Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture
Amjad Almusaed
Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture Analytical Therapy for the Next Generation of Passive Sustainable Architecture
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Dr. Amjad Almusaed Archcrea Institute Søndervangen 38–2TV 8260 Viby J Denmark e-mail:
[email protected]
ISBN 978-1-84996-533-0
e-ISBN 978-1-84996-534-7
DOI 10.1007/978-1-84996-534-7 Springer London Dordrecht Heidelberg New York British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Control Number: 2010936626 Ó Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011 Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licenses issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside those terms should be sent to the publishers. The use of registered names, trademarks, etc., in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made. Cover design: eStudio Calamar S.L. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
Preface
The architectural product, being a creation of a human work, a long time user produce, like any other product it has not only to be produced but also to get the user’s disposal. A true architecture is that where thinking and human feelings come into play, creates an entire harmonic, which ensembles structure and possesses significance. Architecture is always a response to tradition and culture of its time. It reflects the pulse of the society, environment action, life style of inhabitants and their aesthetic value as well as their building technology. Today several specialists in architecture and building design believes that, it is necessary to carry out an innovative creation of architectural produce, which keeps up a correspondence to the new demands of a full useful architecture but no more building. As soon as we talk about passive and low energy building, many suppose that we talk about a machinery-building, a building without human sentiment. Others believe that passive and low energy building is an ugly creature. Many engineers, designers, agriculturists, etc. wrote about low energy buildings, green buildings, etc. Although a few of them reached the right concept of passive and low energy building in concordance with the architectural conjecture. Therefore, we can identify the technical nature of these concepts. Passive and low energy building represents one of the most consistent concepts in sustainable building. A high quality of building model brings the thermal comfort primarily up-to-date to the user of the building with lowest energy costs. In this vision; all buildings can be one of the three conceptual categories relating to; energy, natural and physical surrounding, and building design: • The indifference conception: energy used for heating, cooling, lighting, etc. is uncontrollable (this concept is clearly used in industrial and agriculture buildings). • The exclusive conception: energy employed in building design is controlled by means of building materials, passive heat systems, etc. The building is isolated
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from their surroundings (this concept is clearly used in passive and low energy buildings). • The selective conception: all habitant factors such as human comfort, environment and surroundings, indoor and outdoor energy, local climate, architectural hypothesis, etc. should be employed in building conception. The environment behaves as such a selective filter with dynamic energy action to environmental incidents. That can be done by spatial configuration and optimal constructive solution to set up in detail and then through the fitting techniques that captures and convert free energy from the environment (this concept is the main aim of this book). It is the difference between the term of ‘‘Building’’ as a policy and the term of ‘‘Architecture’’ as a strategy. ‘‘Building and its component’’ is a policy of human design, which admits the terms of passive and low energy concepts, while ‘‘Architecture’’ is a strategy, which include a large diversion of policies. Presently it becomes an incorrect work manner when we take the building phenomenon and detached it from the large concept of architecture. Energy in passive and low energy building is an important factor; but it has an abstract act without human sentiments. The human comfort is the vital aim of architecture where the interaction appears between the energy such an abstract act and the human feeling and comfort in which the balancing is extremely complex. The main aim of this book is to establish the commune working area by means of architectural hypothesis upon a low energy building design and friendly environment. Actually, the problem is between the innovative architectural notion and the traditional concept of architecture. We need a clear response to the following questions: • What can a architect do after a traditional education route? • Where is the creation status in our artificial life? • Is the remediation process affected by postgraduate route capable to build a competent architect? • Where is our responsibility to nature demolishing process and climate change? The procedure of a traditional education becomes more diminutive to include all new requirements. We have to improve our life by an adaptive human creation fitting for our future sociality and nature.
The Academic Sphere This book is in charge for phrasing and pursuing strategies for planning politics and spatiality for the development of an operative architectural orientation, throughout innovative interpretation of the architectural conjecture that combines stimulates the existing environment with human requirements.
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This book extends the study of passive and sustainable building policy, in concordance with biophilic and bioclimatic architectural concept, in a global interpretation. The viewpoint of this book is both tactic and strategic. Central District of this Book 1. Architectural theory and hypothesis It is an act of thinking, designing and creating a habitable space which is covering by a high performance human creation and not a buildings material. Where every architectural creation can be described by a building form, but not every building figure can be described by architectural creation. 2. Biophilic architecture It is a part of an innovative view in architecture, where nature, life and architectural theory combine to create a lively habitable building competent to satisfy the demands, constraints and respect for both people and the environment. 3. Bioclimatic architecture This notion refers to the idea of creating buildings and manipulating the environment within buildings by functioning with natural forces around the building rather than against them to create optimal physical human comfort. 4. Passive and low energy building This perception is a comprehensive approach to energy conservation which is usually requires high class insulation as well as a healthy ventilation system, that should be able to prevent the heat loss and increasing the energy efficiency outline to get the highest building performance in exploiters. 5. Sustainable devolvement strategy Sustainable development is a development that meets the requirements of the present without compromising the ability of our future generation to meet their own requirements. Denmark, 2010
Amjad Almusaed
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge many who have commented and made suggestions on this book. Without their help, there would be more difficult to be at this form. I would like to give my special thanks to my mother, father and my family. Many thanks also to Stephan K. for his help in reading the manuscript.
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Part I
Architectural Hypothesis and Theory
1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 The Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 Energy Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 Energy Pollution and Human Healthy . . . 1.1.3 The Greenhouse Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.4 Heat Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.5 Urban Heat Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 The Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Energy Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 The Idea of Affordability . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.4 Local Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.5 Durability Sustainable Design . . . . . . . . 1.2.6 Human Comfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.7 Healthy Human Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.8 Material Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.9 Green Areas Upon Architectural Concept 1.3 Sealable Produces Under Marketing Activity . . . . 1.4 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Architectural Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Architectural Creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Human Settlement and Architectural Phenomenon 2.4 Semiotics and Representation in Architecture. . . . 2.4.1 Space Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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2.5
Architecture, Form, and Perception. 2.5.1 Static Approach . . . . . . . . 2.5.2 Dynamic Approach. . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
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Architectural Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Topological Psychology in Architecture . . . . . . 3.2 Shelter such a Protector Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Action Space by a Free Movement . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Human Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Structural Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Dimensional Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.4 Orientation of Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Operational Space and Architectural Program . . 3.4.1 Isomorphic Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Interfering Creation Process. . . . . . . . . 3.5 Analytical Creation Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 Collection of the Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2 Treatment of the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 The Indicators of Obvious Appearance upon an Architectural Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Part II 4
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Biophilic Architecture
Biophilic Architecture Hypothesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Interaction (Natural–Physical) Framework upon Biophilic Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Green Areas Placement and Variety upon Biophilic Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Introduction on Plants and Vegetations . 5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Horizontal Green Plan. . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Grasses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Climbing Plants . . . . . . . . 5.3 Vertical Green Plan . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Shrubs and Bushes . . . . . . 5.3.3 Herbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Introduction on Growing Media (Soil). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 The Natural Growing Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Soil Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Soil Density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.4 Soil Temperature and Root Growth Process. 6.1.5 Soil Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.6 Improving of Growing Media Structure. . . . 6.2 Synthetic Lightweight Soil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Introduction on Irrigation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Irrigation Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Irrigation Systems Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Irrigation Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 The Efficient Process of Plants Watering . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Irrigation Scheduling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 Irrigation Systems Competent for Biophilic Architecture . 7.7.1 Drip Irrigation System (Microirrigation) . . . . . . 7.7.2 Sprinkler Irrigation System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Green Areas in Biophilic Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Clime and Earth Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1 Why is it Winter, Spring, Summer, Autumn?. . . 8.3 Clime, Plants and Environment Condition . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 The Green Areas Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Green Area and Architectural Framework . . . . . . . . . . . 8.6 Plants and Local Microclimate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7 Green Areas, Biophilic Architecture and Seasons Impact 8.7.1 In the Summer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.7.2 In the Winter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Climate Change and Human Health (The Challenges and Remediation Act) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 What is Global Climate Change? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Climate Change in History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 The Human Challenges on Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . 9.4.1 What can we do to Meet the Challenge? . . . . . . 9.4.2 How and why Does the Natural Climate System Vary on Decadal to Millennial Time-Scales? . . .
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9.5
Global Climate Change, Desertification and Green Areas Misplaced. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 Climate Change Impacts upon General Human Life and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6.1 Natural Disasters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6.2 Water Quantity and Quality Affected on Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6.3 Air Quality Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6.4 Social Impacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6.5 Gardening Effects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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10 The Urban Heat Island Phenomenon upon Urban Components 10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 The Objective Factors of Urban Heat Island Phenomenon . . 10.3 The Impacts of Heat Island Phenomenon on Urban Human Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.1 Increase Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.2 Amplify Air Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.3 Increased Health Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.4 Impaired Water Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3.5 Increase Thermal Discomfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 Mitigation of Heat Island Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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11 The Green Areas Benefits Upon Urban Sustainability Role 11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 The Acoustical Insulation Benefit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3 Thermal Insulation Benefit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Esthetical Benefit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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12 Plants, Oxygen and Human Life Benefits. . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Green Areas and Oxygen Quantity Produced . . . . . . 12.3 Photosynthesis Process such a Source of Air Quality 12.4 The Role of Photosynthesis over Microclimate . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Evapotranspiration and Environmental Benefits 13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Factors Affecting the Evapotranspiration . . . 13.3 Estimating Evapotranspiration . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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14 Socio and Healthy Human Psychology upon Biophilic Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1.1 Why Should This Activity Be So Popular? . . . . 14.2 Specific Hypothetical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.1 Cultural Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.2 Evolutionary Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 The Psychological Benefits of Passively Viewingon Nature Greening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3.1 Which Physical Environments Are Excellent for Humans? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3.2 What Is Our Place in Nature? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Stress, Green Areas, and Mental Health . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.1 Why Should Green Areas Reduce Stress Levels in the Majority of the People? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5 Psycho Physiological Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5.1 Affective Benefits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5.2 Cognitive Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5.3 Gardening Benefits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5.4 The Social Benefits of Gardening. . . . . . . . . . . 14.5.5 14.5.5 The Spiritual Benefits of Gardening . . . . 14.5.5 The Physical Benefits of Gardening . . . . . . . . . 14.5.7 Horticultural Therapy Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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16 Green Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 Why Green Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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15 Green Roofs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 What is a Green Roof? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3 Green Roofs Today. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4 Green Roofs Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4.1 After Roofs Inclination . . . . . . . . 15.4.2 After Structure form Arrangement 15.5 Green Roofs Components . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5.1 Waterproofing Layer (A Seal) . . . 15.5.2 Drainage Layer and Filtration . . . 15.5.3 Substrate (Growing Medium) . . . . 15.5.4 Plants and Vegetation . . . . . . . . . 15.6 Green Roofs Maintenance and Warranty . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Green Walls Types . . . . . . . . . 16.3.1 Extensive Green Walls 16.3.2 Intensive Green Wall . 16.4 Analytical Instruction . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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207 207 209 213 216
17 Interaction between Architectural Creation and Environmental Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2 Energy upon Ambience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2.1 Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2.2 Convection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2.3 Radiation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.2.4 Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.3 Energy upon Architectural Conception . . . . 17.4 Physical Environment and Human Comfort . 17.4.1 Acoustical Environment . . . . . . . . 17.4.2 Optical Environment . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4.3 Thermal Environment . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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219 219 220 220 221 221 222 222 223 224 224 224 227
18 Vernacular Architecture and Human Experiences . . 18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2 Vernacular Architecture Values . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2.1 Vernacular Architecture Conception . . . 18.2.2 Vernacular Architectural Spaces Values 18.2.3 Architectural Elements Values . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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229 229 230 230 231 232 232
19 Vernacular Architecture from Hot Regions (Basrah, Iraq). 19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2 Climate in Basrah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3 Vernacular Architecture and Buildings Specific . . . . . . 19.4 Vernacular Architecture Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4.1 Habitat Spaces with Thermal Role . . . . . . . . . 19.4.2 Architectural Elements with Thermal Role . . . 19.4.3 Natural Elements with Positive Effects . . . . . . 19.5 Habitat-Specific Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.5.1 Urban Texture Specific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.5.2 Specific Volume. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.5.3 Specific Habitat Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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233 233 234 234 236 236 240 243 245 245 245 246
Part III
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19.5.4 Specific Building Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.5.5 Energy on Vernacular Dwellings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Vernacular Architecture from Cold and Temperate Regions (Aarhus, Denmark) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1 Climate in Aarhus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1.1 Temperature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1.2 Wind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1.3 Sunshine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2 Habitat Type in History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3 Vernacular Architecture Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3.1 Closed Functional Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3.2 Intermediary Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3.3 Open Functional Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.3.4 Landscape Elements with Thermal Elements . 20.4 Habitat Concept Specific . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.4.1 Specific Urban Texture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.4.2 Specific Habitat Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.4.3 Specific Habitat Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.4.4 Specific Construction Material . . . . . . . . . . . 20.4.5 Heating System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Improvement of Exterior and Interior Energy Allocate 21.1 Improvement of Exterior Energy Allocate . . . . . . . 21.1.1 Ameliorate of Local Microclimate . . . . . . 21.1.2 The Effect of Local Earth Relief . . . . . . . 21.1.3 The Effect of Water and Vegetation . . . . . 21.2 Improvement of Interior Energy Allocate . . . . . . . 21.2.1 Architectural Functions and Human Comfort Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.2.2 Building Thermal Zones Such as Cascade . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
247 248 249
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251 251 251 251 252 252 254 256 256 256 257 258 258 260 260 261 261 263
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22 Improvement of Thermal Insulation (Passive Buildings). 22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2 Insulation Roles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2.1 Energy Saving and Conservation . . . . . . . . 22.2.2 Energy Changes and Control . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2.3 Condensation Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2.4 Fire Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3 Insulation Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3.1 Permanent Insulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3.2 Movable Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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277 277 277 278 278 279 280 280 280 282
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22.4
Insulation in Passive Buildings Concept . 22.4.1 Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4.2 External Door . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4.3 Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4.4 Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4.5 Cold Bridging Effect . . . . . . . . 22.4.6 Air Tightness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4.7 Heating by Radiant Asymmetry . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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285 285 286 287 287 287 288 288 288
23 Improvement of Energy Saving Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.2 Green Buildings Covering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.3 Double Skin Façade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.4 Heating Recovery Systems by Ventilative Development . . 23.5 Heat Break Transfer Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.5.1 Underground Energy is Source of Permanent Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.5.2 Sun Energy such Resource of Permanent Energy . 23.5.3 Heat Break Concept in Double Skin Façade . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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301 301 301 303
24 Windows Between Optical and Thermal Roles. . . . . . . . . . . 24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2 The Optical Roles of Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3 Windows Orientation and Emplacement . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3.1 Optimal Orientation for Buildings in Temperate and Cold Climate (Southeast) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3.2 Optimal Orientation for Buildings in Hot Arid (Northeast) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4 The Thermal Roles of Windows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4.1 Windows in Hot Climate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.4.2 Windows in Cold and Temperate Climate . . . . . 24.5 Improvement of Windows Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.5.1 Reducing of Heat Gain in Summer . . . . . . . . . . 24.5.2 Reducing of Heat Loss in Winter . . . . . . . . . . . 24.6 Windows and Heat Break Transfer Concept. . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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304 304 305 306 306 306 308 308 309
25 Illuminations by Sun–Skylight Tubes . . 25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.2 Tubular Sun–Skylight in History . . 25.3 The Concept of Sun–Skylight Tube
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25.4
How the Sun–Skylight Tube System Works. 25.4.1 Collector or Concentrator . . . . . . . 25.4.2 Light Transporter System . . . . . . . 25.4.3 Emitter or Diffuser (Distributor). . . 25.5 Sun–Skylight Tube Advantage . . . . . . . . . . 25.6 Developments of Future Technology. . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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314 315 315 316 317 317 318
26 Illumination by Optical Arteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.2 How Arteries Optics Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.3 The Application of Optical Arteries Idea . . . . . 26.3.1 Spaces Illumination . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.3.2 Other Applications of Optical Arteries 26.4 The System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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319 319 319 320 321 321 322 323
27 Illuminate by Light Shelves . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.2 Light Shelves Role . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.3 Light Shelves Position and Functions . 27.4 Distance Sunlight’s Reflective System 27.4.1 Sun Reflective Spots. . . . . . . 27.4.2 Special Sunlight Canals. . . . . 27.4.3 How the Light System Works References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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325 325 326 327 328 328 329 330 331
28 Cooling by Effective Shading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.2 Shading Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.2.1 Shading by Agglomerate of Volumes . . . . . . 28.2.2 Shading on Courtyard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28.2.3 Shading by Space in Space Concept . . . . . . . 28.2.4 Shading by Natural Elements (Vertical Plan) . 28.2.5 Shading by Devices (see Movable Insulation) References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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333 333 335 335 336 337 338 339 343
29 Cooling by Comfort Ventilation . . 29.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.2 Cross Ventilation . . . . . . . . . 29.3 Wind Catcher. . . . . . . . . . . . 29.4 Nocturnal Ventilative Cooling
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29.5
Ventilative Cooling Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.5.1 Ventilative Cooling by Open Loop . . 29.5.2 Ventilative Cooling by Closed Loop . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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348 348 349 350
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31 Cooling by Indirect Evaporative Systems . . . . . . . 31.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.2 Cooling by Water Roof Spray . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3 Cooling by Roof Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.4 Cooling by Perforate Front Wall . . . . . . . . . . 31.5 Cooling by Using of Cold Water Storage Tank References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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32 Cooling by Thermal Earth Inertia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.2 Cooling by Underground Thermal Inertia Systems . . . . . 32.2.1 Cooling Using a Free Underground Space . . . . . 32.2.2 Cooling Using Bedrock on Underground Spaces 32.3 Underground Building. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.4 Cooling by Underground Earth Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.4.1 Tubes Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.4.2 Tube Diameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.4.3 Tube Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.4.4 Tube Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.5 Earth Tubes Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.5.1 Vertical Closed-Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.5.2 Horizontal Closed-Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.6 General Consideration of Cooling Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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367 367 368 369 370 370 371 372 372 372 372 372 373 373 374 374
33 Passive Heating Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.2 Natural Phenomenon and Passive Heating . 33.2.1 Greenhouse Phenomenon. . . . . . . 33.2.2 Thermodynamics Phenomenon . . . 33.3 Passive Heating Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . 33.3.1 Heating Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33.3.2 Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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30 Cooling by Direct Evaporative Systems . . 30.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.2 Evaporative Cooling Approach. . . . . 30.3 Direct Evaporative Cooling Systems . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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33.4
Energy and Building Orientation 33.4.1 South Building Facing . 33.4.2 North Building Facing . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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382 382 382 383
34 Solar Passive Heating Components . . . . . . . . 34.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.2 Sunspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.2.1 Sunspace’s Disadvantage. . . . . . 34.3 Thermal Storage Elements . . . . . . . . . . . 34.4 Thermal Mass Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.5 Thermal Mass (storage) Types . . . . . . . . 34.5.1 Simple Frontal Storage Wall . . . 34.5.2 The Size Thermal Storage Wall . 34.5.3 Bedrock as Thermal Storage . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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385 385 385 387 387 388 389 389 390 390 392
35 Passive Heating Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.2 Direct Gain System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.3 Indirect Gain System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.4 Heating Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.4.1 Heating by Trombe Wall (Thermosyphon). 35.4.2 Heating by Remote Storage Walls . . . . . . 35.4.3 Heating by Water Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.4.4 Heating by Roof Pond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.4.5 Isolated Gain System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.4.6 Thermosyphon Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35.4.7 Auxiliary Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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393 393 394 394 396 396 397 398 400 401 402 403 405
36 Remembering Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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List of Figures
1.1 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9
