Birds in Ireland

BIRDS IN IRELAND

This page intentionally left blank

Birds in Ireland by CLIVE D. HUTCHINSON Illustrated by JOHN BUSBY

Published for the Irish Wildbird Conservancy T & A D POYSER

Calton

First published 1989 byT & AD PoyserLtd Print-on-demand and digital editions published 2010 byT & AD Poyser, an imprint of A&C Black Publishers Ltd, 36 Soho Square, London W1D 3QY © 1989 by Clive D Hutchinson and the Irish Wildbird Conservancy ISBN (print) 978-1-4081-3701-7 ISBN (epub) 978-1-4081-3700-0 ISBN (e-pdf) 978-1-4081-3699-7 A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means - photographic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or information storage or retrieval systems - without permission of the publishers. Visit www.acblack.com/naturalhistory to find out more about our authors and their books. You will find extracts, author interviews and our blog, and you can sign up for newsletters to be the first to hear about our latest releases and special offers.

Contents Introdu ction Acknowledgem ents Factors affecting the distribution of birds Ornithology and bird conservation Recent changes in status Background to the species accounts

7 9 11 29 40 44

The species accounts

48

Appendices List of local reports Principal organizations Scientific names of mammals. fishes and plants in the text Bibliography General index Species index

201 202 202 203 208 209

This page intentionally left blank

- - -- '--

Introduction Watching birds is a popular and growing pastime in Ireland as elsewhere in the world and the demand for books about birds seems insatiable. Books on identification. books on birdwatching. books on good places for watching birds are on the shelves of every bookshop. Television and newspapers provide publicity for records of unusual birds and journalists increasingly report campaigns for the conservation of birds and their habitats. The books and the media publicity. however. do not provide much information on the status of birds in Ireland. where and when they occur and in what numbers. This may seem surprising in view of the obvious demand for such material. but the status of Irish birds has been reviewed in depth on only two occasions since the turn of the century (Ken nedy et al 1954. Ruttledge 1966). The most recent book took the story up to 1965. more than twenty years ago. Since then. there has been an explosion in our knowledge of birds: surveys of breeding and wintering birds have taken birdwatchers into every 10 km square of the National Grid to map distribution; surveys of seabirds and waterfowl have resulted in the publication of books which mapped the main concentrations: studies have been carried out on many individual species. Most of this work has been done by the growing army of amateur birdwatchers but. increasingly. professionals have tackled particular problems. especially where conservation requires scientific research. The results of many surveys and single species studies have been published as papers in Irish Birds. th e annual journal founded in 1977 to provide a forum for the publication of work by both scientists and amateurs. and of course observations on scarce and rare birds continue to be published in the annual Irish Bird Report, itself now part of Irish Birds. As well as the research published in Irtsh Birds and the books recording the results of major surveys. a large body of material on bird distribution and numbers has appeared in ephemeral bird reports or . in som e instances. has been transmitted by word of mouth . This book attempts to

gather together from all these sources the results of the activity of birdwatchers since the mid 1960s. to set it on the firm base of the previous works on Irish birds and to summarise the status of all species occurring in the country. I have tried . however. to give more than just a statement of the status of each species . In the first of the introductory chapters I have placed the birds in the context of their environment. Too many birdwatchers are unaware of the habitats in which birds spend their lives and of the reaction of birds to habitat chan ges. Rather few wonder why the number of bird species breeding in Ireland is less than in Britain. but this topic has intrigued severa l distinguished scientists and I have reported the views of severa l of them. In the next chapter I have outlined briefly the history of ornithology and of the conservation movement in Ireland as further background. In many cases apparent changes in bird distribution merely reflect an increase in observers; an understanding of the extent of the new interest in birds in both Northern Ireland and the Republic is therefore essential to an interpretation of the species accounts. Where there have been significant changes in status I have summarized them briefly in a further introductory chapter. The main bulk of the book. however. comprises the systematic list of species. In this I have tried to combine a summary of status with the results of any special studies so the reader will be aware of research which has been publi shed or is in progress. For some groups of birds (wildfowl and seabirds for example) quite a number of studies are in progress but relatively little is known about our common birds of woodland and farmland . Throughout the book I have used the place names adopted by the Ordnance Surveys of the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland for the sites within the territory of each state. Hence I have used Lond onderry throughout. where Derry is also in common usage. I have given the county for each placename but. in order to save a little space. I have not used the term 'Co.' before it.

7

8

Introdu ction

My own interest in bird s was stimulated by correspondence from Major R. F. Ruttledge when I was 13 years of age. I eagerly sought his 1966 book Ireland' s Birds when it appeared and I know how wide its influence was among Irish ornithologists of my generation. We were impressed by the material in the book. but we were also encouraged to go into the field to try to fill some of the obvious gaps in knowledge. the principal one being the lack of quantitative on breeding or wintering birds.

Th is gap has been filled in the case of breeding seabirds and wintering wildfowl and wad ers but we still have only a very general knowledge of th e status of ou r passerines and we know virtually nothing of where our seabirds feed at sea . If th is book can provide a baseline on which future workers can plan their research and if readers are stimulated to investigate aspects of bird distribution for which information is lacking. then it will have been a success.

Acknowledgements Writing thi s book has been a joy. Although I have been involved in bird recording for a bout twenty years I had no idea how many people carry out quite intensive studies of birds without telling an yone about their work. It has been a delight to discover people. in both Northern Ireland and the Republic, with hoards of unpublished data on birds and who - without exception - were willing to make their results available. Most of them. I hope, will publi sh their research in due course. though I fear the malaise which affects so many amateur ornithologists when they set about writing up their work will strike a number. In any event. I am grateful for the stimulating correspondence with so many enthusiastic people. From th e beginning the Irish Wildbird Conserva ncy (IWe) reacted positively to my proposal for a new book on Irish birds to coincide with the 21 st anniversary of the foundation of the organization and agreed to make available the results of all IWC surveys. Both Maurice Bryan. the Chairman. and Richard Nairn, the Director. gave their active support. The British Trust for Ornithology (BTO) supplied summaries of ringing recoveries of birds ringed in Ireland and recovered abroad and of birds ringed abroad and recovered in Ireland. The BTO also pro vided summaries of Comm on Birds Census plots surveyed in Ireland. Dr Raymond O'Connor. Director of the BTO when the book was first proposed, gav e every encouragement. lowe a particular debt to the following who read and commented on th e entire species list in drafts: J. S. Furphy, Dr T. C. Kelly. Dr W. M. McDowell, O.J. Merri e. K. Preston and P. Smiddy. Ken Preston in addition checked the rarity records against his own card index and made numerous corrections. Accounts of groups of species were read and commen ted on by D. Norriss (birds of prey ). Dr J. G. Green -

wood (Dunlin and Black Guillemot). R. Nairn (breeding waders), G. C. Noonan (Ravens) , J. R. Sheppard (wildfowl and waders). L. Toal (Merlins) . J. H. Wells (birds of prey and Ravens) and H.J . Wilson (White-fro nted Geese). Jim Wells provided introductions to a number of Northern Ireland observers working on particular specie s. Dr T. C. Kelly. O.J. Mern e and K. Preston commented on the introdu ctory chapters as well as the list of species. Joe Furphy provided valuable comment on the chapter on ornithology and conservation. Needless to add . any errors in the text are my own responsibility and not that of th ose who kindl y advised on earlier drafts. Un published material on particular species wa s pro vided by Susan Cowdy, Bob Davidson . Cliff Daw son, Dr Paul Hillis. Frank King, David Knight. Graham McElwaine. Gabriel Noonan and Larry Toal. Mick Green m ade available the results of his survey of waders of rock y shores of the west of Ireland in advance of publication. Terry Carruthers and Oscar Merne let me see th e unpublished results of their Common Birds Census (CBC) studies in Kerry and Wexford respectively. Dr Karl Partridge of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (RSPB) provided copies of research report s commissioned from th e RSPB by the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland and whi ch the Department kindly agreed to release . Richard Na irn provided a summary of the results of the IWC's study of the breed ing birds of the Shannon callows in 1987. Hugh Brazier suppli ed proofs of th e 19 8 7 issue of Irish Birds so that material from it could be used in an early dr aft of the species list. Mark Shorten made available his types cript on th e birds of Cork . Pat Smiddy pa ssed on the results of reviews by the Irish Rare Birds Committee of rare bird records right to my final deadline for revision of th e text. 9

10

Acknowledgements

Information on ornithology in Northern Ireland was provided by C. Douglas Deane, Dinah Browne and J. S. Furphy. Archival material on the Irish Ornithologists' Club was supplied by Frank Miller. I am grateful to all the above. Without their help this

NORTH AMERICA

book would never have been completed. Above all, however, I am grateful to the birdwatchers from all parts of the country whose passion for recording what they see in their spare time makes books like this possible.

,

NORTH

ATLANTIC

NORTH AFRICA

Ireland and its location on the western edge of Europe

Factors affecting the distribution of birds The principal factors which determine what bird species occur in Ireland include the location and size of the country. its climate. its topography and the range and diversity of habitats on the island. LOCATION

Ireland is situated on the western edge of the European land mass. out in the North Atlantic. cut off from the larger island of Great Britain and from the Continent by the intervening seas. The Irish Sea to the east. which separates Ireland from Great Britain. varies from 18 to 320 km wide and is less than 200 m deep . The coast of Ireland forms the north-western outpost of Europe. but the shallow seas of the Continental Shelf extend westwards into the Atlantic. south to Spain and north-east to Scotland and Norway.

Seabirds The location of the island of Ireland. projecting into the Atlantic and surrounded by rich and relatively shallow seas, is the main reason why so many seabirds are recorded. At Cape Clear. Cork. observations carried out since 1959 have shown large westerly movements. Fulmars are recorded throughout the year but are scarce in late autumn; Gannets and Kittiwakes are abundant throughout the year: auks are abundant except in late summer when they congregate in sheltered bays: Manx Shearwaters and Storm Petrels occur in very large numbers from March to September and July to September respectively (Sharrock 1975). Some of these birds nest on the Irish coastline. but many come from colonies farther afield.

Although more observations of seabirds have been documented for Cape Clear than any other Irish site. records have also been kept at other headlands. Together. these have shown that seabird passage on the south coast is predominantly westerly, on the east and west coasts southerly and on the north coast most birds pass west. Many of the movements observed involve feeding birds. For example. the late summer passage of Manx Shearwaters at Cape Clear clearly consists mainly of birds from the Kerry island breeding colonies. Early in the morning some easterly movement is noted and at dusk the largest numbers are seen. moving steadily westwards, returning to their colonies. But the most remarkable movements. those in which southern shearwaters, northern skuas and rarities such as Sabine's Gulls and Leach's Petrels are sometimes seen. appear to result from weather conditions driving birds inshore which are normally out of sight of land. At Cape Clear south-westerly winds and rain. usually associated with the passage of a front. provide the best conditions, as the birds are presumably pushed eastwards: at north facing points. such as Brandon Point in Kerry and Loop Head in Clare. north-westerlies are optimal. Seabirds moving back out to the open sea appear to follow leading lines when they encounter barriers to their movement. so those species which are normally not visible from the mainland can be observed temporarily as they pass headlands or islands. The implication is that there are large numbers of seabirds. feeding well out to sea. which can only be seen

11

12

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

North Harbour and Bird Observatory at Cape Clear. Cork. (Photo: Richard T. Mill s)

from the land in exceptional weather conditions. Several boat trips have been made to observe sea birds at sea. the principal one being in 1980. Between mid July and mid October in that year a group of scientists and observers crui sed from Brittany to Cork. round the Irish coast. including a trip 300 km west of Kerry to the edge of the Continental Shelf. north to the Shetlands and back again (Evan s 1981). The highest seabird densities in July and in September/October were found off south-west Ireland. the lowest off the north-west. In July . Gannets. Storm Petrels. Manx Shearwaters and Guillemots predominated; by earl y October the Storm Petrels and Manx Shearwaters had virtually all dispersed but there were many Kittiwakes. Razorbills and Guillemots. Large numbers of auks were found in Clew Bay. Mayo . but the Porcupine Bank. near the edge of the Continental Shelf. had low seabird densities. apart from Fulmars and Storm Petrels. Bourne (1986). in a recent summary of a number of previously unpublished observations of seabirds at sea off the west coast of Europe. emphasized that the important seabird feeding areas are the boundaries where cool and warm waters mix. and where cool upwelling water brings nutrients to the surface. These support plankton growth which provides food for fish and squid populations. which themselves support assemblies of feeding seabirds. Tidal mixing off headlands occurs close to land. upwelling occurs out to sea where deep. cool currents strike the slopes of the Continental Shelf and thermal fronts occur in the eddies along ocean currents. giving rise to changes in temperature in the North Atlantic Drift. Indeed. an infra-red satellite photograph. published by Bourne (1986). shows clearly an area of warm water. bounded by fronts where mixing takes place . in the north-west Irish Sea which is known to support the largest concentrations of feeding seabirds off Northern Ireland (Watson 1980): and Raine (1987) has documented an upwelling of cold water off the Fastnet Rock. Cork. in another seabird rich area.

A great deal remains to be learned about the distribution of seabirds off the Irish coast. Man y more cruises are needed. especially in winter and spring. and research into the food and feeding ecology of seabirds at sea is required. Observations on land have suggested that there is a substantial northerly passage of Pomarine and Long-tailed Skuas off the west coast in May (Daven port 1984). and observations in February and March 1980 have shown that a few southern shearwaters remain off the west coast in winter (Dannen berg 1982 ). W intering Birds Location serves to explain why wlnteringbirds come from such a wide range of breeding areas. Being on the western fringe of Europe. Ireland provides winter quarters for birds from as far west as Arctic Canada. for a number of species which breed in Greenland and Iceland and for birds which breed in northern Europe east to Siberia. Brent Geese ringed on Queen Elizabeth Island. Bathurst Island and Melville Island in northern Canada have been seen in Ireland. The numbers of Great Northern Divers wintering around the coast are far greater than the Icelandic population can account for. and may well include Canadian as well as Greenland breeders. Ireland's wintering Knot population breeds in Canada and Greenland. From Greenland alone come Barnacle Geese and Whitefronted Geese and several wader species. Ireland is the principal wintering area for a number of Icelandic species. particularly Whooper Swans. Golden Plovers. Black-tailed Godwits and Redshanks. From Scandinavia and the Baltic come many ducks. waders and finches. and from as far east as Siberia come our wintering Bewick's Swans. Grey Plovers and Bar-tailed Godwits. Irel and is far indeed from Siberia and Canada. but migratory birds stop off en route in Scandinavia and the Baltic or in Greenland and Iceland respectively. Vagrants Location is also the principal reason for the

Factors affecting the distribution of birds 13 pattern of vagrancy. Being on the western edge of Europe. Ireland is the first landfall for many wanderers from North America. Ducks such as Green-winged Teal and Surf Scoters, waders such as Pectoral and Buff-breasted Sandpipers and gulls such as the Ring-billed Gull are now annual visitors. Passerines from the Nearctic are also recorded in most autumns and it is likely that an increase in observations on the west coast in late autumn would result in a sharp rise in the number of American vagrants recorded. From the east come Yellow-browed Warblers and

other small passerines every autumn. but the proportion of eastern and southern vagrants seen in Ireland is much lower than in Britain. reflecting the extra distance these birds have to travel. AREA

The area of Ireland is 84.421 km ': the greatest length from north to south is 486 krn: the greatest width from east to west is 275 krn , The adjoining island of Great Britain is 2.8 times as large. There is little doubt but that the

-".

Barnacle Geese at Lissadel1. Sligo. (Photo: Richard T. Mills)

Akeragh Lough in Kerry . the first muddy habitat sighted in Europe by many transatlantic vagrant ducks and waders. (Photo: Richard T. Mills)

14

F actors affecting the distribution of birds

smaller size of Ireland is the principal reason for the relatively poor avifauna. A total of 397 species was recorded in Ireland up to the end of 1986, of which 137 were known to breed during 1968-72, the period of the Breeding Atlas. These figures are 67% and 65% respectively of the totals for Britain. It has long been known that there is a statistical relationship between the number of breeding species and area. MacArthur & Wilson (1967) developed an influential theory to explain this relationship. They proposed that the number of species on an island tends to be fairly constant, immigrant species being balanced by extinctions. They argued that the best colonist species tend to arrive first at an island. As more species arrive there is increased competition. The potential colonists either fail to establish themselves or the extra competition increases the likelihood of extinction of existing species with low populations. The rate of immigration is considered to be independent of area and dependent on distance from the source 'pool' of immigrants. The rate of extinction, however, varies with the size of the island. Eventually, an equilibrium is reached between immigration and extinction, and the level is lower on small than on large islands. Critics of MacArthur & Wilson's theory have argued that smaller islands have less diversity of habitat and greater environmental uniformity. Lack (1969), for example, considered that Ireland, though superficially similar to Britain is in fact very different. This island is much smaller, lacks a number of habitats, has a more oceanic climate and extends neither so far north nor so far south. Lack held that the failure of a number of bird species to colonize Ireland was due to their failure to find the right conditions. Later in this chapter we will look at the various Irish habitats and at the end we will consider the most recent views on why the Irish avifauna is less diverse than that of Britain. CLIMATE

Ireland lies in a climatic zone dominated by mild southwesterly winds and is warmed by the North Atlantic Drift. Mean air temperatures in the coldest months, January and February, are between 4°C and 7°C. In the warmest months, July and August, the mean temperature is between 14°C and 16°C, but can reach as high as 25°C. The mildest temperatures in winter are on the south-west coast, in summer the south-east coast has the highest temperature. Rainfall is relatively high, ranging from over 1,200 ern per annum in the west (and up to twice this in the mountains) to 75 em in the east. Snow is infrequent away from high ground. In summer there is an average of between 5.5 and 6.5 hours of sunshine over most of the country.. Wexford has the most sun with an average of about 7.5 hours per day (Rohan 19 75). The impact of climate on bird populations in general is difficult to evaluate, and for Ireland, where so little work has been done on common birds, only a few comments can be made. Firstly, the mild and relatively uniform climate with few hard winters appears to reduce severe winter mortality among resident species and winter immigrants. The Irish Kingfisher population, for example, was thought not to have suffered such high mortality in the 1962/63

Ireland: mean January temperatures

winter as the Kingfishers of other European countries (Ruttledge 1968). Secondly, because the springs and summers are not as hot as in other countries with a less uniform climate, there are insufficient surplus resources for a number of summer migrant species (O'Connor 1986). The implications of these two points are considered at the end of this chapter. Thirdly, the mild winter temperature and high rainfall produce soft soils and flooding in winter, which provide good feeding conditions for wildfowl and inland feeding waders (such as Lapwings, Golden Plovers and Curlews). TOPOGRAPHY

Like climate, the principal effect of topography on bird distribution is its influence on the habitats which cover the landscape. Ireland is a relatively flat country with three-quarters of its surface below the 1 SO m contour and only 5% over 300 m. The hills are grouped around the edge of the island with mountains generally of 600-900 m. The central plain consists mainly of limestone no more than 75 m above sea level. The coastline from south-west Cork round the west coast to Donegal is sharply indented, partly no doubt the result of the unceasing battering by the Atlantic. The best account of Irish topography for the general reader is Professor Frank Mitchell's (1986) The Shell Guide to Reading the Irish Landscape. He describes the origins of the land mass, the glaciations and the development of the environment we see around us nowadays. Mitchell's account is both stimulating and readable, and it provides

Factors affecting the distribution of birds 15

Ireland: mean annual rainfall between 1,000 and 2,000mm (stippled), over 2,000mm (black)

Ireland: land over 150 m (stippled), over 300 m (black) and rivers

an admirable backdrop to any account of Irish natural history. Ireland is believed to consist of two parts, one originally joined to what is now North America and one joined to Europe. During movements of the earth's crust about 400 million years ago the North American plate and the European plate collided and fused together. We know this from the presence in the Irish fossil record of specimens of North American origin in the west and of European origin in the east. Subsequently, the North American and European plates separated again as the earth's crust shifted, and a rift opened west of Ireland where the modern Atlantic Ocean flows. The topography of the country was moulded by events between this period and the end of the last Ice Age, about 13,000 years ago, but the main surface features of Ireland were probably established several million years ago. The oldest Irish rocks are the pre-Cambrian granites and slates of Donegal and west Connemara. These areas are exposed to the Atlantic and the acid rocks are covered with peat-bog. Bird densities are low because of the sparsity and uniformity of the vegetation, but the countryside is wild and beautiful. About 400 million years ago the Wicklow granites were thrust upwards and the Donegal and Connemara mountains were folded. River systems deposited large quantities of sand and gravel and these sediments were cemented into sandstone. Subsequently, some 375 million years ago, the seas warmed up and flooded over the land depositing shell fish and plants which were eventually consolidated into limestone and coal. This period, known

as the Carboniferous, came to an end about 300 million years ago when there were further rock movements which folded the sandstones and limestones of the coast, thus creating shelves and ledges on which seabirds could nest in due course. Erosion exposed the limestone as the coal disappeared over millions of years. Then, about 100 million years ago, it appears that the country was covered by a thin layer of chalk but this has been so thoroughly eroded, except in Antrim where it is protected by a layer of basalt, that until recently many doubted that there had ever been chalk on the Irish surface. From 1.7 million years ago to 13,000 years ago, there was a series of cold and warm periods. During much of the period Ireland was covered with ice and the birds which colonized the country were forced to retreat on several occasions. Our modern breeding avifauna has all been established in the last 13,000 years. The geology of Ireland has formed the basis of the modern landscape, but climate, the effect of erosion by wind and water, and the pattern of plant and animal colonization after the last Ice Age have all played parts in producing the habitats which cover the island nowadays. The principal habitats can conveniently be divided into the broad categories of (a) coast, (b) inland wetlands, (c) mountain and bog, (d) farmland, (e) woodland and (f) urban. Within each category is a number of different habitats. In some the birds have been quite well studied, in others they have been largely ignored.

16

Factors affecting the distribution of birds COAST

The Irish coastline is rich and varied in habitat. The cliffs and offshore islands support large populations of breeding seabirds, the estuaries and coastal lagoons hold many wintering and passage wildfowl and waders. The seabirds and waterfowl are the most studied groups of birds in Ireland. This is partly because their habitat is threatened by reclamation. pollution and disturbance. partly because these birds are rather easier to count than passerines skulking in woodland. and partly because many of our species are identified as important in the context of international conservation. Rocky Shores More than 85% of the coast consists of rocky shores. The east coast from Belfast Lough, Antrim. south to Dundalk Bay, Louth. is mainly low cliff. From Dundalk south to Wexford most of the coastline is low drift cliffand sand dune. A few promontories and islands provide breeding sites for seabirds. chiefly Lambay Island. Ireland's Eye and Howth Head in Dublin, and Bray Head and Wicklow Head in Wicklow. From the Saltee Islands off the Wexford coast, west to Cape Clear. there are long stretches of cliff, up to 60 m high, broken only by bays and estuaries. most of them holding breeding colonies of Larus gulls . Kittiwakes. auks and Shags. From Cape Clear round the Kerry coast is a series of deep rias , but apart from the offshore islands where Ireland's largest seabird colonies are situated, there are few steep cliffs to provide breeding sites. The west coast from Kerry north to Donegal has high cliffs interspersed with sandy beaches and one major estuary. that of the Shannon. the largest river in these islands. The many rocky islands and promontories on the west coast show the effect of submergence of the coast during the Ice Age: the heavy Atlantic waves are still eroding the cliffs. From Donegal around the north coast to Belfast are high cliffs at Fair Head and Benbane Head and a scattering of islands, most notably Rathlin which has a large colony of breeding seabirds and a high density of Buzzards. There are about nine seabird colonies with more than 10,000 breeding pairs in each. Of these only Lambay Island off the Dublin coast. Great Saltee off the south Wexford coast and Rathlin Island, Antrim. are away from the west coast. The largest colonies are in Kerry where some tens

Little Skellig off the Kerry coast, from the monastic sett lement on Great Skellig, (Photo: Richard T. Mills)

Seabird colonies holding more than 10 .000 pairs (based on Cramp et al 1974. with updating of species numbers) No of species

Saltee Islands. Wexford Skelligs, Kerry Blasket Islands. Kerry Puffin Island, Kerry Inlshglora, Mayo IIIaunmaister, Mayo Horn Head . Donegal Rathlin Island, Antrim Lambay Island. Dublin

12 II 14 12 9 10 9 13 12

Fu

MS

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ +

+

+

+ +

+

SP

+ + + + +

Ga

+ +

Groups present' Co Sh

+ +

+

G/R

Pu

BG

Gulls

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + +

+

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + +

+ + + + + + + + +

+ + + + + +

'Key: Fu - Fulrnar: MS - Manx Shearwater: SP - Storm Petrel : Ga - Gannet: Co - Cormorant: Sh - Shag; G/R - Guillemot & Razorbill ; Pu - Puffin ; BG - Black Guillemot.

Factors affecting the distribution of birds of thousands of Manx Shearwaters, Storm Petrels, Gannets and Puffins breed on the islands. These are the largest Storm Petrel colonies in the world. The colonies close to the Irish Sea have large numbers of Razorbills, Guillemots and gulls. In short. the colonies of those species which feed farther out to sea are on the more exposed coasts. The inshore feeders concentrate on the fringe of. or close to, the Irish Sea. The seabird colonies have been the subject of a number of studies. mostly ringing and censuslng. Almost all the colonies in the country were visited in 1969 or 1970 as part of the 'Operation Seafarer' survey (Cramp et a119 74). but the research effort has understandably been centred on the more important colonies. The Kerry islands have been visited by ornithologists since the mid nineteenth century. and there were frequent visits from 1964 onwards (Evans & Lovegrove 1974, Evans 1977). Since the mid 1970s, however, there have been few visits and census studies have been concentrated at Puffin Island which Hugh Brazier has been visiting since 1980. Great Saltee's seabirds were censused each year from 1978 to 1980 (Lloyd 1981) and Great Black-backed Gulls were studied there in 1980 (Hudson 1982). Census work is continuing (0. J. Merne). There have been censuses of all seabirds on the Northern Ireland coast (Watson 1980), of breeding terns throughout the country (Whilde 1985), of breeding Cormorants (Macdonald 1987), of cliff-breeding seabirds at sample colonies on the west coast annually (Stowe 1982). of Kittiwakes on the Waterford coast (O'Meara 1975. McGrath & Walsh 1986) and of seabirds at a scattering of other sites. All available data on the Republic's seabird colonies have been incorporated in an inventory

Gannets on Great Sa/tee , Wexford. (Photo: Richard T. Mills)

Ireland: seabird colonies holding more than 10 ,000 pairs

17

18

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

compiled by Dr C. S. Lloyd in 1982 and held by the Wildlife Service. The rocky shores support wintering populations of Turnstones and a few Purple Sandpipers. Oystercatchers, Curlews, Redshanks and Greenshanks also winter on the rocks or in small inlets on rocky shores. The only counts which have been made of long stretches of these shores have been in Northern Ireland, where the Outer Ards peninsula, Down, has been shown to have up to 1,900 wintering Turnstones (Austin & Leach 1984), and on part of the coast of Donegal, Sligo, Leitrim, Mayo and Clare (M. Green). Soft Shores Less than 15% of the coastline is sandy beach, mudflat or salt marsh. These shores, however, incorporate a large inter.. tidal zone and are important for wintering waders and wildfowl, though only six estuaries the Shannon Estuary, Lough Foyle, Strangford Lough, Dundalk Bay, the North Bull and Cork Harbour - hold more than 20,000 waders regularly. These estuaries, as would be expected, have the largest areas of inter-tidal mudflat. It is now Widely accepted, following rec.. ommendations of the International Waterfowl Research Bureau, that a wetland holding more than 10,000 ducks, geese or swans, more than 20,000 waders or in excess of 1% of the flyway population of a waterfowl species is of international importance (Atkinson-Willes et alI982) and on these criteria 18 Irish coastal wetlands qualify. Ofthese wetlands 11 qualify because of their Brent Goose numbers. Most of the Pale.. bellied Brent Geese which breed in Arctic Canada and west Greenland winter on Irish shores and Whilde (1986) has indicated that Brent Geese have

Coastal wetlands holding internationally important winter populations of wildfowl and waders, 1980-86 (based on Whilde 1986 and Salmon et a11987) Internationally Maximum important species count 1980-86*

Lough Foyle, Londonderry

(56,560)

Strangford Lough, Down

(83,500)

Dundalk Bay, Louth

36,886

Rogerstown Estuary, Dublin Malahide, Dublin North Bull, Dublin

8,722 6,149 35,463

Wexford Harbour and Slobs, Wexford

NC

Tacumshin Lake, Wexford Bannow Bay, Wexford

10,894

Dungarvan Harbour, Waterford Ballymacoda, Cork Cork Harbour, Cork

21,852

Castlemaine Harbour, Kerry Tralee Bay, Kerry Shannon Estuary, Limerick, Kerry, Clare

14,822

9,176

28,904 57,727

3,383 [82,000]

Cummeen Strand. Sligo

2.076

Llssadell, Sligo Lough Swilly, Donegal

1,004 NC

Bewick's Swan, Whooper Swan, Brent Goose, Wigeon. 10.000+ wildfowl, 20,000 + waders Whooper Swan, Brent Goose. Shelduck, Knot. Redshank, 10,000 + wildfowl, 20.000 + waders Shelduck, Wigeon, Black-tailed Godwit, Bartailed Godwit, 20,000 + waders Brent Goose Brent Goose Brent Goose, Knot, Sanderling, 10.000 + wildfowl, 20,000 + waders Bewick's Swan. Whitefronted Goose, Blacktailed Godwit. 10,000 + wildfowl Bewick's Swan, Brent Goose, Grey Plover Brent Goose, Black-tailed Godwit Brent Goose, Black-tailed Godwit Black-tailed Godwit Shelduck, Golden Plover, Lapwing, Black-tailed Godwit. Redshank. 20,000 + waders Brent Goose, Wigeon Brent Goose Brent Goose, Wigeon. Teal, 10,000+ wildfowl, 20,000 + waders Brent Goose Barnacle Goose Whooper Swan, Whitefronted Goose

* Key: [] peak counts from 1971-75; () - peak counts 1983-

86; NC no full count available. Otherwise totals represent peak counts of all species counted from 1980 to 1986.

Ireland: internationally important wetlands

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

19

IWC commence d its We tlands Enquiry in 19 71 / 72. Monthly coun ts were carried out at m an y estuaries up to 19 74 / 7 5 (Hutchi ns on 19 79 ), but onl y irr egularly from 19 75/ 76 to 19 82 / 8 3, except in Northe rn Irel and where th e major estuar ies ha ve been su rveyed eac h winter. For the three winters to 1986/ 8 7 monthly counts were carried out at many estuaries in th e Republic and th e results up to autumn 198 6 h ave been summ a rized (Whilde 1986). Regular m onthly coun ts co ntin ue in Northern Ireland. There have been rather few studies of individual species or estua ries, th ough there has been research on Oysterca tche r feeding a t Str angford Loug h (O'Connor & Brown 19 77 ). mudfl at utilization at Stra ngford (Pritcha rd 19 8 2 ). th e infauna of th e Shannon est ua ry as a food reso urce for birds (O. }. Merne MSc th esis). th e bird s of Galw ay Bay (Whilde 19 8 3 ) a nd Cork Harbour (Hu tchinson & O'Halloran 19 84). Curren tly Mich eal O'Briain is ca rrying ou t research on Brent Geese, and seve ra l workers are ca tchin g and ringing waders. At the Wexford Slobs a pr ogramme of colour marking White-fronted Geese to study th eir movements is in progress. The sandy sho res on th e west coast are known to su pport quite large winter population s of Ring ed Plo vers a nd Sanderlings: th eir ext ent was not kn own until a survey wa s carried out of sa mple stretches of th is coastline in winter 19 8 7/ 88 (M. Green) . As well as win ter wad ers. sa ndy sho res also support some breedin g terns. th ou gh th e co lonies tend to be sma ll and widely dispersed.

Wigeon and other waterfowl at the North Bull. Dublin. with the Bull Island Interpretive centre in the background. (Photo: Richard T. Mill s)

been recorded in internationally important numbers at 20 additional sites. but has recommended that. because of the abundance of Brent Geese in Ireland, these sites do not warrant internationally important status. Several sites qualify principally because of their Black-tailed Godw it numbers. Much of the Icelandic breeding population winters on Irish shores. Th e interpretation of internat ional criteria. however, is fraught with difficulty and th e cu rrent inventory of th e Wildlife Ser vice includes seve n additional sites holding more th an 1% of th e Brent Goose population of the Republic: Carlingford Lough in Louth , The Cull in Wexford, Tramore Bay in Waterford. Galway Bay in Galway. and Blacksod Bay, Broadhaven and Killaia Bay in Mayo (O.}. Merne). The wildfowl wintering on Irish estuaries were first counted in the late 1940s and early 1950s. Midwinter counts were made at many estuaries from 19 6 7 onwards, but only du cks. geese and sw an s were cou nted until th e

Above th e High Tide Line Th e cliff top s pro vide feeding habitat for Choughs from Wexford west to Kerr y and north to Donegal and Antrim. Bullock et aI (1983 ) h ave shown that regular gr azing of pasture on clifftops and th e absence of fertilizers provide an a bu ndance of inv ert ebrates ac cessible to a long-billed corvid. Choug hs have not declined in numbers over th e pa st 90 yea rs except in Northern Ireland wh ere fencing of the coastal strip, iron ica lly by th e Na tion al Trust for Nort he rn Ireland. has led to a reduction in th e number of pairs from 2 1-22 to 9- 10 ove r th e 20 years from 196 3 to 19 8 2 . On the west coast. grassy islands ar e th e main wintering ground for Barnacle Geese wh ich breed in north-east Greenland. The Inishkea Islands. Mayo . hold nearly half th e Irish winter population and these birds have been studied since 1961 (Cabot & West 1973, 1983). Many of these islands also provide secure ne sting sites for Arct ic. Common and Sandwich Terns, A few hold Little Terns as well. Th ere is a small amount of sand dune ma ch air in th e west. Machair comprises stable dune grassland with san ds enriched by ca lca reo us shell fragments. It is he a vily grazed and frequently in cludes wet pools and m arshes. This habitat is thinly distributed in Donegal. Sligo, Mayo and Galway. A survey of 51 machair sites in summer 19 85 found 604 breeding pairs of wad ers (Na irn & Sheppard 19 85 ). Pure sand dune is an important coa st al habitat in Donegal, Kerry and Wexford but it tends to be poor for birds except on the edge where scrub provides cover. Detailed cen su s studies have been carried out in Down (Nairn & Wh atmough 1978 ) and Wexford (O. }. Merne).

20

F actors affecting the distribution of birds

INLAND WETLANDS

In winter the open waters of the inland wetlands provide feeding and relative security from predation for ducks and geese, mainly from breeding areas to the north-west and north-east. The damp edges provide grazing for the wildfowl and also attract Lapwings, Golden Plovers and Curlews which can locate food more easily on soft than on hard ground. In summer ducks and grebes nest on the larger waters, Little Grebes, Moorhens, Dippers, Kingfishers

Inland wetlands holding internationally important populations of wildfowl or waders. 1980-86 (based on Whilde 1986. Salmon et al 1987 and 0.]. Merne) Maximum count*

Internationally important species

Rahasane, Galway

13.865

Lough Corrlb, Galway River Shannon, Athlone-Portumna, Galway, Offaly, Roscommon. Tipperary, Westmeath Little Brosna, Offaly, Tipperary

18,956

Bewick's Swan, Whooper Swan, Wigeon, Teal. 10,000+ wildfowl Pochard, 10,000 + wildfowl White-fronted Goose, Wigeon, Black-tailed Godwit

River Suck, Galway, Roscommon Lough Gara, Roscommon, Sligo Ballyallia Lake. Clare River Foyle. Carrlgans-St. Johnstown, Donegal, Londonderry Sheskinmore Lough, Donegal Loughs Neagh & Beg, Antrim, Armagh, Londonderry. Tyrone Lough Iron and Glen Lough, Westmeath Lough Owel, Westmeath Stabannan, Louth River Blackwater, Waterford

10,000

NC

28,502

2,000 13,956

NC

1,350 (36,900)

6.480

Whooper Swan, Whitefronted Goose, Wigeon, Shoveler, Golden Plover, Black-tailed Godwit Bewick's Swan Bewick's Swan Shoveler Whooper Swan. Whitefronted Goose

White-fronted Goose. Barnacle Goose Bewick's Swan, Whooper Swan, Teal, Pochard, Tufted Duck, Scaup, Goldeneye Whooper Swan, Whitefronted Goose

3.062

White-fronted Goose

NC 6,336

Whooper Swan Bewick's Swan, Whooper Swan, Blacktailed Godwit

Key: ( ) - peak counts 1983-86: NC no full count available. Otherwise totals represent peak counts of all species counted from 1980 to 1986.

and Grey Wagtails on the rivers, and ducks, Lapwings and Snipe on the marshes.

Lakes The largest areas of open water are Lough Neagh and the adjoining Lough Beg in the north-east, the Lough Erne lakes in the north-west, Loughs Corrib, Mask and Conn in Connacht, a scattering of lakes in the midlands Loughs Derravaragh, Ennel, Owel, Ramor, Gara, Sheelin. Gowna and Oughter - and a series of lakes on the Shannon system from Lough Allen to Lough Derg. There are numerous smaller lakes and in total they comprise 2% of the land area of the country. In Northern Ireland it has been estimated that there are over 1,100 lakes, though only 119 exceed 10ha in area (Wood 1982). The south-east third of the country has very little standing water of any size. Much the largest lake is Lough Neagh which has a surface area of 383 km-, In summer it holds well above 750 pairs of Great Crested Grebes, approximately half the total breeding population for the country, but in winter it is of European importance for the huge numbers of wintering waterfowl it holds. The flocks of up to 1,700 Scaup are much the largest inland concentration in Europe; the numbers of Goldeneye (5,000-9,000) are among the largest in Europe and the flocks of Pochard (up to 17,000) and Tufted Ducks (up to 8,900) are much lower in recent years than the gatherings of 30,000 each which were recorded in the mid 1960s (Hutchinson 1979), but are still by far the largest in Ireland or Britain. Lough Corrib, Galway, with an area of some 170 km', is the second largest lake and it too is a shallow lake with a large diving duck population in winter. In the 1970s it was known to have a flock of up to 22,000 Pochard in late autumn, presumably completing their moult, and in winter there were up to 12,000 Coots at peak. Numbers appear to have declined somewhat in recent years, but aerial censuses are required to assess the status of the ducks more accurately. These two lakes are much the most important for birds, principally because they are so shallow. The other large lakes Laughs Derg (116 km-), Lower Lough Erne are deeper and of less (140 km 2 ) and Conn (50 km 2 ) importance in winter. However, a number of the midland lakes, especially Loughs Iron, Owel and Derravaragh, have sizeable winter duck populations. In summer Great Crested Grebes, Mallard and Tufted Ducks nest on most lakes. Common Scoters nest on the Lough Erne system, on Lough Conn and increasingly in small numbers on other lakes. There are large colonies of Black-headed Gulls, Common Gulls and Lesser Blackbacked Gulls on the western lakes and smaller numbers of Great Black-backed and Herring Gulls (Whilde 1978, 1983). Common Terns are the most widespread terns breeding on lake islands (Whilde 1984) but Arctic and Sandwich Terns also nest on islands some distance from the sea, though in small numbers (73 and 242 pairs respectively in 1984). Flooded meadows and marshes The water table in the midlands and west of Ireland rises with winter rain, the slower flowing rivers flood and the remaining turloughs

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

fill with water. This flooding produces large areas of water where ducks. geese and swans can graze, relatively safe from predators; it drives invertebrates up to the surface where Lapwings. Golden Plovers and Curlews search in the soft ground for prey; and it covers such large tracts of country that startled birds can find feeding again after a short flight.

21

The callows or flood meadows on both sides of the River Shannon between Athlone and Portumna. on either side of the River Suck in Roscommon and Galway, and on either side of the Little Brosna in Offaly and Tipperary are the finest examples. though the Blackwater callows in Waterford are also superb. Here Wigeon graze on the edge of the water in great flocks of several thousand birds.

Rahasane in Galway . an example of a turlough. (Photo: Richard T. Mills )

22

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

..

Ot; .

-

' \.

Whooper Swans graze out in the middle of the flood and large flocks of Golden Plovers wheel about. Black-tailed Godwits probe in the soft alluvium as well as the more common Curlews and Lapwings which can be seen in most fields. At some of these sites flocks of White-fronted Geese winter. feeding on the callows and usually roosting on the surrounding bogs. The feeding appears to be very rich in spring. for numbers of Wigeon and Black-tailed Godwits normally reach a peak in March on the Little Brosna , apparently because many birds of Icelandic origin assemble here before departing to their breeding grounds. The callows are also important breeding sites for Lapwings. Redshanks and Snipe. and they hold significant numbers of breeding Corncrakes. Turloughs - shallow limestone depressions which flood when the water table rises after autumn and winter rainfall - also provide rich feeding for wildfowl and waders in the west. but a number of them have been drained. Rahasane. Galway. is the finest remaining example. Much of the west of Ireland is termed unimproved agricultural land and this is archetypical Snipe country. Snipe breed in quite small numbers. though widely. but in winter the damp pastures, flooded water meadows. marshes and bogs are filled with immigrants from Britain, Iceland and the Baltic states.

Rivers Because the central plain is so flat most Irish rivers are slow and sluggish in their upper courses. but they tend to run much more rapidly as they come close to the sea . Fifteen rivers collect 65% of the surface drainage (Drew 1979). but very little is known of the birds of these major rivers. Studies of the birds of three rivers have been published. Chris Bailey has been surveying 10 km of the River Lagan near Belfast since 1974 and the results of his breeding censuses up to 1980 showed that Moorhens were the most

numerous waterfowl with a density of about five pairs per km. Kingfishers. Dippers. Grey Wagtails and Reed Buntings all bred. but a number of species had decreased over the period. apparently because of the effects of cold weather. pollution and. most importantly. the arrival of mink (Bailey 1982). In Kerry . a 4 .5 km stretch of the River Flesk was censused in 1983 and 1984 (Carruthers 1986). but only five species were found to breed. though Dipper density at 6.6-8 .8 pairs per 10 km was higher than at most other Irish sites where they have been counted. The paucity of species on the Flesk appears to be largely due to it being a fast flowing river with a steep gradient. In Northern Ireland. Watson (1984) surveyed the birds of sections of the River Blackwater and its tributaries in Armagh and Tyrone. Dippers have been studied at several sites in the north of Ireland and the highest density recorded has been on the River Bann, Down, where 12 pairs per 10 km were found (perry 1986). MOUNTAIN AND BOG

In the Republic of Ireland it has been estimated by the National Soil Survey that marginal land occupies 45% of the total land area. 22% being mountain and hill. 12% low level peat and 11 % wet mineral lowland (Gardiner 1979). In Northern Ireland such marginal land occupies 31 % of the surface area . 9% being blanket peat and high ground over 300 m, 17% being peaty soils on higher hills and 5% lowland bog (Cruickshank 1982). Some of this land has been drained and is under crops but the statistics indicate the proportion of poor agricultural soils.

Mountain Only 20% of the land area is over 150 m. five per cent over 300 m and only 240 km -' over 600 m. There are 45 peaks reaching over 750 m. Ireland clearly has relatively little mountain land.

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

The birds of high ground have been little studied. though the breeding waders of Northern Ireland's moorlands have been censused (Partridge 1988) and several individuals have carried out unpublished studies of birds of prey and Ravens. Golden Plovers once nested on moorland in the south, east and midlands but now only remain as breeding birds in the north and west. Ring Ouzels almost certainly continue to nest in small numbers in most of the mountain ranges in the country. though persistence is required to track them down. Ravens were once true montane birds but have increased and spread into the lowlands. The principal birds of high ground are Meadow Pipits. At Glenveagh, Donegal, the birds of upland heath and bog were censused in 1980 and a very limited range of breeding species was found (MacLochlainn 1984). Meadow Pipits, Skylarks, Wrens and Wheatears were present up to the summits. A few Golden Plovers and Red Grouse also nested and there were scatterings of Kestrels , Merlins , Peregrines, Ravens and Ring Ouzels. In winter most birds leave the mountains though Snow Buntings are known to occur at this season in the mountains of Donegal (MacLochlainn 1984), Kerry (K. Preston) and Northern Ireland O. S. Furphy). BoglandSome 17% of the land surface ofIreland consists of bog , a higher percentage than any other European country except Finland. This includes fens, raised bogs and blanket bogs . Fens are shallow bogs, fed continually by mineral-rich waters. Raised bogs are the typical bogs of the central plain where shallow lakes were overgrown by vegetation and turned into bog as plant debris accumulated

23

to form peat. Blanket bog is characteristic of mountain ranges and of the west of Ireland and occurs where pine woodland died otT and an increasingly wet climate led to the development of bog vegetation. Blanket bog has somewhat similar vegetation to raised bog , but peat moss is scarcer and a number of mountain plants occur. Raised bogs are known to be of considerable importance in winter as Snipe habitat and, in certain areas, they support roosts of White-fronted Geese. Unfortunately, they are declining rapidly in extent as Bord na Mona (stateowned peat development board) crops the turf. Only 21 % of ra ised bogs remained intact in 1979. though as much as 74% of blanket bog had not been modified (Doyle 1983). Conservation of a representative sample of bogs has been widely sought because of the scarcity of the habitat. The results of only two studies of birds on Irish bogland have been published, one each on blanket and raised bog. Watson and O'Hare (1979d) sampled Mayo blanket bog in 1968-71 by using pointing dogs to flush birds. They found that Meadow Pipits were the most abundant birds, dominating in heathery areas. Skylarks were numerous on flat bog and Snipe on well grazed wet areas with rushes and bog myrtle. Species diversity was low and bird densities appeared to be much lower than on a similar area in Britain. The same authors recorded passing birds in spring and August (Watson & O'Hare 1979a). They found Whitefronted Geese in spring each year on bogland lakes or flying towards them. Golden Plovers were seen on one occasion and a few raptors were seen . Overall numbers of birds were clearly very low , though it was evident that the availability

24

F actors affecting the distribution of birds

of dead sheep in spring supported a high population of scavengers. Ravens and Hooded Crows were the seventh and eighth commonest bird or mammal seen on the bog (Watson & O'Hare 1980). Madden (198 7b) visited an intact raised bog and an adjacent area of cutaway bog in Offaly on ten occasions over a period of about a year, in 1985/86, and found only 12 species on the intact bog and 36 on cutaway bog. Only four species were proved to breed on the intact bog and another was suspected of nesting; 19 species bred on the cutaway bog. The greater diversity of species on the cutaway bog reflected a wider range of vegetation. Madden considered that the bird community of raised bog is poorer than that of western blanket bog. FARMLAND

Just under 70% of the land area of the Republic and more than 80% of the area of Northern Ireland is improved land under crops and pasture, though some is land of poor agricultural quality. The current agricultural regime, with its emphasis on grassland, was not always in place. In the middle of the last century the Famine marked a turning point for agricultural practices. Before the Famine, Ireland was very different from what it looks like today. The country was a net exporter of grain and livestock, so large areas of the country, where cattle are raised today, would have been under tillage. However, the high human population, dependent on the potato for subsistence, was vulnerable to the failure of their basic food and the Famine not only decimated the population but led to some fundamental changes in the landscape, which must have had (and in some cases can be shown to have had) a marked effect on wildlife in the countryside. Frank Mitchell (1986) has described Ireland in 1850 as a ruined landscape, almost destitute of any woody growth, due to the need of the huge population for fuel, and with soil fertility severely depleted by endless repetition of potato crops. This depressingly bleak landscape was relieved by islands of habitat where large estates survived behind great walls. However, one has to consider, in examining Mitchell's picture of the landscape after the Famine, that the area of tillage and root crops was still extensive. The area under grain crops was 7.8 millionha in 1851 having been 8.7 million in 1845; there were 3.7 millionha under root crops in 1851 having been 7.0 million in 1845. The 1845 area was about four times the current level. After 1850 there were several changes which were to have an impact, albeit a slow one, on the landscape. Firstly, the system of land tenure was changed under the successive Land Acts and the total number of farm holdings was reduced from 685,000 in 1841 (64% of 38 ha or less) to 570,000 in 1851 and 362,000 in 1960. At the same time, the size of holdings increased as the population declined. Secondly, there was no increase in the land under cultivation. Up to the Famine attempts were made to cultivate marginal land on mountain sides and there was some slight continued expansion of the cultivated area up to the 18 70s. After that, the amount of land under cultivation remained stationary overall and in western counties declined. Thirdly, there was a sudden decline in the proportion of

Ireland: tillage as a percentage of crops and pasture in 1970: 1525% (stippled) and over 25% (black)

land under tillage, which must have produced a noticeable change in the appearance of the country. The acreage of tillage declined by 4% between 1851 and 1859 and by a further 14% between 1861 and 1868 as corn prices fell. From the 1870s to the 1950s there was little change in the appearance of the Irish agricultural landscape. The area under grain crops continued in slow decline. In the Republic there were just over 2.5 million ha under grain in 1921 but only 1.9 million by 1931 and 2.18 million in 1974. There were increases in tillage during both World Wars but they were not maintained. At the same time, the number of livestock on pasture was relatively static. The total of 4.9 million livestock units in the 26 counties in 1922 was not exceeded until 1960. So, we have a picture of a relatively conservative agricultural regime from the 1870s to the 1960s. There was then a further significant change which resulted from the injection of capital into agriculture from the 1960s onwards. The Irish admission to the BEe in 1973 added to the impact. Mechanization of Irish farming took off in the 1960s. One indication of the rate of mechanization is the number of tractors, which increased in the Republic from 2,100 in 1939 to 43,700 in 1960, 84,300 in 1970 and 145,100 in 1980. Fertilizer usage was negligible until recent years. Annual applications of lime in the Republic were less than 100,000 tonnes before 1951 but had reached 2 million tonnes by

Factors affecting the distribution of birds 25 1970. The annual application of nitrogen was 29.000 tonnes in 1961/62,48,000 tonnes in 1966/67, 98.000 tonnes in 1971/72 and 275,000 tonnes in 1981/82. The use of herbicides in the Republic increased from 495,000 tonnes in 1965 to 1.5 million tonnes in 1980. The amount of silage made in the Republic increased fourfold between 1969 and 1981. Hedgerow destruction, although measured in only one survey in the Republic (D. Hickie cited in Cabot 1984), increased. These developments were aimed at increasing yields of farm products, but they have had a significant effect on the environment and on its wildlife. which is difficult to measure but which is on a larger scale than just the drainage of famous wetlands. The effect of agricultural change can be seen in the changes in numbers of Quail and Partridges. Quail are believed to have been common in Ireland in the eighteenth century and certainly increased in the first half of the nineteenth century. By the Famine it was a common breeding species in most parts of the country. At Easky, Sligo, the normal bag for a day's shooting would be five to ten brace. After the Famine numbers declined and by 1880 none were believed to nest in Ireland (Ussher & Warren 1900). There were occasional revivals and Quail have bred in small numbers in parts of Ireland, particularly Louth and Kildare, at intervals this century but they have never returned in numbers. The decline was attributed at the end of the nineteenth century to the structural change in agriculture after the Famine as the amount of land under tillage collapsed. Quail nested in the cultivated smallholdings which covered the country before the Famine and, it was argued, the change in habitat was so marked after the Famine that Quail disappeared. Partridges are now rare breeding birds, nesting sparsely in the south-east, midlands, east and north. In 1900 they were reported as having been long in decline as a result of the decline in wheat growing and an increase in shooting pressure. In the early 1960s they were considered to be holding their own but there has been a recent, marked decline and in the early 1980s Partridges could only be found in the midlands and at a scattering of locations in the north and east. The reduction in cereal growing after the Famine appears to be the principal cause of decline. More recently, changes in farming methods since the early 1960s have probably caused the further decline. Partridges need good nesting cover, low predation levels and an abundance of insects. In Britain modern farming methods have been shown to have reduced the numbers of these insects, thus reducing chick survival rates (Potts 1980). The effect of land use on two commoner species can be shown in the case of the Stock Dove and Rook. Stock Doves feed largely on weed seeds and newly sown grain on ploughed land. They are recent colonists, having first bred in Ireland in 1877, and increased steadily until the 1960s. The breeding distribution is centred on the tillage counties but not restricted to them, and the arrival of the species post-dated the decline in tillage after the Famine. However. survey work for the Winter Atlas in 1981/82

to 1983/84 shows a more restricted distribution than in the early 1970s, with the largest numbers not unexpectedly concentrated in the cereal growing areas. This contrasts with the British position where Stock Doves are less dependent on the cereal growing areas. apparently because the intensified use of herbicides has reduced the availability of weed seeds and Stock Doves now favour areas of mixed pasture and tillage. The apparent decline in numbers since the early 1970s may be real or may just reflect the increased difficulty in locating the birds at low densities in winter. Rooks occur at higher densities in most parts of Ireland than in Britain. This reflects their requirement for mixed farming with a preponderance of pasture. In England they require a mix of cereal and pasture and the large numbers in the north of Ireland reflect the dominance of this farming regime there. Good grassland is required to provide food for the young in the summer and grain is needed in autumn when the number of insects declines in grassland. Cowpats are an important food source because of the number of invertebrates they attract. WOODLAND

In the Republic of Ireland there are about 268,000 ha of state-owned woodland and 82,000 ha of private woodland, representing about 5% of the land surface. The state forests are 95% coniferous with two North American species, Sitka spruce and lodgepole pine, accounting for 85% of current planting. The private woodlands are about 40% broadleaf forest, 40% scrub and 20% coniferous. The private woods

Ireland: distribution of woodland

26

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

Oakwood in Killarney. Kerry. (Photo: Richard T. Mills )

are all small. only three estates having more than 500 ha of forest (McEvoy 1979). In Northern Ireland there are about 60.000 ha of planted woodland with Sitka spruce predominating. and there are a small number of mixed deciduous woods (Tomlinson 1982). This represents a similar proportion of land area under afforestation as in the Republic. There have been surprisingly few studies of the bird communities of Irish woodlands. particularly when the scarcity of species as compared with Britain is con sidered. Batten (1976) reported on an intensive survey of several woodland types in Killarney. Kerry . in 1973 and Wilson (1977) discussed studies of bird communities of sessile oak woodlands. using some of the data from Batten. Simms (19 71) carried out some transect studies in Irish woods as well. More recently. repeat studies have been carried ou t in oakwood and yewwood in Killarney to draw comparisons with the 1973 survey (T. Carruthers). Deciduous Woodland At the end of the sixteenth century 12.5% of Ireland was forested ; by 1800 only 2% wa s covered by trees (McCracken 1971). Since parts ofIreland were covered by bog or lakes. or are too high for woodland. the percentage of available land under trees in 1600 was much higher than 12.5%. Oak was the most widespread species in the early seventeenth century. ash was less common except on limestone. hazel occurred in association with oak. and birch was also quite common. There were virtually no hedges until the early eighteenth century and. while yews and elms occurred. they appear to have been scattered thinly. Many of the woods were felled in the seventeenth century so that the timber could be used in shipbuilding. house building and iron smelting. From about

1700 onwards there was some planting of deciduous trees on estates. bu t this declined in the mid nineteenth century. The census work carried out in the early 19 70s (Batten 1976. Wilson 19 77) showed that the most numerous species in oakwoods, three of which were censused in Kerry and two in Wick low. were Chaffinch. Robin . Goldcrest, Blue Tit. Coal Tit and Wren. these six comprising 75-85% of the breeding bird communities. Comparison with results from Welsh and Scottish oakwoods which had a somewhat similar history of management and utilization highlighted some differences . Willow Warblers. Garden Warblers and Blackcaps, all of which breed in Welsh and Scottish woods. were absent from the Irish plots. though they breed in other parts of Ire land . Batten suggested that the absence of Willow Warblers was due to the occupation of their niche by Goldcrests; Wilson suggested that the absence of pioneer growth in the Irish plots . especially of birch. militated against Willow Warblers. It was suggested by Wilson that the absence of the two other species was due to a scarcity of dense undergrowth. In two yewwoods visited in Kerry the six most abundant species were the same as in the oak woods. However. Coal Tits were less common and Blackbird s more common in the yew. More recent census studies in Kerry have shown that the number of territories in yewwood had declined from 113 of 16 species in 1973 to 101 in 1982. and 74 of 15 species in 1986. In oakwood the decrease was from 100 territories in 1973 to 53 in 1985 and 1986 (T. Carruthers). The decline appears to be due to the effect of weather conditions. A series of mild winters preceded the 1973 census and the density of some species appears to have been exceptionally high. In contrast. several cold spells occurred in winters 1981 /82.1984/85 and 1985/86 and

Factors affecting th e distribution of birds they appear to have led to sharply increased mortality (T. Carruthers). The sharp changes between th e results in 1973 and the 1980s. on the same census plots. shows the difficulty of generalising about Irish bird den sities from a very small body of data. The complete absence as breeding birds from Ireland of Tawny Owls. Green Woodpeckers. Great Spotted Woodpeckers. Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers. Marsh Tits. Willow Tits and Nuthatches. and the extreme rarity of Pied Flycatchers. Tree Pipits. Redstarts and Wood Warblers has puzzled many ornithologists, particularly since most of them have a widespread or predominantly westerly distribution in Britain and the last four named species are annual passage migrants. The traditional explanation ha s been that because Ireland is a smaller island than Britain it supports fewer species as ecological factors restrict colonization (Lack 1969). Wilson (1976) in contrast has pointed out that larger woods support more species and has suggested that the small size of Irish woods, coupled with the extent of grazing in the woods. which has restricted regeneration. has caused the extinction of many woodland birds which formerly bred in Ireland. Sharrock (1979). in a discussion of the rarity of Tree Pipits. has supported this argument and speculated that the destruction of the wood s led to th e extinction of Tree Pipits. The difficulty about this theory is that the only evidence that any of these species formerly occurred Widely in Ireland is the discovery of sub-fos sil remains of two Great Spotted Woodpeckers (Kennedy et al 1954). There is not even any evidence that woodpeckers were breeding in Ireland in medieval tim es. It can be argued that medieval records are sparse. but the unrecorded extinction of so many species seems less likely than the counter argument that they have been excluded by other generalist species which colonized after the last glaciation and occupied the niches which the woodpeckers and other. specialist species required . Coniferous Plantation The development of state afforestation is the greatest change in land use on the island of Ireland at present. Between 6.000 and 10.000 ha in the Republi c and about 1.000 ha in Northern Ireland are planted annually. This has had a noticeable effect on Hen Harrier numbers which increased from the early 1950s to a peak in the mid 19 70s, the spread corresponding with the development of plantations on hillsides throughout much of the country. Hen Harriers nest in young plantations. and the. maturing of many forests and the clearance of marginal land following Ireland's admittance to the European Economic Community were believed by O'Flynn (19 8 3) to be responsible for some decline in the late 1970s. The onl y publi shed census study of breeding birds in Irish conifer plantations is that of Batten (19 76) who surveyed Norway spruce and Sitka spruce woods in Kerry in 19 73 as well as deciduous wood s. He found the highest density of birds on any survey plot in the Norway spruce wood where there were 180 pairs per 10 ha, of which 59 were Goldcrests, though the number of species at 14 was very low. Goldcrest densities were much the highest recorded in any habitat in Britain or Ireland. The Sitka spruce wood had 100 pairs per 10 ha but only eight specie s were found. Again. Goldcrests were the most numerous species with

27

Chaffinch and Robin in second and third place as in Norway spruce. Batten pointed out that Sitka spruce is an American species and seems less suitable for European birds. At least Norway spruce is a European species and pre sumably more suited to Irish birds . URBAN AND SUBURBAN HABITATS

Population density is low in both the Republic and Northern Ireland. In the Republic 58 % of the population of 3.443 million in 1981 lived in towns of more than 1.00 0 people . The major centres of population are Dublin (9 15.0 0 0 ), Cork (150.000). Limerick (76 .000). Galway (4 2 .0 0 0) . Dundalk (2 9.00 0) . Drogheda (2 4. 0 0 0) and Bray (2 3.00 0) . In Northern Ireland the population in 1981 was 1.562 million. The major population centres are Belfast

Pied Wagtail roost outside the General Post Office. O'Connell Street. Dublin. (Photo: Richard T. Mills )

28

Factors affecting the distribution of birds

(327,000), Londonderry (93,000), Craigavon (72,000) and Newtownabbey (72,000). So, 36% of the population of the entire island lives in these 11 centres. The features of Irish towns which have drawn most attention in the ornithological literature have been the roosts of Pied Wagtails and the increase in urban Magpies, though there have also been studies of birds at a Cork municipal dump (N.J. Buckley and T. C. Kelly) and at four sites in Dublin (D. Keating and J. Whelan), and of Mute Swans in Cork O. O'Halloran) and Dublin (R. Collins). The Pied Wagtail roost at O'Connell Street, Dublin, has been known since 1929 and up to 3,600 birds have been counted there, though numbers in recent years have been lower at 600-1,000 (Cotton & Lovatt 1985). In recent years urban roosts have been located at Cork, in two other parts of Dublin and no doubt they occur in other towns and cities. It is clear that urban roosting is a widespread phenomenon. Magpies have been known to breed in Dublin since at least the mid nineteenth century and they are now so widespread that their depredations on nestlings of other species drive onlookers to write despairing letters to the Dublin newspapers every summer. In a recent study (Kavanagh 1987) it was estimated that Magpies were nesting at a density of 16.6 pairs per km 2 and had been increasing at an annual rate of 12-13% since 1970. At the Cork municipal refuse dump, gull and corvid attendance was studied in 1984 and 1985. Herring Gulls were noted as having declined sharply since 1982/83 and Black-headed and Common Gulls had increased considerably. Of the corvids only Rooks occurred consistently and in large numbers (N. J. Buckley, T. C. Kelly). The Dublin study by D. Keating and J. Whelan was of the bird communities of two parks, an urban wilderness and a residential area in the city and was carried out from January to August 1982. The highest density of birds was found in the urban wilderness, but this had the lowest species diversity. Diversity was highest in the parks. WHY ARE THERE FEWER SPECIES IN IRELAND?

Why, therefore, does Ireland not have a number of species which breed in Britain or on the Continent? The reasons appear to be several. Firstly, it appears likely that a number of summer migrants have not colonized Ireland because they are at a competitive disadvantage from year round residents. O'Connor (1986) has shown that only 16 of the 46 migrant species (35%) regularly breeding in Britain also breed in Ireland, but that 86 of the 125 resident species (69%) do so. O'Connor identified several reasons for the disadvantages which migrants have in establishing themselves. He showed that migrant species in general are distributed in seasonal areas where food resources peak in summer to levels beyond the capacity of the residents to exploit. He also emphasized the advantage which resident

species have in being on the breeding grounds earlier, being able to start nesting earlier and to produce more young, and he pointed out how resident individuals that survive winter adversity can be expected to be more competitive than migrants that have wintered in a more favourable climate. The mild oceanic Irish climate, with few extremes, would appear therefore to provide less resources for migrants and to permit greater survival of residents, and earlier nesting by them, than the British climate with its greater seasonality. Secondly, the absence from Ireland of sedentary species such as Tawny Owls, woodpeckers, Nuthatches, Marsh Tits and Willow Tits is likely to be due to their lack of ability to reach Ireland at all. Only the Green and Great Spotted Woodpecker have been recorded as vagrants. The Green Woodpecker has not been recorded this century and most of the Great Spotted Woodpecker records are believed to be of the irruptive Continental race rather than of British origin. Lack (1969) considered that the difficulties of dispersal over the Irish Sea were not responsible for the reduced Irish avifauna, but the absence from Ireland of this group of birds supports MacArthur & Wilson's hypothesis that immigration rates are dependent on distance from the source pool. If conditions in Ireland are in fact suitable for these species, but competition or failure to cross the Irish Sea has prevented colonization, one would expect reduced species diversity in an Irish habitat together with higher densities of those species which are present. Unfortunately, there have been rather few studies, but Common Bird Census study plots at Irish farmland show higher densities of Blue Tits and Goldcrests than do British studies (BTO data). Census studies at Irish sessile oakwoods have shown that diversity is lower than in Scottish or Welsh oakwoods but that Coal Tits, Blue Tits and Goldcrests occur at much higher densities (Wilson 1977). Presumably they occupy some of the niches occupied in Britain by the woodpeckers, Nuthatches, Pied Flycatchers and Redstarts. Thirdly, a number of habitats which occur in Britain are not represented in Ireland. The lowland heath and chalk downland of southern England and the high mountains and Caledonian Scots pine woodlands of Scotland are good examples. The absence of these habitats helps to explain why Woodlarks, Dartford Warblers, Stone-curlews and Crested Tits do not breed in Ireland and why Dotterels and Greenshanks have only been found once. The reasons why small islands in general have fewer species than large islands are still debated among scientists and Ireland has been used as an example by several. The current thinking indicates that there is not just one simple explanation but that several factors are involved. The only certainty at this stage is that much more remains to be said on the subject.

Ornithology and bird conservation The traditional attitude to birds in Ireland has been typical of rural communities throughout Europe. Birds are part of the environment in which people live and. like other features of this environment. are divided into categories based upon their usefulness to man. The game species. for example. are valuable as food or for sport. Certain other birds. such as Woodpigeons and Magpies. which feed on farmland. are widely perceived as vermin and deserving of persecution. Small garden birds. such as Robins and Song Thrushes. are regarded as useful foragers after slugs and other pests of growing vegetables. Until recently. birds have not been regarded as worthy of observation or admiration in their own right. Indeed. there is still an attitude that an unusual bird is something to be collected as an interesting object. and several rare and colourful species, including the first two Irish examples of the American Belted Kingfisher, have been shot. There have always been exceptions to these generalizations but the development of the idea that man should share the natural world with birds. rather than subjugate them. came much later in Ireland than in England. Thomas (1983) has described the replacement. in eighteenth century England. of the notion that the world was made for man alone. and that all other species were subordinate to his wishes, by new ideas of the balance of nature and of the value of the countryside and the wild creatures which inhabit it. These ideas were developed by the middle and upper classes and so were slow to travel to a largely peasant Ireland . There is a very limited literature of peasant Ireland. but the books written by several inhabitants of the Blasket Islands in Kerry give a vivid picture of a rural community and of attitudes to life. They contain few references to wildlife. Tomas O'Crohan, for example. who lived on the Great Blasket from 1856 to 1937. apparently did not con-

sider the seabird colonies of the Kerry islands. which are now so famous. as in any way remarkable. referring only to the food value of young Gannets on the Skelligs (O'Crohan 1937). And there is a substantial literature on shooting and fishing in the Irish countryside in the nineteenth century. in which it is clear that birds are best divided into game. which are useful. and vermin. which should be destroyed. In the latter category are included eagles and other birds of prey (e.g. Maxwell 1832). The popular idea that birds should be admired as wild and undisturbed creatures owes much to the steady growth in interest since the mid 1960s in the scientific study of birds (as ornithology is defined) . and in recent times to the influence of television as a medium for bringing the excitement of wildlife into people 's homes. ORIGINS OF ORNITHOLOGY IN IRELAND

All the standard texts on Irish ornithology consider Giraldus Cambrensis, the Welsh monk who visited Ireland in the twelfth century. as the first Irish ornithologist. He was in Ireland in 1183 and 1185. travelling in Cork and Waterford on the first occasion and from Waterford to Dublin on the second. Based on these visits he wrote his History and Topography of Ireland which was read publicly at Oxford in 1188. His book has been widely criticized by historians as unreliable and it is difficult to know what to make of his accounts of Irish birds. He was clearly very gullible. For example. he describes cranes (presumably Grey Herons) taking turns by night to keep guard while standing on one leg with a stone held in the other claw. They do this. he reported. so that if they should go to sleep they will be wakened again by the fall of the stone and can continue to keep watch. Yet he noticed that the Irish crows were not black but of different colours and he described

29

30

Ornithology and bird conservation

their practice of breaking open shellfish by dropping them onto stones, behaviour familiar to anyone who has watched Hooded Crows at the coast. He describes convincingly Ospreys, Peregrines and Dippers (though incorrectly called the last Kingfishers) and he refers to the absence of Pheasants, Partridges, Magpies and Nightingales. Partridges are believed to be indigenous, though it has been remarked in justification of Giraldus that there is no Irish name for them (O'Meara 1982), but Pheasants were introduced in Elizabethan times and Magpies are later colonists. Nightingales are still absent, apart from occasional vagrants in spring or autumn. So much of Giraldus rings true and yet he appears to have believed such extraordinary fables that caution must be observed in quoting him. Nevertheless, he is one of the very few sources of information on Irish birds before the nineteenth century. Later references to birds by writers on Ireland, right up to the late eighteenth century, tend to concentrate on game birds and are extremely few. John Hall, in an assessment of the evidence for the Capercaillie being an Irish bird, reviewed a number of seventeenth and eighteenth century sources and his paper (Hall 1981) provides an invaluable list of references. A book on the natural history of Dublin by John Rutty, an English born medical doctor, published in 1772 was a pioneering but apparently isolated work. The book provides fascinating accounts of a number of bird species, far more than just the game birds, and while Rutty includes such interesting information as an opinion on the flavour of each species when cooked, his text reads as a consistent and apparently reliable work. To put his book into perspective one must remember that Carl von Linne of Sweden published the tenth volume of his System of Nature in 1758, only fourteen years before Rutty's book appeared. The real origins of Irish ornithology lie, however, in the upsurge of interest in science in the first half of the nineteenth century. The Royal Dublin Society had been founded as early as 1 731; the Royal Irish Academy was founded in 1771. In 1821 the extremely influential Belfast Natural History Society was formed. William Thompson, author of the first book on the birds of Ireland, Natural History of Ireland (Vols 1-3, 1849-51), read his first zoological paper to this body in 1827 on 'The Birds of the Copeland Islands'. According to Robert Lloyd Praeger (1949) the membership was about 60 by then and each member in turn was required to read a paper. There was a fine for failing to do this and a member who did not attend a meeting for three months was ejected in the absence of sufficient apology. Such a system has much to commend it and it certainly did not discourage Thompson who spent much of his short life (he died in 1852 at the age of 47) conducting an extensive correspondence and taking the notes which were to be incorporated in due course into his Natural History of Ireland. In 1838 the Natural History Society of Dublin was formed and had a membership in its heyday of about 250; it died out about 1871. In Cork the Cuvierian Society of Cork, founded about 1845, published a Contribution towards a fauna and flora of the County of Cork which had been prepared for the 1843 meeting in Cork of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.

1850- 19 I 5 The middle of the nineteenth century marked a real turning point. In Britain the British Ornithologists' Union (BOU) was founded in 1859, and the field club movement in Ireland gradually supplanted the earlier natural history societies. The Belfast Naturalist's Field Club was founded in 1863, shortly after the Belfast Natural History Society became the Belfast Natural History and Philosophical Society, its change of name signifying a broadening of its scope. The Dublin Naturalists' Field Club was founded in 1885 and the Cork Naturalists' Field Club in 1892. Alone of the three, the Cork club did not survive, transferring its activities in 1923 to the newly formed Cork Camera and Field club. The first two of these frequently had large memberships and for many years they were the centres of the exchange of information on ornithological matters. The years from 1850 to about 1915 were the golden years of Irish ornithological discovery. The publication of Birds of Ireland by R. J. Ussher and R. Warren in 1900 marked one of the high points; even a rapid survey of the book shows what an enormous amount of work had been done in discovering the distribution and migratory status of Irish birds. There were correspondents in many counties, many of them apparently professional men, some landlords and some Church of Ireland clergy. These were presumably people with the leisure to get out into the field and make observations. But as well as the network of correspondents which Usher built up there were several outstanding individual ornithologists. R. M. Barrington, born in 1849 at Fassaroe near Bray in Wicklow, produced work of outstanding importance. He was called to the Bar but preferred the outdoor life that he got as a land valuer and farmer. His interests were broad and he was an excellent botanist, but his enduring work was the creation of a virtual bird observatory network from the Irish lighthouse and lightship keepers. He knew the importance of regular publication to keep enthusiasm going among those participating in a scientific enquiry, and his great The Migration of Birds as observed at Irish Lighthouses and Lightships published in an edition of only 350 copies in 1900 is a remarkable account of bird migration around our coast. Indeed it provided the basis for the information on migration in Kennedy, Ruttledge and Scroope's Birds of Ireland published in 1954, over half a century later. Barrington was a tough man. He climbed in Switzerland and Canada and visited many remote places, including Rockall in 1896, but the story which typifies his spirit is one which Praeger quotes in his classic account of his travels around Ireland, The Way that I Went (Praeger 1937). Apparently Barrington and H. C. Hart went to Powerscourt one very wet day hoping to hear Wood Warblers and to search for plants. It rained all day and Hart, in order to show his contempt for the conditions, walked through the longest grass and the briars close to the edge of the stream. Barrington reacted to this move by stepping into the water and sitting down on a submerged stone to eat his lunch. Without a word, Hart joined him. All rivalry ceased forthwith. How could one not admire such a man. A. G. More, though an Englishman, was a most influential ornithologist in Ireland, not least because he acted as DEVELOPMENTS:

Ornithology and bird conservation a stimulus to many younger men, including R. M. Barrington. His most enduring work was a study of the geographical distribution of birds in Britain as analysed from letters from a network of correspondents. This was published in the Ibis before he came to Ireland in 1867 as Assistant in the Dublin Museum. He progressed to become Keeper of the Natural History Division in 1881 but was forced by illness to retire in 1887. After his death, a detailed account of his life, together with his letters and scientific papers, was published by C.B. Moffat (Moffat 1898). In a period of outstanding individuals, Richard John Ussher of Waterford stands out. He was the real author of Birds of Ireland; Robert Warren was a collaborator but wrote only small sections of the book. Ussher was a big, energetic, blue-eyed, red-bearded figure who visited at one time or other almost every cliff, lough, hill and wood in Ireland. Praeger (1949) has described how he settled down after some years abroad to live in the family home at Cappagh and took up 'vigorously that destructive and rather meaningless branch of zoology - if it can be dignified by such a phrase - egg-collecting, and the nests of the rarer birds such as Peregrine Falcons were harried year after year by him or through his agency; but in later years he atoned by relinquishing the collecting of eggs, by helping energetically the work of the Irish Society for the Protection of Birds, and by widespread explorations of the cliff-bound shores of the west coast and the bogs and lakes of the midlands to determine the breeding range in Ireland of rarer species'. In an obituary notice in the Daily Express on 16 October 1913 it is reported that the writing of the new standard book was originally to be done by A. G. More, R. M. Barrington, R. Warren and R.J. Ussher, but that it was soon decided to place the work almost solely in Ussher'shands. His own particular interests were cliff-breeding birds and the country is richer for the vast series of notes which he bequeathed to the Royal Irish Academy. After a survey of breeding Choughs in 1982 Ian Bullock, the organizer of the survey, was able to compare the location of current breeding sites with those which Ussher knew at the turn of the century (Bullock et a11983). As well as being a great ornithologist, Ussher was an outstanding explorer of caves, an activity in which he was greatly encouraged by finding Great Auk bones in coastal kitchen-middens. These men were chiefly. interested in bird distribution, an emphasis which is understandable at a time when very little was known about the status of Irish birds. Publications on behaviour were scarce indeed, but there was an interest in broader research which is best evidenced by Barrington's massive investigation into migration. These two strands intermingled, however, in a manner which was not to be typical of Irish ornithology in the twentieth century. Barrington co-operated closely with Ussher and the tiny ornithological community was perhaps closer knit, possibly because of the eminence of these two figures, than it was to be later. Among the general public there was clearly some interest in birds, although it appears to have been restricted to the small middle and professional classes and to some landlords. In 1902 or 1903 the Belfast Society for the Protection of Birds was founded with the Countess of

31

Shaftesbury as first president, but the organization did not survive for more than a year or two. The Irish Society for the Protection of Birds was founded on 29th April 1904 in Dublin, and in the following July was successful in having withdrawn from the newspapers an advertisement for a supply of terns for millinery purposes. One recalls that the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, now the largest bird protection organization in the world, was founded in 1891 as a response to the popular fashion of attaching plumes of herons and egrets to women's hats, and it seems likely that the Irish bodies took their cue from the early success of the British body. Bird protection was not a popular cause in Ireland, however, in the early years of the present century and the Irish Society was a low profile body. INTO THE TWENTIETH CENTURY: 19 I 954 The years between the First World and 1954, the year in which Kennedy, Ruttledge and Scroope published Birds of Ireland, their successor to Ussher and Warren's book of 54 years earlier, appear at this remove to have been less exciting in terms of ornithological achievement than the previous fifty years or the next thirty-five. If the 1954 book is compared with its predecessor it is clear that what is new was less revolutionary than the material which Ussher and Warren had to hand. This is not surprising. A comparison of the number of correspondents referred to in the two books indicates that there was no increase in the number of amateur ornithologists in the country during the early twentieth century. The relative scarcity of keen ornithologists in Ireland contrasts with the development of a strong amateur ornithological movement in Britain, and perhaps reflects the insularity and conservatism of both Northern Ireland and the then Irish Free State, now the Republic, from the 1920s to the 1950s. During this period there was a small but active bird protection movement. In Belfast the Ulster Society for the Protection of Birds was founded in 1921, and in Dublin the Irish Society for the Protection of Birds, with C.B. Moffat as Secretary for over twenty years up to his death in 1945, secured the safety of the long-standing Mayo breeding colony of Red-necked Phalaropes by purchasing the land where the birds nested and appointing a summer warden. These societies were largely concerned with bird protection and not with habitat conservation. The threats to birds came from egg-collectors (as at the phalarope colony) or from indiscriminate shooting; land-use changes had not yet had a perceptible effect on bird populations. The Ulster Society secured Swan Island in Larne Lough as a bird sanctuary in the late 1930s. Watchers were appointed to protect seabird colonies on Rathlin Island and in Strangford Lough from egg-collectors, and perches were erected for tired migrants on the Maidens Lighthouse in 1936. Douglas Deane was involved in one of the Ulster Society's major successes, in' 1946, when 177 crates packed with over 7,000 wild birds were found in cold storage plants in Belfast. He and Dr J. A. Sinclair examined the birds and found that they included 5,509 birds of 19 species which were protected by law. The most numerous were Lapwings (1,880), Razorbills (1,501) and Guillemots (1,466),

32

Ornithology and bird conservation

but also found were scarcer species such as Grey Phalarope and Leach's Petrel (C. Douglas Deane). Both societies were successful in promoting legislative protection for birds and this was unquestionably their most important achievement. In what is now the Republic, the Irish Society provided assistance in the preparation of the 1930 Wild Birds Protection Act, and in Northern Ireland the Ulster Society provided substantial input to the 1931 Wild Birds Protection Act. Towards the end of this period the Irish Ornithologists' Club was formed in Dublin in 1950. It brought together a number of men in Dublin who were interested in studying birds and was the first purely ornithological society in the country, providing a forum for meetings and discussion, and organising regular field trips. Its principal rule was that it should have no rules or keep no minutes. Women were excluded in the early years and it was considered that junior birdwatchers were adequately catered for by the Dublin Naturalists' Field Club. Meetings were held in The Stag's Tail and later in The Dolphin bars in Dublin (F. Miller). The organization received no mention in Birds in Ireland published in 1954, but it was to be notable in due course for its foundation of the first bird report. Among the ornithologists, although an egg-collector and disapproved of by the protectionists. George Humphreys, who was born in Anglesey in 1886, was a link between the dominant figures of the late nineteenth century and those of recent years. He knew Barrington and Ussher personally and was a wonderful source of anecdotes up to his death in 1980. He came to live in Dublin in 1904 when he was appointed to the staff of the then London and North Western Railway at the North Wall. Because of his job with the railway company he had concessionary travel rates around Ireland and he used these to get to know Connemara well. He described on a number of occasions how he obtained his first pair of binoculars in 1 911 and how in the same year he became what must have been Ireland's first ringer by placing rings provided by H. F. Witherby on Little Terns at the North Bull. He was a very keen ornithologist and perhaps even more enthusiastic oologist. In the 1930s he reorganized the scheme of correspondence with lightkeepers which Barrington had conducted so successfully and reports were published in the Irish Naturalists' Journal for several years. He wrote the 1937 edition of the National Museum's List of Irish Birds, following a series of distinguished authors of previous editions, including both A. G. More and Richard Ussher, but was not included among the authors of the new Birds of Ireland published in 1954, in his view because his egg-collecting enthusiasm was not frowned upon. Nevertheless, he was a kind and generous man to those who knew him, always willing and keen to discuss developments in ornithology. The best known ornithologists of this period were of course the authors of the new standard textbook published in 1954: Rev P. G. Kennedy S.J., Major R. F. Ruttledge and Col C. F. Scroope. Father Kennedy, as he was widely known, .was the man who popularized the North Bull in broadcasts on Radio Eireann, articles in Studies and the Irish Naturalists' Journal and eventually, in 1953, in a little book named An Irish Sanctuary - birds of the North Bull. In 1931

he persuaded Dublin Corporation to apply to the Minister for Justice to sign an Order establishing the area as a sanctuary. But there were various plans over the years to turn the North Bull channel into a boating marina and to build a cinema and dance-hall on the site. He died in 1967, but he would surely have enjoyed the enormous public enthusiasm nowadays for the 'Open Days' organized at the Bull by the Irish Wildbird Conservancy and Dublin Corporation. Major R. F. Ruttledge, or 'the Major' as he has been known to generations of birdwatchers, had quite different interests from the urban dwelling Father Kennedy. He was born in Carlow in 1899 but moved to Mayo at an early age where he concentrated on studies of the distribution of birds in the west of Ireland. His contribution to Irish ornithology in the first half of the twentieth century is notable for the care with which he documented his observations on the distributions of birds. His particular interests were seabirds breeding on the islands off the west coast and the geese which wintered on the midland and western bogs. A major paper on the birds of Galway and Mayo (Ruttledge 1950) was the first modern county avifauna produced in Ireland and his paper on the numbers and distribution of geese with Mrs Hall Watt (Ruttledge & Hall Watt 1958) was the summary of many years of goose observations. These were simply the highlights of his publishing: from 1916 onwards he published a series of notes and short papers which had no parallel in Irish ornithology at the time, either in number of publications or in scope of topic. The culmination of these publications was his joint authorship of the 1954 Birds of Ireland with Kennedy and Scroope, and his editing of the Irish Bird Report from 1953, the first national bird report produced in these islands and a forerunner by eight years of the British Birds Rarities Report. The Major's work in the early 1950s was responsible for a new interest in documenting bird records and it had a vital impact on new generations of birdwatchers. The last member of the triumvirate which wrote the 1954 book, Lt-Col Scroope, was not a prolific author, but he was an excellent field ornithologist who in his early years came under the influence of Robert Warren. He served in the Indian Army and had a remarkable diversity of interests, which included shooting big game in the Himalayas, playing tennis for Ireland in the Davis Cup, and reaching a high standard as golfer and fisherman. When on leave in Ireland, and during his retirement, he watched birds mainly in Dublin, Wicklow and Cork. He probably knew more than anybody else about breeding Hen Harriers in Ireland during the 19 50s, but his publications were very few. These ornithologists of the first half of the twentieth century were all interested primarily in the distribution of birds. But the most original ornithologist of the period, and perhaps the most influential Irish ornithologist of any period, was a man little known to the public. a man who was so little known to the naturalists of his day that he did not merit a mention in Robert Lloyd Praeger's Some Irish Naturalists. He was J. P. Burkitt. Burkitt was born in 1870. He trained as a civil engineer and between 1900 and 1940 was the County Surveyor for Fermanagh. He placed different patterns of metal bands on

Ornithology and bird conservation

33

Aerial view of Nort h Harbour and Bird Observato ry at Cape Clear, Cork. Note the dark colour of the sea due to red tide. (Photo: Richard T. Mills)

th e legs of Robin s in his garden - not coloured ring s because he wa s colour blind - and thus made possible for th e first time the study in th e field of indi vidual bird s. He discover ed new facts about territorial behaviour a nd son g. including fem ale song: he observed threat display: he was th e first to use ringing returns to estimate ave rage a ge. He told David Lack th at he did not look at a bird until he was 3 7, at wh ich tim e he h ad no ornithological friends (Lack 1965). He publi sh ed a pioneering paper in British Birds, entitled 'A study of the Robin by means of marked bird s' (Brit Birds 1924-2 6,17:294-30 3: 18:97-10 3: 20 5-557: 19 : 120124: 20: 9 1- 10 1) and a few sho rt papers in the Irish Nat uralist . He told Lack in 1944 ' Whe n I was doing the Robin I had pricks of con scien ce th at I wa s really more interested in th e created than th e Cre ator'. He was deepl y religiou s, extrem ely humble and in tellectu ally brilliant. He spent his lat er years reading th e Bible and working in his gard en . One othe r littl e-known Irish a utho r deser ves men tion here and th is is Rev E.A. Armstro ng , the a utho r of th e 'New Na turalist' mon ogr aph on The Wren (195 5) and of The Folklore of Birds (19 58) in th e same series. His Birds of the Grey Wi nd (1 940). an evocative account of his explora tion of the landscap e of his hom e pro vin ce in sea rch of birds. was the first bird book on Nor the rn Ireland . Howe ver , he was outside th e mainstream of Irish ornith ology and, unlike C. Dou glas Dean e. who wrot e the Ulster Museum 's

Handbook of th e Birds of No rthern Ireland ( 19 54 ), had little influe nc e on lat er gene ra tions . 'Jimmy' Deane, as he was Widely kn own , mad e maj or contribution s both to th e study of birds in Northe rn Ireland and to th e popula riza tion of an interest in wildlife th rou gh his prolific writings and his films.

SLOW B il l' STEA DY PROG RESS : 1954-19 6 6 Two events in 1954 had a maj or influ en ce on the developm ent of Irish ornithology. Thes e were th e publication by Oliver & Boyd in Edinburgh of Birds of Ireland by Kennedy. Ruttledge and Scr oope , and th e foundation of th e Irish Bird Report by th e Irish Ornithologists' Clu b under th e edit or ship of Major R. F. Ruttledg e. The book was a major undertaking. describing th e st atus and distribution of Irish birds as kn own in the lat e 19 40s and ea rly 1950s. but more vital for the future wa s the publi cati on of th e first Report. Birds of Ireland is very much a descendant of th e 1900 book of th e same title: th e order h as chan ged but th e approa ch is sim ilar. as no doubt ca n be sa id ab out thi s book! Th e new Report . however , pro vided a forum for documenting changes in Irish ornitho logy whic h was so succ essful th at its editor was a ble to produce a new book, Ireland 's Birds,· with in twelve years. Birdwat ch ers were keen to ha ve th eir record s published a nd th e a n nua l appea ra nce of a list of unusual bird occ urrences stim ula ted th e sma ll number of ac tive observe rs . Th e first twelve issues

34

Ornithology and bird conservation

contained a very full systematic list and, for most of these years, a report of bird records at Saltee Bird Observatory. Only with the publication of Ireland's Birds in 1966 did Major Ruttledge feel that the systematic list could be somewhat curtailed and short papers included. This was eventually to lead to the foundation of an Irish ornitholgoical journal. The issue which most intrigued ornithologists in the 1950s and early 1960s was the study of bird migration. In Ireland Saltee Bird Observatory was founded in 1950, though closed in 1964. Copeland Bird Observatory and Cape Clear Bird Observatory, both still thriving, were founded in 1954 and 1959 respectively. Bird Observatories also existed briefly at Tory Island (1958-1965) and Malin Head (1961-1965). A great deal was learned in a few years at these sites about the pattern of bird migration but perhaps the greatest long-term value of the observatory network was the cross-fertilization fostered by the mix of relatively experienced British and novice Irish birdwatchers, and the opportunities provided for Irish birdwatchers to learn the techniques of bird-ringing and the use of mistnets to catch birds. Well-known ornithologists, such as Frank King and Oscar Merne, cut their teeth at Saltee. Others, such as Ken Preston, Killian Mullarney and Anthony McGeehan, developed their skills at Cape Clear. The presence of ornithologists at island watchpoints who knew how to keep log-books, record data and make descriptions of birds was a marvellous educating factor. The collection of data and the encouragement to analyse it stimulated many of us in later studies. The Northern Ireland Ornithologists' Club was founded in 1960 and developed a reputation for co-operative survey work in the mid 1960s when it carried out monthly wildfowl counts in the entire Lough Neagh basin, thus establishing the importance of the area for wintering diving ducks. The early 1960s were also the years when the bird conservation movement first made real progress. In Northern Ireland a Committee on Nature Conservation, chaired by the Duke of Abercorn, reported in 1962 and recommended the establishment of an independent nature conservancy funded by the government and linked closely to Queen's University. The recommendation was not implemented, apparently because of objections from the then Ministry of Agriculture (which also included Forestry) but three years later, after much lobbying at Stormont, the Amenity Lands Act 1965 was enacted and the responsibility for countryside and nature conservation was passed to the then Ministry of Development. This was a major turning point. For the first time Nature Reserves could be established and a second-tier element known as Areas of Scientific Interest was also introduced. The Act formed the basis for the effective conservation of many rich ornithological sites in Northern Ireland over the next 20 years. Voluntary bird conservation in Northern Ireland also made significant progress with the establishment by the National Trust for Northern Ireland, with the support of the local wildfowling organizations, of the Strangford Lough wildlife Scheme in 1966. Under its auspices refuge areas for nesting ducks and terns and for wintering waders, ducks

and geese were created, a warden was appointed and information facilities for the public were installed. Conservation was slower to get moving in the Republic, but certain changes were in the wind in 1965 and 1966 which would have lasting repercussions. A new voluntary body, the Irish Wildfowl Committee, was founded in Dublin in December 1965, largely under the stimulus of an energetic young American post-graduate at University College, Galway, Dr David Cabot. Its objectives included safeguarding the Wexford Slobs, conserving wetlands, surveying wildfowl populations and publicizing conservation needs. Also in Dublin John Temple Lang began to revitalize the dormant Irish Society for the Protection of Birds and to campaign for a new Wildlife Act. New figures were appearing who were to have a marked impact on ornithology in the next twenty years because of their organizational dynamism and their ability successfully to promote conservation as an issue. 1967-1987 It is not just nostalgia which makes the late 1960s appear as exciting years. Increasing urbanization, changes in land-use, land drainage, pollution and the effect of pest icides all appeared as major threats to birds. The voluntary conservation movement developed rapidly in response; government in both Northern Ireland and the Republic committed more resources to wildlife conservation: the general public showed a heightened awareness of wildlife; and television showed that close-up views of birds and their behaviour was popular early evening entertainment. Attitudes seemed to be changing very rapidly. In the Republic the principal organizations concerned with bird watching and conservation, the Irish Wildfowl Conservancy (it had changed its name from the Irish Wildfowl Committee), the Irish Society for the Protection of Birds and the Irish Ornithologists' Club, came together in 1968 to form the present Irish Wildbird Conservancy with objects of (a) conservation, (b) education, (c) research and (d) encouragement of field ornithology. The new organization saw co-operative field ornithology as both a means of providing essential conservation baseline material on the distribution of Irish birds and as a popular outlet for the enthusiasm of active members. Four principal surveys were promoted from the beginning: wildfowl counts, breeding seabird counts, the survey of breeding birds on the basis of the 10 km squares of the National Grid and the breeding Peregrine census. Wildfowl counts were first carried out in Ireland in the late 1940s and early 1950s under the auspices of the Wildfowl Trust and were concentrated on locations close to Dublin and Belfast. Then, in 1964-65 the Northern Ireland Ornithologists' Club commenced a series of counts of the wildfowl of the Lough Neagh basin which showed for the first time the immensity of the numbers of duck wintering in the area. From 1967 onwards, the Irish Wildfowl Committee and, in due course, the Irish Wildbird Conservancy, organized country-wide counts of geese and wildfowl generally as part of the International Waterfowl Research Bureau international censuses. The initial reasoning behind the wildfowl counts was a growing consciousness of the threat to the habitat of ducks, THE RECENT PAST:

Ornithology and bird conservation

geese and swans posed by increasing drainage and the obvious lack of information on the numbers and distribution of these birds in Ireland. An additional motivation to these surveys was the international interest in wildfowl and their habitats. and the closer contact with bodies such as the International Waterfowl Research Bureau and the World Wildlife Fund. which efforts to raise funds to purchase part of the Wexford Slobs had produced. When the Seabird Group, a mainly British organization of workers interested in seabirds, proposed a census of all the breeding seabirds around the coastline of Britain and Ireland in 1969 and 1970, the Irish reaction was as enthusiastic as the response to wildfowl counts. The habitat on which birds spend so much of their lives, the inshore waters around our coast. appeared to be gravely threatened by oil pollution and by the concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls or PCBs which were identified as a possible contributory factor to unusual seabird mortality in the Irish Sea in 1969. As with the wildfowl, virtually nothing was known about the numbers of birds breeding around our shores and there was also a growing international interest in seabirds and their conservation. So, the decision was early taken to co-operate with the Seabird Group and to take part in what wa s called

35

'Operation Seafarer'. There had been an Irish involvement in the Seabird Group from the start: the Bird Observatories at Cape Clear, Malin Head and Tory had contributed to the Atlantic Seawatch scheme which the Group had promoted and a number of Irish sea watchers had contributed data from points such as Brandon Point. the Old Head of Kinsale and even, though somewhat removed from the Atlantic, the West Pier, Dun Laoghaire. Irish representation on the Seabird Group Executive Comm ittee, as on so many organizations in the late 1960s and early 1970s, was personified by Oscar Merne and he promoted the new survey actively. It was a most exciting two years and. while the survey's techniques have been much criticized in recent years, it did pinpoint all the major seabird colonies and. for some species, provided valuable baseline data. The main criticism of the survey has been the general lack of a systematic approach to censusing the cliff-breeding auks and the burrowing species. a criticism which is valid . but it should be recalled that this extremely ambitious survey did result in a number of research projects aimed at solving the censusing problem and at other aspects of seabird breeding biology . The results were summarized in book form in 1974 (Cramp et aI1974).

