed Francis said he wanted his brothers to study, but first to practice what they preached. For what is the use of knowing much but savoring nothing?"

(V,

419-24, 440). Cf. In 3 Sent., 35.un.1 (III, 77).

29

PART I

ST. BONAVENTURE'SBREVILOQUIUM

4. From this, it is evident that theology, though admittedly broad and varied in content, is nevertheless a single science. Its subject, as that from which all things come, is God; as that through which all things exist, Christ; as that for which all things are done, the work of restoration; as that by which all things are united, the one bond of love joining heaven and earth; as that with which the whole content of the canonical books are concerned, the body of faith as such; as that with which all the books of commentators are concerned, the body of faith as intelligible. For as Augustine puts it in his treatise, On the Profit of Be· lieving, "what we believe we owe to authority, what we understand, to reason.'" CHAPTER 2 WHAT WE MUST HOLD CONCERNING THE TRINITY OF PERSONS AND THE

UNITY OF ESSENCE

1. First of all, we must consider three questions regarding the Divine Trinity: namely, how the unity of the divine substance and nature can coexist with a plurality of persons; second, how it can coexist with a plurality of manifestations; and third, how it can coexist with a plurality of appropriations. 2. With regard to a plurality of persons in a unity of nature, the true faith prescribes that we maintain that within the one [divine] nature there are three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Of these, the first proceeds from no other; the second, from the first alone through generation;·the third, from the first and second through spiration or procession. 5 Such a Trinity of persons does 4

Augustine, De uti!. credo 11. 25 (PL 42: 83).

5

For Bonaventure, "the true faith" in this regard was enunciated by

the Fourth Lateran Council (1215), canon 1: ''We firmly believe and simply confess that there is only one true God, eternal and immeasurable, almighty, unchangeable, incomprehensible and ineffable,

ST. BONAVENTURE'S'BREVlLOQUIUM

PART I

not deprive the divine essence of its supreme unity, simplicity, infinity, eternity, immutability, necessity, and sovereign primacy; and yet it includes the highest fecundity, love, generosity, equality, relationship, likeness, and inseparability. All ofthese things true faith understands to exist in the most blessed Trinity. 6 3. The reason for this truth is as follows. Since faith is the source of our worship of God and the foundation of that doctrine which is according to piety, 7 it dictates that we should conceive of God in the most elevated and most loving manner. Now our thought would not be the most elevated if we did not believe that God could communicate himself in the most complete way, and it would not be the most loving if, believing him so able, we thought him unwilling to do so. Hence, if we are to think of God most loftily and most lovingly, faith tells us that God to-

tally communicates himself by eternally having a beloved . and another who is loved by both. In this way God is both one and three.' 4. In fact, the whole of Sacred Scripture, which is called a doctrine according to piety, testifies to this belief, dictating that we conceive of God in the most loving way. For it declares that God [the Father] has an offspring whom he supremely loves: a Word coequal with himself, whom "he has begotten from all eternity and in whom he has disposed all things;'" by whom he produces and governs all things. Furthermore, it declares that through the precious blood of this Word made flesh, God in his all-surpassing goodness redeemed humankind and nourishes it once redeemed. It also declares that at the end of the world, through that same Word, God will liberally pour out his supreme mercy, delivering humankind from every misery, so that through Christ, all the elect might become children of the eternal Father. In him all love will be consummated: God's for us, and ours for God. 5. And that our faith requires that we think of God in the most elevated manner is attested to not only by Scrip-

30

Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; three persons indeed but OTIe absolutely simple essence, substance, or nature. The Father is from none, the Son.

from the Father alone, and the Holy Spirit from both equally, eternally without beginning or end; the Father generating, the Son begotten, and the Holy Spirit proceeding." DEC, 1: 230. 'Cf. In 1 Sent., 2 (I, 49-62), fully developed in the Disputed Questions on the Trinity. 71 Tim 6:3, according to the Vulgate (doctrinam secundum pietatem). The word pietas ('piety') had a number of connotations, as Bonaventure explains elsewhere, quoting Augustine (De civ. Dei .. 10.1.3): "The word pietas is usually understood in the strict sense to mean the worship of God; yet this word is also used to denote the duties which we owe to parents. Also, in common speech, the word frequently refers to works of mercy . . . because God especially commands the performance of such works . .. .From this manner of speaking, it has also come about that God himself is called pius" (trans. R. W. Dyson, The City of God against the Pagans [Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 19981, 392) [In 3 Sent., 35.un.6 (III, 785)). Thus, for a Christian,pietas (worship) of God springs from the awareness that God first has had pietas (compassion) toward us; that God is love itself (1 John 4:7-21). And so at the end of this sentence, when Bonaventure says we must conceive of God piissime, I have translated it "in a most loving manner." This nuance is evident from his argument in paragraph 4 that follows.

S

31

Bonaventure's argument here concisely summarizes Book III of

Richard of St. Victor's De trinitate (PL 196:915-930), in which he deduces the trinity of persons from the fact that God is supreme goodness. "So that fullness of charity might have a place in that true Divinity, it is necessary that a divine person not lack a relationship with an equally worthy person, who is, for this reason, divine" (De trinitate, 3.2), trans. Grover Zinn, The Twelve Patriarchs, The Mystical Ark, Book Three of

the Trinity (New York: Paulist Press, 1979),375. The term condilectus 'one who is loved by both' is introduced by Richard in 3.19: "Shared love is properly said to exist when a third person is loved by two persons harmoniously and in community, and the affection of the two persons

is fused into one affection by the flame oflove for the third" [po 3921. Cf. the more expansive argument by Bonaventure in Itin. 6.2 (V, 310-311). 'Peter Lombard, Gloss on Psalm 61.12 (PL 191: 568B), in turn alluding to Augustine, Enarr. in Ps. 61, 12: '''Once has God spoken': He has but one Word, the only-begotten God. In that Word are all things, because by the Word all things were made" (PL 36: 743).

33

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVlLOQUIUM

PART!

ture, but by all creation as well. As Augustine writes in the fourth chapter of his fifteenth book On the Trinity: "It is not, after all, only the authority of the divine books that asserts that God is. The universal nature of things which surround us, to which we too belong, proclaims that it has a most excellent founder, who has given us a mind and natural reason by which to see that living beings are to be preferred to non-living, ones endowed with sense to nonsentient ones, intelligent ones to non-intelligent, immortal ones to mortal, powerful to powerless ones, just to unjust, beautiful to ugly, good to bad, things that cannot decay to things than can, changeless to changeable things, invisible to visible, non-bodily to bodily, happy to unhappy. And so, since we rank the Creator without a shadow of doubt above created things, we have to admit that this being supremely lives, and senses and understands all things, and cannot die, decay, or change; and that it is not a body but the most powerful, just and beautiful, the best and happiest spirit of all."l0 Now the twelve predications in this passage contain the highest qualities of the divine being. But as Augustine shows further on,l1 these twelve can be reduced to three: eternity, wisdom, and happiness; and these three to one, namely, wisdom. In this wisdom are included the generating Mind, the begotten Word, and Love, their mutual bond. And these, our faith tells us, comprise the Blessed Trinity. Since the highest wisdom posits the Trinity, it posits also all of the noble attributes listed earlier: oneness, simplicity, and so forth. It follows of necessity, then, that

all the noble attributes of the divine essence mentioned above are simultaneously attributed ofthe Blessed Trinity.

32

" De Trin. 15.4.6 (PL 42: 1061), translated by Edmund Hill, in The Trinity, WSA, I/5 (Brooklyn: New City Press, 1990),399, alt. C£Hexaem., 11, 2ff (V, 380ff.) 11 Ibid., 15. 5-6 (PL 42, 1061-63). The twelve are: eternity, immortality, incorruptibilty, unchangeablity, life, wisdom, power, beauty, righteousness, goodness, happiness, and spirit.

CHAPTER 3 THE RIGHT UNDERSANDING OF THIS BELIEF

1. So that we might come to a right understanding of this belief, sacred doctrine teaches that in the Godhead there are: a) two emanations,12 b) three hypostases,13 c) four relations,'· d) five characteristics," e) and yet in all only three personal properties."

12 The two emanations are the generation ["begetting"] of the Son by the Father and the spiration ["breathing forth"] of the Holy Spirit by the Father and the Son. 13 Hypostasis means a subsistent reality. The three hypostases are the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. On the two emanations and three hypostases, see In 1 Sent., 2.4, 9.1, 10.1.1 (1, 56-58, 180-81, 19496). 14 The four relations are, respectively, fatherhood [the Father to the Son], sonship [the Son to the Father], spiration [the Father and Son jointly to the Holy Spirit], and procession [the Holy Spirit to the Father and the Son]. 15 The five characteristics (notiones) are unbegottenness, fatherhood, sonship, spiration, and procession. Some studies of medieval theology translate this term literally as 'notion', which is misleading in contemporary English as 'notion' implies an inclusive general concept. By contrast, notio in Trinitarian theology meanS a proper concept peculiar to only one thing. The more suitable 'characteristic~ was suggested by the Dominican translators of the Summa theolog~ae of Thomas Aquinas (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1965), 6: 151-153. 16 The three personal properties are fatherhood, sonship, and procession. On the relations, characteristics, and properties, see In 1 Sent., 26.4 (I, 460-61).

34

PART!

ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVILOQUlUM

2. The explanation for this is as follows. The first and supreme Principle, by the very fact of being its first, is utterly simple; by the very fact that it is supreme, utterly perfect. Being utterly perfect, it communicates itself with total perfection; being utterly simple, it remains completely undivided. Consequently, any modes of emanation within the divine nature are of such perfection that they do not violate its unity. Now there are only two such modes of perfect emanation, namely through nature and through will." The first of these is generation,18 the second spiration or procession. Hencll these are the two modes [of emanation] found in the Trinity. 3. Now, while two hypostases [subsistent realities] necessarily result from two substance-producing modes of emanation, we must also posit that the original producing hypostasis does not itself emanate from anything else, for we would then have an infinite series. Hence, there are three hypostases in the Trinity. 4. Again, because each emanation implies a double relationship, there are in the Trinity four relations: fatherhood, sonship, spiration, and procession." 5. It is through these relations that the divine hypostases are made known to us. But in addition, we dis17 Aristotle distinguished three types of emanation: fortuitous, natural, and voluntary (Metaph. 6.22 [1032 a 12-13]). Since nothing fortuitous is worthy of God, only the two latter types of emanation can exist within the Godhead. Cf. In 1 Sent., 2.un.4 (l, 56); M. Trin., 4.2, 8 conc!. (V, 8586,114). "Cf.Hexaiim. 11.13 (V, 382). 19 Bonaventure is saying that each of the two emanations in God (the generation of the Son by the Father and the spiration of the Holy Spirit by the Father and the Son) has, as it were, two termini, so that there are four relationships present in God. The Father begets the Son [fatherhood); the Son is begotten by the Father [sonship); the Father and the Son jointly spirate [''breathe forth") the Holy Spirit; and the Spirit proceeds from the Fatber and the Son.

35

cover that the original producing hypostasis has no originator, which is the very reason for its excellence. Hence, in the Trinity there are five distinguishing characteristics: the four relations indicated above, and unbegottenness. 6. But each person has one property that is the principal means by which we identifY it. There are consequently only three personal properties that are characteristically and principally denoted by the names Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. 20 7. For it is proper to the Father to be the one without an originator, the Unbegotten One; the Principle who proceeds from no other; the Father as such. 'Unbegottenness' designates him by means of a negation, but this term also implies an affirmation, since unbegottenness posits in the Father a fountain-fullness. 21 The 'Principle that proceeds from no other' designates him by an affirmation followed

20

cr. Fourth Lateran Council, canon 2: "the Father begets, the Son is

begotten, and the Holy Spirit proceeds" [DEC 1:231). 21 cr. In 1 Sent., 2.un.l: "The more prior a being is, the more it is fecund and the principle of others. Therefore,just as the divine essence, because it is first, is the principle of other essences, so the person of the Father, since he is the first, because from no one, is the principle and has fecundity in regard to [the other] persons" (I, 53-54). For a more extended discussion, see In 1 Sent., 27.1.un.2 (I, 468-474); there Bonaventure cites the Book of Causes as source of the axiom, "the more prior a being is, the more it is fecund." This treatise, translated into Latin c. 1180, was commonly attributed to Aristotle, but was actually a ninth century Arab reworking of the Elements of the neo-Platonic philosopher, Proclus (d. 485). Although this view of the Father as the fontal source of the other persons of the Trinity may be found in Augustine: "The Father is the principle of the whole Godhead" (De Trin., 4.20.29 [PL 42: 908]), it is much more characteristic of Greek authors Cf. Pseudo-Dionysius, De diu. nom., 2.7: "The Father is the originating source of the Godhead and the Son and the Holy Spirit are, so to speak., divine offshoots, the flowering and transcendent lights of the divinity" (PG: 3: 645), trans. Colm Luibheid (New York: Paulist Press, 1987),64.

36

ST. BONAVENTURE'SBREVILOQUIUM

by a negation. 'Father' designates him in a proper, complete, and determinate way, by affirmation and the positing of a relation. 22 8. Similarly, the Son is properly the Image, the Word, and the Son as such. 'Image' designates him as expressed likeness, 'Word' as expressive likeness,23 and 'Son' as personallikeness. Again, 'Image' designates him as likeness in the order ofform, 'Word' as likeness in the order of reason, and 'Son' as likeness in the order of nature." 9. In the same way, the Holy Spirit is properly the Gift, the mutual bond or Love, and the Holy Spirit as such. 'Gift' designates him as the one given gratuitously, 'Bond' or 'Love' as one given freely as the gift excelling all others, and 'Holy Spirit' as one given freely as an excelling gift, who is also personaJ.26 Hence the three names, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, convey the personal properties of the three persons. This is what we must grasp if we are to understand correctly the belief in the Holy Trinity.

"Gf.In 1 Sent., 27.1.2 and 28.1 f.f. (I, 468-72, 496ff.). 23 "A word is nothing other than an expressed and expressive likeness conceived by the power of an intelligent spirit by which it knows itself or another" (In 1 Sent., 27.p.un.3 (I: 488). "Gf.In 1 Sent., 27.2.1f.f., 31.2.1.1, 37.2.dub. 2 (1, 481ff, 539ff, 664). In his Commentary on John (1.1.1), Bonaventure indicates his preference for the term 'Word/ as it expresses not only the Son's relation to the Father [as speaker], but also to the mysteries of creation [that which is spoken through the Word], incarnation [the utterance of the Word itself], and revelation [the insight it causes in others] (VI, 247). 26Cf. In 1 Sent., 10.1-2, 18.un.5, especially ad 4, where Bonaventure explains the three names of the Holy Spirit (I, 194-204,329,331).

PART!

37

CHAPTER 4 THE CATHOLIC EXPRESSION OF THIS BELIEF

1. According to the writings of the holy doctors, in order to give Catholic expression to this belief, we must hold that in regard to the three divine persons there are: a) two modes of predication, namely those of substance and relation;" b) three modes of supposition, namely, those of essence, person, and characteristic;27 c)four ways of indicating substance, namely, by essence, substance, person, and hypostasis;" d) five ways of speaking, namely, who [the person], which one [the supposite], which [the characteristic], what [the substance], and whereby [the essence];29 and e) three modes of differentiation, that is, in the order of origination, in the order of predication, and in the order of comprehension. 3D 2. This is the reason for what we have just said. Since the First Principle is both totally perfect and at the same time utterly simple, anything that implies perfection may be properly and truly predicated of it. On the other hand, anything that implies imperfection may not be said

26 This chapter is difficult due to the extremely technical language used by Scholastic theologians to discuss the Trinity. 'Predication' consists in either affirming or denying something about a subject. For example, if we say "God is the supreme good," 'supreme good' is the predicate affirmed of the subject 'God: Gf.In 1 Sent., 22.4 (I, 397-99). 27 'Supposition' is the logical operation that consists in identifying the subject of which we are speaking. In speaking of God, we may be making a statement either about the divine essence, one of the persons, or one of the characteristics. On these three 'supposits' of Trinitarian discourse, see In 1 Sent., 5.1.1,d. 25.1.2, ad 3, 33.2.ad 5 (I, 111-14, 44041,576). "Ibid., 23.1.3 (I, 408-10).

29Idem. 30In 1 Sent., 26.1 (I, 451-52).

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ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVILOQrffUM

of it; or if it is, it may be predicated only of the human nature it has assumed [in the incarnation] or in a figurative sense. Now there are ten modes of predicating [something of a subject): as substance, quantity, relation, qualification, action [doing], passion [being-affected], place, time, being-in-a-position, and possession [having]."' The last five, proper to bodily and mutable natures, do not apply to God except in an analogical or figurative way. The first five categories may be attributed to God in a way that signifies the divine fullness without contradicting its simplicity. That is why these categories are identical with the very thing of which they are predicated, so that, in respect to the subject in which they inhere, they are all said to be reducible to substance. The only exception is 'relation,' which has a two-fold referent: the subject in which it exists, and the object to which it points. In the case of the first, relation goes over [into substance) because there cannot be composition; in the second, it does not, because there must be distinction. That is why "the substance contains the Unity, and relation expands into the Three."" Thus [when we speak of God), there are only these two modes [of substance and of relation] of predicating differences. And this is the rule that governs them: whatever is predicated of the substance is affirmed by that very fact of all three persons, singly, together, and individually; but whatever is predicated of a relation cannot be predicated of all three persons. If they do apply to more than one person, they are predicated in the plural, designating them as related, distinct, similar, or equal, by reason of their

31 Boethius, De Trin. 4 (PL 64: 1252ft), an extended discussion of God language in light of Arisotle's Categories. 32 Ibid., 6 (PL 64: 1255). Cf In 1 Sent., 26.2, 27.1.3, 33.1 (I 455-56 476,571-73). ' ,

PART I

39

intrinsic relationship. The term 'Trinity,' however, includes both [Le., it may be predicated both as a substance and as a relation]." 3. Since several relations are capable of existing in one person," just as many persons exist in one nature, the distinction between characteristics does not imply a diversity of persons any more than a distinction between persons implies different natures. Hence, not everything that applies to the essence applies also to the characteristic or the person, and conversely. That is why there are three modes of suppositing, for which the following rules are generally given: in suppositing the essence, we do not supposit either the characteristic or the person; in suppositing the characteristic, we do not supposit the essence or the person; and in suppositing the person, we do not supposit the essence or the characteristic. This is obvious from examples. 35 4. Since there. is a real distinction in the supposits of a substance even though one essence remains, the substance must be expressed in more than one way: it must be shown to be both communicable and incommunicable. As communicable, it is expressed abstractly by the term 'essence' and concretely by the term 'substance'. As incommunicable,. it is expressed by the term 'hypostasis' insofar as it denotes the possibility of distinction, and by the term 'person' insofar as it denotes the actuality of distinction. In other words, 'hypostasis' points to the substance as indi-

"On this rule, see In 1 Sent., 22.dub.2, 31.1.2 (I, 400; 534·36). On the term "Trinity," cf ibid., 24,.3.1-2 (I, 428-31). 34 Such as fatherhood and spiration in the Father. 35 cr. Alexander of Hales, Glossa in N Libros Sent., Bibliotheca Franciscancana Scholastica Medii Aevi, vols. 12-15 (Quaracchi, 195157), 1.26.1.3 (12: 251·54); also see Summa Halesiana, 1.390. ad 3 (I, 575); ibid., 34.6.4 (I, 344-46), and his Questiones Disp. antequam esset frater, 3.2 ([Quaracchi, 1960], 26-27).

40

PART I

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVlLOQWUM

viduated and 'person' to the fact that it is distinct in a definite and precise manner." These four terms may be illustrated by an example from the created order: 'humanity,' 'human being,' 'a man,' and 'Peter.' The first denotes the essence; the second, the substance; the third, the hypostasis; and the fourth, the person. 5. And because in the person who is distinguished we should consider not only the one who is distinct but also that by which it is distinguished, and this is the property or characteristic, it follows necessarily that in the divine persons there are five modes of speaking or inquiring: namely, 'who,' when it is a question of the person; 'this one,' when it is a question of the hypostasis, which denotes an indeterminate supposit of the substance; 'which,' when of the characteristic; 'what,' when of the substance; 'why' or 'whereby,' when of the essence. 6. Because all of these modes are rooted in the oneness of the divine essence, for whatever exists in God is the Godhead itself, one and unique,37 it follows that these modes do not posit any real differentiation within God either in the order of essence or of existence. Therefore, i~ God there are only three modes of distinction, namely in the modality of existing or emanating, as in the distinction of one person from another; in the modality of reference, as in the distinction between person and essence _ for the person exists as related to other persons and is thus distinct, while the essence is not related to any other essence and is thus common; and finally, in the modality of being understood, as one substantive property is distinguished from another, for instance goodness from wisdom.

"Cf.In 1 Sent., 23.1.1-3, 25.2.1-2 (I, 404·10, 443-45). 37 See Peter Lombard, Lib. 1 Sent., 8.8 (3rd rev. ed., ed. Ignatius C. Brady, [Grottaferrata: Collegii S. Bonaventurae, 1971-81], 1: 101-03); cf. Abelard, Theologia scholarium, 2.10 (PL 178: 1057 C, 1058 BC).

41

The first distinction is the greatest that can be found in God, for it exists within the supposits, since none of them may be predicated of the other. The second distinction is a smaller one, Jor it exists among the predicates; for though one may be said of the other, such as the terms person and essence, some things may not be said of both, for example, the person is distinct and related to another person, while the essence is not. The third distinction is the least, since it exists only in the connotations. Although one may be said of the other reciprocally, and the same thing may be said of both, nevertheless the same thing is not connoted by both and by the same thing it is not intended that both be understood. From the first mode of distinction come forth the plurality of persons; from the second, the plurality of affirmations concerning the substance and the relations; from the third, the plurality of essential properties and of the characteristics, whether temporal or eternal, whether proper or metaphorical, whether common or appropriated." Examples of what has been said are quite obvious. Having understood these things, it will be clear enough for us both how to think and what to say about the sovereign Trinity of divine persons. CHAPTER

5

THE UNITY OF THE DIVINE NATURE IN RELATION TO A DIVERSITY OF MANIFESTATIONS

1. With regard to the second aspect, that is a plurality of manifestations, divine doctrine teaches us to maintain the following points. Although God is limitless, unseen, and changeless, nevertheless God 'dwells in' holy people 38 On the properties in relation to time, cr. In 1 Sent., 30. Iff; on what is proper and metaphorical, 22.3; on the properties as appropriated, 34.3 (I, 521ff, 394-96, 592-93).

42

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVILOQUIUM

in a special way;" God 'appeared to' the patriarchs and prophets, and God 'descended from' heaven, sending the Son and the Holy Spirit for the salvation of the human race. And even though within the Godhead the nature, power, and working of the Trinity are undivided, the mission Or manifestation of one person is not the mission or manifestation of the other. Although there is supreme equality among the divine persons, it pertains to the Father alone to send and not to be sent; it pertains to the Holy Spirit only to be sent, if we consider the persons in their divinity, although it is sometimes said that the Spirit 'sent' the assumed humanity; and it belongs to the Son both 'to send' and 'be sent,' as one may gather from Scripture.'· 2. The reason for this is as follows. Even though the First Principle is immense and without limits, incorporeal and invisible, eternal and changeless, it is nevertheless the principle of things spiritual and corporeal, natural and gratuitous, and thus also of all things mutable, sentient, and limited. Through these things it reveals itself and makes itself known, even though in itself it is immutable, immaterial, and infinite. In a general way it manifests itself and makes itself known through all ofthe effects that emanate from it, so that we say that it exists through essence, power, and presence, extending itself to all created things. 41 But in a special way the First Principle makes itself known through other effects which particularly point to it, and because of these effects God is said 'to dwell in,' 'to appear,' 'to descend,' 'to be sent,' and 'to send.' "See In 1 Sent., 21.dub. 2,37.1.3.1-2 (1, 387, 646-49). 40 E.g., John 5:37-38; 6:38-44; 7:16; 14:26: 15:26; 16:7. For Bonaventure's extremely detailed discussion of the missions of the persons of the Trinity, see In 1 Sent., 14-16 (I, 224-286). 4! Cf. Lombard, Liber 1 Sent., 37.1ff. (1: 263ff.); Bonaventure, In 1 Sent., 37.1 (I, 637-41).

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'To indwell' indicates a spiritual effect and the acceptance of it; such is the effect of grace making us pleasing to God, which is God-conformed, leads to God, and makes God possess us and be possessed by us, and thus, 'to dwell' within us." And because the effect of grace is common to all the persons [ofthe Trinity], it follows that one person does not indwell without the others; rather, the whole Trinity indwells simultaneously.43 3. 'To appear' designates a sensible effect with a specific significance; an example here is the Holy Spirit appearing in the form of a dove." And because the divine persons are distinct, they can be signified separately by symbols and by names. Thus it follows that anyone of the persons is able to manifest himself as such, and that such an apparition is suitable to all, whether taken together or individually. Hence, when the Holy Spirit is described as having appeared in the form of tongues of fire and of a dove, this is not because of some new connection or special effect, but because ofthe oneness that exists between the one symbolized and the symbol that is specifically designated, both in manner and in origin, to express it." 4. 'To descend' indicates either ofthe two above effects but in terms of their beginning. God, indeed, is always present in heaven to the blessed angels, for in them God permanently dwells and is manifest. However, on earth God is in some way absent to sinners with respect to grace and knowledge. It follows that when God first begins to appear to or dwell in someone, the one who is present in heaven but absent to us becomes present on earth. Hence, 42 cr. Augustine: "God who is everywhere present ... does not dwell in all, but only in those he has made his most blessed temple" (Epist. 187,35 [PL 33, 8451. Cf. Pt. 5, chap. 1 below. 43 John 14:23. .. Cf. John 1:32. "See In 1 Sent., 16.3 (1, 283-84); reference to Acts 2.3 and John 1:32.

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ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVILOQUlUM

although not changed in himself, we say that God 'descends' to us. 5. 'To be sent' refers to the same effects mentioned above, but from the aspect of their eternal production. For the Father 'sends' the Son when, by making him present to us through knowledge or grace, the Father makes it known that the Son proceeds from him. Now because the Father himself proceeds from no one, he is therefore never said 'to be sent'.4S But because the Son both produces and is produced, he both sends and is sent. And since the Holy Spirit is eternally produced but does not produce, except in time, it is proper for him to be sent, but 'to send' applies to the Spirit only in respect to a creature. Thus it is clear that the following propositions are improperly expressed and must be qualified: the Holy Spirit sends himself; the Holy Spirit sends the Son; the Son sends himself - unless [in the two latter cases they arel referring here to the human nature born of the Virgin. It is also clear that that 'to send' and 'to be sent' do not pertain to all of the persons; for although both imply an effect on creatures, they are also the signs of an intrinsic relationship. For 'to send' implies authority, and 'to be sent' implies subordination to authority in the order of eternal production within the Godhead. CHAPTER

6

THE UNITY OF THE DIVINE NATURE IN RELATION TO MULTIPLE ApPROPRIATIONS

1. In the third place, regarding the plurality of appropriations, Holy Scripture teaches us to hold the following: that even though all the essential attributes apply equally Augustine, De Trin.) 2.5.8: "The Father alone is nowhere said to have been sent" (PL 42: 849 [WSA, II5: 102]; cf. also Peter Lombard, Liber 1 Sent., 15.2.9 (1: 132, 137). 46

PART I

45

and without distinction to all the persons, yet oneness is appropriated to the Father, truth to the Son, and goodness to the Holy Spirit. Besides this, there is another series of appropriations given by Hilary, namely "eternity in the Father, splendor in the Likeness, utility in the Gift."" From this, in turn, derives a third series of appropriations: in the Father is the efficient principle, in the Son the exemplary principle, and in the Holy Spirit the final principle. And from this there is still a fourth, namely omnipotence to the Father, omniscience to the Son, and will or benevolence to the Holy Spirit. Now, these are said to be appropriated, not because they are proper [to these personsl, since they are always common [to them alll, but because they lead to a better understanding and knowledge of what is proper, that is the three persons themselves. 2. The explanation of this is as follows. Since the First Principle is most exalted and utterly perfect, it follows that in it are found the highest and most universal properties of being to the highest degree. These are the one, the true, and the good, which are not associated with being in its supposits but with its very principle. For 'one' describes being as numerable, and this is because it is not susceptible of division in itself; 'true,' as intelligible, and this by virtue of being inseparable from its proper form; and 'good,' as communicable, and this by reason of being inseparable from its proper operation. This triple indivisibility has a logical ordering in that the true presupposes the one, and the good presupposes the one as well as the true. Thus it follows that these three qualities, as being perfect and transcendental, are attributed to the First Principle to the high"Hilary, De Trin. 2.1 (PL 10: 51A). Cf. Peter Lombard, Liber 1 Sent., 31.2 (1: 225-29). Cf. Bonaventure, In 1 Sent., 31.2.1.3 (I, 543-45). On the other appropriations, see ibid., 31.2.3, 34.4, 3.1.dub. 3-4 (I, 548-49, 593-94,78-80) and Hexaem. 21.1-15 (V, 437-40).

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est degree, and, as having an orderly reference, are attributed to the three persons. It follows then, that supreme oneness is attributed to the Father; supreme truth, to the Son who proceeds from the Father as his Word; and supreme goodness, to the Holy Spirit who proceeds from both as their Love and Gift. 3. The supremely one is supremely first because it is absolutely without beginning; the supremely true is supremely conforming and beautiful; the supremely good is supremely useful and profitable. From this follows the second series proposed by Hilary, according to which eternity is appropriated to the Father, since he is without beginning, but utterly first; splendor to the Likeness, that is, to the Word, which is supremely beautiful; utility to the Gift, that is, to the Holy Spirit, for it is supremely beneficent and communicative. Augustine says the same thing in different words: "In the Father unity, in the Son equality, and in the Holy Spirit the harmony of unity and equal-

5. Finally, we see that all power derives from the first and supreme cause, all wisdom flows from the first and supreme exemplar, and all willing tends towards the highest end. 51 It is therefore necessary for the one who is first to be almighty, all knowing, and all benevolent. Now, the first and supreme oneness, returning upon itself in a complete and perfect circle,"2 is in fact omnipotence; first and supreme truth, likewise returning upon itself, is omniscience; and first and supreme goodness returning upon itself is supreme benevolence. These attributions are based on a logical order: will presupposes knowledge, and both will and knowledge presuppose power and strength, because "the capacity to know is a certain power."53 This makes clear what the appropriations are, to whom they apply, and why. But since in the Scriptures, the Trinity is most often praised in terms ofthe last three: power, wisdom, and will, something more should be said of them, if only briefly and summarily.

46

47

ity."48

4. Again, supreme oneness and priority imply the concepts of principle and origin; supreme beauty and resplendence imply the concepts of expression and exemplarity; supreme usefulness and goodness imply the concept offinality, for "the good and the end are the same."49 Hence, the third mode of appropriation: efficiency to the Father, exemplarity to the Son, and finality to the Holy Spirit. 50

48 Augustine, De doct. christ. 1.5.5 (PL 34: 21), translated by Edmund Hill, Teaching Christianity, WSA, 1111 (Hyde Park, NY: New City Press, 1996), 108. Cf. Peter Lombard, Liber 1 Sent., 31.2 and 6 (1: 228, 232). "A paraphrase of Aristotle, Phys., 2. 3 (l95a 23-25); cf. Ethic. Nicom. 1.1 (1094a 2): "Every action and pursuit is thought to aim at some good; and for this reason the good has been rightly declared to be that at which all things aim" (p. 935). "On the primacy, see In 1 Sent., 27.1.2.ad 3 (1, 470-72); on the exemplar, 6.3,27.2.2 (I, 129-30,484-86), and Hexai!m. 1.12 (V, 331).

CHAPTER

Goo's

7

OMNIPOTENCE

1. According to sacred doctrine, the following points should be held with regard to God's omnipotence. [We must believe] that God is almighty, but in such a way that no acts deserving of blame, such as lying and malevolent de"Aristotle, Ethic. Nicom. 1.2 (l094a 18-20). 52 The circular movement of the divine love is based on the PseudoDionysius, De diu. nom., 4.14: "They call God Yearning and Love because he is the power moving and lifting all things up to himself, .. its unbeginning and unending nature traveling in an endless circle through the Good, from the Good, in the Good, and to the Good, unerringly turning, ever on the same center ... always being returned to itself" (PG 3: 712 [Luibhied, p. 83]). This theme was taken up by Alexander of Hales, Glossa in IV Libros Sent., 1.17.11 (12:173). "Richard of St. Victor,De Trin. 6.15 (PL 196: 979D); also cf.Hexai!m. 21 (V, 431-37).

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sires, may be attributed to him. Neither may acts due to punishment [for original sin], such as fear and suffering; nor bodily and material acts, such as sleeping and walking, except as figures of speech. Neither may contradictory acts, such as making a thing greater than himself, or producing another God equal to himself, or creating an infinite being, and so forth. For as Anselm tells us: "No inappropriateness, however small, is possible where God is concerned."·' Although God is not able to perform such acts, he is still truly, properly, and perfectly omnipotent. 2. The reason for this is the following. The First Principle is powerful by reason of a power that is unqualified; thus the distributive 'omni' added to the word 'potent' covers all the things that power can do in an unqualified way:55 that is, everything that can proceed from a power that is both complete and ordered. Now I say that a power is 'complete' ifit cannot fail, or submit, or be in need. But a power that sins, fails; a power that undergoes anything, submits; and the power of bodily operations lacks something. But divine power, because it is supreme and utterly perfect power, does not derive from anything, nor is it dependent on anything, nor is it wanting in any way. Therefore, it cannot be the subject of acts which are blameworthy, or which are exacted due to punishment, or which are material; and this, precisely because omnipotence is total power.

PART

49

3. Now there are three ways in which a power may be called 'ordered': either with respect to an act, or with respect to a potency on the part of a creature, or in respect to a potency on the part of the uncreated strength alone. What is possible to a power that is 'ordered' in the first sense is not merely possible but also actuaL What is possible to a power that is 'ordered' in the second sense but not in the first is simply possible, though not actuaL And what is possible to a power that is 'ordered' in the third sense, but not in the first or second, is possible to God, but impossible to a creature. But what is not possible in any of the ways mentioned above - such as something which would be directly repugnant to order as understood with reference to the primordial and eternal principles and causes5• - is purely and simply impossible. Such is the [hypothetical] case of God's making something actually infinite, or that God should simultaneously cause something to be and not be, or make a past event not to have happened, and other things of that sort, for the possibility of such things is contrary to the order and completeness ofthe divine power. It is clear from this what the divine power includes, and further, what should be said regarding things that are simply possible and things that are absolutely impossible. Thus we see that the impossibility of some things is compatible with true omnipotence. CHAPTER

Anselm, Cur Deus Homo 1.20 (PL 158: 392A, trans. B. Davies and G. R. Evans, Anselm of Canterbury: The Complete Works [New York: Oxford University Press, 19981, hereafter AC, p. 303). Cf. Anselm, Epist. de Incarnatione Verbi, 10 (PL 158: 276 C). Bonaventure more fully explores this topic, In 1 Sent., 42 (especially q. 2) and 43 (I, 745-778). Cf. Lawrence Maonan, Divine Power: The Medieval Power Distinction up to its Adoption by Albert, Bonaventure, and Aquinas (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 193-228. 65 Cf. Peter Hispanus, Summulae logicales, 12, ed. I. M. Bochenski (Rome, 1947), 113. 54

I

8

GOD'S WIDSOM, PREDESTINATION, AND FOREKNOWLEDGE

1. Concerning God's wisdom, the following should be held: namely, that divine Wisdom clearly knows all things, good and evil, past, present, and future, actual and possible. Thus it also knows things that are incomprehen"See In 2 Sent., 18.1.2 (II, 436).

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVILOQUIUM

50

sible to us and infinite. Yet this comprehension is such that Wisdom is in no way diversified in itself, although it assumes different names. 57 Insofar as it is aware of everything possible, divine Wisdom is called knowledge or cognition; insofar as it is capable of knowing everything that happens in the world, it is called vision; insofar as it knows everything that is done well, it is called approbation; insofar as it knows all that has yet to occur, it is called prescience or foresight; insofar as it knows the things God himself should do, it is called providence; insofar as it knows the things that should be rewarded, it is called predestination; insofar as it knows the things that should be condemned, it is called reprobation. 58 2. Not only is Wisdom capable of knowing [all things]: it is the very principle of knowing. Therefore, it is called 'light,' as being the principle of knowing all that is known; 'mirror,' as being the principle of knowing all that is seen and approved; 'exemplar,' as being the principle of knowing all that is foreseen and disposed; 'book oflife,' as being the principle of knowing all that is predestined and reprobated. For divine Wisdom is the 'book of life', considering things insofar as they return to God; the 'exemplar,' considering things as they proceed from God; 'the mirror,' considering things as they follow their course; and the 'light,' from all these perspectives simultaneously. 59 Now under the concept of 'exemplar,' we also use other terms, such as (idea,' 'word,' 'art,' ~nd 'reason.' 'Idea' refers to the act of foreseeing; 'word,' to the act of proposing; 'art,' to the act of accomplishing; and 'reason,' to the act of perfecting, for it

Here Bonaventure bases himself on Peter Lombard, Lib. 1 Sent., 25.2 (1: 254-255). "See In 1 Sent., 35.dub 3, 36.dub. 3, and 38-42 (I, 614-15, 631, 668761). "See In 4 Sent., 43.2.1-3 (IV, 896-99). 57

PART!

51

adds the idea of a goal. 60 Since all of these acts are in God, one is often taken for another. 3. Even though divine Wisdom, by reason of the diversity of the objects of its knowledge and their various connotations, is thus given a variety of names, this is not because of any intrinsic reason. For the divine reason knows contingent things infallibly, changeable things immutably, future things in the present, temporal things eternally, dependent things independently, created things in an uncreated way, and things other than itselfin and through itself.51 And it knows contingent things infallibly in such way that the freedom and changeableness of the [created] will are compatible with predestination and foreknowledge. 4. The reason for all of this should be understood as follows. The First Principle, by the very fact it is first and supreme, has a knowledge that is utterly simple and perfect. Because it is utterly perfect, this Principle knows all things most distinctly in all their actual and possible states. Thus God knows future things as future, and the present as present; God knows the good as deserving of approbation and the evil as deserving reprobation. That is why divine Wisdom is given several names, as we have explained above. 5. But because the perfection of wisdom coexists with utter simplicity, this is why the First Principle knows all things other than itself in itself and through itself. From this it follows, second, that it knows created things in an uncreated way; third, dependent things independently; fourth, temporal things eternally; fifth, future things in ., See In 1 Sent., 27.2, 2-4, all of35, 36.2.1 (I, 485-90; 600-16, 623-24) and the Se. ehr., 2-3 (y, 6-16), The Breviloquium presents an extremely dense synthesis of the different questions that Bonaventure poses with regard to the divine wisdom. 6l See In 1 Sent., 39.2.1-3 (1, 692-96) andSc.Chr. 1 (V, 3-6). On the rest of this paragraph, see In 1 Sent., 38.2.1, 40.2.1 (I, 674-76, 706-09).

52

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PART!

the present; sixth, changeable things immutably; and seventh, contingent things infallibly. 6. And so contingent things, while remaining contingent, are already known infallibly by divine Wisdom, whether these be contingencies subject to the workings of nature Or those that are dependent on human free wilL Thus, those who truly wish to understand how the freedom ofthe created will is compatible with the infallibility of divine predestination should begin their reasoning with the last statement. Then they should work backwards through the seven above-mentioned steps back to the first which is that the First Principle knows all things perfectl; in itself because it is the most certain truth. From this premise the other conclusions made above are necessarily deduced. 7. So, just as the certitude of divine knowledge coexists with contingency in the objects known, because divine Wisdom is both utterly simple and most perfect, so, for the same reason, the unity of divine knowledge is compatible with a multiplicity of conceptions and ideas. Since divine Wisdom is utterly perfect, it knows each and every thing in the most distinct fashion, conceiving them all most clearly and perfectly. Thus we say that God possesses the principles and ideas of all individual beings, as the perfectly expressive likenesses of these same beings. But since God's wisdom is utterly simple, all the likenesses of these beings are one in this same knowledge. Hence, just as God produces in time through one single power all things in their complete fullness, even so God expresses them all in eternity through a single truth. 62 Although in the most high and omnipotent God there is but a single operative act, we speak of God's creative productions in the plural because of the plurality of things produced. And so there is but one truth in God contained in a single act of intel-

lection, even though we speak of many similitudes, ideas, and concepts because of the plurality of present, future, or possible things to which they apply. Now, these principles and ideas, even though they are one truth, one light, and one essence, are not called a single principle or idea. The reason is that, in the order ofintellection, the principle or idea is considered in relation to the object, since it designates the likeness of that which is known. This likeness really is in God, even though from the viewpoint of intellection, it appears to be expressing something in the created object. S. Were we to seek a parallel to this in nature, we would be unsuccessful, because, as has been seen, that exemplar which is simple, infinite, and utterly perfect is totally unique. Since the exemplar is utterly simple and perfect, it is pure act; and since it is infinite and immense, it is outside of all genera. 63 Hence it is that the exemplar, even though it is really one, can still be a likeness representing many.

62

See In 1 Sent., 35.2 (I, 605-07).

CHAPTER

Goo's

53

9

WILL AND PROVIDENCE

1. Concerning God's will, we must hold the following: that this will is so righteous that it can no way be deviant; that it is so effective, that it can never be obstructed; that it is one, even though it has the possibility of being designated in various ways. 2. The divine will is the will of God's good-pleasure. But given God's decision to be made known through signs, that one divine will is designated according to a fivefold typology of signs - that is, as precept, prohibition, counsel, fulfillment, and permission. In this way everything

"Ibid., 8.2.4 (I, 173-74).

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PART!

that occurs in the universe comes about through the will of God's good-pleasure." "Thus God's will is the first and highest cause of all physical species and motions. For nothing happens visibly and in a manner perceptible to the senses which does not issue either as a command or as a permission from the inmost invisible and intelligible court of the supreme emperor, according to his unfathomable justice of rewards and punishments, favors and retributions, in what we may call this vast and all-embracing republic of the whole creation."" 3. Now the divine will, governed by reason, is called providence. It follows, then, that all events in the universe are brought about and regulated by this same divine providence, which is totally beyond reproach, because it orders, prohibits, and counsels with utter justice, acts with utter goodness, and permits nothing contrary to justice. 4. The explanation of this is as follows. Since the First Principle is supremely eminent, it both possesses a will and possesses it in the highest degree. Now, by defmition 'will' indicates that faculty which, in self-determined beings, concerns the norm of rectitude and the efficacy of action. And so God's will must be utterly righteous and effective: utterly righteous because in God will and truth are identical; utterly effective, because in God will and power are identical. Now, the divine will cannot deviate in any way from the truth - for not only is it correct, it is the very norm of rectitude. Furthermore, it cannot lack power in any way - for not only is it effective, it is the very fountainhead and origin of all efficacy. Therefore, nothing can

be done without the divine will, nothing can prevail against it, and there is nothing by which it can be impeded. 5. Now, since God's will is most righteous, no one can be upright without conforming to it,SS and yet no one can conform to that will unless it has been revealed. Hence, God's will needs to be revealed to us as the norm of righteousness. Now there is a certain rectitude that is necessary; this consists in doing the required good and in avoiding evil. s, There is also a righteousness of perfection; this consists in doing more than what is required. Accordingly, God's will is made known to us through a threefold sign: of precept, of prohibition, and of counsel. These designate the acceptance of God's good pleasure as just by doing what the divine will commands, abstaining from what it prohibits, and fulfilling what it counsels. These manifestations are the infallible signs of God's will considered as the norm of rectitude. 6. Furthermore, since God's will is utterly effective, no one can accomplish anything except by the operation and cooperation of that will; and no one can fail or sin unless it justly abandons that person. ss And so there are two manifestations of God's will which correspond to this, namely, fulfillment, which is the sign of the divine will as efficacious, and permission, which is the sign ofthat will justly abandoning [creatures]." Now God's will abandons them in all justice, for it is right that it govern the things it has created so as not to infringe on the laws it has established. In this way God cooperates with "the things which God

Peter Lombard used this five-fold distinction in his treatment of the divine will, Liber 1 Sent., 45.6 (1: 310). Here the Augustinian distinction between signs and things is transferred from a verbal to a theological level. For Bonaventure's treatment ofthe divine will, see In 1 Sent., 45·48 (1, 797-861), where he also deals with the question of providence. 65 Augustine, De Trin. 3. 4. 9 (PL 42: 873 [WSA, II5: 132]). 64

55

"Cf. the whole of In 1 Sent., 48 (I, 850·61). 67 Cf. Ps 37:27: "Depart from evil and do good; so you shall abide forever." 68 "Abandon" here is used not in its stronger sense of totally repudiating someone, but in the sense of withdrawing support from individuals, leaving them to fend for themselves. "See In 2 Sent., 37.1.1, 37.2.1 (Il, 861-63, 869-70).

56

57

ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVILOQUIUM

PART!

has created in such a way that they may perform and exercise their own proper movements."'· And so, if God's will permits [created] free will to fall into evil, it is totally just in doing so, since by the very law of its nature free will is able to turn either to good or to evil. 7. Likewise, when, through grace, God's will helps and sustains someone, it does no one else an injury. It does not act unjustly, nor does it act in strict justice when one considers what is due us by merit, for our merit always falls short ofthe grace. Rather, the divine will acts gratuitously and mercifully, and in a certain sense justly, insofar as it acts as fully befits God's goodness. When therefore, God's will condemns and reproves, it acts according to justice; when it predestines, it acts according to grace and mercy, which do not exclude justice. Because all people, belonging to the 'mass of perdition,' deserve to be damned, more are condemned than elected so that it might be shown that salvation is by special grace, while condemnation is due to common justice. 7l No one, therefore, has the right to complain about God's will, for it does all things most righteously; we should, instead, give thanks in all circumstances and exalt the ways of divine providence. And if anyone should ask why the gift of grace is more generously allotted to one sinner than to another, this would be the time to silence human reasoning, and cry

out with the apostle: Oh the depth of the riches of the wisdom and of the knowledge of God! How inscrutable are his judgments and how unsearchable his ways! For who has known the mind of the Lord, or who has been his counselor? Or who has first given to him, and so earned a reward? For from him and through him and to him are all things. 1b him be glory forever. Amen. 72

Augustine, De civ. Dei, 7.30 (PL, 41: 220; [Dyson, 306]). In 4 Sent., 46.2.1-4 (IV, 962-66), Bonaventure's argument here is dependent onAnseim,Pros/ogion, 9-11 (PL 158: 231-34), and ultimately on Augustine, e.g., Enchiridion. 25.99: "For grace alone distinguishes the redeemed from the lost, who have been formed into one mass of perdition by a cause common to all which they draw from their origin" (PL 40: 278), trans. Bruce Harbert, The Augustine Catechism (Hyde Park, NY: New City Press, 1999), 115. Cf. De civ. Dei, 21.12 (PL 41: 727). 70 71

72 Rom 11:33-36. Bonaventure treats the thorny issue of why God would predestine one person but not another,In 1 Sent., 41.1.2 (I, 73134).

PART

II

ON THE CREATION OF THE WORLD

CHAPTER

1

THE PRODUCTION OF THE UNIVERSE

1. Now that we have presented a summary review of the Trinity of God, we need to say a few things about the creation of the world. Concisely put, we should maintain the following belief concerning this: namely, that the entire world machine was brought into existence in time and from nothing by one First Principle, unique and supreme, whose power, though immeasurable, has arranged all things in measure, number, and weight.' lWis 11: 21 (Vg). Bonaventure's statement of the doctrine of creation reflects the profession of faith of the Fourth Lateran Council (1215): "We firmly believe and confess that there is only OTIe true God, eternal and immeasurable ... one principle of all things ... who by his almighty power at the beginning of time created from nothing, both spiritual and corporeal creatures" (DEC 1: 230). The metaphor machina mundi Iworld machine' occurs in a number of twelfth century authors, such as Hugh or St. Victor, who revived the neo-Platonic awareness of the universe as a single whole: "As there are two divine works, the work of creation and the work of restoration, so there are two worlds, visible and invisible. The visible world is this machine, this universe, that we see with out bodily eyes" (De area Noe morali, 4.6 [PL 176: 672)). For Bonaventure, the image expresses the conviction that the universe is based on an intelligible model, God's eternal Word. The cosmos is thus permeated by God's Word, which is actively present in all things so that they function harmoniously for the well-being of all. Here he

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ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVILOQillUM

2. Generally speaking, these are the points regarding the production of things that we ought to comprehend, for through them the truth is ascertained and error refuted. By saying 'in time,' we exclude the error of those who posit an eternal world." By asserting 'from nothing,' we exclude the error ofthose who hold the eternity of a material principle. 3 When we say 'by one First Principle,' we exclude the error of the Manicheans, who posit a plurality ofprinciples" When we say 'unique and supreme,' we exclude the erroneous idea that God produced the lower creatures through the ministry of [created] intelligences.- And finally, when we say in measure, number, and weight, we indicate that the creature is an effect of the creating Trin

follows the insight of Robert Grosseteste: "The world machine most evidently speaks of the eternal Art by which it has been made ... it is sort of a visible world of that Art and of the invisible Word" (Dictum 48 translated by Servus Giehen, "Traces of God in Nature according t~ Robert Grosseteste," FS 24 (1964): 144). z~stotle, especially as interpreted by his great twelfth century ArabIc commentator, Ibn Rushd (Averroes). With the integration of Aristotle's works of natural philosophy into the Arts curriculum at the University of Paris in the 1250's, some teachers (traditionally known as "Latin Averroists") once again began teaching the doctrine of the eternity of the world. Bonaventure would strongly oppose them in his last work, the Collations on the Hexaemeron. 3 ~l~to's Timaeus, the foundational work of the Western cosmolOgical traditIOn, had portrayed the universe as the work of a divine Craftsman molding pre-existing chaotic elementary material in accordance with the patterns of the eternal Fonus. 4 For Bonaventure, "Manicheans" did not refer simply to an ancient sect but also to the contemporary Cathars, a heretical movement maintaining a dualistic view of the world. They viewed God as the creator of spiritual beings only, material things being the work of an evil principle. The Profession of Faith of Lateran IV ecf. note 1 above) was directed primarily against them. (; As maintained by Middle-and Neo-Platonic thinkers such as ~loti~us. Cf. Augustine, De civ. Dei, 12.25-27. The role of mediating IntellIgences had been revived in the twelfth century by Bernard Silvestris' influential Cosmographia.

PART II

61

ity by virtue of a three-fold causality: efficient, through which there is in the creature unity, mode, and measure; exemplary, from which the creature derives truth, form, and number; and final, from which it is endowed with goodness, order, and weight. These, as vestiges of the Creator, are found in all creatures, whether corporeal, spiritual, or composites ofboth.6 3. This is the reason for what we have said. In order that there be perfect order and repose in things, all of them must be led back to one principle, which has to be first so that it might grant rest to other things, and which must be most perfect so that it might perfect all the others.' Now there can be only one First Principle possessing such rest. Therefore, if this Principle produces a world, since it cannot produce that world from itself, it must produce it out of nothing. Moreover, creation from nothing implies, on the part of the creature, a state of being subsequent to non-being,' and, on the part of the principle, a limitless productive power, which is found in God alone.' Thus it

6 Every creature possesses a certain external dimension (measure), a certain internal order (number), and an inclination to its end (weight). These reflect respectively efficient, exemplary, and final causality. I.n this way all creatures reflect God, their Trini~arian source. How this resemblance differs in various creatures is developed in chap. 12.1-2 below. For a discussion ofthese basic implications ofthe doctrine of creation, see In 2 Sent., 1.1.1-2 (II, 14-30), Hexaem., 3.3-9 (V, 343-45). On the three-fold relation of creatures to God. see In 1 Sent., 3.1.dub. 3 (I, 7879); In 2 Sent., 35.2,l(II, 828-30). . ' 7 Cf. Aristotle, Metaphysics, 2.2 (994a 1-995b 14). Anstotle ascnbes the motion of the universe to a first cause, an uunmoved Mover" drawing .. . all other things. 8 Bonaventure believes that an eternal creation IS a logIcal impossibility. To say that the universe originated "from nothing" can only signify that the divine creative action had a starting point, before which only God existed. Cf. In 1 Sent., 1. 1. 1.concl. (II, 22). . . 9 Following the Pseudo-Dionysius, Bonaventure emphasIzes that It is precisely because the First Principle is one and therefore perfectly

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ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVILOQUIUM

follows necessarily that the creation of the world must. have been accomplished in time by this same limitless power, acting by itself and without any intermediary. 4. Now this utterly perfect Principle, from which flows the perfection of all things, must act from itself, in accordance with itself, and because of itself, since in none of its actions does it need anything beside itself Hence, this Principle must have, in respect to any creature, the role of a threefold cause: efficient, exemplary, and final. As a result, every creature must bear within itself this threefold relationship to its first Cause. For every creature is constituted in being by the efficient cause, is patterned after the exemplary cause, and is ordained to the final cause. For this reason, every creature is one, true, and good; limited, beautiful, and well ordered; and has measure, distinct existence [numberJ, and weight - for weight is defined as an ordered inclination. '0 All this applies to every creature in general, whether corporeal, spiritual, or a composite of both, as is the case with human nature. CHAPTER

How

2

PHYSICAL NATURE CAME INTO EXISTENCE

1. We must now consider corporeal nature with relation to its produ.ction, its being, and its operation. With regard to its production, we must hold specifically that physical nature was brought into existence over simple that it is capable of a limitless fecundity (De diu. nom., 5.6 [PG 3: 819-822]). Thus, there is no basis for a doctrine that the material creation emanated from God through intermediate beings. 10 See Augustine, Enarr. in Ps. 29, 2.10: "Weight is that force by which an object tends to reach the place proper to its nature: that is its definition" (PL 36: 222). By emphasizing that things are created in measure, number, and weight, Bonaventure is saying that creation is not a haphazard multiplicity, but "a diversity with order and connection and an inclination [weight] towards unity" (De myst. Trin., 2.1.ad 10 [Y, 63]). Cf. In 1 Sent., 43.3 (I, 722).

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the course of six days in the following manner. In the beginning, before any day, God created heaven and earth.l1 Then, on the first day, the light was formed; on the second, the firmament was established in the midst of the waters; on the third, the waters were separated from the land and gathered together into one place; on the fourth, the heavens were adorned with lights; on the fifth, the air and the waters were filled with birds and fishes; on the sixth, the land was furnished with animals and human beings. On the seventh day God rested, not from activity and work, since he continues to work to this very hour,12 but from the production of any new species. For God made all things then [during the six days of the Genesis accountJ- either in their prototypes, as is the case with those that propagate themselves, or in a seminal reason, as with other things that come into existence in a different way.l3 2. The reason for this is as follows. Because all things flow from the first and most perfect Principle, who is omnipotent, all wise, and all-beneficent, it was most fitting that they should come into being in such a way that their very production might reflect these same three attributes or perfectionsY Therefore, the divine operation that HGen 1:1 (Vg). 'Inprincipio' can mean 'in the principle' as well as 'in the beginning.' Bonaventure sees this passage as containing both meanings: all things were created first in the Principle [the Word or Eternal Art]; then, they were fashioned temporally in the actual stages of creation. The following verses are Gen 1:6, 1:9, and 2:2. 12Cf. John 5:17: "My Father is still working, and I also am working." 13 On seminal reasons, see In 2 Sent., 7.2.2.1, 15.2.3.dub. 4, 18.1-3 (II, 196-99,386-90,434-43). This teaching, uitimatelytraceable to the Stoics, was taken up by Augustine in order to explain how new things can emerge in the universe after God's initial creation. Seminal reasons are active potentialities implanted by God in matter from the very beginning in inchoate form; these are activated over time through the instrumentality of secondary causes. 14 This triad - God's power, wisdom, and goodness manifest in the works of creation -is based on Hugh of St. Victor,De tribus diebus and De sacram., 1.3.26-29 (PL 176: 811, 227-31).

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fashioned the world machine was three-fold: creation, particularly reflecting omnipotence; distinction, reflecting wisdom; and embellishment reflecting unbounded goodness. Because [the work of] creation is from nothing, it therefore was in the beginning, before any day,'5 as the foundation of all times and beings. 3. Now there is a three-fold qualitative distinction among corporeal substances; therefore, [God's work of] distinguishing them extended over three days. For there is a distinction between the luminous nature and the translucent and opaque natures; this was brought about on the first day by the separation of the light from the darkrless. There is a distinction between one translucent nature [water] and the other [air], and this was accomplished on the second day through the separation of the waters. And there is a distinction between translucent and opaque natures, and this was brought about on the third day through the separation ofland from water. We shall later see how the distinction of the celestial bodies from the worldly elements is implicitly included in these three.'· Therefore the work of distinction was fittingly accomplished in the space of three days. 4. And because [God's work of] embellishment parallels distinction, it also was accomplished in three days. The embellishment of the luminous nature was brought about on the fourth day through the forming of the stars, the sun, and the moon. The embellishment ofthe translucent nature occurred on the fifth day, when fishes and birds were made from the waters to ornament the water and the air. And there was an embellishment of the opaque nature, that is, of the earth, when on the sixth day the

"See In 2 Sent., 12.2.2, 1.1.dub 2 and 4 (II, 304-05, 36-38). 16 Chapters 3 and 5.

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beasts and reptiles were made, and finally, as the consummation of all things, human beings. 5. Now God could have done all of these things simultaneously, but preferred to accomplish them over a succession of times.17 First of all, this would serve as a clear and distinct manifestation of God's power, wisdom, and goodness. Secondly, there was a fitting correspondence between these operations and having various 'days' or times. Finally, the primal production of the world ought to contain the seeds of all things that would later be accomplished, as a prefiguration offuture ages; thus, these seven days would contain seminally, as it were, the division of all times to come, as we have already explained above through the succession oftheseven ages ofhistory.18 That is why, to the six days of work was added a seventh day of rest: a day to which no dusk is ascribed [in Scripture] not that this day was not followed by night, but because it was to prefigure the repose of souls that shall have no

17 In this section, Bonaventure attempts to respond to the interpretation advanced by Augustine, who had maintained that the six days of the Genesis creation account [the Hexaemeronl were simply figurative and that in fact God had created all things instantaneously (De Genesi ad litt., 4.22-23 [PL 34: 311-18]). Augustine's argument was rejected by most subsequent interpreters, including Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., d.12.2, 15.6 [1: 384-85; 402-403]. Bonaventure follows

Lombard, upholding a literal interpretation of the traditional hexaemeral account. See In 2 Sent., 12.1.2,13.1.1 (II, 295-98, 311-13). lSSee Prologue, chapter 3. The archetypal number seven is reflected in the seven planetary spheres and seven constituents of the human microcosm [the soul possesses three faculties and the body is composed of four elements]. It may be seen throughout Bonaventure's theology: seven ages of history, seven deadly sins, seven sacraments, seven virtues [three theological and four cardinal], seven gifts of the Holy Spirit, and seven beatitudes. It is no coincidence, then, that the Breviloquium has seven parts. Cf. Hexaem., 16.7 (V, 404). The interpretation in the next sentence is based on Augustine, De Genesi ad litteram, 4.9.16-17; 4.18.31 (PL, 34: 302, 308).

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end.19 Now, iffrom another point of view, it is said that all things were made at once, this is simply considering the work of the seven days from the perspective of the angels. 20 At any rate, the first manner of speaking is more in keeping with the Scripture and with the authority of the saints, both those before and after Saint Augustine. CHAPTER

3

THE EXISTENCE OF PHYSICAL NATURE

1. Concerning the existence of corporeal nature, the following points must be held. The entire world machine consists of a celestial and an elemental nature. The celestial nature is divided into the three principal heavens: the empyrean, the crystalline heaven, and the firmament. Beneath the firmament, which is the starry heaven, are the seven spheres of planets: Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and the Moon. The elemental nature is divided into four spheres: fire, air, water, and earth. Thus, ranging from the highest rim of heaven down to the very center of the earth, there are altogether ten celestial

19 Bonaventure's argument is based on Hugh of St. Victor,De sacram., 1.1.3 (PL 176: 188-189): that God's purpose in creating the world was not simply to bring into existence an order of being (which could well have been done instantaneously), but also to communicate a spiritual message to the human creature, for whose sake all other things were made. A gradual creation over time, with its inherent symbolism, better demonstrates to human beings the power, wisdom, and goodness of God (cf. section 2 above), It is only when the meaning of Genesis is considered in all its senses does the reason for the letter become manifest. Cf. chap. 5 below. 20 Bonaventure is alluding here to the Vulgate text of Sirach 18.1: "He who lives forever created all things at once [simul]," a passage that Augustine had used as the Biblical warrant for his figurative interpretation of the creation account. Bonaventure here is willing to accept Augustine's interpretation as valid on a spiritual level. Cf. chap. 5.9-10 below.