The interaction between the biophilic and bioclimatic architecture concepts Deferent forms of architectural spaces and volumes a The subordinate relation system. b Environmental transformations process. c Diachronic perspective Perception and representation of architectural spaces Bearing structure Modular structure The movement of a point Transmission a vertical line on horizontal direction Radiant vision types Human–shelter space relation Human spaces categories and the communication between private and collective spaces The correlation between spaces; actor–spectator (Theater example) Human action approach Schematic insight of structural transfer The differences between (centric–linear) growth actions The spaces types From the structure problem to object configuration The components of human settlement (Building–Human–Nature) Interaction between physical and natural framework in biophilic architecture model Interaction by the spatial pressure model Interaction by edge-to-edge contact Interaction by face-to-face, contact Interaction by interconnecting surfaces Architectural pattern in context of living nature upon biophilic architecture model Green area allocate by pointed form Green area allocate in a linear form xxiii
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4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 5.21 5.22 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 7.1 7.2 7.3 8.1 8.2 8.3 9.1 9.2 9.3 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 12.1
List of Figures
Green area allocate in a radial form Green area allocate in a clustered form Green area allocate in a grid form Green area allocate in a wide-ranging form Selective Poa species Selective Festuca species Selective Carex species Selective Calamagrostis species Selective species of sedum Selective species of Allium Selective species of climbing plant A form of Oak tree A form of Maple tree A form of Ash tree A form of Lindens tree A form of Elms tree A form of Palmer tree Selective species of shrubs and bush Selective species of shrubs and bush Selective species of shrubs and bush Selective species of shrubs and bush Selective species of shrubs and bush Selective species of shrubs and bush Selective species of herbs Selective species of herbs Selective species of herbs The natural soil compassion Natural soil is a resourceful growing media USDA soil triangle Synthetics lightweight soil Drip irrigation system Wetting pattern for a single sprinkler Relative position of interior and exterior sprinklers Earth climates map Trees shade morphologic in correspondence to world climate specific Trees form in correspondence to earth climate Show how total climate has changed during the time The world climate change The global and continental temperature change Urban heat island dealings Earth Surface temperature through 24 h The thermal field interaction between buildings Increasing of summertime temperatures increase cooling requirements The benefits of mitigation strategies Plants, oxygen and human life
List of Figures
12.2 12.3 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10 15.11 15.12 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 19.7 19.8 19.9 19.10 19.11 19.12 19.13 19.14 19.15 19.16 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9
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Leaf action and photosynthesis Plants and environment cooperation The ziggurat of Nanna in the ancient city of Ur The hanging garden imagined by Almsad Green roof from Scandinavian countries Grube house from Viking in Denmark Green roof pattern School of Art and Design, Singapore The California Academy of sciences, as featured on the growspot.com Heden proposal, Gothenburg, Sweden, and Monterey Bay Shores The EFA, Radio Satellite station Custav Peichi Aflenz Austria 1976–1979 Inviting garden, with view of Boston’s harbor The famous Chicago city hall green roof The drainage layer Spots green suspended walls Compact green suspended walls system, Aarhus University in Denmark Tower flower Climatic skin layer, detail for a proposal project of cultural house from Gjellerup, Aarhus, Denmark Clime analyze for Basrah-Iraq Traditional house from Basrah-Iraq Gallery in traditional house from hot climate Traditional Patio function in the day (Basrah-Iraq) Traditional Patio function at the night (Basrah-Iraq) Wooden terrace in front of the house Terrace on the roof for sleeping in summer Iwan such as traditional spaces for houses from arid climate regions Wind tower is an original architectural element in a hot climate region Wooden jigsaws pieces Fountain in traditional house from hot climates Traditional doors and outside beautification Palmer is a specific tree in Basrah Urban texture specific (Basrah city) Volumes specific habitat from Arid zones (Iraq) Specific habitat plan for hot climate Clime analyze for Aarhus-Denmark Wing house typical for Scandinavian countries Traditional Danish houses Traditional Danish houses orientation and emplacement Buffering space placement, in relation to cold north coordinate Trees and building elements such buffering areas against dominant strong cold wind Courtyard position in farm Danish houses Texture urban specific (Aarhus city) Specific habitat plan (Aarhus city)
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20.10 20.11 20.12 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 21.7 21.8 21.9 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.5 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.6 26.1 26.2 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 28.1 28.2 28.3 28.4 28.5 28.6
List of Figures
Specific habitat volume for cold climate architecture Specific buildings material Chimneys position in Old Danish houses Different natural surroundings Different natural earth reliefs Some local microclimate from arid and temperate zones Metabolic rate of different activities Insulation values of different kind of clothing The interaction between energy, activity, human comfort and architectural programs Hierarchy thermal comfort on architectural spaces position Thermal comfort in cold and hot climate habitat The optimal buildings orientation in hot and cold climates Energy saving concept is a way to protect our beings Energy changes and control Permanent insulation type Movable insulation exploit Movable insulation role Dabble skin façade (the shape) Heat recovery system Heat recovery concept by means of tub Heat recovery system (application form) Heat break transfer concept Windows Relation hollow-full in hot and cold climates Windows size in hot and cold climates Window and heat break transfer concept Sun–skylight concept in history Sun–skylight tube concept Sun–skylight tube Heliostat composition Sun skylight application Light pipe in Potsdam Platz (Berlin) Lighting by optical arteries Applications of optical arteries idea Light shelves concept Distance sunlight’s reflective system Illumination by reflective sunlight through special canal The reflective sunlight’s component The shading effect on traditional façade from hot climate (Baghdad city) Different kinds of shading for bioclimatic buildings in hot climate Shading resulted from the compact volumes Courtyard from a traditional house in Damascus-Syria Bioclimatic houses project from Iraq Shading by space on space concept
List of Figures
28.7 28.8 28.9 28.10 28.11 28.12 29.1 29.2 29.3 29.4 29.5 29.6 30.1 30.2 30.3 30.4 30.5 30.6 30.7 30.8 30.9 30.10 30.11 30.12 31.1 31.2 31.3 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 31.6 33.1 33.2 34.1 34.2 34.3 35.1 35.2 35.3
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Shading by using trees Shading by different form of devices The effects on internal heat flow of external against internal shades Different types of awnings Trellises outward appearance Shade screen Cross ventilation in different situation Wind catcher in bioclimatic architecture Ventilative cooling by open loop Ventilative cooling by open loop Ventilative cooling by closed loop Ventilative cooling by closed loop Evaporative cooling by bath water Evaporative cooling by direct means Evaporative cooling by direct means (watering front) Evaporative cooling by direct means (on the top of the roof) Evaporative cooling by direct means (a complex system of fountain) Evaporative cooling by direct means of cooling tower Evaporative cooling by direct means (in front of window) Evaporative cooling by direct means (outdoor cooling system) Evaporative cooling by direct means (front cooling façade) Evaporative cooling by direct means (throughout fountain system) Evaporative cooling by direct means, in front of buildings elements such windows and external doors Evaporative cooling system for microclimate ameliorates Indirect cooling systems Indirect cooling system Indirect cooling system in the summer and with reverse heating system in the winter Different systems of cooling by using of thermal earth inertia Thermal earth inertia is an efficient source of cooling Wind catcher and Thermal earth inertia is a combinative form for an efficient cooling Wind catcher, thermal earth inertia and 50 W ventilator is an competent combinative of cooling system Cooling by using of vertical closed-loop Cooling by using of horizontal closed-loop Greenhouse effect Passive heating process Sunspaces component and thermal mass position Sunspace and thermal mass display at the day and the night Passive heating and thermal mass arrangement Direct heat gain action Indirect heat gain system Indirect heat gain action (internal wall)
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35.4 35.5 35.6 35.7 35.8 35.9 35.10 35.11 35.12
List of Figures
Indirect heat gain action with a complex system Hybrid heating technique by Trombe wall system Heating by Trombe wall system Heating by a solar complex system Indirect heat gain (exterior water wall) Direct heat gain (interior water wall) Roof pond heating system Thermosyphon heating system Thermosyphon heating system
List of Tables
2.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 11.1 11.2 12.1 15.1 16.1 17.1 22.1 24.1
The equivalent result of the figural conceptual domain The traditional measure systems The different display of values and their staging of meaning The different display of values and their staging of meaning The acoustical rate in different building components Plants effect on three plant layers The oxygen produced by vertical and horizontal green areas Characteristic varieties of the four different forms of green roofs The different categories of green walls and roof The properties of selected materials Overview of U-values for different types of glazing The characteristic of glazing system
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Part I
Architectural Hypothesis and Theory
Chapter 1
Overview
The earth is our sustainer, the chain of the ecologic survival. Renew ability is the key to our human continuum and to our prime resource for architecture. Earth sheltering, earth handling and earth escaping are more clearly pronounced in the vocabulary of architectural planning and design (Zaki 2005). Architects can timepiece many new negative effects generated from a wrong usage of earth resource and a wrong correlation among the three components of human existing in the earth; these are environment, architecture and human being. Bearing in mind, the present forms of human building response to his environment and several of the problems produced by them, confident questions are raised regarding the lack of respect that many of these traditional responses have for the conservation of the environment and its intrinsic natural processes. We have over-used and over-abused every material, every resource and every environmental attributes originally available for us, to the area that many are at present scurrying about trying to find a gimmick or a quick and easy solution to the problem (Al-musaed 2007). The problem, though, seems to stem from a lack of appropriate knowledge about the nature of our given environment. However, the solution does not involve gimmicks, only understanding. All that which is necessary to exist in unison with our surroundings is a clear and objective analysis of the intricacies of the environment in which we live, and an honest reaction to those factors, which strongly influence the nature of that environment. Sustainable development’s emphasis on limiting infrastructure and the materials used, helps contribute to affordability during the construction of a project by eliminating some costs altogether. In the longer term, sustainable design’s principles of energy and healthy architectural spaces and material durability would help to make a habitat affordable. Renew ability is the key to our human range and our prime resource for architecture. Every site is definite as to its location, natural relief, local vegetation and its local macromicroclimate. Today, upon reflecting on the various settings and experiences of our lives, we should be able to find some fairly close matches between characteristics we like and characteristics that would have improve our chances of survival. The natural contiguous keeps us healthy and in turn, probably promotes physical
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performance as well. Occupants of built environments do not want simply to work, play, eat or sleep in a functional building. They need to be inspired, invigorated, comforted and reassured by their surroundings. They require spaces that will make them more appropriate, comfortable and healthy. The book will take in evidence the challenges and the goals of human objectives for a healthy human architecture.
1.1 The Challenges Hyper used of earth prime resources contribute to evolution of big energy and earth pollution. The troubles that require attentions are decides in following subsection.
1.1.1 Energy Crisis Energy crisis is a situation in which the nation suffers from a disruption of energy supplies accompanied by rapidly increasing energy prices that threaten economic and national security. As we all know, that energy is essential to modern society, as we know it. Over 85% of our energy demands are met by the combustion of fossil fuels. This shows exactly how vital are the fuels to our society by showing how much of each energy resource is consumed (Bartok and Adel 1991). We further recognize that new technological breakthroughs make it possible, for the first time, to reconfigure existing buildings and design and construct new buildings that create all of their own energy from locally available renewable energy sources, allowing us to re-conceptualize building as ‘power plants’ (Enric and Jeremy 2008).
1.1.2 Energy Pollution and Human Healthy Energy pollution comes from the discharge of energy during some human activity that harms or interferes with human health or ecosystems. Almost all energy production and assumptions involves some form of pollution. Typical forms of energy pollution are noise pollution from subsonic testing by the navy or too many decibels from heavy traffic or large machines. Thermal discharges from power plants, radioactivity from building materials with concentrated radon or from nuclear power plants, light that interferes with astronomy or bird migration, and increased ultraviolet ray exposure from depletion of the ozonosphere (Wiser earth). Each different source of energy, from fossil fuels to nuclear, pollutes in a different way and to a different degree. As a resultant of energy pollution is given in following subsections.
1.1 The Challenges
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1.1.3 The Greenhouse Effect Where greenhouse gases naturally blankets the Earth and keeps it about 33C warmer than it would be without these gases in the atmosphere (Bartok and Adel 1991). The ‘greenhouse effect’ is the heating of the Earth due to the presence of greenhouse gases.
1.1.4 Heat Climate Change In 2007, the science of climate change achieved an unfortunate milestone: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reached an accord position that human-induced global warming. The most recent scientific effort demonstrates that changes in the climate system are occurring in the patterns that scientists had predicted, but the observed changes are happening earlier and faster than expected—again, unfortunate (Ebi 2007). Climate change cannot be stopped entirely, but it can be limited significantly through national and international action to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases emitted to the atmosphere over the next several decades and thereafter, thus limiting climate change impacts. This is already causing worldwide physical and biological impacts, where globally, the ten hottest years on record have all occurred since the beginning of 1990s. Current climate models predict that global temperatures could warm from 1.4 to 5.8C over the next 100 years, depending on the amounts of greenhouse gases emitted and the sensitivity of the climate system (Al-musaed 2004).
1.1.5 Urban Heat Island The annual mean air temperature of a city with 1 million people or more can be 1–3C warmer than its surroundings. In the evening, the difference can be as high as 12C. Heat islands can affect communities by increasing summertime peak energy demand, air conditioning costs, air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, heat-related illness and mortality and water quality (US EPA 2009). The reason that the city is warmer than the country comes down to a difference between the energy gains and losses of each region.
1.2 The Objectives The biophilic and bioclimatic architecture provides us with the opportunity to reach extremely optimal human comfort and low levels of energy consumption by employing high quality, cost-efficient measures to general architectural
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components—such measures are in turn off advantage to the ecology and economy sector. Achieving a high-quality indoor environment at suitable price has always presented a challenge for the traditional building design. With aspects of sustainable development, nowadays being added to the list of requirements, and the growth in the available materials/systems that may be engaged, this challenge is put to grow to be even more formidable. Many decisive factors involve finding a resolution in this book like following subsections.
1.2.1 Energy Efficiency By interpretation the benefits from the energy-efficient sitting and design of buildings are economic, social and ecological. Every new development ideally should have an explicit energy strategy, setting out how these benefits are to be achieved. The amount of energy use in a building is a direct result of the climate, the building’s use and its form. It is not an exaggeration to propose that the better design of new buildings would result in a 50–75% reduction in their energy consumption relative to 2,000 levels, and that appropriate intervention in the existing stock would readily yield a 30% reduction. Added together, this would significantly reduce a nation’s energy bill, handsomely contribute to environmental impact and climate change mitigation, and help to ease the stressful indoor conditions experienced by many citizens (Clark 2001).
1.2.2 Renewable Energy Refers to those clean and endless (they renew) energies. Renewable energy refers to energy resources that occur naturally and repeatedly in the environmental and can be harnessed for human benefit. This kind of energy comes from the natural flow sunlight, wind, or water around the Earth. With the help of special collectors, we can capture some of this energy and put it to use in our homes and businesses. As long as sunlight, water and wind continue to flow and trees and other plants continue to grow, we have an access to a ready supply of energy.
1.2.3 The Idea of Affordability A common perception is that sustainable building is more expensive than conventional building? Is this really true?
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1.2.4 Local Design Regional design adapts a building to perform well and endure in its particular location by: • • • •
Designing for climate and microclimate. Planning to withstand extreme events. Considering regional vernacular architecture. Conforming to applicable local building codes.
1.2.5 Durability Sustainable Design The concept incorporates durable materials, properly assembled to comprise a durable system. Using durable materials avoids the expense and resource consumption of materials that fail sooner, requiring replacement and potentially damaging other systems and components.
1.2.6 Human Comfort The parameters that influence the overall comfort can be grouped into three categories (Al-musaed 1996): • Physical parameters, which include the air temperature and the thermal conditions of the environment, the relative humidity of the air, the local air velocity, the odors, the colors of the surroundings, the light intensity and the noise level. • Physiological parameters, which include age, sex and specific characteristics of the occupants. • External parameters, which include human activity, clothing and social conditions.
1.2.7 Healthy Human Life The health of construction site workers involves choosing less-toxic material alternatives and providing worker training in specialized installation procedures and using proper and modern building tools.
1.2.8 Material Efficiency There are tons of materials, including thousands of board feet of lumber, go into constructing of an average building in all countries around the world. There are
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three principal approaches to improve the material efficiency of home construction: • Reducing the amount of materials used in construction. • Using the recycled materials that otherwise would have been waste. • Reducing the waste generated in construction process.
1.2.9 Green Areas Upon Architectural Concept The trends of how people spend their own time change from year to year. However, it contains broadly the same ingredients: a chance to escape from the city, to be alone or to be with other people, to be close to nature, and to relax and enjoy oneself (Jensen and Guthrie 2006). Recreation is the term used mainly to refer to activities that are carried out not far from home and within the normal daily routines while the term nature tourism implies activities that are part of a holiday or vacation and which involve staying away from home. There are many reasons for visiting and exploring the great outdoors: physical exercise, release from the stresses of city life, fresh air, getting closer to nature, enjoyment of the scenery (Bell 2008). The challenge is how to persuade people to visit green areas regularly and to undertake exercise that is sufficiently aerobic as to have a positive effect. A green areas concept can improve the building functions by increasing the efficiency of energy resource, and reducing the building impacts on human health and the environment during the building’s lifecycle, through better sitting, design, construction, operation, maintenance and removal (Frej 2005). The value of green areas as places to go to acquire more exercise and the value of nature in countering depression are at the present the focus of much research, as noted in the Introduction. This is likely to increase over time as the results of research work their way into the policy agendas of many countries (Bell 2008). The settlement is not only the relations system (economics, social, etc.) which it permits existence and species perpetuation, but also complex form to of expression of deeper necessity human, as spiritual being—need to communicate, into adequate climate moral, culture, tradition and customs. In this framework, buildings or special structures, which it was thinking and made up for to serve in the first place, permanent spiritual values and then ephemera practical needs of one social or individual group. We allow us to quote by extensor to FRANK LOYD WRIGT. As a matter of fact the protection and utility are never enough per se. The building is the higher production of the human spirit. This means that the man was always there to find himself.
1.3 Sealable Produces Under Marketing Activity
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1.3 Sealable Produces Under Marketing Activity All businesses, big or small, old or new, needs to used market research. A common feeling of many small business owners is that they do not need to do market research as they already have a feel for their customer market, given their long experience. However, experience, though useful, can lead to a false sense of knowing. Be careful as information gathered arbitrarily over the years may be out of date, vague, biased or of a folk tale nature. It is impossible to sell people what they do not want. That is obvious. Just as obvious is the fact that nothing could be simpler than selling people could what they do want. The architectural creation and the quality index of biophilic and bioclimatic architecture and cycle life of the product, from launching phase to declining phase to secure a sustainable building function. At the same time, the price represents the mechanism that provides the balance between requests/offers and represents the quantity of money solicited for a produce, on a winder sense. The price is the sum of all the values offered by the consumers in the exchange for the advantage of having or using the product. The new orientation to determine the qualities of the architectural product by using cybernetics-economical system of analysis, and evolution is a step toward the creation of estimation methods by using an efficient branch of the operational researches in order to materialize the cost-quality relation the best possible. Market research is essential in helping to find out what people want. Market research provides which information we need to get about our product, service or market, so we can develop a good marketing and business strategies. The solution of technical requirements behind it, and the creation of a good price-performance ratio is task of the product manufacturers of biophilic and bioclimatic architecture. Marketing used the general trend to wellness and health, high-living quality and modernity. A further marketing argument for building companies could be the good building quality—and thus avoiding the occurrence of mold damage and resulting complaints completely. A promoted demo project within the city area as descriptive biophilic and bioclimatic architecture in this type of housing could contribute substantially to the introduction on the market (Zaki 2001). The vital aim of biophilic and bioclimatic architecture is to outline attributes and put them into a clear, sensible, organized format so developers, designers, planners and architects can learn about the importance of a connection to the natural environment in all their building projects.
1.4 Conclusions Accordingly, one of the main aspirations of this book is for the designers and specialists of their groups, who are working on biophilic and bioclimatic concepts,
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to create an innovative production of buildings, which are increasingly standard either hypothetical or could also be green or environmental edifices (Porteous with Macgregor 2005). The vital mission of biophilic and bioclimatic architecture is to revised conceptualization of architecture in response to a myriad of contemporary concerns about the effects of human activity. In architecture, the requirement is to develop programs and seminars to broaden the student’s understanding of our political–social–cultural relationship with technology within the built environment (Fig. 1.1). We also require devising studios within which both the design process and the design problem expand the student’s awareness of the powerful interrelationships engendered by contemporary technology (Tanzer and Longoria 2007). The suggestion of extreme climates is that the buildings have to arbitrate with ambient temperatures, which are healthy below satisfactory the indoor thermal comfort levels for a major part of the year. On the other hand, even in such extreme climates, they may also have to tackle overheating in cold–warm, cloudy–sunny weathers. The concept of biophilic and bioclimatic architecture represents one of the most consistent concepts of sustainable building and brings with consideration of bio-ecologically harmless materials and the use of renewable energy sources an enormous increase of quality in planning and workmanship as well as the living comfort with itself. It deserves a deeper explanation (Al-musaed 2004). The connection with the nature leads to a positive responses in terms of human performance and health even emotional states. The new movement aims to create
Fig. 1.1 The interaction between the biophilic and bioclimatic architecture concepts
1.4 Conclusions
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environmentally friendly, energy-efficient buildings and developments by effectively managing natural resources. This book includes three parts: Part I: Focuses on the concept of architecture such a human product, and architectural creation process which takes in evidence the meaning and values of architecture in creation process. Part II: Open the way toward an innovative understanding of biophilic architecture such a response to the negative consequence of a human activity through utilizing in a wrong manner the earth resources. And the benefit of employing of the nature to be an integrant part of architectural creation process. Part III: Shows the vital profit of the collaboration between the climate effects and the notion of human comfort under bioclimatic architecture concept. Many ways and a significant strategies must take in evidence when we stats on a designing process.
References Al-musaed A (1996) The town texture specific for the warm zone, A.D review, and issue nr 121996. Bucharest Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole I Aarhus, Aarhus, p 115 Al-musaed A (2007) Saleable passive house (marketing activities in the context of passive sustainable principles), building low energy cooling and advanced ventilation technologies the 21st century. In: PALENC 2007, the 28th AIVC conference, Crete Island Bartok W, Adel F (1991) Fossil fuel combustion: a source book. Wiley, New York Bell S (2008) Design for outdoor recreation, 2nd edn. Tayler & Francis Group, London, pp. 1–13 Clark JA (2001) Energy simulation in building design, 2nd edn. Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford Ebi KL (2007) Heat waves & global climate change. Prepared for the Pew Center on Global Climate Change. National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder Enric R, Jeremy R (2008) Revolutionizing architecture to address the global energy crisis and climate change. http://ecosistemaurbano.org/?p=1926 Frej AB (2005) Green office buildings: a practical guide to development. The Urban Land Institute, Washington, pp 4–8 Jensen CR, Guthrie SP (2006) Outdoor recreation in America, 6th edn. Human Kinetics, Champaigne Porteous C with Macgregor K (2005) Solar architecture in cool climates. Earthscan, London Tanzer K, Longoria R (2007) The green braid: towards an architecture of ecology, economy, and equity. Taylor & Francis, London, p 90 USA, Environment protection agency, EPA (2009). http://www.umich.edu/*gs265/society/ fossilfuels.htm. Accessed 15 June 2009 Zaki K (2001) The large concept of the marketing. Al-Manahij Publisher, Amman, Jordan, p 32 Zaki H (2005) Thermal earth inertia such a source of energy for bio-sustainable house. In: 2005 World sustainable building conference, Tokyo, 27–29 September 2005 (SB05Tokyo)
Chapter 2
Architectural Hypothesis
2.1 Introduction The term architecture (from Greek, architektonike) refers to the procedure, career or documentation. According to Merriam-Webster dictionary, architecture is the art or science of building; specifically: the art or practice of designing and building structures and especially habitable ones. Over quite many thousand years, the resources, by which architecture has been improved, have taken some odd turns: symbolism has taken over in a Stonehenge, a pyramid, or a gate that looks like a lion; but still the concept of elegance is itself in all probability modest more than a respectable fantasy. Architecture, in romantic terms of the past, has been described as ‘‘frozen music.’’ such a beautiful, placid image contrasts severely with our present perception of a chaotic, sprawling, built environment. Widespread, polluting, noisy, and ugly, this malignant suffusion of buildings is the visible result of uncontrolled and unintelligent development (Abernathy 1979). Frank Lloyd Wright; wondered whether architecture can be described by the vast collection of the various buildings that have been built to please various taste of humankind. Frankly speaking I don’t think so. One of the most curious notions of architectural theory that was developed by Vitruvius was that the principles of architecture and the laws of the cosmos were somehow identical. Here I would like to quote and translate what Vitruvius said in this connection: Our ancestors took their models from nature and by imitating them were led on by divine facts 111 machinery is derived from nature and is founded on the teaching and constructions of the revolution of the firmament, the sun, the moon, and the five planets (Morgan 1960).