The third survey promoted by the Irish Wildbird Con-

36

Ornithology and bird conservation

servancy in its early years was the plan to join with the BTO in mapping the breeding birds of Britain and Ireland on a 10 km square grid, over the five years from 1968 to 19 72. There was no obvious conservation motive behind this survey, unlike the wildfowl and seabird counts, but there was a sense that if the British and Northern Irish were going to do it (and it was the concept of the BTO) then the Republic should join in. Very little consideration was given to the difficulty involved or indeed to who would organize the survey: at this stage, no organizer of an amateur ornithological survey in Ireland had received reimbursement of his expenses, let alone any remuneration. There was no money anyhow. However, the IWC was fortunate in that the BTO appointed as organizer Dr Tim Sharrock, whose association with Cape Clear Bird Observatory, which he had helped to found in 1959, had brought him in contact with the more active Irish ornithologists. Equally fortunate was the fact that David Scott agreed to organize the survey in the Republic of Ireland. The enthusiasm and hard work of both men ensured the success of the Atlas. David Scott spent each summer in the field and the rest of the year corresponding with observers, ensuring that all parts of the Republic were covered and checking records. The project had a scientific value in that it mapped with unprecedented accuracy all the records of confirmed, probable or possible breeding over the five year period. It also propagated the idea of field ornithology as an activity of interest in itself and many Irish amateur birdwatchers were introduced to rigorous recording techniques. At the end of the Atlas period many called for a new survey to keep them occupied in useful activity, but the replacement survey on important bird habitats which was adopted in Britain proved too complex and too demanding of most Irish observers and was not a success here. Finally, the IWC in response to the declining population of the Peregrine promoted annual censuses of the species in the Republic. This survey was organized annually by John Temple Lang and summary results were published each year. Like the wildfowl counts and the seabird censuses, the Peregrine survey marked a response to conservation problems and the threat to a species. Each of these surveys reflected the interest of Irish ornithologists in numbers and distribution of birds. The wildfowl counts developed in due course into a Wetlands Enquiry which amassed a great deal of material on the seasonal distribution and numbers of most Irish wildfowl and waders in the early 1970s (Hutchinson 1979), and was repeated in the 1980s, but there was no spin-off into studies of why the birds feed on particular estuaries, where they moult, or how many of them actually utilize individual sites. These were the problems which increasingly interested British and Continental ornithologists from the mid 1970s on, but. apart from a small amount of wader and wildfowl ringing, one state-funded project on Mallard, one long-term project on Barnacle Geese, and a couple of single season studies of waders in Strangford Lough, there was no research on ducks, geese or waders. It may be argued that research was carried out on the Wexford Slobs on the feeding ecology of White-fronted Geese but, if so, the results have never been published. There was little improvement

in the 1980s despite all the protests about threats to waterfowl, though a state-funded research programme commenced on White-fronted Geese, Micheal O'Briain carried out studies on Brent Geese as part of his doctoral research in University College, Dublin, and Oscar Merne studied the infauna of the Shannon Estuary as a food resource for shorebirds. The criticism which the seabird census work had attracted led to several attempts to survey particular sites, but it was left to the RSPB to institute a scheme of annual monitoring of specific seabird colonies at a series of cliffs (Stowe 1982). The enthusiasm for atlassing was soon seen to be limited to surveys based on the simplest of instructions. Attempts to run a Register of Ornithological Sites foundered repeatedly on observer indifference to the habitat within which the birds occur: one might almost describe it as an apathy towards ecology. Efforts were made to organize Common Birds Census work but the birdwatchers who had taken part in the Atlas found this too complex and demanding of their time. It was not until 1981 when the BTO/IWC Winter Atlas project was launched that this enthusiasm was harnessed again for a simple survey with clear objectives and a very straightforward recording card. Even the Peregrine survey, which led to post-graduate projects for two. workers and eventually to state-sponsored surveys in both Northern Ireland and the Republic, did not produce much material on the birds other than on numbers and distribution until the early 1980s. One is drawn inexorably to the conclusion that while amateur ornithology flourished in Ireland in the nineteenth century, it parted company from British and Continental movements in the early years of this century. As both amateur and professional research developed abroad. Irish ornithology stagnated in an interest in bird distribution and bird reports not that far removed from the current enthusiasm for 'twitching' or adding as many species as possible to one's life list. It could be argued that such a strong statement is not fair to ringers, but Irish ringing has been notable for the dearth of publications from its proponents. The BTO provided essential assistance in both Northern Ireland and the Republic in the late 1960s and early 1970s by providing intensive ringing courses, and there are now approximately 100 ringers in the country, but only a handful of serious research projects have been started and very few papers relying mainly on ringing results have been published. One would hardly think that this is the country of J. P. Burkitt, the father of colour ringing. In the foregoing I have dealt very largely with Irish amateur ornithology. The reason for this emphasis is the scarcity of professional opportunities for ornithologists in Ireland. There is no University with an interest in ornithology to rival Oxford, Aberdeen or Durham in the UK, though there are indications that this may be changing. At each of the colleges of the National University in Dublin, Cork and Galway there is now at least one member of staff prepared to encourage students to work on birds. Secondly, there is an increase in the number of professional ornithologists working in the civil service since the mid 19 70s. It would not be true to say that there is a plethora of opportunities in the state service but there does seem to be

Ornithology and bird conservation an increase in the number of ornithologists earning a living from research, either as employees of or under contract to government departments. In particular, the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland has commissioned a substantial amount of work in the last five years, largely from the RSPB. Surveys of breeding 'Peregrines, breeding Common Scoters and breeding waders have provided contract work for ornithologists in Northern Ireland. In the Republic the Wildlife Service has commissioned research into seabird breeding ecology, White-fronted Goose feeding ecology, the effect of Cormorants on fisheries and the effect of drainage of a river system on the birds of the area. Thirdly, there are signs of a very few amateurs carrying out first-rate ornithological research and being prepared to contemplate publishing it. One of the aims of the journal Irish Birds, which was founded in 1977, was to encourage both amateur and professional ornithologists to publish original work on Irish birds and, while the emphasis of the majority of papers has been on bird distribution, there have been important contributions on other topics. During these years there was unprecedented pressure on the natural environment. Increasing industrialization and land reclamation threatened many bird habitats. The conservation movement responded with varying degrees of success to these threats. In Northern Ireland the Amenity Lands Act had been passed in 1965 and under its provisions a number of important ornithological sites have been conserved. The cliffs and sea-stacks at the western end of Rathlin Island off the Antrim coast, with their breeding seabirds, and the Quoile Pondage in Down with its wildfowl, are among the 44 nature reserves now established. Under the provisions for establishing Areas of Scientific Interest a certain degree of protection was afforded by the exercise of a measure of planning control. By this means the large sites of Lough Neagh and Lough Beg were saved from all forms of development except those of a purely agricultural nature. By the end of the 1970s it was clear that the Department of the Environment (NI), the successor to the Ministry of Development, did not have sufficient powers to deal with the major conservation problems which were becoming apparent. In 1985 two related Orders-in-Council strengthened the provisions of the 1965 Act. The new legislation provided severe penalties for disturbing birds in the breeding season, made it an offence to introduce certain species which had the capability to become pests .and, among strong provisions regarding Areas of Special Scientific Interest, landowners are obliged to consult the Department of the Environment in advance of undertaking a range of operations or activities which the Department considers may damage the value of the site in nature conservation terms. The voluntary organizations have also played a prominent role in nature conservation in Northern Ireland. The National Trust, which established the Strangford Lough Wildlife Scheme, has also set up and managed a number of reserves, including one at the Bann Estuary. The RSPB first became involved in Northern Ireland in 1966 when it absorbed the Ulster Society for the Protection of Birds and appointed Frank Hamilton as its first Regional Officer. Growth has been steady and members' groups were formed in Belfast in 1970, Bangor in 1971, Larne in 1973, and

37

Antrim, Lisburn, Fermanagh and North West in 1977. Current membership in all Ireland is approximately 4,000, of which the great majority are in Northern Ireland. The RSPB now has a full-time Regional Officer, Assistant Regional Officer and Overall Reserves Warden as well as secretarial staff, wardens and contract researchers. It has reserves at Castlecaldwell on Lough Erne, Green Island and Greencastle Point on Carlingford Lough, Swan Island on Larne Lough, Shane's Castle on Lough Neagh, Rathlin Island cliffs and Lough Foyle. In the Republic the then Department of Lands, which had recently established a small game development and conservation unit, announced in November 1966 that the Minister was having legislation prepared to deal with game on a national basis and that amending legislation dealing with wild bird protection was also envisaged. In 1968 the Department of Lands and the Irish Wildbird Conservancy, with financial help from the World Wildlife Fund and Arthur Guinness, Son & Co, Ltd, acquired a section of the North Slob in Wexford and established the Wexford Wildfowl Reserve. Two years later, as part of the Irish contribution to European Conservation Year, an international wildlife seminar was held in Killarney (O'Gorman & Wymes 1973). This has been described by one of the participants as a rather lavish function which 'appeared like a battle, waged with free alcohol, between An Foras Taluntais (Agricultural Institute) ... and the Forest Service of the Department of Lands' (Parker 1987). The seminar recommended that a centralized wildlife conservation agency be established with adequate budgetary support. In 1970 the small game development unit in the Department of Lands was merged with the Forestry Division to form the Forest and Wildlife Service, and over the next few years a small number of staff was hired to begin assessment of sites for conservation purposes, several areas of ornithological interest were protected by the imposition of 'noshooting' orders with landowner consent (totalling 66 by 1988), and work continued on the preparation of a comprehensive wildlife act. In December 19 76 the Wildlife Act was enacted and it came into effect in June 1977. The Wildlife Act placed responsibility for wildlife conservation with the Forest and Wildlife Service and provided for the establishment of both state-owned and privatelyowned nature reserves, of refuges for fauna and for special management arrangements, for the protection of wild birds, fauna and flora, for the control of hunting and shooting, and for the control of trading in wildlife. Unlike the Northern Irish legislation it did not give any statutory support for areas of special scientific interest. The Act was welcomed by the voluntary conservation, shooting and hunting bodies and they in turn were invited to nominate members to a Wildlife Advisory Council which was set up to advise the Minister. The Wildlife Advisory Council included a number of independent experts as well as the nominees of various voluntary bodies, and served for three terms of three years until 1987. Its reports chart the progress made and the problems and frustrations encountered. By the end of 1985,26 nature reserves had been declared, but 23 were in state forests. While it was important that natural and semi-natural woodland should be conserved, the high pro-

38

Ornithology and bird conservation

portion of reserves on state land was due largely to the unavailability of finance to purchase sites in private hands and to the reluctance to use the sections in the Act which allowed the Minister to recognize privately-owned nature reserves or to make management agreements. The second report of the Council noted the accelerating rate of destruction of natural habitats and described the response of the Department of Fisheries and Forestry, which incorporated the Forest and Wildlife Service, as inadequate. While much useful research had been carried out, the Council reported, there were signs of difficulty in translating the results into a co-ordinated policy for nature conservation. The final report stated clearly that it was apparent to those, both within Ireland and overseas, who were aware of the facts, that satisfactory progress in wildlife conservation had not been and was not being made. These were harsh words addressed to a Minister from a Council set up to advise him, and the Council went further, adding that a number of its recommendations had not been implemented. The principal difficulty was the marginalization of wildlife conservation within the structure of a government department largely committed to commercial forestry. In 1984 a Review Group on Forestry was appointed to advise the minister and, in its own submission, the Wildlife Advisory Council recommended that the objectives of wildlife conservation would best be met by the establishment of a heritage authority which would be responsible for wildlife, national parks and historic monuments. This recommendation was accepted and in 1987 the Wildlife Service was separated from Forestry and transferred to the Office of Public Works with a governmental commitment to setting up a heritage authority. The Forest and Wildlife Service, known since July 1987 as the Wildlife Service, has carried out a great deal of research to identify sites of sufficient value for nature reserve status in the Republic, just as the Department of the Environment has done in Northern Ireland. In 1986 an index of publications and reports over the years 1969 to 1986 contained over 250 items. It continues to maintain the 66 areas covered by 'no-shooting' orders. It administers the Wildlife Act, issuing licences and bringing prosecutions, but its commitment to conservation through purchasing habitat has been disappointing. Two other state bodies have had a significant input to conservation in the Republic. The Office of Public Works, to which the Wildlife Service was transferred in 1987, has established National Parks at Killarney in Kerry, Glenveagh in Donegal and Connemara in Galway. These incorporate over 20,000 ha and include a number of sites of importance for birds. As Foras Forbartha, the National Institute for Physical Planning and Construction Research, produced a series of inventories of areas of scientific interest for each of the counties in the Republic in the 1970s and published a summary in 1981, the total area of which was 231,500 ha. In addition, the Conservation Unit of An Foras carried out or commissioned environmental impact surveys for a number of local authorities where major plans for changes in land-use were proposed. The abolition of this organization was announced in 1987 as part of the government's policy of budgetary spending cuts. In a pungent review of wildlife conservation in the

Republic, in the five years following the passage of the Wildlife Act, Temple Lang (1983) concluded that the most important defect in policy was the absence of a firm financial commitment by the state to the acquisition of nature reserves. He considered that this was the main reason for the failure to conserve the fourteen most important wetlands listed by the International Council for Bird Preservation, or to acquire any areas except Pollardstown Fen in Kildare for wildlife conservation. His critique still holds true in its main thrust, though three more sites have been acquired for wildlife conservation in subsequent years, and, with the Irish government committed to a policy of severe financial restraint in the late 1980s, it appears unlikely that substantial funds will be available for nature reserve acquisition in the near future. The IWC remains the principal voluntary wildlife conservation organization in the Republic. Its membership in 1987 was about 5,000 in 22 branches. Throughout the 1970s the IWC was run by volunteers but sponsorship in 1980 made it possible for Richard Nairn to be employed as Director. Since then, membership has grown from about 1,700 to over 5,000. Nowadays, the IWC has a staff of three and several researchers and assistants on contract. Its reserves include the Wexford Wildfowl Reserve (jointly with the Wildlife Service), the Little Skellig and Puffin Island in Kerry, Sheskinmore Lough in Donegal, Broad Lough in Wicklow and Lough Beg in Cork. With increasing public interest in wildlife and birds in particular, the IWC has been successful in achieving a high media profile and its open days at the North Bull in Dublin have attracted thousands of visitors. Public attitudes to birds and conservation have changed significantly in the 1980s, though it is still worth pointing out that far more people shoot game than are members of all the bird conservation and ornithological bodies in the country. In Northern Ireland there are about 89,000 shotgun licences, the majority of which are issued for shooting game. The number in the Republic is similar. There is a strong gun club movement and the membership has been adequate to support several shooting magazines over the years. The ornithological and the nature conservation public in Ireland has never been considered large enough by any Irish publisher to support a commercial magazine, though a number of British magazines are sold into this market. However, a handful of books on Irish birds (e.g. Roche & Merne 1977, D'Arcy 1981, D'Arcy 1986, Hutchinson 1986) have found commercial success, and several enterprising pioneers have made a living from organising courses on field studies and wildlife related topics. The impact of television on attitudes to wildlife has not been sufficiently stressed. In the Republic, home produced television went on the air for the first time on New Years Eve 1964 and within a couple of years half the homes in the country had television sets. From an early stage, Amuigh Faoin Speir, a weekly programme of wildlife films illustrated by drawings and narrated in both English and Irish, was an amazing success. Eamon de Buitlear, who had been running a pet shop, and Gerrit van Gelderen, who had been working in advertising, teamed up to produce forty-eight programes a year and the public loved

Ornithology and bird conservation

39

Little Skellig, off the coast of Kerry , Ireland's largest Gannet colony , (Photo: Richard T. Mill s)

them, Eventually the programme was dropped, but both men have continued to make wildlife films and are public figures throughout the country. Without preaching at anyone these simple programmes opened the eyes of many people to the wildlife of the Irish coun tryside and to the beauty and wildness of the places where birds , mammals and plants can be watched. They had a tremendous effect on raising public awareness, similar indeed to the effect of the much more sophisticated programmes produced by the BBC and by Independent Television in Britain, Eamon de Buitlear's achievements were recognized by the ornithological community in 1983 when he was elected President

•

of the IWC and by the wider Irish community in 1987 when he was appointed a Senator. If interest in birds is measured by membership of an ornithological body, then the majority of the birdwatching public is situated in Dublin and Belfast. The urban concentration is not surprising, as it reflects the position in Britain where most RSPB members live in highly urbanized south-east England. But the IWC in the Republic and the RSPB in Northern Ireland both have a stro ng and widely dispersed branch network nowadays with members situated all over the country and this bodes well for the future.

Recent changes in status Although birds are the best documented wildlife in Ireland, chan ges in status are difficult to measure because of the increase in intensity of observ ation over the past twenty years. As th e number of birdwat chers in the field has increased so has their mobility and th eir competence. Birds which were difficult to identify twenty years ag o are now readil y separated by more skilful birdwatchers using better opti cal equipment and improved field guides. An obvious con sequence has been an expa nsion of th e Irish list by the add ition to it of a number of va gran t species. many of which may well have been overlooked in the pa st. A furth er effect of the explosion in interest in birdwatching has been that more distribution surveys have been carried out and some birds have been found to be more common than was previously suspected. In the case of th e Blackcap, for example. it is th ought that much of th e apparent increase recorded in th e late 1960s resulted from sea rche s being made for the birds so that they could be rec orded for the Breeding Atla s proje ct. Field workers wh o had pre viously concentrated th eir atte ntions in areas kn own to be good for bird s visited places a nd habitats where th ey would not normally hav e gon e. ADDI TIO N S T O T HE IRI SH L IST

The total number of species on th e Irish list at 31 st December 19 86 was 39 7. Of th ese. 4 7 were added in th e years from 1966 to 19 86. One of th ese. Ruddy Duck . has colonized Ireland from En gla nd wh ere a feral population

40

ha s been established for many yea rs. Of th e rem ainder. 23 are va gra nts from North America. 15 from Euro pe and North Africa and eight from Asia . Three species recorded by Ruttledge, but su bsequen tly rejected. have been recorded again: Short-billed Dowitcher. Gull-billed Tern and Brunnich 's Guillemot. Breeding has been recorded for th e first time in eight species. Three species - Black Tern . Greens han k and Dotterel- br ed only once or twice and seem unlikely to become established. Pied Flycatchers ne sted in tw o counties in 1985 and, if nestboxes continue to be made available for them. are likely to nest again because of the proximity of a large breeding population in we st Wal es. Goosanders have a tenuous foothold in Ireland but seem likely to becom e permanent. Ruddy Ducks . Black-tailed Godwits and Bearded Tits appear to be slowly establishing themselves. Several spec ies which breed in Britain are occurring more frequentl y and ne sting seems likely in the near future. Such species would include Golden Eagle (a former breeder). Osprey. Little Ringed Plover. Cetti's Warbler and Firecrest. CHANGES I N STA T US

The number of breeding species sho win g signs of marked increase su bstantia lly exceed s th e number kn own to be decreasing. The most exce ptiona l change in sta tus has been tha t of th e Collared Dove. which first bred in Ireland

Recent changes in status in 1959 and which by 1965 was thinly distributed along the coast. The spread was rapid and nowadays Collared Doves nest throughout most of Ireland and in certain cereal growing districts are extremely numerous. Several seabird species have continued to increase. Cormorants have doubled in numbers since the late 1960s. In this case the increase has been attributed to the availability of a new food source - the rapidly expanding population of roach in Irish lakes - and to protection from shooting in 1976. Fulmars, Shags, Common Gulls, Black-headed Gulls and Guillemots have all increased as well. Several of the gulls appear to have responded to the increase in waste products of the fishing industry and to the spread of refuse dumping. Indeed, the Herring Gull increase to the mid 1970s and the subsequent decline have both been attributed to the effects of refuse dumping. The new food source is believed to be responsible for the increase, but the change in the dumping habits of householders when they started using black plastic bags, in the late 1970s, is thought to have caused the decline by providing optimal conditions for botulism. The increased availability of food for gulls has affected breeding populations abroad as well as in Ireland. The increase in wintering Lesser Black-backed Gulls, the regularity with which flocks of Little Gulls occur in Wicklow, Wexford and Galway, the scattering of Mediterranean Gulls which now winter along much of the coast and the occurrence of small parties of North American Ring-billed Gulls are all evidence of the good health of gull populations generally. Habitat changes have caused some major changes in

I

I

j

-'A

,___

41

Irish bird populations. In particular, the spread of coniferous afforestation has reduced the area of upland rough pasture and led to declines in Hen Harriers, Merlins, Red Grouse and Twites. It has also led to an increase in Jays, Coal Tits and Siskins. The most dramatic declines have been in the Corncrake, Grey Partridge, Roseate Tern and Nightjar populations. Species first recorded in Ireland between 1966 and 1986 Systematic order Year order

White-billed Diver Cattle Egret Great White Egret Lesser White-fronted Goose Ruddy Duck Black Kite American Coot Semipalmated Sandpiper Stilt Sandpiper Short-billed Dowitcher Marsh Sandpiper Solitary Sandpiper Laughing Gull Ring-billed Gull Ross's Gull Gull-billed Tern Elegant Tern Forster's Tern Brunnich's Guillemot Little Swift Belted Kingfisher Olive-backed Pipit Citrine Wagtail Gray Catbird Pied Wheatear Rock Thrush Siberian Thrush Gray-cheeked Thrush Cetti's Warbler Savi's Warbler Paddyfield Warbler Blyth's Reed Warbler Pallas's Warbler Radde's Warbler Dusky Warbler Bearded Tit Philadelphia Vireo Black-and-white Warbler Northern Parula Yellow-rumped Warbler Blackpoll Warbler American Redstart Ovenbird Northern Waterthrush White-throated Sparrow Indigo Bunting Bobolink

1966 Semipalmated Sandpiper Bearded Tit 1967 Little Swift White-throated Sparrow 1968 Stilt Sandpiper Solitary Sandpiper Laughing Gull Citrine Wagtail Blyth's Reed Warbler Cetti's Warbler Pallas's Warbler American Redstart 1969 Lesser White-fronted Goose Gull-billed Tern 1970 Dusky Warbler 1971 Bobolink 1973 Ruddy Duck 1974 White-billed Diver Rock Thrush 19 76 Cattle Egret Yellow -rumped Warbler Blackpoll Warbler 19 77 Ovenbird 1978 Belted Kingfisher Olive-backed Pipit Black-and-white Warbler 1979 Ring-billed Gull 1980 Marsh Sandpiper Pied Wheatear Savi's Warbler 1981 American Coot Black Kite Ross's Gull 1982 Elegant Tern Forster's Tern Gray-cheeked Thrush Paddyfield Warbler Radde's Warbler 1983 Northern Parula Nothern Waterthrush 1984 Great White Heron 1985 Short-billed Dowitcher Siberian Thrush Philadelphia Vireo Indigo Bunting 1 986 Brunnich's Guillemot Gray Catbird

Species recorded breeding for the first time between 1966 and 1986 1967 Black Tern c. 1975 Black-tailed Godwit

Ireland: location of first-sightings of new birds in Ireland, 196686. Small dots represent one record. medium dots two or three records, and the large dot 14 records

1969 Goosander 1972 Greenshank 1973 Ruddy Duck

19 75 Dotterel 1976 Bearded Tit 1985 Pied Flycatcher

42

Recent changes in status

Corncrake at the edge of a meadow. (Photo: Richard T. Mills)

Corn crakes a re now largely rest ricted to th e we st coast and the Shannon valley. There has been much spec ulation as to the reason for decline and ch angin g farming practice ha s been th e most widel y sug gested cause . Howe ver. Corncra kes hav e disappeared in man y pla ces wh ere th ere h ave been no obvio us changes in farmin g methods. so th e position app ears to be more complex . Roseate Terns have declined on both sides of th e North Atlantic so the Irish position is n ot special. but the rea son s are unknown. Th e decline of the Grey Partridge and the Nightjar . both now rare speci es in Ireland and app arently destined for extinction . have not been adequately explained. Changes in sta tus of certain summer migrants can be attributed to the effect of factors in the wintering area. Several species which winter in the Sahel ar ea of Africa. notably Sand Martins and Wh itethroats, ha ve been affected by the drought in that area and adult mort ality appea rs to have been very high . Th e result has been very much reduced numbers returning to breed in summe r. One species. the Reed Warbler . ha s colon ized Ireland successfully in the period. Th ere wa s one old breeding record. but Reed Warblers now nest in small numbers at a number of reed-bed s on th e south . eas t and north-east coasts. In thi s case. the commencement of breeding in Ireland followed an increase in passage bird s in autumn. There are some signs that a similar trend may be happening with the Wood Warbler. Among wintering and pa ssag e birds th ere have been few

species showing noticeable chan ges in sta tus despite the effect s of drainage on wildfowl and wader h ab itat. The win ter population of the Gree nlan d White-fronted Goose has declined in mo st of its traditional haunts aw ay from th e Wexford Slobs. but in Wexford numbers have been maintained well and even sho wn an in crea se. Th e declin e Species for which there is good evidence of status change between 1966 and 198 6 Breeding speciesshowing marked population expansion or reduction Increases Decreases Great Crested Gre be Hen Harrier Fu lmar Merlin Cormorant Red Grouse Sh ag Grey Part ridge Buzzard Corncrak e Peregr ine Herring Gull (after mid 19 70 5) Black-h ead ed Gull Rosea te Tern Commo n Gull Nigh tjar Herring Gu ll (to mid 19 705) Sand Marti n Arcti c Tern Whitethroat Guillemot Twite Colla red Dove Yellowh amme r Reed Warbl er Com Bunting Jay Magpie Hooded Crow Raven Siskin Reed Bunting

Recent changes in status Passage or winter visitors showing substantial and generally progressive increases or declines Increases Decreases Whooper Swan Tufted Duck Greylag Goose Twite Brent Goose Gadwall Teal Long-tailed Duck Mediterranean Gull Little Gull Black-headed Gull Common Gull Lesser Black-backed Gull Goldcrest Firecrest

in the outlying flocks has been largely due to the destruction of habitat and to the disturbance of the birds. but the trend has been reversed in recent years due to a ban on shooting. Few duck or wader species have shown major changes in numbers and those which have. such as the increasing Whooper Swans. Greylag Geese. Brent Geese. Gadwall and Teal. and the decreasing Pochard and Tufted Ducks. appear to be responding to events elsewhere. perhaps on the breeding grounds.

43

Breeding species showing local increases or decreases itl rangeor numbers Decreases Increases Common Seoter Gannet Kittiwake Grey Heron Stock Dove Mute Swan Barn Owl Gadwall Sedge Warbler Shoveler Spotted Flycatcher Lesser Black-backed Gull Kittiwake Sandwich Tern Razorbill Long-eared Owl Robin Redstart Whinchat Blackcap Wood Warbler Chiffchaff Coal Tit Jackdaw

Background to the species accounts PERIOD COVERED

The species accounts cover records of birds in Ireland up to the end of 1986. The bulk of each account deals with records since 1965, the date to which Ruttledge's Ireland 's Birds (1966) summarized records, but brief synopses are given of reco rds in the period up to 1952 , the year to which Kennedy, Ruttledge & Scroope's Birds of Ireland (1954) brought records, and from 1953 to 1965 . ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIAL

The sequence and nomenclature ofVoous's List of recent holarctic bird species (I977) as given in The 'British Birds ' List of Birds of the We stern Palearctic (I984) is followed. Species not included therein are placed according to the listing given in A Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World (Howard & Moore 1984). Every species accepted by the Irish Rare Birds Committee as recorded in Ireland up to the end of 1986 is included. Where the total number of records does not exceed ten , all those recorded since 1952 are listed. Records of birds

44

known to be of a species not otherwise recorded in Ireland but not fully identified as to species (eg Pterodroma sp.) are included in the text but not in the totals of species recorded . Records of birds believed to have escaped from captivity (eg Red-headed Bunting) or known to have arrived by shipassisted passage (eg Northern Flicker) are given square brackets. Records of rare birds have all been accepted by the Irish Rare Birds committee with the exception of Blacknecked Grebes and Buzzards in the breeding season, and of Ruddy Ducks in Northern Ireland. The breeding season records have been provided for this book by the observers concerned and Ruddy Ducks are now resident in Northern Ireland in such numbers that observers no longer consider the birds as rare. Where significant material on commoner birds has been available for the period since 1986 this has been fully utilized in the text. All statements regarding status refer to the island of Ireland unless otherwise indicated. References to the

Background to the species accounts Republic of Ireland and to Northern Ireland are to the territory of each state. References to Munster, Leinster, Connacht and Ulster are to the area of each province. Throughout the text counties are referred to without the prefix 'Co.'. Placenames are given the nomenclature used by the Ordnance Survey maps in the Republic of Ireland and in Northern Ireland. The use of an oblique in a date (eg 1985/86) implies a continuous period. A hyphen (eg 1985-87) indicates a series of season s in successive years where the recording per iod is not continuous. THE HISTOGRAMS

These show distribution of selected species by halfmonthly periods from 1966 to 1986. Presence is recorded for each period in which a bird is known to have occurred and not just the period in which it was first recorded. Longstaying birds, therefore, are shown as being present in a succession of periods. The month is divided in two at the fifteenth day with day I 5 attributed to the first halfmonthly period. Darker stippling represents the first sighting of individual birds; paler stippling represents birds known to have arrived in an earlier period. SOUR CES

The pr incipal sources for each species are the Irish Bird Report (IBR). Ruttledge's Ireland's Birds (RuttIedge 1966),

45

Kennedy, Ruttledge & Scroope's Birds of Ireland (Kennedy et al 1954), The Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland (Breeding Atlas) and The Atlas of Wintering Birds in Britain and Ireland (Winter Atlas). References to these are as shown.

Local bird reports have been widely consulted and are referred to by the initial letters of the title (eg CBR 1984 for Cork Bird Report 1984). These local reports are listed in Appendix I . Computer print-outs of Irish ringing recovery data have been provided annually by the BTO to the Research Branch, Wildlife Service. Bray, Wicklow, which makes them available to the Compiler of the annual Ringing Report (published in Irish Birds). Summaries of recoveries in Ireland of birds ringed outside the country and of recoveries abroad of birds ringed in Ireland were provided by the BTO for use in the preparation of this book. The BTO Ringing Scheme receives financial support from the Nature Conservancy Council in Britain, the Wildlife Service in the Republic of Ireland and the Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland. SOURCES SPECIFIC TO PARTICULAR GROUPS

Wildfowl and Waders Wildfowl counting began in Ireland in the late 1940s and early 1950s under the auspices of the Wildfowl Trust at Slimbridge in England. There were few counts from the mid 1950s to the early 1960s, but counts revived in the mid 1960s and systematic wader

Tile Bridges of Ross. Clare. Ireland's fine st west coast seawatchinq point. witll Loop Head in tile backgr ound. (Plloto: Ricllard T. Mill s )

Background to the species accounts

46

Malin Head Tory

l..

Hor

.......:\

..........:

.-:., \ ......;.:•••

{ The Mullet Inlshkea 18

"

tt

=-"

UL. •..•....•..

Carra

..2...1....

<-,

.. ······0

...······ ....··

':'"

..:.,

\.

\

;e••••.•:

LONGFuRD

·

'.

..' ".

... · .

' .'.

GALWAy·.. . ·.. '"

'J

Aran Is £:> Q

\.....................

OFFA'LY

,. .. (:

L

..:.:

LAOIS /...

:.,.:

CLARE

.

(.. WICKLOW

..J

'.,.

. ····..··..···•

\" LIMERICK

.>

KERRY

a

."

.t

'

.' '"

'. "\

.....

:

.:

................\ ,

\....

'

",:

H;ad

S Slob Bay

Dungarvan

CORK

."..'

Old Head of Kinsale

DllUloblSlnnd.JO

Mizen

N Slob

Curracloe Wexford Hbr

·.Y"ATERFO'RD.····'hB

.

ij

. \/

Valentia .1

\.

ArIdow

KILKENNY.=·WEXFORD

:

::'" ?keragh L r 88 Bay

Wlcklow Head

.

Fergus

Simlllos

-Jiowth Head North Bull

DUBLIN KILDARE

. . :If.: ";n. :; \. . . . .. ,. . . . . . L Corrlb

Puffin I

:..., .

.j

. .'

'.

Boyne Estuary

MEATH

../.

:

. :

) L OweI . f L Ree" et Ennell ::

Ingford L

Dundalk Bay

.f·t.

<

:..

ndrum Bay

.'-OUl:sH

.-,

<.. '\"

..'.,

\.,\.

8p'a{lgtord

DOWN

(

\>:

CAVAN "'\

(R'OSCOMMO'fi ..·.·:··· ; ..

....

·..· /ARMAGH

.... ··;..

MAYO

( \ '\

:...................

..··,..

LEITRIM·\

·::L.. .-::.': ""

\) l

I .:

.

••••••

.•

..·,>...\1:::·:..

L N8agh

TYRONE

·······FERMANAGH·:····

SLIGO

fj

>,

:""""

j'Ro'lscarbory Head Cape Clear

Ireland, counties, laughs and coastal features

Hook Hd

aeumahtn

Saltee I

Background to the species accounts counts began in January 1971. The results of the Irish Wildbird Conservancy (IWq Wetlands Enquiry. based on monthly counts from 1971 /72 to 1974/75. were published in 1979 (Hutchinson 1979). Less regular counts were carried out from 1975/76 to 1983/84. but from 1984/85 to 1986/87 most of the major wetlands were censused regularly again. These counts have been made available by Ralph Sheppard. organizer of the recent counts. and Dr A. Whilde who arranged for the computerization of the data. The bulk of the material available is for the most important wetlands. Relatively little is known of the shorebirds of rocky coasts. but counts have been carried out on parts of the Northern Ireland coast (Austin & Leach 1984) and in 1987/88 on the rocky and sandy coasts of Donegal. Leltrirn, Sligo. Clare and west Kerry (M. Green). However. it is still not possible to provide more than a guess at the numbers of widely dispersed wintering waders such as Lapwings. Golden Plovers and Curlews. The breeding waders of Northern Ireland were surveyed in 1986 and 1987 by the RSPB and Department of the Environment for Northern Ireland which kindly made the results available (Partridge 1986b). Breeding waders were also censused on the River Shannon callows in 1987 by the IWC and the results have been supplied by Richard Nairn.

Seabirds Numbers of Fulmars and Gannets have been studied for many years and counts were made of seabirds on the Kerry islands in the 1960s. but a co-ordinated attempt was made to census all the coastal breeding seabirds in 1969-70. The results were summarized in The Seabirds of Britain and Ireland (Cramp et al 1974). still the principal source for this group. though recent studies have shown that seabirds are not quite as easy to census accurately as that book might suggest. Since 1970. counts have been made of seabirds in particular areas. including Northern Ireland (Watson 1980) and Great Saltee,

Wexford (Lloyd 1981). Monitoring has been carried out at selected sites over a number of years (Stowe 1982) and fluctuations of certain species have been studied. such as Kittiwakes in Waterford (McGrath & Walsh 1985) and Coromorants (West et al1975 and Macdonald 1987). The colonies of gulls breeding inland in the west of Ireland were censused in 1977-78 (Whilde 1978). the Irish tern colonies were counted in 1984 (Whilde 1985). Cormorants were censused in 1985 (Macdonald 1987). Gannets in 1985 and 1986 (0. J. Merne) and a number of Irish seabird colonies were censused in 1986 and 1987 for the Seabird Group Register. An inventory of Irish seabird colonies was compiled for the Wildlife Service by Dr C. S. Lloyd in 1982.

Passerines Very little information exists on the breeding densities of common passerines. Common Birds Census (CBC) and Waterways Bird Survey (WBS) fieldwork has been carried out at few sites. Results of CBC work have been published for sessile oakwoods (Wilson 1977). for Killarney woodland (Batten 1976) and for a sand-dune system in Down (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). Unpublished survey work on sand-dunes and derelict farmland at Carnsore Point, Wexford. was made available by O.J. Merne. The results of several years of surveys of woodland in Killarney. Kerry, by T. D. Carruthers were provided as well. Surveys of two WBS stretches of river have been published (Bailey 1982), Carruthers 1986) and the RSPB made available a report on surveys of the River Blackwater in Tyrone and Armagh in 1984 (Watson 1984). The BTO has kindly made available summaries of CBCs and WBSs carried out in Ireland. but these are so few that they only give an indication of the range of breeding densities. Counts of breeding passerines have also been made on several marine islands. including Cape Clear. Cork (Sharrock & Fogden 1967. Borton 1987) and Inishbofln, Galway (Hutchinson & Ruttledge 1978). Estimates of breeding densities of many species were given by Sharrock (1976).

• '.

47

The species accounts

Th er e is a tenden cy for mor e bird s to appea r between mid Febru ary and mid April than during the autumn or winter. an d th is is true of a ll parts of the coast apa rt from the north where most are recorded between mid November an d end December. Most records are of single bird s but parties of up to 18 bird s ha ve been recorded (Clare in winter 19 82 / 8 3 and 19 84/ 85 ). Black-throated Diver s are difficult to separa te from Grea t Northern Divers at long range so th ey are probably u nder-recorded. Neve rthe less. thi s is undoubtedly the scarcest of the three regularly occurring diver speci es in Irish waters. Red-throated Diver Gavia stellata Th e Red-thro at ed Diver is a rare br eeding bird with less than ten pairs n esting at sm a ll and m edium-sized m ountainou s loughs in Don ega l. Th ere is n o eviden ce of any chan ge in sta tus over the past 50 ye ars. During 19 6 872 . br eeding w as proved in three 10 km squ ares. believed probable in a fourth and possible in three mor e . In winter this is a wid espread diver arou n d ou r co astline. though not as numerous as the Great Northern. Survey work ca rried out during the Winter Atla s sho we d that th e largest number s wintered on the shallow. sa n dy ba ys of Wex ford . Sm aller concen tra tions occ urred in Dublin Bay. on th e Lou th an d so u th Down coa sts. on the so u th coa st an d in a few ba ys on the wes t coast. suc h as the Shan no n estu ary . Galw ay Bay an d Killala Bay. How ever. Redthroated Diver s ca n be see n in ones and twos a round m ost of th e coast. Cou n ts of up to 208 have been made in Wexford (Cahore Point in January 19 82). 1 50 in Louth (Cloghe r Head in April 1976). 11 6 in Cork (Ba rleycove in January 19 8 6 ) a nd 105 in Kerr y (Ballins kelligs Bay in March 198 3 ). On th e Dublin co as t th er e is an ob viou s sou th ward movement from th e first wee k of September . which peak s in late October and ea rly Nove m ber. In spring. pa ssage is noticeable from the second week of April to mid May (Hutchinson 19 75 ). Single birds have been recorded in all th e sum mer months. though they are rare in July. Five bird s ringed on th e Shetlands h ave been recov er ed in Ireland. ind icating that some at least of our wintering birds come from Scotland. but othe rs m ay come from Scandin avia where th er e is a large breeding populat ion .

Black-throated Dive r Gavia arctica Although ab out 100 pairs br eed in n orth-west Scotland (Th orn 19 86 ) th e Black- throated Diver h as never been suspected of n esting in Irel and. In stead. it is a sca rce winter visitor an d spring migrant.

48

75

Bla ck- t hroat ed Div e r

1966 -86

25

Great Nor th ern Diver Gavia immer Thi s is by far th e m ost numerous species of diver off th e Irish coast in winter. particul arly off th e so u th . west and n orth-west coas t. The deeper ba ys an d inlets of ro cky sh ores are as much to its liking as th e sh a llow ba ys of sa n dy sho res. A recent est imate is of 1.000-1,500 birds off the coast of Ireland in winter (Parrack 1986) and even thi s m ay be an underestimate. Great Northern Divers are regular from Sept ember to

Podiceps cristatus

49

April. with the largest numbers from October to March . Loose parties of up to 50 birds can be seen at times. Smaller numbers are seen in September and April. and there are records in most yea rs during the summer months. Birds are seen occasionally on the large western lakes.

White-billed Diver Gavia adamsii

Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus

There have been four Irish records of this diver: at Lough Ine, Cork. on 3rd February 1974. at Rosse's Point, Sligo. on 28th January 1977, at Carnsore Point, Wexford. on 16th May 1979 and at Ardglass, Down. from 2nd February to late March 1986.

The breeding distribution tends to follow the location of the larger. shallow lakes. mostly north and west of a line from Limerick to Dundalk. thou gh there has been a steady and continuing increase. both in numbers and range. this century. Breeding was first proved in Wexford in 1946. Limerick in 1947. Wicklow in 1951. Meath in 1961. Cork in 1967. Kildare in 1969. Kerry in 19 72 and Waterford and Dublin in 1979 . In 1975 a breeding census estimated 758 adult birds in the Republic (Preston 19 76) and 66 1 in Northern Ireland (Furphy 1977). The results in Northern Ireland were affected by severe gales on the principal weekend of the census which damaged reedbeds, destroyed nests and probably caused red istribution of the population. In addition. some sites at Lough Neagh believed to hold between 25 and 100 birds were not visited . The principal concentrations were at Lough Neagh (37 on the east and 268 on the south shore). Lower Lough Erne (227) and the

... .

.. .....

.. -. . -

Numbers of adult Great Crested Grebes counted and estimated in the Republic oj lreland and Northern Ireland in 1975 (after Preston 1976 and Furphy 1977) Republic of Ireland Estimated Counted County

Cavan Clare Cork Donegal Galway

Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis Although this is a wides pread resident species the distribution. both in summer and winter . is concentrated in low-lying parts of Irela nd. In summer. Little Grebes are found on small lakes. ponds and marshes. on canals and city park lakes. and on the fringes of la rger lakes. They have a preference for still. sheltered waters with dense emergent and submerged vegetation. In winter. some Little Grebes move to estuaries and to coastal lakes and lagoons. For example. Little Grebes winter annually at a small lake on Cape Clear. Cork. appearing between early July and mid September. and leaving in early March. The lake has very little vegetation and would have insufficient cover for a nest site . Most birds. however. appear to remain in the vicin ity of the lakes they breed on and the winter distribution is. in general . very similar to that in summer with the pr incipal gaps being in west Kerry . north Cork. south Limerick. the Wicklow Mountains. west Mayo. west and south Donegal and much of Tyrone.

Leitrlm

Limerick Mayo Meath Monaghan Offaly Roscommon

Sligo

Waterford Westmeath Wexford Total

2 57 30 -585

38 18 0 0 3 27 0 2 2 27 4 4 14 0 28 6 -173

Counted

Estimated

36 306 24 96 18 -480 -

40 0 2 137 2 -181

320 24 4 6

15 15 8 7 6

75 4

6 6

Northern Ire/and County

Antrim Armagh Down Fermanagh Tyrone Total

50

Podiceps qriseqena

Cavan lakes (358 on 61 lakes). Lough Neagh has long been known as the breeding stronghold of the species in Ireland and it was considered that the 1975 count represented an increase since an earlier count in 1965, which was also incomplete. Nest counts in the years 1984 to 1987 suggest that about 750 pairs now nest on the lough and numbers have been rising steadily since the mid 1970s (Davidson 1987). Breeding in the Republic, away from the traditional sites north-west of the line from Limerick to Dundalk, has fluctuated in some counties. This has not been true of Wexford where Great Crested Grebes are well established on the Slobs and Lady's Island Lake, but the original Limerick sites were deserted and breeding continued at other sites. In Wicklow a pair nested in 1951 and attempted to do so in 1952, but no further breeding was recorded until 1971 and 1976. Breeding, both in Wicklow and Dublin, is still irregular. In Cork breeding was first proved at Lough Allua in 1967 and Ballycotton in 1968, but the latter was deserted after 1970. East Cork was colonized again in 1984 when breeding was proved at Ballybutler Lake. Breeding took place in Kerry at Waterville in 1972, but was not recorded again until 1980 and 1981 when breeding was proved at Lough Gill and Lough Leane, respectively. In winter some birds move to the coast and numbers at Lough Neagh in particular are normally much reduced after October. Loose flocks are found at Belfast Lough, Strangford Lough, Carlingford Lough, Malahide, Dublin Bay, Wexford Harbour, Cork Harbour and Galway Bay as well as at inland sites. The largest numbers in winter are found at Belfast Lough, presumably because of its proximity to Lough Neagh, and 200-700 occur. Lough Neagh itself has up to 1,000 at times in autumn and early winter (NIBR 1982-85), and over 1,300 were counted in September and October 1987, reflecting the continuing increase in numbers there. Numbers on the coast invariably increase during hard weather in Ireland and on the Continent when lakes are frozen over. In the mid 1970s numbers on the east coast, at Malahide and Carlingford Lough, were much higher in October and November than later, reaching 70-80 birds at each site (Hutchinson 1979). This passage was suspected to be of Lough Neagh birds moving south. Observations since 1980 indicate that peak numbers at Malahide are still in late autumn but at Carlingford in February. In spring there is evidence of increased numbers at Dundalk Bay and the Shannon Estuary in April.

Red-necked Grebe Podiceps qriseoena Only 15 were recorded prior to 1953, but records were considered to be almost annual by 1965 (Ruttledge 1966) and there were records each year up to 1971. However, none was recorded again until 1976, since when this grebe has been recorded annually. Most of the birds recorded since 1965 have occurred between tbe end of October and mid April, but there is one record from Kerry of a bird in July. Red-necked Grebes have been recorded most fre-

15 Red-necked Grebe

1966-86

quently on the east coast since 1965 but there were records from Antrim, Clare, Cork, Donegal, Kerry and Mayo as well. Most of the 51 records from 1966 to 1986 were of birds which remained for less than a month. There were records in Dublin, however, in 1979, 1980, 1981, 1984 and 1986 of birds making protracted stays; a bird in 1980 remained at Dun Laoghaire from 2nd December 1979 to 2nd April 1980. Apart from four records of two birds together, all were of singles.

Slavonian Grebe Podiceps auritus Although nowhere common, this grebe is an annual winter visitor in small numbers to the coast of Cork, Donegal, Dublin, Kerry, Waterford and Wexford and less regularly elsewhere around the coast. Most records are of singles or small parties of up to six birds, but there have been records in Mayo of 13, in Wexford of 15 and in Londonderry of 25. There is no evidence of any long-term change in status. Although records on the south coast were few prior to 1966 (Ruttledge 1966) it appears likely that this was due to a lack of observers rather than a real scarcity. In the 1980s, records have been regular in Waterford, Kerry and Donegal, but this also appears to reflect more activity by local observers. The first autumn arrivals are in October and numbers build up to a peak from mid December to end January. Numbers then decline and almost all are gone by the end of April. There is some evidence of passage in late February and March off the west and north coasts. Estuaries, harbours and sheltered inlets are the favoured habitat.

Slavonian Grebe

1966-86

Fulmarus glaciaIis Black-necked Grebe Podiceps niqricoltis It seems likely that a handful of pairs continue to breed in Ireland. Several breeding site s were known in the midlands and west in the first half of thi s century, and while there ha s only been one published record of breeding sinc e 1959 (at Lough Funshinagh, Roscommon. in 1966), and a record of possible bre eding included in the Breeding Atlas (a bird seen at Lough Funshinagh in 1969 (Humphreys 1978», it is known that breeding took plac e in a number of years between 1959 and 1968, and an adult and four downy youn g were seen in 19 82. The breeding history has been summa rized by Kennedy et al (1954) and by Ruttledge (1966). G.R. Humphreys. who was one of those involved in the discovery of the colony at Lough Funshinagh. has described its history in detail (Humphreys 1978). The first known breeding attempt was at Keel Lough on Achill Island. Mayo, in 1906. Breeding was proved at a turlough near Brierfield , Roscommon, in 191 5 and up to 15 pairs nested until the site was drained in 1957. The major haunt was Lough Funshlnagh, where breeding was first proved in 1929, and 300 pairs were estimated in 1932. Breeding was also known near Tulsk, Roscommon (two or three pairs) and at Lavally Lough, Galway (u p to ten ). Isolated breeding took place in Westmeath and near Enni skillen, Fermanagh. In winter this grebe has been an annual visitor sin ce

51

the bird s acceptably identified as Black-browed Albatrosses. All other records were of single birds. There were single records in May, July and October, two records in June, four in August and eight in September. The definite records were of single birds at Cape Clear. Cork, on 24th September 1963; at Brandon Bay, Kerry, on 15th August 1964; at Cape Clear on 2nd September and 1st October 1967; at Mizen Head, Cork, on 13th August 1968; two at the Old Head of Kinsale in 1976 (see above); one about five km off Rosslare, Wexford, on 9th September 1982; and one off Inishglora, Mayo , on 11 th and 13th August 1986.

45

Black-necked Grebe 1966-86

Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis 15

1978. Before that. there were records in most but not all years. For example. Black-necked Grebes were recorded in seven of th e 12 years from 1966 to 1977. Most recent records have been in Wexford Harbour where up to 16 have been recorded. though numbers are normally less than eight. Other records since 1966 have been from Antrim , Armagh. Cork . Donegal. Dublin . Kerry and Londonderry.

Black-browed Albatross Diomedea melanophris Although there were five records of definite Black-brewed Albatrosses and eight records of unidentified albatrosses, probably of thi s species, in the years from 1963 to 1968, th ere ha ve been only three positive identifications and one possible record since then. Two alb atrosses were seen together on two occasions. on ce at Castlehaven . Cork , on 26th August 1968 and again at th e Old Head of Kinsale. Cork, on 10th September 19 76. Only in the latter ca se were

The Fulmar nests around all the Irish coastline except for low-lying stretches on the east coast from Wexford north to Mizen Head in Wicklow and from Lambay Island north to Carlingford Lough. and on th e west coast in Galway Bay. Fulmars require reasonably safe cliffs on which to nest and now breed almost everywhere these occur on the Irish coas t. In Waterford and in Londonderry they breed over 3 km from the sea . In Cork they have laid eggs on a rooftop in Youghal, but no young have hatched (P. Smiddy). The Fulmar is a phenomenally successful bird. It started to increase in Iceland about 1750, first colonized Shetland in 1878. and was first found nesting in Ireland in 1911 when breeding wa s proved in Mayo . Year oj fi rst Mayo Doneg al Ker ry An trim Cla re Wexford Galway

breeding oj Fulmar s in various counties ]911 Dublin 1936 ]9]2 Cork ]93 7 Londo n derry 1939 ] 913 1921 Sligo 1939 1924 Wicklow 1951 19 30 Down ] 9 54 1932

In 1942 th e Northern Ireland coloni es contained about 1,000 birds; some 20 yea rs later th ere was estimated to be

52

Pterodroma sp.

a minimum of 1,600 pairs; in 1969-70 there were 2,269 occupied sites counted (Cramp et al 1974); by 1977-79 counts at a number of locations in Antrim and Londonderry indicated that the number of sites had increased by at least 50% since 1969-70 and an incomplete census produced a total of 3,754 (Watson 1980). Surveys were carried out throughout Britain and Ireland at ten yearly intervals from .1909 onwards, but the counts for much of Ireland in the early years must be considered suspect because of the very small number of observers. However, in 1969 and 1970 the entire Irish coastline was visited and all sites counted. The results of this survey are certainly far more comprehensive than the figures from the earlier surveys, but it is likely that they also understate the true total because of the difficulty of surveying the entire coastline of Ireland. Counts ofPulmars on the Atlantic coast of Ireland (Donegal to Wexford) Number of occupied sites 151 1919 227 1929 864 1939 2,889 1949 4,665 1959 15,468 1969/70

There is no evidence that the rate of increase has slowed down: at Cape Clear, Cork, there has been continued increase with 448 occupied sites in 1983 as compared with 122 in 1969. In addition, records of numbers seen passing at sea off Cape Clear showed a marked increase in the years from 1970 to 1980 as compared with the previous eleven years (Hutchinson 1981), suggesting a continued increase in the population. Numbers are clearly still increasing in Northern Ireland as discussed above and at Great Saltee, Wexford, there were 150 pairs in 1978, 198 in 1979 and 260 in 1980, representing an annual rate of increase of 33% (Lloyd 1981). There are now colonies of over 2,500 sites at the Cliffs of Moher, Clare (2,900-3,100 in 1987) and at Clare Island, Mayo (2,555 in 1983) (O.J. Merne). Fulmars can be seen around our coast for most of the year. Observations at Cape Clear, where records have been maintained throughout the year, have shown that Fulmars occur offshore in peak numbers in early April and early August when westerly movements can reach 800 per hour. Birds are almost completely absent for four or five weeks from mid or late September to late October or early November, following which breeding birds return to their cliff ledges (Sharrock 1973). There is heavy movement in December and January as well. In the early 1980s, peak winter counts were recorded of 2,756 in an hour on 28th December 1982, 464 in an hour on 27th December 1983 and 628 in an hour on 29th December 1984. On the north coast of Northern Ireland the largest numbers occur in north-westerly autumn gales when up to 1,000 per hour pass west. That some Irish birds do travel far is evidenced by the recovery in Iceland of a Fulmar ringed on Great Saltee.

40

'Blue' Fulmar

30

1966-86

20

10

Fulmars from breeding colonies farther north, identifiable by their grey body plumage and known as 'blue' Fulmars, are recorded annually. Most records have been in winter but birds have also been seen occupying breeding sites in summer at Helvick Head in Waterford, Great Saltee in Wexford, Horn Head in Donegal and Downpatrick Head in Mayo.

Gadfly petrel sp. Pterodroma sp. A gadfly petrel, probably a Soft-plumaged Petrel P. mollis, was seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 5th September 1974.

Bulwer's Petrel Bulweria bulwerii The only record is of one seen at Cape Clear on 3rd August 1975.

Cory's Shearwater Calonectris diomedea This is a rare but annual autumn visitor to the south west coast, occurring elsewhere and at other seasons only very exceptionally. Apart from three records of single birds in late April and four records in May (two records of two and one single), all have been during the period from early June to mid October. Most records have been of less than ten in a day but there were large influxes in 1980 and 1981. Apart from these influxes the only records of more than ten in a day were from Cape Clear, and were as follows: Counts of more than ten Cory's Shearwaters in a day at Cape Clear

1962 1963 1965 1968 1969 1973

1 57 on 200 on 27 on 374 on 36 on 15 on lIon

10th August 14th July 28th July 16th June 23rd September 24th September 5th August

Puffinus griseus The influx in 1980 was unprecedented and was concentrated off Cape Clear where there were peak counts of 332 on 30th July . 117 on 11th August. 2.607 on 13th. 10.900 on 16th August. 43 on 17th September and 33 on 3rd October. Elsewhere the highest numbers were off Loop Head . Clare . where a maximum of 14 was recorded in a day on 10th September. This influx coincided with a large movement recorded in Britain and France as well. A smaller influx was recorded in 1981. also at Cape Clear. with high counts of 869 on 12th August. 319 on 13th August and 42 on 4th September. At the Old Head of Kinsale. Cork. 30 were seen on 13th August. These influxes did not mark any long-term change in status: only 12 were recorded at Cape Clear in 1983 . two in 1984. four in 1985 and none in 1986.

53

There has been no convincing explanation why Great Shearwaters occur close to shore in large numbers at irregular intervals. The weather conditions at such times include onshore winds and mist. but varying numbers of the species appear to be in Irish waters from year to year. There have been records since 1966 of Great Shearwaters from Clare. Cork. Donegal. Dublin. Galway. Kerry. Mayo. Waterford and Wexford.

Great Shearwater Puffinus gravis Great Shearwaters are regular autumn visitors to the seas off the south and west coasts. Large numbers occur within sight of land in some years. but a few are seen in every year. The largest numbers have been seen off Cape Clear. Most records are from mid July to the end of October but there have been records in March (one only) and in each month from April to November. The largest influxes were in 1965. 1973 and 1980: Counts of over 1.000 Great Shear waters in a day off Cape Clear 1965 4.177 on 14th September 5.118 on 15th September 1.432 on 21st September 1973 4.487 on 3rd September 2.916 on 4th September 1.334 on 7th September 1. 51 7 on 9th September 1980 1.014 on 4th September

Sooty Shearwater Puffinus griseus Like the Great Shearwater this species breeds in southern oceans and migrates to feed in the North Atlantic in our summer and autumn. On the south and west coasts Sooty Shearwaters can be seen from promontories on most autumn days. sweeping past among the parties of the much

54

Puffinus puffinus

commoner Manx Shearwaters. At Cape Clear, Cork, where passage has been recorded for over 25 years, the main passage is from August to the first half of October, with peak numbers in late August or early September (Sharrock 1973). Birds have been recorded at Cape Clear in every month except February and March and a few are seen from some part of the Irish coast in spring each year. In some years extremely large numbers occur. In 1980, for example, a total of 6,569 was recorded at Cape Clear and even larger numbers were recorded off the Clare coast with counts of 2,742 per hour passing off Castle Point and a flock of 6,000 on the water off Loop Head on 10th September. This was an outstanding year and compares with 1976 when a total of only 345 was recorded at Cape Clear. Numbers on the north coast are variable. Off Inishtrahull, Donegal, approximately 4,000 were recorded between 14th September and 20th October 1965, but at Malin Head, Donegal, the autumn totals in the years from 1963 to 1965, when a bird observatory was operated, ranged from 99 to 152 (O.J. Merne). The species is scarcest in the Irish Sea but one or two are recorded off the east coast in most years. Manx Shearwater breeding colonies. Large dots represent colonies with more than 100 occupied sites, small dots the remainder

Manx Shearwater Puffinus pUffinus This is one of our most numerous breeding seabirds. Very large numbers nest in colonies on islands off the coast of south-west and western Ireland, and smaller numbers on Rathlin Island, Antrim and the Copeland Islands, Down, on Lambay Island, Dublin, perhaps on Bray Head, Wicklow, and on the Saltee Islands, Wexford. The birds

breed in burrows underground and only come to shore at night and so are extremely difficult to census. The results of some of the censuses have been contested because of the difficulty of estimation, but the most recent published figures for the main colonies are as follows:

Most recent estimates of breeding numbers at Irish Manx Shearwater colonies Estimated number of pairs

Great Saltee, Wexford Scariff Island, Kerry Deenish Island, Kerry Puffin Island. Kerry Skellig Michael, Kerry Inishnabro, Kerry Inishtearaght, Kerry Inishvickillaun, Kerry Inishtooskert, Kerry Slyne Head. Galway Inishbofin, Galway Inishshark, Galway High Island, Galway Inishturk, Mayo Rathlin Islands. Antrim Copeland Islands, Down Lambay Island. Dublin Bray Head. Wicklow

1978-80 1978 1978 1973 1973 1973 1969 1969 1969 1969 1969 19S7 1950s ]969 1979 1979 1970 1969

100-150 101-1,000 11-100 10.000+ c.S,OOO 1,001-10,000 101-10,000 101-10,000 101-10,000 15 101-500 Breeding 10-99 4 1600 600 50-100 16 birds

Source

I

J

Lloyd 1980 Davies 1980

Evans & Lovegrove 1974

Cramp et al1974

}

Watson 1980 Hutchinson

./

1975

Hydrobates peiaqicus Feeding movements of Manx Shearwaters can be seen off much of the Irish coast from March to September. These are far the most numerous birds involved in sea-passage off Cape Clear from May to August and passage in excess of 20,000 per hour can be seen in early July. Manx Shearwaters travel far out into the Atlantic in winter. Birds ringed at the Copeland Islands have been recovered in autumn or winter in Brazil (seven), Argentina (one), Angola (one), South Africa (one) and Canada (one). One Great Saltee ringed bird has also been recovered in Brazil. Manx Shearwaters are long-lived. A bird ringed as an adult on the Copeland Islands in 1952 was recaptured there in 1984. The Mediterranean race P.p. mauretanicus occurs annually off the south coast and occasionally elsewhere. Most have occurred between mid July and mid October but a few appear in winter and spring when seabird watching is at its lowest level. Birds are occasionally seen inland, especially on the large inland lakes. 75

'Sa learic

I

Shearwater

1966-86

50

25

55

Wilson's Petrel Oceanites oceanicus There have been two records of birds shot in Ireland: single birds at Lough Erne, Fermanagh on 1st October 1891 and at Mossvale, near Dundonald, Down, on 2nd October 1891. One has been seen from the shore, from Bridges of Ross, Clare, on 18th August 1985. In addition, six were seen 130 km south-west of Cape Clear, Cork, on 25th September 1962, one was seen 88 km south-west of Mizen Head, Cork, on 17th August 1985 and nine were seen between 64 and 112 km west-south-west of the same headland on 23rd August 1986. It seems likely that Wilson's Petrels are regular visitors to offshore waters, but that they only come close to land in exceptional circumstances.

Storm Petrel Hydrobatespelagicus Ireland holds the largest breeding colonies in the world of this small petrel. The birds breed in burrows and crevices, in all cases on small islands around the coast. They corne ashore at night and are rarely seen about the breeding colony during the day. As a result they are extremely difficult to census. The most recent published figures for all the known colonies are as given in the table overleaf. In addition to the above, there is almost certainly a number of small island colonies to be discovered. Storm Petrels will nest on tiny sites and bred on Tuskar Rock, Wexford. in 1959, and on the Fastnet Rock, Cork, in 1972. Storm Petrels are abundant off the south coast in July, August and early September but are scarce in other

Little Shearwater Puffinus assimilis This is the rarest shearwater. having been recorded definitely in only six of the years from 1966 to 1986 and probably in another three. Because the species is difficult to identify positively some records have been considered to be only probably of Little Shearwaters. Apart from two records in June and one in April all the records have been between mid July and mid October and all have been either in Cork or Kerry. Numbersof LittleShearwatersandsmall unidentified shearwaters(probably of this species) recorded annually. 1966-1986 1966 8 1976 1 1967 5 1978 4 1968 8 1981 1 1971 1 1985 2 1975 1

Prior to 1966 there were five records (Ruttledge 1966). 10

Little Shearwater

1966-86

Storm Petrel breeding colonies. Large dots represent colonies with more than 100 occupied sites, small dots the remainder

56

Hydrobates pelaqicus months. Very large numbers can be seen passing headlands such as Cape Clear . but numbers off the west and north coasts are much lower. Many Storm Petrels have been trapped. notably at Cape Clear and Copeland. Down. by the use of tape recordings of the flight call to attract the birds at night. The results of this ringing activity have shown that there is a large pool of presumed non-breeding Storm Petrels off the coast which wander along the south. west and north coast, north to Scotland and east to France. Storm Petrels disperse to the open seas after breeding and Irish ringed birds have been recovered as far as Mauretania (two). Namibia (one) and South Africa (one). After storms. birds can be found far inland.

Most recent estimates of breeding numbers at Storm Petrel colonies in Ireland Number of pairs Source

Bull Rock . Cork

1969

Scariff Island. Kerry Skellig Michael. Kerry Puffin Island. Kerry Inlshvickillaun, Kerry Inlshnabro, Kerry

1978 1969 1969 1969 1969

c. 10. 00 0 c.1.000

Inishtearaght. Kerry Great Blasket, Kerry

1969 1969

c.25.000 11-100

Inishtooskert, Kerry Beglnish, Kerry IlIaunboy. Kerry Illaunlmmll, Kerry Illaunturlough, Kerry Gurrlg, Kerry

1966 1969 1953

cA .OOO

1969 1969 1969

Mattie Island. Clare Mutton Island. Clare Brannock Island. Galway High Island. Galway Corrlgeenagowlra, Galway Inishshark. Galway Inishbofin, Galway Caher, Mayo

1969 1943 1942 1965

Clare Island. Mayo Blackrock, Mayo Duvillaun Beg. Mayo

1969 1942

Kid Island. Mayo Stags of Broad haven. Mayo Rathlin O'Byrne, Donegal Roanlnlsh . Donegal lnlshduff, Donegal Inlshbeg, Donegal Torglass. Donegal Urnfin, Donegal Tory. Donegal

}

1969

1969 1957 1960

1969

Davies 1980

cA.OOO

Evans & Lovegrove 1974

11-100 A few Suspected 11-100 11-100

}

Breeding

1957 1969 1969

Duvillaun More . Mayo Inishdalla. Mayo Inishglora. Mayo

J.OOI-IO.DOO 101-1.000 c.IO.000

Ruttledge 1966 Cramp et a/1974 Ruttledge 1966

Breeding

Ruttledge 1966

Suspected

Cramp et al1974

40 15 30+ 5 11-100 Suspected 1-10 150

Ruttledge 1966

}

Ruttledge 1966 Hutchinson & Ruttledge 1978

}

Cramp et al1974 Ruttledge I 'Jbb Ruttledge 1966 Ruttledge 1966

< 10 0 < 10 0 Not known

Cramp et a/19 74

<100 <100 101-1,000 250-250 20 -30 Has bred 1-2 1-2 Small colony

Ruttledge 1966 Ruttledge 1966 Cramp et a/1974 Ruttledge 1966 Ruttledge 1966 Ruttledge 1966 Ruttledge 1966 Ruttledge 1966 Cramp et a/1974

Sula bassana Leach's Petrel Oceanodroma leucorhoa Leach's Petrels nest in small numbers on the Stags of Broadhaven, Mayo, and probably at one or two other sites on remote islands. They were seen and heard on Chakbeg, the largest of the Stags. in 1946 and 1947. but the islands were not visited again by ornithologists until 1982 when birds were found in burrows, a number were trapped. an egg was found and an estimate of at least 200 breeding pairs was made (Waring & Davis 1983). Breeding was recorded in very small numbers in the last century on Inishtearaght and Inishnabro, Kerry. but not since. However, single birds were caught in mist nets at Skellig Michael on 2nd/3rd August 1965 and on Inishvickillaun on 16th July 1972 . Birds have also been seen occasionally from boats off the Kerry islands, so a few pairs may still breed on one or two of these islands. In July 1986 nine birds were trapped on Rathlin O'Byrne, Donegal. and breeding was suspected as all had brood patches. A further 15 were caught in 1987 but breeding has not yet been proved. In autumn, there appears to be a regular passage off the west and north coasts but numbers are very low on the south coast. At Cape Clear they are rare, with only four records in the years 1959-1969 (Sharrock 1973) and six since then. Off the west and north coasts most have been seen in recent years at the Bridges of Ross. Clare , in Galway Bay and off Portstewart. Londonderry, and Portrush, Antrim. The largest number reported in recent years was 202 on 20th September 1980 off Portrush.

Madeiran Petrel Oceanodroma castro The only record is of a bird obtained at Blackrock Lighthouse, Mayo on 18th October 1931.

Gannet Sula bassana Gannets are familiar birds around most of the coastline throughout the year, though they are somewhat scarcer off the east coast. There are now four breeding colonies. The oldest and by far the largest is on the Little Skellig, Kerry. and the most recent and smallest is on Clare Island. Mayo. Each of the colonies appears to be doing well as the table shows. Censuses of breeding Gannets at Irish colonies (after Evans & Lovegrove 1973, Nelson 1978, Lloyd 1981, Wanless 1987, 0 ./. Merne and IBR) Number Uttle Skellig. Kerry 1700 'breeding' 1748 'incredible numbers' 1828 500 1880 30

Little Skellig. Kerry 1882 1884 1890 1896 1906, 1908 1913 1930 1939,1941 1966 1969 1970 1975 1984

Number 150-200 'increasing' 'several thousand' 'many thousand' 15-20,000 8.000 10,000 'about same number' 17,500 18-20,000 20,000 20,000 21,919 occupied sites

Bull Rock, Cork ,18 5 3 1856 1858 1868 1884 1889 1891 1896 1899 1902 1908 1913 1930 1937 1938 1939 1949 1955 1970 1985

first seen first nests 11 'many hundreds but only a few eggs' up to 1.000 possibly 500 100-110 'greatly diminished' 100 1,000 300 250 400 450 442-500 550-600 295 500 1,500 1, 511 occupied sites

57

58

Phalacrocorax carbo

Great Saliee, Wexford 1 or 2 pairs 1929-1948 4 nests 1953 at least 4 nests 1954 9 nests 1955 17 nests 1956 20 pairs 1957 22 + pairs 1958 40+ pairs 1959 60 nests 1960 65 nests 1961 55 nests 1962 100 nests 1964 120 nests 1965 110 nests 1966 125 nests 1967 150 nests 1968 155 nests 1969 165 nests 1970 175 nests 1971,1972 200 nests 1973,1974 193 nests 1975 170 nests 1976 205 pairs 1977 257 pairs 1978 277 pairs 1979 350 pairs 1980 412 occupied sites 1984 541 occupied sites 1985 700 + occupied sites 1987 Clare Island, Mayo I 9 75-76 pair present 1978 I pair bred 1982 I occupied site 1985 2 occupied sites

Large numbers bred on the Little Skellig before 1700, but man had reduced the colony to about 30 pairs by 1880. After that, there was a remarkable increase and Barrington (cited in Nelson 1978), who had counted the 30 pairs in 1880, estimated 15-20,000 birds by 1906. This is the greatest increase ever recorded in a gannetry in the world and, even if the accuracy of the estimate is questionable, there must have been massive immigration. There was then a steady increase to the present strength which appears to be close to saturation level. The Bull Rock colony was founded apparently in the middle of the nineteenth century and grew rapidly, clearly through immigration, to 1,000 pairs in 1884. Numbers then declined sharply, probably because of disturbance from rock blasting and the construction of the lighthouse, but have recovered since the mid 1950s so that this colony also is near saturation level. The two smaller colonies are much more recent. That at Great Saltee began in 1929 with one pair, and one or two pairs attempted to nest in most years up to 1948, though no more than three young were raised in all that time. The colony then grew rapidly to 170-200 nests in the 1970s, a period of stabilization. However, there has been a resumption of the increase since 1977, and in 1980 a new subcolony was founded. Breeding was first recorded at a stack off Clare Island, Mayo, in 1978 but the pair involved had been in the area for the three previous summers.

Nelson (1978) has shown that Gannets have been increasing throughout their range by about 3% per annum this century. He has also shown that there is substantial interchange between colonies insofar as young birds will breed at colonies other than their natal ones. The evidence suggests that Little Skellig and Bull Rock have little room for further expansion but that further and substantial increase in numbers is likely at Great Saltee provided human disturbance is controlled. Gannets occur offshore at all seasons, but most commonly outside the winter months. At Cape Clear birds showing signs of immature plumage comprise less than 10% of the total from November to mid April and less than 1% from mid January to mid March (Sharrock 1973). Movement on the south coast is predominantly westerly, and in autumn counts of up to 2,000 per hour have been made. Presumably these are mostly birds on feeding trips from the Little Skellig and Bull Rock, and indeed large rafts and fishing flocks of up to 1,000 birds, occasionally even 2,000 birds, can be seen. In the north Irish Sea numbers are much smaller but flocks of up to 100 have been seen, presumably mostly from the colony at Ailsa Craig in Scotland (Watson 1980). Ringing recoveries show that most Irish juvenile Gannets move south in autumn, many reaching west Africa and the western Mediterranean, and that most remain in southern waters for two or more winters. The autumn movements off the coast, therefore, include both feeding birds and departing birds. Young non-breeders leave first, then juveniles and finally the adults (Nelson 1978).

Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo Cormorants are common breeding birds around the Irish coast and are well known inland on the larger lakes. In 1969-70 an attempt was made to census all the coastal breeding Cormorants and this was repeated in 1985-86, but with the addition of inland colonies. Numbers of pairs of Cormorants counted as breeding in 1969-70 and 1985-86 (after Cramp et al1974 and Macdonald 1987) County 1969-70 1985-86 1,03] Dublin 320 Wexford 390 430 Waterford 65 274 Cork 30 441 Kerry 130 51 Clare 100 50 Galway ISO 735 Mayo 160 396 Sligo 120 208 Donegal Antrim Down Tipperary

Total

290 110

294 380 125 40

1,865

4,455

Phalacrocorax carbo

Cormorant nesting colonies censused in 1985 and 1986. The largest dots represent more than 300 nests, medium dots 100300 nests, small dots all other colonies

A review of the coverage of the 1969-70 census indicates that the total of 1,865 pairs is a serious underestimate of the coastal breeding population, even without taking into account the exclusion of a number of pairs of inland breeding birds which nest on islands in lakes or in trees. During the 1968-72 period of the Breeding Atlas they were proved to nest inland in Clare, Galway, Kerry, Roscommon and Donegal. The largest inland colonies are on Lough Scannive (218 nests) and Lough Cutra (166 nests) in Galway. Although there were apparent decreases in some counties (Clare and Kerry), and the 1985-86 survey was more thorough than the earlier one, there is no doubt that the Cormorant population is expanding. At Little Saltee, Wexford, there were 100 pairs in 1943, 200 pairs in 1949 and approximately 300 pairs from the mid 1960s onwards (Perry & Warburton 1977). In Cork there were 441 pairs in 15 colonies by 1985 and this was certainly a real increase. In east Cork there were no more than 17 in 1969-70 and the same number in 1980, but 92 pairs in three colonies by 1985 (M. Shorten, P. Smiddy). At Sheep Island and the Gobbins, Antrim, there were increases from 85 and 23 pairs respectively in 1969, to 340 at Sheep Island in 1977 and 70 at the Gobbins in 1978. At Lambay Island, Dublin, there was little change between 19 S4 when 300 were said to nest and 1970 when 317 pairs were counted (Hutchinson 1975), but a dramatic increase followed to 402 nests in 1971 (Cabot et aI 1975) and 1,027 in 1985 (Macdonald 1987). This is now the largest Cormorant colony in Britain or Ireland. The causes of the increase are believed to be a com-

59

bination of increased winter food availability and reduced human persecution. The increase in fish stocking at many lakes and the rapid increase in roach numbers have provided a food source in winter when mortality is normally higher. Furthermore, the abolition of bounty schemes for shooting Cormorants in the Republic after 1976 has probably led to a decrease in adult mortality (Macdonald 1987). Large numbers of Cormorants have been ringed at colonies at Roundstone, Galway, Little Saltee, Lambay Island, and Sheep Island, and the recoveries up to the end of 1964 were analysed by Coulson & Brazendale (1968). They showed that Roundstone birds tended to disperse eastwards and inland across Ireland; Saltee and Lambay birds moved north along the east coast or south to south-west England, France and Spain; Sheep Island birds tended to disperse across Northern Ireland and to the south. In particular, they showed that Cormorants have a marked reluctance to travel long distances over water in an east-west direction and that there are very few recoveries of birds crossing to north-west England or Wales. Recoveries since 1964 confirm this pattern. Of 1,951 Irish ringed Cormorants reported as recovered up to February 1988, 70% were in Ireland, 13% in France, 7% in Spain, 5% in southern England and the remaining 5% in Wales, northern England, Scotland, Portugal and the Netherlands. One Cormorant ringed as a fledgling in Denmark in May 1982 was recovered at Lough Neagh, Tyrone, in October 1985. Numbers of Cormorants in estuaries are highest in August and September and gradually decline, reaching low numbers in January and February. At the same time, there is an increase on inland waters. The winter population in Northern Ireland was censused in 1985/86 and a total of at least 2,600 birds estimated a. G. Greenwood). In the Republic an analysis of winter counts from the IWC's Wetlands Enquiry indicated a mid winter total of about 8,000 birds (Macdonald 1987). The food of the Cormorant at seven colonies was studied by West et al (1 975) who found that wrasse were the most important item in general (60% by weight), eels were second in importance (20%), followed by flatfish (10%) and salmonids (2%). However, they emphasized that Cormorants are opportunist feeders and referred to one report of 113 tags from salmon smolts being found in the guano around a Cormorant colony on an island in Ballinlough Lake, Mayo.

60

Phalacrocorax aristotelis 1980 (Lloyd 1981). 385 pairs in 1985 and 440-465 in 1986 (0. J. Merne). The 59 % increase in 1980 was attributed to exceptionally good weather in May 1980. which apparently encouraged many Shags to nest. At Cape Clear . Cork. there were counts of 13 9 pairs in 1963 . 89 pairs in 1967. 77 pairs in 1969 (Sharrock 1973) and 67 pairs in 1983 (Collins 1985). On the entire Cork coastline a total of 420 pairs was counted in 1985 as compared with 140 in 1969-70. However. coverage was certainly better in the later survey (M. Shorten). In Northern Ireland there was an increase from 223 pairs in 1969-70 to 321 + in 1979 (Watson 1980). Shags normally feed in deeper bays than Cormorants. They are common on rocky coasts and are less likely to visit estuaries. They also travel much shorter distances than Cormorants. Of 1.045 Irish-ringed Shags reported as recovered up to February 1988. only 66 had travelled away from Ireland, mainly to Scotland (35) and Wales (16), but 14 were recovered in England and one in France. Some British Shags move into Irish waters. and 23 Shags ringed in Scotland. 27 ringed in the north of England, two from the south of England and three from Wales have been recovered in Ireland.

Shag Phalacrocorax aristotelis

Frigatebird sp. Fregata sp.

Shags are much more strictly birds of the coast than Cormorants. and inland records are very scarce at any season. Like the Cormorant. they were censused in 1969-70. but the count of this species was more comprehensive as Shags do not breed inland.

An unidentified frigatebird, probably a male Magnificent Frigatebird F. maqnificens, was seen at Cape Clear. Cork. on 24th August 1973 .

Number s of pairs of Shags counted as breeding in 1969-70 (after Cramp et al 1974 ) County Pairs

Bittern Botaurus stellaris

Dublin Wicklow Wexford Waterford Cork Kerry Clare Galway Mayo Sligo Donegal Antrim Down Total

270 5 340 90 140 370 35 150 115 20 850 200 25 2.610

As with the census of Cormorants in 1969-70. this was most probably a serious underestimate due to lack of full coverage. The numbers breeding at particular sites appear to have varied significantly. For example. at Great Saltee. Wexford. there were 500 pairs in 1942 (a round-sum count which may be questionable). 130-277 pairs during 1966-77: 250-270 pairs in 1978.273 pairs in 1979.434 pairs in

. The Bittern is now much rarer than in former years. During the years from 1966 to 1986 the only records were in Fermanagh in 1975 and 1976 (three birds). in Antrim in January and February 1982 (two separate birds). Clare in April 1982 and April and May 1983. Londonderry in December 1983 and in Wexford and Wicklow in January 1984. The Fermanagh and Clare records were significant in that the bird or birds were calling with their typical loud 'booming' and therefore clearly holding territory. Two of the other records were of shot birds. Bitterns bred in Munster. Connacht and Ulster up to about 1840 but not since then. though 'booming' was recorded in Offaly a few years before 1940. in Clare in May 1945 and in Wicklow in spring 1962 . As recently as the mid 1960s it was said that few winters pass without reports of one or more (Ruttledge 1966). though this appears to have overstated the case as none was seen in 1956-57 or 1960-62 . A young bird ringed in Suffolk in June 1950 was recovered in the following November in Longford.

Egretta alba

61

American Bittern Botaurus lentiqinosus

Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis

The only two records during 1966-86 were in October. Both were found dying: one in a garden in Malahtde, Dublin, on 4th October 1970 and one in a field near Malin Beg, Donegal, on 21 st October 1973. Prior to 1966 there were 19 records, of which 11 were before 1900, seven between 1900 and 1952 and two between 1953 and 1965.

There were five Irish records in the period 1966-86 of this species which had not formerly been recorded in Ireland. One was seen at Kilkerran Lake, Cork, on 7th March 1976; a juvenile was seen at Broad Lough, Wicklow, from 27th March to 10th or 11th April 1976; single birds were present at Castlegregory, Kerry, from 6th December 1979 until shot on 6th January 1980, in the Killag and Tacumshin area of Wexford from 18th November to 9th December 1984, and near New Ross, Wexford, from mid-November to December 1984.

Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus

The records between 1966 and 1986 were all in late April or May, and presumably of spring migrants to Continental Europe 'overshooting' their target destination. There were three in 1966 (two in Cork, one in Galway), one in 1978, one in 1979 and one in 1981 (all in Cork). Prior to 1966 there were records of over 40. In the nineteenth century about 30 were recorded, and from 1900 to 1965 another 12 were reported (Ruttledge 1966).

Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax

Like the Little Bittern, this species tends to appear most frequently on the south coast. There were nine records between 1966 and 1986, of which four were in Cork, two in Kerry, two in Wicklow and one in Armagh. Birds were first seen in March (two), April (two), May (one), July (one), August (one), October (one) and November (one). The longest staying bird was one at Caragh Lake, Kerry, in March and April 1967 and, possibly the same bird (though treated as a different record above), at the same locality from March to August 1968. There were 30-40 records prior to 1966 in 17 counties and in every month except February and July, though the majority were in Cork (nine), Dublin (five) and Kerry (three or four) (Ruttledge 1966).

Little Egret Egretta qarzetta

Little Egrets were recorded in 16 of the 21 years from 1966 to 1986. The largest influx ever recorded was in 1970 when 18 or 19 were seen, all being first recorded between 19th April and 3rd June. Most have been first recorded in spring, especially in Wexford, and some have made protracted stays. The first record was in 1940 (Kennedy et a11954) and from 1957 to 1965 a further 13 were reported. The species has, therefore, become much more frequent. Records of Little Egrets staying more than six months, 1966-86 Castletownbere, Cork 1 Christmas 1966 to 12th July 1967 Clonakilty, Cork 1 16th May 1970 to June 1971 and from 11 th September 1971 to January 1972 Aughinish, Limerick 11th March 1974 to November 19 74 Clonakilty, Cork 1 May to early November 1982

30

Squacco Heron Ardeola ralloides

.The only record since 1966 was of a juvenile found dying in the grounds of Trinity College, Dublin, on 2nd October 1967. There were eight records in the last century and three others in the early years of the present century, the most recent being in 1919.

Great White Egret Egretta alba

One was recorded at Moneygold, Sligo, from 22nd May to June 1984.

62

Ardea cinerea

Grey Heron Ardea cinerea The Grey Heron is a familiar bird of streams. rivers. lakeshores. marshes and coastline. It breeds throughout the country and. in the years 1968-72. was found to be widely distributed. Breeding density was found to be approximately one heronry to every 2.7 10 km squares. as compared with one for every four squares in Britain. However. the average colony size in Ireland was smaller than in England and Wal es. with approximately three pairs per 10 km square here and 4 .5 in England and Wales (Breeding Atlas). There have been only two systematic attempts to survey the heronries of parts of Ireland. though several partial surveys have been made. In 1964 a survey of heronries throughout the country produced a count of 939 nests in 206 colonies. but the survey was far from comprehensive due to a shortage of observers (Merne cited in Partridge 1984). Detailed censuses were carried out in Connemara in 1974-77 (Partridge 1984) and in Northern Ireland in 1977 (Wells 1978). The Connemara survey produced 269 occupied nests in 29 heronries, all distributed along the low -lying coastal belt . The three largest colon ies were at Lough Aroolagh (45 nests). Lough Emlaghnabehy (38 nests) and Loughaunwillin (21 nests). Ninety per cent of the colonies were located in stunted vegetation on lake islands. The density in Connemara at 15 .7 nests per 100km 2 was the highest of any area of Britain and Ireland) yet surveyed. probably due to the richness of the food supply available from the Connemara coastline (Partridge 1984). In Northern Ireland a census between 22nd April and

1st May 1977 located 59 occupied heronries and 619630 nests. One site at Inishfendra, Fermanagh. held at least 74 occupied nests. the largest heronry ever recorded in Northern Ireland. Most of the heronries were in large estates or private gardens and almost all the nests were in trees. mainly beech and Scots pine. The 1964 census of all Ireland had located 293 nests in 44 heronries in Northern Ireland. but compa rison with the 1977 census is difficult because the later survey was undoubtedly more comprehensive. However. the average heronry size rose from 6.6 nests in 1964 to 10.9 in 1977. and there had been an increase of 85 % in the number of nests at the 28 colonies located in 1964 which were still occupied in 1977. There was. therefore. sound evidence of a significant increase in numbers. probably because of a series of mild winters prior to 1977 (Wells 19 78) . A number of Irish heronries are of great antiquity. Ten of the heronries in Northern Ireland listed by Ussher & Warren in 1900 were still occupied in 1977. and four of those surveyed in Connemara in the same year were over 77 years old (Partridge 1984). Grey Herons are Widely distributed outside the breeding season and there havebeen recoveries in Ireland in winter of birds ringed as nestlings in Britain and. in particular. Scandinavia. A total of I 9 British ringed birds has been recovered in Ireland (14 from Scotland. five from England) . but 31 have been recovered from Norway. five from Sweden. two each from Denmark and the Netherlands and one from Prance. Those birds which breed in Ireland are sedentary. A study of the ringing recoveries of Grey Herons ringed in Connemara showed that over two-thirds were recovered

Phoenicopterus ruber 63 within 20 km of the study area (Partridge 1986a). Only 11 Grey Herons ringed in Ireland have been recovered outside the country and these have been in Scotland (six), England (three) and Wales (two).

Purple Heron Ardea purpurea There have been four Irish records of single birds, the first shot at Carrickmacross, Monaghan, prior to 1834, and the others all seen in Cork in recent years. Single birds were at Cape Clear on 2nd May 1965 and 26th August 1970, and at Ballycotton from 9th to 13th June 1981.

White Stork Ciconia ciconia There were records of 12 or 13 birds during 1966-86, but they only occurred in five of those years. Three were recorded in 1974, four in 1976, one or two in 1977, one in 1978 and three in 1980. Only four had been recorded prior to 1966, two in 1846, one in 1866 and one in 1909 (Ruttledge 1966). Because the birds are large and conspicuous they are widely reported when they occur. One in 1974 was readily identifiable by the absence of two secondaries from its right wing and was seen in Londonderry in April, Wexford in early June and Louth in mid June. The longest staying bird was one which remained at Ballykelly, Londonderry, from 14th May to December 1974. Apart from one in Wexford in August 1980, all the others were first reported in spring between early April and mid June.

Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia Spoonbills are almost annual vagrants to Ireland, having occurred in each of the years 1966-86 except for 1978., 1980, 1981 and 1985. They have a tendency to remain for long periods and birds have wintered at several sites repeatedly. For example, at Ballymacoda, Cork, two wintered from 1961/62 to 1962/63 and one from 1963/64 to 1973/74, and on the north Dublin estuaries two wintered in 1972/73 with one remaining to 8th February 1975. An adult, one of a pair, seen on the South Slob, Wexford, in July 1975 had been colour-ringed as a nestling at Zuid Flevoland, Netherlands, in 1971. During the 1966-86 period there were records in Clare, Cork, Donegal, Dublin, Kerry, Londonderry, Mayo, Waterford, Wexford and Wicklow. There is no evidence of any change in status. Ruttledge (1966) commented that there were 33 records involving birds between 1829 and 1900, and 49 involving 113 birds between 1900 and 1965, but the increase in records is what would be expected from a wider use of binoculars and increasing public interest in recording observations. 15

10

[Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber] Glossy Ibis Plegadis [alcinellus There were about 55 records up to the winter of 1945/46, when a number was seen or shot in widespread localities covering six counties (Ruttledge 1966). Since then, there have been only four records. One was shot at Lough Ennel, Westmeath, on 9th October 1959; an immature was shot near Clarinbridge, Galway, on 5th December 1965; one was seen at Roundstone, Galway, on 11th and 12th May 1976; one, first seen at Lough Beg, Cork, on 7th March 1981, moved to Minane Bridge, Cork, by 9th March and was at Ballycotton, Cork, from 3rd April 1981 to early May 1983.

There were one, possibly, three in 1938 and a single record in 1947. In 1938 a bird was seen on the River Foyle, Londonderry, on 3rd and 27th April, near Timoleague, Cork, from 1st May to 4th June and near Askeaton, Limerick, in early November. One was shot near Dundalk, Louth, in the first week of September 1947 (Ruttledge 1966). Three records have been published for 1967: one at Donnybrewer, Londonderry, on 18th August; one at Lough Beg, Londonderry, on 20th August; and one at Galway Bay from 27th August to 17th September 1967 (IBR 1967). That at Lough Beg was certainly a Chilean Flamingo P. chilensis and the details published for the other records do not exclude this species which frequently escapes from captivity. It is probable that all these birds escaped from captivity.

64

Cygnus olor

Mute Swan Cygnus olor

Bewick's Swan Cygnus columbianus

The Mute Swan is by far our most familiar wildfowl species. These wild swans arrive in Ireland in late October and It is a widespread breeding bird, nesting throughout the November, with occasional birds as early as late September, country except where the land is higher than 300 m and and up to 2,000 birds or more remain to winter. Departure where there are no waters large enough for the birds to is from mid-February to the end of March. The main concentrations are at the Wexford Slobs, take off. In the cities, Mute Swans are tame, coming to the hand to take bread, but on western islands and in other where waste potatoes and sugar beet are favoured foods, remote places they can be very wary. The population in the Shannon valley, several turloughs in Galway and Ireland was estimated at 5,000-6,000 birds in the early Roscommon, Lough Neagh and the Lough Swilly and 1970s (Ogilvie 1972) and this was agreed with by Hut- Lough Foyle areas. The Irish population was surveyed in chinson (1979). More recently Ruger et al (1986) sug- 1975/76 and a total of 2,000 birds estimated (Merne 1977) but coverage of Lough Neagh was poor so the total gested a total of at least 7,000. A breeding census was attempted in 1978 as part of a may have been as high as 2,500. The species is sensitive European survey of the species and counters were asked to to cold spells and birds have been seen arriving on the record breeding pairs and non-breeding flocks in 10 km Wicklow coast from Britain on several occasions following squares of the National Grid. The reasonably high total of cold weather there (Hutchinson 1975). 246 squares (approximately 25% of the total) was comThe status has changed considerably since the beginning pletely surveyed, and 549 pairs holding territory and 2,214 of the century when the Bewick's Swan was considered non-breeding birds were found (Forsyth 1980). Although more numerous than the (Ussher & Warren much of Ireland was not covered, the survey organizer 1900). By 1954 Whooper Swans had increased and outconcluded that the Irish population was probably over numbered Bewick's though it is unknown whether 5,000 birds. The average breeding density was 2.2 pairs Bewick's had actually decreased. There was an influx in per square for the 246 completely surveyed squares, but February 1956 from the Continent and again in 1961/62 nine squares with lakes with large areas of suitable breed- and 1962/63. Following these two successive cold winters ing habitat had an average of 10.2 pairs per square. there was an increase in wintering numbers at several sites Although Mute Swans are normally solitary breeders, pairs and a further, more general, increase from 1970/71 which nest in close proximity at two Irish sites. There were 42 may have resulted in a doubling of numbers between 1956 nests on an island of about a quarter of a hectare at Inch and 1971/72 (Merne 1977). The flock in Wexford has Lake, Donegal, in 1987, though all were destroyed by a built up since 1969/70 and reached 700 on the Slobs in flood (R. Sheppard) and about 15 pairs nest in most years the mid 1970s, but in the years since 1978 many have on a one hectare island at Lady's Island Lake, Wexford moved from the Slobs to other sites in the county. (D.}. Merne). In the Lough Swilly and Lough Foyle areas the species In a study area of 1,350 km 2 in Dublin and north Wicklow there were 38 territory holding pairs in April 1987. The total population in the area was reckoned to be . 76 breeding birds, 51 non-breeding adults (three years f ..,. \. (" .... """ ' old or older) and 65 juveniles (R. Collins). Density was, 2 therefore, 0.142 birds per km-', or 0.21 per km of lowland habitat. Mute Swans are rather sedentary. A study of the recoveries of birds ringed in Ireland (O'Halloran & Collins 1985) has shown that Mute Swans are more mobile in their first two years than later. Of 61 birds recovered, 31 % had travelled more than 32 km, but no adult had travelled this distance. Most mortality was in the spring. In recent years colour marked birds from Dublin have • • •.• r{ hr been seen in Wexford, Cork and Wales but these journeys are clearly exceptional. r> There is some immigration in winter. A total of 14 birds ringed in Scotland, mainly on the Uists in western Scotland, \ e l.. .'....,... have been sighted wintering or recovered on the north ; t'" . ...- ...-..",-L "r ),.... .-.. .'\, ........i coast of Ireland. One English ringed bird has been recovered in Ireland. A study of lead levels in Mute Swans in Cork has shown that 41 % of birds sampled at a coarse fishing site had levels greater than those considered the maximum tolerable, and one bird was shown to have died from lead poisoning. Discarded lead weights were believed to be the source Bewick's Swans censused in winter 1975/76. Large dots represent (O'Halloran & Duggan 1984). \

-.

l..<:_.. .

-.

more than 1 SO birds, medium dots 51-1 SO. small dots 10-50 birds

Cygnus cygnus

65

has been studied since 1965/66 and no long-term trend in numbers was detected up to 1980/81, but there are indications of a reduction in numbers since then. The mean number over the seven years from 1974/75 to 1980/81 was 376 (Sheppard 1981). but from 1981/82 to 1987/88 was 249 (R. Sheppard). The birds feed on a mixture of grain, potatoes and grass, having changed from a preference for grass in the early 1970s to dependence on potatoes in the late 1970s. The North American nominate race, known as the Whistling Swan, has been recorded on four occasions: single birds were at Lough Gill. Kerry, from 31st December 1978 to 1st February 1979, at Ballycotton, Cork, on 24th February 1979 and from 3rd to 18th February 1983, and at the South Slob, Wexford, from 31st December 1985 to March 1986. This last bird was also seen in winters 1986/87 and 1987/88.

Whooper Swans censused in January 1986 . The largest dots represent more than 500 birds. medium dots 251 -500 birds. small dots 50 -250 birds

Whooper Swan Cygnus cygnus The Whooper is now the most numerous wintering wild swan in Ireland. During the last century the Bewick 's Swan is said to have been more common, but the position was reversed by 1950 (Ruttledge 1970). In Galway, Mayo and Cavan. Whooper Swans suddenly appeared on a widespread scale in the early 1940s. They now occur commonly in winter throughout the midlands and west, and in small numbers in Munster and the south-east. The preferred habitats include turloughs, broad, slow-moving rivers and shallow lakes. Particularly large flocks, often numbering over 100 birds , are found near Lough Swilly in Donegal. in the Lough Oughter system in Cavan, on the Blackwater callows in Waterford and in the Shannon valley. The total wintering in Ireland was 10 ,320 in January 1986 (Merne & Murphy 1986), of which 2,377 were in Northern Ireland and 7,943 in the Republic. This total is far higher than

previous estimates of 4,000-6,000 (Hutchinson 1979). During the 1986 census Whooper Swans were found at 361 sites, of which only 44 held over 50 swans and. of these, 17 had 100 or more (up to 876 on Upper Lough Erne in Fermanagh), and since 1966 they have been recorded at about 700 sites (Whilde 1986). Of the sample of 7,609 which were aged, 23.14% were young, indicating a good breeding season in 1985. There is little doubt that there has been a substantial increase in recent years and evidence from late summer counts in Iceland confirms an increase since 1982 (Ru ger et aI1986). The first immigrants arrive early in October. sometimes in September, and departure is in March and April. A few remain to summer in the west. In 1972 a male Whooper Swan bred with a Mute Swan on Lough Corrib and produced young. Breeding may have occurred for several years previously in the same place. In July 1976. one was apparently mated to a Mute Swan on a lake on Inishrnore, Galway. Ringing results and sightings of neck-banded birds have shown that our birds originate in Iceland. Indeed. birds can sometimes be seen showing the distinctive staining on the neck which they pick up from iron-rich streams in Iceland. The route which they follow is not always direct. One with a neck-collar fitted in Iceland was seen in Norway in November and December 1984, in the Netherlands in March 1985, and in Ireland in early 1986 (Gardarsson cited in Ruger et a/1986). Numbers have been counted in the Lough Swtlly/Lough Foyle area since 1965/66 and have shown a marked increase. Over the seven years from 1974/75 to 1980/81 the mean was 783 (Sheppard 1981). The highest count

66

Anser fabalis

recorded was of 2.597 at Lough Foyle and 2 .000 at Lough Swilly on the same day in November 1985 (NIBR 198285). The diet . like that of the Bewick's Swans In the is a mixture of grass. grain and potatoes. with a substantial preference for potatoes.

Bean Goose Anser fabalis This is a goose that does not occur every year in Ireland. During the years from 1966 to 1986 there were records in 1969. annually from 1973 to 1978. from 1981 to 1983 and in 1985 . Birds were recorded in Cork. Donegal. Down . Dublin. Galway. Limerick. Londonderry. Louth and Wexford. Most records were in Wexford (five) but the onl y records of more than five together were in Cork (27 in January 1982). Limerick (seven in January 1982. Donegal 1982). (22 in January 1982) and Londonderry (13 in There was a major influx in 1981 /82 when eight of the 19 records occurred. A summer record is of one at Rogerstown, Dublin. from 23rd May to late June 19 82. Th is goose was considered by Ussher & Warren (190 0) as a regular visitor to Mayo . Connemara. the Shannon Estuary and the bogs of the midlands. but it seems likely that these were misidentified Greenland White-fronted Geese. The Greenland race with its distinctive dark plumage and yellow bill was not separated until 1948 and it is probable that records of claimed Bean Geese refer to Greenland White-fronted Geese. Ruttledge (1966 ) points out that onl y nine Bean Geese were reported from 1917 to 1927. and eight from 1946 to 1960.

Pink-footed Goose Anser braclJyrlJynclJus The Pink-footed Goose is an annual winter visitor in small numbers. In the yea rs from 1966 to 1986 the largest flocks recorded were in early 19 79 when up to 62 were on the North Slob, Wexford. and 35 at Broad Lough. Wicklow. and in 1983 when 60 were seen off Lame, Antrim. on 23rd September (NIBR 1982-85). The most regular haunt is the Wexford Slobs where small numbers. usually between five and nine. winter every year. They arrive in early to mid October and depart in the second half of April. The status of this goose appears to have changed. Before 1900 there were only two records. By the late 1920s it seem s that Pink-footed Geese were regular visitors to the Wexford Slobs and there were scattered records elsewhere (Kennedy et a/ 1954). Five birds ringed in Scotland in autumn, and 12 ringed in Iceland in summer. have been recovered in Ireland.

White-fronted Goose Anser a/bifrons The Greenland White-fronted Goose. A.a.flavirostris is the race which winters commonly in Ireland. The history of the species and an assessment of the population in Ireland. Scotland and Wales. where the remainder of the population winters, was given by Ruttledge & Ogilvie (1979). They showed that the goose was numerous and widespread throughout the marshes and boglands of Ireland in the last century. Drainage of habitat commenced in the mid 19th century and coincided. fortuitously . with the reclamation of the Wexford Slobs from Wexford Harbour. In the beginning of the present century White-fronted Geese started to use the Slobs; by 1925 numbers were rapidly increasing and reached 4 .000-6.000 by the mid 1940s. At this stage. the population was concentrated in the Slobs with a number of scattered. smaller flocks around the country. Ruttledge & Ogilvie pointed out that. while the population in the 1940s and 1950s was difficult to assess . there were indications of a decline in numbers in Ireland from about 1960. They surveyed all the known wintering haunts and showed that of 72 known haunts. 31 had been deserted. They also estimated that the Irish population had declined by about 50% from an estimated 12.700-17.300 in the 1950s to an estimated 7,500-8.600 in the late 1970s. This decline had been partly. but not wholly. compensated for by an increase of 13 % in the British population. The principal reason given for the decline was the loss of habitat. mainly bogs in Ireland. In addition. shooting and disturbance were stated to have adverse effects. particularly where habitat loss had concentrated the birds. There was also evidence that recruitment to the population in many years fell below mortality. thus contributing to the decline. Because of con cern for the status of the geese . a research project was instituted by the Forest & Wildlife Service (now the Wildlife Service) in 1982 . one objective of which was to accurately census the birds in Wexford and elsewhere in Ireland. and to liaise with Scottish workers who would

Anser anser

67

Summary of autumn and spring censuses of Greenland White-fronted Geese in Wexford, rest of Ireland and Britain, 1982/83 to 1986/87 (after Wilson & Norriss 1986, Norriss & Wilson 1987) Wexford

Rest of Ireland

Britain

Total

1982/83

Autumn Spring

4,913 6,363

No count 2,896

7,189 7,282

16,541

1983/84

Autumn Spring

4,758 6,267

2,879 3,344

8,188 7,926

15,825 17,537

1984/85

Autumn Spring

6,097 7,590

3,030 3,361

9,490 8,952

18,617 19,903

1985/86

Autumn Spring

1986/87

Autumn Spring

7,930 7,940 7,033 7,780

3,565 3,928 3,185 4,106

11,026 10,015 10,952 11,357

22,521 21,883 21,170 23,243

census their wintering birds. The results of the survey to spring 1987 have shown that the population has increased in a linear manner since 1982/83, the first winter of a moratorium on shooting in the Republic. The slowing of the growth rate in 1986/87 has been attributed to the reintroduction of shooting in Wexford in 1985/86 (Norriss & Wilson 1987). The increase between autumn and spring was believed to be due to continued immigration into December. The survey failed to locate any previously unknown flocks of wintering geese and showed a similar distribution of birds to that which had been described in 1979 (Ruttledge & Ogilvie 1979), with the largest flocks away from Wexford being at the Midland lakes, the Little Brosna, the Suck, Lough Gara, Lough Sheskinmore and Loughs Foyle and Swilly. None of these flocks exceeded 350 birds. One small flock was believed to have become extinct in the period 1979 to 1987. The research also showed that productivity was low at 16.1% for Wexford and 16.2% for the rest of Ireland in the three year period to 1984/85, though the latter population had a smaller mean brood size than at Wexford (Wilson & Norriss 1986). The increase in 1985/86, however, followed an exceptional breeding season and the proportion of young in Wexford (34.4%) and the rest of Ireland (22.6%) was the highest ever recorded. There has clearly been a substantial long-term decline in numbers outside Wexford, though there are now signs that this has been arrested by the shooting moratorium. Suggestions have been made that the apparent decline was due to a shift in wintering range to Islay in Scotland, where numbers have increased, as bogs and marshes were drained. Recent authors have indicated that the apparent increase at Islay was due to better coverage, locating flocks previously missed (Stroud & Fox 1985), and ringing recovery data shows that the Wexford and Islay birds have a common breeding range in Greenland, quite different from that of the west of Ireland birds (Owen 1980). As a result Wilson and Norriss believe that the increase at Wexford has been due to lower winter mortality than elsewhere in Ireland. The question is still not fully resolved, however, for neck-banding of individual birds has shown that there is indeed movement between Islay, Wexford and the small populations in the rest of Ireland.

In 1969 there was an extraordinary series of July records: a flock of 11 grey geese, believed on calls to be this species, flew south over Lower Lough Erne, Fermanagh, on 13th July. On the following day nine positively identified White-fronted Geese flew over the same lake. Finally, on 15th July, a flock of 11 came down on the sea off Ballycotton, Cork. The European White-fronted Goose A.a. albifrons is a very rare winter visitor, recorded annually since 1969 but, apart from single birds in Cork and Donegal and a party of eight in Louth, all records have been in Wexford. The maximum recorded together is six on the North Slob, Wexford, on 9th March 1983.

Lesser White-fronted Goose Anser erythropus The only Irish record is of an adult on the North Slob, Wexford, on 23rd and 30th March 1969. The bird appeared at a time when several European White-fronted Geese were recorded on the Slobs and it is likely that all of these came from the Severn Estuary in England, where the three wintering Lesser White-fronted Geese and all but 15 of the wintering European White-fronted Geese had departed less than three weeks earlier.