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and four elemental spheres. From these the whole material world machine is integrated and constituted in a distinct, perfect, and ordered fashion. 21 2. The reason for this should be understood as follows. If physical nature was to be complete in itself, reflecting the manifold wisdom of the First Principle, there had to be a multiplicity of forms, such as appears in minerals, plants, and animals. Therefore, some simple bodies had to be established first, which could be combined in various ways to bring about this multiplicity. Such would be a nature subject to contraries, and this is the elemental nature. 22 There also had to be a nature through which these contraries could be adjusted in a compound. Such a nature, free from opposition, is that of light and the heavenly bodies.23 3. Since a compound cannot be made without active and passive contraries, the opposition in the elements had to be two-fold: the first, between the active qualities, that is, hot and cold; second, between the passive qualities, that is, wet and dry. Now, since any given element both acts and is acted upon, it has two qualities, one active and the other passive, of which, however, one is always principal and characteristic. That is why there necessarily are only four elements, corresponding to the four said qualities in the four combinations.24 21 Bonaventure assumes the validity of the prevalent PlatonicAristotelian cosmology (chaps. 3-4), believing it was reflected in the Scriptures (chap. 5). Isidore of Seville, in his De rerum natura, was the first Christian writer to relate the Genesis creation account to the planetary system of antiquity in explicit terms. See In 2 Sent., 2.2.1.1, 14.1.1.1,14.2.1.3 (II, 39-40, 335-38, 362-64). 22 According to ancient science, elemental matter possesses four contrary properties: hot, cold, moist, and dry. "See In 2 Sent., 14.1.1.2, 17.2.3 (II, 338-41, 420-23). 24 None of the contrary properties of matter (hot, cold, moist, and dry) exist in isolation, but only in combination, :ormin?" the four elements: fire (hot and dry, active), air (hot and mOIst, active), water (cold and moist, passive), and earth (cold and dry, passive).

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4. Now, celestial nature may be uniform and motionless, and this is the empyrean, for it is pure light. Or it may be mobile and multiform, and such is the firmament. Finally, it may be mobile and uniform, and such is the crystalline heaven, between the empyrean and the starry heaven.25 But the fourth combination - the motionless and multiform - cannot exist, because multiplicity ofform leads to varied movements, not to uniform repose. 5. Thus, there are three heavens. The first, the empyrean, is luminous throughout; the second, the crystalline, is translucent throughout; the third, the firmament, is a combination of both. And so, since there are three incorruptible heavens and four variable elements, God designed seven planetary spheres so that a proper connection, harmony, and correspondence might exist. The planets, through their varied movements and incorruptible form, act as a kind of link or bonding between the inferior elemental spheres and the superior heavenly spheres, and thus complete and embellish the universe. Thus the universe is said to have been ordered in numerical proportion: through the integration of its ten celestial and four elemental spheres, each returns to its Maker proportionately as much beauty as it has perfection and order, each in its own way representing its Principle.

25 The first to use the term 'empyrean' to describe the dwelling place of the angels and saints was the author of the Glossa ordinaria (PL 113: 68); it became standard thanks to Peter Lombard (Lib. 1 Sent., 2.4 [1: 339~340]). The empyrean abides in perfect rest due to its closeness

to God. The crystalline heaven, composed of the waters above the firmament (Gen 1:7), connect the empyrean with the finnament, the heaven of the fixed stars.

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4

THE OPERATION AND INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL NATURE

l.As regards the operation of physical nature, the following must be held: namely, that the heavens influence the earth and the elements by dividing time into days, months, and years. As Scripture says: let them be for signs and for seasons and for days and years.'s Furthermore, they influence the effective production of things that can be generated and corrupted, that is, of mineral, vegetative, and sentient beings, and of human bodies. Nevertheless, they enter into the determination of times and have a governing effect on operations in such a way that they can never be taken as certain indicators of future contingencies, nor do they exert influence on human free will through the power of constellations, which some philosophers call fate.27 2. This may be explained as follows. Because the heavenly bodies are so close to the First Principle, they possess light, motion, heat, and power: light, by reason of their form and appearance; motion, by reason of the influence upon them of a superior agent; heat, by reason of their influence upon an inferior passive nature; power, in all the aforementioned ways. Thus they [i.e., scientists] tell us that it is the light and motion of the heavenly bodies that are responsible for the divisions of time: a) of the day, according to the light of the sun and motion of the firmament;

"Gen 1:14. On the following, seeln2 Sent., 2.2.2.2,14.2.2.2-3 (II, 7375, 359-65). 27 In other words, the heavenly bodies are the secondary causes that God employs to influence the generation and decay of material phenomena, including the human body, However, they cannot determine spiritual realities, such as the soul. On fate, see Augustine, De civ. Dei, 5.1-2 (PL 41: 141ft).

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b) of the month, according to the motion of the moon in an elliptical fashion;28 c) of the year, according to the motion of the sun in its orbit; d) of the seasons, according to the motion of the vari ous planets, their distance and course, their ascent and descent, their regression and fIxity. From all these seasonal variations arise. 3. Furthermore, through their power and heat - stimulating, moving, and harmonizing - the heavenly bodies influence the production of those things that are generated from the elements. Through their harmonizing influence on the contrary qualities [ofmatterl, but far removed from an equal balance, they produce minerals; though a harmonization that is less removed from equality, they influence vegetative life; through a conciliation that approaches equality, they produce sentient beings; and fInally, through a conciliation that truly achieves equal balance, they produce the human body.29 In its turn, the body is disposed to receive the noblest form, the rational soul,3. toward which is ordained and in which is brought to fulflllment the yearning of every sensible and corporeal nature. Thus, through the soul - which is a form having existence, life, feeling, and intelligence - every nature may

"See In 2 Sent., 14.2.dub. 4 (Il, 369-70). 29 The human body, as a microcosm, is thus built of the same four elements that compose all other material creatures. In the body, these form the four humors (Isidore of Seville, Etymol., 4.5 [PL 82: 184-85]), identified as reddish bile or choler (hot and dry), blood (hot and moist), phlegm (cold and moist) and black bile or melancholy (cold and dry). lllness resulted from an imbalance of these contrary humors; medicine sought a means to restore the balance. 3OSee In2 Sent., 15.1.3, 17.2.2-3 (II, 379-81, 420-26).

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be led back," as ifin an intelligible circle, to its beginning, in which it is perfected and beatifIed.32 4. And because the human soul strives to its end through free will, by virtue ofthis freedom it excels every power of corporeal beings. That is why all things are born to serve the soul, for nothing can rule it except God alone - neither fate nor any power of the stars' position.33 5. It is therefore undoubtedly true that we are the goal of everything that exists,34 and that all corporeal beings were made to serve humankind, so that through these things humanity might ascend to loving and praising the Creator of the universe whose providence disposes of all. Therefore this physical machine of corporeal beings is like a dwelling fashioned by the supreme architect to serve human beings until such time as they arrive at that

31This description evokes the classic microcosmic formula of the Latin tradition, Gregory the Great,Hom. in Evang. 2.29.2: "The disciples were told to preach to every creature. But 'every creature' means human bemgs . . . . [who] have something in common with every creature. They share existence with stones, like trees they are alive, like animals they feel, and like the angels they have intelligence .... And so the Gospel is preached to every creature when it is preached to human beings, ... for whose sake all things on earth were created, and to whom all things are related by some kind oflikeness" (PL 76: 1214), trans., David Hurst, Forty Gospel Homilies (Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications, 1990), 227. 32The closed circle as an expression offinal perfection and completion is often used by Bonaventure, e.g., in pt. 1, chap. 6. 5 above, and Myst, Trin., 8, ad 7: "It follows that eternal life consists in this alone, that the rational spirit, which emanates from the most blessed Trinity and is a likeness ofthe Trinity, should return after the manner of an intelligible circle - through memory, understanding, and will- to the most blessed Trinity by God-conforming glory" (V, 115 [WB 3: 266]). See also In 3 Sent., 1.2.2 (II, 20); In 2 Sent., 1.2.1.2.ad 3, 1.2.3.2 (II, 42, 50); In 4 Sent., 48.2.1 (IV, 990). "See In 2 Sent., 14.2.2.3 (II, 361-365). 34 Aristotle, Physic., 2.24.2: "We use everything as ifit were there for our sake. We also are in a sense an end" (194a 34-35). See In 2 Sent., 15.2.1,16.1.1 (II, 382-84, 394-95).

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dwelling not made with hands ... in heaven. 35 And so, just as the soul, by reason ofthe body and its deserved state, is now on earth, so one day the body, by reason of the soul and its deserved reward, will be in heaven. CHAPTER

5

THE MANNER IN WHICH THESE THINGS ARE DESCRIBED IN SCRIPTURE

1. From what has been said so far, it should be clear that order exists not only in the way God created things in time and arranged them in space, but also in the way God governs their influence on one another. But there is also order in the way Scripture gives us sufficient teaching about all these things. This is the case, even if it does not explicitly describe the different spheres of the heavens and of the elements; even if it says little or nothing about the motions and powers of the superior bodies, or of the combinations of the elements and their compounds; and even if it says nothing explicitly about the creation of the higher spirits, especially when it describes how the universe came into being. 2. This can be explained in the following way. The First Principle reveals itself to our minds through the Scriptures and through creatures. In the book of creation it manifests itself as the effective Principle, and in the book of Scripture as the restorative Principle. Now, the restorative Principle cannot be known unless the effective Principle is also known. Thus it follows that Holy Scripture, even though it is concerned mainly with the works of restoration, must necessarily also deal with the works of creation, insofar as they lead to the knowledge of the first effective and recreating Principle.'· Hence, this knowledge 35

2 Cor 5:1.

"See Hugh of St. Victor, De sacram., 1.prol.3 (PL 176: 184); Cf. Hexaem. 1.37 (V, 54).

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is both sublime and saving: sublime, because it is knowledge of the effective Principle, which is God the Creator; saving, because it is knowledge of the restorative Principle, which is Christ our Savior and Mediator. 3. Now, since this knowledge is sublime, in that it deals with the First Principle and Supreme Being, it does not lower itself to describe the special natures, motions, powers, and distinctions of the various beings. Rather, it remains on a more general level, in which specific beings are only implied, describing the world in relation to the overall disposition and effect of the luminous, translucent, and opaque natures. 4. Now, the First Principle, with which Scripture deals, possesses in itself an order of nature by virtue of its existence, an order of wisdom by virtue of its disposing [all things), and an order of goodness by virtue ofits influencing [all things). The order of nature possesses existence and equality;37 the order of wisdom considers priority and posteriority; the order of influence, superiority and subordination. And so it follows that to indicate the order of nature, Scripture sets down the manner in which it was fitting that God should operate. Thus, in the beginning, before any passing of time, the threefold nature was brought from non-being into being. This is implied in the words: In the beginning God created heaven and earth and the Spirit of God moved over the waters. '8 Here, the word 'heaven' implies the luminous nature; the word 'earth,' opaque nature; and the word 'waters,' the transparent or translucent nature, either subject to opposition or elevated above it. Here the eternal Trinity is also alluded to: the Father, under the term 'God creating'; the Son, under the term 'beginning' [Principle); and the

"SeeIn 1 Sent., 20.2.1-2,19.1.4 (I, 372-75, 347-50). 38

Gen 1:1-2.

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Holy Spirit, under the term 'the Spirit of God.'39 It is in this sense that we must understand the passage, He who lives forever cre~ted all things together:·' not as meaning that God created everything together in utter chaos, as the poets have fantasized. Rather, God created this threefold nature so that the highest in dignity would be on high, the middle, in the middle position; and the lowest, at the bottom. Nor does this passage mean that God created everything in a state of complete distinction, for while the heavens were perfect, the earth was still unformed, and the middle nature, holding the middle position, had not yet been brought into a state of final separation. 5. To indicate the order of wisdom in disposing, Scripture shows that this threefold nature was not distinguished and embellished' in a single step. Rather, to correspond to the triple nature created, the work of division took three 'days and the work of embellishment another three. Thus, as God in the beginning, before the dawn of time, created a triple nature all at once, even so, when time began its course, God used a triple measure of duration, that is, a triplet of days, to make a threefold distinction in the triple created nature; and he used another triplet of days to provide this triply distinct nature with a threefold embellishment. 6. And to indicate the order of goodness in influencing, Scripture shows that the three natures were arranged in the world according to the norm of superior and inferior, as the dignity and influence of each required. Because luminous nature is the brightest, its place is the highest sphere. Because the opaque has the least, it ought to be at the core. Translucent nature, being intermediate, belongs in the middle place.· ' Now, both heavenly and elemental Glossa ordinaria in Gen 1:2 (PL 113: 70C). "Sirach 18:1. Cf. chap. 2.5 above. 41 Aristotle, De anima, 2.68.7; De sensu et sensato, 3 (419a 8-34 and 439a 18b 10). 39

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natures have something of translucency and transparency, and both share luminosity. Therefore, it is rightly said that the firmament was established in the midst of the waters. This does not mean that the waters above the firmament are fluid, cold, heavy, and corruptible; on the contrary, they are clear, incorruptible, and transparent, so sublime as to be beyond all opposition. Thus, because of the nobility of their form, they are heavenly in nature and deserve to be placed among heavenly things.·2 7. They are gathered there also because of their power and influence. For every physical activity of lower beings receives its law, origin, and energy from the celestial nature. Now, there are two active qualities, hot and cold.· 3 The heaven of the stars [the firmament], by reason of its luminosity, is the chief agent of warmth, while another, the crystalline heaven, influences the cold. Just as the starry heaven, though it causes heat, is not formally hot, so the heaven that is called watery or crystalline is not really cold. Hence, when the saints say that these waters were put there to check the heat of the higher bodies and other statements like this,.· they are to be taken, not as formal predications of essence, but rather as pertaining to efficacy and influence. And so the establishment of creation in the aforesaid order is in accord with the order both of creating Wisdom and of divine Scripture, which is a sublime knowledge. 8. Furthermore, since it is salutary knowledge, Scripture does not speak of the work of creation except with reference to the work of redemption. Now the angels are created in such a way that once fallen, no reparation can be made, as will made clear in the following chapter;

42 Gen 1:6. On the waters of the crystalline heavens, see In 2 Sent., 14.1.1.1 (Il, 335-38). "Cf. chap. 3.2-3 above . .. Among others, Basil, In Hexai!m., 3.7 (PG 29: 69B).

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therefore, Scripture says nothing in its literal sense about the creation and fall of the angels, since no reparation can subsequently occur.45 9. Yet, because complete silence about the creation of the loftiest creatures would be inconsistent with the sublimity of Scripture, the sacred writings described their creation insofar as a sublime and saving knowledge requires, but in such a way that, taking a spiritual interpretation, the literal account ofthe whole creation refers symbolically to the celestial and ecclesiastical hierarchies. Thus, understood in a spiritual sense, in the three natures which were first produced, we see the angelic hierarchy under the term 'heaven,' the ecclesiastical hierarchy under the term 'earth,' and grace, by which the other two are refreshed, under the term 'waters.' 10. Again [in a spiritual sensel, the 'seven days' stand for the seven states of the Church through the succession of the seven ages. 45 The same series of seven days also signify the seven illuminations through which the angels rise from the creature to God. 4' Thus, the foregoing reveals the sufficiency and truth of the Scriptures in the diverse opinions of the saints, that is, of Augustine and others. If we understand them correctly, they do not contradict one another, but are true.

Cf. chap. 7 below. 4sAs developed in the Prologue, 2.7·8. 47This refers to Augustine's interpretation of the hexaemeral account, De Genesi ad litt., 4.22-23 (PL 34: 311-18), which he had taken to be its

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6

THE PRODUCTION OF THE HIGHER SPIRITS

1: Consequently'" our next topic must be the spiritual and mcorporeal nature, that is, the angelic nature. Here we ought to consider the creation of the heavenly spirits, the fall of the demons, and the confirmation of the good angels. 2. We should know that the angels, from the first moment of their creation, possess four attributes: simplicity of essence; individuality of person; rationality, implying memory, understanding, and will; and free choice for sele?ting good and rejecting evil,<' These four primary att~butes are accompanied by four others: virtuosity in ac~lOn, dedi?~tion in service, keenness in understanding, and ImmutabIlIty once a decision for good and evil has been made. 3. The explanation of this is as follows. The First Principle, by t~e very fact of being first, produced all things from nothmg, not only those things that are "close to nothing," but also those that are close to it. 50 It was therefore proper that it produce not only a substance that is far removed from it - which is the corporeal nature - but also one that is kindred to it. This is the intellectual and incorporeal substance which, by the very fact that it is so similar to God, enjoys simplicity of nature and individuality of

45

literal meaning. Bonaventure, who upholds the literal meaning of Genesis (chap. 2.5 above), here accepts Augustine's view as valid on an spiritual level. Seeln2 Sent., 12.1.2,13.1.1 (II, 295-98, 311-313), where Bonaventure also attempts to reconcile this reading with a more literal interpretation.

48 Bonaventure has just concluded his discussion of the physical universe with a reference to the angels' knowledge of the universe 49 According to Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 3.1 (1: 341-342), wh~ in tu;;:' follows H."gh of St. Victor, De sa~ram., 1.5.7-8 (PL 176: 250). cr. A:ugustme, .c0nfesswns 12.7.7: 'You were, the rest was nothing, from whIch you mIght make heaven and earth, two realities: one near to yourself, the other close to nothing" (PL 32: 929); trans. Maria Bouldmg, WSA, III (Hyde Park, NY: New City Press, 1997),315-16.

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in whatever concerns its substance, whether common or individual. 51 In its mind, this intellectual substance also possesses the image of the Trinity by virtue of memory, under-standing and will.52 Furthermore, its will is free. In this way it might resemble God through a power that is both natural and elective, for its natural power is clearly stamped with God's own image, and its elective power is marked by freedom of choice. For it never could meritor-iously achieve the glorious reward that makes each one blessed unless it possessed this freedom of choice in the will. But this cannot exist except in a rational substance endowed with memory, understanding, and will. And where there is reason, there must also exist "an individual substance of a rational nature."" It is also necessary that it be a spiritual, incorporeal substance and hence simple, lacking all quantitative dimension. 4. Such a substance, however, because it is simple, has virtuosity in action; having virtuosity and personal distinctness, it has a distinct service to perform; having simplicity and virtuosity, it has a keen power of discernment; having simplicity and keen discernment, and hence a Godconformed intellect,'· it also has immutability in its choice

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of either good or evil. All of these conditions are to be added to the general condition of the higher spirits. CHAPTER

7

THE ApOSTASY OF THE DEMONS

1. We should hold the following with regard to the apostasy of the demons. God made all the angels good, but in an intermediate position between himself, supreme Good, and the changeable good, which is creation. If they turned their love to the Good above, they would rise to the state of grace and glory, but if they turned downward to the changeable good, they would fall through his very act into the evil of sin and its penalty, because "the ugliness of sin is never without the beauty ofpunishment."'5 The first among the angels, Lucifer, laying presumptuous claim to a private good, craved his own excellence and desired to be elevated further than the rest. Therefore, he fell, along with the others who were of the same mind as he. Falling, he became impenitent, obstinate, and blind. Excluded from the contemplation of God and disordered in the operation of his faculties, he is now bent with all his might upon perverting humankind with countless temptations. 55

See In 2 Sent., 3.1.1.1, 3.1.2.1-3, (II, 89-91, 102-10).

This is the first appearance in the Breviloquium of a fundamental Augustinian theme: that a creature possessing reason is the image of God in a special way through its ability to remember, understand, and love. By virtue of these capacities, it is called into a direct personal relationship with the triune God, who alone can fulfill them. Cf. chap. 12 below. Augustine developed this theme most extensively in Books 952

15 ofbis De Trinitate (PL 42: 959-1098). 53 Boethius' classic definition of a person (Contra Eutychen, 3 [PL 64: 1343C]). See In 1 Sent., 25.1.2 (1, 439-41). 64 This is based on Pseudo-Dionysius, The Divine Names, 7.2: "[The angelic minds] become shaped as closely as possible to the transcendently wise mind and reason of God" (PG 3: 868B [trans. Luibheid, p. 106]). See In 2 Sent., 1.2.3.2, 7.1.1.ad 2 (II, 50, 177).

55 Augustine defined sin as "a turning away from the immutable good and a turning towards changeable goods" (On Free Choice of the Will, 2.19.53, [PL 32: 1269], trans. Anna S. Benjamin and L. H. Hackstaff (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1964),83. The quoted phrase is from the same work (3.15.44), where Augustine emphasizes that God's punishment must immediately follow sin, ''lest the universal beauty be marred ... by any interval of time" (PL 32: 1293 [po 123]). Cf.ln 2 Sent., 3.2.1 (II, 112-17). 56 Cf. the Profession of Faith of Lateran IV: "The devil and other demons were created by God naturally good, but they became evil by their own doing" (DEC 1:230). On the sin of the Lucifer and the other bad angels, see In 2 Sent., 5.1-2 (II, 145-154). On their power to tempt human beings, see ibid., 8.2 (II, 224-34).

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2. We might understand this is as follows. Since the First Principle is the highest good, it makes nothing that is not good, for from the Good nothing but good proceeds. 57 Whatever the First Principle makes, however, is by that very fact less than its maker, and thus cannot be the supreme good. Thus the angelic nature was created good, but not the supreme good; yet it was capable of being perfected through its choice of the highest good. 3. Having free will, Lucifer was able to turn toward the supreme good or to turn to a private good. But aroused by the sight of his own beauty and eminence, he fell in love with himself and his private good, and so laid presumptuous claim to the eminence he had and sought to gain a further excellence that he did not possess. Thus, in his presumption, he set himself up as his own principle by glorying in himself; in his ambition, he established himself as his own supreme good by seeking his end in himself. Since, however, he was neither the supreme Principle nor the supreme Good, he was bound to fall from his inordinate desire, and for the same reason all those of like mind. 4. And because "the ugliness of sin is never without the beauty of punishment," it follows that as soon as he fell into sin, he and his followers lost their supreme posi- . tion, in the empyrean heaven, and sank to the pit, the misty darkness of helL'S Through his free choice, Lucifer had fallen into sin; by the judgment of God, he fell into punishment. And because his choice was immutable, he immediately became hardened in evil and was thus blinded from the truth, disordered in his actions, and weakened

57 Cf. Pseudo-Dionysius, The Divine Names, 4.19: "Fire cannot cool us, and likewise the Good cannot produce what is not good" (PG 3: 716B [Luibheid, p. 84]). 58Cf. 2 Peter 2.4: "God did not spare the angels when they sinned, but

cast them into hell and committed them to chains of deepest darkness."

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in his powers. His wicked will and action, turned away from God, were turned instead to hatred and envy ofhumankind; his keen mind, blinded from true light, turned to deceiving humankind by divinations and deceptions; his readiness to serve, averted from true service, turned to seducing humans through temptations; his power, lessened and constrained, turned, as much as God permitted, to performing stupendous feats by bringing about rapid changes in the material creation. Since all this was the disorderly result of a pride-infected will, the fallen angel has perverted everything to feed his pride, expecting human beings to revere and adore him as ifhe were God. That is why "all his deeds are evil."'· And nevertheless God is just in allowing these things to happen for the time being, with the purpose of punishing the wicked and glorifYing the good, as will be evident at the last judgment. CHAPTER

8

THE CONFIRMATION OF THE GOOD ANGELS

1. With regard to the confirmation of the good angels, the following should be held: that just as the angels who turned away from God were instantly made obstinate in their impenitence, so those who turned to God were instantly confirmed in their choice through grace and glory; fully enlightened in their intellect through the knowledge of dawn and dusk;·' perfectly fortified in their powers of command and execution; and fully ordered in their activities, whether of contemplation or service. All of this was according to a triple hierarchy, namely, supreme, intermediate, and lowest. The highest level comprises the

"Peter Lombard, Gloss in II Cor. 6.15 (PL 192: 49D). GO These terms will be explained in the following paragraph.

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Thrones, Cherubim, and Seraphim; the intermediate, the Dominions, Virtues, and Powers; the lowest, the Principalities, Archangels, and Angels. Of this last group, most are sent to serve and assigned to watch over human beings, to whom they minister by purifying, illuminating, and perfecting them as God's will commands.61 2. The following argument helps us understand this. The angels, because of their express likeness and proximity to the first and supreme Principle, have a God-like intellect and immutability, once their free will has given its assent. And so, when by divine grace they turned to the supreme good because they chose God and thus were confirmed and perfected in glory, they became stable and happy in will and clear-sighted in intellect. Thus they now understand everything not only in themselves, but also in the creating Art; they not only have a knowledge of dusk, but also of morning, and even a knowledge of full sunlight, through the fullness and absolute purity ofthat light in comparison to which every created thing may properly be called darkness.62 In their faculties of command and execution they are fully strengthened, whether they use an assumed body or not.·' In their activities they are so 61 Hebr 1:14. This whole explanation derives from Pseudo-Dionysius' Celestial Hierarchy. On the triple hierarchical action of purifying, illuminating, and perfecting, see 3.2-3 (PG 3: 166eD). For more detail see Bonaventure, In 2 Sent., 5.3.1-2 (II, 154-58); on the confirmation of the angels, cf. ibid., 7.1.2.3 (II, 187-88); on their knowledge, 3.2.2.1-2, 4.3.1-2 (II, 117-24, 138-42); on their orders and ministry, 9-11 (II, 23790). 62 Augnstine, De civ. Dei, 11.29 (PL 41: 343); De Gen. ad litt., 4.2425.29-30 (PL 34: 313ff.) Like Augnstine, Bonaventure distinguishes three kinds of knowledge according to the way that it is produced: 'the knowledge of dusk' is a knowledge of things in themselves; 'the knowledge of morning' is that by which one sees things as they exist in the Word; the 'knowledge offuU day' is an immediate intuition through which God reveals himself directly to the created intellect. Cf. In 2 Sent., 3.2.2.2 (II, 122ff.), Itin., 1.3 (Y, ). "See In 2 Sent., 8.1 throughout (II, 209-24).

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perfectly ordered that they are no longer capable of being disordered either in ascending to see God or in descending to serve humankind. Indeed, since they see God face to face, they move in God wherever they are sent. 64 3. The angels are sent and operate according to the hierarchical order instilled in them by nature and which was brought to perfection by glory: stabilizing their free will in the right choice, illumined their keenness of intellect, ordered their ministry, and strengthened their power in the four attributes mentioned above. 65 Sharpness of reason in contemplation serves primarily to worship the divine majesty, to understand its truth, and to desire its goodness. Accordingly, there are three orders in the first hierarchy, for worship pertains to the Thrones, wisdom to the Cherubim, and love to the Seraphim. Perfect capacity for action implies the power to command, execute, and implement: the first pertains to the Dominions, the second to the Virtues, and the third to the Powers, whose function it is to repel hostile forces. Perfect ministry implies ruling, revealing, and assisting: the first pertains to the Principalities, the second to the Archangels, and the third to the Angels, for they keep guard lest those who are standing fall and they go the assistance of the fallen to help them rise again. Now, it is plain that all these attributes exist in the angels in greater or lesser degree as we gradually descend from the highest to the lowest,

64

1 Cor 13.12. Gregory, Hom in Evang., 34.13: "They are sent, and they stand in God's presence, both. Angelic spirits are limited, but the supreme Spirit, God himself, is not. Even the angels he sends out are still in his presence, because wherever they may come after being sent, they are still in his presence" (PL 76: 1255 [Hurst, 293]). SeeIn2 Sent., 2.2.2.1 (II, 75ft). 65 See chapter 6. On the duties of the angels, see In 2 Sent., 9, praenotata (II, 237-41). Bonaventure bases himselflargely on Gregoris sermon cited in the preceding note.

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but each rank is fittingly named for that quality which "each received more fully as its service."66

than a joint capacity of will and reason, the principal faculties ofthe soul. 2. The explanation ofthis is as follows. Since the First Principle is most blessed and most benevolent, that sovereign benevolence imparts its own blessedness to creatures, not only to those that are spiritual and close to it, but to bodily creatures which are far removed. However, to the material, distant creation it communicates that blessedness indirectly, because the divine law is that lower beings be led to the highest through intermediaries.71 Thus, God granted the possibility of blessedness not only to the angelic spirit, removed from matter, but also to a spirit joined to it, that is, the human. Therefore, the rational soul is capable of blessedness. But the prize of everlasting happiness is not glorious unless it is merited, and something cannot truly be merited unless it is done freely and voluntarily. It thus follows that freedom of choice was fittingly given to the rational soul by removing every constraint from it. For by its very nature, the will cannot be forced in any way, even though as a result of[original] sin it has become a wretched slave to sin.7Z 3. Again, a form that can be blessed is capable of union with God through memory, understanding, and will and is

CHAPTER

9

THE PRODUCTION OF THE HUMAN SOUL

1. Having discussed both corporeal and incorporeal natures, we must now say something about that nature that is a composite of both. First we shall treat of the mind, then of the body, and fmally ofthe whole person. We can briefly summarize as follows what, according to sacred doctrine we must hold, regarding the soul: that it is a form endowed with existence, life, intelligence, and freedom of choice. It is a form possessing existence, neither of itself nor [as an emanation] from the divine nature, but brought into being by God from nothing through creation. 6' It is a form possessing life, not through some extrinsic nature but in itself; not for a mortal span, but for eternity.68 It is a form endowed with intelligence, grasping not only created essences, but even the "creating essence," in whose image it was made according to memory, understanding, and will. 6' Finally, it is a form endowed with freedom of choice, for it is always free from necessity. In the state of innocence, it was free from misery and guilt as well, although this is not the case in its present fallen nature.'· This freedom from constraint is nothing other 66 Gregory, Forty Gospel Homilies, 34.14 (Hurst, 293-94). Cf. Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent. 9.3 (1: 372-373); Bonaventure, In 2 Sent., 9.4 (II, 247-49). 67 In 2 Sent., 17.1.1, 18.1.3 (II, 410-13, 439-43). "Ibid., 19.1.1 (II, 457-61). 69 The quoted phrase is from Anselm, Monologion, 13 (PL 158: 161A [AC, p. 26]). SeeIn2 Sent., 16 (II, 393-408), In 1 Sent., 3.2.1.1 (J, 80-82). 70 This terminology is based on Bernard of Clairvaux, On Grace and Free Will, ee. 3-5, who distinguished 'freedom from necessity' (the natural capacity of the will to be the cause of its own actions, without any

external constraint) from 'freedom from sin' (the effective capacity to

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choose the good according to the counsel of right judgment [cf. chap. 11.6 below]) and 'freedom from misery' (the capacity to have such correct choices always come to fruition). Original sin has removed the two latter freedoms, making the soul 'a slave to sin.' Grace gradually restores 'freedom from sin,' but the Christian will be 'free from misery' only in heaven. (PL 182: 1004-1010). This distinction was accepted by Peter Lombard,Liber 2 Sent., 25.8-9 [1: 466-69], becoming common teaching.

Cf. Bonaventure, In 2 Sent., 25 (II, 591-626). 71 Pseudo-Dionysius,De cael. hier., 4.3: "Secondary beings are uplifted through the primary beings. Now the Law which was laid down ... establishes that in every hierarchy ... those closer to God should be

the initiators of those less close by guiding them to the divine access, enlightenment, and communion" (PG 3: 182A; PL 122: 1047D [po 158]). 72John 8:34. Cf. Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 25.8 (1: 466-469).

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thus an image of the Trinity as one in essence and triune in power. Thus it follows that the soul, so stamped with the divine image, had to be capable of knowing God and all things.73 And because something truly blessed can never lose that happiness, nothing can be capable of blessedness unless it is incorruptible and immortal. The rational soul, therefore, must live with a life that is immortal by its very nature. 4. Finally, anything that is immortal but derives its happiness from another is both mutable and immutable: immutable with respect to its being, mutable with respect to its well-being. Therefore, since the soul is mutable [in its choicesl, it follows that it proceeds neither from itself nor from the divine essence; since it is immortal and incorruptible, it follows that it cannot be made from something else or generated by nature. For such a form could not be brought into existence through generation because anything naturally generated is naturally corruptible." From all this it is apparent that the final end, that is, blessedness, to which the soul is ordained, necessarily imposes the aforementioned characteristics upon it. 5. Now, since a soul that is capable of blessedness has to be immortal, it follows that the soul is united to a mortal body in such a manner that it can be separated from it. Hence it is not only a [perfectingl form, but also an

?3Like angels, the human soul is also an image of the triune God, a

fact that establishes it in a direct personal relationship with God by its very nature. However, the human soul is joined with a body, and so its memory, knowledge, and love of God is mediated through its sense experience; thus its relationship with God develops over time. As pure spirits, angels possess full knowledge and thus the possibility of a once-

for-all choice. Cf. chap. 6.3-4 above. 74 Aristotle, De caelo, 1.126.12: 4'The terms 'generated' and 'destructible' are coincident ... since between what always is and what always is not there is an intermediate which is neither, and that intermediate is the

generated and destructible" (282b 8-9).

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individual substance [hoc aliquidl. 75 Thus the soul is united to the body not only as a perfection, but also as a mover; its essence perfects what it likewise directs. 76 Now the soul confers not simply existence, but also life, sensation, and intelligence. 77 It therefore possesses a vegetative power, a power of sensation, and an intellectual power. By virtue of its vegetative power, the soul is the principle of generation, nourishment, and growth: it is the principle of quiddity by generating, of quality by nourishing, and of quantity by growing. 78 By virtue ofits sensitive power, the soul apprehends sensible objects, retains what it has apprehended, and combines and sorts what it has retained. It apprehends through the five external senses that correspond to the five principal corporeal elements of the world;79 it retains through memory; it combines and distinguishes through imagi-nation, which is the primary power of association. Finally, by means of its intellectual power, the soul discerns truth, avoids evil, and seeks the good; it discerns truth through its rational faculty, rejects evil through the negative appetite [of the willl, and desires good through its positive appetite. so

750n prime or individual substance, see Aristotle, Categories, 5 (3b 10-12). Cf. Bonaventure, In 2 Sent., 15.1.1, 17.1.2 (II, 372-76, 413-16). 76 Aristotle,De anima, 2.24.2: ''it is the soul by or with which primarily we live, perceive, and think" (414a 12-13). 77 Cf. chap. 4, 3 above. "Aristotle, De gen. et corrupt., 1.39.5 (320a 8f!). "Bonaventure, following Augustine (De Gen. ad litt., 3.4.6 (PL 34:281), considers each sense as corresponding to the specific characteristics of one of the elements: touch to the earth; taste to water; hearing to air; smell to fire (smoke); and sight to 'quintessence' (light). Thus, through the senses, everything in the universe can enter human consciousness. See also Itin., 2.2-3;De red. art. 3 (V, 300, 320). Bonaventure may have drawn this material from John of La Rochelle's Summa de anima, 2.19

(Domenichelli ed., pp. 252-55). 80 This tripartite division goes back to Plato (Republic, Book 4; Timaeus, 69-70), and is found in many patristic authors. It was revived

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6. Now, since discerning the truth is a cognitive act, while rejecting evil and desiring good are affective acts, the entire soul has a two-fold capacity: cognitive and affective. 7. Let us amplify this further. Truth may be known in two ways: either as truth in itself, or the truth as good; the latter is either eternal and above the soul, or temporal and inferior to it. Hence, the cognitive power, comprising the intellect and reason, is so distinguished that there is both a speculative and a practical intellect, and also a superior and an inferior reason. But these terms indicate a diversity of functions rather than distinct powers.81 8. Finally, because desire can be directed to an object in two ways, according to natural instinct or according to deliberation and decision, the affective power is divided into the natural will and the elective will, which is 'will' in the proper sense. S2 Since such a deliberate decision is in the twelfth century; a prime example is the treatise De spiritu et anima: "The wise men of the world have handed on to us that there are in the human soul reason. positive appetite, and negative appetite 4«McGinn, Three Treatises, 286). I have followed McGinn in translating the terms irasciblis as "negative appetite" and concupiscibilis as

"positive appetite."The more literal tenns "irascible" and "concupiscible" are misleading in current English. This also avoids confusion between the natural human "concupiscible" appetite and this desire for the good as distorted by original sin ("concupiscence"). 81 The distinction between the superior and inferior reason was introduced by Augustine (De Trin., 12.3.3-4.4 (PL 42: 999-1000). These are not two separate faculties, but two facets of the one rational soul that Bonaventure also refers to as "the two faces of the soul" (pt. 5, chap. 4.4-5). The one turns its attention to the soul itself, and beyond it to God; the other turns toward the body, and beyond it to material things. See In 2 Sent., 24.1.2.3 (II, 564). The speculative intellect considers things as true; the practical intellect,joined with the will, considers them as good, and thus as to be done. Ibid., 7.2.1 (2: 190). 82 The human will is said to be natural because of its innate desire for happiness, but is deliberative because it chooses this or that thing as good for itself. Ibid., 24.1.2.3 (II, 565-67).

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indifferent to either alternative, it is based on freedom of choice. And because this indifference springs from both full deliberation and the will acting in accordance with it, freedom of choice is a faculty of both reason and will, so that, as Augustine says, it embraces all the rational powers mentioned above. s, Indeed, he says: "Wben we speak of freedom of choice, we are referring not to a part of the soul, but most assuredly, to the whole."s4 The cooperation of these two powers - reason reaching beyond itself and the will accompanying it - give rise to the integrity offreedom, which is the principle of merit or demerit according to whether good or evil is chosen. CHAPTER

10

THE PRODUCTION OF THE HUMAN BODY

1. Following the orthodox doctrine offaith, we should maintain the following points with regard to the human body in its original state. The body ofthe first man [Adam], formed from the slime ofthe earth,S' was created subject to the soul and yet proportioned to it in its own way. By 'proportioned', I imply a well-balanced physical constitution, a beautiful and complex structure, and an upright posture.S6 By 'subject', I mean that the body was created obedient to the soul without rebellion, able to propagate without lust and to function without defect, wholly exempt from decay, and immune from death. Appropriately, such

83 Free choice employs all three elements ofthe intellective power Ccf. section 5 above): discerning the truth through the reason (comprising memory and understanding) and seeking it as good through the positive and negative appetites of the affective faculty, the will. S< Pseudo-Augustine, Hypognosticon 3.5.7 (PL 45: 1624); In 2 Sent., 25.1.3 (II, 597-600). 85Gen 2:7. s6For a full discussion of the human body, see In 2 Sent., 17.2.1-3 (II, 419-26).

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a being was given an earthly paradise for its peaceful abode. Furthennore, a woman was formed from the side of the man to be his companion and helpmate for sinless propagation. And they were given the tree oflife for continual sustenance and even for their perfect immut-ability through perpetual immortality.s7 2. The following is the rational justification ofthis belief. Since in producing things the First Principle is supremely powerful, wise, and good, and since it manifests these attributes in some way in everything it has made, it was fitting that it manifest them most impressively in its final and most noble effect. This is humankind, whom God produced last of all creatures so that in this effect there might appear and shine forth in the most excellent way the consummation of the divine works. 3. So that divine power might be manifest in human nature, God fashioned it from the two natures that were the maximum distance from one another, united in a single person or nature. These are the body and the soul, the fonner being a corporeal substance, the later a spiritual and immaterial one. Within the genus 'substance,' these two stand furthest apart. ss 87 Of. Gen 2:18-21, 8-9. For the production of woman from the side of man, see In 2 Sent., 18.1.1 (II, 431-34); on the immortality of the body, 19.2.1 (II, 464-68), and sinless propagation, 20 throughout (II, 477-89). 88 God's omnipotence is evident from the fact that the cosmos comprises beings with very different and seemingly opposed natures. The greater the distance between these extremes, the greater is the power of the principle that made them (cf. 6.3 and 9.2 above; In 2 Sent., 2.2. 1.2 [11,41]). So the clearest demonstration of divine omnipotence is God's ability to unite these extremes in one composite nature. This gives rise to the motif of the human person as a microcosm drawing the whole of creation into unity. which was especially prominent in the Greek patristic tradition. A popular conduit of this motif for medieval thinkers was the Premnon physicon of Nemesius of Emesa (c. 400), translated into Latin in the late eleventh century: l'After both an intelligible and a visible world were created, there also had to come into being some bond between the two, in order that the entire universe

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4. So that divine wisdom might be manifested, God made the body proportionate in its own way to the soul. Now the body is united with the soul as its perfecting principle, so that it might move toward and attain the blessedness mentioned above. It therefore follows that for the body to conform to its life-giving soul, it should have a proportioned physical constitution - not as regards weight or size, but in the equilibrium of natural fitness disposing it for the noblest way oflife. S9 If the body was to conform to the soul that moves it through its manifold powers, it had to be endowed with a great diversity of organs, designed with supreme elegance, dexterity, and adapt-ability, as may be seen in the face and the hand, which is "the organ of organs."90 And that the body might confonn to the soul as the principle of its seeking heaven, it had an erect posture with uplifted head, so that the uprightness of the body's carriage might bespeak the rectitude of its mind.91 5. Lastly, so that divine goodness and benevolence might be manifest in human beings, God made them free from any stain or fault and free from all punishment and misery. For since the First Principle is both utterly good and supremely just, in its utter goodness it could not make human beings other than good, that is innocent and upright;" in its supreme justice, it could not inflict be one, and its parts be in sympathy with each other and not unrelated to one another. For this reason, man, the living being that binds both natures together, was created. Such, to put it briefly, is the wisdom of the Creator" (PG 40: 512 [Shaefer, p. 270]. Cf. John of Damascus, De fide orth. 2.12 (PG 94: 920). 89 See In 2 Sent., 17.2.3 (II, 424-26). 90 Aristotle, De anima, 3.38.8. (432a 1-2). 91 Peter Lombard,Liber 2 Sent., 16.4 (1:409), based on Bede,Hexaem. (PL 91: 29D). "Qoh 7:30: "See, this alone I found, that God made human beings upright."Cf. Bonaventure, Comm. Eccl. 7.30 (VI, 63);In2 Sent., proem. (II, 3-6). This symbolism, derived from the Timaeu8, found its classic

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punishment on those who had no sin." For this reason, God fashioned for the rational soul a body so obedient that it was free from all stirring to rebellion, any propensity to lust, every bodily weakness, and all corruption of death. The body was so conformed to the soul that, just as the soul was innocent but capable of falling into sin, so the body was without pain and yet able to fall under punishment. Hence, it was "able not to die, and able to die."" It was able to be full and able to have needs; to obey the soul, and also to rebel and rise up against it. 6. And moreover, in that [primordial] state, the [male] body was such that it would produce seed for t!te procreation of offspring, with the help of the female sex as an equal co-producer. 95 The body was also such that even though its nourishing humor would be consumed by the action of heat, it would be renewed through the foods obtained through the trees of paradise, while the vital expression in Ovid, Metamorph., 1.84-86. This awareness afthe innate dignity of human nature was revived by twelfth century authors, e.g., Bernard Silvestris: "The animals express their brute creation

By head hung low and downward looking eyes; But man holds high his head in contemplation To show his natural kinship with the skies. He sees the stars obey God's legislation: They teach the laws by which mankind can rise." In Cosmographia, 2.10.27-32, ed. Peter Dronke, 141, trans, R. W.

Southern, 30-31.

93ef. Augustine, De lib. arb., 3.18.51: "Every penalty that is just is a penalty for sin," 94

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moisture itself was nourished or preserved by the tree of life, a tree that had the ability to do precisely that. Hence, as Augustine writes, it served "not only as food, but as sacrament."'· Thus, the actual incorruptibility and immortality of Adam's body derived first from the soul, as its determining and influencing principle; from the excellent coordination of his body, as its disposing and receptive principle; from the tree of life, as its nourishing and sustaining principle; and finally, from the governing power of divine providence, the principle that conserved it from within and protected it from without. CHAPTER

11

THE PRODUCTION OF THE WHOLE HUMAN COMPOSITE

1. With reference to the complete human being as placed in paradise, we should maintain the following truths: that our first parents were given a double range of senses, an inner and an outer: one in the mind and the other in the flesh. They were given a double movement, the commanding power ofthe will and the executive power of the body. They were given a double good, one visible and the other invisible. They were given a double command, namely, one of nature and the other of discipline: The command of nature was, "Increase and multiply"; the command of discipline, "Of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil you shall not eat."" Along with these, they were given a fourfold assistance comprising knowledge, conscience, synderesis, and grace.

Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 19.2 (1: 422-23).

Bonaventure differs from Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas on this point. The latter held that the male alone is the active principle in procreation, the female having purely a passive function. Bonaventure follows another scientific analysis, deriving from Galen and Hippocrates through Avicenna, which saw the mother playing an active part in the 95

generation of her child. In 3 Sent., 4.3.1 (III, 110). Cf. Emma Therese Healy, WomanAccording to St. Bonaventure (New York: Georgian Press, 1956),9-13.

"Augustine,De gen. ad litt., 8.4.8 (PL 34: 375). On the radical humor, 11~16)j De longit. et brevit. vitae,5 (466a 17-467a 5). "Gen 1:28, 2:17. On the double good, cf. Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 20.6 (1: 432~433)j on the two-fold command, see Bonaventure, In 2 Sent., 20.dub. 7 (II, 489).

See Aristotle, De part. animal., 2.2 (646a

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PART II

All of these they possessed sufficiently to be able to remain and advance in good and to avoid and reject evi].98 2. These things may be explained as follows. The First Principle made this sensible world in order to make itself known, so that the world might serve as a footprint and a mirror to lead humankind to love and praise God, its Maker. Accordingly, God composed two books: one written within, which is the Eternal Art and Wisdom of God; the other written without, which is the perceptible world. Now there was one type of creature, the angel, which had an internal sense for understanding the interior book, and another, the brute animal, which had all of its senses external. Thus, in order to complete the universe, there ought to have been another creature, endowed with a double range of senses mentioned above, so that it might have knowledge of both the inner and outer books, that is, of Wisdom and its works. And because in Christ eternal Wisdom and its work coincide in the same person, he is called the book written within and without for the restoration of the world. 99 3. Since to every sense there is a corresponding motion, human beings are moved in two ways: one, according to the rational propensity in the mind; the other, according to the sensual instinct in the flesh. If these are to be well ordered, the first must command and the latter obey. Whenever the reverse happens, the rectitude and proper government of the soul are cast from their place. lOo 4. Now, to every motion and sense there is a corresponding appetite toward some good. Hence, human beings were provided with a two-fold good: "one visible, the

other invisible; one transitory, the other eternal; one corporeal, the other spiritual. [Of these goods] God has granted one and promised the other; one that it might be possessed gratis, the other that it might be sought through merit."101 5. However, a good is granted in vain unless it is preserved, and promised in vain unle~s it can be attained. And so humanity was given a double command: one of nature, for the preservation of the good that was granted; and the other of discipline, for the meriting of the good that was promised.'02 Now there is no better way of meriting than through pure obedience. Obedience is pure when a command obliges simply because it was commanded, and for no other reason. Such was the case with the command of discipline, for thanks to it human beings were to learn how great the virtue of obedience is; through its own merit it leads to heaven, but through its contrary [disobedience] it casts into hell. The command of discipline was not given to human beings because of any need God had for their compliance, but to offer a way for them to merit a reward through pure and voluntary obedience. 103 6. Since human beings were liable to fall because of their precarious nature, formed from nothing and not yet confirmed by glory, the supremely benevolent God gave them four aids: two of nature and two of grace. Into human nature he instilled a two-fold rectitude: one for judging correctly, which is rectitude of conscience, the other for willing rightly, which is synderesis, warning against evil and prompting toward good. Above and beyond this,

"On the knowledge of the first human beings, see In 2 Sent., 23.2.13 (II, 537-47); on conscience and synderisis, ibid., 39 (II, 888-917); on grace, 26-29 (II, 629-709). 99 Ez 2:9; Rev 5:1. This imagery is drawn from Hugh of St. Victor, De sacram., 1.6.5 (PL 176: 266). 100 See In 2 Sent., 24,.2.dub. 3, 25.1.6 (II, 587-88; 604-06).

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101 Hugh of St. Victor, De sacram., 1.6.6 (PL 176: 276BC), trans. by Roy Deferrari, On the Sacraments of the Christian Faith (Cambridge,

MA: The Mediaeval Academy ofAmerica, 1951),98. Cf. Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 20.6 (1:.432- 33). '''Hugh, De sacram., 1.6.7 (PL 176: 268BC). 103 See In 2 Sent., 17.dub. 5 (II, 428-29), based ultimately on Augustine, De Gen. ad litt., 8.6.12 (PL 34: 377).

God bestowed on human beings a two-fold perfection of grace. One was a grace freely given [gratis datal; this was a knowledge enlightening the intellect so that they might know themselves, their God, and the world that was made for them. The other was a grace making them pleasing in God's sight [gratum faciensl; this was charity, which enabled their affection so that they might love God above all things and their neighbor as themselves. lO' Thus, before the fall, human nature was endowed with perfect natural faculties and was further adorned with divine grace. It is clear, therefore, that if human beings did fall, it was owing to their own fault, for having refused to obey. CHAPTER

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96

12

THE COMPLETION AND ORDERING OF THE WHOLE WORLD ONCE IT WAS MADE

1. From all we have said, we may gather that the created world is a kind of book reflecting, representing, and describing its Maker, the Trinity, at three different levels of expression: as a vestige, as an image, and as a likeness. The aspect of vestige ('footprint') is found in every creature; the aspect of image, only in intelligent creatures or rational spirits; the aspect of likeness, only in those spir"its that are God-conformed. Through these successive levels, comparable to steps, the human intellect is designed to ascend gradually to the supreme Principle, which is God. lO' 2. This should be understood in the following way. Because all creatures are related to and dependent on their lO. Cf. Matt 22:37-39. These two kinds of grace will be further developed in Part 5. "'See also In 1 Sent., 3.1.2, 2.1.1.ad 5 (I, 71-73, 81-82); In 2 Sent., 16.2.3 (II, 404-06); Hexaem., 2. 20-27; 3.3-9 (V, 339-40, 343-45); Itin., 1.2!Y, ).

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Creator, they may be referred to their Creator in three ways: namely, as the principle who creates them, the end who motivates them, or the gift who dwells within them. All creatures are related to the Creator in the first way, all intelligences in the second, and all spirits that are just and acceptable to God in the third. For every effect, however little it may partake in being, has God as its principle; every intelligence, however little it may partake in light, has been made to attain God through knowledge and love; and every just and holy spirit possesses the Holy Spirit as an infused gift. 3". Now, a creature cannot have God as its origin without being configured to that principle in accordance with unity, truth, and goodness. Nor can it have God as its object ifit does not grasp God through memory, understanding, and will. Finally, it cannot possess God within itself as an infused gift without being conformed to God through the three-fold dowry of faith, hope, and 10ve. lO ' Since the first conformity is remote, the second proximate, and the third most intimate, that is why the first is said to be a 'vestige' of the Trinity, the second an 'image', and the third a 'likeness'. 4. Thus the rational spirit stands midway between the first and the last of these, so that the first is below it, the second within it, and the third above it. And so, in the state of innocence, when the image was not yet spoiled but rendered God-like through grace, the book of creation sufficed to enable human beings to perceive the light of divine Wisdom. They were then so wise that when they sawall things in themselves, they also perceived them in their proper genus and with reference to God's creating Art. For this corresponds to the triple way in which creatures exist: in matter - that is, in their own nature, in

lOG

See In 4 Sent., 49.1.5 (IV, 509).

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the created intellect, and in the Eternal Art. Scripture refers to these three modes of existence when it says: "God said: Let there be," "God made," and "so it was done."'·' 5. For this triple vision, human beings were endowed with a triple eye, as explained by Hugh of St. Victor: the eye of flesh, the eye of reason, and the eye of contemplation;'·' the eye of flesh, to see the world and what it contains; the eye of reason, to see the soul and what it contains; and the eye of contemplation, to see God and those things that are within God. Thus with the eye of flesh, human beings see those things that are outside them; by the eye of reason, those things that are within them; by the eye of contemplation, the things that are above them. But the eye of contemplation does not function perfectly except through glory, which human beings have lost through sin, although they may recover this through grace and faith and the understanding of the Scriptures. lOS By these means, the human soul is cleansed, enlightened, and perfected for the contemplation of heavenly things. For fallen human beings cannot attain these things unless they first recognize their own insufficiency and blindness, and this they cannot do unless they consider and attend to the ruin of human nature.

1117 Gen 1:6-7. This interpretation of the three-fold pattern in the creation account is based on Augustine, De Gen. ad litt., 2.8.16-20 (PL 34: 269-70), 4.29.46 and 31. 48 (PL 34: 315-16). The first phrase refers to God's expression of the idea of things within the eternal Art [the Word]; the second, as these ideas became intelligible to the created [angelic] intellect; the third, to the end result, the creation of the things themselves. Cf. Itin., 1,3 (y, ). 108 De sacram., 1.10.2 (PL 176: 329C [po 167]). See Bonaventure's other references to this in Hexaem., 3.23-24 (V, 347-48) and Itin., 3.1 (Y,303). 109 Hugh, De sacram., 1.10.2: "After the shades of sin had entered upon it, the eye of contemplation was extinguished so that it saw nothing.... Faith, then, is necessary by which those things may be believed which are not seen ..." (PL 176: 329D [po 167]).

PART

III

ON THE CORRUPTION OF SIN

CHAPTER

1

THE ORIGIN OF EVIL IN GENERAL

1. Having briefly established certain points about the Trinity of God and the creation of the world, we now must touch upon about the corruption [of that creation] by sin. What we must maintain concerning this may be summarized as follows: that sin is not any kind of essence, but a defect and corruptive influence, which contaminates mBasure, form, and order in the created will.' Hence the corruption of sin is opposed to the good as such; yet it has no existence except in something good and no source except from a good - which is the will's capacity for free choice. For the will is not thoroughly evil, since it can choose the good; nor is it perfectly good, since it can fall into evil. 2. This should be understood as follows. Since the First Principle exists ofitself, and not from another, it must exist for its own sake; as such, it is the supreme good, lacking 1 Adhering closely to Augustine's language, Bonaventure attacks here the Manichean belief in an intrinsically evil principle, hostile to God. See Augustine, De civ. Dei, 11.9: "For evil has no nature of its own. Rather, it is the absence of good which has received the name 'evil'" (PL 41: 325 [Dyson, 461]; De natura boni: " Evil is nothing else than the corruption, either of the measure, or the form, or of the order, that belong to nature" (PL 42: 553). Cf. In 2 Sent., 25.2.3, 34-35 (II, 613-15, 802-39).

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nothing. Therefore, there can be no such thing as a first and absolute evil principle, because the First Principle implies complete fullness and the greatest evil implies utter deficiency. Since the First Principle, as the supreme and perfect being, cannot be deficient either in what it is or what it does, it cannot be supreme evil, nor possess evil in any respect, nor cause evil in any way. Since the First Principle is all-powerful, it is able to bring something good into being from non~being, even without any pre-existent matter. This is precisely what it did when it fashioned the creature to which it granted existence, life, intelligence, and choice. Thus it was fitting that this creature, proceeding from the supreme good and inwardly conformed to that triune cause, 2 should have in its substance and in its will measure, form, and order. It was meant to accomplish its works with God as their source, in accordance with God's norms, and with God as their end. 3. But because this creature was made from nothing and thus imperfect by nature, it could fail to act out of this intrinsic relationship with God. It could instead act for itself rather than for God, by failing to act with God as its source, according to God's norms, or with God as its end. This is precisely what sin is: a corruption of measure, of form, and of order. As a defect, sin has a cause that is not 'efficient,' but 'deficient,' for it is nothing other than a defect of the created wilL 3 4. Now corruption can only be the corruption of something good, and only a corruptible being is subject to corruption; therefore, sin can exist only in some corruptible

2That is efficient, formal or exemplary, and final. Of. pt. 2, chap. 1 above. See In 1 Sent., 3.1.dub. 3 (1, 78·79). 3 Augustine, De ciu. Dei, 12.7: "No one, therefore, need seek for an efficient cause of an evil will. Since the 'effect' is, in fact, a deficiency, the cause should be called 'deficient'" (PL 41: 355 [Dyson, 257]).

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good. And so free will, by falling away from the true Good, corrupts its own measure, form, and order; hence, all sin as such proceeds from the will as its source, and resides in the will as its proper subject. This occurs whenever the will, because ofits imperfection, mutability, and fickleness, rejects the Good that is unfailing and immutable, and clings to one which is changeable! 5. From what has been said, we may conclude that "sin is not a desire for evil things, but a forsaking of what is better.'" Thus, it is the desire of the will that corrupts measure, form, and order; for this reason "sin is so dependent on the will, that without will, there is no sin."· If we understand all of this, the impious teaching of the Manicheans, who posit a supreme evil as the first principle of everything evil, manifestly collapses. 7 For it is obvious what the origin of evil is, and in what subject it resides. CHAPTER

2

THE TEMPTATION OF OUR FIRST PARENTS

1. If we are to understand how the corruption of sin has made its entry into the world, we have to examine the fall of our first parents, the transmission of that original fault, and the origin or root of actual sin. Concerning the fall of our first parents, there are three aspects to consider: their temptation by the devil, the sin they committed, and its consequent punishment. Augustine suggests, De lib. arb., 2.19.53 (PL 32: 1269). , Augustine, De natura boni, 34 and 36 (PL 42: 562); cf. In 2 Sent., 35.dub. 6 (II, 838-39). 'Augustine, De vera relig., 14.27 (PL 34: 133); cf. Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 41.3 (1: 564·65). 'SeeIn2 Sent., 1.1.2.1, 34.2.1 (II, 25·27,809·12). Bonaventure already mentioned the dualistic ideas of the Manicheans in pt. 2, ch.l.2 above, also in a polemical fashion. This is no doubt due to the challenge of the contemporary Cathar heresy. 4 As

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2. With regard to their temptation, these are the points we should maintain. When God had placed humankind in two sexes, male and female, in the bliss of paradise, the devil, envious of their lot, took the guise of a serpent and attacked the woman. 8 He first posed a question: "Did God say, 'You shall not eat' ... ?"; then he asserted: ''You will not die"; finally, he promised: ''You will be like gods, knowing good and evil."9 Through this temptation, he desired to overcome the weaker woman, that through her he might subsequently encompass the ruin of the virile sex. And the Lord permitting it, this is precisely what he accomplished. 1O 3. This should be explained as follows. Just as the First Principle is utterly powerful in producing, so it is perfectly just in governing. That is why "God directs the things he has created in such a way that they may perform and exercise their own proper movements."" Now, humanity was so fashioned that it should achieve the prize of eternal rest through victory in combat. Although God knew that human beings would succumb to temptation, he could not but let them be tested by whoever had the intelligence, the might, and the will to do SO.12 Now the devil, who previously was wise and just, but rendered cunning andjealous after falling through his sin of pride, had the will to

8 Cf. Wis 2:24: 'through the devil's envy, death entered the world." In his analysis, Bonaventure largely follows Peter Lombard,Liber 2 Sent., 21.1-3 (1:433-435), who in turn depends on Hugh of St. Victor,Desacram. 1.7.1-3 (PL 176: 287-288). 'Gen 3.1-5. See In 2 Sent., 21.1.1-3 (II, 493-97). 10 Bonaventure inherits the ancient tradition that sees women - in comparison with men - as possessing an inherently weaker and unstable human nature, evident in his following description of sin. See In 2 Sent., 16.2.2 (II, 404). Cf. Healy, 16-26. 11 Augustine,De civ. Dei, 7.30 (PL 41: 220 [Dyson, 306]). 12 Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 23.1 (1: 447-48); Bonaventure, In 2 Sent., 23.1.1-2 (II, 531-35).