2.2 Architectural Creation Wider meaning of the architecture often includes the design of the total built environment, from the macro level of how a building integrates with its
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surrounding (landscape) to the micro level of architectural or construction details (Al-musaed 2004). One more concrete description of architecture assumed that architecture is the science and art to design and construct buildings and ensembles of buildings. Science consists in solving its functional and technical buildings. Generally, art in architecture is a special art and more private. By means of the surrounding nature, but it can be combinative, and then architecture is an artificially implanted in a natural environment that must be harmonized both functional as well as aesthetic. The term architecture has both wide and severe meanings. In the widest sense, architecture is everything built or constructed or dug out for human occupation or utilize. A more restricted definition would emphasize the artistic and aesthetic aspects of construction. A third and still more limited, definition would say that architecture is what the architects are specially trained to do or make (Crouch and Johnson 2001). This imparts a sense of legitimacy and conviction to the appearance, a sense that has been neither required nor demonstrated in much postmodern architecture, with its justification of form and decoration on other grounds of coding and meaning. But in the same way that the creations of modernism are sometimes criticized for functions that come into view to have been invented to justify the aesthetics, there are doubtless cases where the aspiration is to make form with towers or shades has driven the decision to accept corresponding environmental devices, rather than subordinate versa (Terry et al. 2003). In marketing vision, architectural product being creations of the human work, a time-consuming good, as any other manufacture it has not only to be produced but also to get the user’s disposal. Moreover architectural space is a gap delimited by fullness. Initially, the human required for a gap to make his shelter in a form of grotto, and then to build his privacy by covered the hole of the ground to be a climatic skin surface. The climatic skin surface has progressed in time and transformed to a complex shell spatial and then a blank—full architecture. The space is not seen as material, but is felt only after the ranges of walls and floors, where the space should be enclosed, covered, and lighted proportionate. The role of architect is to pattern and organza the form within limits of one or more activities. In some traditional cultures, the gap had an interest symbol in habitat creation concept. To recall, very briefly, some of those concerns known, to exploit the architectural gap. The gap in traditional Chinese architecture was specifically defined plots of land on the perimeter, which built simple dwellings with non-divided interior space, a sort of other small courtyards and covered with easy closed walls. Human beings have been given particular attention in Chinese thoughts. Where human, sky, and Earth are the vital geniuses of the universe. Traditional Chinese philosophies interpret the human condition in which human may be able to match the qualities of sky and Earth in his own spirit (Jurov 1986) (Fig. 2.1). Another vernacular space that has a significant gap is Arab courtyard, which was designed as a closed form with relatively concentrated shape in a form of square, polygonal or rectangular. The courtyard had a symbol of existence, maybe even survival, for forming the vital shadow requires for warm climates. Shading can also creates by yard and other architectural elements such as gates, galleries, or
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Fig. 2.1 Deferent forms of architectural spaces and volumes (source: Jurov (1986)
loggia, etc., which represents the buffer space that protects the cool air from the rooms. The Japanese space was free and limited. Dwellings were built in succession pavilion, using the central part of the connection between the court and they do not make other construction, but the natural landscape with garden was free. At this point, the emptiness, the garden is arranged specifically to look free. Built gap inside buildings shall be issued by the furniture, which is hidden in the walls with a high skill is designing construction details. We have windows, walls or easily sliding amounts in full, so the gap inside space covered dwelling to make confused with the exterior, with the garden to another by interposing a space porch light. European space was so important in universal culture, as in the vernacular space from China, Japan, and Arab. Habitat elements were built in the course of open spaces as points corresponding to the forms. The concepts of intermediate spaces were associated with nature. European private spaces are involved not only in nature, which was linked to the peasant’s existence, but also in social life, communication between private and common spaces. The Shell tiny gaps were designed to allow access and put in value by spay illumination, because, as said, it should be well lit to be used for architectural feel valences. A gap in strip form is the window for the penetration of light and natural ventilation in the form of doors to enable rights to move between inside and outside or between several interior. Windows and doors are goals with limited effects assets, without which the space would not work (Dumbianu 1984).
2.3 Human Settlement and Architectural Phenomenon Human settlements means the totality of the human community—whether city, town or village—with all the (no need to put the here) social, material,
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organizational, spiritual, and cultural elements that sustain it. The fabric of human settlements consists of physical elements and services to which these elements provide the material support (VDHS 1979). Resettlement perceive themselves as a new kind of entity that reflects a forward-looking component and a system based on barley and something new may be further promoted through its own client. • What is architecture? • How can architectural element born? An individual, a group of individuals, society, felt a need in the consciousness. Where (R) is a require state which runs through an entire procedural device to a constructed object (C). The object enters the application process (A) employment and results of the activities and human behavior. Straight necessity subject and use the three courts are fundamental generators of a phenomenon in itself, an anthropological invariant. A dispositional state, constituently fund holothymic, generates and dispositional orientation of consciousness that search to create a model of an analog and indivisible entity. Based on interest, movement and behavior are established instead of a namely proprieties: knowledge will put up by taking in evidence all homogeneous spaces punts. States lead to orders dispositional situations for organized places. It is the phenomenon of living anthropologists, interface between architectural phenomenon and human life phenomenon. In inhabited structure occurs architecture by factual form of design and execution. A large number of events happen in the inhabited phenomenon, an excellent interpretation of styles that is an interpretation of inhabited phenomenology; interesting architecture phenomenon here with a precise objective is design activity. Each human being is characterized by a certain mental order. Order and mentally extract of common personality traits. We will precede to the dissolution of personality in creative hypostases reveals significant in view of the specified and the human being order a mental architects. The architectural phenomenon is composed of three worlds easily defined. There are three modes with three teams, which help to understand the connection between the future and the past: • Requirement state (R). The society develops in a social exchange sphere, after a deep analysis of possibilities and requirement a specific constructive form. • Constructive form (C). It works in appropriate of architectural element, compared to the current stage of technology and aesthetic understanding. • Application process (A). Architectural element takes in use; therefore we can follow the rapport between people (individual/group) and architectural element facility or surrounding objects. Collaboration between the three live-up phenomena can follow three processes: F1. Is a relation between (R) and (C), with action of projection and performance. F2. Is a relation between (C) and (A), with action of using and put in marketing. F3. Is a relation between (A) and (R), with action of environmental transformation from S1 (present state) to S2 (future state) (Fig. 2.2).
2.3 Human Settlement and Architectural Phenomenon
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Fig. 2.2 a The subordinate relation system. b Environmental transformations process. c Diachronic perspective
Understanding of the complex phenomenon of shelter aims to extend throughout a diachronic perspective (Dumbianu 1984). Architecture is not an isolate phenomenon; it is in strict correlation with the human life manner. Between the two initiates contained and comprehensive, will occurred events that happen out of ordinary perception. To understand them we need to name a dissected analyzes.
2.4 Semiotics and Representation in Architecture One of the main architectural creations is the architect competent that consists of the knowledge of his own phenomenon and the rules of his thinking and the capability of his figures sensitivity. This area is composed of the relationship among: • Eyes (perceptive act). • Intelligence (mental operations). • Significance (process semiotics).
2.4.1 Space Perception Perceptive act is considered a complex process that happens in the following four simultaneous actions:
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• Objective—descriptive action The action is with a statistics field expression. • Reverse projection action Psychological characteristics have an effect over watching field, where empathic expression is a resulting of this action. • Characterized action Has a structural expression, rhythmic over viewing field. • Associative action This action has a place between the image and significance through an imaginative expression. The figural dates from the perceptive act are transferred simultaneously to the conceptual act and affective domain. The interference of these three domains (perceptive, conceptual, and affective) creates the thinking phenomenon and figural sensitivity. In reality, the transformations in perceptive act prevail globally in all types of geometries. The relation between the conceptual space and intuitive space tends to provide design development as a closest manner to use the exercise in environmental living (Al-musaed 2004) (Fig. 2.3). Transferring of figural info perceptive in conceptual domain has the following equivalence result (Table 2.1).
Fig. 2.3 Perception and representation of architectural spaces Table 2.1 The equivalent result of the figural conceptual domain Perceptive act Geometry types Objective—descriptive act
Euclidian geometry
Empathic act Structuring act Associative act
Purify and projective geometry Topology geometry Assemblies geometry
Transfer types Translation rotation reflection—expansion Polar projection Continuous deformation Correspondents association
2.5 Architecture, Form, and Perception
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2.5 Architecture, Form, and Perception Architectural geometry aims to survey the visual structures, contained in geometric figures and their behavior in various transformations. At the same time, it put in evidence the significance struggle of visual structures, by means of reference to substantial matters, energy, and information. For example: For a square investigate.
2.5.1 Static Approach The static figure approach put in evidence two basic structures which are derived from the square—contour, perimeter, the separator space interior–exterior and square—surface, tempt, continuity. Throughout these, two image the eye acting on: • Square—contour (visual operation of gathering and connection of nodal points). • Square—surface (visual operation divides in fields). From the obvious visual operations result.
2.5.1.1 Bearing Structures Bearing structures of figures (volume) that expresses the formal articulation by means of central—stellar images (V1–V2–V3/V4) (Dumbianu 1984). Nodal connection points in tridimensional space (Fig. 2.4).
Fig. 2.4 Bearing structure
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Fig. 2.5 Modular structure
2.5.1.2 Modular Structure Modular structure of figures (volume) that expresses the substantial continuity of the field through networking image joints (V1–V2–V3/V4) (Fig. 2.5).
2.5.2 Dynamic Approach The dynamic form approach can be presented in two senses.
2.5.2.1 Formative Vision The formative vision can be expressed by means of visual fixation of the item (point, line, angle, etc.) and the constituent program of moving. For example: The movement of a point on alternative directions horizontal–vertical and in equal units of time (t1 = t2 = t3 = t4) (Fig. 2.6). Otherwise the formative vision can be expressed by means of transmission of a vertical line on horizontal direction, upon an equal path to its height (Fig. 2.7).
Fig. 2.6 The movement of a point
2.5 Architecture, Form, and Perception
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Fig. 2.7 Transmission a vertical line on horizontal direction
Fig. 2.8 Radiant vision types
2.5.2.2 Radiant Vision All routes of ordering of the figural exterior space, adjacent ordinary, express radiant vision. The radiating structure can be generated by bearing or modular structures. Those provide specific directions form order (Fig. 2.8). Bearing and modular structures, correlate directly by their substantial and energetic content simultaneously with buildings structures. For example, domes, ceilings, floors, treatment parietal, etc. Formative and radiant visions take out in evidence the programmable character of the space, and informational–figural relation that takes place in the space.
References Abernathy AJ et al (1979) In: Scalise JW (ed) Earth integrated architecture. Arizona state university, Arizona, USA, p 2 Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole I Aarhus, Århus, Danmark, p 165 Crouch DP, Johnson JG (2001) Traditions in architecture. Oxford University press, UK, p 1 Dumbianu A (1984) Amenajare ambientala Lectures presented by ‘‘Ion Mincu’’ university 1983 Bucharest, Romania Jurov C (1986) What is architecture. Albatros editura, Romania, Bucharest, pp 10–23 Terry W, Antony R, Helen B (2007) Understanding sustainable architecture. Spon Press, London, UK, p 26 Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements (1979)
Chapter 3
Architectural Theory
3.1 Topological Psychology in Architecture The topological psychology studies take evidence in the interaction and relationships between the humans and the environment, where human being is considered as an active principle. In addition, both human being (H) and environment (E) determine the behavior (B). B ¼ F ðHEÞ In this perspective, the topological space becomes a life space, where the human being turn out to be not just a simple passive receiver, but also an active being with historical act. Aspects of the psycho-topological space are • Shelter such a protection space • Action space of a free movement • Operational—program space. These kinds of spaces are expressed by operations of • • • •
Inclusion–exclusion Demarcation–connection Increase–development–addition Division–isolation (Fig. 3.1).
3.2 Shelter such a Protector Space The protective cover appears in such a replica of a primary mental biopsychology inertia, which is understood such as orientation towards a shelter state. Shelters have to protect human from cold, damp, heat, rain and other health threats, as well A. Almusaed, Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84996-534-7_3, Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011
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Fig. 3.1 Human–shelter space relation
Fig. 3.2 Human spaces categories and the communication between private and collective spaces
as structural hazards. Suitable space has to be provided. A suitable shelter also means that human beings have to be protected against forced evictions (Zhang and Farrell 2003). In this case it will be durable and followed by the organism. It tends to control the relations by constructing an envelope, where all inputs take place by means of couple or decouple of the need of ambient neighborhood rapports. For reaching a human comfort under a shelter, we need to start with a treatment of environmental space, such as a being with three zones (ring-shaped zero concentric). The egocentric condition of a shelter structure leads to a living space, such as landscape which ordered the ring in three areas concentric (Al-musaed 2004): • Intimate space is situated in immediately appropriate of the person to ensure individual mental freedom that is behaved for a body. This space exists and such an epidermal extension contains just intimate objects. • Personal space includes the private space, and ensures the contact with the societies from outside. • Social space includes the above-mentioned spaces and engagement of the inhabitants in the social group in which he or she is already a part of it (Fig. 3.2). The succession of these spaces has an individual egocentric report, which can be modulated by different ambient situations. As for the large measure of a
3.2 Shelter such a Protector Space
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Fig. 3.3 The correlation between spaces; actor–spectator (theater example)
geographic zone, traditions, customs habits, etc. In majority of situations, the interference is accepted only in spaces. The extension of a social space with many, various zones and personal characters shows that the city life can be considered such an ensemble of personal transit districts, with a certain individual socio-urban structure (Fig. 3.3) (Dumbianu 1984).
3.3 Action Space by a Free Movement The interior space is analyzed in terms of human being action. Disvalue the different categories of specific structures.
3.3.1 Human Action This action can be manifested by means of the following factors: • • • • •
Agent actions (A) Suggest actions (S) Means actions (M) Objects actions (O) Conditions actions (C).
Any action should occur during correlation with these factors, under a program (action tactic), where the action is formulating throughout agent action. The simulating correlate condition reveals a reticular structure. The objects system in the ambient, and the built framework can be evaluated by several factors, such as (M)–(O) and (C). The human action can be determined by modulating the space. These can be done through the following kinds of transfer (Dumbianu 1984): • Structural transfer • Dimensional transfer • Orientation transfer (Fig. 3.4).
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Fig. 3.4 Human action approach
Fig. 3.5 Schematic insight of structural transfer
3.3.2 Structural Transfer Action with the Retti-morphic character can be delivered using a combination and improvement of the following situations (Fig. 3.5): 1. The necessary objects has a unique place: it has a free movement of linking offer. 2. The necessary objects are associated with a torque space where communication is direct. 3. The necessary objects are associated with triplex intervals, number of rooms’ growth to create a direct communication.
3.3 Action Space by a Free Movement
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Fig. 3.6 The differences between (centric–linear) growth actions
4 ? 1. The complexities are clearer than the situation at point 3, where the intermediary space become such linking space. The combination of Rettimorphic space can be created through indirect communication. Complexity degree as (4 ? 1) (5 ? 1), (6 ? 1), (N ? 1) can be constituted by centric and linear ensembles means, where it takes a form of a complex system. For clarification, see the following example: (6 ? 1) (Fig. 3.6). During this stage, growth, the complexity led to combine the two types (central–linear), the development occurs by means of overlapping. In this shape comes the combination of traffic possibility (Dumbianu 1984). The spaces obtain a significant decisive. The figure elucidates combining possibilities (Fig. 3.7). How to express the comfort by combining the above types of spaces
3.3.3 Dimensional Transfer This transfer has been driven by impact of three factors (human–action–object) and has been extended by the relationship among them (object–object–group of environmental units). Accordingly, this process has created culture material systems of anthropomorphic measurement (non-metric measure units) (Table 3.1).
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Fig. 3.7 The spaces types
Table 3.1 The traditional measure systems (example) Nation state Measure system
Measure units
Ancient Greece China India Japan
1 Foot = 4 Hands = 312 mm Hands = 4 ? 1 = 5 fingers 1UBA = 1,25 m 1 KEN = 1.81 m
MODULAR TUKU MANASARA KIWARIHO (cutting wood art)
3.3.3.1 Le Corbusier Modules Le Corbusier was interested in human body proportions, a question that was aroused before him in classic times and in the Renaissance. Le Corbusier is more known for his buildings than for his contribution in modular theory and its applications. His modular is based on the geometric series of numbers containing the number 226, considering the medium height of adult males reaching upwards. (He originally estimated the size to be 216 or 220 cm.) (Robin 1979).
3.3.4 Orientation of Transfer The correlation is between the space configuration and the programmed action, as well as how visual direction can be operated. How can we deal the front wall on below image to accuse the major circulation directed toward the left? (Table 3.2)
3.3 Action Space by a Free Movement
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Table 3.2 The different display of values and their staging of meaning Variation Significance Symmetry with static effect Movement stops
Movement prepared, contradicts circulation
Neutral treatment, attenuate the sense motion
Correct treatment, visually directing by circulatory meaning
The nature of objects and their functional expression, texture and color, is required to participate in the visual directing (Dumbianu 1984).
3.4 Operational Space and Architectural Program This domain exists in optical shape of both user and architect. Space appears as a unit field of a complex set of specific operations. These operations are their own thinking and figural sensitivity and their fundamental characteristic. It can be
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considering in such a typical figure algorithms. Architect is obligatory to employ the following notion: • Isomorphic transfer • Interfering creation process.
3.4.1 Isomorphic Transfer Is a typical information that has no-altering essences of phenomenology (invariant) across a chain of transformation? Intended for architect isomorphic transfer is a mental process that aims to invariant in changing the status of the context or the contextual nature.
3.4.2 Interfering Creation Process The creation will take an informative process with isomorphic transfer temperament.
Involved transfer linking which is supposed by survey invariants. This determination tends to maintain unaltered by passing the first term (necessity state) to the second term (object design). This process involves a series of operations that have a primary form.
3.5 Analytical Creation Phases 3.5.1 Collection of the Data This procedure has an informative character. It takes a natural isomorphic structure from mode that is needed to finish the project. A review on the standing needs which reflects human feelings (individual, group) descript an actual project. The description of an object can be based on two distinct such answers for these questions: • What is the object? (Her result the component parts), or describe the response of the following question • How it works?
3.5 Analytical Creation Phases
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The result has a functional aspect where architect should operate by linking the two statements into a unified description.
3.5.2 Treatment of the Data In this stage, all data linked to a schematic drawing, the resultant is a constructive schematic, which draws the figure from of the abstract data that we have. For an dwelling program, where requirement for data that contains the hopes and demands of habitants from different background (data schematic drawing) and a description of each room in the dwelling program and areas which are divided into (day area–night area), and a relationship between different spaces (the size and space-caught), which indicates a structural problem (form-schematic drawings). This phase can be called as ‘‘analytical phase’’. The combination of the two natural trusts phenomena leads to a constructive schematic drawing, which may be called as the synthetic phase, where we organize the project. 3.5.2.1 From the Structure Problem to Object Configuration From the approaching perspective of the creation activity as isomorphic transfer, we can affirm that the architectural creation in its essence is not an optimization problem. It is a binary relation (Fig. 3.8). 3.5.2.2 Interfering Nodes It is a typical status that one’s own thinking and the figural sensitivity confronts; concerning the activity of architectural creation this can appear such as interference state or spatial impact. Any constructed object or a part of it may be considered as the intersection of several trails that space become defining.