Greylag Goose Anser anser The Irish wintering population of this goose is small, though recovering from the low total of 738 in 1967. The total number of wintering birds was just over 3,000 in March 1986 (Merne 1986) with a further 625 feral birds counted, and several feral flocks were missed. The main concentrations are at a handful of sites. Single birds and small parties may be seen almost anywhere in winter. Birds appear to move about the country and there is ample evidence that the Dublin and Wicklow wintering flocks, and probably that in Louth, interchange. Counts carried out each month at the east coast sites of Stabannon,

68

Anser anser

Lambay, Blessington and Broad Lough in 1984 showed combined peaks of 1,390 in March and 1,312 in December (IECBR 1984). Similarly, the sites at Lough Swilly, River Foyle and Lough Foyle are a single unit with a total population of about 200 (R. Sheppard). There has been a marked change in status this century. In the nineteenth century there were probably not more than 1,000 wintering birds (Merne 1986), but a dramatic increase occurred from about 1898 when the first Greylags appeared on the Wexford Slobs. Numbers built up very rapidly to about 6,000 birds, but from 1949 numbers crashed and in 1950 there were only about 200 and even less the following year. In the 1950s even these dwindled away (Merne 1986). Nowadays, it is exceptional for more than a handful of Greylag Geese to be seen on the Slobs. Numbers appear to have reached their low point in the 1960s and 1970s. In January 1967 a total of 738 was

counted in a countrywide census (Cabot 1967), and in the 1970s the wintering population was estimated at 7501,000. The period of the decline coincided with an increase in Scotland. The recent recovery in numbers appears to date from about 1975. The results of ringing show that Irish wintering Greylag Geese are from the Icelandic breeding population. An exceptional record is of a bird ringed as a fledgling in Iceland in 1938 and recovered in Mayo in 1965, 27 years later. The feral population was first established at Strangford Lough, Down, when eggs were taken there in 1967. In 1971 50 birds were reared there and very soon Greylag Geese were nesting on local inland lakes as well as on the Lough itself. In the late 1970s there were about 300 birds but this had increased to over 500 in 1985/86. In Fermanagh a flock was kept on an estate from at least 1834, t

Numbers of Greylag Geese counted in March 1986 (after Merne 1986) and peak counts 1982-86 (after IBR and R. Sheppard) County

Site

March 1986

Peak count, 1982-86

Wild birds

Donegal Londonderry

Lough Fern Lough Swilly River Foyle Lough Foyle

Antrim Down

Lough Neagh Strangford Lough

11

15, 11 th January 1986 218. 8th February 1984

3 220 120

195. 15th January 1986 220. March 1986 346, 27th March 1982

50

Tyrone. Armagh. Monaghan Louth Dublin

Monmurry Glaslough, Caledo Stabannon Dundalk Bay Skerries Islands Lambay Island Ireland's Eye

Wicklow

Broad Lough

Wexford

Poulaphouca Reservoir Slobs Tacumshin Lake

Waterford

Cork Limerick Clare

River Suir, Coolfin Dungarvan

23 441-466

100+, 22nd January 1983 12-17 1,024

1,024, March 1986

0-4 362-420

362-420. March 1986

257-260

350. 31st January 1983

75, 1st February 1981

3

22 456

584, December 1982

1

River Blackwater Cork Harbour

9

Shannon Estuary

110

Ballyallia Lake

441-466, March 1986

3

3 3,130-3,225

Feral birds Fermanagh Down Wicklow

Lower Lough Erne Strangford Lough Annamoe

91 527

7 625

Note that feral geese at Doneraile, Kilcolman and the Gearagh in Cork, and perhaps elsewhere, were excluded.

Branta canadensis

69

in October and November 1977, and two in November and December 1979. The bird seen from 1983/84 to 1985/86 was probably a Greater Snow Goose A. c. atlanticus and not the more usual Lesser Snow Goose A. c. caerulescens. Blue phase Snow Geese occurred during 1966-86 on the Inishkea Islands, Mayo, in 1972/73 and on the Little Brosna, Offaly, in March 1973. Otherwise all the records were from the Wexford Slobs where a single bird wintered 1966/67 and 1967/68, 1970/71, and from 1974/75 to 1981/82. Two blue phase birds were seen in winter 1982/83. Young birds believed to be hybrid Snow x Whitefronted Geese associated with the blue phase Snow Goose in 1978/79 and 1979/80 (WBR 1977-80).

Canada Goose Branta canadensis

Greylag Geese censused in March 1986. Large dots represent more than 300 birds. medi urn dots 51-300 birds. small dots all other records

but not until 1980, following the introduction of other birds in the 1960s, did these become feral. Flocks became established at Drumgay Lough and Lower Lough Erne and are now causing problems for farmers (Owen & Salmon 1988). There are also feral populations in Cork, centred on Doneraile and Kilcolman (less than 20 birds) and the Gearagh (about 20). This is probably the species of goose which bred on the Bog of Allen and in Down in the eighteenth century (Ussher & Warren 1900). A small feral population breeds at Strangford Lough and Lough Erne nowadays.

Snow Goose Anser caerulescens Snow Geese occur in white and blue phases. Prior to 1966 there were four records of birds showing the characters of the Lesser Snow Goose A.c. caerulescens, two of birds showing characters of the Greater Snow Goose A.c. atlanticus, and over 30 records of indeterminate Snow Geese (Ruttledge 1966). Of the latter, most were white phase birds but there was a series of records of blue phase birds wintering at the Wexford Slobs in a number of years from 1945/46 onwards. Since 1966 there have been records of white phase birds on the Wexford Slobs in April 19 76, October and November 1977, and each winter from 1979/80. In addition two birds were seen at Tramore, Waterford, in October 1972. The Wexford records were of single birds except for three

A small number of Canada Geese breed in Ireland. All are based on waterfowl collections and the principal flocks are at Strangford Lough in Down, the Loughs Erne in Fermanagh and The Lough, Cork. The Strangford birds are truly feral but the others are in collections. A census of the collections in 1969 (Merne 1970) produced a total of at least 219 birds of which 110 + were in Strangford. As far as can be ascertained, all the birds in these collections originated from collections in Britain. The Lough Erne population now exceeds 400 and there are at least 300 elsewhere in Northern Ireland 0. S. Furphy). There has also been a number of records of birds in winter which are believed to be genuine vagrants from Canada. Merne (1970) listed the records of probable wild Canada Geese in Ireland between 1954 (when the first was recorded at Downpatrick. Down) and 1969/70 when seven were recorded. With the exception of winters 1959/60 and 1964/65, probable wild birds were recorded annually, mostly on the Wexford Slobs but also in Offaly, Sligo and Longford. The concentration of records on the Wexford Slobs where Greenland White-fronted Geese winter in large numbers, the arrival of many of the Canada Geese at the same time as the White-fronted Geese, the regular occurrence of very small Canada Geese and records in Wexford of believed hybrid Canada x Barnacle Geese, Canada x White-fronted Geese and Canada x Snow Geese all indicate that these winter records are mainly, if not wholly, of birds from Arctic Canada or Greenland. Since 1969/70 there have been records of up to seven each winter on the Wexford Slobs and, in addition, records of a single bird with White-fronted Geese at Creganna, and nearby Rahasane in Galway, from January to April 1978, two at Lambay Island, Dublin, each winter from 1983/84 to 1985/86, one at Lisagriffin, Cork, in spring 1985 and seven at Lough Foyle, Londonderry, in October 1985.

70

Branta leucopsis

Barnacle Goose Branta leucopsis

Brent Goose Branta bernicla

Barnacle Geese winter in Ireland almost exclusively on the west coast. The principal haunt is on the Inishkea Islands, Mayo, where a long-term study of the birds commenced in 1960 (Cabot & West 1983). In addition to this special study, counts of the entire Irish wintering population have been made on seven occasions. These show remarkably stable numbers.

The Brent Goose is the most numerous goose wintering in Ireland. However, the productivity of the geese varies substantially from year to year and, as a result, total numbers fluctuate considerably. The Irish wintering birds breed in Arctic Canada and, presumably, northern Greenland. The winter population has been censused on a number of occasions, most recently as part of a study in University College, Dublin (M. O'Brlain).

Counts of the wintering population of Barnacle Geese (after Ogilvie 1983)

Inishkea Islands

Other locations

December 19 59

1,200

1,571

March 1961 April 1962

2,300 2,500

1,864

March 1966

2,600 1,980

March 1973 March/April 1978 March/April 1983

1.904 2,118

2,020

2,417 3,739

1,900

2,532

Total 2,771 4,164 4,404 4,718 4,397 5,759 4,432

Results of censuses of Brent Geese wintering in Ireland Winter

January 10,952

February

61/62 65/66 66/67

7,348 8,058

6,208

67/68

8,314

7,540

68/69 70/71 71/72

The Irish wintering Barnacle Geese breed in north-east Greenland, sharing the breeding grounds with Scottish wintering birds. Aside from the Inishkeas the majority of the Irish winter population is concentrated in Donegal and Sligo. On the Inishkeas the history of the birds is quite well known. The human population was evacuated in 1932 and from then on Barnacle Geese wintered in increasing numbers. By 1939/40 there were 500-1,000 geese; in winter 1950/51 there were an estimated 1,200 and in 1954/55 there were 2,000 (Cabot & West 1983). Over the years from 1961 to 1983 the combined Scottish and Irish wintering population of Greenland birds has increased by about 4.2% per annum, but the Inishkea numbers have remained relatively constant. Cabot and West (1983) have argued that the carrying capacity under the present landuse regime has been reached. They have also shown that the Inishkea birds are only half as productive and have only half as many successfully breeding adults as birds wintering in Islay in Scotland. However, the Inishkea birds are longer lived. The haunts on the east coast at the Wexford Slobs, where 500 were counted in the 1950s (Ruttledge 1966), and at Lurgangreen in Louth, where about 100 wintered up to about 1945, were deserted in the 1960s, but about 50 now winter on both Lambay and the Skerries Islands off the Dublin coast. Security from disturbance is clearly an important factor for wintering Barnacle Geese. This has been demonstrated not just on the Inishkeas but also at Lissadell, Sligo, where numbers have increased steadily since the area was protected from disturbance and managed for the geese. In March 1982, 1,100 were counted, a remarkable increase from the 250-410 recorded in 1970, and over 1,500 now occur regularly. Single birds or small parties are recorded widely in autumn when the birds are arriving.

November 11.909 12,052

60/61

72/73 73/74 74/75

March

5,523

7,765 12,057 14,600 + (Strangford Lough and Kerry only) 13,825 16,140 11,600

77/78

9,300

78/79 79/80 80/81

8,193-8,443 6,161-7,661 9,869

83/84

13,740

84/85 85/86

17,354 24,102

86/87

19,633

14,823

14,261

The loss of birds, between the earlier and later counts in years when two counts were made, is probably due to a combination of mortality and birds being missed after dispersal from their main haunts. The total population was estimated at 6,000 in 1950 (Ruttledge 1975), but, despite the fluctuations which continue, numbers are now much higher, perhaps partly because of the prohibition of shooting since 1960, but also because the birds have had a succession of good breeding seasons and have maintained a high brood size (M. O'Brialn). The main arrival in autumn is at Strangford Lough, Down, and the west Kerry bays. In most years large flocks also occur at Sligo Bay but only for a short period in October. There is also passage at Lough Foyle, Londonderry, in some years. The first birds are usually seen in Kerry in late August but the main arrival is in October. During the winter the large concentration at Strangford Lough disperses, many birds moving south to the Dublin and Wexford estuaries. Colour marking of Brent Geese in the Canadian Arctic by means of a large numbered band on the neck (Maltby-Prevett et al 1975) or numbered leg

Tadorna tadorna

71

Ruddy Shelduck Tadorna [erruqinea

;...

r'

c:"

:' \

I

'....-.

:

-,i

.!'\..

/\-

...

",-' ..

. .- __ r-;__ "'II...

r

Principal Brent Goose wintering sites. Large dots represent more than 1,000 birds, medium dots 501-1,000 birds, small dots 100500 birds

rings (O'Briain 1985), has shown that many of our birds nest on the Queen Elizabeth Islands and Bathurst Island in northern Canada. Tracking of leg-banded Brent on Irish east coast estuaries in winter has shown that many of them move from site to site, presumably in response to depletion of food at favoured feeding areas (O'Briain 1985). Since the increase in the early 1970s, Brent Geese have shown a tendency to feed on pasture fields, winter wheat and even seed grain in Wexford, on stubble fields in Donegal, on a golf course in Dublin (Hutchinson 1979, Ruttledge 1985), on pasture by a marsh in Wicklow (Ruttledge 1984), and on park grassland at Fairview and Gingsend in Dublin. There has also been a shift in the centre of distribution in mid winter with higher numbers on the east coast and fewer birds wintering in Kerry. Although the common wintering race is the Pale-bellied Brent Goose B.b. hrota two other races have also been recorded as rare vagrants. The Dark-bellied Brent Goose B.b. bernicla, the race which breeds in Siberia and winters as close to us as the south coast of Britain, was recorded on 13 occasions up to 1965 (Ruttledge 1966) and on 16 occasions between 1966 and 1986. Seven were recorded at Courtmacsherry Bay, Cork, from December 1978 to mid February 19 79, but all the other records were of one or two birds only. The Black Brant B.b. niqricans was first recorded at Strangford Lough and Tramore, Waterford, in 1978/79, and one or two have been recorded at several sites each winter since then, though the total number of birds occurring in any year has probably never exceeded three. This is the race which breeds in Alaska and west Arctic Canada, and winters on the Pacific coast of North America.

There have been no records in recent years. In the nineteenth century there were records of one to three birds in 1847, 1869 and 1871. In 1886 there was an immigration which included parties of up to six birds. An invasion in 1892 was more widespread and included records of flocks of up to 20 birds. The only occurrences this century were three records of three birds and one of a single in winter in 1945 and 1946. A record of a single bird in 1955 was believed to relate to a bird which had escaped from captivity.

Shelduck Tadorna tadorna Shelduck breed around most of the Irish coastline and inland at Lough Neagh, Lower Lough Erne and Poulaphouca Reservoir, Wicklow. There are gaps in the breeding distribution in north Mayo, west Clare, south Kerry and north Wexford, sections of the coast which have few muddy areas. Studies of the species have shown that territories are established in muddy areas where the main prey item, the mollusc Hydrobia ulvae, is found. Shelduck do not nest until they are two years old so a number of non-breeders are present on estuaries in summer. In July most of those which have nested leave their ducklings in creches in the care of a few adults and, together with the non-breeders, fly to the sand flats of the Heligoland Bight to moult. Some may also go to Bridgwater Bay, Somerset, in England where there is a smaller moulting flock, but there have been no ringing recoveries to prove a connection. Five Shelduck ringed in West Germany in autumn, two ringed in Denmark (in May and August) and one ringed in the Netherlands in July, have been recovered in Ireland. All the above were adults, but one bird ringed as a fledgling in southern Norway in July has been recovered in Waterford in [anuary, The timing of the return from moult varies from year to year, but the first birds usually arrive in mid October and build up steadily until January. The peak in most estuaries is usually in the months from January to March. During the years 1971/72 to 1974/75 the peak numbers at the North Bull, Dublin, were in January at Strangford Lough, Down and the Shannon Estuary, in February or March, and at Cork Harbour in March. It has been speculated that the larger numbers in certain estuaries in early spring may be due to British birds wandering westwards (Hutchinson 1979), but only nine British ringed Shelducks have been recovered in Ireland. One Norwegian bird has been recovered in its first winter, but more recoveries would be expected if many foreign birds wintered here. Although Shelducks are normally coastal in distribution, up to 221 have been counted on Lough Neagh and about 30 pairs nest there (Davidson 1987). The numbers wintering in Ireland were estimated at 6,500-8,500 birds in 1971/72 to 1974/75 and there was some evidence of a decline since the late 1960s (Hutchinson 1979). More recently, there is some evidence of

72

Aix qalericulata

November. but there is a substantial increase at Strangford Lough and the North Bull. Dublin (Hutchinson & Keys 1973). This must be the result of an arrival of birds from the north-east. Numbers decline at these locations in December. probably as Wigeon move inland. but in late December and January numbers increase again in the east as colder weather drives birds west from Britain and the Continent. In January. Wigeon are much more Widely dispersed than in November. In the south of the country and in the Shannon valley numbers build much more slowly and steadily to a peak [Mandarin Aix galericulata] in late December or January. In February there is a decline A female was shot on the South Slob. Wexford. on 19th throughout the country and this continues into March. December 1971. It was presumably a wanderer from the with the exception of the Shannon valley where huge numbers concentrate at this time on the River Shannon feral population in England. and the Little Brosna near Banagher. Offaly. But numbers are so much reduced throughout the country that it is clear there is a substantial withdrawal towards the breeding areas in February and March. It seems likely that the birds which gather near Banagher are those destined for Iceland. In April few remain and while Wigeon occasionally spend the summer in Ireland they are very few indeed (Hutchinson 1979). Analyses of ringing recoveries have shown that the Wigeon which winter in Ireland originate in Iceland. Scandinavia and Siberia (Donker 1959. Owen & Mitchell 1988). In particular. Ireland is of significance for Icelandic birds. For the much larger Scandinavian and Siberian population Ireland is less important. forming the westerly edge of a large wintering area incorporating Britain. Denmark. Belgium. the Netherlands. Germany. France and Iberia. Of 96 Wigeon ringed outside Britain and Ireland and recovered in Ireland up to January] 986.39 were from Iceland and 57 from Continental Europe (Owen & Mitchell] 988). Of 29 Irish ringed Wigeon recovered outside Britain and Ireland. 26 were in Scandinavia. the Baltic states or the Soviet Union. and none at all in Iceland. During the period from 1971 /72 to 1974/75 the peak mid winter population was estimated at approximately 105.000 birds (Hutchinson 1979). There is no evidence of any marked change in status since then. though Whilde (1986). using more data. has estimated the winter popuWigeon Anas penelope lation in the Republic at between 100.000 and 150.000. and between 5.000 and 10.000 winter in Northern Wigeon have been proved to nest in Ireland on only two occasions: at Lough Neagh in 1933 and on Rathlin Island. Ireland. Antrim. in 1953. They are. however. the most numerous of our wintering ducks. The first winter visitors usually arrive in the last week of August. and small numbers are widespread throughout the country in September. In late autumn the highest American Wigeon Anas americana numbers are reached at Lough Foyle. Londonderry (maximum in recent years of 28.475 in 1982) and Castle- The American Wigeon is a rare vagrant which was maine Harbour. Kerry (up to 8.000 in the] 970s). These recorded on three occasions prior to 1966 (Ruttledge birds. which pass on very quickly. are believed to come 1966). Since then there have been 26 records. of which from Iceland because of their arrival on the west coast at 11 have been in Kerry. five in Cork. three in Wexford. two the same time as Icelandic Whooper Swans at Lough in Antrim and one each in Clare. Down. Dublin. Galway Swilly . Donegal. and the absence of any comparable build- and Londonderry. There has been one record of a flock of up at the same time on Strangford Lough. Down. or the 13 in Kerry in October 1968. one record of three. and four Dublin estuaries where Scandinavian or Russian birds records of two birds together. All other records are of single would be expected to make their first landfall. Numbers are birds. usually slightly reduced at Lough Foyle and Castlemaine in The longest staying bird was one at Ballycotton, Cork.

an increase at Cork Harbour. where a count of 2.400 in March 1968 had been considered exceptional: there were 2.683 in January 1979. 2.549 in January 1981, and 3.765 in December 1981. In Dublin there is no indication of any significant change in wintering status since the mid-I 970s (IECBR).

Anas crccca from 8th April to 22nd November 1985. A bird shot in Kerry on 12th October 1968 had been ringed near New Brunswick. Canada. on 29th August of the same year. One shot near Tuarn, Galway. on 8th or 9th October 1977 had been ringed at Prince Edward Island. Canada. on 30th August 1977.

73

Ringing has demonstrated that Irish wintering Gadwall originate from Iceland (12 recoveries). the south of England (six recoveries). Scotland (four recoveries). Denmark. West Germany and the Netherlands (one recovery each). One Irish ringed Gadwall was recovered in Sweden in August. The mid winter population was estimated in 1974/75 at 200-400. most likely around 300-350 (Hutchinson 1979). Numbers nowadays are probably over 500.

Gadwall Anas strepera Gadwall are scarce breeding birds and thinly scattered in winter. In the past decade there has been evidence of a small increase in breeding and wintering numbers. Up to 1975. breeding had been proved on Lough Neagh, in Wexford and in Kerry. and the breeding population was estimated at no more than about ten pairs in anyone year (Hutchinson 1979). Since then. records are clearly incomplete but the species is established at Lough Neagh, where 17 pairs were found in 1986 (Partridge 1986b) and about 20 pairs estimated in 1987 (Davidson 1987). in Wexford (where D.J. Merne estimates at least ten nesting pairs per annum with a slow upward trend). in Galway (where birds seen each summer on Lough Corrib) and Cork. The published breeding records from 1976 to 1985 are set out in the table. In autumn some birds arrive in September but the main immigration is in October and November. Gadwall may be seen in very small numbers. rarely more than five together. almost anywhere in the country from October to April. but the main concentrations are at a handful of lakes and brackish lagoons. The largest numbers have been counted at Ballycotton and nearby lakes. Cork (up to 320 in December 1987). Ballyallia Lake. Clare (up to 180) and Tacurnshin. Wexford (up to 160). with smaller flocks on Lough Neagh, Strangford Lough in Down. Lough Carra in Mayo . Lough Corrib in Galway. Ballycotton Lake in Cork and several lakes in its vicinity. Lady's Island Lake in Wexford and Lough Gill in Kerry. Gadwall were referred to by Ruttledge (1966) as passage migrants. and large concentrations in spring and autumn were cited. Counts since 1970. however. have shown that Gadwall are primarily winter visitors and that passage migration. if any. is slight. The highest numbers at Ballyallia and Ballycotton Lakes occur in mid winter. though birds depart from both sites on occasion to feed on nearby lakes. The Ballycotton birds. for example. feed and roost at other east Cork lakes when the water level is very high at the main site .

[Baikal Teal Anasformosa] The only Irish record is of an adult male shot at Crom, Fermanagh, on 13th January 1967. As this species is commonly kept in wildfowl collections. it may not have been a wild bird.

Teal Anas ereeea Teal are thinly distributed as breeding birds in Ireland. favouring small pools in moorland areas and bogs. but also nesting on rivers and small lakes where there is dense vegetation. During the years 1969-72 they were recorded in 386 10km squares and proved to breed in 182. The average number per occupied 10 km square was estimated as probably three to five pairs (Breeding Atlas). On this basis the Irish breeding population might be in the region of 800-1,500 pairs. Numbers increase from August as immigrants arrive. On the east coast there is a reasonably steady build-up to peak numbers in December but on the south coast there is a decline after the autumn. indicating that many birds

Publishedrecordsoj breeding pairs oJGadwall. 1976-1985 1976

Lough Nea gh Wexford Cork Galway Clare

Roscommon

2

1977

1978 10

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

Regular breeder each year 1

5

5 3

1

1984

1985

74

Anas platyrhynchos

move on, perhaps to western France and Spain. Teal do react to hard weather and when the winter is mild on the Continent there are fewer in Ireland than during cold spells. Counts during the four winters 1971/72 to 1974/75 showed clearly how Teal numbers rose sharply after a period of cold in Britain and on the Continent and then fell away soon afterwards (Hutchinson 1979). The best known evidence of the effect of cold weather on Teal numbers is the ringing recoveries of marked birds during the exceptionally cold weather of January to March 1963, when there was a massive rush to Ireland, followed by an exodus to France and Spain as the weather remained harsh here (Ogilvie 1975). In December, when numbers are at their highest, Teal are found in small numbers all through the country, and in concentrations of several hundred on a number of wetlands. The largest numbers are at the Shannon Estuary, Cork Harbour, the North Bull, Dublin, and the Lough Neagh basin. Each of these sites holds over 1,000 birds in winter. Ringing results show that most of these birds originate in Scandinavia and the Baltic states, though many are ringed on migration through the Netherlands (Woolf 1966). Some also come from Britain and Iceland. In January, numbers decline as birds withdraw towards the breeding area. In the Netherlands birds ringed in winter in England have been found as early as the end of January. However, departure is staggered and some wintering Teal remain to mid March, especially on the Shannon valley where concentrations of over 1,000 occur on the Little Brosna, OffaIy, up to the end of the month. These are associating with Wigeon and Whooper Swans and may well, like these species, be Icelandic breeders. The December total was estimated in the mid 1970s as 30,000-50,000, probably nearer the higher figure, with the caveat that in cold winters the numbers are obviously far greater (Hutchinson 1979). Counts in recent years indicate that the current winter totals are higher than this. The Green-winged Teal A.e. carolinensis is an annual vagrant from North America, recorded from October to April. Because the females cannot be separated from European birds in the field, all the records are of males. Birds were recorded in the years 1966-86 in counties Clare, Cork, Donegal, Dublin, Galway, Kerry, Limerick, Londonderry, Louth, Mayo, Tipperary, Waterford, Westmeath and Wexford. Most were in Cork and Kerry, and there is a clear southerly bias to the records. The only inland counties with records in the period are Tipperary and Westmeath. Prior to 1966 there were ten records (Ruttledge 1966).

15 Green-winged Teal 10

1966-86

Mallard Anas platyrhynehos Mallard are the most familiar and certainly the most widespread of Ireland's wildfowl. They nest throughout the country in a variety of wetland habitats, from small ponds and streams to large lakes and estuaries, and also on offshore islands. Densities vary considerably from one location to another and little information is available to indicate the numbers nesting at particular sites. Estimates have been published of 120 pairs on a 33 ha lake at Ballycotton, Cork (Hutchinson 1979), and over 1,500 moulting birds have been seen in late June and early July on the Wexford Slobs, though many of these may congregate from a wider area (O.J. Merne). At Lough Neagh the breeding population is estimated at 1,400 pairs. There are thought to be 700 pairs on the 43.75 ha of islands on Lough Neagh, representing a density of 16 pairs per hectare (Davidson 1987). Such rich areas as these are sites of particularly high breeding density. On the River Oona, Tyrone, ten territories were found in 1984 at a density of 4.6 per 10 km, a rather low number. Over most of Ireland Mallard are probably thinly dispersed and it has been estimated that there might be an average of 20 pairs per 10 km square of the National Grid in Britain and Ireland (Breeding Atlas). On this assumption the Irish breeding population could be in the region of 20,000 pairs. After breeding, Mallard gather in large flocks on certain lakes and estuaries. In August and September the largest numbers appear on Lough Neagh, the Wexford Slobs, Lough Foyle in Londonderry, Lough Corrib. Galway, and Loughs Derravaragh and Iron in Westmeath as family parties join up with non-breeders and some immigrants. Counts of over 7,500 have been made at Lough Neagh and over 2,000 on the Wexford Slobs. At some wetlands, such as Ballycotton, Cork, and the Wexford Slobs the flocks disperse in October and November. At other locations, such as Strangford Lough, Down, there is a less marked dispersal and at some, such as Portumna at the north end of Lough Derg, the numbers increase in winter (Hutchinson 1979). These fluctuations are certainly due in part to a dispersal from large waters to smaller ponds and marshes in late autumn and early winter. Some birds, however, mayemigrate in late autumn and there is some evidence for this from recoveries in France, in winter, of hand-reared birds ringed in Wexford in the previous autumn. These were probably abmlgrants, birds which had travelled with immigrants from France as they returned to their breeding area. The results of ringing Mallard have been examined by Cabot (1977). He showed that there is an extensive immigration of wild Mallard from Britain and a less marked movement from the Continent. Many of the British birds are thought to be of Continental origin and ringed on passage in central and southern England, suggesting an origin in Belgium or the Netherlands. However, a few recoveries indicate that some Baltic birds visit us, but there has been only one recovery of an Icelandic ringed Mallard in Ireland. There is also a pronounced immigration into Ireland of hand-reared Mallard from western Britain, but relatively little movement to Britain of Irish hand-reared birds. Nevertheless, the vast majority of Irish ringed

Anas querqeudula Mallard have been recovered within a radius of about 15 km of the ringing site. To some extent this is a measure of the short life expectancy of Mallard, since most of these recoveries are of birds shot in the winter following ringing, but if these cases are excluded it is clear that a large proportion of the Mallard present in Ireland in winter is of resident and sedentary birds. Large numbers . hand-reared Mallard are released every autumn by gun clubs throughout the country, and the total exceeded 10,000 per annum in the Republic in the 1970s (O.J. Merne). There are no published data to indicate whether this programme has increased the wild population, but a policy of releasing birds on sanctuaries where they are protected in their first winter has been shown to increase breeding numbers in Britain. As Mallard are so widely dispersed it is difficult to estimate their numbers. However, it has been assumed that more than 20,000, but probably less than 50,000, are present in mid January, with considerably larger numbers in autumn before the opening of the shooting season (Hutchinson 1979). The most thorough counts have been carried out in Northern Ireland where 9,300 were seen in September 1986 (Salmon et aI1987). A survey of91 lakes in Down in 1986/87, many of which are very small, produced peak numbers of 1,174 in December (G. McElwaine). As most Irish counties probably hold more than 1,000 Mallard and some have many more, it is likely that the mid January total is well over 50,000.

American Black Duck Anas rubripes This North American species has been recorded in Ireland on four occasions. A female was shot at Mullinavat, Kilkenny, about 13th February 1954; one was seen on the 'North Slob, Wexford, from 18th to 21st February 1961; one was shot at Mayglass, near Bridgetown, Wexford, on 27th November 1966 and one was seen at the North Bull and Rogerstown, Dublin, from 1st December 1979 to 3rd February 1980 and from 9th September to 27th October 1980. What was believed to be the same bird was shot at Mulhuddart, Dublin, on 13th November 1980.

75

largest numbers nowadays occur at the North Bull, Dublin, Strangford Lough, Down, and Bannow Bay, Wexford. Elsewhere it is exceptional to see more than ISO together. The first immigrants arrive in late August or early September, and there is a steady increase in October and November. In Wexford, peak numbers are reached at this time and decline afterwards. On the east coast, largely at the North Bull and Rogerstown, the highest numbers are recorded in November or December in most years. Pintail show a preference for sandy estuaries and flooded callows, but even within these broad habitat types there are many areas which are not frequented. There is some evidence of a long-term increase in numbers up to the 1960s (Ruttledge 1966); haunts for which counts are available for a prolonged period are the North Bull and Rogerstown in Dublin and Strangford Lough. At the North Bull there was an increase prior to 1950 and another from 1966/67; at Rogerstown an increase from 1968/69; at Strangford Lough an increase from 1967/68. The increases, though involving relatively few birds, coincided with a massive influx to the Mersey in England, but numbers appear to have declined again at least at certain sites. In Wexford up to 1,150 were counted in 1970 but less than 600 were recorded by the early 1980s (WBR). At the North Bull the peak count in 1983/84 was 642 (IEeBR 1984), as compared with 200-450 in the early 1970s (Hutchinson 1975). Numbers have declined again and the highest count in 1986 was 486 (IECBR 1986). At the Lough Neagh basin the annual peak in the mid 1960s was always over 500, but since counts recommenced in the late 1970s it has been exceptional to record over 25. In Cork there has been a decrease from about 100 in the early 1970s to less than ten nowadays. Ringing indicates that some Irish Pintail come from Iceland but that many others come from the Continent, probably mostly originating in the Soviet Union. There is also some onward passage, for Irish ringed birds have been recovered farther south, notably in France (seven), Italy (two), the Azores (one) and Ghana (one). An unusual record is of one ringed on Prince Edward Island, Canada, as a fledgling in 1969 and shot in Sligo in January 1974. The wintering population fluctuates considerably but was estimated in the mid 1970s at between 3,000 and 7,000 birds, with peak numbers in November probably closer to the latter figure (Hutchinson 1979). The current winter population is probably 1,000-3,000.

Pintail Anas acuta The Pintail is an extremely rare breeding bird in Ireland, first recorded nesting in 1917. Since then, breeding has been proved in six counties: Armagh, Antrim, Down, Londonderry, Laois and Roscommon. During the five years from 1968 to 1972 the only breeding records were of single pairs at Lough Beg, Londonderry, and in Roscommon (Breeding Atlas). Since then, the only published records have been of single pairs at Lough Croan, Roscommon, in 1979 and 1983. In winter, Pintail occur in flocks at very few Irish sites, and have declined considerably in the past 15 years. The

Garganey Anas querquedula The Garganey is a scarce but annual spring and autumn passage migrant through Ireland and a very rare breeding bird. Breeding was recorded at Lough Neagh in 1956, and in Kerry in 1959 (Ruttledge 1966). Since 1966 there has only been one occasion when a pair was thought to have attempted to breed, and that was at Lady's Island, Wexford, in 1978. Birds have been seen in summer in several years on Lough Neagh but breeding has not been suspected. The majority of records are in late May and late August,

76

Anas discors Shoveler Anas clypeata Garganey

1966-86

30

reflecting the status of the species as a migrant on passage to and from winter quarters in Africa. Records in the years 1966-86 were from Wexford (22), Cork (21), Londonderry (11), Kerry (six), Down (four), Antrim (three), Armagh (three), Dublin (three), Wicklow (three), Tyrone (three), Limerick (two), Galway (one), Mayo (one), Fermanagh (one) and Roscommon (one). There were about 62 records up to 1965 (Ruttledge 1966) and since 1953, except for 1955, Garganeys have been recorded annually. Although there has been only one recent winter record, there were six January, five February and three December records in the past; and there are six ringing recoveries in Ireland, in November and January, of birds ringed in the Netherlands (four), Belgium and West Germany (one each).

Blue-winged Teal Anas discors This North American duck is a rare autumn vagrant which occasionally winters. An adult male recorded from 16th to 23rd June 1971 on the North Slob, Wexford, and presumably the same bird there on 27th August 19 71, may have been an escaped bird or one which had spent the winter in Ireland. Blue-winged Teal are commonly kept in wildfowl collections and the possibility remains that this apparently aberrant record was not of a wild bird. There were 17 records from 1966 to 1986, including two long-staying birds seen singly at the North Bull, Dublin, and nearby estuaries from 22nd October 1974 to 1st March 1975, and at the North Bull from 16th September 1977 to mid March 1978. Apart from a pair at Lough Funshinagh, Roscommon, on 22nd May 1984, all

Blue-winged Teal

1966-86

Although quite widespread in winter, Shoveler are rare breeding birds. During the years 1968-72 they were proved to breed in only 19 10 km squares of the National Grid, and were recorded or considered likely to be breeding in another 31 squares. Most records were in the north-east, particularly around Lough Neagh, and in Roscommon (Breeding Atlas). The total breeding population then was probably not more than 100 pairs. That the species continues to be scarce is evidenced by the record of the first breeding in Cork for some years at Kilcolman Wildfowl Refuge, Cork, in 1978. This was followed by breeding at Lough Aderry, Cork, in 1979, again at Kilcolman in 1980 and 1981, and at Ballycotton, Cork, in 1981, suggesting that there might be an increase in breeding numbers. In 1986 a pair bred in Kildare. Recent census studies at Lough Neagh indicate that Shovelers are scarce, 20 pairs being located in 1986 (Partridge 1986b). In winter, though not so common as Wigeon, Mallard or Teal, they are to be found throughout most of the country in parties of up to 20 and in much larger numbers at a few locations. The first autumn birds gather early, a few birds appearing on estuaries in late July. These are probably Irish or British bred birds gathering to moult prior to departure for France or Iberia. In October and November an increase is noted at most locations as immigrants arrive. In the period 19 71/72 to 1974/75 the largest flocks were seen annually at Lough Owel, Westmeath, where up to 2,000 were recorded in October and November (Hutchinson 1979). Numbers declined here in December and January, and usually none remained into spring. Whether these birds dispersed westwards to the Connacht turloughs and the Shannon valley, or moved south-west towards France or Spain, was unknown. Numbers are still high in this general area in autumn and 1,200 were counted in the vicinity of Mullingar, Westmeath. in November 1981, including a gathering of 800 at Lough Iron. There is some indication of an increase in spring. At Rahasane, Galway, and the Little Brosna, Offaly, the largest numbers are seen in February and March. It is known that Icelandic Black-tailed Godwits assemble in the Shannon valley in spring and the concentration of Wigeon at the same time is probably of Icelandic birds too, so it seems likely that the increase in Shoveler numbers in the same area is also of Icelandic breeders. At this time of year, Shoveler have deserted most of their coastal wintering areas, so it may be that they move to the Shannon and Rahasane area prior to returning to nest in Iceland. Ringing recoveries show that Icelandic, Scandinavian and Russian Shoveler winter in Ireland as well as some from Scotland and the north of England. The winter population was estimated in the mid 1970s at about 8.000 birds in November. but perhaps as few as 4.000 by January.

Aythyaferina Red-crested Pochard Netta rufina Red-crested Pochard are commonly kept in wildfowl collections, so records in Ireland are sometimes suspected of being of escaped birds rather than true vagrants from southern Europe. They are extremely rare, having been recorded on only 16 occasions between 1966 and 1986 and ten prior to 1966. Records since 1965 have been of single birds (except for two together in Down in December 1981 and January 1984) in Wexford (four), Down (four), Armagh (three), Londonderry, Dublin, Galway, Westmeath and Wicklow (each with one record). Apart from single records in May, July, August and September, all were recorded from December to March.

Pochard Aythya [erina Pochard are scarce but increasing nesting birds. They were first proved breeding in Ireland in 1907, but by the mid 1970s it was only possible to describe them as nesting sporadically and in very small numbers, mostly in the midlands, with an annual breeding population of perhaps ten pairs (Hutchinson 1979). During 1968-72, Pochard were proved to breed in nine, and suspected of nesting in 11, 10 km squares of the National Grid, but the records were spread over five summers and were believed to give a false impression of the number breeding in anyone year (Breeding Atlas). Since 1972 breeding has been recorded at Oxford Island, Lough Neagh, Down (single pairs in 1975, 1976 and 1977), Ballycotton, Cork (one pair in 1978, two pairs in 1979, three pairs in 1981), Lough Croan, Roscommon (six nests in 1979, two, possibly four, pairs in 1981, three in 1983), Lough Funshinagh, Roscommon (one pair in 1979) Lough Derravaragh (one pair in 1983). In addition one pair was suspected of breeding at Portmore Lough, Antrim, in 1978 and two pairs at Ross Lough, Fermanagh, in 1985. Breeding is annual at Lough Neagh, where ten pairs were found in 1986 (Partridge 1986b), and about 20 pairs estimated (Davidson 1987), in Roscommon

77

and in Cork. Between one and three pairs summer on Lough Corrib, Galway, and breeding is likely (A. Whilde). It is not known when most Pochard arrive in Ireland though the first birds are back as early as late June, but by September, when the earliest complete wildfowl counts have been carried out, enormous numbers are present at Lough Corrib and Lough Derravaragh, Westmeath. Numbers at Lough Corrib appear to build up from mid July and peak counts of up to 22,000 have been recorded in October or November. Most are adult males (0. J. Merne). At Lough Derravaragh the peak is a little earlier, in September, and 5,000-6,000 have been counted. The flocks at these two lakes are probably of moulting birds; similar flocks are known at various other European lakes. The birds disperse from late October onwards and numbers build up at other wetlands, presumably because of the dispersal of these moulting flocks. In winter the largest numbers by far occur on Lough Neagh, where counts were carried out from 1964/65 to 1968/69 and from 1979/80 to 1980/81 by the Northern Ireland Ornithologists Club, and since 1985/86 by the RSPB and the Department of the Environment. Numbers at Lough Neagh fluctuate greatly from year to year but the highest counts have always been in winter. Elsewhere in Ireland Pochard occur Widely throughout the country, but flocks of over 100 are scarce south-east of a line drawn from Limerick to Dundalk, the only large flocks being at Killarney, Kerry, south-east Wexford, Malahide and Knock Lake, Dublin. The principal winter concentrations, apart from those on Lough Neagh, are on the lakes of Clare, Galway, Mayo, Sligo, Fermanagh, Donegal and Westmeath. Data from counts at various wetlands indicate that most Pochard leave Ireland between mid February and mid March. It is not known where the bulk of the wintering population breeds, but birds ringed in Ireland in winter have been recovered in central Europe and the Soviet Union, and birds ringed in summer in the Baltic States (47), Denmark, East Germany, West Germany and even Spain (one) have been recovered in Ireland. Some birds winter in different areas in successive years. Pochard ringed in winter in Switzerland, Poland, Czechoslovakia and the Netherlands have been recovered in Ireland. The

Counts of Pochard in the Lough Neagh basin. The absence of figures indicates that no counts were made

64/65

65/66

66/67

67/68

68/69

80

72

505

2,552 16,450

29 2.916 3,855

579 3,375 11,710

534 3,874 8,126

20,414

16.853

28,161 37.648

11,265 6,895

14,485

22,856 41,144

6,630 11,423

August September October November December January February

6,924

79/80

80/81

85/86

86/87 2,461 10,422

17,346 16,794 10,775 7,244

14.434 16,103 16,348 13,783 3,795

14,185 5,507 3,214 7,312 2,817 March 4,948 1,442 744 294 April 49 48 May 6 2 2 10 Note: the December 1980 count was understated due to bad weather and the January 1981 count omitted the west shore Neagh. Nevertheless, the number of ducks in 1980/81 was much reduced from the previous year.

Lough

78

Aythya collaris

size of the winter population is difficult to estimate because it depends on the numbers on Lough Nea gh , but it wou ld seem to va ry between 15.000 and 50 .0 00 birds.

Ring-necked Duck Aythya collaris The first record of th is North Ame rican duck was of a n adult male at Lurgan Park Lake. Arm agh . wh ich also visited Lough Nea gh each winter from 19 59 /60 to 1969 /70. two being present from 1965/ 66 to 196 8 /69 . Th ere was a lull until 1974 when a male and femal e were seen at severa l lakes in we st Cork between February and May. and a further lull until 19 77 / 78 when four (thr ee males and a fema le) were on th e Carr igadrohid reserv oir . Cork. Tw o males were seen at the nearby Gearagh and a female at Ballycotton, Cork. in 1978/79. All th e records. therefore. up to the winter 1978/79 . were in either Armagh or Cork. Since then there has been an inc rease in records. with an obviou s influx in winter 1979/80. and the species was an annual va gra nt from 19 7 7 to winter 19 84/ 8 5.

Ferruginous Duck Aythya nyroca Thi s is a rarity from Euro pe which . unlike th e Ring-necked Duck . rem ains extremel y rar e in Ireland. The re were 12 records up to 19 65 (Rutt ledge 19 6 6 ). but one (a pair at Acton Lake. Arm agh . in 19 56 ) has since been withdrawn (NIBR 19 82-8 5). There have been seven records sin ce then: one. believed to be an adult female or an immature. was seen on the South Slob. Wexford. on 12th Febru ary 19 69 : a m ale was seen on Lou gh Neagh , Arm a gh. on 15th January 19 78. and anothe r male was see n at Lurg an Park Lake. Arm agh. from 6th to 20th Augus t 19 78: a female wa s seen at the Quoile Pondage, Down. from 23 rd to 2 7th December 1983: a m ale was there on 2nd November 198 5: a male was seen at Belfast Lou gh . Down on 2 7th April 19 8 6 and a male a t Lou gh Neagh from 24 th October to 16th Nove mber 19 8 6.

Records of Ring-necked Ducks. 1979/80 to 198 5/ 86 79 /80 80 /8 1 8 1/82 82 /83 83 /84 84/85 Cork Armagh Limerick Sligo

5

2

1

1

1 1

1

Mayo Lon don derry 1

Dublin Wex ford Waterford Don eg al

3 1

1

15 Ring-necked Duck

1966-86

Ring-necked Ducks are usually found among flocks of Tufted Ducks and most have spent th e winter. In som e cases bird s have come back to the same site for several years. Th e Lurgan Park Lake birds are th e best example. A pa ir in Cork has remained in to June.

Tufted Duck Ay thya [uliqula Th e Tufted Duck is frequ ently seen in winter in mixed flocks with Pochard but it is much more common as a breeding species in summe r. Tuft ed Ducks nest commonly north and west of a line from Dundalk to Limerick where the majority of suitable lakes. th ose with an area of more than on e hectare. are loca ted (Breeding At las). Th e populati on in 19 68- 72 wa s estim ated at 2.0 00 pairs. th e largest concentrations being 800-1.000 pairs in th e Lough Neagh ba sin and 200 pairs on Lower Lough Erne. Th e population has been expanding and increasing its range since nesting wa s first pro ved in 1877. Lough Neagh was colonized in 18 81. or earlier . and th ere wa s a grea t increase between 1920 and 1940. Wexford w as colonized in 19 70 a nd Waterford in 1974. so numbers now adays may be abo ve those recorded in 1968-72. though the breeding numbers at Lower Lough Ern e. Fermanagh , declined to 5 7 in 1975 and 35 in 19 8 5 (Part ridge 19 8 7) follow ing increasing eutro phica tion . In winter any assessmen t of numbers must take account of th e very large concentration on Lough Neagh and the substantial fluctuation s from year to year. The counts th ere. organized by th e Northern Ireland Orn ithologists Clu b a nd the Department of the Env iron men t and RSPB. show that the area had th e largest flock in northern Europe.

Aythya marila

79

Counts of Tufted Ducks in the Lough Neagh basin. The absence of figures indicates that no counts were made

64/65

August September October November December January February March April May

17,948 17,154 11,817

65/66

66/67

67/68

68/69

3,697 9,303

5,294 7,358

3.412 8.547

25,823

18,451

11,645

25.746

20,879 30.445 21,693 14.500 11,911

14.967 17,632 15.653 12.246 10,626

28.856

16,977

27,859 12.242

5,204 1,802

5,052 2,287

4,279 2.036

27,859

79/80

19,088 12,234 17,199

80/81

8,038 5,262 7.859

85/86

5,739 5.802 6.442 3.649 3.529

86/87 1,620 7,399 7,300 7.411 8,943 6,711 5,364

Note: the December 1980 count was understated due to bad weather and the January 1981 count omitted the west shore of Lough Neagh. Nevertheless. the number of ducks in 1980/81 was much reduced from the previous year.

outside the Baltic and the Dutch Ijsselmeer, until recent years when there has been a sharp decline. There has been a considerable reduction in breeding numbers at Lough Neagh as welt the population dropping from an estimated 1,000 pairs in the 1960s to about 300 in 1987 (Davidson 1987). The decline may be due to increased competition for food by roach which have dramatically increased in numbers at Lough Neagh (Davidson 1987). Elsewhere in Ireland there are late autumn and mid winter concentrations of over 500 on the Westmeath lakes, Lough Ree, the Lough Erne system, Fermanagh, and in Wexford. Smaller flocks occur on most of the large lakes and parties of ten or so may be met with almost anywhere (Hutchinson 1979). Very little is known about the movements of Irish bred Tufted Ducks but some, at least, winter in the country. The main influx of immigrants at the Westmeath lakes and Lough Neagh appears to be in late September or October, and the departure timing coincides with the return at Lough Leven, in Scotland, from late March to mid April (Allison et aI 1974). Most of these Scottish birds winter in Ireland, as do some from England. The Lough Leven birds arrive in autumn and the bulk of them are present from December to February. Other immigrants visit us from Iceland, Scandinavia, the Baltic States and the Netherlands. An estimate of the wintering population is difficult because numbers vary from year to year at Lough Neagh and because the birds are so widely dispersed in small numbers elsewhere. However, an assessment of between 10,000 and 25,000 birds, excluding those at Lough Neagh, was made for the mid 1970s (Hutchinson 1979), and a review in the 1980s suggested a decline in the Republic (Whilde 1986).

Scaup Aythya marila The Scaup is chiefly a marine species, occurring in winter in small parties and sometimes large flocks at various estuaries and bays and, inland, at Lough Neagh. Ruttledge (1970) in discussing the status considered that numbers are higher in autumn and spring, thus indicating some passage migration, but regular counts carried out at Carlingford Lough in the 19 70s showed no sign of any autumn or spring passage (Hutchinson 1979). In Wexford, however, numbers increase in March (WBR 1977-80). Since the mid 1960s the principal concentrations have been in Wexford Harbour and the lagoons at Lady's Island Lake and Tacumshin, Wexford, Carlingford Lough, Louth/Down, Belfast Lough, Down/Antrim, Lough Neagh, Lough Swilly, Donegal, Blacksod Bay, Mayo and the Shannon Estuary. No other site in the mid 1970s held more than 100 birds, and only Carlingford (500-1,000) and Lough Neagh (500-2,200) held over 500, though counts of up to 900 have been recorded in Wexford since 1975. Smaller parties can be found in Cork Harbour. Tralee Bay and Castlemaine Harbour, Kerry, Galway Bay and at several Mayo sites. One or two can turn up almost anywhere. There was a sudden decline in numbers in the late 1960s. Prior to 1966 there were 2,500 at Carlingford Lough, several hundred on the Meath coast and approximately 3,000 in Wexford Harbour. Numbers were much reduced at Carlingford and Wexford Harbour by the late 1960s, and the Meath flock had gone completely. Since the late 1970s numbers in Wexford and Donegal have increased and Scaup have returned to Cork Harbour (up to 100) which they had deserted completely in the late 1960s, but the highest counts at Lough Neagh in winters 1979/80 and 1980/81 were 812 and 1,199 respectively, indicating no increase whatever, though there were 1,712 in March 1986. The Irish wintering population is in the region of 3,000 birds. It is likely that most of them are from Iceland (Salmon 1988). Fifty Icelandic and one Finnish ringed Scaup have been recovered in Ireland; one Wexford ringed bird has been recovered in the Soviet Union.

80

Somateria moIlissima

Eide r Somateria moIIissima The Eider breeds around our northern coast from the Copeland Islands, Down. to Inishmurray, Sligo. having colonized Ire land at Inishtrahull. Donegal. in 1912. Spread was reasonably steady and by 1962 there were over 100 pairs on Inishtrahull. Inishmurray, Sligo. was colonized about 1961. There are signs that the species is continuing to expand its range steadily. A 1977 census on the north-east coast produced a total of almost 100 pairs and recent counts indicate no change in the breeding population of this area 0. H. Wells).

Rosbeg, Donegal. in spring 1974. 1976. and annually from 1977 to 1982. One . possib ly the same. was seen off Downhill. Londonderry. from 11 th Ju ne to 4th August 1982. It is likely that all the records since 1971 refer to the same bird.

-

Result of census of Eiders on the north-east coast. 1977 County Results

Down Antrim

Londonderry

5 pairs on Copeland Islands. 42 broods on mainland containing 110 young and 1 predated nest. 50 breeding pairs at least on Rathlin Island. 1 occupied nest and 1 pair on the Skerries. No birds on Sheep Island. a former site. No breeding pairs found despite extensive searching.

In the same year a count covering about 65% of Inishmurray produced 99 males. 42 females, 90 ducklings and 12 nests. A count in 1981 produced 126 birds including 90 juveniles. In 1981 two females and two ducklings were seen at a location in Kerry and breeding probably continues. The population at Rathlin appears to be stable. In 1986 there we re 40 broods with 113 young. Nesting now takes place in east Antrim and two broods were seen in the Carnlough / Glenarm area in 1987 0. H. Wells). In Down some pai rs now nest in Strangford Lough and numbers have increased on the Copeland Islands. In 1986 nine nests were found on the Lighthouse Island (CBOR 1986) and breeding a lso takes place on the two adjoining islands. Winter flocks of up to 600 have been recorded off Malin Head. Donegal. and flocks of over 300 are not infrequent on the Donegal coast (R. Sheppard). Single birds. or parties of up to three or four. are found every winter on the south coast between Wexford and Kerry. These were formerly believed to be from the Irish breedin g population. bu t one found dead in a fishing net in Cork in December 1983 had been rin ged in the previous July as a young male in the Netherlands. A hybrid male King Eider x Eider was seen at Bunatrahir Bay . Mayo. from 3rd to 8th January 1983 .

Long -tailed Duck Clangula hyemalis The Long -tailed Duck is a scarce winter visitor occurring regularly in excess of ten birds on ly at a very limited number of sites . Counts of more than ten Long-tailed Ducks, 1979/80 to 1985/86 (after lBR and R. Sheppard) 79 /8080 /81 81 /8282/8383 /8484/8585/86 Meath

Laytown Louth

Bellurgan Dunany Point Louth/Down

Carlingford

11

17

31

26

42

17

Down

Ballyhalbert Dundrum Bay

13

12

Antrim

Greenisland Carrickfergus Donegal

Portnoo Gweebarra bay Mullaghderg Bundoran North Fanad

10

25

20 35

12 47

25

30 50

12 68

40

10

20

39

12

50 35

60

+

50

30

17

45

Mayo

Blacksod Point

20

Galway

Galway Bay

36

Clare

King Eider Somateria spectabilis

Liscannor Bay

There were only five records prior to 1966. Since then one was seen at Portstewart, Londonderry. from 17th March to 15th May 1971. one (pro bably the same) was seen at the same place from 1st to 4th April 1972. and one off

Rosslare Wexford Hbr

Wexford

12 17

50

Melanitta nigra There is no doubt that there has been an increase in numbers since the mid 19 70s when only Portnoo, Donegal. and Greatman's Bay in Galway were considered to hold more than ten regularly (Hutchinson 1979). Larger flocks continue to be recorded and flocks of more than ten are reported from a wider number of sites. In Scotland, in recent years, it has been found that large numbers winter well offshore and out of sight of land. Whether this happens in Donegal. where most of the larger parties are recorded. is unknown. Long-tailed Ducks have been recorded in every month of the year and are occasionally seen on inland lakes. There was a bird in Galway Harbour in June 1983.

Common Scoter Melanitta nigra Common Scoter were first found breeding in Ireland in 1905 at Lower Lough Erne, Fermanagh, where breeding had probably taken place in 1904. Numbers increased steadily thereafter to seven pairs in 1917, at least SO (but possibly many more) by 1950, and 140-150 during 196769. The increase then halted and there was a marked decline in the 1970s and 1980s. At Lough Conn, Mayo. birds were first seen about 1938 and breeding was proved in 1948. Numbers slowly increased to 20-30 pairs in 1958. and 28-31 in 1968. One or two were present on Lough Carra, Mayo, in 1968-70 and a nest was found in 1969, but breeding did not become regular there (Ruttledge 1966, Breeding Atlas). Birds were first seen at Lough

Cullin, Mayo, and Lough Ree on the Shannon in 1971. Apart from the Lough Erne colony which has been well documented, there was very little information available on the Irish breeding Common Seoter population from 1972 until 1983-84 when a census of the breeding population was carried out (Ruttledge 1987). Breeding was first proved at Lough Corrib, Galway, in 1981 when at least four pairs bred. In 1983 a census found 20 pairs at Lough Conn, 24 pairs at nearby Lough Cullin, Mayo, and seven pairs at Lough Corrib, Galway. though a late summer survey at Lough Cullin 1987 could only locate three broods. It has been suggested that Lough Cullin is used for feeding and loafing. and that the breeding population was overestimated in 1983 (K. Partridge). In 1984 there were at least 30 pairs on the Longford shore of Lough Ree, though numbers were much lower in 1987 (K. Partridge). There have been reports of birds in the breeding season at a number of other lakes but breeding has not been proved. The indications are that the breeding population is expanding its range slowly, though the Lough Erne numbers are declining. Nests are on islands with a dense covering of scrub and some tree cover. The decline on Lough Erne is believed to be due to a reduction of food supply, resulting in poor juvenile productivity and survival, and to high adult female mortality due to predation by mink. Increased eutrophication is the principal reason for the reduced food supply. but the introduction of roach may also be a factor. Mink are now common around lower Lough Erne and their increase has coincided with a disproportionate reduction in female

Numbers of breeding pairs of Common Seoter counted at varioussites, 1967-1986 (after Partridge 1987. Ruttledge 1987)

1967 1968 1969

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 P=Present

Lower Lough Erne 152

Lough Conn

Lough Cullin

Lough Ree

Lough Corrib

11 *

21 * = Incomplete Count

Lough Carra

1 P

1+ 1+

P

P

p

4+ 29+

Assaroe Lough

P

28-30 115 127 105 80* 116 116 121 107 121 113 87 87 63 73 51 46

81

24+

7

30+ 30+

7 7 7

P P

82

Melanitta perspicillata Surf Seoter Melanitta perspicillata This North American species was extremely rare up to 1965 with six records involving seven birds, only one of which had been recorded this century (Ruttledge 1966). Since then, there were records in 1967, 1969 and 1972, and annually thereafter. Up to seven have been seen together in Wexford and four together in Cork. Birds have been recorded on the coasts of Clare, Cork, Donegal, Down, Kerry, Louth, Meath, Wexford and Wicklow, and once inland, at Lough Erne, Fermanagh, in June 1983. Most have been seen among flocks of Common Scoters. They appear to arrive in October or November and remain to winter. It is impossible to know whether they were overlooked in the past or whether the recent increase in records reflects a real increase. 30

Common Seoter breeding sites (dots) and wintering areas (stippled)

scoters, indicating that many are killed on the nest (Partridge 1987). In autumn there is evidence of passage of Common Scoter westwards off Cape Clear, Cork, from mid June to August. In winter, flocks may be found in a number of bays around the coast, though numbers have decreased substantially since the early 1960s. The largest flocksnowadays are found on the east, north-west and west coasts at Curracloe, Wexford (up to 1,350), Clogher Head, Louth (up to 1,200), Dundrum Bay, Down (up to 2,570) and Donegal Bay (up to 1,650). Smaller flocks (100-1,000) are found at Arklow, Wicklow, Dublin Bay, Skerries, Dublin, Laytown, Meath, Bundoran, Donegal, Liscannor Bay, Clare, Brandon Bay, Ballinskelligs Bay and Dingle Bay, Kerry. Elsewhere single birds or very small parties can be seen from time to time. The decrease after 1963 was massive (Ruttledge 1966). The coastline from Wexford Harbour north to Dundrum Bay was virtually deserted. In 1964/65 one flock of 200300 frequented a bay a few kilometres north of Arklow but elsewhere only a few parties of five or six, exceptionally over 20, could be found. There was a recovery in the early 1970s. At Clogher Head, Louth 1,000-1,600 were counted between September and December 1975, a substantial increase on the 200 seen the previous year. Numbers at Dundrum Bay declined from 1,200-2,000 before 1963 to 100-200 in 1964/65 and less than 50 in 1965/66. Numbers in excess of 4, 000 were recorded in 1 96 7/68 but did not again exceed 1,000 until 1976/77. By winter 1980/81 there were 1,250-1,630 and by 1982/83 as many as 2,210-2,240 (Ellis 1983). The decrease was attributed by Ruttledge (1966) to the depletion of marine life resulting from easterly gales and exceptionally cold weather in January 1963 and winter 1963/64.

Velvet Seoter Melanitta fusca Velvet Scoters are regular winter visitors in small numbers to the east coast, and vagrants elsewhere in Ireland. In the nineteenth century there were a number of records off the Meath and Louth coasts and Ruttledge (1966) considered that, up to 1963, there was a small but regular wintering population there among the large flocks of Common Scoter. fn November 1963 a sample count indicated that up to 20 wintered off the coast between Balbriggan, Dublin, and the River Boyne mouth, Meath. The severe weather in 1963/64, which decimated the mussel beds in the area, led to desertion by the Velvet Scoter. 100

75

50

25

Mergus albellus

83

Numbers appear to have recovered quite quickly, for up to 30 were counted on the Meath coast in October 1966. This remains the stronghold of the species in Irish waters and up to 15 are recorded in most winters. The coast from Dublin north to Down provides most records and the histogram indicates that most arrive from mid October and stay until mid April. The pattern of occurrence elsewhere around the coast is similar but the only records of more than four together, away from the coastal strip from Dublin to Down, were of at least five at Bundoran, Donegal. on 10th April 1980, five in Wexford from 17th March to 12th April 1982, and five at Kllcoole, Wicklow, from 18th January to 15th February 1986.

Sligo, and at various Westmeath and Cavan lakes. Parties of up to ten are found widely. Results from ringing show that many Irish wintering Goldeneye breed in northern Sweden (Nilsson 1969). Some also originate in Finland, Norway and the USSR. An .estimate of the winter population away from Lough Neagh in the mid 1970s produced a figure of 1,000-1,800. There has probably not been any significant change since then. The observation of a pair at Drumgay Lough, Fermanagh, in June 1986, and summering by up to 30 birds on Lough Neagh S. Furphy) suggests that Goldeneyes may nest in Ireland in the future.

Goldeneye Bucephalaclanqula

Hooded Merganser Mergus cucullatus

Goldeneye are winter visitors to Ireland, arriving usually in October, with the main influx in late October and early November. Counts at Lough Neagh have shown that the first birds return by mid August but that the main arrival is clearly later. Lough Neagh holds more than two-thirds of the Irish winter population and numbers peak in varying months between November and March. Counts elsewhere in Ireland have shown a tendency for larger numbers in January and February, with numbers declining in March and very few remaining into April. The count of nearly 10,000 at Lough Neagh in March 1987 was one of the highest ever made in Europe, and comprised 3% of the estimated north-west European population. Apart from Lough Neagh, over 100 can be found at Strangford Lough, Down, and on the Lough Oughter system, Cavan. Smaller numbers winter at the following coastal sites: Lady's Island Lake, Tacumshin Lake and Wexford Harbour in Wexford, Malahide estuary in Dublin, Dundalk Bay and Carlingford Lough in Louth, Larne Lough in Antrim, Lough Foyle in Londonderry, Donegal Bay, Poulnasherry Bay in Clare, and Castlemaine Harbour in Kerry. Inland, there are small flocks at the Killarney lakes in Kerry, Lough Corrib in Galway, Templehouse Lake in

There have been three records of this North American species. A male and female were shot in Cork Harbour in December 1878; a female was shot in the Shannon Estuary, otT Ballylongford, Kerry, in January 1881; a female or immature male was seen at Acton Lake, Armagh, on 21 st December 195 7.

a.

Smew Mergus albellus Smew are scarce but annual winter visitors. Prior to 1966

it was considered that one to four were recorded in almost

every winter (Ruttledge 1966), and the position has not changed. None was recorded between 1966 and 1968 but birds were recorded annually from 1969 onwards, except for 1975 and 1978. The largest number of birds seen together has been at Oxford Island and Craigavon Lakes, Armagh, where there were up to three in 1980/81, up to four in 1981/82, and up to three in 1982/83. Smew arrive from early November, exceptionally late October, and depart from mid March. Adult males are rare. Most records in the period 1966-86 were in Armagh,

Counts of Goldeneye in the Lough Neagh basin. The absence of figures indicates no counts were made.

64/65 August September October November December January February March April May

3,466 3,513 4,725

65/66

66/67

67/68

68/69

799 4,756

20 25 748 4,233

30 87 209 1,709

9 17 890 2,251

6,134 3,431 4,138 4,765 586 68

2,355 3,275 3,661 5,722 1.894 102

5,995 4,802 670 13

3,224

79/80

3,654 2,772 5,234

80/81

1,880 2,405 3,294

85/86

4,879 4,126 4,067 3,800 4,542

86/87 71 608 5,369 9,294 8,943 7,640 9,906

Note: The December 1980 count was understated due to bad weather, and the January 1981 count was limited by the omission of the west shore of Lough Neagh.

84

Mergus serrator

Antrim and Down. but there were also records in Cork. Donegal. Dublin. Permanagh. Kerry. Londonderry. Galway. Westmeath, Wexford and Wicklow . The records for Galway in January 1979 and January 1982. were only the third and fourth ever for Connacht.

1967. and 300 in late August 1970 (Ruttledge 1975). At Clogher Head. Louth. flocks of 190 were recorded on 31st July 1983. 220 on 19th July 1984. and 157 on 7th July 1985 (IECBR). At the mouth of the Erne estuary. Donegal. flocks of 350 were counted on 24th August and 6th September 1985 . and 657 on 16th August 1986 (R. Sheppard). and at Dundrum Bay. Down. 540 were counted in September 1985. But while birds move about the coast there is no evidence of any large scale immigration in winter. Numbers remain relatively constant from September to March and. although single Iceland-ringed birds have been recovered in Mayo and Donegal. there are no recoveries of Scandinavian birds. It appears that most of the estimated 2.000-3.000 wintering population (Hutchinson 1979) is from the Irish breeding population. The largest winter concentrations are found in Strangford Lough in Down (an n ua l peaks ranging from 160 to 381 in the years 1982/83 to 1986/87). Dundrum Bay in Down (annual peaks of 150 to 540 in the same period). Cork Harbour (annual peaks of 183 to 304 in 1978/79 to 1980/81) and Galway Bay (annual peaks of 183 to 429 in 1980/81 to 1982/83). Smaller numbers are found in other estuaries and parties of up to 25 may be met with almost anywhere along the coast.

Goosander Mergus merganser

Red-breasted Merganser Mergus serrator The Red-breasted Merganser is very much a coastal bird in winter. but in summer it breeds inland on sheltered lakes and on large rivers west of a line from Bantry in west Cork to Dundalk in Louth. with the single exception of southeast Wexford where a few pairs nest. Although it has expanded its range substantially this century. first breeding in Antrim. Armagh. Cavan. Cork and Wexford since 1900. it is still rare in Clare and absent from many apparently suitable sites in the south and east. An estimate. based on three to five pairs per 10 km square of confirmed or probable breeding during 1968-72 (Breeding Atlas). would total about 500-850 pairs. The only published counts are for Lower Lough Erne where the population declined from 71 pairs in 1975 to 43 in 1985. probably due to reduction in food supply as a result of eutrophication (Partridge 1987). In autumn. moulting flocks assemble at several sites. Off the north Dublin coast 400-450 were counted in July

The Goosander has long been known as an annual winter visitor. normally in numbers between two and seven. though concentrations of 21 in 1945 and 18 in 1946 were seen in Monaghan (Ruttledge 1966). Breeding was not suspected prior to 1966. but a pair was seen in Monaghan in April 1958. However. breeding was proved for the first time in Donegal in 1969 and was certainly repeated in 1970. 1971, 1974. 1975. 1976 and 1977 (Sheppard 1978). One pair bred on each occasion and brood size varied up to 13. with average fledging success estimated at about five. Since 19 77 the only published record of breeding was in 1978 when one pair bred. In 1979 two pairs were present; in 1980 five birds were seen; in 1981 birds were again present. and at another site four birds were seen in spring. Since 1982 birds have been seen in Donegal in winter but not in the breeding season (R. Sheppard). Goosanders are now more likely to be seen in the north and west than elsewhere in Ireland. presumably because of the establishment of a small breeding population. This

Goosander (exclUding Glenveagh)

Milvus milvus is the reverse of the position prior to 1966 when Ruttledge (1966) considered that few had been found west of the River Shannon. The Goosander has spread steadily in Britain since its first recorded nesting in the Scottish Highlands in 1871. The central lowlands of Scotland were crossed in 1926, and Wales was colonized in 1972. Extension of the Irish breeding range must be expected.

85

Honey Buzzard Pernis apivorus There were 22 records prior to 1966, of which all save two were of single birds. The other records were of two together. Dated records were between early April and November with a preponderance in June. The only records between 1947 and 1965 were of two shot in 1965. Since 1966 there has been only one record: a single at Cape Clear, Cork, on 23rd August 1972.

Ruddy Duck Oxyura iamaicensis This North American species has become naturalized in Britain after escaping from wildfowl collections, probably in the first instance from the Wildfowl Trust headquarters at Slimbrldge, Gloucestershire. All the Irish records are believed to be of birds from this feral population rather than genuine vagrants from the other side of the Atlantic. The first record in Ireland was of a male at Oxford Island Nature Reserve, Lough Neagh, in March 1973, which was seen until mid April 1973. In June the male was in full breeding plumage in a nearby reedbed. In October a female was at the same location with four young. This party of five birds was seen on various dates up to 13th February 1974 and, on one occasion, a sixth bird was present. The next record was of an adult female at Lough Neagh in January and April 1976. Subsequent records are certainly incomplete due to observers discounting sightings of birds considered to be 'escapes', and, indeed, the Department of the Environment/RSPB counts of the Lough Neagh basin since 1985/86 have produced records of up to eight in 1985/86, 29 in 1986/87 and 32 in 1987/88. Breeding was also proved in Antrim in 1984 when a female was seen with four young, and Ruddy Ducks are now established as regular breeding birds on several waterbodies near Lough Neagh in Northern Ireland (Davidson 1987). In 1986 a pair bred on the Broad Water Canal near Aghalee, Antrim, but breeding was not repeated in 1987. In 1987 nesting was proved at Lurgan Park Lake in Armagh and at Clandeboye Lake near Bangor, Down U. H. Wells).

Black Kite Milvus miqrans This species, which is increasing steadily and spreading northwards on the Continent, was first recorded at Killaughter, Wicklow, on 11th May 1981, when one was seen. Another was seen at Greystones and Kilcoole, Wicklow, from 12-20th September 1982.

Red Kite Milvus milvus

A specimen in the National Museum, Dublin, was obtained near Kilcoole, Wicklow, in the last-century; one was seen at Slane, Meath, on 15th November 1951 and one, perhaps the same, near Milltown, Down, on 17th December 1951. There were no further records until 1968 when one was seen at Ballycotton, Cork, in November and there have been about 21 records since then. Apart from two which were present in Wexford from the end of March to late April 1976, all the records have been of single birds.

There have been records in Antrim, Cork, Down, Dublin, Galway, Kildare, Londonderry, Waterford, Wexford and

Published records o/Ruddy Ducks, 1978-1986

1978 Antrim Armagh Cork Donegal Down Dublin Kerry Tipperary Tyrone Waterford Wexford

1979

1980

1981

1982

3

3 1

1983

1984

1985

1986

13

3 3

2

3

2 2

1 1 1 3 1

3-4

6

2

1 1

1 2

1 1

1

5

86

Haliaeetus albiciIIa

Wicklow. Most have occurred from mid October to mid November. or in January. Presumably most, if not all. of the recent records refer to birds from the expanding Welsh breeding population.

25

Marsh Harrier

1966-86

15

White-tailed Eagle Haliaeetus albicilla 10

The White-tailed Eagle bred in Munster. Connacht and Ulster, and in the Wick low Mountains. in the eighteenth century but by 1900 was restricted to Kerry and Mayo . Breeding ceases a few years later and the species has been extremely rare ever since. A female was shot at Clare Island. Mayo , on 27th November 1935: a juvenile was found dead near Durrow, Laols, in early March 1937: an immature was shot near Gort , Galway. in December 1944: an adult was seen on Great Skellig , Kerry, from 9th to 11 th January 1946. Since 1965 there have been three records. One was shot near Garrison. Fermanagh. on 11th January 19 73: one was seen near Aughavannagh. Wicklow, on 31 st July 1978: one was seen at various localities in west Kerry from 27th December 1978 to April 1980. One seen at Rathlin Island, Antrim, on 3rd April 1985 had an orange wingtag indicating that it had been released on Rhum, Scotland. in 1982 as part of a programme of reintroduction of breeding birds to Scotland. Preliminary investigations have been made into the feasibility of reintroducing the species in Kerry .

Jan

tion of breeding must be a possibility in the near future. Most Marsh Harriers are recorded on spring and autumn passage. though a few occur in summer and two birds have wintered in Wexford. Most records are in Wexford. Cork and Wicklow, but birds were also reported from Antrim. Clare. Down. Dublin. Galway. Kerry, Londonderry, Louth. Offaly, Tipperary and Westmeath.

Griffon Vulture Gyps fulvus The only record is of a young bird . fully grown. which was captured near Cork Harbour in spring 1842 (Ruttledge 1966).

Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus The Marsh Harrier bred widely in Ireland up to the early nineteenth century. By 1840 only a few pairs remained, in the midlands and west. By 191 7 none was breeding but a few non-breeding birds continued to be seen in old haunts up to 1935 (Ruttledge 1966). From 1941 to 1965 the species was being recorded about every second year. mostly in the east of the country. usually one or two in a year. though three were recorded in two years (Ruttledge 1966). There has been a substantial increase in records since then. with birds reported in every year since 1966 except 1967 and 1978. As many as 13 were recorded in 1980 and ten in 1981: one in 1981 was a male in Clare. from 16-25th May . which constructed nest platforms. Marsh Harriers are increasing on the Continent and the increase in Irish records reflects the success of the species. A resump-

Hen Harrier Circus cyaneus The Hen Harrier was widely distributed throughout Ireland in the first half of the nineteenth century, but by 1900 had declined and was described as breeding in Antrim. Cork. Dublin, Galway. Kerry. Laois , Limerick, Offaly, Tipperary and Waterford. having disappeared from Down. Fermanagh, Londonderry and Wicklow (Ussher & Warren 1900). O'Flynn (1983) has suggested that it is unlikely that the Hen Harrier was a numerous bird at any stage in the nineteenth century because of the shortage of woodland, with its associated high numbers of prey along the fringe. and the reliance of the birds on moorland which probably had a lower density of small birds for the harriers to feed on. Nevertheless. there was unquestionably a decrease in

Accipiter nisus the nineteenth century, which continued in the first half of the twentieth century. By the 1930s the Hen Harrier was reported as having greatly decreased (Humphreys 1937) and in 1954 to have disappeared from Ireland as a breeding bird (Kennedy et al 1954). Not until later did it become known that Hen Harriers had continued to breed in the Stieve Bloom Mountains, Laois, and on the Waterford/Tipperary border (Watson 1977). In the early 1950s a recovery began and nesting was recorded in Kilkenny in 1955. In the following year breeding pairs were found in Cork, south Kilkenny and Waterford. Nesting in Wicklow commenced soon after this. By 1964 at least 35 pairs were known to be breeding in six counties: Cork, Kilkenny, Laois. Waterford, Wexford and Wicklow (O'Flynn 1983). In the Breeding Atlas this was considered to have been an underestimate and it was argued that 75 pairs were breeding in 1964 and that there were 200-300 pairs in 1972 breeding in 16 counties. This estimate agrees with that of 250-300 pairs in 1973-75 cited by Watson (1977), and O'Flynn (1983) in a discussion of the change in status since 1800 considers it to be reasonable. There is evidence of a marked decline in numbers in the late 19 70s. O'Flynn (1983) cited declines reported for Cork, Galway, Limerick, Sligo, Tipperary and Wicklow, and recorded his own experience in failing to find birds in 1978-80 in parts of Clare, Cork, Galway, Kilkenny, Tipperary and Waterford where breeding had been recorded in the past. Only in Northern Ireland, where the Hen Harrier was increasing in Antrim and Tyrone, in Kerry where there had been a recovery, and in part of mid Cork, was the Hen Harrier considered to be holding its own in 1982, although numbers are now considered to be declining in Northern Ireland (J. S. Furphy). In Wicklow and Cork, where there is continuing survey work, Hen Harriers remain scarce with perhaps only three pairs in Wicklow (G.C. Noonan) and 12-15 in Cork (K. Preston). The increase in numbers from the early 1950s was attributed to the increased availability of young plantations, providing secure nest sites and increased prey, and the decrease from the mid 1970s was believed to be caused by a combination of maturing forestry plantations and the clearance of marginal land following Ireland's entry to the European Economic Community. Although planting of conifers has continued, most is now on western bogland where Hen Harriers have never become established. In Wicklow and Cork it is now considered that the drainage and reseeding of marginal land was the principal reason for the reduction in numbers (G. Noonan, D. McMahon). The recovery of the Peregrine population has also been cited as a factor, because of the aggression of that species towards Hen Harriers in Wicklow (G. Noonan). In winter Hen Harriers are thinly scattered and can be seen in most parts of Ireland, though they are rarest in the north-east. Some roost communally. Up to six assemble at a marsh at Ballycotton and four at nearby Youghal in Cork (P. Smiddy) on winter evenings. The total wintering was estimated as being less than 1 SO birds in the early 1980s (Winter Atlas). There is evidence of passage at Cape Clear, where most records are in April-Mayor August to

87

November. Seven birds ringed in Scotland in June and July, have been recovered in Ireland. All 12 recoveries of Irishringed birds have been in Ireland.

Montagu's Harrier Circus pygargus This is much the rarest harrier in Ireland, although it was believed to have bred in Wicklow in 1899, when three immature birds were shot in August and September, and in 1919, when an adult male and a presumed adult female with at least one young bird were seen frequently near Kilcoole. On the Waterford/Kilkenny border a pair frequented a limited area in 1955 and may have nested successfully. In 1957 and 1958 a nest with eggs was found in Wicklow, but no young were hatched. Another pair bred in Cork in 1957. From 1959 to 1961 a pair bred successfully each year in Wicklow and in Kerry in 1971 (Ruttledge 1975, K. Preston). There were a number of records of non-breeding birds prior to 1965, but since 1966 there have been only eight published records, all of single birds, in Cork (four), Kerry (two), Wexford, and Wicklow. The birds occurred in February, April, May, August, September, October and November (two). Several records during the period were not published because it was felt that the birds might breed.

Goshawk Accipiter gentilis The Goshawk is a rare vagrant. There were nine or ten records up to 1965, of which four referred to the American Goshawk A.g. atricapillus. Since then there have been 16 records of which eight were in Cork, two in Londonderry, two in Wexford and the remainder in Antrim (two), Kerry and Tyrone. One Wexford record was of a bird at the North Slob, on 13th November 1969, considered to be of the American race. One of the Antrim birds was present at Shane's Castle from 12th May to 4th August 1980, but breeding was not suspected. Apart from this summer record, ten of the records were between early September and mid November and the remaining five were in january. February and March.

Sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus This is probably our commonest bird of prey, but the Sparrowhawk's preference for hunting in woodland means that it is not easy to find. The Sparrowhawk breeds throughout the entire country, though it is absent as a breeding bird from some areas where tree cover is scarce. West Donegal, west Clare and south-west Cork appear to have few breeding birds (Breeding Atlas) and numbers there are also rela-

88

Buteo buteo Buzzard But eo but eo

tively low in winter (W inter A tlas) . In Wicklow this is by far th e mo st numerous breeding raptor , average den sity being close to one pair per square km (G. C. Noonan). Spa rrowhawk s became alm ost extinct throughout much of Britain about 1960 because of th e effect of orga nochlorine pesticides used for seed dr essin g. Altho ugh th ese che micals were also used in Irela nd the declin e w as much less marked. Ru ttledge (I 9 6 6 ) referred to a declin e in recent yea rs in ea stern co un tries. Benington (1 9 7 1) record ed a decline from 22 to six pa irs over an a rea of 40 0 km 2 in Northern Ireland between 19 56 an d 19 66. Exam ina tion showed that unhat ch ed eggs contained or ga no chlorine compounds. mostly DDE. In the same period th e proporti on of successfu l broods dropped ba ck from a bou t 80% to 40%. Numbers appea r to ha ve recovered. The Sparrow hawks nesting in th e Ph oenix Park in Dublin hav e been studied since 197 5. There are estimated to be seven nesting territories in the area of 7 km ' , a relatively high density. A total of 64 young wa s ringed up to 19 8 6 and 17 were subsequently recovered. the longest distance travelled being 28 km (G. C. Noo na n) . The populati on is clearly sedenta ry. Th e mean bro od size from 4 7 broods ringed in Dublin and Wicklow was 3.6. Of these broods, 14 were ringed befor e 198 0 (mean bro od size of 2. 8 6 ). and 33 were ringed from 19 80 to 19 8 7 (mean brood size of 3.97) (G.C. Noonan) . Irish breeding Sparrowha wk s appear to be largely resident. th ough a ch ick ringed in Londonderry in July 19 7 1 was recovered at the Isle of Man in Sep tember 19 73. Th is was th e only Irish ring ed bird to ha ve moved over 1 DO km. Th ere is some immigration in winter . One Dutch. six Scottish and two We lsh rin ged birds ha ve bee n recovered in Ireland.

The Buzzard bred in Antrim, Donegal, Down and Londonderry in th e nineteenth century. both on inland cliffs and on tr ees in wooded dem esn es. but a decline set in . probably because th e bird s were shot. from about 1852. Breedin g appears to have ceased in Don egal about 18 8 3. in Londonderry a bou t 1891 and in An trim about 188 5 (Ussher & Wa rren 1900). Breeding ceased in Down as well . A pair bred aga in in Antrim in 19 33 a nd atte mpted to do so in 1934. In 1953 four pairs were breeding. three of th em on Rathlin Island. From 1954 ten pairs bred but when myx om at osis reduced th e rabbits th e Buzzard numbers declined as well . In 196 1 on ly one pair was breeding and by 1964 it was con sidered doubtful that any was nesting (Ru ttledge 19 66 ). How ever. br eeding was establish ed a gain and in 1966 seven pairs were breeding on Rathlin. In 1967 a pair bred elsewhere in Antrim. By 1971 single pairs were treenesting a t three locations in Antrim and sho rtly afterwards a pair bred in another Ulster county (Ru ttledge 1975). The distribution map in the Breeding A tlas shows breeding in Antrim . Down and Doneg al in 19 68- 72 . In recent yea rs there have been regular coun ts of th e breedin g populati on in Northe rn Ireland. In 19 77, 2 7 pairs we re found holding territor y in Antrim an d four in Londonderry. In 19 78 at least 38 pairs held territory in An trim a nd a minimum of 2 5 pa irs nested . A minimum of four pa irs also nested in Londonde rry and one pair bred in Tyro ne. th e first breeding record in th e co un ty thi s century. By 19 84 th e population exceeded 80 pair s (Wells 19 8 5) a nd in 198 6 wa s est imated to exceed 100 pai rs (j. H. We lls). The h igh est den sity is at Ra thlin wh er e 10 or 1 I pa irs nest on 8.500 h a. but. sur prising ly. breeding had not been proved in Ferm ana gh by 19 8 7 (J . H. We lls). Outside the m ain br eedin g a reas sing le pairs nested un su ccessfully in Leins ter in 198 3 and 19 8 6, th ree pa irs nested in Mona gha n in 19 8 5 and up to three birds were consi dered resident at a Don egal locality in 19 8 6. Birds are record ed occa sionally outs ide the br eeding area in spring. autumn and. rarely. in win ter. In th e period 1966-8 6 th ere were five publi sh ed reco rds in April-May, ten in July-october. six between November and February and one in March. Most of th e records away from the breeding a rea h ave been in Dublin and Wicklow but there ha ve a lso been records in Cork (two ). Waterford (two). Meath (tw o) a nd Kilkenny (on e). A number of records ha ve n ot been publi shed because of th e possibilit y of birds remaining to bre ed and th e need to pr event interferenc e at th e sites . Th e Irish breeding population may be su ppleme nted by imm igr at ion from Scot la nd. Th ree Scotti sh rin ged chicks have been recovered in Northern Ireland in th e months Januar y. March and April. tho u gh non e had tr avelled more th an 10 0 km . All ten recoveries of Irish ringed birds ha ve been in Northe rn Irel and.

Falco naumanni

89

Rough-legged Buzzard But eo lagopus There were 27 records up to 1965 (not 26 as cited by Ruttledge 1966), all between 5th September and 10th February. and all of single birds except in two cases when two were seen together. Since 1966 there have been only five records. Single birds were seen at Howth Head. Dublin . on 1st October 1975. at Cape Clear on 16th October 1980. at Copeland. Down, from 13th October 1984 to 2nd May 1985, at Athy, Kildare. on 8th February 1986 and at Sllevanora, Antrim. on 17th March 1986. The Kildare bird was found dead; it had been ringed as a nestling in Norway in July 1985.

Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga

Osprey Pandion haliaetus

Two were shot near Youghal. Cork. in January 1845. having been in the district for several weeks. One, an immature. was examined in March 1958 and found referable to the nominate race (Ruttledge 1966).

The Osprey is a scarce spring and autumn passage migrant. There were 77 records up to 1965. though records in the first 65 years of this century were less frequent than in the nineteenth century (Ruttledge 1966). Since 1966 Ospreys have been recorded in every year except 1968.1970.1972 .1975. and 1980. Two were seen together at an unidentified locality for much of July 1966 and two. briefly at another locality, in May 1967. Although the Osprey has recolonized Scotland since 1954

Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos The Golden Eagle bred widely in Munster. Connacht and Ulster up to the middle of the nineteenth century. By the beginning of the twentieth century only a few remained in Donegal and Mayo. Breeding ceased in Donegal in 1910 and in Mayo about 1912. Non-breeding individuals were recorded spasmodically in these counties until 1926 and 192 3 respectively. and in Antrim from 1926 to 1930. Between then and 1965 vagrants were reported on about seven occasions in the north of the country. In addition. a pair nested annually at Fair Head. Antrim, from 1953 to 1960, though without success in 1956 (Ruttledge 1966). and birds remained in the area until 1962 (NIBR 198285). There have been several records since 1966. One , which had been dead for some time. was found on Rathlin Island. Antrim. on 14th July 1974. One was present in Donegal in September 1977 and two were present in June and July 1978. A second-year bird was seen at Garron Plateau. Antrim, on 17th April 1980. An immature was seen to fly in from the sea at Rathlin Island on 21st June 1980. coming from the general direction of the Mull of Kintyre. Single immatures were seen at Lough Island Reavy. Down. on 27th February 19 8 4. at an undisclosed locality on 26th June and in November 1984. and at Rathlin Island from 3rd to 10th April 1985. The record for Garron Plateau (NIBR 1980-81) has not been included in the Irish Bird Report.

Jan

there has been no published record of a breeding attempt in Ireland. One Finnish and two Scottish ringed birds have been recovered in Ireland.

Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni The only record is of an adult male shot near Shankill, Dublin. on 17th February 1891. It had been in the locality since early November 1890.

90

Falco tinnunculus

Merlin Falco columbarius

Kestrel Falco tinnunculus The Kestrel is probably not as abundant as the Sparrowhawk, though it nests even more widely throughout the country. Densities in many areas. however. are lower than those of the Sparrowhawk. and appear to be lower than Kestrel densities in Britain (Shrubb 1986). In winter the Kestrel is equally widespread. Ruttledge (1966) suggested that there had been a recent local decrease which in some parts of eastern Ireland was appreciable. There is no recent evidence to indicate any change in status. Kestrels have been studied in Wicklow where G. C. Noonan has estimated about 150 breeding territories. Since not all are occupied each year. he considers that there might be about 100 breeding pairs. though he feels his figures could be subject to a margin of error as high as 50%. This is an average density of about five per 100 km-, The mean brood size in Wick low was 3.1 from 90 broods ringed up to 1987. Some Irish bred Kestrels are thought to emigrate (Ruttledge 1975) as numbers are said to be lower in winter in Ulster and Leinster and one Irish bred bird has been recovered in Wales. Much of the apparent emigration may. however. merely represent movement within the country. Certainly. they abandon mountain moorland in Wicklow in winter (G. C. Noonan). Some Kestrels from northern Britain winter in Ireland (Snow 1968. Mead 1973) and there have been recoveries in Ireland of Belgian. Norwegian and Luxembourg ringed birds as well. Kestrels are recorded at Saltee Island. Wexford. in spring and autumn and at Cape Clear in autumn.

Red-footed Falcon Falco vespertinus The only record prior to 1966 was of one shot in Wicklow in the summer of 1832. Since 1966 there have been three records: an adult male was seen near Maam Cross. Galway. on 18th September 1966: an adult female was seen at the Copeland Islands. Down. on 26th May 1973 and a female was seen at the Phoenix Park. Dublin. on 18th June 1976.

The Merlin is one of our scarcest breeding birds of prey. In the period 1968-72 breeding was proved or believed probable in 102 10 km squares of the National Grid scattered throughout Ireland wherever there was moorland. mountain or blanket bog . The close proximity of forestry plantation was considered attractive (Breeding Atlas). There have been many reports of a decrease in recent years but the evidence is ambiguous. as very few systematic studies have been carried out. In Northern Ireland. for example. Merlins disappeared as ground nesters on moorland in the late 1970s (C. Dawson) but in recent years they have been found nesting in trees . A study by L. Toal in north Antrim. which commenced in 1976 and was extended in 1984 to the Sperrins in Londonderry and Tyrone. resulted in the location of 22 nests up to 1987. Of these. 19 were in the abandoned nests of Hooded Crows and only two. in 1976 and 1977. were on the ground. All sites were over 1 50 m above sea level and 1 5 were in or on the edge of spruce plantations. It is not known if treenesting Merlins were present but overlooked in the past. In Wicklow, Merlins are scarce and a population of 20-30 breeding territories was estimated in 1982 (G. C. Noonan). In 1984 birds were reported from eight sites . though no systematic survey was carried out (IECBR 1984) and it seems likely that many were missed. In west Galway a survey by P. Haworth identified 12 sites in 1985. Eleven were on densely vegetated islands in loughs, the remaining site being in a large spruce plantation. Eight sites were successful and 32 young Merlins were produced. In 1986 seven of the 12 sites found in 1985 were occupied and a further three occupied sites were located. Nine of the ten sites were on islands. and one was again in a conifer plantation. Five nests appear to have been successful. Elsewhere in the country there is no firm information. but the species is difficult to census because of its tendency to move nest site each year (D. McMahon) and there are indications that they are frequently overlooked in conifer plantations (D. Norriss). In winter. Merlins occur mostly at the coast and inland on the midland bogs. but also quite widely scattered away from high ground (Winter Atlas). They usually occur singly outside the breeding season. In autumn there is noticeable passage at Cape Clear and Saltee, Wexford. From analysis of ringing recoveries and examination of museum specimens. birds from Iceland are known to winter in Ireland. and three Scottish ringed birds have been recovered here. Two birds ringed at Irish nests have been recovered in Ireland in November and January. It is likely that most of the Irish breeding population winters in the country.

Falco pereqrinus 91 Hobby Falco subbuteo The Hobby is a rare spring and autumn migrant. Prior to 1966 there had been about 20 records, mostly for May and June, but with two in August, two in September and one in October. Since 1966 there has been a tendency for more to be recorded in autumn, possibly because of improvments in ability to identify the first autumn birds which are much less distinctive than the adults. Records for the years 1966-86 show birds seen each year except for 1966,1970-72,1975,1981 and 198486. Records were widely scattered but the majority were in Cork (nine), Wicklow (five) and Wexford (three). 10 Hobby

1966-86

Jan

Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus The Gyrfalcon is a rare vagrant to Ireland. A total of 68 records was known up to 1965, all save three of which had been prior to 1950. Ruttledge (1966) considered that 63 of the records referred to the race which breeds in Greenland and five to the Icelandic breeding race. Recent work, however, has found that birds showing white plumage (formerly believed to be evidence of Greenland origin) and birds showing dark grey plumage (formerly believed indicative of Scandinavian origin) do interbreed. The majority of Irish records have been of white or very pale morphs. Since 1965 there have been 14 records, mostly of white birds. These have been in Antrim, Cork, Donegal (two), Londonderry (six), Mayo, Wexford (two) and Wicklow. Records have been in September (one), October (five), December (two), January (one), February (one), March (three) and April (one). None of the birds has remained for a prolonged stay, but records in Londonderry each October from 1981 to 1984 may refer to the one bird.

Peregrine Falco pereqrinus The history of the Peregrine population in Ireland has been well researched because of the dramatic decline in numbers in the late 1950s and 1960s, first noted in Britain and later in many other countries, including Ireland. The Peregrine had long been known as a widespread breeding bird in Ireland, though it never bred in the lowlying midlands. The main breeding areas were the Wicklow

Mountains, the coastal cliffs of Wexford and Waterford, and the cliffs and inland mountains from Cork around the south, west and north coasts. There is little evidence of any change in status prior to 1950, but there have been suggestions of a long-term decline in the far west (Temple Lang, cited in Ratcliffe 1980) and of a slow decline on the south coast during 1930-40 (Montgomery, cited in Ratcliffe 1980). A survey was carried out, mostly by postal enquiry, in the late 1940s and it was believed that 25, possibly 28, pairs bred in Northern Ireland in 1947--48 and at least 163 pairs bred in the Republic (Ferguson-Lees 1951). The Northern Ireland population at the time was believed to be the same as pre-1940, and breeding was recorded in all six counties except Armagh. One stretch of the Antrim coast had its population reduced from nine to four pairs by war-time control but was back to nine or ten pairs in 1949 (Ratcliffe 1980). There has been some dispute about the real size of the breeding population in the Republic before 1950. Temple Lang (cited in Ratcliffe 1980) located some 220 breeding territories but these included sites not used every year, and he considered that the pre-1950 population was 180200 pairs. A survey of the breeding population in 1981 produced an estimate of 342 available breeding territories, of which 278 were in the Republic and 64 in Northern Ireland. Since the total breeding population was estimated to be at least 278 pairs in 1981 it seems likely that the estimates of the pre-19 50 population are too low. Surveys of breeding numbers were carried out separately in Northern Ireland and the Republic from the mid 1960s when the extent of population decline became clear. In Northern Ireland a survey in 1962 found that in 24 territories, eight were apparently deserted and only eight pairs appeared to be breeding. Regular surveys were then made from 1964 to 1968 and from 1970 to 1973, and repeat surveys were organised by the RSPB in 1977-79 when the population was back to normal, or even perhaps a little higher than prior to 1956. Territories visited, occupancy and breeding success of Peregrines in Northern Ireland, 1964-79 (after Ratcliffe 1980 and McKelvie 1973) Territories Occupied by Successful visited Peregrines breeding 1964

16

12 (75%)

3 (19%)

1965

15

11 (73%)

3 (20%)

1966

20

17 (85%)

7 (35%)

1967

27

24 (89%)

1968

30

19 (63%)

7 (23%)

1970

44

31 (70%)

10 (23%) 10 (21%)

1971

48

35 (73%)

1972

48

37 (77%)

13 (27%)

1973

48

42 (88%)

16 (33%)

1977

52

36 (69%)

29 (56%)

1978

52

44 (85%)

26 (50%)

1979

48

43 (90%)

30 (63%)

92

Lapopus lagopus

In the Republic surveys were organized by the IWC in 1969-73 and by John Temple Lang in 1977-79. These gave the following results: Territories visited, occupancyand breeding success of Peregrines in the Irish Republic, 1967-79 (after Ratcliffe 1980) Territories Occupied by Successful visited Peregrines breeding 1967

103

60 (58%)

30 (29%)

1968

126

64 (51%)

22 (17%) 20 (27%)

1969

73

46 (63%)

1970

65

48 (74%)

17 (26%)

1971

88

59 (67%)

21 (24%)

1972

69

44 (64%)

24 (35%)

1973

69

45 (65%)

24 (35%)

1977

81

66 (81%)

33 (41%)

1978

56

44 (79%)

24 (43%)

1979

89

74 (83%)

35 (39%)

These figures showed a substantial decline by 1967 from pre-1950 numbers and that the decline appeared to be continuing in 1968. The figures for 1977-79 represented a small sample and were biased by a tendency for observers to visit territories known to be occupied, and especially those known to have had successful pairs in previous years. Nevertheless Temple Lang (cited in Ratcliffe 1980) reported that careful checking of all haunts in one county over the same three years gave a similar success rate (averaging 40% per annum) to the larger sample. In 1981 a much more detailed and rigorous survey was carried out in Northern Ireland by the RSPB, in consultation with the Conservation Branch of the Department of Environment, and by the Forest and Wildlife Service (now the Wildlife Service), assisted by the IWC, in the Republic. The survey covered all of Northern Ireland and approximately 50% by area of the known breeding range in the Republic. The results were most encouraging. Norriss et al (1982) showed that there had been widespread reoccupation of previously known sites and that 83% of available breeding territories were occupied. The total breeding population was estimated to be at least 278 pairs. Mean brood size at 2.15 and productivity at 0.95 were low but this was ascribed to unusually severe weather during the breeding season. In Northern Ireland the population of 72 pairs in 1986 exceeded estimates of the pre-1940 population and some very small cliffs have been occupied (J. H. Wells). Pairs have bred successfully on industrial buildings and shipyard gantries in Belfast. The dramatic decline was undoubtedly due to the effect of poisoning by organochlorine pesticides. The recovery in recent years is a result of limitations placed on the use of these products, and it clearly continues. By 1986 the only part of Ireland where Peregrines would be expected to breed, and still were scarce or absent, was the coastal strip from Baltimore, west Cork, around to Tralee in Kerry (D. McMahon). Although the mountains in Cork and Kerry held breeding pairs, the coast remained relatively untenanted.

The best studied Irish Peregrines are those in Wicklow and in the south-east, where G. C. Noonan and D. McGrath respectively have monitored the recovery. Wicklow comprises 2,025 km 2 and was considered to hold 34 Peregrine territories in 1986. At least 132 visits were made to 32 of these territories between 15th March and 31st July that year and 27 were occupied. In two of these territories the outcome was not known, but of the remaining 25, 12 were probably successful and 13 failed. The number of young which probably fledged was 29, or 2.4 per successful eyrie (G. C. Noonan). In five counties in south-east Ireland 28 territories were identified. Over the six years from 1981 to 1986 42% of 126 territory holding pairs successfully fledged 11 5 young, or 2.17 per successful eyrie (McGrath 1987). Breeding success varied, however, from year to year. The number of nesting territories in 1985-86 was considered to be similar to that between 1920 and 1945. Irish Peregrines are believed to be resident, though many move from their breeding sites to estuaries and even to cities in search of prey in winter. A recovery in Portugal in September of a bird ringed as a chick in Antrim in the previous year seems to be exceptional. In south-east Ireland Peregrines were found on breeding territories on 79% of visits (McGrath 1987). They have been seen hunting feral pigeons in Dublin and Cork on a number of occasions. Before the reduction of the Scandinavian population by pesticidal effects there was probably a substantial winter immigration (Mead 1973), butbirds from this area must now be very few. Eleven birds ringed in Scotland and two in England, all in May and June, have been recovered in Ireland in winter, so there is clearly some winter immigration.

Red Grouse Lapopus lagopus The Irish Red Grouse was formerly considered to be an endemic subspecies L.I. hibemicus. but recent authorities consider that the Irish and British -birds are all of the same race L.l scoticus and that the Red Grouse itself is the same species as the Willow Grouse of northern Eurasia and America (Cramp & Simmons 1979). Nevertheless, the Irish Red Grouse is generally paler than Scottish birds and introductions of British stock do not appear to have affected the paler plumage. It has been speculated that the darker plumage of the Scottish birds blends with a dominant heather community, whereas the plumage of the Irish birds better suits a vegetation where heather was accompanied by greater proportions of sedges and grasses (O'Hare 1968). The Red Grouse nests thinly on open moorland, on blanket bog and raised midland bog and on heathercovered hills. It nests wherever this habitat is found in Ireland, but densities are very low. There has been a marked decrease in breeding numbers since about 1920 (Breeding Atlas). Because the grouse is an important game species and an increase in densities could have valuable economic benefits for parts of the west of Ireland, a research programme was carried out on population dynamics of the

Coturnix coturnix species on blanket bog and into its habitat requirements. The study showed that Irish Red Grouse differed from Scottish Red Grouse in a number of ways. Breeding density is far lower than in east Scotland though hillside plots studied at Glenamoy did not differ markedly from Scottish moors in ling heather cover. production. mineral content and the effects of grazing pressure. Spring population densities vary from two or three pairs per km 2 in Mayo up to about 100 in peak years on good Scottish moors. Mayo grouse chick mortality and adult losses in summer, and overall winter losses. were directly related to densities in the previous spring and autumn respectively. thus showing that Mayo populations are not cyclic in the way that Scottish populations are. reaching peaks every six or seven years. Egg predation and chick losses were greater in Mayo than in east Scotland but this did not completely explain the markedly lower density. When the study plots on flat bog were drained. fenced and fertilized the den sity of grouse increased fivefold: on hillside plots density was increased by fencing the plots to prevent grazing (Watson & O'Hare 1979a).

Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus The evidence for the Capercaillie being an Irish species in the past has been reviewed by Hall (1981) in reply to a paper by Deane (1979 ) which questioned whether the references in seventeenth century sources to the 'cock of the wood' referred to th is species. Hall argued that there were sufficient references to show that a bird known as the 'cock of the wood ' did occur in seventeenth century Ireland, that this was a large game bird and was not a species unique to Ireland. that the habitat was suitable for the Capercaillie and that the species concerned became extinct in the eighteenth century. He concluded therefore that the 'cock of the wood ' was indeed the Capercaillie and that it had been an Irish species into the eighteenth century.

[Red-legged Partridge Alectoris rufa] Attempts have been made on three occasions to introduce this species to Ireland, twice in the nineteenth century (Lever 1977) and once in recent years. The recent introduction involved the release of 1,016 poults in 1979-81 in eight counties. During the three summers from 1980 to 1982 a total of 21 broods was recorded (Butler & Whelan 1987) and a few pairs were believed to be still breeding in Dublin, Louth and Tipperary, possibly also in Kilkenny and Wexford, in 1987 (D. Q. Butler).

93

J

Grey Partridge Perdix perdix The native Grey Partridge is now a scarce bird, nesting sparsely in the south-east, midlands. east and north of Ireland (Br eeding Atlas). In the nineteenth century it bred in every county, but even in 1900 was reported as long said to be diminishing due to a decrease in wheat growing and an increase in shooting pressure (Ussher & Warren 1900). Ruttledge (1966) considered that the introduction of fresh stocks and protective legislation in 1930 stemmed the decline in numbers, and he stated that the bird had since become more numerous in grain-growing counties. Grey Partridges have eertainly declined considerably since the early 1960s. Surveys in winters 1981 /82 to 1983/84 showed that the birds were restricted almost completely to the midlands, a scattering of locations in the north and east. and one location in Waterford (Winter Atlas). Those recorded in Northern Ireland nowadays are almost certainly the result of releases into the wild O. S. Furphy). The decline has been so marked that the complete disappearance of the species, as has recently occurred in Norway. seems possible (Potts] 986). Research in Britain has shown that numbers of partridges in cereal growing areas are governed by the amount and quality of nesting cover, the predation level and an abundance of the right kind of insects. In Britain modern farming methods have reduced the number of these in sects. thus reducing chick survival rates (Potts 1980). No research has been carried out on Grey Partridges in Ireland and it is not known whether changes in farming methods have been the cause of the recent decline.

Quail Coturnix cot urnix The Quail is a scarce summer visitor. breeding in most years in Kildare. During 1968-73 it bred in Kildare, Louth and Antrim and probably also bred in Laois, Mayo and Wexford (Br eeding Atlas ). Several pairs were involved on each occasion in Kildare and Louth . It may be that Quail still breed outside the traditional stronghold in Kildare. for there have been few attempts in recent years to search for them.

94

Phasianus colchicus

During the period 1966-86 Quail were reported widely in spring and less frequently in autumn. The .earliest record was in late March and the latest in the first half of November. Some years have exceptionally high numbers and 1970 was much the best year for Quail in this period, with 1982 another good year. The Quail was probably common in Ireland in the eighteenth century. It certainly increased in the first half of the nineteenth century and was extremely numerous up to the Great Famine in the late 1840s. Ussher & Warren (1900) refer to the extensive growing of wheat and the multiplication of potato gardens as factors favouring the bird. They refer to five to ten brace as being the normal bag for a day's shooting near Easky, Sligo. The preferred habitat was the cultivated smallholdings which were so widespread before the Famine. After the Famine, changes in land use from tillage to pasture led to a reduction in Quail numbers and by 1880 they were believed extinct as a breeding species. In the 1890s there was a revival after a good year in 1893 but this was not sustained and the species remained a scarce breeder in the twentieth century. There were breeding records in Londonderry, Tipperary, Wexford and Wicklow between 1900 and 1920 but the bird was not recorded at all from 1922 to 1926. In 1927 the Quail was seen in Louth and breeding was believed to be regular from 1940 onwards to the 1950s. Breeding also took place between 1935 and 1947 in Antrim, Carlow and Kildare (Kennedy et al1954) and between 1954 and 1965 in Dublin, Galway and Offaly as well (Ruttledge 1966). Quail are summer visitors nowadays but in the early nineteenth century they wintered so regularly as to be considered resident (Ussher & Warren 1900).

Pheasant Phasianus colchicus The Pheasant is believed to have been introduced to Ireland about 1589 (Ruttledge 1966). The early introductions were of P.c. colchicus from the Caucasus, but from the late eighteenth century the Chinese race P.c. torquatus with its white ring on the neck has predominated. Pheasants breed throughout almost the entire country, being absent only from parts of west Galway, west Mayo, west Donegal and north-east Antrim. The numbers very much depend of the extent of protection and Pheasants are abundant in the vicinity of some large estates. Elsewhere densities can be very low. At Lyons Estate, Kildare, Robertson (1987) found an average of 2.3 breeding males per 100 ha over three years, one of the lowest breeding densities on record, and Kildare is considered to have one of the highest densities of Pheasants in the country. Handreared Pheasants show substantially lower survival rates and breeding success than wild birds. Reared birds suffered more than 95% annual mortality on an unshot area; reared cocks were less likely to establish breeding territories and bred with fewer hens; there was some evidence that reared birds were more vulnerable to nest predation. The annual shooting bag has been estimated at 191,000 ± 22,500 cock Pheasants, of which more than 90% are wild birds (Robertson 1987).

Water Rail RaIlus aquaticus Water Rails breed widely throughout Ireland and, though difficult to see, they advertise their presence with their squealing calls. in the period 1968-72 they were found in 2 7% of all 10 km squares and, though proved to nest in only 23%, a further 59% of the records referred to probable breeding. It was considered that the species was much more widespread than was mapped in the Breeding Atlas and that there are undoubtedly more than 1,000 pairs nesting in Ireland. The winter distribution as mapped in the winters 1981/82 to 1983/84 showed a very similar distribution and, because birds are even less obvious than in summer, the distribution may be even more significantly understated. Water Rails are birds of swamps, marshes and reedbeds and wherever these occur it seems likely that there are Water Rails. There is substantial immigration in winter and specimens in the National Museum have been assigned both to the Iceland and to the Continental populations (Ruttledge 1966). A bird ringed on Fair Isle, Scotland, in September was recovered in Antrim in the following January and one ringed in Denmark in August was recovered in Donegal in February more than five years later.

Spotted Crake Porzana porzana The Spotted Crake has been proved to breed on one occasion, about 1851, in Roscommon. It may well have bred more often and was suspected of breeding in Fermanagh, Laois and Louth about the same period when it was not uncommon in summer. There were about 80 records, chiefly from August to October, prior to 1966, of which 60 were after 1900. There were single records for the months January to April, two for May, five for November, three for December. Between 1966 and 1986 there were only 14 records involving 15 birds, in May (one), June (one), August (four), September (six) and October (two). Birds were recorded in Cork (four), Donegal (one), Kerry (five), Limerick (one), Londonderry (two) and Tipperary (one).

Sora Porzana carolina The only record is of an adult male killed at Slyne Head lighthouse, Galway, on 11th April 1920. A few months earlier, an immature bird had been captured at sea 160 km west of Ireland.

Crex crex

95

Little Crake Porzana parva Th ere have been six records. A male was shot on lIth March 1854 at Balbriggan, Dublin. One was shot on 12th November 1903 in Offaly. Birds were seen at Cape Clear Island. Cork, on four occasions: a male on 14th April 1964, an adult male on 29th September 1966, an adult male and an adult female or juvenile from 23rd August to 3rd September 1968 and one on 21st and 22nd August 1977. There have been an additional four records of unidentified sma ll crakes at Cape Clear.

Baillon's Crake Porzana pusilla The only records are of one killed on 30th October 1845 near Youghal, Cork, and one caught on 6th April 1858 near Tramore, Waterford.

Comcrake breeding distribution in 1968-72 (stippled and black ) and in 19 78 (blac k only)

Corncrake Crex crex The Corncra ke, once common throughout Ireland, is now much reduced in numbers. The hi story of the Corncrake in Ireland has been summarized by O'Meara (19 79a) . During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the Corn crake was extremely comm on in all parts of Ireland. th ough in Britain a decl ine was noted in the late nineteenth cen tury . Th e sta rt of a decline was reported first in the eas t

of Ireland about 1900; it became more general throughout the country just before 1920 and was even more marked by 1939. In 1938 there was estima ted to be a density of one pair per acre in Kilkenny, but by the following year the density was said to be reduced to half that. In Tipperary the population was considered to have decreased by about 33 % between 1928 and 1939. Nevertheless, in some areas numbers were remarkably high. In the vicinity of Bantry in west Cork, for example, J. E. Flynn mapped 400 calling birds in 1942 (M. O'Meara). Yet the decline continued, particularly in eastern and midland counties. In 1968-72, Corncrakes were still breeding in all counties but were absent from large parts of Cork and Waterford (Breeding Atlas). Densities were clearly much lower than those reported for the 1930s. During the 1970s the decline continued. A reduction in numbers on the Inishowen Peninsula. Donegal. was reported in 1974; only one was recorded in Louth in 1974; in Limeri ck and Clare the population became very local after 1970: none was heard at Courtown, Wexford. from 1971 ; none wa s heard in Kells, Meath, from 1970. In Cork none was heard in the Bantry or Durrus areas after 1969 or near Ballydehob after 1976. At Cape Clear Island the population declined fron 20 pairs in 1968 to none in 1977 (O'Mea ra 19 79a). It seemed clear in 1978 that the population was in an accelerated decline, so a survey was organized for 1978 inv olving a census of a sample of the 963 10km squares in which suitable breeding habitat existed and a general appeal was made for information from the public. The results confirmed the picture of an accelera ted decl ine . Of the 963 census squares, information wa s received from 553 and, of these, 3 73 had reports of

96

Gallinula chloropus

Corncrakes. A decline in local population was reported in 804 cases. an increase in 15 cases. and there were 12 reports of no change over the previous 15 years. The results showed that the Corncrake had withdrawn largely to the west and north of the country. west and north of a line from Kenmare in Kerry to Bangor in Down . The highest densities were in Galway. Mayo and Doneg al but nowhere could Corncrakes be said to be numerous. In a discussion of the findings O'Meara noted that he could find no correlation between silage making. the traditional explanation for the decline. and Corncrake numbers. However. a com parison of Corncrake numbers with present land use indicated that birds tend to remain on smaller farm holdings. Seven sites were monitored from 1977 to 1985 . Two were in Donegal. one in Mayo, two in Galway. one in Clare and one in Cork. All showed a decline. Overall. at the seven sites. 114 birds were recorded in 1977. 5 1 in 1981 and only four in 1985 (O'Meara 1986). The largest numbers found in recent years have been in Fermanagh where 60 calling birds were located in 1985 (NIBR 1982-85) and on the callows on the River Shannon between Lough Ree and Lough Derg where 60 calling birds were located in summer 1987 (R. Nairn). There have been no ringing recoveries in the wintering area in Africa.

It was also the most abundant species on the Lagan near

Belfast. but densities there ranged from 3.3 to 6.7 per 10 km (Bailey 1982). There is some movement on the east coast in March and April and on east and west coasts in September and October. sometimes November (Barrington 1900). Recoveries of a Scottish. two Dutch and a Danish ringed bird in Ireland and two Scottish recoveries of birds ringed in Ireland in October and December indicate that some immigration occurs in winter.

Coot Fulica atra Coots breed less widely in Ireland than Moorhens because they require a water area of at least half a hectare on which to nest. They are. therefore. absent from parts of Kerry. Cork. south-west Clare. west Galway, Mayo. Sligo, Donegal and Londonderry where there is little suitable habitat. The winter distribution is som ewh a t similar to that in summer. but there are some very large concentrations in late autumn. On Lough Corrib , Galway. up to 11,500 have been counted in October and on Lough Derravaragh, Westmeath. up to 3 ,800 in November. There are large gatherings at a number of lakes in the midlands and at Lough Neagh. Ringing studies have shown that European Coots move south and west in autumn. especially to France. Britain and Ireland. and some of our wintering Coots may come fro m as far east as Russia (Winter Atlas). tho ugh the only Irish ringing recovery from the Continent is of a Danish ringed fledgling.

American Coot Fulica americana The only Irish record is of one at Ballycotton, Cork. from 7th February to 4th April 1981.

Crane Grus grus Moorhen Gallinula chloropus The Moorhen is an extremely Widespread bird in Ireland. breeding throughout the country with the exception of parts of north Mayo and west Galway (Breeding Atlas). It breeds on almost any type of freshwater habitat, ranging from muddy ditches to large lakes. Birds breeding on upland areas appear to move to lower areas in winter and the Wicklow Mountains. for example. are deserted (Winter Atlas). On the River Oona, Tyrone. this was the most abundant river bird in 1984 with 30 territories on a survey stretch representing a density of 14.4 per 10km (Watson 1984).

The Crane was abundant in Ireland in the Middle Ages and numerous remains of the species have been found in lake dwellings and caves. Between 1809 and 1950 there were 12 records and from 1950 to 1965 a further three (Ruttledge 1966). Since 1966 there have been about 17 records. All were of single birds apart from a pair which was seen at Dursey Island, Cork. on 8th December 1978. at Union Hall. Cork. on 30th December 19 78 and at Fota Island, Cork, on 3rd January 1979. and a party of seven at the North Slob. Wexford . on 1st December 1984. The longest staying bird was one which was at Blanket Nook. Donegal. from 24th May to at least mid November 19 75.

Haematopus ostralegus

97

Sandhill Crane Grus canadensis The only record is of one shot near Castlefreke, Cork, on 14th September 1905.

Little Bustard Tetrax tetrax There have been eight records, six of single birds and two of two together. Six of the records were in the last century. The only records this century were of single birds shot near Ennis, Clare, on 20th December 1916 and at Skerries, Dublin, on or about 19th November 1931 (Ruttledge 1966).

Great Bustard Otis tarda The only records are of two near Thurles, Tipperary, in December 1902 and of a female shot near Castletownbere, Cork, on 9th December 1925 (Ruttledge 1966). Principal winter concentrations of Oystercatchers. Large dots represent more than 2,500 birds, medium dots between 1,001 and 1,500 birds, small dots 100-1,000 birds

Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralequs Oystercatchers breed around most of the coastline of Ireland but are strangely absent from the south coast between Tramore, Waterford, and Cape Clear. Inland nesting was recorded in Roscommon, at Lough Neagh, and at Lough Erne, Fermanagh, during the 1968-72 period (Breeding Atlas) and at Lough Conn, Mayo, in 1978 (A. Whilde). Rocky or stony shores, sandy beaches and the tops of small islands provide most nesting sites around the coast. The number of breeding pairs is difficult to estimate but on the basis of about 20 pairs per 10km square with confirmed or probable breeding during 1968-72 there would be in excess of 3,500 pairs, which compares with Dare's estimate (1966) of 4,000 pairs on the west, north and north-east coasts, itself based on an assumption of two pairs per mile of coast, excluding Sligo, and two pairs per island. Dare considered that 150-250 pairs bred on the east and south-east coasts and 5-15 pairs inland. Very little is known of the movements of Irish bred Oystercatchers. Some of those which breed in Wales, just across the Irish Sea, remain to winter and others move south to France and Iberia (Dare 1970). There is evidence that Irish birds do likewise: a couple of birds ringed as chicks in Down were recovered locally in November and April, whereas another Down chick was recovered in Spain in October and a Wexford chick was found in France in September. Non-breeding birds spend the summer at most estuaries, though the flocks are small. From mid July onwards these parties are augmented by adults in bright breeding plumage, presumably failed breeders, and there is a steady

increase in numbers to a peak in September (Hutchinson 1979). The largest numbers are recorded on the south and east coasts, with the highest count to date being 26,690 at Dundalk Bay on 15th September 1974. In the north and west, apart from Lough Foyle and the west Kerry bays, Oystercatchers are thinly, though widely, dispersed. After the September peak there is a decline in numbers in December, when the winter population in the mid 1970s was estimated at 30,000-35,000 birds, though counts in winter 1987/88 on the rocky coasts of Donegal, Leitrlm, Sligo, Clare and west Kerry produced a total of almost 4,500, suggesting that earlier estimates of total numbers may have been a little low (M. Green). There is return passage in spring. At the North Bull, Dublin, this is noticeable in February and March; on the south coast as late as March and April. By May and June only the drab, nonbreeding birds remain on the estuaries. Since - Oystercatchers do not breed until their third or fourth year it is not surprising that these flocks frequently number several hundred birds and sometimes up to 2,000. The winter population comprises Scottish, Icelandic and Faeroese breeding birds and, most probably, many Irish breeders as well. Very few birds breeding in England and Wales winter in Ireland. Since some Scottish breeding birds are back on the nesting grounds at Aberdeen in January and February (Heppleston 1971) it seems likely that the increase in numbers in February and March on the east coast involves Scottish breeders. Dare (1970) pointed out that most do not return to the Faeroes until the second half of March and that those nesting in the extreme northeast of Norway are often not back until the end of April.

98

Himaniopus himantopus

The late spring increase on the south coast of Ireland may well involve birds returning to a far north breeding area. The winter distribution of Oystercatchers reflects the distribution of estuaries where cockles and mussels proliferate. Hence very few are seen in the muddy Shannon estuary, but very large numbers occur in Dundalk Bay. O'Connor and Brown (1977), in a study of Oystercatchers at Strangford Lough, have shown that the birds there hunted on the basis of expectation, ceasing to crop the densest cockle beds once an average yield was removed. They estimated the yield from the local density of anvils on which cockles were broken open. Marginal areas were depleted more rapidly than high density areas as a result. Late in the winter, smaller cockles were taken and the birds moved onto previously unused areas. The most recent estimate of winter population for the Republic is of 30,000-50,000 birds (Whilde 1986) and 13,500 were counted in Northern Ireland in winter 1986/87 (Salmon et al198 7).

20

10

also been records in Clare, Londonderry, Tipperary and Wexford. Most records have been in winter and have involved one or two birds but four were recorded in December 1968 and in January and February 1972 at the North Bull, Dublin. These birds may well have been from the English breeding population though no ringed birds have been observed or recovered.

Stone-curlew Burhinus oedicnemus Black-winged Stilt Himantopus himantopus There were nine records before 1966 (Ruttledge 1966). One was seen near Youghal, Cork, in winter 1823 or 1824; one was shot near Ballinrobe, Mayo, in January in about 1836; one was shot at Clontarf, Dublin, prior to 1837; three were seen together at Adare, Limerick, prior to 1841; a flock, from which one was shot, was seen at Castlemaine Bay, Kerry, prior to 1850; one was shot and another seen near Kilbeggan, Westmeath, many years before 1890; one was shot at Tory Island, Donegal, in April 1916; one was seen at a marsh near Clonakilty, Cork, from mid April to early June 1942; one seen on the Arigideen estuary near Timoleague, Cork, on 11 th September 1949 was joined by another on 3rd October. Since 1966 the only record was of one at Lady's Island Lake, Wexford, on 20th April 1981 and at Killoughter, Wicklow, from 10th to 17th May in the same year.

There were ten records in the nineteenth century and five in the twentieth. The records this century were of single birds: one shot near Gweedore, Donegal, on 12th October 1903; an adult female shot at Castletownshend, Cork, on 24th February 1913; one shot, probably in Waterford, just prior to 16th May 1928; one seen at Recess, Galway, on 31st May 1937; one seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, on 15th April 1962.

Cream-coloured Courser Cursorius cursor One was seen in sandhills near Raven Point, Wexford Harbour, in either the last week of December 1952 or the first week of January 1953.

Collared Pratincole Glareola pratincola Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta Avocets bred at Tacumshin Lake, Wexford, in 1938 when two pairs nested successfully. Two birds were seen there in May 1954 but did not remain and one was present from June until late September 1979. There were only about 25 records up to 1965 (Ruttledge 1966) but these included a series of wintering records at Cork Harbour from 19 56/5 7. Two wintered in that year, six in 1957/58, two in 1958/59 and 1959/60, three in 1960/61, five in 1961/62, seven, initially eight, in 1962/63. One was seen in February 1964 and one in 1964/65. Since 1966 there have been records in all years except 1967,1978, 1980 and 1986. Most have been in Cork or on the east coast from Louth to Dublin, but there have

The only record is of an immature at the Bann estuary, Londonderry, on 13th and 14th October 1970. A record of one shot at Castlefreke, Cork, in October before 1844 was considered doubtful by Ruttledge (1966) and is no longer accepted. A bird seen at Crusheen, Clare, on 22nd August 1953 is now acceptable only as a pratincole species.

Black-winged Pratincole Glareola nordmanni There have been two records: an immature female was shot near Belmullet, Mayo, on 22nd August 1935, and a juvenile was seen at Larne, Antrim, on 5th August 1974.

Charadrius morinellus

99

Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dubius

Killdeer Charadrius vocijerus

The only record prior to 1966 was of a party of four seen on the North Bull strand. Dublin, on 17th September 1953. Since 1966 there have been six records, and breeding must be considered likely in the future, particularly in view of the expansion of the British breeding population. Three records were in Cork: single birds at Ballycotton from 22nd to 28th September 1968, on 5th and 6th May 1979 and on 20th and 21 st June 1982. Three were also recorded in Wexford: single birds at Tacumshin on 15th and 16th August 1981, on 29th August 1982 and on 5th and 6th May 1984.

There were five records before 1966: an adult male shot at Naul, Dublin, on 12th January 1928; one shot near Crookhaven, Cork, on 30th November 1938; one picked up dead near Crookhaven on 19th March 1939 had been present since 11th December 1938; one seen at Akeragh Lough, Kerry, from 26th February to 2nd March 1958; one seen at Armagh Island, Tralee Bay, Kerry, from 20th November to 2nd December 1958. Since 1966 there have been six more records: one near Comber. Down, from 13th February to 24th March 1967; one at Akeragh Lough, Kerry, on 28th February 1971; one at Derrymore Island, Kerry, on 28th December 1975; one at Ballycotton, Cork, from 7th to 31st March 1979; one at the North Bull, Dublin, from 1st to 3rd September 1980 and one at Ballymacoda, Cork, from 15th February to 24th March 1984.

Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaiicula Ringed Plovers nest on sandy and shingle beaches all around the coast of Ireland. In the west of the country they use a variety of sites, sometimes nesting on salt-marsh or on turf above sea-cliffs. Inland they breed around a number of midland lakes, at Lough Neagh, at Lough Corrib in Galway and at the Lee reservoirs in Cork. In a census of Northern Ireland in 1975 a total of 93 pairs was found (Prater 1976). The total counted in a repeat census in 1984 was 134 pairs. but coverage was much better, and a small decline from 66 to 59 pairs was recorded on the main area in Down (Prater 1987). In Dublin and Wicklow the breeding population was estimated at 30-60 pairs in the 1970s, and in Wexford at over 50 pairs. In 1979 the Irish breeding population was considered probably to exceed 2,000 pairs (Hutchinson 1979). Early in the autumn, Ringed Plovers gather in flocks at estuaries and beaches around the coast and flocks of 200300 are widespread as early as July, especially on the west coast. In August the flocks are larger and up to 300 can be counted at most estuaries and coastal lagoons. Small parties even occur inland. Adults greatly outnumber juveniles in August, at least on the south coast, but in September, while numbers are lower, there is a much higher proportion of juveniles. After September numbers stabilize and flocks are resident on the sandier parts of estuaries and beaches. Numbers are very hard to assess at this season because the beaches are little visited, but just over 2,000 were counted on the coastline of Donegal, Leitrim, Sligo, Clare and west Kerry in winter 1987/88 (M. Green). The winter population is probably between 8,000 and 15,000 birds, and perhaps closer to the latter. In addition to our own breeding birds, which are presumed to winter mainly in Ireland, some birds from Britain and the Baltic winter here. Birds from Iceland, Greenland and the northern USSR race C.h. tundrae occur in autumn. There is no noticeable passage in spring at any estuary.

Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus Kentish Plovers are rare vagrants to Ireland. There were three records in the nineteenth century, all in Dublin: one was shot at the North Bull probably in autumn 1846; one was shot at Baldoyle on 8th August 1848 and an adult male was killed near Clontarfin August 1851. This century there were five records prior to 1966 and the same number since. Single birds were seen at Dun Laoghaire, Dublin, on 18th and 19th August 1948; at Lough Neagh, Antrim, on 18th October 1959; at Duncrue Street marsh, Belfast, Antrim, on 2nd August 1960; at Kinnegar, Down, on 16th August 1960; at Lough Neagh, Antrim, on 7th October 1964; at Ballycotton, Cork, on 23rd April 1970; at the Herdman Channel, Belfast, Antrim, on 23rd April 1977; at Ballycotton from 22nd to 27th September 1980 (an immature); and at Ballycotton on 24th April 1984 and Tacumshin, Wexford, from 29th April to 1st May 1984.

Dotterel Charadrius morinellus The Dotterel has been proved to breed once in Ireland. A pair nested at Nephin More, Mayo, in 1975. Otherwise this is a rare autumn migrant recorded since 1965 in 1966 and 1967, in 1972 and 1973, from 1976 to 1978, in 1980 and from 1982 to 1986. Most of the 19 records were in Cork or Wexford, though there were single birds seen in Donegal, Kerry and Louth. On three occasions two were seen together; all the other records were of single birds. The high proportion recorded in Cork and Wexford almost certainly reflects the greater intensity with which these counties are watched rather than a real absence of the birds from most other counties. Dotterels are typically found on fields and moorland, which few birdwatchers visit, and the frequency with which they were recorded in

100

Pluvialis dominica

recent years at Cape Clear (seven between 1976 and 1986) indicates that they may well be overlooked elsewhere. In the nineteenth century there were 12 records, of which details were published for 11 (Ussher & Warren 1900). These were mostly recorded in autumn and were from Antrim (one), Cork (one), Donegal (one), Down (two), Londonderry (one), Tipperary (one, shot on Slievenamon) and Waterford (four, all shot in the hills). The Tipperary record was of a single bird in June, the Donegal record was of a bird shot prior to March, and one of the Down records of a flock of about 20 on the Ards peninsular in April 1848. Between 1900 and 1965 there were about 15 records of which three were spring flocks, like the Ards record of 1848. These were parties of 20-30 near Tullamore, Offaly, in mid April 1940, of 25 near the top of the Slieve Mish Mountains near Tralee on 14th March 1948 and two separate parties of 20 and 30 in the same mountains on 26th March 1948 (Kennedy et al1954). Interestingly, the Kerry record in the period 1966-83 was of one on Slieve Mish on 24th August 1973. An exceptional record of reorientation by a bird far from its normal migration route is the recovery, in June 1962, in Krasnoyarsk in the Soviet Union of a bird ringed on Great Saltee, Wexford, 5,300 km WSW in the previous September. 10 Dotterel (non-breeding)

1966-86

Pacific Golden Plover Pluvialis fulva An adult seen at Tacumshin, Wexford, from 17th to 22nd August 1986 is the only record.

Golden Plover Pluvialis apricaria Golden Plovers now breed only in small numbers on hills and bogs in the north and west, mainly in west Galway, west Mayo, Donegal and Antrim. The total population has been estimated at 600 pairs (Breeding Atlas). Numbers have declined markedly since the last century. In the early 1950s Kennedy et al (1954) considered the species to have abandoned Cork, and probably Kerry and Tipperary. A few pairs were thought to breed still in the Slieve Bloom Mountains in Laois and Offaly, and perhaps a very few in Wicklow though the last records of proven breeding were at Kippure in 1936 (Kennedy et al1954) and Glendalough in 1959 (Steiniger cited in Nethersole-Thompson & NethersoleThompson 1986). In 1976 the Northern Ireland Ornithologists' Club surveyed the Antrim breeding population and located 18 pairs. Ennis (1979) in his report of the survey considered that there were not more than 2 5 pairs breeding in the county. One of those involved in the survey believed that there had been a general decrease in numbers from previous years. A survey in 1986 located 19 pairs in Antrim, five on the Tyrone uplands and one on Tyrone bog, and it was suggested that the entire Northern Ireland population was

Jan

American Golden Plover Pluvialis dominica Although the only records prior to 1966 were of singles in autumn 1894, 1952 and 1963, there were 26 records between 1966 and 1986. Most were in autumn, from mid August to mid November, but there were single birds in Kerry in May and June, and in Cork in July. Apart from two in Galway and single birds in Dublin, Mayo, Offaly, Roscommon and Wexford, all the other records since 1966 have been in Cork and Kerry. American Golden Plovers are not recorded every year. Good years were 1966 (four) and 1971 (three). 15

A.rican Golden Plover

Jan

1966-86

Golden Plover winter distribution (stippled) and concentrations of more than 5,000 birds (dots)

Chettusia gregaria

American Golden Plover with Golden Plovers

less than 50 pairs (Partridge 1986b. 1988). Survey work in west Galway has also indicated low densities. Totals of 28 and 41 occupied territories were found in the area south of the Maamturk mountains in 1985 and 1986 respectively. Most of the territories were on very wet bog. but seven in 1986 were on partially or totally cut-away bog (Haworth 1986). The breeding birds are of the nominate race which nests in Ireland. Britain and around the Baltic. The race P.a. altifrons breeds in Iceland. northern Europe and northern Siberia. Both races move south in winter. The Irish breeder 's have never been closely studied but if their behaviour is similar to that of British birds (Ratcliffe 1976) they would leave the nesting grounds from July onwards to winter on the lowlands. returning again to breeding areas in February and early March. There have. however. been records of single birds on a couple of breeding areas in midwinter. suggesting that some may spend the winter there O. S. Furphy). The great majority of Irish wintering Golden Plovers are certainly immigrants. The first parties appear in early September. only scattered birds being seen in August. In October and November large numbers flood into the country. At this time flocks of over 10.000 are regular at Ballymacoda. Cork. Dundalk Bay. Louth. the Little Brosna, Offaly and the River Suck . Roscommon. The large. late autumn flocks appear to break up into smaller flocks for the winter and these are widespread throughout the country on wetlands and damp pasture. The number present in winter almost certainly exceeds 200.000 birds. Many disperse in February and March. presumably towards their breeding area. There is some evidence of an arrival in March and April of passage birds. but few remain into May. Many of the late spring birds are in summer plumage and all show the characters of P.a altifrons. Ringing recoveries indicate that Icelandic birds winter mainly in Ireland and to a lesser extent in Britain. One bird ringed as a chick in the Faeroes and an adult ringed in the Netherlands in March have also been recovered in Ireland.

101

I

Grey Plover Pluvialis squatarola The Grey Plover is a widely distributed winter visitor and passage migrant but numbers are nowhere high . Autumn migration begins in July. sometimes even in mid June at favoured sites such as the North Bull. Dublin. (Hutchinson 1975) and there is a build up of numbers in autumn. especially on the south coast. Analysis of counts at different estuaries from 1971 /72 to 1974/75 has shown that there are fluctuations in numbers at various estuaries (Hutchinson 1979). On the south coast there was sizeable passage in October. with a decrease in November in three winters. but not until January in another. Then there was spring passage with a February-March peak. On the east coast, counts at the North Bull indicated much smaller autumn numbers. but there was a passage in spring. On the Fergus estuary. Clare. numbers were highest in FebruaryMarch. It seems likely that some of the birds which leave the breeding areas in northern Russia in autumn arrive in Ireland to spen d the winter; others pass through on their way to southern Europe or to Africa . and these birds probably cause the spring peak while returning in February and March . In the course of visits in winter 1987/88 to open beaches on the west coast of Donegal. Sligo. Leitrim, Clare and Kerry . a total of 362 was counted (M. Green). indicating that this is a very Widely distributed species along the coast. The Irish wintering population was estimated at between 750 and 1.500 birds in the mid 19 70s (Hutchinson 1979). but is now likely to be over 2.000. and perhaps 3.000. Sociable Plover Chettusia gregaria There have been three records; a female was obtained on 1st August 1889 near Navan, Meath; one was shot about 25th December 1909 near Brownstown Head. Waterford; one was seen at Blennervllle, Kerry. from mid November to late December 1985.

102

Vanellus vanellus

Lapwing Vanellus vanellus The Lapwing is one of the best known of Irish wading birds, being a widespread breeding species and extremely numerous in winter. Lapwings breed over most of the country. but are rather scarce south-west of a line from Lough Derg on the River Shannon to Wexford (Breeding Atlas) . Very little quantitative material was available on breeding numbers until very recently. but it is known that there was a sharp decline in Kerry after the cold winter of 1962/63. At 17 sites in the county where a total of 134 pairs bred in 1962. only nine pairs bred in 1963 . In 1972 a total of 76 pairs was counted. still only 57% of the total in 1962 (F. King cited in Hutchinson 1979). Since 1983. when survey work was first carried out on the River Blackwater in Tyrone and Armagh. census studies have been carried out throughout most of Northern Ireland by the RSPB. and on the River Shannon callows by the IWC. The surveys in Northern Ireland have indicated that about 5.250 pairs breed there, most being scattered in small numbers across the lowland countryside (Partridge 1988). The largest concentrations identified so far are at the Lough Erne basin. the Lough Neagh basin and the Shannon callows. Number and density of breeding Lapwings at selected study areas

Shannon Callows Lough Erne Basin Lough Neagh Basin

Km ' 34 .89 32 .84 20 .92

Pairs Pairslkm' Source 341 9.77 R. Nairn

316 166

9.62 7.93

Partridge (1988) Partridge (l988)

The first parties of Lapwings to appear on wetlands after early summer arrive in the second week of June and there is a steady build-up in July and August. Numbers are relatively low; flocks of over 500 birds are scarce at this time. There is a rapid increase in October, and very large numbers are present from November to February. Numbers decline from late February. and small numbers remain at the end of March when a flock of more than 500 is unusual. Some of these birds may be Irish breeders. The number of Lapwings in Ireland in winter is enormous. Large flocks occur at all the major wetlands and also on pasture and rough land around bogs. The total Irish population in December has been estimated as certainly being in excess of 100.000 and possibly exceeding 250.000. Many Lapwings have been ringed in Europe so we know reasonably well from recoveries where Irish-wintering birds originate. Ireland is the wintering area for many Lapwings breeding in northern England and central Scotland. adults being more numerous than juveniles. Some Scandinavian birds. and a few Belgian. Dutch and German birds. also winter in the country (Imboden 1974). Early in the summer some Lapwings leave their breeding areas in central Europe and move westwards. some reaching Britain. and it may be that a few reach Ireland. The species is extremely sensitive to cold weather. wintering west and south of the 3"C January isotherm. During spells of particularly cold weather on the Continent. flocks can be seen flying in from the Irish Sea all day . and the numbers present throughout the country increase dramatically. When the weather eases birds disappear, presumably returning eastwards again. Although we have some knowledge of the origins of our wintering birds. nothing is known of the movements of Irish-breeding Lapwings.

Knot Calidris canutus Knots occur on passage in autumn in small numbers at estuaries and brackish lagoons around the entire coastline of Ireland. One or two . sometimes small parties, can be seen from late July to the end of September. Most of these are adults. and birds in July normally show signs of the red summer plumage. Since most of the birds which breed in Greenland and Canada and winter in Western Europe go to the Dutch and German Waddensea to moult. these birds have presumably gone slightly astray on passage. In winter large flocks occur at a few estuaries. principally Strangford Lough in Down. Dundalk Bay and the Boyne in Louth. the North Bull in Dublin. and Wexford Harbour. Smaller numbers occur at Rogerstown, Dublin. at the south coast estuaries. at Castlemaine Harbour. Kerry . the Shannon estuary and Lough Foyle. Londonderry. Very few arrive at the main haunts in August and September. The main arrival is in October and most of the wintering population is present by mid November. Counts at Strangford Lough show fluctuations from month to month which have not been explained but which may arise due to errors in

Calidris minuta counting such a large and complex area. Counts at the North Bull and Dundalk Bay showed no evidence of any passage migration in either autumn or spring. The birds depart quite quickly from mid-February and very few remain by the end of March. The main body ofIrish wintering Knots are concentrated in the Irish Sea across the water from even larger British concentrations. There was evidence of a decrease in the 1970s. Dundrum Bay, Down, held up to 700 in winters 1967/68 and 1968/69 but none again in the 1970s; Cork Harbour had a winter population of c. 3,000 up to 1971 /72 but less than 100 in later years; Courtmacsherry Bay. Cork . held up to 200 regularly until 1971 /72, then none until the early 1980s and now holds a small flock again. There is some passage migration in autumn. A bird ringed in Wexford in September was recovered in Mauretania in late November of the same year. The Irish winter population probably fluctuates between 25 ,000 and 60,000.

103

Semipalmated Sandpiper Calidris pusiIIa The Semipalmated Sandpiper is now an annual vagrant to the south coast. There were about 22 records between 1966 and 1986. of which ten were in Wexford, seven in Cork. two in Dublin. and singles in Kerry, Londonderry and Wicklow. Up to three were recorded in Cork in 1980 and two have been reported on several occasions. Most birds have been recorded at Ballycotton, Cork. and Tacumshln, Wexford, the most likely places in Europe to see this rare species. Adults and juveniles have each been recorded. 15 5eaip.ll1Oted Sandpiper

1966-86

Jon

Little Stint Calidris minuta

Sanderling Calidris alba The distribution and numbers of Sanderling wintering in Ireland is not well understood because the birds frequent open sandy beaches. particularly on the west coast, where birdwatchers are few and little counting had been done until winter 1987/88 when a special survey was carried out on the coast from Donegal southwards by M. Green. There is good autumn passage on the north. south and east coasts in July and August when flocks on 100-200 are Widespread. There may well be similar passage on the west coast as well but there have been fewer observations. In winter. numbers are much lower. except for the west coast where 1,026 were counted in 1987/88 at sites on the coasts of Donegal, Sligo. Leitrim. Clare and Kerry (M. Green) . Visits were not made to the suitable beaches in Mayo and Galway, so there is clearly a sizeable population scattered along the extensive sandy shoreline. Spring passage appears to be negligible. The mid winter population was formerly estimated as being in excess of 2,000 birds (Hutchinson 1979). but it is certainly much nearer 4,000.

Little Stints are regular autumn migrants in small numbers. There have been records in winter and in spring but these are unusual. Autumn passage is generally from the last week in July to the end of October with occasional birds into November. Peak numbers are usually in September. Ruttledge (1966) considered that passage was most marked on the east coast, especially in Belfast Lough, Dublin Bay and on or near the coast of Wexford. From 1975 onwards a full summary of records for each county has been published annually (lBR) and these have shown that passage has been rather more Widespread. with parties occurring regularly on all coasts except the west coast. where the species is rare north of Kerry. The largest numbers in recent years have been recorded at the Bann Estuary. Londonderry (16 in 1980). the North Bull. Dublin (25 in 1978). Lough Derravaragh, Westmeath (1 5 in 1981), Tacumshin, Wexford (30 in 1983) and Ballycotton, Cork (30 in 1976). At no other site were more than 12 recorded in the period 1975-86. Passage varies from year to year. In 1982. for example. no more than two together were seen at any site except Tacumshin where there were up to 15. Conversely. 1983 was a good year with counts of ten or more at seven different sites. It seems likely that the apparently wider distribution. since the 1960s. results from the increase in observer activity rather than from any real change in distribution. The birds involved are on passage from northern Scandinavia and Siberia to winter in Africa south of the Sahara. The largest flock recorded was one of 60 at the North

104

Calidris temminckii

Bull on 7th September 1892 (Ussher & Warren 1900). Spring and winter records are few and not annual. Ruttledge (1966) referred to 17 records ranging from 13th February to 25th May, one June record and one December record (involving two birds) up to 1965. Since then there have been 14 records in the period from March to June, excluding birds known to have wintered. All were of single birds except for records of three at the Bann Estuary on 27th May 1974, three at Lough Beg, Londonderry, on 11th April 1976, and five there from 30th April to 9th May in the same year. These spring records were in Cork (eight), Dublin (one), Kerry (one), Londonderry (two) and Wexford (two). Since 1965 there have been ten records in the period December to February. These were in Antrim (one), Cork (three), Donegal (one), Dublin (two), Kerry (one) and Londonderry (two) and involved single birds except for two which wintered at Tivoli, Cork, in 1975/76, two at Ballycotton, Cork, on 24th December 1978, two at Lough Beg, Londonderry, on 22nd February 1976, five at Ballyshannon, Donegal, on 9th January 1982 and one at Ballycotton on 28th December 1986.

White-rumped Sandpiper Calidris [uscicollis The White-rumped Sandpiper is an annual vagrant from America to the south coast and occasionally elsewhere. Up to 1965 it was very rare, with 13 records of single birds and one of two together. The records were in Antrim (one), Dublin (one involving two birds), Kerry (ten), Londonderry (one), and Wexford (one), and in the months August (one), September (two), October (six), November (one), January (three) and February (one). Since 1966 there have been records of about 79 birds including a record of three at Tacumshin, Wexford, from White-rumped Sandpiper

20

1966-86

15

10

Temminck's Stint Calidris temminckii A total of 12 birds was recorded up to 1965, of which one was shot in Kerry in January 1848 and the remainder seen singly between 1955 and 1965 in the months August (three), September (six) and October (two), in the counties Antrim (two), Kerry (six), Kilkenny (one), Londonderry (one) and Wexford (one). In the years since 1965 the Tremminck's Stint has become even rarer with only eight more records in the months June (one), August (three), September (one) and October (three). Records were in the counties Cork (one), Down (one), Dublin (one), Kerry (one), Londonderry (one) and Wexford (three). Two birds were seen together on two occasions, both in 1973: at Tacumshin, Wexford, an 30th August, and at Akeragh Lough, Kerry, from 17th to 21 st October, one remaining to 26th.

Jan

Dec

11th to 16th October 1983, and records of two on seven occasions. There were records every year from 1966 to 1986 except for 1972 and 1985. Apart from one in Kerry, in February 1971, all the records since 1966 have been between July and mid November. Singles were recorded in Antrim, Galway and Sligo, two were recorded in Clare, three in Down and Dublin, six in Londonderry and the remainder were in Cork, Kerry and Wexford.

Baird's Sandpiper Calidris bairdii Least Sandpiper Calidris minutilla There have been six records, one prior to 1966 and five since then. Single birds were seen at Akeragh Lough, Kerry, on 15th August 1965, at Clonakilty Bay, Cork, on 13th September 1966 and another from 9th to 11 th September 1967, at Kilcoole, Wicklow, on 17th October 1970, at Lady's Island Lake, Wexford, on 17th September 1978 and

at Ballycotton, Cork, from 9th to 15th August 1984.

This remains one of the rarest American sandpipers in Ireland.

Formerly an extreme rarity with only one record prior to 1966, this American species is now an almost annual vagrant with records in most years from 1966 to 1986, the exceptions being 1967, 1969, 1972, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1985 and 1986. The first record was a bird at Akeragh Lough, Kerry, from 2nd to 6th October 1962. Since then, a total of 34 has been recorded. All have been singles except for two birds at Lady's Island Lake, Wexford, on 26th September 1970, three at Tacumshin, Wexford, in mid September 1980 and two at Ballycotton, Cork, from 23rd to 26th September 1980. Apart from singles at Akeragh Lough from 3rd to 5th June 1975 and at Lough Derravaragh, Westmeath, on 30th July 1975, all the records have been from mid August

Calidris[erruqinea to end October. Singles were recorded in Antrim, Dublin, Londonderry and Westmeath, two were seen in Waterford and the remainder were in Cork, Kerry and Wexford. 15 Bai rd J s Sandp i per

1966-86

105

Lough, Kerry, and six at Ballycotton, Cork, in September 1971, a year when 36 or 37 were reported. The next highest total recorded in a year was in 1983 when about 26 were seen. There have, however, been poor years, and 1975 with only one record was the poorest year since 1957.

Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruqinea

Pectoral Sandpiper Calidris melanotos The Pectoral Sandpiper has always been the most frequently seen American wader in Ireland. Ruttledge (1966) described it as an annual vagrant and stated that only seven were recorded up to 1957, but from 1958 to 1965 there were records every year with a peak in 1961 of 13 birds, including four together on two occasions. The records were widespread but with most in Kerry (14), Antrim (seven), Londonderry (six), Wexford (four) and Dublin (three). Apart from one in April. two in May and one in June, all the birds were recorded between 10th August and 1st November. Since 1966 there has been an increase in records, almost certainly due to more widespread and intense autumn coverage. Birds have been recorded in 17 counties: Antrim, Clare, Cork, Down, Dublin, Galway, Kerry, Limerick, Londonderry, Louth, Mayo, Roscommon, Tipperary, Waterford, Westmeath, Wexford and Wicklow. Most have been in Cork, Kerry and Wexford and the species is certainly annual in Cork and probably in both the other counties. There have been one in April, one in May, three in June and 12 in July, but the majority have been from early August to the end of October. Five have remained into the first half of November and one has been seen in December (Lough Beg, Londonderry, on 23rd December 1984). The largest parties recorded have been 11 at Akeragh 120

Pectoral Sandpiper

Curlew Sandpipers are principally autumn passage migrants to Ireland from Siberia, occurring in small numbers from August to October with a few in July and November. Records outside these months are very few. The first birds in autumn are usually recorded in the last week of July or the first few days of August, and peak numbers are seen in September. Parties of more than ten birds together were recorded at relatively few sites from 1980 to 1986: Dundalk Bay in Louth, the Boyne estuary on the Louth/Meath border, Rogerstown, Swords, Baldoyle and the North Bull in Dublin, Tacumshin, Lady's Island and the Cull in Wexford, Dungarvan in Waterford, Ballymacoda, Ballycotton, Cork Harbour and Clonakilty in Cork, Shannon Airport in Clare, Rahasane in Galway, the Bann estuary in Londonderry and Lough Derravaragh in Westmeath. However, there have been some years when large numbers were recorded and 1969 was exceptional in this respect with over 100 at the North Bull (over 100 on 1st September), Kinsale, Cork (150 on 18th September) and Tivoli, Cork (212 on 11th and 100 on 18th and 19th September. The only other records of over 100 birds were of 135 at Ballyheigue, Kerry on 30th September 1967 and

Records of Curlew Sandpipers from December to June, 1966-1986 Number, location and date 1 Akeragh Lough, Kerry, 28th December 1972 December

January March

1 1 1 1 1 2

April

1966-86

May

30

June

1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

Courtmacsherry, Cork, 3rd January 1976 Slatty's Bridge, Cork Harbour, 21stJanuary 1979 Tacumshin, Wexford, 5th March 1972 Clontarf, Dublin, 11th March 1975 Belvelly, Cork, 23rd March 1979 Cork Harbour, mid-March 1981 Clogher Head, Louth, 17th April 1976 Ballycotton, Cork, 9th April 1977 North Bull, 30th April 1981 Tacumshin, Wexford, 29th April 1984 Duncrue Street, Antrim, 12th May 1967 North Slob, Wexford, 5th to 7th May 1971 Lady's Island Lake, Wexford, 29th May 1973 Bann estuary, Londonderry, 27th May 1974 Bann estuary, 27th May 1978 Blanket Nook, Donegal, 2nd May 1983 Akeragh Lough, 11th June 1970 Rogerstown, Dublin, 4th June 1974

106

Calidris maritima

110 at Tacumshin on 4th October 1985. Ruttledge (1966) recorded peak numbers prior to 1966 of 20 to 40 together. Most birds have moved on by the end of October but a few remain into the first week of November. Since 1966 there have been verv few records in other months. This small number of records compares with those before 1966 (Ruttledge 1966): December (two), January (three), February (three), March (seven), April (two), May (seven), June (three or four). Curlew Sandpipers were formerly believed to be rare inland, but observations in recent years have shown that they are regular at Lough Beg, Londonderry and Lough Derravaragh, Westmeath. No doubt observations elsewhere would show that they occur quite widely inland in autumn. Movement is most marked, however, on the east and south coasts.

Purple Sandpiper Calidris maritima

Being birds of rocky shores, less is known of the distribution and numbers of Purple Sandpipers than of the wader species which occur on estuaries where they are easily counted. Ruttledge (1966) described them as passage migrants and winter visitors, first appearing in August, more usually September and October, wintering quite widely and then occurring in larger numbers again on spring passage in March and April, with some birds in May. Flocks of 30 to 50 were sometimes seen from January to May and flocks of 100-1 75 were recorded on the Inishkea Islands, Mayo, in late March and April. In winter the species was said to be widespread on rocky shores though scarce on the coasts of Galway and Clare. In recent years more information has accumulated on the species. Dublin and Wexford counties each have winter populations of about 100 birds (Hutchinson 1979). There is evidence of autumn passage in Dublin but little sign of spring passage. Instead, the wintering birds, which have arrived in September, depart in late Mayor early June (Hutchinson 1975). However, at Cape Clear and in Wexford it seems there is a marked spring passage (Sharrock 1973, WBR 1983-84). Spring records at Cape Clear are down in recent years, though whether this reflects fewer observers or fewer birds is unknown. In winter Purple Sandpipers are commonest on the east, north-east, west and south-east coasts. On the Clare coast there have been several reports of 100 or more, and over 100 appear to be regular at Seafield. On the Outer Ards coast, Down, up to 94 have been recorded (Austin & Leach 1986). A survey of parts of the west coast in winter 1987/88 found 70 in Donegal, 125 in Leitrim and Sligo, 242 in Clare and 110 on the west Kerry shoreline (M. Green). They are absent from the sandy shore of south Wicklow and north Wexford, from most of the Waterford, Cork and south Kerry coasts and from much of Donegal (Winter Atlas).

Dunlin Calidris alpina

A small number of Dunlin nest in Ireland, but very large numbers occur in winter and on passage in autumn and spring, when the species is the most abundant shore wader in the country. The southern race C. a. schinzii, which breeds from Iceland in the west to Finland in the east, is the race to which our breeders belong. Nesting occurs on callows near lakes and marshes in a number of locations in the midlands, west and north-west. During 1968-72, breeding was proved in Donegal, Fermanagh, Galway, Londonderry, Mayo, Tyrone and Westmeath and suspected in Antrim, Clare, Longford and Roscommon (Breeding Atlas). The largest colony is at the Mullet, Mayo, where up to 50 pairs were reported in the 1960s (Ruttledge 1966). In a survey in 1985 of the breeding birds of sand dune machair sites in north-west Ireland, Nairn and Sheppard (1985) recorded a minimum of 121 pairs of nesting Dunlins in Donegal (17 pairs), Sligo (four pairs), Mayo (94 pairs) and Galway (six pairs). By 1985 the colony on the Mullet held only 15 pairs (R. Nairn). Dunlin in the north-west showed a strong preference for damper sites, ideally with pools or channels, or a lake margin. Survey work in Northern Ireland in 1986 located 18 pairs at Lower Lough Erne, Fermanagh, and one pair in Antrim, and it was suggested that the total population was less than 50 pairs (Partridge 1986b). In autumn the first passage birds, apart from a scatter of non-breeders in summer, return to coastal estuaries and to marshes and lagoons, both inland and on the coast, in early July, and from then until early October there is a steady throughput of birds. Large flocks are exceptional but numbers change from day to day. Adults predominate until late August and many show signs of summer plumage. After this, juveniles are more common. From early October there is a steady build-up of large proportions to peak numbers in December, January or February (Hutchinson 1979). After February numbers decrease at almost all sites and by April very few birds remain. In May, however, there is a very noticeable passage all around the coast. Some birds still pass through in the first ten days of June and a few stay to summer on the coast. The midwinter population was estimated in 1971/72 to 1974/75 as in the region of 100,000 to 130,000 birds with the largest numbers at the Shannon estuary (up to 29,600), Dundalk Bay, Louth (up to 12,400), Strangford Lough, Down (up to 10,000), North Bull, Dublin (up to 7,900) and Cork Harbour (up to 7,700) (Hutchinson 1979). Ringing recoveries indicate that many of the birds passing through Ireland in July, August and September are of the race C. a. schinzii moving south to winter in northwest Africa. In winter the race C. a. alpina, which breeds in northern Scandinavia and the Soviet Union, certainly predominates (Greenwood 1984). The Icelandic C. a. schinzii and Greenland C. a. arctica races winter in northwest Africa but it is not known whether some winter in Ireland. Some Greenland birds have been shown to occur on passage in October, March and May (Ruttledge 1975), and in Donegal in summer 1985 more birds were seen in non-breeding flocks showing characters of this race than of C. a. schinzii (R. Sheppard).

Lymnocryptes minimus Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus

Ruff Philomachus puqnax

There have been six records. A male was shot on 4th October 1844 in Belfast Lough; one was seen at Duncrue Street marsh, Belfast, Antrim, from 11th to 18th May 1963; one was seen at Lough Beg, Londonderry, on 15th and 16th June 1963; one was seen at Charlevllle, Cork, on 2nd June 1978; one was seen at Ballycotton, Cork, from 10th to 14th July 1979; a juvenile was seen at Broad Lough, Wicklow, from 7th to 10th September 1985.

Ruffs are mainly autumn passage migrants to Ireland. They occur, generally in quite small numbers, at salt marshes, brackish lagoons, turloughs and callows in the north, east and south of the country, though increasingly in the west as well. Passage is usual from mid August and the highest numbers occur between mid September and mid October. The largest concentrations usually occur at a very few sites: Lough Beg, Londonderry; Rogerstown and Swords, Dublin; the North Slob and Tacumshin, Wexford; and Ballymacoda and Ballycotton, Cork. Numbers vary greatly from autumn to autumn and as many as 75-100 have been seen at Lough Beg, Swords, the North Slob and Ballycotton, but only in an exceptional year such as 1973. In most years the peak numbers anywhere are less than 40 and can be as low as five or six. Numbers taper off rapidly and wintering is unusual. However, there is an arrival in late January and February at several sites, particularly at' Ballycotton and south-east Wexford where 15-20, rarely as many as 40, can be present. A further spring movement occurs in late March and April, after the late winter arrivals have moved on. A very few birds occur in May, June or July. Males in full breeding plumage are very rare but may be annual. Prater (1973) suggested that the arrivals in late winter may be Ruffs which remained in Continental Europe until hard weather forced them farther west and that these birds have mostly departed by the time the African winterers move through in late March and April. There has never been any suspicion of nesting in Ireland, although England has been recolonized since 1963 and pairs have bred as close to Ireland as Anglesey and Lancashire on the west coast of Britain.

Stilt Sandpiper Micropalama himantopus This American vagrant has been recorded on only three occasions. One was seen at Akeragh Lough, Kerry, on 6th and 7th October 1968; one at Ballycotton, Cork, from 14th to 17th July 1979; one at Tacumshin, Wexford, on 1st August 1983.

Buff-breasted Sandpiper Tryngites subrujicollis The Buff-breasted Sandpiper is the second most numerous of the vagrant waders from North America, only exceeded by the Pectoral Sandpiper. Prior to 1966 there were only 12 records: two in the nineteenth century, the others between 1954 and 1965 (not 11 as per Ruttledge 1966). Since 1966 the species has been an annual vagrant with the number of records varying between one in 1969 (a single bird in June) and a series in 1980 involving about 19 birds. There were about 144 birds recorded up to 1986. The majority of birds recorded have been in September, though there were records of single birds in Mayo in June 1969 and July 1971, in Cork in July 1981 and in Down in June 1986. The Mayo records were of birds associating with Dunlin on their breeding grounds, and presumably involved birds which had crossed the Atlantic in a previous autumn. The largest numbers recorded were nine at Tacumshm. Wexford, in September 1980, seven at Tacumshin in September 1977 and five at Lough Beg, Londonderry, in September 1975, at Lissagriffln, Cork, in September 1980 and at Tacumshin InSeptember 1983. 75 Buff-breasted Sandpiper

25

107

1966-86

Jack Snipe Lymnocryptes minimus The Jack Snipe is found throughout the country in winter but nowhere is it abundant. Usually one or two are seen, though occasionally ten or more have been flushed from a small area of marsh or bog. Immigrants arrive in October and November, a few earlier in August and September. Most leave in March or April, a few linger on into May. There is one record of a bird in summer, on 24th June 1954 in Kerry. The nine recoveries are of birds ringed in April (two), September (five), October (two), presumably while on passage, in Scandinavia, central Europe and Belgium. Because the species is so elusive, feeding in marsh or bog and difficult to flush, rather little is known of its numbers. In Britain, however, it has been estimated that one Jack Snipe is shot for every eight Snipe suggesting a winter population there of at least 100,000 (Harradine 1986). In Ireland the proportion shot is certainly lower (P. Roche). The Irish winter population could be as high as 20.000 or 30,000.

108

Gallinaqo gallinago

Snipe Gallinaqo gallinago

Short-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus qriseus

Snipe are widespread and common breeding birds throughout the country. On the basis of 30-40 breeding pairs in each 10 km square where breeding was probable or certain (the assumption used in the Breeding Atlas), the total summer population could be 25,000-35,000 pairs. This is a very general guess for Snipe are ubiquitous on wet ground, bogs, salt-marshes, damp pastures and callows and were found in almost all 10 km squares during 196872. Survey work in recent years suggests that this estimate is perhaps a little low. In Northern Ireland a survey in 1986 and 1987 indicated that the breeding population was about 10,075 pairs (Partridge 1988) and a survey of the Shannon callows in 1987 indicated that about 762 pairs were present (R. Nairn). The highest densities found so far have been on the Shannon callows, the Lough Erne basin and the Lough Neagh basin. In winter large numbers come to Ireland from Britain, from the countries fringing the Baltic, from Iceland and from the Faeroes. They frequent bogs, marshes and estuaries throughout Ireland. Immigration begins early in September and continues in October with the largest numbers in November and December. It is not known whether Irish bred Snipe emigrate but Ruttledge (1966) considered them to be mainly sedentary, performing mainly hard-weather movements, and the only four recoveries of chicks ringed in Ireland have all been local, in October (three) and December (one). There is a widespread view among those who have shot Snipe for many years that winter numbers are lower now than formerly and that the principal reason is the drainage of much wetland and bog. At Cape Clear, where daily counts of migrants have been carried out for many years, the pattern over the years 1959-1969 was described by Sharrock (1973). He showed that numbers remained relatively static from May to December with no evidence of significant autumn passage, though in some years a few migrants were seen in October. However, the largest numbers were reported from mid December to mid March, especially when there was hard weather in western Europe, and as many as 1,500 were recorded in a day on the island.

A juvenile was seen at Tacumshin, Wexford, from 30th September to 2nd October 1985. The identification of dowitchers is a complex matter and records of Short-billed Dowitchers in 1963 (Ruttledge 1966) are now accepted as Long-billed Dowitchers.

Long-billed Dowitcher Limnodromus scolopaceus Up to 1965, there were 12 records of dowitchers, including

those recorded as Short-billed Dowitchers in 1963 (RuttIedge 1966), and a total of 17 birds had been seen. Five of these, including two specimens in the National Museum, were considered to be definite Long-billed Dowitchers. All were in September or October except for one at Blennerville, Kerry, on 3rd December 1958 and one at Tory Island, Donegal, on 5th May 1962. The multiple record was of four at Rahasane, Galway, on 2nd October 1963, five on 10th and two on 20th. Since 1966 there have been records of dowitchers in every year except 1973 and 1976, though only 15 have been specifically identified as Long-billed Dowitchers. In almost all cases where identification was not certain the bird was believed to be of this species. Most dowitcher records have been in autumn but there have been a number of cases of wintering, though only in the 1980-83 series of records were the birds positively identified as Long-billed Dowitchers. Records of wintering dowitchers in Ireland

1970/71 1971/72 1977/78 1979/80 1980-83

Great Snipe Gallinaqo media The Great Snipe is an extremely rare vagrant with a total of only about 20 records, twelve in the nineteenth century, six between 1900 and 1965 and two since. The recent records were of single birds at Benderg Bay, Ballyhornan. Down, on 11 th December 1967 and at Dursey Island, Cork, on 22nd October 1983. Of the earlier records, one was in February and the remainder in September to December. They occurred in Cork (one), Wexford (three or more), Kildare (three), Dublin (one), Meath (one), Galway (two), Mayo (two), Leitrim (two), Tyrone (one) and Antrim (two).

One, Ballycotton, Cork, 13th December 1970 to mid April 1971. One, Inchydoney, Cork, 28th September 1971 to mid April 1972. One, Bann Estuary, Londonderry, 9th October 1977 to 22nd April 1978. One, Ballycotton, 7th October 1979, joined by another on 24th November, both remaining to 4th April 1980. An immature at Ballycotton, Cork, 11th October was joined by another on 17th, both remaining until April 1981, returning on 16th July 1981, one remaining until September 1982, the other to mid November 1983.

30 Dowitcher sp ,

10

Jan

1966-86

Limosa Iimosa

109

of April. ,The earliest clutch found in a study area was thought to be complete by 23rd March (Wilson 1982a). These results are similar to those found in Britain and France. In winter there is a massive immigration in November (Wilson 1982a). though early birds arrive in October. Ringing has shown that these birds come from northern Britain and the Continent. some from as far east as the Urals. It is Widely held that fresh immigrants arrive during the winter months of December. January and February if the weather is harsh to the east. but a study in Wicklow. using radio-telemetry. showed that wintering Woodcock are highly faithful to their wintering sites and that even in periods of intense cold they do not move far (Wilson 1982c). Wintering Woodcock spend the day in cover and flight to pasture fields to feed at night. Recoveries of ringed Woodcock have shown a high degree of site fidelity within and between winters (Wilson 1982b). Ruttledge (1966) considered that numbers in the middle years ofthis century were not so high as formerly, but that with the increase in conifer plantation there was. by the mid 1960s. substantial cover for the birds and he considered that the population had increased in recent years. Ruttledge cited some very large bags. In the last century a total of 1.250 was shot in one winter in Kerry and daily bags of 165. 172. and 178 were recorded at Ashford in Galway. In 1944 at Ashford 131 were shot in two days: 87 were shot in Roscommon on 2nd January 1945 and 56 were shot in Longford on 4th January 1945. Passage migration has been noted at Great Saltee, Wexford. and at various lighthouses in late March and April . and Wilson (l982a) found that wintering birds departed from his study areas in March.

Woodcock Scolopax rusticola Woodcock were recorded in 1968-72 as widespread but thinly distributed as breeding birds across most of the country. with the exception of most of south-west Munster and the western seaboard (Breeding Atlas) . The total breeding population was then probably in the region of 5.000 pairs. but numbers are increasing. The birds breed in every county. having increased as a breeding species from about 1833 onwards (Thompson 1859-61). The majority of Irish-bred Woodcock are sedentary. but ringed young have been recovered in England. Scotland. France. Spain. Portugal and Sweden. In 1975 a survey was carried out of all the state forests and major private woodlands by means of questionnaire. The results showed Woodcock present in suitable breeding habitat in 16 % more 10km squares than in 1968-72 (Wilson 1982a). Part of the apparent increase may have been due to less through recording in the Atlas survey. but information from several well-watched localities confirmed that there had also been a real expansion due to the increased availability of coniferous forest as breeding habitat. Irish Woodcock begin roding about the second week in February and most eggs are laid within the first 15 days

Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa Black-tailed Godwits have bred in at least three counties in Ireland in the period from 1975 onwards. though not more than two or three pairs have been proved to nest in any year. These numbers are relatively small. considering that between 26 and 87 pairs were known to be possibly or certainly breeding in Britain each year from 1974 to 1984 (Spencer et aI1986). Breeding has been recorded in one midland site since about 1975 and one or two pairs have bred annually. In Wexford a pair nested unsuccessfully in 1979. In another southern county breeding took place from 1983 to 1986. At least two pairs bred in 1983 . 1984 and 1986 and at least one in 1985. Seven juveniles were seen in 1983. four in 1984. three in 1985 but the results in 1986 were not known for certain. The breeding birds are from the mainly Icelandic breeding race L.l. islandica. also the source of our wintering birds. The first autumn Black-tailed Godwits appear in Ireland as early as the end of June and are, of course. adults or firstsummer birds which have not bred. Numbers build up through July and the first juveniles appear at the end of the first week of August. There is an increase during September and peak numbers are reached then or in

110

Limosa limosa

October at most estuaries. Birds arrive at estuaries on the south coast between Wexford and west Cork. at a few sites on the east coast (Strangford Lough. Down. Ballymascanlon Bay . Louth. Boyne estuary. Louth/Meath. Rogerstown and North Bull. Dublin) and at turloughs and callows in the Shannon valley. Numbers at these sites rarely exceed 200 birds whereas much larger numbers occur on the south coast. In winter the south coast estuaries hold the largest numbers. Wexford Harbour (up to 2.000). Dungarvan Bay.

. ,/\

.

,.. "

r'l..-:,'

I ..

"

...

-'

Black-tailed Godwit concentrations. Large dots represent more than 1.000 birds. small dots 250-1.000 birds

Waterford (up to 1,000), Ballymacoda. Cork (up to 1, 100). Cork Harbour (up to 3.500) and Clonakilty Bay. Cork (up to 750) hold the largest numbers. These are all muddy estuaries and the Black-tailed Godwits feed in the inner estuary. away from the sandy outer reaches where Bartailed Godwits usually feed. There is some overlap. of course. but the largest numbers of each species usually frequent quite different habitats. Black-tailed Godwits also feed on damp pasture fields. particularly from November onwards. and the Blackwater callows near Ballyduff, Waterford . are visited by up to 1,500 at this time . Departure from the south coast estuaries is very early. A decrease begins in January and numbers are much reduced by February. By March. Black-tailed Godwits have virtually deserted the south coast and are concentrating on the Shannon estuary and the callows of the Little Brosna and the River Shannon between Lough Ree and Lough Derg. Counts of up to 4.600 have been made on the Little Brosna, and of 4 .500, 5,400. 6.500 and 16.400 on the Shannon estuary in the spring. Only very small numbers remain from late April to June. mostly at brackish lagoons. though up to 100 may summer regularly in Cork Harbour. These are suspected to be firstsummer birds. The autumn arrivals appear to include some passage migrants as well as winter visitors. One ringed in Down in September 1964 was recovered in Spain in February 1966. The winter population was estimated in 1979 to be in the region of 8 .000-10.000 (Hutchinson 1979) when numbers were probably as high as they had ever been. Prater (1975) has described a remarkable increase in wintering numbers in England over the preceding fifty years, and Ruttledge (1966) on the basis of far less concrete data considered that there had been a great increase in Ireland during the 19 50s and early 1960s. That increase seems to have stabilized and there may have even been a small decline in the late 1970s and early 1980s. but by 1985 numbers were again increasing.

Numenius phaeopus Bar-tailed Godwit Limosa lapponica The Bar-tailed Godwit is a winter visitor to Ireland with no firm evidence of any passage migration. Our birds breed in northern Europe, east from northern Scandinavia to the Taimyr peninsula in the Soviet Union. Adults leave from late July through the first two weeks in August to moult in western Europe. Juveniles follow later in the autumn (Prater 1974). The first birds reappear on Irish estuaries in mid July and the main immigration is in August. Whether any of these birds moult in Ireland is unknown, but almost all have moulted their summer body plumage and are in their rather drab winter dress. Numbers rise slightly in September, perhaps as juveniles arrive, but fluctuations thereafter are relatively limited until the great majority of birds depart between mid February and mid March. A few remain into May and small flocks of 200-300 birds summer at Lough Foyle, Londonderry, and Wexford Harbour, occasionally elsewhere. Bar-tailed Godwits are birds of sandy estuaries and the largest numbers occur in winter at Dundalk bay, Louth (6,000-7,000), Lough Foyle, Londonderry (1,500-3,000) and Dublin bay (up to 2,500). They feed primarily on lugworms Arenicola sp., which thrive on sandy foreshores, but small parties can be found at beaches around much of the country, and in Wexford several hundred feed on fields on the North Slob when high tides coincide with very wet field conditions (0. J. Merne). The peak midwinter population is probably between 16,000 and 20,000 birds (Hutchinson 1979).

Eskimo Curlew Numenius borealis A specimen of this North American species, now close to extinction, was found in a Dublin poulterer's shop in October 1870. It had definitely been shot in Ireland, probably in Sligo.

Whimbrel Numenius phaeopus The Whimbrel is principally a spring and autumn passage migrant in Ireland, though some birds spend the summer and a handful pass the winter on the south coast. Spring passage is regular from mid April, sometimes

earlier, to early May. A study at Cork Harbour, involving over 200 hours of observations of migrating Whimbrels in the years 1977 to 1979, showed that a very substantial passage took place (Pierce & Wilson 1980). These observations showed that a large passage is a regular feature on the south coast, a movement which had not been detected in former years because few of the birds halt to feed on striking land. These birds, which flew southeast to north-west over Cork Harbour, were believed to be Icelandic breeders returning from wintering grounds in Africa. One Icelandic ringed bird has been recovered in Galway. One bird ringed in Cork in July was recovered in Guinea Bissau in the following March. Flocks of several hundred have been recorded on occasion at other locations on the south coast in late April or early May, and indeed large numbers appear inland as well. In 1973 there were 1,100 roosting at Keenagh turlough, Roscommon, in late April; in 1978 several hundred were reported on some days from late April to mid May at the Gainne River valley in Westmeath. and in spring 1987 parties of up to several hundred per day were seen on the River Shannon south of Athlone. Apart from the Cork Harbour and Keenagh records, there has only been one other record of 1,000 birds or more and that was of 1,000 near Skibbereen, Cork, on 26th and 27th April 1980. In some years large flocks are seen in Wexford and east Cork; in others the flocks are farther west. Indeed, there are some years when only small numbers are seen in spring, suggesting that the spring immigration is on a very narrow front and sometimes many of the birds miss Ireland completely. A few Whimbrels spend the summer mainly on the south coast, and return migration begins in June, reaching a peak in August. Numbers in September are lower and a few hang on into November. Flocks are generally much smaller than in spring but the birds remain for longer periods. Single birds and small parties are very widely dispersed. Several birds remain to winter on the Cork and Kerry coasts every year but no more than 20 birds are in volved in total. The American race, the Hudsonian Whimbrel N.p. hudsonicus, has been recorded twice: single birds were seen at Tralee Harbour, Kerry, on 1st October 1957, and at Tacumshtn, Wexford, on 27th September 1980.

Numbers of Wh imbreIs recorded at Cork Harbour 1977-1979 (after Pierce & Wilson 1980)

1977 15-19 April 20-24 April 25-29 April 30 April-4 May

hours 17 26 35 17

95

birds 13 1,252 1,515 94

111

1978 hours 15 31 9 17

72

birds 0 2,227 677 400

1979 hours 40 23

1

birds 103 414 254 12

73

783

9

112

Numenius arquata

Curlew Numenius arquata Curlews are widespread birds in Ireland at mo st times of the year. They nest on rough pastures. bogs. moorland and callows in all parts ofIreland except for west Kerry . south Cork and most of Wexford. The Curlew is commonest in the drumlin areas of the north where the fields have dry nesting sites and damp feeding areas close to each other (Breeding Atlas). but the birds are widely dispersed and the total population is not high. Census studies have been carried out in Northern Ireland. where a total of 5.000 pairs was estimated in 1986 and 1987 (Partridge 1988); the River Shannon callows, 48 pairs counted in 1987 (R. Nairn); and west Galway. 12 pairs located in 1985 and nine in 1986 (Haworth 1986). Much the highest densities recorded so far are at the Lough Erne basin. Fermanagh, where 247 pairs were estimated on 32.84 km 2 in 1986 and 1987 (Partridge 1988). Numbers are reported to have declined in Cork since the 1960s because of the reduction of breeding habi tat due to drainage and planting (K. Preston). Some Curlews. probably too young to breed. remain in flocks at the coast in summer but the numbers are small. certainly smaller than the flocks of non-breeding Oystercatchers at this time. In July there is a n increase at many coastal sites and. at least on the south coast. there is a steady increase to an August and September peak. On the east coast. at Strangford Lough. Down . and the North Bull. Dublin. there is no real evidence of autumn passage: fluctuations revealed from counts in the years 1971 /72 to 1974/75 were remarkably haphazard and may well have been due to local movements of birds to and from fields in the vicinity of estuaries (Hutchinson 1979). In the south there is a clear decline in winter. followed by an increase in February and Mar ch which is also discernible at Strangford and the North Bull. By the end of March most birds have left wetlands and numbers from April to the end of June are quite low. Ringing recoveries indicate that very large numbers of

Scottish. northern English and Scandinavian bred Curlews winter in Ireland. almost certainly with many Irish bred birds. As most Curlews in Britain have vacated the breeding areas by late July (Breeding Atlas) it is likely that many move west quite early to Ireland. At least five have been recovered in August in the year in which they were ringed as chicks. and one ringed on 5th June in Inverness. Scotland. as a chick was recovered in Galway on 31 st July . clear evidence of rapid movement. One Russian-ringed bird has been recovered in Ireland and one Irish-ringed adult recov ered in the USSR (Bainbridge & Minton 19 78 ). The peak in counts at most Irish sites in February and March clearly relates to birds gathering together at wetlands prior to returning to breed. Whether birds actually arrive in Ireland from farther south is unknown. There is a massive and very noisy nocturnal movement in March most years on the east coast in Dublin and Wexford. presumably of birds returning to Scotland and northern England. The midwinter population is difficult to estimate but the birds are immensely widely distributed. The total has been put at between 50.000 and 150 .0 0 0 birds (Hutchinson 1979) but it seems likely that the true total is much nearer the top figure .

Upland Sandpiper Bartramia lonqicauda There have been only seven records of this American species . Single birds were shot in Ballinasloe, Galway. in autumn 1855 ; at Newcestown, Cork. on 4th September 1894 and at Bunduff. Sligo. in November. probably 1901. Single birds were seen on the North Slob. Wexford. on 29th and 30th September 1956; at Hook Head. Wexford. on 10th and lIth October 1967; at the North Slob on 15th September 1971, and at Rogerstown, Dublin. on 17th July 1974.

Spotted Redshank Tringa ery thropus There were only 70 records of the Spotted Redshank up to 1954. but from 1955 there was a marked increase. By the 1960s the species was described as of regular occurrence in autumn . with a few remaining in winter. some occurring on spring passage and a very few recorded in summer (Ruttledge 1966). The numbers recorded increased in the 1960s and records of six to eight together became frequent. In 1962 there was a record of 22 at Blennerville, Kerry ; in 1963 a flock of 19 was seen on the North Slob. Wexford; in 1965 flocks of over 40 and over 50 were on the South Slob. Wexford. on 29th August and 7th October respectively. By the mid 1960s. therefore. the Spotted Redshank was a regular visitor. recorded in all coastal counties except Meath and Leitrirn, but with most seen in Kerry and Wexford. Dublin . the source of mos t of the records before 1950s. was rarely visited in the 19 60s. The Sh annon valley. Lough Carra. Mayo. inland lakes in Galway. and

Trinqa stagnatilis

113

has estimated a total population for Northern Ireland of about 550 pairs. most of which are around Loughs Erne and Neagh. Densities at Lower Lough Erne are particularly high. Numbers and density of breeding Redshanks at selected sites km ' Pairs Pairs/ Source km' Shannon Callows 400 34.89 11.46 R. Nairn Lough Neagh Basin 20.92 214 10.23 Partridge

(1988)

Lough Erne Basin

Lough Beg. Londonderry. were also regular haunts of small numbers. From 1966. numbers were high until 1976. but thereafter there appears to have been a substantial decline. with reports of scarcity in 1977 and from 1979 to 1983 (IBR). The peak numbers are almost invariably on the Wexford Slobs in September; the highest counts have been 105 on 12th September 1973 and 132 on 6th September 1976. but since 1979 the peak on the Slobs was only 18 in 1983. The first autumn migrants usually appear in late July and there is steady passage in August. September and October when small parties or single birds are found on most of the south coast wetlands. and singles or two together at sites around the country. After mid October. numbers decline. but a few birds winter at sites on the south and south-west coasts. The total winter population probably fluctuates between 20 and 50 birds. Passage in spring extends from the end of February to the beginning of May. and is lighter than in autumn. Only a very few birds appear to be involved. In Cork there is commonly an arrival of birds in summer plumage in June. and up to eight birds have been recorded at Ballycotton in June or July. obviously non-breeders.

Redshank Tringa totanus Redshanks nest in quite small numbers in Ireland. mostly around the Connacht and midland lakes and Lough Neagh. A few breed on the east and north coasts but nesting is almost unknown in Munster and on the west coast (Breeding Atlas). There are only two records of nesting in Cork and those were at Ballycotton in 1967 and Ballymacoda in 1970 (CBR 1967. 1970). The only breeding birds known on the west coast are on machair sites in Donegal. Sligo and Mayo where 17 pairs were counted in 1985 (Nairn & Sheppard 1985). and at Ballyconneely and Rossaveal in Galway where breeding was proved in 1987 (A. Whilde). In recent years the populations in Northern Ireland and on the River Shannon callows have been censused and found to hold quite substantial numbers. Partridge (1988)

32.84

230

7.00

Partridge

(1988)

Although the results of these census studies showed higher densities than expected. there has been a decline in Northern Ireland in recent years. particularly in Down (]. S. Furphy). The Irish breeding birds are of the race T.t. brittanica and are believed to winter in Ireland. but most birds recorded on passage and in winter are Icelandic Redshanks T.t. robusta. The first Redshanks return to coastal wetlands in mid June. and from late June to mid July numbers increase rapidly to a peak in September or October. Large numbers of Redshanks are found on all Irish estuaries at this season. both on large muddy estuaries and smaller sandier bays. After the autumn peak. usually in September. there is a decline for the winter before another increase in February and March. sometimes April (Hutchinson 1979). Very few birds are found on estuaries in Mayor the first half of June. Recoveries of ringed birds have shown that Icelandic Redshanks and birds from Scotland and northern England winter in Ireland. Whether the autumn passage. presumably mostly of Icelandic birds. includes many Continental Redshanks T.t. totanus is not known. though it seems unlikely that many birds moving south from Scandinavia to southern Europe or north-west Africa would move as far west as Ireland. However. examination of the measurements of Redshanks caught for ringing in Cork in October has shown that all or almost all are Icelandic birds. Because Redshanks are so widespread. small numbers being found inland as well as larger numbers on the coast. the midwinter population is difficult to assess. but it has been estimated at 1 1,OOD-18.000 (Hutchinson 1979). and more recently at 15.000-20.000 in the Republic alone (Whilde 1986). The total wintering in Northern Ireland is about 6.500 (Salmon et al 1987). Numbers are higher in autumn.

Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis There have been two records: a juvenile was at Tacumshin. Wexford . from 7th to 13th August 1982 and an adult at the same place on 4th and 5th August 1984.

114

Trinqa nebularia

Greenshank Trinqa nebularia The Greenshank has bred at only one Irish site. A pair nested at Achill, Mayo, in 1972 and 19 74, and probably in 1971 as well. No visit was made to the nesting site in 1973 until late in the season. One fledgling was seen in 1972 and 1974 (Ruttledge 1978). It is possible that occasional breeding pairs escape attention. In autumn, Greenshanks appear on the Irish coast and some lake edges and marshy areas inland at the end of the first week of July. From August to the end of October there is steady movement with a peak in September considered in 1979 (Hutchinson 1979) to be as high as 1,000 birds, but in view of the many birds now known to occur in small numbers around the coast (Winter Atlas) it may well be double this figure. The largest numbers are found on the east and south coasts where several estuaries hold 40-60 birds in autumn. The maximum recorded wintering on any estuary was at Tralee Bay, Kerry, with at least 200 in 1958/59 (Ruttledge 1966). There is a decline from the end of October and smaller numbers winter, perhaps totalling as many as 750-1,000. The prey of Greenshanks includes shrimps, small fish, crabs and worms which occur in widely diverse habitats, thus explaining the extensive distribution of the birds in Ireland. Greenshanks breed abundantly in Scandinavia and the Soviet Union but these birds are believed to winter south of the Sahara. It is likely that our wintering birds are of Scottish origin, and one ringed in Scotland in June 1926 as a juvenile was recovered in Cork in the following October.

Greater Yellowlegs Trinqa melanoleuca There were six records between 1940 and 1964, in January (two), April (one), September (one), October (one) and December (one), in counties Antrim (two), Cork (one), Donegal (one) and Down (one). One of the birds was found recently shot in a game dealer's store in Dublin in January 1947 but the county of origin was not known. Since 1966 there have been only five records, which contrasts sharply with the Lesser Yellowlegs, which was almost as scarce prior to 1966 but is now of annual occurrence. The five records were at Ballycotton, Cork, on 23rd and 24th August 1968; near Cloghane, Kerry, on 26th September 1971; at Ballycotton from 29th April to 6th May 1978: at Lough Beg, Londonderry, on 8th September 1979 and at Blennerville, Kerry from late 1982 to the end of April 1983.

Lesser Yellowlegs Trinqa flavipes There were eight records before 1966, not five as stated by Ruttledge (1966). The first was at Lady's Island Lake, Wexford, from 9th to 16th October 1955: then there were

10

lesser Vellowlegs

1966-86

records of singles at Lough Beg, Londonderry, on 24th May 1958; Blennerville, Kerry, on 28th and 29th September 1960; Swords, Dublin, on 8th April 1961; the South Slob, Wexford, on 19th September 1963; Tacumshln, Wexford, from 11th to 13th September 1964; Swords from 25th October to 10th December 1964 and Tacumshin, Wexford, on 8th May 1965. From 1966 to 1986 about 40 birds have been recorded in all years except 1972,1974,1976,1979,1980,1984 and 1986. The majority of records have been in autumn but several birds have remained into December, and there has been one January record. There has been a record of four birds at Akeragh Lough, Kerry, on 6th August 1973, three remaining until 11th and two to 15th. In addition, there have been three records of two birds together: at the North Slob, Wexford, in 1968; and at Ballycotton, Cork, in 1970 and 1971. The birds recorded since 1966 have been mainly in Cork, Kerry and Wexford but there have also been records in Down (one), Dublin (two), Galway (one), Londonderry (one) and Wicklow (one).

Solitary Sandpiper Tringa solitaria This is one of the rarest American waders to occur in Ireland, with only three records. These were at Akeragh Lough, Kerry, on 21st and 22nd September 1968, at Lissagrlffin. Cork, from 5th to 7th September 1971 and at Cape Clear from 15th to 17th September 1974.

Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus Green Sandpipers are mainly autumn passage migrants, but a few birds winter and there is a handful of spring records in most years. The birds occur singly or in small parties of up to about ten at inland wetland areas such as lagoons, drains in marshy fields and by rivers, and also at brackish lagoons on the coast. Autumn passage is usual from early July until late October and is widespread throughout the country, except in Connacht and the northwest. The principal haunts nowadays are in Cork and at Thurles Sugar Factory Lagoon, Tipperary. Winter records usually involve single birds and tend to be at traditional haunts such as Thurles Sugar Factory Lagoon, the Wexford Slobs, the Douglas Estuary and Charlevllle, Cork. Spring records are usually in March or

Arenaria interpres April but there have been records in every month and birds have summered in a number of years at Douglas, Cork, and elsewhere.

Wood Sandpiper Trinqa glareola The Wood Sandpiper was a rare vagrant to Ireland prior to 1949 with only seven records, all in the years before 1910 (Kennedy et al 1954). Since 1949 there has been a real increase and in the three years 1960 to 1962 there were 40 different birds reported. Most records up to 1966 were in Dublin (18), Kerry (14), Londonderry (13) and Wexford (10), with 40 records in nine other counties (Ruttledge 1966). Most were recorded in August and September but there were others in April (one), May (seven), June (eight), July (five), November and December (one each). Most records were of single birds but up to six together had been seen. Since 1966 the Wood Sandpiper has remained a regular autumn migrant, mainly in August and September, though a bird wintered at Clonakilty, Cork, in 1966/67 and 1967/68. Numbers have fluctuated considerably, however, with relatively large totals in the late 1960s. For example, there were peak counts at Ballycotton, Cork, in August 1968 of eight in a day, and in August 1969 often in a day. However, from 1972 numbers declined dramatically and in 1974 there were only nine birds recorded in the entire country. Numbers revived somewhat in 1977 when a May record was the first spring report since 1974, and there were records from several sites in Cork, Dublin, Kerry, Westmeath and Wexford. From 1978 onwards there were a few spring records but autumn numbers remained low, never reaching those recorded in the late 1960s, though birds were reported regularly on the east and south coasts.

115

the most common and widespread birds in Connemara (Haworth 1986). On the River Shannon callows 24 pairs were found in 1987 (R. Nairn). In Northern Ireland numbers are clearly lower with only 27 counted in the Lough Erne basin (Partridge 1986b). Common Sandpipers arrive on Irish shores about mid April, but most appear in May. Numbers are quite small, the birds almost always occurring singly or in pairs. The earliest record is for 3rd March. From late June the breeding areas are vacated and birds congregate on the coast. In late June and July flocks of up to 30 together, occasionally over 50, can be seen at many estuaries and coastal lagoons. Passage peaks in late July and numbers decline through August. Common Sandpipers are scarce in September and rare in October. Small numbers winter on the Cork coast every year, perhaps as many as ten in Cork Harbour, and occasional birds winter as far north as Antrim.

Spotted Sandpiper Actitis macularia There have been six records. The first was of a bird shot near the River Finnea, Westmeath, on 2nd February 1899 and there were no further records until 1978 when one was seen at Union Hall, Cork, on 28th September. There have been four subsequent records: singles at Ballymacoda, Cork, on 6th and 7th October 1979; at Clonakilty, Cork, from 7th October to December 1982; at Ballynatray, Waterford, from 2nd to 20th November 1982; and at Cape Clear from 1st to 15th October 1983. The Ballynatray bird was an adult; all the others this century have been in juvenile or first winter plumage. It seems likely that this species was overlooked in the past and that greater skill in distinguishing it from Common Sandpiper has led to more birds being identified.

Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos The Common Sandpiper is a widespread breeding bird west of a line from Belfast. Antrim, to Skibbereen, Cork. A few pairs nest east of this in the Wicklow mountains, in Carlow, Tipperary and Waterford, but the lowland lakes of Connacht, the Shannon, Clare and the midlands are the centre of the population. Birds nest on mountain lakes and on upland rivers and streams. In west Cork and Kerry they nest on shingle bars on the coast (Breeding Atlas). There are indications of a contraction in range since the 1950s. The area where the species was scarce in 1900-60 (Carlow, Kilkenny, Waterford and Wexford) appeared by the early 1970s to have extended to include Kildare, Louth, Meath and east Cork (Breeding Atlas). However, these counties are all very low-lying and it must be doubtful whether they ever held many birds. Census data are available for rather few sites. In west Galway nesting pairs were found .at 44 freshwater loughs in 1985 and at 71 in 1986. Since most of the larger loughs had two or three pairs this was considered to be one of

Turnstone Arenaria interpres Turnstones occur in autumn, winter and spring along the entire Irish coastline. The first immigrants arrive in July, and peak autumn passage is in August and September. Numbers are slightly lower in winter on the south and east coasts than in autumn, but on the north coast the highest numbers are in winter. There is a marked spring passage in late March and April on the south and east coasts. The total number in midwinter has been estimated as well in excess of 5,000 (Hutchinson 1979), but this is clearly far too low. In winter 1985/86 peaks of 2,692 (December) and 2,797 (February) were counted on Belfast Lough and the Outer Ards peninsula, Down, and the Northern Ireland population alone was estimated at 4,000-4,500 (Austin & Leach 1986). During the winter of 1987/88 counts were carried out on stretches of the Donegal, Leitrim, Sligo, Clare and Kerry coasts and 2,500 were found (M. Green). It is likely that the total number wintering in Ireland is nearer 20,000 than 5,000 and could be as high as 25,000.

116

Phalaropus tricolor

Small numbers occur on all coasts in the summer months, and birds are reported from inland lakes in Connacht, on the Shannon and at Lough Neagh during passage. The origins of Irish wintering Turnstones are not fully understood. The species breeds from Greenland east to Siberia, extending south in Europe as far as Denmark and winters south to southern Africa and Australia. One ringed in Antrim in January 1942 was recovered in north-west Greenland on 30th May 1945 and one Greenland ringed bird has been recovered in Ireland. One ringed when fullgrown in south-west Iceland on 25th May 1961 was recovered in Clare about 5th January 1962, and five birds ringed as adults in Iceland have been recovered in Ireland. These recoveries suggest that our Turnstones come from the western end of their breeding range.

Wilson's Phalarope Phalaropus tricolor In common with several other North American wader species, the Wilson's Phalarope has become almost an annual visitor in recent years. The only record prior to 1966 was of one at Lady's Island Lake, Wexford, on 12th and 13th August 1961. A total of 49 birds had been recorded by 1986, most singly but including records of three at Kinnegar, Down, and two at Tacumshin, Wexford, in 1980, a year when nine were recorded. The only other record of more than one bird was at Akeragh Lough, Kerry, in 1967 when two were recorded. Birds have been reported in every year since 1966 except 1972, 1973 and 1983. All the records have been in August to October with a clear peak in the first half of September. Most have been recorded in Wexford, Cork and Kerry but there have also been records in Antrim (one), Clare (one), Down (two involving four birds), Dublin (five) and Londonderry (two). 30

20

10

Wilson's Phalarope

1966-86

Red-necked Phalarope Phalaropus Iobatus The Irish breeding colony of Red-necked Phalaropes is the most southerly in the world and, therefore, right on the edge of the species' range. This colony at Annagh, Mayo, was first found in 1900 when two or three pairs were seen on the marsh. Breeding was proved in 1902 and since then the colony has survived, though with varying success. In 1905 about 50 pairs were found and in 1923 the colony was reported as 40-50 pairs by the watcher who later became the summer warden for the Irish Society for the Protection of Birds, Mr M. Gilboy. Another observer reported, however in 1924 that the colony had been declining for some years and in 1932 only 25 birds could be counted. There were six pairs in 1940, five in 1944, two in 1945 and only a very few up to 1950 when four pairs nested (Kennedy et al19 54). During the years of greatest strength of the Armagh colony two other sites in Mayo were colonized. One, 5 km from Annagh, had two or three pairs in 1920 but was apparently deserted in 1924; the other, 8 km from Armagh, had a few pairs which continued to breed intermittently after 1924. In 1932 there were six pairs but in 1944 only one pair could be found (Kennedy et al 1954). In Donegal single pairs bred on Roaninish and near Murroe for several years about 1925 (Ruttledge 1966). The only other published record of breeding prior to the 1960s was at Dooaghtry Lakes, Mayo, where birds were seen in 1911 or 1912, were not found in 1947, but a pair was certainly breeding between 1953 and 1956 (Ruttledge 1982a). After 1950 the Annagh breeding colony lingered on with between one and three pairs until 1967 when a number of extra birds appeared in spring and the colony increased to about five pairs. More significantly, several additional sites were colonized. At 'I'urloughcor, Galway, a pair was seen in June 1967 and coition observed but no subsequent search was made for evidence of breeding until 1970 when the area had been drained. In 1970 two or three pairs were found breeding at Glenamaddy, but the area was dry in 1971, flooded in 1972 and dry in 1973, and no birds were seen. In 19 74 three birds were present but no evidence of breeding was noted. A bird was seen again in 1975, but none subsequently. At Akeragh Lough, Kerry, two nests were found in 1969, two nests in 1970, one nest in 1971 and one bird on one day only in 1972. At Lady's Island Lake, Wexford, a female was seen in 1968 and a nest with three eggs was found in 1971 (Ruttledge 1978). No birds bred at Armagh from 1972 to 1978 and, indeed, there were no records at the breeding site during the five years 1974 to 1978. It is, therefore, remarkable, that the site was recolonized in 1979 and birds have continued to appear there each year though breeding is not annual. The breeding site is among shallow pools on a marshy area of wet machair. Outside the breeding season Red-necked Phalaropes are extremely rare. The breeding birds appear from mid May to mid June and depart in August.

Stercorarius pomarinus Minimum and maximum numbers of breeding pairs of Red-necked Phalaropes at Annaqh, Mayo, together with the number of additional non-breeding birds at Annagh and elsewhere in summer and autumn. Annaqh elsewhere min max summer autumn

1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958

1 2

1 3

0 0 2

2

1

1 1

1 3

1

1

1

1 1 4 3

1959 1960

1 2

1961 1962

2

2 1 2 2

2

1963 1964 1965 1966

2

1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

5 1 1 2

2 3

2

2

2

1

3 2+8

5 3

3 3

5+20 3+8

3

5 3

5+20 4+ 12

0 0

0+3 0+1

0 0 0 0

0 0

0 1 Bred 0 1

1 2

1 1

1

1 1

0 0 0 1+3 0+ 2

0 1

0+ 1

1985

1

1

1986

1

1

117

22nd September 1960 up to 320 in a day were recorded at Cape Clear and in 1961 there were counts of 40 and 150 on 25th and 27th August. There has been only a handful of records of more than 25 since then. Records of more than 25 Grey Phalaropes in Ireland, 1962-86 1970 26 at Akeragh Lough, Kerry, 9th and 10th September 1975 48 at Cape Clear, Cork, 29th September, 148 on 1st and 47 on 2nd October 40 at Cape Clear 19th August 1976 1978 90 off Brandon Point, Kerry, 30th September 1980 Up to 40 in a day, Cape Clear, 20th September to 9th October 1983 84 at Bridges of Ross, Clare and 210 off Brandon Head, Kerry, 16th October

The invasion in 1960 was quite unprecedented and was believed to include some Red-necked Phalaropes as well. The totals off Cape Clear could well have exceeded 500 on both 17th and 20th September and there were reports of large flocks off Crookhaven, Cork, in the same period. In 1961 there were records of up to 55 off Erris Head, Mayo, as well as the large numbers off Cape Clear. Observations were not made in those years at sites such as Brandon Point and the Bridges of Ross which face west and are frequently watched nowadays. It seems that Grey Phalaropes migrate south in autumn to the west of the Irish coastline and in certain years large numbers appear inshore. In some of these years the largest numbers were seen after westerly gales. There are records in most years in December or January, but only one or two are recorded. Inland records are rare but one was seen well inland at Rathdowney, Laois, on 11 th August 1980, and Ruttledge 1966 reported the species found inland on occasion after storms.

Pomarine Skua Stercorarius pomarinus

1

* Years when breeding occurred away from Armagh. See text for details.

Grey Phalarope Phalaropus [ulicarius The Grey Phalarope is an annual autumn passage migrant, sometimes occurring in early winter and exceptionally in spring. The largest autumn numbers are usually reported on the south-west and west coasts. In some years exceptional numbers are reported. Usually these are recorded as unidentified phalaropes, but those birds which are seen close enough inshore for identification are almost invariably Grey Phalaropes. Between 14th and

Pomarine Skuas are spring and autumn migrants, most frequently seen off the south and west coasts. Regular seawatching in spring over the years since 1959 at Cape Clear and, more recently, at Slyne Head, Galway, and in Wexford (Davenport 1981, 1984) has shown that these skuas occur regularly close to shore from April to mid June. On the south coast numbers at Cape Clear in spring averaged less than 30 annually during the years 1963-73 (Davenport 1975). Substantially more were recorded in spring from 1978 to 1980, and in 1983, but the apparent increase reflected a much higher level of spring sea-watching. In 1983 quite unprecedented numbers were recorded with a peak of 265 on 5th May. At various Wexford sites large numbers have also been recorded in spring. At Carnsore Point 155 were seen flying east on 11th May 1981 and 191 at Hook Head on 12th May 1983. Two days earlier a flock of 300 birds had been seen resting on the sea in Ballyteige Bay, Wexford. In 1986, 566 were recorded off Carnsore Point between 4th and

118

St ercorarius parasiticus 11 th February 19 8 3 and on e off Dursey Island. Cork. on 8th December 19 78 .