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tempt, because he envied humankind; in his craftiness, he knew how to do so, and with all the might God permitted him to have. And it was through divine dispensation that in this temptation he assumed the form of a serpent, not only that he might entice Eve by his cunning, but so that through that symbol all Adam's children might learn just how sly the devil is whenever he tries to ensnare US.13 4. This temptation concerned the command of discipline, and again, by divine dispensation. For whether our first parents were ultimately to overcome or be overcome, the merit of their obedience or the demerit oftheir disobedience would thus be made known to all." And that the devil approached the woman first was a mark of his craftiness, for it easier to overthrow one who is not as strong. 15 A clever enemy always penetrates a city at its weakest point. 5. The devil was likewise very cunning in the manner in which he proceeded with his temptation, for he went about it by probing, instigating, and enticing: testing the woman by his question, urging her on by his assurance, and alluring her with his promise. First, he questioned her about the reason for God's command, so that he might

13 Again, similar to pt. 2, chap. 5 above, Bonaventure sees that the teaching ";'alue of a symbol for subsequent generations affected God's concrete decisions on the historical level. This reasoning is also evident in the following paragraph. 14 On the "command of discipline," that is, God's order to Adam and Eve not to eat of the tree of the knowledge orgaod and evil (Gen: 2: 17, 3:2), see pt. 2, chap. 11 above. H'Cf Bonaventure, In 2 Sent., 21.1.3: 4'The devil was cunning ... for he had noticed that the woman was less wise,less constant, and more tenacious of purpose than the man .... Sin first takes possession of the human sensitive faculty, making its way to the higher reason through the lower reason. Now 1man' represents the superior reason and 'woman' the inferior. It is thus fitting that the devil's temptation reached the man through the woman" (II, 496). For an explanation of this imagery, see chap. 8 below.

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awaken doubt in the rational power. Then, when she hesitated, he reassured her, "you will not die," so that he might lead the negative appetite to despise [God's commandl. Finally, he held out a promise, that he might entice the positive appetite to desire [the forbidden fruitl. By this threefold device, he succeeded in getting her free choice to consent. For free choice is a faculty of the reason and the will, comprising the three aforementioned powers: rationality, the negative appetite, and the positive appetite. 16 Accordingly, the devil ensnared the woman by three desirable objects: knowledge, appealing to the rational power; godlike eminence, appealing to the negative appetite; and the sweetness of the tree, which appealed to the positive appetite. Thus he tried every faculty that could be tempted in the woman, and by every device that could win her consent, that is, by the three desirable things the world offers: namely, the desire of the flesh, the desire of the eyes, and the pride of life. 17 For every temptation springs from one of these three sources: the world, the flesh, or the devil.

CHAPTER

3

THE TRANSGRESSION OF OUR FIRST PARENTS

1. Concerning the sin of our first parents, the following beliefs must be held. The woman, yielding to the temptation ofthe devil, sought to possess knowledge and Godlike eminence and to taste the sweetness of the forbidden tree, and in the end broke the divine command. Not con-

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tent with this, she offered the fruit of the forbidden tree to the man, involving him as well. And he, not willing to restrain his pleasures, did not reprove her, but consented to her bad advice. Tasting the fruit that was offered him, he also became a transgressor of the divine command.'· 2. This should be understood as follows. As stated earlier, the First Principle gave the human creature a double range of senses and a double desire corresponding to the double book and the two kinds of good.'· But possessing freedom of choice, the human person could turn either way. And so the woman, by listening to the serpent with her exterior perception, failed to read the inner book, which was legible to the right judgment of reason. She kept her mind on the outer book instead, and so began to focus on the external good. Because her perception did not press forward to the infallible truth, her desire began to turn away to a changeable good. And so she turned her heart to what the devil promised and agreed to do what he proposed. In her craving for superior knowledge, she rose to pride; this drew her into gluttony, which in turn cast her down into disobedience. The first was a thought, the second a feeling, and the third a deed. And so temptation, beginning at the lowest level, reached the summit: it began with hearing, passed into desire, and achieved consent. Conversely, the disorder [of humanity1 started at the top and reached the bottom: only one sin was committed, but for human nature it was the origin of all sin and the source of [all itsl evils. 3. After the woman was led astray, she enticed the man, who similarly turned to the outer book and to transitory goods. By placing too great a value on his association with

"Cf. pt. 2, chap. 9.5-8. Seeln 2 Sent., 25.1.6.ad 2 (II, 605). Bonaventure sees this primordial sin as initiating the pattern for all subsequent sin. We see here how sin corrupts each component of human free choice. cr. also In 2 Sent., 24.1.1.1 (II, 560). 171 John 2:16. On the various types of temptation, see chap. 9 below.

Cf.In 2 Sent., 21.2, 21.dub. 3 (II, 497-503; 510-11).

18 Gen

3: 6. Bonaventure again follows Peter Lombard's interpretation

of this passage, Liber 2 Sent., 22.1-4 (1: 439-45). Cf.In 2 Sent., 22.1 (II, 515-21). "Pt. 2, chap. 11.

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the woman and the comfort oftheir relationship, he shrank from reproving the woman or restraining his own pleasures. Since he did not rebuke her when he should have , the woman's sin was imputed to him.'· Because he was unwilling to curb his own pleasures by driving the woman away, he began to love himself too much, and thus fell away from the divine friendship into his own greed and disobedience. 4. And so both the man and the woman disobeyed the command, but for different reasons, for it was not the man, but the woman who was seduced." Yet in both the man and the woman there occurred a disordering of their faculties from highest to lowest, because it began with the mind or reason, then entered their senses, and finally into their actions. Both of them fell into disobedience and were enticed by greed because both had risen up in pride, the woman by seeking and desiring what she did not possess, the man by too greatly loving and clinging to what he had. The woman believed that by eating she would be exalted; Adam, relying on his Own importance and God's love, thought he would be punished lightly, for he had never yet experienced the rigor of the divine severity." So both, inordinately raising themselves above themselves, fell miserably beneath themselves - from the state of innocence and grace to that of guilt and wretchedness. "'Cf. Hugh of St. Victor,De sacram., 1.7.10 (PL 176: 291); Augustine De Gen. ad litt., 11.42.59 (PL 34: 453). ' 211 Tim 2:14. For Bonaventure's discussion of the comparative guilt of Adam and Eve, see In 2 Sent., 22.1.2-3 (II, 519-21). 22 Augustine, De civ. Dei, 14.11.2: "Eve accepted the serpent's statement as true, while Adam did not wish to be separated from his only companion, even at the cost of sharing in her sin .... He was, however, unacquainted with the divine severity; and so he could have been mistaken in SU?posing he had committed only a venial sin ....They v:e~e not both deceIved by their credulity; but both were captured by sm (PL 41: 419 [Dyson, p. 606-07]). Cf. Hugh of St. Victor,De sacram., 1. 7. 6-8 (PL 176, 289); Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 22.4 (1: 442-45).

CHAPTER

107

4

THE PUNISHMENT OF OUR FIRST PARENTS

1. As for the punishment inflicted on our first parents, this is what we must believe. Immediately after their offense, the man and the woman felt their punishment in the rebellion and shame of their own flesh. That is why they made loincloths for themselves, to cover the parts that should be feared.23 As a result of the divine judgment, the man incurred the punishment of labor and hardship, of hunger and need, of death and dissolution to ashes, as Scripture says, Cursed is the earth because ofyou, etc. But upon the woman fell a punishment twice as harsh, for [in addition], she was afflicted with the penalty of much travail in childbearing and cruel pain at childbirth, and of subjection to her husband in their life together. 24 Thus, their sin of eating of the forbidden tree, which they had committed so lightly, carried a heavy punishment. 2. One should understand the reason for this as follows. Since the First Principle is most provident in its government and most upright in all its management, it leaves nothing disordered in the universe. Every sin, therefore, is properly set aright by punishment. And so the shame of sin felt by our first parents was immediately followed by the corrective ofjudgment. Thus, what became disordered by their falling from the order of nature immediately fell

23 Gen 3:7. FollowingAugustine, Bonaventure sees the genital organs as "something to be feared" because of the unruly nature of sexual desire Prior to the fall, human beings would have rationally chosen to engag~ in sexual relations in order to procreate children (cf. pt. 2, chap. 10.56). But as a result of sin, they experience the urge of spontaneous physical desire that escapes their conscious control. Although not the only manifestation of concupiscence, sexual pleasure is that aspect of human life in which passion is least able to be controlled by right reason. Cf. Augustine, De du. Dei, 13.13-15;14.15-28 (PL 41: 424-36). "Gen 3:16-17.

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subject to the order of justice. For this double ordinance encompasses all things so strictly, that whatever falls from the one becomes subject to the other.'s 3. Now both of our first parents, through mental pride and physical gluttony, disobeyed their superior. Therefore, through the just judgment of God their own lower natures became disobedient to them, especially those parts designed for the union of the sexes, which are the organs that serve the generative power. And so, because this rebellion of their flesh did not arise from nature, but from their own offense, they blushed for shame and clothed themselves. 4. Again, it was because the man had spurned what is most delectable and sought comfort instead in sensual delights, that God's just judgment afflicted him with toil and the pangs of hunger and thirst. 5. Finally, because the man had chosen to be separated from the good of his mind on account of the good of his flesh, by the just judgment of God the soul is unwillingly separated from its body by the body's death and dissolution into dust. In the order of nature, God had given to the man a body that would obey his soul, procreate without lust, grow without defect, and remain free from the corruption of death. Now, because he had sinned, the order of divine justice ordained that all these qualities would be taken away and imposed their contraries instead; thus sin would not remain unpunished and disordered - for divine providence could never allow that to happen.

26 Boethius, De consol., 4.6: "For a definite order embraces all things, so that even when some subject leaves the true place assigned to it in the order, it returns to an order, though another, lest anything in the realm of providence be left to random cbance" (PL 63: 820A); Augustine, Epist. 140, 2.4: "Whoever unjustly gives himself over to sin is justly given over to punisbment" (PL 33: 539). Cf.ln 2 Sent., 21.2, 21.dub. 3 (II, 497·503); In 1 Sent., 46.5 (I, 830·34).

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6. And because it was from the woman that sin began, her punishment was doubled. [In addition to all of Adam's penalties], because pride arose in her mind, she incurred subjection [to her husband]; because she saw and craved the sweet fruit of the tree, she incurred suffering [in childbirth]; finally, because she rejected the yoke of obedience, she incurred the chain and burden of multiplied distress. Hence, it is clear how in the order of divine providence many punishments were inflicted upon the man and twice as many on the woman so that "the ugliness of sin might never be without the beauty of punishment."" CHAPTER

5

THE CONTAMINATION OF ORIGINAL SIN

1. Having discussed the fall of our first parents, we must now say something about the transmission of original sin. We must consider first the nature of this contamination; second, how it is transmitted; and third, how it is cured. 2. The human race is corrupted by original sin in the following way. All those generated through sexual copulation are born by nature children of wrath, because they are deprived of the righteousness of original justice. 27 Because of its absence, our souls incur a four-fold penalty: weakness, ignorance, malice, and concupiscence;28 these are inflicted as a result of original sin. These spiritual punishments are matched in the body by all kinds of pain,

Augustine, De lib. arb., 3.15.44 (PL 32: 1293 [po 123]). Anselm, De concept. Virg., 27: "The only way I can understand this sin, which I call original sin... .is as that destitution of due justice created by the disobedience of Adam, through which all have become children o{wrath" (PL [AC, p. 386]). The Biblical citation is Eph 2: 3. Cf. Bonaventure,In 2 Sent., 30.2.1 (II, 721-23). "According to Bede; see In 2 Sent., 22.dub. 2 (II, 528). 26

27

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imperfection, labor, sickness, and affliction?' To these are finally added the penalty of death and the return to dust, and the penalty of the deprivation of the vision of God and the loss of heavenly glory. These affect not only adults, but also even unbaptized children. Although these little ones are punished along with the others, they suffer only the "gentlest punishment,"'· since they are deprived of the beatific vision but without enduring suffering in their senses. 3. Let uS try to understand the reason for this as follows. Since the First Principle acts by its own power, according to its own law, and with itself as an end, it must therefore be utterly good and righteous, and hence most loving and most just. That is why all the ways of the Lord are mercy and truth, or judgment." Now if God had created humankind in such wretchedness from the very beginning, he would have violated his own love and righteousness by oppressing his own handiwork with such miseries through no fault of its own. Nor would divine providence have governed us with kindness and justice had it afflicted us or permitted us to be afflicted with these same miseries in the absence of sin. If it is certain, then, that the First Principle is most upright and merciful both in creating and in governing, it follows by necessity that God made humankind in the beginning free from guilt and misery. It also follows that in governing humankind, God cannot permit any distress to exist in us without some antecedent offense. But since it is absolutely certain that from the first moment of our existence we are burdened

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with many miseries of punishment, it is just as certain that we are all born by nature children of wrath, deprived of the righteousness of original justice. And that privation we call original sin.32 . 4. Also, every sin implies a movement away from .the immutable good and toward a changeable good. Now movement away from the immutable good means forsaking the highest power, truth, and goodness; and movement toward a perishable good means loving that good excessively. Therefore, by losing original justice, human beings incurred weakness, ignorance, malice, and concupiscence. 5. Again, by forsaking the immutable good in favor of a changeable good, humankind became unworthy of both. And so, by losing original justice, the soul loses the temporaltranquility of its body, and instead is made to suffer in many ways from decay and death; and at the end oflife, is deprived of the vision of eternal light, losing the blessedness of glory in both soul and body. 6. Finally, because the absence of that justice in the newly born is not caused by an act of their own will or by any actual pleasure, it is not fitting that they should be punished in their senses in hell after this life on account of original sin. This is because divine justice is always tempered by superabundant mercy and punishes us not more but less than we deserve. We ought to believe that blessed Augustine was aware of this, even though on the surface his words seem to state otherwise, '3 because he was reacting so strongly against the errors of the Pelagians, who "Seeln2 Sent., 30.1.1-2 (II, 714-20).

Z9Bonaventure keeps these nouns in the singular to emphasize that they flow from one root - the initial punitive judgment of God for sin

that has been transmitted to all humanity. 30 Augustine, Enchirid. , 93.23 (PL 40: 275). Cf.ln2 Sent., 33.3.1·2 (II, 769-74). 31 Ps 25:10 (Vg 24:10).

33

Bonaventure is probably alluding to passages in a popular work,

De fide ad Petrum (3.36 and 27.70), then attributed to Augustine, but actually by Fulgentius of Ruspe, which holds the stark position that unbaptized infants "suffer the interminable torments of hell" and "deserve to be punished in the endless torments of eternal fire" (PL 40: 764, 774). See In 2 Sent., 33.3.1 (II, 794). Cf. also Augustine, Contra

duas epis. pelagian., 1.22.40 (PL 44: 570).

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had granted such infants blessedness in some form. But in his effort to lead them back to a moderate position, he veered too far in the other extreme.

2. The reason for this is as follows. Because the First Principle made the human person in its own image as its own self-expression, God created its physical dimension in such a way that all human beings were to be propagated from the first man as from one radical principle. 37 But since the human person in its spiritual dimension is an express likeness to God in essence and duration, in intelligence and love, God created that dimension in such a way that all rational spirits would emanate from God as their first and immediate principle. And because the soul, being superior, is thus closer to that First Principle, God so made humankind that the spirit would be pre-eminent over the body, and that the body would be subject to the created spirit as long as it were subject to the uncreated Spirit. But should the soul, on the other hand, disobey God, by God's just judgment the body would begin to rebel against it. This is precisely what happened when Adam sinned. 3. Now if Adam had stood firm, his body would have remained obedient to his spirit, and he would have transmitted it as such to his posterity. Then God would have infused a soul into a body that was both immortal and obedient to it, so that the soul would have been thus established in righteousness and exempt from every penalty. But in fact Adam did sin, and thus his flesh rebelled against the authority of his spirit. Hence it was fitting that the body he transmitted to his posterity, into which God, by his own primordial decree, would infuse a soul, was such that the soul, united to this rebellious flesh, in-

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CHAPTER

6

ON THE TRANSMISSION OF ORIGINAL SIN

1. Next, this is the way original sin is transmitted. Even though the soul is not passed on [through physical generation], original sin has nevertheless been transmitted from the soul of Adam to the souls of his descendants through the medium of the flesh generated through concupiscence. As Adam's flesh was infected by his sinful soul, becoming prone to lust, so that flesh, seeded in lust and carrying within itself a virulent disease, infects and taints the soul.'4 This infection in the soul is not only a punishment but also a true fault. In this way one person so corrupted nature, that now a corrupt nature corrupts the person. 35 And yet the justice of God remains unimpaired; for although God infuses a soul as he creates it and, through this infusion, attaches it to infected flesh, he can never be blamed for the soul's infection.'· "Again, following Augustine (De civ. Dei, 14.20 [PL 41: 428]), Bonaventure considers sexual relations after the Fall - even between the lawfully married - as contaminated by an uncontrollable physical drive. It is therefore fitting that the virus of original sin is passed on to offspring conceived in the heat of passion. 35 Anselm, De concept. Virg., 23: "The sin that is committed by the individual is 'personal: while that which comes from the nature is called 'natural' or 'original' sin. And as the personal sin crosses to nature, so natural sin crosses to the person .... For the person [Adam] deprived the nature of the good of justice; and the nature, having become impoverished, causes all the persons whom it procreates from itself to be sinful and unjust because of the lack of justice" (PL 158: 457A [AG,

p. 382]). On how original sin is transmitted, see In 2 Sent., 31 (II, 73956); that it is not only a punishment, but also a habitus of sin. see ibid., 30.1.2 (II, 717-20). "Gf. In 2 Sent., 32.3 (II, 769-74).

37

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Ancient biology believed that a child's body developed primarily

out of the seed ofits father. Thus, "human nature, which was entire in

Adam so that nothing ofit existed beyond him, dishonored God [in his sin}. Cf. Anselm, De concept. Virg., 10 (PL 158: (AG, p. 370). The Latin text of Rom 5:12 seemed to support such an interpretation: "Death

spread to all humanity through one man [Adam}, in whom all sinned."

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curred the loss of the order of natural justice by which it would have commanded the lower faculties. Furthermore, since the soul is united to the flesh, the soul must either direct the body or be directed by it. Thus, because the soul cannot control its own rebellious flesh, it must be controlled by it, incurring the disease of concupiscence. Thus the soul simultaneously incurred the loss of its proper justice and the disease of concupiscence. According to Augustine and Anselm, it is these two movements that constitute original sin - that is, a habitual turning away [from God] and a turning toward [created goods]." 4. As has been explained above,39 the manner in which human nature was created, its intended manner of propagation, and the punishment provided in the event of sin, are all perfectly ordered. Indeed, creation corresponds to the order of wisdom, propagation to the order of nature, and punishment to the order of justice. Hence, it is clear that it is not inconsistent with the order of divine justice if original sin is transmitted to Adam's posterity. 5. Now, original sin could not be transmitted to the soul unless the punishment for rebellion was not already present in the flesh [i.e., concupiscent sexual desire] and there would be no punishment had there not first been sin. And sin could not have proceeded from a well-ordered will, but a disordered one; hence, it is not from the divine

38 This

is a brief digest of Bonaventure's explanation of original sin

In 2 Sent., 30.2.1 (II, 722-23). Following Alexander of Hales and John of La Rochelle (SummafratrisAlexandri [Quaracchi, 1930], p. 237), he

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will, but the human one. Therefore, the fact that original sin is transmitted is due not to God, but to the sin of the first human beings; not to nature as created, but to an offense which was perpetrated. Rightly then, does Augustine say: "It is not propagation, but disordered desire, that transmits original sin to posterity."'o CHAPTER

7

THE CURE OF ORIGINAL SIN

1. Finally, original sin is cured in such a way that although the guilt is healed, the temporal punishment remains, as we see in baptized children. And although it is healed as regards the sentence of eternal punishment, the act and motion of concupiscence remains. And it is cured in such a way, that even though the parents may have been restored by Baptism, the original sin is nevertheless transmitted to their offspring. The stain of original sin is removed, but its aftermath remains, with which we must contend for the rest of our earthly lives, because this concupiscence is not eliminated in anyone by the ordinary means of grace. 41 I say this because of the Blessed Virgin, in whom that concupiscence was extinguished by virtue of a singular grace when she conceived the Son of God. 42 2. We should try to understand the reason for this as follows. As the infection spreads to all people from the created principle from which physical propagation springs, that is, from our lower part, the flesh, so healing is brought about by the uncreated principle which is responsible for the infusion of the soul, that is, the higher part or spirit.

attempts to harmonize the opinions of Augustine and Anselm. Anselm viewed original sin as consisting in the deprivation of original justice,

Augustine in concupiscence. Bonaventure accepts both opinions, viewing the lack of original justice - the will's habitual turning away from God, the norm of rectitude - as the "formal cause" or defining factor of original sin precisely as sin, and concupiscence - the immoderate appetite for created good - as its chief"material cause" or constituent element.

"Chap. 5 above, and pt. 2, chap. 11.

40 De fide ad Petrum, 2.16, actually by Fulgentius of Ruspe (PL 40: 758). ., See In 2 Sent., 32.1 (II, 759-65).

42 On

below.

Mary's healing from the effects of original sin, see pt. 4, chap. 3

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Now human beings are so individuated with regard to their souls that in this respect one person is not propagated from another; rather, each soul is directly created by God.'" Thus healing grace, infused directly into our minds by God, applies to each one considered as a single, individual person, but not as a principle of physical propagation. Thus, because original sin is a disease affecting both the person and the nature - the person through the will, the nature through the flesh - original sin is cured in the soul, but the infection and its consequences remain in the flesh. 3. Now, a man begets offspring, not by virtue of what has been healed in his soul, but by virtue of what is corrupted in his flesh, not by virtue of what is spiritual, but by virtue of what is carnal. Thus, even though he may be baptized and thus cleansed from original sin, he still transmits it to his offspring. 4. Again, because the guilt that deserves eternal damnation is a deformity of the person or spiritual principle, whereas the movement [of concupiscent sexual arousal] is an infection of the flesh and nature, the guilt of original sin is removed through Baptism, but it remains in regard to the act itself.44 5. Finally, because temporal affliction denotes a condition pertaining to the flesh, since the flesh always remains' subject to some type ofinfection, so it must remain always liable to penalty. Hence, as grace does not remove penalty and corruption from the flesh, so also the consequences of original sin - concupiscence and bodily infirmity - may

Cf. the preceding chapter. Augustine,De nuptiis et concupisc., 1.26.29: "Those who are reborn in Christ receive the forgiveness of all their sins, though this concupiscence still remains in them .... Concupiscence remains in its actuality, but its guilt passes away" (PL 44: 430), trans. Roland Teske, (Hyde Park, NY: New City Press, 1998), WSA I124: 46-47. Cf. Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 32:1 (1: 511-13). 43

44

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coexist with healing grace. And so, although concupiscence may be reduced little by little, its root remains; thus, no earthly wayfarer is completely rid of it, except the most Blessed Virgin through a singular grace. Because the Virgin conceived him who is the expiation of all sin, she received a singular grace that eradicated concupiscence from her, so that her conception ofthe Son of God would be free from any guilt or taint of sin. "Indeed, it was fitting that the Virgin should shine with such purity that n() greater can be conceived, except for God's. For to her God the Father was disposed to give his only Son - whom he loved in his heart as himself, one begotten equal to himself - in such a way that one and the same Son would be by nature both Son of God the Father and ofthe Virgin. And she was the one the same Son chose to make substantially his mother. And from her the Holy Spirit willed and was going to bring it about, that the very one from whom he himself proceeded would be conceived and born."" CHAPTER

8

THE ORIGIN OF ACTUAL SIN

1. Having considered the transmission of original sin, we must now say something about the origin of actual sin. What we must hold in this regard may be summarized as follows: actual sin finds its origin in each individual's free will, by a process of suggestion, pleasure, consent, and action. As James says in the first chapter of his epistle: Everyone is tempted by one's own desire, being lured and enticed by it. Then, when that desire has conceived, it gives birth to sin, and that sin, when fully grown, gives birth to death.·' If suggestion and pleasure remain short of actual

"Anselm, De concept. Virg., 18 (PL 158: 451A lAC, p. 376, alt.]). "James 1:14-15.

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consent, the sin is venial; but if they are followed by consent and a deed that is forbidden by the divine law, a mortal sin is committed. Now, there are intermediate cases. If full consent occurs, but the act is not carried out, or if one decides to commit an act but is unable to carry it out, the will is judged as if the deed had been accomplished: it is no less guilty than ifit had been caught in the very act. Or again, the will may decide not to act, but does consent to relishing the inner pleasure; in this case, the woman eats, but not the man: although the sin may not be fully consummated, it is still considered mortal, because even though only the woman eats, the entire person deserves condemnation. The clearest examples of this latter case are the sins of the flesh. 47 2. This may be explained as follows. Sin is defined as a withdrawal of the will from the First Principle, inasmuch as the will was created to act from that First Principle, according to it, and with it as an end. Therefore every sin is a disorder in the mind, or more precisely in the will, which is the source of both virtue and vice." And so actual sin is an actual disorder of the will. This disorder may be so great that it destroys the order ofjustice; then it is called mortal sin, for by its nature it destroys life, separating

"Based on Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 24.4 -13 (1: 453-60). It is clear from this imagery that each person's personal sin imitates and ratifies the primordial sin. Here Lombard and Bonaventure employ the popular allegorical interpretation of Gen 3:1-6 which equated 'the serpent' with the motion of the sensual part of the soul, 'the woman' with the inferior reason and 'the man' with the superior reason. On this distinction of superior and inferior reason, see pt. 2, chap. 9.7 above. This allegorical reading oftbe faIl derives from Augustine (e.g., De Trin., 12.13.20 [PL 42: 1008-1009]; De Gen. contra Man., 2.11.15, 14.21 [PL 34: 204, 207]), and ultimately from the Hellenistic Jew, Philo. Cf. Bonaventure, In 2 Sent., 24 (II, 573-86). "See In 2 Sent., 41.2.2 (II, 950-53).

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itself from God by whom the just spirit is animated. Or the disorder may be lesser, so that it does not destroy the order of justice but does disturb it in some way; this is called venial, for we may readily find pardon for it, because grace is not taken away by it nor is divine enmity incurred_ Now, the order of justice is that the immutable good is to be preferred to a changeable good, the good iIi. itself to an advantageous good, the will of God to one's own, and the judgment of right reason over sensual desire_ Because the law of God requires such an order and rejects its opposite, when a changeable good is preferred to the immutable, an advantageous good to the Good itself, one's own will to the will of God, and sensual desire to right reason, then a mortal sin is committed. As Ambrose writes, mortal sin is "the violation of divine law and the disobedience to heavenly precepts_"" It is committed either by failing to do what the divine law prescribes, or by doing what it prohibits. This is why there are two kinds of sin: those of omission and those of commission. 50 3. Now when a changeable good is loved more than it should, yet without being actually preferred to the immutable; when the advantageous is not actually preferred to what is right; when self-will is loved too much, but not actually preferred to the will of God; when the flesh is filled with desire, but not actually preferred to the judgment of right reason, then the sin is not mortal but venial, for though all of these cases are outside the law, they are not directly in violation of it.51 In fact, the sensual appetite is not really preferred to right reason unless the rea"Ambrose, De paradiso, 8.39, trans. John Savage (PL 14: 292 [Fe 42: 317]). "For these two categories of sin, see In 2 Sent., 42.dub. 2 (II, 976); the distinction is founded on Augustine, De perfect. just., 5.11 (PL 44: 296). 51S ee In2 Sent., 42.2.1 (II, 964-66).

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son consents to it; and hence mortal sin is not committed when consent is lacking. 4. If, however, the senses are unduly aroused, since that disorder disposes one to evil, even though the reason does not consent, this is sinful to some extent because it does offend the order of justice somewhat. In the state of innocence, the senses were moved by reason alone, and so ifhuman beings had stood firm, there would have been no venial sin. But now [because of concupiscence] the senses are opposed to reason whether we wish it or not, and so we inevitably commit some venial sins through our spontaneous actions. Although it may be possible to keep such actions under control in this or that individual instance, it is impossible to avoid them completely. Even though they are sins, they are also in some way the penalties of [originaIl sin; hence they are called 'venial,' because they are deserving of pardon [venia]. 52 5. But reason is not compelled to consent to these impulses, and so, if it does acquiesce once it experiences the pleasure, then there is full consent and thus a consummated sin. For then the sin was presented to the man, that is, the superior aspect of the mind, upon which full consent depends. 6. Now one gives consent not only through performing a deed but also through inward pleasure, in which the inferior aspect of the mind follows the lure of the senses. Therefore, if in sensual enjoyment the reason succumbs to sensuality, then once again the woman is obeying the serpent; right order and justice are subverted. Thus a mor-

62 In typical Augustinian fashion, Bonaventure emphasizes that our earthly life is characterized by the inevitability of sin. Elsewhere he describes this reality as an incurable illness (In 4 Sent., 33.1.1 [IV, 589]), But this very fact allows human beings to have trust in the mercy of God, who knows their weakness. Cf,lbid., 17.2.2.1.ad 4 (IV; 443); In

2 Sent., 21.dub. 4, 41.2.1 (II, 511-12; 947-50).

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tal sin is committed, even though it is of lesser gravity. And it is imputed not only to the woman, but also to the man, by whom the woman should have been restrained and held in check, lest she obey the serpent. It is clear, then, how every actual sin is in some wayan imitation of the first and original sin, as that distinguished doctor, Augustine, explains in the twelfth book On the Trinity. 53 CHAPTER

9

THE ORIGIN AND DIVISION OF THE CAPITAL SINS

1. We come now to an examination of the origin of particular types of sin. There are some sins that are capital, others that are penal, and others which are final or unforgivable; as such, they are first, intermediate, and last. Concerning the origin ofthe capital sins, this is a brief statement of what we must hold: that actual sins have one source, two roots, three incentives, and a seven-fold head [caputl or 'capital' sin. The one source is pride, of whiclI it is written: pride is the beginning of all sin. 54 The two roots are a fear that badly restrains and a love that badly desires. 55 The three incentives are the three things this world contains: the desire of the flesh, the desire of the eyes, and the pride of life. 55 Finally, the seven-fold head is: pride, envy, anger, sloth, avarice, gluttony, and lust. Among these, the first five are sins of the spirit, the last two, sins of the flesh. 57

53 De Trin., 12.17-18. (PL 42: 1007). See Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 24.612 (1: 455-460). 54 Sir 10.13, according to the Vulgate rendition (v. 15). "Augustine, Enarrat. in Ps. 79, 13 (PL 36: 1026). 56 1 John 2:16. Cf. chap. 2.5 above. 57 Other than a very brief mention in 2 Sent., 42.dub. 3-4 (II, 977-78), this passage in the Breviloquium is Bonaventure's only treatment of the classic theme of the seven capital sins.

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2. This is the rationale for what we have said. We have seen that mortal sin is an actual withdrawal from the First Principle. And one cannot withdraw from the First Principle without contempt for it, either for it directly, or for its command. Now contempt of the First Principle is pride. And so it is that every mortal sin or offense necessarily takes its origin in pride. 3. Now no one despises the supreme Principle or its command in itself, but only because such a person either wants to acquire or fears to lose something other than God. This is why all actual sin may be traced back to these two roots, namely fear and love. They are the roots of evil deeds, even though they are not equally primary. 4. For all fear has its origin in love, since no one is afraid of losing something unless that person loves it. 58 Fear, then, thrives on the same food as love. Now disordered love occurs in relation to a transitory good. And since transitory good is three-fold - the interior good of personal superiority, the exterior good of riches, and the inferior good of bodily pleasure - there are necessarily three fundamental incentives as mentioned above. 59 All actual sins arise" when the soul turns towards them in an inordinate way. 5. Because this can happen in seven ways, there are seven capital sins from which every kind of vice springs. Now our will becomes disordered either because it desires what should not be desired, or because it flees what should not be fled. If the will desires what it should not desire, it is on account of some present good, although only transitory or apparent. If that good is interior, it is the personal

58 Augustine, De civ. Dei, 14.7.2: "Love fleeing what is adverse to it is fear" (PL 41: 410 [Dyson, 592]); De beata vita, 2.11: "If then someone is likely to lose what he loves, can he be without fear? No!" (PL 32: 965). 59 In section 1.

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superiority which pride loves; if exterior, it is the sufficiency which avarice seeks; if inferior, it is pleasure. Now if that pleasure is eating, which is intended to nourish our bodies, in order to delight the sense of taste, we have the desire of gluttony; if the pleasure is engaging in sexual intercourse, which is intended for the preservation ofthe species, in order to delight the sense oftouch, we have the yearning of lust. But if the will is disordered by fleeing what it should not flee, this may occur in three ways, corresponding to the manner of rejection. There may be a perverse impulse in the rational faculty through envy, a perverse impulse in the negative appetite through anger, and a perverse impulse in the positive appetite through sloth. Thus four of these sins are traceable to desire, and three are sins whose impulse is flight [from what is commanded]. And so there are in all seven capital sins. 6. Now the perception of a desirable object is associated with pleasure, and that of a loathsome object, with pain. Thus, the first four of these sins have enjoymentassociated with them, and the last three, unhappiness and pain. Yet all seven are called capital because they are the principal disorders [of the soul], and each in its own way is the cause of many others. Now even though some of these imply rejection, they nonetheless have a pleasure of their own. Envy seeks to have a good for oneself without any companion, or exclusively; anger seeks to have a good without any opposition, or imperturbably; sloth to seeks to have a good without any work, or effortlessly. And since people do not obtain these disordered goals readily, these sins bring with them a great host of vices, as people pursue their objects oflove or flee from their objects ofloathing. Hence they are called capital sins, for they are as heads [capita] from which countless others flow.

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124 CHAPTER

10

THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF PENAL SIN

1. Concerning penal sins, the following must be held: although the evil of sin and the evil of punishment are different kinds of evil, there are some evils that are both sins and punishment for sins. Narrowly speaking, such sins are those that imply pain and sorrow, such as envy, sloth, and the like. More broadly considered, these are the sins that imply either a true deprivation of nature or something shameful, such as those to which it is said that sinners were given up ... to a debased mind. 50 Generally speaking, however, "all the sins that occur between the first apostasy and the ultimate punishment of hell can be called both sins and penalties of sin,"61 for as Gregory says, "crimes are thus punished by crimes."" Now while one and the same thing may be called a sin and a penalty for sin, we must maintain that every penalty insofar as it is a penalty is just and comes from God, but that no sin, insofar as it is sin, is ever right, nor does it come from God; it comes only from the free decision of the will. A penalty which is purely a penalty is inflicted by God, but a penalty which is a sin, or a propensity to sin, is contracted or committed by human beings." SORoID 1:28: "God gave them up to a debased mind and to things that

should not be done." Cf. verses 24 and 26: "God gave them up in the lusts of their heart to impurity, to the degrading of their bodies among themselves" and "to degrading passions." 61 Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 36.1 (1: 537), who in turn is paraphrasing Augustine, Enarrat. in Ps. 57, 18-19: "The first sin is pride;

the last punishment is fire everlasting . .. between that first sin and this last punishment, the things which are intermediate are both sins and punishment" (PL 36: 687). This theme was taken up by Gregory the Great, Super Ezech., 1.11.23-25 (PL 76: 915-16). 62 Rather, Augustine, Contra adverso Legis et Prophet., 1.24.51 (PL 42: 635). Cf. Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 36.4 (1: 539). 63 See a fuller treatment of this material in Bonaventure, In 2 Sent., 36 (II, 842-59).

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2. This should be explained as follows. Evil is defined as a withdrawal from the First Principle; therefore it is damaging to created good. But it cannot injure the good without taking something away from it. Since good consists in measure, form, and order, there is no evil that does not involve a corruption of measure, form, and order.64 Now there are two kinds of order: that of nature and that of justice; the order of nature pertains to the natural good, the order of justice to the moral good. We lind the natural good in all created nature, but the order of justice exists in the will. The order of nature, therefore, exists in any created nature, but the order of justice, in the free will alone. Because the will is "an instrument that moves itself,"55 while nature is not, it follows that the order of justice is an order which is not simply made, but makes itself, while the order of nature is merely given. And so, since evil is a privation either in the order of justice or in the order of nature, there are two kinds of evil: the evil of guilt and the evil of punishment. 3. Because the order of justice is a voluntary order, this is why "the evil of guilt is a voluntary affection, while the evil of penalty is an involuntary affection."" 4. Finally, because the order of justice that exists in the will is a self-establishing order, it follows that "the evil of guilt which is the privation of order is an evil we cause, and the evil of punishment is an evil we suffer."" Now, there is no received effect without an action naturally having preceded it, nor can there be an action without it having some effect, there can exist no penalty without the antecedent guilt which deserved it, nor can there exist any guilt without a consequent penalty. "See chapter 1 above, and In 2 Sent., 35 (II, 821-39). 65 Anselm, De concordia praescientiae Dei cum libero arbitrio, 3.11 (PL 158: 537A). "' According to Augustine, De lib. arb., 3.9.26 (PL 32: 1284). " Ibid., 1.1.1 (PL 32: 1221).

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5. Now whatever we do springs from ourselves, but what we suffer can come from ourselves or from others either superior or inferior to us. Thus, although sin is always our own doing, not all our penalties are: some are caused by us, some are inflicted, and some are contracted. 6. Also, if someone does something they should not, it is just that they suffer what they should. Therefore all punishment, insofar as it is punishment, is just and comes through divine providence, because punishment is fitted to the sin and restores the order disturbed by sin. 7. The suffering of a punishment entails the loss of a natural good only, or of both a natural and a moral good. That is why some penalties are penalties only, while others are both penalties and sins: for the moral good ofrighteousness is not lost except through unrighteousness, that is, sin. Thus, the first type of penalty comes from God, insofar as it is penalty and that it is what it is - although from God, not as creator but avenger. But penalties of the second type, since they are sin, so not come from God insofar as they exist, but only insofar as they restore order. When they are incurred because of actual sin, they are our own doing; when they are contracted, they are as a result of original sin. 8. If evil is considered in technical sense, as a privation of natural good, an involuntary condition, and something we merely suffer, then it is not the same as the evil of guilt, although it may be connected to it. If, however, we understand evil more broadly as something we suffer, whether caused by another, or ourselves either in nature or in will, then it coincides with the evil of guilt, but not in reference to the same object nor from the same viewpoint. For the very thing that is guilt in itself is also a punishment when considered in relation to an earlier sin; and what is a sin when viewed as something committed, is also a penalty when viewed as something suffered. Thus

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it is clear in what way, to what extent, and why a thing can be said to be both a sin and a penalty of sin. CHAPTER

11

THE ORIGIN OF FINAL SINS, WHICH ARE THE SINS AGAINST THE HOLY SPIRIT

1. Concerning the final, or unforgivable sins, which are the sins against the Holy Spirit, the following must be held. Although all sin, speaking in general terms, is against God three and one, yet we can appropriately speak of a certain sin as being against the Father, another as against the Son, and another as against the Holy Spirit. This sin against the Holy Spirit is said to be unforgivable, either in this age or in the age to come,·8 not because it could not be pardoned in the present age, but because its guilt is seldom, if ever, forgiven here, and its penalty is hardly, if at all, remitted hereafter. Six types of this sin are distinguished: envy of grace given to another, resisting the known truth, despair, presumption, obstinacy of mind, and £lnal impenitence.·9 2. This should be understood as follows. Since sin is a withdrawal from the First Principle, which is three and one, every sin distorts the image of the Trinity and defiles the soul in its three powers: the negative appetite, rationality, and the positive appetite. For every sin proceeds from free choice, which bears within itself the mark ofthe Trinity: because of its power, the will reflects the Father, because it is rational, the Son; because it is free, the Spirit 3. Even though these three dimensions are involved in every sinful act, there is always one that brings about 68 Matt 12: 32. On the material of this chapter see In 2 Sent., 43 (II, 981-98). 69The exact number of these sins against the Holy Spirit fluctuated from author to author; it was Alexander of Hales who finally fixed the number at six (Glossa in IV Libros Sent., 2.43.9 [13:415]).

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the perversion ofthe others. The defect of power is impotence; of reason, ignorance; and of will, malice. Some sins, then, are due to impotence, others to ignorance, and still others to malice.'· Since power is attributed to the Father, wisdom to the Son, and will to the Holy Spirit,71 some sins are thus said to be against the Father, others against the Son, and others against the Holy Spirit. And because there is nothing greater in the will than the will itself,72 and sin originates from it, no sin is as wholly voluntary and truly sin as that which arises from the corruption of the will. For we can speak of a sinful act being involuntary in two ways, that is, owing to force or owing to ignorance; the first by a defect of power, the second by a defect of knowledge.73 So when the will has the power to resist and knows something to be wrong, but solely out of its own corruption chooses to do it nonetheless, it is committing what is known as a sin of sheer malice. Such a sin arises purely from the defection of the free choice of the will, and is directly opposed to the grace of the Holy Spirit. Because it derives exclusively from free will, it does not have the slightest grounds for excuse, and hence one guilty of it should expect little or no relief of the ensuing penalty. On the contrary, because it directly flouts the grace ofthe Holy Spirit through which the penalties of sin are remitted, it is called unforgivable. This does not mean it can in no way 70 On these three types of sin and their respective seriousness, see Gregory, Moral. in lob., 25.11.28 (PL 76: 339BC), and Isidore, Sent., or De summo bono, 2.17.3-4 (PL 83: 620AB). See Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 22.5 (1: 446-47). 71 See pt. 1, chap. 6. 72 Augustine, De lib. arb., 1.12.26: "For what lies more truly in the power of the will than the will itself?" (PL 32: 1235 [po 24]). C£ Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 41.4 (1:565). 7l See Aristotle, Ethica Nicom., 3.1 (1109b 35-1110a 1); and John of Damascus, De fide orth., 2.24 (PL 94: 954). On force, see In 2 Sent., 25.2.4 (II, 615-16); on ignorance, ibid., 22.2.3 (525-27).

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be forgiven, but because by its very nature it is directly opposed to the medicine and the remedy by which the remission of sins is accomplished. 4. Now, the remission of sins is accomplished by God through the grace of repentance within the communion of the Church. Therefore, the unforgivable sins are distinguished accordingly as they directly oppose one of these three aspects. Either they oppose the grace of repentance in itself, or the God by whom it is given, or the Church in whose communion it is obtained. In reference to the communion of the Church, we should note that the unity of the Church consists offaith and love, or ofgrace and truth.'4 Thus there are two possible sins against it: envy of the grace given to another and resistance ofthe known truth. In reference to God, the giver of grace, all of whose ways in justifying us are mercy and truth,75 there are two sins: despair, which denies mercy; and presumption, which impugns justice. In reference to the grace of repentance in itself, there are two ways of sinning, since this grace makes us recoil against sins committed and guard against those that might be committed. The first is opposed by obstinacy of mind; the second, by final impenitence, or the intention of never repenting. It is in this sense that 'final impenitence' is a type of sin against the Holy Spirit. But in another sense 'final impenitence' means continuing in sin until the end of one's life; 76 this is the consequence of all the mortal sins that were not remitted in this life, and specifically of all those sins committed against the Holy Spirit.

76There is a pun here in Latin and the Romance languages. 'End' is finis.

"John 1:17; cf. Eph 4:13-16. 75 Ps 25: 10 (Vg 24:10). Cf. In 4 Sent., 46.2.3 (IV, 964-65).

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5. And so, every sin takes its origin in pride and has its consummation or end in final impenitence. Whoever reaches this point falls headlong into hell, from which penalty no one guilty of mortal sin can be freed, unle.ss the grace of Christ the mediator should intervene. That IS why the multitude of those who had to be saved yearned for the incarnation of that mediator and Lord.1b him be honor and glory forever and ever. Amen.77

PART IV ON THE INCARNATION OF THE WORD

CHAPTER

1

THE REASON WHY THE INCARNATION OF THE WORD OF GOD WAS NECESSARY OR FITTING

1. Having said something about the Trinity of God, the creation of the world, and the corruption of sin, we now turn to a brief discussion of the Incarnation of the Word, for it was by the Word's becoming flesh that the salvation and redemption of humankind was achieved. This was not because God could not have saved and liberated the human race by some other means, but because no other way would have been so fitting or so appropriate to the Redeemer, those redeemed, and the nature of redemption! 2. The reason for this should be explained as follows. [We have seen that] the first creative principle of all things could not have been and should not have been anything less than God. Now it is surely no less important to restore created things as to give them existence, for the wellbeing of things is no less significant than for them simply to be. And so it was most fitting that the restorative principle of all things should be God Most High? Thus, just as 'See In 3 Sent., 1. 2.1-3, 20.1.2, 20.1.6 (III, 19-31,416-22,430-32). Augustine, Sermon 176, 5.5: ''A saved human being is better than

2

just a mere human being.... Nobody can recreate except the one who creates; nobody can make you new, but the one who made you in the first place" (PL 38: 952 [WSA, nV5: 275]).

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God [the Father] had created all things through the Uncreated Word, so he would restore all things through the Incarnate Word.' Also, because God made everything with complete power, wisdom, and goodness or benevolence, it was fitting that God should so restore all things as to display that same power, wisdom, and benevolence.· Now what is . more powerful than to combine within a single person two natures so widely disparate?' What is wiser and more fitting than to bring the entire universe to full perfection by uniting the first and last, that is, the Word of God, which is the origin of all things, and human nature, which was the last of all creatures?6 What is more benevolent than for the master to redeem the slave by taking the form of a 3 John 1:3, 14: See also Hexaem., 3.2, ltin., 4,3 (V, 343, 306). Cf. Augustine, Enarrat. in Ps 142, 17 (PL 37: 1855); in Ps 45,14 (PL 36: 524). 4- Bonaventure thus locates the primary reason for the Incarnation in the divine nature itself. See John of Damascus, De fide orth. 3.1 (PG

94: 984). Cf. In 3 Sent., 4.1.1, resp. (III, 98-99). 5See pt. 2, chap. 10.2 above; Bemard,Serm. 3 in vigilia Nativ. Domini, 8; and Serm. 2 in Nativ. Domini, 4 (PL 183: 98, 121). Cf. Bonaventure, In 3 Sent., 6.2.3, ad 1 (III, 163). 6 Creation flows out from the Word of God into a plurality of natures, only to converge again to form the microcosm of human nature (cf. pt. 2, chaps. 4.3 and 10.2). Thus, by the Word's incarnation as a human being, all creation is recapitulated, made one with its Exemplar. Cf. Irenaeus (Adu. Haeres., 4.20.4): uGod is evermore known through the one through whom he made all things. This is his Word, our Lord Jesus Christ, who in the last times became a human being among human beings, in order to join the end to the beginning, that is, humanity to

God" (PG 7: 1034). Bonaventure eloquently states this argument from cosmic completion in his Second Sermon on the Nativity (IX, 207): "It is in this Word that we discover the perfection of that greatness of heart which brings all reality to its consummation and completion . .. .The line of the universe must be curved into a circle. Indeed, God is simply the First. And the last among the works of God is man. Therefore, when God became a human being, the works of God were brought to perfection . .. .The ability of human nature to be united in a unity of person with the

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servant?' Certainly this is a deed of such unfathomable goodness that no greater proof of mercy, kindness and friendship can be conceived. Assuredly, then, this w~s the most appropriate way for God the Redeemer to demonstrate the divine power, wisdom, and benevolence. 3. Again, when human beings sinned, they turned away and wandered far from the most powerful, wise, and benevolent principle. As a result, they fell headlong into weakness, ignorance, and malice. Having once been spiritual, they became carnal, animal, and sensual. They could no longer imitate divine virtue, know its light, or love its goodness. And so the most fitting way for human beings to be raised from this condition was for the First Principle to come down to their level by making itself knowable lovable, and imitable. Carnal, animal, and sensual hum~nity could not know, love, or imitate anything that was not proportioned and adapted to that state. And so the Word became flesh, that he might be known and loved and imitated.by human beings who were flesh.' In this way, by knowmg and loving and imitating God, humanity might be cured of the disease of sin. 9

?ivine - which is the most noble of all the receptive potencies implanted human nature - is reduced to act so that it would not be a mere empty potency. And since it is reduced to act, the perfection of the entire created order is realized, for in that one being the unity of all reality is bro~ght to cons~ation" (trans. Zachary Hayes, What Manner ofMan? In

(Chicago: franCIscan Herald Press, 1974),73-74. Here Bonaventure may be following Robert Grosseteste. See Dominic J. Unger, "Robert

Grosseteste ... on the Reason for the Incarnation" FS 16 (1956)' 1-36 'Phil 2:7. , . . 'John 1:14. See Augustine, De vera relig., 16.30 ff. and 55.110 (PL ' 34: 134 If and 170). 9 .Bonaventur~'s argument here reflects that of Peter Abelard, who be~eved the .pnmary reason for the Incarnation was to change the ~ttltude of ~mf~ humanity toward God: e.g. In Ep. ad Rom., 3.26: 'Through thIS unIque act of grace manifested to us - in that God's Son has taken upon himself our nature and persevered therein, teaching us by word and example even unto death - God has more fully bound

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PART IV

4. Finally, human beings could not be completely healed unless they regained innocence of mind, friendship with God, and their proper excellence, whereby they were subject only to God. Since such a thing could not be accomplished except by God in the form of a slave, it was fitting that the Word should become incarnate. For humanity could not recover its excellence through any other redeemer than God. For if this redeemer had been a mere creature, then humanity would have become subject to another creature, and thus would not have regained its state of excellence. to Nor could humanity have recovered its friendship with God except by means of a suitable mediator, who could touch God with one hand and humanity with the other, who would be the likeness and friend of both: God-like in his divinity, and like us in his humanity. Nor, again, could humankind have recovered purity of soul ifits guilt had not been removed, which divine justice could not fittingly remit unless suitable satisfaction had been made. But only God could make such satisfaction for the whole human race, while humanity alone was bound to make it because it had sinned. Therefore it was most appropriate that humanity should be restored by a God-man, born of Adam's stock. l l For humanity could not have recovered its excellence except through a most excellent redeemer, friendship [with God] except through a most amicable mediator, nor innocence except through a most adequate satisfier. But there is no more excellent redeemer than God, no more ami-

cable mediator than a fellow human being, and no more adequate satisfier than one who was both God and human. Therefore, it was most fitting for our redemption that the Word become incarnate. And so, just as the human race came into being through the Uncreated Word and sinned by failing to heed the Inspired Word, so it would rise from sin through the Incarnate Word.

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CHAPTER

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2

THE INCARNATION IN REGARD TO THE UNION OF NATURES

1. Now there are three topics that we should consider with regard to the Incarnate Word: the union of natures, the fullness of gifts, and the suffering of the passion for the redemption of the human race. 12 Concerning the union of natures, we have to ponder these three points in order to grasp the mystery of the Incarnation, namely, what occurred, how it occurred, and when it occurred. 2. Now, concerning the work of the Incarnation, Christian faith requires that we hold the following: a) that the Incarnation is a work of the Trinity, through which took place the assumption of flesh by the Godhead and the union of the Godhead with the flesh;" b) that this assumption was not simply of material flesh, but also of a rational spirit with its vegetative, sensitive, and intellective powers;14 c)that this union is a oneness, not of nature, but of person; not of a human person, but of a divine one; not of an assumed person, but of the assuming one; and not of

us to himselfby love; with the result that our hearts should be enkindled

by such a gift of divine grace, and true charity should not now shrink from enduring anything for him" (PL 178: 836). 10 Augustine,De 7rin., 13.18.23 (PL42: 1032);Aoselm, Cur Deus Homo, 1.5 (PL 158: 365); c£ Bonaventure,In 2 Sent., 22.1.1 (II, 516-17). 11 In this final argument Bonaventure closely follows Anselm, Cur Deus Homo, 2.6 (PL 158:404).

12The first of these will be dealt with in chapters 2-4, the second in chapters 5-7, and the third in chapters 8-10. 13 See In 3 Sent.,1.1.2 (III, 12-13). 14 Ibid., 2.2 (III, 44-47), For these three powers of the soul, see pt. 2, chap. 9.5 above.

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any [divine] person indiscriminately, but of the Word alone;15 d) that this union is so total that whatever is said of the Son of God may be said of the Son of Man, and conversely; excepting however, such matters as designate the union itself or contain some negation.'s 3. These things should be understood as follows. The Incarnation is the work of the First Principle, not only insofar as it is an effective principle in producing, but also insofar as it is a restorative principle in healing, atoning, and reconciling. Therefore, insofar as it denotes a certain effect, the Incarnation is a work of the First Principle, which accomplishes all things by virtue of its supreme power. Now its substance, power, and operation are absolutely united and completely undivided among the three persons. 17 That is why the work of the Incarnation must necessarily proceed from the whole Trinity.

15

This describes the hypostatic union, which "consists in nothing other

than the fact that a divine person who, from eternity, has been a hypostasis of the divine nature, becomes the hypostasis of a human nature in time" (In 3 Sent., 1.1.1, resp. (III, 9-10). In other words, the hypostasis of the Word, the second person of the Trinity (cf. pt. 1, chap. 3 above), has 'assumed' or taken on human nature in the person of Jesus Christ. Bonaventure has an extensive discussion of this, In 3 Sent., 5-7 (III, 121-84). Cf, Hayes,Hidden Center, 71-86. 16 This linguistic usage, whereby the human qualities of Christ are attributed to God and divine attributes to the human in him, is called the communicatio idiomatum ('interchange of properties'). This ancient. practice was sanctioned by the Council of Ephesus (431) when it recognized the Virgin Mary's title, ''Mother of God." Cf.In 3 Sent., 11.2.3, ad 3 (III, 257). 17 Cf. Pseudo-Dionysius, De cael. hierarch., 11.2: ''There is within all divine minds the threefold distinction between being, power, and activity " (PG 3: 283 D; PL 122: 1059D [po 175]). In 1 Sent., 8.2.2, Bonaventure explains that these three elements are really distinct in all created beings, whereas in God there is only a logical distinction between them (1,167-69).

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4. But the Incarnation also derives from the First Principle insofar as it is a restorative principle by virtue of its [work of] healing. Since the whole human race had fallen into sin and was corrupted, not only in spirit but also in flesh, the whole nature had to be assumed so that all of it might be cured.1S Now the flesh is the part of our being most evident to us as well as the most distant from God. And so, in order that this work might be designated in the most expressive manner, so as to indicate better the humiliation [of God] and more profoundly explain the exaltation [of our flesh], it is called, not 'inanimation,' but 'incarnation'. 5. Again, the Incarnation derives from the First Principle insofar as it is a restorative principle by virtue of [its work] of making satisfaction. Now there is no satisfaction except when made by one who ought to make it and can make it. But the only ones who should make satisfaction are human beings, and the only one who can make it is God. Therefore, it was fitting that both natures, the human and the divine, had to concur in making this satisfaction. 19 However, it is impossible for the divine nature to concur with another nature as to become part of a third that would arise out of this conjunction. Nor is it possible for the divine nature to change into something else or for another nature to change into the divine - for the divine nature is utterly perfect, simple, and immutable. Hence, divinity and humanity could only be joined, not in a union of natures or of accidents, but in a union of a person or hypostasis. But the divine nature cannot subsist in any subject other than its own hypostasis. The union, there-

"Based on John of Damascus, De fide orth., 3.6 (PG 94: 1006 B) in the translation of Burgundio of Pis a, c. 50 (ed. Buytaert, 188). C£ P~ter Lombard, Liber 3 Sent., 2.1 (2: 27-29). 19 As argued in chap. 1.4 above.

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PART IV

fore, could not occur in the hypostasis or person of a human being, but only in that of God. By this union, therefore, the First Principle, in one of its hypostases, became the supposit of a human nature. Hence, in this case there is but one person, and one personal unity, that is, of the [divine] person who assumed humanity.'· 6. Finally, the Incarnation derives from the First Principle insofar as it is a restorative principle by virtue of [its work of] reconciling. Now in reconciling it acts as a mediator; and so, since mediation is proper to the Son of God, incarnation is also. For it is a mediator's proper role to be the medium between humanity and God in order to lead humankind back to the knowledge of God, to the likeness of God, and to be children of God. Now, there could be no more fitting medium that the person who both produces and is produced, the intermediate one of the three [divine] persons. 21 No one is more suitable to lead humanity back to a knowledge of God than the Word, by whom the Father expresses himself, a Word that has the potential to be united to the flesh, as a [human] word has to its utterance." No one is more suitable to lead humankind back to divine conformity than the one who is the image of the Father. No one can more fittingly restore human beings to their status as God's adopted children than the one who is God's son by nature. Hence no one is more suitable to become Son of Man than the Son of God himself'3

7. Thus, by reason of the Incarnation the Son of Man and the Son of God are in every way one and the same. And because "whenever two things are identical to a third, they are identical to each other,"24 it follows that any predicate of one applies to both, unless it is a term that denotes some incompatibility, such as those which express the union of one nature to the other - for instance, 'to unite', 'to be made flesh: 'to assume,' 'to be assumed'; or those which express a negation of something whose opposite pertains to the other nature - for instance, 'to begin to be,' 'to be created,' and so forth. In these cases, for the reason here explained, there is an exception to the foregoing rule.

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20 Peter Lombard, Liber 3 Sent., 5.1-3 (2: 41-48); Cf Bonaventure, In 3 Sent., 5.1.1-2 (III, 122-125). 21 Ibid" 19.2.2, ad 1: ''it is not the same thing to call Christ 'mediator'

and 'medium'; nevertheless, only one who is medium can be mediator"

(III, 411). Bonaventure develops seven different orders of reality in which Christ serves as medium or center in Hexaem, 1.10-39 (Y,33035). Cf. Hayes, Hidden Center, pp. 87-90, 194-204. "Cf.In 1 Sent., 27.2.4 (I, 488-90). 23 Bonaventure here gives a brief response to the classic question: for

which of the three persons was it the most appropriate to become incarnate? See In 3 Sent., 1.2.3 (III, 28-31).

CHAPTER

How

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3

THE INCARNATION CAME ABOUT

1. With regard to how the Incarnation came about, this is what must be held: that the angel announced to the most blessed Virgin Mary that the mystery of the Incarnation was to be accomplished in her; that the Virgin believed, was willing, and consented; and that the Holy Spirit overshadowed her to sanctify her and make her fruitful. Through his power, "the virgin conceived the Son of God ... whom the virgin bore ... and after giving birth she remained a virgin."" She conceived not only the flesh, but the flesh infused with a soul and united to the Word untainted by sin but completely holy and immaculate. That is why she is called the Mother of God and the sweetest Virgin Mary. 2. This may be explained as follows. The Incarnation is a work that derives from the First Principle, insofar as

Aristotle, De sophist. elenchis, 1.5 (168h 31-32). Augustine, Serm. 196, 1.1 (PL 38: 1019: 1019 [WSA, lIV6: 61]); cf. Serm. 51, 11.18 (PL 38: 343). On the material in this chapter, see In 3 Sent., 3-5 (III, 60-143). 24

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it restores in a most appropriate, all-embracing, and complete way_ For it is fitting for the divine wisdom to act appropriately, it is fitting for the divine generosity to act in an all-embracing way, and it is fitting for the divine power to work perfectly. 3. Since the Incarnation is the work of the First Principle who redeems in the most appropriate way, it is fitting that the medicine corresponds to the disease, the restoration to the fall, and the remedy to the injury. Now, the human race had fallen through the suggestion of the devil, through the consent of the deceived woman, and through a lustful means of generation that transmits original sin to the offspring. 26 And so, these were appropriately counteracted by a good angel persuading to what was good, a virgin believing and consenting to that proposed good, and the love of the Holy Spirit making her holy and fruitful for an immaculate conception.27 In this way, "contraries might be cured by their contraries."" Since it was a woman, deceived by Satan and carnally known and corrupted by

26 27

See above, pt. 3, chap. 2-7. That is, so that Christ might be conceived immaculately. The

theological consensus during Bonaventure's time was that Mary, like all other humans, was born with original sin, although cleansed of that sin and its consequences sometime before her conception of Christ. This

was necessary if Mary was to produce a body for Jesus that was uncorrupted by sin. Cf. Peter Lombard, Liber 3 Sent., 3.1-3 (2: 32-35); Bonaventure, In 3 Sent., 3.1 (II!, 60-78). 28 Ancient medicine was based on the conviction that the human body, like all of nature, was composed of contrary elements; illness was due to an excess of one of the four humors (cr. pt. 2.4.3 above). Thus, any cure had to counteract this influence. Cf.Aristotle,Nicomachean Ethics, 2.3: "It is the nature oreures to be effected by contraries" (1104b 17-18 [p.954]). John Cassian employed the priuciple to prescribe appropriate ascetic practices as antidotes for spiritual illness (Conferences, 19.14.15 [PL 49: 1143-1145J. Subsequently, the maxim "contraries are cured by their contraries" was a commonplace in pastoral literature, e.g. Gregory, Hom in Euang., 2.32.1 (PL 76: 1232). See John T. McNeil, "Medicine for Sin as Prescribed in the Penitentials," Church History 1 (1931): 14-26.