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Fig. 3.8 From the structure problem to object configuration
3.6 The Indicators of Obvious Appearance upon an Architectural Theory It is obvious that a well description of an excellent moral act needs more or less to be confirmed by a sentiment. Aesthetics is a suborder of axiology, a branch of philosophy, and is closely related to the philosophy of art. Aesthetics studies find new ways of considering and perceiving the world. In philosophy, aesthetics is the study of beauty and taste, whether in the shape of comic, tragic or sublime. Aesthetics has usually been a division of other philosophical pursuits, such as the research of epistemology or ethics. However, it started to come into its own and turn out to be a more independent pursuit under Immanuel Kant, the German philosopher who saw aesthetics as a unitary and self-sufficient type of human experience (Dagobert 1989). Aesthetic value can be linked to judgments of economic, political or moral value subjective. The concept of ‘‘aesthetic value’’ refers to that value which reasons an object to be an employment of art. The exact nature of this value is a principal subject of debate among philosophers discussing
Symmetry
Axis
Rhythm
Size
Texture
(continued)
The visual part of composition creates buildings texture, which is visual, and especially perceptible quality given to a surface by the size, shape, arrangement, and proportions of the parts. Texture refers to the properties held and sensations caused by the external surface of objects received through the sense of touch. Texture also decides the scale to which the surfaces of a form reflect or absorb incident light. Texture can also be termed as a pattern that has been scaled down (especially in case of two-dimensional non-tactile textures) where the individual elements that go onto make the pattern not distinguishable. Texture is sometimes used to describe the feel of non-tactile sensations (Zhang and Farrell 2003) The size is a physical dimension which is characterized by length, width, and depth of a form. Any of a series of graduated categories of dimension whereby manufactured articles, such as shoes and clothing, are classified. While these dimensions determine the proposition which include the content or the meaning of a meaningful declarative sentence or the pattern of symbols, marks or sounds that make up a meaningful declarative sentence whatever entities are true or false of a form, its scale is determined by its size relative to other forms in its context Rhythm is something relative. Movement or variation characterized by the regular recurrence or alternation of different quantities or conditions. It a unifying of movement characterized by a patterned repetition or alternation of formal elements or designs in the same or a modified form A line established by two points in space, about which forms and spaces can be arranged in a symmetrical or balanced manner. Exactly it is a directly line about which a corpse or geometric object rotates or may be conceived to rotate Every natural form approximated to an ideal of perfection which could be analyzed in terms of its shape and proportion, and nowhere was this more the case than with the human form, the balanced distribution and arrangement of equivalent forms and spaces on opposite sides of a dividing line or plane, or about a center or axis. Symmetry generally conveys two primary meanings (Wickens and Long 1995) The first is a vague sense of harmonious or aesthetically. The first is a vague sense of harmonious or aesthetically agreeable proportionality and equilibrium; such that it reflects beauty or excellence. The second sense is a perfect and well-defined concept of balance or patterned selfsimilarity that can be established or proved according to the regulations of a formal system: by geometry, throughout physics or otherwise (Williams 1996). Symmetry categories are divided into two groups: point groups and space groups. Point groups are illustrating by their relationship to at least one important reference point; space groups lack such a specific reference point. Both point groups and space groups are establishing in architecture. Without symmetry and proportion, wrote Vitruvius, ‘‘there can be no principle in the design of any temple, that is, if there is no precise relation between its members, as in the case of a well-shaped man’’(Morgan 1960)
Table 3.3 The different display of values and their staging of meaning Value Staging of meaning display
3.6 The Indicators of Obvious Appearance upon an Architectural Theory 33
Table 3.3 (continued) Value Staging of meaning display Hierarchy The expression of the importance or significance of a form or space by its size, shape or placement relative to the other forms and spaces of the organization, a hierarchy can link entities either directly or indirectly, and either vertically or horizontally. Hierarchy in architecture can be divided in three categories (Ching 1996) Hierarchy by size: A form or space may dominate an architectural composition by being significantly different in size from all the other elements in the composition. ‘Formally, this dominance is made visible by the sheer size of an element. In some cases, an element can dominate by being significantly smaller than the other elements in the organization, but placed in a well-defined setting Hierarchy by shape: A form or space can be made visually dominant and thus important by clearly differentiating its shape from that of the other elements in the composition. A discernible contrast in shape is critical, whether the differentiation is based on a change in geometry or regularity. Of course, it is also important that the shape selected for the hierarchically significant element be compatible with its functional use Hierarchy by placement: A form or space may be strategically placed to call attention to itself as being the most important element in a composition. Hierarchically important locations for a form or space include: the termination of a linear sequence or axial organization the centerpiece of a symmetrical organization the focus of a centralized or radial organization being offset above, below, or in the foreground of a composition. The forms and spaces of any building should acknowledge the hierarchy inherent in the functions they accommodate, the users they serve, the purposes or meaning they convey, and the scope or context they address It is in recognition of this natural diversity, complexity, and hierarchy in the programming, designing, and making of buildings that ordering principles are discussed Contrast Contrast is the divergence in visual properties that makes an object apparent from other objects and the surroundings. The human visual system is more sensitive to contrast than absolute luminance. In visual perception of the factual world, contrast is determined by the difference in the color and brightness of the object and other objects within the same field of view (Williams 1996) Colors We should not forget that the field of environmental psychology is inherent to architecture; a discipline, which is viewed subjectively by users and not only from technical and economic parameters The world, is full of light (de Mattiello 2004) Physically speaking color and light belong to a single radiant spectrum so, without light color cannot exist. Visible light is made of sevenwavelength groups. These are the colors you see in a rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet Color is a phenomenon of light and visual perception that might be explained in terms of an individual’s perception of shade, saturation, and tonal value. The glowing colors are the long wavelengths. The greenish colors of green areas are the mid-size wavelengths. The bluish color is the short wavelengths. Color is the quality that most clearly differentiates a form from its environment. It also affects the visual weight of a form
34 3 Architectural Theory
3.6 The Indicators of Obvious Appearance upon an Architectural Theory
35
the nature of aesthetics and beauty. The theory of ‘‘aesthetic value’’ refers to that value which causes an object to be an art. The correct nature of this value is a main subject of debate among philosophers discussing the nature of aesthetics and beauty (Table 3.3). In bioclimatic and biophilic architecture, we need to take in evidence the optimal balance between the functional conceptual acts and the aesthetical acts that are necessary to create a competent architectural perception with a complex action in application of architectural hypothesis and theory.
References Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole I Aarhus, Århus, pp 165–170 Ching DK (1996) Architecture form space, and order. Van nostrand reinhold, New York Dagobert F (1989) On the problem of symmetry in art’’ quoted in Hermann Weyl symmetry. Princeton University Press, Princeton, p 16 de Mattiello MLF (2004) AIC 2004 color and paints, Interim meeting of the international color association, proceedings. http://www.fadu.uba.ar/sitios/sicyt/color/aic2004/190-193.pdf. Accessed 18 April 2009 Dumbianu A (1984) Amenajare ambientala Lecturs presented in ‘‘Ion Mincu’’ university. Bucharest, Romania Hargittai I, Hargittai M (1994) Symmetry: a unifying concept. Shelter Publications, Bolinas, Second Printing, Random House, New York Kim W (1996) The universality of the symmetry concept’’, Nexus: architecture and mathematics (Fucecchio, Florence: Edizioni dell’Erba, 1996), pp 81–95 Morgan H (1960) Vitruvius the ten books on architecture, 1914. Dover Publications, New York, p 72 Robin M (1979) Architecture and geometry, structural topology. http://upcommons.upc.edu/ revistes/bitstream/2099/520/1/st1-05-a2.pdf Velger M (1998) Helmet-mounted displays and sights. MA: Artech House, Inc, Boston, London van de Pol C et al (2007) Visual and flight performance recovery after PRK or LASIK in helicopter pilots. Aviat Space Environ Med 78(6):547–553 Watson A, Ahumada A (1985) Model of human visual-motion sensing. J Opt Soc Am A 2(2): 322–342. doi:10.1364/JOSAA.2.000322 Wickens CD, Long J (1995) Object versus space-based models of visual attention: implication for the design of head-up displays. J Exp Psychol Appl 1(3):179–193 Zhang X, Farrell JE (2003) Sequential color breakup measured with induced saccades. Proc SPIE Human Vis Electr Imaging VIII 5007:210–217
Part II
Biophilic Architecture
Chapter 4
Biophilic Architecture Hypothesis
4.1 Introduction In our course, we perceive that the natural contiguous keeps us healthy and in turn, probably promotes physical performance as well (Almusaed 2006). Occupants of built environments do not want simply to work, play, eat, or sleep in a functional building. They want to be inspired, invigorated, comforted, and reassured by their surroundings. They want spaces that will make them more appropriate, comfortable (Larsen et al. 1998). In the natural representation, the solution to architectural sustainability is to work with, not against, nature; to understand, sensitively exploit and simultaneously avoid damaging the nature systems. As a planner and landscape architect, the concept of biophilia deserves a deeper explanation. The hypothesis is accurate when the affiliation leads to positive responses in terms of human performance and health even emotional states. The new orientation of actual researches on biophilic architecture aims to move the human actions under an architectural roof toward the green of the large nature; this movement intends to create: • • • •
Natural and physical frameworks become more than friendly. The energy consummate by our buildings is most well organized. The human development by effectively managing of natural resources is effective. The negative effects of climate change become more reduced.
Some authors confuse between the concept of bionic architecture and biophilic architecture, where the concept of bionic architecture aims to a movement of the buildings, in which layout and lines borrow from natural (i.e., biological) outward appearances. The movement began to mature in the early twenty-first century, and thus in early designs research was stressed over practicality. It sets itself in opposition to traditional rectangular layouts and design schemes using curved forms and surfaces reminiscent of structures in biology and fractal mathematics. One of the tasks set themselves by the movement’s early pioneers was the development of esthetic and economic justifications for their approach to architecture (Lebedev 1990; Fig. 4.1).
A. Almusaed, Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84996-534-7_4, Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011
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Fig. 4.1 The components of human settlement (building–human–nature)
The differences are between the creation process, the form of nature on bionic architecture and the affecting function of nature on biophilic architecture. The traditional architecture can be covered by plants to become green building but does not biophilic architecture, where the architecture must interpret such a large strategic form and possess of a many objective and subjective parameters. Consequently, a green building is a confusing expression of biophilic architecture. Green building is a construction, which can be shaped by means of renovation process, while a biophilic architecture struggles the negative effects of urban heat island in local microclimate scale and improves the human physical comfort to create a healthy human life.
4.2 Interaction (Natural–Physical) Framework upon Biophilic Architecture At the same time as a subtractive shape results from the elimination of a fraction of its original volume, a stabilizer form is created by physical connecting one or more subordinate forms to its volume. We have to recognize that there are two dissimilar surfaces with diverse significances and forms. We have to locate a system to harmonize the meanings to build a distinctive biophilic architectural perception (Fig. 4.2). The basic possibilities for grouping the two framework forms are given by: Spatial pressure The category of association in this situation relies on the close proximity of the forms or their sharing of a common visual trait, such as shape, color, or texture material (Fig. 4.3).
4.2 Interaction (Natural–Physical) Framework upon Biophilic Architecture
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Fig. 4.2 The interaction between physical and natural framework in biophilic architecture model
Fig. 4.3 Interaction by the spatial pressure model
Fig. 4.4 Interaction by edge-to-edge contact
Edge-to-edge contact: in this category, the form goes to halve of the image generated common area, where the edge can pivot it (Fig. 4.4). Face-to-face contact: the requirement in this situation is the two areas’ shape that has matching planar surfaces, which are parallel to each other (Fig. 4.5). Interconnecting surfaces: the forms of this kind of connection interpenetrate other space, where the forms do not require to halves the visual entity (Fig. 4.6). Biophilic architecture is a part of an innovative view in architecture, where nature, life and architectural conjecture merge to create a lively habitable edifice fit to satisfy the demands, restrictions and respect for both people and the environment (Fig. 4.7).
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Fig. 4.5 Interaction by face-to-face contact
Fig. 4.6 Interaction by interconnecting surfaces
Fig. 4.7 Architectural pattern in context of living nature upon biophilic architecture model
4.3 Green Areas Placement and Variety upon Biophilic Architecture The green areas can take a various places in relation to the non-green areas where the green area aims to be synchronized by means of other area in concordance with architectural perception upon biophilia concept of architectural means. The stabilizer forms resulting from the accumulation of separate elements can be characterized by their capability to develop and combine with other forms.
4.3 Green Areas Placement and Variety upon Biophilic Architecture
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Fig. 4.8 Green area allocate in a pointed form
To recognize preservative groupings as integrated compositions of shapes as figures in the visual field, the combining elements have to be connected with other rational method. The graphs classifying preservative of green area form according to the nature of the interaction that exists among the constituent forms as well as their fellow configurations. Classifying without variety to effect in monotony or boredom, diversity without arrangement will be able to create chaos. A sense of unity with variety is ideal. The next categorizing main beliefs are seen as visual strategy that permits the diverse and varied forms and spaces of an architectural element to coexist perceptually and conceptually within a prearranged, unified, and harmonious whole. The green areas can take the following forms: Pointed form A number of small forms grouped around the main, central close relative form (Fig. 4.8). Linear form A sequence of forms prearranged in succession in a line. It can be connected with landscape green areas (Fig. 4.9). Radial form A composition of linear forms extending external from a central form in a radial approach (Fig. 4.10). Clustered form A compilation of forms grouped together by immediacy or the distribution of an ordinary visual mannerism (Fig. 4.11). Grid form A set of modular forms associated and synchronized by a threedimensional grid (Fig. 4.12). Wide-ranging form In this position, green areas turn out to be a central sense of architectural concept (Fig. 4.13). To create a competent biophilic architecture, we have to definite the notion of biophilia. The biophilia is the intrinsic human inclination to affiliate with natural
44 Fig. 4.9 Green area allocate in a linear form
Fig. 4.10 Green area allocate in a radial form
Fig. 4.11 Green area allocate in a clustered form
4 Biophilic Architecture Hypothesis
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Fig. 4.12 Green area allocate in a grid form
Fig. 4.13 Green area allocate in a wide-ranging form
systems and processes, especially life and life-like features of the nonhuman environment. This tendency became biologically encoded because it proved instrumental in enhancing human physical, emotional, and intellectual fitness during the long course of human evolution society (Kellert et al. 2008). What is innovative at this moment is a prominence of taking the outside green being into the architectural products at the same time enhancing the sustainability. One more strategy is to bring elements nature into indoor settings, both because indoor plants are thought to improve indoor air quality and because they evoke positive responses in people (Heerwagen 2000). Thus, nature or elements of the nature are able to aid in enhancing the human health and well-being in our daily surroundings even as helping the search for sustainability (Wells and Evans 2003). It is important to obtain facts about the methods in which nature in indoor settings is able to be psychologically beneficial. People’s physical and mental
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wellbeing remains highly contingent on contact with the natural environment, which is a necessity rather than a luxury for achieving lives of fitness and satisfaction even in our modern urban society (Kellert et al. 2008). This fact can lend a hand to architects and urban designers to create interior settings that do more than complete basic functional requirements. Plants have been a division of our indoor environment for a long time.
References Almusaed A (2006) Biophilic architecture: towards a new potential of healthy architecture, rethinking sustainable construction. In: Proceedings of the 12th Rinker international conference on next generation green buildings, Sarasota, FL, USA Heerwagen J (2000) Green buildings, organizational success and occupant productivity. Build Res Inform 28:353–367 Kellert SR et al (2008) Biophilic design. Wiley, New Jersey, pp 3–4 Larsen L, Adams J, et al (1998) Plants in the workplace: the effects of plant density on productivity, attitudes, and perceptions. Environ Behav 30:261–281 Lebedev YS (1990) Bionic architecture. Stroiizdat, Moscow, p 269 Wells NM, Evans GW (2003) Nearby nature: a buffer of life stress among rural children. Environ Behav 35(3):311–330
Chapter 5
Introduction on Plants and Vegetations
5.1 Introduction The sun is the primary source of energy on the earth. The average annual radiation reaching the earth’s surface varies in more or less clear belts that follow the latitudes and decrease from the Equator towards the poles. This latitudinal variation in radiation determines the distribution of temperatures on the earth. On the earth, climatic factors such as light, temperature, moisture, protective snow cover, wind and so on, along with various soil conditions are particularly important. These environmental factors influence the growth, reproduction and-other life processes of the individual plants. Because the broad trends in the distribution of the plants and vegetation are determined by the climate, especially temperature and precipitation, a brief summary is given here of the most important aspects of the world’s climates, with emphasis on the regional differences. Vegetations play a vital role upon the environment. Not only do they offer us with food and useful products, plants are also vital to the balancing of the nature. The plant cover is made up of numerous individual kinds of vascular plants (trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses and ferns—often called higher plants) and cryptogams (mosses, lichens, algae, and fungi—often called lower plants). The species are not scattered in a fortuitous manner; rather, they live together under specific environmental conditions. Woodlands, mires, freshwater sites, salt marshes, and alpine ridges, all have their own typical environmental conditions and species. In addition to this nonbiological environmental factor, other organisms, both members of the same species and other species of plants and animals biotic factors influence the individual plants. For instance, concern competition from other plants and the influence of grazing and human disturbance. Plants are living organisms which include familiar organisms, such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. About 350,000 species of plants, distinct as seed plants, bryophytes, ferns and fern allies, are estimated to exist presently. At the same time as of 2004, some 287,655 species had been identified, of which 258,650 are flowering and
A. Almusaed, Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84996-534-7_5, Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011
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18,000 bryophytes. Aristotle divided all living things between plants (which generally do not move), and animals (which often are mobile to catch their food). In Linnaeus’ system, these became the Kingdoms Vegetablia (later Metaphyta or Plantae) and Animalia (called Metazoa) (Reynolds et al. 1983). Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae the same as initially defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms. Conversely, these are still often considered plants in many frameworks, both technical and popular. Natural processes can also play an important role in regulating the earth’s climate. The fact is that plants adapt to higher temperatures and their levels of respiration adjust downward. There are six factors in which all plants needs to be approach to create a healthy environment; • Air, with its components of oxygen and carbon dioxide, is critical to respiration and photosynthesis. • Light is necessary to provide energy for photosynthesis. • Plant roots from the soil mine water and nutrients. • Suitable temperatures are required to sustain all stages of plant growth. These six factors ‘‘oxygen, carbon dioxide, light, water, nutrients, and appropriate temperatures’’ are basics that sustain plant growth (Peter et al. 2004). Insect infestation can be a seasonal problem without long-term effects on trees, or it may cause catastrophic death when the insects become a vector for another disease. The nature of insect infestation and damage is quite complex and require the expertise of an entomologist, who can systematically assess the short- and long term effects of insects on the urban forest. Correspondingly, the location limits or opportunities to plant requirements are the vital for next step in plant establishment. However, in various cases, it is essential to know when place limitations restrict plant selection such that the site must be modified before successful planting can take place. In general communication, the more the place can be modified towards ideal conditions, the greater potential exists for plants to do well. However, place modification is often laborand cost-rigorous. If plant selection alone can match the site conditions, then this should be the first choice. In biophilic architecture play the plants and vegetation the vital role in conformation biophilic architectural concept by correlation between physical and natural frameworks. When the equilibrium was broken, with a rapid increase in population, explosively developing building and industrialization, harmful pollution of the environment, intensively growing traffic, and vanishing distances, then the role of green areas becomes more and more important in the pattern of life of the regions in danger. These green areas are zones of forests, recreational provisions and water, which are in the dense populated and built over parts of our land not only the green carpets between gray living blocks where man can relax, but which have also other functions. Consequently, we have to revise the different categories of green areas (plants and vegetations) that play a vital role for conformation the optimal solutions for create a biophilic architecture.
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5.2 Horizontal Green Plan 5.2.1 Grasses The grass is the most valuable horizontal green plan. The family itself is the source of the grains that are the staff of life for most of humankind; showing endless diversity within the same essential architecture (Roger 2002). The term grasses is used to embrace not only the true grasses but also several other glasslike families. The beauty of grasses is quite different from other planting area. Rather than the static masses of strong color created by traditional flowers, grasses offer subtlety of line and texture and a particular intimacy with the natural world. Their primary quality is their luminosity: the way they catch the light of the sky in their flowers and seed heads, drawing it into the garden. Then there is their transparency—the eye can see through them to other plants or features beyond. Grasses are never static. They ebb and flow through the seasons, burgeoning with abundant verdure in spring and maturing and flowering from summer onward. In autumn, they catch the orange, yellow, and red tints of that season, fading to mere ghosts of themselves in winter, often retaining their attractive seed heads. Their flowers metamorphose by gradual degree into seed head, and because these are dry structures, they can last for weeks or even months. Grasses stir with every slightest breeze and almost dance in storms. The grass is narrow-leaved green herbage. The term grass can refer to family poaceae, the ‘true grasses’, or to grasslike plants which includes the Poaceae and typically also the rushes (juncaceae) and sedges (Cyperaceae), which somewhat resemble grass. Another, more specific, term for the latter group is graminoid. Grass is the common word that generally describes monocotyledonous green plants. Grass may also be used to describe completely unrelated plants, sometimes of similar appearances to grass, with leaves rising vertically from the ground, and sometimes of dissimilar appearance. Grass-like plants are among the most versatile life forms. Plants having grass-like structures have existed millions of years, providing fodder for Cretaceous dinosaurs, whose fossilized dung (coprolite) contains phytoliths of a variety of grasses that include the ancestors of rice and bamboo (Chapman and Peat 1992). Plants of this type were always important to humans. They were cultivated as food for domesticated animals for up to 10,000 years. They have been used for papermaking since at least 2,400 BC. Now they provide the majority of food crops, and have many other uses, such as feeding animals, and for lawns. There are many minor uses, and grasses are familiar to most human cultures (Cheplick 1998). In cool and temperate climates, most sun loving grasses need to be in sun for at least half a day to perform well, but 3–5 h sunshine may be sufficient in warmer areas. Given more sun, grasses will be stiffer and more erect; the more shade they have, the more their habit will be lax, and they may flower less freely. Summer heat and winter cold limit the kinds of plants we can grow in our architectural green areas on biophilic architecture. Most cool-season greases—those
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that flower before midsummer—are more tolerant of cold but intolerant of high temperatures. Conversely, most warm-season grasses, which flower after midsummer, need summer warmth to flower well, although most will withstand considerable cold. The green area in biophilic architecture is also likely to have several different microclimates that will affect planting decisions. For example, if green area faces the sun, it will be warmer and drier than a green area in the shade for most of the day, and plants in the lee of a building will receive less rainfall than in the open. Many grasses tolerate shade, even those that are considered sun-lovers; these may take on unusual growth forms in shade, such as Calamagrostis Brachytriche— upright in sun, but gently arching in shade. Then there are those types that thrive in shade only. Varieties with bright foliage will illuminate a shaded area. This display is shown in late summer.