Arcti c Skua Ste rcorarius parasiticus

/

Pomerine Skua chasing Arctic Tern

18th May . Suc h numbers ar e not ann ua l; far few er were seen in spring 19 8 7. On the west coast the largest spring numbers have been record ed at Slyn e Head . Galway. where spring seawatch in g produced 7 10 Pom arin e Skuas in May 1979. only 59 in May and ea rly June 198 0, and 130 in eight days in May 19 81 . Almost a ll the se bird s wer e flying north . In va rious analyses of spring passages of these skuas, Da venport (1 975 . 198 1, 1984 ) has sho wn th at th e bird s return through th e English Channel an d off the wes t coast of Ireland to their breeding grounds in a con centrated movem ent in May. At Cape Clea r movements usu ally occur in fresh sou therly or south-we st erly winds associated with th e pa ssage of warm fronts. Offth e west coas t th e numbers ar e highest during period s of stro n g westerli es. In both ca ses ons ho re winds bring th e pa ssing birds . which are alr eady following the coas tline . within sight of observ ers on th e shore . Average flock size is quite sm all at about 4 .2 at Slyne Head (Da ven port 19 81 ) but flocks of up to 28 birds are not excepti onal. Autumn passag e is much less marked , especially at Cape Clea r whe re th e Pomarine Sku a is qu ite rar e at thi s seaso n . but sing le bird s. usually imm atures. a re see n off all coa sts from en d July to October. In 19 8 3 a rem arkabl e movement was record ed off th e Bridges of Ross. Clare. wh ere I I 1 were seen on 1 5th October and 139 on 16th. Th is suggests that a large southe rly movem ent tak es place in a utum n off th e west coast to compleme n t th e spring passa ge which has now been we ll documen ted. The re h ave been records in eve ry month exce pt Marc h . In the years since 19 6 6 th ere have on ly been three winter record s: tw o were off Greys tones. Wlcklow, on 2 2nd January 19 6 9: one wa s seen a t Cast le Espie, Down. on

In 1954 Kennedy et al con sidered thi s to be th e skua which visits Ireland most regularly. occas ion ally in very great n umbers. This was before the comme nce me n t of seawatch ing in the ea rly 19 60s sho wed th a t Great Skuas ar e in fact the most numerous sku a off ou r coas t. Nevertheless. Arctic Sku as a re regular spring and autumn passage migrants on all coa sts, a nd less regularly inland. with much the largest numbers in a utumn . On th e south coast. pas sag e in sprin g is from April to the end of June. with peak numbers at Cape Clea r in May and lat e June (Sharrock 1973). but it is unusu al for more th an eigh t to be recorded in a day at this or any other south coas t site. The highest number s rec orded in spring at Cape Clea r were 64 in 19 8 3. with a peak of 22 on 5th May. Relati vely little sprin g seawat ching ha s been carried out at othe r Cork he adlands , but wat ch es in Wexford sinc e 19 77 produced maxim a of 11 bird s in 19 8 3. 15 in 1984 (WBR) and 22 9 in 19 86. On th e eas t coast th ere were on ly tw o spring record s in Du blin and Wicklow betwee n 1969 a nd 1973 (Hu tch ins on 19 75) an d four between 1980 and 19 8 5 (IECBR). On th e we st coas t th ere is evidence of a stea dy passa ge northwards of ones a nd tw os. by far th e lar gest coun ts being of 23 at Slyn e Head . Galway, in five hours on 8t h May 1981. and 40 at Keel Bay. Achi ll. Mayo. in a ga le on 26th May 1972. In autum n much larger n um bers ar e reco rded on all coasts as adult a nd. especia lly. immature sku as move sout hwa rds from th eir br eeding colonies. some clearly prepared to spend some tim e off pa ssa ge preyin g on terns and sma ll gull s. On th e eas t coas t th ey occ ur from July to end November. with peak pa ssa ge in Aug us t a nd September. Int en sive observ atio ns were ca rried out at Clogher Head , Louth in 1971 to 19 74 , and at Howth Head in a utumn 19 8 5. The high est autumn tot als were 28 0 Arctic Skuas at Clogher Head in 1974 (Moore 19 7 5) a nd 1 51 at Howth Head in 19 85 (Cooney 1986). On th e south coast. numbers ar e higher to the east than farther west. Up to 42 in a day hav e been recorded off Carnsore Point. Wexford (on 21st Sept emb er 19 79 ). 64 in a da y at Brownstown Head . Wat erford (on 1st October 19 77 ). and a total of 160 off the Old Head of Kinsale . Cork. on 19 dat es between 9th July and 11th October 196 7. Th ese numbers a re higher than at Cape Clea r. indi cating th a t Arc tic Sku as. having moved sou th th rou gh the Irish Sea or th e English Ch an nel. pass wes t a long th e Irish south coast in decreasing numbers as th ey depart south wards. On th e west coast. Arc tic Skuas are regu lar on autumn passa ge in sm a ll numbers, some wha t similar to those record ed a t Cape Clea r. Exceptiona l counts of ove r 10 0 off Bran don Point. Kerry. durin g a so ut he rly ga le on 21 st September 19 6 9 and 72 pa ssin g th e sa me headland on 30th September 19 78 . ind ica te th at in certain circums ta nces large numbers can occur. The re ha ve been

Stercorarius skua records from inland lakes and from the Shannon valley in some years (Ruttledge 1966) and it may be that autumn passage over land is regular, though there have been no confirmatory observations in recent years. On the north coast, numbers are higher, perhaps because some of the Scottish breeders move west around Ireland on migration and come close to shore. There have been a few December records. Ruttledge 1966 gave two records, and since 1966 there have been single birds at Cape Clear and at Rosslare Harbour, Wexford, in December 1984 and at Howth, Dublin, on two occasions in December 1985. There were records of summering at a western lake in the years 1960 to 1967. Two birds summered in 1960, 1965 and 1967, a single bird in the other years. They were seen almost daily between June and September but, although 'false brooding' was recorded, breeding was not suspected. Records at Cape Clear increased in the 1970s as compared with the 1960s (Hutchinson 1981), probably reflecting the good health of the Scottish breeding population.

Long-tailed Skua Stercorarius lonqicaudus There were 50 records of this skua up to 1965. Since then there were a further 31 records up to 1986. Four of these records were of groups of birds in May: 812 at Lough Derg, Clare, in 1967, and parties off Slyne Head, Galway, of two in 1979, 22 in 1980 and a total of 15 in a day in 1981. Following these records Ruttledge (1982b) reviewed and considered acceptable a record of 60-70 seen on the River Shannon near Athlone in May 1860. He also drew attention to records of flocks in Donegal and Westmeath in May in the same year. It seems clear that there is a regular passage off the west coast in May, some of the birds exceptionally coming inland, but birds are usually only visible from western headlands. Other records in spring during the years 1966-86 were from Cork (two), Down (one), Galway (one), Londonderry (one), Louth (one), Mayo (five), and Wexford (one). Autumn records were from Antrim (one), Clare (four, including a party of five), Cork (one), Donegal (two), Londonderry (one), Louth (one), Tipperary (one), Tyrone (one) and Wicklow (one). 30

long-taned Skua 20

10

Jan

1966-86

119

Great Skua Stercorarius skua Only 33 records were listed by Kennedy et al (1954), but seawatching since the early 1960s has shown that this is the commonest skua off our coast. It is curious to reflect that there were only three Cork records before the opening of Cape Clear Bird Observatory. Nowadays, the species is a regular spring and autumn passage migrant with records in every month of the year. At Cape Clear, where the largest numbers are recorded, passage is from March to mid November and is predominantly westerly. Peak numbers are in the first half of April and the first half of September (Sharrock 1973). In recent years autumn totals have fluctuated, but have been 1,011 in 1980, 695 in 1981, 852 in 1982, 580 in 1983 and 1,217 in 1984. Spring numbers are much lower and were 89 in 1983 and 58 in 1984. As with the Arctic Skua, there has been an increase in numbers since the 1960s. Autumn passage, for example, expressed as the number of birds passing per hour, virtually doubled in the period 1970-80 as compared with 1959-69 (Hutchinson 1981), presumably reflecting the steady increase of the Scottish breeding population. Numbers elsewhere on the south coast are lower to the east of Cape Clear. There is certainly light spring passage off the Wexford coast, and in autumn Great Skuas are regular in smaller numbers than at Cape Clear; for example, 69 were recorded in 24 hours observations in autumn 1969. On the east coast Great Skuas are much less common than Arctic Skuas, with only 78 reported from 1980 to 1984, only one of which was in spring, and 36 off Howth Head in a period of intensive watching in autumn 1985 (Cooney 1986). At Clogher Head, Louth, when 280 Arctic Skuas were counted in autumn 1974, only nine Great Skuas were recorded (Moore 19 7 5). Numbers on the west coast are higher. At Downpatrick Head, Mayo, up to 28 per day were seen in August 1978. To the west, off Erris Head, Mayo, 81 flew south in two hours on 11 th September 1976. Farther south, at Slyne Head, Galway, 109 were counted in 83 hours watching in autumn 1969. Off the Kerry coast, Great Skuas are regular at Brandon Bay in periods of north-westerly winds. In 24 hours watching in autumn 1969, for example, 69 were counted. On the north coast Great Skuas are also regular in autumn. On the Londonderry coast 19 were reported in autumn 1970. OffMalin Head, Donegal, 107 were recorded between 16th and 30th September 1975. It is clear that Great Skuas are regular passage migrants in small numbers in spring and in varying numbers in autumn off all our coasts, though in smallest numbers on the east coast. Inland they are rare, but there were records of single birds at Lough Neagh in autumn 1964 and in September 1965, and of five at Lough Ree, Roscommon, on 13th September 1966. The second of the Lough Neagh birds and one of the Lough Ree birds were shot and found to have been ringed at Foula, Scotland. A total of 23 Scottish ringed birds and one Icelandic ringed Great Skua have been recovered in Ireland. Winter records are few but birds were recorded singly off the Kerry coast on 3rd December 1964; off the Wicklow

120

Larus melanocephalus

coast on 3rd December 1969: off Dun Laoghaire, Dublin. on 8th December 1983: in Bantry Bay. Cork . on 5th january ] 974: at Brownstown Head . Waterford, on 2nd January 1978: at Broad Lough. Wicklow. on 12th January 1978 and at Ballycotton, Cork. on 2nd February 1973 . In addition. two were seen off Dursey Island. Cork. on 2nd December 1978: up to three together were seen at several east Cork sites in winters 1982/83 and 1983/84 and four were seen off Cape Clear in December 1984.

1984. 24 in ] 985 and 29 in 1986. Most Mediterranean Gulls have been recorded on the east coast from Down south, to Wexford. on the north-east coast in Antrim or Londonderry. or on the south coast in Waterford or Cork. but there have been records in Donegal. Galway (two). Kerry (three) and Sligo. Belfast Harbour and Dublin Bay have each held long-staying birds . First or second-year birds outnumber adults nowadays. In summer 1986 a second-year held territory at Lady's Island Lake. Wexford. and breeding has been forecast (Madden 1987a).

Laughing Gull Larus atricilla

"

There have been four Irish records of this North American species. A year old bird was seen at Tivoli . Cork . on 12th August 1968; a second-summer bird . moulting into thirdwinter plumage. was at Shannon Airport lagoon. Clare. from 25th june to 21st August 1981; a first-year was at Cobh , Cork . from 25th to 29th january 1984 and a firstyear was at Dublin Bay from 10th June to 3rd july 1984.

,... Black-headed Gull and Mediterranean Gull

Mediterranean Gull Larus melanocephalus There were only four records before 1966. Single birds were seen at Belfast Lough. Antrim. on I st September ] 956; off the Copeland Islands. Down. on 27th August ] 958; at Kinnegar, Down. on 6th September 1958 and near the Old Head of Kinsale. Cork. on 4th October 1954. All were adults. Since ] 966 the status of the Mediterranean Gull has changed completely and it is now a scarce but annual visitor to the east and south coasts and rare elsewhere. This change in status has coincided with an increase in records for Britain and recent breeding in England . The change in status is relatively recent. There were records of single birds in 1967. 1969 and 1970. three in 1972. four in 1973. three in 1974. one in 1975. three in 1976. singles in 1977 and 1978. eight in 1979.24 in ]980. only nine in 1981. 16 in 1982.28 in 1983.68 in 40

Medi terranean Gu11

20

10

Little Gull Larus minutus The Little Gull was formerly a great rarity but now winters close to the Irish coastline and appears on the shore. and sometimes inland. in winter. spring and autumn. Only in july and August is it relatively scarce. Up to 1950 there had been only 15 records. but from 1950 onwards there was a slow increase in numbers. which picked up momentum from 1965 and 1966 onwards when 15 and 27 respectively were recorded. In 1970 the unprecedented total of 81 was reported. At that stage it was clear that there was a tendency for birds. mostly adults. to come into Galway Bay in March. and an indication of birds also appearing in the Irish Sea at this time. In Wicklow and. more particularly. Wexford there was a strong peak in May-June. with only 8% of the birds being adults. In autumn there was evidence of passage along the south coast and on the east coast, with a scattering of birds elsewhere. Records in November. December and January were very rare (Hutchinson] 972).

Larus ridibundus The increase continued after 1970, and in 1972 the first of what became an annual series of influxes on the Wicklow coast was noted. These influxes have been in various months from October to February and in some years have numbered over 100 birds. The highest count so far is of 216 at Kilcoole, Wicklow, on 16th February 1985. Away from Galway Bay the Little Gull is still rare on the west coast with only four records for Donegal. two for Sligo, one for Mayo and four for Clare over the 1966-86 period. It appears that Little Gulls winter in the Irish Sea and off the Galway coast and come inshore in bad weather. The increase since the early 1960s appears to be due to an increase in the European population of the species (Hutchinson and Neath 1978). An adult ringed at Liverpool, England, in April 1983 was found dead at Lough Neagh, Tyrone, in September 1984. 1000

750

500

121

12

60

30

Wicklow. The two January occurrences, quite exceptional records, were of immatures at Loop Head, Clare, on 6th January 1979 and at Lough Owel, Westmeath, on 18th January 1984. The spring records were of a first winter bird at Rosbeg, Donegal. on 19th April 1981, an adult at Howth, Dublin, on 11th June 1976 and an adult at St Finan's Bay, Kerry, from 17th to 23rd May 1986. Records of birds seen from trawlers chartered for seabird watching trips off the south coast in autumn have been excluded from the totals above as these records have never been collected.

250

Bonaparte's Gull Larus philadelphia

Sabine's Gull Larus sabini This pelagic species is an autumn visitor to the south and west coasts in small numbers in most years. Weather conditions bring more birds inshore in some years than in others. Prior to 1966 there were 34 records in August to December with singles in April and May. Apart from. one record of two together, all records were of single birds. The greater interest in seawatching appears to be responsible for the increase in records. Apart from 1971, birds were recorded every year from 1966 onwards with peaks in 1980 (41),1984 (34) and 1985 (35). Most have been recorded in Cork, generally at Ballycotton or Cape Clear, or in Kerry, mainly at Brandon Point, though watching on the west coast since 1984 has shown that they appear regularly off the Bridges of Ross, Clare. The highest numbers at Brandon Point are usually seen in September when strong north-westerly winds funnel passing seabirds into Brandon Bay. In these conditions up to 16 have been seen there in a day. Apart from Cork and Kerry, there have also been records from Antrim, Clare, Donegal, Dublin, Galway, Londonderry, Louth, Mayo, Waterford, Westmeath, Wexford and

There was one old record before 1966. A male in winter plumage was shot on the River Lagan, Belfast, Antrim, on 1st February 1848. Since 1966 there have been seven records. An adult was seen at Bangor, Down, from 26th July to 2nd September 1979 and from 31st December 1979 to 3rd February 1980. A first-year bird was at Ramore Head, Antrim on 13th March 1981. A first-summer was seen at Tacumshin, Wexford, from 18th July to 8th August 1981. Single adults were at Caherdaniel, Kerry, from 27th February to 7th March 1983, at Sandymount Strand, Dublin, from 6th to the end of March 1983, at Wexford Harbour on 8th April 1985 and at the same place from 24th March to 18th April 1986.

Black-headed Gull Larus ridibundus The Black-headed Gull is a widespread and increasing breeding bird in Ireland and an extremely numerous winter visitor. Although not the commonest breeding gull, this has the widest distribution because birds nest on the coast, on islands, on the edges of brackish lagoons, around boggy

lakes, on marshes and on the midland bogs. Survey work during 1968-72 showed a predominantly north-westerly distribution with most breeding colonies north and west of

122

Larus delawarensis

a line from Limerick to Dundalk, Louth (Breeding Atlas). There were colonies south-east of this line, especially in Wicklow, south-east Wexford and inland in west Cork, but over much of Wexford, Kilkenny, Carlow, Waterford, Cork and Kerry the birds were absent. In the first half of the present century the distribution was somewhat similar to that recorded in 1968-72, and the species was reported to be increasing, with 'vast colonies on some of the midland bogs and marshes and on those in the plains west of the River Shannon' (Kennedy et al 1954). Whether there are still large colonies at these sites and how 'vast' the colonies were is unknown. Deane (1954) noted that there had been an increase in numbers in Ulster after about 1920, but census data are few. Only three attempts have been made to census significant parts of the population. In 1969 and 1970 the entire coastal breeding population was censused and 2,623 pairs located, the largest colonies on islands in Strangford Lough, Down. The colony on Peggy's Island held 715 pairs in 1969 (Cramp et al1974). In 1979 the Northern Ireland coastal colonies were recounted and numbers were found to have increased dramatically from 1,393 pairs in 196970 to 4,124 +. Of these totals there were 1,292 in Strangford Lough in 1969,2,189 in 1972 and 3,945 in 1979 (Watson 1980). The third substantial census was a count of inland breeding gulls in Galway, Mayo, Sligo and Donegal in 1977 and 1978 (Whilde 1978). A total of 16,414 adult birds was counted but it was not possible to count nests at many of the colonies because of their inaccessibility. Over 70% of the birds were concentrated in ten dense colonies at nine loughs: Principal Black-headed Gull breeding colonies in the west of Ireland in 1977 and 1978 (after Whilde 1978) County Location Birds

Galway Mayo

Sligo Donegal

Lough Corrib Carrowmore Lough Lough Conn DaniduffLake Lough Caheer Lough Carra Lough Mask Lough Gara Lough Golagh

4,660 1.350+ 1.000-1.200 500 1.000 3.341 8 SO

1.620 700

Whilde (1978) had very little quantitative data with which to compare the 1977 and 1978 counts, but he did note that at one colony on Carrowmore Lake the population grew by nearly 7% per annum between 1953 and 1977. A recount of the major lakes in 1983 showed that there had been no marked change in numbers (Whilde 1983). The first census of breeding Black-headed Gulls on Lough Neagh was in 1987. Nests were counted on small islands but sample counts were made on the larger ones. The resulting estimate of 33,000 pairs far exceeded any earlier assessments of breeding numbers (Davidson 1987). In the absence of earlier data, trends cannot be established with certainty but the impression locally is that, while there may have been some increase, numbers have been high

for about 25 years (Davidson 1987). Overall, therefore, it seems likely that the breeding population throughout Ireland was increasing in the first half of the present century and is continuing to expand. In autumn Black-headed Gulls appear on estuaries and in harbours around the coast from July onwards. and very large numbers indeed winter. Survey work in the winters 1981/82 to 1983/84 showed that the largest concentrations were on the east and south coasts, in the Shannon estuary, in Galway Bay, in Loughs Swilly and Foyle in Donegal and Londonderry, and inland in the Shannon valley (Winter Atlas). There was an obvious scarcity of wintering Black-headed Gulls on the west coasts of Galway, Mayo and Donegal. The birds disperse widely in winter to feed on grassland or ploughed fields, assembling in the evening in large roosts on estuaries. In Dublin counts of 8,000 have been made in Dublin Bay (Hutchinson 1979), in Louth a total of at least 12,000 was estimated in December 1987 (O.J. Merne) and, in Cork, roosts in Cork Harbour and Clonakilty Bay have been estimated at over 25,000 and 20,000 birds respectively. Most are adults, especially in the early part of winter. First..y ear birds become more numerous from January and February onwards. In March and April numbers decline rapidly as birds return to the breeding grounds. A large proportion of Irish juveniles were believed by Ruttledge (1966) to emigrate but o. J. Merne and his associates have had only two foreign recoveries, both in Britain, from 3,737 ringed birds, and only 9% of the 534 recoveries of Irish ringed birds have been from outside the country (all except eight in Britain). It seems clear that most Irish Black-headed Gulls remain in Ireland. However, ringing recoveries show a massive immigration in winter from Britain and the Continent. particularly from northern Europe.

Ring-billed Gull Larus delawarensis The first Ring ..billed Gulls recorded in Ireland were seen at Belmullet, Mayo, in February 1979 (Mullarney 1980). Since then, there has been a series of records of this North American species showing a very substantial annual increase. Numbers ofRing-billed Gulls recorded in Ireland annually, 1979-1986 1st year 2nd year adult unaqed total

1979 1980 1981

1 2 8

1 9 6

1

1982

4

10

10

1983 1984 1985 1986

2

3 2 14 9

19 23 29 17

5 19 1

1 7

3 3

2 11 16 31 27 30 65 27

Larus canus 123 It seems likely that Ring-billed Gulls were overlooked in previous years as identification is difficult. However, the population in North America is increasing rapidly and it seems clear that there has been a number of influxes from across the Atlantic. There were influxes in 1981, perhaps in 1982, and again in 1985. There has been a tendency for birds to appear and then spend prolonged periods in the same area. Hence, birds initially recorded in first-winter plumage have been observed in second-winter and adult plumage at the same location in successive years. Ring-billed Gulls have been recorded from all coasts, but especially from Dublin Bay and Belfast Lough, possibly reflecting the concentration of birdwatchers in these places. The pattern of occurrence indicates a late winter influx with birds remaining into April and a few spending the summer as well. One ringed at the nest at Lake Champlain, New York, on 21st June 1981 was found dead at Gweebarra Bay, Donegal. on the following 28th December. 75

Ring-billed Gull

50

1966':86

(Cramp et aI 1974). The total number of pairs counted on the coast and at inland breeding colonies in each county is set out in the table. The largest numbers were at only six colonies. No other colony held as many as 100 birds, but the colonies were widely distributed and a total of nearly 50 was found. Principal Common Gull colonies in the west of Ireland in 1977 and 1983 (after Whilde 1978 and 1983) County Location Number of birds 1977 1983

Galway Mayo

Lough Corrib 972 1.060 Lough Carra 436 78 Lough Mask 930 948 Carrowmore Lake 270 600 DaniduffLough 100 No Count Lough Conn 80 1.150 Sligo Lough Gara 150 No Count Note that the colonies refer to numbers of birds seen. Whilde (1984) subsequently converted his numbers of birds into pairs by dividing by two. The apparent increase at Lough Conn was believedto be due to the discovery of two colonies missed in 19 77.

25

Common Gull Larus canus Common Gulls breed inland and on the coast in the west and north-west of Ireland. They nest on islands on lakes, on coastal islands, among rocks or in short vegetation and even in stunted willow bushes. Nesting in old nests of Rooks has been recorded (Breeding Atlas). The breeding population in the western counties of Galway, Mayo, Sligo and Donegal, the stronghold of the species, was censused in 1977 and 1978 (Whilde 1978), and the coastal population was counted in 1969 and 1970 Estimated minimum number of breeding pairs of Common Gulls in Ireland after Cramp et al 1974 and Whilde 1984. County Coast (1969-70) Inland (1977-78)

Cork Kerry Galway Mayo Sligo Donegal Antrim Down

4 70 60 200 4 400 7 45 790

630 2,034 100 115

2.879

The Northern Ireland coastal population. which is very small, was counted again in 1979 (Watson 1980) and total numbers were found to have increased from 52 in 1969-70 to 66 +. This evidence of an increase has parallels with the trend in the west, where numbers at some sites have been quite well documented over a long period. Inland, there were about 200 pairs at Lough Neagh in 1987 (Davidson 1987). At the end of the last century the Common Gull was increasing, though the largest numbers were in Donegal where there were a good many pairs (Ussher & Warren 1900). In the first half of the present century there was an increase at the large lakes of Conn, Carra, Mask and Corrib, and the largest colony in Ireland was reported to be at Lough Carrowmore, Mayo, where there were 200 pairs in 1944 (Kennedy et al 1954). There were colonies on many small lakes, too, though on none east of the great Connacht lakes. By 1977 and 1978 there had clearly been both a redistribution and an increase. The redistribution involved a reduction in numbers in Donegal and an increase elsewhere, including an expansion of range onto many lakes east of the large Connacht loughs. Breeding Common Gulls at Lough Corrib have been studied since 1976 and some of the results published (Whilde 1984). Birds started returning to the colony in February and March. Egg-laying commenced in mid April, about two weeks earlier than in Scandinavia or the USSR, and was usually completed by early May. Egg and chick mortality rates varied but averaged 77% over the years 1978 to 1984 with a range from 61.6% to 89%. Adults began to leave the colony in June but most juveniles left later, probably without the company of adults. Ringing on Loughs Corrib, Mask and Carra indicated wide dispersal of juveniles. From July to September, birds were reported from

124

Larus fuscus

the Irish coast in all directions. Recoveries and sighting of colour-ringed birds from October to March were mainly from the south coast. During the period March to June, birds coming into their second and third summers were reported from the Cork, Waterford and Dublin coasts while older birds were reported from the coast near their natal colony. There is evidence of some emigration with single recoveries on the French side of Lake Geneva, and in Spain, Scotland and Cornwall. There is substantial immigration in autumn and winter, most birds apparently coming from breeding colonies in Scotland, Scandinavia and Germany, with smaller numbers from Holland, the USSR and Iceland. Movement commences in July and reaches a peak in October. Emigration is in April. The winter distribution is very different from that in summer (Winter Atlas) with concentrations in the south on the Cork coast, in the east on the Dublin, Louth and Down coasts, in the north in Londonderry and east Donegal, and in the west on the north-west Mayo coast. Numbers inland are relatively low though Common Gulls are widely dispersed.

Lesser Black-backed Gull Larus[uscus The Lesser Black-backed Gull is chiefly a summer visitor to Ireland, but in recent years greatly increased numbers have also wintered. The breeding distribution is coastal, but also inland in the west of Ireland and around Lough Neagh and Lough Erne in Northern Ireland (Breeding Atlas). Coastal pairs usually nest on relatively flat, grassy slopes on offshore islands or headlands. Inland breeders nest mainly on islands in lakes, usually among vegetation where they are difficult to see. Results of censuses of the coastal population and of inland breeding birds in the counties of Galway, Mayo, Sligo and Donegal are given in the table. There are no recent counts available for the inland breeding birds on Lough Erne. In the west the largest colonies in 1977-78 were at Lough Corrib, Galway, with 2,587 birds: Lough Derg, Donegal, 900 birds; Lough Gara, Sligo, with 750 birds and Lough Mask, Mayo, 732 birds (Whilde 1978). Numbers in 1983 were similar (Whilde 1983). Counts over a number of years have been made at very few sites. In Northern Ireland the total of 225 coastal pairs in 1969-70 had increased to at least 388 in 1979 (Watson 1980), and the Lough Neagh population had increased from none in 1962 to 300 pairs in 1980, and 450 pairs in 1987 (Davidson 1987). In Cork, censuses at Cape Clear in 1963 produced 36 pairs, in 196747 pairs, in 1969 45 pairs, and in 1983 the same total. On the coast of the entire county the total of 120 in 1969-70 had increased to 285 by 1985-86 (M. Shorten). At Great Saltee numbers have fluctuated widely from 250 pairs early this century, when the island was depopulated, down to none at all in the 1940s when the farmland was ploughed, and up to 350 pairs in the mid 1970s. In 1978 about 75-80 pairs bred,

in 1979 about 110, in 1980 about 160 (Lloyd 1981) and in 1986 about 75-90. On the Blasket Islands in Kerry there was a slow but steady increase from the 1950s up to 1973 (Evans & Lovegrove 1974). In the west of Ireland there are known to have been colonies on Loughs Corrib and Mask since the last century (Ussher & Warren 1900). However, there are few colonies for which counts are available over many years. At Carrigeendauv in northern Lough Mask the colony had 20 nests in 1895, 30 in the 1930s, over 50 in 1943 and 120 in 1977, a rate of increase of only 2.3% since the turn of the century (Whilde 1978). The evidence, thin though it is, suggests that the population is increasing but at a relatively low rate.

Estimated minimum number of breeding pairs of Lesser Black-backed Gulls on the Irish coast (after Cramp et al 1974) and inland in the west of Ireland (after Whilde 1978). Inland (west of Coast County (1969-70) Ireland) (1977-78)

Dublin Wexford Waterford Cork Kerry Clare Galway Mayo Sligo Donegal Antrim Down

43

470 9

120

590 60 70 50 16 34 65 160 1,687

1,300 200

375 450

2.325

The inland totals have been derived by dividing Whilde's (1978) number of birds seen by two. and are clearly minima.

Lesser Black-backed Gulls arrive from wintering grounds in Iberia and north Africa in mid February, but mainly in March and early April, and depart from August to mid October. In recent years there has been a significant increase in wintering. Ruttledge (1966) noted that birds were seen here and there, chiefly singly, in winter but that there was no tendency towards an increase of numbers in winter as had been happening in England. The first reports of more than a few single birds were in 1975 when there were reasonably widespread reports from Wexford, Cork. Kerry and Wicklow, with maxima of seven at Tacumshln, Wexford, in January and 18 in December. and 15 at Ballycotton, Cork, in January and February and 35 in December. Numbers increased in 1976/77 with up to 87 at Ballycotton and widespread reports elsewhere of smaller numbers. In 1977/78 the highest count was ten in Wexford; in 1978/79 the peaks were 30 at Ballycotton and 12 at Kilcoole, Wicklow; in 1979/80 up to ten were reported along the south coast and counts of 30 at Roscrea, Tipperary, and 160 at Lough Neagh, Londonderry, in

Larus arqentatus December. In winters 1980/81 and 1981/82 the only record of more than 25 was a count of 146 at Ballymacoda, Cork. However, there was a dramatic increase from 1982 onwards with a number of reports of up to 98 birds in that year, and as many as 600 remained at Valleymount in Wicklow until 30th November. In 1983 there were 250 at Clohamon, Wexford, and 840 at Ballycotton in January. In December there were 2,000 at Clohamon and 150 at Enniscorthy, Wexford, and numerous records of smaller numbers. Indeed, Lesser Black-backed Gulls were so widespread in winter between 1981/82 and 1983/84 that Hickling (1986) estimated the Irish winter population at 5,000-10,000. The high numbers remain. The breeding subspecies is Larus [. qraellsi, but there have also been records of the south Scandinavian race L. f. intermedius and the north Scandinavian race L. f. [uscus. The almost uniformly black-backed race L.f fuscus was recorded 26 times up to 1965 (Ruttledge 1966). Since then there have been records of single birds at Clogher Head, Louth, on 14th October 1972 and 1st March 1975, two at Ballycotton on 14th November 1976 and one at Tacumshin, Wexford, on 29th August 1981. There are only four accepted records of the race L.[. intermedius, namely two in Cork in October, one in Down in December and one in Mayo in February. Racial separation of Lesser Black-backed Gulls is difficult, however, particularly where direct comparisons cannot be made between birds of two races. The recovery in Kerry in September 1983 of a bird ringed in southern Norway in July 1982 indicates that Lc]. intermedius may be overlooked in autumn and perhaps in winter. One bird ringed in Iceland has also been recovered in Ireland.

Herring Gull Larus arqentatus The ubiquitous seagull of every stretch of coastline, of city' dumps and ploughed fields, the Herring Gull nests around most of the Irish coastline, at the larger inland lakes and, in recent years, in the cities. The coastal population has only been censused on one occasion and at that time, 1969-70, the total was estimated at nearly 52,000 pairs. Those breeding inland are relatively few. Subsequent counts in Northern Ireland showed an increase between 1969-70 and 1979 in Antrim, from 9,300 to 12,931 +, and in Down from 6,900 to 8,364 +. There were large increases at some colonies but at others, such as some small north coast colonies, there were slight declines in the years 1975-78 after deaths through botulism, though monitoring at some colonies on Rathlin Island, Antrim, showed no decrease in the same period (Watson 1980). On the east coast. Lambay Island has been known as a major colony since at least the middle of the nineteenth century. In 1969 a total of 10,000 was estimated and by 1984 the colony had increased to 21,880 pairs, but large scale culling and adult mortality, perhaps caused by botulism, reduced the colony to 7,500 pairs in 1987 (0. J. Merne). The colony at Ireland's Eye increased

125

Estimated minimum number of breeding pairs of Herring Gulls on the Irish coast (after Cramp et al 1974) and inland in the west of Ireland (after Whilde 1978). County Coast Inland (west of (1969-70) Ireland) (1977-78)

Dublin Wicklow Wexford Waterford Cork Kerry Clare Galway Mayo Sligo Donegal Londonderry Antrim Down

4,800 370 6,600 4,000 3,400 4,100 1,700 2,200 2,290 6805,380

300 30 25 50

250 9,300 6,900 405

The inland totals have been derived by dividing Whilde's (1978) number of birds seen by two, and are clearly minima.

from 490 pairs in 1961 to 1,250 in 1969, but there were only 533-600 in 1986. A similar decline was reported on Howth Head where 1,011 pairs in 1969 had declined to 70 in 1986 (O.J. Merne). On Great Saltee, Wexford, the population was found to be stable or decreasing slowly between 1978 and 1980, with 3,000 pairs in 1978,2,750 pairs in 1979 and 2,600 in 1980 (Lloyd 1981). There was a substantial increase in the early part of this century but there is dispute about the exact numbers breeding in the early 1970s (Lloyd 1981). In 1960 there were reported to be about 2,000 pairs and about 3,500 in 1964 (Ruttledge 1966). Whatever the position was in the 1960s and early 1970s, there was certainly a decline in the 1980s, and only 750-900 pairs were estimated at Great Saltee in 1986. Counts in Cork in recent years have indicated that the increase which was clearly substantial in the first half of the century has come to an end. At Cape Clear there were 662 pairs in 1963, 606 in 1967 and 568 in 1983. In east. Cork, changes in status at four colonies have been documented (Smiddy 1985): at Capel Island there were 200 pairs in 1970 but no more than 75 between 1977 and 1985; at Knockadoon Head there were 27 pairs in 1969 and thereafter about 40 pairs up to 1985; at Ballycotton Island a colony of 60 pairs in 1969 increased to 500 pairs between 1976 and 1981, but only 30 pairs bred in 1984 and 150 in 1985, though numbers increased at a nearby island from one nest in 1977 to 30-35 in 1985; at Power Head a colony of 36 pairs in 1969 increased to 90 pairs in 1974, and about 300 adults in 1975, but there was a decline thereafter and only seven pairs bred in 1985. Deaths of adult birds due to botulism is suspected as the cause of the widespread declines since the late 1970s.

126

Larus qlaucoides

Nesting on buildings is a fairly recent phenomenon but, so far, is limited to a few locations only.

County

Waterford

Records of Herring Gulls nesting on roofs History Site

Dunmore East

Killea

Kilmacthornas Dublin

Dublin City

Coolock

Howth

Skerries Galway

Galway

Nesting from 1945. Between 2 and 7 pairs nested annually 1962-73 (O'Meara 1975a). 9 pairs 1975, 11 in 1978. 1 pair 1972, a mile inland from Dunmore East (O'Meara 1975a). 1 pair 1975. This site is 5 miles from the sea. 1 pair attempted to nest in O'Connell Street 1972; a pair nested at Kildare Street 1984 and 1985; a pair nested at O'Connell Street 1985. 6 pairs on roofs 1978,4 1979,5 1980,4 1981, 5 1982, none 1983 or 1984. 1 1985. 1 pair on roof 1978, 3 1979 and 1980,7 1981, 12 1982 and 1983. 14 1984, 1985 and 1986. 3 pairs on roofs 1981, 4 or 5 1986. 1 pair bred on a chimney 1982.

Herring Gulls are widespread and numerous in winter (Winter Atlas), but the largest numbers are on the coast. Municipal dumps attract large numbers, though those visiting the Cork city dump were reported to have declined sharply after 1982/83 (N.J. Buckley). They roost at estuaries or on cliffs and forage widely along the shoreline, at fishing ports, at dumps, on city docks or occasionally on fields from these bases. Many of our Irish breeding birds appear to winter in Ireland, but some move north-eastwards into Scotland or eastwards into the English west midlands. There are a number of records of British Herring Gulls in Ireland as well. Several birds with yellow legs, characteristic of the Mediterranean race L.a. michahellis, have been seen in Ireland but they are still not annual. One Norwegian ringed bird has been recovered in Antrim.

being seen in 1958 and 1960. Numbers increased slightly after 1966, but total numbers were not recorded every year until 1972. From 1972 to 1980 a total of 106 was recorded, an average of just under 12 per annum, but there were major influxes in 1981, 1982, 1983, and 1984. Birds were recorded from all coasts with the largest counts being on the north and west. Birds have been recorded in all months of the year but most arrive in January and February, and summering is rare. The age of birds is not always recorded and even when it is, the information is frequently not sufficient to age precisely those birds which have not reached full adult plumage. However, it is clear that adults are very scarce. In 1981 there was only one adult among 14 Iceland Gulls at Galway Docks. The reasons for the influxes in recent years are not known. It has been suggested (Hume 1986) that severe weather on the east coast of North America or the decline of the Icelandic fishing industry may be reasons why these birds. which breed in Greenland and winter in Iceland in some numbers. have come to Ireland and Scotland in such large influxes. A few birds have made protracted stays. For example. one was seen regularly at St Stephen's Green in central Dublin from October 1968 to May 1970. Numbers of Iceland and Glaucous Gulls reported annually in Ireland, 1972 to 1986 Iceland Glaucous Gull Gull

1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

10 10

21 45

15 12 15 12 13 7 12 58 80 175 180+ 36 38

98 85 50 86 71 52 36 178 206 228 118+ 41 111

Note that data for 1984 were available only for Northern Ireland, the east coast, Wexford and Cork.

Iceland Gull Larus qlaucoides

The Iceland Gull has always been a scarcer visitor to Ireland than the next species, the Glaucous Gull, and in most years few are seen. Ruttledge (1966) wrote that records were irregular up to about 1950 but were annual after 19 54 with three to six reported each year, seven

There have been three records of birds showing characters of the race which breeds in eastern Arctic Canada and is known as Kumllen's Gull L.g. kumlieni: adults seen at Portavogle, Down, from 2nd to 4th January 1981 and at Klllybegs, Donegal, from 30th January to 12th February 1983, and a sub-adult at Wexford on 27th January 1986.

Larus marinus Great Black-backed Gull Larus marinus

225

Iceland Gull

1966-86

75

The record referred to by Ruttledge (1966) of one in Kerry in 1958 has been withdrawn by the observer.

Glaucous Gull Larus hyperboreus This is the largest gull to visit Ireland, some birds being even bigger than Great Black-backed Gulls. They have always been more numerous visitors than Iceland Gulls. Prior to 1966 there were about five records per annum, and a total of about 60 birds had been reported over the preceding ten years (Ruttledge 1966). Since then there has been a substantial increase in records but the apparent increase from about five per annum in the late 1950s and early 1960s, to the average of about 60 over the years from 1972 to 1980 seems to have arisen largely from an increase in birdwatchers, especially on the south and west coasts where the largest numbers occur. The influxes in the early 1980s were phenomenal and paralleled the greater numbers of Iceland Gulls, possibly because the Glaucous Gulls are also from Greenland where the Iceland Gulls breed. In January and February 1981 there were 80 in Galway Docks, much the largest assembly ever recorded. Glaucous Gulls occur chiefly at fishing ports, city dumps and along city docks, but birds may be seen almost anywhere large gulls gather in winter. They are rare inland. The pattern of occurrence is similar to that of the Iceland Gull, with perhaps a slightly greater likelihood of birds being seen in summer and early autumn. However, the main influx is in January, February and early March. The only recovery of a foreign ringed bird is of one ringed as a chick in Iceland, in June 1982, and found dead at Ballycotton. Cork, in March 1983. 60

Glaucous Gull

15

127

1966-86

Great Black-backed Gulls breed mainly on the coast. only a few pairs nesting inland on islands in lakes in Donegal. 'Galway, Mayo, Sligo, Fermanagh and on Lough Neagh. The coastal population was censused in 1969-70 and the west of Ireland population in 1977-78, but there are no recent figures available for the numbers breeding on Lough Erne, Fermanagh. None was found nesting on Lough Neagh in 1987 (Davidson 1987). Estimated minimum number of breeding pairs of Great Black-backed Gulls on the Irish coast (after Cramp et a11974) and inland in the west of Ireland (after Whilde 1978). Coast Inland (west of County (1969-70) Ireland) (1977-78)

Dublin Wicklow Wexford Waterford Cork Kerry Clare Galway Mayo Sligo Donegal Antrim Down

160 6 500 45 320 520 140 380 500 80 251 90 150

18

5 1 I

25

The inland figures have been derived by dlvlding Whilde's (1978) numbers of birds by two.

Ruttledge (1966) reported that this gull had greatly increased in recent years. Between 1900 and 1951 the counties of Clare, Sligo, Antrim. Down and Clare were colonized. Inland nesting was first recorded at Lough Conn, Mayo, in 1911 and at Lough Carra in the same county in 1943 (Kennedy et al 1954). There are historic data for a few colonies where counts have been made over many years and these show a continuing increase, except in Northern Ireland where Watson (1980) has shown that the population changed little during the period 1969-70 to 1979 (see table overleaf). The feeding behaviour of Great Black-backed Gulls was studied at Great Saltee, Wexford, in summer 1980 and marked differences in diet were noted between colonially breeding birds and solitary nesters. Colony breeders brought mainly fish to their chicks, whereas solitary breeders fed their chicks chiefly on other birds, mainly auks (Hudson 1982). Predation on other seabirds was considered, therefore, to be carried out mainly by Great Black-backed Gulls breeding at scattered sites. In winter, Great Black-backed Gulls are found all around the Irish coastline and inland in small numbers. They feed on natural marine foods, sometimes foraging around trawlers (Winter Atlas). Ruttledge (1966) considered that

12 8

Rhodostethia rosea

Changes in numbers of breeding pairs of Great Black-backed GillIs at certaill colonies (daw from Cramp et al 1974 except w here indicated) .

Great Sallee. Wexford

Litt le Sallee. Wexford

High Island. Galway Inishkea Island. Mayo Inishmurray. Sligo Inishduff. Donegal South Minnis Island . Down Drummond Island. Down Co Antrim Co Down Lambay Island. Dublin Cape Clear. Cork

75 in 1943 .89 in 1950. 150 in 1964 . 200 in 1969- 70. 2 50-320 in 1978. 240 in 1979 . 390-430 in 1980 (Lloyd 1981). 70-100 in 198f> (0 . ) . Merne). 12 in 194 3. 200 in 1963. 250 in 1% 9- 70. 50in 194 3. 100 in 1% 9- 70.200 + in 1980 (0. ). Merne). Several in 1940. 100 in 1961 . 150 in 1969- 70. Several in 19 55. 35 in 19f>1, 38 in 19 70. I ez in 1986 0 . Carson). 30 in 1% 1. 60 in 1969- 70. 120150 in 198 7 (H. Brazier). 49 in 1956. I f> in 1% 9- 70. 40 in 1956. 20 in 1969- 70.

January to 4 th March 1984: and Cobh , Cork. on 24 th Februa ry 19 8 5. Th e Killyb egs bird . identifiabl e by a damag ed tall feather . was see n in Sligo Harbour from 6th to 9th May 19 8 3. All record s wer e of adu lts except those at Kilmor e Qu ay and Ramore Head in 19 8 3. a n d at Cobh an 19 8 5 . which were in first-winter plumage. The in fluxes since 1981 h ave coi nci ded with greatly inc reased numbers of Iceland and Glaucous Gu lls and may well ha ve a sim ilar cause.

......,-

90 in 1969-70, 101 + in 1979 (Watson 1980). 150 in 196 9- 70. 134 in 1979 (Watson 1980). 3 in 1849. 20 in 19505. 80 in mid 1ssos, 100 in 1% 9-70 (Hutchinson 19 75). 83in 1% 3. 9 7 in 1967. 119 in 198 3 (CCBOR).

flock s of a bou t 30 were usual, up to 10 0 being seen in favoured areas. Nowadays. flock s of severa l hundred are n ot unusu al. A flock of 350 at Bald oyle w as co ns ide red excepti onal in Nove m ber 1968 (Hu tc hi nso n 197 5) but in recent yea rs the re have been three published rec ords of over 500: 5 70 on 21 st January 19 84 and 74 5 on 8 th December 19 84 at Carlingford Lough . Louth , and 550 on 2 7th December 1985 at Cobh , Cork. Most Irish-breeding Great Black-b acked Gulls a re sedentary. th ough there is some dispersal so u thward: tw o nestlings ringed in Kerry were recover ed in Portugal and France re spectively. and on e ringed in Antrim was recovered in France. There have been five recoveries of Icelandic-ringed birds in Ireland in winter a n d on e recovery of a Norwe gia n -rin ged bird. Autumn pa ssage was noted at Malin Head. Donegal. in th e early I 9 60s and may have been of Scottish birds. som e of which a re known to winter in Ireland (Th orn 1986).

Ross's Gull RIlOdost eth ia rosea There h av e been eight records of thi s Arc tic gu ll. Singl e bird s wer e seen at Portavogie, Down. on 1st and 2nd January 19 81 : Ramore Head . Antrim, on l st and 2nd February 19 81 : Portavog ie. Down. on 22 nd Febru a ry 19 81: Ramore Head on 19th an d 20th Januar y 19 8 3: Kilmore Quay. Wexford . on 22n d and 2 3rd January 19 83: Killybegs. Don egal, on 3rd April 19 8 3: Ga lw ay from 11 th

Kittiwake Ri ssa tridactyla Kittiwakes are wid espread and extremely successfu l coastal breeding bird s which in creased a t a rate of about 50% every ten years this century up to 19 69-70 (Coulson in Cramp et al 1974) but have declined at m any colonies sin ce then. Because they build large. con spicuous ne st s Kittiwakes are relati vely ea sy to census and a number of co u n ts were m ade at va rious colon ies prior to the attempt to cou n t the en tire populati on in 1969-70. The pr in cipal counts are listed in th e tabl e. However. although the nest s are obvious th er e are differen ces in counting technique which make com parison between cou n ts difficul t. For exa m ple. som e n ests are unoccupied and may be co u n ted. though most worker s would n ot count the m : seco n dly. som e n ests are aba ndo ne d during th e ne st ing seaso n . so a cou n t in mid June will produce more occu pied n est s than a mid Jul y count. Despite th ese difficulties it is clear th at th er e was a massive in crease in numbers up to the late 19 60s and that in so me cases (Wicklow coloni es a nd Rathlin , An trim) this

Bissa tridactyla continued into the mid 1970s, and in the case of the Wicklow colonies even up to the 1980s. However, at the Waterford colonies there have been declines; there was also a decline at the large Rathlin colony from 1976 to 1979; and the Great Saltee colony declined in the 1970s before recovering again.

Changes in numbers of breeding pairs of Kittiwakes at certain colonies (datafrom Coulson 1963, Coulson 1983. Hutchinson 1975 and local bird reports except where indicated)

Lambay Island, Dublin Ireland's Eye, Dublin

Number of pairs of Kittiwakes breeding in Ireland in 1969-70 (after Cramp et a11974) County Dublin Wicklow Wexford Waterford Cork Kerry Clare Galway Mayo Sligo Donegal Antrim Down

Pairs 3.850 20 3,750 2.960 2.830 4,840 4.380 820 3.270 1.000 10.610 4.550 3

The decline, which has also been reflected at a number of British colonies, was believed by Coulson (1983) to be most likely caused by food shortage. McGrath and Walsh (1985) in an assessment of the decline in east Waterford between 1974 and 1984. noted that the changes in numbers of Kittiwakes corresponded with trends in the local herring fishery. There was heavy exploitation of the fishery from 1958 to the mid 1970s with peak Dunmore East landings in 1970-72. Subsequently, the herring stocks declined drastically and the Celtic Sea fishery was closed from 1977 to 1982. With good spawnings in 198284 the herring stocks increased again and McGrath and Walsh considered it likely that Kittiwake numbers would once more increase. Kittiwakes nest mainly on sea-cliffs but a pair attempted to nest on the gable-end of a house at Dunmore East in 1970 (O'Meara 197 Sa) and a pair completed a nest on a light standard there in 1978 (O'Meara 1979b). On the coast Kittiwake sea-passage is regular. At Cape Clear westerly sea-passage occurs throughout the year with peaks in 1959-69 in late January, April, May, June and November, and in 1970-80 in April, May. October and November (Sharrock 1973, Hutchinson 1981). There was a suggestion of larger numbers passing in the second decade. Counts at the sewage outfall at Portstewart, Londonderry. from 1976 to 1980 showed that most birds attended in April (Watson 1980). Up to about the early 1960s it was rare to find Kittiwakes close to shore in winter. Ruttledge (1966) cited influxes of many to Cork Harbour in January 1948 and of about 500 off Down on 16th December 1956. Prior to 1952 there was only one January record for the Dublin and Wicklow coast. though by the late 1960s there were regularly a few about the harbour at Dun Laoghaire all winter (Hutchinson 1975). Nowadays, a few remain around most

129

Howth Head, Dublin Bray Head. Wicklow Wicklow Head. Wicklow Great Saltee, Wexford

East Waterford

Old Head of Kinsale, Cork Rathlin Island. Antrim

History 450 in 1959, 1,470 in 1969-70. 1,200+ in 1983. 3.005 in 1987 (O.}. Merne) 160 in 1959, 940 in 1969-70, 1,307 in 1974, 650-700 in 1986 (0.1. Merne) 22 in 1959, 1,432 in 1969-70, 1,685-1.700 in 1986 (O.}. Meme) 21 in 1970 (first recorded), 57 in 1974, 160 in 1982,386 in 1983, 759-775 in 1986 (O.J. Merne) Nil in 1969-70, 169 in 1974. 440+ in 1983, c.500 in 1984, 786-800 in 1986 (O.}. Merne) Less than 1.000 in 1945,2,000 in 1952, 3.600 in 1970. 3,500 in 1975 (Perry & Warburton 1975). Cabot, cited by Lloyd (1981) put the colony at 1,900-2,300 between 1964 and 1973, and showed a decrease from 2,210 in 1973 to 1,640 in 1976. Lloyd's counts produced 1.230 in 1978. 1,910 in 1979 and 2,130 in 1980. There were 3,000 in 1985 1,010 in 1964, 870 in 1965,883 in 19f>6, 1,294 in 1967, 1.876 in 1968, 2,107 in 1969, 2,273 in 1970, 1,889 in 1971, 2,256 in 1972. 2,407 in 1973, 2,484 in 1974 (O'Meara 1975b), but a decline by 1984 to a maximum of 1.231 (McGrath & Walsh 1985) 1.673-1,883 in 1969-70, 2,754 in 1985 (M. Shorten) 983 in 1958 (Coulson 1963), 3.311 in 1969, 6,200 in 1976, 5,262 in 1979 (Watson 1981). 6.420 in 1985 (NIBR 1982-85)

harbours and fishing ports all winter and. occasionally, there are massive influxes. In December 1983. for example, during an exceptional appearance of sprats off the Cork coast, there were estimated to be 25,000 Kittiwakes at Ballycotton and 3,000-5,000 in Cork Harbour. The flocks at Ballycotton were compared to snowflakes in a snowstorm. Numbers declined somewhat in January with counts of 6,000 at Ballycotton on 10th January and 3,500 in Cork Harbour on 4th January. In the following winter there were only 600 at Ballycotton and 1 500 in Cork Harbour. A similar influx was noted at Galway Bay in January 1981 when there were large numbers of sprats close inshore (A. Whilde). These numbers are exceptional, for ringing has shown that most Kittiwakes disperse in late autumn. many wandering across the North Atlantic to Greenland and Arctic Canada, others moving south to the Bay of Biscay, and birds ringed in France and Norway have been recovered on the Irish coastline as they travel out into the oceans. t

130

Pagophila eburnea

Ivory Gull Paqophila eburnea This Arctic gull remains a very great rarity. There were two records involving three birds in the nineteenth century and four records between 1900 and 1931. Since 1965 there have been five records: an adult at Ballycotton, Cork, on 16th October 1969; an adult near Bunowen Point, Galway, on 6th August 1971; an immature at Bangor, Down, from 26th November to 1st December 1978; an immature at Ballycotton, Cork, from 1st to 9th January 1980 and an adult seen in Wexford Harbour on 25th March 1983 and found dead the following day.

Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica There have been three records. Adults were seen at Ballyconneely, Galway, on 1st July 1969, at the Roe Estuary, Londonderry, from 7th to 10th October 1982, and at the Bridges of Ross, Clare, on 21 st September 1984.

Caspian Tern Sterna caspia The only records are of singles seen off Tory Island, Donegal, on 30th September 1959 and at Lough Derravaragh, Westmeath, on 20th July 1984.

Royal Tern Sterna maxima

Rockabill, Dublin. Since then, they have increased and spread, almost certainly continuing to do so though the Rockabill colony was abandoned after 1935. Breeding was also recorded in north Mayo, Fermanagh and Donegal in the nineteenth century and in this century in Down, Galway, Sligo, Wexford (Kennedy et a11954) and Cork (Whilde 1985). There were no records of nesting in Kerry before 1969-70 or in Clare prior to 1984, and no estimates were made of the total breeding population until 1969-70 (Cramp et al1974). A special census of breeding terns was carried out in 1984 and this indicated a substantial increase, particularly in Galway and Down. The largest colonies are at Strangford Lough, Down, where nesting began about 1930 (Kennedy et al 1954). Sandwich Terns tend to move about from colony to colony, some islands being used for a few years and then deserted. As a result, it is necessary to census a wide area if local movements are not to be misinterpreted as major population trends. At Strangford they have tended to nest on relatively few islands, using only three consistently between 1977 and 1984, and five intermittently (Brown & McAvoy 1985). They nested in high density and almost always in close association with Black-headed Gulls Numbers rose in Strangford from 481 in 1969 to 1,075 ir 1980 and 1,489 in 1984, but there were years wher the population dipped, and 1984 had much the highest numbers. In Wexford there have been annual counts of terns a1 Lady's Island Lake for a number of years and these have shown marked fluctuations due in part, at least, to sudden changes in water level, to predation by rats, mink and large gulls and to varying disturbance at the site. Numbers of pairs of Sandwich Terns breeding in Ireland in 1969-70 and 1984 (after Whilde 1985) County

The single record is of one picked up dead on the North Bull, Dublin, on 24th March 1954.

Elegant Tern Sterna elegans One was seen at a colony of Sandwich Terns at Greencastle Point, Carlingford Lough, Down, from 22nd June to at least 3rd July 1982, and at Ballymacoda, Cork, on 1st August 1982. This is the only record for the western Palearctic of this Pacific species.

Coastal

Wexford Kerry Clare Galway Mayo Donegal Down Antrim

Sandwich Terns breed on the coast, apart from colonies on Lough Erne in Fermanagh and Carrowmore Lake in Mayo, tending to prefer maritime turf and shingle to other habitats for their nest sites (Whilde 1985). They were first proved to breed in Ireland in 1850 when nests were found at

1984

250 60

241

215 190 200 1.210

443

7

2,125

221 205 1,959 149 -3,225

Inland

Mayo Fermanagh

Sandwich Tern Sterna sandvicensis

1969-70

Total

No

Count

164

78 242

--3.467

Sandwich Terns are the earliest terns to arrive in spring, the first birds invariably being reported in late March. The main arrival is in April and early May, at which time birds may be seen anywhere along the coast. From mid July

Sterna dougallii onwards parties comprising adults and some young (often still being fed by the adults) may be found at beaches and estuaries all along the south and west coasts. though in lesser numbers on the Dublin and Wick low coasts. The earliest spring record is of one on 2nd March 1963 at Portaferry. Down. and there are only two other records before 15th March: singles at Blennerville. Kerry . on lIth March 1958 and Copeland. Down. on 13th March 1969 . There are a number of records of birds remaining into early November. incl uding one of a bird at Dun Laoghaire. Dublin. on 12th November 1983. The only winter recor d is of one at Ballycotton, Cork. on 6th January 19 74. Ringing recoveries show that Irish breeders winter mainly on the coast of Africa from the Gulf of Guinea to the Cape of Good Hope. some even rounding the Cape to the Indian Ocean.

131

,

Number s of pairs of breeding terns at Lady's Island Lake. Wexford. 1977-1987 (after WBR and O. J. Merne) Sandwi ch Tern

Roseate Tern

Common Tern

1977 19 78 1979

5 354 204

220

20 150

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984

106 142 101

1985 1986 1987

286 144 186 7

215 269 1 58 20

Arctic Tern

20 6 5

Little Tern

3 1

70

No count

191 291 525-600

14

30

600-708

8

3 31 206

10

Roseate Tern Sterna dougal/ii The Roseate Tern was common in Ireland in the first half of the nineteenth century. but may have ceased to breed here by 1900. Ear ly in the present century nesting was proved again and n umbers increased up to the early 1960s. since when there has been a decline and the species is now a scarce breeder. Roseate Terns prefer to nest on islands close to the mainland. The chosen habitats in the ten colonies found in the country in 1984 were clearly rocks. maritime turf and shingle (Whilde 1985) and. unlike other terns. they prefer to nest under vegetation. The largest colony of a ll. Tern Island in Wexford. now dese rted. was on a sand ban k. In the early years of the last century there were what was desc ribed as considerable numbers breeding in a few localities on the east coast (Ussher & Warren 1900). Rockabill off the Dublin coast and Mew Island. one of the Copeland Islands off the Down coast. were the two colonies identified. but the numbers involved cannot be estimated from the published accounts. though there were said to be hundreds at Rockabill in 1844. By the turn of the century

there were no longer any terns breedin g at Rockabill and very few at Mew Island. and no Roseates were suspected. However. Ussher & Warren refer to sightings of lon g. slender terns on the coast of Donegal an d Connemara, which may well have been Roseate Terns. but the wildness of the birds prevented identification. It is possib le. therefore. that some Roseate Terns continued to breed in the west of Ireland at the end of the last century but. if so. the numbers were low indeed. Breeding was rediscovered in 1906 when a few pairs bred (Kennedy et al 1954). In 1908 a few pairs nested in Strangford Lough (Cramp et al 1974). where breeding continues. and in 1913 a colony of 20-25 pairs was found at Malahide, Dublin. among the large tern colony which remained there until the early 1950s. Small numbers of Roseate Terns (up to 20 pairs) appear to have nested there in the 1920s and perhaps la ter. At Rockabill. nesting was proved again in 1930 when 12 pai rs were found and this colony has su rvived to be now the largest in Europe. Numbers have fluctuated with 200 pai rs in 1949. 296 in 1950. 68 in 1958. 20-30 in 1965. 30-40 in 1966. 100 in 1969. 80 in 1970 (Hutchinson 1975). 110 in 1984. 160 in 1985.180 in 1986 (IECBR) and 250 in 1987 (O. J. Merne). In Wexford the largest colony was at Tern Island . in Wexford Harbour. which was first discovered in 1961 with 1.600 pa irs and where there we re 2.000 pairs in 1962 (Ruttledge 1966). In 1970 there were 1.300-1.500 pairs but concern over the effect of erosion on the shape of the island was expressed in the Irish Wild bird Conservancy Annual Report and Conservation Review from 1971 onwards. Numbers of pairs of Roseate Terns declined sharply from 1974 onwards. In 1975 the area of the island was much reduced by winter sto rms and in Ju ly. while 400 pairs

132

Sterna hirundo

nested, high tides washed nests, eggs and chicks away. Terns returned to the island in 19 76 despite a further reduction in its size but the colony was deserted by the adults before any young fledged. The island had almost disappeared by 1977 and only a few birds attempted to nest. What was presumably the remnants of this once large colony moved to Lady's Island Lake to breed in 1978, but by 1982 even this colony had been reduced to a handful of pairs, largely because of predation by rats, and only 14 were counted in 1984. Green Island in Carlingford Lough, Down, was a major colony for many years. In 1969 there were 228 pairs, increasing to 697 in 1971, and fluctuating between 59 and 160 between 1973 and 1984. In 1984 this island had the second largest colony with 77 pairs (Whilde 1985). In Strangford Lough, Down, there were only ten pairs in 1969, then only one pair in 1972, but in 1975 a small colony was established again. In 1975 there were 42 pairs and this rose to 156 in 1978, but declined to 18 in 1984 (Brown & McAvoy 1985). The dramatic decline in Roseate Tern numbers has been mirrored throughout Europe, and in eastern North America as well. The total European population, excluding that of the Azores, in the late 1970s was estimated at 1,100 pairs of which 660 were in Ireland (Thomas 1982). By 1984 the European population, again excluding the Azores where 635 pairs were found in 1984, had declined to an estimated 525 pairs of which 268 were in Ireland (Whilde 1985). So far, this decline has been unexplained.

into the area off the Dublin and north Wicklow coast to feed on the rich fishing banks offshore before going south on autumn migration. Departure is earlier than the other terns, a record of 50 on 30th September 1969 being considered very late, but there have been records up to 18th October (one at Blennerville, Kerry, in 1957). The earliest record is of one in Galway Bay on 14th April (Kennedy et a11954). Ringing recoveries have shown that Irish breeding Roseate Terns winter in the Gulf of Guinea, particularly off the coast of Ghana. Numbers of Roseate Terns breeding at Tern Island. Wexford. 1961 to 1977 Source Pairs Cramp et al1974 1961 1.600

1962 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978

2.000 1,200

Ruttledge 1966 Cramp et al1974

1.300-1.500 IBR Lloyd et aI 1975 538 Lloyd et a11975 533 IWC Annual Report (Over 1,000) Lloyd et aI 1975 (687) IWe Annual Report 603 400 250 50

o

IWC Annual Report Thomas 1982 IBR a.}. Merne

Numbers of pairs of Roseate Terns breeding in Ireland in 1969-70, 1984 (after Whilde 1985) and 1987 (M. Avery) County

1969-70

1984

1987

Dublin Wexford

60 1,350

110 14

250 8

Cork Galway Donegal Antrim Down Totals

10 6

3 190 238 1,851

3 39 96 268

25 40 323

The decline in breeding pairs has also resulted in a fall in numbers away from the breeding colonies. In the early 1970s up to 500 were regularly found among the large tern roosts at Sandymount Strand, Dublin, and Broad Lough, Wicklow (Hutchinson 1975). The largest concentration reported was of over 2,000 at Broad Lough in August 1975 (DWBR 1974-75). Since 1980 the numbers reported at Sandymount have been low in most years and included 20 in September 1982, but a record of a minimum of 500 in mid September 1983, with possibly up to 2,000 (IECBR 1983), was a large proportion of the European population. In 1984 numbers were lower but a maximum of 300 was counted on 8th September. In September 1986, 500 were seen (0. J. Merne). These birds apparently move

Common Tern Sterna hirundo Common Terns are the most widely distributed of Irish breeding terns, nesting around most of the coastline and inland on Lough Neagh, on the Shannon lakes, in Connemara and on Lough Erne in Fermanagh. They nest chiefly on rock, maritime turf or shingle, and most colonies are on islands (Whilde 1985). As with the other terns, our knowledge of the distribution and numbers of this species has been advanced by the census of coastal breeders made in 1969-70 (Cramp et al 1974) and of the entire population carried out in 1984 (Whilde 1985). Before 1954 the Common Tern was considered to far outnumber the Arctic Tern on the east coast. In Down, where the proportion of Arctic Terns had been 60% in the first half of the nineteenth century, the Common Tern in the 1950s predominated in the ratio of 13 to one. In Dublin, where the colony at Malahide had a population of several thousand birds in the first half of the century (Hutchinson 1975) the Common Tern was much more numerous, and in Wexford, where the Arctic Tern was more numerous in 1934, the situation had reversed and the Common was slightly more common by the 1950s. In the 1960s Common outnumbered Arctic by between 5 and 10 to one. On the coast of Galway and Donegal the Arctic Tern predominated, but inland the Common Tern

Sterna hirundo was much more numerous (Kennedy et aI 1954). There were large colonies on the Connacht lakes prior to about 1920 when a decrease set in. Breeding ceased on Lough Carra, Mayo, before 1940 and on Lough Carrowmore, Mayo, by 1944. The colonies on Lough Corrib in Galway, and Loughs Mask and Conn, Mayo, were reduced to a very few birds. Kennedy et al (1954) did not consider that human persecution had been the cause of the declines on these lakes, but thought it possible that an increase in predation by the growing numbers of gulls or the spread of dense vegetation over the breeding sites may have been the cause. Whatever the reason, Common Terns were still nesting plentifully on Lough Neagh in the 19 5Os and there were small colonies on the Westmeath lakes (0. J. Merne).

The census results in 1969-70 show that identified Common Terns outnumbered Arctic Terns by about 2.8 to one. The position is impossible to establish with accuracy because of the large number of terns which was not specifically identified. However, by 1984 the position had changed greatly and Common Tern numbers on the coast had clearly reduced substantially. Part of the reason for this may well have been the abandonment of the large colony at Tern Island, in Wexford Harbour, where there were 850 pairs in 1969. These birds may have shifted across to the west coast of Britain, for the British population was certainly not declining in 1974 when the numbers at Tern Island were reducing rapidly (Lloyd et al 1975). However, other colonies have also declined, particularly

Numbers of pairs of Common. Arctic and Common/Arctic Terns breeding in Ireland in 1969-70 and 1984 (after Whilde 1985)

1984

1969-70 County

Common

Arctic

Common/ Arctic

Common

Arctic

Common/ Arctic

Coastal

132

30

60

86

5 65

57 51

12 163

105 20

547 169

170

45

390 400

40 175

1,060

172 8 207 783

24 119 168 6 658 369 5 411

425

83

3.506

1.041

1.360

2,212

2.215

310

107 42

33 28 4

22

120

Wexford

70 16 840

50

Cork Kerry Clare Galway

570 500 20 300

Mayo Sligo Donegal Londonderry Antrim Down

130 100 170

140 1 5 210 130

Dublin Wicklow

Totals Inland Galway

Mayo Sligo Donegal Antrim Roscommon Tipperary Westmeath Cavan Longford Armagh Fermanagh Totals

133

56 41 4 28 5 37 14 76 13 -423 2,635

28 24

7

1

- -7 73 2.288

--

29 339

--

134

Sterna paradisaea

in Cork and Kerry where a number of medium-sized colonies have either been abandoned or reduced to very small numbers. and the reasons are completely unknown. Common Terns arrive on our coast early in May. though the earliest record is of one at Rathlin Island. Antrim. on 12th April 1961. In the past twenty years there have been no published reports of birds earlier than 22nd April. In autumn large flocks assemble on the east coast to feed off the Dublin and north Wicklow coasts. These assemblies involve large numbers of birds establishing a nocturnal roost at Sandymount Strand in Dublin Bay. feeding off the coast on the India Bank some 10 km offshore and using Broad Lough. Wicklow. as a diurnal preening and resting area (Pettit 1973). These flocks have been known to use the area since 1959 at least (IBR). They remain from the end of July into early September and are mainly adults. Numbers vary but in most years exceed 4.000 and reached 7.000 in 1983. The flocks are so large that it is clear they involve Common Terns from Britain and perhaps further afield as well as Irish breeders. In some years flocks of up to 200-500 assemble off the east Cork coast at the same season. Most Common Terns have departed by mid October. but one or two birds are recorded in November each year. The latest records are of a single bird at Malahlde. Dublin. on 28th November 1956. and single birds found freshly dead in Down on 1st January 1957 (1.S. Furphy) and at Dun Laoghaire. Dublin. on 22nd December 1958. There have also been records of single Common or Arctic Terns at Clogher Head. Louth. on 29th December 1976 and 8th January 1972 and an extraordinary record of three Common or Arctic Terns at Ballycotton. Cork. on 15th March 1969. One ringed at the Copeland Islands on 17th May 1959 was recovered in Victoria. Australia. on 26th October 1968. a distance of 17.641 km from its home colony. but most winter on the west African coast between Mauretania and South Africa .

of inland breeding sites. with the greatly reduced numbers they found . On the north-east coast the Common Tern had replaced the Arctic as the dominant species: in Donegal and Galway the position was similar. On the Blasket Islands. Kerry. and the Sovereign Islands. Cork. Arctic Terns had disappeared. On the Dublin coast there had been a decrease. The results of the census in 1969-70 showed that Arctic Terns. even allowing for the large number of unidentified Common or Arctic Terns counted. were greatly outnumbered by Common Terns. The census in ] 984 showed a complete change in circumstances with an evident real increase in the population and apparent decreases only reported in the small colonies in Antrim. Dublin and Wicklow (Whilde 1985). Sites such as the Connacht lakes. which Kennedy et !II (1954) reported as having been deserted. were reoccupied and the Inishkea Islands. which Kennedy et al considered eminently suitable for Arctic Terns. have been colonized. Because of the difficulty in separating Arctic from Common Terns and the tendency of either species to move a colony from one site to another for no obvious reason. the history of the various colonies is impossible to interpret with accuracy. Brown & McAvoy (1985). for example. discussed the history of the Strangford Lough tern colonies without differentiating between Common and Arctic Terns. The first Arctic Terns normally appear in May but there is an exceptional record of a bird at Monkstown, Cork. on 15th April 1966. Departure appears to follow a different pattern to that of Common Terns with much smaller numbers assembling on the east coast in early autumn. though approximately half of a flock of 3.000 terns at Sandymount Strand. Dublin. on 3rd August 1984 was estimated to consist of Arctic Terns. There were a number of juvenile Arctic Terns and approximately 30 first summer birds. Small numbers do occur on autumn passage on all coasts but flocks of over 100 are unusual. Ringing recoveries have shown that British Arctic Terns winter mainly in the Antarctic pack ice south east of the Cape of Good Hope. There is only one winter recovery of an Irish ringed Arctic Tern - in Angola in February - but it seems likely that most Irish birds winter with those from Britain.

Forster's Tern Sterna forsteri

Arctic Tern Sterna paradisaea The Arctic Tern has reversed the decline in breeding numbers recorded in the first half of the present century and has increased substantially since the late 1960s. Most Arctic Terns nest on islands and the habitat is similar to that of Common Terns. In many cases the two species breed in mixed colonies. In 1954 Kennedy et al contrasted the descriptions by Ussher & Warren (1900). of large colonies and a number

This North American species has been recorded on several occasions and the number of birds involved is at least four and possibly seven. The first record was of a first-winter bird in Dublin Bay from 21 st November 1982 to mid January 1983 . A firstsummer bird was seen at Lady's Island Lake. Wexford. on 11th September 1983. It is possible that this was the same as the Dublin Bay bird the previous winter. A first-winter bird seen at the Bann Estuary. Londonderry. from 3rd to 5th December] 983 was certainly new. and a first-winter seen at Groomsport. Down. on 19th and 20th March 1984 and at the Quoile Pondage, Down. on 12 th and 13th March ] 984 may have been the same bird.

Chlidonias hybridus An adult was seen near Termonfeckin, Louth, on 3rd August 1985, at Dundalk Harbour, Louth, on 7th and 8th September 1985, at Clogher Head, Louth, on 21st September 1985. This could have been the bird first recorded in Dublin Bay in 1982. A first-winter at Dungarvan, Waterford, from 26th January to 2nd February 1985 was certainly a new bird. An adult was seen in Wexford Harbour from 7th June 1986 to at least February 1987.

Bridled Tern Sterna anaethetus The only Irish record is of an adult in winter plumage picked up freshly dead on the shore of the North Bull, Dublin, on 29th November 1953. The specimen was found to be referable to the West African race Sterna a. melan-

135

Numbers of pairs of Little Terns breeding in Ireland in 1969-70 and 1984 (after Whilde 1985, Cooney 1987 and]. S. Furphy) County 1969-70 1984

Dublin Wicklow Wexford Cork Kerry Galway Mayo Sligo Donegal Londonderry

13 50 100 2 11 60 12 2 40 6

Totals

296

36 15 15 45 2 10 45 80 18

266

optera.

Little Tern Sterna albi/rons Because Little Terns nest chiefly on shingle and sandy beaches they are particularly vulnerable to human disturbance during the summer. As a result, one would suppose that the population is declining but all the evidence suggests that these birds are holding their own. In the mid 1950s Kennedy et al (1954) described the numbers of Little Terns breeding in Ireland as far below those of Arctic and Common Terns, and indicated that it was exceptional to find more than 2 5 pairs in a colony. They considered that there may have been a decrease since the turn of the century because Ussher & Warren wrote that there were a few colonies with upwards of 50 pairs. These included Dublin Bay and Killala Bay, Mayo. By the early 1950s the Dublin Bay colony had nearly 40 pairs and that at Killala Bay had only ten nests in 1949. This evidence seems too slim to postulate a decline, especially when colonies fluctuate from year to year. The difficulty of counting breeding pairs was referred to by Whilde (1985) in comparing the 1984 census with that in 1969-70. He pointed out that disturbance early in the 1984 season in Wexford and Wicklow led to movement of part of the population and that these birds may not have been counted elsewhere. He also thought that the west coast estimates were minimal and suggested that the real total should have been about 300 pairs for the country. Comparison with 1969-70 shows that there was a considerable redistribution but no real change in status. The value of protection of colonies has been demonstrated in the east coast counties of Louth, Dublin and Wicklow where wardening commenced at four colonies in 1986. The result was an increase in breeding numbers, a concentration into fewer colonies and improved productivity. By summer 1987 the number of breeding pairs had risen from 66 in five colonies in 1984 to 108 in two colonies in 1987, and the number of young fledged at

the main colony at the North Bull had risen from 19 in 1984 to 135 in 1987 (Cooney 1987). Little Terns arrive in Ireland from the last week of April, exceptionally earlier, with the earliest known being three at Ballycotton, Cork, on 11 th April 1968, and one at Clogher Head, Louth, on 12th April 1980. The majority depart in September with small numbers recorded up to the end of October. The latest recorded was one at Ballycotton from 12th to 20th November 1977. Inland records are rarer than for any of the other breeding terns, but Ruttledge (1966) reported birds on Lough Carra in Mayo, Lough Corrib in Galway and Lough Beg in Londonderry. Since 1966 there have been records of a single bird on Lough Sheelin, Cavan, on 11th June 1976 and two on Lough Corrib on 14th June 1976.

Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus There were two records prior to 1966 and five records since then. The early records were of an adult shot at the mouth of the River LUTey, Dublin, in September 1839, and an adult seen at Buckroney Marsh. Wicklow, on 9th June 1961. More recently there were single adults at Ballycotton, Cork, on 18th and 19th May 1968; at the North Slob, Wexford, from 13th to 20th May 1970; at Galway Harbour from 29th May to the end of July 1970; at Ballycotton from 4th to 15th August 1984, and at Kllmacslmon, Cork, from 28th July to 3rd August 1985.

136

Chlidonias niger largest autumn number s recorded we re 5 3 in Courtmacsherry Bay in September 19 76 and 90 off Carnsore Point in September 19 8 0. On the we st eoast th ere were 40 in Ga lway Harbour in Sept ember 19 81.

White-winged Black Tern ChIidonias leucopterus

Black Tern ChIidonias niger The Bla ck Tern is an annual au tumn pa ssag e migrant and an irr egul ar spring migrant. Breeding has taken place. Th e sin gle breeding record wa s a t Loug h Erne. Ferma nagh . whe re a pair reared one yo ung in 196 7. A pa ir returned to th e site in 19 68 a nd one bird wa s seen in 1969 but breeding w as not repeat ed. In 1975 a pair attempted to breed again a t Lough Erne but th e nest and eggs we re abandoned. Bla ck Terns are not annual on sprin g pa ssage. Since 19 66 th ere h ave on ly been records in 19 66 , 19 69 , 1970. ] 978. 1979. 1980. 198 1. 19 83 and 19 8 6. The on ly years whe n mor e than four were record ed in spring were 19 6 6. when the re was an influ x of mo re th an 70 bird s at the end of May. and 19 8 6 whe n 2 ] we re seen in mid May. Parties were recorded in 19 6 6 at lak es in Cava n . Clare. Limerick and Roscommon . and 30 were report ed off Hook Head , Wexford. In 1986. 20 we re seen in Wexford and on e in Dublin . These spring mo vem ents were not unprecedented th ere had been an influ x of 35 to Dub lin Bay in early May ] 9 60 . but it is stra n ge that th ere h ave been so few spring record s since 19 6 6. Nu mbers in a utum n va ry from year to yea r but there is a clear pattern of pa ssage. peak in g in the seco nd half of September. with stragglers into ea rly November. the lat est being one at Ring send. Dublin , on 16th Novem ber 19 68 . Bird s a re rec ord ed on all coasts but are rare in th e north. Most are reported from th e south and east coasts. The

Block Tern

300

150

Jon

1966-86

The White-w ing ed Black Tern is a ra re sprin g an d a utumn vagrant to Irel and. There were] 2 record s prior to 1966, of which seven were in th e nineteen th cen tury a nd five between 1900 and 196 5. Th ose wh ich we re da ted were in May (three). Jun e (th ree), July (two ) and October (two ). One of the nin eteen th cent ury record s has only recently been identified in the Ulster Museum (NIBR ] 982-85). Since 19 6 6 th ere have been 3 ] record s in th e co u nties Armagh (one), Clare (one) . Cork (11). Down (four) , Dublin (two), Kerr y (five ). Londonderry (on e), Louth (one). Tipperary (on e) a nd Wexford (four). Th e only record s of more th an a sing le bird were of three at Tac ums hi n . Wexford. on 18th Augus t ] 976. tw o at Akera gh Lough . Kerry. on 24 th and 25th Septembe r 19 68. and two at Ballycotton. Cork. from 9th to 13th Sept ember 19 75 . It seems likely th at th e increase in record s since 1966 is due to observers understanding how to identify adu lt and imm atu re birds in autumn plumage rather th an to an y real in crea se in numbers.

Wh ite-winged Blac k Tern

1966 -86

Jon

Guillemot Uria aalge Guillem ots breed in lar ge numbers on cliffs and m arine islands a ro und the sou th a nd w est coasts . a nd at th ree Dublin sites a nd several Antrim sites on the ea st and no rt heast coasts. Most bird s nest on exposed cliff ledges or on th e tops of marine st ac ks. crow ding toge the r in den se groups. th ough some also nest in caves or in crev ices. Numbers are increasing . Th e breedin g numbers were counted in 1969-70 but su bseque n t resear ch into colony attendance by Guillemo ts h as sho wn that accura te cens usi ng is ex tremely difficul t. Because the birds do not build nests it is usually imp ossible to co unt with confiden ce th e number of bre edin g pai rs. In stead . the usua l tech nique is to count th e number of birds on land. This figure ca nno t be extrapolated relia bly to a tot al of breedin g pa irs beca use th e ra tio of breeding to non-breeding birds may vary. and becau se th ere ca n be

Uria aalge

13 7

Guillemots in a 'wreck' in the Irish Sea the previous autumn. In the late 1970s there were counts of 6.0007.500 birds (Lloyd 1981). Detailed counts carried out over the summer period in the years 1978-80 produced annual totals of 11,050-13.300. 11.115-13.410 and 12 .00013.800 birds on the cliffs (Lloyd 1981). By 1985 and 1986 numbers had increased to 15.692 and 16,329 respectively (O.J. Merne). There is little information available from earlier years with which to assess trends prior to 1969-70. though at Tory Island. Donegal. there were counts of 165 in 1954 and 146 in 1969-70 (Cramp et aI 1974). indicating stability. and at Cape Clear. Cork. there were 141 'pairs' in 1963.25 in 1967 and 101 in 1969. On the Dublin coast there is evidence of steady. long-term increase. Ireland's Eye and Howth Head were colonized between 1900 and 1950. Ireland's Eye had 700 birds in 1969. 1,150+ in 1985 and 1,458 in 1986; Howth Head had 238 birds in 1969.222 in 1974.431 in 1985 and 529-585 in 1987. The data collected at these sites do not provide details of the number of breeding pairs. but they do give the number of birds on the cliffs each year. Taken together. they indicate that Guillemot numbers have increased since 196970 . Numbers on the west coast appear to be increasing. At the Cliffs of Moher. Clare. where there were 5.902 birds in 1969-70. a total of 12.794 was counted in 1980. and 12.207 in 1987 (T. Ta rpey). Numbers at Aughris, Sligo. were lower in 1980 than in 1969-70. but there were increases therefrom 1971 to 1978 (Stowe & Harris 1984). Guillemots come to the breeding cliffs from October onwards. but do not nest until May . From mid July to the considerable daily or even hourly variation in attendance of birds on land. Much the largest colonies in the country are at Rathlin Island. Antrim. where 21,575 were estimated in 1969; Lambay Island . Dublin. where 10.500 birds were counted on the cliffs in 1970; and Great Saltee. Wexford. where there were estimated to be 10.000 pairs in 1969. The total of42.075 pairs (the counts of birds on cliffs were converted directly to pairs by Cramp et al 1974) was more than half the total of 78 .640 estimated for the entire country. Each of these colonies has been the subject of other studies. Birds on the cliff at Rathlin were counted again in 1976 and the total of 30.000 showed a substantial increase on the 21,575 in 1969 . Sample counts carried out at sections of the colony from 1977 to 1979 showed no obvious trend (Watson 1980). but by 1985 the colony had reached 39.480 birds (NIBR 1982-85). Lambay Island was counted again in 1983 and. as with Rathlin, the 14.000 birds on the cliffs. though counted early on 14th May . was a considerable increase on the count in 1970 (IECBR 1983). Both these counts at Lambay were from boats. but 42 .990 were counted from the cliffs in 1987. and it is likely that the earlier counts substantially underestimated the true population (O.J . Merne). Great Saltee is the best studied colony. Between 1964 and 1971 th ere were annual counts by Dr D. Cabot of birds on the cliffs in the range 4,800-13.300. with the peak in 1967. and the lowest numbers in 1970 following the death of over 10,000

Guillemot breedingcolonies. Largedots represent more than 1 .000 birds. medium dots 100-1.000 birds. small dots less than 100 birds

138

Alca torda

first week in August the cliffs are deserted again. Many Irish Guillemots appear to winter off the Irish coastline and at places, particularly near the breeding sites, in some numbers. At Cape Clear, passage of auks, believed to be mostly Guillemots, reaches over 2,000 per hour in December. During an influx of sprats on the east Cork coast in winter 1983/84 there were estimated to be 8,00010,000 auks, both Guillemots and Razorbills, off Ballycotton. Most Guillemots feed just offshore and are vulnerable to oil pollution. When fuel oil seeped out of the are carrier Kowloon Bridge on the west Cork coast in November and December 1986, over 1,500 oiled Guillemots were found on beaches on the Cork and Waterford coast. Birds ringed at Great Saltee have been recovered in the Irish Sea, English Channel, along the south coast of Ireland, and on the west coast of France and north coast of Spain. The furthest travelled birds have been the four recovered off the coast of Portugal. There have been a few winter records of the darker northern race U,a. aalqe. The proportion of 'bridled' Guillemots varies. Ruttledge (1966) considered it to be about 2% on the south and east coasts, 5%-6% on the north and west coasts. At Great Saltee Lloyd (1981) found 0.81% in 1978 in a sample of 726 birds and compared this with 0.42% in the 19 50s and 1.25% in the mid 1970s. A much larger sample of 8,202 was checked in 1981 and 0.77% were found to be bridled (P. M. Walsh). At Cape Clear only one bridled bird was seen out of 425 examined in the years 1959-65 (Sharrock 1973). Numbers of pairs of Guillemots, Razorbills and Black Guillemots breeding in Ireland in 1969-70 (after Cramp et al 1974) Black County Guillemot Razorbill Guillemot

Louth Dublin Wicklow Wexford Waterford Cork Kerry Clare Galway Mayo Sligo Donegal Antrim Down Totals

1 11,500

1.760 4

40

9,700 390 4,800

5.900 1.140

6 90

1.970

60

3,800

40

8,500

2.800 1,650

1,500

317

20 ]40 ]5

3,200

2,105

2,000 10,950

55 27,160

22,300

3,500

78,640

48.361

16

20

]60 ]10

-

20

738

Brunnlch's Guillemot Uria lomvia The only record is of one at Ballyteigue Bay, Wexford. on 24th December 1986. The earlier records cited by Ruttledge (1966) are not now considered acceptable.

Razorbill Alca torda Razorbills are as widely distributed in summer as Guillemots, nesting in colonies wherever there are suitable marine cliffs. Unlike Gulllemots, which lay their eggs on exposed ledges, they prefer crevices, corners of ledges and holes among boulders. As a result they often nest singly rather than in dense groups side by side, though among boulders they frequently nest in close proximity. The population was censused in 1969-70 and a total of 48,361 pairs was calculated. It is now known that assessments of the numbers of breeding pairs of Razorbills cannot be made with any more confidence than for Guillemots, particularly since many nests are hidden and it is frequently impossible to judge whether a bird on land is on an egg or not. Three colonies held almost two-thirds of the total. Horn Head. Donegal, was estimated to have perhaps as many as 45,000 pairs (Breeding Atlas), though the figure included by Cramp et al (1974) and quoted in the table was about half this. The colony was recounted in June 1980 (Watson & Radford 1982) and very much lower numbers were estimated (a minimum of 12,412 birds), but because of the lack of documentation of the counting technique in 1969 it is impossible to judge whether there was any real decrease. A further recount in 1987 resulted in an estimate of 4,000-6,000 birds (R. Sheppard). Great Saltee, Wexford, was estimated to hold 5,800 pairs in 1969. This is one of the few colonies for which there is detailed historic information. There were large numbers in the 1930s and there were estimates of 10,000 'pairs' in the 1960s. 8,000 'pairs' in 1967-68,5,800 'pairs' in 1969 and about 4,500-5,000 'pairs' in the early 1970s (Perry & Warburton 1976, Roche & Merne 1977), though annual counts by David Cabot (cited in Lloyd 1981) put the number of individual birds on the cliffs at an approximately stable 4,050-6,650 birds between 1964 and 1976. These counts agreed well with Clare Lloyd's own counts of 5,7007,765 in 1978,4,000-6,140 in 1979 and 4,660-6,600 in 1980. and with a count of 3,561-4,673 in 1985 (O.J. Merne). These data are such that it is impossible to judge whether the Saltee numbers have changed over the past twenty years. Rathlin Island, Antrim, was estimated to hold 3,148 pairs in 1969. A recount in 1976 produced 7,000 birds (Watson 1980) but sample counts from 1977 to 1979 showed no discernible change in status, though a census in 1985 produced 9,071 individuals (NIBR 198285). An increase was reported at the Cliffs of Moher, Clare, from 1,571 in 1969-70 to 2,831 in 1980 (Stowe & Harris 1982), and there has been no continued increase here either, with 2,188-2,300 in 1987 (T. Tarpey). Comparison of counts for the very few other colonies where there were earlier counts indicate that Razorbill

Cepphus gryIle

139

they return later to the breeding colonies. Most recoveries of Great Saltee ringed birds were in the Irish Sea. on the south coast. off west Britain. in the English Channel. off Iberia. in the western Mediterranean and off north-west Africa. Singles were recovered in the Azores and west Greenland. Immatures tended to travel farthest (O.J. Merne). The status of the northern race A.t. torda is unclear though it appears to be rare. One was shot at the Tearaght, Kerry. in June 1885; a bird ringed at Runde. Norway. was recovered in Wicklow in January 1970. and nine were found dead on the east Cork coast in January and February 1983. The 1983 birds represented 3.9% ofa sample of 228 Razorbills which had drowned in fishing nets (Smiddy 1987).

Great Auk Pinquinus impennis

Razorbill breeding colonies. Largedots represent more than 1.000 sites.mediumdots 10Q.-l.000 birds. small dots lessthan 100 birds

numbers do not appear to have changed significantly. At Cape Clear. Cork. there were 260 in 1963. 180 in 1967. 183 in 1969 and in 1983 Razorbills were reported to be widespread. On the east coast Howth Head. Dublin. was colonized between 1900 and 1950. Bray Head. Wicklow. between 1940 and 1950 and Wicklow Head after 1952. At Howth Head there were 187 in 1969.225 in 1974. 249 in 1985 and 258-280 in 1987 (O.J. Merne). The increase at these sites appears to be steady but unspectacular. Razorbills come ashore to visit colonies from March to April. sometimes at the end of February (Ruttledge 1966). This is the season when the peak passage is recorded off Cape Clear (Sharrock 1973). Razorbills are the commonest of the auk species which comprise the huge spring movements there. exceptionally reaching 10.000 per hour in calm conditions following rough weather. but more usually peaking at under 1.000 per hour. Perhaps these are birds which have returned to Irish waters after wintering farther south and are commencing to visit their colonies while also undertaking long feeding trips. At the end of July and in early August. Razorbills leave the cliffs and the adults moult into winter plumage. At this season. passage at Cape Clear is negligible. presumably because the birds are flightless while moulting. During winter. Razorbills occur widely off our coast (Winter Atlas). particularly on the south coast. near the breeding colonies on the east coast and in Galway Bay; and substantial auk passage (certainly including this species) is sometimes recorded at Cape Clear in winter. However. far fewer Razorbills than Guillemots were found oiled after the Kowloon Bridge was wrecked off the west Cork coast in November 1986. perhaps because

The Great Auk appears to have been abundant in former times and remains of this extinct species have been found in kitchen middens on the coasts of Antrim. Clare. Donegal. Mayo and Waterford (Kennedy et aI1954). The last Irish Great Auk was captured alive on the Waterford coast in May 1834.

Black Guillemot Cepphus grylle The Black Guillemot breeds in small numbers around most of the Irish coast. being absent only from low-lying stretches on the east coast where there are no suitable breeding sites. Black Guillemots nest in caves. among boulders or in other hidden sites by the sea. Sometimes they use man-made structures. At Bangor. Down. they nest in the harbour wall: at Greenore, Louth. they have used a hole in a wooden pier; at Strangford Lough they nest in a wrecked ship. These birds are difficult to census because their nest sites are hidden and the 1969-70 census relied heavily on assessments based on counts of adults visible on the water. The number of pairs estimated to be breeding in that census was. therefore. most probably an underestimate at 738. Recent survey work in Orkney and Shetland has shown

140

AUe aUe

that the real figure there may be 2-3 times the population estimated in 1969-70 (Ewins & Tasker 1985) and the Irish population has probably been underestimated by at least a similar magnitude. Only in Northern Ireland has the population been recounted using the methodology recommended by Ewins & Tasker (1985), and the number found in 1987 was 506 birds as compared with 258 in 1969-70. The doubling of numbers was attributed not just to improved censusing technique but also to increases at some areas and expansion into Belfast Harbour, Down (J. G. Greenwood). Rather little is known of the past history of the Black Guillemot in Ireland. Kennedy et al (1954) reported an increase on the Wicklow coast where formerly the birds had been rare. They also noted relatively recent nesting in Down. Ruttledge (1966) considered that there had been a recent increase in Donegal and on the east coast, and that the range was expanding northwards in Down. Certainly, the Copeland Islands, where five pairs were counted in 1969, were colonized in 1959. On the east coast there were only 1 5 pairs estimated at Bray Head. Wicklow, in 1969, where there had been 40 or more pairs in 1953, and none at all were found on Lambay Island, Dublin, where breeding had been recorded from the nineteenth century up to at least 1952 (Hutchinson 1975). On the south coast the Cape Clear population was estimated at 44 pairs in 1963, 16 in 1967 and 39 in 1969 (Sharrock 1973). Since 1969-70 there have been few counts. In Northern Ireland the population was recounted in 1979 and Londonderry was found to have been colonized with three pairs breeding. In Antrim the population was estimated to have increased from 110 to 136 + pairs and in Down the count of 18 + pairs was similar to the 20 counted in 196970. However, Watson (1980) considered that the numbers in both censuses were probably underestimated. In Wicklow a count of 100 birds off Bray Head in 1982 (IECBR) indicated that numbers were well above the 15 pairs estimated in 1969. In winter, Black Guillemots move into slightly more sheltered waters where they roost, dispersing daily along the coast to feed (Winter Atlas). There is no evidence of emigration of our birds. At Cape Clear the largest numbers occur in early spring, from late February to April, when birds display and visit the cliffs. During the breeding season the numbers visible are lower and there is a sudden departure in early August when the birds move to inshore and more sheltered waters. They are scarce from August to February except when calm conditions and bright weather bring flocks out to the island. Sea passage off the island is virtually non-existent (Sharrock 1973). Some birds do visit their breeding sites in winter and Greenwood (1987) has shown that nest-sites at Bangor were visited from early October onwards, probably because of the need to secure nest holes in an area where suitable breeding sites were limited.

Little Auk AIle aIle The Little Auk is an irregular winter visitor. recorded annually since 1975. Most records are of single birds, but small parties have been seen and the peaks in early April and early September are partly due to the occurrence of groups of birds. In early April there were 25 at Rosbeg, Donegal, in 1982 and eight at Cape Clear over three days in April 1975. In early September there were eight in a day at Cape Clear in 1980 and 21 in 1985. The highest counts in recent years have been at the Bridges of Ross, Clare, where 71 were seen in autumn 1984 with a maximum of 30 on 23rd September. The records indicate that Little Auks are scarce passage migrants off our coast among the large auk flocks that occur in April, and even scarcer in autumn. A few certainly occur off the coast in winter, but the records are relatively few because observers are disinclined to endure the cold on a cliff top in mid winter looking for Little Auks. In the years when observations have been made at Cape Clear in late December and early January a few Little Auks have generally been seen. Records during the years 1966-86 have been from all the coastal counties, except Galway, Meath, Leitrim. Limerick, Louth, and Wicklow, and inland from Kilkenny. Most records have been from Clare, Cork, Dublin and Wexford, but only four were recorded on the entire west coast from Kerry north to Sligo. There was no severe 'wreck' where birds were strewn along the coast and far inland by gales during the period from 1966, though a minor 'wreck' in January 1976 produced 13 birds, mostly in Londonderry. There were major 'wrecks' in the past in October 1841, November 1893, January 1895, January 1910, January and February 1912, winter 1948-49 and February 1950. In the last 'wreck' about 50 were picked up in Cork and as many as 12 or 14 were found in a field in Carlow (Kennedy et al 1954). Because of the widespread dispersal of birds in these 'wrecks' the only counties without a record are Longford, Cavan, Roscommon and Monaghan. There have been no records in June or July. 40

30

20

10

Little Auk

..

. :

1966-86

Fratercula arctica

Puffin Fratercula arctica

The Puffin is a summer visitor to its breeding colonies on a relatively small number of islands and remote cliffs scattered along the west coast and at a handful of sites on the east coast. The status of the Puffin in Ireland has recently been comprehensively reviewed (Harris 1984). He considered that the Irish breeding population in 1982 was probably in the region of 42.000 pairs in some 30-40 colonies. only eight of which held more than 1.000 pairs. In addition to these sites. which are listed in the table. there are smaller colonies at other islands off the Kerry coast. Inishnabro (116 pairs in 1966. 600 in 1973) and Inishvickillaun (300 pairs in 1969) have colonies of a few hundred pairs each . Doulus Head on the Kerry mainland has a few pairs. Off the Mayo coast there are colonies on Clare Island. the Stags of Broadhaven and Black Rock (I .700 pairs in 1954. much less in 1969. none seen in 1987). Pig Island. Inishturk. Kid Island (500-1,000 pairs) and cliffs near Porturlin. In Donegal there are colonies on Tory Island (1,200-2 .000 pairs in 1954. fewer in 1969. 600-700 birds in 198 7). Tormore Island and the adjacent mainland (perhaps 500 pairs in 1969-70. very few in 1987) and Horn Head (about 250 pairs in 1969-70. 20-100 birds in 1987) (Harris 1984. O.J . Merne, D. Duggan. R. Macdonald. R. Sheppard). On the north coast the main colony is Rathlin. but there are about 100 pairs at the colonies at Muck Island. The Gobblns, Carrick-a-rede, Sheep Island and Larrybane Head (Watson 1980). On the east coast there are colonies at Lambay Island (300-400 pairs in 1907. 1,000 pairs in 1939. 100 pairs in 1970.235 birds in 1987) and Ireland's Eye (100 pairs in 1939. a few pairs in 1958. eight birds offshore in 1969. 16 birds in 1985 . seven birds in 1986) (Hutchinson 1975. O. J. Merne, IECBR 1985). On the south coast there are colonies on the Saltees, Wexford. and the Bull and Cow Rocks. Cork . as well as a handful of pairs at several other sites on the Cork coast. At Great Saltee there were many thousands in 1883. and the colony was believed to be expanding in 1913. Numbers declined later but in 1949 there were reported to be 3.000 pairs. By 1965 there were 1,500. and by 1969 only 750 pairs. From 1965 to 1972 David Cabot counted 750-8 70 birds each year. but from 1973 to 1978 his counts were

141

mostly below 500 (Lloyd 1981). Lloyd carried out a detailed census in 1979 and again in 1980 and produced a population of 1,100-1,200 pairs. In June 1987. 1,] 28 birds were counted (0. J. Merne). On the Bull and Cow Rocks there are probably less than 1.000 Puffins. but landing on the Cow is extremely difficult. At Cape Clear there are probably about ten pairs. a similar total to that for 1969. but a decline from the 30 in 1963. Controversy surrounds the largest Irish colony. Evans & Lovegrove (1973) recorded a dramatic decline in numbers on Inishtearaght from 20.000-30 .000 pairs estimated in 1968 to about 7.500 pairs in 1969. and 8 .000 pairs in 1970 and 1973 . The grassy slopes where the birds had nested in 1968 were reported to have been deserted and almost all the Puffins were nesting among rock boulders in 1969. No cause for the decline was given. Kelly & Watson (1977) disputed whether there had ever been a decline and suggested that the apparent decline was an artifact of sampling errors in difficult terrain. and of the problem of comparing a count in July 1969 with one in early June the previous year. Evans & Bourne (1978) subsequently defended the data and suggested that disease could have caused an exceptional mortality at Inishtearaght. Puffins come to their colonies in spring. At Cape Clear the spring sea-passage peak is earlier than for the other two common auks in early April. They leave the colonies in August. the young fledgling and leaving alone. later being followed by the adults and first-years. Peak numbers are seen off Cape Clear in late autumn from October to early December (Sharrock 1973) and there are January records. In winter Puffins are rarely seen off the coast.

Puffin breeding colonies. Large dots represent more than 1.000 occupied burrows. medium dots 100-1 .000 burrows. small dots less than 100 burrows

142

Syrrhaptes paradoxus

except by seawatchers at sites such as Cape Clear, as the birds disperse to the Atlantic. The few ringing recoveries away from Britain and Ireland are from France (four), Algeria (two), Sardinia (one) and Portugal (one). Puffin colonies in Ireland with more than 1,000 breeding pairs (after Harris (1984) except where indicated). Kerry 7,500-8.000 occupied burrows in 1969Inishtearaght 73 6,000-6,500 pairs in 1969-73 Great Skellig 4,000-10,000 pairs in 1967-81 Puffin Island Clare Cliffsof Moher

Mayo Illaunmaistir

Bills Rocks

Antrim Rathlin Island

Wexford Great Saltee

Several thousand pairs in 1970s. Only 700-1.000 birds counted in 1987 (T. Tarpey) 2,000 pairs in 1969, 5,500 pairs in 1976. 1,491-2,263 apparently occupied sites in 1985 (O.}. Merne) At least 5,000 pairs in 1939, 1,000 pairs in 1967.102-110 birds in 1987 (R. Macdonald) 2,200 pairs in 1967 (Cramp et al 1974), 817 in 1969, 1,364 in 1974 (Watson 1980), 2.000 pairs in 1976. 2,896 pairs in 1985 (NIBR 1982-85) Many thousands in early years, 3,000 pairs in 1949, 1,500 pairs in 1965, 750 pairs in 1969-75.1.100-1,200 pairs in 1979-80, 1,128 birds in 1987 (0. J. Merne)

Pallas's Sandgrouse Syrrhaptes paradoxus

A number were recorded in the last century in the irruptions of 1863 and 1888. In the former invasion, birds were shot in June in Dublin, Fermanagh and Donegal and a flock of 13 or 14 occurred near Killybegs, Donegal. The in vasion of 1888 was more extensive, with records in 13 counties and several flocks of 14-16. In addition to the birds reported during these invasions a pair was shot in Kildare in 1876 (Ussher & Warren 1900). The only record of sandgrouse this century is of two which remained for over a week, in May 1954, in sandhills beside Wexford Harbour, but the description recorded does not rule out the possibility that they may have been Blackbellied Sandgrouse P. orientalis.