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her husband's lust, who passed on sin, sickness, and death to all, so it was a woman, instructed by an angel and made holy and fruitful by the Holy Spirit, who gave birth to an offspring free from corruption of mind and body, who grants grace, health, and life to all those who come to him. 4. Again, the Incarnation derives from the First Principle who redeems in an all-embracing way - for through the Word made flesh the fall of both humankind and the angels is repaired, of both those in heaven and those on earth.29 Furthermore, the fall of human beings is repaired in both sexes. Hence, if the cure was to be universal, it was most fitting that an angel, a woman, and a man should concur in the mystery of the Incarnation: an angel announcing, a virgin woman conceiving, and a man as the conceived offspring. And so the angel Gabriel was the herald of the eternal Father, the immaculate Virgin was the temple of the Holy Spirit, and the conceived offspring was the very person of the Word. Thus the representatives of all three hierarchies - divine, angelic, and human - concurred in this way in the universal restoration, suggesting not only the Trinity of God, but also the universality ofthe benefit bestowed and the generosity of the supreme Redeemer. And because generosity is appropriated to the Holy Spirit, so too is the sanctification of the Virgin in whose womb the Word was conceived. Therefore, although the Incarnation is the work of the whole Trinity, by appropriation we say that the Virgin "conceived by the Holy Spirit."'· 5. Finally, the Incarnation is the work of the First Principle who redeems in the most complete way. Hence, the conception must be complete as regards the offspring, the manner of conceiving, and the power that effected it. Now,

"Col 1:20; see In 3 Sent., 2.dub. 4 (III, 59-60). "In the words of the Apostles' Creed; see In 3 Sent., 4.1.1 (III. 98-99).

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PART IV

because there had to be completeness in the offspring, from the very moment of conception, the seed was not simply individuated but also organized, shaped, and vivified by the soul, and deified through its union with the Godhead.31 Thus, the Virgin truly conceived the Son of God because his flesh was united to the divinity through the mediation of a rational soul; this, as a congruous medium, made the flesh susceptible for such a union.32 Next, there had to be completeness in the manner of conceiving. Now, of the four possible ways of producing a human being, three had already been employed: first, out of neither man nor woman, as with Adam; then, out of man but not woman, as with Eve; third, out of both man and woman, as with all those born of concupiscence. And so, for the completeness of the universe, it was fitting that a fourth way be introduced: out of woman without the seed of a man, through the power of the Supreme Maker." Again, there ought to be completeness in the power itself. Hence, in the production of the Son of God, three powers simultaneously concurred: an innate power, an infused power, and the uncreated power. The innate power furnished the matter, the infused power set it apart by purifying it, and the uncreated power perfected it instantly, something that could be done by a created power only gradually. Thus, the Blessed Virgin Mary became a mother in the most complete sense, for without the assistance of a man she conceived the Son of God by the working of the

Holy Spirit. Because the love of the Holy Spirit burned in her soul in such a singular way, the power of the Holy Spirit did marvelous things in her flesh, by means of his grace prompting her, assisting her, and elevating her nature as demanded for that wondrous conception to take place.

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31 In 3 Sent., 3.2.3.2, resp. (Ill, 93). As Hayes explains: "Christ's conception differs from ordinary human conceptions in that in the instant of conception, matter was individuated and animated, and the whole human nature - body and soul - was organized and formed, enlivened and deified through union with the Word" (Hidden Center, 97). "See In 3 Sent., 2.3.1 (III, 49·51). 33 Closely paraphrasing Anselm, Cur Deus Homo, 2.8 (PL 158: 406).

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4

THE INCARNATION IN THE FULLNESS OF TIME

1. As to when the Incarnation took place, the following must be held. While God could have become incarnate from the very beginning, God chose not to do so until the end of the ages, after the law of nature and the law of figures had come to an end - that is, the ages of the patriarchs and prophets, to whom and through whom the Incarnation had been promised. Only then did God deign to become flesh, at the end and fullness of time, as the Apostle says: But when the fullness of time had come, God sent his

Son, born of a woman, born under the law, in order to redeem those who were under the law.'· 2. The reason for this is as follows. Because the Incarnation is the work of the First Principle insofar as it restores, it is fitting and right that this occur in a manner consonant with human free choice, with the sublimity of the remedy, and with the final completion of the universe. And in fact, the most wise Artisan took all these things into account. Human free choice requires that the will be drawn into nothing involuntarily. God therefore had to restore humankind in such a way that those who wished to seek for the Savior would find salvation, while those who were unwill-

34 Gal 4:4-5. On the material in this chapter, see In 3 Sent., 1.2.4 and dub. (III, 31-33).

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ing to seek him would not. Now, people do not call a physician unless they are aware that they are sick; people do not employ a teacher unless they recognize they are ignorant; people do not seek a helper unless they know they need assistance. And so, because immediately after their fall human beings still retained intellectual pride and power, God established a time of natural law that would convince them of their ignorance. But human beings, once convinced of their ignorance, still gloried in their pride, as the saying goes, "Power is not lacking to the one who would act, but to the one who would command." And so God added a law that taught moral precepts and imposed ritual observances, so that human beings, finally made aware of both their duty and their weakness, might have recourse to the divine mercy and implore grace, which was given to us in the coming of Christ. That is why the laws of nature and Scripture preceded the Incarnation of the Word." 3. Again, such a sublime remedy had to be accepted with the strongest faith and cherished with the most ardent love as a deep and life-giving mystery. It was most fitting, then, that prophets with many testimonies, both explicit in words and implicit in figures, should precede the coming of Christ. By these numerous and powerful witnesses, what had been hidden became clear and unquestionable for belief. Repeated promises and intense desires also were to precede the coming of Christ so that the promised benefit would be expected, that what was expected would be long-awaited, that what was longawaited would be more intensely desired, and that what was intensely desired would be loved more fervently, received more gratefully, and heeded with greater care.

35 According to Hugh of St. Victor, De sacmm. 1.8.3; 2.2.1 (PL 176: 307 and 415).

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4. Finally, the integrity and perfection of the universe require that all things be ordered as to places and times. Now the Incarnation is the most perfect of all God's works. Since development ought to proceed from the imperfect to the perfect, not the other way round,36 the Incarnation had to take place at the end of the ages. For the first man, the crown of the entire material world, was created at the end, namely on the sixth day, to bring perfection to the whole universe. Thus the second man,37 the fulfillment of the whole in its redemption, in whom the First Principle was joined with the last, "God with clay,"38 came at the end of time, that is, in the sixth age - the age proper for the exercise of wisdom, the curbing of concupiscence, and the passage from turmoil to peace. 39 All of these things pertain to the sixth age of the world's course because of the Incarnation of the Son of God. 5. The coming of Christ occurred in the time of the law of grace, as a fulfillment of the promised mercy, and at the beginning of the sixth age. Each of these circumstances indicates a fullness: the law of grace fulfills the written law; the giving of what was promised fulfills the promise; and the sixth age - the number six symbolizing perfection - is in itself a sign offullness.40 That is why the coming of the Son of God is said to be in the fullness of time: not 36 Aristotle,Physic., 8.58.7: "what is posterior in the order of becoming is prior in the order of nature" (261a 13-15). 37 1 Cor 15:47: "The first man was from the earth, a man of dust; the second man is from heaven." 38 Bernard, Sermo 3 in vigilia Nativit. Domini, 8 (PL 183: 98C). cr. chap. 1.2 above.

39 On the sixth age, see Pro!' 2 above. Cf In 4 Sent., 40.dub. 3 (IV, 854);Hexaem., 15.12·21 (V, 400·402). 40 Cf. Augustine: "[The number six] is called perfect because it is

made up afits parts ... Sacred Scripture commends its perfection to us above all in declaring that God completed his work in six days" (De Trin., 4.4.7·8 (PL 42: 892-93) [WSA II5: 158]). Cf Bonaventure, In 1 Sent., 2.4, scholion (I, 58-59).

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because it brought time to an end, but because in it the mysteries of the ages were fulfilled. Had Christ come at the beginning of time, he would have come too soon; and had his coming been delayed until the very end, he would have come too late. No, it was fitting for the Savior to provide a time of healing between the time of sickness and the time of judgment. It was fitting for the mediator that some of his members should precede him, and that others should follow. It was fitting for the perfect leader to reveal himself when there waS still an opportunity to press on towards the prize. 41 The Incarnation was thus at the end of the ages - before the termination oftime but when the final judgment was close at hand: so that moved by fear of judgment, urged on by hope of the reward, and inspired by a perfect example, we might follow our leader vigorously and perfectly from virtue to virtue, until we attain the prize of everlasting happiness.'2

the grace of union." By virtue of the grace given to his own person, he was immune from all sin - both in act and in possibility - because he neither sinned nor was capable of sinning. 44 By virtue of the grace of union, he was worthy not only of the bliss of glory, but the adoration of latria, which is that worship of reverence due to God alone." By virtue of the grace of headship, he influences the movement and [interior1 feeling in all those who draw near to him either in simple faith or through the sacraments of faith, whether they lived before or after his coming. For both those who went before him, and those who followed, kept crying out, saying, "Hosanna to the Son of David. "46 3. This is the rationale for what we have said. Since restoration is a work of the First Principle, flowing out from it with generosity and leading back to it through conformity, it is therefore fitting that this be accomplished through grace and conformity to God, for grace flows from God generously and transforms human beings into God's own likeness. 47 Thus, because the restorative principle repairs humanity through grace, and because anything exists more fully and perfectly in its source than elsewhere, it necessarily follows that in our restorative principle, Christ the Lord, there was the fullness of every grace. Now

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5

THE FULLNESS OF GRACE IN CHRIST CONSIDERED IN THE GIFTS IN HIS AFFECTIONS

1. Now that we have come to an understanding of the union of natures in the Incarnate Word, we must go on to consider the fullness of his spiritual gifts. On this topic, we should first examine the fullness of grace in his affections, then the fullness of wisdom in his understanding, and finally, the fullness of merit in his deeds or his effects. 2. With regard to the fullness of grace in Christ's affections, the following must be held: that from the moment of his conception, he completely possessed every grace: the grace of a particular person, the grace of headship, and

" Phil 3:14. "Ps 83:8; Phil 3:14.

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"On these three themes, see In 3 Sent., 13 (III, 276-93). «Ibid., 12.2.1 (III, 261-63). 45T he Greek word latreia was generally used in the Septuagint and thus in the New Testament to designate worship due to God (e.g., Dt 3:6; Matt 4:10). The term was taken over by Latin authors, e.g., Augustine: "To signify the worship due to the Deity in a single word, I shall insert a Greek term, for no entirely satisfactory Latin word occurs to me... .Latreia is used by those who have written down the divine

eloquence for us." Civ. Dei, 10.1.2 (PL 41:277 [Dyson, 391-92)). Later theologians distinguished latria, the adoration due to God alone, from dulia, the veneration paid to holy created beings. "Mark 11:9. Matt 21: 9. <1 Cf. Pt. 6, chap. 1 below.

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this restorative principle in its act of repairing is not only the origin, but also the means and the end - the end, in providing satisfaction; the means, in effecting reconciliation; the source, in generating an over-flowing influence. It was therefore necessary that Christ possess the fullness of grace by virtue of his being the atoning end, the reconciling means, and the source of overflowing goodness. For if the end is to be suitable for providing satisfaction, it must be pleasing to God and hence perfectly free from sin. Since this can come about only through a gift of divine grace to some individual, we must therefore posit in Christ the presence of a grace that sanctified and strengthened him. This we call the grace of the particular person. 48 4. Again, nothing can serve as medium of reconciliation unless it possesses in itself both natures, the higher and lower, that which is adored and that which adores. Since this could never occur except by means of a union supremely imparting dignity and grace, we must posit in Christ a grace above all grace and worthy of all worship. This is what we call the grace of union, whereby Christ the human being is over all, God blessed forever, and is to be venerated with the worship of adoration [latrial. 49 5. Finally, in order to have an effective influence a principle must possess in itself a fontal and original fullness: a fullness not merely sufficient but superabundant. Hence, it was necessary for the Incarnate Word to be full ofgrace and truth, so that all the just might receive of his fullness,50 as all the members ofthe body receive the impulse of movement and sense from the head.51 This is why we

call this grace the grace of headship. For the head possesses in itself the fullness of the senses, and is coordinated with the other members of the body, presiding over them and giving all those that are connected to it the benefit of its influence. In the same way Christ, possessing superabundant grace and being like to us in nature, but holy and just above all others, bestows on all who come to him the spiritual benefits of grace, through which love and knowledge are given to spiritual beings. 52 6. Now we come to Christ either through faith or the sacrament of faith. Since faith in Christ is the same in past, present, and future, it follows that Christ's influencing power must reach all people - those who went before him, those who were his contemporaries, and those who were yet to come; all who believe in him and who are reborn in him; all who are bound to him in faith and who, through an inpouring of grace, become members of Christ and temples of the Holy Spirit, and thus children of God the Father,53 joined to one another by the unbreakable .bond of love. Just as distance does not divide us, so we are not separated by the passing of time. Thus all the just, wherever they might be, whenever they might live, constitute one mystical body of Christ, receiving sense and motion from the one head that influences them, through the fontal, radical, and original fullness of all grace that dwells in Christ the fountainhead. 54

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.. In 3 Sent., d. 13.1.1-2 (III, 277-79). "Rom 9:5. Cf. Peter Lombard, Liber 3 Sent., 3.9 (2: 68-71); Bonaventure, In 3 Sent., 9.1.1 (III, 199-202). "John 1: 14,16. "Based on the hnagery of Col 1:18-19 and Eph 1: 22-23, theologians of the Latin West from the time ofAugnstine had used the metaphor of 'head' of the body to describe how the unique fullness of Christ's grace

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permeates 'the members' of the Church. When this analogy was applied on the spiritual level, 'sense' refers to knowledge, and 'movement' to

affection and love. Cf. Peter Lombard, Glossa on Gal. (PL 192: 264). Cf. In 3 Sent., 13.2.3.4 (III, 288-90). "In 3 Sent., 13.2.1, resp. (III, 284). 53 1 Cor 6:15 and 19; Gal 3:26. "Col1:18-19:"He is the head of the body, the church ... for in him all the fullness of God was pleased to dwell."

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6

THE FULLNESS OF WISDOM IN THE INTELLECT OF CHRIST

1. Concerning the fullness of wisdom in the intellect of Christ, the following must be held: that in the Incarnate Word, namely, Christ our Lord, there was the fullness of all wisdom,55 not only with respect to the things he knew, but also with respect to the manner and types of his knowledge. For in Christ there was an eternal knowledge on the part of his divinity, a sensate knowledge on the part of his sensual nature and flesh, and an abstract knowledge on the part of his reason and spirit. This latter knowledge was three-fold: of nature, of grace, and of glory. Thus he was endowed with wisdom both as God and as a human being, as one in full possession [of God] and as a pilgrim [here on earth], as one enlightened by grace and as one rightly formed by nature. Therefore, Christ knew in five distinct ways. The first was according to his divine nature, by virtue of which he knew all things, whether actual or possible, finite and infinite, with an actual and comprehensive knowledge. The second was according to his glorified human nature, by virtue of which he knew all things actual and finite with an actual and comprehensive knowledge. However, the infinite he did not comprehend, except perhaps through an infused or ecstatic knowledge. The third was according to grace, by virtue of which he knew all things all things related to the salvation of the human race. The fourth was according to an integral human nature, as Adam had [before the fall]; by virtue of this he knew all things related to the structure of the universe. The fifth was according to his sense experience, by virtue of which he knew every-

55 cr. Col 2:3: "In whom are-hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge."

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thing that is perceived through our sense organs. It is in this last mode that he is said to have learned obedience through what he suffered. 56 2. This may be explained in the following way. Just as the Principle of our restoration redeems us by a most generous grace, it also redeems by a most provident wisdom. For what was created according to the order of [divine] Wisdom cannot be restored except by the light and order of that same wisdom. Hence, as Christ had to be immune from all sin, so it was also fitting that he be free from any type of ignorance, that he might be completely filled with the clarity and all-embracing radiance of divine Wisdom itself. Wherefore he enjoyed perfect knowledge according to both natures in their proper cognitive powers, and according to every mode of the things that are. 3. Thus, since things have existence in the EternalArt, in the human mind, and in their own reality," Christ had to possess knowledge of them on these three levels. Now, in art, things are known in two different ways: by the artist who made the work and by one who views it. Furthermore, things have existence in the human mind in two ways - excluding acquired knowledge, which because of its imperfection is improper for Christ - that is, by innate or infused knowledge. And so, for the perfect fullness of wisdom to reside in Christ, God and man, it was necessary that he possess the five-fold knowledge indicated above. Thus, he knew things in the Eternal Art [i.e., as they exist in the divine Word] both by virtue of his divine nature [as the Artist] and by virtue of the understanding of his glorified humanity. He knew things in his created

56 Hebr 5:8. On these various types of knowledge in Christ, see In 3 Sent., 14.1-3 (III, 295-324), and the more sophisticated treatment of

Quaest. de Scientia Christi, questions 1 and 5-7 (V, 3-6, 27-43). 57 See

pt. 2, chap. 12.4 above.

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intellect by virtue of a natural and innate habit, as did Adam and the angels, and by virtue of a gratuitous and infused habit, as did the saints of God illumined by the Holy Spirit. Finally, he knew things in their concrete reality through sense perception, memory, and experience. In the rest of us the latter makes something previously unknown to be known, whereas in Christ it made a thing already known in one way to be known in another.'8 4. Because the divine substance, power, and operation are immeasurable, consequently in the first way of knowing, that is by virtue of his divine nature, Christ has an actual knowledge of infinite possibilities, for in a certain ineffable manner, the supremely infinite sees infinite possibilities as finite [i.e., actualizedl. 5. But even the loftiest creature is limited in its substance, power, and action. Furthermore, the human mind, though it does not find rest except in the infinite Good, cannot comprehend that Good - since, to use the term 'comprehension' in its full meaning, the infinite cannot be comprehended by the finite. And so it follows that in the second way of knowing, that is by virtue of his glorified humanity, the intellect of Christ grasps everything within the reach of finite nature beatified by the infinite Good to which it is supremely united. Hence, the intellect of Christ knows the finite by actually comprehending it; but the infinite it does not know, except perhaps through a knowledge that is due to an infused habit or even ecstatic. For

"Aristotle, Metaph., 1.1 (980b 25-981a 10). Unlike other human beings, experiential knowledge in Christ does not imply that he passed from total ignorance to knowledge. Bonaventure has just stated that a habit" of intellectual knowledge was present in Christ from the first moment of conception. Thus, when Christ experienced a particular object, he came to know actually and in a new way what he already knew on an abstract level (Hayes, Hidden Center, 111-12), Cf. Bonaventure, In 3 Sent., 14.3.2 (III, 322-23).

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neither in its knowing nor in any other way can the created mind be equated with the Word.'9 6. Now, grace is concerned mostly with the work of restoration. Wherefore, in the third way of knowing, by virtue of perfect grace, Christ knew everything that had to do with our redemption; and he knew it far better and. more completely than did any prophet or even any of the angels. 7. Furthermore, human nature was well endowed, designed to be pre-eminent among all creatures, and to know that all of them were intended for its service, as appears clearly in the case of the first man. 60 Wherefore, in the fourth mode of knowledge, Christ understood everything that has to do with the organization ofthe material universe, much more fully than did Adam. S. Finally, since our sense faculties do not perceive things unless the object is actually present,.' with respect to his sense knowledge Christ did not know everything simultaneously, but one thing at a time, insofar as these were opportune for him to achieve the redemption ofhumankind. 6'

59

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Bonaventure capsulizes this in his statement that the human

intellect of Christ knows God tatum sed non totaliter - that is, it knows the whole Godhead immediately, but as created, cannot comprehend its full reality. In 3 Sent., 14.1.2 (III, 298-302). Cf. Hayes, Hidden Center, 108-09. 60 Gen 1:26-30. See pt. 2, chap. 4 above. 61 Aristotle, De anima, 2.60.5 (417b 24-28); cf. In 2 Sent., 8.1.3.2 (II, 221). 62 In other words, Christ's experiential knowledge of things in their concrete existence, as mediated by his senses, grew throughout his life. As Bonaventure mentions above, Hebrews 5:8 attests that Christ "learned through what he suffered." In 3 Sent., 14.3.1-2 (III, 318-23).

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7

THE PERFECTION OF MERIT IN HIS DEEDS

1. With regard to the fullness of Christ's merit, the following must be held: namely, that in Christ our Lord dwelt every perfection and fullness of merit. First of all, with respect to the one who acquired it, Christ was not only a human being, but also true God. Second, with respect to the time he acquired this merit, it ran from the first moment of his conception until the very hour of his death. Third, with respect to the means with which he acquired it, this was through the habitual exercise of perfect charity and the perfect practice of virtue in his praying, acting, and suffering. Fourth, with respect to whom this merit benefited, it went not only to Christ himself, but to us as well, indeed to all righteous people. Fifth, as regards what was merited for us, he merited not only [everlasting] glory, but also grace and pardon; and not only glory for the soul, but also a robe of glory for the flesh and the opening of heaven's gates. Sixth, as regards what Christ merited for himself, this was not the glorification of his soul, which he already possessed, but the glorification of his body, the hastening of resurrection, the glorification of his name, and the exaltation of his judicial power. Seventh, with respect to the manner in which Christ merited, we must make a distinction. For there are three ways in which people may be said to merit: by acquiring a claim they did not previously possess; by increasing their right to what is already their due; or acquiring another claim to what was already their due. Now on our behalf Christ has merited in all three of these ways, but he merited for himself only in the third way. All this Christ did through the fullness ofthe grace of the Holy Spirit, through which he was established in blessedness, and at the same time in the state of meriting, in such a way that all our merits are founded on his.63

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2. The reason for these things should be understood as follows. [We have already seen that] the principle of our restoration, Christ our Lord, necessarily possessed the fullness of grace and wisdom that are for us the source of upright and holy living. Necessarily, then, he possessed the fullness and perfection of all merit, in every manner of fullness. 64 Because in Christ dwelt the fullness of the grace of union,.' by which he was God from the first moment of his conception, he possessed from that very in- . stant both the vision of glory and the power of free will. Hence, his merit was perfect both because of the supreme dignity of the one achieving it and because he began achieving it immediately. 3. Again, because Christ possessed the fullness of the grace of the particular person, he possessed an unswerving love and the perfection of every virtue, both as habits and as acts. Hence, his merit was necessarily complete with respect to the means by which he achieved it: the root principle of love and the deeds of such manifold nobility. 4. Furthermore, there was in Christ a fullness of the grace of headship, through which he possessed complete influence over his members. Hence he acquired full merit, not simply for himself, but also for us. Just as all the spiritual goods we possess flow from his divinity, so, by reason of the humanity he assumed, he merited for us both the good things of this present life and the joys of the life to come. 5. Finally, the fullness of such great gifts necessarily implied that Christ possessed supreme and perfect bless-

"On these points, see In 3 Sent., 18 (III, 379·96). Mer. In 3 Sent., 18.1.2 (III, 383-84). 65For a description of this grace and those mentioned in the following two paragraphs, see chap. 5 above.

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edness in the higher part of his soul, even though providentially, for our sake, he lived as a pilgrim on earth. Hence, the merit Christ acquired for himself was perfect: although he did not merit the glory and blessedness which had been created together with his soul and existed in him naturally before any meritorious act, he did merit those things that do not coexist with the state of being a pilgrim here on earth, such as the stole of glory for his body with its exaltation to the highest dignity. 6. His merit was perfect also because of the way in which he achieved it. Since from the first moment of his conception, Christ was established in the fullest perfection, he merited instantly all that he could merit with respect to himself. He thus acquired a fuller title to what was already due him for a different reason. But it was not possible for him to earn for himself some claim to which he had no previous right, or to increase the claim he already had, since it was not possible for him to grow in holiness, as he was utterly holy from the very beginuing. Rather, he did these things for us who, through his merit, are justified by grace," advance in righteousness, and are crowned with eternal glory. 7. It is in Christ's merit, then, that all of our merits are rooted, both those that satisfy punishment or those that merit eternal life. For we are unworthy to be absolved from any offense against the supreme Good, nor do we deserve to be rewarded with the immensity of the eternal reward that is God's own self, except through the merit of the Godman. Of him we can and should say: Lord, all we have done, you have done for us. And he indeed is the Lord of whom the prophet spoke: I say to the Lord, "You are my God, for you have no need of my goods."" 66

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8

THE PASSION OF CHRIST: THE CONDITION OF THE ONE WHO SUFFERED

1. We so far have discussed the union of natures in the Incarnate Word and the fullness of his gifts. Let us now consider the passion he endured. In this regard, we should examine the condition of the one who suffered, the nature of his suffering, and the effects of his suffering. 2. We should hold the following truths about the condition of the one who suffered: that Christ assumed not only a human nature, but also the defects associated with it. He thus assumed our bodily disabilities such as hunger, thirst, and fatigue, and such handicaps of the soul as sorrow, anguish, and fear. Christ did not, however, assume all the bodily afflictions, such as the many types of physical illness, nor the spiritual penalties [due to original sin], such as ignorance and the rebelliousness of the flesh against the spirit. Nor did he assume these penalties in an unqualified fashion, for he took on the necessity of suffering in such a way that he was unable to suffer contrary to his divine and rational will, although his passion conflicted with his sensory and carnal will, as appears in his prayer: Not as I will, but as you will. 68 3. The explanation of this is as follows. The restoring principle, in his work of reconciliation, had to act as mediator. He needed therefore to be in harmony with both extremes, not only in regard to their natures, but also their circumstances. Now God is righteous and blessed, impassable and immortal, while fallen humanity is sinful and miserable, liable to suffering and death. And so, in order for humanity to be led back to God, the mediator between

Cf. Rom 3:24: "They are now justified by his grace as a gift."

"Is 26:12; Ps 15:2 (Vg). Cf.ln 3 Sent., 20.3-4 (III, 422-26); In 4 Sent., 15.1.1 (IV, 350-51).

68Matt 26:39. Bonaventure treats this material extensively,In 3 Sent ..

15-18 (III, 329-96).

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God and humankind had to share both in God's righteousness and blessedness and in humankind's passions and mortality.69 Thus, "having both transient mortality and everlasting blessedness,"'· Christ could lead humanity from its present misery back to a blessed life, just as, conversely, the evil angel, being immortal but living in the state of wretchedness and malice, became the means by .which humankind was cast down into sin and misery through his suggestion. Since it was proper that Christ the mediator possess innocence and the bliss of enjoying [the vision of God] while still being mortal and capable of suffering, he had to be at one and the same time a pilgrim [on earth] and one possessing [the beatific vision]. Something of both states existed in him: thus, it is said that he assumed the sinlessness of the state of innocence, the mortality of the state offallen nature, and the perfect blessedness of the state of glory.71 4. Now, the corrupting penalties [of our present human state], which are the four penalties inflicted as a result of original sin - ignorance, bodily infirmity, malice, and concupiscence'2 - are incompatible with perfect innocence. Therefore, Christ should not have assumed them, nor did he in fact do so. '3 However, other defects of a penal nature give occasion for the practice of perfect virtue and testify to a humanity that is genuine, not feigned. These are the handicaps that pertain to human nature in gen-

69

1 Tim 2:5; see In 3 Sent., 19.2.2 (III, 408-09). 70 Augustine, De civ. Dei, 9.15 (PL 41: 268-69 [Dyson, 377)); Bonaventure's argument here is largely based on this passage. 71 Peter Lombard, Liber 3 Sent., 16.2 (2: 105). Cf. Bonaventure, In 3 Sent., 12.2.1.4; 16.1.3.2 (III, 267, 351-52). "Cf. pt. 3, chap. 4 above; In 2 Sent., 22, dub. 2 (III, 528). 13 General consensus at the time, as expressed by Peter Lombard, Liber 3 Sent., 15.1-2; 16.1-2 (2: 93-100, 103-04). Cf. Bonaventure, In 3 Sent., 15.1.2., resp. (III, 332-33). .

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eral, such as hunger and thirst in the absence of nourishment, and sorrow and fear in the presence of harm. Hence it was fitting that Christ assume these, and he did in fact do SO.74 5. Finally, no innocent person is morally obligated to suffer punishment unwillingly, since this would be contrary to the order of divine justice; also, no mortals wish to suffer or die by their own natural impulse, for it is the natural order of things to flee death. Christ then, could assume penalties of this kind only to the extent that he would knowingly accept them. This is so not only because he lived in the state of blessedness and union with the omnipotent Godhead, through which he could repel any evil, but also because he possessed perfect innocence which, according to the order of natural justice, cannot be made to suffer anything unwillingly. And yet he did suffer those things that were contrary to the natural impulses and tendencies that were part of his sensuality and flesh. This is why when Christ prayed according to reason, he expressed the desire of his flesh to escape suffering, saying: "Let this cup pass from me";" but he conformed his rational will to the will of the Father, thus placing reason above bodily instinct, when he said: "Not my will, but yours be done."76 Thus, one will was not opposed to the other, for "in his divine will, he wished what was just; in

74John of Damascus, De fid. orth., 3.20: "We confess that he assumed all the natural and blameless passions of humanity ... [which] are not under our control and have come into our life as a result of the condemnation occasioned by our fall. Such, for example, were hunger, thirst, fatigue, pain" (PG, 94:1081), trans. Frederic H. Chase (FC 37: 323). Like John, Bonaventure believed these 'natural' and 'blameless'

afflictions were not incompatible with the fullness of knowledge and innocence Jesus possessed. Cf. In 3 Sent., 15.2.2, resp. (III, 338-39). 75 Matt 26:39. 75 Luke 22:42.

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his rational will, he consented to justice; and in his natural instinct, while he fled punishment, yet he did not contest justice. Each will acted in its own proper way and sought what pertained to each: the divine will,justice; the rational will, obedience; and the will of the flesh, nature."77 Hence there was in Christ no struggle or resistance, but peaceful order and ordered tranquility. CHAPTER

9

THE PASSION OF CHRIST: THE NATURE OF HIS SUFFERINGS

1. Now, concerning the nature of Christ's sufferings, the following must be held: that Christ suffered a passion most thorough, most bitter, and most ignominious, a passion destructive yet life-giving. I repeat, even though he could not suffer in his divine nature, he suffered in his human nature an all-encompassing passion, for not only every part of his body was affected, but every power of his soul as well. He suffered a passion that was most bitter, for besides enduring the agony of his wounds he bore the added anguish of grieving for our sins.78 He suffered a passion that was most punitive, because the gibbet of the cross was reserved for the worst criminals and because he was placed in the company of evildoers, namely ofthieves, with whom he was numbered. 79 Finally, he suffered a passion that was destructive, for it separated his soul from his body, although both remained united with his Godhead. Accursed indeed is the one who says that the Son of God at any time relinquished the nature he had assumed. so Hugh of St. Victor, De quatuor voZunt. in Christo (PL 176: 842 C), but altered sigoificantly. Cf.ln 1 Sent., 48.2.2 (I, 858): In 3 Sent., 17.1.3 (III, 368-69). 78 On the comprehensiveness and bitterness of Christ's passion, see In 3 Sent., 16 (III, 345-61). "Is 53:12, Mark 15:28, Luke 22:37. 80 On the destructiveness of the passion, see In 3 Sent., 21 (III, 43647), where Bonaventure states: "Augustine and Damascene say: 77

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2. This should be understood as follows. As the restoring principle created the human race in an orderly fashion, so it was fitting that he restore it in an orderly manner. For God ought to restore humanity in a way that respects not only Our free choice, but also God's own honor and the orderly functioning of the universe.81 First, because the work of restoration should respect human free choice, Christ restored humankind through a most efficacious example. 82 Now, an example is most efficacious when it both attracts and guides to the height of virtue. But nothing could show humankind the path to virtue more clearly than the example of a death endured for the sake of divine justice and obedience: a death, moreover, not of an ordinary sort, but the most excruciating. For nothing could move human beings to virtue more powerfully than the goodness with which the most high Son of God laid down his life for us, who were not only undeserving, but actually guilty of so many misdeeds. 83 This goodness showed itself all the more in that the sufferings he endured for us, indeed, that he wanted to endure, were so cruel and humiliating. For how could God, who did not spare his own Son, but gave him up for all of us, ... fail to give us everything else with him?84 By this fact we are invited to love him, and in loving him, to follow his example. 3. Second, because the work of restoration should respect the honor of God, Christ accomplished it by offering to the Father a fully satisfactory obedience. "For sat-

"accursed be anyone who says that the Word relinquished what he had once assumed" (III, 437). Cf. Augustine, In loan., 47.10 (PL 35: 1738): John of Daroascus, De fide orth., 3.27, 4.1 (PG 94: 1098 and 1103). "See In 3 Sent., 20.5 (III, 427-29). 82The argument in this section parallels that in chap. 1.3 above, and is based on Peter Lombard, Liber 3 Sent., 18-19 (2: 116-21). '" 1 John 3:16: Rom 5:6-8. "Rom 8:32.

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isfaction means the repayment ofthe honor due to God."" Now, the honor which humankind was bound to pay God was taken away through pride and disobedience. 86 There could therefore be no better way to restore that honor than through humiliation and obedience by one who was not bound to render it. Now Christ Jesus, inasmuch as he was God, was equal to the Father in the form of God; as a human being, he was innocent, and hence undeserving of death. When, therefore, he emptied himself, ... and became obedient unto death,87 he restored to God through a fully satisfactory obedience that which he himself had not stolen," and thus offered for God's appeasement a supremely pleasing sacrifice. 4. Finally, since the work of restoration should respect the orderly functioning of the universe, it was achieved by a means most suitable to that end. For it is most appropriate that "contraries be healed through their contraries."" Now Adam wished to be as wise as God. And so, choosing to enjoy the fruit of the forbidden tree, he sinned, yielding to his own lust and rising up in pride; through his sin, the whole human race was infected, forfeiting immortality and incurring inevitable death. And so, to heal humankind by an appropriate remedy, God-made-human willed to be humiliated and to suffer on a tree. As an antidote to universal infection, he willed to suffer a passion that was allembracing; as an antidote to lust, a passion most bitter; as an antidote to pride, a passion most ignominious; as an

85 Anselm, Cur Deus Homo, 1. 11 and 20 (PL 158: 376 D, 392 A). See In 4 Sent., 15.1.1; 2.1.1 (IV, 350·51, 361-62). "Cf. pt. 3, chap. 3. "Phil2:6-S. Cf. Peter Lombard, Liber 2 Sent., 22.4 (1: 514-15); Liber 3 Sent., 19.1-4 (2: l1S·22 ). 88 89

Allusion to Ps 69:4: "What I did not steal must I now restore?" For this maxim, see chap. 3.3 above. For the following points, see

pt. 3, chaps. 3-4.

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antidote to a death deserved but unwilled, he chose to suffer a death undeserved but freely willed. 5. So thorough was the corruption within us that it not only infected our body and soul in general, but penetrated every part of the body and all the powers of the soul. 90 Therefore, Christ suffered in every part of his body and every power of his soul, even in the highest part of his reason. Although as a spiritual principle united to things above, it fully enjoyed the presence of God, as a principle of nature attached to things below, it suffered most intensely, for Christ was a pilgrim as well as one possessing [beatific union with Godl. 6. Again, because lust so strongly infects our soul and body, giving rise to sins of both flesh and spirit," Christ suffered not only the cruelest physical pain, but also the most acute mental torment. And because his body possessed perfect physical balance and his senses were in their full vigor,92 and as his soul possessed perfect love for God and supreme concern for neighbor, his anguish in both body and soul was immeasurable. 7. Now, the swelling of pride sometimes develops from within through presumption, and sometimes from without because of vanity and the praise of others. And so, in order to counteract all pride, Christ suffered both forms of ignominy: in terms of his own suffering and in terms of the companions he had in that suffering. 8. Finally, all these sufferings did not affect Christ's divine nature, as it was incapable of suffering, but only

"See pt. 3, chaps. 5-6. Cf.In 3 Sent., 22.1 (III, 450-53). "See pt. 3, chap. S. Cf.In 3 Sent., 19.1 (III, 399-08). £12 A reference to the ancient medical theory that bodily health was maintained by a balanced proportion of the bodily humors (cf. pt. 2, chap. 4.3). Ai; a perfect human being, Christ enjoyed perfect health (ef. chap. 8.2 above).

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his human nature. Therefore, when he died, even though his soul was separated from his body, the oneness of his person remained, and thus neither soul nor body was separated from his Godhead. Now since it is precisely the union of body and soul that makes a living human being, it follows that, during those three days, Christ was not a man, although both his soul and body were united to the Word." But because death in Christ's human nature could not bring death to the person who never ceases to live, death itself perished in life. Through the death of Christ, death has been swallowed up in victory" and the Prince of Death has been vanquished. Thus humankind has been freed from death and from the cause of death by the most efficacious means: the merit of the death of Christ.

is seated at the right hand ofthe Father." These words are not to be understood as having a reference to place, which would not apply to God the Father: they refer rather to the summit of good things, meaning that Christ is established in the choicest goods of the Father.96 Finally, after an interval of ten days, he sent down upon the apostles the Holy Spirit, as he had promised;" through him the Church was gathered out of the nations and ordered according to the various offices and graces distributed to it. 2. The reason for these things should be understood as follows. Just as Christ, insofar as he was the Uncreated Word, had formed all things most perfectly, so it was most fitting that Christ as the Word Incarnate should perfectly restore all things. As the utterly perfect First Principle could not allow an imperfect work to leave his hands, so the principle ofthe redemption of humankind had to make that remedy a perfect one. And if it was to be perfect, it was thus also fitting that it be entirely sufficient and efficacious. 3. This restoration was entirely sufficient, for it embraced those in heaven, on earth, and under the earth.'8 Through Christ, those in the nether world were released, those on earth restored, and those in heaven replenished. The first deed was accomplished through pardon, the second by grace, and the third by glory. After the passion, the soul of Christ descended into hell in order to release the souls detained there; he then arose from the dead to raise to life those dead in their sins; then he ascended into

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THE PASSION OF CHRIST: THE EFFECTS OF HIS SUFFERINGS

1. Concerning the effects and fruits of the passion of Christ, the following must be held with unquestioning faith. 95 After the passion, the soul of Christ "descended into hell" or limbo, to release, not all, but those who had died as members of Christ through living faith or through the sacraments of faith. After this, "on the third day, he rose again from the dead," assuming the same body he had previously animated, but not in the same state: for the body that once was subject to pain and death rose impassible and immortal, to live forever. Forty days later, "he ascended into heaven," where above all creatures, "he

93 Peter Lombard, Liber 3 Sent., 21.1M2 (2: 131-35); cf. Bonaventure, In 3 Sent., 22.1 (III, 450-53). "1 Cor 15:54. See In 3 Sent., 19.1 (III, 399-408). 95 Bonaventure adds this stronger qualification, as the following statements are fundamental tenets of faith; the quoted phrases are from the Apostles' Creed.

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96This explanation is taken from the Glossa ordinaria on Psalm 109 (in N. of Lyra, 3: 251v). See also In 2 Sent., 2.2, dub. 2 (II, 84-85). For

further treatment of the topics discussed in this chapter, see In 3 Sent.,

22.4-6 (III, 458-64). "Cf. John 14:15-25. "'Phll2:10.

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heaven and led captivity back in order to replenish the heavenly Jerusalem;99 finally, he sent the Holy Spirit to build the earthly Jerusalem. All of these acts follow necessarily and are demanded logically for the full restoration of humankind. 4. Also, this remedy was totally efficacious for those who preceded Christ's coming as well as for those who followed it: those, that is, who came to that same Christ and who come to him now, who were and are his members. These are the ones who adhere to him in faith, hope, and love. The remedy first had to reach those who had faith in the Messiah, hoped out of that faith, and loved out of hope. Hence it was fitting that Christ should at once descend into hell to set them free. And so, the gates of heaven were opened through the passion of Christ: by making satisfaction, he removed the sword;lOo by commuting the divine sentence, he led all his members out of hell. 5. Furthermore, this remedy had to be efficacious especially for those who were to follow the coming of Christ, in order to draw them to faith, hope, and love, and so to lead them to heavenly glory. Christ's purpose, then, was first to establish us in the faith whereby we believe that he is truly human and truly God; whereby we also believe that he has willed to redeem us through his death and is able to lead us back to life through his resurrection. This was the reason that he chose to rise to an immortal life only after a fitting interval of time had elapsed - that is, thirty-six hours lO! - thus proving that he was truly dead.

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For if this period had been shorter and he had risen sooner, it might have been believed that he had not died at all, but had merely feigned death; if he had prolonged it, he would have seemed to be permanently dead, and thus believed to be powerless and unable to lead others to life. That is why he rose again on the third day. 102 6. Next, that he might arouse us to hope, he rose to that heavenly glory to which we aspire. Since hope, however, is born only offaith in future immortality, he did not ascend at once, but allowed a period of forty days to pass during which, through many signs and proofs, he demonstrated that he had truly risen; for it is that conviction by which the soul is strengthened in faith and lifted up to the hope of heavenly glory.lO' 7. Finally, that he might inflame us with love, he sent down the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost. And since no one is filled with this fire who does not ask, seek, and knock with a persevering and persistent desire,104 he did so, not immediately after his ascension, but ten days later. During this interval the disciples, through fasting, prayer, and sighs, prepared themselves to receive the Holy Spirit. 105 Thus, just as Christ had selected the right time to suffer, 106 so also he appointed the right time to rise from the dead, to ascend into heaven, and to send the Holy Spirit. These times were indeed appropriate, both for establishing the three above-mentioned virtues and because of the many mysteries implied in these times.

&9Eph 4: 8, alluding to Ps 68:18. On this reintegration ofthe heavenly

Jerusalem, see In 2 Sent., 9.7 (II, 253·54). 101) A reference to the angel with a flaming sword barring fallen humanity from entering Paradise (Gen 3: 24). Cf. Lombard, Liber 3 Sent., 18.1 (2: 111-12). See Bonaventure,ln 3 Sent., 18.2,3 (III, 391-93). 101 The symbolism of this number is explained by Augustine,De Trin" 4.6.10 (PL 42: 894-95). Cf. Bonaventure, In 3 Sent., 22.3 (III, 457-58).

102

1 Cor 15:4. >O'Cf.Acts 1:1-3. >O'Cf. Luke 11:9-13. 105 Cf. Acts 1:14. 106 According to the Glossa ordinaria, in Mark 15:33 (apud Lyranum 5: 118v).

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8. Now the Holy Spirit, who is Love and is possessed by love,107 is the source of all spiritual gifts. And so, when he descended [at Pentecost], the fullness ofthese gifts was poured out in order to bring the mystical body of Christ to perfection. Now in a perfect body there must be a diversity of members, with the various members having differing functions and duties. And since those various duties require different gifts, it follows that to one is given through

the Spirit the utterance of wisdom, to another the utterance of knowledge, . .. to another faith, ... to another gifts of healing, ... to another the working of miracles, to another prophecy, to another the discernment of spirits, to another various .kinds of tongues, to another the interpretation of tongues. All of these are activated by one and the same Spirit, who allots to each one individually just as that Spirit chooses, lOS according to his generous providence and provident generosity.

107 Bonaventure explains in what sense the Holy Spirit may be called love, In 1 Sent., 17.1.1 (1, 292-96) and 10.2.1 and dub. 2 (1, 200-01, 20506). 108 1 Cor 12: 8-11.

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THE GRACE OF THE HOLY SPIRIT

CHAPTER

1

GRACE AS A GIFT OF GOD

1. Now that we have examined the Incarnation of the Word, which is the origin and wellspring of every gratuitous gift,' we must say something about the grace of the Holy Spirit. This we will consider under four aspects: first, as a divinely given gift; second, as it relates to human free choice; third, as it relates to the habits of the virtues; and fourth, as it relates to meritorious acts. 2 2. Considering grace as a divinely given gift, we must maintain the following points. First, as a gift, grace is bestowed and infused directly by God. For truly, together with grace and in it, we receive the Holy Spirit, the uncreated gift, the good and perfect gift coming down from the Father of lights through the Incarnate Word, as John beheld in the Apocalypse: a river . .. bright as crystal, flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb.' At the same

1 By the early thirteenth century, Scholastic theologians began to distinguish clearly the 'gratuitous gift' (donum) of grace from the natural 'given' (datum) of creation. See chap. 2.2 below. Cf. In 1 Sent., IS.Ull.a (1,326-327). 'Cf. In 2 Sent., 27.2.1 (II, 669). 3James 1:17, Rev 22:1. This is 'uncreated' grace, the self-gift of God to the human person.

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time, grace is a gift by which the soul is perfected and becomes the bride of Christ, the daughter of the eternal Father, and the temple of the Holy Spirit.· This could in no way happen except by the ennobling condescension and condescending nobility of the eternal Majesty through the gift of his own grace. Finally, grace is a gift that purifies, illumines, and perfects the soul; that vivifies, reforms, and strengthens it; that elevates it, likens it, and joins it to God,5 and thereby makes it acceptable to God. This is a gift of such kind that it is rightly and properly called 'the grace that makes pleasing' [gratia gratum faciens]."5 3. This should be explained as follows. [We have seen thatl the First Principle, out of its own supreme benevolence, made the rational soul capable of enjoying eternal happiness; furthermore, as the restoring principle, that it rectified for salvation that capacity which had been weakened by sin.' Now, eternal happiness consists in possess• Cf. Alexander of Hales, Summa, 2.1.1.3.1 (13: 509). Since God is triune, the self-gift of God to the human person implies an intimate relationship with each of the divine persons. 5 Influenced by the Pseudo-Dionysius, Bonaventure describes grace as ordering the soul in a hierarchical pattern. Cf. The Celestial Hierarchy, 3.1-2: "a hierarchy is, a sacred order, a state of understanding, and an activity approximating as closely as possible to the divinej it is uplifted up to the imitation of God ... .It is purifying, illuminating, and perfecting" (PG 3,164-165 [pp. 153-55)). Grace 'hierarchizes' the soul through this three-fold action, setting each of its faculties in proper order, thus "lifting it up" to "imitate God." Cf. Itin. 4.3-4 (V, 306-07). See Alister McGrath, justitia Dei:A History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification, rev. ed. (Cambridge: University Press, 1998),47-48. 'See In 2 Sent. 26.1-2 (II, 630-36). Although today the conventional translation of the Scholastic term gratia gratum faciens is 'sanctifying grace/ the latter did not come into use until the post-Tridentine period. The term gratia gratum faciens was coined early in the thirteenth

century to designate God's gift of grace considered as a infused disposition or 'habit' that 'deifies' a person, thereby rendering that

person acceptable to God. Cf.In 2 Sent., 4.1.2, ad 3 (II, 134). Cf. McGrath, 100-109,189. 7 See above, pt. 2, chap. 9; pt. 4, chap. 1.

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ing the supreme good, which is God - a good immeasurably surpassing anything human service could merit. No person is in any way worthy to attain this supreme good, which totally exceeds the limits of human nature, unless elevated above self through the condescending action of God. Not that God comes down in the terms of the immutable divine essence, but rather through an influence that emanates from God. Neither is the soul lifted up in a physical sense, but by virtue of a habit that renders it conformed to God.' If then, the rational spirit is to become worthy of eternal happiness, it must partake ofthis God-conforming influence. This influence that renders the soul dei-form comes from God, conforms us to God, and leads to God as our end. It therefore restores the image of our mind to likeness with the blessed Trinity - not only in terms of its order of origin, but also in terms of its rectitude of choice and of its rest in enjoying [Godl.And since a soul possessing these qualities is led back immediately to God and directly conformed to God, this grace is therefore given immediately by God acting as the source of this infiowing. Hence, just as the image of God emanates immediately from God, so too does the likeness of God, which is the same image but in its God-conformed perfection. It is called, therefore, the image of the new creation. 9 4. Again, the one who enjoys God possesses God. Hence, it follows that together with that grace which, by its God-

8 The term 'habit' (habitus) designates a permanent state or disposition within a thing, as distinct from a transitory act. Thirteenthcentury theologians introduced this Aristotelian notion to express their conviction that God's self-gift of grace has a transformative effect on human nature. For Bonaventure, God's loving 'descent' in grace 'lifts up' the soul through its hierarchical acts of ,deification,' restoring its original likeness to God.

'See In 2 Sent., 26.3-4 (II, 637-41); In 1 Sent.; 14.2.2 (l, 250-53).

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conforming nature, leads to the enjoyment of God, there is also bestowed the uncreated gift, the Holy Spirit. Whoever possesses it possesses God's own sel£ 10 5. Now no one possesses God without being possessed by God in a special way. And no one possesses and is possessed by God without loving God and being loved by God in a particular and incomparable manner, as in the case of a bride and groom where each loves and is loved by the other. And no one is loved in this way without being adopted as a child entitled to an eternal inheritance. Therefore, the 'grace which makes pleasing' makes the soul the temple of God, the bride of Christ, and the daughter of the eternal Father. And since this cannot occur except through a supremely gracious condescension of the part of God, it could not be caused by some naturally implanted habit, but only by a free gift divinely infused. This is most evident if we consider what it truly means to be God's temple and God's child, and to be joined to God as in wedlock by the bond oflove and grace. 11 6. Finally, our mind is not conformed to the blessed Trinity except through the uprightness of our free choice, and this occurs only through the strength of virtue, the splendor of truth, and the fervor oflove. For the strength of virtue cleanses, strengthens, and elevates the soul; the splendor of truth enlightens and reforms it, conforming it to God; and the fervor of love perfects and vivifies it and unites it with God. When all this is accomplished, a person is made pleasing and acceptable to God. It so follows that this God:likening influence is said to have all ten of the above-mentioned effects, although it is

named only from the last and most complete of them. Thus it is a called 'the grace that makes pleasing' [gratis gratum faciensl because it makes the one who possesses it acceptable in God's sight. For not only is it given freely by God, it also conforms to God and leads to God as an end, so that the work that came from God might return to God. In this way, it achieves, in the manner of an intelligible circle, the fulfillment of all rational spirits.'2

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10 Just as only the person of the Word became incarnate, so too Bonaventure believes there is a special union effected between the person of the Holy Spirit and the created human will (In 1 Sent., 14.2.1 [1,249-50)). Cf.In 1 Sent., 17.1.un.1(1, 294). 11 See In 2 Sent., 29.1.1 (II, 695-96).

CHAPTER

2

GRACE AS THE CONDITION OF MERITORIOUS ACTS

1. In the second place, we ought to consider the grace of the Holy Spirit in its relation to human free choice, and this under two aspects: first, in what way this grace is an aid to performing meritorious acts, and second, in what way it is a remedy against sin. 2. With regard to God's grace assisting human beings to perform meritorious acts, we should maintain that, in this case, the word 'grace' may be used in several senses: general, particular, and proper.1' a) Speaking very generally, 'grace' refers to the assistance generously and freely granted by God to a creature for any of its activities whatsoever. Without this support, we could do nothing; in fact, we could not even continue to exist.

See above, pt. 2, chap. 12. Bonaventure follows the pattern set by Philip, Chancellor of the University of Paris (1218-30), by distinguishing (a) the divine concursuS given with creation - 'grace' in the loosest sense - from God's gratuitous supernatural gift. And within the latter category he draws a further distinction between (c) the healing grace ofjustification (gratia gratum faciens), which he has already introduced in chap. 1, and (b) a divine assistance (gratia gratis data) that is not grace in the same strict sense. Cf. In 2 Sent., 27.dub.1 (II, 669). 12

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b) Speaking more particularly, 'grace' refers to the assistance that God gives human beings so that they might prepare themselves for receiving the gift of the Holy Spirit, which is the condition by which we are able to perform meritorious deeds. This is called 'gratuitously given grace' [gratia gratis datal. Without it, we could not do sufficiently what lies within us to prepare ourselves for salvation.'· c) But in its most proper sense, 'grace' refers to that assistance that God gives us for the actual acquisition of merit. This gift is called 'the grace that makes pleasing,' without which no one may acquire merit, advance in good, or attain eternal salvation. This grace, as the root of merit, precedes all our merits. Hence, it is said to "go before the unwilling, that they may will, and it follows the willing that they may not will in vain."l5 Therefore no one can merit this grace in the full sense ofthe word [de condigno J. And yet "grace itself merits to be increased by God in this life and that increase merits perfection" in our homeland and everlasting glory

by that same God;16 who alone has power to infuse, augment, and perfect that grace according to the cooperation of our will and according to God's own purpose or the good pleasure of eternal predestination.17 3. The reason for this should be understood as follows. The First Principle, by means of its omnipotent power and most loving munificence, brought all creation into being out of nothing. And so, of itself, the creature is non-being, for its entire being comes from another. It follows, then, that the creature was made in such a way that, because of its own deficiency, it would always stand in need of its Principle, and that this Principle, because of its benevolence, would never cease to sustain the creature.18 Thus, by the very fact the rational spirit was brought into being from non-being, it is deficient in itself. By the very fact that it is limited and needy by nature, it thus turns back upon itself, loving its own good. But by the very fact that its whole being is from God, it is totally indebted to God. And so, being deficient, it tends of itself to nothingness; being turned in upon itself, it cannot raise itself to the righteousness of perfect justice. Because it is totally indebted to God, and God does not need anything it could bestow,'9 the rational spirit can do nothing, of itself

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14 Gratia gratis data ('gratuitously given grace') designates any transitory divine assistance given to unjustified sinners disposing them to do what they can to prepare themselves for receiving the gift of the

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Holy Spirit. As Bonaventure points out, this concept was needed to explain the difference between two kinds of apparently good activity. Gratia gratis data enabled sinners to do the good that lay within their power, but such acts were not meritorious since these persons did not yet possess God's Spirit of love. However, Bonaventure believed that God accepts the good deeds of such persons, letting them 'merit' in an analogous sense (de congruo) the gift of the justifying gratia gratum faciens (sec. 3). Once justified, a person is able to perform good deeds that acquire merit for achieving salvation. In post-Tridentine theology, gratia gratis data was generally called 'actual grace,' although by that

time the term had taken on a different nuance. Cf. McGrath, 100-109, 189. 16 Augustine, Enchirid., 9,32 (PL 40: 248 [Harbert, 63], cited by Peter Lombard in Liber 2 Sent., 26.4 (1: 473-76).

16

Paraphrase of Augustine, Epist. 186, 3.10 (PL 33: 819), cited by

Lombard in Liber 2 Sent., d. 26, c. 2 (1: 471-472). Bonaventure explains these various meanings of'grace' in In 2 Sent., 27, dub. 1 (II, 670). The

relationship with merit is further developed, ibid., 27.2 (II, 661-68); 28.dub. 2 (II, 691). On the will of God's good pleasure, see pt. 1, chap. 9 above. 18 This continuing influence of God sustaining creation is known as the concursus generalis. See Inl Sent., 37.1.1.1 (I, 638-39); Bonaventure excludes it as 'natural' when he considers the workings of gratia gratis 17

data. See In 2 Sent., 28.2.3 (II, 689). 19Cf. Ps 16:2: "You are my Lord: 1 have no good apart from you"; Gen 15:1: "1 am your shield and your very great reward."

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and by virtue of its own power, to make God indebted to it -least of all owe it the everlasting reward which is God's own self - except by virtue of God's own condescension. This is why, in its deficiency, it always stands in need of God's presence, clemency, and influence to maintain it in existence. And although this divine influence is granted to all creatures, is still called a grace, for it derives, not from any obligation, but only from the liberality of the divine bounty. Again, since the rational spirit is turned in upon itself, if it is ever to prepare itself for the gift of heavenly grace, particularly in our state of fallen nature, it requires the gift of another, 'gratuitously given' grace, that makes it able to perform good moral acts. These acts are good by reason of circumstances;O which can be called good only if they derive from a right intention, that is to say, if they are done not for our own sake, but for the sake ofthe highest good. But our self-centered spirits can rise to this only if we are first moved by God through a 'gratuitously given' grace. Even so, the rational spirit, being utterly dependent on God to whom it owes everything, cannot perform any act deserving of everlasting reward without the gift of the 'grace that makes pleasing'. By this grace God condescends to it, accepting in it his own image and will, before accepting any achievement that comes from it. For, since "the cause is superior to the effect,"" no spirit can make itself better or perform a work that pleases God, unless it is itself beforehand pleasing to God; for God looks with favor first on the person, and only then on that person's offering. 22 Merit, therefore, is rooted entirely in the 'grace that

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makes pleasing' which alone makes us worthy in the sight of God; this is why no one can merit this grace as a matter of right [de condigno 1, but only in a congruous sense [de congruo ].23 4. But once we possess this grace, it merits its own increase if we make good use of it here below, and this merit is ajust claim [de dignol. Certainly, God alone is the fontal principle by which grace is poured into us. But if we consider how grace is increased, God is the sole source in terms of infusion, but grace itself is also a source in terms of merit and worthiness. Furthermore, our free choice is a source [of the increase ofgracel by virtue of its cooperating and meriting, to the extent that free will cooperates with grace and makes what belongs to grace its own. 5. In this way, not only does free will merit through grace a just title [de dignol to an increase of grace in the present life, but also an absolute right [de condigno1 to its perfecting in our homeland. This is due to a number of factors: a) the sublimity of the gift of the Holy Spirit who works with us in gaining merit; b) the truthfulness of God, who promises it; c) the unstable nature of our free choice which must consent and persevere to the end; d) the hardships involved in gaining merit;

23 Bonaventure, with the rest of the early Franciscan school, placed emphasis on the concept of'congruous merit' (meritum de congruo) for pastoral reasons. Although sinful human beings certainly have no claim on the mercy of God, this concept allowed the preacher to exhort his audience to do penance and to be confident in God's generous response

to their attempts. 'Congruous merit' meaot that an aU-good God would "See In 2 Sent., 36, dub. 5 (II, 858·59); 41.1.1 (II, 937-38). 21Avicenna,Metaphysics, 6.3 (ed. Venice 1508, 92b). On the subject of grace, see In 2 Sent., 26.5 (II, 641-44). 22 Gen 4:4: "And the Lord had regard for Abel aod for his offering."

surely recognize their best efforts as providing an appropriate basis for the divine self-gift of justifying grace. Bonaventure states in the preceding paragraph that such human efforts are not 'purely natural,'

but always a response to gratia gratis data. Cf. McGrath, 110-12, 16063.

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e) the dignity of Christ our head, who intercedes for us and ought to be glorified with his members; D the liberality of God who rewards, who could not fittingly remunerate cheaply a homage so faithfully rendered; g) the nobility of a deed springing from love, whose value in the eyes of the judge is measured by the love from which it proceeds: a love that prefers God above and beyond every creature, and thus deserves to be rewarded with nothing less than God himself, the Supreme Good. 6. For these seven reasons, the seven-fold grace makes it possible for the human spirit to merit eternal glory, through a merit that is not only de congruo, but even de condigno. CHAPTER

3

GRACE CONSIDERED AS A REMEDY FOR SIN

1. Considering grace as a remedy for sin, the following things must be held. Although free choice is "the greatest power under God,"" on its own it is liable to rush headlong into sin. Furthermore, it cannot rise from sin in any way without the assistance of the divine grace that is called 'the grace that makes pleasing.' However, this grace, even though it is a sufficient remedy for sin, is not poured into the soul of an adult without the consent of that person's free choice. Thus, we may conclude that four things concur for the justification of a sinner: the infusion of grace,

2oj.This maxim, attributed by the Scholastics to Bernard ofClairvaux, may be deduced from what he teaches in his treatise On Grace and Free Choice, esp. 3.7 and 4.9 (PL 182: 1005 and 1007). Augustine had called the free will of rational creatures "most powerful" in De moribus ecclesiae, 2.7.9 (PL 32: 1349). Bonaventure discusses the power of free will without grace,In 2 Sent., 28 (II, 674-92).

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the expulsion of guilt, contrition, and an act offree choice.25 Therefore, sin is expelled by God's grace, not by virtue of free will, and yet not without the consent of free will. For it is the role of'grace given gratuitously' to turn a person's free will away from evil and prompt it toward good, and it is the role of free will to consent to this grace or to reject it. When it consents, it receives 'the grace that makes pleasing'; having received it, it cooperates with that grace so that it might arrive at salvation. 2. This is the rationale for what we have just said. The First Principle, by the very fact that it is first and allpowerful, is the cause of everything that comes about in the universe except sins, which are "violations of divine law and disobedience to heavenly precepts."'· The only thing that is rebellious, hateful, and offensive is sin; by flouting God's command and turning us away from the unchanging good, it offends God, distorts free will, destroys the gift of grace, and imposes eternal punishment. Now the deformation of God's image and the eradication of grace are, as it were, an annihilation of the existence of morals and the gift oflife. Furthermore, the gravity of an offense against God must be measured with reference to God's own self; thus a guilt that deserves eternal punishment must be viewed as infinite. It is therefore impossible for a human being to rise from sin uuless created anew in the life of grace, unless iniquity is forgiven, and unless the eternal punishment is remitted. This can be accomplished only by the principle of creation becoming the principle of re-creation: the one who is the Word of the eternal Father, 25During the twelfth century Scholastic theologians began to isolate distinct elements in the process of justification. This fourfold scheme became standard in the early thirteenth century with theologians like William of Auxerre and Alexander of Hales (Glossa in N Libras Sent., 4.17.5 [15:275-279)]. cr. Bonaventure,In 4 Sent., 17.1 (IV, 418·34). See McGrath, 40-44. "Ambrose, De paradiso, 8.39 (PL 14: 292 [FC 42: 317]).