5.2.1.1 Grasses Design The attractiveness of flowering grasses lies in their form and structure, rather than their color, so the art of using them in the green area of biophilic architecture lies contrasting these features, as we would need to do in a single-color area (Chapman and Peat 1992). The most important aspect of grasses is their ability to catch the light from the sky and hold it in their flowers. Because of this, they are best positioned where their flower heads catch the sun, preferably against a dark background. Grasses are not usually grown for their individual flowers but instead for their clusters of flowers or flower heads. The flowers of Fistuca gigantean, for example, are each more than 5 cm long, and these contrast with the tiny flowers of Panicum virgatum, but both are impressive because of the sheer numbers in which the flowers occur. There are also great differences in transparency: those of some Eulalie grasses are quite solid, while the flower heads of the moor grasses are quite translucent. Very special effect can be created by using see-through grasses as a veil in front of more brightly colored or substantial herbaceous perennials (Roger 2002). For example, instead of banking the largest plants at the back and the smallest at the front, use some large grasses at the front and look through them to other plants beyond—through the flowers and stems of Fistuca gigantean perhaps, to a drift of daylilies beyond. To create an effective, contrasting displays, grow grasses with very narrow such as Carex Falgellifera ‘Epigejos’, next to those with bold, broad foliage, such as the giant reed (A. Falcifolium). Alternatively, grow grasses with perennials or shrubs with completely different leaves, such as Bergenia cordifolia, whose leaves are almost round. Contrasting foliage, however, does not need to be bold. We can see that the grasses with colored foliage can be used to create effects every bit as bright as summer bedding. For the finest effects, use several plants of the same type to make an informal group or drift, and position this next to groups of different colors (Chapman and Peat 1992). Colorful grasses look best with the sun behind or beside them. This planting is shown at its peak in late summer. That is
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very clear that the annual grasses usually flower far more freely than perennial types, and they are best in drifts with contrasting flower heads next to one another. Sow seed on bare soil where they are to flower, in area marked out with fine sand. Remove any unusual seedlings or weeds as they develop. Rudbeckias, cornflowers, cleomes, and foxgloves mark good companions. This display is shown at its peak in late summer.
5.2.1.2 Grasses Selection The largest part of grasses are easy to grow and will establish quickly. On the other hand, since a vast number of different types are available (varying in size and cultural requirements), it is important to make sure that the grasses we selected are suitable for our green area project. Match large grasses to large places, sun- lovers to sunny places, and so on (Chapman and Peat 1992). We have to look for plants with springy, colorful foliage and we must select the plant with sufficient roots to bind the soil. In addition, we have to avoid grasses whose roots are thin, brown, and dense, because they will be difficult to establish. Plants with discolored or dying leaves should also be avoided, except in autumn, when many grasses die back naturally. Last, we are able to descript many geniuses of species from the family of grasses, which is more effective in biophilic architecture concept;
Poa Poa is a genus of about 500 species of grasses, native to the temperate regions of both hemispheres. The genus Poa includes both annual and perennial species. The majority is monoecious, but a small number of Poa are dioecious (separate male and female plants). The leaves are fine, folded or flat, sometimes bristled, and with the basal sheath compressed or sometimes thickened, with a blunt or hooded apex and membranaceous ligules. Bluegrass, which has green leaves, derives its name from the kernel heads, which are blue when the plant is allowed to grow to its natural height of two to three feet (Reynolds et al. 1983). Many of the species are important pasture plants, used extensively by grazing livestock. Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) is the most extensively used cool-season grass used in lawns, green roofs (Dvorchak 2007) (see, Fig. 5.1).
Festuca Fescue (Festuca) is a genus of about 300 species of perennial tufted grasses, belonging to the grass family Poaceae (subfamily Pooideae). Fescues range from small grasses only 100 mm tall or less with very fine thread-like leaves less than 1 mm wide, to tall grasses up to 2 m tall with large leaves up to 600 mm long and
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Fig. 5.1 Selective Poa species
20 mm broad (Eames 1961). The fescues contain some species which are important grasses for both lawns particularly the fine-leaved species, highly valued for bowling green’s and as pasture and hay for livestock, being a highly nutritious stock feed (see, Fig. 5.2).
Carex Carex is a genus of plants in the family Cyperaceae, commonly known as sedges (although other, related species are also called sedges, those of genus Carex may be called ‘‘true’’ sedges). The genus contains about 1,000 species of deciduous or evergreen sedges. It is the most species-rich genus in the family. Carex species range in habit from low growing and tufted to tall and tussock forming (Eames 1961). They are grown for the form and color of their foliage, which may be green, red, or brown and ranges from fine and hair-like, sometimes with curled tips, to quite broad with a noticeable midrib and sometimes razor sharp edges. Short spikes of tiny flowers develop in the warmer months, with male and female flowers borne separately on the same plant. Though a number of species can be invasive, many have ornamental qualities that make them ideal for use in the garden, particularly as waterside plants, and a number of the smaller plants make excellent pot plant subjects (see, Fig. 5.3).
Fig. 5.2 Selective Festuca species
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Fig. 5.3 Selective Carex species
Calamagrostis Reed grass is a genus in the Grass family Poaceae with about 230 species that occur mainly in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere and the southern hemisphere. Towards equatorial latitudes, species of Calamagrostis generally occur at high elevations in mountainous regions. They are commonly adventives. These tufted perennials usually have hairless narrow leaves. The ligules are usually blunt. The inflorescence forms a panicle. Some may be reed-like. Many species of Calamagrostis are morphologically similar, but they generally occur in distinct habitats, and they have unique geographical distributions (Eames 1961). Given the subtle distinctions between many closely related taxes, several species complexes could benefit from additional systematic study. Even the generic boundaries of the genus are controversial (see, Fig. 5.4).
Miscanthu Miscanthus is a genus of about 15 species of perennial grasses native to subtropical and tropical regions of Africa and southern Asia, with one species (M. sinensis) extending north into temperate eastern Asia (Ausin et al. 2005). Miscanthus is a tall perennial grass that has been evaluated in Europe during the past 5–10 years as a new bio-energy crop. It is sometimes confused with elephant grass (Pennisetum purpureum) and has been called both ‘‘elephant grass’’ and ‘‘E-grass’’. Most of the miscanthus cultivars proposed as a commercial crop in Europe are sterile hybrids (Miscanthus) which originated in Japan. A number of ornamental varieties of miscanthus are also known to exist under various common names. Miscanthus can be harvested every year with a sugar cane harvester and can be grown in a cool climate like that of northern Europe (Ausin et al. 2005). Like other bio-energy crops, the harvested stems of miscanthus may be used as fuel for production of heat and electric power, or for conversion to other useful products such as ethanol.
Fig. 5.4 Selective Calamagrostis species
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Sedum Sedum is a kind of about 400 species of leaf succulents, from the old and new world in the northern hemisphere. Many sedums are cultivated as garden plants, due to their interesting and attractive appearance and hardiness. The flowers usually have five petals, seldom four or six. There are typically twice as many stamens as petals. They are preferred to grass for green roofs, popular in some countries. They vary in habit from annual groundcovers to shrubs. It is a group of hardy and tender succulent annuals and perennials, this plant grows 36–67 cm high, is very beautiful plant, with different form and flower colors. Sedum flowers include all colors but blue depending on the species, though white and yellow are the most common. They all produce umbel shaped flowers that are especially attractive to butterflies. They must produce a fair amount of pollen as well, because swarms of predatory hover flies cover them in summer when they are in flower. The plants have water-storing leaves.
Sedum species Sedum species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Grey Chi. Some species are tender and do best in pots that can be kept indoors in winter but a lot of them are hardy and can be found in the ground cover section of nurseries. In most cases, they do not form a dense enough mat to prevent all weed growth and they do not appreciate being walked on, so they do not make a good lawn substitute. Some species are tropical and do not take any frost. Sedum does not do very well in Phoenix extreme heat. They lose their leaves and stay with increasingly naked stems until they decide to rot altogether. The various species differ in their requirements; some are cold hardy but do not bear heat, some need heat but do not bear cold. However, for edging a border, filling in a parking strip or for planting a wall-hanging garden of low growing plants, they are solid to hit (see, Fig. 5.5).
Allium Allium is the onion genus, with about 1,250 species, making it one of the largest plant genera in the world. They are perennial bulbous plants that produce chemical compounds (mostly cystein sulfoxide) that give them a characteristic onion or garlic taste and odor, and many are used as food plants (Searle et al. 2006). They can vary in height between 5 and 150 cm. The flowers form an umbel at the top of a leafless stalk. The bulbs vary in size between species, from very small (around 2–3 mm in diameter) to rather big (8–10 cm). Members of the genus include many valued vegetables, such as onion, shallots, leeks, and herbs such as garlic and chives.
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Fig. 5.5 Selective species of sedum
A strong ‘‘oniony’’ odor is characteristic of the whole genus, but not all members are equally flavorful Allium is classified in family Alliaceae although some classifications have included it in the lily family (Liliaceae). Allium species occur in temperate climates of the northern hemisphere, except for a few species occurring in Chile (as Allium juncifolium), Brazil (Allium sellovianum) or tropical Africa (Allium spathaceum) (Searle et al. 2006).
Allium species Some species (such as Welsh onion, A. fistulosum) develop thickened leaf-bases rather than forming bulbs as such. Any of numerous, usually bulbous plants of the genus Allium in the lily family, having a long stalks bearing clusters of variously colored flowers and including many ornamental and food plants, such as onions, leeks, chives, garlic, and shallots (see, Fig. 5.6). Various Alliums species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera including Cabbage Moth, Common Swift moth (recorded on garlic), Garden Dart moth, Large Yellow Under wing, moth, Nutmeg moth, Setaceous Hebrew Character moth, Turnip moth and Schinia rosea, a moth which feeds exclusively on Allium sp. Some Allium species, including A. cristophii and A. giganteum, are used as border plants for their flowers, and their ‘‘architectural’’ qualities (Searle et al. 2006). Several hybrids have been bred, or selected, with rich purple flowers. In contrast, other species (such as the invasive Allium triquetrum) can become troublesome garden weeds.
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Fig. 5.6 Selective species of Allium
Others Type We can account many other grasses category such, Achnatherum, Alopecurus, Andropongon, Arrhena, Arrhenatherum, Bouteloua, Buchloe, Chasmanthium, Deschampsia, Elymus, Helictotrichon, Juncus, Koeleria, Luzula, Monlinia, Nassella, Panicum, Pennisetum, Phalaris, Saccharum, Schizachyrium, Sesleria, Sorghastrum, Spodiopogon, Sporobolus, Stipa (Searle et al. 2006).
5.2.2 Climbing Plants Climbing plant refers to any plant that growing to its full height and requires some support. Green covering on green walls can use the tendency of climbing plants to grow quickly. If a plant display is wanted fast a climber can achieve this. Climbers can be trained over walls, pergolas, fences, etc. Climbers can be grown over other plants to provide additional attraction. Artificial support can also be provided. Some climbers climb by themselves; others need work, such as tying them in and training them. A climbing plant may use rock exposures, other plants, or other supports for growth rather than investing energy in a lot of supportive tissue,
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enabling the plant to reach sunlight with a minimum investment of energy. Many climbing plants have beautiful flowers and can be covered with flowers when healthy and in full sun, but may flower little or not at all in shade (Friedman et al. 2004). Climbing groups are to be found in nearly every group of plant, e.g., the ferns (climbing fern), palms (rattan), grasses (some bamboos), lilies, and cacti (night-blooming cereus). Woody-stemmed tropical kinds usually called lianas are particularly abundant. A vine, in the narrowest definition, is an herbaceous, relatively thin-stemmed climber that mainly either colonizes disturbed or highlight habitats. It is a growth form based on long, stems. Most vines are flowering plants. These may be divided into woody vines or lianas, such as wisteria, kiwifruit and common ivy, and herbaceous (no woody) vines, such as morning glory. Climbing plants always grow as vines, while a few grow as vines only part of the time. For instance, posion ivy and bittersweet can grow as low shrubs when support is not available, but will become vines when support is available. A vine can root in the soil but have most of its leaves in the brighter, exposed area, getting the best of both worlds. Vines and lianas are commonly used for landscaping as sprawling, low-care ground covers or plants to hide walls and create outdoor enclosures. The finest climbing plants—climbers that can be used successfully such green covering on biophilic architecture are;
5.2.2.1 Campsis radicans Campsis radicans is a North American woody vine having pinnate leaves and large red trumpet-shaped flowers. The trumpet creeper is a fast growing, high climbing deciduous woody vine that will grow to heights up to 12.2 m. Showy clusters of yellow orange to red trumpet-shaped flowers first appear in summer (earlier in frost-free climates) and are produced continuously until early autumn (Karol 2001). The vine’s aerial roots that occur along the stems that attach tightly to surfaces. Once the vine climbs to a certain height it grows horizontal branches that reach away from the support in a quest for light and space. The species need a full sun or a shade with best flowering in sun. Prefers rich moist soil but is adaptable to less.
5.2.2.2 Clematis Clematis is a woody vine that generally prefers sunny locations with light, welldrained soils having average moisture and cool temperatures. A location that offers bright sunshine in the morning followed by light shade in the afternoon is ideal. Applying mulch around the root area of this plant will help keep the soil temperatures cooler. Clematis is the most exciting plant to follow all year round. It is a pure white flower in February—just what is needed in this normally dismal month. Well suited to a shaded wall or fence. Clematis can take several years to reach
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maturity and that length of time depends on the age of the plant when it is planted. A bare root infant can take 3–4 years to reach maturity.
5.2.2.3 Climbing Roses Climbing roses are a diverse group with many different heritages, which makes this a wonderfully useful collection of roses. Large flowered climbing roses differ from Rambling roses in that they have fewer, yet larger blooms (8–14 cm in size) and are not quite as vigorous growers. These blooms larger than blooms on rose bushes of the same variety. The variety depends entirely on your favorite color. Pink Perpetuate, Golden Showers, Climbing Iceberg, are a few to consider. More climbing roses should be grown as they provide wonderful color in the rose garden without taking up much ground.
5.2.2.4 Graham Thomas Graham Thomas is one of the premium yellow roses of the English roses to date. There have been many introductions since this, but few are better than Graham. The yellow color in flowers and have a pink tinge. The height size is between 150 and 120 cm. Flowering rich and almost continuously from June to July to frost.
5.2.2.5 Eccremocarpos scaber Eccremocarpos scaber is an annual plant with dainty foliage and bright tubular gold to red flowers. A very easily grown climber, bearing spikes of tubular, orange-red flowers, each about 2, 4 cm long, in profusion all summer. Although a perennial that will survive mild winters outdoors (with self-sown seedlings springing up everywhere), it is usually grown as a half-hardy annual.
5.2.2.6 Ficus pumila This plant coats surfaces with a tracery of fine stems that are densely covered with small heart shaped leaves that are 2.4 cm long by about 2 cm wide, they are held closely to the surface creating a mat of foliage that extends barely 2.5 cm from the surface. These are the juvenile leaves. It is native to East Asia and is found on Japan’s southern islands, eastern China, and Vietnam. This vine is a popular landscape item in many warm climate areas. They are more leathery than the juveniles are, and are dark green and about 7.6 cm long by 5 cm wide. The fruit is a fig. These are borne only on the horizontal stems; they are pale green in color and about 7.6 cm long by 6.4 cm wide (Turck et al. 2008). The climatically effect of
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this plant is to create cool green curtains of dense foliage on unattractive block, masonry, and concrete walls.
5.2.2.7 Hydrangea petiolaris One of the best climbing plants against a North-facing wall. White flowers against bright green foliage, then bright yellow autumn foliage. It is a species native to the woodlands of Japan, Korea and Sakhalin in easternmost Siberia. It is a vigorous woody climbing plant, growing to 20 m height up trees or rock faces, climbing by means of small aerial roots on the stems. It is grown as an ornamental plant in Europe and North America, where it is grown either on walls or on trellises or fences (Bassett et al. 1993). The leaves are deciduous, ovate, 4–11 cm long and 3–8 cm broad, with a heart-shaped base, coarsely serrated margin and acute apex (Turck et al. 2008).The flowers are, produced in flat corymbs 15–25 cm diameter in mid-summer; each corymbs’ includes a small number of peripheral sterile white flowers 2.5–4.5 cm across, and numerous small, off-white fertile flowers 1–2 mm diameter (Absolute Astronomy, Encyclopedia 2009; Flagler 1995).
5.2.2.8 Parthenocissus quinquefolia Parthenocissus quinquefolia is native to eastern North America from Quebec to Florida and west to Texas. Fantastic autumn color, and can be grown in a variety of ways. The berries are blue black, less than 1.3 cm across and much relished as a food source for birds and other wildlife. Over Page glossy and dark green, almost leather-like, while the underside is light green and opaque. Harvesting the color is clear red. To each leaf are 5–8 branched tendrils. The flowers are grouped into end Asked peaks. They are small and whatever. The fruit is 6 mm high, stain blue-black berries.
5.2.2.9 Pyracantha Varieties Pyracantha Varieties is a shrub available in many varieties; firethorns have large clusters of white flowers in spring followed by autumn berries in various shades from deep red through brighter reds and orange to yellow. Almost all varieties have white or cream colored flowers, and if the plants are situated in a sunny aspect, a haze of abundant blossom is guaranteed. The berries are borne in large quantities in autumn. It is a member of the rose family, and like many climbing roses, if grown against a wall; it prefers a warm, south-facing position. They can be grown as a specimen plant, as part of a mixed border, or more commonly as a wall shrub or informal hedging plant.
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Fig. 5.7 Selective species of climbing plant
5.2.2.10 Solanum jasminoides Album It is a huge and long flowering evergreen wall, shrub, or climber. This plant in the summer assumes a white coloring; it is medium in size and can reach 6 m high (Bassett et al. 1993). As climbing plants go, this one is a superb choice. It flowers through the summer and is easily controlled by pruning. This plant needs support, as it is not self-clinging. The Jasmine nightshade develops like a shrub.
5.2.2.11 Vitis coignetiae Vitis coignetiae is a great climber with enormous heart shaped leaves that give impressive autumn color of gold through to deepest orange. Will grow in any situation, but needs support of sturdy trellis or a tree on which to ramble. The large heart shaped leaves are a medium green during the growing season (Renzaglia et al. 2000). The plant grows fast in moist soils in full sun to light shade. Flowering occurs in July, but it is not very visible with the tiny green flowers behind leaves. Barker is the first furry with rust brown hair. The leaves are very large, almost round with a heart-shaped intersecting by the stem. Rim is slightly red with small teeth (see, Fig. 5.7).
5.3 Vertical Green Plan Trees and some shrubs such vertical green plans, have hermaphroditic flowers as other flowering abundance. Formerly, nobody is in the same way, but the flowers are often more timid and decreases rapidly after fertilization. Knowledge of trees and shrubs is best based on the particular erlands. Trees and some shrubs are living for several years, and stalks are expected to bark outside. The volume grows (older trees is thicker than younger), but not evenly across time (Armstrong 2000). The growth reflected in the so-called annual looking at the sawn stumps and strains. The one individual species also grow at different speeds, so no wood become soft
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and have a relatively low calorific value, for example, the fast-growing willow. Conversely, with trees as beech and oak, in which grows slowly (Hamilton 1975). The leaves can be known from their shape (silhouette), but also color and structure on the surface are important characteristics. In addition, the fruits often have a characteristic of each species.
5.3.1 Trees A tree is a perennial woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance (Mitchell 1974). The tree is often used to represent nature or the environment itself. A common misconception is that trees get most of their mass from the ground. Trees show a variety of growth forms, leaf type and shape, bark characteristics, and reproductive organs. They are a significant part of the natural landscape because of their prevention of erosion and the provision of a weather-sheltered ecosystem in and under their foliage (Ausin et al. 2005). As a general standard, tree girth is taken at ‘breast height’; this is defined differently in different situations, with most forestry measurements taking girth at 1.3 m above ground, while those who measure ornamental trees usually measure at 1.5 m above ground, (Mitchell 1974) in most cases, this makes little difference to the measured girth. The trees play an important role in producing oxygen and reducing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, as well as moderating ground temperatures. The tree shape has evolved separately in unrelated classes of plants, in response to similar environmental challenges, making it a classic example of parallel evolution. With an approximation of 100,000 tree species, the number of tree species worldwide might total 25 percent of all living plant species (Adams 2007). In temperate and tropical climates with a single wet-dry season alternation, the growth rings are annual, each pair of light and dark rings being 1 year of growth; these are known as annual rings. In areas with two wet and dry seasons each year, there may be two pairs of light and dark rings each year; and in some (mainly semi-desert regions with irregular rainfall), there may be a new growth ring with each rainfall (Mirov 1967). In tropical rainforest regions with constant year-round climate, growth is continuous and the growth rings are not visible with any change in the wood texture. Choosing a tree size and shape for a biophilic architecture is a very important process. Available rooting volume also must be evaluated. If the soil is too dense for root growth or drains poorly, decisions can be made about how to remediate those environmental problems. However, if the tree is on a roof and actual soil volume is limited, design alternatives should be evaluated to specify enough soil volume or perhaps, a smaller plant should be specified to much the soil volume available. So trees need more warmth and moisture than other growth forms of plants such as low shrubs and grasses. In places with a mean summer
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temperature less than about 7 or 8C, trees cannot grow in the wild, although they can sometimes survive if they are pampered by humans and protected from competition with other smaller plants (Adams 2007). The trees need more water than shrubs and grasses because they have a lot of evaporative leaf area that is essentially placed on top of a single pole, the trunk.