Rock Dove Columba livia The Rock Dove is the ancestor of all forms of domestic pigeon including the Feral Pigeons which nest so commonly in towns and cities throughout Ireland. It is not easy to separate Rock Doves from Feral Pigeons. especially solitary birds, and even on remote cliffs where one might expect only Rock Doves a few birds showing extremely varied plumage may be seen. At Cape Clear, for example, the population was reported to be relatively pure in the late 1960s, but the proportion of Feral Pigeons had risen since 1959 (Sharrock 1973). Rock Doves or Feral Pigeons breed all around the coast except for the low-lying stretch from north Wexford to south Wicklow where there are no suitable breeding cliffs. Pure, wild birds predominate from Waterford west to Kerry, north to Donegal and east to north Antrim. On the east coast and inland, only Feral Pigeons are found. Feral Pigeons breed inland quite widely in the south-east, east and north of the country, particularly in Wexford, north Carlow. Kilkenny and south Kildare. Dublin, Louth, Down and Londonderry (Breeding Atlas). The concentrations in north Carlow. Kilkenny and Kildare are in an area of grain drying which provides substantial feeding and nest site availability. Rock Doves nest colonially on ledges or crevices in caves. or occasionally on cliff ledges on the coast. Feral Pigeons nest in similar situations on buildings in towns and cities. Kennedy et al (1954) considered that the wild Rock Dove was maintaining its numbers though there were isolated reports of declines around Glengarriff, Cork, in Wicklow and in western Connemara. These authors pointed out that, even in north Mayo and west and northwest Donegal, Feral Pigeons could be found among the wild birds. Only in Clare, Kerry and Sligo did 'the birds remain very true to type'. In winter the distribution is very similar to that in summer (Winter Atlas) but. inland, Feral Pigeons clearly outnumber coastal Rock Doves. There does appear to be some movement of Rock Doves, however, for at Cape Clear the largest numbers occur in September-october and December-January, with the lowest levels in July, November and March (Sharrock 1973). To some extent the concentrations may result from autumn and winter flocking of local birds but there seems little doubt that migrants or birds from adjoining sections of coast arrive in autumn, and winter visitors come in December and January. The peak counts at Cape Clear are usually 7585 but up to 147 in a day have been recorded.

Columba oenas

Stock Dove Columba oenas Having colonized Ireland in the second half of the last century the Stock Dove spread steadily until by the early 19 70s it was breeding over most of the country. apart from the west and much of Leitrim and Cavan. but there is some evidence of a decline and contraction of range since then. Colonization commenced in the north and east and continued westwards. Breeding took place in Down and Louth in 1877. in Antrim in 1889 . in Armagh and Wicklow in 1890. in Carlow in 1894. in Laois in 1896 and in Offaly in 1897. In 1896 birds were seen on the border of Clare and Galway. the first record west of the River Shannon. and by 1919 they were qu ite numerous at Clonfert, Galway. In the present century. breeding was first recorded in Waterford in 1903 or 1904. in Tyrone in 1909. in Fermanagh in 1913. in Limerick in 191 5. in Londonderry in 1921, in Mayo in 1923 or 1924. in Donegal in 1924. Numbers were increasing in Meath in 1916. so that county must have been colonized long before. In Cork the Stock Dove was nesting as far west as Timoleague in 1925 and by 1943 it was widespread in the county. In Cavan it was considered a recent arrival in 1930. and Sligo was colonized some time before 1946. By the early 19 50s the Stock Dove had still not spread west of Lough Corrib in Galway. it had not bred in Kerry and was not believed to have become established in Leitrim or Tyrone (Kennedy et al19 54). The Dingle peninsula in Kerry and west and north Mayo were. however. colonized in the 1950s (Ruttledge 1966). There is very little information on the status of Irish Stock Doves since 1969-72 when the breeding distribution was mapped. They were then widely distributed but were absent from south-west Kerry. west Clare. west Galway. west Mayo (With the exception of a single record on The Mullet). west Donegal. the Antrim plateau and much of Leltrlm, Cavan. Fermanagh and Monaghan. However. though breeding widely throughout the country. Stock Doves are nowhere as abundant as Woodpigeons. Ruttledge (1966) considered that flocks of more than 25 were rare. but flocks of 50 at Rogerstown, Dublin. in December 1984. 51 at Ballintubbrid. Cork. in September 1976. 61 in Cobh, Cork. in January 1984 and 70 at Kilcoole, Wicklow. in February 1971 are evidence that larger aggregations do occur. In Wexford flocks of over 250 occurred on the North Slob in the 1970s (O.J. Merne). The spread of the Stock Dove in Britain has been shown to be a response to the expansion of arable farming (O'Connor & Mead 1984). It is not. therefore. surprising

143

that the Irish colonists spread rapidly from the north and east coasts to the wheat and barley growing areas farther inland in the south and south-east. There is no evidence to indicate whether numbers are increasing or contracting. Survey work in winter in 1981-84 showed that the winter range was much more restricted than had been found in summer in 1969-72 . The population was much more clearly concentrated in south and east. with the largest numbers in Carlow. Kilkenny and Kildare where cereal growing is concentrated. It appears that birds vacate the higher hills in Wicklow and Kerry . and the western fringes of their range. in winter. Certainly. at Cape Clear. where one or two pairs breed. the birds are absent from the island from November to March (Sharrock 1973). A variety of nesting sites is used including holes in trees. crevices in cliffs. ivy-covered walls and even rabbit burrows. Small parties of up to six birds occur at Cape Clear in spring and autumn. and there were records of birds in May and September at Great Saltee, Wexford. However. ringing studies in Britain have shown that. there. Stock Doves are relatively sedentary and it seems unlikely that our birds emigrate.

Stock Dove winter distribution 1981-84

14 4

Colum ba palumbu s

Woodpigeon Colum ba palumb us Woo dpigeons breed in large numbers thro ug ho ut th e entire co u ntry an d a re join ed in winter by lar ge flocks of imm igra nts . They are wide ly reg a rded as a pest on far ml and . Th e cur rent widespread distribution an d n umbers of Woo dpigeo ns a re of relati vely recent or igin. In Britai n they we re first men tioned as an ag ricu ltural pest in th e eightee nth ce ntury (Breeding Atlas) and it seems likely that they were increasin g in Irela nd a t that time. Certainly. by th e en d of th e nineteenth cent ury they were breeding commo nly. and were inc reasi n g in Con ne m ara wherever th ere we re plantations. but were on ly ra re au tu mn visitors to Achill , Mayo. and were unknown around Belmullet. May o. By th e ea rly 19 50s sma ll numbers were breed ing th ere. but birds were still ab sent from The Mullet (Ken nedy et al1 9 54). They were found the re in 19 6 9- 72 . but breedin g w as not proved (Breeding Atlas ). Th e we st Galw ay isla nd of ln ishb ofin had not been colonized by 197 6 (Hutch inson & Ruttledge 1978). In Cork they were rare spr in g and a utumn migrants to Ca pe Clear up to 19 62 when on e or two pairs summered. and in 19 6 3 three pa irs nested. Since th en th er e has been a breeding populati on of up to ten pairs (Sh arroc k 19 73 ). The Woo dpigeon w as originally a bird of woodland. It expanded rapidly from that ha bit a t to ex ploit new agr icultural cro ps suc h as tu rn ips. kal e and clover. whic h rema in green th roughou t the win ter. allowing a high er prop or tion of th e popu lat ion to su rvive th rough out the winter . It was a lso abl e to exploit the inc rease in cereal growing which provided a source of a utumn food in spilt gra in on stu bble fields (Breeding A tlas) . Whe the r it is still inc reasi ng is not kn own . for the bird is now virtually ub iqui tou s a nd in crease ca n no lon ger be measured by expa ns ion of range. In winter Woodpigeons occur th roughout the co untry. but th e largest numbers ar e in th e cerea l-gro win g ea st and sou th-east. and numbers appea r to be low er her e than in Britain (Winter A tlas) . As an indi cation of th e populati on level in one county. the Federation of Coun ty Cork Gun Club s reported th at 89.094 were sho t in their county in 19 82 / 8 3 and 19 83 / 84. and a flock of a t least 15.000 was rep ort ed at Castlemartyr. Cork. in Januar y 19 75 . It has long been con sidered that th ere is massive winter immigr ati on . Kennedy et al ( 19 54) sta ted that large flocks come to Ireland to winter. As far west as Mayo. the first noticeable influx was recorded as taking place at th e end of September . more frequently ea rly in October . Successive wa ves of immigrants we re reported to a rrive in October. Most of th ese imm igrants we re believed to be of Contine n tal origin. as British Woodpigeo ns tend to be sede ntary. In Febru ary and Ma rch th e winter visitors were record ed as departing. However. st udies in Britain h ave sho wn th at the re is on ly a little immigrati on th ere from th e Con tine nt. Indeed . of all th e hundreds of th ou sands of Woo dpigeo ns sho t in Brita in and Ire land up to th e ea rly 19 60s. on ly tw o birds ringed on th e Continen t had eve r been recovered . th ou gh one . a bird ringed as a nestling in Denm ark . was recovered in Laois eigh t years and eight months later (Murton 19 65 ). Murt on (1965 ) sho we d that th ere is a very large increase

in Woo dpigeo n numbers after th e breeding seaso n . and with food plentiful in September a nd October th e bird s spend a great deal of tim e tra vellin g between th e woods and fields. The flocks a lso fly high er at this time a nd th ese changes in beh a viou r and numbers give th e illusion of immigr at ion . Murton did refer to a spec tacula r imm igra tion of Woo dpigeons in a utumn 195 9. a year when th er e was unprecedented movem en t a t Sa ltee Bird Observato ry. Wexford. with 500 birds crossing th e island on 4th Nove mber. but he emphasized th at thi s was exceptiona l. Th ere is some proof of imm igra tion to Ireland from Britain : nestlin gs ringed in North umberla n d in Aug us t 194 4 . and on th e Isle of Man in May 194 8. were recovered in Tipper ary in Nove mber 194 5 a nd in Antrim in Janu ar y 1949 . respectively. and three Scotti sh rin ged ad ults have been found in Ireland. But it seems clear that th e n umbers are relati vely small. Th er e is little eviden ce of migrat ion at Cape Clear. an d flock s of over 100 have never been rep orted. Woodpig eon s have been found nesti ng in heather and stunted bu sh es in west Clare and west Don ega l. occasiona lly elsewhere (Ken nedy et all 9 54 ). At Capel Island. Cork. a pair br ed on th e ground in low vegeta tion in 19 7 7. a nd th ey breed regularly on Great Salt ee in low bracken .

Collared Dove Streptopelia decaocto Th e Collared Dove is a recent colonist. first recorded in Ireland in 19 59. and now breeding throu ghout most of the co untry . Prior to a bout 19 30. Collared Doves bred no closer to Ireland th an Turkey and parts of Albania. Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. They sta rted a ra pid expa ns ion a bout then a nd reach ed Hunga ry in 19 32. Czechos lova kia in 19 36 . Austria in 19 38. Germ any in 194 3. th e Nethe rlands in 19 47. Den mark in 1948 . Swe den and Switzerl and in 194 9 . Fra nce in 1950. Belgium and Norway in 195 2 . England in 19 55 and Scotla nd in 1957. Th e first bird s bred in Irela nd in 1959. w hen sing le pairs nested in Glasnevin Ceme tery . Dublin. a nd near Ga lway city. and bird s were a lso see n in Bangor. Down. in th e sa me yea r . The su bseque n t sprea d h as been we ll documen ted (Hudson 19 65. 1972).

Streptopelia turtur Colonization of Ireland by Collared Doves (after Hudson 1965 and 1972) 1959 First seen in Down. Dublin and Galway. Bred in Dublin and Galway 1 960 Bred in Down 1961 First seen in Donegal on islands of Tory and Inishtrahull 1962 First seen in Cork and bred near Midleton First seen in Offaly and bred near Tullamore First seen in Fermanagh and bred near Enniskillen First seen in Kerry 1963 First seen in Antrim and bred in Belfast Bred in Wexford town. 15 birds present in October First seen in Armagh. Londonderry. Mayo. Waterford. Wicklow 1964 Well established in Belfast. Antrim. with up to 75 birds in November 5 pairs in Lurgan. Armagh 4 pairs in Cork 2 pairs bred in Londonderry 8 or more pairs breeding in Down Breeding in north Dublin suburbs and Baldoyle, Dublin Still only 1 pair in Fermanagh Bred at Newport, Mayo First seen in Monaghan, Sligo 1 or 2 pairs bred at Dungarvan and possibly at Dunmore East. Waterford 3 pairs bred at Greystones and 1 pair at Killincarrig, Wicklow 1965 First bred in Donegal. Meath. Monaghan 1966 First bred in Carlow. Limerick. Sligo 1968 First bred in Tipperary, Tyrone, Westmeath 1969 First bred in Kildare, Kilkenny, Louth

By 1969-72 the breeding distribution covered much of the country, though there were large gaps in the Cavan. Monaghan, Longford and Roscommon region (Breeding Atlas). What was most significant. however, was that breeding was recorded right along the west coast, indicating the urge which had driven the birds westwards and was to lead to colonization of Iceland and the Faeroes in the early 19 70s. The preferred habitats from the beginning of colonization were suburbs, small towns and the vicinity of grain stores and mills. Rural countryside and city centres are much slower to be colonized and support few birds. In the countryside, nesting is restricted to the vicinity of farm buildings. Land above 200 m is also not favoured. In the coastal counties the largest numbers tend to be within 10km of the shore (Hudson 1972). By the early 1970s there had been a report of a flock of 500 in the Tralee area of Kerry (Hudson 1972), and 300350 were on the South Slob, Wexford, in the 1970s (O.J. Merne), but the winter distribution recorded in 1981-84 (Winter Atlas) showed no sign of any increase in range of this largely resident species. Indeed. in the west of the country, in the counties of Kerry, Clare, Galway, Mayo and Donegal, no birds were found in winter in a number of areas where they had bred a decade earlier. indicating that there may be winter movement eastwards to the cerealgrowing areas where the largest numbers of Collared Doves were found. It appears that the spread of the Collared Dove in Ireland has largely ceased. though records from Cape Clear island, Cork, where records have been maintained since 1959. and from Great Saltee, Wexford, confirm that

145

Collared Doves still undertake westerly movements in spring. Sharrock (1 973) showed that Collared Doves were spring migrants to Cape Clear. largely between late April and late June. but rare autumn migrants. This pattern has continued, and up to 12 birds are recorded annually in spring. There have been no records later than October (CCBOR). At Great Saltee there were annual spring records from 1977 onwards except for 1981. with a maximum of five in a day, but only a handful of autumn records (WBR). The number of Collared Doves now breeding in the country is impossible to estimate. Once the birds become common there is a tendency to cease recording them. In recent years the largest flocks recorded on the east coast have been at Swords in Dublin (130 in August 1983) and Lusk in Dublin (286 in November 1983, 208 in February 1985) (IECBR). These indicate a steady but not spectacular increase over the previous decade or so, as the largest flocks in Dublin prior to 1974 were at the same locations: 40 at Lusk in August 1969 and 100 at Swords in September 1971 (Hutchinson 1975).

Turtle Dove Streptopelia turtur The Turtle Dove is a scarce spring migrant, summer visitor and autumn migrant. which breeds rarely. It is most commonly found in Cork, but summering birds are also regular on the east and west coast. There are a very few breeding records. In the last century there were two records which Ruttledge (1966) excluded but which were in counties where breeding has been repeated. In the present century there was a small colony near Lusk, Dublin, for some years in the 1940s. and there have been isolated breeding records in Cork, Down, Dublin, Kerry. Wexford and Wicklow since 1960. The small number of breeding records and the complete absence of

Breeding recordsof Turtle Doves in Ireland Reported to have bred near Downpatrick, Down (Thompson 1849-51) A pair reported to have bred at Derraquin, Kerry Pre-1843 (Thompson 1849-51) A pair bred at Clontarf. Dublin (Kennedy et al 1939 1954) A few pairs nested in Corduff area near Lusk, Late 19408 Dublin A pair bred each year near Lusk, Dublin 1955-57 A pair bred in Co Dublin 1960 A pair bred in Co Wicklow. A pair present in 1962 1963 as well. but not proved breeding (Hutchinson 1975) A pair fed young at roadside at Whitegate, Cork. 1968 where they were believed to have been bred; breeding thought likely in 1966 and 1967 also A bird incubating in Down later deserted eggs A pair with recently fledged young on South Slob. 1971 Wexford, 16th June A pair bred successfully on Iveragh peninsula, 1972 Kerry A pair probably bred near Drinagh, Wexford 1977 1842

146

Clamator qlandarius

evidence of breeding since 1 9 77 are surprising in view of the frequency of spring migrants and the length of time many of them stay in Ireland. The largest numbers are recorded in Cork and Wexford. At Cape Clear there were spring records in the years 195969 from mid April to early July, but the majority occurred in mid May when up to 59 were seen in a day. More usual peak numbers in spring are 10-15 in a day. Autumn numbers were far lower and rarely exceeded one or two in a day. At Great Saltee and Hook Head, Wexford, there was regular passage from the end of April to mid June with most in May and a very thin passage in autumn (Ruttledge 1963, Lovatt 1984). Apart from Cork and Wexford, Turtle Doves can occur in almost any coastal county in spring and early summer, but more rarely in autumn. There have been a few winter records. Ussher & Warren (1900) had records in every month except February, and since 1954 there was one at Tallaght, Dublin, on 11 th December 1957, two at Roche's Point, Cork, on- 3rd November 1967, one at Sandyrnount, Dublin from 25th to 26th February 1969, one at the North Slob, Wexford, on 21st November 1977 (O.J. Merne) and one in Belfast, Antrim, from 24th January to 10th April 1985.

are no firm quantitative data on Cuckoo numbers for any Irish location. At Cape Clear a few Cuckoos bred in most years in the 1960s and early 1970s, but they have been noticeably scarce since 1977 and breeding has not been proven in recent years, though 1982 was a better year and breeding may have taken place (CCBOR). The date of arrival of the first Cuckoo is a cause of much correspondence in the newspapers in April. Arrival is normally in the second half of April, but the earliest Irish record is 2nd April (Ussher & Warren 1900). In recent years an exceptionally early arrival was on 4th April 1969 at Cape Clear. Departure of adults begins in July. Juveniles leave in August and early September, but some have been killed at lighthouses in July. The latest recorded dates are 2nd November 1883 at the Tuskar Rock, Wexford, and 26th November 1900 in Down (Kennedy et al19 54).

Great Spotted Cuckoo Clamator qiandarius

Yellow-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus americanus

There have been four records. One was caught about March 1842 on Omey Island, Galway. One was found dead in early spring in 1918 near Cahirciveen, Kerry; it was stated to have been originally accompanied for about a week by another. One was seen at Mahee, Down, from 9th to 16th September 1975. One was found dead on the North Bull, Dublin, on 13th March 1983. A record of one seen by the lightkeeper on the Great Skellig, Kerry, on 30th April 1897 (Kennedy et al 1954) was not accepted by Ruttledge (1966).

There have been six or seven records, two of which were in the last century. Single birds were killed near Youghal, Cork, in 1825 and near Bray, Wicklow, in 1832. One was seen at Keel on Achill Island, Mayo, on 30th September 1964 and the same bird or another was seen 14 km away on 1st October 1964. One was found at Cape Clear on 13th October 1969: it had been dead for about four to seven days. One was found dying at Lecarrow, Sligo, on 31st October 1979. One was seen at Cape Clear on 30th October 1986.

Cuckoo Cuculus canorus

Barn Owl Tyto alba

The Cuckoo is a common and widely distributed summer visitor which breeds throughout the country. During the years 1968-72 birds were heard calling and suspected of breeding in more than 95% of the 10 km squares of the National Grid, though breeding, which is difficult to prove, was confirmed in significantly less than half of the squares (Breeding Atlas). There is no doubt, however, but that the Cuckoo is widespread throughout the country in summer. Kennedy et al (1954) considered that there had been a decrease in the first half of this century. There was reported to have been a scarcity of Cuckoos in the south of the country and in Galway, Mayo and Cavan in 1943 and more especially in 1944, but there was a recovery to a certain extent in 1945. Ruttledge (1966) considered that the decline had become more noticeable since 1953. There

The Barn Owl is resident, breeding over much of the country, but apparently absent from parts of west Cork and almost all of west Galway, Mayo and Donegal (Breeding Atlas). Formerly, Barn Owls though nowhere numerous were found in almost every district, even on remote islands such as the Aran Islands, Galway, and Rathlin, Antrim (Kennedy et al 1954). A decrease in some localities was reported about 1950, and from about 1960 there was a marked decline and Ruttledge (1966) recorded that the Barn Owl was then absent from many of its former haunts. Survey work in 1968-72 showed that the breeding distribution was thin in the north-west and that Barn Owls were absent from most of Connemara, from west Donegal and from much of Cork (Breeding Atlas). However, Barn

Black-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus erythrophthalmus The single record is of one shot on 25th September 1871 at Killead, Antrim.

Athene noctua

147

1975, Sma I 1987, Walpole 1977, Walsh 1984). At rural roosts the most frequent prey items are wood mice and pygmy shrews, and wood mice and brown rats are the most important items by weight. At an urban roost in Waterford higher proportions of birds, house mice and rats were found and rats were the most important prey in weight. followed by birds. In areas within the range of the recently introduced bank vole that species constituted 15%-22% of the diet by weight. Our resident birds are of the nominate race. Three specimens of the Continental race T,a. quttata were shot in 1932. one in January in Tipperary and two at the beginning of April in Kerry.

Scops Owl Olus scops Owls are extremely easy to overlook and a concentration of breeding pairs in Kerry was believed to be more a reflection of the success of the local observer in locating birds. through his contacts with farmers. than an indication that the birds were commoner there than elsewhere. Observations in recent years. inland in Cork. have also produced evidence that birds were largely overlooked during the years 1968-72 (K. Preston). In north Armagh. searches of old buildings and widespread enquiries among the public have been made each year since the mid 1960s. as part of a special study, and about 14 nest sites located. Barn Owls became scarcer during the period and , in 1982-83, birds were found nesting in only eight locations. In 1984 only one of these sites was occupied and since then no Barn Owls have been found in the area (C. Dawson). A special survey of Barn Owls was carried out from 1982 to 1985 as part of an enquiry into the British and Irish population (Shawyer 1987). Records were sought from the public and intensive field observations were made in sample areas. On the basis of the detailed studies it was estimated that two or three pairs of Barn Owls nest in each of the 10 km squares in which they were recorded. Extrapolating further, Shawyer (1987) estimated the Irish population at 600-900 pairs. The attempt to map the winter distribution of Barn Owls over the years 1981-84 was relatively unsuccessful - the thin distribution which emerged appears to reflect lack of observer effort rather than something close to the true situation (Winler ALIas). Any investigation into Barn Owl numbers and distribution requires an intensity of effort which could not be applied in a general survey. The birds are even more difficult to find in winter. when they resort to woodland, than in summer. There is little reason to doubt that Barn Owls are still quite Widely distributed away from the west coast. though there have been some reports of decline. The food of Barn Owls in Ireland has been studied by several workers and the results of pellet analyses at a number of roosts have been published. all of them showing the Barn Owl as specialising on small mammals (Fairley & Clark 1972. Glue 1974. Clark 1974, Forster & Fairley

There were seven records in the nineteenth century and three in the twentieth. The older records were in March, April, May. June, July and November, and were of single birds except for the May record which was two birds. They were in Wexford (three). Antrim. Antrim/Down. Meath and Galway. Since 1900 a male has been captured at the Fastnet Lighthouse. Cork. on 6th May 1907. one was shot at Ballyliffin, Donegal, in July 1911 and one was heard calling and recorded at Lisnarick. Fermanagh, on 18th June 1974.

Snowy Owl Nyclea scandiaca Prior to 1954 the Snowy Owl was an irregular but not infrequent visitor, especially to the north and north-west. but there have only been two records since then . Kennedy et al (1954) listed 56 records in 18 countries. 25 of which had been since 1900. Of these records. 22 were in Mayo. seven in Donegal, five in Galway. three each in Antrim and Down. and no more than two in any other county. More were recorded on The Mullet in Mayo than anywhere else. Since 1954 the only records are of single birds seen near Carrickfergus, Antrim. on 14th January 1956 and at Ballygar, Roscommon, on 10th November 1968.

Little Owl Athene noctua There have been four records. One was killed at Kilmorony, Kildare, in June 1903 having been there since February. One was washed ashore while still alive near Lame, Antrim. in autumn 1945. One was seen at Great Saltee, Wexford. on 4th May 1960. One was seen at Dunlavin. Wicklow, on 21 st December 1981.

148

Asio otus

Long-eared Owl Asia otus The Long-eared Owl breeds throughout Ireland. being thinly distributed wherever there is suitable woodland. There have been many reports of an increase coinciding with the planting of conifers. The attempt to map the breeding distribution of this species in 1968-72 was not very successful as there was clear evidence that some observers had particular difficulty in locating Long-eared Owls (Breeding Atlas). As a result. the mapped distribution showed the birds to be thinly scattered over much of the country but with absences from much of west Cork, Clare. west Galway . Mayo and Sligo, and concentrations in the north-east and in Kerry. It is impossible to judge how much of this mapped distribution reflected differences in the ability of the observers to find the birds. but one can be certain that the birds were in reality much more widespread than the map indicated. The same problem of interpretation arises with the distribution map in the Winter Atlas. Birds were only found in 87 of the 1,010 10 km squares of the Irish National Grid. and it is evident that observers spent little time in the field after dark and had great difficulty locating Long-eared Owls in their favour ed habitat of spruce and pine woods. When not calling or displaying they are almost impossible to find. The food of Long-eared Owls has been extensively studied (Fairley 1967, Glue & Hammond 1974) and it is clear that. in Ireland. wood mice are the most important items. followed by brown rats . There is believed to be an influx in autumn from the Continent but the numbers are unknown. One bird ringed at Heligoland, West Germany. in November 1977. was recovered in Mayo in January 1980. At Cape Clear, there were record s in the years 1959 to 1986 in March , August (two). September (three), October (16) and November , but whether they were of Irish or Continental origin is unknown.

Short-eared Owl Asia flammeus Short-eared Owls are largely winter visitors to the coast and a scattering of inland sites, but breeding has been recorded . The first record of attempted breeding was on The Mullet. Mayo, in 1923 , when a pair built a nest . but they left without eggs being laid (Kennedy et al 1954). The first record of proved breeding was in Galway , in 1959, when three young were reared. In the same year a pair was seen in display in Wicklow in July, one was recorded in a bog in Antrim on 3rd May, and one was seen on a moor in Donegal in July. Although individual birds were seen at Powerscourt. Wicklow. on 3rd June 1972, and at Bray Head, Wicklow, on 22nd July 1973, there were no subsequent records of attempted breeding until 1977 when single pairs nested in Kerry and Limerick, and two other pairs almost certainly nested in Limerick. No birds were found in 1977. but four

\.

-

adults were found in 1978 in or close to the areas where they had nested in 1976. Breeding was believed not to have taken place (jones 1979). Examination of pellets collected at two of the 1977 breeding sites showed that the diet consisted of 79% and 72% bank voles by weight. The bank vole is a recent colonist in Ireland, first recorded in 1964, and it is interesting that the Short-eared Owls were exploiting this relatively new prey source. However. it has been pointed out by Glue (1977) that the absence of voles from Iceland has not prevented Short-eared Owls from nesting successfully there. In 1979 two birds were recorded in the same area in Limerick but non e appears to have been seen subsequently. In 1983 a bird summered in Co. Dublin and in 1985 a pair bred in Kerry near the border with Cork (P. Smiddy). Short-eared Owls usually arrive in October and depart in March . At Cape Clear there were records during the years 1959-69 in the period August to November, and in March and April. Most were in November (Sharrock 1973). Since 1970 the majority of records has been in October and November , but there have been records in spring and in August. September and December, even one in July. The largest numbers are usually reported in Dublin, where North Bull is a favoured haunt with one or two every year and in some years more . Since 1974 there have been up to nine at the North Bull. six at Dalkey Island , six at Rogerstown and six at Baldoyle in Dublin. In the east coast counties of Wicklow, Dublin. Meath and Louth the totals recorded annually. from 1980 to 1985. were 12, 11. 22 , 23. 16 and 33 . respectively (IECBR). In Cork the maximum recorded at one site in recent years was seven at Clonakilty in February 1985. In Belfast there were up to nine at the Harbour Estate in winter 1985-86. Survey work in winter. in 1981-84, showed that Shorteared Owls were th inly scattered in Ireland with most on the east coast. in Strangford Lough, Down . near Belfast. Antrim. and at a few other chiefly coastal sites. In 1985 the total reported for the entire country was a minimum of 55 , but this is almo st certainly a sizeable underestimate of the real winter population. Four Short-eared Owls ringed as fledglings in Scotland, one in northern England and one on the Isle of Man , have

Apus apus been recovered in winter in Ireland. The winter diet has been summerized by Glue (l977). based on pellets collected at five Irish sites. The brown rat was shown to be nutritionally the most important item. followed by wood mice.

149

A survey of breeding Nightjars was carried out in Britain in 1981 and the organizer sent enquiries to 30 Irish participants in the 1968-72 Breeding Atlas who had found Nightjars then. but only received one positive reply and that was for Wicklow. Only two records were sent to the compilers of the Irish Bird Report for 1985. and one for 1986: in 1985 a migrant was seen at Hook Head. Wexford, in May and one at the Burren, Clare. which may have been breeding. In 1986 two pairs were seen at a traditional site. There were no records for Northern Ireland from 1980 to 1985 (NIBR 1982-85). but a pair was found in Tyrone in 1987 (C. Dawson) . The remaining breeding population in Ireland appears to be extremely small. with a handful of pairs in the Burren, in Waterford and perhaps elsewhere. Migrants occur at Cape Clear. Cork. and at Great Saltee, Wexford. in May in some years. but not annually. Nightjars in autumn are now very rare. The latest record is of one at Rathgormac. Waterford, in the third week of November 1975.

Needle-tailed Swift Hirundapus caudacutus The single record is of one seen at Cape Clear on 20th June 1964. Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus The Nightjar. once a widely distributed summer visitor to much of the country, is now extremely rare as a breeding species, In the early 1950s Kennedy et al (1954) considered the Nightjar to be common in Munster. though probably not breeding in west Kerry. In Leinster it was common in Wexford and Wicklow, still a summer visitor to Howth, Glencullen and Carrickgollogan in Dublin, and it bred in Westmeath. It was not believed to breed in Louth. In Connacht. breeding had been recorded in Galway though evidently in small numbers. There had been an increase in Mayo since the turn of the century and Night jars bred as far west as Achill, Breeding was also known for east Clare and for Roscommon. In Ulster. Nightjars were most common in Fermanagh and bred in Cavan and Donegal. In Antrim and Down they were scarce. In 1952 replies to an enquiry into the breeding distribution of this and several other breeding species indicated that densities were highest west of the Shannon (Norris 1960). A decline seems to have set in during the 19 50s and 1960s because the results of the 1968-72 breeding bird survey showed that Night jars were found only in one area west of the River Shannon and that they were very thinly scattered over the rest of the country. with a concentration in Fermanagh and south Tyrone. In Dublin and Wicklow there had certainly been a marked decline by the early 1970s. Birds were only heard in song at Powerscourt Deer Park, Wlcklow, and at Carrickgollogan in 1968-72. Between 1980 and 1985 one was recorded in April. four in May and one in August. All were believed to be migrants.

Swift Apus apus Swifts are summer visitors, arriving mainly in May and leaving in August. They breed throughout the country but are scarce in the west. Swifts are closely associated with cities. towns and villages and depend on houses or other buildings for nest sites. though birds were found breeding on limestone cliffs inland at Knockrnore. Fermanagh. in 1955 (Ruttledge 1966). The 1968-72 breeding survey showed that Swifts breed in almost every 10 km square throughout Ireland, with the exception of south-west Donegal. west Mayo. west Galway and parts of west Kerry where they were thinly distributed or absent. North-west Mayo was the largest area where Swifts were completely absent (Breeding Atlas). There have been no counts of breeding pairs, but Kennedy et al (l954) considered that there had been a definite increase in the west since 1932. They cited Thompson (I 849-51 ) who believed that Swifts were rare in Kerry and Donegal. and Ussher & Warren (1900) who regarded them as still local in Kerry and seldom met with in western Connacht. By the early 1950s Kennedy et al (1954) wrote that Swifts were frequent in Connemara and in Kerry and Donegal. Breeding was known on Achill and The Mullet. Mayo. This is still the case but Swifts are evidently not so widespread in the west as elsewhere in the country. The main arrival of Swifts in spring is normally in the second week of May, but the first birds are usually reported

150

Apus melba

in th e last week of April. Th e earli est reports by far ar e of one at Carriga line. Cork. on 1 3th March 19 83 . a party of nine ne ar Arklow, Wicklow . on 5th Apr il 19 72. and single s at Lurgan . Armagh. on 7th April 19 76 a nd at Cork city on 8th April 19 79 . Departure is ma inly in Aug ust but a trickle rem ains in to September and th ere ar e a few October record s in most yea rs. Th e lat est Irish record s are of sin gles at Ban gor. Down. on 17th November 194 8 an d at Kilcoole. Wicklow. on 26th November 19 66. Observ ations a t Cape Clear. where Sw ifts do not breed. durin g th e yea rs 1959-6 9 showed that th e largest numbers a re recorded in Jun e and July (Sha rrock 19 73 ). The se a re presumably birds breeding on the adjace nt ma inland which visit the island to feed on insects.

Alpine Swift Apus m elba There were nine records prior to 19 66 a nd 14 from 1966 to 19 8 6. All have been single bird s except for th ree at Ballyteig e Bay. Wexford. on 22nd June 19 8 6. The earlier record s were in Cork (three). Dublin (tw o). Waterford. Wexford . Wick low and 'nea r Lough Neagh' (Ruttledge 19 66 ). Wh ere the records were dated th ey were in th e months March. April. May. June. Augus t (two) and September. Th e more recent record s ha ve been in Antrim . Cork (four). Dublin . Kerry (two). Londonderry. Wexford (tw o) and Wicklow (three). The dat es ha ve been a lmost as scattered as for th e earlier records: March . April (two) . May. Jun e (three) . July (three) and Sept ember (four) .

1966· 86

Jan

I

I

Little Swift Apus affini s The sing le record is of one seen at Cape Clear on 12th June 19 6 7.

Kingfisher Alcedo att his Kin gfish ers breed in eve ry county in Ireland . th ough they are sca rce in hilly and mounta inou s areas. In 19 68- 72 the ir mapp ed distribution excluded th e Wicklow mountains. parts of nor th Cork and west Kerry. north-west Cla re and mu ch of Connemara. we st Mayo. and north and west Don egal (Breeding Atlas ). They are found breeding in th e vicinity of water. usu ally slow-movin g rivers. lak es and pond s. th ou gh some are found by faster flowing streams . In winter th ose wh ich breed on upland strea ms leave for th e lowlands or the shore and there is a very obv ious movem ent to estuaries and bays alon g the coa st. At thi s tim e of yea r Kingfishers can be met with at m an y bays and inlets a lon g th e south-west. south a nd eas t coas ts (Wint er Atlas ). Th e move to lowland a reas and th e coas t is clearly a respon se to dropping temperature and th e risk of river s freezin g ove r. thus preventing fishing. Ruttledge (1968) inve stigat ed th e sta tus of th e Kingfisher after th e seve re winter of 19 62 / 6 3 wh ich wa s respon sible for hea vy losses in western Europe. He considered tha t th e cold did no t have an effect in Ireland compa ra ble to th at elsew he re and th at th ere was no sign of declin e. excep t very locally. He qu oted John Weavi ng. an a utho rity on Irish inland wat erw ays. as findin g the sta tus of th e Kingfisher unch an ged since 19 5 7. when it wa s particularly plentiful on th e stretch of th e Grand Canal bet ween Hazelh atch, Kildare. and Rahan , we st of Tu llamor e. Offaly. Th e few ca ses of decre ase found by Ruttledge from his enquiries were du e to drainage or othe r int erferen ce with th e river bank (th ree ca ses). pollution from sheep-d ipping (two cases) and silting of th e river from bog workings. The reason for disapp earance of Kingfish er s from th e Bann River cana l near Belfast since 1965 was unknown. but disappearance from wat ers near Dublin city was reported as du e to human int erferen ce. disturbance of the river banks and pollution. Kingfishers may have ceased breeding near Dublin city . but in th e ea rly 1970s they cou ld still be see n in winter on th e Liffey at Islandbridge. on the River Dodd er a nd at Booterstown marsh (Hu tchinson 19 75). In 19 84 a survey of 21 km of the River Oona . Tyrone. located eight territories. a density of 3.8 per 10 km (Watson 19 84): on 10 km of th e River Lagan near Belfas t there were four pairs in most years from 19 74 to 19 81 (Bailey 19 8 2). Kingfishers a re rather sede nta ry . tho ug h yo ung bird s disper se in a utumn . Th ere were fou r autumn rec ord s at Cape Clear up to 19 69 and seven bet ween 19 70 and 19 86. all in Aug us t or September. The longest-travelled ring ed bird wa s one rin ged in Antrim in July and recover ed 7 5 km away in Londond erry in Decemb er of th e follow ing year.

Upupa epops 151 Belted Kingfisher Ceryle alcyon There have been three records. The first was seen at Ballina. Mayo. from mid November 1978 until it was shot on 3rd February 1979 . The second wa s a female shot at Dundrum Bay. Down . on 12th October 19 80. and the third was a female seen at Ballyvaughan. Clare. from 2 8th October 1984 to early December 1985. and near Killaloe in Tipperary from 6th February to 8th March 1985. Two earlier records. of birds shot in Meath on 26th October 1845 and in Wicklow in November in the same year (Rutt ledge 1966). have been rejected as the specimens show sign s of the birds having been kept in captivity. and there is evidence that one was stuffed from a dry skin .

Bee-eater Merops apiaster There were ten records prior to 1954 (Kennedy et al19 54) . four from 1954 to 1966. and six from 1966 to 1983. The early records were in Cork (two). Donegal. Dublin , Wexford (three). Wicklow (two) and in an inland county. Where the month was recorded. one record (involvin g seven birds) was at the end of April or beginning of May. two in May. one in 'summer', one in November (involving six bird s) and one in 'winter'. The more recent records have been of two at Cregane. Rosscarbery. Cork. on 17th and 18th April 1955; singles were at Cape Clear on 17th and 18th October 1959: at Howth Head . Dublin. on 15th May 1961 ; near Crosshaven. Cork. on 26th April 1964: at Cape Clear on 2nd and 3rd June 1979; at Caragh Lake. Kerr y. on 4th June 1979: seven were at Valentia. Kerry. on 17th and 18th May 1983. and singles at Cape Clear on 30th September 1985 . at Great Saltee, Wexford . on 4th October 1986 and at Newport. Mayo. on II th October 1986.

Hoopoe

Jan

1966 -86

Roller Coracias garrulus There were ten records before 1900. four between 1900 and 1966 and one since then . The records prior to 1900 were widely scattered., The counties where known were Antrim. Cork (two). Clare. Donegal. Kildare. Leitrim. Sligo and Wexford . The records since then were of one shot in Donegal. near Londonderry on 27th September 1900. one at Great Sal tee. Wexford. in May 1943. one found dead at Hook Head. Wexford. on 18th April 1956. and adult male found freshly dead at Castlegregory. Kerry. on 23rd May 1958. and one seen at Castlederg. Tyrone. from II th to 24th July 1976.

Hoopoe Upupa epops The Hoopoe is a scarce but annual spring migrant on the south coast and occasionally elsewhere. It occurs on rare occasions in autumn or at other times of the year. Before 1953 it was considered a frequent visitor to the southern coastal counties. especially Cork and Wexford (Kennedy et al 1954). and was reported as having been

152

Jynx torquilla

breeding birds displaced westwards as they migrated southwestwards. If they had been English or southern European breeders, a decrease in records would have been expected as this population has been contracting its range. In fact, numbers of Wrynecks recorded in Ireland have remained at much the same level since the mid 19 50s. Furthermore, Wrynecks appear on the Irish coast amongst falls of typical Scandinavian night migrants such as Pied Flycatchers. Finally, it has been shown that birds ringed in Europe show a migratory direction between south and west in autumn. The eight birds recorded in spring, of which five were at Great Saltee, Wexford, one at nearby Hook Head and only two at Cape Clear, were presumably birds overshooting their normal southerly breeding area in April and May.

recorded in every county except Carlow, Cavan, Leitrim, Longford, Louth, Meath, Monaghan and Tyrone. Inland records were few: of 117 reports in the nineteenth century only 11 were from inland counties, and there were only eight between 1900 and 1953. During the summer of 1934 a pair of Hoopoes was suspected of breeding at an estate between Cappoquin and Lismore in Waterford, but no nest was found. A bird of the year was shot nearby in September 1934 but the specimen was lost and breeding was never proved (Kennedy et aI 1954). Since 1966 there have been records for every month except January, although there were two records for January in 1962. There is a clear peak in April and a small indication of autumn passage. In 1980 a pair spent three weeks near Waterford city, and in 1982 a pair summered in Kilkenny. There must be a strong possibility of breeding taking place in the future. The numbers recorded vary from year to year, but 1965 produced far more than any other year with a minimum of 65 between 28th March and 8th April, of which most were in Cork (16) and Wexford (six). The records since 1966 have been mainly in Cork (64) and Wexford (17), but birds have also been reported from Down, Dublin, Galway, Kerry, Kilkenny, Louth, Mayo, Tipperary, Tyrone, Waterford and Wicklow.

The only record is of a bird seen to fly ashore from a liner at Cork Harbour in October 1962 (Durand 1972). The bird had landed on the vessel while on a crossing from the United States.

Wryneck Jynx torquilla

Green Woodpecker Picus viridius

Wrynecks are rare spring vagrants but are autumn visitors to the south coast in most years. They have been recorded elsewhere but are extremely rare. There were 30 records prior to 1966 of which two were in spring and 28 in the period August to November. The majority were in September and the one November record was of a bird shot on 14th November 1925 in Cork. The pattern since 1966 has not changed significantly except that Wrynecks have been more frequently recorded, with about 51 between 1966 and 1986, no doubt due to the increase in activity at bird observatories. Indeed, of the 51 birds recorded, all except 23 were at Cape Clear. Wrynecks are not recorded in every year. An analysis of the records between 19 58 and 1977 showed (Hutchinson 1980) that the autumn Wrynecks are most likely to have been Scandinavian or central European

There have been three records, all in the last century. Single birds were shot at Sallymount, Kildare, on 27th September 1847, at Rathmullen, Donegal, in January 1854, and at Kilshrewly near Granard, Longford in the last century (Ussher & Warren 1900).

20

15

10

Jan

[Northern Flicker Colaptes auratus]

Great Spotted Woodpecker Dendrocopos major Great Spotted Woodpeckers are rare and irregular visitors which occasionally occur in influxes of several birds. Prior to 1900 there were about 39 records from Kerry, east and north to Londonderry, of which nine were in winter 1889/90 (Ussher & Warren 1900). One record of two together and another of three are cited. Kennedy et aI (1954) listed 13 records, including two birds together in the Glenesk Valley, Antrim, from 10th to 20th April 1931 : of these records nine were in winter 1949/50. Most of the birds recorded were in the months October to February. From 1954 to 1965 the only records were of one in September 1957, one in December 1959 and five in winter 1962/63. Since 1966 there have been records of about 29 in winter 1968/69, two in 1971/72, 15 in 1972/73, one in 1973/74 and one in 1978/79. The influx in 1968/69 included three near Bunratty. Clare, and two observations of two birds. Three were again reported in 1972/73 at Rostrevor, Down. None has been recorded since spring 1979. The records of influxes are believed to refer to birds of the northern race D. m. major, and the 1968/69 invasion

Lul1ula arborea 153 coincided with large numbers of these birds on the east coast of England. Specimens shot in Down in 1886/87, Galway in 1907/08 and Waterford in 1910/11, together with one found dead in Antrim in 1938/39, have been examined critically and assigned to the northern race. However, a bird shot in Permanagh on 12th December 1959 was found to be D. m. anqlicus. In the period 1966-86 all the records were from September to April, mainly November to February. Birds were recorded in Antrim, Armagh, Cavan, Clare, Donegal. Down, Dublin, Galway, Kildare, Laois, Limerick, Londonderry, Longford, Sligo and Wicklow, with the majority on the east coast from Down south to Wicklow. Two bones have been found in separate caves in Clare, indicating that Great Spotted Woodpeckers were once part of the Irish breeding avifauna (Kennedy et al 1954).

Short-toed Lark Calandrella brachydactyla There was one record before 1951 a bird shot in Mayo in October 1890. However, the opening of Saltee Bird Observatory, Wexford, produced another record in September 1951, and from then until 1965 there were records every year except 19 52 and 1964. Ofthe total of 16 records up to 1965, involving 17 birds, three were in May, two in August, six in September and five in October. Eight birds were recorded at Saltee, four elsewhere in Wexford, one at Tory Island, Donegal, one at Duncrue Street, Belfast, Antrim, one at Cape Clear, and one at Inishtrahull, Donegal (Ruttledge 1966). Since 1966 there have been only ten records, four at Cape Clear, three at Dursey Island, Cork, two at Saltee and one at Lady's Island Lake, Wexford. They were in May, August, September (two) and October (six). It is likely that the reduction in manning at Great Saltee has been the principal cause of the decline in records. t

10

Short-toed lark

1966-86

Lesser Short-toed Lark Calandrella rufescens The four records involve about 40 birds, all in the 1950s. A flock of about 30 was seen in sandhills beside Tralee Bay, Kerry, on 4th January 1956; five were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, on 30th March 1956; two were seen at Armagh, Mayo, on 21st May 1956; five were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, from 22nd to 25th March 1958.

Woodlark Lullula arborea In the mid nineteenth century, Woodlarks were reported by Thompson (1849-51) as a very local resident in Cork, Waterford, Dublin, Armagh, Down and Antrim. Breeding was reported at about the same time in Wicklow by Watters (1853). They declined in the second half of the century and Ussher & Warren (1900) had relatively few records. In Cork they had records at Rathcormac, Doneralle, Permoy and Trabolgan, but the last breeding record was at Permoy in 1887. The vicinity of Lismore and Cappoquin in the Blackwater valley were breeding haunts in Waterford, but not later than about 1870. Nesting was not recorded in Dublin after 1851, but a nest was found in Wicklow in 1894 at a site where five birds had been seen through the preceding winter. At another Wicklow location a small flock was seen in September 1898. There were records in Kildare, Offaly and Laois but, apparently, only of single birds. In 1874 breeding was reported at three locations in Down, but there were no more recent records. By the turn of the century the Woodlark appears to have been extinct as a resident Irish species and there have been very few records since. In 1905 a pair bred at Kilbarrow Wood near Ferns in Wexford, and in 1954 a pair bred at Castlefreke near Rosscarbery, Cork, and two other adults were also present. Two birds were seen in sandhilis at Portmarnock, Dublin, on 4th September 1927. Single birds were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, on 15th and 26th October 1951, 4th November 1954 and 30th March 1956, and at Swords, Dublin, on 3rd April 1960, and Cape Clear from 2nd to 7th September 1965. The only record since 1965 is of one at Cape Clear from 1st to 6th September 1966. The disappearance of the Woodlark from Ireland had a parallel in Britain, where there was a marked decline in the nineteenth century (Parslow 1973) for reasons which are not understood. There was a revival in England and Wales which reached a peak in the 1950s, and the Cork breeding record in 1954, together with the few Saltee records of vagrants, occurred at this time.

154

Alauda arvensis

Skylark Alauda arvensis The Skylark is a widespread resident and winter visitor to Ireland. In summer it is a familiar bird of farmland. salt marsh. sand dunes. waste land and moorland. During the 1968-72 breeding bird survey. Skylarks were found nesting or probably nesting in all except a handful of 10 km squares. Even in mountainous areas of Kerry . Donegal and Wick low breeding was proved widely (Breeding Atlas) Ruttledge (1966) noted signs of a decrease in the first half of the 1960s. but no adequate census work has been carried out to show if this was temporary. nor how the decrease was measured. In 1971 there was reported to have been a decrease in east Wicklow. Certainly. there is no evidence nowadays of any change in status. Skylarks are still abundant and widespread breeding birds . and in some habitats the most numerous species. On a sand-dune system at Murlough Nature Reserve. Down. they were the mo st abundant species with a density of 58.4 pairs/km- in 1976 and 1977 (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). At a Wexford site. comprising sand-dunes and small fields. densities in three years ranged from 30.0 to 46.4 pairs/km? (0. J. Merne). but Meadow Pipits were more numerous in two years on one plot. In winter the numbers of Skylarks are much reduced. especially on higher ground and in the north-west (Wint er Atlas). At this time they leave exposed places such as Cape Clear (Sharrock 1973). There are clear signs that the birds concentrate near and on selected parts of the coast and in the cereal growing counties of the south-east. They feed in autumn on stubble fields. and in winter on a utumn sown cereals and weed seeds . At the coast they find an abundance of seeds on salt marshes and sand dunes. The spring and autumn movements of Skylarks are puzzling . In spring no apparent movement is noted at Great Saltee and it is only slight a t Cape Clear. but there was evidence of migration at lnlshkea, Mayo . and Tory Island. Donegal, in March-April 1961 . In autumn there is heavy migration. Large numbers arrive in the north-east. especially in October. and move south across the country. Arrival from over the sea has been recorded at Malin Head. Donegal. In the south. emigration to the south and southwest has been recorded at Great Saltee, and Hook Head.

Wexford and at Ballycotton, the Old Head of Kinsale and Cape Clear. Extremely large numbers occur in Wexford . At Hook Head up to 6.000 have been estimated as moving south in a day and there has been a number of records of more than 1.000 in a day (Lovatt 1984). Curiously. this movement is not seen every year at Cape Clear. perhaps because the majority of birds move south in most years before reaching a point as far west as Cape Clear. In only one year from 1976 to 1986 were more than 50 recorded in a day. and that was 180 in October 1980. Ruttledge (1966) also describes movement to the north and north-west which is most noticeable on the Wexford coast. This has not been recorded in recent years. but was ascribed by Ruttledge to movements of immigrants coming to winter. The large numbers which arrive on the north coast are clearly immigrants from the Continent or northern Britain. and it seems likely that the majority. if not all. of the birds which are seen moving south on the south coast are also Continental birds on passage. It is not known whether any Irish bred birds emigrate for the winter.

Shore Lark Eremophila alpestris There have been only nine records of the Shore Lark in Ireland . One was shot at Wicklow Head on 4th November 1910; one was seen at the West Pier. Dun Laoghaire. Dublin . from 2nd to 13th April 1950; one was seen near Kilcoole, Wick low . on 8th December 1950; two were seen at Tacumshln, Wexford. on 9th February 1964. Since 1966. two were seen at the North Bull. Dublin. from 23rd to 25th October 1966 and one on 9th November 1966; two were seen at Ballagan Point, Louth . on 8th February 19 70; one was seen at Portstewart, Londonderry. on 1st and 2nd December 1976; three were seen in Tralee Bay. Kerry. from 18th December 1976 to 17th January 1977 and one was seen at Lame. Antrim. from 2nd March to 13th April 1985.

Sand Martin Riparia riparia Sand Martins are summer visitors to most of the country. nesting in burrows in sand cliffs at quarries. on the coast and occasionally on river banks. Some small colonies are in th e face of turf banks and in one case. in Cavan. there were 50 pairs (Kennedy et al 1954). Nesting has also been recorded in cre vices in a ruined castle. in a sea wall and in holes drilled for explosives in a stone bridge (Ruttledge 1966). During 1968-72 they were shown to breed throughout the country. except for patches in west Clare. south-west Galway. north Mayo and parts of Donegal (Bre eding Atlas). However. that period spanned a population crash between 1968 and 1969 which has been attributed principally to

Hirundo daurica the effects of the drought in the Sahel region of Africa (where our Sand Martins winter) and, to a lesser extent, to the effect of reduced breeding success following a series of cool, late springs (Cowley 1979). In England the population had reached a peak in 1968, following increases since 1965 or earlier, and the same position may have held in Ireland. Ruttledge (1966) reported that in a survey of 24 colonies, two were of 150 pairs, six of 100-150 pairs and the remainder of less than 100. The mean was 66 pairs. The first birds in spring usually arrive towards the end of March and movement continues through April and May. The earliest record is of two at Kilcoole. Wicklow, on 9th March 19 77, and there are several records between 10th and 14th. Spring passage at Cape Clear during 1959-69 showed peaks in early April and late May which were not explained (Sharrock 1973). Autumn passage at Cape Clear during the same period peaked at the end of July and in early September. A late July movement was also recorded on the Wicklow coast in 1969 and 1970, and at Hook Head, Wexford, in 1966 when about 4,000 passed southwest from 16th to 20th July (Lovatt 1984). The two movements appear to represent the departure of first-brood juveniles early in autumn and adults and second-brood juveniles later in the autumn. The few ringing recoveries which exist indicate that Irish Sand Martins cross to England after breeding, birds from further north crossing to the English midlands and those from the south crossing to the south of England (Mead & Harrison 1979). Continental recoveries indicate a route south along the west coast of France to Africa south of the Sahara. The decline following the 1969 crash has been reflected in much reduced numbers on passage at Cape Clear: a total of 2,000 over four days in September 1981 at Hook Head was quite exceptional. Sand Martins are great rarities in winter and there have only been two records in December (singles at Dingle, Kerry, on 1st December 1967 and Ballycotton, Cork, on 16th December 1973) and one in January (one at Monasterevin, Kildare on 12th January 1963).

Swallow Hirundo rustica Swallows are summer visitors, familiar to most as harbingers of spring, which breed in every part of Ireland and are particularly associated with farm buildings and outhouses where they build their nests. During 1968-72 they were proved to breed in all except two of those 10 km squares which consist mainly of land (Breeding Atlas): they bred even in upland areas and on islands off the west coast. Kennedy et al (1954) reported that Swallows were absent from the desolate moors of Mayo but that there had been an increase in Connemara since 1924. In certain parts there was reported to have been a decrease, and Mayo was cited. Ruttledge (1966) considered that there was some evidence of a decrease, at least locally, but the 1968-72 survey showed that Swallows bred in all parts of the country. There have been no

155

quantitative surveys over a large area to show whether there has been any change in numbers in recent years. At Cape Clear, Cork, breeding numbers were considered to be constant during the 1960s at about 30 pairs (Sharrock 1973), but in 1984 only 13 pairs bred. It is not possible to draw firm conclusions about the state of the population generally from such a small sample. Ussher & Warren (1900) reported that nesting took place in marine caves on the Cork and Dublin coasts, and Ussher, who was an accomplished investigator of caves, had repeatedly seen nests in caves. On the Lower Lake at Killarney, Kerry, Swallows bred in caves on one of the islands. Kennedy et al (1954) recorded nests in marine caves at Clare Island, Galway, and Achill Island, Mayo, and at Schull Harbour, Cork, where a pair had nested in a cave for over fifty years. The only recent record of nesting in caves is of a pair near Cloyne, Cork, in 1986 (P. Smiddy). The first birds arrive from southern Africa in early April with the main passage in May. The earliest documented record is on 4th March 1952 (Kennedy et al19 54), though Ruttledge (1966) refers to 2nd March as the earliest date. Since 1966 the earliest record has been four at Clonakilty on 7th March 1977. Autumn passage reaches a peak in Wexford and Cork in August and September, but small numbers trickle through in October and into November. Much the largest passage ever recorded in Ireland was on the Wicklow coast in 1982 when an estimated 50,00055,000 moved south over Broad Lough in six hours on 2nd October. Slightly smaller were the movements south of an estimated 20,000 and 15,000 at the same place on 14th September 1980 and 7th September 1986 respectively. The maximum in a day is more usually about 5,000. Up to 1,000 in a day have been recorded at Hook Head, Wexford, and up to 600 in a day at Cape Clear, though 150-400 would be the maximum in a day in most years. At Great Saltee an assembly of 2,000 birds was recorded on 11th September 1958 (Perry & Warburton 1976). At Ballycotton, Cork, up to 3,000 occur in autumn, and on the Wicklow coast large numbers move south each year. After breeding, Swallows assemble in huge flocks to roost communally in reed beds, and can number several thousand birds. Since 1966 there have been 12 December and three January published records. These were single birds apart from two in Cork in 1974 and four together at Howth, Dublin, on 9th December 1978. The records were in Antrim, Clare, Cork (four), Donegal, Down, Dublin (five), Kerry and Tipperary.

Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica There have been only two records. Single birds were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, on lOth and 11th April 1952, and at Castledawson, Londonderry, on 18th November 1980.

156

Delichon urbica

House Martin Delichon urbica Although not so common as Swallows, House Martins are as familiar to many people because of their habit of building nests under the eaves of houses. They breed throughout most of the country, being absent only from parts of west Donegal, west Mayo and west Galway (Breeding Atlas). The great majority use houses as nest sites but cliff sites are still utilized in some parts of the country. Ruttledge (1 966) cited Antrim, Cork, Donegal, Dublin, Londonderry, Waterford and Wicklow as counties where cliff-nesting had been recorded. In Cork there are colonies on the coast, and nine small colonies were recorded between Cork Harbour and Rosscarbery in 1985 (CBR 1985), though the true total is well in excess of this. Small numbers, probably less than 12, breed in two colonies at Cape Clear. East of Cork Harbour there are about 70 pairs at seven sites, but numbers are now much reduced at Power Head which held as many as 50 pairs in 1964. In Dublin there are colonies on cliffs at Lambay Island and Howth Head, and in Wicklow at Wicklow Head where there were 30 pairs in 1965. There are no recent data from the other counties where cliff breeding is known to have been recorded in the past. In Kerry, where breeding on sea cliffs has not been recorded, seven pairs were nesting inland on cliffs near Killarney in 1967. Nests have been recorded under bridges on a number of occasions. In 1961 a pair was found nesting in the middle of a Sand Martin colony at Aughavannagh, Wicklow (Holohan & O'Connor 1964). The first spring migrants usually reach Ireland early in April but the majority arrive in May. The earliest record was one at Hollywood, Down, on 4th March 1952. In more recent years the earliest was a bird at Bray, Wicklow, on 7th March 1977. There is little evidence of passage migration in spring. At Hook Head, Wexford, up to ten in a day is usual and the highest counts have been 40 and 50 (Lovatt 1984). In autumn, passage is noticeable in Wexford and at Cape Clear, Cork, in August and September. At Hook Head and at Great Saltee, Wexford, up to 40 in a day in autumn would be normal, though counts of 200250 have been made. At Cape Clear the highest count is 100. There are a few records of birds in November in most years, but winter records are rare. Ruttledge (1966) cited two December records and there have been three since then. One bird was seen at Ballintubbrid, Cork, on 16th December 1 9 73; one was seen near Midleton, Cork, from November 1975 to 14th January 1976, and one was seen at Drumbo, Down, on 12th December 1981.

in October. Of the old records, two were in Dublin and the others in Cork, Donegal and Wexford. Since 1966 the majority has been in Cork (13 records involving 16 birds). There have been two records involving three birds in Armagh and single records in Kerry, Londonderry and Waterford. 10 Richard's Pipit

1966-86

Jan

Tawny Pipit Anthus campestris There were eight records up to 1965 and 12 from 1966 to 1986. The earlier records were all after 1952 and were in Antrim (one), Cork (four) and Wexford (three). Three were in spring and five in autumn. Since 1966 all the records have been in Cork (seven), Wexford (four) and Wicklow (one). Both spring records were at Great Saltee, Wexford, as indeed were two of the three spring birds prior to 1966. Apart from two at Cape Clear from 26th to 30th September 1976, all the records have been of single birds.

Jan

Olive-backed Pipit Anthus hodqsoni The single Irish record is of a bird at Great Saltee, Wexford, on 21 October 1978.

Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis

Richard's Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae This large pipit is a rare vagrant in autumn. There were six records before 1966, of which four were between 1953 and 1965, and 1 7 since then. A total of 28 birds has been recorded, mostly singly but on one occasion two birds and on two occasions three were seen together. Most have been

The Tree Pipit is an annual spring and autumn passage migrant, and perhaps a rare breeding species. Most records are between early April and mid June and between early August and the end of October. Since 1966, as indeed beforehand (Ruttledge 1 966), the majority of records have been on the Wexford coast or at Cape Clear. In spring all except five birds were in Wexford and these five were at Cape Clear (three), Galway and Kerry. The autumn records were more widely dispersed and were in

Anthus cervinus Clare, Down, Kerry, Louth, Meath and Wicklow, as well as Cork and Wexford where most occurred. There were three inland records prior to 1966. One was in song on 21st May 1914 near Portumna, Galway; an unmated male was in song from 15th May to 10th July 1932 near Athenry, Galway; one was in song on 29th May 1959 in Antrim. Since then there have been several records indicative of breeding. Single males were heard in song at one site in Wicklow and two in Kerry in 1975. In 1976, singing males were heard at sites in Kerry, Limerick and Tipperary. It seems likely that Tree Pipits may be rare and overlooked breeding birds in Ireland, and there have been a number of unsubstantiated reports of singing birds, but more information is required to ascertain the precise status of the species in summer. 40

Tree Pipit

1966-86

30

20

10

Jan

Meadow Pipit Anthus pratensis This is a widespread and abundant breeding bird of open country, nesting in every county and on the marine islands. Its breeding habitat in the lowlands comprises grassland, rough pasture, sand dunes, moorland and bogs. Above 500m it is much the commonest breeding bird. Breeding numbers have been surveyed at several sites. At census plots in sand dune systems in Down and Wexford, densities per km 2 varied from 46.8 in Down (Nairn & Whatmough 1978) to 33.7-60.0 in Wexford (0. J. Merne). Only Skylarks were more numerous and in two years on one Wexford plot Meadow Pipits were the most numerous species. At Cape Clear, an island of 639 ha, Meadow Pipits were found to be the most numerous breeding species in 1965, with 355 pairs counted (55.5 per krn") (Sharrock & Fogden 1967). The distribution covered all the available habitats on the island but the highest concentrations were in areas of rough pasture, and the lowest densities were in the moorland areas. In a recount in 1986 a total of 370 pairs was located (57.9 per km-), with similar distribution, indicating that the island is virtually saturated (Borton 1987). At Inishbofin, Galway, an island of 936ha, a total of only 37 pairs of Meadow Pipits was found in 1976 (3.9 per km") (Hutchinson & Ruttledge 1978). As on Cape

157

Clear, most were found on rough pasture and densities on moorland (which comprise a much larger proportion of the surface area than at Cape Clear) were very low. At Glenveagh National Park, an area of mountain, glen, woodland and lakes in Donegal, the distribution of breeding birds was recorded in 1980 and Meadow Pipits were present on moorland at all levels from the lower heaths to the mountain tops and were also present in open areas of scrub woodland (MacLochlainn 1984). Ruttledge (1966) considered that there had been a decrease in the preceding fifteen years and Kennedy et al (1954) also referred to a recent decrease, perhaps because of a reduction in grassland as a result of increased tillage, and perhaps because of burning of moors and bogs. There is no recent evidence of any change in status. In autumn there is substantial passage migration in September and October. At Cape Clear up to 1,000 birds have been recorded in a day in autumn (Sharrock 1973). Meadow Pipits ringed on the coast in autumn have been recovered in winter in France (six), Spain (eight) and Portugal (two). In winter many Meadow Pipits desert the mountains for the lower-lying parts and the milder south of the country. It has been shown that during the winters 1981/82 to 1983/84 two thirds of the 10km squares with more than 43 birds recorded were in the southern half of the country and most were on the coast (Winter Atlas). Flocks of Meadow Pipits in winter are usually small, rarely exceeding 100 birds. It is not known what proportion of the wintering population consists of immigrants. Spring passage is very slight in late March and early April at Cape Clear, at Great Saltee and Hook Head, Wexford (Ruttledge 1963, Lovatt 1984).

Red-throated Pipit Anthus cervinus There were about eight records before 1966, all at Great Saltee, Wexford. One was seen in May and the remainder were in August (one) and September (six) (Ruttledge 1966). Since 1966 there have only been three records, perhaps partly due to reduced manning at Great Saltee. One was seen at Cape Clear and on 9th October 1975, one was seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, on 15th and 16th October 1977. One was recorded at Dursey Island, Cork, on 23rd October 1979. The recent records have, therefore, all been later than those prior to 1966.

158

Anthus petrosus American Pipit Anthus rubescens There have been two records. One was seen at Great Saltee. Wexford, from 8th to 16th October 1951, and one was seen on the seashore near Newcastle, Wlcklow, on 19th October 196 7.

Yellow Wagtail Motacilla [lava

Rock Pipit Anthus petrosus The Rock Pipit is distributed all around the Irish coastline and on marine islands. The only gaps in distribution are on the sandy shores of east Wexford, north Wick low and north Louth where there is a shortage of the rocky habitat the birds prefer (Breeding Atlas). At Great SaItee , Wexford, ] 5-20 pairs breed (Ruttledge 1963), and at Cape Clear censuses in summer] 965 ,1967 and 1985 found between 39 and 54 pairs. Ruttledge (J 966) considered that there was no evidence of migration other than of a very local character. but Sharrock (J 9 73) showed that the largest numbers at Cape Clear were seen in late September and suggested that these were mainly migrants. The highest numbers are also recorded at Hook Head. Wexford, at this time, but Lovatt (1984 ) argued that this merely reflected local breeding success rather than migration. Birds were colour ringed at Great Sal tee and one ringed there in September was recovered the following January on the Waterford coast (Ruttledge ] 963). The only ringing recovery to date showing evidence of immigration is of a bird ringed at Lundy, England, in autumn and recovered across the Irish Sea on the Wicklow coast in the following breeding season. It seems likely that the autumn peaks are indeed postbreeding aggregations and that there is very limited movement of the birds . Winter distribution reflects that in summer (Winter Atlas) though there were four inland records in the period ] 980/8] to 1983/84 in Clare, Donegal and Kerry . The Scandinavian race Ant/IUS p. littoralis has been recorded on one occasion, at Tory Island, Donegal. on 14th April 1961.

Water Pipit Ant/IUS spinoletta

The Yellow Wagtail is a regular, though scarce, passage migrant in spring and autumn and a rare breeding species. Breeding was regular around Lough Neagh in the 1850s and continued into the present century. Near Lurgan, Armagh, Yellow Wagtails bred plentifully in the bogs, but a decline set in there around 1922 and a general decrease was recorded at all the Lough Neagh haunts shortly afterwards. Around Lough Beg. Londonderry, a few still bred in ] 942 but by 1944 Yellow Wagtails had disappeared as breeding birds from Northern Ireland. In the west ofIreland there were small numbers breeding on rocky islets and among sedges on the lake shore at Lough Corrib, Galway, in 1853 or 1854, and at Loughs Mask and Carra, Mayo, in 1891. In 1917, pairs were seen on Lough Mask: by 1922 there were very few, though individual birds were noted up to 1928, following which there were no records. The only other site at which bre eding was known prior to 1953 was Ballybough, Dublin , where one pair was found nesting in 1868 (Kennedy et aI1954 ). However. there has " been a scatt ering of successful breeding pairs since 1956. mostly birds showing the characters of the British breeding race M.fflavissima but also including those with the characters of the Ashy-headed Wagtail M.J. cinereocapilla, which normally breeds around the Adriatic and in Italy, and the Blue-headed Wagtail M.fflava which is the common breeding form in France and much of western Europe. The number of pairs has always been low and nowhere has breeding continued for more than six years. In spring, Yellow Wagtails occur in very small numbers. Only 24 were recorded at Great Saltee, Wexford, between 17th April and 28th May, from 1950 to 1961 (Ruttledge 1963). At Cape Clear, a few arc seen in spring in most years (Sharrock ]973). Autumn passage is more marked but the 30--40 birds at Great Saltee in September 1955 was quite exceptional. The maximum recorded at Cape Clear was 12 in a day in September 1976. Passage birds , where they can be subspecifically identified. are usually found to show the characters of the Yellow Wagtail M.J.flavissima but other races have been recorded. The Blue-headed Wagtail M.fflava has definitely bred 10

There have been three records. One was shot at Rockabill, off Dublin , in June 186]; one was seen at the North Bull, Dublin. on 18th March 1943 , and two were seen at the South Slob, Wexford. from 29th December 1985 until 9th February 1986.

Blue-headed Wagtail

Jan

1966-86

Motacilla alba 159 Records of proved and suspected breeding of Yellow Wagtail s in Ireland. 1954-1985. All records refer to Yellow Wagtails M.f.flavissima except where indicated. Number of pairs and details 1956 1 pair of Yellow Wagtails M .f.f1avissima and 1 pair of Ashy-headed Wagtails M,f. cinereocapilla bred at Sydenham. Belfast. Down. Another pa ir of Ashy-headed Wagt ails bred at Duncrue Street. Belfast. 1957 1 pair bred at Belfast Shipyard. Antrim. 1958 3 pairs bred near Lame. Antrim. 1 pair of Blue-headed Wagtails M .f.f1ava was also seen . but breeding wa s not proved . at Larne. 1962 1 pair almost certainly bred at Lough Derg, Tipperary. An adult was seen repeatedly carrying food in June. 1963 I pair bred near Kilcoole, Wicklow. Male showed some affinity to Blue-headed Wagtail. 1 pair of Blue-headed Wagtails bred near Duncrue Street . Belfast. Antrim. 1964 1 pair bred near Kllcoole, Wicklow. 1965 2 pairs bred near Kilcoole, Wicklow . 1 pair bred at Ballinwilling. near Ballycotton, Cork. 1 pair of Blue-headed Wagtails bred in Kerry . 1966 2 pairs bred near Kilcoole, Wicklow. 1 pair bred at Ballinwilling Cork. 1967 3 pa irs bred near Kllcoole, Wicklow. 1968 3 pa irs bred near Kilcoole. Wicklow . 1 pair suspected breeding. but not proved. at Lough Beg. Londonderry. 1980 Single pairs suspected nesting in north Dublin and at Tacumshin. Wexford . 1981 1 pair bred successfully at Rogerstown in Dublin . Birds present in summer at Kilcoole. Wicklow. 1982 1 pair. perhaps two. bred at Tacumshin, Wexford. 1983 1 pair of Blue-headed Wagtails bred in Wexford.

in Antrim. Kerry and Wexford on one occasion each. and has been suspected of breeding in Antrim on a second occasion. In addition there were one spring and three autumn records between 1959 and 1965 (Ruttledge 1966). Between 1966 and 1985 there have been about 21 records. mostly involving single birds but including a party of five at Cape Clear in September 1976. These records have been in Antrim (one). Cork (15). Dublin (one ). Londonderry (two) and Wexford (two) . The Ashy-headed Wagtail M.f. cinereDcapilla has nested on one occasion and was also recorded at Rathlin Island. Antrim. on 1st May 1985. The Grey-headed Wagtail M.j. thunbergi. which breeds in southern Scandinavia and eastern Eurasia. has been recorded five times. four of them in Wexford. Single bird s showing the characters of this race were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford . on 2nd and 3rd May 1960 and on 13th to 15th May 1979. at Tacumshin. Wexford. on 26th June 1982 and 11 th August 1984. and at Cloyne . Cork . on 9th May 1984.

Grey Wagtail MDtacilla cinerea Grey Wagtails breed in every county in Ireland and occur in autumn as passage migrants. The breeding distribution in the period 1968-72 comprised the entire country with the exception of small parts of west Mayo. south Galway and south Clare (Breeding Atlas). Grey Wagtails occur mainly in the vicinity of fastflowing streams and rivers. but they are not restricted to uplands. Nesting is widespread also in the lowlands on slower rivers and on the edge of lakes. Grey Wagtails are susceptible to hard weather and the population declined particularly after the cold winter of 1916/17 (Kennedy et al 1954). The two successive cold winters of 1962/63 and 1963/64 appear also to have led to increased mortality but by 1968 numbers had clearly recovered. In autumn there is passage at Cape Clear. where Grey Wagtails are rare except from late August to early October when up to 32 have been seen in a day (Sharrock 1973). At Great Saltee, Wexford. there was passage in the same period in the years 1950-61. with up to five recorded in a day (Ruttledge 1963); and at Hook Head. Wexford. up to 15 have been recorded in a day (Lovatt 1984). It is not known whether these passage birds are mainly Irish in origin or whether they include birds from the Continent. but it seems likely that they do include British birds. There have been three recoveries in Ireland of Grey Wagtails ringed as nestlings (two in Ireland. one in Scotland). all showing southerly movement. and evidence from ringing in Britain shows that British juveniles and adults move south and south-west in autumn. In winter the highest densities are in the south and east (W inter Atlas). presumably because the climate is milder. In winter they can be seen in the cities foraging near dock s and around boats.

Pied Wagtail MDtacilla alba Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola The only two Irish records have been at Ballycotton, Cork. Single immatures were recorded from 15th to 17th October 1968 and from 6th to 12th September 1980.

Pied Wagtails are among the most widespread passerines in Ireland. breeding in every part of the country including all the inhabited marine islands (Breeding Atlas ). At the turn of the century Ussher & Warren (190 0 ) considered that the only part of Ireland where they were not very

160

Bombycilla qarrulus

common was in wes t Connach t and on th e Ara n Islands. Ga lway . Th ey also indicated th at Pied Wa gta ils did not ne st on Th e Mullet in Mayo. The re a ppears to have been a great increa se in the next 30 years. for Kennedy et al (1954) wrote that Pied Wagtail s were plentiful in west ern Connacht and on The Mullet. Spring and autumn passag e is recorded at many coa stal sites. On the south coast. numbers are higher in autumn th an in spring . At Great Salt ee, Wexford . and a t Cape Clear. few are seen in spring but th ere is quite stro ng a u tum n passage with up to 65 in a day at Cape Clear (Rutt ledge 1963. Sharrock 19 73 ). The Continen ta l and Icelandic bre eding ra ce kn own as the White Wagta il M. a. alba is a sca rce spri ng m igrant a t Great Sa ltee and a common one in au tumn. mainly in September whe n up to 10 0 in a day occ ur. but is progressively sca rcer at sites to th e west. Pied Wagtails M. a. yarrelli predominate at Cape Clear. and rarely have more than ten White Wagtails been seen th ere in a day. a pa rt from an except ional influ x in 19 6 3 when 100 were seen on 1st September . The highest numbers of White Wagt ails are usually recorded in Wexford. where th e record co unt to da te is of 800 at Tac u ms h in . Wexford. on 20th Sept ember 1979. White Wagtails are commo ne r in spring th an in a utumn on the west a nd nor th-east coasts (Ruttledge 19 66). but are sca rce a t a ny seaso n on the eas t coas t (Hutchin son 19 75 ). On th e north coast up to 100 were record ed a t the Bann estuary. Londonderry. in April 19 73 (Ma rsh 19 75) but autumn record s were few . Recoverie s of ringed bird s sho w that the population of Pied Wagtails in northern Brtitain is largely migratory and it may be that th e autumn influxes of thi s race on the sou th coast consist of bird s from Scotl and and northern England. Th e recovery in Antrim in Au gu st 19 84 of a bird ring ed in sou the rn Eng la nd in the pr eviou s Mar ch is of int erest but we do not kn ow where th is ind ividual was breed ing . Not enough of th e Irish br eeding populat ion has been rin ged to kn ow if th ere is em igra tion . bu t the winter distr ibu tion is very similar to that in summe r (W inter A tlas ). Many Pied Wagta ils gather in lar ge com munal roosts a t night. Most of th ese are in she ltered bu sh es a nd reed beds. but a number are in cities suc h as Cork and Dublin. The best kn own roost is in tr ees in the cent re of O'Connell Street . Dublin . which ha s been occupied since a t lea st 1929. Between November 19 7 7 and Mar ch 1980 th e highest number co un ted was 1.0 76 (Cotto n & Lovatt 19 85) but th er e h ave been cou nts in th e pas t of up to 3.600 bird s. Nu mbers tend to be high est in cold winters and durin g December to February.

,I

Waxwing Bombycilla garrulus Wa xw ing s ar e sca rce winter visitors except in yea rs when irruptions occu r. In the present century th er e ha ve been irru ptions in th e winter s 19 0 3/ 0 4 . 19 32/ 33. 19 4 6/ 4 7. 19 5 7/59. 19 6 5/ 6 6.1 9 6 7/ 68 and 19 70/ 71. Th e winte rs of 1946/ 47 and 19 6 5/ 6 6 brought large number s to Ireland. In th e former win ter the largest flocks were in Antrim and Dublin bu t there were record s as far west as Old Head . Mayo. and Bunbeg. Don egal. In An trim three flocks tot alling abou t 100 birds were seen in on e a rea. The largest influ x by far was in winter 19 6 5/6 6 when flocks of over 50 were recorded in Galway and Mea th. over 10 0 in north Dublin and as many as 300 at En nlskillen . Ferm anagh . Cornw a llis & Town send (19 6 8 ) in vestigated the timing of th e influ x to both Britain and Ireland and sh owed that over 1. 500 we re pr esent in thi s coun try in mid-wint er. Num bers of Wax willgs recorded in winter 1965/66 (af ler COrllwallis & Towll selld 1968 ) 9 th-20th Octob er o December 1. 30 5 2 Ist- 3 1st October 205 Jan u ar y 575 1st-1 4th Nove m ber 68 0 Febr ua ry 245 15th- 21 st November March 940 90 22nd- 30 th Novem ber 1. 525 April 45

Altho ugh the lar gest numbers were record ed on th e eas t

Cinclus cinclus coast in winter 1965/66. birds were reported from almost every county. A few Waxwings were recorded in Antrim in winter 1966/67. but there was another. much smaller invasion in 1967/68 when flocks of up to 50 were seen in Dublin and Tyrone. and parties of over 30 in Antrim and Donegal. In winter 1970/71 there were widespread reports covering 12 counties but the majority were again on the east coast. Up to 110 were recorded in Belfast. Antrim. 70 in the Dublin suburbs and 52 in Bray. Wicklow. Since 1970/71 a few Waxwings have been recorded in most years. generally on the east coast from Wicklow north to Antrim. but none was recorded in 1980 or from 1983 to 19 85. Waxwings irrupt across Europe from Scandinavia when food there is scarce in autumns following good breeding seasons. Waxwings feed mainly on rowan berries and the population expands after years of good berry crops. Then. in a year when the Scandinavian crop yield is reduced. Waxwings move west in search of food and appear in Irish suburban gardens feeding on cotoneaster berries.

Dipper Cindu s cindus

The Dipper is a familiar bird of fast-flowing streams and rivers and nests. as a result. in the hilly parts ofthe country. The breeding distribution. as mapped in 1968-72. was centred on those parts of the country where land was

161

over 300 m . Kildare. Limerick. Westmeath, Roscommon. Longford. Cavan and Monaghan were counties where Dippers were scarce. but breeding was proved in every county. Even in Certain lowlying parts. such as south Cork. south-east Wexford. coastal Wicklow. east Clare. east Galway and Meath. Dippers were found in small numbers (Breeding Atlas) . The winter distribution is very similar (Winter Atlas) though there is some evidence that Dippers move to lower levels in winter. They have been seen. for example. on the edge of the estuary at Douglas. Cork . Movements are clearly very limited and there have been no records at either Cape Clear. Cork. or Great Saltee, Wexford. Dipper numbers on several rivers in north-west Ireland were censused in 1972 and 1982 and the results compared by Perry (1983). There was an increase from 25 to 41 pairs during the period. On the River Faughan in Londonderry there was one breeding pair on average per 1.8 km of river in 1982. Of the 41 nests found . 31 were in or under bridges. three were on the outside of bridges. four were on river banks. two were in the roots of trees and one was at a weir. In Cork. Dippers have been found to breed almost to the coast and in lowlying areas. They nest on slow-moving rivers provided they have an area of broken water (K. Preston). On the Owenacurra River in ea st Cork pairs are found about every 1.1 km (P. Smiddy). Our resident birds are of the Irish race C. c. hibernicus. Single birds showing characters of the Black-bellied form C.c. cindus. which breeds on the Continent. have been recorded at the River Tolka, Dublin. from 12th January to 3rd February 1956 and at Tory Island. Donegal, on 13th October 1962.

162

Troglodytes troglodytes

Wren Troglodytes troglodytes

Dunnock Prunella modularis

The Wren is one of the commonest birds in Ireland, frequenting a range of habitats from woodland, through hedgerows and suburban gardens, to gullies on exposed headlands and remote marine islands, such as the Great Skellig and Tearaght in Kerry. During the 1968-72 breeding survey the Wren was found to be the third most widespread bird in Britain and Ireland after the Skylark and Carrion/Hooded Crow (than which it is much more widespread in Ireland) (Breeding Atlas), and it was suggested that it was probably the commonest nesting bird throughout the two islands. In winter, Wrens are equally ubiquitous, though there is a tendency for densities to be lower in Galway, Mayo and west Donegal than elsewhere (Winter Atlas). There is rather little detailed census material. In areas of sand-dune in Wexford and Down. Wrens were among the five most numerous species with densities ranging from 22 to 32 pairs per km 2 (0.1. Merne, Nairn & Whatmough 1978). The breeding population at Cape Clear, Cork, was estimated at 750-1,000 pairs in 1959-61. Following the severe winters of 1961/62 and 1962/63. numbers declined dramatically. There were estimates of 150-200 pairs in 1962, 75 in 1963, 120 in 1964, 300 pairs in 1965 (Sharrock 1973) and 391 in 1986 (Borton 1987). The 1965 and 1986 estimates were based on surveys which involved plotting the location of breeding pairs on a 6-inch map, but the earlier estimates have been described as 'guesses at the breeding population' (Sharrock 1973). Wrens bred in 1965 over most of the island, being absent only from the cliffs, though they nested closer to the cliffs than any other species. By 1986 there had been a clear increase in numbers in the formerly sparsely populated areas, especially near cliffs. At Great Saltee, Wexford, Wrens nested plentifully in the first half of the century, then decreased and ceased nesting about 19 58 (Ruttledge 1963). though a pair did breed in 1975 (Perry & Warburton 1976), and by the 1980s several pairs were nesting again (O.J. Merne). Ruttledge (1966) pointed out that there is movement at coastal islands. At Tory Island, Donegal. small numbers of Wrens occur in April, early May and October. At Inishtrahull, Donegal, there is passage in October and November. At Cape Clear the resident population is so large that passage is difficult to detect but an arrival of migrants was suspected in early November 1967 (Sharrock 1973). At Great Saltee, there is light passage at the end of March and in April, more marked in October. Up to 50 birds occur in November (Perry & Warburton), possibly remaining to winter. The nature of the movements on the coast is unknown. Most may well be local birds dispersing in search of food. None of the 24 Irish ringed Wrens recovered had travelled more than 9 km,

The Dunnock, or Hedge Sparrow as it is usually known in Ireland, is a widespread and common resident, most common in areas of dense undergrowth and scrub. In towns and cities, Dunnocks are found in parks and gardens where there are hedges and shrubs. In the country they occur in hedges on farmland, in gorse and bracken and wherever there is a good growth of scrub. They are not so common in woodland, except at the fringes and in clearing. At census plots in sand-dune systems densities vary considerably. In Wexford in 1978-80 they ranged between 20 and 38 pairs per km 2 in poor farmland adjacent to the dunes (0. J. Merne): in Down only eight pairs per km 2 were recorded in sand-dunes but as many as 78 per km? in areas of sea buckthorn (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). The winter distribution (Winter Atlas) shows a tendency for the largest numbers to occur in cultivated areas, where hedges provide the bulk of their habitat. Numbers are lowest in mountainous areas, especially in Down and Wicklow, and in the west. There is no evidence of any immigration and our birds appear from ringing results to be very sedentary. Only two have been recorded travelling more than 9 km and the farthest distance covered was 116 km, from Down to Wicklow. Two birds flying high over Cape Clear on 7th October 1962 were presumably local birds dispersing further than usual. The suggestion of migration at Great Saltee, Wexford, in May and, to a greater extent in September and October (Ruttledge 1963), is almost certainly only local movement. Numbers were censused at Cape Clear in 1965 and 1986 and the totals of 243 and 310 pairs counted showed that Dunnocks were the third most numerous breeding species, after Meadow Pipit and Wren (Sharrock & Fogden 1967. Borton 1987). The distribution was not clumped in the farmed parts of the island but extended over areas of bracken and gorse which had invaded hillsides and long abandoned fields and had expanded between 1965 and 1986. At Great Saltee, Dunnocks are the commonest resident small birds, with 30 pairs nesting in 1975 (Perry & Warburton 1976). Although Dunnocks breed widely in the west of Ireland, including on the Aran Islands, Galway, none was found breeding at Inishbofin, Galway, in 1978, and only one bird was seen there in 1956 (Hutchinson & Ruttledge 1978).

Gray Catbird Dumetella carolinensis One was seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 4th November 1986.

Rufous Bush Robin Cercotrichas qalactotes There have been three records. One was shot at the Old Head of Kinsale, Cork, in September 1876. One was seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, from 22nd September to 4th October 1951. One was seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 20th April 1968.

Phoenicurus ochruros

163

Robin Erithacus rubecula

Bluethroat Luscinia svecica

Robins are resident and abundant breeding birds. though a few probably emigrate. They nest throughout the entire country and are particularly common in gardens. on farmland. in scrub and on the edges of woodland. In winter some Robins retreat from higher ground to the lowlands. They were found in almost every 10 km square in the country in 1981 /82 to 1983/84 (Winter Altas). being absent only from a handful of squares which included more sea than land. Densities tended to be greater away from the mountains. though this trend was not so obvious as in Britain, probably reflecting the milder climate in Ireland. At Cape Clear a total of 160 pairs was counted in 1965. and a concentration in the sheltered, bracken covered valley which runs through the centre of the island was noticeable (Sharrock & Fogden 1967). In 1986. 410 pairs were counted, indicating a remarkable rate of increase. every piece of suitable habitat appearing to have a breeding pair (Borton 1987). At Great Saltee, Wexford , only one pair breeds sporadically (Perry & Warburton 1976). About 13 pairs were estimated at lnishbofin. Galway. in 1976 (Hutchinson & Ruttledge 1978). Some Continental Robins E. r. rubecula. which differ from the breeding race E. r. melophilus. have been found in Ireland. There were three records of singles at Great SaItee on 22nd May 1957, 4th May 1958 and lIth October 1962. and there has been one record at Cape Clear. an arrival of about 50 on 9th October 1959 . Two birds trapped in Tipperary, on 5th January 1963. also had the characters of this race (Ruttledge 1966). Continental Robins are migratory and normally winter in south-west Europe and north Africa , so records of passage migrants should be expected from time to time . The only ringing recovery of an Irish-ringed Robin outside the country is of one ringed in Down, in March 1969 , and found in Spain in January 1970. There also appear to be movements on the coast of Robins of our breeding race. A large influx was noted on the south coast in October 1987.

Eight were recorded prior to 1966 and 18 have been recorded since then. The early records were of single birds at Great Saltee, Wexford (one in April , one in August, two in September) and Cape Clear (one in August. one in September. two in October). Since 1966 records have shown a marked October peak but have been more widespread. Four were in Down, one in Clare and one in Galway. though four were in Wexford and eight in Cork . Two birds together have been recorded twice, once in spring and once in autumn . The spring record was at Great Saltee on 18th May 1985 and involved one of the whitespotted race L. s. cyanecula and one of the red-spotted race L. s. svecica. 10

Jan

Nightingale Luscinia megarhyncllOs There were eleven records before 1966 and five records since then. Of the eleven records. ten were at Great Saltee, Wexford (eight in May and two in September). The other record was of a male in song at Carton, Kildare. at night on 6th and 9th May 1955 . The first Irish record was as recently as May 1953 . Since 1966 there has only been one spring record. a bird at Cape Clear on 16th and 20th April 1968. The other records were of one at Cape Clear from 20th to 24th August 1970. two at Cape Clear on I st and 2nd October 1976, one at Great Saltee on 29th August 1979. and one at Cape Clear on 5th October 1981.

Black Redstart Phoenicurus ochruros The Black Redstart is a regular spring and autumn migrant. Some birds remain to winter and there have been occasional summer records. Kennedy et al (1954) considered that Black Redstarts had become much more common than in the nineteenth century. though it is difficult to make comparison. Certainly. Ussher & Warren (1900) noted some 60 records from Dublin south and west to the Blaskets in Kerry. six from Dublin north and west to Kerry. and three in the

164

Phoenicurus phoenicurus

midlands, a similar pattern of records to that which was recorded for the first half of the present century. In autumn, Black Redstarts are passage migrants on all coasts, but chiefly on the south and east. At Great Saltee, Wexford, passage is mainly in October, the earliest record being one on 25th August (Ruttledge 1963), and five the most on one day (Perry & Warburton 1976). At Hook Head, Wexford, larger numbers have occurred in some years, particularly in 1975 when there were over 75 on 26th October, and 1982 when there were over 40 on 30th October (Lovatt 1984). At Cape Clear, numbers are similar and the peak number recorded was 36 on 28th October in 1975, the same year as the Hook Head peak. Small numbers occur each autumn all along the south coast. On the east coast numbers in autumn are lower, and the 1975 total of 1 7 in Dublin and Wicklow was considered quite exceptional (DWBR 1974-75). Passage migrants are rare on the north and west coasts. In 1975 there were one Clare and two Down records. Some of the autumn birds remain to winter and their distribution was mapped in 1981/82 to 1983/84. Small numbers winter along the coast from Down south to Wexford and west to east Kerry, and there are pockets of wintering birds on the Shannon estuary and in Galway. Occasional, single birds were seen scattered away from the coast and seven were recorded at least 60 km from the sea. The winter population in this period was probably 60-100 birds. In recent times, wintering numbers may not have increased substantially. In 1908, R. M. Barrington (cited in Hutchinson 1975) recorded that one or two were known in Dublin every winter, a position not far removed from the current status, though numbers fluctuate from winter to winter. There is return passage in late March and early April, but numbers are lower than in autumn. Marsh (1975), in an account of birds of the north coast, published only one Black Redstart record and that was in March. Breeding has never been suspected but one was recorded in breeding habitat at Cloghoge Brook, Wicklow, on 25th April 1971 (Hutchinson 1975), one was killed at the Bull Rock Lighthouse, Cork, on 15th June 1903, and two were reported at Malin Beg, Donegal, on 12th July 1943 (Kennedy et al 1954). There have also been at least two unpublished summer reports in recent years (K. Preston).

and at least two pairs were reported as nesting at Derrynane, Kerry, and others were stated to be in the area in 1946 (Kennedy et al 1954), though the authors were divided as to the validity of this last record. Between 1954 and 1965, breeding took place in four counties. In 1955 a pair with four young was seen at Ballygawley, Tyrone, and another pair, also with four young, was seen at Ballymoney, Antrim. A male was seen in the same year at another Antrim site in late July, though there was no evidence of breeding. In 1957 one was heard in song in Wicklow and a pair was proved to breed in 1959 and 1960. Simms (1971) found Redstarts in an Records of breeding Redstarts in Ireland 1966 to 1986 County Details 1966 Antrim Circumstantial evidence that a pair bred near Belfast

1968 Donegal 1970 Mayo Wick low 1971 Mayo Wicklow 1973 Kerry 1974 Mayo Wicklow 1975 Donegal 1977 Wicklow 1978 Wicklow 1979 Wicklow 1980 Donegal Wicklow 1981 Wicklow 1982 Dublin Wick low

Redstart Phoenicurus phoenicurus The Redstart is a rare but near annual breeding bird and a scarce but annual passage migrant. Breeding has been recorded at intervals over many years. In 1885 a pair bred at Powerscourt, Wicklow, and nesting continued up to the turn of the century. In 1890 a pair bred at Luggala, and in 1898 birds were seen at Glendalough, both in Wicklow. A Redstart was heard in song in 1888 in Tyrone and breeding took place at Baronscourt, Tyrone, for several years prior to and including 1895. In 1944 and 1945 a male was heard in song in Wicklow

1983 Mayo Wicklow 1984 Londonderry Wicklow 1985 Wicklow 1986 Wick low

Single pairs bred at two different sites 1 pair bred successfully in the south-west of the county Single pairs proved to breed at two localities. A pair seen at another site. 1 pair bred at the 1970 site 1 in song at one site, 3 or 4 at site where breeding proved in 1970 1 male seen in Killarney from 14th to 22nd May: a pair nearby from 15th to 25th May 1 pair bred 1 pair bred 1 pair bred. A bird seen at another site in July 1 pair bred 2 pairs bred at one site, 1 pair at another 2 pairs bred at one site. single pairs at two other sites 1 pair bred at Glenveagh Males in song at three sites with a maximum of 4 in song at one site No proof of breeding but up to 4 males at Glendalough and a pair at Lough Tay 1 seen at Lord Massey's Wood on 16th and 17th July. No proof of breeding At least 1 pair bred at Glendalough where 2 males and 2 females were present 1 in song at Glenamoy on 13th July 1 pair probably bred at Glendalough. 1 in song at Lough Tay A pair near Maghera on 20th May and a male at Banagher Glen in early May may have bred Single birds seen at Glendalough and Lough Tay 2 pairs bred at Glenmalure, 2 pairs at Lough Tay. Single birds seen at Glenmacnass and Glendalough 1 pair bred at Glendalough: 1 pair at Glenmalure. Single bird seen at Lough Dan

Saxicola rubetra unidentified sessile oakwood in a Wicklow valley in the mid 1960s, where they may have been nesting. In the early 1960s a nest was found in Armagh (C. Dawson). One was heard in song in Mayo in May 1965 at a site where breeding was proved in 1970 and subsequently. Since 1966 there has been an upsurge in breeding records with regular nesting in oakwoods in Wicklow and occasionally elsewhere. The wide scattering of records in Antrim, Donegal, Mayo and Kerry indicates that Redstarts are probably overlooked in woods in summer. The Kerry birds in 19 73 were recorded by a survey group carrying out a census of the birds of the Killarney oakwoods. It seems likely that the increase in the past 25 years has been to some extent a real one because the Wicklow sites have been visited by birdwatchers for well over a hundred years. Redstarts are regular spring and autumn migrants in small numbers. At Great Saltee, Wexford, they occur from mid, occasionally early, April to late May and from late August to mid October, though the latest record is for 3rd November (Ruttledge 1963). At Hook Head, Wexford, the pattern is similar, thouth an early bird was recorded on 2nd August 1982 (Lovatt 1984). Further west, Redstarts are rare in spring at Cape Clear, but up to ten in a day occur in autumn. Migrants are recorded from late March to May and from early August to the end of October (Sharrock 1973). Away from the south coast, Redstarts are occasional migrants in ones and twos in spring and autumn at Copeland, Down, and Tory Island, Donegal. The latest acceptable record is of one at Tralee. Kerry, on 15th November 1958. A bird reported at Oysterhaven, Cork, on 19th December 1965 was described as an adult male in summer plumage, and seems extremely improbable.

Whinchat Saxicola rubetra Whinchats are summer visitors to the midlands, north, north-west and scattered other parts of Ireland. They are regular spring and autumn migrants on the south and east coast. The breeding distribution and numbers have changed considerably. In 1900, Whinchats bred locally throughout Ulster, more numerously than elsewhere in Longford, Roscommon, Leitrim and Sligo, and were known to have nested in Louth, Dublin and Wicklow. By the early 1950s the population was centred in the midlands. The largest numbers were in Kildare extending into Offaly. Numbers in Longford, Leitrim and Sligo were much reduced, but Whinchats remained fairly common in the Curlew Mountains in Roscommon, their range extending west almost to the Mayo border, though it was thought unlikely that any bred in Mayo. A few bred in the north of Louth. Numbers had declined in Donegal, particularly after 1939. Whinchats were scarce in Armagh, Cavan, Permanagh, Londonderry and Monaghan (Kennedy et a119 54). After the mid 1950s there was an increase in numbers and range. Ruttledge (1966) recorded the birds as numer-

165

ous only in Kildare. A few pairs bred on the Dingle peninsula in Kerry and locally elsewhere. In Cork breeding was erratic. Very few bred, spasmodically, in Wexford. In Wicklow the species was scarce, in Dublin rare if still present. A few nested in Offaly, but breeding had extended into Meath and Laols. Whinchats were common in Westmeath, but rare in Longford. Breeding continued in Roscommon. Numbers were increasing in Donegal, a few nested in Antrim and Fermanagh, For most other counties there was little information in the mid 1960s. A pair had bred in Clare in 1956 and in Antrim in 1957, but not more recently. The 1968-72 survey (Breeding Atlas) showed that Whinchats were most widespread in Antrim, Donegal, Kildare, Roscommon, Westmeath and Wicklow. Breeding was also proved in Cavan, Clare, Dublin, Fermanagh, Kerry, Kilkenny, Laols, Leitrlm, Londonderry, Louth, Mayo, Meath, Offaly, Sligo, Tipperary, Tyrone and Wexford. All the evidence indicated an expansion of range. Most birds are found in the lowlands, frequently on the edges of bogs and on rough pasture, but they occur in valleys in mountains in Wicklow and Donegal. The Wicklow breeding habitat is usually in a hollow, or other sheltered spot, on a hill with a great deal of bracken and a few small trees. There is generally a stream in the vicinity. In Northern Ireland many breeding pairs are associated with young forestry plantations U. S. Furphy). Whinchats are spring and autumn migrants on the east and south coasts. At Great Saltee, Wexford, spring passage is from 21st April to mid May, occasionally end May, autumn passage from mid August to mid October, with a maximum of 12 recorded in a day (Ruttledge 1963). At Cape Clear, spring records are very rare, but up to 15 occur in a day from early August to end October (Sharrock 1973). There are records in the last century of birds in December, January and February (Ussher & Warren 1900). In the present century the latest record is of three at Old Head, Mayo, on 28th November 1949, and the only winter record is of one at Fota, Cork, on 20th February 1980.

166

Saxicola torquata

Stonechat Saxicola torquata The Stonechat is a common resident in Ireland . found usually in young forestry plantations. among gorse and heather and in rough coastal pasture where bracken and gorse occur. The breeding distribution in 1968-72 comprised most of the country except the rich pastures of Meath and Cavan. Monaghan. Armagh. Down and Antrim where the birds were scarce. apart from near the coast in the two last counties (Breeding Atlas). At census plots on sand-dune systems and poor coastal farmland in Wexford. densities ranged from 10.5 to 17 .9 per km 2 (O.J . Merne), but in similar habitat in Down it was only 7.8 per km 2 (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). Numbers have been counted regularly over a long period only at Cape Clear. Cork. where the population in the three summers prior to the 1961 /62 cold winter was roughly estimated at between 50 and 150 pairs. In summer 1962 only 15-25 pairs bred. The following winter. I 962/63. was even more severe and the population was reduced to three pairs in I 963 and 1964. Numbers recovered after this and there were] 7 pairs in ] 965. over 20 in ] 966. 33 in 1967 and 28 in 1969 (Sharrock 1973). In I 983 there were 24 pairs (Collins l 985) and in 1984 there were 25 (CCBOR 1983-84). but cold weather in 1985/86 reduced numbers to l 3 pairs in 1986 (Borton 1987). The stability of the population at a level well below 50 pairs may raise doubts as to the validity of the estimates for the years before the 196] / 6 2 winter. but there was a count of 48]. and an estimate of close to 1,000 present. on 31 August 1959. and an estimate of 300 in March 196]. so the population does seem to have been significantly higher prior to l 96] / 6 2 .