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Jesus Christ, the mediator between God and humankind;' who, because he creates all things from nothing, creates by himself alone without any intermediary. 3. What was deformed through the vice of sin, he recreates by restoring it through the habits of grace and righteousness; what was bound to punishment, he re-creates by absolving it fully through adequate satisfaction. It thus follows that he restores us by enduring the penalty on our behalf in his assumed nature, and by infusing re-creating grace that binds us to its source;' making us members of Christ. By these means, he makes the sinful soul- which had been the enemy of God, the whore of the devil, and the slave of sin - to be the bride of Christ, the temple of the Holy Spirit, and the daughter of the eternal Father. All this happens through the free and condescending infusion of God's gratuitous grace. 4. Furthermore, God restores us in a manner that does not impair the established laws of nature. 29 Thus, God grants this grace to free will in such a way that grace does not force it, but leaves the will free to consent. 30 Hence, if guilt is to be expelled, not only must grace be infused, but an adult's free choice must also agree to that expulsion by detesting all its sins, an act that we call contrition. I say 'adult' here, because in the case of children the faith of the Church and the merits of Christ suffice, making up for their incapacity to choose." In addition, it must agree to the infusion of grace by approving and accepting the divine gift, in what we call the movement of free will. These are the four conditions that must concur in the justification of the sinner.

"1 Tim 2:5. Cf. above, pt. 4. 28 See In 2 Sent., 26.4 (II, 640). 29 Augustine, De ciu. Dei, 7.30 (PL 41: 220). 30 See above, pt. 1, chapter 8; In 2 Sent., 25.2.5 (II, 618-20). 31 See In 4 Sent., 4.1, dub. 2 (IV, 104).

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5. Lastly, a predisposition toward a perfecting form must itself be in the likeness of that form. Thus, for free will to dispose itselffor 'the grace that makes pleasing,' it requires the help of 'gratuitously given grace'. Now, it is not the nature of grace to compel free choice but anticipate it, so that both of them pass into act together. And so, in the process ofjustification the acts offree will and grace concur in a harmonious and orderly manner. First, 'gratuitously given grace' stirs up free will, and free will must either give or refuse consent to such arousal. When it consents, it prepares itself for 'the grace that makes pleasing.' This is 'doing what lies within one's power.''' Then, 'the grace that makes pleasing' is infused into the will thus prepared, which may choose to cooperate with this grace and so obtain merit, or to obstruct it by sin and so incur guilt. If the will cooperates with grace in this way until the very end, it merits attaining eternal salvation. 6. What Augustine tells us is therefore true, that "the one who created you without you, will not justify you with

32 This phrase is part of the Scholastic maxim, facienti quod in se est, Deus non denegat gratiam ("To those who do the best they can, God does not deny grace"), which dates from the late twelfth century. This encapsulates a conviction that human beings and God have their respective roles to play in justification; when we fulfill ours by doing penance, God will respond by granting grace. However, this was often presented in a way that suggested that by 'doing what lies within one's power,' a person could put God under an obligation to reward him or her. The theologians of the early Franciscan School at Paris refined the meaning of this maxim, stressing that sinful human beings can in no way force God to act. However, using the analogy of a person who opens a shutter, thus permitting the sun's light to dispel the darkness of a room, they teach that by 'doing what lies within one's power,' a person allows the freely bestowed grace of God to dispel sin. Although a person's decision to do penance is itself a response to God's generous gratia gratis data, this concept still places emphasis on human beings' free decision to do their part. "Bonaventure frequently stresses that God does not justify human beings without their consent" (McGrath, 8385). Cf. In 4 Sent., 14.1.2.2; 17.1.1.2 (IV,).

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out YOU."" Yet it is also true that it depends not on human will or exertion, but on the God who shows mercy.'· And so it is true that we cannot pride ourselves on our own merits, for anything God crowns in us is nothing but his own gift.35 For God reserves to himselfthe generous distribution of the favors of grace, teaching us human beings not to be ungrateful or to boast in ourselves as if we had not received, but instead to boast in the Lord. ,. Nevertheless, it is also true that, although free will by itself could neither fulfill the law nor gain grace, it is inexcusable ifit does not do what it can. For 'grace given gratuitously' is always at hand to rouse it,37 and with its aid the will can exert itself to the full. When this is done, it may possess 'the grace that makes pleasing,' and when this has been obtained, it may fulfill the law and do God's will. When this in turn has been accomplished, it may attain everlasting happiness by virtue of meritorious works, which are entirely due to grace and yet entirely due to free will- even though grace is the principal cause. For, as Augustine explains, "grace is related to free will as a rider to the mount."" Like a rider, grace directs free will and leads it on, bringing it at last to the haven of eternal happiness, by training us, through its own seven-fold gift, in the deeds of perfect virtue. "Augustine, Serm. 169, 11.13 (PL 38: 923), trans. Edmund Hill, WSA 3/5: 231. 34 Rom 9:16. "Cf. Augustine, Epist. 194, 5.19: ''What else but his own gifts does God crown when he crowns our merits?" (PL 33: 880), cited by Lombard in Liber 2 Sent., 27.6 (1:484-485). "Cf. 1 Cor 1:31 and 4:7. 37 Following his predecessors in the Franciscan School. Bonaventure sees grace as always active in people's lives. His definition of gratia gratis data is very broad, not limited to specifically religious channels. See In 2 Sent., 28.2.1 (II, 682). Cf. McGrath, 103. 38 Actually, the Pseudo-Augustinian work, Hypognosticon, 3.11 (PL 45: 1632); cf. Augustine, Serm. 30, 8.10: (PL 38: 192), explained by Bonaventure, In 2 Sent., 26.6 (II, 645-46).

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4

How GRACE BRANCHES OUT INTO THE HABITS OF THE VIRTUES

1. In the third place, we must treat grace as it relates to the habits of the virtues. In this regard, there are three points to consider: first, how a single grace branches out into the habits of the virtues; second, how it branches out into the habits of the gifts [of the Holy Spirit); third, how it branches out into the habits of the beatitudes. 2. Concerning the branching out of grace into the habits of the virtues, the following must be held: that although 'the grace that makes the soul pleasing' is only one, there are nonetheless seven freely bestowed virtues by which human life is governed. Three ofthese are the theological virtues of faith, hope, and charity, and four are the cardinal virtues of prudence, temperance, fortitude, and justice. The latter is in one sense, a common and general virtue, and in another, a special and particular one. These seven virtues are distinct, each possessing its proper excellence; yet they are interrelated and of equal import in the individual soul." All are freely given and are informed by grace; yet, with the exception of charity, they can be deformed by sin. Still, they can again be reformed through penance with the help of grace, which is the origin, the end, and the form of virtuous habits.

39 For Aristotle, a 'habit' is a permanent disposition within a thing that is an immanent principle of its activity. Bonaventure, like other Scholastics, calls the virtues 'habits' to emphasize that they are perduring dispositions within the soul, orienting it toward certain actions. But as an effect of grace, the virtues are habits 'infused' by God, not innate or acquired, as is the case with natural habits. On the unity of grace and the distinction of the virtues, see In 2 Sent., 27.1.12 (II, 653-58); on the theological and cardinal virtues, see In 3 Sent., 23·33 (III, 470-731) and Hexaem., 5.1 If; 6.7 If. (V, 353 ff. and 361 ff.).

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3. This is the reason for what I have said. In the act of granting natural life, the productive principle, because of its own supreme perfection, conveys life not only in its first grade of actuality, which is life as such, but also in the second grade of actuality, which is operation. And so, in the act of freely granting life to the spirit, the restoring principle must necessarily convey this life as regards both being and operation. Now, in an individual that lives by virtue of a single life force there are many vital operations for the full expression of that life. Furthermore, these operations differ by virtue of their different objects, and so such a diversity of activities requires different habits. 40 It follows, therefore, that although vivifYing grace is one, it necessarily has to branch out into various habits for the sake of these various operations. Now, some moral activities are primary, such as believing; others are intermediate, such as understanding what is believed; and others are final, such as attaining the vision of what is understood. Through the first kind, the soul is rectified, through the second it is advanced, and through the third it is perfected. Hence, 'the grace that makes pleasing' branches out into the habits of the virtues, which rectifY the soul; into those of the gifts, which advance it; and into those of the beatitudes, which bring it to perfection.41 4. Furthermore, for perfect rectitude, the soul must be set aright in both its faces, namely, the superior and infe-

rior;42 one of these is concerned with its end as such, the other with the means that lead to it. And so, in its upward face, the soul, being the image of the Trinity, must be set aright through the three theological virtues. In this way, just as the image of creation consists in a trinity of powers with a unity of essence, so the image of re-creation consists in a trinity of habits with a unity of grace. Through these the soul is carried straight up to the supreme Trinity in a way corresponding to the appropriated attributes of the three persons." Thus faith directs the soul in believing and assenting to what is supremely true, hope in setting out for and expecting what is most difficult, charity in desiring and loving what is supremely good. 44 5. The soul must be set aright in its lower face through the four cardinal virtues. Prudence rectifies the rational power, fortitude the negative appetite, temperance the positive appetite, while justice directs all of these powers in relationship to others." Since the 'other' may be one's neighbor, or one's self considered as the object of one'saction, or still again, God, justice is said to embrace every possible power.4. That is why it is called, not only a cardinal virtue, but also a general virtue that comprises the rectitude of the whole soul; wherefore it may be defined as "rectitude of the will."" And so justice is not limited to

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42

These two 'faces' are not separate powers but two aspects of the

same human soul. Cf. pt. 2, chap. 9; Itin., 1.4 (V, 297). See above, pt. 1, chap. 6. Cf. pt. 1, 6. The theological virtues thus relate the soul directly to its end, God. 45 The cardinal virtues affect human free choice, which consists of the rational faculty and the negative and positive appetites of the will. In this way grace rectifies and strengthens the powers that are prone 43

40

According to Aristotle, De anima, 2.4 (415a 15-19). He draws the

distinction between the first and second grades of actuality, Ibid., 2.1: "Now the word actuality has two senses corresponding respectively to the possession of knowledge and the actual exercise of knowledge" (412a 22-29 [po 555]). 'Nature' is not simply a underling principle of being

that makes a reality what it is, but also a teological principle that determines how a being acts. 41 A more specific description of the way in which grace 'hierarchizes'

the soul; see chap. 1.2 above. Cf. In 3 Sent., 34.1.1.1 (III, 735-39).

44

to sin. See pt. 3, chap. 2 above. Cf. In 2 Sent., 26.un.5 (II, 643). "Augustine,De Gen. contra Manich., 2.10.14 (PL 34: 209). 47 Anselm, De veritate, 12: "Justice is rectitude of will preserved for its own sake" (PL 158: 482B [AC, p. 169)); cf. De conceptu virgin., 3: (PL 158: 436).

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those virtues relating to one's neighbor, such as equity and generosity; it also comprises those concerning oneself, such as repentance and innocence, and those relating to God, such as adoration, piety, and obedience. 6. Finally, the virtues, insofar as they are gratuitously infused, derive their rectitude originally and radically from grace; but insofar as they are means of acquiring merit, their rectitude derives from charity, which is their source, their form, and their end. Consequently, the other virtues that depend on grace are interrelated as habits and equal as meritorious acts. That is why the other habits of virtues can be formless, whereas charity cannot, for it is the form of the virtues.·' For when we possess these other virtues without grace and charity, which is their life, they are formless; but when grace is poured upon them, they gain form: they are adorned and become acceptable to God. In the same way, colors are invisible without light; but when the light falls upon them, they become luminous, beautiful, and pleasing to the eye. Thus, in terms of their cause, light and the various colors are but one, and one light is sufficient to make many colors visible. Likewise, in terms of grace and unformed habits, when the latter - are formed, they are one with grace in terms of their being gratuitous and meritorious; and the one grace suffices to convey form and acceptability to the various virtuous habits"·

48 A thing's form is its principle of perfection and,in a living being its animating principle. Building on 1 Cor. 13, Scholastic theologians tau'ght that charity. is the 'form' of the other virtues as it animates them directing them to humanity's final end: the love of God and neighbo;'

See Bonaventure, In 3 Sent., 36 (791-809). "See In 3 Sent., 23.2.5 (III, 497-500).

CHAPTER

5

How GRACE BRANCHES OUT INTO THE HABITS OF THE GIFTS

1. Concerning the branching out of grace into the habits of the gifts, the following points should be held. Although there are many gifts of 'grace gratuitously given', and in a general sense it would not be incorrect to call all divinely infused habits gifts of God, yet in a particular and proper sense, the term 'gift' refers to the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit. Isaial! enumerates and names these when he writes of the flower which sprang from the root of Jesse, that is, Christ: The spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him, the spirit of wisdom and of understanding, the spirit of counsel and of fortitude, the spirit of knowledge and of piety. And he shall be filled with the spirit of the fear of the Lord.·o Now, in this listing of the gifts, he proceeds by going down from the top, combining them in such a way that he shows at one and same time their difference, interrelationship, and order. 2. The reason for this should be understood as follows. In its supreme bounty, the restoring principle gives grace, not only through the habits of the virtues for correcting the deviations of the vices, but also to deliver us from the hindrances of their after-effects· ' through the habits of the gifts. Hence it follows that the infused gifts must be of sufficient number to provide assistance for this end. Now, because our soul needs help in seven respects, there is thus a seven-fold reason why seven gifts of the Holy Spirit are required. Indeed, our soul depends on them for making progress against the deviation ofthe vices, both in its

50ls 11:2-3, according to. the Vulgate. On the material treated in this chapter, see In 3 Sent., 34-35 (III, 734·809). "On the after-effects of the vices, see In 3 Sent., 34.1.1.1 (III, 736).

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natural powers and in its superadded virtues, in suffering, in acting, in contemplating, and in the last two ways combined. 3. In the first place, there are seven gifts of the Holy Spirit because the deviation of the vices must be repelled in the most effective way. Thus fear assists against pride; piety against envy; knowledge against anger, which is a kind of insanity;52 fortitude against sloth, which destroys the soul's power for good; counsel against avarice; understanding against gluttony; and wisdom against lust. 4. Secondly, there ought to be seven gifts of the Holy Spirit in order to assist the natural powers. The negative appetite needs help toward good in both prosperity and adversity; in time of good fortune, it is helped by fear, in misfortune, by fortitude. The positive appetite needs help in loving the neighbor, and finds it in piety; in loving God, and finds it in wisdom. The rational power needs help in considering, choosing, and following the truth: through the gift of understanding it is directed to the consideration of the truth; through the gift of counsel, to choose the truth; and knowledge to carry out what has been chosen. For it is through this gift of knowledge we are able to live uprightly in the midst of a crooked and perverse generation. 53 5. Third, the gifts of the Holy Spirit are properly seven in number to assist the seven virtues in discharging their appointed tasks. Fear leads to temperance and restrains the flesh; piety leads to true justice, knowledge to prudence, fortitude to steadfastness or patience, counsel to hope, understanding to faith, and wisdom to charity. And as "charity is the mother and consummation of all the vir-

tues,"". so is wisdom of every gift. Hence the wise man [Solomon] says,All good things came to me along with her, and in her hands countless riches." 6. In the fourth place, the gifts of the Holy Spirit are seven in number for the sake of helping us suffer in the same spirit as Christ. In accepting his passion, Christ was moved to endure his sufferings by the will of the Father, by the needs of humanity, and by the strength of his own virtue. He was moved by the will of the Father, which he knew through understanding, loved through wisdom, and reverenced through fear. He was moved by our needs, which he was led to understand through knowledge and for which he was led to show compassion through piety. Not least of all, he was moved by the strength of his own virtue, which counsel made capable of farsighted choice and fortitude, of vigorous achievement. And so the gifts are properly seven. 7. Fifth, seven gifts are given by the Holy Spirit to help us act effectively. For if our actions are to be fruitful, we must be helped to distance ourselves from evil, and this is done by fear. We must also be aided to progress in good, both that demanded by God's command and that of supererogation. In what is demanded, we are helped by knowledge, which directs our actions, and by piety, which helps us carry them out; in matters that are of supererogation, we are aided by counsel, which directs us, and by fortitude, which helps us carry them out. Lastly, we must find our rest in the Most High, both by knowing the supreme truth and loving the supreme good; the first comes about through the gift of understanding, the second through the gift of wisdom, in which there is true repose.

52 Cicero, Disp. Tuse., 4.23. Bonaventure sees each gift of the Spirit as providing an antidote to one of the seven capital sins, the root of all vice (see above, pt. 3, chap, 9). "Phil 2:15. Cf. Lombard, Liber 3 Sent., 35.1 (2:198-200).

54 Peter Lombard. Liber 3 Sent., 23.3 (2: 142~43), citing the Glossa ordinaria on Rom 14:5, which in turn was based on Ambrosiaster (PL 191,1513). 55Wis 7:11.

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8. The sixth reason that the gifts ofthe Holy Spirit are seven in number is to help us advance in contemplation. For the soul must be purified, enlightened, and perfected for the hierarchical and contemplative life. 56 We must be purified of concupiscence, malice, ignorance, and weakness: of the first by fear, of the second by piety, of the third by knowledge, of the fourth by fortitude. We must be enlightened concerning the works of reparation and of our original state; counsel grants the first, understanding the second. We attain perfection by arriving at the highest good, which is the One; this is accomplished through the gift of wisdom. Hence, the hidden knowledge [arcanum] of contemplation ends at the top, as it were, in a single cubit. 57 9. Seventh and last, seven gifts of the Holy Spirit were needed to facilitate both action and contemplation. Since the contemplative soul looks toward the Trinity, it needs three gifts to assist it: fear, to bow down before the divine majesty; understanding, to perceive its truth; wisdom, to savor or taste its goodness. 58 And since the active soul is concerned with doing [good deeds] and persevering in them, it needs the assistance of four gifts: piety, to perform them; fortitude, to persevere in doing them; and

knowledge and counsel to direct both. Thus, because direction is necessary for advancement, there must be a COmbination of gifts; and because the light of knowledge is a powerful help to guide our feet on a straight path," there are several gifts related to the understanding.

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"See above, pt. 2, chap. 8, pt. 5, chap. 1. Cf In 2 Sent., d. 22, dub. 2 (II, 528). 57 This sentence alludes to Gen 6:15-16, which describes the construction of Noah's ark. Bonaventure's term arcanum contemplationis involves a play on words: secret knowledge (arcanum) and 'ark' (arcam). This imagery had been developed by Gregory the Great,

In Ezech., 2.4.16-17 (PL 76: 982 D) and in the mystical treatise of Hugh of St. Victor, De area Noe mocali, 2.6 (PL 176: 640B). 68 Wisdom for Bonaventure is "an experiential knowledge of God." It involves both an act of knowledge for apprehending divine truth and an act of the affection for uniting the mind to it:
experiential knowledge of what is good and sweet" (In 3 Sent., 35.1.1 (III, 774). C£ McGinn, Flowering, 103. .

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6

How GRACE BRANCHES OUT INTO THE HABITS OF THE BEATITUDES, AND CONSEQUENTLY DF THE FRUITS AND OF THE SPIRITUAL SENSES

1. On the branching out of grace into the habits of the beatitudes, the following points should be held: that there are seven beatitudes, which the Savior enumerated in the Sermon on the Mount, namely, poverty of spirit, meekness, mourning, hunger for justice, mercy, cleanness of heart, and peace. so To these beatitudes, because of their perfection and fullness, grace adds the twelve fruits of the Spirit and the five spiritual senses. The latter [fruits and senses] do not represent new habits, but states of delight and the enjoyment of spiritual perceptions that fill and console the souls of just people. 2. The reason for this should be understood as follows. The restoring principle is supremely perfect, perfectly achieving restoration and reformation though the gift of grace. Therefore, the gift of grace flowing out from that principle must branch out lavishly and abundantly into the habits of perfections that are so closely related to their final end that they are rightly called beatitudes. Their sufficiency, number, and order may be deduced from the

59 60

Allusion to Luke 1:79. Matt 5:1-9. Medieval authors generally counted seven, not eight

beatitudes. See In 3 Sent., 36.1, scholion (III, 793-94). The contents of this chapter are also treated by Bonaventure, ibid., 34.1.1.1 (III, 738) and 2.1 (III, 746).

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integrity of perfection itself, from the modalities ofperfection, and from the preliminary dispositions for perfection [the gifts ofthe Holy SpiritJ. 3. In the first place, the integrity of perfection necessarily requires a complete withdrawal from evil, a perfect progress in good, and a total repose in what is best. Now, evil may stem from the swelling of pride, the rancor of malice, or from the weakness due to concupiscence. 61 And so, ifthe soul is to be removed completely from these three types of evil, three beatitudes are necessary: poverty of spirit, to deliver it from self-inflation; meekness, to deliver it from rancor; and mourning, to deliver it from lust and the weakness due to concupiscence. Now, perfect progress in good consists in following the divine example; since all the ways of the Lord are mercy and truth,62 there are two beatitudes corresponding to these two ways: hunger or zeal for justice and the desire for mercy. Finally, perfect repose in what is best may be achieved either through a clear knowledge or through a tranquil love. Hence, there are two final beatitudes, namely, cleanness of heart, for the vision of God, and peace of soul, for the perfect enjoyment of God. 4. Secondly, if we consider the modalities of perfection, there ought to be seven habits of beatitude, for there is a perfection of religious life, a perfection ofleadership, and a perfection of inner holiness. To reach perfection in religious life, we must renounce our own property, recognize the good of our neighbor, and desire the eternal good. The first is attained through poverty of spirit; the second, through meekness of disposition; the third, through heartfelt mourning. To reach perfection in leadership, two things are necessary: a hunger for justice and a desire for mercy,

for mercy and truth preserve the king.6' These two should characterize those in authority in the Church Militant. And to reach perfection in inner holiness we must have a clean conscience and complete tranquility of soul through the peace of God, which surpasses all human understanding. 64 5. Thirdly, if we consider the preliminary dispositions for perfection, we see the need of seven beatitudes. For fear makes a person turn away from evil and from its occasions. Since the love of money is the root of all evil,"' fear disposes one for poverty of spirit, which combines humility with poverty so that a perfect person is drawn away from the source of all sin: pride and covetousness. That is why poverty of spirit is the foundation of all evangelical perfection. Therefore, those who wish to attain the height of perfection should first strive to establish this foundation. As Matthew writes in his nineteenth chapter: If you wish to be perfect, go, sell your possessions - this is perfect poverty, which holds back nothing for itself - and follow me - this is humility, that makes them deny themselves, take up their cross, and follow Christ, the true foundation of all perfection.66 Fear, then, prepares the way for poverty of spirit. Piety prepares us for meekness, for those who are considerately disposed towards others do not provoke them, nor are they provoked by them. Knowledge prepares us for mourning, because through knowledge we realize that we have been cast out of the state of happiness into the present vale of misery and tears. Fortitude leads to a hunger for justice, because those possessing it bind themselves to justice so avidly that they would rather be deprived of bodily life than of this justice. Counsel pre-

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51 See pt. 3, chap. 8. 62PS 25:10.

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Prov 20:28.

"PhlI4:7. "1 Tim 6:10. "Matt 19:21·22 and 16:24. Cf. Perf eu., qq.1·2

Cv, 117·65).

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pares us for mercy, for God counsels nothing more strongly in Scripture than to show mercy, which he values more than any sacrificial offering. 67 Understanding prepares us for cleanness of heart, because the consideration of truth cleanses our heart from all fantasies. Finally, wisdom prepares us for peace, because wisdom unites us to the highest truth and good, in which all the desires of our soul find their end and their repose. 6. This peace, once attained, is necessarily followed by the overflowing spiritual delight contained in the twelve fruits [of the Holy Spirit], which signify the superabundance of delights. For twelve, the number of abundance, suggests the wealth of spiritual gifts tasted and enjoyed by the holy soul. Such a person is suited for contemplation and for the mutual beholding and embracing of Bridegroom and Bride, as this takes place by means of the spiritual senses. Then the sublime beauty of Christ the Bridegroom is seen, insofar as he is Splendor; the highest harmony is heard, insofar as he is Word; the greatest sweetness is tasted, insofar as he is the Wisdom which contains both Word and Splendor; the most sublime fragrance is smelled, insofar as he is the Word breathed into the heart; the greatest delight is embraced, insofar as he is the Incarnate Word, who dwells bodily among us and gives himself to us to be touched, to be kissed, to be embraced, through a most fiery love that lets our mind pass over from this world through ecstasy and rapture to the Father.68

7. From this discussion it is apparent that the main task of the habits of the virtues is to prepare us for the labors of the active life; that of the habits of the gifts, for the repose of contemplation;6' and that ofthe habits ofthe beatitudes, for the perfection of both. Now, the fruits of the Spirit are love, joy, peace, patience, long-suffering, kind· ness, generosity, faithful-ness, gentleness, modesty, self-control, and chastity. 70 These bespeak the delights that follow in the wake of perfect deeds. On the other hand, the spiritual senses indicate mental perceptions of the truth being contemplated. This contemplation was given to the prophets by means of revelation according to three modes of vision, namely, corporeal, imaginative, and intellectual. 71 In other righteous people it occurs in the manner of speculation, which begins with the senses and from there reaches the imagination, from the imagination proceeds to the reason, from the reason to the understanding, from the understanding to the intelligence, and from the intelligence to wisdom or even to an ecstatic knowledge, which begins in this life to reach fulfillment in eternal glory.72 8. Of these successive stages Jacob's ladder is constructed, the top of it reaching to heaven; and the throne of Solomon upon which is seated the King most wise, truly peaceful, and full oflove - the Bridegroom most fair, who is altogether desirable, upon whom angels long to look, toward whom holy souls aspire as a deer longs for flowing

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67 cr.

Hos 6:6; Matt 9:13, 12:7. Alluding to 1 John 1:14; John 13:1. For similar expressions, see ltin .. 4.3 (V, 306). For Bonaventure, the higher levels of mystic union are better expressed through metaphors of tasting and touching than of seeing: "Contemplatives truly feel more than they know" Comm. In. > 1.43 (VI, 256). Cf. McGinn, Flowering, 110-11. 68

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"Cr. Gregory,In Ezech., 2.7.11 (PL 76: 119-20). 70 Gal 5:22; the Vulgate adds three 'fruits'; -longsuffering, modesty, and chastity - to the Greek text's list of nine. 71 According to Augustine, De Gen. ad /itt., 12.6.15-12.7.16 (PL 34: 458-60). 72 This distinction of the faculties of the soul, which Bonaventure also uses in [tin., 1.6 Cv, 296-99), is taken from a popular work De spiritu et anima, 11 (PL 40: 786). This treatise, erroneously attrib~ted to Augustine, was probably composed in Cistercian circles sometime after 1170. Cf. McGinn, Three Treatises on Man, ,,67.

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streams." This fervent desire, just like a fire, not only makes our spirit ready for the ascent, but also, by a certain learned ignorance,74 it is carried beyond itself into darkness and ecstasy. This is why the soul may not only say with the bride, "We will run after the fragrance ofyour ointments," but also sings with the prophet: Night shall be my light in my pleasures.'· No one knows this nocturnal and delightful illumination but the one who experiences it, and no one experiences it except through grace divinely given, and this is given to none except those who train themselves for it. That is why we must next consider meritorious exercises.

2. Concerning the articles of faith, the following points must be held. We are bound to believe through faith many things that are above our reason, and generally speaking, everything contained and expressed in the canon of Holy Scripture. But in a particular and proper sense the term 'articles of faith' applies to those truths enumerated in the Apostles' Creed. Now, from one point of view, if we emphasize those who composed the Creed, these articles are twelve in number;77 but if we consider the basic tenets that stand as the foundation of all belief, there are fourteen articles of faith.7B 3. The reason for this should be explained as follows. The First Principle in itself is supremely true and good, and in its works, supremely just and merciful. To supreme truth is due firm assent; to supreme good, fervent love; to supreme justice, total submission; and to supreme mercy, confident prayer. Now, it is the function of grace to order our mind to due worship of the First Principle. Hence, it is grace that directs and guides us towards those practices both due and meritorious, in matters of faith, love,justice, and petition, as demanded by the supreme truth, goodness,justice, and mercy of the Blessed Trinity. . 4. Now, any truth demands belief, so a greater truth demands stronger belief, and the greatest of all truths,

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REGARDS WHAT IS TO BE BELIEVED

1. Fourth, we have to consider grace in relation to meritorious acts. In this regard we should examine four areas: h) first, how we exercise grace in the things we should believe; these are the articles offaith; i) second, how we exercise grace in the things we should love; these are all the things pertaining to the ordering of love; j) third, how we exercise grace in the things we should fulfill, that is, the precepts of the divine law; k) fourth, how we exercise grace in the things we should pray for, that is, the petitions of the Lord's Prayer.'· 78 A collage of Biblical texts: Gen 28:12; 1 Kgs 10:18; Cant 5:16; 1 Peter 1:12; Ps 42:1 (Vg 41). ,. See Augustine, Epist. 130, 15.28 (PL 33: 505); Bonaventure, In 2 Sent., 23.2.3 (II, 643·46); Se. Chr., q. 7 (V, 40); Hexaem. 2.28ff. (V, 34041); ltin., 7.5 (V, 313). "Cant 3:1; Ps 139:11 (Vg 138). 76In other words, to arrive at the eternal bliss he has just described, Bonaventure is saying that the Christian must merit it by "exercising"

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his or her grace~filled interior being through acts of faith and love, keeping the commandments, and prayer. 77 The Apostles' Creed, used only in the Western Church, is an elaborate variant of the ancient Roman baptismal creed. By the end of the fourth century, there was already a tradition that it was composed by the apostles themselves. Cf. Rufinus of Aquileia, Commentary on the Apostles' Creed, 2 (c. 405): "Being filled with the Holy Spirit, [the twelve Apostles] drafted this short summary of their future preaching, each contributing the clause he judged fitting, and they decreed it should be handed down as the standard teaching to converts" (PL 21: 337), trans. J. N. D. Kelly, ACW 20 [Westminster, MD, 19551: 29·30). "See In 3 Sent., 23-25 (III, 470-553).

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supreme belief. Now, the truth ofthe First Principle is infinitely greater than all created truth and infinitely more radiant than any light of our understanding. Hence, if our intellect is to be well ordered in its belief, it must have a deeper faith in the supreme truth than in itself; it must make itself subject to the obedience of Christ. 79 It must believe, therefore, not only what is in accord with reason, but even what surpasses reason and is contrary to sense experience. Otherwise, the intellect would refuse to honor the highest truth as it should, because it would prefer its own judgment to the command ofthe eternal light - which necessarily implies the swelling of pride and arrogance. 5. Also, a truth that is above or beyond reason is not a truth that is actually seen or apparent, but one that is hidden and extremely difficult to believe. Therefore, for our faith in such a truth to be firm, our soul must be lifted up by the light of truth and fortified by the testimony of authority. The first is realized through infused faith, the second by the weight of Scripture; both of these derive from the supreme truth: through Jesus Christ, who is Splendor and Word, and through the Holy Spirit, who manifests and teaches the truth, and also leads us to believe it.BO Authority, then, gives support to faith, and faith gives assent to authority. Now, authority resides primarily in Holy Scripture, all of which was written down by the Holy Spirit for the sake of directing the Catholic faith. Thus true faith does not disagree with the Scriptures but accepts them with a faith that is truly sincere. 6. Finally, that truth to which we are bound to assent by faith, and with which Holy Scripture is principally con-

cerned, is not just any kind of truth, but divine truth as it exists in its own proper nature or in its assumed human nature - the knowledge of which constitutes both the reward of our heavenly homeland and the merit of life here below." And so it follows that the articles offaith that are the foundations of belief are concerned either with the Godhead or with the humanity [of Christl. Now, the Godhead must be considered in the three persons: the begetting Father, the begotten Son, and the Holy Spirit that proceeds from them both; and also in its four operations: creation in the order of nature, re-creation in the order of grace, resurrection for the restoration of life, and glorification through the gift of [everlastingl glory. That is why the articles dealing with the Godhead are seven in number. Likewise, the humanity of Christ, must be considered as conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin, suffering on the cross, descending into hell, rising from the dead, ascending into heaven, and coming for the final judgment. That is why the articles dealing with the humanity of Christ are also seven in number. In all, then, there are fourteen articles, comparable to the seven stars and the seven golden lamp stands in the midst of which the Son of Man was seen walking about." 7. Now, Christ is one in two natures, the divine and the human; and there is also only one supreme truth, which is the one, primary, highest, and unique basis for our belief, and which does not change over time. Thus, in all the aforementioned articles of faith there is but one faith, a faith unchanging in the present, as it was in the past and will be in the future, although it has greater clarity and

Cf. 2 Cor 10:5: ''We take every thought captive to obey Christ." Cf. Hebr 1:3, John 1:1 and 16:13: ''When the Spirit of truth comes, he will guide you into all the truth."

81Cf. John 17:3: "And this is eternal life, that they may know you, the one true God, and Jesus Christ, whom you have sent." "Rev 1:12-16. See In 3 Sent., 25.1.1 (III, 534-38).

79

80

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explicitness for those who have followed Christ than for those who lived before his coming,just as the New Testament is clearer than the Old, although both contain these same articles of faith. 83 8. Using the twelve apostles as most trustworthy witnesses, the Holy Spirit has built into a single structure the articles of faith that were contained in the depths of Scriptures; thus, the aforesaid articles were gathered into the one Apostles' Creed. And so we can say the articles are twelve in number because there were that many apostles who composed them, for each apostle laid down one article as a living stone in the edifice of faith. 84 The Holy Spirit had accurately prefigured this in the twelve men who took up twelve stones from the bed of the Jordan to build an altar to the Lord. 85

second, that which we are, after God and for his sake; our neighbor third, as much as ourselves; our body fourth, less than ourselves and our neighbor, as a lesser good. To make us capable of this love, there were given a single habit of charity and a double commandment upon which depend all the Law and theprophets,88 not only as regards the Old Testament, but also the New. 2. This should be understood as follows. The First Principle, being first, is supreme; being supreme, it is supremely good; being supremely good, it is supremely happy and supremely delighting; being supremely delightful, it is supremely to be enjoyed. Therefore, because it is to be supremely enjoyed, we must totally cling to it with love and rest in it as our final end. 89 Now a right and ordered love, called charity, bears us principally to that good in whom it finds its enjoyment and repose. This good is itself our reason for loving,90 Thus it follows that charity loves that good above everything else as that which will make it happy, and as a consequence it loves all other things which through that good are also suited for happiness. Now, our neighbor was created to reach that happiness along with ourselves - which includes our body as well, for it was made to share that happiness together with our spirit. That is the reason why charity has but four objects: God, our neighbor, our spirit, and our body.91 3. Again, God, the supreme good, is above us; our soul, an intrinsic good, is within us; our neighbor, a kindred good, next to us; and our body, a lesser good, below us.

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REGARDS WHAT IS TO BE LOVED

1. Concerning the things we should love, the following points ought to be held. While all the divine works are very good,86 there are only four things we should love in a proper sense out of [the virtue of] charity: the eternal God, that which we are, our neighbor, and our body.87 In loving these, a fitting order and measure must be observed, so that God be loved first and above all else for his own sake;

"See In 3 Sent., 23.1.3 (III, 478-80); 24.1.2 (III, 512-14); 25.1.1 (III, 534-538). 84 Cf. 1 Peter 2:5: "Like living stones, let yourselves be built into a spiritual house." Of. note 76 above.

85

Joshua 4:1-10.

saGen 1:31. 87 This is based on Augustine, De doct. chris., 1.23.22 (PL 34: 27), as cited by Peter Lombard, Liber 3 Sent., 28.1 (2: 168-69).

"Matt 22:40. On this chapter, see In 3 Sent., 28-29 (III, 620-54); on the way in which God is to be loved, ibid., 27. 2.5-6 (III, 611-15). 89 See Augustine, De doct. chris., 1.32.35 (PL 34: 32). 90 See In 3 Sent., 27.1.1-3 and dub. 1 (III, 589-98 and 615·17). "See Peter Lombard, Liber 3 Sent., 29.1 (2: 171·72).

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Therefore, the proper order of loving is to love God first, more than all else and for his own sake; our soul second, less than God but more than any temporal good; our neighbor third, as much as ourselves, as a good on the same level; our body fourth, less than our soul, as a good oflesser degree. It is here also we should place our neighbor's body that, like our own, is a lesser good than our soul. 4. Finally, love, which is the soul's weight'2 and the origin of all spiritual attraction, tends towards oneself with ease, but reaches out to the neighbor with difficulty, and to God with still greater effort. Hence, while there are four objects oflove, there were given to us only two commandments: one that directs our love toward God, and the other that directs it to our neighbor. 93 5.And because all commandments concern either God or the neighbor as the end or that which is intended for that end - these two contain the sum of all the precepts and the fullness of all Scripture. Charity itself is the root, form, and end of the virtues, relating them all to the final end and binding them all to one another simultaneously and in orderly fashion. 94 Hence charity is the weight of a properly ordered attraction and the bond of perfect union. It maintains order as regards the different objects of love, in our desire for them and their effect on us. At the same time it possesses oneness in the habit [of the infused virtue] by having only one end

92S ee Augustine, Canf., 13.9.10:"A body gravitates to its proper place by its own weight.... Now my weight is my love, and wherever it is carried, it is this weight that carries me" (PL 32: 848-49 [WSA, Ill: 348]). On the following, see Lombard, Liber 3 Sent., 27.4 (2: 163-164). 93 Augustine,De dact. christ., 1.26.27: "So there is no need, then, for a commandment that we should love ourselves and our bodies, because it is by an unalterable law of nature that we love what we are ... but the need remained for us to receive commandments about what is above us, and what is next to us' (PL 34: [WSA II11: 117-18]). 94 See chap, 4 above.

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and one object which is most to be loved, which is the reason for our loving all other things destined to be tied with the bond of love within the one Christ as a body to the head - a body containing all those to be saved. Such oneness begins on earth, but has its consummation in heaven, in accordance with the prayer of the Lord "that they may be one, as we are one, I in them and you in me, that they may become completely one."95 When this unity is achieved through the bond oflove, God shall be all in all throughout an assured eternity and in perfect peace. 96 Then all things will be in one common love, ordered in communion, united in order, and indissolubly bound together in union. CHAPTER

9

THE EXERCISE OF GRACE AS REGARDS OBSERVING THE PRECEPTS AND COUNSELS

1. Concerning the precepts of the divine law, we must hold the following truths: that in the law of Moses there were judicial, figurative, and moral precepts, the latter being the ten commandments of the Decalogue written on two tablets by the finger of God. 97 The law of the Gospels, however, has tempered the judicial precepts by removing them, voided the figurative precepts by fulfilling them, and perfected the moral precepts by augmenting them, providing instructive lessons, incentive promises, and perfecting counsels. Among the latter are the counsels of poverty, obedience, and chastity to whose fulfillment Christ our Lord invites those who seek perfection. '8

"'John 17:22-23. "' 1 Cor 15:28. 97 Ex 31:18. 98 Cf. Matt 19:21.

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PART V

2. The reason for this should be understood as follows. Just as the First Principle is supremely good in itself, so it is supremely just in its works and in the governing of the universe. This supremely just one is zealous for justice, not only in itself but also in others. Since justice consists in compliance with the rules oflaw, it is therefore a function of divine justice to impress judicial norms on human beings and to express them, not only by declarations as in the manner of one teaching truth, but also through decrees and precepts as in the manner of a commanding will. 99 And since it is grace that makes our will conform to the divine will, it is also grace that disposes us to accept and submit to the rules of justice imposed by God-given law. 3. Furthermore, a person can submit to divine commands for two reasons - out of fear of punishment or out of a love for justice; the first motive characterizes the imperfect, the second the perfect. And so God imposed on human beings a twofold law: one of fear and the other of love, one bearing children for slavery, and the other, for adoption as children of God. !0O Those who live in a state of fear and imperfection must be frightened by judgments, guided through signs, and directed by precepts. Hence, the Law of Moses - the law of fear - contains judicial, figurative, and moral precepts. But for the perfect, those motivated by love, there are suited the plain teaching of examples, the generous promise of rewards, and the high perfection of the counsels. Hence the law of the Gospels contains all three. The law of Moses, then, differs from that of the Gospels in that one is a law of figures and the other of truth, one of punishment and the other of grace, one of the letter

and the other of the spirit, one of death and the other of life,101 one of fear and the other of love, one of servitude and the other of freedom, one of burden and the other of ease.102 4, Finally, because the rules concerning the requirements of justice are contained within the divine precepts, and justice consists in "rendering to each one his due,"103 there must be moral precepts which specify what is due to God and what is due our neighbor, thus conforming with Christ's twofold command of love. This the Holy Spirit wished to prefigure through the mystery of the two tablets that were said to have been written . .. by the finger of God.'04 Now, God is triune - Father, Son, and Holy Spiritwhose sovereign majesty deserves to be adored, whose truth ought to be acknowledged, and whose love deserves to be accepted, through our negative appetite, rational faculty, and positive appetite, in our deeds, words, and affections. Therefore, there is a threefold commandment on the first tablet corresponding to these three aforementioned duties: submissive adoration, truthful oath-taking, and sacred observance of the Sabbath. 5.And because our neighbor is an image of the Trinity, and, as an image of the Father, deserves our respect; as an image of the Son, our truthfulness; and as an image of the Holy Spirit, our love: therefore, the commandments of the second tablet are seven in number. Two concern piety: the first - to honor our parents - imposes piety; the second not to murder - forbids impiety. One concerns truthfulness, which is chiefly a matter of the spoken word - the

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101

"See In 3 Sent., 37.1.1 (III, 812·14). 100 Gal 4:24, Rom 8:15.

205

cr. 2 Cor 3:6.

'''Cf. Matt 11:30 and Acts 15:10. See In 3 Sent., 40.103 (III, 884·92). 103 According to Justinian, Digesta, 1.1.10. 10. Ex 31:18.

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commandment not to bear false witness. Four concern love, the opposites of which, lust and greed, may exist in deed or in the heart. These four commandI)lents are: you shall not commit adultery, you shall not covet your neighbor's wife, you shall not steal, and you shall not covet your neighbor's goods. lO' The order of the commandments corresponds to the damage done to justice, going from the greater to the lesser. This is how the rules concerning the requirements of justice are contained within the Ten Commandments. 6. Now, justice reaches perfection when a person has completely forsaken evil, both as a sin and as a cause of sin. Since all evil springs from a threefold root, namely, the desire of the flesh, the desire of the eyes, and the pride of life, 106 it follows that there are three evangelical counsels that sever us completely from this threefold root. They are counsels because, in order to turn us away from evil perfectly, they detach our soul, not only from forbidden things, but also from things that are legitimate and permissible but which might become occasions of sin. Hence, the counsels contain justice in a measure that is not only sufficient but also overflowing,'07 as befits the perfection of the law of the Gospels and the workings of perfecting grace. CHAPTER

10

THE EXERCISE OF GRACE

As

REGARDS PETITION AND PRAYER

1. Concerning the petitions of the Lord's Prayer, the following points must be held. Although God [the Father]

lO'Dt 5:6-21. See In 3 Sent., 37.2.1-3 (III, 821-29). 106 1 John 2:15. Bonaventure's theology of the evangelical counsels is most fully developed in Perf. eu., qq. 2-4 (y, 124-98). 107 See Bernard, Berm. in octaua Epiph., 4 (PL 183: 154 AB).

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is lavishly generous and far more ready to give than we are to receive, yet he wishes to receive prayers from us so that he might have occasion for increasing the Holy Spirit's gifts of grace. He wishes not only mental prayer, which is "an ascent of the mind to God," but also vocal prayer, which is a "petition for suitable things from God."108 He wishes that we pray, not only of ourselves, but also through the saints as through divinely appointed helpers, in order that we may gain through their intercession what we are unworthy to ask of ourselves. And lest we wander aimlessly, for we do not know how to pray as we ought,'09 God gave us a pattern for our prayer, which Christ himself composed. The sum total of what we should ask for is included in the seven petitions ofthis prayer. 2. The reason for this should be understood as follows. As the First Principle is supremely true and good in itself, so it is supremely just and merciful in its work. Because it is supremely merciful, it reaches down most lovingly to our human misery through theinfusion of its grace. However, being at the same time supremely just, God bestows this perfect gift only on those who desire it,"° grace only to the grateful, and mercy only to the ones who recognize their own wretchedness. Thus, freedom of the will remains intact, appreciation of the gift undiminished, and respect for the divine honor unimpaired. And so, because those who petition must seek divine help, acknowledge their weakness, and give thanks for benefits freely given, prayer disposes us for the reception of divine gifts. Besides, God wishes to be prayed to so that his gifts might be increased. 3. Furthermore, if our desire is to rise on high effectively in our quest for the divine gifts, our affection must 108 These two defInitions are from John of Damascus, De fide orth., 3.24 (PG 94: 1090), in the Latin translation of Burgundio (ed. E. Buytaert, c. 68, p. 267). 109 Rom 8:26. 110 James 1:17.

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be fervent, our thoughts collected on one thing, and our hope sure and strong. But our heart is often lukewarm, distracted about many things, and fearful because of the guilt of our sins, so that it does not dare of itself to appear before the divine countenance. Therefore, God willed that we pray not only mentally but also vocally, so that the words may arouse our hearts and their meaning help us gather our scattered thoughts.l11 God also willed that we pray through the saints, and that the saints pray for us. This was to give confidence to the fearful, so that those who dare not or cannot ask by themselves may succeed through suitable intercessors. In this way, humility would be preserved in those who pray, dignity manifested in the saints who intercede, and love and unity displayed in all the members of Christ, by which the lower have faithful recourse to the higher while the higher generously condescend to the lower. H2 4. Finally, the just and merciful God ought to heed only those petitions that are directed to his own honor and our salvation, those having reference to the reward of our heavenly homeland or the help we need on the way. Now there are three of the former and four of the latter. Therefore, the petitions of the Lord's Prayer, which teach us what we ought profitably to ask for, are seven in number.ll3 Those petitions dealing with the honor of God and the reward of heaven are three in number: for understanding of the truth, reverence for sovereignty, and conformity with the divine will. Put in other words, these consist in: 1. The vision of supreme truth, inaccessible except to the clean and holy. This is what we seek when we say, "Hallowed be your name," that is, may knowledge of your name be given to the perfect, holy, and clean.

2. Striving towards the greatest prize. Such an effort produces kings, and through it we too obtain a kingdom and this is requested when we say: "Your kingdom come"; 3. Enjoyment of the supreme good, which is given only to those who have their will conformed to the will of God. We request this when we say: "Your will be done on earth

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See In 4 Sent., 15.2.2.3 (IV, 375). Ibid., 45.3.1-3 (IV, 947-51). 113 What follows is a commentary on Matt 5:9·13.

III

112

as it is in heaven." The petitions dealing with our journey in this life concern either the bestowal of helpful good or the removal of harmful evil. The bestowal of helpful good is sought in terms of bread, both daily and super-substantial, covering all we need for the sustenance of our present life, in both soul and body. The removal of harmful evil is requested in the three final petitions, because all evil is either past, present, or future; put in another way, evil exists either by reason of guilt, strife, or punishment. And so we pray to be delivered from the first by begging pardon for our sins; from the second, by asking victory over our temptations; and from the third and last, by asking deliverance from the oppression of evil. Thus there are in all seven petitions through which we request comprehensively everything we ought to ask. This is indeed fitting, for the seven petitions correspond to the seven divine charisms and gifts of a sevenfold grace. 5. Therefore, it should be noted that Holy Scripture proposes for our consideration a sevenfold series of sevens: the capital sins, the sacraments, the virtues, the gifts, the beatitudes, the petitions, and, as will appear later, the endowments of glory - three of the soul and four of the body.H4 First, the seven capital sins, from which we must withdraw; secondly, the seven sacraments, by means of which we must grow; last, the seven endowments of glory, to which we must aspire; next to the last, the seven petitions, with which we must seek; and, as intermediary stages, the groups of seven virtues, gifts, and beatitudes, through which we must progress. Thus, praising the name

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of the Lord and praying to him seven times a day, 115 we may obtain the sevenfold grace of these virtues, gifts, and beatitudes, thereby overcoming the sevenfold assault of the capital sins and so attain the sevenfold crown of the endowments of glory, with the aid of the sevenfold sacramental medicine divinely instituted for the restoration of humankind.

PART

VI

ON THE SACRAMENTAL REMEDY

CHAPTER

1

THE SOURCE OF THE SACRAMENTS

1. Thus far we have examined the Trinity of God, the creation of the world, the corruption of sin, the Incarnation of the Word, and the grace of the Holy Spirit. So now, in the sixth place, we must consider the sacramental remedy.' There are seven points that should be treated in this regard; that is, we must examine their source, variation, distinction, institution, administration, repetition, and finally, the integrity of each sacrament in particular. . 2. We must maintain the following about the source of the sacraments: that they are sensible signs divinely instituted as remedies in which, "under the cover of material realities, divine power operates in a hidden manner.'" Thus, "they represent by similitude, signify by their institution, and confer a certain spiritual grace by sanctifica-

n4. See pt. 7, chap. 7; the seven capital sins were examined in pt. 3, chap. 9; the virtues, gifts, and beatitudes, in chaps. 4, 5 and 6 of this part; the seven sacraments. in pt. 6, chap. 3. mps 119:164. (Vg, Ps 118), a reference to the seven canonical hours of the Divine Office. The Rule of Benedict (16.1) comments on'the same text: "We will fulfill this sacred number of seven if we satisfy our obligations of service at Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, None, Vespers, and Compline." In Bonaventure's time, Matins (not mentioned here) was combined with Lauds.

1 Peter Lombard began his classic treatment of the sacraments by stating that "God instituted the remedies of sacraments against the wounds of original and actual sin" (Liber 4 Sent., 1.1.1 [2: 231]). Bonaventure similarly develops the prologue to his Commentary on the Fourth Book of Sentences around the metaphor of medicine (IV, 13). 2Isidore,Etymolog., 6.19.40 (PL 82: 255C), as cited by Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 13.1 (2: 311·12). Lombard incorrectly attributed this definition to Gregory the Great.

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tion" through which the soul is cured from the weakness of its vices.' They are principally ordained to this as their final end; but as subordinate ends, they also are a means of humiliation, instruction, and exercise.' 3. The reason for these things is the following. The principle of our restoration, which is Christ crucified, the Incarnate Word, disposes all things most wisely, being God, and heals them most mercifully, being divinity incarnate. Therefore, he ought to restore and heal the diseased human race in a manner suitable to the patient, the disease, the cause ofthe illness, and its cure. Now the physician is the Incarnate Word himself, the invisible God in a visible nature. The patient, humankind, is neither pure spirit nor flesh alone, but spirit in mortal flesh. The disease, original sin, infects the mind through ignorance and the flesh through concupiscence. The origin of this sin, though due principally to the consent of reason, took its occasion from the bodily senses. 6 Now, if a medicine was going to fit all ofthese circumstances, not only did it have to be spiritual, but it also had to possess something in the way of sensible signs. In this way, as sensible objects had been the occasion of the fall of the soul, they might also become the occasion ofits rising. But material signs, considered in themselves, cannot produce any effect in the order of grace, although by nature they do bear a remote representation of its nature. Thus it was appropriate for the Author of grace to institute signs

for the purpose of signifYing [grace1 and bless them for the purpose of sanctifYing." And so, by virtue of their naturallikeness these signs would represent, by virtue of the added institution they would signifY, and by virtue of the superadded blessing they would sanctifY and prepare for the grace that heals and cures our soul. 4. Again, healing grace is not given to the proud, the unbelieving, or the disdainful. It was thus fitting that God give signs that would not only sanctifY and confer grace and thus healing, but that would also instruct through their signification, humble when received, and prompt to action by their diversity. In this way sloth would be removed from the positive appetite by virtue oftheir prompting, ignorance from the rational power by their instructing, and pride from the negative appetite by their humbling. Thus the whole soul would become open to healing by the grace of the Holy Spirit, which reforms us .with respect to these three powers into the image of the Trinity and of Christ. 7 5. Finally, it is in and through these divinely instituted sensible signs that the grace of the Holy Spirit is encountered and received by those who approach them. Therefore, these sacraments are called "vessels of grace" and the "cause" of grace. 8 This is not because grace is substantially contained in them or causally effected by them, for grace dwells only within the soul and is infused by none but God. Rather, it is because God has decreed that we are to draw the grace of our healing from Christ, the supreme

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'Hugh of St. Victor,De sacram., 1.9.2 (PL 176: 317D [p.155]) . • Lombard,Liber4 Sent., 1.5 (2:234.235), following Hugh, who stated that the sacraments were instituted "for the sake of humiliation, for the sake of instruction, for the sake of exercise," De sacram., 1.9.3 (PL 176: 319A [po 156]). See Bonaventure, In 4 Sent., 1.1 (IV, 10·31). On how the sacraments provide means for exercising the virtues, see chap, 3.3 below. I> See pt. 8, chap. 3 above.

6 cr. Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 1.4: "For it was not just to signify grace that sacraments were instituted, but also to sanctify" (2:233). 7 Cf. pt. 5, chapo4.4-5. 'Hugh, De sacram., 1.904 (PL 176: 323B [po 160]).

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Physician in and through these sensible signs, "although God has not restricted his power to the sacraments.'" 6. What has been said up to this point indicates not only the source of the sacraments but also their function and their fruit. Their source is Christ the Lord; their function is to prompt, to instruct, and to humble; their fruit is the healing and salvation of humankind. It is also clear that their efficient cause is their divine institution, that their material cause is their representing by a sensible sign, that their formal cause is gratuitous sanctification, and that their final cause is the medicinal healing ofhumankind. And because a thing's name comes from its form and its end,1O these signs are called 'sacraments,' as being remedies that sanctify. For by means of them the soul is led away from the filth of vice and led towards perfect sanctification. Therefore, although the sacraments are material and sensible, they must be venerated as holy, for they signify sacred mysteries, prepare for sacred gifts, are given by God most holy, are divinely consecrated through a sacred institution and blessing, and are established in the holy Church for the most sacred worship of God. Thus they deservedly are called 'sacraments.'

always attend humanity's ailments; thus, they will endure until the end of the ages. But there were some sacraments that existed under the natural law, others under the written law, and others under the law of grace." Of all these sacraments, the last named are clearer in their meaning and of greater value because of the grace they impart. Under the law of nature, there existed oblations, sacrifices, and tithes. Then, under the written law, circumcision was introduced, rites of expiation were added, and many other kinds of offerings, tithes, and sacrifices were superimposed. However, under the new law [of grace], "other sacraments were instituted: fewer in number, more beneficial in their use, greater in their efficacy,"12 and higher in their dignity. In them, all the sacraments of earlier ages were both fulfilled and rendered void. 2. The reason for this should be understood as follows. The Incarnate Word, who is the principle of our restoration and the font and origin of the sacraments, is supremely merciful and wise. Being most merciful, he saw to it that the disease of sin should not run rampant without a sacramental remedy. Being most wise, in accord with the immutable wisdom that governs the universe with supreme order, he made use of diverse and various medicines well suited to the changing conditions of successive ages. Therefore, since "from the beginning, as time progressed and as the coming of the Savior drew nearer and nearer, and as the effect of salvation and the knowledge of truth always increased more and more, it was fitting that the signs of salvation themselves had to be changed one

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How THE SACRAMENTS HAVE VARIED

1. With regard to the variation of the sacraments, we must hold that from the very outset sacraments were instituted for the healing of humankind and that they will 9 Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 1.5 (2: 235). cr. Hugh, De sacram., 1.9.5: "It is within God's power to save human beings without these but it is not within human power to attain salvation without these" (PL 176: 323C [po 161, alt.)). 10 Aristotle, De anima, 2.4 : "It is right to call things after the ends they realize" (416b 23-24 [po 564)).

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11 Bonaventure's argument is based on Hugh of St. Victor, De sacram" 1.8.11-12, and 1.11.6 (PL 176: 313-14 and 345-47); on these three stages of salvation history. cr. Prol. 2 above. 12 Augustine, Contra Faustum, 19.13, trans. R. Stothert (PL 42: 355 [NPNF 4: 244)). Cf. In 4 Sent., 1.2 (IV, 31-46), and 2.1.1-2 (IV, 48-52).

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after the other through the succession of times, so that as the effect of divine grace increased unto salvation, at the same time its meaning might appear more evident inthe visible signs themselves."" Hence, "it was ordained that the sacrament of expiation and justification was first established as an offering, afterwards as circumcision, and finally as baptismal cleansing, since the form and likeness of that cleansing is found obscurely indeed in the oblation, is expressed more evidently in circumcision, but is manifestly declared in Baptism." That is why "those sacraments of the first days," as Hugh writes, "were a kind of shadow of the truth; those of intermediate times, a kind of image or figure of the truth; and those of this last age, that of grace, the very body of truth,"14 for the latter contain in themselves the truth and healing grace they represent, and actually impart what they promise. l5 3. Now the presence of truth and grace, which are manifest under the law of grace,16 could not be fittingly expressed in just one sign by reason of the loftiness and variety of their effects and powers. It therefore follows that in every age and under every law many sacraments were given, in order to express this truth and grace. This was especially the case with the many and varied signs that came before [Christ] during the time of figures, whose function was symbolic.17 This variety was intended to express in manifold ways the grace of Christ, and to commend it more forcefully. Through this manifold commendation, they

were to feed the little ones, train the imperfect, and impose on the stubborn a heavy burden, breaking down their resistance, taming them, and in a certain way softening them for the yoke of grace.18 4. But finally, when truth appears, the shadow fades away and the heralding figure attains its intended end; at this point both its use and its activity ought necessarily to cease. And so, when grace appeared, the ancient sacraments and signs were both fulfilled and abolished, for they were signs announcing things to come and, so to speak, heralding them from afar. 19 Then new sacraments were instituted that clearly demonstrate the presence of grace. Each in its own way commemorates the passion ofthe Lord, the origin and font of healing grace, both for those who lived before Christ as well as for us: for the former, a payment promised; for the latter, a price paid. 20 Now gTace is not due to a promise of payment except in view of its discharge; and it is due more abundantly to a price that has been remitted than to the mere promise of payment. Therefore, the passion of Christ sanctifies with greater immediacy the sacraments of the time of the new law, and a more abundant measure of grace flows from them. For that reason the former sacraments prepared for the latter and led the way to them, as the road to the destination, the sign to the reality signified, the figure to the truth, as the imperfect both prepares and leads to the perfect. 21

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13 A close paraphrase of Hugh of St. Victor,De sacram., 11.8 (PL 176: 345) [pp. 184·85]). 14 Ibid. [PL 176: 346 [po 185~86]); also, De sacram. legis naturalis et scripta_ (PL 176: 38). .oCr. Augustine,Enarrat. in Ps. 73,2 (PL 36: 931); Lombard, Lib_r 4 Sent., 1.6 (2: 236). 16 Of. John 1:17: "The law indeed was given through Moses; grace and truth came through Jesus Christ." ncr. Hebr 1:1, 9:9.

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IS Of. Hugh, De sacram., 11.4: "First, therefore, before the law he nourished the young by counsel. Then he tried by precept those exercised

under the law" (PL 176: 345 [po 184]). "Cr. Hebr 7: 18, 10:1, 11:13. See Bonaventure,In 4 Sent., 1.1.2, ad 4 (IV,15). wCf. pt. 4, chap. 10. 21 Of. 1 Cor 13:10:"When the perfect comes, the imperfect passes away."