5.3.1.1 Shading Trees Trees are the most enduring plants we grow. Many will live and enhance the landscape for 100 or more years if they are given a chance. They are the basic element for any landscape plan. They set the stage for the entire building grounds design. The tree is now many years old and quite large, leaving the homeowner with a maintenance problem and thoughts of replacement. The wrong tree or one planted in the wrong spot can actually detract from the overall landscape. Soil testing and a thorough visual test of the site will assist in plant selection and help avoid expectations evils. Shade trees are versatile parts of our landscapes. This term usually applies to large trees with spreading canopies. Shade trees are effectual in reducing the energy used in cooling the buildings. Providing shade usually requires tall, sturdy, long-living species. Density of foliage, which determines the amount of shading, is important. The use of a shade tree to enhance relief from the summer sun properly placed trees can channel summer breezes to desired locations; add beauty to the landscape by offering a wide range of forms, textures and colors; help define outdoor space; frame views; add substantially to the value of our buildings; and even affect our moods. A disadvantage of shading trees shape is that in cool climates, a profusion of shade trees may lead to a moist environment in any nearby buildings or gardens. In addition, the shade trees can enhance the privacy of green areas by hindering the sight. Focuses the shade trees on the western and southern sides of the building or area where supplementary shading is preferred. Conversely, do not abandon the southeastern exposure. Throughout midsummer it can get hot early in the day, so provide some shade on this side of buildings, especially residences. Trees can gradually deteriorate and die over a period of years or decades because of root girdling. Roots begin to grow around the main stem of the tree and cut off or restrict the movement of water, plant nutrients, and stored food reserves. Many fast growing trees have aggressive root systems with heavily developed systems of surface roots. Consequently, do not plant them near septic tank drain lines or sewer lines. Ended, growth of the twigs on the side of the plant affected by the girdling will be slowed. While damage progresses, leaves will become smaller and lighter green, fewer leaves will be produced, and eventually the branch will begin to die back. Eliminating a girdling root is a wound in its own right. Yet, while the correction of the problem can kill the desirable plant, the likelihood of the plant dying is greater if no action is taken. Fast growing trees can be divided into two categories: long-lived, to be used as permanent shade trees; and short-lived, to be used only as temporary shade trees.
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The aboveground environment that influences tree performance includes seasonal extremes in temperature, humidity, sunlight (exposure), precipitation, and adverse weather conditions. Belowground factors include soil texture, structure and fertility, moisture extremes and underground obstacles to root growth. Root competition from nearby trees, surface drainage problems, overhead structures, or downspouts should all be considered when selecting the right plant for your site. The majority of the plants that flourish in shade need soil to be hardly moist, but well drained. While some plants tolerate less moisture, they will not survive (Ausin et al. 2005). Supplemental watering and a layer of organic mulch will help remain your fresh plantings content and healthy. Shade densities are a very important factors for build our conception. Dense shade from trees offers the maximum reduction in the sun’s intensity and should be used to shade buildings. Others, such as honey locust or bald cypress, provide the lightly filtered sunlight that plants such as camellias and azaleas need to perform best. We have to determine which kinds of shading plant we need for creation our efficient affects of shading. Therefore, Shady locations are generally considered a problem areas because of the difficulty of establishing grass, but these sites are excellent for many of the shade-loving trees and shrubs, as well as bulbs, perennials, and ground covers. Before you plant, your shade garden you need to know how much shade the area gets in order to choose appropriate plants. After the preferred category of tree has been determined winning and the selected site’s soil and microclimate conditions determined, then it is suitable to choose a species that will grow well in that location and accomplish the determined landscape need. There are three categories of shading that can e get from different kinds or trees.
5.3.1.2 Light Shade Light shade refers to 3–4 h of shade, which may be filtered sunlight cast from high-branched trees.
5.3.1.3 Medium Shade Medium shade or part shade is an area in shade for 4–6 h a day. This type of shade may occur in woodland openings, occur on the east or west side of a slope or in the shadow of a building.
5.3.1.4 Full Shade Full shade refers to areas with no direct sunlight all day, but may receive some indirect light (Wiegrefe 2001).
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5.3.1.5 Selective Shading Trees The most popular shade trees are oaks, maples, ashes, lindens, elms and palms that is the most popular tree for hot climate zones.
5.3.1.6 Oak Oak trees are a category of deciduous tree. The term oak can be used as part of the common name of any of about 400 species of trees and shrubs. The genus is native to the northern hemisphere, and includes deciduous and evergreen species extending from cold latitudes to tropical Asia and the Americas. The oak is a common symbol of strength and endurance and has been chosen as the national tree of England, Estonia, France, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, the United State, Basque Country, Wales and Serbia. The Live Oak is the State Tree of Georgia. The trees can live 200 or more years (Fjeld et al. 2002). By the time the tree is 70–80 years old it will produce thousands of acorns (see, Fig. 5.8).
5.3.1.7 Maple Maple are variously confidential in a family of their own, the Aceraceae, or included in the family Sapindaceae. The areas near the veins generally remain green; however, in extreme cases, the entire leaf may dry and drop prematurely. Acer is a genus of trees or shrubs commonly recognized as Maple. Maples are regularly trees growing to 10–45 m in height (Fjeld et al. 2002). Others are shrubs less than 10 m tall with a number of small trunks originating at ground level. Most species are deciduous, but a few in southern Asia and the Mediterrean region are evergreen (see, Fig. 5.9). This may lead to scorch caused when leaves lose water more rapidly than moisture can be replaced from the soil. Maple leaves often show a browning or
Fig. 5.8 A form of Oak tree
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Fig. 5.9 A form of Maple tree
drying at the outer margin of the leaf or in the areas between the veins in mid to late summer. Most are shade-tolerant when young, and are often late-succession in ecology; many of the root systems are typically dense and fibrous. This can be caused by too little water in the soil or a physical restriction of the root. Norway maple is often affected by girdling roots. Maples grown in urban areas experience stresses that trees in a forested condition seldom come across.
5.3.1.8 Ash Ash is a common name that can be applied to several unrelated groups of trees or shrubs, often with pinnate leaves, or because of their timber qualities. It is certainly one of the more important of our forest trees. It is truly native in Great Britain and throughout the greater part of Europe, while in North America it is represented by a closely allied species. The wood of the Ash is a grayish-white throughout, the sap-wood being used along with the more central portions, an advantage peculiar to but few species. It is more flexible than that of any other European tree, and its value is increased by rapid growth. Few trees become useful so soon, it being fit for walking-sticks at 4 years’ growth, for spadehandles at nine, and when 8 cm in diameter as valuable as the timber of the largest tree (see, Fig. 5.10).
5.3.1.9 Lindens Lindens are the best shade trees and are preferably suited to residence situations. Small, yellowish summer flowers are not showy, but are highly fragrant. The trees
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Fig. 5.10 A form of Ash tree
are generally called lime in Britain and linden in parts of Europe and North America (see, Fig. 5.11). Talia is a genus of aver 30 species of trees, native throughout most of the temperate Northern Hemisphere, in Asia (where the greatest species diversity is found), Europe and eastern North America; it is not native to western North America. Linden was originally the adjective, ‘‘made from lime-wood’’, and from the late sixteenth century also used as a noun, probably influenced by translations of German romance, as an implementation of Linden, the plural of German Linden.
5.3.1.10 Elms Elms are deciduous and semi-deciduous trees including the genus Ulmus, family Ulmaceae. Old Elm trees had a rough, water retentive, naturally alkaline bark (pH 4–7), which lichens favor. Elms first appeared in the Miocene period about 40 million years ago. Over 200 lichen species have been recorded growing on elms trees. Originating in central Asia, the tree flourished and established itself over
Fig. 5.11 A form of Lindens tree
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Fig. 5.12 A form of Elms tree
most of the Northern Hemisphere, and has traversed the Equator in Indonesia. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, many species and cultivars were planted as ornamentals in Europe, North America, and parts of the southern Hemisphere, notably Australia. Isolated trees along roadsides, by tracks and in pastures are collectively known as wayside trees (see, Fig. 5.12).
5.3.1.11 Palmer Palmiers t also called Palm or Palme is one of the most recognized and extensively cultivated plant families. They have had a vital role to humans throughout much of history. Many frequent products and foods are derived from palms, and palms are widely used in landscaping for their exotic appearance, making them one of the most economically important plants. The palm family is a family of flowering plants belonging to the monocot order, Arecales. There are roughly 202 currently known genera with around 2,600 species, most of which are restricted to tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate climates. Human use of palms is as old as or older than human civilization itself, starting with the cultivation of the Date Palm by Mesopotamians and other Middle Eastern peoples 5,000 years or more ago. Date wood, pits for storing dates, and other remains of the date Palm have been found in Mesopotamian sites. Palms live in almost every type of habitat and have tremendous morphological diversity (Fjeld et al. 2002). Most palm seeds lose viability quickly, and they cannot be preserved in low temperatures because the cold kills the origin. The Date Palm had a wonderful effect on the history of the Middle East (see, Fig. 5.13).
5.3.1.12 Shade Trees and Energy Saving Procedure Shade trees have an important role in process for saving energy. The study, conducted last year on 460 single-family buildings in Sacramento, is the first largescale study to use utility billing data to show that trees can reduce energy
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Fig. 5.13 A form of Palmer tree
consumption (Eames 1961). The report, ‘‘The Value of Shade: Estimating the Effect of Urban Trees on Summertime Electricity Use,’’ has been submitted for publication to the journal Energy and Buildings. The researchers chose to do their study on homes in Sacramento because of the city’s hot summers and the fact that most people use air conditioners (Eames 1961). The Sacramento Municipal Utility District operates an active tree-planting program and residents are eligible for up to ten free trees annually through a program delivered in partnership with the Sacramento Tree Foundation. Some of the study’s key findings are (USDA Forest Service 2009). • Placement of a tree is the key to energy savings idea. Shade trees do affect summertime electricity use, but the amount of the savings depends on the location of the tree. • Trees planted within 12 m of the south side or within 18 m of the west, side of the building will generate about the same amount of energy savings. This is because of the way shadows fall at different times of the day (Eames 1961). • Tree cover on the east side of a building has no effect on electricity use. • A tree planted on the west side of a building can reduce net carbon emissions from summertime electricity use by 30 percent over a 100-year period (Eames 1961).
5.3.1.13 Plants Selection To select the competent plants for determined green areas we have to take in evidence.
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A Place to Grow Plants grow in many different places—from plain old dirt to richly fertilized soil. A branch of horticulture known as hydroponics even uses specially prepared solutions of mineral salts as a plant’s growing space (Armstrong 2000). Either way, as long as there is somewhere to settle and a plentiful amount of the right nutrients, a plant will do its best to grow.
The Right Temperature After planting a seed, just the right temperature is needed for it to germinate and begin to grow. Some seeds need warmer temperatures than others to germinate do. By relying on our knowledge of seasonal temperatures, it is easy to know when to plant what. Moreover, if Mother Nature is not agreeable, you can always make use of greenhouses and other artificial systems to get the temperature just right.
Air and Light Plants make their own food using a process called photosynthesis. During photosynthesis, the chlorophyll-containing green parts of the plant trap light energy and use it to perform a series of chemical reactions. The process involves carbon dioxide, and so plants need plenty of air. We usually rely on the sun to provide light for our plants.
5.3.2 Shrubs and Bushes Shrubs are woody plants typically with several trunks and branches arising from near the roots. Bushes (or shrubs) are often the anchors of a landscape. Bushes come in a multitude of sizes, colors, shapes and many have flowering attributes. The contrasting leaf colors can be positively riveting for the eye. Shrubs can provide four-season beauty to a landscape. Some bushes have beautiful fall colors; some provide brightly colored stems and branches for contrast against the winter snow. Other shrubs provide early spring flowers that seem to flow like a fountain and many provide summer privacy and attractive foliage. Shrubs in frequent patch practice are generally board-leaved plants, though some smaller conifers such as Mountain Pine and Common juniper are also shrubby in structure. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen (Eames 1961). Selecting plants is one of the most pleasant tasks. It should be based on the own personal tastes, as well as site location. The correct spacing between shrubs, whether in row or in clumps, is 60–90 cm (Bassett et al. 1993). Shrubs can be
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either deciduous or evergreen. The flower shrubs do not need a large amount of mind. The occasional use of manure, pruning and may require some extra watering if dry conditions persevere. The better care you take of your shrubs, the more rewards you will receive. Deciduous means lessening off at maturity or treatment to fall off and is naturally used in orientation to trees or shrubs that lose their leaves seasonally and to the flaking of other plant structures such as petals after flowering when grown. Evergreen plant is a plant having leaves all year round. This is diversity with deciduous plants, which completely lose their foliage for part of the year. Some selective shrubs can be uses for green area concept.
5.3.2.1 Abelia Abelia is a genus of about 30 species in East Asia and North America. It is a shrub with opposite leaves and using people, bell-shaped flowers. Flowering continues over a long and continuous late spring to fall period. The leaves are opposite or in whorls of three, ovate, glossy, dark green, 1.5–8 cm long, turning purplish-bronze to red in autumn in the deciduous species.
5.3.2.2 Aloe Aloe is a genus of about 400 species of flowering succulent plants. The genus is native to Africa, and is common in South Africa’s Cap province, the mountains of tropical Africa, and neighboring areas such as Madagascar, the Arabian Peninsula, and the islands off Africa. Most Aloe species have a rosette of large, thick, fleshy leaves. The leaves are often lance-shaped with a sharp apex and a spiny margin.
5.3.2.3 Bougainvillea Bougainvillea is a genus of flowering plants native to South America from Brazil west to Peru and south to southern Argentina. Different authors accept between four and 18 species in the genus. The shrub is very colorful and popular plant for spring and summer color making a great addition for a colorful green area.
5.3.2.4 Beautyberry Beautyberry is a genus of shrubs and small trees. They are native to east and southeast of Asia, North America, and Central America, Australia. The shrub can grows in many environmental conditions from moist and shady to open and dry.
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5.3.2.5 Calycanthus Calycanthus is a genus of flowering plants in the family Calycanthaceae, endemic to North America. This deciduous shrub grows slowly to form neat mounds up to 2.4 m high. The genus includes two to four species depending on taxonomic interpretation. The fruit is an elliptic dry capsule 5–7 cm long (see, Fig. 5.14).
5.3.2.6 Camellia Camellia is a genus of flowering plants in the family the aceae. It is growing in a small shrubbery off the driveway. They are native to eastern and southern Asia. There are 100–250 described species, with a number of arguments over the exact number (Searle et al. 2006).
5.3.2.7 Caragana Caragana, is a genus of about 80 species of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae, native to Asia and eastern Europe. One of the most drought tolerant shrubs, Caragana is adaptable, growing well in many difficult conditions except for wet locations. In the spring, masses of yellow pea-flowers cover the branches in a bright, cheerful display, attracting hummingbirds.
5.3.2.8 Ceratostigma Ceratostigma, is a genus of eight species of flowering plants in the family plumbaginaceae, native to warm temperate to tropical regions of Africa and Asia. The shrub is easily grown in average, medium, well-drained soils in full sun to part shade.
Fig. 5.14 Selective species of shrubs and bush
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5.3.2.9 Choisya Choisya, is a genus of about nine species with a small genus of aromatic evergreen shrubs in the family Rutaceae, native to southern North America from the southwest United States and south of Mexico. This shrub will flourish in most soils, as long as they are reasonably fertile and well drained.
5.3.2.10 Clethra Clethra, is a genus of between 30 and 70 species of flowering shrubs or small trees (Searle et al. 2006). The species may be evergreen or deciduous, and all bear flowers in clusters or inflorescences. The plant prefers moist, acidic soil with organic matter.
5.3.2.11 Daphne Daphne is a genus of between 50 and 95 species of deciduous and evergreen shrubs in the plant family Thymelaeaceae, native to Asia, Europe, and North Africa. It can be layered quite successfully in spring. The flowers be short of petals and have four (rarely five) petaloid sepals, ranging from greenish-yellow to white and bright pink (see, Fig. 5.15).
5.3.2.12 Dasiphora Dasiphora is a genus of three species of shrubs in the rose family Rosaceous, native to Asia, with one species. The flowers are yellow and usually have five petals with a yellow center. The leaves are very thin and much longer than they are broad. Found in meadows and on shores (Searle et al. 2006).
5.3.2.13 Elaeagnus Elaeagnus, is a genus of over 50–70 species of evergreen and deciduous shrubs, some of which become scrambling climbers when planted under trees. The vast
Fig. 5.15 Selective species of shrubs and bush
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majority of the species are native to temperate and subtropical regions of Asia, with one species ‘‘E. triflora’’ extending south into northeastern Australia.
5.3.2.14 Forsythia Forsythia is a genus of flowering plants. This shrub produces upright arching branches with bright yellow flowers in early spring. All it requires is a sunny area and well-drained soil. It is also a very easy plant to grow and transplants well.
5.3.2.15 Erica Erica is a genus of over 700 species of flowering plants in the family Ericaceous. Flowering time varies somewhat from black to black, but generally it is during the period February to April, a very mild winters just before (Abraham 1996).
5.3.2.16 Euonymus Euonymus, is a genus of over 165–180 species of deciduous and evergreen shrubs and small trees. They live mostly in East Asia Korea, northern Japan and eastern Siberia, and they have a distribution in North America and Madagascar.
5.3.2.17 Fatsia Fatsia is a small genus of three species of evergreen shrubs native to southern Japan and Taiwan. The shrub is an excellent specimen for shady town gardens, containerized or in a bed with 3 m tall (see, Fig. 5.16).
5.3.2.18 Garrya Garrya is a genus of over 18 species of flowering plants in the family Garryaceae, native to North and Central America and the Caribbean They live most in Coast
Fig. 5.16 Selective species of shrubs and bush
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Ranges San Luis Obispo Co. the shrub is small tree with yellowish male catkins 24 cm long in early spring (Abraham 1996).
5.3.2.19 Grevillea Grevillea is a genus of over 360 species of evergreen flowering plants in the protea family Proteaceae, native to Australia, New Guinea, New Caledonia, and Sulawesi. The shrub is with needle-like to fern-like foliage and distinctive flowers.
5.3.2.20 Hakea Hakea is a genus of more than 140 species of shrubs in the Porteaceae, native to Australia (Abraham 1996). In nature, it grows on sandy well-drained soils but has been grown successfully in heavier ones, and is best grown in an open, sunny position.
5.3.2.21 Illicium Illicim is a genus of flowering plants containing 42 species of evergreen shrubs and small trees. The species are native to the tropical and subtropical regions, China and Vietnam, North America, and the West Indies.
5.3.2.22 Jasmine Jasmine is a genus of shrubs and vines in the olive family (Oleaceae), with about 200 species, native to tropical and warm temperate regions of the Old World (Abraham 1996). The majority of species grow as climbers on other plants or on structures such as chicken wire, gates, or fences.
5.3.2.23 Kerria japonica Kerria japonica is the sole species in the genus Kerria. This is a deciduous shrub in the rose family Rosaceous, native to eastern Asia, in China, Japan and Korea. The shrub is attractive even in the winter (see, Fig. 5.17).
5.3.2.24 Lagerstroemia Lagerstroemia is a genus of around 50 species of deciduous and evergreen and shrubs native to the Indian sub continental, Southeast Asia, northern Australia and
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Fig. 5.17 Selective species of shrubs and bush
parts of Oceania (Searle et al. 2006). Flowers are borne in summer in big showy clusters and come in white and many shades of pink, purple, lavender and red.
5.3.2.25 Lilac Lilac is a color that is a pale shade of violet. It might also be described as light purple. This shrub prefers full sun in a well-drained area. An excellent benefit of this bush is that it attracts butterflies and bees.
5.3.2.26 Magnolia Magnolia is a genus of over 200 flowering plant species in the subclass Magnolioideae of the family Magnoliaceae (Searle et al. 2006).
5.3.2.27 Olearia Olearia is a genus of about 130 flowering different species plants, belonging to the family Asteraceae. Olearia capillaris is found locally in wet mountain areas, in scrub, and forest edges, in both the North and South Islands of New Zealand.
5.3.2.28 Polygala Polygala is a genus of about 500 species of flowering plants belonging to the family Polygalaceae, commonly known as milkwort or snakeroot.
5.3.2.29 Rhododendron Rhododendron is a genus of over 100 flowering plants 1,000 species. This shrub comes from the family Ericaceous. This shrub grew quietly at first, minding its own business, then suddenly a few years ago burst into spectacular spring color. It is the national flower of Nepal (see, Fig. 5.18).
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Fig. 5.18 Selective species of shrubs and bush
5.3.2.30 Rubus Rubus is a genus of flowering plants comprises between 429 and 750 species grouped into 12 subgenera in the family Rosaceous (Searle et al. 2006). It is one of the most challenging groups of plants with respect to its classification and evolutionary history.
5.3.2.31 Salvia Salvia is a genus of approximately 690–900 species of shrubs, herbaceous perennial. The shrub comes from the mint family, Lamiaceae. Today this classic spiritual plant is still surging in popularity. Thousands of people have tried the original form of Salvia.
5.3.2.32 Viburnum Viburnum is a genus of about 150–175 species of shrubs or (in a few species) small trees that were previously included in the family Caprifoliaceous. It is one of the most underused flowering shrubs in the garden. This shrub is very resistance to pests and disease so that is a great benefit.
5.3.2.33 Weigela Weigela is a small genus of about 12 species of deciduous shrubs in the family Caprifoliaceous. All are natives of eastern Asia. This is one of the most favorite plants of butterflies, so if you enjoy having and watching butterflies this is necessary have bush.
5.3.2.34 Yuccas Yuccas is a genus of about 40–50 species of perennials, shrubs, and some spices of trees in the agave family Agvaceae. They are ordinary in the higher elevations of many North and Central American deserts, and are tolerant of cold winters.
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Fig. 5.19 Selective species of shrubs and bush
5.3.2.35 Zauschneria Zauschneria, is a species of willow herb, native to dry slopes and in chaparral of western north America. This plant boasts many spikes of red tubular fuchsia-like flowers above its carpeting and bushy branches, these branches are dressed by green foliage covered in gray silky hairs (see, Fig. 5.19). For create a difference between the spices and the herb so we are able to say that spices is flavorings, regularly of tropical source, that are dried. The majority spices come from plant fruits, as is the case for mace, nutmeg, black pepper, and cardamom (Bassett et al. 1993). Cinnamon comes from the bark of a shrubby tree, and ginger comes from the underground rhizome of a plant. Herbs, in the culinary sense, are leaves of plants that can be used either fresh or dried to season food. In the botanical sense, an herb is any plant that does not have woody perennial stems like a tree or shrub (Hamilton 1975).