Stonechats have long been known to be vulnerable to cold weather. In the hard winter of 1916/17. and after the cold spell of January and February] 945. large numbers died. During the years after 1945 the decline continued. but from I 950 there was evidence of an increase and within a few years numbers were back to normal (Kennedy et al 1954). The hard winters of 1961 /62 and 1962/63 were at least as severe and the effect on the Cape Clear population has already been noted . On a ] 6 km strip of Wicklow coast. from Greystones to Wicklow town. Stonechats were believed to have been virtually exterminated. Only one pair could be found in March 1963. and during subsequent visits in l 963 none was found . Nor were any found on Howth Head. Dublin (Doran I 964). By I 969 numbers had fully recovered (Hutchinson I 975). The winter distribution of the Stonechat is principally coastal. though a few birds remain inland in lowlying areas (Winter Atlas). Stonechats leave the mountains at Glenveagh, Donegal. after the summer (MacLochlainn 1984) and are absent from the Wicklow mountains and the Antrim plateau (Winter Atlas) . During the years] 96365 when the population was at its lowest level they left Cape Clear from mid October to February (Sharrock] 973). Some birds clearly leave the country altogether. as is shown by the recovery of birds in Spain - one recovered six weeks after being ringed at Cape Clear in mid September] 96] and the other in December 1978 having been ringed at Great Saltee, Wexford. in the previous October. An eastern Stonechat. showing the characters of one of the races S. t. maura or S. t. steineqeri, but more closely resembling the former. was seen at Great Saltee, Wexford. from 12th to 19th October 1977.

Catharus minimus

167

Wheatear Oenantheoenanthe

Black-eared Wheatear Oenanthe hispanica

Wheatears are summer visitors to the coast and to high country away from the sea. They prefer rough grazing land where sheep and rabbits keep the turf low. They nest in dry-stone walls, in rocks and scree and in rabbit burrows. They nest around most of the coastline, the Ards peninsula in Down being a striking exception, but are scarce on parts of the east and south coast. Inland, they are abundant over most of Clare, west Cork, Donegal, Down, west Galway, Kerry, Londonderry, Mayo and Sligo. In these counties they nest chiefly where the land is over 250 m, but overspill into lowland as well. However, Wheatears are absent from the midland plain, from lowland Munster away from the coast, and from lowland Ulster (Breeding Atlas). Kennedy et al (1 954) considered that there had been a recent decrease, especially in Galway and Mayo, where this had been particularly noted in inland areas. The only site where repeat censuses have been made is Cape Clear, where there were at least 34 pairs in 1963, approximately 50 in 1965, about 25 in 1984 and 19 in 1986. The decline has been linked to a loss of suitable habitat (Borton 1987). At Inlshbofin, Galway, where Wheatears are widely scattered, nesting both in the stone walls which surround cultivated fields and in scree, or between boulders on the hilly parts of the island, there were approximately 30 pairs in 1976 (Hutchinson & Ruttledge 1978). Inland they have been counted at Glenveagh, Donegal, where there were about 11 territories on upland heath in 1980. They show a clear preference at Glenveagh for areas where the grass is grazed short by sheep (MacLochlainn 1984). Although Wheatears are summer visitors, arriving from mid March to April and departing from early August to mid October, there have been a number of late autumn records and a scattering of winter records. There have been four records of single birds in winter since 1953: at Blackrock, Dublin, in December 1957 and January 1958, at Lough Carrowmore, Mayo, on 26th December 1967, at Ballymacaw, Waterford, from 23rd December 1970 to 25th January 1971 and at Prince William's Seat, Dublin, on 13th December 1979. The only early February record is of one on the Clare Coast on 3rd February 1938 (Kennedy et aI1954). The Greenland race O. o. leucorrhoa is a spring and autumn migrant on all coasts, occasionally inland, and most common in autumn. Normal passage is from late April to the end of May, and from the end of August until the end of September, with stragglers in October. Birds showing the characters of the Faeroes and Icelandic breeding race O. o. schioleri were recorded at Great Saltee, Wexford, in September (Ruttledge 1963).

There has been only one record. A male of the blackthroated form of the western race O. h. hispanica was collected at Tuskar Rock lighthouse, Wexford, on 16th May 1916.

Black Wheatear Oenantheleucura or White-crowned Black Wheatear Oenanthe Ieucopyga A bird at Portnoo, Donegal, on 1Oth June 1964 was of one of these species.

Rock Thrush Monticola saxatilis An adult male was seen at Clogher Head, Louth, on 20th and 21st May 1974.

White's Thrush Zoothera dauma The three records are all of birds shot in the nineteenth century. One was near Bandon in early December 1842, one in spring 1867 at Ballymahon, Longford, one near Westport, Mayo, on 9th January 1885.

Siberian Thrush Zoothera sibirica A female, probably immature, was seen at Cape Clear on 18th October 1985.

Swainson's Thrush Catharus ustulatus The two records were of single birds in spring and autumn. One was picked up dead at Blackrock lighthouse, Mayo, on 26th May 1956. One was seen at Cape Clear from 14th to 16th October 1968.

Pied Wheatear Oenanthepleschanka

Gray...cheeked Thrush Catharus minim us

There have been two records: one seen at Knockadoon Head, Cork, from 8th to 16th November 1980, and one at Ballinaclash, Wexford, on 19th and 20th November 1983. Both were immature males and were trapped and ringed.

The only record is of an immature at Cape Clear on 19th October 1982. The bird was caught by hand after being knocked to the ground by a Sparrowhawk.

16 8

Turdus torquatu s

Ring Ouzel Turdus torquat us Ring Ouzels ar e summe r visitors in sma ll numbers. and pa ssage migrants in spring and autumn. The breeding distributi on in 1968-72 was limited to th e Wicklow mountai ns. th e Mou rne mountains in Down . the mou nta inou s parts of north and west Donegal. nor th Leitrim and west Cavan . th e Neph in Beg ran ge in Mayo. Slieveca rran in Clare. th e Comeraghs in Waterford . with breeding possibly contin uin g in the Kerry mountains ( Breeding Atlas). There is some evide nce th at the distr ibution ma y ha ve been somewha t wider in rea lity. For example. birds we re foun d holding ter rito ry in north and we st Cork in 19 77 . and aga in in 19 8 6 and 19 8 7. an d it is kn own th at some potential bre eding sites in the mountains were not checked in 1968-72 . Five pairs were found in th e Kerry mounta ins in 198 7 (T. Carru th ers) a nd. a ga in. it seems likely that th ese were overloo ked in th e past. Nevertheless. thi s distribution reflects t he extent of th e declin e thi s century. At th e turn of th e century. Ring Ouzels were kn own to breed in mo st counties. Only in Meath . Westrneath, Longford . Kildar e and Armagh were Usshe r & Warren (1900) certain th at br eeding did not tak e pla ce. Th ey did not ha ve proof of breeding in Clare. Roscommon . Kilken n y. Wex ford or Mon aghan but cons idered it possible. In all th e rem ainin g coun ties th ey h ad evidence of nestin g. Numbers were highest in Kerr y. Waterford. Tipperary. Wicklow, Galway. Mayo. Sligo. Leitrim , Done gal and Dow n . very similar to th e are as where breeding continues. Kennedy et al ( 19 54) noted a cons idera ble decrease in the first 50 years of thi s century. Ring Ouzels were a lmost unknown in Cork. Wexford. Antrim. Galw ay a nd Mayo; th ey were rare in Leitrim. Cav an and Waterford. In Kerry. Down. Wicklow and south Dublin they were still well-e st ablished. a nd th ey ne sted spa rsely in parts of Ferman agh . Don egal a nd perh ap s Sligo. In th e last ce ntury th ey bred at sea- level in Dublin at Lambay Island and Howth Head (Hu tchinson 19 75 ). in Mayo on Achill Island. and in Donegal (Kenne dy et al 1954). but nowadays all the record s ar e for mountainous ar eas. There is no evidence that numbers have decl ined furthe r since th e early 195 0s. exce pt perhaps locally.

Migrants ar e recorded from lat e Mar ch to th e end of April. som etimes ea rly May. at Great Saltee, Wexford. and Cape Clea r. Cork. The max imum record ed at Grea t Saltee was ] 4 on 2 nd April ] 9 5 6. Sprin g passage in very small nu mb ers has also been noted at Tor y Island . Don ega l. a nd at seve ral sites on th e sou th and eas t coasts. In a utumn. numbers are lower at Great Saltee but h igh er at Cape Clear . where the highest total was an except ion al count of 52 on 16th October 19 73. The pr evious highest daily total was 12 so this was qu ite exce ptional. Au tu mn passa ge is fro m th e end of Aug ust to early Novem ber. wit h most occu rr ing in October. There were occasional winter record s in th e last century but only three thi s centu ry. One wa s seen in Wicklow in mid January 19] 8; an adult male was at Rosslare. Wex ford. from 3rd January to early Mar ch] 9 72 ; a male was seen at Cavehill. Antrim. from 19th Januar y int o Februa ry] 985 (NIBR 19 8 2- 85 ).

Blackbird Turdu s merula Blackbirds ar e among the most familiar bird s and nest in every part of Ireland from mountain to lowland bog and from the midlands to marine islands (B reeding Atlas). Th ey h ave not a lways been quite so Widespread . Ussher & Warren (1 900) noted Blackbird s on ly as win ter visitors to parts of th e wes t. whe re the re we re few tr ees. suc h as Dungloe, Don egal a nd Valentia . Kerry. They believed th e Blackbird was ext ending its range. Breeding was first rec orded near Belmullet, Mayo. in 1890 and one of their correspondents rem embered when Blackbirds did not breed at Achill Isla nd. Mayo. Kennedy et al (19 54 ) considered th at Blackbirds were continuing to increa se through th e first half of th is cen tury . Th e population at Cape Clea r. Cork.

Turdus philomelos was surveyed in summer 1965 and 167 pairs counted. It was believed that the population was stable and had not been affected by the cold winters of 1961 /62 and 1962/63 (Sh ar rock & Fogden 1967). th ough on the east coast Blackbirds did decrease in numbers after these winters (Doran 1964). A recount at Cape Clear in 1986 produced 135 pairs (Borton 1987) indicating perhaps a slight decline. On sand-dune systems in Down and Wexford densities ranged between 12 .0 and 21.1 pairs per km 2 (O.J . Merne, Nairn & Whatmough 1978). In winter Blackb irds are as widespread as in summer but the largest numbers are in the east of the country. roughly corresponding to the distribution of better agricultural land (Winter Atlas). Large numbers of Blackbirds arrive in Ireland in autumn to winter here. Ringing recoveries indicate that birds come from Scotland. northern England and Scandinavia. There is also evidence th at the Blackbirds from northern Britain which winter in Ireland move gradually towards the south-west of the country and then. at the end of winter. move progressively back to the northeast (Snow 1978). Our own Blackbirds appear to be largely resident. Ringing studies in Londonderry suggested a relatively high degree of attachment of juveniles to the natal area (Marsh] 9 75). Autumn passage is marked at Great SaItee, Wexford. from late September to November. In October up to 300 birds a day occurred on a number of occasions. sometimes more. The highest autumn count was 1.000 on 6th November 1969 (Perry & Warburton 1976). At Hook Head . Wexford. up to 100 occur a day in October cr November in most years (Lovatt 1984). Numbers at Cape Clear were lower. with the autumn peak in November. when up to 147 were seen in a day in the regularly censused portion of the island (Sharrock 1973).

169

Fieldfare Turdus pilaris Fieldfares are common and widespread winter visitors. though the number recorded varies from year to year. Fieldfares were found in 1981 /82 to 1983/84 throughout most of the country, only being absent from parts of west Donegal, west Galway and Mayo. and the highest parts of the Wicklow mountains (W inter Atlas). The largest numbers were east of the River Shannon. contrary to th e traditional view (Ruttledge 1966) that they are more abundant in the west. The earliest arrival date recorded is 5th September in 1981 at Hook Head, Wexford. but the main arrival is from November onwards. The number of immigrants and the timing of their movement depend on the abundance of the rowan fruit crop in Scandinavia. When the crop is large, the arrival is delayed and numbers are lower. On the east coast large flocks are not infrequent. particularly after cold weather. Over 1,000 were seen in a flock at Rogerstown. Dublin. in February 1969; about 1.500 were at Donabate, Dublin. on 10th January 1981; on 15th January 1984 birds were seen flying inland from the east at rates of 400 per hour and 200 per hour at Clogher Head. Louth. and Swo rds. Dublin. respectively; about 1,000 were seen at Swords. Dublin, in January 1985. Fieldfares respond rapidly to cold weather. moving into Ireland when conditions deteriorate in Britain and on the Continent. Even in mild winters Fieldfares tend to move into Ireland from Britain after December. presumably in continued search for food. There have been a number of late spring records.' In recent years the latest were single birds at Shanganagh, Dublin. and Hook Head, Wexford, on 21st May 1978. and five at Dangan, Galway. on 18th May. two still present on 3rd June. The only July records are of a bird captured near Dublin on 14th July 1914. and one seen at Tallaght, Dublin. on 21st July] 965 . Birds ringed as juveniles in Norway and Sweden have been recovered here in winter. A migrant ringed at Great Saltee , Wexford. in November was recovered in Norway the following May . Birds ringed in Ireland in winter have been recovered in varied locations in subsequent winters, including Italy (three), France and Finland (one each). and some have been recaught back at the same Irish site .

Song Thrush Turdus philomelos In summer. Song Thrushes are as widespread as Blackb irds but much less numerous. In winter. while still widely distributed, they appear even scarcer relative to the number of Blackbirds. Song Thrushes were found and proved to breed in almost every 10km square which consisted largely of land in 1968-72 . but were not found in one square in Wick low and one in north Mayo . and were not proved to breed in one in Tyrone (Breeding Atlas). There is no evidence to indicate any trend in breeding numbers. though Kennedy et al (1954) considered that there were temporary declines

170

Turdus iliacus

after the cold winters of 1916/17 and 1945/46. Song Thrushes are much scarcer than Blackbirds but there is no evidence to suggest that they are declining in numbers (Breeding Atlas).

At Cape Clear. Cork. there were estimated to be 50 pairs in 1960. 12 in 1961 and 1962 . eight in 1963 (after the severe winter). 16 in 1964 and 18 in 1965 (Sharrock & Fogden 1965) and 41 in 1986 (Borton 1987). It appears that Song Thrushes are recent colonists of Cape Clear. having first nested about the turn of the century or early in this century. They are even more recent colonists at Inlshbofln, Galway. where none was found in 1932 or 1943 . but one pair bred in 1956. three in 1968 and five in 1976 (Hutchinson & Ruttledge 1978). On sand-dune systems in Down and Wexford densities are low (1 .2 to 5.2 pairs per km '). though in sea buckthorn in Down a density of 33.3 pairs per km ' was recorded (O.j. Merne, Nairn & Whatmough 1978). There is heavy immigration in autumn. sometimes from mid September but usually from mid October to mid November. Up to 50 have been recorded at Great Sal tee. Wexford. at this time (Perry & Warburton 1976). up to 100 at Hook Head . Wexford. and once 300 (Lovatt 1984). and up to 90 at Cape Clear . In winter. Song Thrushes occur throughout the country. with concentrations widely scattered (Winter Atlas). The Irish breeding population is thought to be resident. so numbers must increase substantially in winter because of immigration. Many Scottish and northern England Song Thrushes winter in Ireland and there may be some immigration of Scandinavian birds . Song Thrushes are prone to hard-weather movements and. in 1962/63. many moved from northern England into Ireland (Winter Atlas). In spring there is evidence of slight passage at Great Saltee, where there are up to five birds per day. though at times up to 30. from mid March to early April. At Hook Head there are occasional increases from late February to late March. but there is no evidence at all of movement at Cape Clear in spring.

\

In winter. Redwings are widely dispersed throughout the country and large flocks can be found in most parts. The density of birds was clearly higher. however. in the south. midlands and east during the period 1981 /82 to 1983 /84 (Winter Atlas). The lowest numbers were in the north. in west Donegal. west Mayo. west Galway. west Clare and west Kerry and in mountainous areas such as the Wick low mountains and the Commeraghs in Waterford. Redwings feed on soil invertebrates and on hawthorns. and fruit in gardens and wooded areas. but react very rapidly to dropping temperatures. During the cold winter of 1981 /82 . Redwings moved into the southern half of the country from Britain and presumably from further north in Ireland. but in the following winter. a much milder one. they were more uniformly distributed across the country (Winter Atlas).

Redwing Turdus iliacus The Redwing is one of the most abundant winter visitors to Ireland . huge numbers arriving. at times. in autumn or when the temperature falls suddenly in Britain in winter. The first autumn arrivals are usually seen from early October. but there have been exceptionally early birds . The earliest records of all have been of one found dead at Drumshanbo, Leitrim, on 7th August 1977. and one seen in Down on 26th August (Kennedy et al19 54). There have been several September records since 1966 as well. The main arrivals are in late October and November. At this time birds may be heard tlying over at night in most parts of the country. At Great Saltee and Hook Head. Wexford. the autumn peak is normally about 100 in a day. Numbers at Cape Clear are very variable. with the peak usually varying between 100 and 300 a day. but there were over 2.300 on 13th October 1972 and 1.600 on 13th October 1973.

There is some slight passage in late March. sometimes April. at Great Saltee and Cape Clear. but numbers are very small. Late birds linger into early May. and in May 1951 a pair attempted to breed in Kerry. The latest records in recent years were of single birds at lnishowen, Donegal, on 31st May 1976. at Raheny, Dublin. on 15th May 1977. and at Slyne Head. Galway. from 18th to 22nd May 1979. The majority of wintering Redwing are of the nominate race from Finland. Norway and Sweden. Some Icelandic birds of the race T. i. coburni occur in autumn on the north and west coasts at Tory Island and Malin Head. Donegal, and at Erris Head. Mayo. and there is probably a small wintering population. There were only two records of birds identified as Icelandic at Cape Clear up to 1969 and one at Great Saltee up to 1963. so there appears to be very light passage on the south coast. Ringed birds from Iceland have been recovered in Ireland in winter. but they are much scarcer than those of the nominate race. perhaps because many fewer are ringed in Iceland.

Locustella naevia MistIe Thrush Turdus viscivorus The Mistle Thrush is a relatively recent colonist which is now resident throughout the country. The species seems to have been unknown in Ireland in the eighteenth century and the first record was of one shot in winter 1800 in Antrim. Breeding took place in Down a few years later and in Louth in 1807. Colonization appears to have been swift. By 1832 Mistle Thrushes were resident and common in north-west Donegal; they were common near Portumna, Galway, and around Clonmel, Tipperary, in 1839; numbers in Cork and Kerry had increased since the first records in 1818 and 1827 respectively (Thompson 1849-51). By 1850, Mistle Thrushes were breeding in every county, though they were scarce in western Connacht. They had not reached Achill Island, Mayo, in 1860 but were breeding there by the turn of the century (Ussher & Warren 1900). Kennedy et al (1954) noted that the Mullet. Mayo, had been reached a few years before 1954. The current breeding distribution is throughout the country, though Mistle Thrushes were not found at Achill, Mayo, in 1968-72 (Breeding Atlas). They are irregular breeders at Cape Clear (Sharrock 1973). The reasons for the success of the Mistle Thrush in colonizing Ireland, and northern England and Scotland in the same period, are unknown. There is immigration in autumn, though this is more marked on the north coast than elsewhere. At Malin Head, Donegal, as many as 600 were seen arriving on 22nd October 1961. Numbers at Great Saltee, Wexford, do not usually exceed three in a day in autumn (Perry & Warburton 1976) and at nearby Hook Head the maximum has been 15 (Lovatt 1984). At Cape Clear there have been only four occasions when more than ten were seen, and three of those were in 1959 when up to 313 were seen in a day (Sharrock 1973); there were no autumn influxes between 1966 and 1986. In winter, Mistle Thrushes are found in all parts of Ireland but the largest numbers are in the north and east (Winter Atlas). Evidence from ringing indicates that Irish Mistle Thrushes do not emigrate but that some birds from Scotland and northern England move into Ireland for the winter (Snow 1969). There is no evidence that Continental Mistle Thrushes winter here. Most of the immigrants appear to leave in February and March.

American Robin Turdus miqratorius There were six records up to 1965 and four subsequently. The early records were of single birds shot at Shankill, Dublin, on 4th May 1891; at Lough Gill. Sligo, about 7th December 1892; in Leitrim in December 1894; single birds were seen at Camolin, Wexford, between 10th and 18th December 1954; at Blennerville, Kerry, on 11th and 13th January 1955; and one coming aboard a trawler off the Skelllgs, Kerry, on 28th January 1965. The recent records are of single birds seen at Glengarriff

1 71

Cork. on 16th January 1977, and at Waterville, Kerry, on 13th December 1981; one was found dying near Ballynahlnch, Down, on 15th January 1982; one was seen at Edenderry, Offaly, from 8th June to end July 1983.

Cetti's Warbler Cettia cetti The only records have been at Cape Clear, Cork. Single birds were seen on 24th August 1968 and 8th October 1975.

Fan-tailed Warbler Cisticola iuncidis The two records have both been in spring at Cape Clear, Cork. One was seen on 23rd April 1962 and the second on 18th April 1985.

Pallas's Grasshopper Warbler Locustellacerthiola A male found dead at Rockabill lighthouse, Dublin, on 28th September 1908 is the only record.

Grasshopper Warbler Locustellanaevia The Grasshopper Warbler is a summer visitor to marshy fields, young conifer plantations and overgrown waste land. It has increased its range considerably since 1900 and breeds in every county. At the turn of the century Grasshopper Warblers were not known to breed in Donegal, Down, Galway, Kildare, Lettrim, Limerick, Londonderry, Monaghan and Sligo. By the early 1950s they were breeding in all these counties. Kennedy et al (1954) found them locally distributed in Galway and Mayo, and more numerous in Waterford than in any other county. They described the favoured breeding haunts as fields where there was an abundance of rushes mixed with long grass; Ussher & Warren (1900) noted that they also bred in young plantations mixed with coarse vegetation, on mountain heath, among thick furze and in long grass where land was cultivated. The increase in the first half of the century does not appear to have continued. Grasshopper Warblers now nest very widely in Clare and Kerry on the western coast, but rather thinly in west Galway, Mayo and Donegal. The only large gap in breeding distribution is in Cork, where very few breed. It seems likely that the spread of afforestation provided additional habitat for the range expansion. Arrival in spring is generally in early May. At Great Saltee, Wexford, passage is from mid April to late May with up to nine in a day in May (Perry & Warburton 1976). At

172

Locustella luscinioides

Hook Head. Wexford. Grasshopper Warblers are scarce spring migrants but there were arrivals of 20 on 21st April 1968 . and 21 on 22nd April 1971 (Lovatt 1984). At the Old Head of Kinsale. Cork. they are probably annual in spring and 21 were seen on 21st April 1968. the day of the first large movement at Hook Head (CBR 1968). Grasshopper Warblers are rare spring migrants at Cape Clear (Sharrock 1973). Departure is from late August until the end of September. with occasional birds in early October. Movement at the south coast islands and promontories involves even fewer birds than in spring. though the skulking behaviour of the birds makes observation of them difficult when they are not singing. The earliest records have been on 11 th April. the latest on 15th October (Kennedy et al 1954).

Savi's Warbler Locustella luscinioides The two Irish records were both in summer. indicating that breeding may be imminent. One was seen and trapped at Shannon Airport Lagoon. Clare. on 17th June 1980. It remained until 23rd June. One seen near Youghal, Cork. from 17th to 23rd June 1985 was joined by a second on 19th June. No evidence to indicate breeding was obtained.

Aquatic Warbler Acrocephalus paludicola There were eight records prior to 1966 and four since then. An immature male was found dead at Bull Rock lighthouse. Cork. on 20th September 1903; a female was found dead at Tuskar Rock lighthouse. Wexford. on 9th August 1913; one was seen at Achill Island. Mayo. on 2nd June 1906; single birds were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford. on 2nd September 1958. 1st and 2nd October 1958 . and 28th August 1961 ; singles were seen at Cape Clear on 31st August 1961 and from 17th to 24th September 1963. The four records since 1966 have all been at Cape Clear : single birds on 14th and 15th October 1973. 29th and 30th September 1976. 11th and 12th October 1976. and 3rd September 1981.

Sedge Warbler Acrocephalus schoenobaenus Sedge Warblers are common summer visitors to reed beds and marshy land throughout the country. They breed throughout most of Ireland but are scarce in parts of west Galway and west Mayo . Laois, Londonderry and south Tipperary. where suitable habitat is absent. They nest on some marine islands such as Cape Clear. Cork. Great Saltee, Wexford. and Inlshbofin. Galway. though not on the Aran Islands. Galway (Breeding Atlas). Arrival in spring is from mid April. the earliest record being on 5th April (Kennedy et al 1954). but the main arrival is in the second week of May . At Great Saltee, Wexford. up to 50 birds a day are recorded regularly at this time. smaller numbers at Hook Head. Wexford. At Cape Clear numbers are much lower. Autumn movement is from mid August until the end of September. with stragglers to the end of October. As in spring. numbers at Great Saltee are higher than at sites to the west. The latest record is of one on 9th November 1890 (Kennedy et al19 54). Results of ringing at sites such as Shannon Airport Lagoon in Clare and Portmore Lough in Antrim. where birds gather prior to autumn migration. have shown movement from Ireland to southern England. France and Portugal in the same autumn. While some birds ringed in England have been recovered in Ireland all have been in subsequent years. Autumn movement is predominantly south-easterly. There have been regular counts of breeding numbers at only one site. a stretch of the River Lagan near Belfast. and Sedge Warblers declined there from seven to three pairs during the years 1974 to 1981 (Bailey 1982). Counts of migrants at Cape Clear showed that far fewer were seen from 1972 to 1986 than in the 1960s. though it is not known whether this is due to population change or variations in weather conditions at migration time.

Paddyfield Warbler Acrocephalus agricola An adult trapped on the North Slob. Wexford . on 3rd December 1982 died on the following day.

Hippolais pallida Blyth's Reed Warbler Acrocephalus dumetorum

The only record is of one at Cape Clear from 13th to 19th October 1969. Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpaceus

Reed Warblers were rare autumn vagrants until 1979 or 1980, when breeding appears to have commenced. They now nest in small colonies at reedbeds in several counties mainly in the east and south. The Reed Warbler is extremely difficult to identify with certainty in the field because autumn birds, in particular, resemble other species of unstreaked Acrocephalus warbler. However, all those which have been trapped over the years have proved to be Reed Warblers. If birds of any other species are involved they must be extremely rare; in this account all records of unidentified unstreaked Acrocephalus warblers are treated as being of Reed Warblers. Prior to 1953 there was a single breeding record at Monlough, Down, where a nest with five eggs was found in May 1935. Otherwise, there were two spring and four autumn records. Between 1954 and 1957 there was one autumn record and one summer record of a bird in song near Portaferry, Down, on 21st June 1956. The records from 1958 to 1977 have been analysed elsewhere (Hutchinson 1980). During this period there were two spring and about 120 autumn records. Apart from one in Down, all the records were on the south coast between Great Saltee, Wexford, and Cape Clear, Cork. Of the total, 18% were at Great Saltee and 82% at Cape Clear (Hutchinson 1980). The number of records, excluding presumed breeders, varied between one and 12 per annum from 1958 to 1975, but they then increased sharply to 19 in 1976, 21 in 1977, five in 1978, 20 in 1979, about 17 in 1980, about 14 in 1981, about 15 in 1982, and records continue at about this level. The pattern of occurrence of non-breeding birds shows an autumn movement chiefly between mid August and the end of October, with a very few spring, summer and early November birds. Breeding was first proved at Ballycotton, Cork, where between five and ten pairs now breed. One was recorded there on 16th July 1979, 10 or 12 between 24th August and 27th September 1980, and breeding was proved in 60-

Reed Warbler (non-breeding and including all records of Acrocepha Ius warblers) 1966-86

I

unstreaked'

173

1981 when at least five males were in song and 1 7 were trapped and ringed. In 1982 up to six were in song and 28 trapped. There were no published data for 1983 but 14 were trapped in 1984. At nearby Youghal, Cork, there were about 11 in June and July 1983, a pair was proved to breed in 1984 and one was heard in song in 1986. In Wexford, one summered at Ring Marsh in 1980. By 1983 there were one or two at Lady's Island Lake and at least four were counted on the River Slaney on 11 th June. In 1984 at least six Reed Warblers were in song at Killinick, the River Slaney and the South Slob, and one nest was found. In 1985 up to seven were in song at the South Slob and one at Tacumshin. In 1986 birds were in song at Lady's Island Lake, the South Slob and Tacumshin. In Down, three adults and two juveniles were trapped at Strand Lough between 15th and 22nd August 1982. In 1983 four adults and six juveniles were trapped in summer. Birds have been seen in the breeding season at other localities in Down and Antrim in years before 1982, but details have not been published (NIBR 1982-85). In Kerry, five were trapped at Lough Leane between 28th July and 6th August 1982. A pair bred in Wicklow in 1982. A pair was seen in summer 1983 and a juvenile in August. A pair was again present in 1984; in 1985 a pair bred and another male was present; in 1986 three birds were seen in summer. The August and September records are probably of wandering juveniles from the Continent or the south of England. One trapped at Cape Clear on 13th September 1985 had been ringed as a juvenile nine days earlier in the Netherlands. The October records occur when most west European Reed Warblers have departed, and usually arise after the classic south-easterly winds which bring Continental migrants to Ireland. They may well be reverse migrants from more easterly populations (Hutchinson 1980). The colonization of Ireland represents a range expansion which is continuing and now includes very widely scattered colonies. It seems likely that other colonies are being overlooked.

Great Reed Warbler Acrocephalus arundinaceus

There have been three records. One was found dead near Castletownsend, Cork, on 16th May 1920; one was seen at Cape Clear from 10th to 26th June 1964, and another on 18th May 1979.

45

Olivaceous Warbler Hippolais pallida 30

15

The only records are of singles trapped at Tory Island, Donegal, on 29th September 1959 and at Dursey Island, Cork, on 16th September 1977.

174

Hippolais icterina

Icterine Warbler Hippolais icterina Icterine Warblers are rare but almost annual autumn migrants on the south coast. Prior to 1966 there were records of 44 birds, two of which were in the nineteenth century, the others between 1955 and 1965 at Great Saltee, Wexford (11), Cape Clear, Cork (29), the Old Head of Kinsale, Cork, and Copeland, Down. All were in autumn except for one in Dublin on 8th June 1856, and one at Great Saltee on 17th May 1964. Since 1966 there have been records every year except 1970, and 102 Icterine Warblers were reported in the 21 year period. Most were in Cork and Wexford but there were two in Waterford, one in Dublin and one in Kerry. The majority were in September but one was seen at Cape Clear on 8th June in 1967. The latest record is one at Dalkey, Dublin, from 20th to 28th November 1982. 30

Icterine Warbler

Dartford Warbler Sylvia undata There have been five records. One was caught at the Tuskar Rock lighthouse, Wexford, on 27th October 1912. Single birds were seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 27th and 28th October 1968, on 15th August 1972, on 19th October 1972 and on 25th and 26th October 1975.

1966-86

Subalpine Warbler Sylvia cantillans

20

10

Jan

Melodious Warbler Hippolais polyglotta Melodious Warblers are scarcer in most autumns than Icterine Warblers but are also near annual migrants on the south coast. Two birds were recorded in the nineteenth century in addition to a record of one at Coolattin, Wicklow, in May 1886 thought to be of this species (Ussher & Warren 1900). This last record is not adequately substantiated so is now excluded. From 1956 to 1963, 33 were recorded, of which 12 were at Great Saltee, Wexford, and 19 at Cape Clear, Cork. There were also single birds at Erris Head, Mayo, and Copeland, Down. All were in autumn. From 1966 to 1986 a total of67 was recorded, all except one in autumn. The only records outside Wexford and Cork 30 Melodious Warbler 20

were in Waterford (five), Louth and Down. The spring record was of a bird at Ballyrnacaw, Waterford, on 25th April 1976. Birds have been recorded annually since 1966, except in 1971, 1972, 1975 and 1982. Peak numbers of Melodious Warblers occur in August, when they are almost as likely to be seen as Icterine Warblers. In September and October Icterine Warblers are twice as likely to be seen.

1966-86

Only four Subalpine Warblers were recorded up to 1965, but eight have been recorded since then. The records up to 1965 were at Hook Head, Wexford, on 17th September 1933, at Maidens lighthouse, Antrim, on 13th June 1937, at Great Saltee, Wexford, on 10th September 1954, and at Cape Clear, Cork, on 6th and 7th October 1962. Since 1966 there have been six spring records, of which five have been in Wexford, and two autumn records in Cork. The spring records were on 28th May 1967 at Copeland, Down, on 31st May 1979 at Great Saltee; from 9th to 11th May 1981 at Hook Head; on 10th May 1982 at Great Saltee: on 8th and 9th May 1983 at Hook Head and from 2nd to 8th May 1984 at Great Saltee. The autumn records were at Cape Clear from 25th September to 3rd October 1979 and at the Old Head of Kinsale, Cork, from 13th to 17th October 1985. Subalpine Warblers were recorded annually from 1981 to 1985 but not in 1986.

Barred Warbler Sylvia nisoria The Barred Warbler is almost an annual vagrant in autumn to the south coast, occasionally being recorded elsewhere. Being a particularly skulking species it is probably more frequently overlooked than most other scarce warblers. There were six records prior to 1953 and 15 from 1953 to 1965. Since 1966 a further 43 have been recorded, all in autumn. The majority of the records since 1965 have been in Cork, but there have also been records in Clare (one), Down (three), Galway (one), Londonderry (one), Louth (one), Mayo (one), Waterford (two) and Wexford (three). Barred Warblers were recorded in each year from 1966 to 1986 except 1973 and 1980.

Sylvia comm unis

15

Barred Warbler

1966-B6

175

birds are returning migrants which have overshot their breeding or natal areas. The records in August and September are believed to be of birds which have migrated in a reverse direction from their natal area in England. Those which occur in October and early November are probably reverse migrants from an area of origin further south-east (Hutch inson 1980). A record of one bird in Clare on 20 th March 1976 has been withdrawn by the observer. The Siberian race S.c. blythi has been recorded once. on Great Saltee on 15th November 1954. 3D

Lesser Wh;tethroat

1966-B6

Jan

Whitethroat Sylvia communis

Lesser Whitethroat Sylvia curruca Lesser Whitethroats are annual spring and autumn migrants in very small but increasing numbers. Up to 1953 there were three May . one September and three October records (Kennedy et aI1954). From 1954 to 1965 a further 31 were recorded of which two were in April. four in May. one in June. one in August. 15 in September. six in October and two in November. Apart from two in Donegal and single birds in Antrim. Down . Dublin and Kerry . all the records were in Wexford and Cork. reflecting the concentration of birdwatchers at Great Saltee, Wexford. and Cape Clear. Since 1966 there have been a further 112 birds. They have been seen every year except 1967 and 1974 and have been in Antrim (two). Clare. Down (six). Louth. Waterford (six) as well as in Cork and Wexford. There is evidence of an increase in records. From 1966 to 1981 the maximum in a year was nine in 1977. but there were 20 in 1982.11 in 1983. five in 1984. 17 in 1985 and nine in 1986. One Lesser Whitethroat. trapped at Great Sal tee on 11 th May 1980. had been ringed as a juvenile in Devon in England on 12th August 1979. indicating that our spring

Whitethroats are widespread summer visitors to scrubland. thick and bushy hedgerows. waste land and young forestry plantations. Ruttledge (1966) considered that wherever there was rough cover Whitethroats were common. even in desolate regions. This was once indeed the case but numbers declined drastically in 1969 and. while there has been some recovery. they remain lower than they were in earlier years. In 1968-72. the mapped breeding distribution covered most of the country. with patches in Cork. Donegal, Galway. Kerry . Limerick. Mayo and Tyrone where the birds were absent (Breeding Atlas). The decline from 1969 onwards. which was experienced over much of Britain and the Continent as well, has been attributed to massive mortality in the winter quarters in the Sahel zone of west Africa on the southern fringe of the Sahara where there had been severe drought (Winstanley et aI1974). Numbers of breeding Whitethroats have rarely been censused. At Cape Clear. Cork . there were 20 to 35 pairs up to 1968. but only five pairs in 1969. about ten in 1979. 15 in 1983. eight in 1984 and 17 in 1986. Numbers of migrants declined at Cape Clear as well. The number of bird-days in 1974. the year of lowest numbers. was less than 10% of the 1959-69 average. but they increased thereafter and from 1980 to 1983 there were between 133 and 184 bird-days in autumn. In 1984 there were only 51 bird-days. At Copeland. Down. the average number of birds per day in spring dropped from 4 .2 in 1961-65 to 2 .15 in 1966-70 and 0 .42 in 1971-75 (CBOR). Densities on two sand-dune plots in Wexford in 1978-80 were surprisingly high and showed a steady increase. from 8.4-9.6 pairs per km 2 in 1978. to 19.0-20.4 in 1980 (0. J. Merne). At a

176

Sylvia borin

similar site in Down, in 1976-77, the mean density was 9.1 (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). In late May and early June 1985, in the Burren in north-west Clare. S. Cowdy recorded 41 singing males in an area of approximately 25 by 1 7 km. Birds were recorded from roads so the actual density was almost certainly far higher. Curiously. none at all were found in two census plots at Killinaboy in Clare in 1977 and 1978 (Moles 1982), though S. Cowdy found them so widespread in the Burren in 19 77 that she visited the area in 1985 with the intention of recording all the singing birds. At Great Saltee, Wexford, numbers of spring migrants were once very impressive. Up to 300 in a day, occasionally 500. were recorded in May. Numbers in autumn, at up to 30 in a day. were much lower (Perry & Warburton 1976). The highest totals at Cape Clear were 50 in spring and 31 in autumn, but these were before 1969 (Sharrock 1973). The earliest arrival date on record is 14th March 1902 at Blackwater Bank lightship, Wexford, and the latest was at Ballycotton, Cork, on 11th November 1981. Two birds wintered near Bantry. Cork, and two others on nearby Whiddy Island, Cork, in winter 1974/75.

Garden Warbler Sylvia borin Garden Warblers are summer visitors to the Shannon lakes, Lower Lough Erne and the Cavan lakes where they breed in small numbers. Elsewhere they are sporadic nesters. In the period 1968-72 they nested at Lough Derg, Lough Ree and Lough Bofin on the Shannon, at lakes in Cavan, Fermanagh, Monaghan, and on the shore of Lough Neagh, Antrim. In addition. breeding was proved or suspected in Carlow. Cork, Donegal. Down. Kerry, Leitrim, Louth, Meath, Tipperary, Waterford and Wexford, but in all cases either singly or in very small numbers. Apart from the cessation of breeding at Lough Neagh in the mid 1970s (NIBR 1982-85), the breeding range does not seem to have changed much since the end of the nineteenth century. Garden Warblers were then local breeders found mainly on islands or on the wooded shoreline of lakes (Kennedy et al 1954) and, while the range appeared to have extended since the mid nineteenth century, this was at least as likely to be due to increased investigation as to a real increase. In spring, Garden Warblers are scarce but annual migrants at Great Saltee, Wexford, from late April until the end of May and once in June (Perry & Warburton 1976). They are rare migrants at Cape Clear. Cork, in May. Numbers at Great Saltee are slightly higher in autumn from early August to early October, and a maximum of six was recorded on 4th October 1960. At Cape Clear. passage extends into early November, but numbers vary considerably from year to year. The peak count has been 28 on 5th October 1981. There are two winter records. One was seen on 18th February 1960 at Blackrock, Dublin, and one on 8th December 1976 at Raheny, Dublin.

Blackcap Sylvia atricapilla Blackcaps are local but probably increasing summer visitors. Small but variable numbers winter each year and there is a marked autumn passage. Up to 1966 the distribution in summer was considered to be extremely local. Most were believed to breed in Wicklow; a few bred in Cavan beside Lough Ramor and Lough Sheelln, perhaps near Killeshandra; several bred in Donard and Tollymore Parks near Newcastle, Down, and at Shane's Castle and Belfast Castle, Antrim. A few were believed to breed in Wexford, and breeding was reported in Limerick in 1964 (Ruttledge 1966). In the nineteenth century, Blackcaps were reported in summer in Antrim, Armagh, Cavan. Carlow, Donegal, Down, Dublin, Fermanagh, Galway, Kerry, Kildare, Kilkenny, Laois. Leltrim, Mayo, Meath, Roscommon, Sligo, Tipperary, Tyrone, Waterford. Westmeath, Wexford and Wicklow (Ussher & Warren 1900). The contraction in range from 24 counties to five or six appears to have occurred in the first quarter of this century (Kennedy et aI1954). Fieldwork in 1968-72 showed a picture which had completely changed and breeding was recorded in every county except Mayo, though distribution was patchy in the western half of the country. Breeding was considered probably in only one 10km square in Galway, one in Sligo and three in Roscommon (Breeding Atlas). Whether the general increase had occurred rapidly or had been a long but unnoticed process is unknown. However, the density of birds was still low and the total Irish breeding population was estimated at no more than about 1.500 pairs (Breeding Atlas). A particularly high density of birds was found at Mountain Lodge valley on the southern slopes of the Galtee mountains where there were 23 singing males in 1969. Only one had been found in 1956 and few were found in later years. In 1979 apair was proved to breed at Lough Corrib. the first record of nesting in west Galway, perhaps indicating a slow expansion in range. In Cork, numbers declined in the late 1970s but appear to be increasing again (K. Preston) and in the eastern part of the county birds were found in all suitable habitats in the early 1980s (P. Smiddy). Blackcaps also winter in Ireland, visiting bird tables in suburban gardens in Dublin, Belfast. Cork. Limerick, Waterford, Galway, Sligo and the midlands. The number of birds involved is difficult to assess. Prior to 1953, Kennedy et al (1954) reported about 70 occurrences in winter, but in 1985 a total of about 75 birds was recorded for the one winter. Even this understates the true total. During the winters 1981/82 to 1983/84, Blackcaps were present quite widely east of the River Shannon and with concentrations around the cities (Winter Atlas). Birds are difficult to count because they wander from garden to garden. In winter 1976/77 a total of 58 was ringed in orchards at Corbally House, Antrim. In the east coast counties of Dublin and Wicklow the total numbers of wintering birds recorded from 1980 to 1985 each year were 23.34, 53,40, 51 and 41 (IEeBR). More birds are reported in February than in the other winter months, perhaps because shortage of natural food brings the birds into

Phylloscopus schwarzi gardens at this time. Wintering Blackcaps are believed to be immigrants from northern and eastern Europe which arrive in late autumn after the breeding birds have departed. Four ringed, wintering birds have been recovered: one ringed in Austria in August 1961 was found dead in Wicklow in December 1961; one ringed in Down in February 1975 was recovered at St David's, Wales, in October 1975; one ringed in Antrim in January 1979 was recovered in West Germany in July 1981; and one ringed in Kerry in January 1982 was recovered in Cornwall, England, in January 1985. Passage migration in spring is thin at Great Saltee, Wexford, Hook Head, Wexford, and Cape Clear, Cork. Up to four in a day occur at Great Saltee from late March to mid May (Perry & Warburton 1976), up to three at Hook Head (Lovatt 1984) and similar numbers at Cape Clear (Sharrock 1973). In autumn, numbers are substantially greater, especially in recent years. Passage is from late August to early November at all these sites, and peak counts have been 30 at Great Saltee on 22nd October 1983,20 at Hook Head on 30th October 1982, 20 on the Old Head of Kinsale, Cork, on 31st October 1982, and 28 at Cape Clear on 26th October 1979. These numbers represented a considerable increase over those recorded in former years. At Cape Clear the largest number recorded in a day, before 1970, was 11. More than 20 were recorded in a day in 1973, 1975, 1979 and 1982. The increase in autumn numbers at bird observatories has been ascribed to a recent increase in easterly airflows, bringing more Blackcaps westwards from Europe, to an increase in the total Blackcap population, to a change in the species' habits or, perhaps, to a combination of all three (Langslow 1978).

177

Pallas's Warbler Phylloscopus prorequlus There have been only four records. One was seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 23rd October 1968. Three were seen in 1985: single birds 'at Cape Clear on 21 st October, at Sherkin Island, Cork, from 2 3rd to 27th October, and at Hook Head, Wexford, on 24th and 25th October.

Yellow-browed Warbler Phylloscopus inornatus Yellow-browed Warblers are annual late autumn migrants which arrived in large numbers in 1985 and 1986. Only two were recorded prior to 1953, one shot on the Tearaght, off Kerry, on 14th October 1890, and one seen at Great Saltee, Wexford, on the exceptionally early date of 6th August 1952. From 1953 to 1965 a further 15 were recorded at Cape Clear, Cork (eight), Great Saltee (two), Copeland, Down (two), Malin Head and Tory Island, Donegal (one each) and Inishbofin, Galway (one). Since 1966, Yellow-browed Warblers have been recorded every year except 1972, but all except four in Clare, and single birds in Down, Dublin and Louth, have been seen in the south coast counties of Cork, Waterford and Wexford. The pattern of occurrence is well-marked with all records between mid September and mid November, the great majority in October. Influxes in 1985 and 1986 produced unprecedented numbers, with at least 87 birds recorded in the first year and at least 59 in the second. The invasions coincided with an influx into Britain and much of western Europe. At Cape Clear, 24 were trapped and at least 50 were estimated to have passed through in 1985.

Greenish Warbler Phylloscopus trochiloides Although a number of records of Greenish Warblers have been published, most have been considered unacceptable following a recent review (Mullarney 1984). There are only nine accepted records, all of single birds: at Great Saltee, Wexford, on 25th August 1952 and 19th to 28th September 1957; at Cape Clear, Cork, on 29th August 1961 (originally accepted as an Arctic Warbler); from 25th to 29th September 1964; from 9th to 15th September 1983; from 6th to 10th October 1984 and from 29th September to 1st October 1985; and at Hook Head, Wexford, on 12th September 1981 and 18th September 1982.

120 Yellow-browed Warbler

1966-86

80

40

Jan

Arctic Warbler Phylloscopus borealis

Radde's Warbler Phylloscopus schwarzi

There are only six records of the Arctic Warbler. Single birds were recorded at Tory Island, Donegal, on 1st September 1960: at Cape Clear, Cork, from 8th to 10th September 1968, from 20th to 22nd October 1977 and on 5th October 1981; at Toe Head, Cork, from 20th to 25th October 1985; and at Loop Head, Clare, on 6th September 1986.

There have been two records. One bird was seen at Hook Head, Wexford, on 30th October 1982, and the other was seen at Helvick Head, Waterford, on 15th October 1985.

178

Phylloscopus fuscatus

Dusky Warbler Phylloscopus fuscatus The single Irish record Is of one found injured near Limerick City. about 5th December 1970. which died within a couple of days. The bird had been ringed at the Calf. Isle of Man. on 14th May 1970.

Bonelli's Warbler Phylloscopus bonelli There have been 12 records of Bonelli's Warblers. Two were recorded prior to 1966 and ten since then. The first two records were at Cape Clear. Cork. on 2nd September 1961, and at Great Saltee, Wexford. from 1st to 16th September 1962. Subsequent records have been at Cape Clear on 28th August 1968. 6th October 1968. 19th August 1970. 13th September to I l th October 1970. 26th August 1980 and 30th August to 1st September 1981: at Brownstown Head. Waterford. from 12th to 18th September 1981: at Hook Head. Wexford. on 27th and 28th August 1983. and from 25th August to 2nd September 1984: and at the Old Head of Kinsale. Cork. on 22nd August 1984.

sion at Clonbrock, Galway. In Sligo there were records at Hollybrook, though not annually. and a pair was seen at Colebrooke. Fermanagh. in May 1870. Occasional birds were also seen or heard in song at Glen Druid and Abbotstown, Dublin . at Clonmel, Tipperary. at Ballyhyland, Wexford. at Glenalla and Carrablagh, Donegal. and at Bog Meadows. Belfast. Antrim (Ussher & Warren 1900). In the first half of the twentieth century Kennedy et aI (1954) considered that there had been a reduction in breeding records and that no Wood Warblers were then nesting in Ireland. At Clonbrock, Galway. nesting had ceased some time around the turn of the century. Nesting was eventually proved in Wicklow in 1910. and several singing males were heard there in 1949. but no nesting pairs were traced. The only other cases of proved breeding were near Warrenpoint. Down. in 1932 and at Glengarrlff, Cork. in 1938. Wood Warblers were heard singing in a number of counties but they were considered to be unmated males which had moved too far west and unable to attract mates. In 1968 a pair was proved to breed in Derrybawn Wood. Wicklow, and breeding was repeated in 1969 and 1970.

Wood Warbler Phylloscopus sibilatrix The Wood Warbler is a rare breeding bird. though it occurs annually in suitable oakwoods, and is a scarce but increasing spring and autumn migrant. Breeding was rare and spasmodic in the past. In the nineteenth century. Wood Warblers were annual visitors to Wicklow where they were recorded repeatedly in Powerscourt, the Dargle valley . the Glen of the Downs. Derrybawn Wood and Glendalough. A nest was found in 1872 or 1873 at Brockley Park in Laois, and birds were seen regularly and proved breeding on at least one occa-

Antrim

1968 1969 1970 1971 1974 1975 1976 19 77 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986

Records oj breeding (b) and singing (s) Wood Warblers in Ireland. 1966 to 1986 Armagh Donegal Down Dublin FerGalway Kerry LondonMayo managh derry

Is

Is

2s Is 2s 2s 5s 5s Is

Is

Is

Is Is 4s

3s

3s Is

Is Is Is Is 2s

Is 4s 8s 7s

Is 3s

Wicklow

Ib Ib lb . Is 3s Is lb. Is 3s Ib.4s 2s Is lOs 2s 4s

Is

2s

Is Is 2s

Tipperary

Is Is

Is Ib.7s 1b. 13s

Phylloscopus trochilus Since then, there have been nesting records in Wicklow in 1975, 1977, 1985 and 1986, and in Mayo in 1981, but there have been many records of singing males in suitable breeding habitat. some of which may refer to pairs which subsequently bred. Considering how difficult it can be to prove breeding conclusively, the frequency of these records suggests that Wood Warblers probably breed every year. Some records have not been published in detail: these include the five nestlings ringed in Northern Ireland in 1985 and 15 in 1986. One nestling ringed in Antrim in 1981 was recovered in the same wood in 1985. Wood Warblers on spring migration were extremely rare at islands, headlands or lighthouses until recent years. Single birds were recorded in May at Blackrock, Mayo, in 1890; at Rockabill, Dublin, in 1912; at Maidens, Antrim, in 191 7 and at Copeland, Down, in 1963. Since then, there have been spring records at Great Saltee (singles in 1983 and 1984): Hook Head, Wexford (singles in 1971 and 1983); Cape Clear, Cork (one in 1973, two in 1977, singles in 1979 and 1981, three in 1983, one in 1984); Rathlin Island, Antrim (one in 1985); Copeland (one in 1981) and Howth Head, Dublin (one in 198 5). In autumn there has been a similar increase in records. More than twice as many autumn Wood Warblers were recorded in the ten years 1968-77 as compared with the previous ten years (32 against 15), and in the nine years 1978-86 a further 40 were recorded. This coincided with the increase in summer records from suitable breeding habitat. Wood Warblers are clearly increasing as spring migrants, summer visitors and autumn migrants. 45 Wood

(non-breeding)

1966-86

30

15

Chiffchatf PhyIloscopuS collubita

The Chiffchaff is one of our most familiar summer visitors. Small numbers spend the winter and there is considerable passage migration on the coast in spring and autumn. Chiffchaffs breed nowadays in every county and are absent only from north-west Mayo, though they are thinly distributed in west Donegal (Breeding Atlas). This was not always the case. In the early part of the nineteenth century Chiffchaffs were known to breed in only seven counties: Antrim (Belfast, Shane's Castle and Cushendall), Cork (at Castle Warren and Glengarriff), Down (Belfast, Bryansford

179

and Rostrevor), Dublin (Phoenix Park and Glasnevin), Kerry (near Tralee), Tipperary (near Clonmel) and Waterford (near the town). These were sites where there were woods with a good cover of undergrowth (Thompson 1849). In 1984 they were still scarce but by 1900 Chlffchaffs had increased considerably and bred in every county, though they were not so numerous as Willow Warblers (Ussher & Warren 1900). The increase continued in the present century. The first record at Achlll, west Mayo, was in May 1937 and breeding was proved in 1968-72. They increased their range in north-west Kerry in the 1950s and bred for the first time this century near Tralee in 1960 (Ruttledge 1966), and at Cape Clear, in 1986. Chiffchaffs arrive from early March onwards, most coming in the second week of May. At Great Saltee, Wexford, up to 100-200 birds per day (in some years as many as 600) have been recorded in spring (Perry & Warburton 1976). Numbers at Hook Head, Wexford. are lower. and ten in a day is usual, up to 150 having been recorded on three occasions (Lovatt 1984). Cape Clear. being further west has a much lower spring passage (Sharrock 1973). Autumn migration is from the end of August to the end of October, with stragglers into November; numbers at Great Saltee and Hook Head are much lower than in spring, maxima of about 30 per day being normal; numbers at Cape Clear are similar. On the north coast there is evidence of passage in September (Marsh 1975). In late autumn in most years. brown-and-white and grey-and-white Chiffchaffs are seen on the south coast, presumably of the race P.c. abietinus which breeds in Scandinavia and across north and west Russia, or the race P.e. tristis which breeds across Siberia and intergrades with obtetinus in the west of its range. These birds generally have a different call to the other Chiffchaffs present, but their precise area of origin is at present unknown. Chiffchaffs winter in Ireland in small numbers. During the winters 1981/82 to 1983/84 they were recorded in 19 counties, but most were on the south coast in Cork, Waterford and Wexford. However, there were records as far north as Antrim, Donegal and Londonderry (Winter Atlas). In Cork, where most winter, numbers fluctuate from year to year. In 1980/81. for example, there were records of about 150, but only 20 in 1981/82, 31 in 1982/83 and 11 in 1983/84 (CBR). It is not known whether most of the wintering birds are local breeders or immigrants from abroad. but one ringed in the breeding season at Bellarena, Londonderry. was retrapped again on 25th November 1974, indicating that the bird was wintering there (Marsh 1975).

Willow Warbler Phylloscopus trochilus

Willow Warblers are abundant summer visitors, arriving later than Chiffchaffs and departing a little earlier. They nest more widely than Chiffchaffs, being less dependent on woodland, their range extending into north-west Mayo, and are commoner than Chiffchaffs except perhaps

180

Regulus regulus

in the south-west (Breeding Atlas). Kennedy et al (1954) considered the Willow Warbler to be more numerous in western Connacht than it had been at the turn of the century. They are scarce. however. in oak woodland and it has been argued that this is because the species' niche is occupied by the Goldcrest (Batten 1976) or. alternatively. that they require a considerable amount of pioneer growth. particularly birch. and that thi s is replaced in Irish woods by holly which favours the Goldcrest (Wilson 1977). In an area of sea buckthorn at Murlough Nature Reserve. Down . a density of 200 pairs per km 2 was recorded in 1977 (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). Spring arrival is from the beginning of April, occasionally from 30th or 31 st March. At Great Saltee, Wexford . up to 200 in a day are frequent in April, occasionally up to 500 (Perry & Warburton 1976). and 2.000 have been recorded (0. J. Merne). At Hook Head . Wexford . the peak is usually 50-100 but 700 were recorded on 21st April 1968 (Lovatt 1984). Numbers at the much further west Cape Clear. Cork. are lower. 100 being very occasionally recorded and once 600. Departure is from late July with most leaving in August and September though stragglers pass through in October and there have been records as late as 6th November at Cape Clear . Numbers in autumn are lower than in spring. with up to 70 at Great Saltee, 150 at Hook Head . and not more than 100 in a day at Cape Clear. Birds showing the characters of the northern race P.t. acredula have been recorded on a number of occasions in spring at Great Saltee, with a maximum of 15 in a day. They appear to be much scarcer a t Cape Clear where there were only four records, with a maximum of five birds. in the period 1959-69 (Sharrock 1973). There have been no reliably identified Willow Warblers recorded in winter.

woods and large gardens. sometimes at high densities. In Irish oakwoods they are. together with Chaffinch. Robin , Wren and Blue Tit. among the five commonest breeding species. and at one census plot in Wicklow they were the commonest (Wilson 1977). Densities at the five census plots ranged from 92 to 195 pairs per km ' . Numbers in coniferous woods are substantially greater. and densities of 591 pairs per km 2 were recorded in Kerry in Norway spruce and 387 pairs per km 2 in Sitka spruce (Batten 1976). Numbers fluctuate considerably. dropping after severe winters but recovering quickly du ring a series of mild seasons. The numbers recorded in Kerry in 1973 by Batten appear to have been relatively high, as densities in Killarney oakwood in 1985 and 1986 were 40% and 20% , respectively, of the 1973 density (T. Carruthers). The 1985/86 winter was cold , so the decline was probably due to high winter mortality. In winter. Goldcrests are Widely distributed. with a reduction in numbers evident in the west (Winter Atlas). At this time they wander in loose flocks. usually with tits, and feed in hedges and loose scrub near the coast and by freshwater. as well as on the fringes of woodland. There is some spring movement noticeable on the coast and a marked autumn passage. At Great Saltee, Wexford, spring passage is from the end of March until mid May with up to about ten birds in a day. In autumn numbers are higher from September to mid November. A large movement was recorded in early October 1957 when about 200 were present (Ruttledge 1963). At Hook Head . Wexford, numbers are slightly lower, though 120 were recorded on 24th-26th October 1975 (Lovatt 1984). Numbers at Cape Clear fluctuate from year to year but follow a similar pattern. except that a few remain on into December or January in some years (Sharrock 1973). Peak numbers in autumn are usually about 30-50 a day but 200 were recorded on 28th October 1975. the year when the highest numbers were also at Hook Head , and 250 were seen on 12th October 1985 . On the ea st coast a small late March and early April movement and a larger autumn movement are evident (Hutchinson 1975) and the October 1975 south coast influx was reflected at Clogher Head, Louth. where there were several hundred on 7th October (LBR 1975). Passage is also evident at Copeland. Down (CBOR) and on the north coast (March 1975). Numbers occurring on migration at Copeland showed a steady increase both in spring and autumn from 1956 to 1975 (CBOR 1975). Peak numbers both in spring and autumn were in the three year period 1973-75 . Goldcrests come to Britain and Ireland in winter from northern Europe . east to Finland and Poland and south to France. Some British Goldcrests also cross the Irish Sea to winter here.

Goldcrest Regulus regulus

Firecrest Regulus ignicapillus

Goldcrests nest throughout the country. though they are scarce in the relatively treeless north-west of Mayo (Breeding Atlas). They occur in coniferous woods, deciduous

There were only nine records of Firecrests in Ireland before 1966. These were of a bird found dead near Glengarriff, Cork. on 7th December 1943, five seen on Valentia Island,

Ficedula parva Kerry, on 4th October 1951, and records at Cape Clear, Cork, of seven in October 1959, one in October 1960, one in September 1961, one in October 1962 and about eight in October and November 1964. Since 1966, Firecrests have been recorded in every year except 1970 and are now regular though scarce autumn migrants, rare winter visitors, and spring migrants. There were at least 22 in the ten years 1958-1 967 and at least 82 in the next ten years (Hutchinson 1980). Numbers have continued to increase: in autumn 1978 about 34 Firecrests were recorded and in autumn 1982 about 27. Most records have been on the south coast. from Wexford to Cork, but there have also been records in Clare. Down. Dublin, Fermanagh and Wicklow. Records in the winter months of December to February are still rare and have been from Cape Clear, Cork City, Knockaderry and Minane Bridge in Cork, Rathfarnham in Dublin, Banbridge and Rostrevor in Down, and Ennis in Clare. The increase in records mirrors an expansion in breeding numbers and range which has occurred throughout northwest Europe and has been reflected by the commencement of breeding in Britain in 1961 (Hutchinson 1980).

181

ten a day from August to mid September are regular at each of these sites. with stragglers through October and into early November. The highest autumn numbers have been about 50 at Great Saltee (Perry & Warburton 1976), 80 at Hook Head and 50 at Cape Clear. On the north-east coast there is thin spring and autumn passage at Copeland, Down, with rather more in spring than autumn. The maximum in a day was 20 in spring (CBOR 1975). On the north coast. passage is not noticeable (Marsh 1975). The earliest Irish record is of one at New Ross, Wexford, on 12 th March 19 55. The only other March records are of two at Seapoint, Dublin, on 20th March 1958, and single birds at Killegar, Leitrim, on 25th March 1973 and at Tinahealy, Wicklow, on 28th March 1978. The latest Irish record is of one which struck the Tuskar Rock lighthouse off Wexford between 20th and 30th November 1897.

Red-breasted Flycatcher Ficedula parva

Firecrest

1966-86

30

Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata Spotted Flycatchers are summer visitors, nesting in clumps of trees on farmland, in large gardens, on the edges of woods or in clearings, and in orchards and parks. They are widespread breeding birds, nesting in every county, though somewhat locally distributed in south Galway and north Mayo where trees are few (Breeding Atlas). In recent years there have been many reports of a marked decline in breeding numbers. These are among the latest spring migrants to arrive, the majority arriving between early May and early June. At Great Saltee, Wexford, up to 20 a day is the usual spring peak but over 100 were seen on 22nd May 1959 (Ruttledge 1963). Numbers at Hook Head, Wexford, are similar, though the maximum recorded was 34 on 10th May 1981 (Lovatt 1984). Very few occur in spring at Cape Clear, an exception was 1967 when up to 48 were seen in a day between 10th and 18th May. In autumn numbers of up to

The Red-breasted Flycatcher is an annual autumn migrant in small numbers. Before 1953 there were only nine records, comprising eight which died or were shot at lighthouses and one which was identified at Great Saltee, Wexford. Six were in October, two in September and one (at the Bull Rock, Cork. in 1903) as late as 18th November. After the establishment of bird observatories on islands and coastal headlands, records became annual or virtually so. Indeed, 1981 and 1982 were the only years between 1959 and 1986 when no Red-breasted Flycatchers were recorded at Cape Clear, and 1982 was the first year since 1958 that none was recorded in the country. They are mainly late September and October passage migrants, but single birds were recorded in May and August, and two in November in the period 1966-86. These records were on 7th May 1983 at Clogher Head, Louth, on 29th August 1970 and 4th November 1980 at Cape Clear, and on 7th November 1981 at Knockadoon Head, Cork. The records from 1966 to 1986 were all in Wexford or Cork except for the spring bird at Clogher Head and two autumn records in Clare. An extraordinary record is of an adult in summer plumage at Glenealy, Wicklow, on 8th July 1961. 45

Red-breasted Flycatcher

15

1966-86

182

Ficedula hypoleuca

Pied Flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca Pied Flycatchers are chiefly autumn passage migrants, but a very few occur in spring and breeding has recently been proved. Spring records have been mainly at Great Saltee, Wexford. and Cape Clear. Cork. At Great Saltee one was recorded in April and five in May from 1952 to 1974 (Perry & Warburton 1976). From 1977 to 1984 there were 13 in April or May and one in June (WBR). At Hook Head. Wexford. two were recorded in April. two in May and one in June (Lovatt 1984). and at Cape Clear . there were four spring records up to 1969 (Sharrock 1973) and about seven from 1970 to 1986 (CCBOR). None was recorded in spring at Copeland. Down, up to 1975 (CBOR 1975). In autumn there is marked passage at Great Saltee, Hook Head. Cape Clear and at the intervening headlands. Passage is from August to October and peaks in early September. Up to 15 have been seen in a day at Great Saltee, I 2 at Hook Head and 36 at Cape Clear. Even on the west coast a few birds are recorded in autumn at Loop Head . Clare. Pied Flycatchers breed commonly just across the Irish Sea in west Wales and it is surprising that there was no indication until very recently that they might breed in Ireland. though the very small number of spring records indicates how few birds overshoot on migration. There have been a number of unpublished records of Pied Flycatchers at woods in north-east Antrim and. after one such sighting in I 974. nestboxes were placed in a wood. In I 985 a pair nested in one of these nestboxes. raising at least two young (Bradley et al 1986). In 1976 one was seen inland in Wicklow on 28th April ; in 1978 a male sang at a Wicklow site for about a week from 20th May; in 1983 nestboxes were installed in the hope of attracting Pied Flycatchers and clutches were laid in two boxes in ] 985 . However. the nestlings in both nestboxes were predated and none fledged (Fagan 1986).

Bearded Tit Panurus biarmicus The first record of Bearded Tits in Ireland was of a pair in a small area of sedges near Dunleer, Louth. on 3rd January 1966. In I 972 a party of eight was seen at Cape Clear , Cork. on] 3th October. In ] 974 two males and two females were seen between Kilcoole and Greystones, Wicklow, on 10th October. From the following autumn. 1975. birds were present at a site in Wicklow and a pair bred in 1976. probably rearing two broods. They were not seen after December. but up to two females were seen in summer 1977. From January to July 1980 up to ten were present. In what year breeding recommenced. or whether it had been continuing since 1976. is unclear. but three. possibly four. pairs bred successfully in I 982; at least I 1 pairs were present in I 983 and breeding was again proved; at least three pairs bred in 1984 and at least two . probably three. in I 985. In Ring Marsh. Wexford. at least three juveniles were

seen in the first week of September ] 976. At Ballycotton. Cork. six were seen from 28th October to early November 1979. three on 28th September 1980 and one or two until December 1980. A male was present from Ll th January to at least 28th June 1981 and at nearby Ballymacoda a male was seen on I 5th April 1981. There were no subsequent records from these sites .

Long-tailed Tit Aegithalos caudatl/s Long-tailed Tits are common residents which breed over most of the country. only being absent from north and west Donegal. west Mayo and west Galway. south-west Clare and the Dingle peninsula in Kerry (Breeding Atlas). There is no evidence of any long -term change in numbers though Kennedy et al (1954) considered that this was one of the species most vulnerable to cold weather. a view confirmed by BTO census studies in England which have shown decreases of over 40% on farmland after hard winters. Kennedy et al (1954) considered that Long-tailed Tits had disappeared from parts of Tipperary. Galway. Mayo . Antrim and Down after the cold weather in January 1945 and that numbers in other counties were much reduced. The hard weather of February ] 947 had a further serious effect and Long-tailed Tits were scarce in most counties for a few years. The cold winter of 1916/17 was not considered quite so severe in its effects. Long-tailed Tits recovered their numbers within a few years after these winters and that of 1962/63 which also affected them. wiping out up to 80% in Britain but perhaps fewer here.

Parus major In winter they are widely distributed but. in the west. seem to retreat somewhat from their breeding range. presumably because of the shortage of food on the relatively treeless west coast (Winter Atlas). Long-tailed Tits wander a little in late autumn . A party of five was seen at Great Saltee, Wexford. in November 1959 and parties of up to ten have been recorded at Cape Clear on nine occasions from August to November. None wa s recorded at Cape Clear prior to 1968. perhaps reflecting the low level of the population after the 1962/63 cold winter. They have also been recorded at the Copeland Islands. Down. and on the Aran Islands. Galway.

Coal Tit Parus ater

Coal Tits are extremely common birds in Irish coniferous and deciduous woods and in mature gardens. They breed throughout the country except in the treeless north and west of Donegal. north-west of Mayo. south of Galway and much of the Dingle peninsula in Kerry (Breeding Atlas). They have spread in the west as plantations have been established (Kennedy et al 1954) and there are many reports of an increase in numbers in the last decade. In sessile oakwood this species was more numerous than the Blue Tit in two plots in Wicklow; it was less numerous in three in Kerry (Wilson 1977). It was always one of the six most numerous species in thi s habitat. and densities ranged from 66 to 102 pairs per krrr' in 1973 and 1975 (Wilson 1977). A repeat census in 1986 of a plot in Kerry. previously censused in 1973. showed a decline of 30% in numbers (T. Carruthers). possibly because numbers were unusually high during the earlier study which followed a series of mild winters when adult mortality was low. The winter distribution shows little change except that Coal Tits were seen on the western seaboard in Kerry. Mayo and Donegal (Winter Atlas). The Irish Coal Tit has been separated as a subspecies P,a. hibernicus on the basis of plumage coloration and larger bill size. However. there is considerable variation and birds showing the apparent characteristics of the Irish subspecies can be seen in flocks with birds resembling British Coal Tits P.a. britannicus. Single birds showing the characters of the Continental rate P.«. ater were seen at Cape Clear. Cork. on 6th and lith October 1959 and 13 th October 1961. Subsequent records at Cape Clear in 1970 (up to five). 1974 (u p to three). 1975 (two). 1976 (one). 1978 (one). 1979 (four). 1981 (five). 1985 (up to 20) and 1986 (up to 1 3) were all of birds showing similar characters to those on the mainland. The increase in records from 1970 may represent an increase in the local mainland population. There have been only two records at Great Saltee, Wexford (O.}. Merne).

183

Blue Tit Parus caeruleus The Blue Tit is a common and widespread resident. certainly more numerous than either Coal Tit or Great Tit. The breeding distribution in 1968-72 covered all the country except for a handful of 10 km squares in north Mayo . Blue Tits are well adapted to a range of habitats from deciduous woodland to hedgerow and gardens. In oakwoods they were more numerous in three Kerry plots than Coal Tits but were outnumbered in two Wicklow plots (Wilson 1977). Densities ranged from 83 to 233 pairs per km ", Kennedy et al (1954) noted that Blue Tits had the widest range of any of our tits as they inhabit open as well as wooded areas. They did not find them. however. on any of the marine islands off Connacht except Achill, Mayo. and noted that Rathlin, Antrim. and Lambay off the Dublin coast. were frequented by a few. A few pairs bred occasionally at Cape Clear. Cork. in the 1960s and there is an obvious arrival there in autumn. presumably of birds from the nearby mainland (Sharrock 1973). In recent years numbers have increased and as many as ten pairs were found in summer 1986 (Borton 1987). Great Saltee, Wexford. also has a few birds in autumn (Perry & Warburton 1976). An influx of up to 40 birds at Malin Head. Donegal. in October. appears to be an annual occurrence. In winter. Blue Tits are relatively uniformly distributed over the country. with higher densities around urban areas (Winter Atlas). Blue Tits do not move far in winter but form into flocks with other tits to forage in woodland and on hedges and scrub. In some years Blue Tits irrupt from the Continent into Britain but there is no evidence to suggest that many reach Ireland. During the tit invasion of Britain in autumn 1957 there was a maximum of no more than six in a day at Great Saltee, Wexford.

Great Tit Parus major The Great Tit is almost as widespread as the Blue Tit but is much less numerous. Great Tits are not quite so widespread on the western seaboard. and were described by Ruttledge (1966) as scarce there. but otherwise they nest all over Ireland ( Breeding Atlas). They occur in relatively low densities in Irish oakwoods. varying from 18 to

184

Certhia famiIiaris

41 pairs per km 2 in five plots surveyed (Wilson 1977). The winter distribution is similar to that in summer with most of the country, apart from the extreme west of Mayo and Donegal. occupied (Winter Atlas). There is a slight tendency for higher densities to occur in the eastern half of the country. Great Tits appear to be largely resident. though they wander in autumn and occur annually in small numbers on islands such as Cape Clear, Cork (Sharrock 1973). In some years birds remain on Cape Clear through the winter to breed the following summer. At Great Saltee, Wexford. they are even scarcer and all those trapped from an arrival of 12 in October 1957 proved to show the characters of the Continental race P. m. major (there was an invasion that autumn on the east coast of England). Numbers of Great Tits on the east coast and Kerry were considered to have been unusually high in October 1957.

Treecreepers have occurred once on Great Saltee, Wexford, in September (Ruttledge 1963), 14 times on Cape Clear . Cork, all between June and October (CCBOR). and seven times up to 1975 at Copeland, Down, once in April, but otherwise from July to September (CBOR 1975). These records indicate post-breeding dispersion.

Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus There were about 60 records of Golden Orioles up to 1965 in the months April. May and 'in summer'. Twenty-four of these records were in May: in addition, there was one record in October. Most were of single birds. but in four case s there were two birds together. once five together and once 'a small flock' . Most occurred in coastal counties in the south, but there were records in Limerick. Kildare, Kilkenny. Roscommon and Tyrone (two) (Ruttledge 1966). Since 1965 there have been records in 13 of the 21 years to 1986. A total of 36 birds was reported. of which 19 were in Cork, ten in Wexford. four in Wicklow and one each in Dublin , Kerry and Tipperary. More were reported in spring 19 79 than in any earlier year: a minimum of nine and perhaps as many as 12 were seen. Golden Orioles remain extremely rare autumn vagrants, with single birds at Cape Clear, Cork, on 8th September 1966 and at Ballygawley, Tyrone, on 2nd October 1953. the only records.

(

( I

Golden Oriole

15

1966 -86

10

JAn

Treecreeper Certhia [amiliaris Treecreepers nest both in deciduous and coniferous woodland wherever suita ble habitat exists . As a result. they are absent from north and west Donegal. north-west Mayo. parts of Clare and Kerry and th e vicini ty of the Mourne mountains in Down (Breeding Atlas). In winter they occur in much the same areas as in summer, though in the period 1981 /82 to 1983/84 they were not found in much of west Kerry (Winter Atla s). The difficulty in covering the countryside adeq uately wh en Treecreepers are at low densities may explain the apparent absence.

Red-backed Shrike l..anius collurio There were eight records prior to 1953 , seven between August and October and one in May. The spring record was at Great Sal tee , Wexford: the autumn records were in Cork (three) and in Down , Dublin, Galway and Wicklow (one ea ch) . From 195 3 to 1965 a further 14 were recorded. 11 in September or October, one in May and two in June. Six were in Cork. four in Wexford. two in Donegal and one each in Antrim and Armagh.

Lanius senator

185

Since 1966. Red-backed Shrikes have been recorded every year except 1967.1972.1973.1975 and 1984. Apart from two in Down and Wicklow and one in Dublin. all have been in Cork or Wexford. The late August peak comprises 12 birds. of which six were in 1976 and four in 1983. Records in other half-monthly periods are more evenly spaced. Adult Red-backed Shrikes are rare in autumn. only three having been recorded at Cape Clear. It appears likely from the age of the birds. the lateness of most of records and their concentration on the south coast. that the late September and October records are of reverse migrants from a population migrating south-east or east-south-east. The August records. which occurred during spells of easterly winds. were probably of Continental migrants displaced westwards by the weather (Hutchinson 1980).

15 Red-backed Shrike

1966-86

was one at Kinnegar, Down. from 13th December 1970 to 4th April 1971. Jan

Woodchat Shrike Lanius senator

Lesser Grey Shrike [,anius minor There have been three records. An immature was seen at Cape Clear. Cork. from 14th to 26th September 1962 ; an adult was seen at Great Saltee, Wexford. on 30th and 31st May 1978; and a juvenile was seen at Ballycotton. Cork. on 6th September 1985.

Woodchat Shrikes were recorded on four occasions before 1953. three in Wexford and one in Cork . Three records were in May and one in September (Kennedy et al 1954). From 1953 to 1965. 18 Woodchat Shrikes were recorded at Great Saltee, Wexford (nin e in May. four in August. five in September) and one at Cape Clear. Cork. in August. From 1953 to 1961, Woodchat Shrikes were recorded in every year except 1956 and 195 7. Since 1966 a further 18 have been recorded in the counties Cork (eight). Wexford (eight). Down and Waterford (one each). There is a tendency for most birds to appear in May and August but there have also been records in late April. June. July and October.

Great Grey Shrike Lanius excubitor There were at least 28 records in the nineteenth century. Since then there were three records from 1900 to 1965. and 13 from 19 6 6 to 198 6 . The nineteenth century records were widely scattered in at least 13 counties during August (three) and from October to March (Kennedy et aII954) . The records from 1900 to 1965 were of one shot in Meath on 23rd March 1906. and of singles at Blackrock lighthouse. Mayo . on 19th and 20th June 1957. and at Tory Island. Donegal. on 21st June 1957. Since 1966. single birds have been seen in Antrim. Armagh. Clare. Donegal. Down (two records). Dublin (two records). Galway. Louth. Wexford (three records) and Wicklow. The only bird to remain for more than a few days

Jan

186

Garrulus glandarius Magpie Pica pica

Magpies ar e commo n and inc reas ing residen ts. They wer e apparently first recorded in Wexford a bout 16 76 and sprea d rapidly th ereafter. By the end of th e nineteenth century. Magpies nested throughou t th e country , th ough they were sca rce r in the tr eeless pa rts of west Kerry. west Galway , Mayo and Donegal. A flock of 300-400 wa s record ed in Done ga l in 1882, a nd 15 0-200 were seen at Hook Head lighthou se on 18th October 18 9 3 (Ussher & Warren 19 00 ). In th e first half of this century Magpies appear to have increased in th e west because Kenn edy et al (1 954) found th em plentiful in Connemara. In 19 68- 72 they were pro ved to breed in all parts of th e cou ntry. including the en tire western sea board (Breeding A tlas) . The winter distribution is simila r but th ere is clearly a higher density of Magpie s in north-east Ireland than in the rest of th e coun try ( W inter Atlas). Ringing results sho w that Magpies ar e seden ta ry. but flocks are not unusual on headlands in autumn . Jay Garrulus glandar ius In Dublin City they have been kn own to bre ed since at Jays are distributed qu ite widely th roughout much of lea st 18 52 (Wa tters 185 3). Breeding den sity in Dublin was Ireland. but do not breed in parts of Antrim . Done ga l. west inv estigated from 19 80 to 19 8 3 a nd 7-8% of th e city wa s Sligo. Mayo. west Clar e. west Limerick. Kerry or west Cork surveyed for nests (Kavan agh 19 8 7). Th e breeding den sity (Breeding Atlas). Th ey ar e birds of decidu ou s a nd coni ferous wa s estimated at just over half th e nest den sity (58%). woodlands. a nd there app ear s to be ample suita ble habit at man y nests being unoccupi ed. In 19 8 3 th e nest den sity was 2 8.6 pairs per km 2 and th e breeding den sity wa s 16 .6 in seve ra l of th ese counties. Th eir absence is pu zzl ing . The distribution in win ter. from 19 81 / 8 2 to 19 8 3/ 84. pa irs per krn-. den sities far in excess of those recorded indica ted an expa ns ion furt he r west th an the breedin g any where else in th e Magp ie's range. In 19 70 a survey of ra nge in 1968-72 . indicat ing a real expa nsion of ran ge or part of Dub lin produced a ne st den sity of about three pairs a winter dispers ion ( W inter A tlas). Since Jays are cons idered per km -'. The re has been an aver age increase of 12-1 3% to be relati vely sede nta ry . it seems likely that th ey a re per an n um over 13 yea rs, and in 1980-83 this was coninc reas ing. a nd in Cork they a re conside red cer ta in ly to be tinu ing. increasing (K. Pr est on ). Large numbers occur in flocks: up to 30-40 were The re ha s clea rly been a prolon ged increase sinc e th e record ed in a flock in th e Pho eni x Park prior to 19 53 turn of th e century . Jays were greatly redu ced in numbers (Ken ne dy et al 19 54 ) but over 60 we re seen in a field in in th e earl y ninete enth cen tury. in Ulster a pparently Blackrock. Dublin . with 20 in th e adjoining field in 196 7. becau se of th e cu ttin g down of woods. and in Cor k becau se A roos t in trees in Herb ert Park in Du blin. between October birds were ta ken for the wing fea the rs . which were used and May in 197 1/7 2. regularly held up to 40 birds and on for tying sa lmon flies (Usshe r & Warren 19( 0 ). and in the one occa sion 70 wer e coun ted in February . latter half of th e century th e ran ge was restri cted to parts In Kerry. Magpi es were not found in Killarney woodland of Waterford. Tipperary . Kilkenny. Wexford . Carlow. Laois by a study team in 1973 but by th e ea rly 19 80s th ey were and Kildare. Breeding commenc ed in Meath in 1909 . in widespre ad in th e area (T. Carruthers). Clare sh ortl y after 1909. in Cork about 191 5. in Cavan At Cape Clea r. Cork. where some n est in gor se bushes and Long ford abou t 191 8. in Roscommon after 19 2 3. in in th e absence of tr ees. numbers of breeding Magpie s ha ve Arm agh about 1942. To both Dublin a nd Wicklow. Jays ran ged from eigh tin 1960 to 15 in 19 6 5. but the number of were only kn own as wanderers in 19 0 8. but were well nests h as not been cens used in recent yea rs. The maximum esta blishe d by th e 1940s (Ken ne dy et al 19 54 ). daily coun ts. however. show a mark ed incre ase in The first record west of th e Con nacht lakes was at Tour- n umbers. Th e maxi mum in a day up to 1969 was 35 makead y. Mayo. in January 19 58 : th e first record in Kerry (Sha rroc k 19 73). New peak s were 4 0 in October 19 72 . 74 was of five in Killarney in January 19 66. a nd breeding was in 19 75-77. up to 119 in a day in 19 80- 8 2 and 240 in pro ved there in 19 73: in Don egal there was a wint er reco rd early November 19 84 (CCBOR). Copeland. Down , has seen in GJenveagh in 19 81 / 82 to 19 8 3/ 84 . a similar increase in numbers of visiting bird s with bet ween The pattern of increase appea rs to in volve birds dis- one and four in a day up to 19 75. th en ma xima of ten in persing wes t in winter. and th en some rem ain ing to breed 19 78. 30 in 19 79 and 1 7 in 198 3 (CBOR). in lat er su mmers. It seems likely th at the inc rease is co nLar ge numb ers are sho t eac h yea r. In Cork. for example, tinuing. the Federation of County Cor k Gun Clu bs reported that The Irish race G.g. hibernicus is da rker a nd more rufou s 12 .905 were sho t from 19 8 2/ 8 3 to 198 3/ 8 4 . th an Briti sh Jays .

Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax

Chough Purrhacorax pyrrhocorax Choughs are familiar birds on the south, west and north coasts and breed inland in Kerry and at a few locations in west Cork and Connemara. They nested on all coasts in the first half of the nineteenth century. and at a number of inland mountain sites, but disappeared from Dublin about 1852 and from Wexford and the eastern parts of Cork late in the century (Ussher & Warren 1900). However. they nest in east Cork nowadays. a pair nested on Great Saltee, Wexford, in a number of years up to 1975 (Perry & Warburton 1976) and a pair continues to do so (O.J. Merne) , and there is a traditional site at Hook peninsula, Wexford. which is still in use (Lovatt 1984). The decline apparently continued into the early years of this century but numbers increased again from about 1925 (Kennedy et aI1954 ). A survey of the breeding population was undertaken in 1963 which produced a total of 567-582 breeding pairs, though coverage was incomplete in several areas (Cabot 1965). In 1982 a detailed survey was carried out and all known and likely Chough breeding sites were visited over a three and a half month period. including the mountain areas of Kerry and Cork, inland parts of Connemara and most offshore islands (Bullock et al 1983). A total of 656 breeding pairs was found. with an additional 29 possiblybreeding pairs, and 615-623 non-breeding birds were also

187

found. Kerry had the most birds, with the Dingle peninsula the best area. Results of 1982 census of breeding Choughs (after Bullock et al 1983) County Breeding NonChange in status pairs breeding since 1962 birds

Antrim Donegal Sligo Mayo Galway Clare Kerry Cork Waterford Wexford

9-10 109-112 5-6 73-75 38-39 31-34 205 -209 148-153 37-46 1

Total

656-685 615-623

3 103 6 72 33 35-37 131 171 59-65 2

Declined Probably no change Probably no change Probably no change Possible decline No change No change No change Possible increase Possible increase

Only 55 pairs were found nesting inland. The furthest inland was a pair on the inland edge of the MacGillycuddy Reeks in Kerry . 19 km from the sea. Over three quarters of

188

Corvus monedula

inland sites were within 8 km of the sea. Detailed comparison of the 1982 survey results with those for 1962 showed that the population was relatively stable, and comparison with records for the late 1800s showed that, despite the decline about the turn of the century, numbers had recovered completely. Choughs have a strong preference for areas where there is short-grazed pasture in which they can dig for food, and for undisturbed soils which are rich in invertebrates (Bullock et al 1983). Improvement of old coastal pastures is bad for Choughs and the decline in Northern Ireland, from 21-22 pairs in 1962 to 9-10 pairs in 1982, was attributed by Bullock et al (1983) to fencing of the coastal strip, preventing livestock from grazing the cliff slopes. Distribution in winter is similar to that in summer, though Choughs are vulnerable to prolonged frost, when they are unable to dig for their food, and many are said to have died in the hard winters of 1916/17 and 1962/63 (Winter Atlas). In autumn there is dispersal from Cape Clear, Cork, and numbers there are lowest from November to February (Sharrock 1975). This dispersal, if similar to that reported at Bardsey Island, Wales, is purely local and consists largely of young birds (Winter Atlas). The largest flock reported is of 231 in Kerry in 1968. There have been only three east coast records in the past hundred years. One was seen at Clogher Head, Louth, from 8th January to at least 18th March 1974; three were seen in the Mourne Mountains, Down, in October 1974 O.S. Furphy) and one was at Howth Head, Dublin, from 18th February to at least 29th March 1982. All were presumably wanderers from the Isle of Man or Wales.

Jackdaw Corvus monedula Jackdaws breed almost everywhere in Ireland, with the exception of the Bog of Erris in north Mayo where there are few nest sites. They nest in chimneys, ruined buildings, other man-made structures, and in holes in trees and cliffs. In the last century there were records of breeding in rabbit burrows in open fields in Fermanagh, Down, Donegal and Tyrone (Ussher & Warren 1900). The population was increasing in the 1950s (Kennedy et al 1954) and 1960s (Ruttledge 1966) and is probably still expanding. Among the largest concentrations in the country are the cliff-breeding birds at Downhill, Londonderry, and the Giants's Causeway, Antrim. Jackdaws bred on few of the offshore islands in the early 19 50s. They nested at Valentia, Kerry, and Achill, Mayo, but did not breed on the Blaskets, Kerry, the Aran Islands, Galway, the remoter islands off the Galway and Mayo coast, Tory Island, Donegal (though they bred in the past), Inishtrahull, Donegal and Rathlin Island, Antrim. Jackdaws did nest on the islands of less exposed coasts such as the Copelands, Down, Lambay Island, Dublin, and the Great Saltee, Wexford (where about 50 pairs bred). Nowadays they nest on the Aran Islands (Breeding Atlas) and Rathlin Island. Cape Clear, Cork, was colonized in the late 1970s and nine pairs attempted to breed in 1984. At Great Saltee,

in contrast, numbers have declined, only 19 pairs bred in 1975 (Perry & Warburton 1976) and numbers remain low (0. J. Merne). In winter, Jackdaws are found throughout the country, with lower densities in the west and in upland areas (Winter Atlas). They feed mainly in pasture fields, especially where these have been grazed, though they will scavenge in gardens and around farmyards. They roost, usually with Rooks, in large communal woodland roosts. On the south coast large numbers of Jackdaws are frequently seen in late autumn at Great Saltee and Cape Clear. These flocks appear to be wanderers from the mainland which move out to the islands in high pressure conditions, but usually return after a few hours. There is immigration in autumn, however, from Britain and perhaps from the Continent but the scale of these movements is unknown.

Rook Corvus frugilegus Rooks are abundant birds in Ireland. They nest throughout the country with the exception of west Mayo and parts of south-west Galway where the absence of woodland restricts this and other three nesting species. The population in northern Ireland was censused in 1975 as part of a survey of rookeries in Britain and Northern Ireland (Sage & Vernon 1978). A total of 108,837 nests was counted in 2,765 rookeries, with the highest density in Londonderry where there was an average of 12.6 nests per km', much higher than in any county in Britain. Indeed, the average density in Northern Ireland of 8.0 pairs per km 2 was much greater than in England (3.9), Wales (1.9) or Scotland (3.3). The mean size of rookery was 39 nests, though there were two rookeries which had over SOO nests, Kinghill, Down (528), and Loughguile, Antrim (728). Rooks are birds of mixed agriculture, preferring areas of tillage and grassland (O'Connor & Shrubb 1986), and the farming economy of Northern Ireland provides the ideal habitat. In the Republic, rookeries were surveyed in Kildare in 1981 and a breeding density of 47.4 nests per km 2 was found, three-quarters of the birds being in rookeries of less than 100 nests (Macdonald 1985). This density is even higher than that found in Northern Ireland. The only information on density over most of the Republic is for the winter and it is clear that the numbers found in Northern Ireland and in Kildare are among the highest in the country. Numbers are high in much of the east and southeast but relatively low in the west (Winter Atlas). An increase was considered to have taken place in the first half of a twentieth century (Kennedy et aI 1954). Irish Rooks are resident and rather sedentary, though flocks visit marine islands in summer and autumn, typically in conditions of high pressure. Macdonald & Phelan (1986) have shown that east coast Rooks have a large feeding range in late summer and late winter, when food availability is low and the birds reproductively inactive. In spring, autumn and early winter, the feeding range is more restricted. On the east coast there is some evidence of

Corvus corax movement in spring and late autumn (Hutchinson 1975). Kennedy et al (1954) reported that Rook s had been seen departing in autumn from the west coast and immigrating at south-western and western light-stations, and considered that the immigrants were from the Continent. It seems more likely that these autumn movements were local ones, such as have been frequently observed at Cape Clear, Cork, when flocks come out from the mainland, fly south, then return after an hour or two, cawing loudly. Winter roosts number many thousands of birds at some woodland sites .

189

estuaries, where there is more food available for scavengers than in the past. Carrion Crows were extremely rare up to the 1950s. Breeding took place in Mayo in 1890 and in Down in 1949. In addition. a male interbred with a Hooded Crow in Down in 1908, a bird interbred with a Hooded Crow in Antrim in 1943. a male interbred with a Hooded Crow in north Dublin in 1935. and a female with a Hooded Crow in south Dublin from 1939 to 1948. A scattering of birds was recorded in various parts of the country, but Carrion Crows were considered rare vagrants (Kennedy et al19 54). In addition to these records a pair nested in Dublin in 1947 (Hutchinson 1975).

Carrion Crow/Hooded Crow Corvus corone The grey-and-black Hooded Crow C.c. cornix is the common race in Ireland, the all-black Carrion Crow C. c. corone being very scarce. Hooded Crows are ubiquitous. nesting Widely even in north-west Mayo where so few other tree-nesting species breed (Breeding Atlas). They use cliffs, small bushes, electricity pylons and other man-made structures for nest sites in the absence of trees. They were considered to have increased since 1924, to be still increasing in the 1950s (Kennedy et al 1954). and to have noticeably increased in the late 1950s and early 1960s (Ruttledge 1966). Certainly, in Dublin they did not become regular visitors to the North Bull until 1929. Nowadays, parties of 15 or 20 are normal there (Hutchinson 1975). In winter. Hooded Crows are widespread and numerous with relatively low densities only in parts of Donegal. Galway and Mayo (Winter Atlas). Ruttledge (1966) recorded that the largest flock on record was of 94 birds . Since then a number of flocks of 100 have been recorded and the largest published count is of 167 at Youghal, on 17th March 1978, suggesting that the increase continues. In Cork a total of 22,300 was reported shot in winters 1982/83 and 1983/84 by the Federation of County Cork Gun Clubs. At Cape Clear. Cork, numbers recorded annually have shown no sign of any change. and the number of breeding pairs in 1986. at 19. was less than the 25 located in 1985. so it may be that an increase (if such has occurred) has been localised in areas near towns and

From the late 19 50s onwards. Carrion Crows appear to have become more regular. in 1956 a pair bred in Kerry: in 1968-72 birds nested at several locations in Antrim and Down (Breeding Atlas) and presumably continue to do so. Certainly. Carrion Crows are now so widespread in winter, albeit in very small numbers, on the east and north-east coasts (Winter Atlas) that it seems probable they are nesting at several sites. At Cape Clear, Carrion Crows are rare autumn migrants. Hybrid Carrion/Hooded Crows are recorded in winter in Louth. Antrim and Down (Winter Atlas), and occasionally in Wexford (0. J. Merne).

Raven Corvus corax Ravens have increased considerably this century and now breed in most upland districts and on coastal cliffs. During 1968-72 they were proved to nest in all counties except Monaghan, Meath . Longford, Kildare and Offaly. In Dublin and Wicklow a survey of 45 nests showed that 22 were on inland cliffs. 14 in trees and the remainder in quarries,

190

Sturnus vulgaris

on sea-cliffs and on man-made structures (G. C. Noonan). In winter they were found to be more widespread from 1981/82 to 1983/84. possibly reflected some dispersion but also indicating that the breeding range may have expanded (Winter Atlas). Certainly. there has been a continued increase this century. Ravens were plentiful in Ireland in the nineteenth century. but persecution by gamekeepers and shepherds reduced numbers considerably until by 1900 distribution was largely coastal and none nested in Dublin. Fermanagh. Leitrlm. Londonderry. Sligo, Tyrone or Wexford (Ussher & Warren 1900). The recovery began early in the twentieth century and breeding recommenced in Dublin in 1917, Kilkenny in 1929. Wexford in 1944. By the early 19 50s. Ravens were again breeding in all the counties they had abandoned at the turn of the century. Indeed. six pairs were known in 1987 to breed in Kildare. where none was found in 1968-72 (G. C. Noonan). Irish densities have been reported as rather low with only 1.5 pairs per 10km square in Dublin and Wicklow (Breeding Atlas). However. nest sites are difficult to find and the Breeding Atlas data. which referred mainly to Wicklow. understated the real density in squares where Ravens were nesting. The long-term study of Ravens in 2.025 km 2 in Wick low and adjoining counties. on which the 1968-72 data was based. had resulted in the identification of 80 breeding territories by 1987. Visits were made to 62 in 1986. and 44 were occupied. Breeding was probably successful at 3 1 of these sites . six failed and the results at three were not known. Ten of the nests were in trees. but tree nests have been used at least once since 1940 in 44 of these 80 territories. Even though this study has been in progress since 1972 . six of the 80 breeding territories were not discovered until 1987. From 1972 to 1987 the mean brood size of 327 broods ringed was 3 .18 (G. C. Noonan) . In Northern Ireland. nesting was proved at 119 territories between 1980 and 1987. of which 114 were visited in 1987 and at least 97 were found to be occupied by pairs. Nesting occurred at a minimum of 87 sites, with 71 successful and at least 209 young fledged. However. the number of young fledged at some of these nests was not known for certain. At the 42 nests where brood size was counted accurately the mean was 3.28. Most of the ten nest failures were caused by storms in early March; at only one was human interference the cause. The nest sites were on natural cliffs (52). in quarries (25) or in trees (ten). Taking into account the level of coverage. the Northern Ireland population was estimated after the 1987 census at about 170 pairs of which about I 50 pairs nest annually 0. H. Wells). This is a density of about one pair per 10 km square. Ringing recoveries show that young birds disperse widely through suitable habitat. Numbers increase at Cape Clear . Cork. in autumn (Sharrock 1973). presumably because of dispersal of the local mainland population. One Scottish ringed bird has been recovered in Londonderry.

Starling Sturnus vulgaris Starlings are common nowadays everywhere in Ireland. but this was not always the case. In the mid nineteenth century they were common in winter and bred quite widely but not in large numbers. By the end of the century Starlings had bred in every county but were unknown in summer in west Cork. in mainland Kerry. and only a few scattered pairs were nesting in Wexford and Waterford (Ussher & Warren 1900). Numbers increased in the first half ofthe present century. By the early 19 50s Starlings nested in mainland Kerry but were still absent from the Dingle peninsula and scarce in west Cork. where the first breeding in Bantry was not proved until 1935. In Waterford and Wexford numbers were still low (Kennedy et al19 54). Cape Clear . Cork . and the Dingle peninsula were colonized about 1955. and the islands of Inlshbofin. Galway. and Achill. Mayo. in 1962 and 1965 respectively. By 1968-72 Starlings were nesting in virtually all the 10 km squares in the country (Breecling Atlas).

In late summer. large flocks of juveniles disperse widely. visiting islands such as Cape Clear from the end of June onwards (Sharrock 1973). Later in autumn there is massive immigration from the Continent. and in winter. when there is exceptionally hard weather, there are further arrivals. Most of the winter visitors are from Scandinavia. Holland. northern Britain, north Germany and Poland. At times thousands can be seen arriving in late autumn at Great Saltee, Wexford. where 5.00D-1O.000 birds have been recorded in a day in November (Perry & Warburton 1976). There are enormous roosts at some sites . In 1845 there were said to be 200.000 roosting in the Phoenix Park. Dublin. By 1954 that roost was said to be far larger. There is also a huge roost at the Dublin gasworks and at O'Connell Street. Dublin (Hutchinson 1975). Roosts of 25.000100.000 birds occur in several counties and are generally in woods. in reedbeds, on cliffs or on buildings. In many instances roosts of over 100.000 birds have assembled at

Passer montanus

191

one site for several years and have then deserted the area. Winter visitors leave in March and early April.

Rose-coloured Starling Sturnus roseus The Rose-coloured Starling was recorded on about 37 occasions prior to 1953, on two occasions between 1953 and 1965, and ten times from 1966 to 1986. The records up to 1953 were in Antrim, Clare (three). Donegal (five), Down (three), Dublin (six), Galway (two). Kerry (four). Londonderry (two), Mayo (four), Meath, Monaghan, Tipperary (two) and Wexford (th ree). The month of occurrence is known for 29 records; these were in June (eight), Ju ly ( Ll ), August (five). September (three) and November (two) (Kennedy et aI1954). From 1953 to 1966 the only records were of single birds at Great Saltee. Wexford. from 25th to 28th September 1954 and at Cape Clear, Cork, from 31st August to 8th September 1961. The ten birds recorded since 1966 were in Cork (two). Down. Dublin, Fermanagh, Galway (three), Mayo and Wicklow and were in the months June (two), July (three). August (two). September (two) and November (one).