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3

THE NUMBER AND DIVISION OF THE SACRAMENTS

1. Concerning the number and division of the sacraments of the new law, the following points must be held: that they are seven in number corresponding to the sevenfold grace which, through the seven ages of time, leads us back to our origin, to repose, and to the circle of eternity, as to an eighth age, that of universal resurrection?' Now the entry to these sacraments is Baptism: then follow Confirmation, the Eucharist, Penance, Extreme Unction, [Holy1 Orders, and Matrimony. Although Matrimony is placed last because of the disease of concupiscence linked to it, nonetheless it was established before all the others in paradise, and even before sin.23 2. These things may be explained in the following way. Our restoring principle, Christ the Lord, the Incarnate Word, is the power of God and the wisdom of God,24 and also our mercy. He therefore ought to institute the sacraments of the law of grace so powerfully, so wisely, so mercifully, and so appropriately that absolutely nothing should be wanting for our healing in our present state of life. Now, for a perfect cure, three things must concur: ex-

22 See Prologue, 2.1 and pt. 5, chap. 10 above, and In 4 Sent., 2.1.3 (IV, 52-54), Catholic beliefin precisely seven sacraments was not firmly

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pulsion of the sickness, restoration of health, and the maintenance of health once restored.25 First of all, a perfect cure requires the perfect and complete expulsion of sickness. Now in this case there is a sevenfold disease, comprising three forms of sin - original, mortal, and venial- and four forms of penalty - ignorance, malice, weakness, and concupiscence. Furthermore, as Jerome says, "what heals the foot does not heal the eye."26 And so it is appropriate that a combination of seven remedies are needed to drive out completely this sevenfold disease: against original sin, Baptism; against mortal sin, Penance; against venial sin, Extreme Unction; against ignorance, Orders; against malice, the Eucharist; against weakness, Confirmation; against concupiscence, Matrimony, which both tempers and excuses it. 3. Again, there cannot be a perfect cure without a complete restoration of health. Now the sound health of the soul consists in the exercise of the seven virtues, namely, the three theological and the four cardinal."7 Hence, in order to restore their healthy exercise, it was fitting that seven sacraments be instituted. For the healing work of Baptism leads to faith, Confirmation to hope, the Eucharist to charity, Penance to justice, Extreme Unction to perseverance - the complement and summit of fortitude, Orders to prudence, and Matrimony to the preservation of temperance, which is threatened mainly by the weakness of the flesh but is saved through honest marriage.

established until the twelfth century, when Scholastic theologians systematically developed the concept of sacrament in such a way that

their number had to be flxed at seven. The first enumeration of the canonical seven sacraments comes from the anonymous Sententiae divinitatis (c. 1147), a work of the school ofGilberl of Poitiers. This was taken up by the Sentences of Peter Lombard (1152-56), through which it gained universal acceptance. 23 Based on Augustine, De Gen. ad lit., 9.19.36 (PL 34: 408). See chap. 13 of this part. "1 Cor 1:24.

25

Based on Augustine, Enarrat. in Ps. 7, 10 (PL 36: 104).

26Comment. in Marc" 9.28 (PL 30: 616 C). On the sevenfold disease, see pt. 3, chap. 5. In viewing the sacraments as medicine combating the seven-fold infection of sin, Bonaventure is following Alexander of

Hales' Gloss on the Sentences, 4.2.1 (15:40). 27

On the seven virtues, see pt. 5, chap. 4. In this paragraph,

Bonaventure again follows an argument advanced by Alexander of Hales (Glossa, 4.3.2-3 [15: 47-49]), although he assigns the sacraments to the various virtues in a slightly different manner.

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4. Finally, a cure is not perfect unless it maintains health once restored. In the strife of the battle [of this life], spiritual health may be maintained nowhere but in the ranks of the Church, terrible as an army set in array, and this because of the armament of its sevenfold grace. This is why there have to be seven sacraments.28 Since this army consists of elements that are subject to weakening, in order that the ranks be perfectly and permanently strengthened, it needs sacraments to fortify, relieve, and replenish its members: to fortifY the combatants, relieve the wounded, and replenish the dying. Now, a fortifying sacrament strengthens either those just entering the combat, and this is Baptism; or those in the midst ofthe fray, and this is Confirmation; or those who are leaving it, and this is Extreme Unction. A relieving sacrament alleviates either venial sin, and this is the Eucharist; or mortal sin, and this is Penance. Finally, a sacrament that replenishes does so either on the level of spiritual existence, and this is [Holy] Orders, which has the function of administering the sacraments; or on the level of natural existence, and this is Matrimony, which replenishes the multitude of humanity in their natural existence, the foundation of everything else. Thus it was the first to be instituted, before all the others. But because it is linked with the disease of concupiscence and is the sacrament with the least sanctifYing power - even though in its signification it is a great sacrament29 - Matrimony is listed as the last and lowest of the spiritual remedies.

And so Baptism is designed for those just entering the fight, Confirmation for those engaged in combat, the Eucharist for those refreshing their strength, Penance for those rising from their sickbeds, Extreme Unction for those who are departing, Orders for those who break in the new recruits, and Matrimony for those who provide these recruits. And so it is evident that the sacramental remedies and armaments are both sufficient and orderly.

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28 The following justification of seven sacraments as necessary for the life of the "Church Militant" was fIrst developed by Peter of Poitiers, in his Five Books of Sentences, completed around 1170 (Sent., 5.3 [PL 211: 1229]). Thus a Christian's entire life, from cradle to the grave, is

brought under the sway of divine grace. The quotation is from Cant 6:3 (Vg).

"Eph 5:32 (Vg).

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4

THE INSTITUTION OF THE SACRAMENTS

1. With the regard to the institution of the sacraments, the following points must be held. Christ instituted the seven sacraments of the law of grace in virtue of his role as mediator of a new covenant and as principal author of a law through which he called humankind to promised eternal goods,3O gave directing precepts, and instituted sanctifYing sacraments. He instituted these sacraments in words and material elements to convey insight into what they signify and to make them effective means of sanctification. This he did in such a way that they would always signify truth, but not always effect healing - not because of a defect on their part, but on the part of the recipient. Now Christ instituted these sacraments in different ways. Some, [already existing], he confirmed, approved, and brought to perfection, namely, Matrimony and Penance; others he alluded to and merely introduced, namely, Confirmation and Extreme Unction; but others he inaugurated, brought to perfection, and received, namely, Baptism, the Eucharist, and Orders. These last three he instituted fully and was the first to receive.31 "Hebr 9:15. 310n the institution of the sacraments see: for Baptism, In 4 Sent., 3.2.1.1 (lV, 76-78); for ConfIrmation, 7.1.1-2 (IV, 163-67); for the

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2. This should be understood in the following way. Since our restoring Principle is Christ crucified, namely, the Incarnate Word, he is, by the very fact of being the Word, coequal and consubstantial with the Father. He is therefore the Word of supreme power, truth, and goodness, and as such, possesses supreme authority. Consequently, it was proper for him to inaugurate a New Testament and to provide a complete and sufficient law in accordance with his supreme power, truth, and goodness. In his supreme goodness, he held out beatifYing promises; in his supreme truth, he gave guiding commands; and in his supreme power, he established supporting sacraments. It was through these sacraments that human beings might regain their strength to follow the guiding commands, and by fulfilling them, attain the eternal promises. All this was accomplished through the law of the Gospel by the eternal Word, Christ the Lord, in as much as he is the way, the truth, and the life." 3. Furthermore, the restoring principle is not simply the Word as such, but the Word as incarnate. It is by virtue of his becoming incarnate that he offers himself to all to impart knowledge of the truth and gives himself to all those who come to him worthily to bestow the grace of healing. Therefore, being full ofgrace and truth,"' the Word Incarnate instituted the sacraments in both material elements and words, so that they might signify more clearly and sanctifY more effectively. Thus, when the elements present themselves to the eyes and the words to the ears - for these are the two senses especially equipped for gain

Eucharist, 8.1.2.1-3 and dub.4 (IV, 184-86 and 188); for Penance, 17.2.1.1-3 (lV, 435-41); for the anointing of the sick, 23.1.2 (lV, 590-92); for Orders, 24.1, 2.2-3 (IY, 615-18); for marriage, 26.1.1-2 (lV, 661-64). "John 14:6. "John 1:14.

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ing knowledge" - they convey clearly the inner meaning of the outward sign. In addition, the words sanctifY the material elements and make them more effective for healing humanity. But this healing is not granted to those who reject and oppose this fountain of grace in their hearts. This is why the sacraments were instituted in such a way that they would always bear their signification to all, but would sanctify only those who approach them worthily and sincerely.35 4. Finally, even though the Incarnate Word is the fountain of every sacramental grace, nevertheless some sacramental grace existed before the Incarnation, some did not exist until after the sending of the Holy Spirit, and some came into existence in between. That is why it was fitting that the sacraments be instituted in different ways. Now before the Incarnation there had to be both penitential sorrow and matrimonial procreation. And so Christ did not institute these two sacraments as something new. Rather, [as the eternal Word], he had already established them and imprinted them in a certain way through the dictates of nature. But he completed and confirmed them in the evangelical law by preaching repentance, attending the wedding feast, and reasserting the command concerning marriage, as may be gathered from various passages of the Gospel. 36 Also, before the Holy Spirit was sent, neither was that Spirit fully bestowed for confirming the disciples [in faith] so they could publicly confess the name of Christ, nor was there yet a full spiritual anointing to help them rise to heaven. And so Christ merely ushered in and alluded to

34 Aristotle,De anima, 2.9; 3.3 (421a 6·8; 429a 2·3);De sensu et sensato, 1 (437a 3-18). "See In 4 Sent., 1.1.2 and 4.1.2.2-3 (lV, 13-15, 102-04). "E.g., Matt 4:17, Mark 1:14-15, John 2:1-11, Matt 19:4-6.

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the two corresponding sacraments, namely Confirmation and Extreme Unction: Confirmation, by imposing his hands on the little ones, and by foretelling that his disciples would be baptized with the Holy Spirit;37 and Extreme Unction, by sending the disciples to cure the sick whom they anointed with oil, as Mark tells us. 38 But in the intermediate time, regeneration, the organization of the Church, and spiritual nourishment all took place. Thus, Christ instituted three corresponding sacraments - Baptism, the Eucharist, and [Holy] Orders - in a clear and complete manner. He instituted Baptism first by being baptized himself, then by determining the form of Baptism and revealing it to others.39 He instituted Orders by first giving authority to bind and loose the sins of humankind, and then the power to confect the sacrament of the altar." He instituted the Eucharist by comparing himself to a grain of wheat, and, immediately before his passion, by confecting the sacrament of his body and blood and giving it to his disciples. 4' Therefore, it was fitting that these three sacraments be instituted distinctly and entirely by Christ himself and be prefigured frequently in the old law, since they are the essential sacraments of the New Testament, and proper to its lawgiver himself, the Incarnate Word.

ing the sacraments belongs, as a rule, to the human race alone. And in administering any sacrament, the one ministering them must have the intention of doing so. Some sacraments require, besides the right intention, priestly or episcopal orders: a bishop is necessary to administer Confirmation and Orders, while priestly ordination is needed for the Eucharist,42 Penance, and Extreme Unction. Although Baptism and Matrimony normally pertain to priests, a person without priestly orders, particularly in case of necessity, may in fact administer them. If these conditions have been met, the sacraments may be conferred by both good and evil persons, by the faithful or by heretics, within the [Catholic] Church or outside it. Within the Church they are conferred in fact and with effect, while outside it they are without effect, although conferred in fact'" 2. This should be understood as follows. Our restoring principle, the Incarnate Word, instituted the sacraments as one who was both divine and human for the salvation of humankind. And so it was fitting that he ordained that they were to be dispensed for human beings by the ministry of other human beings. In this way, the minister would resemble both Christ the Savior and human beings in need of salvation. Now Christ the Savior brought about the salvation of the human race in a manner befitting the equity

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5

THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE SACRAMENTS

1. Concerning the administration of the sacraments, the following points must be held. The power of dis pens-

"Matt 10:13, Acts 1:5. 38 Mark 6:13. "Matt 3:13, 28:19; John 3:5. "Matt 16:19, 18:18; John 20:22-23; Luke 22:19; 1 Cor 11:24-25. .. John 12:24-25; Matt 26:26-28.

42 The challenge presented by the lay-led Waldensian movement impelled the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) to state clearly that only

priests can celebrate the Eucharist: "N obady can effect this sacrament except a priest who has been validly ordained" (DEC, 1: 230). 430n proper intention, see In 4 Sent., 6.2.2 (IV, 152-55); on the minister

of Baptism, see 5.1-2 (IV, 120-25), on the minister of Confirmation, 7.1.3 (N, 167-68): on the minister of the Eucharist, 13.1.1-4 (N, 302-07); on the minister of Penance, 17.3.1 and the whole of 19 (N, 450-57 and 499-529); on the minister of Extreme Unction, 23.2.1 (IV; 596-97); on the minister of Orders, 25.1 (IV, 641-49); on the minister of Matrimony, 27.2.1 and 28.5 (N, 678-79, 694-95) .

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oflaw, the dignity of order, and the assurance of salvation itself-for he wrought salvation in ajust, orderly, and sure way." Therefore, he entrusted the administration of these sacraments to human beings in a way that conformed to these three qualities. First of all, the equity of law demands that any human works, if they are truly human, be not performed unthinkingly; that the works of human beings as ministers of Christ be referred in some way to Christ; and that the works of human beings as ministers of salvation be referred in some general or specific way to salvation. Now, the administration of any sacrament is a work that a person does as a rational being, as a minister of Christ, and as a minister of salvation. It therefore must necessarily proceed out of a proper intention, by which a person intends to do that which Christ has instituted for our salvation, or at least to do what the Church does, which would include the same general intention, since the Church, which has received the sacraments from Christ, dispenses them for the salvation of the faithful. 3. The order of dignity demands that greater things be entrusted to the greater, lesser things to the lesser, and intermediate things to those who hold a middle. rank. Furthermore, some sacraments are principally concerned with the perfection of virtue or dignity, as Confirmation and Orders; some are connected with a basic need, such as Baptism and Matrimony, for the latter generates and the former regenerates to a requisite level oflife. Other sacraments hold a middle position, such as the Eucharist, Penance, and Extreme Unction. Hence, under general law, the first group, dealing with an elevated status, may be conferred only by bishops and pontiffs; the lesser ones may be administered by anyone with Orders and even by lay

"Ps 74:12 (Vg 73:12).

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persons, especially in case of necessity; here I am speaking especially of Baptism. The intermediate sacraments, however, can be dispensed by priests alone, who are between bishops and inferior persons, occupying a middle rank. 4. Lastly, the assurance of salvation requires that the sacraments be administered in such a way that there is no occasion for doubt. Now, no one can ever be certain of the goodness or faith of the minister; in fact the minister himself cannot be certain whether he is worthy of love or hatred'" And so, if the administration of the sacraments were reserved only to the virtuous, no one would be certain if they had received them. They would have to be repeated again and again, and so the evil of one person would prejudice the salvation of others. Neither would there be any stability in the hierarchical ranks of the Church Militant, whose principal role is the administration of the sacraments. Therefore, it was fitting that the administration of the sacraments be entrusted to persons, not by reason of their sanctity, which varies according to the condition of their will, but by reason of their authority, which always remains what it is. It was therefore fitting that this power was given to good and bad alike, to those within the Church and those without." "Qoh 9:l. 46In this section, Bonaventure is repeating the arguments of Augustine against the Donatists, but now against contemporary reform movements who had broken with what they viewed as a worldly church. The Waldensians maintained that only those who lived according to apostolic practice had the right to administer the sacraments. Thus, in 1208 Innocent III included the following statement in a profession of faith for a group of reconciled Waldensians: "We do not reject the sacraments which are conferred in the Church, ... even though these sacraments be administered by a sinful priest .... For the evil life of a bishop or priest has no harmful eftect on either the baptism of an infant or the consecration of the Eucharist or other ecclesiastical duties

performed for the faithful." The Christian Faith, ed. Jacques Dupuis, 7'" ed. (New York: Alba House, 2001), 611; hereafter TCF.

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But no one may be saved outside that unity of faith and love that makes uS children and members of the Church. Therefore, whenever the sacraments are received outside it, they are received with no effect for salvation, even though they are true sacraments. They can be of benefit, however, when the recipient returns to holy Mother Church, the only Bride of Christ, whose children are the only ones whom Christ the Spouse deems worthy of an eternal inheritance. Thus Augustine argues against the Donatists,4' "The comparison of the Church with paradise shows us that people may indeed receive her Baptism outside her boundaries, but that no one outside can either receive or retain the salvation of [eternal] happiness. For, as Scripture testifies, the rivers from the fountain of paradise flowed copiously even beyond its bounds. 48 Record indeed is made of their names, and everyone knows through what countries they flow and that these are situated beyond the pale of paradise; and yet neither in Mesopotamia, nor in Egypt, to which countries those rivers oflife extended, exists that blessedness oflife which is recorded in paradise. Accordingly, though the waters of paradise are found beyond its boundaries, there is no happiness except in paradise alone. So, therefore, the Church's Baptism may exist outside the Church, but the gift of a blessed life is found only within the Church, which has been founded on a rock and which has received the keys of binding and loosing. She alone holds and possesses the

complete power of her Bridegroom and Lord; by virtue of which she, as Bride, can bring forth children even of handmaids. And these, if they be not high-minded, shall be called into the lot ofthe inheritance; but if they be proud, they shall remain outside. All the more, then, because we are fighting for the honor and unity of the Church, let us beware of giving heretics credit for whatever of her truth that we acknowledge among them. Rather, let us teach them by argument, that whatever they possess that is derived from her unity is of no efficacy to their salvation, unless they return to that same unity."

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47 De baptismo contra Donat., 4.1-2, trans. J. R. King and C. D. Hartranft (PL 43: 153-55 [NPNF 4: 447, alt.]). Again, Bonaventure revives Augustine's anti-Donatist arguments in the context of contemporary heretical groups. The Fourth Lateran Council (1215) had re-affirmed the necessity of belonging to the Catholic Church in order to be saved: 4'There is indeed one universal Church of the faithful, outside of which nobody at all is saved" (DEC 1: 230). "Gen 2:8 and 10-14.

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6

THE REPETITION OF THE SACRAMENTS

1. As to the repetition of the sacraments, the following points must be held. It is common to all the sacraments that they should not conferred upon the same person, on the same occasion, and for the same reason, lest the sacrament fall into contempt. 49 But three sacraments in particular - Baptism, Confirmation, and Orders - may never be repeated. For these three sacraments impart a unique inner character that is never erased. 50 Of these, the character of Baptism is fundamental, for the other two cannot

49 Cf. Augustine, De baptismo contra Donat., 1.1.2: "For no sacrament may be wronged [by repeating it]" (PL 43: 109), a passage repeated by Lombard,Liber 4 Sent., 7.5(2: 279). On the material in this chapter, see Bonaventure, In 4 Sent., 6,1, but especially 6.4 and 6 9 (IV, 135-48); 7.3.3, (IV, 175); 24.2.1.1-4 (IV, 620-29). 50The idea that Baptism imparts a seal upon the recipient that cannot be erased was developed by Augustine, e,g,. in Epist. 98, ad Bonif., 5 (PL 33: 362). The concept again came into prominence in Innocent Ill's decrees dealing with the Waldensians. Alexander of Hales was the first to develop the notion that a permanent character was imprinted by the three sacraments of Baptism, Confirmation, and Orders (Glossa, 4.23.7 [15: 394-99]).

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be imprinted unless this has first been bestowed. Thus, if an unbaptized person is ordained, absolutely nothing is effected, and everything must be redone, because "when it is clear that nothing was done in the first place, one cannot consider an act a repetition."51 2. The reason for this is as follows. Our restoring principle, the Incarnate Word, in his supreme power, wisdom, and goodness does nothing inefficaciously, improperly, or fruitlessly; certainly, then, he ought to observe this all the more in his most noble works such as those that restore the human race. Since the sacraments belong to this category of divine works, it follows that a certain outrage is perpetrated against them when they are repeated on the same occasion, for the same person, and for the same reason. For this would indicate that their prior administration was inefficacious, improper, and fruitless. This would be contrary to what pertains to the supreme power, wisdom, and goodness of the restorative principle, for he always present working in and through the sacraments. 3. Now all of the restoring sacraments possess by divine power a general efficacy to restore the human race. But some of these were instituted solely as remedies against disease, while others were instituted not only {or this purpose but also for the sake of establishing, distinguishing, and setting in order the hierarchical levels in the Church. For diseases can vary, be driven out and recur, but the grades of the Church must remain firm, solid, and unshaken. That is why the sacraments concerned with recurring diseases have transitory effects; consequently they may be repeated if a new reason appears. On the other hand, those concerned with the hierarchical grades and determinate ranks of the faith must necessarily have some permanent effects that remain beyond their reme-

dial action in order to establish a fixed and stable distinction of dignities and states within the Church. This cannot be produced either by natural means or even by a transient gift of the grace that makes pleasing. It therefore must come about through certain signs impressed upon an incorruptible substance, that is, the incorruptible soul, by the incorruptible Principle in an incorruptible fashion, that is, indelibly and gratuitously. These signs are called characters, because they are indelible; they may never be assumed a second time, nor may the sacraments imprinting them ever be repeated. 4. Finally, faith may exist in three different states. This fact gives rise to a distinction among the Christian people, that is to say, among the orderly ranks of the church: the states of newborn faith, faith strengthened, and faith augmented. The first distinguishes the faithful from unbelievers, the second distinguishes the strong from the weak or infirm, the third distinguishes clerics from lay people. That is why the sacraments related to this threefold status of faith impress a character always distinguishing those indelibly marked by it, and hence can never be repeated. Now Baptism concerns the state of newborn faith whereby the People of God are distinguished from unbelievers, as were the Israelites from the Egyptians. Confirmation concerns the state of strengthened faith whereby the strong are distinguished from the weak, as are soldiers from those who are not fit for combat. [Holy1 Orders concerns the state of augmented faith whereby clerics are distinguished from lay people, as were the Levites from the other tribes. It is therefore only in these three sacraments that a character is imprinted. 5. Moreover, since the distinction between God's people and those who are not a people is first and fundamental,52

51 Decretals of Gregory IX, 3.43.3 (ed. Friedberg, 2: 648) and 5.29 (2: 833).

52Cf.lPeter 2:10: "Once you were not a people, but now you are God's people."

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it follows that the character of Baptism is the foundation of all the others. Therefore, if this foundation is lacking, nothing may be built upon it. Everything must be done anew. On the other hand, if this foundation has been laid, the other two may be impressed, and they can never again be repeated. The three aforesaid sacraments that imprint a character may not be repeated for any reason whatsoever. A severe penalty must be imposed upon those who do in fact repeat them for they insult a sacrament of God.'3 The other four sacraments, however, may be repeated without offense when new occasions arise. CHAPTER

7

THE NATURE AND INTEGRITY OF BAPTISM

1. Now, in the seventh place, it remains for us to examine the integrity of each of the sacraments. 54 AB the sacraments are seven in number, we should first consider the integrity of Baptism, since it is the portal to the others. 2. Concerning integrity of the sacrament of Baptism, the following must be held: that for anyone to be baptized validly and completely, the form established by the Lord must be said aloud: "I baptize you in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen."" No word may be omitted, none added, nor may the order given here be changed or the above-mentioned names be altered. There must be an immersion or an infusion of the entire body, or at least of its most noble part [the headl, by means of the element of water, in such a way that the washing and the vocal expression are performed simultaneously

Gratian, Decretum, de cons., d. 4, c. 118 (I: 1398). For the Scholastics, a discussion of the 'integrity' of each sacrament meant treating its constituent elements, that is its matter and form. 53 54

"Cf. Matt 28:19.

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by one and the same minister. If these conditions are fulfilled, and if there is no dissimulation in the one being baptized, a grace is bestowed that regenerates, rectifies, and cleanses from all sin. For the grace to have fuller effect, a preparatory instruction and an exorcism precede the baptism of both children and adults. Although personal faith is required in the case of adults, in the case of children the faith of another suffices." 3. This should be understood as follows. Our restoring Principle, the Incarnate Word, is an utterly perfect and sufficient principle. He should therefore restore the human race through the remedies of the sacraments in such a way that no~hing in them is superfluous, nothing irregular, and nothing incomplete. And so, it was fitting for him to arrange that the sacrament of Baptism, as well as the other sacraments, would be as complete as demanded by his power, by our salvation, and by our disease. Now, the power that restores us is the power of the whole Trinity, whom Holy Mother Church believes in her heart, confesses in word, and proclaims in signs, recognizing the distinction, properties, order, and natural origin of the three persons. This power is also that ofthe passion of Christ, who died, and was buried, and rose again on the third day. 57 Therefore, to express all these things in the sacrament which is the first of all the sacraments and in which this power is first and primarily active, there ought to be an expression of the Trinity through a distinct, proper, and orderly mention of names. This at least is the common form, even though in the early church Baptism could be done in the name of Christ, in which of course the Trinity is understood as included." This formula of Baptism "See In 4 Sent., 3-5 and 6.2.3 (IV, 63-132 and 155-59). 57Jn the words of the Apostles' Creed, which quotes 1 Cor 15:4. 58 Following Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., d. 3, c. 3 (2:245), who cites Acts 8:12. Lombard goes on to say that Baptism might possibly still be

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must also be pronounced in a properly and orderly sequence, at the same time as the triple immersion, which fittingly represents Christ's death, burial, and resurrection on the third day. And because these two powers act simultaneously and in the one Christ the Savior, both of these acts [pronouncing the formula and the triple immersion) ought to be done by one and the same minister simultaneously for the same recipient in order to preserve the unity of the sacrament and to signifY the oneness of the Mediator.59 4. Besides, our salvation first required a regeneration or renovation into the state of grace, which confers spiritual existence by cleansing the impurity, dispelling the darkness, and cooling the concupiscence that befall every person born ofAdam's seed. For these reasons, it was most appropriate that the first sacrament, which brings about that regeneration, should be constituted by that element whose natural signification expresses the aforesaid threefold effect of the. grace initiating our salvation. For water cleanses by its purity, transmits light by its limpidity, and cools by its freshness. Furthermore, it is the most common of all liquids. This is why the sacrament of our regeneration may be fittingly performed with any kind of water, for "all water is specifically the same as all other water."60 In this way no one's salvation is put in danger by the lack of the proper material element. 5. Finally, the disease within us that Baptism radically opposes is original sin. This disease deprives the soul of the life of grace and the rectitude that enables all the virtues; in a certain way it also inclines the soul towards

administered only in the name of Christ (c. 4 [Ibid.]). Bonaventure discusses this opinion,In 4 Sent., 3.1.2.2, ad 3, and concludes that it is necessary to baptize in the name of the Trinity (IV, 72-73). "Cf. In 4 Sent., 5.1.1 (IV, 122). 60 Aristotle, Topics, 1.6 (103a 19-20 [po 193]).

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every kind of sin. Transmitted at conception, "it makes a child potentially concupiscent and an adult actually SO,"61 reducing persons into slavery to the devil, submitting them to the power of the prince of darkness. 62 Thus, if it is to be an effective cure to counteract this disease, this sacrament must provide a grace that regenerates, to offset the loss of the life of grace; a grace that rectifies by means of its sevenfold power, to offset the loss of the enabling virtues;63 and a grace that cleanses of all sin, to offset the inclination to all types of disordered vices. 6. Since original sin, received from another, makes a child potentially concupiscent and an adult actually so, the adult must necessarily possess personal faith and personal contrition. But for a child the faith and contrition of others suffices, that is, of the universal Church. And because the' purpose of Baptism is to deliver both children and adults from slavery to the devil and from the power of the prince of darkness, both ought to be exorcised, so that the hostile spirits may be expelled. Likewise, both ought to be instructed: adults, so that once darkness of error has been expelled, they might be formed in the faith; children through their godparents, for they ought to know the things they should teach them. In this way the sacrament ofBaptism will not be blocked from attaining its end through some human defect. CHAPTER

8

ON THE INTEGRITY OF CONFIRMATION

1. Concerning the sacrament of Confirmation, we must hold that for its integrity a vocal formula is required. Ac-

"Peter Lombard,Liber 2 Sent., 30.9 (1: 500-01), based on Hugh of St. Victor, De sacram., 1.1.31 (PL 176: 301-02). "Cf. Rom 6:16, Eph 6:12, Col 1:13. 63 Cf. pt. 5, chap. 4.4-5 above.

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cording to the most common usage this is:"1 sign you with the sign of the cross and I confirm you with the chrism of salvation, in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. Amen." Chrism is also required, which is composed of olive oil and balsam. When the bishop traces the sign of the cross with chrism on the forehead with the aforesaid words, the sacrament is received. By it, a person is strengthened to be a fighter for Christ, to confess his name courageously and publicly.64 2. This should be understood as follows. Our restorative Principle, the Incarnate Word, was conceived from eternity in the bosom of the Father and appeared corporeally in time to humankind. And so, he restores only those who conceive him in their heart by faith, and who confess that belief outwardly when such testimony is demanded. Now a veracious witness is one who proclaims the whole truth, that is, not simply a truth that is theoretical but also practical. The latter implies not only "conformity between thought, expression, and object,"" but also the conformity of the whole person to the truth, so the reason understands it, the will consents to it, and the faculties cooperate with it. In this way one's confession is with all one's heart, all one's soul, and all one's mind: from a pure heart, a good conscience, and a sincere faith. 66 Such a confession of faith is whole, pleasing, and undaunted: whole with respect to the One of whom it is made, pleasing with respect to the ones before whom it is made, and undaunted with respect to the one who makes it. But human beings are too fainthearted for such a confession without the strengthening hand of heavenly grace. Therefore, the sac-

rament of Confirmation was divinely instituted as an immediate complement to Baptism. 3. Now, because the end determines the means to the end,.' for this sacrament to be complete, it must meet the three conditions of a proper confession of faith mentioned above. First of all, it must be whole. But a confession of faith is not complete unless a person acknowledges that Christ is truly human, crucified for the sake ofhumauity, and that he is also truly the incarnate Son of God, coequal in all respects with the Father and the Holy Spirit in the Trinity. Hence, the formula of this sacrament expresses, not only the act of confirming, but also includes making the sign of the cross and the name of the most blessed Trinity. 4. Next, a fitting confession of faith must be pleasing to the ones before whom it is made - that is, before God and before human beings." It cannot be pleasing to God unless the mind is enlightened and the conscience purified, nor can it be pleasing before our neighbor without the fragrance of a good name and a virtuous life. Hence, this sacrament's material element is a mixture of olive oil, which is transparent, and balsam, which is fragrant. This is to siguify that the confession to which this sacrament disposes and leads must combine purity of conscience and understanding with the fragrance of a good life and reputation'" so there might be no contradiction between one's words and conscience, or between one's words and reputation. Such a contradiction would prevent a confession of faith from being accepted by others or approved by Christ.

"On Confirmation, see In 4 Sent., the whole of d. 7 (IV, 163-77). 65 cr. Averroes, Destructio destructionum, disp. met. 1, dub. 22; Avicenna, Metaphysica, 1.9. GB Mark 12:30; 1 Tim 1:5.

According to Aristotle, Physics, 2.9 (200a 7-10 [po 251]). Cf Matt 10:32. 69 On the significance of the oil and balsam, see Hugh of St. Victor, De sacram., 2.15.1 (PL 176: 577BC [pp. 430-31]).

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67

68

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5. Finally, a fitting confession of faith must be undaunted. No one should avoid confessing the truth out of cowardice or diffidence; nor, in time of persecution, should anyone be frightened or ashamed to confess publicly the ignominious death of Christ on the cross for fear of suffering pain or disgrace similar to those of his passion. Now, such shame and fear show themselves mainly in the face, particularly on the forehead. And so a powerful hand is imposed on us so that we might be strengthened, and a cross is marked on our brow so that we might not blush to acknowledge the cross openly, nor fear to sustain any punishment or ignominy whatsoever for confessing the name of Christ, if the occasion should so demand. Rather, the recipient of this sacrament is made like a true wrestler who is rubbed with oil before the bout, or a hardy soldier who bears on his brow the sign of his king, the triumphal standard of the cross, with which he is prepared to penetrate safely the hosts of the enemy.70 For one cannot be free t~ proclaim the glory of the cross if one fears its suffering or disgrace. Thus St. Andrew said: "As for me, if I were ashamed of the ignominy of the cross, I would not be preaching its glory.""

body and very blood of Christ are not only signified, but actually contained under the twofold appearance of bread and wine, yet not as two sacraments, but one. Now this happens following consecration by a priest, that is, when he pronounces the form of the words instituted by the Lord over the bread: This is my body ... ; and over the wine, This is the cup ormy blood. ... When a priest who has the intention of consecrating pronounces these words, the substance of each element is transubstantiated into the body and blood of Jesus Christ, even though the outward appearances remain.72 The entire Christ is wholly contained in each of them, not in a circumscribed manner, but sacramentally. Under these same forms, he is offered to us as nourishment. Whoever receives them worthily, eating not merely sacramentally, but also spiritually through faith and love, is more fully incorporated into the mystical Body of Christ, and in it is renewed and cleansed. But those who approach them unworthily eat and drink judgment

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CHAPTER

9

THE INTEGRITY OF THE EUCHARIST

1. With regard to the sacrament of the Eucharist, the following must be held: that in this sacrament the very

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7~ The theory of transubstantiation was developed by Scholastic theolOgians to explain how Christ's body and blood could be really present in the Eucharistic elements (e.g., Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 10-11 [2: 290-303]. They were attempting to refute the view ofBerengar of Tours (+1088), who had argued that the presence of Christ in the Euch~rist could only be a spiritual one. 'TranSUbstantiation' provided a vehlCle to explain how the believer can experience the 'substance' or 'reality' (res) of the risen Lord under the sign (sacramentum) of the sensible 'accidents' of bread and wine. The term was incorporated in

the Profession of Faith of the Fourth Lateran Council (1215): "The body allusion to the third antiphon of the first nocturn at Matins on the feast of St. Martin (Nov 11): "Not in the shelter ofa buckler, nor of 10 An

a helmet, but with the sign of the Cross will I penetrate the hosts of the enemy." See Liber responsorialis (among the works of Gregory the Great, PL 78: 811D). "Presbyt. et diac. Achaiae epist. de martyrio S. Andreae (PG 2: 1223 B), which Bonaventure also cites in a sermon on the Feast orSt.Andrew (IX,464).

and blood [of Jesus Christ] are truly contained in the sacrament of the altar under the appearances of bread and wine, the bread having been transubstantiated, by God's power, into the body, and the wine into the bloo.d" (DEC, 1: 230, alt). This conciliar teaching, however, was also

motivated by the challenge of Cathar heretics, who denied that the risen Chriat had a body and that his body could be involved in human salvation. cr. Gary Macy, The Theologies of the Eucharist in the Early Scholastic Period (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984).

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against themselves, not discerning the most holy Body of Christ." 2. The following explanation helps to understand this. Our restoring Principle, Christ our Lord, is superabundant in his power and utterly wise in his awareness, and so he conferred the sacraments on us in a way that corresponded with both his wisdom and his abundance. Now Christ is most abundant in providing disease-healing remedies and his gifts of grace. And so he did not simply institute a sacrament to bring forth the life of grace in us, as Baptism, and another to increase and strengthen us in this life once we are born into it, as Confirmation. He also instituted a sacrament to nourish this life in us once we were born and strengthened, and this is the Eucharist. That is why these three sacraments are conferred on all who embrace the faith. Now, nourishment in the life of grace for all the faithful consists in preserving our devotion toward God, love for our neighbor, and our own inner contentment. Devotion toward God is practiced through the offering of sacrifice, love for neighbor through communing in a single sacrament, and inner contentment by being refreshed on our earthly pilgrimage. This explains why our restoring Principle gave us this sacrament of the Eucharist as a sacrificial offering, as a sacramental communion, and as sustenance on the way. 3. Now our restoring Principle is not only most abundant but also utterly wise, and as such, he does all things in orderly fashion. And so he gave us a sacrifice, a sacrament, and a food in a form that would be appropriate for the age in which grace is revealed, with our pilgrim state, and with our own capacity. First of all, the age in which 73

1 Cor 11:29. Bonaventure presents a very thorough treatment of

the Eucharist, In 4 Sent., 8·13 (IV, 179-314). See also his sermon, De sanctissimo corpore Christi, preached before the Roman Curia in 1264 (V, 553-56).

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grace is revealed demanded that no oblation be offered except a pure, acceptable, and all-sufficient one. 74 But no such sacrifice exists but the one offered on the cross, namely, the body and blood of Christ. It was therefore necessary that this sacrament contain the body and blood of Christ, not only in a figurative way, but actually, as an offering fitting for this age of grace. Similarly, in the age ofgrace it is fitting that the sacrament of communion and of love should not only signifY these realities but also arouse its recipients to [attain] them, so that it "accomplishes what it signifies."" Now what most enkindles us toward mutual love and most fully unites the members is the oneness of the Head. It is from him that a stream of mutual love flows into us by means of the all-pervading, unifying, and transforming power that his love possesses. Therefore, this sacrament contains Christ's true body and immaculate flesh in such a way that it penetrates our very being, unites us to one another, and transforms us into him. It does so by virtue of that burning love through which Christ gave himself to us, offered himself up for us, and now gives himself back to us, so that he might remain with us until the end of the world. 76 74 75

Cf. Hebr, chaps. 9-10. Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 4.1 (2: 251-52), who inaccurately

attributes this phrase to Augustine.

"Cf. Matt 28:20, Tit 2:14. Bonaventure argues that Christ must be 'substantially' present in the Eucharist if we are to become transformed into him. Just as the food we eat becomes part of ourselves, so a believer becomes part of Christ's body when he or she receives the Eucharist. Bonaventure clearly expresses this in a Lenten sermon: "This type is a wondrous and unending union between the eaten and the food, and there is a conversion of the one into the other. And because of this union Christ said to the eater of the sweetness of sacrament and love: place me as a sign of charity and mercy, upon your heart . .. for love is strong as death (Sg 8:6)" (V, 265). Translation by Miri Ruben, Corpus Christi: The Eucharist in Late Medieval Culture (Cambridge: University

Press, 1991), 27.

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For this same reason, the nourishment suitable for the age of grace must be spiritual, common, and beneficial. Now, the spirit is sustained by the Word of life. 77 Therefore, the embodied human spirit is properly sustained by the Incarnate Word, or the flesh of the Word, which is a common and beneficial food. Even though it is one, all are saved by means of it. For one can provide no spiritual, common, and beneficial food except the very body of Christ himself." Therefore, it necessarily follows that his body must truly be contained within this sacrament for the sacrifice to be truly atoning, the sacrament to be perfectly uniting, and the food to be perfectly nourishing. All of these things must happen in this age of the new testament, of grace revealed, and of the truth of Christ." 4. Furthermore, it is not appropriate for our pilgrim state that Christ be seen openly, since the mystery should be veiled and the merit offaith earned. It is also unseemly that the flesh of Christ be actually torn by our teeth because of the loathsomeness of such crudity and the immortality of his body. It was therefore necessary that the body and blood of Christ be imparted under the veil of the most sacred symbols and by means of congruous and expressive likenesses. so Now, nothing is better suited for food

and drink than bread and wine. Furthermore, nothing is a more appropriate symbol of the unity of the body of Christ, physical and mystical, than bread, which is made of many spotless grains, and wine, that is pressed together from the choicest grapes. 81 This is why it was under these appearances, rather than any others, that this sacrament was represented. Now, Christ was to be present under these likenesses, not by means of a change occurring in himself but in them. Therefore, when the two aforesaid formulae are pronounced, indicating the presence of Christ under these appearances, there is a change of each substance into his body and blood, the accidents alone remaining as signs that denote and express them. 5. Now, the blessed and glorious body of Christ cannot be divided into its physical parts, nor separated from his soul or from the supreme Godhead. Therefore, under each of the species the one Christ is present, whole and undivided, namely, body and soul and divinity. Hence, under the two species there is but one utterly simple sacrament containing the whole Christ. And because any portion of the species represents the body of Christ, it follows that he is as fully present in any part as in the whole, whether the species be divided or not. Thus he is not present there in the sense of being spatially confined, as occupying a place, or having a position, or as being perceptible to any of the human and bodily senses. Rather, he is hidden to every sense so that there might remain room for faith and its acquiring of merit. For this reason also the accidents retain their full operation, although they exist with-

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77 C£ John 6:64: "The words I have spoken to you are spirit and life." "Cf. John 6:53. 79 In this section, Bonaventure accepts and develops the positions of Hugh of St. Victor and Peter Lombard (De sacram .• 2.8.8 [PL 176: 467]; Liber4 Sent., 8.2.7 [2: 284-86], maintaining that the sacramental species sigoif'y two realities (res). The first, the body and blood of Christ himself, is actually contained in the sacrament; the second, the Mystical Body of Christ, composed of many members, is not contained, but only signified. Receiving the Eucharist, however, impels Christians to actualize this mystery of the unity of all believers in Christ. cr. In 4 Sent., 8.2.2.1 (IV, 195-96). 8OCf. Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 11.3 (2:299-300). One sees here a reaction by the Scholastics against the overly realistic description of the Eucharist contained in the 1059 condemnation of Berengar: "The

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bread and wine ... are after the consecration ... the true body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, and they are physically taken up and broken in the hands of the priest and crushed by the teeth of the faithful" (Macy, 36). Cf. Bonaventure, In 4 Sent., 8.2.1 (Iv, 208). 81 According to Augustine, In loan. evang., 26.17 (PL 35: 1614); cited by Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 8.7 (2:285).

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out their subject as long as they contain within themselves the body of Christ: and that is as long as they keep their natural properties and are fit to provide nourishment. 6. Finally, our capacity to receive Christ fruitfully resides not in the flesh but in the spirit, not in the stomach but in the mind. But the mind does not attain Christ except through understanding and love, through faith and charity, so that faith gives light to recognize him and charity gives ardor to love him.82 Therefore, if any are to approach this sacrament worthily, they must feed on Christ spiritually by chewing it by means of the recognition of faith and receiving it with the devotion of love. In this way they will not be transforming Christ into themselves, but instead will be taken up into the mystical body of Christ. Clearly then, those who receive it with lukewarm, irreverent, and unthinking hearts eat and drink judgment against themselves,83 because they insult such a great sacrament. So it is advised that those who judge themselves not sufficiently pure in body or spirit, or even lacking in devotion, postpone reception until they are prepared to eat the true Lamb in a pure, devout, and respectful manner.84 7. This is why it has been prescribed that this sacrament be celebrated with particular solemnity in regard to

the place, the time, the words and prayers, and even the vestments used in the celebration of Masses. In this way both the celebrating priests and the communicants might realize the gift of grace through which they are cleansed, enlightened, perfected, restored, vivified, and most ardently born up into Christ himself through a most burninglove. CHAPTER

245

10

THE INTEGRITY OF PENANCE

1. Concerning the sacrament of Penance, the following must be held: that it is "a second plank after shipwreck,"85 to which those who have been wrecked through mortal sin can resort as long as they remain in this mortal life, whenever and as often as they need to implore divine mercy. The integral parts of this sacrament are "contrition in soul, confession in word, and satisfaction in deed."" Thus Penance is complete when a sinner has abandoned all the mortal sins he or she has committed, confessed them in word, and detested them in spirit, firmly resolving never to commit them again. When these conditions are properly combined with absolution87 given by one who possesses

85Jerome,Epist. 130,9 (PL 22: 1115), cited by Peter Lombard, Liber 82The early Franciscan School, following Alexander ofRales (Glossa, 4.13.8 [15: 204·205]), emphaSized that the Eucharist was fundamentally a sign (sacramentum) of the presence of the risen Lord; only those capable of understanding that sign receive Christ's body. Thus, Bonaventure insists that animals or infidels who happen to consume the Eucharistic elements do not receive the body of Christ. Ill-disposed believers do receive Christ's body, but to their own condemnation. See In 4 Sent., 9.1.2-3, 13.2.1 (IV, 201-04, 307-09). Cf. Rubin, pp. 66-67. "1 Cor 11:29. 84 Bonaventure offers similar advice in his Instructions for Novices, 4 (VIII, 480-81).

4 Sent., 14.1 (2: 315). The image actually goes back to Tertullian, De paenitentia, 4.2-3 (PL 1: 1233). "Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent, 16.1 (2: 336). 87 The first to distinguish this fourth component of Penance, priestly absolution, was apparently Peter of Poitiers, c. 1170 (Sent., 3.2 [PL 211: 1044]). Bonaventure treats the sacrament of Penance at length, In 4 Sent., 14-22 (IV, 317-586), Greater systematic theological reflection on the sacrament of reconciliation was demanded by its increased importance in the life of the Church. Canon 21 of the Fourth Lateran Council (1215) had required that "all the faithful of either sex, once they have reached the age of discernment, should individually confess all their sins in a faithful manner to their own priest at least once a year" (DEC, 1: 245).

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Orders, the key, and jurisdiction, the penitent is absolved of sin, reunited with the Church, and reconciled to Christ through the mediation of the priestly key.ss Furthermore, the one who exercises this judgment not only possesses the power of absolution but also the power of excommunication and of the relaxation of penalties, which he properly receives from the bishop as spouse of the Church. s, 2. The reason for this is as follows. Our restoring Principle, the Incarnate Word, by the very fact of being God's Word, is the fountain oftruth and wisdom, and by the fact of being incarnate, is the fountain of compassion and mildness. This is why he ought to restore humanity through the medicine of the sacraments, and above all, to heal it of its principal disease, mortal sin, as befits a merciful high priest," an able physician, and a just judge. It this way our healing may demonstrate the supreme mercy, prudence, and justice of the Incarnate Word. 3. First of all, our healing from mortal sin through Penance demonstrates the sovereign mercy of Christ, our most merciful high priest. This mercy infinitely surpasses any human sin, whatever its nature, gravity, or frequency. That is why Christ, in his supreme mercy, receives and

pardons sinners, not only once or twice, but as often as they prayerfully beg for God's mercy. Now, divine mercy is implored sincerely and humbly when the spirit is sorrowful and repentant. Furthermore, such penitence always remains possible for human beings as long as we are in this present life, for we are always free to turn either to good and evil. We may conclude, then, that whatever the gravity, circumstances, or frequency of their sins, sinners may always seek refuge in the sacrament of Penance, through which they receive remission of their sins. 4. In addition, our healing must demonstrate the supreme prudence of Christ himself, the most skilled physician. Now, the prudence of a physician is evidenced in applying the contrary remedies91 that not only can dispel a sickness but also remove its cause. Now we sin against God by delighting in the prospect of evil, consenting to it, and carrying it out, that is, by sinning in the heart, in the mouth, and in deed. Therefore, our supremely prudent physician has prescribed a remedy against this disorder in the sinner's powers of affection, expression, and operation, originating in the hidden acceptance offorbidden pleasure. This medicine heals these same three powers by means of a penitential sorrow that is conceived in the heart through contrition, expressed orally through confession, and consummated in deed through satisfaction. Now all mortal sins lead away from the one God, oppose the one grace, and pervert the one principal righteousness of human beings. And so, to assure the complete sufficiency of the penitential remedy in all its parts, the sinner must repent of all misdeeds, regretting those committed in the past, ceasing from those of the present, and proposing firmly never to fall back into sin in the future, whether

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88

Bonaventure uses 'key' in the singular here, but he is alluding to

the 'power ofthe keys' given by Christ to Peter in Matt 16:19:"1 will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth will be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed in heaven." For Bonaventure, 'the key' possessed by priests refers primarily to a spiritual power over the internal forum by which "the obstacles that block persons from entering the kingdom of heaven are removed." See In 4 Sent., 18.1.1.1~2 (IV, 469-72), It is also important to note that Bonaventure sees the sacrament of Penance as effecting a two-fold reconciliation: the first, between the sinner and God; the second,

between the sinner and the Church. Cf. Ralph Ohlmann, "St. Bonaventure and the Power of the Keys," Franciscan Studies 6 (1946):

293-315,437-65. 890n the bishop's role as 'spouse' of the Church, see In 4 Sent., 25.1.1

(TV, 641-43). "Hebr 2:17.

"Cf. pt. 3, chap.3.3 above.

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ST, BONAVENTURE'SBREVILOQUIUM

the same sin or some other kind. It is by completely withdrawing from sin through repentance in this way that the sinner receives that divine grace which brings about the remission of sins. 92 5. Lastly, our healing ought to manifest the true justice of Christ the Judge. But he is not going to judge us in person before the last and final judgment. For this reason he had to commission judges who would pass particular judgments before the end of time. Now these judges are like intermediaries between offended God and offending humanity, being close to Christ and appointed over the people. Furthermore, these judges, namely priests, are particularly close to the Lord and familiar with him by reason of their office, having been especially consecrated to his ministry. Therefore, all those who have been appointed to the order of priesthood, and they alone, have received the power of a double key - namely, the key of knowledge for discerning and the key of the power of binding and loosing for judging and imparting the benefit of absolution. 93

92 See In 4 Sent., 14.1, dub. 4 (IV, 329-30), Bonaventure, as other theologians of the early Franciscan school, follow Hugh of St. Victor (De sacram., 2.7 (PL 176: ), in distinguishing two alienating effects of sin: personal guilt (culpa), and the consequent punishment (poena). The latter is two-fold: eternal and temporal. Since sin consists of the will's rejection of God as supreme good (ef. pt. 3, chap. 8), genuine personal contrition, as described here, reverses that rejection,

immediately remitting personal guilt and eternal punishment, thus achieving reconciliation with God. The role of the priest is secondary. The priest, discerning the penitent's sin and contrition, testifies to the divine forgiveness, and imposes an appropriate satisfaction or 'penance' on the penitent. His absolution remits some temporal punishment and effects reconciliation with the community of the Church. Cf. In 4 Sent.,

17.1.1.3·4; 17.1.2.1·4; 18.1.1-2 (N,421-32,469-72);Comm. In.(Vl,514). See Ohlmann, 451-65. 93 The fact that Christ's promised Peter "the keys to the kingdom" in the plural (Matt 16:19) led Scholastic theologians to distinguish between two 'keys' invested in the priesthood. The "key of discerning" is the

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6. Now, to avoid confusion, not every prelate exercises authority indiscriminately over anyone in the Church Militant, for the ecclesiastical hierarchy itself must be organized according to judicial power. Hence, the use of binding and loosing was granted first to one single and sovereign pontiff, upon whom universal jurisdiction was conferred as supreme head. Then this power was apportioned among the particular churches, first to the bishops and then to priests. 94 Thus, although every priest possesses ordination and the [power of] the keys, their use extends only to those subjects who are under his ordinary jurisdiction, unless he receives delegated powers over others from the one who has jurisdiction over them. Such jurisdiction exists primarily in the supreme head, then in a bishop, and finally in a priest entrusted with the care of souls. Thus, it may be delegated by anyone of them to others, sufficiently by the lowest rank, to a wider extent by the intermediate rank, and most extensively by the highest. 7. Now, this jurisdiction, as it is found in the supreme pontiff and also in bishops, extends not only to judging

power of the priest to examine the penitent so as to direct rightly the "key ofjudging" to remit punishment. Cf. Peter Lombard,Liber 4 Sent., 18.2 (2: 356); Bonaventure, In 4 Sent., 18.1.3.1-2 (N, 478-81). 94 Bonaventure's reasoning here is dependent on the Biblical witness that the "power of the keys"was entrusted first to Peter (Matt 16:19) and only then to the other apostles (Matt 18:18), but he also wishes to defend an important Franciscan ministry. The Fourth Lateran Council had decreed that Catholics must annually confess "to their own priest," i.e., their pastor (see note 85 above). In the intervening years, the new mendicant orders had become heavily involved in the ministry of hearing confessions. During the secular-mendicant controversy of the 1250's, disgruntled clergy attacked the friars for usurping their proper role. Bonaventure argues that pastors had the "power of the keys" only by delegation, and that the Papacy - which had fostered the mendicants' pastoral ministry - enjoyed the fullness of that power.

between God and persons in the internal forum, but also to judging between one person and another in the external forum. Such jurisdiction is given them as those who are responsible for the administration and care of the Church, which is entrusted them as a wife to her husband. Therefore, prelates have the power of the sword, which they may wield, through excommunication, in the defense ofjustice,'5 and also the power of generously distributing, through indulgences, the treasures of the Church's merits that were deposited and entrusted to their care by both the Head and the members. Thus, as true judges appointed by God, they possess full power of binding and loosing, of striking the impenitent and restraining the rebellious, and of absolving the truly repentant and reconciling them with God and holy Mother Church. CHAPTER

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11

THE INTEGRITY OF EXTREME UNCTION

1. Concerning the sacrament of Extreme Unction,96 the following must be held: that it is the sacrament of those departing this life, which prepares and disposes them for the perfect health [of heaven]. It also has the power of taking away venial sins and of restoring bodily health if this is for the sick person's good. The integrity of this sacrament requires that pure consecrated oil be used, certain prayers be said, and that the one who is sick be anointed on seven specific parts of the body, that is, on the eyes, ears, nostrils, lips, hands, feet, and loins. This sacra-

95 For Bonaventure, "the power of the sword" signifies particularly the power of prelates over the external forum, to coerce through the imposition of censures. In 4 Sent., 18.1.1.1; 18.2.2 (IV, 470, 486-87). 96The word 'extreme' here refers to the fact that the rite today called

the "anointing of the sick" was administered in Bonaventure's time only in extremis, that is, to a person "in imminent danger of death."

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ment should be given only to adults who desire it, and who are in imminent danger of death. It ought to be administered only by the hands of a priest. From this description it is evident that there is a sevenfold difference between this sacramental anointing and that of Confirmation: in effect, matter, form, recipient, minister, place, and time.'7 2. This is the rationale for what we have said. Our restoring Principle, the Incarnate Word, restores us as the mediator between God and humankind, Jesus Christ, himself human. '8 Inasmuch as he is Jesus, he saves;" inasmuch as he is Christ, the Anointed one, he pours out upon humankind the grace of anointing. And so it is most fitting that he impart to his members a saving unction. But in order for the soul to be perfectly healed, it needs to be made well in regard to three things - the strife of action, the sweetness of contemplation, and the delight of possession. The first pertains to those entering the ranks of the Church Militant; the second to its leaders who are to teach others, and the third to those who are leaving the Church Militant through death. Thus the Lord did not simply institute the first sacramental anointing of Confirmation, but an intermediate one in ordination, and an Extreme Unction for those in imminent danger of death. 3. Now, because the end necessarily determines the means to the end, 100 it follows that this sacrament must act, and be constituted, received, and conferred in a manner that conforms to its end. First of all, the action of this sacrament should be determined by its end, which is to make the attainment of salvation, that is, eternal happi-

Ibid., the whole of d. 23 (IV, 587-602). 1 Tim 2:5. 99 Cf. Matt 1:21: «You are to name him Jesus, for he will save his

97 98

people from their sins." 100 Aristotle, Physics, 2.9 (200a 7-10).

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ness, swifter and easier for those who receive it. Now this is accomplished by devotion, which raises us up, and by the remission of venial sins and their consequences, which drag us down. Thus it follows that this sacrament must prompt devotion, remit venial sin, and more readily remove the stain of sin. Moreover, it is expedient that many of those who are sick should live longer in order to increase their merit. And so this sacrament, while strengthening the soul in good and exonerating it of evil, often also gives relief from physical disease. And that is what blessed James means when he writes that: "the prayer offaith will save the sick . .. and anyone who has committed sins will be forgiven. "101 4. Second, the constitution of this sacrament must be determined by its end, which is to restore spiritual health through deliverance from sin. Now, such health depends in turn on the soundness and purity ofthe inner conscience upon which the heavenly Judge will pass judgment. Hence, the matter of this sacrament ought fittingly to be oil, pure and consecrated, which signifies the holiness and brightness of the sanctuary of the conscience}02 But because mortal human beings do not have the power to restore spiritual health, the prayers and words of this sacrament are deprecative in form, making an appeal for grace. And since the soul contracts spiritual diseases in the body, originating in the four principal powers ofthat body - the sensitive, the expressive, the generative, and the locomotive - the organs serving these powers ought to be anointed. Now, there are five organs that are the vehicles of our senses: the eyes for seeing, the ears for hearing, the nose for smelling, the hands for feeling, and the mouth for tasting. The latter also is the organ for another power, that of

101

James 5:15.

102 See

above, chap. 8, 4.

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expression, while the feet serve for locomotion and the loins generation - for it would be improper and shameful [for the minister] to touch or even mention by name the genitals themselves. For these reasons, the anointing ought to be made on the seven parts here named, so that by this sacrament a person may be disposed toward the fullness of spiritual health through the removal of all venial sin. 5. Finally, the reception of this sacrament should also be determined by its end, which is to make our passage to heaven more rapid through the unburdening of venial sin and the turning our mind to God. Therefore, it should be given only to adults, who sin venially, and only to those who request it with a devout heart. It should also be given only to those who are in danger of death, indeed already entering the passage to another state. Now this is a sacrament for those in danger of death, and yet it has a sacred matter, that is, consecrated oil. And so, in order to avoid any danger [that dying persons might not be able receive it], its administration is entrusted to priests generally, but only to priests, because consecrated oil should be touched only by consecrated hands. 6. And so [the two anointings of] Confirmation and Extreme Unction, differing as they do in their end, differ also in their effect, matter, form, place, occasion, recipient, and minister. They differ in their effect, for the former disposes a person to fight better, the latter helps a person to leave the world more swiftly. They differ in their matter, for the former uses oil mixed with balsam, the latter, pure oil. They differ in form, for he first is indicative, the other deprecative. They differ in regard to place, the former is applied to the forehead only, the latter, to several parts. They differ in occasion, for the former is received by those in good health, the latter, by those who are ill. They differ in terms of their recipient, for the former may be given not only to adults but also to infants, the latter, to adults only. And they differ in regard to their minister, for the

ST.

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former is conferred by a bishop, the latter, by any priest. All these differences are determined by the difference in their ends, for it is clear that a difference in proximate ends causes a difference in the means to them. CHAPTER

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12

THE INTEGRITY OF ORDERS

1. Concerning the sacrament of [Holy] Orders, the following sums up what we must hold: that "ordination is a certain sign whereby spiritual power is conferred on the person ordained."'03 Although' Orders is but one of seven sacraments, it contains within itself seven grades. The first is that of porter, the second lector, the third exorcist, the fourth acolyte, the fifth subdeacon, the sixth deacon, and the seventh priest. Below these degrees, as a type of preparation, are clerical tonsure and psalmist; above them are positioned, as a perfection, the ranks of bishop, patriarch, and Pope. It is from these latter ranks that these orders derive, and to them it pertains to confer them with fitting signs that are both seen and heard, and in accordance with all due solemnity as regards time, place, and recipient. 2. This should be understood as follows. Our restoring Principle, the Incarnate Word, being both God and human, instituted the medicine of the sacraments for the salvation of humankind in an orderly, distinct, and powerful way, in accord with the demands of his goodness, wisdom, and might. And so, when he entrusted this sacramental remedy to human beings, he willed that it be dispensed,

103 Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 24.13 (2: 405). For Bonaventure's discussion of Orders, see In 4 Sent., d. 24-25 (N, 607-69). Like other Scholastics, Bonaventure refers to the sacrament of 'order' in the

singular; however, following common English usage fQr the sacrament

and to avoid confusion with Bonaventure's frequent use of the word 'order' in other contexts, I use the plural 'orders.'

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not in a haphazard fashion, but in a way that would reflect that order, distinction, and power. Therefore it was appropriate that certain persons be distinguished and set apart to carry out this office, and that the requisite power be committed to them as a matter of ordinary law. Now a distinction of this kind could not be accomplished properly except by means of sacred signs such as the sacraments. Therefore, it was fitting that there be sacrament to be such a sign that would impart order, distinction, and power for the purpose of dispensing the other sacraments in a distinctive, effective, and orderly manner. That is why Orders is defined as "a certain sign whereby spiritual power is conferred upon the person ordained," for this definition contains the three elements that we have just mentioned. It is these that comprise the integrity of Orders. 3. First of all, Orders is a sign that distinguishes and sets apart an individual as one totally dedicated to the worship of God. Thus these orders are preceded by a certain distinctive mark. This consists in the tonsure or corona, which signifies a withdrawal from temporal desires and an elevation of the mind to eternal realities, thus indicating that the cleric is totally set apart for the worship of God. Therefore, on receiving the corona, he says: "The Lord is my chosen portion" ... and so forth. 104 And because he should be well versed in the divine praises, which consist principally in the recitation of the Psalms, the office of psalmist is also conferred as a preamble to [Holy] Orders. Isidore, however, speaking in a broader sense, includes it as one of the orders.'o, 4. Secondly, Orders is a sign that both confers order and is ordered within itself. But Orders consists in a dis-

l04PS

16:5.

l05Isidore,Etymolog., 7.12.3 (PL 82: 290-91): De offie. eeelesiast., 2.12 (PL 83: 792): Pseudo-Isidore,Epist. ad Leudefredum, 5 (PL 83: 895B).