5.3.3 Herbs The term of the herb has more than one definition. Botanists describe an herb as a small, seed bearing plant with fleshy, rather than woody, parts (from which we get the term ‘‘herbaceous’’). In addition to herbaceous perennials, herbs include trees, shrubs, annuals, vines, and more primitive plants, such as ferns, mosses, algae, lichens, and fungi. They (herbs) are valued for their flavor, fragrance, medicinal and healthful qualities, economic and industrial uses, pesticidal properties, and coloring materials (dyes) (Bown and Deni 2001). An herb is any plant that serves a purpose other than providing food, wood, or beauty. Herbs give us dyes for cloth, essential oils for fragrances, medicines, and even insecticides (Fjeld et al. 2002). In addition, herbs are not just annual or perennial plants—many of our most important herbal products come from trees and shrubs. Every plant in the National Herb Garden, including all of the trees, is an herb (Hamilton 1975). Herbs have a variety of uses including culinary, medicinal, or in some cases even spiritual usage. General usage differs between culinary herbs and medical herb. In biophilic architecture use any of the parts of the plant might be considered ‘‘herbs’’, including leaves, roots, flowers, seeds, resin, root bark, inner bark (cambium), berries and sometimes the pericarp or other portions. Plants contain photo chemicals that have effects on the body. There may be have some effects even
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when consumed in the small levels that typify culinary ‘‘spicing’’, and some herbs are toxic in larger quantities. Herbs are used in many religions—such as in Christianity myrrh (Commiphora myrrh), ague root (Aletris farinosa) and frankincense (Boswellia spp) and in the partially Christianized Anglo-Saxon pagan Nine Herbs Charm (Spencer-Jones et al. 1986). In Hinduism a form of Basil, called Tulsi is worshipped as a goddess for its medicinal value since the Vedic times. Some time the herbs can be a part of a horizontal green plan and in other situation it is a part of a vertical green plan, however, we select to be a part of a vertical green plan because of the physical characteristics of the plant. There are many assortments of herbs that can be selected for creating a green area on biophilic architecture. The following are the most popular herbs.
5.3.3.1 Basil Basil (Ocimum basilicum) is a half-hardy annual with shiny green leaves; it is great in tomato dishes. An annual and is not the easiest herb to grow and does not respond to overwatering. Germination usually occurs in 7–10 days. Basil is not difficult to transplant. When made into a tea, it has antiseptic qualities for aid in relieving nausea and is very well known for its culinary uses in tomato and garlic dishes. It also makes for a very refreshing bath.
5.3.3.2 Chamomile Chamomile (Chamaemelum nobile) is a hardy evergreen perennial propagated from cuttings or by division. They include relief of asthma and croup; teething in infants; indigestion, nausea and bad breath, menstrual pain, sore or weeping eyes, headache, measles, mumps, bites and stings, piles and rheumatism. The flowers and leaves are used for pot-pourers and when infused can be used as a hair lightener.
5.3.3.3 Chervil Chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium) is a delicate, ferny annual or biennial. It grows to about one foot tall and has a peppery taste, which is quite strong if used fresh in soup or salad dishes. Fresh leaves can be frozen in small packets after washing carefully. Its bright green leaves look like carrot tops, not too surprising being that it is a member of the carrot family.
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5.3.3.4 Chives Chives (Allium scboenoprasum) have tidy, grassy leaves and a mild onion flavor. They are very easy to grow from seed. They grow to be about 16 cm. These are perhaps the most popular herbs used and grown today. Flowers are enough so that chives can be grown as a border or in the rock garden.
5.3.3.5 Dill Dill (Anethum graveolens) is an annual that grows to be about three feet high. It grows to 40–60 cm, with slender stems and alternate, finely divided, softly delicate leaves 10–20 cm long. Blossoms are tiny and pale yellow. Its flat yellow flowers make a great border in any flower garden (Bassett et al. 1993). Dill is often used with fish, eggs, and tomatoes, as well as in pickling.
5.3.3.6 Hop Hop is cultivated for its use in beer making. It is also used as an ornamental vine in many areas. The flowers and leaves are used in arrangements, garlands or swags and the female flowers for making beer (see, Fig. 5.20).
5.3.3.7 Lavender Lavender is a hardy perennial with gray foliage and spikes of fragrant lavender flowers, which when dried are used to perfume the linen chest and for sachets. There are many types to choose form. Lavender has a great many uses. The oil is a very good antidote for insect bites, stings and burns.
5.3.3.8 Lady’s Mantle Lady’s mantle is a gorgeous plant looks utterly beautiful growing in the garden and is a hardy perennial that can be propagated by division in the spring or autumn.
Fig. 5.20 Selective species of herbs
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The flowers can be potted with the air-drying method or the glycerin method. They are incredibly popular in fresh or dried flower bouquets or posies.
5.3.3.9 Lemon verbena Lemon verbena is a deciduous perennial shrub native to Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, Chile, and Peru. It is a half-hardy shrub but frosts will kill it in winter if not protected in a greenhouse. It grows to a height of 1–3 m and exudes a powerful lemony scent (Spencer-Jones and Wade 1986). The light green leaves are lancet-shaped, and its tiny flowers bloom lavender or white in August or September. It can be uses in tea, hot or iced.
5.3.3.10 Mint Mint is very easy to grow. It is a hardy perennial and spreads by root stoles. Sown indoors seed germinates in 10–15 days. It is an herbaceous rhizomatous perennial plant growing 30–100 cm tall, with variably hairless to hairy stems and foliage, and a wide-spreading fleshy underground rhizome. The leaves are 5–9 cm long and 1.5–3 cm broad, with a serrated margin (Roger 2002). Spearmint produces flowers in slender spikes, each flower pink or white, 2.5–3 mm long and broad Mint is most popular in the kitchen for jams and sauces as an accompaniment for roast lamb.
5.3.3.11 Rose Rose is a hardy evergreen perennial that likes a sunny spot and can be propagated from cuttings. There are a lot of attractive colors and varieties and a must for every green areas. It is the best for cooking uses especially with lamb, pork or vegetables. Petals can be used in salads or crystallized for decorations. Oil of aromatic plant, when diluted, can be used as a final hair rinse. Rosemary turns a grayish color when glycerinate. Use in pot-pourris or infused in tea to help digestion or use in the bathwater for an invigorating effect.
5.3.3.12 Sega Sega (Saivia officinalis) is a hardy perennial in our location and it is often grown in green areas for its pretty foliage and spikes of bluish flowers. It comes in many different varieties; all are hardy shrubs that benefit from annual spring pruning. Grows to 60 cm and should be spaced 29 cm apart. It is an excellent herb for dressings for chicken, turkey, pork and for flavoring sausages (see, Fig. 5.21).
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Fig. 5.21 Selective species of herbs
5.3.3.13 Parsley Parsley is considering the most popular herb because it can be used to enhance any savory dish. It is a bright green, biennial herb, also used as spice. It is a biennial, but sometimes grown as an annual, and grows to be about 60 cm tall. It is very common in Middle Eastern European, and American cooking. Parsley is used for its leaf in much the same way as coriander (which is also known as Chinese parsley or cilantro), although it has a milder flavor than coriander (Spencer-Jones and Wade 1986). The fern-leafed plants make a very attractive border.
5.3.3.14 Rue Rue is a species of rue grown as an herb. It is a hardy evergreen shrub propagates by division in spring or from cuttings in early autumn. The leaves can be either pressed or glycerinate Rue’s fragrance is strong, characteristically aromatic and sweet; it cannot be compared with any other spice. It can also be used in small amounts for cooking and works very well in antimoth sachets.
5.3.3.15 Scented Geraniums Scented Geraniums (Pelargonium) is one of the evergreen perennials that should be moved into the indoors or into a greenhouse during the winter. The diverse varieties and scents contain lemon, orange, rose, and peppermint and are all very well used in pot-pourris. In the kitchen, scented geraniums are used in the making of sweet syrups to be added to candies or drinks (Cheplick 1998). Rose scented geranium is often used to flavor jellies. Any of the leaves can be steeped in milk to extract their particular flavor (such as nutmeg, cinnamon, or apricot), and then added to custards, puddings, or sauces.
5.3.3.16 Thyme Thyme is an evergreen shrub propagated from cuttings or seed. It is easily grown from seed sown indoors with germination in 21–30 days. Leaves are cut for
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Fig. 5.22 Selective species of herbs
freshening before the blossoms are open. It is used as a soothing tea for chest pains or as an aid for sleeping Thyme is used also for flavoring soups and poultry dressing.
5.3.3.17 Tarragon Tarragon is a floppy, course perennial, about two feet tall. It is a perennial herb in the family asteraceae related to wormwood. It is native to a wide area of the Northern Hemisphere from easternmost Europe across central and eastern Asia to India, western North America, and south to northern Mexico (Cheplick 1998). It has a fresh, tart taste and is used in fish, chicken, and seafood dishes.
5.3.3.18 Wormwood Wormwood (Artemisia absinthian) is an herbaceous perennial plant, with a hard, woody rhizome. The plant is easy to grow and can be propagated from cuttings in early autumn. The leaves are spirally agreed, greenish-gray above and white below, enclosed with silky silvery-white hairs, and manner minute oil-producing glands; the basal leaves are up to 25 cm long, bipinnate to trip innate (Roger 2002). It have a long petioles, with the cauline leaves (those on the stem) smaller, 5–10 cm long, less separated, and with short petioles; the highest leaves can be both simple and sessile (without a petiole) (Spencer-Jones and Wade 1986) (see, Fig. 5.22).
References Absolute Astronomy, Encyclopedia. http://www.absoluteastronomy.com/topics/Hydrangea_ petiolaris. Accessed 02 June 2009 Adams J (2007) Vegetation–Climate interaction. Springer, Praxis Publication, New Jersey Armstrong D (2000) A survey of community gardens in upstate New York: implications for health promotion and community development. Health Place 6(4):319–327 Ausin I et al (2005) Environmental regulation of flowering. Int J Dev Biol 49:689–705 Bassett B, Menown D, Gemming C (1993) Nuisance aquatic plants in Missouri ponds and lakes. Missouri Conservationist, March 1993. Conservation Commission, State of Missouri
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Bown Deni C (2001) The Herb Society of America New Encyclopedia of herbs and their uses. Dorling Kindersley, New York, p 18 Chapman GP, Peat WE (1992) An introduction to the grasses. CAB International, Oxon Cheplick GP (1998) Population biology of grasses. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Dvorchak R (2007) Oakmont-inspired Stimpmeter allows USGA to accurately measure speed, consistency of putting surfaces. Post-Gazette, Pittsburgh (Retrieved on 2007-09-08) Eames AJ (1961) Morphology of the angiosperms. McGraw-Hill, New York Fjeld T et al (2002) The effect of indoor foliage plants on health and discomfort symptoms among office workers. Indoor Built Environ 7(4):204–206 Flagler J (1995) The role of horticulture in training correctional youth. Hortic Technol 5(2):180– 190 Friedman WE et al (2004) The evolution of plant development. Am J Bot 91:1726–1741 Hamilton GJ (1975) Forest mensuration handbook. Forestry Commission Booklet, vol 3 Karol KG et al (2001) The closest living relatives of land plants. Science 294:2351–2353 Mirov NT (1967) The genus Pinus. Ronald Press, New York Mitchell AF (1974) A field guide to the trees of Britain and Northern Europe. Collins Renzaglia KS et al (2000) Vegetative and reproductive innovations of early land plants: implications for a unified phylogeny. Philos Trans R Soc Lond Biol B 355:769–793 Reynolds J, Tampion J (1983) Double flowers: a scientific study. Pembridge Press, London, pp 41 Roger G (2002) American horticultural society practical guides, grasses & bamboos. In: A Dorling Kindersley book, pp 7–8 Searle I et al (2006) The transcription factor FLC confers a flowering response to vernalization by repressing meristem competence and systemic signaling in Arabidopsis. Genes Dev 20:898– 912 Spencer-Jones et al (1986) Aquatic plants—a guide to recognition. Professional. Products, Surrey. Borcombe Printers, Britain Susan W (2001) Plants for shade gardening, tree breeder may. The Morton Arboretum Trowbridge PJ, Bassuk NL (2004) Trees in the urban landscape. Wiley, USA, p 4 Turck F et al (2008) Regulation and Identity of Florigen: FLOWERING LOCUS T Moves Centre Stage. Annu Rev Plant Biol 59:573–594 USDA Forest Service (2009) Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland
Chapter 6
Introduction on Growing Media (Soil)
6.1 The Natural Growing Media 6.1.1 Introduction Soil structure and macro pores are essential to each of these functions based on their pressure on water and air exchange, plant root examination and habitat for soil organisms. Granular structure is characteristically associated with surface soils, particularly those with high organic matter (Coleman and Crossley Jr 1996). We need to determine the depth and usable volume of the soil that is necessary to create a green area, as well as its chemical properties. The category of soil we have, whether clay, sand, or amazing in between, is determined by size of the mineral particles in it. Significant soil functions connected to soil arrangement are behind biological productivity, adaptable and partitioning water and solute flow, and cycling and storing nutrients. Organisms, climate, topography, close relative material, and time influence the formation of a soil. The following substance explains some essential skin of a soil that helps to differentiate it from mineral sediments. Its assessment is the most critical part of the location assessment process and is the part that requires the most time. Sand, silt, and clay particles are the primary mineral structure blocks of soil. The percentage of sand, silt, and clay in a given soil is supposed to make up the soil’s texture. Soils are named based on their texture, for example, silty clay. Soils that have approximately 20% or more clay often have the word clay in their name. Likewise, soils that have 50% greater sands or 40% silts are so named. A smaller amount of clay is needed to impart the qualities of clay because of its tremendous surface area and chemical reactivity (Fig. 6.1). Clay soils with poor structure and reduced infiltration may experience runoff, erosion, and surface crusting. On-site impacts include erosion-induced nutrient and soil loss and poor germination and seedling emergence due to crusted soil. Off-site impacts include reduced quality of receiving waters due to turbidity, sedimentation and nutrient enrichment. When soil dries out and water is removed, clay stacks move closer together, the soil shrinks in volume, and cracks develop in weakly bonded
A. Almusaed, Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84996-534-7_6, Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011
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Fig. 6.1 The natural soil compassion
areas. As soil wetting and drying cycles are repeated with rainfall (or irrigation), removal by plants, an extensive network of cracks develops, and soil aggregates become more defined. Water entry into a sandy soil can be rapid, but subsurface drainage of sandy soils with poor structure can also be rapid such that the soil cannot hold water needed for plant growth or biological habitat. On a worldwide scale, soils are influential in a diversity of ecological functions from water cycling to carbon storage. Protecting soil quality through early recognition of poor soil conditions, corrective treatments and improved management is important.
6.1.2 Soil Structure The proportion of sand, silt, and clay particles bound together by organic matter defines soil texture. Soil organic matter—or humus—is a vital component of soil, influencing fertility, soil structure, workability and water holding capacity, as well as storing carbon. It refers to the arrangement or aggregation of soil particles into larger clumps called peds. The physical properties of soils give us the soils’ essential characteristics, which allow determining what a soil can or cannot perform. They comprise such things as the soil’s chemical composition and reactions, its definite gravity, void ratio, texture and sizes, unit weight, salinity, and thermal characteristics. As microorganisms slowly eat organic matter, soil particles are glued together by means of the excretions of these microbes. Soil structure has a major influence on water and air movement, biological activity, root growth and seedling emergence. Using aggregate size, shape and distinctness as the basis for classes, types and grades, respectively, soil structure describes the manner in which soil particles are aggregated. Soil structure affects water and air movement through soil, greatly influencing soil’s ability to sustain life and perform other vital soil functions (Fig. 6.2). Soil pores exist between and within aggregates and are occupied by water and air. Macrospores are large soil pores, usually between aggregates, that are generally greater than 0.08 mm in diameter. Macrospores drain freely by gravity and allow easy movement of water and air. They provide habitat for soil organisms and plant roots can grow into them. With diameters less than 0.08 mm, microspores are small soil pores usually found within structural aggregates.
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Fig. 6.2 Natural soil is a resourceful growing media
Fig. 6.3 USDA soil triangle (Source Brady 1990)
Suction is required to remove water from microspores. The solid mineral portion of soil is made up of three types of particles: sand, silt, and clay. Of these, sand particles are the largest. They are classified by size, ranging from very coarse (1–2 mm in diameter) to very fin (0.1–0.05 mm in diameter). Silts have the next— smaller particle size, ranging from 0.05 to 0.02 mm in diameter. Clay particles are the smallest at less than 0.002 mm in diameter. Sometimes it is useful to picture the relative difference in size of these particles like this: if the midrange size of sand a mere kernel of corn. Whereas sand and silts are just smaller and smaller rocks, clay have a wafer shape (Fig. 6.3).
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Clays are also important in creating soil structure because of their charged surface and small size (soil may be aggregated into peds of various shapes; Brady 1990). Block like or granular shapes create a loose, open structure that maximizes water and air infiltration into the soil. Soil that forms into horizontal plates is not as advantageous for water, air and root movement. When soils have little structure or aggregation, the soil structure is said to be massive—one large block with no smaller units. Sandy loams and sandy silt loams (soils with \18% clay)—most suitable soils for all enterprises in wetter areas and suitable for more intensive cropping (Atkinson 2000). Clay soils and sandy clay loams (containing[18% clay particles) tend to be imperfectly or poorly drained. Even when the drainage system is working well, the range of moisture contents when clay soils are suitable for cultivation is small (Farm Soils Plan). We may have a mixture of the three, called loam. Loam is term given to soil that has intermediate properties of sands, silts, and clays. Soils can also be acidic or alkaline. This is important if we want to grow rhododendrons or blue-flowered hydrangeas, but most grasses will grow in either type. In practice, the simplest way to tell which type of soil we have is to take a handful of it and roll it into a ball between our fingers. If, when we let go, the soil remains a compact ball, we have clay. If it fails to form a ball or it falls apart, then we have a sandy soil. If we are not clear which it has done, we have a loamy soil. Sandy soils are usually poor in plant nutrients, mainly because they drain quickly after rain or watering, which is a negative action for green area on roofs, and nutrients in the soil tend to be leached away quickly. While grasses overall like nutrient poor soil, they need the presence of organic matter to maintain soil moisture levels. The basis for good growth of plants is a good soil structure with thick oxidized top soil. Sodium causes soil particles to breakdown. This physical breakdown of the soil structure prevents water penetration and proper aeration. The results are the plant roots that do not get enough water or enough oxygen, and the accumulated salts are not leached down and out of the root zone. Maintaining a good, stable soil structure can: • • • • •
Enhance water holding capacity Help root growth Maintain aeration and drainage Create cultivation easier Decrease erosion risk.
6.1.3 Soil Density The soil density is the weight (or mass) of the material divided by its volume. With soil, we use the term of bulk density or dry density to determine soil density. To determine bulk density, a known volume of soil is dried at 105C for 48 h and that volume divides its weight. Soil density is important, because some densities stop root elongation and root penetration through the soil. If roots cannot penetrate
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the soil, it might as well not exist beyond the root zone. The greater the usable soil volume, the greater the tree’s growth potential (Bassuk and Whitlow 1988). These soils are prone to drainage-related problems and poaching, compaction and smearing. The spaces between particles and peds allow for the movement of air and water, and the growth of roots. An ideal soil is composed of pore spaces and solid. Large pores drain quickly after rain or irrigation so they are usually filled with air (San Diego et al. 1994). Smaller pores hold water more tightly, so unless there is severe drought, they hold water. Roots grow easily in the pore space, sending root hairs or mycorrhizal strands into the small pores to absorb water and nutrients. 6.1.3.1 Bulk Density Bulk density is a measure of the dry weight of certain volume of soil. It is the standard number used by soil scientist to quantify the degree of compaction in the soil. Solid rock has a density of 2.6 g/cc and water has a density of 1 g/cc. Some non-compacted forest topsoil actually has a density less than one, so it would float on water if it were sealed against leakage (S. Thomas Smiley).
6.1.4 Soil Temperature and Root Growth Process Soil temperature plays an important role in many processes, which take place in the soil such as chemical reactions and biological interactions. Soil temperature has an important effect on root growth and nutrient uptake. At temperature below 7.5C, roots do not grow and nutrient uptake is curtailed. This can work positively for the plant; if de-icing salt is applied during the winter months, when little root activity is taking place, salt uptake is minimal. If salts are applied in the fall or spring when soils are warmer, then damage due to high salt concentrations is greater. During the spring or rainy months, free-following water can flush out high salt concentrations (Headley and Bassuk 1991). Granular structure is characterized by loosely packed, crumbly soil aggregates and an interconnected network of macrospores that allow rapid infiltration and promote biological productivity. Structure and pore space of subsurface layers affect drainage, aeration, and root penetration. Platy structure is often indicative of compaction.
6.1.5 Soil Characteristics 6.1.5.1 Soil Drain Improve drainage of the soil within and below the anaerobic layer. Planting a vigorously growing crop (e.g. a grass ley) can help to deplete moisture and
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promote soil structural development. Heavy rainfall on bare soils can breakdown soil surface structure leading to the formation of a surface crust or cap (1–10 mm thick). This makes it harder for seedlings to emerge from the soil, reduces water infiltrating through the soil surface and increases run-off risk (Vaid and Chern 1983). Fine sandy and silty soils are particularly at risk from capping. The formation of erosion rills and gullies can result in soil deposition at sides of fields, on roads or in watercourses and ditches. For remediate the action, we must avoid producing too fine a seedbed during cultivation and where possible, retain residues of the previous crop at the surface as a protective layer. The incorporation of organic matter (e.g. composted material, straw, or dung) can greatly improve soil structure and reduce capping risk. When capped soil dries, break the cap with a light harrow or Cambridge roller.