House Sparrow Passer domesticus House Sparrows are familiar birds of towns. farmyards, houses. factories and other buildings, breeding widely throughout the country. In 1968-72 they were found to be absent from only four of the 10 km squares with significant amounts ofland (Breeding Atlas). They form into flocks in autumn, and forage around farmyards. in gardens and in hedgerows for the winter. House Sparrows are very sedentary and autumn movements are limited. though birds have been reported from many marine islands and light-stations. The winter distribution shows the highest numbers in the north-east and east approximating to the areas of highest human population (W inter Atlas). House Sparrows withdraw from the mountains of Donegal. Wicklow and Kerry in winter. Kennedy et aI (1954) reported a decrease in the west and attributed it to replacement of thatched roofs with slate. Ruttledge (1966) believed that the decrease had continued but there are no quanutative data to verify this.

Tree Sparrow Passer montanus Tree Sparrows nest in small colonies around the coast. in the Lough Neagh basin and at a handful of other inland sites . The history of the species in Ireland is of decline and recovery. Tree Sparrows nested in Dublin in the nineteenth century, but had gone by the 1940s; two small colonies in Kerry had disappeared by the late 1940s; three Mayo colonies had been abandoned by the end of the 1930s; a Sligo colony was no longer in existence in 1948; colonies in Londonderry and Antrim had ceased to exist by the late 1940s. Only in Donegal could Kennedy et aI (1954) be sure that a few pairs continued to breed at Dunfanaghy. Even this colony had disappeared by 1956. In 1955 a few pairs bred in Londonderry, in 1956 a few in Down, and in 1957 and 1958 a few bred at the Gobbins, Antrim. In 1959 and 1960 there were scattered reports of Tree Sparrows but no report of breeding. In 1961 there were breeding reco rds in Donegal, Londonderry and Mayo . and about 50 birds were seen at Malin Head, Donegal. in October. In 1962 breeding was pro ved in Dublin. where 40 birds had Wintered . and in Down where 55 had been

192

Vireo olivaceus

seen in March. By 1965 breeding had been proved in Antrim, Armagh, Cork, Donegal, Down, Dublin, Galway, Londonderry, Louth, Mayo, Sligo, Waterford, Wexford and Wicklow. The colonies were all small, usually consisting of less than six pairs and that at St John's Point, Down, was considered the largest with about 12 pairs. Most birds nested in ruined buildings. The majority of colonies were on the coast, but even those inland were within sight of an expanse of water (Ruttledge 1966). During 1968-72, breeding was also proved in Clare, Fermanagh, Kerry, Kildare, Leitrim. Roscommon and Tyrone (Breeding Atlas). The population was obviously growing rapidly. In 1969/70 the winter population in north Dublin was estimated to be at least 300. In February 1970 a flock of 150 was on Oxford Island, Lough Neagh, Armagh. The winter distribution as mapped in 1981/82 to 1983/84 shows the largest numbers on the north coast (Donegal and Londonderry), around Lough Neagh, inland in Down, in Louth, Meath and north Dublin, and in Wexford. There were also records from a number of inland sites, but there were no Kerry records at all (Winter Atlas). Winter counts in north Dublin indicate a similar population level to that in the late 1960s. Tree Sparrows appear to be largely sedentary, but there have been records at coastal bird observatories. At Great Saltee, Wexford, ten were seen on 11 th May 19 59 (Perry & Warburton 1976) and at Cape Clear, Cork, there were four records in the period May to July from 1959 to 1969 (Sharrock 1973). Since then there have been several records, mainly in May and June. It may be that these are wandering adults searching for suitable breeding sites.

Red-eyed Vireo Vireo olivaceus

One was recorded prior to 1966, a bird picked up dead at the Tuskar Rock lighthouse, Wexford, on 4th October 1951. Since then eight have been recorded, six at Cape Clear, Cork, and one each in Waterford and Wexford. The Cape Clear records were on 6th and 7th October 1967, from 27th September to 2nd October 1978, on 24th September 1981, on 9th October 1982, from 2nd to 7th October 1985 and from 19th to 23rd October 1985. The other records were at Hook Head, Wexford, from 26th September to 1st October 1981, and at Brownstown Head, Waterford, on 17th October 1985.

Chaffinch Frlnqilla coelebs

Chaffinches are numerous breeding birds anywhere trees or bushes are to be found. They occur in highest densities in deciduous woodland but also frequent coniferous woodland, hedgerows, gardens, orchards, farmyards and scrub. In sessile oak woodlands Chaffinches were the most abundant bird species in three Kerry plots and in one out of two Wicklow plots sampled (Wilson 1977). Densities varied from 108 to 326 pairs per km". The lowest density was in ungrazed woodland. Simms (1972) found the Chaffinch the most abundant bird species in 19 sessile oakwoods he visited. In an area of sea buckthorn in Down, Chaffinches were the second most common species with a density of 156 pairs per km 2 (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). In autumn, large flocks of Chaffinches pour into the country from Fenno-Scandia and other parts of the Continent. The winter immigrants arrive from October to mid November but mainly in late October and early November. Most arrive first in south-east England, having crossed Europe south through Denmark, Belgium and Holland, and a proportion travel on to Ireland. The largest numbers are seen in Wexford, and flocks of 1,000 occur at times at Great Saltee. Numbers at Cape Clear, Cork, are usually low but the quite exceptional total of 9,500 was seen there on 29th and 30th October 1959. These immigrants consist largely of northern birds F. c. coelebs. which are larger and paler than our resident F. c. gengleri. Female Continental Chaffinches predominate because they usually migrate further than the males (Newton 1972). In winter, Irish birds tend to feed in small groups in woods or near hedges, whereas Continental Chaffinches feed in large flocks in fields. The winter distribution covers the entire country but the largest numbers are in the north, east and south-east (Winter Atlas). The winter visitors depart in mid March.

Brambling Fringilla montifringilla

The Brambling is a winter visitor from the Continent in varying numbers. From 1981/82 to 1983/84 Bramblings were found rather thinly across much of the country East of the River Shannon, but were very scarce in the west (Winter Atlas).

Philadelphia Vireo Vireo philadelphicus

The single record, the first for Europe, is of one at Galley Head, Cork, from 12th to 17th October 1985.

Bramblings are present from October to March, occasionally in April. They usually occur with Chaffinches and prefer areas with beechmast. There were unusually large numbers in the winters of 1949/50, 1952/53 and 1981/82 and 1983/84. Flocks of 100 and 300 were counted in Down and Wicklow, respectively, in 1952/53, and of 350 in Cork in 1983/84. Only in the east coast counties and in Cork have records been published of the numbers recorded over a number of years, and these clearly illustrate the fluctuations from year to year.

Carduelis spinus Number of Bramblinqs recorded in east coast counties of Louth, Meath, Dublin and Wicklow (source IECBR) and Cork (source CBR), 19801986 East coast Cork 1980 4 17 1981 60 9 1982 155 130 1983 40 45 1984 259 421 1985 43 25 1986 260 107

In summer single birds were seen in Down on 13th June 1910, and at Great Skellig, Kerry. from 8th to 15 th July 1943.

Serio Serinus serinus There have been six records. Single birds were captured by birdcatchers in Co Dublin in January 1893 and on 1st February 1907. One was seen and heard singing at Fermoy, Cork, in May 1947. Single birds were seen at Clogher Head, Louth, on 19th May 1974, at Cape Clear, Cork, on 11 th and 12 th November 1975, and at Galley Head, Cork, on 2nd October 1979.

193

Goldfinch Carduelis carduelis The Goldfinch breeds in every county and has extended its range in the past fifty years. In 1968-72, breeding was reported from all parts of Ireland, with a patchy distribution only in parts of Donegal. west Mayo, west Galway and west Kerry (Breeding Atlas). In the nineteenth century the Goldfinch was reduced in numbers by the activity of birdcatchers (Ussher & Warren 1900), but it increased after the passage of bird protection legislation in 1930 and 1931, especially in Ulster and north Donegal, though it was still scarce in west Donegal, west Mayo and west Kerry in the early 1950s (Kennedy et al 1954). By the early 1960s breeding had been proved on Achill Island, Mayo, and the Aran Islands, Galway, thought there had apparently been a decline in eastern counties (Ruttledge 1966). In autumn there is some immigration, which is particularly noticeable at Great Saltee, Wexford, from late September into November. Up to 50 a day have been recorded in November. At Cape Clear, Cork, similar passage is noted and up to 226 have been seen in a day (Sharrock 1973). These birds may be British Goldfinches or else Irish ones moving south to winter on the Continent. In winter, Goldfinches are widespread, numbers in the west being as high as those in the east, reflecting their preference for open country rather than woodland. They are absent, however, from mountainous parts (Winter Atlas). A thin spring passage is noticeable at coastal headlands and islands in April and May.

Greenfinch Carduelis chloris The Greenfinch is a common resident species, breeding in all parts of the country, apart from relatively treeless parts of west Galway, west Mayo and north-west Donegal (Breeding Atlas). At the turn of the century Greenfinches were apparently absent from the coast of Donegal and from The Mullet, Mayo (Kennedy et al 1954). By the early 1960s they had extended into these areas, though thinly. There were reports of a decline in the 1960s (Ruttledge 1966) but no quantitative date have been published. In winter the highest densities are in the north-east, east and south, though Greenfinches winter throughout Ireland (Winter Atlas). After breeding, they assemble in flocks to feed on arable land, in recent years showing a preference for oil-seed rape. Flocks of 100 are not unusual in favoured areas. There is evidence of an increase at the coast in autumn, and numbers at bird observatories and lightstations are highest in September and October. Passage is again noticeable at these sites in April and May, but whether these are mainly local birds or involve birds from Britain and the Continent is unknown. A small number of British Greenfinches winter in Ireland, as shown by ringing recoveries, and a few Continental birds may do so as well.

Siskin Carduelis spinus Siskins have increased in numbers .and expanded their range this century, presumably in response to the spread of forestry plantations. In 1968-72 they were found widely distributed in forestry in Antrim, west Cork, Donegal, Fermanagh, Galway, Kerry, and Londonderry, and more patchily in other counties (Breeding Atlas). In the mid nineteenth century Slskins were winter visitors, but by 1900 breeding had been proved in 16 counties. By 1953, breeding had been proved in another six counties and suspected in three others (Kennedy et al 1954). Ruttledge (1966) reported that a serious decline in numbers had been reported in Donegal and certain other counties in recent years, but the distribution recorded in 1968-72 indicated a strong population. In autumn, Siskins wander from woodlands and reach places like Great Saltee, Wexford, and Cape Clear, Cork, where up to 103 have been seen in a day (Sharrock 1973). Whether there is much immigration is unknown, but a bird ringed in Down in January 1982 was retrapped in Estonia the following autumn, and one ringed in West Germany in November 1974 was recovered in Limerick in spring 1975, so some Continental migrants certainly reach us. Ringing has also shown four cases of movement between Ireland and Britain. The winter distribution is rather patchy but indicates a shift towards the south, or perhaps some immigrants wintering in the southern half

194

Carduelis cannabina

of the country (Winter Atlas) . In the past five years there has been a marked increase in reports of birds coming to bird tables.

Linnet Carduelis cannabina Linnets are common and widespread birds which breed in almost every part of the country. including all suitable marine islands. though they appear to be rather scarce in central Ulster (Breeding Atlas). They feed on weed seeds and find these on farmland . young conifer plantations. scrubland. sand-dunes and waste land generally. Breeding densities on sand-dune systems are relatively high and have been found to range from three to 21 pairs per km 2 in Wexford (O.J. Merne). to 22 pairs per km 2 in Down (Nairn & Whatmough 1978). Passage migration in autumn is heavy in Wexford. Up to 500 a day have been recorded at Great Saltee and 'great numbers' at Carnsore Point (Ruttledge 1966). Numbers at Hook Head. Wexford. build up from 100-200 in early August to 300--400 in mid to late September. with sometimes 1.000 in a day. Up to 400-600 winter at Hook Head (Lovatt 1984). Numbers up to 600 a day have been seen at Malin Head . Donegal. in October. At Cape Clear. Cork. the highest numbers are also in autumn and involve separate peaks in late August and in early October (Sharrock I 973). These birds are believed to be mostly on passage as relatively few Linnets winter in Ireland. Some Irish Linnets certainly move south to winter in western France and parts of Iberia and some British birds move into Ireland in autumn. though it may be that most move on south (Newton 1972). In winter Linnets are concentrated in the south and east of the country. especially near the coast and are absent from central and southern Ulster and much of Galway (Winter Atlas).

A spring passage is noted on a small scale in Wexford. but is more marked at Cape Clear 107'1\

Young Twite

Twite Carduelis flavirostris Twites have a restricted distribution. breeding on and near the coast from Rathlin Island. Antrim. west to Donegal and south to Kerry and west Cork . In 1968-72 . breeding was recorded far inland only in Carlow. Londonderry and Mayo . though suspected in north Wexford and Sligo (Br eeding Atlas). There are indications that Twites have declined in the past 80 years but little information is available on their past distribution. Ussher & Warren (1900) referred to nesting in Waterford and around Lough Neagh. neither of which is a breeding area now. They considered that Twites were common and characteristic birds of mountain and rocky coasts in all provinces. Twites bred in the mountains of Dublin and Wick low in 1900. and presumably in the 1950s as Kennedy et al (1954) did not refer to any change in status. but they were gone by the late 1960s. Winter distribution is similar to that in summer. except that small parties appear on estuaries and salt marshes as well as on bogland and heath (Winter Atlas) . There has clearly been a marked decrease in winter on the east coast. Kennedy (1953) recorded Twites as regular in winter on the North Bull. Dublin. sometimes in large numbers. and he had one record of several hundred. Nowadays. numbers on the east coast from Louth to Wick low are very low . From 1980 to 1985 more than five were recorded only in winter 1984/85 . when about 37 were seen (IECBR). Irish Twites appear to be sedentary. There was only one record at Great Saltee. Wexford (Perry & Warburton 1976). but there have been two spring. and a scattering of autumn records. at Cape Clear . Cork (CCBOR). In Northern Ireland. Twites winter regularly in small numbers at Lough Foyle. Londonderry. Duncrue Street marsh. Antrim, and Kinnegar, Down (W . McDowell). There are two ringing recoveries showing movement to or from Scotland. One ringed in Down in April was retrapped in Strathclyde. 73 km away, in May : one ringed in Inverness in August was found the following February in Donegal.

Carpodacus erythrinus

195

Redpoll Carduelis flam mea

Crossbill Loxia curvirostra

The Lesser Redpoll C.f. cabaret is a widely distributed species, breeding throughout the country, though with a large gap in Limerick in 1968-72 (Breeding Atlas). In 1900, Redpolls were believed to be increasing and, some time afterwards, Carlow and Kerry were added to the counties in which they breed. Redpolls were still scarce in Carlow in 1953 but were widespread in Kerry, where breeding had first been recorded in 1910. In the early 1950s breeding was known as far west as Achill Island and the Mullet, Mayo (Kennedy et al 1954). In autumn and winter, Redpolls wander widely in small flocks and clearly withdraw from the west and from mountains. In the winters 1981/82 to 1983/84 much of west Clare, Donegal, Kerry, Londonderry and west Mayo were abandoned and the majority was recorded in the northeast and in central Ireland (Winter Atlas). Redpolls depend mainly on birch and alder seeds in winter, and wander in search of them. The paucity of records compared with the wide summer distribution suggests that many birds emigrate, but there are no ringing recoveries to indicate that this is so. Small parties have been recorded on Copeland, Down, Great Saltee, Wexford, and Cape Clear, Cork, mostly in autumn. There have been a few records of Redpolls showing the characters of other races. The Mealy Redpoll C.f. flammea, which breeds in northern Continental Europe, was recorded about 11 times prior to 1966 (Ruttledge 1966) and on three occasions since then. The recent records were of single birds in Kerry in October 1968, in Donegal in September 1976, and in Antrim in October 1977. There have been at least 11 records of birds showing characters of the Greenland Redpoll C. f. rostrata, mainly on the coasts of Donegal, Mayo and Kerry, and in the months September (at least eight), October (one) and November (one). The most recent record was of five at Tory Island, Donegal, in September 1960 (Ruttledge 1966). Birds showing characters of one of the northern forms, possibly the large, pale Arctic Redpoll C. hornemanni, though not accepted as such, were recorded in Armagh on 24th December 1958 (five). at Duncrue Street. Belfast Antrim, on 11th January 1958 (two), and at Malin Head. Donegal, on 21st October 1961 (one).

The Crossbill is a scarce and irregular breeding bird which visits Ireland in most years and arrives in large numbers in irruptive years. The first records of Crossbills in Ireland were in the early eighteenth century. Following a large-scale irruption in 1838 they nested in Tipperary and apparently did so for many years. There were smaller scale irruptions in 1807, 1868, 1881, and another large-scale one in 1888, after which Crossbills were reported breeding in 18 counties. After 1905. a marked decrease took place, but further irruptions in 1909, 1927. 1929 and 1935 restored numbers to an extent, but from 1935 onwards there was a steady decrease. Nesting was suspected in Tyrone after the 1927 irruption and was known in Laois from 1935 to 1937. Nesting took place in the 1940s at Muckross, Kerry, but there were no Dublin records between 1948 and 1953. By 1953 it was thought that breeding probably continued only on the south side of the Galtee Mountains in Tipperary (Kennedy et al1954). There were further invasions in 1953, 1958, 1959, 1962,1966,1972 and 1984. The 1962 invasion was the largest on record. In one wood in Wicklow at least 250 were present, but breeding records are still few. In 1957 at least one pair bred in Tyrone; in 1964 a pair almost certainly bred in Down; in 1967 Crossbills probably bred in south Dublin or Wicklow and they almost certainly did so in 1973 (Hutchinson 1975, Ruttledge 1966). Records of adults and juveniles in spring in 1976, 1977, 1978, 1981 and 1984 in Wicklow suggest breeding, as do records in spring in Londonderry in most years from 1980 to 1986, and in Waterford and Galway in 1982. Breeding was proved in Dublin in 1980 and in Wicklow in 1985. In Northern Ireland there were considered to be at least 200 Crossbills present in suitable breeding localities in spring 1985, some of which may have been the result of repeated influxes, but others were believed to have fledged in the area (NIBR 1982-85). In Fermanagh, young were seen in spring 1984 and breeding was believed to have taken place in 1983 as wellI]. S. Furphy). The 1984 invasion produced a total of at least 380 birds in Dublin and Wicklow in winter 1984/85, and breeding took place in Dublin in 1986 (O.J. Merne). Breeding was proved in Kildare in 1986. Unprecedented numbers (up to 91) were recorded in Cork from summer 1986 into winter 1986/87, and juveniles were seen. Crossbills have been recorded in October at Cape Clear, Cork, and in June and July at Great Saltee, Wexford.

Two-barred Crossbill Loxia leucoptera There have been four records. A female was killed at Grenville near Belfast, Antrim, on 11 th January 1802. A female was killed in Antrim about 1867. An adult male was shot at Tempo, Fermanagh, on 17th February 1895. An adult male was shot near Crumlln, Antrim, on 2nd August 1927.

Scarlet Rosefinch Carpodacus erythrinus There were three records up to 1965 and 24 since then, indicating a real increase in occurrence, corresponding with an expansion of range in Europe. The three early records were of single birds at Tory Island, Donegal, on 8th September 1954, Great Saltee, Wexford, from 31st August to 4th September 1958, and

196

Pyrrhula pyrrhula

Ini sh trahull, Don egal. on 2 5th September 19 65. The su bseque n t re cords have been in 19 71 (on e) and the n an n ua lly from 19 75 to 19 8 6 . except for 1984 wh en n on e w as seen . Record s h ave been in Cork (19). Wex ford (fou r. including the sprin g re cord s) and Dow n (one). A sing le adu lt male in sprin g 19 86 . an d two in th e following a u tum n . were the first recorded. Scarlet Rosef tnch

1966 -86

we re record ed in Laois in ea rly May 1934 . an d near Lough Feea gh , Mayo. in mid April 19 52 . bu t n o ev ide nc e of br eeding was found on either occasion . Since 195 3 ther e h a ve been n in e records. Single bird s wer e record ed at lnlshbofln , Galway. on 10 th October 19 5 7: at Manor Kilbride . Wicklow , on 14th Decem ber 19 6 6 an d for seve ra l weeks a fterwards: at Cape Clea r. Cork. on 9th October 1969; a t Blackro ck . Dub lin . on 4th December 1970: at Ca pe Clea r on 15th Au gust 19 73 : at Cu llens town . Wex ford. on 19 th June 19 75 (fou n d dead); at Dursey Island. Cork. on 29th Octob er 1978 an d at Cape Clea r on 13th May 19 79 and 20 th Octo ber 19 85.

Ja n

Bullfinch Pyrrhula pyrrhula Bullfin ch es are res ide n t and in cr easing in number s. At the turn of the century they w ere consi de red to be inc rea sing (Usshe r & W arren 1900) and in th e early 19 50 s thi s was rep or ted to be con tin uing. and Bullfin ch es were found as far w est as Con ne mara , an d in Mayo to Westport an d Ach ill. In Kerry th ey were br eeding on th e Dingle peninsul a (Ken ne dy et al 19 54 ). In 1 9 66 it was rep orted th at there h ad been a 'trem en dous in crease' in th e past three years. n ot on ly in th e breeding populati on but in wintering number s as we ll (Ru tt ledge 1966). The distribution . as m app ed in 1968-72. showed th at Bullfinch es did not breed in west Don egal. north-west Mayo. pa rts of wes t Ga lway. a nd were thi nl y distribu ted in west Kerry (B reeding A tlas) . For Achi ll. wher e n esting w as reported in 19 53. th ere wer e no records. Th e w in ter distribu tion in 19 81 / 82 to 1 9 8 3/ 84 showed th at Bullfinch es were then m or e widely distribu ted in Don egal. Galway a nd Ker ry. wer e record ed on Ach ill, but wer e still abse n t fro m m ost of n orth-w est Mayo (Wi nte r A tlas). Bullfin ch es a re pr edom inantly bird s of w oodland so th eir absence from th e Bog of Erris and surro u n din g landscap e is n ot surprising. A few Bullfinch es have been repor ted a t island bird obse rvato ries a n d at light-st ati on s. but those which have been examined in the h and h av e been of th e Irish and British bre ed ing race P. p. pileata . Th e on ly record of th e Con tine n ta l race P. p. py rrhula is of one trapped and rin ged in Galway in February 19 6 5.

Black-and-white Warbler M niotilta varia The re h a ve been two records. Sin gle bird s wer e see n at Cape Clea r. Cork. on 18th October 19 78 . and at Lou ghe rmo re Forest. London derry . from 30th Septem ber to 2nd October 19 84 .

Northern Parula Parula am ericana One w a s seen at Firke el. Cork . from 19th to 24th October 19 8 3.

Yellow -rurnped Warbler Dendroica coronat a Hawfinch Coccothra llstes coccotlrrallstes Haw finch es we re record ed on a bo ut 86 occasions in 23 co u nties in the n in eteen th cen tu ry by Ussher & Warren (1900). Th ey wer e regular wi n ter visito rs. especially to the Ph oen ix Park in Dubli n . to Cork a nd to Tippera ry . Hawfinch es we re recorded on a fu rt he r n in e or ten occasions in th e first decade of this century. but on ly 12 were recorded from 19 lito 19 53. Of th ese. two togethe r

Six bird s h ave bee n recorded . Th e first five we re at Cap e Clea r. Cork: one. see n on 7th and 8 th October 19 76 . appears to ha ve bee n killed by a Sparrow hawk as some of its feat he rs we re found th e da y afte r it w as last see n. Th e other Cape Clear reco rds were of one on 19th a n d 20th Octo ber 19 8 2. two on 10 th Octo ber 1983 . one rem ainin g to 19th . and one from 5th to 7th October 1985 . The fin al record was one at Loop Head . Cla re. from 3 I st Octo ber to 2nd Nove m ber 1986.

Calcarius lapponicus

1 97

Blackpoll Warbler Dendroica striata

Dark-eyed Junco Junco hyemalis

There have been four records. Single birds were recorded at Cape Clear, Cork, from 6th to 10th October 1976, from 24th to 31st October 1982 and on 6th October 1984. One was recorded at Hook Head, Wexford, from 5th to 15th October 1985.

One was shot at Loop Head, Clare, on 30th May 1905.

American Redstart Setophaqa ruticilla Single birds were seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 13 th and 14th October 1968, and at Galley Head, Cork, from 13th to 15th October 1985.

Ovenbird Seiurus aurocapillus A first-winter bird of the nominate race S. a. aurocapillus

was found dead at Lough Carra Forest, Mayo, on 8th December 1977.

Northern Waterthrush Seiurus noveboracensis One was seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 10th and 11th September 1983.

Scarlet Tanager Piranqa olivacea There have been three records. A female was trapped and ringed at Copeland, Down, on 12th October 1963; a firstwinter female was seen at Firkeel. Cork, from 12th to 14th October 1985 and an adult male was seen at the same place on 18th October 1985.

Lapland Bunting Calcarius lapponicus Lapland Buntings are scarce autumn passage migrants and winter visitors. Up to 1978/79 winter, records were very few but in recent years have become more frequent. Ruttledge (1966) reported Lapland Buntings as annual passage migrants in fluctuating numbers, arriving on the north, and more particularly the north-west, coast chiefly in September and October. There were only seven records for Ireland up to 1952 (Kennedy et aI 1954) but the subsequent increase was the result of more observations at remote coastal headlands and islands. In 1953 a total of about 300 was seen at Inishtrahull and Malin Head, Donegal, and at Magilligan Point, Londonderry. This influx appears to have been exceptional but observations in subsequent years at Tory Island, Inishtrahull and Malin Head, Donegal, and at Erris Head, Mayo, showed that Lapland Buntings were regular passage migrants in numbers up to 20-30 a day, once 70 at Tory. The earliest autumn record is of 15-20 at Tory on 27th August 1959. On the south coast, Lapland Buntings are scarce and not annual autumn migrants to Great Saltee, Wexford, and Cape Clear, Cork. Occasional birds have been seen in all the coastal counties except Antrim, Meath, Clare and Galway. In winter there were three records of single birds prior to 1953. From 1953 to 1965 the only record was of five at Wexford Harbour in January and February 1962. Since 1966 there have been a number of records of parties in winter, including 12 at Portmarnock, Dublin, in 1978/79, ten at the North Slob, Wexford, in 1983/84, 19 at Balbriggan, Dublin, in 1985/86, 11 at Ballycotton, Cork, 14 at Ballymacoda, Cork, ten at Hook Head, Wexford, and 20 at the South Slob, Wexford, in winter 1986/87. There is spring passage in March and April, but the numbers are lower than in autumn. One adult male was seen at Cape Clear on 27th May 1978, a very late date in spring.

120

Fox Sparrow Zonotrichia iliaca One was trapped and ringed at Copeland, Down, on 3rd June 1961.

80

40

White-throated Sparrow Zonotrichia albicollis Two have been recorded: immature males were seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 3rd April 1967, and at Duncrue Street marsh, Belfast, Antrim, from 1st December 1984 to May 1985.

Lapland Bunting

1966-86

198

Plectrophenax nivalis Achill Island, Mayo, and on Inishbofin , Galway. but noted their disappearance from Rathlin some time before 1945. Only one pair was found on lni shbofin in 1943 and none subsequently (Hutchinson & Ruttledge 1978). In Northern Ireland. numbers are reported to have decreased in some areas in recent years (NIBR 1982-85) and there are now said to be no Yellowhammers in Fermanagh 0. S. Furphy) . At Cape Clear. Cork, there were estimated to be 35 pairs in 1965 (Sharrock & Fogden 1967). Flocks of up to 80 have been seen in April and 100 in September and October (Sharrock 1973), but such numbers are no longer seen and breeding numbers had declined to ten pairs by 1986 (Borton 1987). There have been spring records at Great Saltee, Wexford. at Copeland. Down. and at Tory Island. Donegal. Large numbers of Yellowhammers appear at times in autumn. At Malin Head. Donegal. where the species is normally common. a local irruption was recorded in 1963 when 500 were present on 28 September. In winter. from 1981 /82 to 1983/84. Yellowhammers were recorded in greatest densities in the east of the country. in Galway and in the north of the country, but where completely absent from much of the west and from most of Cavan. Ferrnanagh, Leitrim and Roscommon (Winter Atlas). Since Yellowhammers are thought to be largely sedentary this absence may be due to a decline in numbers. or to the difficulty encountered by observers in locating the birds in areas where less time was spent in the field.

Snow Bunting Plectrophenax nivalis Snow Buntings are principally autumn passage migrants and winter visitors in small numbers. Ruttledge (1966) noted that the majority occurred on the west and north coasts. but that Snow Buntings were found in all maritime counties. Numbers fluctuated and. while flocks usually totalled about 20 birds . in good winters flocks of 150-200 were seen. Since 1966 numbers have continued to fluctuate from winter to winter. exceptional winters being 1970/71 when 260 were seen at Strangford Lough. Down. and 200 at Dunseverick, Londonderry, and 1985/86. when up to 1,000 were at Lough Foyle. In the three winters 1981 /82 to 1983/84. Snow Buntings were found in quite small numbers on the west, north and east coasts and in very small numbers on the south coast. the largest numbers being found near Lough Neagh, Antrim. Only in Donegal and a very few other locations were Snow Buntings found inland (Winter Atlas). though it has been suggested that in fact Snow Buntings winter quite widely in small numbers in mountains in Northern Ireland (J. S. Furphy). At coastal sites such as Cape Clear. Cork. Snow Buntings are rare autumn migrants. In late May 1977 a male was seen in Donegal carrying food on a number of dates but no further evidence of breeding was obtained.

Ortolan Bunting Emberiza hortulana Ortolan Buntings are rare autumn migrants and vagrants in spring. Prior to 1966 they were considered to be almost annual in occurrence and there had been records in April (one), May (two), August (four) . September (14) and October (seven). All the records were from Great Saltee, Wexford. or Cape Clear. Cork , except for two in Donegal. one in Antrim. one in Mayo and two in Wick low (Ruttledge 1966). Ortolans are rarer now than in the 1960s. with records in only 13 of the years from 1966 to 1986. Of the records since 1966, one was in Louth. one at Hook Head. Wexford, two at the Old Head of Kinsale and two at Dursey Island. Cork. and the remainder were at Cape Clear. The lack of manning at Great Saltee since the early 1960s has presumably been responsible for the absence of records there.

Yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella Yellowhammers are widespread but rather thinly distributed birds of open country. They frequent farmland. woodland edge. bracken-covered hills . scrub and young conifer plantations. In 1968-72 they were found breeding or probably breeding in all but a handful of 10 km squares (Breeding Atlas). There have been sporadic reports of decreases and Ruttledge (1966) noted that Yellowhammers had withdrawn from some islands off the west coast and from Rathlin Island. Antrim. Kennedy et al (1954) found Yellowhammers plentiful on the Mullet and

15

Ortolan 8unt;ng 1

Jan

1966-86

Emberiza melanocephala

199

Rustic Bunting Emberiza rustica There have been two records. One was seen at Cape Clear. Cork. on 9th October 1959 and one was trapped and ringed at Loop Head. Clare. on 13th October 1985.

Little Bunting Emberiza pusilla There were four records prior to 1953. and five between 1954 and 1965 . Since 1966 a further six have been recorded. The records up to 1965 were in Clare. Donegal (two). Dublin (four) and Wexford (two). and in the months February. April. September (two). October (three). November and December (Ruttledge 1966). A previously accepted record in Antrim in 1955 is no longer considered acceptable (NIBR 1982-85). Since 1966. single birds were seen at Cape Clear. Cork. from 11th to 17th October 1973. from 7th to 11th October 1975 and on 11th and 12th October 1980. In addition. single birds were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford. on 7th and 8th May 1983. at Dursey Island. Cork. on 22nd and 23rd October 1983 and at Galley Head. Cork. from 25th to 28th October 1986.

Yellow-breasted Bunting Emberiza aureola There have been three records. One was seen at Tory Island. Donegal. on 18th September 1959; single birds were seen at Cape Clear. Cork. from lIth to 20th September 1983 and on 18th September 1985 .

Reed Bunting Emberiza schoeniclus Reed Buntings breed throughout Ireland and are increasing in numbers. They nest in a variety of habitats. ranging from reedbeds to hedges. and appear to expanding into drier areas. particularly young plantations. In 1968-72 they were found breeding in every part of the country and on a number of marine islands. though not on the Aran Islands. Galway (Breeding Atlas). Densities in sand-dune systems are quite high with 11-27 pairs per km 2 in Wexford and 18 in Down (O.J. Merrie . Nairn & Whatmough 1978). In autumn. apparently irruptive behaviour was observed at Malin Head. Donegal. where over 350 were seen on 28th September 1963. a date on which large numbers of Yellowhammers were also seen. On the islands of Great Saltee, Wexford. and Cape Clear. Cork. there is evidence of increases in March and October suggesting some movement. Most Reed Buntings leave Cape Clear in winter (Sharrock 1973).

The winter distribution encompasses most of the country. though Reed Buntings abandon the mountains of Antrim. Wicklow and Donegal. and parts of west Mayo (Winter Atlas). Densities of wintering Reed Buntings do not appear to differ between north and south or between east and west.

[Red-headed Bunting Emberiza bruniceps] Eight adult males were recorded between 1951 and 1964. but it is likely that most. if not all. had escaped from captivity. Single birds were recorded at Great Saltee, Wexford. on 22nd and 23rd September 1951; Tory Island. Donegal. on 26th April 1953; Belmullet. Mayo. on 8th June 1953; Inishtrahull, Donegal. on 10th September 1953; Great Saltee on 5th May 1962; Cape Clear. Cork . on 26th July 1962; Ballycotton. Cork. on 23rd and 24th June 1964 and at Cape Clear on 14th September 1964. In addition there have been at least two summer records in Northern Ireland (NIBR 1982-85)

Black-headed Bunting Emberiza melanocephala There have been three records. Single males were seen at Great Saltee, Wexford. on 31 st May 1950. at Ballymore, Wexford. on 28th November 1958. and at Wicklow Head. Wicklow. on 13th May 1979.

200

Miliaria calandra

Corn Bunting Miliaria calandra The Corn Bunting bred in every county except Leitrim at the turn of the century and was common in the coastal counties. It was believed to be decreasing in west Kerry, west Cork, Laols, Offaly and Roscommon (Ussher & Warren 1900). By the early 1950s the range was reduced to cultivated headlands and islands. Small numbers bred on the Dingle peninsula in Kerry: at Youghal Bay and near Ballycotton in east Cork: around Crookhaven, at the Mizen Head and on and near Dursey Island in west Cork: near Helvick Head and Tramore in Waterford: on the south Wexford coast; quite widely in Galway and Mayo: at a few spots in Donegal: and at a handful of sites in Antrim and Down (Kennedy et al 1954). Breeding had not been recorded in Clare since 1947, in Tipperary since 1940 or in Dublin since 1947. This decline has continued, though there was a small revival in Dublin in 1954 when several pairs were found in song west of Malahide. By 1956 none was present and the hedges where the birds had been found had been levelled. In 1968-72 the breeding population was centred on the south Wexford and Waterford coasts, on the west Galway and west Mayo coasts, in north Donegal and on the Ards peninsula in Down (Breeding Atlas). In Cork and Kerry a very few pairs bred at isolated headlands and there was a record inland in Clare which probably did not relate to a breeding pair. Numbers declined in the 1970s and none was recorded in breeding habitat in Cork after 1976. During the winters 1981/82 to 1983/84, Corn Buntings were only recorded in one 10km square in Wexford, two in Galway, three in Mayo, one in Donegal and one in Down, indicating that Corn Buntings are now rare birds in Ireland. At Inishbofln, Galway, Corn Buntings were plentiful in 1943 but the number of singing males was reduced to six in 1956, 11 in 1968 and eight in 1976 (Hutchinson &

Ruttledge 1978). There have been several records at Great Saltee, Wexford, mostly in spring, presumably involving birds which have wandered across from the adjoining mainland, and only one record at Cape Clear in the past 25 years.

Rose-breasted Grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianus There have been six records. A first-year male was seen at Cape Clear, Cork, on 7th and 8th October 1962: a firstyear female was seen at Cape Clear on 11th and 12th October 1979: in 1983 first-year males were seen at Cape Clear from 9th to 15th October, at the Bull Rock, Cork, on 10th October and at Pirkeel, Cork, on 19th and 20th October: and a first-winter female picked up injured near Kilmore, Wexford, on 3rd October 1985 died on 7th October.

Indigo Bunting Passerina cyanea An immature bird at Cape Clear, Cork, from 9th to 19th October 1985 was trapped and ringed on 11th October.

Bobolink Dolichonyx oryzivorus There have been two records. One was seen at Hook Head, Wexford, from 12th to 14th October 1971. One, trapped and ringed at Cape Clear, Cork, was seen from 13th to 24th September 1982.

APPENDIX 1

List of local bird reports

Bird occurrences in Co. Waterford, 1972-73. 1974-75. Cape Clear bird observatory report. Annual 1959 to 1969. 1970-71, 1972-74. 1975-77, 1978. 1979. 1980-82. 1983-84. 1985-86. Copeland bird observatory report, Annual since 1956. Cork bird report. Annual under several titles 1963 to 1971, 1976 to 1986. Dublin and north Wicklow bird report 1969. 1970. Dublin and Wicklow bird report . Annual 1971 to 1973. 1974-75. Irish east coast bird report. Annual 1980 to 1986. Louth bird report . 1974. 1975.

Malin Head bird observatory report. 1961-64. 1965. Northern Ireland bird report , 1980-81, 1982-85. Report on bird occurrences in County Waterfo rd. 1971. Tory Island bird report. 1958-59, 1960. 1961. 1962. 1963-64. Tory Island bird report , Mullet bird report. Tory 1965. Mullet 1966. W exford bird report. Annual 1970 to 1972, 1977-80. 1981-82.1983-84.

Most of these reports a re available for consultation in the IWC's library.

201

202

Appendix 2 APPENDIX 2

Principal organisations

Republic of Ireland

Northern Ireland

Irish Wildbird Conservancy Ruttledge House, 8 Longford Place, Monkstown, Dublin. Branches (20) in Athlone, Carlow, Cork, Donegal, Dublin Central, Dublin North, Dublin South, Fingal, Galway, Kerry, Kilkenny, Liffey Valley, Mayo, North Munster, Sligo, Tipperary, Waterford, West Waterford, Wexford, Wicklow.

Royal Society for the Protection of Birds Belvoir Forest Park, Belfast BT8 4QT. Members' groups (7) in Antrim, Bangor, Enniskillen, Larne, Limavady and Lisburn.

Cape Clear Bird Observatory Address of Secretary available from Irish Wildbird Conservancy.

Northern Ireland Ornithologists' Club Address of Secretary available from RSPB. Copeland Bird Observatory Address of Secretary available from RSPB.

APPENDIX 3

Scientific names of plants, fishes and mammals named in the text Plants Holly Ilex aquifolium Bramble Rubus fruticosis Rowan Sorbus aucuparia Hawthorn Crataequs monogyna Gorse Ulex sp. Ling Calluna vulgaris Heather Erica sp. Rhododendron Rhododendronponticum Sea Buckthorn Hippophae rhamnoides Elm Ulmus sp. Birch Betula sp. Sessile oak Quercus petraea Pedunculate oak Quercus robur Beech Fagus sylvatica Scots pine Pinus sylvestris Lodgepole pine Pinus contorta Norway spruce Picea abies Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis Yew Taxus sp. Bracken Pteridium aquilinum Eelgrass Zostera sp.

Fishes Eel Anguilla anguilla Salmon Salmo salar Roach Rutilus rutilus Wrasse Crenilabus sp. Mammals Pygmy shrew Sorex minutus Rabbit Oryctalagus cuniculus Bank vole Clithriononys qlareolus Wood mouse Apodemus sylvaticus Brown rat Rattus norveqicus Mink Mustela vison

Belfast,

Bibliography Alexander. R. W. & Ga han. S. V. E. 19 87. A review of sites protected for conservati on in th e Rep ublic of Ireland . Irish Geography 20 :80-82 . Allison . A.. Newton. I. & Campbell. C. 19 74. Loch Leven National Nature Reserve. WAGBI. Aus tin. L. W. & Leach. S,}, 198 4 . Wint ering waders on Belfast Lough and the Outer Ards coast. Nort he rn Ireland. W ader Study Group Bull. 4 7:13 -1 7. Bailey. C. 19 8 2. Waterways bird su rvey on the River Lagan . Irish Birds 2:153 - 166 . Bainbridge. 1. P. & Minton. C. D. T. 1978 . Th e migrati on an d mortality of the Curlew in Britain a nd Ireland. Bird Study 2 5:3950. Barrington . R. M. 19 00. M igration oj Birds as observed at Irish Ligh thouses and Lightships. Dublin a nd London . Batten. L. A. 19 76 . Bird comm unities of some Killarney woodlands. Proc. R. Ir. Acad. 76 B:285-3 13 . Beningt on , A. 19 71. Th e decline of th e Sparrowhawk Accipite r nisus in Northe rn Irel and. Ir. Nat. J. 17 :85 - 8 8 . Birkhead. T. R. 197 5. Movement and mortality rates of British Guillemots. Bird Study 21 :24 1- 2 54 . Bort on . D. G. 1987. The breeding passerines of Cap e Clear island. 19 8 6. Cape Clear Bird Observa tory Rep. 19 :50-61. Bourne. W. R. P. 1986. Lat e su mm er seabird distribution off th e we st coast of Europe. Irish Birds 3:1 7 5-1 9 8 . Brad ley. M.. Irvine. 1. & Platt. G. D. A. 19 86. Breeding of Pied Flycatch ers in Co. Antrim . 1985 . Irish Birds 3:28 1-28 2 . Brown. R. A. & McAvoy. W. 19 8 5. Nesting terns in Stran gford Lough. 1969- 84 - a review. Irish Birds 3:33-4 7. Butler. D. Q. & Whelan. j . 19 87. The relea se a nd survival of the Red-legged Partridge (Alectoris ruJa) in Ireland. W orld Pheasant Association Journal 12 :66-73 . Cabot. D. 196 7. Th e statu s and distri but ion of the Grey la g Goose (Anser anser ) in Irel and . January 19 6 7. Irish W ildJowl Conservancy Res. Rep. No.7. Cabot. D. 19 7 7. Movements and migra tion of th e Mallard in Ireland. Irish Birds 1:37-4 5.

Cabot. D. 1984. 'The future of n ature cons erv ation in Ireland' in Jeffrey. D. W. (ed.) Nature Conservatio n in Ireland - Progress and Problem s. Dublin. Cabot. D. & West. B. 19 73. Population dynamics of Barnacle Geese in Ireland. Proc. Roy . Irish Acad. 7 3B:1 76-1 8 8 . Cabo t. D. & West . B. 19 83 . Studies on th e po pu lation of Barnacle Geese wintering on th e In ishkea Islands. Co. Mayo. 1. Population dynamics 19 61- 19 8 3 . Irish Birds 2:318- 33 6. Carruthers. T. D. 19 86. Waterways bird su rve y on the River Flesk, Co. Kerry. Irish Birds 3:229-2 36 . Collin s. T. 1985. Partial census of the cliff-breeding birds of Cape Clear island in 1983. Cape Clear Bird Observatory Rep. 18 :606 8. Coo ne y. T. 19 8 6. Seabird migration off Howth Head. a utu mn 19 8 5. Irish East Coast Bird Rep. 19 8 5:52- 57. Coon ey. T. 1987. Little Terns o n the ea st coast. Irish East Coast Bird Rep. 19 8 6:43-45. Corn wa llis. R. K. & To wnsend . A. D. 19 6 8. Wa xwings in Britain and Eu ro pe during 19 65 /66 . Brit . Birds 6 1:97- 1 18 . Cott on. D. C. F. & Lovatt. J. K. 1985 . The Pied Wagtail roost in O'Connell Street. Dublin. Irish Birds 3:4 8- 52 . Cou lson. J. C. 1963. The status of the Kittiwak e in the British Isles . Bird Study 10 :14 7-1 79 . Coul son . j . C. 198 3. The ch anging statu s of the Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla in the British Isles. 1969-1 9 79. Bird St udy 30 :91 6. Cowl ey. E. 19 79 . Sand Martin populati on tr ends in Brit ain . 196519 78. Bird Study 26: 1 13-1 16 . Cra mp. S.. Bourne. W. R. P. & Saunders. D. 19 74 . The Seabirds oj Britai n and Ireland. London. Cram p. S. & Simmons. K. E. L. 19 79. The Birds oj the Western Palearctic. Vol. 2. Oxford. Cru icksha nk. J. G. 19 82 . 'Soil' in Cruickshank. K. G. & Wilcock. D. N. (eds.) Northern Ireland Environme nt and Natural Resources. Belfast . Dannenberg. R. 19 8 2 . Ornithologische Beobachtungen in Nor dost atl antik. Ornithologische Mitteilung en 34 :10 7-11 7.

203

204

Bibliography

D'Arcy, G. 1981. The Guide to the Birds of Ireland. Dublin. D'Arcy, G. 1986. The Birds of Ireland. Belfast. Dare, P. J. 1970. The movements of Oystercatchers (Haematopus ostralegus L.) visiting or breeding in the British Isles. Fishery Invest; Land. (Ser. II):25 (9):1-137. Davenport, D. L. 1975. The spring passage of the Pomarine Skua on British and Irish coasts. Brit. Birds 68:456--462. Davenport, D. L. 1981. The spring passage of Pomarine and Longtailed Skuas off the south and west coasts of Britain and Ireland. Irish Birds 2:73-79. Davenport, D. L. 1984. Large passage of skuas off Scotland and Ireland in May 1982 and 1983. Irish Birds 2:515-520. Davidson, R. 1987. Breeding birds of Lough Neagh, 1987. Unpublished report. Craigavon. Davies, J. C. 1980. The birds of Scariff, Deenish and neighbouring islands. Co. Kerry. Irish Birds 1:535-539. Deane, C. D. 1954. Handbook of the birds of Northern Ireland.

Beijast Museum and Art Gallery Bulletin 1,6:121-190.

Deane, C. D. 1979. The Capercaillie as an Irish species. Irish Birds 1:364-369. Denker, J. K. 1959. Migration and distribution of the Wigeon Anas penelope L. in Europe based on ringing results. Ardea 47: 1-27. Doran, G. 1964. Some observations on the effect of winter 19621963 upon bird life in Ireland. lr. Nat. J. 14:278-279. Doyle, G. J. 1983. 'Conserving bogland' in Blackwell, D. & Convery, F. J. Promise and Performance: Irish environmental policies analysed. Dublin. Drew, D. P. 1979. 'Water' in Gillmor, D.A. (ed.) Resources and Land Use. Dublin.

Durand, A. L. 1972. Landbirds over the North Atlantic: unpublished records 1961-65 and thoughts a decade later. Brit. Birds 65:428-442.

Elkins, N. 1984. Weather and Bird Behaviour. Calton. Ellis, R.J. 1983. Wintering Common Scoters in Dundrum Bay, Co. Down: recovery to pre-1963 level. Irish Birds 2:346-349. Evans, P. G. H. 1981. Whale and seabirdcruise, N.B. Atlantic, summer 1980. London. Evans. P. G. H. & Bourne, W. R. P. 1978. Auks on Inlshtearaght, 1968-73. Irish Birds 1:239-243.

Evans, P. G. H. & Lovegrove, R. R. 1974. The birds of the southwest Irish islands. Irish Birds Rep.21:33-64. Ewins, P. J. & Tasker. M. L. 1985. The breeding distribution of Black Guillemots (Cepphus grylle) in Orkney and Shetland 1982-84. Bird Study 32:186-193.

Fagan, S. 1986. Pied Flycatchers breeding in Wicklow, 1985. Irish Birds 3:282-283.

Fairley, J. 1967. Food of Long-eared Owls in north-east Ireland. Brit. Birds 60: 130-13 5. Fairley. J. & Clark, F. L. 1972. Food of Barn Owls Tyto alba (Scopoli) over one year at a roost in Co. Galway. Jr. Nat. J. 17:219222. Forster, R. & Fairley, J. S. 1975. Further data on Barn Owls feeding on bank voles, and a new county record of the lesser horseshoe bat. Ir. Nat. ]. 18:251-253. Forsyth, I. 1980. A breeding census of Mute Swans in Ireland in 1978. Irish Birds 1:492-501.

Furphy, J. S. 1977. Census of Great Crested Grebes, Northern Ireland, summer 1975. Irish Birds 1:56-58. Gilbertson, M. 1969. The distribution of the Peregrine Falcon in Northern Ireland. Ir. Nat. J. 16:131-133. Glue, D. L. 1974. Food of the Barn Owl in Britain and Ireland. Bird Study 21:200-210.

Glue, D.L. & Hammond, G.J. 1974. Feeding ecology of the Longeared Owl in Britain and Ireland. Brit. Birds 67:361-369. Greenwood, J.G. 1984. Migration of Dunlin Calidris alpina:a worldwide overview. Ringing and Migration 5:35-39. Greenwood, J.G. 1987. Winter visits by Black Guillemots Cepphus grylle to an Irish breeding site. Bird Study 34:135-136.

Gribble, F. C. 1983. Night jars in Britain and Ireland in 1981. Bird Study 30:165-176.

Hall, J.J. 1981. The Cock of the Wood. Irish Birds 2: 38-4 7. Harradine, J. 1986. 'Jack Snipe' in Lack, P. The Atlas of Wintering Birds in Britain and Ireland. Calton. Harris, M. P. 1984. The Puffin. Calton. Haworth, P. 1986. An upland survey of west Galway. Unpublished Report to World Wildlife Fund (U.K.). Heppleston, P. B. 1971. The feeding ecology of Oystercatchers (Haematopus ostralequs L.) in winter in northern Scotland. J. Anim. Ecol. 40:651-672.

Hickling, R. A. O. 1986. 'Lesser Black-backed Gull' in Lack, P. The Atlas of Wintering Birds in Britain and Ireland. Calton. Holohan, S. & O'Connor, R.J. 1964. A description of the Vale of Shanganagh and its birds. Ir. Nat. ]. 14:287-296. Howard, R. & Moore, A. 1984. A Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World. London. Hudson. R. 1965. The spread of the Collared Dove in Britain and Ireland. Brit. Birds 58:105-139. Hudson, R. 1972. Collared Doves in Britain and Ireland during 1965-70. Brit. Birds 65:139-155.

Hudson, A. 1982. Great Black-backed Gulls on Great Saltee Island. 1981. Irish Birds 2:167-175.

Hume, R. A. 1986. 'Iceland Gull' in Lack, P. The Atlas o/Wintering Birds in Britain and Ireland. Calton. Humphreys, G. R. 1937. A List of the Birds showing the species contained in the National Collection. Dublin. Humphreys, G. R. 1978. Ireland's former premier breeding haunt of aquatic birds. Irish Birds 1:1 71-181. Hutchinson, C. D. 1972. The changing status of the Little Gull Larus minutus in Ireland. Irish Bird Rep. 19: 11-21. Hutchinson, C. D. 1975. The Birds of Dublin and Wicklow. Dublin. Hutchinson, C. D. 1979. Ireland's Wetlands and Their Birds. Dublin. Hutchinson, C.D. 1980. Scarce passerine migrants in Ireland. Irish Birds 1:502-513.

Hutchinson, C. D. 1981. Cape Clear Bird Observatory 1970-1980. Irish Birds 2:60-72.

Hutchinson, C. D. 1986. Watching Birds in Ireland. Dublin. Hutchinson, C. D. & Keys, J. M. 1973, the numbers of wildfowl on the North Bull island. Co. Dublin. Irish Bird Rep. 19:33--43. Hutchinson, C. D. & Neath, B. 1978. Little Gulls in Britain and Ireland. Brit. Birds 71 :563-582. Hutchinson, C.D. & O'Halloran, J. 1984. The waterfowl of Cork Harbour. Irish Birds 2:445-456. Hutchinson, C. D. & Ruttledge, R. F. 1978. The birds of Inishbofin and Inlshshark, Co. Galway. Irish Birds 1:211-224. Imboden, C. 1974. Zug, Fremdansiedlung und Brut periode des Kiebitz Vanellus vanellus in Europe. Der Om. Beob. 71:5-134. Jones, E. 1979. Breeding of the Short-eared Owl in south-west Ireland. Irish Birds 1:377-380. Kavanagh, B. P. 1987. The breeding density of the Magpie in Dublin city. Irish Birds 3:387-394. Kelly, T. C. & Walton, G. A. 1977. The auk population crash of 1968-69 on Inishtearaght a review. Irish Birds 1:239-243. Kennedy, P. G. 1953. An Irish Sanctuary - birds of the North Bull. Dublin. Kennedy, P. G. 1961. A List of the Birds of Ireland. Dublin. Kennedy, P. G., Ruttledge, R. F. & Scroope, C. F. 1954. The Birds of Ireland. London and Edinburgh. Lack, D. 1965. Enjoying Ornithology. London. Lack, D. 1969. The numbers of bird species on islands. Bird Study 16:193-209. Lack, P. 1986. The Atlas of Wintering Birds in Britain and Ireland. Calton. Langslow, D. R. 1978. Recent increases of Blackcaps at bird observatories. Brit. Birds 171:345-354. Langslow, D. R. 1979. Movements of Blackcaps ringed in Britain and Ireland. Bird Study 26:239-252.

Bibliography Lever, C. 1977. The Naturalized Animals of the British Isles. London. Lloyd, C. 5.. 1981. The seabirds of Great Saltee. Irish Birds 3:1-37. Lloyd, C. S. 1983. The status of landbirds breeding on Great Saltee, Co. Wexford. Ir. Nat. ]. 21:97-103. Lloyd, C. S. 1984. The birds of Clare island, Co. Mayo in June 1982. Ir. Nat.]. 21:212-216. Lloyd, C. S., Bibby, C.J. & Everett, M.J. 1975. Breeding terns in Britain and Ireland in 1969-74. Brit. Birds 68:507-513. Lovatt, J. K. 1984. Birds of Hook Head, Co. Wexford, 1883-1983. Dublin. MacArthur, R. H. & Wilson, E. O. 1967. The Theory of Island Biogeography. Princeton. Macdonald, R. 1985. 'The breeding density of the Rook in eastern Ireland' in O'Halloran, J. et al Current Ornithological Research in Ireland. Irish Birds 3:139-162. Macdonald, R. 1987. The breeding population and distribution of the Cormorant in Ireland. Irish Birds 3:405-416. MacLochlainn, C. 1984. Breeding and wintering bird communities of Glenveagh National Park, Co. Donegal. Irish Birds 2:482500. Madden, B. 1987a. The Mediterranean Gull in Ireland, 19561985. Irish Birds 3:363-376. Madden, B. 1987b. The birds of Mongan bog, Co. Offaly. Irish Birds 3:441-448. Maltby-Prevett, L. S., Boyd, H. & Heyland.}, B. 1975. Observations in Ireland and north-west Europe of Brant from the Queen Elizabeth Islands, N.W.T., Canada. Bird Banding 46:155-167. Marsh, P. J. 1975. Birds of the North Coast Region. Coleraine. Maxwell, W.H. 1832. Wild Sports of the West. Dublin, Cork & Belfast. McCracken, E. 1971. The Irish Woods since Tudor Times. Distribution and Exploitation. Newton Abbot. McGrath, D. 1987. The Peregrine Falcon in south-east Ireland, 1981-1986. Irish Birds 3:377-386. McGrath, D. & Walsh, P. M. 1985. Population decline and current status of breeding Kittiwakes in east Waterford. Irish Birds 3:75-84. McKelvie, C. L. 1973. The distribution and breeding success of the Peregrine Falcon (Falcoperegrinus)in Northern Ireland, 19701973. Hawk Trust Annual Report 1973:20-27. Mead, C. J. 1973. Movements of British raptors. Bird Study 20:259286. Mead, C. J. 1974. The results of ringing auks in Britain and Ireland. Bird Study 21:46-80. Mead, C. J. & Harrison, J. D. 1979. Overseas movements of British and Irish Sand Martins. Bird Study 26:87-98. Merne, O. J. 1970. The status of the Canada Goose in Ireland. Irish Bird Rep. 17:12-17. Merne, O.J. 1977. The changing status and distribution of the Bewick's Swan in Ireland. Irish Birds 1:3-15. Merrie. O.J. 1985. The infauna of the Shannon/Fergus estuarine mudflats as a food resource for shorebirds. Unpublished MSc thesis. Trinity College, Dublin. Merne, O.}. 1986. Greylag Geese in Ireland, March 1986. Irish Birds 3:207-214. Merne, O.J. & Murphy, C. W. 1986. Whooper Swans in Ireland, January 1986. Irish Birds 3:199-206. Mitchell, F. 1986. The Shell Guide to reading the Irish landscape. Dublin. Moffat, C. B. (ed.) 1898. Lifeand Letters of Alexander Goodman More. Dublin. Moles, R. 1982. A study of some bird communities of the Burren, Co. Clare. Ir. Nat. ]. 20:419-423. Moore. C. C. 1975. An analysis of large scale autumn passage in the north-west Irish Sea. Irish Bird Rep. 22:40-52. Mullarney, K. 1980. Ring-billed Gulls in Co. Mayo - a species new to Ireland. Irish Birds 1:517-525.

205

Mullarney, K. 1984. Review of Irish records of Greenish Warbler. Irish Birds 2:536-545. Murton, R. K. 1965. The Woodpigeon. London. Nairn, R. G. W. & Whatmough, J. A. 1978. Breeding bird communities of a sand dune system in north-east Ireland. Irish Birds 1: 160-1 70. Nairn, R. G. W. & Sheppard, J. R. 1985. Breeding waders of sand dune machair in north-west Ireland. Irish Birds 3:53-70. Nelson, J. B. 1978. The Gannet. Berkhamsted. Nethersole-Thompson, D. & Nethersole-Thompson, M. 1986. Waders, their breeding, haunts and watchers. Calton. Newton, 1. 1972. Finches. London. Nilsson, L. 1969. The migration of the Goldeneye in north-west Europe. Wildfowl 20:112-118. Norris, C. A..1960. The breeding distribution of thirty bird species in 1952. Bird Study 7:129-184. Norriss, D., Wilson, H.J. & Browne, D. 1982. The breeding population of the Peregrine Falcon in Ireland in 1981. Irish Birds 2:145-152. Norriss, D. & Wilson, H. J. 1986. Greenland White-fronted Geese in Ireland 1985/86. A Progress Report. Department of Tourism, Fisheries & Forestry. Forest & Wildlife Service. Norriss, D. & Wilson, H.J. 1987. Greenland White-fronted Geese in Ireland 1986/87. A Progress Report. Officeof Public Works. Wildlife Service. O'Briain, M. 1985. Observations along the Irish east coast in winter 1983/84 of Brent Geese banded in the Canadian High Arctic. Irish East Coast Bird Rep. 1984:56-58. O'Connor, R.J. 1986. Biological characteristics of invaders among bird species in Britain. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Land. B314: 58 3598. 0'Connor, R. J. & Brown, R. A. 1977. Prey depletion and foraging strategy in the Oystercatcher Haematopus ostralequs. Oecolcqia 27:75-92. 0'Connor, R. J. & Mead, C. J. 1984. The Stock Dove in Britain. Brit. Birds 77:181-201. O'Connor, R. J. & Shrubb, M. 1986. Farming and Birds. Cambridge. 0'Crohan, T. 1937. The lslandman. Dublin. Ogilvie, M. A. 1972. 'Distribution, numbers and migration' in Scott, P. The Swans. London. Ogilvie, M. A. 1975. Ducks of Britain and Europe. Berkhamsted. Ogilvie, M. A. 1983. The population of the Greenland Barnacle Goose. Report on an aerial survey, March-April 1983. Report to the Wildfowl Trust. O'Flynn, W.J. 1983. Population changes of the Hen Harrier in Ireland. Irish Birds 2:337-343. O'Gorman, F. & Wymes, E. 1973. The Future of Irish Wildlife - a blueprintfor development. Dublin. O'Halloran, J. & Collins, R. 1985. Preliminary results of ringing Mute Swans in Ireland. Irish Birds 3:85-89. O'Halloran, J. & Duggan, P. F. 1984. Lead levels in Mute Swans in Cork. Irish Birds 2: 501-514. O'Hare, P. J. 1968. Red Grouse status, research and development. Unpublished Lecture. O'Meara, M. 197Sa. Building nesting Herring Gulls (Larus arqentatus Pontoppidan) in Co. Waterford. Ir. Nat. I. 18:152-153. O'Meara, M. 1975b. Status of the Kittiwake and other seabirds in east Waterford. Irish Bird Rep. 22: 5 3-61. O'Meara, M. 1979a. Distribution and numbers of Corncrakes in Ireland in 1978. Irish Birds 1:381-405. O'Meara, M. 1979b. Kittiwakes nesting on light standards in Co. Waterford. Irish Birds 1:407-409. O'Meara, J.J. (transl.) 1982. Geraldof Wales. The History and Topography of Ireland. London. O'Meara, M. 1986. Corncrake declines in seven areas. 1978-1985. Irish Birds 3:237-244. Owen, M. 1980. Wild Geeseof the World. London.

206

Bibliography

Owen, M. & Mitchell, C. 1988. Movements and migrations of Wigeon Anas penelope wintering in Britain and Ireland. Bird Study 35:47-59. Owen, M. & Salmon, D. G. 1988. Feral Greylag Geese Anser anser in Britain and Ireland, 1960-86. Bird Study 35: 3 7-45. Parker, R. 1987. Forestry and Nature Conservation in Ireland. Address to meeting of the British Assoc. for the Advancement of Science in Belfast. Parrack, J. D. 1986. "Black-throated Diver' in Lack, P. The Atlas oj Wintering Birds in Britain and Ireland. Calton. Parslow, J. 1973. Breeding Birds oj Britain and Ireland. Berkhamsted. Partridge, J. K. 1984. Survey of heronries in Connemara, 19741977. Irish Birds 1:187-198. Partridge, J. K. 1986a. Results of ringing Herons in Connemara. Irish Birds 3:267-272. Partridge, J. K. 1986b. Northern Ireland breeding wader survey. Interim Report on 1986 Field Season. Part I: Main Report. RSPB Report to Department of the Environment (NI) Countryside and Wildlife Branch, Belfast. Partridge, J. K. 1987. The Common Scoter Melanitta nigra in Ireland and Britain - a review of the breeding population with special reference to Lough Erne. RSPB Report to Department of the Environment (NI) Countryside and Wildlife Branch. Belfast. Partridge, J. K. 1988. Northern Ireland breeding wader survey. Final report. RSPB Report to Department of the Environment (NI) Countryside and Wildlife Branch, Belfast. Perry, K. W. 1983. Population changes of Dippers in north-west Ireland. Irish Birds 2:272-277. Perry, K. W. 1986. The Irish Dipper. Derry. Perry, K. W. & Warburton, S. W. 1977. The Birds and Flowers of the Saltee Islands. Belfast. Pettitt, R. G. 1973. Movements of terns observed in August 1972. Dublin and Wicklow Bird Rep. 1972: 27-34. Pierce, S. & Wilson, J. 1980. Spring migration of Whimbrels over Cork Harbour. Irish Birds 1: 514-516. Potts, G. R. 1980. The effect of modern agriculture, nest predation and game management on the population ecology of partridges Perdix perdix and Alectoris rufa. Advances in Ecological Research 11:1-82. Potts, G. R. 1986. "Grey Partridge' in Lack, P. The Atlas of Wintering Birds in Britain and Ireland. Calton. Praeger, R. L. 1937. The Way that I Went. Dublin. Praeger, R. L. 1949. Some Irish Naturalists. A biographical notebook. Dundalk. Prater, A. J. 19 73. The wintering population of Ruffs in Britain and Ireland. Bird Study 20:245-250. Prater, A. J. 1975. The wintering population of the Black-tailed Godwit. Bird Study 22:169-176. Prater, A. J. 1976. The breeding population of the Ringed Plover in Britain. Bird Study 23: 1 55-161. Prater, A. J. 1987. Ringed Plovers proliferate. BTO News 153:6. Preston, K. 1976. Census of Great Crested Grebes, summer 1975. Irish Bird Rep. 1975:38-43. Pritchard, D. 1982. The feeding distribution of shorebirds at Strangford Lough and the possible impact of a barrage. Irish Birds 2:176-188. Raine, R. 1987. "Phytoplankton monitoring on the south and west coasts of Ireland 1986' in O'Sullivan, G. (ed.) Lough Beltra 1986. Proceedings of the 3rd Annual Lough Beltra Workshop, Galway, 25 February 1987. National Board for Science and

Technology. Dublin. Ratcliffe, D. A. 1976. Observations on the breeding of the Golden Plover in Great Britain. Bird Study 23:63-116. Ratcliffe, D. A. 1980. The Peregrine Falcon. Calton. Reed, T. 1981. The number of breeding landbird species on British islands.]. Anim. Ecology 50:613-624. Robertson, P. A. & Whelan, J. 1987. The ecology and management of wild and hand-reared Pheasants in Ireland. Irish Birds 3:427-440.

Roche, R. & Merne, O. 1977. Saltees Islands of Birds and Legends. Dublin. Rohan, P. K. 1975. The Climate of Ireland. Dublin. Rothery, P., Wanless, S. & Harris, M. 1988. Analysis of counts from monitoring Guillemots in Britain and Ireland. ]. Anim. Ecology 57: 1-19. Ruger, A., Prentice, C. & Owen, M. 1986. Results of the IWRB International Waterfowl Census 1967-1 983. IWRB Special Publication No.6. Slimbridge. Ruttledge, R. F. 1963. Migrant and other birds of Great Saltee, Co. Wexford. Proc. Royal Irish Acad. 63B:71-86. Ruttledge, R. F. 1966. Ireland's Birds. London. Ruttledge, R. F. 1968. The Kingfisher population. Irish Bird Rep. 15:11-14. Ruttledge, R. F. 1975. A List of the Birds of Ireland. Dublin. Ruttledge, R. F. 1978a. Greenshanks nesting in Ireland. Irish Birds 1:236-238. Ruttledge, R. F. 1978b. Red-necked Phalaropes breeding south of latitude 53° 48' in Ireland. Irish Birds 1:229-231. Ruttledge, R. F. 198 2a. Red-necked Phalaropes - a hitherto unrecorded case of breeding in Co. Mayo. Irish Birds 2: 196197. Ruttledge, R. F. 1982b. Re-assessment of the record of Long-tailed Skuas in the Shannon valley in 1860. Irish Birds 2: 197-198. Ruttledge, R. F. 1984. Brent Geese on Kilcoole marsh. Irish East Coast Bird Rep. 1983:37. Ruttledge, R. F. 1985. Brent Geese feeding on grain. Irish Birds 3:103-104. Ruttledge, R. F. 1987. The breeding distribution of the Common Scoter in Ireland. Irish Birds 3:417-426. Ruttledge, R. F. & Hall Watt, R. 1958. The distribution and status of wild geese in Ireland. Bird Study 5:22-33. Ruttledge, R. F. & Ogilvie, M. A. 1979. The past and current status of the Greenland White-fronted Goose in Ireland and Britain. Irish Birds 1:293-363. Rutty, J. 1772. An Essay towards a Natural History of the County of Dublin. Dublin. Sage, B. L. & Vernon, J. D. R. 1978. The 1975 national survey of rookeries. Bird Study 25:64-86. Salmon, D. G. 1988. The numbers and distribution of Scaup Aythya marila in Britain and Ireland. Biol. Conserve 43:267-278. Salmon, D. G., Prys-jones, R. P. & Kirby, J. S. 1987. Wildfowl and Wader Counts 1986-87. Slimbridge. Sharrock, J. T. R. 1973. The Natural History of Cape Clear Island. Berkhamsted. Sharrock, J. T. R. 1976. The Atlas of Breeding Birds in Britain and Ireland. Berkhamsted. Sharrock, J. T. R. 1979. Did the Tree Pipit formerly nest in Ireland? Brit. Birds 72:41-42. Sharrock, J.T. R. & Fogden, S. C. L. 1967. The breeding passerines of Cape Clear island. Cape Clear Bird Obs. Rep. 7:42--49. Shawyer, C. R. 1987. The Barn Owl in the British Isles. Its past, present and future. London. Sheppard, J. R. 1981. Whooper and Bewick's Swans in north-west Ireland. Irish Birds 2:48-59. Shrubb, M. 1986. 'Kestrel' in Lack, P. The Atlas of Wintering Birds in Britain and Ireland. Calton. Simms, E. 1971. Woodland Birds. London. SmaI. C. M. 1987. The diet of the Barn Owl Tyto alba in southern Ireland, with reference to a recently introduced prey speciesthe Bank Vole Clethrionomys qlareolus. Bird Study 34:113125. Smiddy, P. 1985. Breeding seabirds on the east Cork coastline. Cork Bird Rep. 1984:46-50. Smiddy, P. 1987. Northern Razorbills on the south Irish coast. Irish Birds 3:451-452. Snow, D. W. 1968. Movement and mortality of British Kestrels. Bird Study 15:65-83.

Bibliography 207 Snow. D.W. 1969. Some vital statistics of British thrushes. Bird Study 16:34-44. Snow. D.W. 19 78. Long-distanc e movements of British Blackbirds. Ringingand Migration 2:52-54. Stowe. T.J . 1982 . Recent population trends in cliff-breeding seabirds in Britain and Ireland . Ibis 124 :502 - 510. Stowe. T. J. & Harris. M. P. 1984 . Status of Guillemots and Razorbills. Seabird 7:5- 18. Stroud. D. A. & Fox. A. D. 1985 . A conspectus of informa tion relevant to the conservation of the Greenland White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons llavirostris ) in the British Isles. Greenland Whitefronted Goose Study Group. Aberystwyth. Temple Lang. J. 1983. 'The Wildlife Act and the EEC Bird Conservation measures' in Convery. F. (ed.) Promise and Performance - Irish Environmental Policies Analysed. Dublin. Thorn. V. M. 1986. Birds in Scotland. Calton. Thomas. G.J. 1982. Breeding terns in Britain and Ireland . 19 7 579. Seabird Rep. 6:59-69. Thoma s. K. 1983. Man andthe Natural World. Changing attitudes in England 1500-1800. London. Thompson. W. 1859-61. The Natural History of Ireland. Vols 1-3. London. Tomlinson . R. W. 1982. 'Vegetation' in Cru ickshank. J. G. & Wilcock. D. N. (eds.) Northern Ireland Environment and Natural Resources. Belfast. Tyler. S. J. 197 9. Mortality and movements of Grey Wagtails. Ringing andMigration 2:122 -131. Ussher, R. J. & Warren . R. 1900. Birds of Ireland. London. Walpole. P. W. 19 77. Barn Owl pellets from north Limerick. lr. Nat. J. 19:50. Walsh. P. W. 1984 . Dietof Barn Owls at an urban Waterford roost. Irish Birds 2:43 7-444. Wanless. S. 198 7. A survey of th e numbers and breeding distribution of the Nort h Atlantic gannet Sula bassana and an assessment of the changes which have taken place since Operation Seafarer 1969/ 70 . Nature Conserva ncy Council Report. Peterborough. Watson. D. 19 77. The Hen Harrier. Berkhamsted. Watson . P. S. 1980. The seabirds of Northern Ireland and adjacen t waters . Irish Birds 1:462-486. Watson. P. S. 1984. Habitat andbirdsurveys in the River Blackwater catchment. Counties Tyrone and Armagh. April-July 1984 . R.S.P.B. and Ulster Trust Report. Belfast. Watson . A. & O'Hare. P.J . 1979a. Red Grouse populations on experimentally treated and untreated Irish bog. J. Appl. Ecol. 16:433-452. Watson. A. & O·Hare. P.J. 1979b. Spacing behaviour of Red Grouse at low density on Irish bog. Ornis Scan. 10:252-261. Watson . A. & O'Hare , P. J. 197 9c. Note on passing birds on Mayo bog. Irish Birds 1:406-407. Watson . A. & O·Hare. P. J. 19 79d . Bird and mammal numbers on

untreated and experimenta lly treated Irish bog. Oikos 33: 97-

105.

Watson . A. & O'Hare, P. J. 1980. Dead sheep and scavenging birds and mammals on Mayo bog. Irish Birds 1:487-49 1. Watson. P. S. & Radford. D.J. 19 82. Census of breeding seabirds at Horn Head. County Donegal, in Jun e 1980. Seabird Rep. 6:26-34. Watte rs. J. J. 185 3. TheNatural History of the Birds of Ireland. Dublin and London . Wells. J. H. 19 78. Results of a census of Northern Ireland heronries in 19 77. Irish Birds 1:187-198. Wells. J. H. 198 5. 'The Buzzard in Nort hern Ireland ' in O'Halloran et al Current Ornithologi cal Research in Ireland . Irish Birds 3:139-1 62. West. B.. Cabot. D. & Greer-Walker. M. 19 75. The food of the Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo at some breeding colonies in Ireland. Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. 75B:285-305 . Whilde. A. 1978. A survey of gulls breeding inland in the west of Ireland and a review of the inland breeding habit in Britain and Ireland . Irish Birds 1:134-160. Whilde, A. 1983. A repeat survey of gulls breeding in the west of Ireland . Irish Birds 2:344- 34 5. Whilde, A. 1984. Some aspects of the ecology of a small colony of Common Gulls. Irish Birds 2:466-471. Whilde, A. 1985. The 1984 all Ireland tern surv ey. Irish Birds 3:1-32. Whilde. A. 1986. Computerisation. analysis and application of Irish wetland habitat andbird data. Rosscahill. Co. Galway. Williamson . M. W. Island populations. Oxford. Wilson . J. 19 77 . Some breeding bird communities of sessile oakwoods in Ireland. Polish Ecol. Studies 3:245-2 56. Wilson. H. J. 1982a . The breeding and wint ering ecology of the Woodcock Scolopax rusticola in Ireland . Unpublished report . Forest and Wildlife Service. Wilson. H. J. 1982b . Movements . home range s and habitat use of wintering Woodcock in Ireland. U.S. Fish Wild/. Servo Res. Rep. 14:1 68- 178. Wilson. H. J. 1982 c. Wintering site fidelity of Woodcock Scolopax rusticola in Ireland. Trans. Int. Congr. Game Bio/. 14:219-231. Wilson. H. J. & Norriss. D.W. 1986 . Results of the Greenland White-fronted Goose surve y in Ireland . 19 82 / 83 to 1984/85 . Shooting News 5(1): 31-36. Winfield. D.K. & Winfield. I.J. 1987. Lough Neagh waterfowl ecology project. Unpublished report. Belfast. Winstanley. D.. Spencer. R. & Williamson. K. 19 74 . Where have all the Whitethroats gone? Bird Study 21 :1-14. Wood. R. B. 1982. 'Woods' in Cruickshank . J. G. & Wilcock. D. N. (eds.) Northern Ireland Environment and Natural Resources. Belfast. Woolf. W. J. 19 66 . Migration of Teal ringed in the Netherlands. Ardea 54:230-270.

This page intentionally left blank

General Index Afforestation 25 . 26.27.41 - species adversely affected by 26. 27 . 41 - species benefiting from 26. 27. 41. 87. 1 71 Agricultural changes 24 . 25 . 42 - species adversely affected by 25 . 42 - species benefiting from 25 . 42. 70 Censuses and surveys (see also monitoring studies) - of individual species 12 . 16 . 17. 18. 19. 20. 28 . 32. 33 . 36. 3 7. 49. 52 . 54.56 .57.58.59.60.62.64.65.66.67.68.70.87.90. 91.92.93.95.98.99.102.106.112.113 .115 .122. 123.125.126.128.129 .130.131. 13 2. 133. 134. 135. 137.138.140.141.142.147.150.161.166.167.169. 170.172.173.183.187.188.189.190 - of bird communities 11. 16. 17. 18. 19 . 20. 21 . 22 . 23. 24. 26.27.28.34.35.37.45.47.77.78 . 83.102.103.104. 106 Climatic change 14 Colonisation - recent 40. 42 . 44. 84. 85 . 99 . 109. 114. 136. 144.173.182 Disturbance - sensitivity to 70 Egg-collecting 31 Habitat loss du e to - afforesta tion 27 - agricultura l cha n ges 24 . 25 - draining 2 3. 24. 35 Hybridisation 69 . 189 Internationally important wetlands 18 . 19 . 2 0

Introductions 44. 69 . 9 3 Irruption /irruptive movements 160 . 192. 195 Legislation 31. 34 . 3 7. 38 Management for con servation 34 Migration studies 34. 111. 154 Monitoring studies (see also censuses and su rveys): Common Birds Census 26.27.28.36 grebes 20 pa sserines 22. 23 . 24 . 26. 28 . 33 . 4 7 raptors 36 . 86 . 87. 88. 90. 91 . 92 seabirds 12.16.17.28.35.47 waders 18.19.20.21. 22. 45. 47.117 wildfowl 18. 19.20.21. 22 . 23. 45. 47.77 Moorland - afforestation 41. 87 Nationally important breeding populations 16. 19 . 20 . 22 Oiling and mortality 138 Operation Seafarer 35 PCBs 35 Pesticides 36. 91. 92 'Pest' species 29 Pollution 35 Population decline . due to - disea se 125 - habitat loss 19.66.86. 87.96.97. 108 -mortality in winter 14 . 26. 2 7.131.1 32 .154.166.175 - pesti cides 3 6. 91 - other cau ses 42.43.50.64.68.70.75.77. 78. 79 .81. 8 2 . 83.93 .100.101 .133 .134.142.149.194.200

209

210

Index

Population increases - recent 40,41, 42, 43. 49. 50, 51, 52. 57, 58.59,60,64,66.68.70,73,75,85,88.109,120.121. 123.127,128.129.130,137,138,144,145,176,177. 186.190 Predation 127 Range contraction - cause uncertain 42,43,64, 100, 101, 149 - due to habitat loss 41, 66, 86, 87. 96. 97 Range expansion - recent 40.41,42,43.49,50.51, 52, 58, 59, 65.81.123.144.145.176,177,186,190 Research/species studies 19, 28,32,33,36, 47 59.62,64,67, 70,71.74,81,82,88,90,91.92,93,94,109,123,124, 127.188, 189,190 J

Reserves 34 Shooting 29, 31, 38,42, 67,70,94,144,186 Threats/potential threats 34 Weather - and migration 53, 118. 119, 121 - and mortality 14, 182, 183 - and movements 14, 64 Woodland - bird communities 26.27 - changes 25,26,27

Species Index Page references of species account s in bold num erals Accipiter gentili s 87 nisu s 87 Acrocephalus agricola 172 arund inaceus 1 73 dum etorum 173 paludicola 1 72 schoenobaenus 172 scirpaceus 173 Actitis hypoleucos 11 5 macularia 11 5 Aegithalos caudatus 182 Aix galericulata 72 Alauda arvensis 154 Alba tross . Black-b rowed 51 Alca torda 138 Alcedo al!hi s 1 50 Alectoris rufa 93 Alle alle 140 Anas acuta 75 am ericana 72 clypeata 76 crecca 73 discors 76 fo rmosa 73 penelope 72 platyrhynchos 74 rubripes 75 querquedula 75 strepera 73 Anser albifrons 66 anser 67 brachy rhynchus 66 caerulescens 69 ery thropus 67 fabalis 66 Anthus campestris 156 cervinus 157 hodgsoni 156 novaeseelandiae 156 pratensis 1 57 rubescens 1 58 spinoletta 158 trivialis 156 Apus affinis 150

apus 149 m elba 150 Aquila chry saetos 89 clanqa 89 Ardea cinerea 62 purpurea 63 Ardeola ralloides 61 Arenaria interpres 11 5 Asio flamm eus 148 otus 148 Athene noctua 147 Auk . Great 139 Littl e 140 Avocet 98 Aythya collaris 78 f erina 77 [uliqula 78 marila 79 nyroca 78 Bartramia longicauda 112 Bee-eater 151 Bittern 60 Americ an 61 Little 61 Blackbird 26. 168 Blackcap 26. 43 . 176 Bluethroat 163 Bobolink 41 . 20 0 Bombycilla qarrulus 16 0 Botaurus lentiginosus 61 stellaris 60 Brarnbling 192 Branta bernicla 70 canadensis 69 leucopsis 70 Bubulcus ibis 61 Bucephala clanqula 83 Bullfinch 196 Bulweria bulwerii 52 Bun ting. Black-h eaded 199 Corn 42.200 Indig o 41 .200 Lapland 197

Little 199 Orto lan 198 Red-head ed 44. 199 Reed 2 2 . 4 2.199 Ru stic 199 Snow 23 .198 Yellow-breasted 199 Burh inus oedicnemu s 98 Bush Robin. Rufou s 162 Bustard. Gre at 9 7 Little 97 Buteo buteo 88 laqopus 88 Buzzard 1 6. 42. 4 4. 88 Hon ey 85 Rough-Legged 89 Calandrella brachyda ctyla 153 rufescens 153 Calcarius lapponicus 19 7 Calidris alba 103 alpina 106 bairdii 104 canut us 102 [erruqinea 105 fuscicollis 104 maritima 106 melan otos 105 minuta 103 minutilla 104 pusilla 103 temminckii 104 Calonectris diom edea 52 Capercaillie 30. 93 Caprimulgus europaeus 149 Carduelis cannabina 194 carduelis 193 jIammea 195 fla virostris 194 spinus 193 Carpodacus ery thrinus 195 Catbird. Gray 41. 162 Catharu s m inim us 167 ustulatus 167

211

212

Index

Cepphus grylle 139 Cercotrichas galactotes 162 Certhia famiIiaris 184 Ceryle aleyon 151 Cettia cetti 1 71 Chaffinch 26,27.192 Charadrius alexandrinus 99

dubius 99 hiaticula 99

Diomedea melanophris 51 Dipper 20.22.30.161 Diver. Black-throated 48 Great Northern 12.48 Red-throated 48 White-billed 41. 49 Dolichonyx oruzivorus 200 Dotterel 28, 40, 41, 99 Dove, Collared 40. 41. 42,144 Rock 142 Stock 25.43,143 Turtle 145 Dowitcher. Long-billed 108 Short-billed 40, 41. 108 Duck, American Black 75 Ferruginous 78 Long-tailed 43. 80 Ring-necked 78 Ruddy 40.41,44,85 Tufted 20.43.78 Dumetella carolinensis 162 Dunlin 106 Dunnock 162

morinellus 99 vociferu« 99 Chettusia gregaria 101 Chiffchaff 43. 179 Chlidonias hybridus 135 leucopterus 136 niger 136 Chough 19. 187 Ciconia ciconia 63 Cinclus cinclus 161 Circus aeruqinasus 86 cyaneus 86 pygargus 87 Cisticola iuncidis 171 Clamator glandarius 146 Clanqula hyemalis 80 Coccothraustes coccothraustes 196 Coccyzus americanus 146 erythrophthalmus 146 Colaptes auratus 152 Columba Iivia 142 oenas 143 palumbus 143 Coot 96 American 41. 96 Coracias qarrulus 1 51 Connorant16, 17. 37.41,42,47, 57 Corncrake 22,41, 42, 95 Corvuscorax 189 corone 188 frugilegus 188 monedula 188 Coturnix coturnix 93 Courser, Cream-coloured 98 Crake, Baillon's 95 Little 95 Spotted 94 Crane 96 Sandhill 97 Crex crex 95 Crossbill, Common 195 Two-barred 195 Crow, Carrion/Hooded 24, 30, 42, 189 Cuckoo 146 Black-billed 146 Great-spotted 146 Yellow-billed 146 Cuculus canorus 146 Curlew 14.18,20.21.22,47,112 Eskimo III Cursorius cursor 98 Cygnus columbianus 64 cygnus 65 olor 64

Falco columbarius 90 naumanni 89 peregrinus 91 rusticolus 91 subbuteo 91 tinnunculus 90 vespertinus 90 Falcon, Red-footed 90 Ficedula hypoleuca 182 parva 181 Fieldfare 169 Firecrest 40, 43 180 Flamingo, Greater 63 Chilean 63 Flicker, Northern 44. 152 Flycatcher, Pied 27.28,40.41,182 Red-breasted 181 Spotted 43, 181

Delichon urbica 156 Dendrocopos major 152 Dendroica coronata 196 tiqrtna 197

Fregata sp. 60 magnificens 60 Frigatebird sp, 60 Frigateblrd, Magnificent 60

Eagle, Golden 40. 89 Spotted 89 White-tailed 86 Egret, Cattle 41. 61 Great White 41, 61 Little 61 Bqretta alba 61 garzetta 61 Eider 80 King 80 Emberiza aureola 199 bruniceps 199 citrinella 198 hortulana 198 melanocephala 199 pusilla 199 rustica 199 schoeniclus 199 Eremophila alpestris 154 Erithacus rubecula 163

Pratercula arctica 141

Fringilla coelebs 192 monitfrinqtlla 192 Pulica americana 96 atra 96 Fulmar 16,41, 42, 47, 51 Fulmarus glacialis 51

Gadfly petrel sp, 52 Gadwall 43, 73 Gallinago gallinago 108 media 108 Gallinula chloropus 96 Gannet 11. 12, 16, 17.29.39,43,47, 57 Garganey 75 Garrulusqlandartus 186 Gavia adamsii 49 arctica 48 immer48 stellata 48 Gelochelidon nilotica 130 Glareola nordmanni 98 pratincola 98 Godwit, Bar-tailed, 12, 18, III Black-tailed 12, 18, 19. 20,22,40. 41, 109 Goldcrest 26,27,28,43,180 Goldeneye 20. 83 Goldfinch 193 Goosander 40,41.84 Goose, Barnacle 12, 13, 18, 19, 20. 36, 70 Bean 66 Brent 12, 18. 19, 36.43, 70 Canada 69 Greylag 43,67 Lesser White-fronted 41, 67 Pink-footed 66 Snow 69 White-fronted, 12, 18. 19, 20, 22, 23, 36,37,42.66,67,69 Goshawk 87 Grebe, Black-necked 44, 51 Great Crested 20. 42. 49 Little 20. 49 Red-necked 50 Slavonian 50 Greenfinch 193 Greenshank 18,28.40.41,114 Grosbeak, Rose-breasted 200 Grouse, Red 41,42.92 Grus canadensis 97 grus 96 Guillemot 12, 16, 17, 31, 41, 42, 136 Black 16, 139 Brunnlch's 40,41.138 Gull, Black-headed 20, 28, 41, 42. 43, 121 Bonaparte's 121 Common 20.28,41.42.43,123 Glaucous 127 Great Black-backed 17,20,127 Herring 20,28,41, 42, 125 Iceland 126 Ivory 130 Laughing 46.120 Lesser Black-backed 20, 41. 43. 124 Little 41,43, 120 Mediterranean 41,43,120 Ring-billed 13,41, 122

Index Ross's 41, 128 Sabine's 11, 121 Gyps [ulvus 86 Gyrfalcon 91 Haematopus ostralegus 97 Haliaeetus albicilla 86 Harrier, Hen 27, 32,41,42,86 Marsh 86 Montagu's 87 Hawfinch 196 Heron, Grey 29, 43, 62 Night 61 Purple 63 Squacco 61 Himantopus himantopus 98 Hippolais icterina 1 74 pallida 173 polyglotta 174 Hirundapus caudacutus 149 Hirundo daurica 155 rustica 155 Hobby 91 Hoopoe 151 Hydrobates pelogicus 55

Ibis, Glossy 63 Ixobrychus minutus 61 Jackdaw 43,188 Jay 41, 42,186 Junco, Dark-eyed 197 Junco hyemalis 197 Jynx torquilla 152 Kestrel 23, 90 Lesser 89 Killdeer 99 Kingfisher 14, 20, 22, 30, 150 Belted 29, 41,151 Kite, Black 41,85 Red 85 Kittiwake 11, 12, 16, 17,43,47, 128 Knot 12, 18, 102 Lagopuslagopus 92 Lanius collurio 184 excubitor 185 minor 185 senator 185 Lapwing 14,20,21,22,31,47,102 Lark, Shore 154 Lesser Short-toed 153 Short-toed 153 Larus arqentatus 125 atricilla 120 canus 123 delawarensis 122 fuscus 124 glaucoides 126 hyperboreus 127 marinus 127 melanocephalus 120 minutus 120 philadelphia 121 ridibundus 121 sabin; 121 Limicola [alctnelius 107

Limnodromus griseus 108 scolopaceus 108 Limosa lapponica 111 limosa 109 Linnet 194 Locustella certhiola 171 Iuscinioides 172 naevia 171 Loxia curvirostra 195 leucoptera 195 Lullula arborea 153 Luscinia megarhynchos 163 svecica 163 Lymnocryptes minim us 107

Magpie 28,29,30,42,186 Mallard 30, 36, 74 Mandarin 72 Martin, House 156 Sand 42,154 Melanitta fusca 82 nigra 81 perspicillata 82 Merganser, Hooded 83 Red-breasted 84 Mergus albellus 83 cucullatus 83 merganser 84 serrator 84 Merlin 23, 41, 42,90 Merops apiaster 151 Micropalama himaniopus 107 Miliaria calandra 200 Milvus migrans 85 milvus 85 Mniotiita vario 196 Moniicola saxatilis 167 Moorhen 20, 22, 96 Motacilla alba 159 cinerea 159 citreola 159 flava 158 Muscicapa striata 181 Netta rujina 77 Nightingale 30,163 Night jar 41, 42, 149 Numenius arquata 112 borealis 111 phaeopus 111 Nuthatch 27,28 Nyctea scandiaca 147 Nycticorax nucticorax 61

Oceanites oceanicus 55 Oceanodroma leucorhoa 57 castro 57 Genanthe hispanica 167 leucopyga 167 leucura 167 oenanthe 167 pleschanka 167 Oriole, Golden 184 Oriolus oriolus 184 Osprey 30, 40, 89 Otis tarda 97 Otus scops 147 Ouzel, Ring 23 168 t

Ovenbird 41,197 Owl, Barn 43, 146 Little 147 Long-eared 43,148 Scops 147 Short-eared 148 Snowy 147 Tawny 27,28 Oxyura iamaicensis 85 Oystercatcher 18, 19, 97 PagophiIa eburnea 130 Pandion haliaetus 89 Panurus biarmicus 182 Partridge, Grey 25, 30, 41, 42, 93 Red-legged 93 Parula americana 196 Parula, Northern 196 Parus ater 183 caeruleus 183 major 183 Passer domesticus 191 montanus 191 Passerina cuanea 200 Perdix perdix 93 Peregrine 23,30,31,36,37,42,91 Pernis apivorus 85 Petrel, Bulwer's 52 Leach's 11, 32, 57 Madeiran 57 Soft-plumaged 52 Storm 11, 12, 16,17,55 Wilson's 55 Phalacrocoraxaristotelis 60 carbo 58 Phalarope, Grey 32, 117 Red-necked 31, 116 Wilson's 116 Phalaropusfulicarius 11 7 lobatus 116 tricolor 116 Phasianus colchicus 94 Pheasant 30. 94 Pheucticus ludovicianus 200 Philomachus pugnax 107 Phoenicopterus chilensis 63 ruber 63 Phoenicurus ochruros 163 phoenicurus 164 Phylloscopus bonelli 178 borealis 177 collybita 179 [uscatus 178 inornatus 177 proregulus 1 77 schwarzi 177 sibilatrtx 1 78 trochiloides 177 trochilus 1 79 Pica pica 186 Picus viridis 152 Pinquinus impennis 139 Pintail 75 Pipit. American 158 Meadow 23,157 Olive-backed 41, 156 Red-throated 157 Richard's 156

213

214

Index

Pipit--eontinued

Rock 158 Tawny 156 Tree 27,156 Water 158

Piranqa olivacea 197 Platalea leucorodia 63 Plectrophenax nivalis 198 Plegadis falcinellus 63

Plover, American Golden 100 Golden 12, 14, 18,20,21.22.23,47, 100 Grey 12, 18, 101 Kentish 99 Little Ringed 40,99 Pacific Golden 100 Ringed 19, 99 Sociable 101 Pluvialis apricaria 100 dominica 100 [ulva 100 squatarola 101 Pochard 20, 77 Red-crested 77 Podiceps auritus 50 cristatus 49 qriseqena 50 niqricollis 51

Porzana carolina 94 parva 95 porzana 94 pusilla 95

Pratincole, Black-winged 98 Collared 98 Prunella modularis 162 Pterodroma sp. 52

Puffin 16, 17, 141 Puffinus assimilis 55 gravis 53 qriseus 53 puffinus 54 Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax 187 Pyrrhula pyrrhula 196

Quail 25, 93 Rail, Water 94 Rallus aquatic us 94 Raven 23,24,42, 189 Razorbilll2, 16, 17,31,43,138 Recurvirostra avosetta 98

Redpoll 195 Redshank 12, 18,22, 113 Spotted 112 Redstart 27,28,43, 164 American 41, 197 Black 163 Redwing 170 Regulus ignicapillus 180 regulus 180 Rhodostethia rosea 128 Riparia riparia 154 Rissa tridactyla 128

Robin 26,27,29, 33,43, 163 American 171 Roller 151 Rook 25,28,188

Rosefinch, Scarlet 195 Ruff 107 Sanderling 18,19,103 Sandgrouse, Pallas's 142 Black-bellied 142 Sandpiper, Baird's 104 Broad-billed 107 Buff-breasted 13, 107 Common 115 Curlew 105 Green 114 Least 104 Marsh 41,113 Pectoral 13, 105 Purple 18, 106 Semipalmated 41,103 Solitary 41, 114 Spotted 115 Stilt 41, 107 Upland 112 White-rumped 104 Wood 115 Saxicola rubetra 165 torquata 166

Scaup 20,79 Scolopax rusticola 109

Scoter, Common 20,37,43,81,82 Surf 13,82 Velvet 82 Seiurus aurocapillus 197 noveboracensis 197 Serin 193 Serinus serinus 193 Setophaga ruticilla 197 Shag 16,41, 42, 60 Shearwater, Cory's 52 Great 53 Little 55 Manx 11, 12, 16,17,54 Sooty 53 Shelduck 18, 71 Ruddy 71 Shoveler 20,43,76 Shrike, Great Grey 185 Lesser Grey 185 Red-backed 184 Woodchat 185 Siskin 41, 42,193 Skua, Arctic 118 Great 119 Long-tailed 12, 119 Pomarine 12, 117 Skylark 23, 154 Smew 83 Snipe 20, 22, 23, 108 Great 108 Jack 107 Somateria molIissima 80 spectabilis 80

Sora 94 Sparrow, Fox 197 House 191 Tree 191 White-throated 41, 197 Sparrowhawk 87 Spoonbill 63

Starling 190 Rose-coloured 191 Stercorarius lonqicaudus 119 parasiticus 118 pomarinus 117 skua 119 Sterna albifrons 135 anaethetus 135 caspia 130 dougallii 131 eleqans 130 [orsteri 134 hirundo 132 paradisaea 133 sandvicensis 130

Stilt, Black-winged 98 Stint, Little 103 Temminck's 104 Stonechat 166 Stone-curlew 28,98 Stork, White 63 Streptopelia decaocta 144 turtur 145 Sturnus roseus 190 vulgaris 190 Sula bassana 57

Swallow 155 Red-rumped ISS Swan, Bewick's 12, 18,20,64 Mute 28, 43, 64, 65 WhooperI2,18,20,22,43,64,65 Swift 149 Alpine 150 Little 41, 152 149 Sylvia atricapilla 176 borin 176 cantiIlans 175 communis 175 curruca 175 nisoria 174 undata 174 Syrrhaptes paradoxus 142 Tachybaptus ruficollis 49 Tadorna [erruqinea 71 tadorna 71

Tanager, Scarlet 197 Teal 13,18,20,43,73 Baikal 73 Blue-winged 76 Tern, Arctic 19, 20,42,131, 133,134 Black 40,41, 136 Bridled 135 Caspian 130 Common 19, 20,131,132,133 Elegant 41, 130 Forster's 41, 134 Gull-billed 40, 41, 130 Little 19, 32, 131, 135 Roseate 41, 42, 131 Royal 130 Sandwich 19,20,43,130,131 Whiskered 135 White-winged Black 136 Tetrao uruqallus 93 Tetrax tetrax 97

Index Thrush, Gray-cheeked 41, 167 Mistle 170 Rock 41,167 Siberian 41,167 Song 29,169 Swainson's 167 White's 167 Tit, Bearded 40, 41, 182 Blue 26,28,183 CoaI26,28,41,43,183 Crested 28 Great 183 Long-tailed 182 Marsh 27,28 Willow 27,28 Treecreeper 184 Tringaerythropus 112 flavipes 114 glareola lIS melanoleuca 114 nebularis 114 ochropus 114 solitaria 114 staqnatilis 113 totanus 113 Troglodytes troglodytes 162 Tryngites subrujicollis 107 Turdus iliacus 170 merula 168 miqratorius 171 philomelos 169 pilaris 169 torquatus 168 viscivorus 171 Turnstone 18, lIS Twite 41,42,43,194 Tyto alba 146

Upupaepops 151 Uria aalge 136 lomvia 138 Vanellus vanellus 102 Vireo, Philadelphia 41, 192 Red-eyed 192 Vireo olivaceus 192 philadelphicus 192 Vulture, Griffon 86 Wagtail, Citrine 41, 159 Grey 20,22, 159 Pied 26,27,159 Yellow IS8 Warbler, Arctic 177 Aquatic 172 Barred 174 Black-and-white 41, 196 Blackpoll 41, 197 Blyth's Reed 41, 173 Bonelli's 178 Cetti's 40,41, 171 Dartford 28, 174 Dusky 41, 178 Fan-tailed 171 Garden 26, 176 Grasshopper 1 71 Great Reed 173 Greenish 177 Icterine 174 Marsh 173 Melodious 174 Olivaceous 173 Paddyfield 41, 172 Pallas's 41, 177 Pallas's Grasshopper 171 Radde's 41, 177

215

Reed 42,173 Savi's 41,172 Sedge 43, 172 Subalpine 174 Willow 26, 179 Wood 27,42,43,178 Yellow-browed 13,177 Yellow-rumped 41,196 Waterthrush, Northern 41, 197 Waxwing 160 Wheatear 23, 167 Black 167 Black-crowned 167 Black-eared 167 Pied 41,167 Whimbrel III Whinchat 165 Whitethroat 42,175 Lesser 175 Wigeon 18, 20, 21, 22,72 American 72 Woodcock 109 Woodlark 28, 153 Woodpecker, Great Spotted 27, 28, 152 Green 27,28,152 Lesser Spotted 27 Woodpigeon 29, 144 Wren 23, 26, 33, 162 Wryneck 152 Yellowhammer 42,198 Yellowlegs, Greater 114 Lesser 114 Zonotrichia albicollis 197

iliaca 197 Zootheradauma 167 sibtrica 167