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ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVILOQillUM

tinction and separation and differentiation of grades, conforming to the demands of the sevenfold grace for the dispensation of which the sacrament of Orders is principally intended. Therefore, there are seven orders, proceeding in degrees to the priesthood, which is the culmination of all orders. For it is the role of the priest to consecrate the sacrament of the body of Christ, in which resides the fullness of all graces. Thus the other six orders are attendants to it, resembling the steps leading up to the throne of Solomon. The lower orders are six because of the perfection of that number,l06 six being the first perfect number, and so that number is needed to show both the perfection and effectiveness of the office of ministry. For it is fitting that some should minister from a distance, others more closely, and others again very closely so that nothing be lacking in an ordered ministry. Now each of these functions may be paired with another according as they concern either cleansing or enlightenment. Thus it follows that there are six ministering orders, and a seventh, the most perfect of all, in which the sacrament of the altar is performed, and in which the others are consummated in one, as a full and final end.107 5. Finally, Orders is a sign that bestows power, not only with respect to the administration of the other sacraments, but also in respect to itself. Now a power that is exercised over another power is truly an excellent power. For this

106Cr. 1 Kings 10:18-20; on the perfection afthe number six, see pt. 4, chap. 4.5 above. 107 Bonaventure's argument here follows that of Alexander of Hales (cf., Glossa, 4.24.3 [15: 401·407)), who was profoundly influenced by the writings afthe Pseudo-Dionysius. Like him, Bonaventure believes that the ecclesiastical hierarchy mirrors the celestial, requiring grades in order to be complete. Cf. Prol., 3; pt. 2, chap. 8. He therefore develops an aesthetic argument for the septenary of orders in the Mystical Body of Christ, flowing out from the unity afthe priesthood. See In 4 Sent., 24.2.2.4 (IV, 634-636).

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reason, it implies not only simple power, as found in simple [priestly1 orders, but also the preeminence of power, as found in those who have the function of conferring orders by ordinary law. Now this excelling authority gradually diminishes the more widely it is distributed, and is more concentrated as it ascends on high. This is why there are many bishops, a lesser number of archbishops, very few patriarchs, and but one father of fathers, rightly called Pope [Papa, Fatherl, as the unique, first, and supreme father of all spiritual fathers and of all the faithful as well. He is the first hierarch, the sole spouse, the undivided head, the supreme pontiff, the Vicar of Christ, the fountainhead, origin and rule of all ecclesiastical authorities. From him, as from the summit, all ordered power descends down to the most humble members of the Church, according to what the loftiest dignity of the ecclesiastical hierarchy demands. lOB 6. And because this dignity resides chiefly in [Holy1 Orders, this sacrament should be dispensed only with great prudence and solemnity, and hence not indiscriminately on anyone through the ministry of any person randomly, nor at any time or in any place indifferently. Rather, these orders ought to be conferred only on persons who are educated, virtuous, and free from all impediments. These should have prepared themselves for its reception by fasting. Orders also should be conferred in a sacred place during the celebration of Mass, and at those times designated by ecclesiastical law. Finally, they may be conferred only by bishops, who alone have the right to confer Orders, confirm through the imposition of hands, consecrate nuns and ~ 108 Bonaventure here synthesizes the argument on the primary of the Roman pontiff that he advanced in 1255~1256 during the secularmendicant controversy in his Disputed Questions on Evangelical Perfection, 4.3 (y, 189-96). This view of the Pope as the pinnacle of a

pyramidal hierarchy was already apparent in Alexander of Hales (Glossa, 4.24.3 [15: 406)).

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PART VI

abbots, and dedicate churches. Because oftheir solemnity, all of these rites should be administered only by those who possess preeminent power.

present [the marriage vows], and is consummated by physical union}12 There are· three benefits attached to this sacrament, namely, "fidelity, offspring, and the sacrament itself."113 There are twelve impediments that would prevent those who wish to receive it [from doing so] and void a marriage already contracted, as shown in these verses:

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CHAPTER

13

THE INTEGRITY OF MATRIMONY

1. Concerning the integrity of Matrimony, what we must hold may be summarized as follows: that "marriage is a legitimate union of male and female, maintaining a single [i.e., undivided] sharing of life."1O' This union existed not only after sin but even before it. Although this sacrament of union was originally instituted solely as a duty, now it serves not merely as a duty, but also as a remedy against the disease of concupiscence. 110 In the beginning, it was a symbol of the union of God and the soul; now, however, it signifies the union of Christ with the Church and of the two natures in a unity of person.l11 This union comes into being through the free consent of both persons, a consent outwardly expressed in some sensible sign and consummated by sexual intercourse. That is why it is said that marriage is initiated by words concerning the future [a betrothal], ratified by words concerning the

". A slight modification of Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 27.2 (2: 422), who in turn emended a definition from Justinian's Institutes, 1.9.1, attributed to the third century jurist, Ulpian. It emphasizes the existence of the unique bond and common life existing between two individuals, having a distinct existence within the larger society. See Paula Jean Miller, Marriage: The Sacrament of Divine-Human Communication (Quincy, IL: Franciscan Press, 1996),77-78. Fuller historical background in Theodore Mackin, What is Marriage? Marriage in the Catholic Church (New York: Paulist Press, 1982),73-76,145-91. For Bonaventure's fuller treatment of Matrimony, see In 4 Sent., 26-42 (IV, 661-80) . •" Augustine, De Gen. ad litt., 9.7.12 (PL 34: 397); Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 26.2 (2: 417). m Cf. Eph 5:22; Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 26.6.2 (2: 420-21).

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"Error, condition, vow, consanguinity, crime,

Disparity of cult, force, Orders, prior bond, public propriety, If you are engaged, or if perhaps impotent, All these prevent marriage and nullify an existing union.114 2. The reason for understanding what has been said is this. Our restoring Principle, the Incarnate Word, by the very fact of being Word of God, is the fountain of wisdom on high;"' by the fact of being incarnate, he is the source of mercy on earth. Therefore, as the Uncreated Word, he is the formative cause of humankind by virtue of his supreme wisdom, and, as the Incarnate Word, he is its reformative cause by virtue of his supreme mercy. Therefore he restores humankind through his mercy, precisely because, iri his wisdom, he had originally made it restorable, which

"'Ibid., 26.6-28.1 (2: 419-32). U3 Augustine, De Gen. ad litt., 9.7.12 (PL 34: 397), as cited by Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 31.1 (2: 442). In his Sentences Commentary, Bonaventure re-arranges the importance of these ends: 1) the natural end of the procreation of children, 2) the faithful mutual union of the spouses, and 3) the signification of the union of Christ and the Church (In 4 Sent., 31.1.2, ad 4 (IV, 719-20)]. He gives yet another ordering in section 4 below. '''Peter of Blois (+ c. 1203), Letter 115 (PL 207: 345), with several adaptations. For a full discussion of the social setting of marriage in the thirteenth century, see James A. Brundage,Law, Sex, and Christian Society in Medieval Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 325-486. 115Sirach 1:5, Vg.

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PARTVI

quality his supreme order required. For God made the human race able to stand upright, able to fall, and able to be restored, as we have shown in preceding chapters.'16 And so the Word of God in his wisdom gave humankind the capacity to stand upright, to fall, and to be restored, as it was fitting for him to do. He therefore ordained that the human race should propagate itself in such a way that the very means of procreation would help them stand upright in God's sight. It was also to help them as a remedy, since in the very act of procreation [after the fall] there is something of sin, namely concupiscence, which passes on the disease [of original sin].'17 Now, the original upright state of human beings derived from the joining oftheir souls and God, in an utterly chaste, singular, and individual union oflove. Furthermore, the remedy [for fallen humanity] came from the union of the divine and human natures within the oneness of a hypostasis or person, a oneness effected by grace in a singular and individual way."S That is why God decreed from the very beginning that propagation would be effected by means of a singular and individual union of male and female."9 Such a union, before the fall, was to signifY the union of God with the soul, that is, of God with the subcelestial hierarchy;120 but after the fall, the union of God with human nature, or of Christ with the Church. '2' Thus Matrimony was a sacrament both before and after the fall, but it differed as to its meaning and purpose. Now Matri-

mony was a sacrament before the disease occurred; therefore, concupiscence, which followed in the wake of sin, is something that is excused by Matrimony rather than something that can defile it. For disease does not corrupt the medicine; rather, medicine cures the disease.'22 From this it may be seen what Matrimony is and how it was divinely instituted. 3. Again, each of the above-mentioned spiritual unions signified in the sacrament of Matrimony is a union oftwo parties, one of which is active and influencing, the other passive and receiving, and which is brought about by virtue of a bond of love that proceeds purely from free will. This is why Matrimony has to be the joining together of two persons who differ as active and passive, that is, as male and female, their union proceeding purely from the consent of their wills.'23 Now this willed consent is not visible externally except through some sign that manifests it, therefore their mutual consent must be expressed in an external manner.'24 Now, consent regarding the future is not, properly speaking, consent at all, but at most a promise to consent; and even the actual consent without sexual intercourse does not produce complete union, since

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116Cf. pt. 1, chap. 1; pt. 2, chaps. 9-10; pt. 3, chap. 1. U7 Cf. pt. 3, chap. 6. m Cf. pt. 4, chap. 2.5. 116 Cf. Genesis 1:27-28,2:23-24. Cf.In 4 Sent .• 26.1.1-2 (N, 661-64). 120That is to say, of humanity, as distinct from the divine and the angelic hierarchies; cf. Prologue, 3; In 2 Sent., 18, dub (Il, 454-55). On the spousal union of God and the soul, see pt. 5, chap. 1 above. 121 On the marriage of God with humanity. see Sermones de tempore, 26 (IX, 125).

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122 See In 4 Sent., 26.2.2 (IV, 667-69) and 31.2.1 (IV, 722-23). Bonaventure tempers the pessimistic view of Augustine toward sexual

intercourse. He may have done so to rebut Cathar heretics, who maintained that sexual expression is always evil. The Fourth Lateran Council had condemned their view, asserting that "not only virgins and the continent, but also married persons, by pleasing God through right faith and good works, merit to attain eternal happiness" (DEC, 1: 230). Bonaventure remained thoroughly Augustinian in teaching that "the sexual act is diseased, for it cannot be performed without disorder," but he also maintained that the grace of the sacrament of marriage excused the spouses even from venial sin, if they engaged in sexual relations for the sake of procreation. See In 4 Sent., 31.2.1 (N, 721-23). 123 In 4 Sent., 27.1.1 (IV, 675·76). The act of consent establishing marital union is clearly what Bonaventure calls elective will. See pt. 2, chap. 9.8. 12< In 4 Sent., 27.2.1-2 (N, 678-81).

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the parties are not yet one flesh. Therefore, words concerning the future [the betrothal] are the inception of marriage, words concerning the present [the marriage vows] are its ratification, but carnal union alone is its consummation. Only then do the parties become one flesh and one body,125 and it is in this that the union between Christ and ourselves is fully signified. For then the body of the one partner is fully surrendered to the other by virtue of the power of each partner to procreate offspring. 126 4. Thus there are three goods in Matrimony: the sacrament, consisting in the indissoluble bond; fidelity, in the fulfillment of the conjugal duty, and offspring, in the effect proceeding from them both. 5. Finally, because this matrimonial union ought to proceed from free consent to the joining together of two distinct persons in this unique law of marriage, there are twelve circumstances that can prevent it from occurring. Thus, there are twelve impediments to marriage, as will be evident. In order for there to be matrimonial consent there must be freedom in the act of consent itself; freedo~ in the consenting subject, and fitness for union. Now, freedom of consent may be voided in two ways, corresponding to the two causes of involuntary acts, namely, ignorance and violence. 127 Thus, in this regard, there are two impediments: error and force. Freedom in the consenting subject may be destroyed by that person's being bound to another, either to God or to another human being. If the person is bound to God, this may be either by an expressed vow or through a condition of life in which a vow is [implicitly] attached; the

first is the impediment of religious vow, the second, that of Orders. If a person is bound to another human being, this may be in two ways, either through an existing bond or a prior one. The first case is when there is a bond by which one is already bound to a spouse; the second occurs in a crime whereby an adulterer or adulteress has contrived the death of the original spouse, or even has promised to marry another after that spouse's death. Thus, in this regard there are four impediments; vow, Orders, bond, and crime. Fitness for union requires a suitable distance between the persons; this is destroyed through too close a relationship or too great a disparity. Now too close a relationship comes about through blood relationship or through something similar to it, such as legal or spiritual parenthood. Or again, they may be too closely related through union of the sexes [marriage or cohabitation] or by nuptial pre-contact. Thus, there are three more impediments: consanguinity, affinity, and public propriety. There may also be excessive disparity between the parties. These may be matters related to their physical nature, such as the inability of one of the partners to consummate the carnal union; or else matters related to a situation beyond the control of either of the parties, such as one of them being a slave and the other free; or again, in matters related to the Christian religion, such as one being baptized and the other not. Hence, there are three other impediments: impotence, disparity of condition, and disparity of cult. And so there are altogether twelve impediments, which, under the teaching of the Holy Spirit, have been recognized by the Church. Even though all of the sacraments have been entrusted to it, the Church has received a special commission to regulate the sacrament of Matrimony. This is due to the diverse situations that may arise, as well as the disease [of concupiscence] that accompanies it, which is highly infectious and extremely difficult to tem-

262

"'Cr. Matt 19:6, 1 Cor 6:15-16. See In 4 Sent., 26.2.3 (IY, 669-70). 12'Cr. 1 Cor 7: 3-4. See In 4 Sent., 28.un.6 (IV, 695-97). 127 See above, pt. 2, chap. 9.8; pt. 3, chap. 11.3.

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264

per. Thus it pertains to the Church to determine the acceptable degree of blood relationship as it sees fit at any given time, to adjudicate which persons mayor may not validly marry, and to decree separation. But the Church ought never, and in fact cannot, annul a marriage which has been legitimately entered into: for what God has joined together, no one, however great his power, may separate,128 since everyone having the power to judge remains subject to the jurisdiction of God.

PART

VII

ON THE REPOSE OF THE FINAL JUDGMENT

CHAPTER

1

THE JUDGMENT IN GENERAL

1. We have now briefly spoken of the Trinity of God, the creation of the world, the corruption of sin, the incarnation of the Word, the grace of the Holy Spirit, and the sacramental remedy. It remains for us, in seventh and last place, to treat the repose of the final judgment.' In this regard, the following sums up what we must hold: that there will undoubtedly be a universal judgment, in which God the Father, through our Lord Jesus Christ, will judge the living and the dead, the good and the wicked, rendering to each person according to what his or her merits

1 I have used "repose" to translate the Latin status, which for Bonaventure connotes more than a neutral "state." As he says elsewhere, 4'quiet is more noble than motion ....Therefore, if the world

after the resurrection will be in the most perfect disposition, all bodies

then will rest [in Godl." In 4 Sent., 44.2.3.2; 48.2.2 (IV, 501, 561-562), trans. Caroline Walker Bynum, The Resurrection ofthe Body (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995), 250. Bynum observes, "the goal of desire is its own cessation. As the celestial spheres will cease to rotate

12'Matt 19:6.

at the end of time, so too the soul will cease to yearn; stasis is the condition of heaven." Ibid.

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deserve? In this judgment there will be an opening of books, that is, of consciences, revealing the merits and demerits of all persons, both to themselves and to others. This will happen by virtue of the power of the Book ofLife, 3 the Incarnate Word. In the form of his divinity, the Word will be beheld by the good alone, while both good and wicked shall see the Word in human form. It is in this form [i.e., the risen Christ] that he will pronounce sentence; in this same form, "he will appear terrible to the reprobate, but mild to the righteous.'" 2. The reason for this may be explained as follows. The First Principle, by the fact of being first, exists of itself, by itself, and for itself. It is thus the efficient, formal, and final cause: creating, governing, and perfecting all things. It creates in accord with the loftiness of its power, governs in accord with the rectitude of its truth, and perfects in accord with the plenitude of its goodness. Now, the loftiness of the highest power requires that some creatures be produced that are not only vestiges, but also images; creatures that are not only irrational, but also rational; creatures that are moved not only by natural instinct, but also by free will. But a creature made to the image of God has

by that fact a capacity for God, that is, it is capable of blessedness.' Furthermore, a creature that is rational is capable of being instructed; and a creature possessing free will is capable of ordered or disordered actions in terms of the law of justice. Therefore, the rectitude of truth necessarily imposes on human beings a law inviting them to blessedness, instructing them in truth, and obliging them to righteousness. But this occurs in such a way as not to compel their free wills, lest they be deprived of the capacity freely to abandon or to follow justice. This is because God "so directs things which have been created that they may perform and exercise their own proper movements".6 Now the plenitude of goodness, in its perfecting action, works in accordance with the loftiness of power and the rectitude of truth. Therefore, the consummation of blessedness is granted by the supreme Goodness only to those who have observed the justice which was imposed by the rectitude of truth and who have accepted instruction and have loved that highest and eternal blessedness more than transitory goods. Now, some people have acted in this manner and others in a way contrary to it, according to their different wills, which are hidden within them, proceeding in this life as they choose. Therefore, in order to manifest the loftiness of power, the rectitude oftruth, and the plenitude of goodness, there must necessarily follow a universal judgment. This will bring about a just distribution of rewards, an open declaration of merits, and an irrevocable passing of sentences. In this way, the plenitude of supreme goodness may appear in the distribution of rewards to the just, the rectitude of truth in the open declaration of merits, and the loftiness of might and power in the irrevocable

266

'Cf. Matt 16:27; 25:31, Rev 22:12. On the material in this chapter, see In 4 Sent., 43.2-3 (IV, 896-902); 48.1 (IV, 984-88). In part seven of the Breviloquium Bonaventure has assembled materials that were still somewhat scattered in Lombard's Sentences into one coherent treatment of eschatology.

-·Dan 7: 9-10; Rev 20: 12: "And I saw the dead ... standing before the throne, and books were opened. Also another book was opened, the book of life. And the dead were judged according to their works, as recorded in the books." Cf. Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 43.4 (2: 512). 4 Bonaventure here follows Peter Lombard, tiber 4 Sent., 48.1-2 (2: 542-44), quoting Isidore, Sent., 1.27.9 (PL 83:596), who in turn is based on Gregory, Hom. in Evang., 21.3: "God will appear soothing to the righteous and dreadful to the unrighteous. When he comes at the judgment, he will reassure the former by his gentleness and mildness, and cause dread in the latter by the strictness of his justice" (PL 76: 1171B [Hurst, 159)).

267

'Cf. Augustine, De Trin., 14.8.11 (PL 42: 1044). See above, pt. 2,chaps. 9 and 12. 'Augustine,De civ. Dei, 7.30 (PL 41: 220 [Dyson, p. 306, alt.)).

269 268

ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVILOQUIUM

passing of sentences. Above all· .. cerned either with . k dn ' a Just retnbutlOn is con.. WIC e ess that deserves . h or wIth rIghteousness that d purus ment Adam's children are in th eserves glory. Now all of "" e one state or th th h lore, every person must be .ud . e 0 er: t erebution, so the just may b J I ~~d by a Judgment ofretriished.' e g on led and the sinners pun3. Again, an open declarati f . manifestation at one d th on 0 ~ents requires the . an e same tim b th h WIll was obligated to do and . e 0 w at free do, taking into account the w~at m f~ct it did or did not y so both books must be v;net of CIrcumstances. And reveal peoples' merits. ~en; the b~ok of consciences, to tice by which th ,.e ook of LLfe, to reveal the jusese ments are to b ·th approved. Now, in this Book of Lit< e el er .rewarded or written down at once and. th e everything has been books of consciences eve~h. e clearest way, and in the corded. And so wh th mg has been truthfully re, en ese books a manifestation of all m ·t h re opened together a en s s all take pI h ace, so t at the secrets of every heart sh II b others. And thus as A a . e made known to itself and to ' ugustme says this B k· " . ' 00 IS a power by which it will be mad to mind all their actione ~~ssl:~e for e~ery person to recall judgments may be cle sl' so at the JustlCe ofthe divine ar y seen. . 4. Fmally, an irrevoc bl promulgated by one : .e s:ntence requires that it be against whom there is:o 0 IS .b~th heard and seen, and Light cannot be see b POSSI e appeal. But the supreme cannot behold it. £0 n ytheveryone, ~ince darkened eyes ' r WI out a godlik . d 9 e mm and joy of h eart we cannot behold it fa t will have to appear in th ~~ 0 face. Therefore our judge e 1 eness of a creature. But no

:

mere creature has supreme authority, an authority beyond appeal. Therefore, it follows necessarily that our judge, in order to promulgate with supreme authority, must be God; and, in order to be seen and to convict sinners in human likeness, must be human.' °And since it is one voice ofjudgment that shall terrify the guilty and reassure the innocent, that one visible form ofthe judge will be sufficient to gladden the hearts of the just and fill sinners with dread. CHAPTER 2 THE ANTECEDENTS OF THE JUDGMENT: THE PUNISHMENT OF PURGATORY

1. We shall noW consider specific points concerning the state of final judgment: some of them precede it, others accompany it, and others follow it. The two that precede it are the punishment of purgatory and the suffrages of the Church." 2. First, with regard to the punishment of purgatory, the following points must be held: that the fire of purgatory is a physical fire which torments the spirits of the just who in this life did not fulfill the penance and due satisfaction [for their sins).12 These are punished to a greater or lesser degree according as they took with them from this life more or less of what must be burned away. They are afflicted less severely than in hell, but more so than in this present world. This penalty is not so severe as to deprive them of hope and of the knowledge that they are not in hell, although because of the greatness of their

Cf. John 5:22-29. A good summary of Bonaventure's teaching on these two topics may be found in Jacques Le Goff, The Birth of Purgatory, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), 250-56. 10

11

7

See 2 Cor 5:10.

'De 43.4 civ. Dei, 20.14 (PL 41·. 680 [Dyson, 999]). See Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., (2: 513). 'I Cor 13:12.

"Cf. pt. 6, chap. 10.4-5.

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ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVILOQVIUM

punishments they might not always avert to this. By me~s of this suffering, inflicted by a physical fire, theIr SPIr:tS are purified of the guilt and dregs of sin, as well as Its after-effects. When they are wholly cleansed, they take flight immediately and are brought into the glory of paradise." . 3. The reason for this is as follows. The First PrincIple, by the very fact that it is first, is supremely good and perfect. Being supremely good, it supremely loves good and abhors evil: for, just as supreme goodness suffers nO good to remain unrewarded, so it cannot suffer any evil to go unpunished." Now some just persons die before having wholly satisfied their penance in this life. But the be~uty of eternal order cannot be disturbed, and so the merit of eternal life cannot go to them undeservedly and the stain of sin cannot remain unpunished. Therefore, even though they will be rewarded ultimately, it is .still nece~sary that they be temporarily punished accordmg to theIr deserts and the guilt of their sin. Now sin offends God's majesty, injures the Church, and defaces the divine image impressed on the soul - especially if the sin is mortal, although venial sin will tend to do the same things. Suclr offense demands punishment, injury requires satisfaction, and defa~ing has t.o. be cleansed, therefore this penalty must be Justly pumtIve, duly atoning, and sufficiently cleansing. 4. First, then, the penalty ought to be justly punitive. Thus a spirit that has spurned the eternal and highest Good and stooped to a lesser good must rightfully be sub-

271

jected to things of a lower order. In this way it will receive punishment from that which had been the occasion of its sin and the reason why it had spurned God and defiled itself. Therefore the order of divine justice demands that a material fire punish the spiritual soul.15 For, as the soul is united to the body in the order of nature for the sake of vivifying it, so it should be united to material fire in the order of justice for the sake of receiving punishment - for one who is to be punished must be united to a punishing agent. The just, being in the state of grace, deserve only temporal punishment, yet the more they have sinned and the less they have done penance, the more they are liable to this penalty. Therefore, they are punished temporally by material fire - some at great length and others for a short while, some severely and others lightly, as the measure of their guilt demands. To quote the great doctor Augustine, "it is necessary that the sinner suffer pain in proportion to his or her [inordinatellove."'6 The more deeply a person has loved the things of this world in the inner depths of his or her heart, the harder it will be for that person to be cleansed. 5. Again, the punishment of purgatory must be atoning. Now, the making of satisfaction should respect human free will and is proper to our earthly pilgrim state; but, on the contrary, in purgatory there is no way that a person can merit, and its penalties have virtually nothing to do with free will.'7 Therefore, the element of satisfaction that is lacking - namely, freely choosing to undergo it - must be compensated by the bitterness of the punishment itself. But those who are being cleansed possess a

13 For Bonaventure's fuller treatment of purgatory, see In 4 f!ent., 20.1 (IV, 516-28). Although a number of ingredients of the doctnne of

purgatory _ such as the efficacy of prayers for the dead:- are found m patristic authors, the concept of a distinct place ofpurgatI~n after d~ath was not developed until the late twelfth century by Pans theolOgIans

Peter the Chanter and Simon of Tournai (Le Goff, 152-56). "Cf. above, pt. 2, chap 7.

"Cr.,In 4 Sent., 44.2.3.2 (IV, 931-35). 16 De ciu. Dei, 21.26.4 (PL 41: 745 [Dyson, 1096]). 17 Following Alexander ofRales, Bonaventure teaches "that free will was immobilized after death and merit impossible to acquire" (Le Goff,

251).

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ST. BONAVENTURE'o/BREVILOQUIUM

grace that they can no longer lose, so that they neither can nor will be completely absorbed in their pain, or fall into despair, or be moved to blaspheme. Hence, severe as their punishment is, is far different and far milder than damnation; and these souls know without the possibility of doubt that their state is not the same as the state of those who are tortured in hell with no remedy." 6. Finally, the punishment of purgatory must have a cleansing effect, and this cleansing is spiritual. Therefore, either the fire of purgatory possesses a God-given spiritual power, or else, as I am inclined to believe,19 the very power of indwelling grace, assisted by the external punishment, effectively cleanses the soul, which is thereby punished for its offenses and relieved of the burden of its guilt. Thus there remains [in it] nothing unfit for glory. Now such spirits are fully prepared to receive God-conforming glory, since the gate [to heaven] is open [to them] once the cleansing is achieved. And so they necessarily take flight [there], for there exists within them a fire of love lifting them up, and there remains no impurity of soul or guilt holding them down. Nor would it befit the divine mercy or justice further to delay glory once God finds the vessel to be suitable, for it would be a great punishment to delay a reward, and a purified soul ought not to be penalized further.

18 In this sense, Bonaventure believes that the souls in purgatory are more fortunate than people still on their earthly pilgrimage. See In 4

Sent., (IV, 522-524). Cf. Le Goff, 250, 252. 19 See In 4 Sent., 21.1.1.2, and 21.1.2.1 (IV, 548-50 and 551-53). Contrary to some theologians, Bonaventure takes a firm position in favor of the liberation of souls from purgatory prior to the last judgment.

PART VII CHAPTER

273

3

THE ANTECEDENTS OF THE JUDGMENT: THE SUFFRAGES OF THE CHURCH

1. Concerning the suffrages of the Church, it must be held that such suffrages benefit the dead. By the word 'suffrages' I mean all those things the Church does on behalf of the dead, such as sacrifices, fasts, alms, and other prayers and voluntary penances performed for the purpose of facilitating and hastening the expiation of their sins. Now such suffrages do not benefit all the dead indiscriminately, but only "the moderately good," that is, the souls in purgatory. They are of no use for "the entirely evil," the souls in hell, nor for "the entirely good," those that are in heaven." On the contrary, the merits and prayers of these blessed ones are sought instead for the Church Militant, for whose members they obtain many . benefits. The value of such suffrages is greater or lesser, depending both on the degree of merit of the dead and upon the charity of the living, who may be more solicitous of some souls than others. This benefit either alleviates their suffering or hastens their release, as divine providence sees fit for each soul's good. 2. The reason for this is as follows. The First Principle, being supremely good, and for this reason supremely se2°This three-fold distinction between the various types of dead goes back to Augustine, Enchirid., 29.110: 'When sacrifices, whether that of the altar or sacrifices of alms, are offered for all the baptized who are dead, for the truly good these are acts of thanksgiving, for those who are not really good they are propitiatory, and for the truly evil, although they are of no help to the dead, they offer some kind of consolation to

the living. And when they benefit somebody, they either bring full remISSIOn ofpulllshment, or at least make the condemnation itself more

tolerable" (PL 40: 283 [Harbert, 124]). This teaching was taken up and refined by Scholastics like Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 45.2 (2: 52325). (Le Goff, 220-25). Bonaventure deals with the topic of the prayers of the Church for the dead in In 4 Sent., 45.2 and the intercession of the saints for the living in 45.3 (IV; 843-51).

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PART VII

vere against evil, must correspondingly display a supreme sweetness toward what is good. Therefore, while the severity of divine justice demands that the just in whom there remains some guilt of sin must be cleansed after this life by the pains of purgatory, the sweetness of divine mercy dictates that they should also be lifted up and given assistance and comfort - all the more so since they are in a state of misery and can no longer help themselves through good works and merits. 21 Hence, it was indeed fitting for divine providence to dispose that suffrages be offered for these souls by those who could still do so; without, however, impairing the rectitude of justice, which even the sweetness of divine mercy may not and cannot derogate or depart from in any way. Now, the rectitude of justice always has to maintain the divine honor, the government of the universe, and the quality of individual merit. This is why the providence of the first and supreme Principle disposed that the dead would profit by these suffrages in accordance with both the sweetness of mercy and the reCtitude of justice, which demands that the dignity of God's honor, the government of the universe, and the quality of human merit would each be safeguarded. 3. First of all, these suffrages must always respect that justice which is concerned above all with maintaining the honor of God. Now, the divine honor certainly requires the performance of works of satisfaction and expiation to atone for sin. Therefore, those acts that are best able to render satisfaction and repay honor to God may be offered as suffrages [for the dead]. There are three such forms of satisfaction: fasting, prayer, and almsgiving; but the honor due to God is best rendered in the sacrifice of the altar, becaUSe of the pleasing quality of the one who is offered in that sacrifice. Thus, the suffrages of the Church consist of

such works of satisfaction, especially in the celebration of Masses. On this point, Gregory tells us in the fourth book of his Dialogues, that certain souls were speedily delivered from great sufferings through the benefit of Masses. 22 But the pomp offunerals, elaborate burials, and things of that kind are not to be counted among the suffrages of the Church. This is why Augustine; in his book The Care to Be Taken for the Dead, declares that" the care of the funeral arrangements, the establishment of the place of burial, and the pomp of the ceremonies are more of a solace for the living than an aid for the dead."" 4. Furthermore, one must also respect the justice that conserves the order and government of the universe. This requires that, in the communication of influences, both order and agreement must be respected in the emanation of such effects on other beings, so that there is a proper order between the originators and the beneficiaries of such influences." Thus those beings lower in rank can produce no effect upon higher ones, nor can any being upon one that is utterly remote from it. Hence the Church's suffrages cannot have any benefit for the souls in hell, for these are completely separated from the Mystical Body of Christ. No spiritual effect can reach them, any more than the head can have an influence upon members severed from the body. That is also why suffrages cannot help the blessed, for they inhabit an absolutely superior state, at the very summit, and therefore cannot possibly rise any

274

21

Cf. chap. 2.5 above.

275

"Gregory the Great, Dialogues, 4.55 (PL 77: 416-17). Bonaventure treats systematically the concept of satisfaction and the "honor due to God," In 4 Sent., 15.2 (IV, 361-80). 23 De cura pro mortuis, 2.4, trans. John A. Lacey (PL 40: 594 [FC 27: 355]); this passage was cited by Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 45.3 (2: 525). 24 Aristotle makes a similar point in De genera. et corrupt., 2.25.4 (331a 23-240).

ST. BONAVENTURE'sBREVIWQUIUM

PART VII

higher. On the contrary, it is they and their prayers that are beneficial for us - for this also they merited during their life on earth. Therefore, divine order has disposed that prayers be offered to the saints of God, that they in turn may intercede for us and obtain God's blessings. Hence, the Church's suffrages are of no help to them, but theirs are of great value to us. Hence, the suffrages of the Church are profitable only to just souls suffering the pains of purgatory. Inasmuch as they suffer without being able to help themselves, they are inferior to the living; but in terms of justice, they are linked to the other members of the Church. And so the merits of the Church may rightly be applied to them because in their case the order and agreement [mentioned above] do exist. 5. Finally, in these suffrages there must also be manifested that justice which considers what the merits [of the dead] deserve. Therefore, those suffrages that are offered for the dead in common, although effective for all good souls, each one in proper measure, more fully benefit those who during this life more richly deserved to be _affected and aided by them. AB for the suffrages offered for some souls in particular, if the intention of the petitioner is righteous and God-conformed, and since something the Church has instituted assuredly cannot be without effect, such particular suffrages are therefore more beneficial for those for whom they were designated, even though in a certain way they are also communicated to others. Nevertheless, even though they are spiritual goods, such suffrages cannot procure as many advantages for others as for the intended beneficiaries. Divine justice requires greater satisfaction for a greater sin, and for numerous sins it requires numerous reparations. Hence, the example oflight, which shines equally on all those seated at one table, does not apply in this case.25 Rather, suffrages ought to be compared to redeeming payments rather than to the diffusion

of light. AB for their specific effect on anyone particular soul, this may be determined with certainty only by the One who attends to weight, number, and measure in matters of guilt, punishment, and suffrages?"

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CHAPTER

277

4

THE CONCOMITANTS OF THE JUDGMENT: THE CONFLAGRATION OF FIRE

1. We now ought to add something about the events that accompany the judgment. These are two in number: the consuming by fire of worldly things and the resurrection of bodies. 2. Regarding the conflagration, the following points must be held: that fire will consume the face of the earth, preceding the face of the Judge; in this way the present form of this world shall perish in a conflagration offire, just as it was destroyed by water in the flood.27 But when it is said that the present form of the world shall perish, this does not imply the total destruction of this material universe. Rather, through the action of fire setting all material things aflame, all animals and plants will be consumed; the elements will be cleansed and renewed, particularly the air and the earth; and just [persons] will be

25 See Perf. evan.,q. 4, a. 3, ad 9 (Y, 197), where Bonaventure maintains, as a general principle, that spiritual goods cannot be divided. This

principle had been invoked by the Parisian master Praepositinu8 of Cremona (+c. 1210) to argue, using the example of light that is cited here, that the suffrages of the Church could not be divided but were applied to all the souls in purgatory equally. Bonaventure opposed this opinion In 4 Sent., 45.2.3 (IV, 946-47). 26 Cf. Wis 11:21. "I Cor 7:31; 2 Peter 3:5-13. Cf. Augustine, De civ. Dei, 20.16: "The figure of this world will pass away in a conflagration of all the fires in the universe, just as it was of old drowned by the inundation of all the waters of the universe" (PL 41: 682 [Dyson, 1002]).

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVlLOQUlUM

PART VII

purified and the wicked consigned to the flames. When all this has been accomplished, the motion of the heavens shall cease, and thus, when the number of elect is completed, the bodies of the universe also shall, in some sense, be made new and rewarded.'· 3. This should be understood in the following manner. The universal Principle of things, being supremely wise, observes the order of wisdom in all its works, but should do so especially in those matters related to their consummation. In this way, the beginning will be in harmony with the intermediate stage, and the intermediate stage with the end; thus, in the perfectly fitting order of all things, the ordering wisdom, the goodness, and the loftiness of that first supreme Principle will clearly be seen. Now, in accordance with that most orderly wisdom, God fashioned the material world or macrocosm for the sake of the microcosm, that is, humankind,29 which is placed in the middle between God and these inferior things. Therefore, in order to make all things fit together and to have harmony between the dwelling place and its inhabitants, since humanity was created in goodness, this world also was fittingly established in a state of goodness and peace. But when humanity fell, it was also fitting that this world was also damaged; as humanity became disordered, it too was disordered. But likewise, when humanity is purified, it too should be purified; when humanity is recreated, it too should be recreated; and when humanity achieves rest, it too should find repose.3D 4. First, then, this world should be disordered because human beings were disordered; thus, as it had stood up-

right when they stood, it fell, in a sense, when they fell. Furthermore, the judgment to come should manifest the severity of the Judge; thus, every human heart shall be struck with fear, particularly the hearts of the sinners who have rejected the Lord of all. And so it is also fitting that all creation should submit to divine zeal," conforming both to the Maker of the world and to the human beings who dwell in it; thus the very pivots of the earth must be shaken most terribly." Now nothing is more intense, swifter, and more horrible in disturbing the other elements than a fire springing up on every side. Therefore, fire must precede the face of the Judge, not only from one direction, but also in every quarter of the world. There will be a veritable concourse of fires: fires of the elements and of earth, of purgatory, and even of hell. Thus infernal fire will torment the damned, the fire of purgatory will cleans the just, earthly fires will consume all living things, and elemental fire will refine the other elements. At the same time , all other things will be shaken, making not only humans and demons but even the angels tremble at the sight. 5. Again, this world ought to be clean.sed as humanity is to be cleansed. At the end of their life human beings need to be washed of the dross of avarice and malice, just as in their youth they need to be purged ofthe filth oflust; moreover, they have to be cleansed rapidly, to the very depths, and perfectly. Now in the beginning the world was laid waste and purified in a way by the element of water, which is cold and thus opposed to the heat and filth of lust. So at the end it will have to be swept clean and purified by fire; this is because of the cooling of charity" and

278

28 Cf.

Rev 21:5. For a fuller treatment of this, see In 4 Sent., 47.2 and

48.2 (IV, 975-80; 989-95). 29

Cf. above, Prologue, sec. 2, and pt. 2, chap. 4.

30

See the Glossa ordinaria on Is 30:26 (Lyranum 4, 57).

279

"Cf. In IV Sent., 48.dub 3 (IV, 996), alluding here to Wi. 5:17: "The Lord will take his zeal as his annar, and will arm all creation to repel his enemies." 32Cf. Matt 24:29: "... the powers of heaven will be shaken." 33 Cf. Matt 24:12: "And because of the increase of lawlessness the love of many will grow cold." '

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the frigidity of malice and avarice that will reign in what is like the old age of the world. And because such vices adhere to human beings so closely, the cleansing agent must be interior, violent, and swift - a type of action found in no other element except fire. Therefore, just as there was a flood of waters in the deluge, so also the face of this material world must be burnt by fire. 6. Furthermore, this world ought to be renewed once humankind is renewed. Now, a thing cannot be recast into a new form unless it has lost the old, and is, in a certain way, prepared through receiving a new disposition. Now fire has the greatest power to remove the external form, and also a refining power akin to heavenly nature. Thus both the cleansing and renovation of the world must come about through fire; of this double effect, one aspect will precede and the other will follow the coming of the Judge. Moreover, true renovation leads to a newness that is no longer liable to aging, and such an incorruptible newness no creature can bestow. Therefore, although in this cleansing and renovation, fire acts partly through its natural powers, setting aflame, purging, vaporizing, and refining, there must be present with these, another power higher than nature: a power by whose command the conflagration is initiated, and by which power its termination nevertheless will be achieved. 7. Finally, this world ought to be consummated once humanity is consummated. Now humanity will be consummated when the number of the elect reaches completion in glory: the state toward which all things tend as to their final end and fulfillment. Therefore, as soon as this number is completed, the motion ofthe heavenly bodies must cease and come to rest; likewise, the transmutations of elements will come to an end, and consequently the process of generation in animals and plants. For since all these creatures were ordained toward the more noble form, the rational soul, once souls have achieved their final state of

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rest, all other things must also come to completion and repose. That is why when the heavenly bodies do finally attain repose and the fullness ofiuminosity, they are said to have received their reward. Now, the elements as such, which have lost the power of multiplication through interchange, are said to perish: 34 not in their substance, but in their mutual relationship, and most of all in their active powers. Vegetative and sensitive beings do not possess the power of perpetual life and eternal duration that is reserved to the higher state, and so their whole substance will be consumed [in the fire]. However, they will be preserved as ideas; and in a certain manner they will survive also in their likeness, humankind, who is kin to creatures of every species." And so one can say that all things will be made new and, in a certain sense, rewarded in the renovation and glorification of humanity. CHAPTER

5

THE CONCOMITANTS OF THE JUDGMENT: THE RESURRECTION OF BODIES

1. Concerning the resurrection of our bodies, we must hold the following beliefs: that the bodies of all human beings will arise in a general resurrection, with no interval of time existing between them, but with a great difference in the order of their dignity. For evil persons will arise with the deformities and punishments, the miseries and defects, they incurred during this present life. But in the good, ''blemishes will be taken away from their bodies, but

34

2 Peter 3:10: "The elements will be dissolved with fire,"

"Cf. pt. 2, chap. 4. 3 above. See Gregory the Great, Moral., 6.16.20 (PL 75: 740 B-C), and In evang.,2.29.2 (1'L 76:1214 B); Augustine, Sermo 43,3.4 (PL 38: 256).

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their nature will be preserved."'· Thus the latter will all rise with an unimpaired body, in the prime of life, and well-proportioned, so that all the saints will come together into a perfect man, into the measure of the age of the fullness of Christ. 37 And so both the good and the wicked will arise with the same individual bodies they had previously, composed of the same parts, and these true to nature, not only in the principal members and the vital humors, but even down to the last hair and the other members that contribute to the comeliness ofthe body. Thus, "into whatever vapors or recesses of nature the dust of the human body may be turned into, it shall return to that soul that first animated it, so that it was able to become human, to grow, and to live."" 2. The reason for this is as follows. The first Principle, by the very fact that it is first and supreme, is utterly universal and sufficient, and thus it is the Principle of natures, of graces, and of rewards, a Principle alI-powerful, all-merciful, and all-just. Although, in a certain attributed sense,'9 supreme power refers to the creation of

"Augustine,De civ. Dei, 22.17 (PL 41: 778 [Dyson, 1144-45]). On the points discussed in this chapter, see In 4 Sent., 43.1 and 44.1 (IV, 88396 and 906-19). a7 I have literally translated the Vulgate version ofEph 4:13, as it is integral to Bonaventure's imagery of the perfected Body of Christ. Here Bonaventure follows Augustine, who believed that 'into a perfect man' (in virum perfectum) primarily refers to "Head and body together, made up of all the members, which will be perfected in its own time" (De du. Dei, 22.18 [Dyson, 1146)]. Both Augustine and Bonaventure also state that even if'perfect man' should also refer to the form in which each of the elect will rise, vir (man) in the Bible often means 'person' and therefore includes women. Therefore, people will arise in both sexes, not one. (Ibid., 22.1817-18 [pp. 1144-1147]; Bonaventure, In 4 Sent., 44.1, dub. 2 [rv; 473]). See Bynum, pp. 98, 254-55. "Augustine, Enchirid., 23.88, abbreviated (PL 40: 273 [Harbert, 107]), and De civ. Dei, 22.20 (PL 41:782). Cf. Peter Lombard, Liber 4 Sent., 44.2 (2: 517). "Cf.pt.1,chap.6.

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natures, supreme mercy to the conferring of graces, and supreme justice to the distribution of rewards, in fact each attribute shares in every work, for supreme power, mercy, and justice are inseparable. Hence, the work of retribution must be brought about in a way that respects the rectitude ofjustice, the restoration of grace, and the completion of nature. Now, justice necessarily demands that a person be punished or rewarded in both soul and body, for that person has merited or demerited, not in the soul alone, nor in the body alone, but in soul and body together. Again, the restoration of grace demands that the entire body be likened to Christ, whose dead body had to rise again because it was inseparably united to his Godhead. Finally, the completion of nature demands that human beings be constituted of body and soul, as matter and form mutually need and seek each other.40 For all these reasons, there must be a future resurrection to satisfy the requirement of the creation of nature, the infusion of grace, and the retribution of justice - the three works that regulate the government of the universe. For these three reasons, all creation proclaims that human beings are to rise from the dead; in this way they render inexcusable those who close their ears to this truth of faith. Rightfully, then, the whole universe shall fight against such as these. 4 ' 3. First, therefore, resurrection must comply with the order of divine justice. Now, divine justice renders to everyone his or her due according to the circumstances of place and time. Moreover, a soul joined to a body for a single instant acquires in this union either guilt or merit: therefore all must necessarily rise. Now, the state of retribution must be distinguished from the state of this present

"Aristotle, Phys. 1,81. 9 (192a 17-24), and Augustine, De Gen. ad litt., 12.35.68 (PL 34:483).

41Wis 5:20.

,

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life; and it is to the state of retribution that resurrection pertains. Therefore, to avoid any confusion in the order of the universe, to assure that faith shall acquire merit through belief in what has not yet been seen, to make the equity of divine justice appear with greater clarity and certainty, and to fulfill and reward angels and human beings together, divine justice requires, at least as a general law, that all shall rise at the same time. The exceptions are Christ and his blessed Mother, the glorious Virgin Mary. But as the lot of the wicked is pain and woe,and that of the just is glory, although all rise together in time, yet they shall be far apart in dignity. This is because the wicked shall be raised, not to life, but to torture;" thus they must rise with all their weakness, deformities, and defects. 4. Again, resurrection must also comply with the perfection of grace. Now, perfect grace conforms us to Christ our Head, in whom there was no physical imperfection, but perfect maturity, fitting stature, and comely appearance. Therefore, it is fitting that the good be raised in a state as perfect as possible. This means that they should lack defects and that their nature should be preserved. It is also fitting that if any member be lacking it should be supplied, that ifthere be any excess growth it should be eliminated, that if there is any malfunctioning it should be corrected. Those who died in childhood are to be raised by divine power at an age corresponding to Christ at the resurrection, although not with the same physical stature. 43 Those who are decrepit will be restored to the same age. Those who are giants or dwarfs shall be given proper stature. Thus all shall come forth, whole and perfect, into

42

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ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREV1LOQUlUM

John 5:29: "Those who have done good, shall come forth to the

resurrection oflife, and those who have done evil, to the resurrection of condemnation." 43 Summarizing Augustine, De civ. Dei, 22.14-15 (PL 41:777 [Dyson,

1142-43]). Cf. Peter Lombard,Liber 4 Sent., 44.1 (2:516-17).

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a perfect man, into the measure of the age of the fullness of Christ." 5. Finally, the resurrection should be in accordance with the exigencies of the perfection of nature. Now, the nature of the rational spirit demands that it give life to a body of its own, because "a proper act must be accomplished in its proper matter."" Therefore the same individual body must be raised from the dead, or else there would be no true resurrection. Moreover, the nature of the rational and immortal soul demands that, as it has perpetual existence, it also have a body to which it may forever give life. Hence, the body united to the soul possesses, by this very union, a disposition toward perpetual incorruption. However, this happens in such a way that whatever makes up its whole substance - for instance, the principal limbs, the vital fluid, and the flesh according to species - have a necessary disposition to incorruption. The other parts - the flesh in its materiality," and whatever pertains in general to physical well being - have that disposition in terms of fittingness only. The former are thus disposed towards resurrection in the order of necessity, and the latter in the order of congruity. Now, God has imprinted this order upon nature, but nature itself cannot fulfill it, since it cannot raise the dead. But since divine providence does nothing in vain," it is necessary that each individual body should be restored by God's own power: immortal and complete in all its parts,

"Eph4:13.

45 A maxim summarizing Aristotle, De anima, 2.2: "The actuality of any given thing can only be realized in what is already potentially that thing, i.e., in a matter ofits own appropriate to it" (414a 25-28 [po 559]). 46 On this Aristotelian distinction, see In 2 Sent., 30.3.2 (II, 734-37). 47 Cf. Aristotle, De caelo, 1.3: "But God and nature create nothing that has not its use" (271a 33 [po 404]), and De anima, 3.9: "Nature never makes anything without a purpose and never leaves out what is necessary" (432b 21-22 [po 597]).

ST.

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thus preserving the whole truth of the nature. Thus, nature does not have these things in its power, but only in its appetite. It cannot restore to life the same body once destroyed, since it does not have full control over the substance of a thing; nor can it make a body immortal, since everything born of nature is corruptible,4s nor again can it gather what has been scattered abroad. Therefore, resurrection cannot be brought about by seminal or natural causes:' but only by the First Cause; so that it occurs in a wondrous and supernatural way at the command of the divine will. CHAPTER

6

THE CONSEQUENTS TO THE JUDGMENT: THE INFERNAL PUNISHMENT

1. Finally, we must speak of the things that follow judgment, which are two: infernal punishment and heavenly glory. 2. Concerning infernal punishment we must hold that this punishment takes place in a material place beneath us, where all the damned, both humans and the bad angels, endure eternal torments.'o They are afflicted with the same material fire that will burn and torture both their souls and bodies. Yet this fire will never consume them but instead torture them forever - some more, others less, in proportion to each one's guilt. To this pain by fire shall be added suffering in every one of the senses, and the punishment of a worm,51 and the deprivation of the vision of

"Aristotle,De eaelo et mundo, 1.12 (282b 8-9). 49 On seminal causes, see In 2 Sent., 18.1.2 (11,436-37). 50 On the topics treated in this chapter, see In 4 Sent., 44.2 (N, 91936. 51 Cf. Mark 9: :48: ", .. where their worm never dies and the fire is never quenched," which alludes to Is 66:24. Bonaventure uses the imagery of a 'worm' to depict the spiritual punishment of remorse and

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God. Thus, there will be multiple pains; and along with this variety, intensity; and along with the intensity, end1essness; so that in regard to the punishment of the damned, the smoke of their torments shall go up forever andever. 52 2. We should understand the reason for what we have said in the following way. The first Principle, being first, is also supreme; this means that every quality that Principle possesses, it must possess to the highest degree. Therefore, God must be supremely just. And so, in the work of retribution, God acts according to this supreme righteousness in such a way that he cannot act against himself, deny himself, 53 or contradict his own justice. This is why it is necessary, precisely by virtue of God's justice, that sin be punished in proportion to the degree of guilt, and most of all in those who, spurning the law of mercy, have dashed themselves through impenitence against the severity of justice. Furthermore, the rigor of justice considers not only the root of the fault, but also its aggravating circumstances. Thus it is most fitting that the just judge require of the wicked the payment of that penalty down to the last penny,'4 so that there might remain "no ugliness of sin without the beauty of justice."" And so, just as supreme power has been manifested in creation, supreme wisdom in governance, and supreme mercy in restoration, so will supreme justice be manifest in retribution. Now divine justice ought to punish sinners in proportion to their guilt. But mortal sin that is followed by final self-loathing that continually gnaws at the souls of the damned. Cf. In 4 Sent., 50.2.2 (N, 1050-53). "Rev 14:11. 53 2 Tim 2:13. 54 Matt 5:26. 55 According to Augustine, De lib. arb., 3.15.44. Bonaventure here replaces the "punishment" of Augnstine with 'justice" (PL 32: 1293 [po 123]).

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PART VII

impenitence implies a perpetual disorder, a lustful disorder, and a manifold disorder: therefore, it must be punished by means of a penalty that is perpetual, bitter, and manifold. 4. In the first place, for a perpetual disorder there ought to be a perpetual punishment. Now, when a person commits a sin and never repents of it, that sin remains forever in the soul, and separates that person from eternal life, that is, from God. For such a sin proceeds from a will that chooses to find its pleasure always in sinning. And although such transitory pleasure lasts but a moment, the disorder [in the willl has the character of permanence; therefore, the punishment corresponding to this disorder must be without end. Just as the human being, in his or her continual choice, appointed no end to sinning,56 so God, in his perpetual will, never suspends the punishment. As human beings have sinned against the infinite good, so they must suffer an infinite penalty; and since they cannot suffer a pain of infinite intensity, they must suffer one of infinite duration. And so, just as after death the will of a sinner forever cleaves to evil and never repents, so also God afflicts it endlessly without ever reversing this sentence, precisely because of this perpetuity of disordered will in the damned. 5. Secondly, the punishment for a lustful disorder must be bitter. Now, any unlawful pleasure is punished most appropriately with the pain opposed to it. By sinning, the rational spirit wantonly turns to a good of its own, loving what is merely here and now, thus selfishly spurning the divine command and sovereignty. And so, in fitting punishment for such vicious gratification, a pleasure mingled with contempt, the sinner - whether human or angelic must be chastised by being cast down to the lowest place,

a place most remote from the state of glory, that is, the depths of hell. Likewise, the sinner must be afflicted there by what is ofthe basest nature, and hence must suffer, not from a spiritual substance, but from one that is material and lowly, that is, the dregs of material bodies; they must be fettered to this filth, and tormented with fire and sulfur. 57 Now, the spirit, by nature, is superior to the body and has the power of acting upon it and moving it. But in choosing sin, the soul has perverted the nobility of its nature and subjected itself, in a particular way, to the vileness and nothingness of sin. Therefore, the order of justice demands that all sinners, angelic or human, be fettered to a material fire from which they will receive, not the infusion of life, but, by divine decree, the pain of suffering. And so sinners are inseparably shackled to this fire - a fire they abhor through a divinely instilled fear and painfully feel through their natural senses. In this way they are most cruelly tortured. Now the action ofthis fire is proportioned to the sin, the guilt, and the stain resulting from the depravity of the self-seeking will. And so, since all sinners are not depraved to the same degree, the same fire shall burn one more severely and the other less so, just as the same fire burns straw and wood with different intensity." Now, although the fire acts in proportion to the degree of guilt of each sinner, that guilt itself remains constant in each sinner, never waxing or waning, or undergoing any change. That is why, by divine ordination, this fire will act in such a way that it will forever burn without ever consuming, for-

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"Rev 14:10: cf. Zeph 1: 12. Cf. Augustine, De civ. Dei, 21.16: "It is certainly not to be denied that the intensity of the eternal fire itself will differ according to the deserts of the wicked. For some it will be milder, and for others more grievous" (PL 41:731 [Dyson, 1076]). 58

"Cf. In 4 Sent., 50.1.1.1 (IV, 1036).

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ever afflict without ever destroying. For the purpose of this fire is not to increase itself, but to destroy the peace of the soul within its body, and the peace of the incorporeal spirit within itself. Hence, there will be no new loss ofpeace, but a continuation of the same loss; it will be the same punishment, whose bitterness will not annul its endlessness and whose eternity will not diminish its bitterness. 6. Finally, the punishment for a manifold disorder must be manifold. Now, any actual mortal sin consists of a disorderly turning away from the supreme light and good, a disorderly turning toward a mutable good, and the disorder of a will that opposes the dictates of right reason. 59 Thus, on account of this threefold disorder, all those who have committed actual sin deserving of damnation will suffer a threefold punishment: because of their turning away from God, the loss of the vision of God; because of their turning to mutable goods, the pain of material fire: and because of the revolt of their will against reason the pain of a worm. And so, afflicted by these multiple punishments, they will be tortured in these various ways, and bitterly, and eternally; thus the smoke of their torments shall go up forever and ever.·o Amen.

in the vision, enjoyment, and possession of the one highest good, namely, God, whom the blessed shall behold face to face,·! that is, plainly and without a veil. They will enjoy God with eagerness and delight, and they will possess God forever. Then will be verified the statement of Bernard: "for God will be for the reason, fullness of light; for the will, the fullness of peace; for the memory, eternity's uninterrupted flow."52 The consubstantial reward consists of the glorification of the body, which is said to be a second robe;·' once assumed, this permits the beatified soul to tend more perfectly "to the highest heaven."" This robe consists of a fourfold dowry of the body: luminosity, subtlety, agility, and impassability.·5 This will be granted in the measure of the love that existed in the soul. The accidental reward is a special, additional embellishment called the aureole. In the opinion of the masters, the aureole is due to three meritorious conditions: martyrdom, preach-

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7

291

" 1 Cor 13:12. "Serm. Cantic., 11.5 (PL 183: 826 B), trans. Kilian Walsh, Sermons on the Song of Songs I (Spencer, MA: Cistercian Publications, 1971), 7"3. For a fuller treatment of the materials of this chapter, see In 4 Sent., 33.2.3 (IV; 755-58) and 49.1-2 (IV; 999-1032). 63

Christian tradition interpreted the several references in the book

THE GLORY Of PARADISE

of Revelation to the 'white robes' of the elect as referring to their being

1. As for the glory of heaven, we must hold, in brief, that it consists of a reward that is substantial, consubstantial, and accidental. The substantial reward consists

clothed with perfection. Scholastic theologians interpreted these 'robes' as the 'dowries' with which Christ had adorned his Bride, the Church Triumphant. The primary 'robe' refers to the dowries of the soul that Bonaventure has already mentioned - vision, love, and enjoyment that perfect its faculties, and thus "unite the soul to God as a bride to

her spouse" (In 4 Sent., 49.1.un.5 (IV, 1008-1009). But a further 'robe' is attached to these, the glorification of the risen body.

"Augustine, De Gen. ad litt., 12.35.68 (PL 34: 483 [ACW 42:228-29]). Cf Augustine, De lib. arb., 2.19.53: "Evil is a turning away from immutable goods and a turning toward changeable goods. This turning away and turning toward result in the just punishment of unhappiness, because they are committed, not under compulsion, hut voluntarily" 69

(PL 32:1269 [po 83]). "Rev 14:11.

65

Anselm had postulated that God would grant seven benefits to the

risen bodies of the elect (Prosiogion, 25). By the early thirteenth century, theologians like William of Auxerre and Alexander of Hales (Glossa, 4.23.3 [15:524-34]) had reduced them to these four qualities that comprised the 'dowry' of the risen body.

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ing, and virginal continence. 66 It should be noted that in all three of these rewards there exists a gradation and distinction due to merits. 2. The explanation for what we have just said is this: the firsJ Principle, by the very fact that it is first, possesses the greatest unity, truth, and goodness. This implies, in turn, that in it are supreme power, wisdom, mercy, and justice. Now these invisible attributes of God should be manifest in visible works." As the first Principle ofthe visible universe, God produces it, governs it, restores it, rewards it, and brings it to perfection. Thus its production should reveal God's supreme power; its government, God's supreme wisdom; its restoration God's supreme mercy; and its rewarding, God's supreme justice. And so, to reveal divine power, God brought forth all things from nothing for his praise, glory, and honor. A certain part of God's creation - material nature - is close to nothingness. Another part - spiritual nature - is close to himself.68 These two natures God has joined together in the human being into one nature and person, namely, a rational soul and a material body.69 In order to reveal divine wisdom, God governs all things most providentially and in the most orderly fashion. The higher part of human nature - the soul - God rules di-

rectly, by illuminating it; 70 the lower part - the body - God rules indirectly through human free will. Thus the body and all its functions are subject to the spirit, while the spirit is subject to God. 71 In order to reveal divine mercy, God restored fallen humanity by assuming human nature with all its penalties, and by suffering the ultimate punishment itself Thus, for the sake of delivering humankind from its wretchedness, supreme Mercy mercifully conformed itself to the wretched: not only to what was originally noble in man's nature as it was created, but also to the defects attached to that nature after the fall. 72 Finally, in order to reveal divine justice, God will repay each one according to his or her merit: eternal pain to the wicked and eternal glory to the just. This is demanded by equitable retribution, restoration by grace, well-ordered government, and a dynamic creation: for all these divine acts should find their consummation in the final end. 3. First of all, rewarding the just is a requirement of equitable retribution and also of a dynamic creation. For in virtue of its creation by God, the rational soul has been placed in proximity to God and has been made capable of union with God. This powerful capacity is the image of the Blessed Trinity that is stamped within it. Righteous men and women serve the Trinity with their whole spirit, thus keeping this image intact. It follows, then, that the rational spirit cannot be rewarded or fulfilled, nor can its

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66The concept of the aureole as an additional mark of heroic virtue is based on Bede's anagogical exegesis of Ex 25:24-25. In this passage God had prescribed that "another little golden crown" (alteram coronam aureolam) be added to the larger golden crown of the tabernacle, the latter interpreted by Bede as referring to the crown granted all the elect. De tabemaculo, 6 (PL 91: 409-10). 67

Cf. Rom 1.20: "Ever since the creation of the world, God's eternal

power and divine nature, invisible though they are, have been understood and seen through the things he has made." "Cf. Augnstine, Confessions, 12.7.7 (PL 32: 828). "See pt. 2, 10.

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70 Bonaventure discusses this in a number of places, especially Quaes. disp. de scientia Christi, q. 4, (V, 17-27), and In 2 Sent., 10.2.2 (II, 26467). 71 Augustine,De quantitate animae, 36.80; "God ... subjects the body to the soul, the soul to himself, and so everything to himself" (PL 32: 1079), trans. John J. McMahon, FC 2 (New York, 1947), 147. Cf. De musica, 6.5.13 (PL 32: 1170) and Enarrat. in Ps. 145,5 (PL 37: 1887).

72

Cf. above, pt. 4, chap. 8.

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capacity be satisfied, with anything less than God. Hence, it receives as its reward a God-conforming glory. Becoming like God, it sees God clearly through the intellect; it loves God through the will; and it retains God forever through the memory. Thus the soul is fully alive, totally endowed in its three faculties, wholly conformed to God, fully united to God, completely at rest in God. For it finds in God, as the sum of all its goods, peace, light, and everlasting abundance. Thus established "in that state which is perfect because all goods are gathered together in it,"" and living by virtue of eternal life, the soul is said to be blessed and even glorious. 4. Again, rewarding is a requirement, not only of equitable retribution and potent creation, but also of ordered government. When God created the body, God joined it to the soul, uniting them to each other by a natural and mutual yearning. God placed the body under the government of the soul, creating it in a state of merit. To gain this merit, God willed that in this pilgrim state the soul should stoop down to the level of the body, directing its attention towards governing it. Hence, the soul cannot be fully happy unless a body is restored to it, because it has an inclination built into it by nature to be reunited with a body.74 Nor is government orderly unless the body intended for union with the blessed soul bends and submits to it in all things, as much as a body may conform to a spirit. But

Boethius, De consolat., 3. 2 (PL 63: 724A). Cf. above, chap. 5.5; on the mutual yearning of soul and body for each other, see In 4 Sent., 43.5; 44.2.1, reply 3; 454, dub. 1 (IV, 462, 481; 507). Thus In a sermon on the Assumption, Bonaventure makes the point that Mary's happiness would not be complete unless she were assun:e~ bodilY,into heaven. ''The person is not a soul; it is composite. 73

74

ThUS,It IS

establIshed that she must be there [in heaven] as a composite,

that IS of soul and body; otherwise she would not be in perfect joy" (IX, 690), trans. Bynum, 249.

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since the soul will be enlightened through the vision of the eternal Light, the body also must shine with great splendor. Since the soul will become supremely spiritual through the love of the highest Spirit, the body also must display a corresponding subtlety and spirituality. Since the possession of eternal life will make the soul totally incapable of suffering, the body also must become completely impassable, internally as well as externally. And since all these endowments will give the soul a supreme readiness to ascend to God, the glorified body must also possess supreme agility. Because these four properties make the body conform to and subject itself to the spirit, they are said to be the special dowry of the body. They enable it to follow the spirit even to the heavenly region where the blessed abide. They likewise assimilate the human body to the heavenly bodies, for through these four properties the heavenly body is gradually drawn away from the four earthly elements. Hence, this fourfold dowry of the human body not only perfects it in itself but also conforms it to its heavenly dwelling place and to the blessed Spirit. Through that Spirit, the fullness of delights and the inebriation of bliss {low from God the Head, down upon the skirt of the garment,7S the human body. 5. Finally, such rewarding is a requirement not only of equitable retribution, potent creation, and ordered government, but also restoration to glory. The different members of Christ receive the gifts of grace in varying amounts - not only in regard to the inner graces but also to their outward activities;76 not only in regard to interior dispositions, but also in eternal powers; not only in the perfec-

75 cr. Ps 132: 2. Augustine says that when the soul resumes its glorified body, it is inebriated.

"C£ 1 Cor 12:4-11.

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ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVILOQUlUM

tion of love in the soul, but also in the beauty and splendor of its perfect bodily expression. Hence, some members are entitled, in addition to the robe of the soul with its three gifts and the robe of the body with its four perfections, to exceptional glory and joy because of the outstanding perfection and splendor of their virtuous deeds. Now, there are three kinds of outstandingly perfect, beautiful, and splendid deeds, corresponding to the three basic powers of the soul. Corresponding to the rational power is the preaching oftruth which leads others to salvation; corresponding to the positive appetite is the perfect rejecting of bodily lust through the perpetual integrity of virginal continence; corresponding to the negative appetite is the suffering of death for the honor ofChrist.77 Therefore, there are three categories of the righteous: preachers, virgins, and martyrs, who deserve the special honor of the accidental reward called the aureole. This adorns, not only the soul, but also the body, since it is given, not to the will alone, but also the external act. And so, the merit and reward of charity consists in a sevenfold endowment - triple to the soul and fourfold to the body _ containing the consummation, the integrity, and the fullness of all goods related to the completion of glory. 6. But how great these goods are, and how manifold, I shall state, not in my own words, but in those of blessed Anselm, who writes" towards the end of his Proslogion: "Now, my soul, rouse yourself and lift up your whole understanding; think as much as you can on what kind and how great this good is. For if particular goods are enjoyable, consider carefully how enjoyable is that Good which

77 On these three powers, see pt. 2, chap. 5.9 above. "Chaps. 24·26 (PL 158: 239C·242C [AC 101-104, altered]). A favorite text with Bonaventure, he also uses it to conclude the Soliloquium and the De perfectione vitae ad sorores.

297

contains the joyfulness of all goods. This is not a joy such as we have experienced in created things, but as different from this as the Creator is from the creature. For if life that is created is good, how good is the Life that creates? If the salvation that has been wrought is joyful, how joyful is the Salvation that brings about all salvation? Ifwisdom in the knowledge of things that have been brought into being is loveable, how loveable is the Wisdom that has brought all things into being from nothing? Finally, if there are many delights in delightful things, of what kind and how great is the delight in the One who made these same delightful things?" 7."0 what shall those have who will enjoy this Good, and what they shall not have! Surely, whatever they wish will certainly be theirs and whatever they do not wish will not be theirs. In fact, all the goods of body and soul will be there - such as no eye has seen, nor ear heard, nor the human heart conceived. 79 Why then, do you wander about so much, 0 insignificant mortal, seeking good things for your soul and your body? Love the one Good in which all good things exist, and that is sufficient. Desire the simple Good which itself is every good, and that is enough. For what do you love, 0 my flesh? What do you desire, 0 my soul? It is there: whatever you love, whatever you desire. Does beauty delight you? The righteous will shine like the sun. so Does swiftness or strength or the free and irresistible movement of the body delight you? The just shall be like the angels of God,·' for a physical body is sown, and it is raised as a spiritual body·2 - spiritual, of course, in power not in nature. Does a long and healthy life delight you? A healthy eternity and an eternal health are 79

1 Cor 2:9.

"Matt 13:43. "'Cf. Matt 22:30 (Vg). 82 1 Cor 15:44.

298

PART VII

ST. BONAVENTuRE'S BREVlLOQUlUM

there, because the just live forever and the salvation of the righteous is from the Lord. 83 Do you hunger for fullness? They shall be satisfied when the glory of God appears.84 Do you want to be intoxicated? They shall be inebriated with the plenty of God's house. ss Does melody delight you? There, choirs of angels sing to God without end. Does any pleasure whatsoever that is not impure delight you? God shall make them drink of the torrent ofhispleasure.s6 "Or does wisdom delight you? The very Wisdom of God will show itself to them. Or friendship? They will love God more than themselves and one other as themselves;" and God will love them more than they love themselves. For they will love God and themselves and one another through him, while God loves himself and them through himself. Or do you seek harmony? They shall all have one will because they shall have no will except the will of God. power? They shall be all-powerful to accomplish what they will, even as God is to fulfill his will. For just as God is able to do through himself that which he wills, so they shall be able to do what they will through God. This is because they shall will only what God wills, and so God shall will whatever they will - and what God wills must come to pass. Or do honor and riches delight you? God shall set his good and faithful servants over many things;" more than that, they shall be, as well as be called, children of God, and evengods. 89 And where the Son is, there they shall be also, for they are heirs of God andjoint heirs

0;

"Wi. 5:15; Ps 37:39. "Cr. Ps 16:15 (Vg) [17:15). sops 35:9 (Vg) [36:8). 861bid. 87 Cr. Matt 22:37-39. 88 Cr. Matt 25:21, 23. "Matt 5:9, cf. 1 John 3:1, John 10:32.

299

with Christ. 90 Or do you seek real security? They will indeed be assured that they will never in any way lack these many goods - or rather this one Good - just as they will be assured that they will not lose it of their own accord; nor that the loving God will take it away from those who love him against their will; nor that anything more powerful than God will separate them from God against their win."91 8. "But what joy there must be, what great joy, where there is such a good, and so great a good! 0 human heart, o needy heart, 0 heart acquainted with hardships - indeed overwhelmed with hardships - how much you would rejoice were you to abound in all these goods! Ask your inmost self; could it contain its joy in being so immensely happy? Now surely, if someone else whom you loved in every respect as you do yourself were also to have such happiness, then your own joy would be doubled, for you would rejoice for that person no less than for yourself. If, then, two or three or many more possessed it, you would rejoice for each of them as much as for yourself, if you loved each one as yourself. Therefore, in that perfect love of the countless blessed angels and human beings where no- one will love another less than himself, each will rejoice for every other as for himself. If, then, the human heart will scarcely be able to contain its own joy that will belong to it from so great a good, how will it comprehend so many and such great joys?" "Indeed, to the degree that each one loves some other, so that person will rejoice in the other's good fortune. Therefore, in that perfect happiness, just as all of the just will love God incomparably more than themselves and all those

goCr. John 14:3, Rom 8:17. " Rom 8:38-39.

PART VII

300

who are with them, so they will rejoice inestimably more over God's happiness than over their own or that of all the others who are with them. But if they love God with all their heart, all their mind, and all their soul,92 and yet their whole heart and mind and soul will not exhaust God's worthiness to be loved, surely with all their heart and mind and soul they shall all rejoice that their whole heart and mind and soul will not be equal to the fullness of that joy

so that my joy may be complete. 0 God oftruth, 1 ask that 1 might receive, so that my joy may be complete. Until then, let my mind meditate on it, let my tongue speak of it, let my heart love it, let my mouth express it. Let my soul hunger for it; let my flesh thirst for it;96 my whole being desire it, until 1 enter into the joy of my Lord, who is God three and one, blessed forever! Amen. "97 Here ends the Breviloquium of Brother Bonaventure.

" 9. "And yet, 0 Lord, 1 still have not said, or even thought, how much your blessed ones will rejoice. They will, no doubt, rejoice as much as they love, and they will love as much as they know. And how much will they know you in that day, Lord? How much will they love you? Surely, in this life no eye has seen, nor ear heard, nor the human heart conceived how much they will know and love you in the next."93 "I pray, 0 God, that 1 may know you and love you, so that 1 may rejoice in you. And if 1 cannot do so fully in this life, at least let me go forward day by day until that point of fullness comes. Let the knowledge of you grow in me here, and there [in heaven] be made complete. Let your love grow in me here; and there be made complete, so that here my joy may be great with expectancy, and there be complete in reality. Lord, through your Son you command, or rather, counsel us to ask; and through him you promise that we shall receive, so that our joy may be complete. 94 1 ask, Lord, as you counsel through our Wonderful Counselor.95 May 1 receive what you promise through your Truth,

"Matt 22:37. "I Cor 2:9. 94 Cf. John 16:24: "Ask and yOll will receive, so your joy may be complete."

95Isa 9:6.

301

"Ps 62:2. "Matt 25:31, Rom 1:25.

INDEX OF

SCRIPTURAL PASSAGES

304

ST. BONAVENTURE'SBREVlLOQUlUM

OLD TESTAMENT

Genesis 1:1 (Vg) 1:1-2 1:2 1:6 1:6-7 1:7 1:9 1:14 1:26-30 1:27-28 1:28 1:31 2:2 2:7 2:8 2:8-9 2:10-14 2:17 2:18-21 2:23-24 3:1-5 3:2 3:6 3:7 3:16-17 3:24 4:4 6:15-16 7:21ff. 15:1 17:8 17:13 28:12 Exodus 12:14 25:24-25 31:18 40:13

63n11 73n38 74n39 63n11, 75n42 98n107 68n25 63n11 69n26 153n60 260n119 93n97 200n86 9n22,63n11 89n85 228n48 90n87 228n48 93n97, 103n14 90n87 260n119 102n9 103n14 105n18 107n23 107n24 166n100 176n22 190n57 lOn23 175n19 21n54 21n54 12n29, 196n73

21n54 292n66 203n97,205n104 21n54

Deuteronomy 3:6 147n45 5:6-21 206n105 Joshua 4:1-10 1 Kings 10:18 10:18-20 Job 28:11

139:6 12n27 139:11 (Vg 138) 196n75 Proverbs 20:28

19n49

Psalms 5:13 19n50 15:2 (Vg) 156n67 16:2 175n19 16:5 255n104 16:15 (Vg) [17:15] 298n84 25:10 (Vg 24:10) 110n31, 129n75 25:10 192n62 35:2 19 35:9 (Vg) [36:8] 298n85, 298n86 37:27 55n67 37:39 298n83 42:1 (Vg 41) 196n73 57 124n61 61:12 31n9 62:2 301n96 68:18 166n99 69:4 162n88 74:12 (Vg 73:12) 226n44 83:8 146n42 91:5 19n50 109 165n96 119:164 (Vg 118) 210n115 132:2 295n75 133:2 12n30

Ecclesiastes 7:30 9:1

Daniel 7:9-10 Hosea 6:6

193n63

200n85

196n73 256n106

305

INDEX

Zephaniah 1:12

266n3 194n67

289n57

91n92 227n45 NEW TESTAMENT

Song of Songs 3:1 4:2 5:16 6:3 (Vg)

196n75 21n53 196n73 220n28

Wisdom 2:24 5:15 5:17 5:20 7:11 11:21 (Vg) 11:21

102n8 298n83 279n31 283n41 189n55 59n1 277n26

Sirach 1:5 (Vg) 18:1

Isaiah 9:6 26:12 30:26 53:12 Ezekiel 1:4-21 2:9

259n115 66n20, 74n40

Matthew 1:21 3:13 4:10 4:17 5:1-9 5:9 5:9-13 5:18-19 5:26 9:13 10:13 10:32 11:30 12:7 12:32 13:43 16:19

300n95 156n67 278n30 160n79

16:24 ,16:27 18:18

6n14 94n99

19 19:4-6 19:6 19:21 19:21-22

251n99 224n39 147n45 223n36 191n60 298n88 208n113 18n48 287n54 194n67 224n37 237n68 205n102 194n67 127n68 297n80 224n40, 246n88, 248n93, 249n94 193n66 266n2 224n40, 249n94 193 223n36 264n128 203n98 193n66

306

21:9 22:30 (Vg) 22:37 22:37-39

ST. BONAVEN'l'UliE'S BltEvILOQUIUM

28:20

147n46 297n81 300n92 298n87, 96n104 201n88 21n55 279n33 18n47 279n32 298n87 298n87 266n2, 301n97 21n55 224n41 157n68, 159n75 224n39, 232n55 241n76

Mark 1:14-15 6:13 9:48 11:9 12:30 15:28 15:33

223n36 224n38 286n51 147n46 236n66 160n79 167n106

Luke 1:79 2:7 11:9-13 22:19 22:37 22:42

191n59 15n42 167n104 224n40 160n79 159n76

22:40 23:12 24:12 24:25 24:29 25:21 25:23 25:31 25:31-46 26:26-28 26:39 28:19

John 1:1

198n80

1:3

16:24 17:3 17:22-23 20:22-23 20:31

14n36, 132n3 132n3,133n8, 148n50, 222n33 148n50 129n74, 216n16 43n44, 43n45 223n36 224n39 63n12 269n10 284n42 42n40 42n40 242n78 242n77 4n11 42n40 85n72 298n89 224n41 194n68 299n90 222n32 165n97 43n43 42n40 42n40 42n40 8n18, 198n80 300n94 199n81 203n95 224n40 4n11

Acts 1:1-3

167n103

1:14 1:16 1:17 1:32 2:1-11 3:5 5:17 5:22-29 5:29 5:37-38 6:38-44 6:53 6:64 6:68 7:16 8:34 10:32 12:24-25 13:1 14:3 14:6 14:15-25 14:23 14:26 15:26 16:7 16:13

307

INDEX

1:5 1:14 2:3 8:12 9:15 15:10 Romans 1:20 1:25 1:28 3:24 5:6-6 5:12 6:16 8:15 8:17 8:26 8:32 8:38-39 9:5 9:16 11:33-36 12:3 14:5

224n37 167n105 43n45 233n58 102 205n102

292n67 301n97 124n60 156n66 161n83 113n37 235n62 204n100 299n90 207n109 161n84· 299n91 148n49 182n34 57n72 3n8 189n54

1 Corinthians 1:24 218n24 1:31 182n36 2:9 297n79, 300n93 4:7 182n36 6:15 149n53 6:19 149n53 7:3-4 262n126 7:31 277n27 11:24-25 224n40 11:29 240n73, 244n83 12:4-11 295n76 12:8-11 168n108 12:11 2n5

13 13:10 13:12 15:4 15:28 15:44 15:47 15:54

186n48 217n21 83n64, 268n9, 291n61 167n102, 233n57 203n96 297n82 145n37 164n94

2 Corinthians 3:6 205n101 5:1 72n35 5:6 3n7 5:10 268n7 10:5 198n79 Galatians 3:26 149n53 4:4-5 143n34 4:24 204n100 5:22 195n70 Ephesians 1:22-23 2:3 3:14-19 4:8 4:13 4:13-16 5:22 5:32 (Vg) 6:12

148n51 109n27 1n1 166n99 282n37, 285n44 129n74 258n111 220n29 235n62

Philippians 2:6-8 2:7 2:10 2:15

162n87 133n7 165n98 188n53

308

3:4 3:14 4:7

Colossians 1:13 1:18-19 1:20 2:3 1 Timothy 1:5 1:17

ST. BONAVENTURE~S BREVlLOQUIUM

146n41 146n42 193n64

235n62 148n51, 149n54 141n29 150n55

2:14 6:3 6:10

236n66 22n58, 30n77 130n77, 158n69, 180n27, 251n98 106n21 30n7 193n65

2 Timothy 2:13

287n53

2:5

Titus 2:14 Hebrews 1:1 1:3 2:17 5:8 7:18 9:9 9:15 10:1

11:13 217n19 James 1 1:14-15 1:17 5:15

117 117n46 2n4,169n3, 207n110 252n101

1 Peter 1:12 1:21 2:5 2:10

196n73 15n41 200n84 231n52

2 Peter 2:4 3:5-13 3:10

80n58 277n27 281n34

1 John 1:14 2:15 2:16 3:1 3:16 4:7-21

194n68 206n106 104n17, 121n56 298n89 161n83 30n7

Revelation 1:12-16 5:1 14:10 14:11 20:12 21:5 22:1 22:12

199n82 94n99 289n57 287n52,290n60 266n3 278n28 169n3 266n2

41n76

216n17 198n80 246n90 151n56, 153n62 217n19 216n17 221n30 217n19

INDEX OF CHURCH FATHERS, ECCLESIASTICAL AUTHORS, AND GLOSSAE

310

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVlLOQUIUM INDEX

Abelard See Peter Abelard Alexander of Hales 114n38 [see also Summa fratris Alexandri)

Gloss on the Sentences 1.17.11 (12:173) 47n52 1.26.1.3 39n35 2.43.9 (13:415) 127n69 4.2.1 (15:40) 219n26 4.3.2-3 (15:47-49) 219n27 4.13.8 (15:204-5) 244n82 4.17.51 79n25 4.23.3 (15:524-34) 91n65 4.23.7 299n50 4.24.3 (15:401-7) 256n107 4.24.3 (15:406) 257n108 Quaestiones disp. antequam

esset frater 3.2

39n35

Summa Theologica 1.390.ad 3 (I, 578) 39n35 2.1.1.3.1 (13:509) 170n4 34.6.4 (I, 344-46) 39n35 Ambrose De paradiso 8.39

119n49, 179n26

Ambrosiaster

189n54

Anselm Cur Deus Homo 1.5 1.11

114n38 134n10 162n85

1.20 2.6 2.8

48 48n54, 162n85 134n11 142n33

De conceptu Virginali 3 185n47 10 113n37 18 117n45 23 112n35 27 109n27 De concordia praescientiae Dei cum Libera arbitrio 3.11 125n65

De veritate 12

185n47

Epistola de Incarnatione Verbi 10 48n54 Monologion 13 Proslogion 9-11 25

84n69 56n71 291n65, 296

Augustine [see also Pseudo-Augustine) 66n20, 241n75

Confessions 12.7.7 13.9.10

77n50, 292n68 202n92

Contra Adimantum 17.2

7n17

Contra adversarium legis et

prophetarum 1.24.51

124n62

Contra duas epistulas Pelagianorum ad Bonifatium 1.22.40 111n33 Contra Faustum 19.13

Donatistas 1.1.2 4.1-2

229n49 228n47

De beata vita 2.11

122n58

10.1.2 10.1.3 11.9 11.29 12.7 12.25-27 13.13-15 14.7.2 14.11.2 14.15-28 14.20 20.14 20.16

56n71 89n58 271n16 284n43 282n36 282n37 282n38

De cura pro mortuis

(The Care to Be Taken for the Dead) 275 2.4 275n23

215n12

De baptismo contra

De civitate Dei 5.1-2 7.30

21.12 21.162 21.26.4 22.14-15 22.17 22.18 22.20

311

69n27 56n70, 102n11, 180n29, 267n6 147n459.15 158n70 30n7 99n1 82n62 100n3 60n5 107n23 122n58 106n22 107n23 112n34 268n8 277n27

De doctrina christiana 14n34 1.5.5 46,46n48 1.23.22 200n87 1.26.27 202n93 1.32.35 201n89 2.6.7ff. 15n39 2.9.14 20n52 2.31 17n45 2.36 17n45 2.41.62 15n38 2.48 17n45 2.54 17n45 3. 10. 14ff. 20n52

De Genesi ad litteram 2.8.16-19 12n27 2.8.16-20 98n107 3.4.6 87n79 4.9.16-17 65n18 8n20 4.11.21 4.22-23 65n17, 76n47 4.24-25.29-30 82n62 4.29.46 12n27 4.31.48 12n27 4.29.46 98n107 8.4.8 93,93n96 8.6.12 95n103

ST. BONAVENnlRE'S BIiEvILOQUIUM

312

9.7.12 9.19.36 11.42.59 12.6.15-12.7.16 12.35.68 31.48

258n110, 259n113 218n23 106n20 195n71 283n40, 291n64 98n107

De Genesi contra Manichaeos 1.23 8n20 1.23.35 10n23, 10n24 2.10.14 185n46 2.11.15 118n47 14.21 118n47 De libero arbitrio 1.1.1 1.12.26 2.19.53 3.9.26 3.15.44 3.18.51

125n67 128n72 79n55, 101n4, 290n59 125n66 109n26, 287n55 92n93

De perfectione justitiae·

Ps.145,5

293n71

Enchiridion 9.32 23.88 25.99 29.110 93.23

Berengar of Tours 239n72, 242n80

174n15 282n37 56n71 273n20 110n30

Bernard of Clairvaux On Grace and Free Will 84n70 3-5 178n24 3.7 178n24 4.9

Epistulae 98.5 (ad. Bonif.) 130.15.28 138.1.5 186.3.10 187.35 194.5.19

229n50 196n74 11n25 175n16 43n42 182n35

hominis

5.11

119n50

De quantitate animae 36.80 293n71 De Trinitate 2.5.8 3.4.9 4.4.7 4.4.7-8 4.6.10 4.20.29 9-15 15.4.6 15.5-6 12 12.3.3-4.4 12.13.20 12.17-18 13.18.23 14.8.11

44n46 54n65 8n19 145n40 166n101 35n21 78n52 32,32n10 32,32n11 121 88n81 118n47 121n53 134n10 267n5

De utilitate credendi 11.25 29n4

2.7.9

178n24

14.27 16.30ff. 55.110

101n6 133n8 133n8

De musica

6.5.13

293n71

De natura bani 34 36

99n1 101n5 101n5

De nuptiis et concupiscentia

ad Valerium comitem 1.26.29 116n44

Enarrationes in Psalmos

Ps.7,10 Ps. 29, 2.10 Ps. 32, 2.25 Ps.45,14 Ps. 57, 18-19 Ps.61,12 Ps. 73,2 Ps.79,13 Ps.142,17

219n25 62nlO 13n32_ 132n3 124n61 31n9 216n15 121n55 132n3

Sermo 2 in vigilia nativitatis Domini 132n5 4 Sermo 3 in vigilia nativitatis Domini

8

In Ioannem evangelium

26.17 47.10

243n81 161n80

Sermones

30.8.10 43.3.4 169.11.13 176.5.5 196.1.1

182n38 281n35 182n33 131n2 139n25

De vera religione

De moribus ecclesiae

313

INDEX

Basil Hexaemeron 3.7 Bede De tabemaculo 6

Hexaemeron Benedict Rule 16.1

75n44 109n28 292n66 91n91

210n115

Serm. Cantic. 11.5

132n5, 145n38 291n62

Serm. in octaua Epiph. 206n107 4 Sermones de tempore

26 (IX, 125)

260n121

Bernard Silvestris Cosmographia 2.10.27-32 92n92 Boethius Contra Eutychen 3

78n53

De consolatione

philosophiae 3.2 4.6

294n73 108n25

314

De Trinitate 4 6

pt. 2, chap. 4 38n31 38n32

pt. 2, chap. 4.3 pt. 2, chap. 4.3

Bonaventure Breviloquium [cross-references] pro!. 2 27n2, 215nll, 278n29 pro!. 2.1 218n22 pro!. 3 27n2, 65n18, 256n107, 260n120 pro!. 5.2 27n2 pt. 1, chap. 1 1n3, 260n116 pt. 1, chap. 3 136n15 pt. 1, chap. 5 103n13 pt. 1, chap. 6 185n44, 282n39 pt. 1, chap. 8 180n30 pt. 1, chap. 9 175n17 pt. 2 9n21 pt. 2, chap. 1 100n2 pt. 2, chap. 1.2 101n7 pt. 2, chaps. 1-5 2n30, 22n56 pt. 2, chap. 6.3-4 86n73 pt. 2, chap. 9 104n17 pt. 2, chap. 10 292n69 pt. 2, chap. 10.2 132n5, 132n6 pt. 2, chap. 10.5-6 107n23 pt. 2, chap. 11.6 85n70 pt. 2, chap. 11 103n14, 105n19, 114n39 pt. 2, chap. 12 173n12, 267n5

pt. 2, chap. 5 pt. 2, chap. 5.9 pt. 2, chap. 7 pt. 2, chap. 8 pt. 2, chap. 9 pt. 2, chap. 9.5 pt. 2, chap. 9.5-8 pt. 2, chap. 9.8 pt. 2, chaps. 9-10 pt. 2, chap. 12 pt. 3, chap. 1 pt. 3, chap. 2 pt. 3, chap. 3 pt. 3, chap. 3.3 pt. 3, chaps. 3-4 pt. 3, chap. 4 pt. 3, chaps. 5-6 pt. 3, chap. 6 pt. 3, chap. 8 pt. 3, chap. 9 pt. 4,"chap. 8 pt. 4, chap. 8.2 pt. 5, chap. 1 pt. 5, chap. 1.2 pt. 5, chap. 2.2 pt. 5, chap. 4

315

INDEX

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BRKVILOQUJUM

153n60, 278n29 132n6, 140n28, 163n92, 281n35 114n39 296n78 270n14 190n56, 256n107 170n7, 185n42, 267n5 135n14 104n16 261n123, 262n127 260n116 78n52 260n116 185n45 162n86, 212n5 247n91 162n89 158n72 163n90 260n117 163n91, 192n62 188n52 293n72 163n92 190n56, 260n120, 43n42 184n41 169n1 202n94, 219n27

pt. 5, chap. 4.4-5

213n7, 235n63, 88n81 218n22 pt. 5, chap. 10 pt. 6, chap. 3.3 212n4 pt. 6, chap. 8.4 252n102 pt. 6, chap. 10.4-5 269n12 pt. 7 266n3 pt. 7, chap. 2.5 274n21 294n74 pt. 7, chap. 5.5

Commentary on John 1.1.1 (y, 247) 36n24 1.43 (VI, 256) 194n68 (VI,514) 248n92 DEC 1:230

1:231

Collations on the Hexaemeron 1.10-39 (V, 330-35) 1.12 (y, 331) 1.37 (V, 54) 2.20-27 (V, 339-40) 2.28ff. (y, 340-41) 3.2 3.23-24 (Y,347-48) 3.3-9 (y, 343-45)

60n2 138n21 46n50 72n36 96n105 196n74 132n3 98n108 61n6, 96n105 5.1ff. (V, 353ff.) 183n39 6.7ff. (V, 361ff.) 183n39 8-12 (V, 368-87) 3n9 11.13 (V, 382) 34n18 14.7-11 (Y,394-95) 4nll 14.7-12 (Y,394-95) 5n12 15 (y, 403-8) 9n22 15.12-18 (V, 400) 10n24 15.12-21 (V, 400-402) 145n39 16.7 (y, 404) 65n18 19 (V, 419-24) 19n50, 28n3 21 (V, 431-37) 47n53 21.1-15 (Y,437-40) 45n47 22.21 (V, 440) 28n3

Comm.Eccl. 7.30 (VI, 63)

91n92

De donis 4.2-13 (Y,474-76)

29-30n5, 59n1, 79n56, 261n122 35n20 2n4

De fide ad Petrum 2.16 115n40 3.36 ll1n33 27.70 111n33 De myst. Trin. 2.1.ad.10 (y, 63) 62n10 4.2,8 conc!. (V, 85-86, 114) 34n17 8.ad.7 (V, 115) 71n32 De perfectione vitae ad sorores 296n78

De reductione artium ad theologiam 3 87n79 18 (V, 22-24, 324) 13n33 De sanctissimo corpore Christi (V, 553-56) 240n73

Disputed Questions on Evangelical Perfection 4.3 (V, 189-96) 257n108

r

316

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVILOQUJUM

Perf ev. qq. 1-2 (V, 117-65) 193n66 qq. 2-4 (V, 124-98) 206n106 q. 4, a. 3, ad 9 (V, 197) 277n25 Instructions for Novices 4 (VIII, 480-81) 244n84 Itinerarium mentis in Deum 1.2 (V) 96n105 1.3 (V) 82n62, 98n107 1.4 (V,297) 185n42 1.6 (V, 296-99) 195n72 2.2-3 87n79 3.1 (V,303) 98n108 4.3 (V, 343, 306) 132n3, 194n68 4.3-4 (V, 306-7) 170n5 6.2 (V, 310-311) 31n8 7.5 (V, 313) 196n74

Quaest. disp. de scientia Christi q. 1 cv, 3-6) 151n56 q.4 cv, 17-27) 293n70 q. 5-7 (V, 27-43) 151n56 Sc. Chr. q.4 q. 7 (V,40) 1 (V, 3-6) 2-3 cv, 6-16) 7 (V, 37-43)

13n33 196n74 51n61 51n60 14n37

Second Sermon on the Nativity IX,207 132n6 Sentence Commentary 1 proem.,q. 3 (I, 12-13) 17n44 proem. 1 (I, 7) 14n35

proem. 3.ad 1-3 (I, 13) 4n11 1.1.1.concl. (II, 22) 61n8 2 (I, 49-62) 30n6 2.1.1.ad 5 (1, 81-82) 96n105 2.4 (I, 56-58) 33n13 2.4 scholion (1, 58-59) 145n40 2.un.1 (I, 53-54) 35n21 2.un.4 (I, 56) 34n17 3.1.2 (I, 71-73) 96n105 3.1.dub.3 (I, 78-79) 61n6, 100n2 3.1.dub.3-4 (1, 78-80) 45n47 . 84n69 3.2.1.1 (1, 80-82) 5.1.1 (I, 111-14) 37n27 6.3 (1, 129-30) 46n50 8.2.2 (I, 167-69) 136n17 8.2.4 (1, 173-74) 53n63 9.1 (1, 180-81) 33n13 10.1.1(1,194-96) 33n13 10.1-2, (I, 194-204) 36n25 10.2.1 (I, 200-201) 168n107 10.2.dub.2 (1, 205-06) 168n107 14.2.1 (I, 249-50) 172n10 14.2.2 (1, 250-53) 171n9 14-16 (I, 224-286) 42n40 16.3 (1, 283-84) 43n45 17.1.1 (1, 292-96) 168n107 17.1.un.1 (1, 294) 172nlO 18.un.3 (I, 326-27) 169n1 18.un.5, esp. ad 4 (1,329,331) 36n25 19.1.4 (I, 347-50) 73n37 20.2.1-2 (I, 372-75) 73n37 21.dub.2 (I, 387) 42n39 22.3 (I, 394-96) 41n38 22.4 (1, 397-99) 37n26 22.dub.2 (I, 400) 39n33 23.1.1-3 (1, 404-10) 40n36 23.1.3 (1, 408-10) 37n28 24.3.1-2 (I, 428-31) 39n33

INDEX

25.1.2 (I, 439-41) 78n53 25.1.2, ad 3 (I, 440-41) 37n27 25.2.1-2 (1, 443-45) 40n36 26.1 (I, 451-52) 37n30 26.2 (I, 455-56) 38n32 26.4 (I, 460-61) 33n16 27.1.2 (I, 468-72) 36n22 27.1.2 ad 3 (I, 470-72) 46n50 27.1.3 (I, 476) 38n32 27.1.un.2 (I, 468-474) 35n21 27.2.1ff. (I, 481ff.) 36n24 27.2.2 (I, 484-86) 46n50 27.2.2-4 (1, 485-90) 51n60 27.2.2 (1, 541-43) 15n41 27.2.4 (I, 488-90) 138n22 27.p.un.3 (1, 488) 36n23 28ff. (1, 496ff.) 36n22 30.1ff. (I, 521ff) 41n38 31.1.2 (1, 534-36) 39n33 33.1 (I, 571-73) 38n32 33.2 ad 5 (1, 576) 37n27 31.2.1.1 (I, 539ff.) 36n24 31.2.3 (1, 548-49) 45n47 34.3 (1, 592-93) 41n38 34.4 (I, 593-94) 45n47 51n60 35 (I, 600-616) . 35.2 (1, 605-7) 52n62 35.dub.3 (1,614-15) 50n58 36.2.1 (I, 623-24) 51n60 12n27 36.2.2 (1, 625) 36.dub.3 (1, 631) 50n58 37.1 (1, 637-41) 42n41 37.1.1.1 (I, 638-39)175n18 37.1.3.1-2 (1,646-49) 42n39 37.dub.2 (I, 664) 36n24 38.2.1 (1, 674-76) 51n61 38-42 (I, 668-761) 50n58 39.2.1-3 (I, 692-96) 51n61 40.2.1 (1, 706-9) 51n61 41.1.2 (I, 731-34) 57n72 42 (esp. q. 2), 43 (I, 745-778) 48n54

317

62n10 43.3 (I, 722) 45-48 (1, 797-861) 54n64 46.5 (I, 830-34) 108n25 48 (1, 850-61) 55n66 48.2.2 (1, 858) 160n77 Sentence Commentary 2 proem. (II, 3-6) 91n92 1.1.1-2 (II, 14-30) 61n6 1.1.2.1 (II, 25-27) 101n7 1.1.dub 2, 4 (II, 36-38) 64n15 1.2.1.2.ad 3 (II, 42) 71n32 1.2.3.2 (II, 50) 71n32, 78n54 2.2.1.1 (II, 39-40) 67n21 2.2.1.2 (II, 41) 90n88 2.2.2.1 (II, 75ff.) 83n64 2.2.2.2 (II, 73-75) 69n26 2.2.dub.2 (II, 84-85) 165n96 3.1 (1:341-42) 77n48 3.1.1.1 (II, 89-91) 78n51 3.1.2.1-3 (II, 102-10)78n51 3.2.1 (II, 112-17) 79n55 3.2.2.1-2 (II, 117-24) 82n61 3.2.2.2 (II, 122ff.) 82n62 4.1.2, ad 3 (II, 134) 170n6 4.3.1-2 (II, 138-42) 82n61 5.1-2 (II, 145-54) 79n56 5.3.1-2 (II, 154-58) 82n61 7.1.1.ad.2 (II, 177) 78n54 7.1.2.3 (II, 187-88) 82n61 7.2.1 (2:190) 88n81 7.2.2.1 (II, 196-99) 63n13 82n63 8.1 (II, 209-24) 8.1.3.2 (II, 221) 153n61 8.2 (II, 224-34) 79n56 9 praenotata (II, 237-41) 11n25, 83n65 9.7 (II, 253-54) 166n99 9-11 (II, 237-90) 82n61

318

ST. BONA~SIBREVIWQU1VM

10.2.2 (II, 264-67) 293n70 12.1.2 (II, 295-98) . 76n47 12.2.2 (II, 304-5) 64n15 13.1.1 (II, 311-13) 76n47 14.1.1.1 (II, 335-38) 67n21, 75n42 14.1.1.2 (II, 338-41) 67n23 14.2.1.3 (II, 362-64) 67n21 14.2.2.2-3 (II, 359-65) 69n26 14.2.2.3 (II, 361-65) 71n33 14.2.dub.4 (II, 369-70) 70n28 15.1.1 (II, 372-76) 87n75 15.1.3 (II, 379-81) 70n30 15.2.1 (II, 382-84) 9n21, 71n34 15.2.3.dub.4 (II, 386-90) 63n13 16 (II, 393-408) 84n69 16.1.1 (II, 394-95) 71n34 16.2.2 (II, 404) 102nlO 16.2.3 (II, 404-6) 96n105 17.1.1 (II, 410-13) 84n67 17.1.2 (II, 413-16) 87n75 17.2.1-3 (II, 419-26) 89n86 17.2.2-3 (II, 420-26) 70n30 17.2.3 (II, 420-23) 67n23, 91n89 17.dub.5 (II, 428-29) 95n103 18.1.1 (II, 431-34) 90n87 18.1.2 (II, 436-37) 49n56, 286n49 18.1.3 (II, 439-43) 84n67 18.1-3 (II, 434-43) 63n13 18.dub (II, 454-55) 260n120 19.1.1 (II, 457-61) 84n68 19.2.1 (II, 464-68) 90n87 20 (II, 477-89) 90n87 20.dub.7 (II, 489) 93n97 21.1.1-3 (II, 493-97) 102n9 21.1.3 (II, 496) 103n15 21.2 (II, 496-503) 104n17 21.2,21.dub.3

-

(II, 497-503) 108n25 21.dub.3 (II, 510-11) 104n17 21.dub.4 (II, 511-12) 120n52 22.1 (II, 515-21) 105n18 22.1.1 (II, 516-17) 134n10 22.1.2-3 (II, 519-21) 106n21 22.2.3 (525-27) 128n73 22.dub.2 (II, 528) 109n28, 158n72, 190n56 23.1.1-2 (II, 531-35) 102n12 23.2.1-3 (II, 537-47) 94n98 23.2.3 (II, 643-46) 196n74 24 (II, 573-86) 118n47 24.1.1.1 (II, 560) 104n16 24.1.2.3 (II, 564) 88n81 24.1.2.3 (II, 565-67) 88n82 24.2.dub.3 (II, 587-88) 94n100 25 (II, 591-626) 85n70 25.1.3 (II, 597-600) 89n84 25.1.6 (II, 604-6) 94n100 25.2.3 (II, 613-15) 99n1 25.2.4 (II, 615-16) 128n73 25.2.5 (II, 618-20) 180n30 26.1-2 (II, 630-36) 170n6 26.3-4 (II, 637-41) 171n9 26.4 (II, 640) 180n28 26.5 (II, 641-44) 176n21 26.6 (II, 645-46) 182n38 26.un.5 (II, 643) 185n45 26-29 (II, 629-709) 94n98 27.1.1-2 (II, 653-58) 183n39 27.2 (II, 661-68) 175n16 27.2.1 (II, 669) 169n2 27.dub.1 (II, 669-70) 173n13, 175n16 28 (II, 674-92) 178n24 28.2.1 (II, 682) 182n37 28.2.3 (II, 689) 175n18 28.dub.2 (II, 691) 175n16 29.1.1 (II, 395-96) 172n11

INDEX

30.1.1-2 (II, 714-20) 111n32 30.1.2 (II, 717-20) 112n35 30.2.1 (II, 721-23) 109n27, 114n38 30.3.2 (II, 734-37) 285n46 112n35 31 (II, 739-56) 115n41 32.1 (II, 759-65) 112n36 32.3 (II, 769-74) 111n33 33.3.1 (II, 794) 33.3.1-2 (II, 769-74) 110n30 34.2.1 (II, 809-12) 101n7 99n1 34-35 (II, 802-39) 125n64 35 (II, 821-39) 61n6 35.2.1 (II, 828-30) 35.dub.6 (II, 838-39) 101n5 124n63 36 (II, 842-59) 36.dub.5 (II, 858-59) 176n20 55n69 37.1.1 (II, 861-63) 55n69 37.2.1 (II, 869-70) 94n98 39 (II, 888-917) 41.1.1 (II, 937-38) 176n20 120n52 41.2.1 (I, 947-50) 41.2.2 (II, 950-53) 118n48 42.2.1 (II, 964-66) 119n51 119n50 42.dub.2 (II, 976) .42.dub.3-4 (II, 977-78) 121n57 127n68 43 (II, 981-98)

Sentence Commentary 3 1.1.1, resp. 136n15 (III,9-1O) 135n13 1.1.2 (III, 12-13) 1.2.1-3 (III, 19-31) 131nl 71n32 1.2.2 (II, 20) 138n23 1.2.3 (III, 28-31) 1.2.4 and dub. 143n34 (III,31-33) 1.2-3,2.1-3 14n35 (III, 539-551) 191n60 2.1 (III, 746) 135n14 2.2 (III, 44-47)

319

141n32 2.3.1 (III, 49-51) 2.dub.4 (III, 59-60) 141n29 140n27 3.1 (III, 60-78) 3.2.3.2, resp. (III, 93) 142n31 139n25 3-5 (III, 60-143) 141n30 4.1.1 (III, 98-99) 4.1.1, resp. (III, 98-99) 132n4 92n95 4.3.l(III, 110) 5.1.1-2 (III, 122-25) 138n20 136n15 5-7 (III, 121-84) 6.2.3 ad. 1 (III, 163) 132n5 9.1.1 (III, 199-200) 148n49 11.2.3 ad 3 (III, 257) 136n15 12.2.1 (III, 261-63) 147n44 158n71 12.2.1.4 (III, 267) 147n43 13 (III, 276-93) 13.2.1, resp. (III, 284) 149n52 13.2.1-3 (III, 283-90) 12n30 13.2.3.4 (III, 288-90)149n51 14.1.2 (III, 298-302) 153n59 14.1-3 (III, 295-324) 151n56 14.3.1-2 (III, 318-23) 153n62 14.3.2 (III, 322-23) 152n58 15.1.2, resp. 158n73 (III, 332-33) 16n43 15.2.1 (II,327-29) 15.2.2., resp. 159n74 (III,338-39) 15-18 (III, 329-96) 157n68 160n78 16 (III, 345-61) 16.1.3.2 (III, 351-52) 158n71 17.1.3 (III, 368-69) 160n77 155n63 18 (III, 379-96) 18.1.2 (III, 383-84) 155n64 18.2,3 (III, 391-93) 166n100

320

19.1 (III, 399-408) 19.2.2 (III, 408-9) 19.2.2 ad 1 (III, 411)

ST. BONAVENiitRE'SBREVILOQUIUM

163n91, 164n94 158n69

138n21 131n1 131n1 156n67 161n81 160n80 163n90, 164n93 22.3 (III, 457-58) 166n101 22.4-6 (III, 458-64) 165n96 23.1.1 (III, 471) 6n16 23.1.3 (III, 478-80) 200n83 23.2.5 (III, 497-500) 186n49 23-25 (III, 469-553) 3n9, 197n78 23-33 (III, 470-731) 183n39 24.1.2 (III, 512-14) 200n83 24.dub.3 (III, 530) 18n46 25.1.1 (III, 534-38) 199n82, 200n83 25.1.3 (III, 334-35) 15n40 27.1.1-3 (III, 589-98) 201n90 27. 1.dub. 1 (III,615-17) 201n90 27.2.5-6 (III, 611-15) 201n88 28-29 (III, 620-54) 201n88 34.1.1.1 (III, 735-39) 184n41, 187n51, 191n60 34-35 (III, 734-809) 187n50 35.1.1 (III, 774) 190n58 35.un.1 (III, 77) 28n3 35. un.6 (III, 785) 30n7 36 (III, 791-809) 186n48 36.1, scholion (III, 793-94) 91n60 37.1.1 (III, 812-24) 204n99 20.1.2 (III, 416-22) 20.1.6 (III, 430-32) 20.3-4 (III, 422-26) 20.5 (III, 427-29) 21 (III, 436-47) 22.1 (III, 450-53)

37.2.1-3 (III, 821-29)206n105 38.un.2 (III, 776) 2n4 40.103 (III, 884-92) 205n102

Sentence Commentary 4 (IV, 1-3) 211n1 (IV, 522-24) 272n18 1.1 (IV, 10-31) 212n4 1.1.2 (IV, 13-15) 223n35 1.1.2.ad 4 (IV, 15) 217n19 1.2 (IV; 31-46) 215n12 2.1.1 (IV, 361-62) 162n85 2.1.1-2 (IV, 48-52) 215n12 2.1.3 (IV, 52-54) 218n22 3.1.2.2, ad. 3 (IV, 72-73) 234n58 3.2.1.1 (IV; 76-78) 221n31 3-5 (IV, 63-132) 233n56 4.1.2.2-3 (IV, 102-4) 223n35 4.1.dub.2 (IV, 104) 180n31 5.1.1 (IV; 122) 234n59 5.1-2 (IV, 120-25) 225n43 6.2.2 (IV; 152-55) 225n43 6.2.3 (IV, 155-59) 233n56 7 (IV, 163-77) 236n64 7.1.1-2 (IV; 163-67) 221n31 7.1.3 (IV; 167-68) 225n43 8.1.2.1-3 (IV, 184-86) 222n31 8.1.2.dub.4 (IV, 188) 8.2.1 (IV, 208) 243n80 8.2.2.1 (IV, 195-96) 242n79 8-13 (IV, 179-314) 240n73 9.1.2-3 (IV, 201-4) 244n82 13.1.1-4 (IV; 302-7) 225n43 13.2.1 (IV, 307-9) 244n82 14.1, dub. 4 (IV, 329-30) 248n92 14.1.2.2 (IV) 181n32 14-22 (IV, 317-586) 245n87 15.1.1 (IV, 350-51) 156n67, 162n85

INDEX

15.2 (IV, 361-80) 275n22 17.1 (IV; 418-34) 179n25 17.1.1.2 (IV)15.2.2.3 (IV,375) 208n111 17.1.1.3-4,17.1.2.1-4 (IV, 421-32) 248n92 17.2.1.1-3 (IV,435-41) 222n31 17.2.2.1.ad 4 (IV, 443) 120n52 17.3.1 (IV, 450-57) 225n43 18.1.1.1 (IV, 470) 250n95 18.1.1.1-2 (IV; 469-72) 246n88 18.1.1-2 (IV, 469-72) 248n92 18.2.2 (IV, 486-87) 250n95 19 (IV, 499-529) 225n43 20.1 (IV, 516-28) 270n13 21.1.1.2 (IV; 548-50) 272n19 21.1.2.1 (IV, 551-53) 272n19 23 (IV; 587-602) 251n97 .23.1.2 (IV, 590-92) 222n31 23.2.1 (IV, 596-97) 225n43 24.1,24.2.2-3 (IV; 615-18) 222n31 24.2.2.4 ( IV,634-36) 256n107 24-25 (IV, 607-69) 254n103 25.1 (IV, 641-49) 225n43 25.1.1 (IV; 641-43) 246n89 26.1.1-2 (IV,661-64) 222n31, 260n119 26.2.2 (IV, 667-69) 261n122 26.2.3 (IV, 669-70) 262n125 26-42 (IV, 661-80) 258n109 27.1.1 (IV, 675-76) 261n123

321

27.2.1 (IV, 678-79) 225n43 27.2.1-2 (IV,678-81) 261n124 28.5 (IV, 694-95) 225n43 28.un.6 (IV, 695-97) 262n126 31.1.2, ad. 4 (IV,719-20) 259n113 31.2.1 (IV, 721-23) 261n122 33.1.1 (IV, 589) 120n52 33.2.3 (IV; 755-58) 291n62 40.dub.3 (IV, 854) 145n39 43.1 (IV, 883-96) 282n36 43.2.1-3 (IV, 896-99) 50n59 43.2-3 (IV, 896-902) 266n2 43.5 (IV, 462) 294n74 44.1 (IV, 906-16) 282n36 44.1.dub. 2 (IV, 473) 282n37 44.2 (IV, 919-36) 286n50 44.2.1, reply 3 (IV,481) 294n74 44.2.3.2 (IV, 501) 265n1 44.2.3.2 (IV, 931-35) 271n15 45.2.3 (IV, 946-47) 277n25 45.2-3 (IV, 843-51) 273n20 45.3.1-3 (IV, 947-51) 208n112 46.2.1-4 (IV, 962-66) 56n71 46.2.3 (IV, 964-65) 129n75 47.2 (IV, 975-80) 278n28 48.1 (IV, 984-88) 266n2 48.2 (IV, 989-95) 278n28 48.2.1 (IV, 990) 71n32 48.2.2 (IV,561-62) 265n1 48.dub.3 (IV, 996) 279n31 49.1.5 (IV, 509) 97n106 49.1.un.5 (IV, 1008-9) 291n63 49.1-2 (IV, 999-1032)291n62 50.1.1.1 (IV, 1036) 288 50.2.2 (IV, 1050-53) 287n51 454, dub. 1 (IV, 507) 294n74

322

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVlLOQUIUM

Soliloquium

296n78

Fulgentius of Ruspe 111n33, 115n40 Gregory IX Decretals 3.43.3 5.29

Glossa ordinaria

230n51 230n51 68 189n54 74n39

on Genesis 1:2 on Isaiah 30:26 (Lyranum 4:57) 278n30 on Mark 15:33 (Lyranum 5:118v)167n106 onPsaIm 109 (Lyranum 3:251v) 65n96 Gratian Decretum de cons., d. 4, c. 118 (1:1398) 232n53 Gregory the Great 211n2 Dialogues 4.55 275n22

Hom. in Evang. 2.29.2 2.32.1 21.3 34.13 In Ezechielem 1.6.12 1.11.23-25

281n35 71n31 140n28 266n4 83n64, 83n65 6n14 124n61

2.4.16-17 2.7.11

INDEX

190n57 195n69

Liber responsorialis 238n70 Moral. in lob 6.16.20 25.11.28 Hilary De Trinitate 2.1

281n35 128n70 46

De quatuor volunt. in Christo 160n77 De sacramentis

1.8.11-12 1.9.2 1.9.3 1.9.4

1.11.6 2.2.1 2.7 2.8.8 2.15.1 11.4 11.8

45,5n47

Hugh of St. Victor De area Noe morali 4.6 59n1 2.6 190n57

Christianae Fidei 1.prol.3 1.1.3 1.3.26-29 1.5.7-8 1.6.5 1.6.6 1.6.7 1.7.1-3 1.7.6-8 1.7.10 1.7.31 1.8.3

1.9.5 1.10.2

72n36 66n19 63n14 77n49 94n99 95n101 96n102 102n8 106n22 106n20 235n61 8n19, 8n20, 144n35 215n11 212n3 212n4 213n8

214n9 98 98n108, 98n109 215n11 8n20 144n35 248n92 242n79 237n69 217n18 216n13 216n14

De sacramentis legis naturalis et scriptae 216n14 De tribus diebus

63n14

Didascalion 5.2

14n34

Expositio in Hierarchiam Caelestem 1.3 11n26 . 1.5 11n26 Irenaeus Adversus Haereses 4.20.4 132n6 Isidore of Seville [see also Pseudo-Isidore] De officiis ecelesiasticis 2.12 255n105

323

Etymologiae 4.5 6.19.40 7.12.3

70n28 211n2 255n105

Sententiarum 1.27.9

128n70 266n4

Jerome Comment. in Marc. 9.28 219n26

Epistulae 130,9

245n85

John Cas sian Conferences 14.8 19.14.15

14n34 140n28

John of Damascus De fide orthodoxa 91n88 2.12 128n73 2.24 132n4 3.1 137n18 3.6 3.20 159n74 3.27,4.1 (2:116-21) 161n80 3.24 207n108 John of La Rochelle 114n38 Summa de anima 2.19 87n79

De rerum natura

67n21

Justinian Digesta 1.1.10

De summa bono 2.17.3-4

128n70

Institutes 1.9.1

205n100 258n109

324

ST. BONAVEN'TtffiE'S BREVlLOQUIUM

Matthew of Aquasparta Introitus ad sacram Scripturam, nn. 22-27, in Quaestiones disputatae De fide et De cognitione n13 Nemesius of Emesa 90n88 Origen In Levit. 1.1 Peter Abelard InEp. ad Rom. 3.26

15n42

133n9

Theologia scholarium 2.10 40n37 Peter Hispanus Summulae logicales 12

48n55

Peter Lombard Glossa on 2 Corinthians 6.15 81n59 on Psalm 61.12 31n9 on Galatians 149n51

Liber 1 Sent. 2.4 (1:339-40) 8.8 15.2.9 (1:132, 137) 25.2 (1:254-255) 31.2 (1:225-29) 31.2 (1:228) 31.6 (1:232) 37. Iff. (1:263ff.) 45.6 (1:310)

68n25 40n37 44n46 50n57 45n47 46n48 46n48 42n40 54n64

Liber 2 Sent. 9.3 (1:372-73)

84n66

12.1.2 (II, 295-98) 12.2 (1:384-85) 13.1.1 (II, 311-13) 15.6 (1:402-3) 16.4 (1:409) 19.2 20.6 (1:432-33)

65n17 65n17 65n17 65n17 91n91 92n94 93n97 95n101 21.1-3 (1:433-35) 102n8 22.1-4 (1: 439-45) 105n18 22.4 (1:442-45) 106n22 22.4 (1:514-15) 162n87 22.5 (1:446-47) 128n70 23.1 (1:447-48) 102n12 24.4-13 (1:453-60) 118n47 24.6-12 (1:455-460) 121n53 25.8 (1:466-69) 85n72 25.8-9 (1:466-69) 85n70 26.2 (1:471-72) 175n16 26.4 (1:473-76) 174n15 27.6 (1:484-85) 182n35 30.9 (1:500-501) 235n61 32.1 (1:511-13) 116n44 36.1 (1:537) 124n61 36.4 (1:539) 124n62 41.3 (1:564-65) 101n6 41.4 (1:565) 128n72

Liber 3 Sent. 2.1 (2:27-29) 3.1-3 (2:32-35) 3.9 (2:68-71) 5.1-3 (2:41-18) 15.1-2 (2:93-100) 16.1-2 (2:103-4) 16.2 (2:105) 18.1 (2:111-12) 18-19 (2:116-21) 19.1-4 (2:118-22) 21.1-2 (2:131-35) 23.3 (2:142-43) 27.4 (2:163-64)

325

INDEX

137n18 140n27 148n49 138n20 158n73 158n73 158n71 166nlOO 161n82 162n87 164n93 189n54 202n92

28.1 (2:168-69) 29.1 (2:171-72) 35.1 (2:198-200)

Liber 4 Sent. 1.1.1 (2:23) 1.4 (2:233) 1.5 (2:234-35)

200n87 201n91 188n52 211n1 213n6 212n4, 214n9 216n15 233n58 241n75

1.6 3.3 (2:245) 4.1 (2:251-52) 6.1, 6.4, 6.9 229n49 (IV, 135-48) 229n49 7.3.3 (IV, 175) 242n79 8.2.7 (2:284-86) 243n81 8.7 (2:285) 10-22 (2:290-303) 239n72 242n80 11.3 (2:299-300) 211n2 13.1 (2:311-12) 245n85 14.1 (2:315) 245n86 16.1 (2:336) 18.1.3.1-2 249n93 (IV,478-81) 249n93 18.2 (2:356) 254n103 24.1.3 (2:405) 24.2.1.1-4 229n49 (IV,620-29) 258n110 26.2 (2:417) 26.6-28.1 (2:419-32) 259n112 26.6.2 (2:420-21) 258n111 258n109 27.2 (2:422) 259n113 31.1 (2:442) 266n3 43.4 (2:512) 268n8 43.4 (2:513) 284n43 44.1 (2:516-17) 282n38 44.2 (2:517) 273n20 45.2 (2:523-25) 275n23 45.3 (2:525) 48.1-2 (2:542-44) 266n4

Peter of Blois Letter 115

259n114

Peter of Poitiers Five Books of Sentences 245n87 3.2 220n28 5.3 Praepositinus of Cremona 277n25

Presbyterorum et diaconorum Achaiae de martyrio S. Andreae apostoli epistula 238n71 encyclica Pseudo-Augustine Hypognosticon 89n84 3.5.7 182n38 3.11 Pseudo-Dionysius 11n26 De cael. hier. (Celestial Hierarchy) 170n5 3.1-2 82n61 3.2-3 85n71 4.3 136n17 11.2

De div. nom. (The Divine Names) 35n21 2.7 47n52 4.14 80n57 4.19 61-62n9 5.6 78n54 7.2 Pseudo-Isidore Epist. ad Leudefredum 5 255n105

326

ST. BONAVENTtJRE'sBREVlLOQUIUM

Richard of St. Victor De trinitate 3.2 31n8 3.19 31n8 6.15 47n53 Robert Grosseteste De cessatione legalium 1.9.4 20n51 1.9.5-8 20n52 Dictum 48

INDEX OF PHILOSOPHERS AND 60n1

Rufinus of Aquileia Commentary on the Apostles' Creed 2 197n77 Summa (ratris Alexandri 14n38 [see also Alexander of Hales]

Tertullian De paenitentia 4.2-3

245n85

Thomas Aquinas 92n95 Summa theologiae 33n15

JURISTS

328

ST. BONAVENTURE'S BREVlLOQUIUM

Aristotle Categories 5 (3b 10-12)

92n95 38n31 87n75

De anima 2.1 (412a 22-29) 2.2 (414a 25-28) 2.24.2 (414a 12-13) 2.4 (415a 15-19) 2.4 (416b 23-24) 2.9 (421a 6-8) 2.60.5 (417b 24-28) 2.68.7 3.3 (429a 2-3) 3.38.8 (432a 1-2) 3.9 (432b 21-22)

184n40 285n45 87n76 184n40 214n10 223n34 153n61 74n41 223n34 91n90 285n47

De caelo 1.3 (271a 33) 285n47 1.12 (282b 8-9) 286n48 1.126.12 (282b 8-9) 86n74 De genera. et corrupt. 1.39.5 (320a 8ft'.) 87n76 2.25.4 (331a23-240) 275n24

Metaphysics 1.1 (980b 25-981a 10) 152n58 2.2 (994a 1-995b 14) 61n7 2.3 (993b 19-21) 6n14 34n17 6.22 (1032 a 12-13) Nichomachean Ethics 1.1 (1094a 2) 46n49 47n51 1.2 (l094a 18-20) 2.2 (1103b 28) 17n44 2.3 (1104b 17-18) 140n28 3.1 (1109b 35-1110a 1) 128n73 6.7 (1141b 1-16) 6n15 Physics 1.81.9 (192a 17-24) 283n40 2.2 (194a 34-35) 9n21 2.3 (195a 23-25) 46n49 2.9 (200a 7-10) 237n67, 251n100 2.24.2 (194a 34-35) 71n34 8.58.7 (261a 13-15) 145n36

De longit. et brevit. vitae 5 (466a 17-467a 5) 93n96

Posterior Analytics 1.1-3 1.2 (71b 8-71b 4) 1. 7 (75a 39-b 6) 1.18 (81b 6-7)

De part. animal. 2.2 (646a 11-16)

Topics 1.6 (103a 19-20)

93n96

INDEX

3n10 17n45 17n45 18n46 234n60

De sensu et sensato 3 (419a 8-34, 439a 18b 10) 74n41 1 (437a 3-18) 223n34

Averroes Destructio destructionum disp. met. 1, dub. 22 236n65

De sophist. elenchis. 1.5 (168b 31-32) 139n24

Avicenna Metaphysics 1.9 6.3

236n65 176n21

Cicero Disp. Tusc. 4.23

188n52

Galen

92n95

Hippocrates

92n95

Ovid Metamorphoses 1.84-86

92n92

Philo

118n47

Plato De spiritu et anima 88n80 11 195n72

Republic book 4 Timaeus

87n80

69-70

91n92, 60n3 87n80

Plotinus

60n5

Produs Elements

35n21

329