6.1.5.2 Soil Salt Salt is a natural element of soils and water. The ions responsible for salinization are: Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, and Cl-. As the Na+ (sodium) predominates, soils can become sodic water dissolved nutrients move into a root through osmosis phenomenon (Ernst 1995). The root has a semi-permeable membrane that allows water to move liberally but retains nutrients once they are in the root. This generally makes the root more intense in nutrients than the surrounding soil; consequently, water will move from an area of lesser-concentrated nutrients (the soil) to an area of greater concentrated nutrients (the root) through osmosis. A number of conditions may reverse this operation. When a high concentration of salts is in the soil, as from de-icing salts or too much fertilizer, the soil nutrient concentration may be higher than the concentration of nutrients in the root. If this happens, water will move out of the root into the soil. The plant will experience water deficits, and its cells can desiccate. This condition is called fertilizer burn or de-icing salt, as the roots fail to grow and die back quickly. Soil salts enhanced the growth performance of the plants in drying soil by increasing their days to wilting, ability to extract water from the soil, organic matter production, and water use efficiency. The high salt in soil present a problem in soil, abundant leaching of the salt by flooding the root zone with water may reduce the problem as long as there is adequate drainage blew the root zone. Salinity from irrigation can occur over time wherever irrigation occurs; since almost all water (even natural rainfall) contains some dissolved salts (Edwards and Bohlen 1996). When the plants use water, the salts are left behind in the soil and eventually start to accumulate.
6.1.5.3 Soil pH The soil pH value is a measure of soil acidity or alkalinity. An acid solution has a pH value less than 7. While a basic solution always has a pH larger than 7, an
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alkaline solution (i.e. a solution with positive acid neutralizing capacity) does not necessarily have a pH larger than 7. If the pH of the soil solution is increased above 5.5, nitrogen (in the form of nitrate) is made available to plants. Phosphorus, on the other hand, is available to plants when soil pH is between 6.0 and 7.0. With an annual agricultural crop, where soils are tilled and amended every year, it is possible to continuously affect the soil pH by either adding sulfur to lower the PH or adding lime to raise it (Edwards and Bohlen 1996). In a landscape, there is only one time to effectively amend the soil, and that is at installation. Subsequently, it is difficult to make a continuous and permanent change in soil pH. Therefore, it is recommended that plants be chosen that tolerate the soil pH as measured instead of trying to change it (Adamson 1975). The only instance where changing the pH permanently might be attempted is with a small, contained soil volume where existing soil could be replaced and appropriate new soil specified. Consequently, selecting plants with specific pH tolerance is decisive to plant health, vigor, and growth. Nutrients for healthy plant growth are divided into three categories: primary, secondary, and micronutrients. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are primary nutrients, which are needed in large quantities compared to the other plant nutrients. Calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S) are secondary nutrients, which are required by the plant in lesser quantities but are no less essential for good plant growth than the primary nutrients. Zinc (Zn) and manganese (Mn) are micronutrients, which are required by the plant in very small amounts (Adamson 1975). Most secondary and micronutrient deficiencies are easily corrected by keeping the soil at the optimum pH value. Rainfall affects soil pH. Water passing through the soil leaches basic nutrients such as calcium and magnesium from the soil. They are replaced by acidic elements such as aluminum and iron (Anon 1981). Application of fertilizers containing ammonium or urea speeds up the rate at which acidity develops. Anthropogenic pollutants alter the pH of soil. Researchers have also revealed that soil pH is affected by vehicular traffic. To create soils less acidic, the frequent practice is to apply a material that contains some type of lime changing the pH of the soil (Kluepfel 06/99). Ground agricultural limestone is most frequently used. The finer the limestone particles, the more rapidly it becomes effective. Different soils will require a different amount of lime to adjust the soil pH value. The texture of the soil, organic matter satisfied and the plants to be grown are all factors to consider in adjusting the pH value. For example, soils low in clay require less lime than soils high in clay to create the same pH.
6.1.6 Improving of Growing Media Structure Soil improvement is based on two main ideas: improving the structure of the soil and improving the nutrient content of the soil so that plants have access to the nutrients they require for strong growth. Practices that provide soil wrap, protect or
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help in accumulation of organic substance, maintain healthy plants, and avoid compaction, and improve soil structure and increase macrospores. Practices resulting in improved soil structure and greater occurrence of macrospores favorable to soil function include: • • • • • • • • • •
Wrap crop Conservation crop rotation Irrigation water management Arranged grazing Residue and tillage management Salinity and sodic soil management Avoided the cultivating and harvesting in the wet Combined the operations in a single pass Limited the traffic to designated tracks Raised a green dung rather than leave a bare fallow.
6.2 Synthetic Lightweight Soil Lightweight soil plays a new and valuable role in today’s horticulture structure. It is specifically formulated for on-structure planting providing a low saturated bulk density (Swan and Sacks 2005). The lightweight soil can be produced by firing shale, clay, or slate in a rotary kiln at temperatures in excess of 1,100C, this fully calcined, ceramic material offers superior solutions for many horticulture problems. Soil for over structures might have a weight obligation. Some 350 g of the lightweight soil material, which is made of an synthetic substance urethane, can be put to the same use as 1 kg of normal natural soil. Until recently to provide a lightweight soil meant to amend sand with peat moss or pine bark. Over a short period of time, organics will decompose creating two problems for green areas. First the amount of mix decreases, requiring replacement which means usually carrying product to the top of the structure in bags. The second of the most concern, as the organics break down, the fines filter out down to the separation fabric (Kashi et al. 1999). Lightweight soil conditioner weighs only one-third the weight of regular rock or sand—a definite advantage when transporting, handling, and installing the material. Till now it is heavy enough not to blow or wash away under normal weather conditions. The material does not float up or sink out of blended medium. At the present time the research has shown that a blend of coarse sand expanded slate and only 5–l0% organic matter is best suited as green areas planting media. Lightweight soil conditioner provides an excellent environment for healthy root structure. It retains as much as 12–35% of its weight in absorbed water and water-borne nutrients. Water and nutrients are steadily released as the soil dries. This creates a buffer to help protect plant life from high concentrations of chemicals and persistent drought. These characteristics also help to stop soil cracking and crusting. The separation fabric over lightweight aggregate drainage
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Fig. 6.4 Synthetics lightweight soil
ballast should be a woven product that allows the smaller fine particles to wash through harmlessly flowing out down the drain (Fig. 6.4). Low density acts as an insulator in the soil medium protecting plants from rapid temperature extremes (ESCSI 2002). When used as mulch, low density insulates the plant root system from heat and freezing temperatures, thus helping the plant survive severe weather conditions. The soil is made of a synthetic substance, urethane. Leafy plants growing in the synthetic soil can reduce the roof temperature by 10C. The soil conditioner is clean, odorless, and contains no toxic minerals that could be damaging to plant or animal life. The material is strong and will not degrade during shipping, handling, or use in hydroponic or ground cover applications. A synthetic soil separation fabric serves this function, but the fabric must have a structure that resists clogging from fine soil particles such as silts and clays. The material is porous micro-surface texture and interior porous structure resist clogging and provides superior aeration that promotes growth of delicate, fine root systems. Problems of soil compaction are significantly reduced when it is properly proportioned within the soil (Kashi et al. 1999). The soil remains resilient because moisture and air movement are not restricted. It provides the optimum condition for fast, healthy plant growth. By the next spring the trees, turf, and other plant material were thriving. Root penetration was extensive. This remarkable growth continued throughout the summer. Because of the porosity of the soil, the heavy irrigation to establish the turf had no adverse affect on the trees. This is one of the many benefits of an engineered soil mix. Soil percolation and water retention can be determined in the laboratory, and then the mix can be designed to meet the specific needs of the microenvironment. A synthetic soil/compost for horticultural application having all the agro nutrients essential for plant growth is disclosed. The soil comprises synthetic apatite compost having sulfur, magnesium and micronutrients dispersed in a calcium phosphate matrix, a zeolite cation exchange medium saturated with a charge of potassium and nitrogen cations, and an optional pH buffer (Abraham and Abraham 1996). A vital condition for plant displays of green areas planting is that they be as simple to maintain as possible. Planters, which help, maintain enough moisture and nutrient levels in the soil are necessary. Self-watering planters are
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a superb choice for commercial decor as they minimize the amount of time required to water manifold planters.
References Abbott TS (ed) (1985) Soil testing service—methods and interpretation. NSW Department of Agriculture, Sydney Abraham SM, Abraham NA (eds) (1996) Soil data system—site and profile information handbook, 2nd edn. Department of Conservation & Land Management, Sydney Adamson CM (1975) Effects of soil conservation treatment on runoff and sediment loss from a catchment in south-western New South Wales, Australia’. In: Proceedings of Paris symposium, effects on man on the interface of the hydrological cycle with the physical environment, IAHS-AISH pub. no. 113, pp 110 Anon (1981) Soil erosion effects on soil productivity: a research perspective. J Soil Water Cons 36:82–90 Atkinson G (2000) Acid sulfate soils assessment and management in NSW, in papers of the Xth World Water Congress held in Melbourne, March 2000. Department of Land and Water Conservation, Kempsey, NSW Bassuk NC, Whitlow TH (1988) Environmental stress in street trees. Arboric J 12(2):195–201 Brady NC (1990) The nature and properties of soil, 10th edn. MacMillan, New York Castro G (1969) Liquefaction of sands, Harvard soil mechanics series 87. Harvard University, Cambridge (Thesis presented to Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of doctor of philosophy) Coleman DC, Crossley DA Jr (1996) Fundamentals of soil ecology. Academic Press, Dublin Diego San et al (1994) Earthworm populations related to soil and fertilizer management practices. Better Crops 78:9–11 Edwards CA, Bohlen PJ (1996) Biology and ecology of earthworms, 3rd edn. Chapman & Hall, London Edwards CA, Lofty R (1977) The biology of earthworms, 2nd edn. Chapman & Hall, London Edwards CA et al (1995) Earthworms in agroecosystems. In: Hendrix PF (ed) Earthworm ecology and biogeography. Lewis, Boca Raton, pp 180–200 Ernst D (1995) The farmers earthworm handbook: managing your underground moneymakers. Lessiter Publications, Brookfield ESCSI. Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate Institute (2002) http://www.escsi.org. Accessed 21 Feb 2009 Farenhorst A et al (2000) Earthworm burrowing and feeding activity and the potential for atrazine transport by preferential flow. Soil Biol Biochem 32:479–488 Farm Soils Plan Protecting Soils and Income in Scotland. http://www.scotland.gov.uk/Resource/ Doc/47121/0020243.pdf. Accessed 03 March 2009 Headley DB, Bassuk NL (1991) Effect of time of application of sodium chloride in the dormant season on selected tree species. J Environ Hortic 9(3):130–136 Kashi MG et al (1999) Innovative lightweight synthetic aggregates developed from coal Flyash. In: Proceedings from the 13th international symposium on use and management of coal combustion products (CCPs), Orlando, Florida Kluepfel M (1999) HGIC horticulture specialist, and Bob Lippert, extension soil fertility specialist. Clemson University. (New 06/99. Revised 05/06.) Swan CW, Sacks A (2005) Properties of synthetic lightweight aggregates for use in pavement systems, GSP 130 Advances in Pavement Engineering S. Thomas Smiley Soil Density Analysis. http://www.onlinegardener.com/care/Soil%20density. pdf. Accessed 30 September 2009 Vaid YP, Chern JC (1983) Effect of static shear on resistance of liquefaction. Soils Found 23(1):47–60
Chapter 7
Introduction on Irrigation Systems
7.1 Introduction A large amount of rain falling in one season followed by a long, dry period may favor certain plants adapted to survive lengthy droughts; while the same annual rainfall total received at short intervals throughout the year may allow quite different species to become dominant. Much of the rainfall may not be available for plants, as soil water, due to rapid run-off or evaporation; while in other places soils may retain sufficient water for plants to use over ensuing periods of drought; much depends on the water-retaining properties of soils. Plants, which, live satisfactorily in a truly watery environment, are termed hydrophytes, and those in wet, marshy conditions hygrophytes (Mony 1970). Precipitation in the form of snow may blanket the ground and protect plants against extreme cold, and provide a store of water for release in springtime. An excess of water, leading to water logging or aquatic conditions, will obviously favor those plants adapted to receive sufficient aeration in such an environment; among the many varieties of higher plants, for instance, is the water hyacinth, which floats freely, buoyed up by the bulbous nature of its modified leaf-stalks.
7.2 Irrigation Systems Ancient people must have been burly from having to haul buckets full of water to dispense on their first plants. Heavy water on fields is still a common irrigation method today, but other, more competent and mechanized methods are also used. In crop production it is mostly used in dry areas and in periods of rainfall shortfalls, but also to protect plants against frost. Additionally, irrigation helps to suppress weed growing in rice fields (Williams 2007). In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall sometimes referred to as dry land farming or as rain fed farming. It is often studied together with drainage, which is the natural or A. Almusaed, Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84996-534-7_7, Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011
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artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area. Effective irrigation will influence the entire growth process from seedbed preparation, germination, root growth, nutrient utilization, plant growth and re-growth, yield and quality. The key to maximizing irrigation efforts is uniformity. The most recognize irrigation system is called flood irrigation water is pumped or brought to the green areas and is allowed to run down to the ground among the crops. This method is easy and contemptible, and is extensively used by societies in less developed parts of the world as well as in Europe. The difficulty is, about one-half of the water used ends up not receiving to the crops. Conventional flood irrigation can indicate a lot of wasted water. Utilize mulch to keep water and stop weed competition (Bakker 1999). Careful applications of herbicides can also decrease weed competition for water, but harsh drought conditions can lead to unexpected fallout. Losses of water will occur due to evaporation, wind drift, run-off and water sinking deep below the root zone. Irrigation systems provide water. When it comes to watering plants in our yards or green areas, most of us don’t always like to rely on the weather we may use watering cans or sprinkler systems Diverted into large, flat-bottomed basins, the river Nile provided outstanding irrigation for Egyptian crops, and Herodotus was well aware that without the Nile, the Egyptians wouldn’t have enjoyed such creative undeveloped methods. When green area watering is not permissible because of water use limitations, gray water can be used. Gray water is wastewater from household bathtub, shower, sink, and washing machine. Gray water use is accepted in only a limited number of counties. It is important to observe if it is officially permitted in the metropolitan area. The actual irrigation system is usually achieved by either sprinklers which use spray nozzles to throw water over a relatively green area; drip systems which use a number of drip nozzles mount into a pipe to cover an green area; or individual drippers, which use individual nozzles to bring water to a single pot or hanging basket. However, we can count many attributions that can be useful to determine the types of irrigation systems used such: • • • • • • •
The size of the green area which, have to be irrigated Differences in soil structure and texture Availability of labor Varying of topography of the ground Availability of water and the sources of water Accessibility of power sources On ranch water storage capacity.
7.3 Irrigation Systems Benefits Any irrigation system must be friendly with cultural operations associated with a specific harvest. In presence, we can count several benefits correlated to the fitting
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of an irrigation system in our green areas. The operative irrigation system ensures that the trees and shrubs will establish themselves more quickly and growth will be faster, giving a mature appearance in a much shorter time. A prestigious modern building with brown grass surrounding it does not look very high quality. The numerous plants in a small area can successfully struggle within the soil to use available water. This water opposition is able to be harsh (Gibben 1986). Eliminate excess plant competition from around any tree to decrease water stress. As well as maintenance the grass green and verdant even in the hottest of summers, irrigation will help remain grass in heavily used areas in good condition. At this moment, we can talk about a few of the benefits related with the fitting of an irrigation system: • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Maximize benefits of fertilizer applications Shortened work for watering Full green areas coverage Simple manage over irrigation timing Be able to use areas that would otherwise be less developed Supplementary value to our green area property Reduced plant defeat during drought Have an additional flexibility in their systems Create higher quality crops Have a lengthen the growing season Have a cover against seasonal unpredictability and drought Combating climate change Improve the capital value of their property.
7.4 Irrigation Management In way to deicide the quantities of water that is necessary to create irrigation process optimal we need to take in proof the following factors: • Macroclimate In deficiency years, soil moisture is used up earlier in the season, so the period of peak water need is longer. Some plants that do not usually require irrigation may assistance from irrigation in lack years. In very wet years, irrigation could not be desirable until early summer. The need for irrigation is greatest in middle to late summer, when temperatures are the highest and most of the moisture stored in the soil over the winter has been exhausted. For every 9C increase in temperature, the quantity of water lost by a plant and the environment it approximately doubles. This characteristic of water loss has to be factored into applying supplemental water to a plant. Plants delimited by streets and other hot, hard surfaces can be 10–16C warmer than a plant in a protected, green area backyard (Freeman III 1993). Irrigate use fast climbs with increasing temperatures, and consequently must water application volumes.
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• Soil state Water used by plants is stored in the soil. Soil category, depth, and condition influence how a great deal of water is able to be stored in the soil, and as a result how frequently we could need to water (Mulcahy and Schroen 1993). Soils that have more clay grasp more water and can be irrigated less regularly. Sandy soils hold moderately modest water and need irrigation that is more regular. • Plants Species a number of plant species need no supplementary irrigation once recognized, whereas others will do poorly without reliable irrigation throughout the summer. • Plants age A newly planted need more frequent irrigation than an established tree because its root system is more incomplete. • Root injure A recognized plant that suffers root defeat or injure require supplementary irrigation until new roots mature to restore those that are damaged. • Plant roots configuration Plant root systems consist of big permanent roots and smaller, brief, adsorbing roots. The great, woody tree roots and their primary twigs increase in size and cultivate horizontally. Root functions consist of water and mineral conduction, food and water storage, and anchorage. • Water quality It is necessary to make analyze of irrigation water quality periodically, and credit NO3-N in water to crop requirements.
7.5 The Efficient Process of Plants Watering Plants always lose water to the environment. With irrigation systems that bring precisely the right quantity of water at the exact time to plants, we are able to be assured of environmentally sound and efficient results. Water is the single most preventive essential resource for plant endurance and growth. The competence irrigation system offers consistent options and affordable technology for water conservation and efficient water distribution to protect landscaping investments. Irrigation can greatly assist in maintaining tree health during droughts—both during the growing season or during the dormant season. Plants can be elderly and expensive. If these plants are damaged or missing to drought, the reparation of green area will be difficult and expensive. Plants should be zoned apart from turf and other landscape plants. Careful tuning of irrigation systems are needed to prevent over-watering plants. Ideally, irrigation should automatically begin when soil moisture reaches some critical measure determined by a moisture probe. Manually is the most excellent ways to water plants are by soaker hose or trickle drip irrigation which you turn on and off. Sprinklers are less efficient for applying water to plants than soaker hoses or drip irrigation, but are easy to use. Even a green area hose, stimulated frequently, can give a good soil soaking. Utilize a light organic mulch to save moisture and relate water over the top of the mulch. Concentrate the water at the base of the trunk can lead to pest problems.
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Deep watering a tree with a pipe or wand stuck into the soil 30–60 cm is not as excellent for plants as surface applications. Most of the plant’s absorbing roots are in the top foot of soil (Hanley 1992). Applying water deeper than this level misses the active roots and allows water to drain away from the roots, wasting efforts and water. Apply water across the soil surface and let it soak into the soil. The time irrigations to individual crop need to eliminate needless applications. Estimate the date of the last irrigation of the season to ensure the soil profile is largely exhausted by crop harvest. Placement of harvest irrigation must be limited to assemble the needs of specific operations. Minimize deep percolation below the crop root zone on sprinkler-irrigated grounds by applying water according to crop evapotranspiration and soil moisture standing.
7.6 Irrigation Scheduling Irrigation scheduling is the procedure through which an irrigator determines the timing and quantity of water to be applied to the crop. Irrigation scheduling uses chosen water management strategy to avoid the over-application of water while maximizing net return. To avoid excess of or under watering, it is essential to be acquainted with how much water is available to the plant, and how competently the plant can employ it. The challenge is to estimate crop water requirements for different growth stages and climatic conditions. Experienced producers are acquainted with how long it takes them to acquire water across their grounds and are capable in avoiding crop stress throughout years of regular rainfall. The complexity lies in applying only sufficient water to fill the efficient root region without unnecessary profound percolation or run-off. Plants have to be watered once or twice a week in the growing season if there is no rainfall in that demanding week. The mainly excellent time to water is at night from 10 pm to 8 am. Plants reduce water deficits over the night time hours. Watering at night allows efficient utilize of practical water and less evaporative loss, assuring more water moves into the soil and to the plant (Cornish 1990). A nighttime request hour, when dew attends does not get bigger the foliage-wetting period for understory plants. This watering sequence minimizes nuisance troubles. The next best time to water is when plants are dry and evaporation latent is not at its daily peak. This watering period is late afternoons. It is necessary to permit useful water to dry-off of plants surfaces before the twilight dew appears. This dry opening between watering and atmospheric reduction helps minimize pests, which need longer wetting periods. This is particularly critical where grass surrounds a plant. Soil moisture is able to be deliberate as a suction or volume of water. This suggestion is valid to how much force a plant can use on the soil to take out the amount of water it needs for growth. Soil moisture suction can be used as a gauge of plant stress and for that motive; it is a useful instrument for growers to use in scheduling their irrigations.
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7.7 Irrigation Systems Competent for Biophilic Architecture There are various types of irrigation systems differ in how the water obtained from the source is spread within the grassland. However, we can select tow experienced irrigation systems which can be used successful in watering green area of biophilic architecture. Those are drip irrigation system and sprinkler irrigation system. However, for selection an optimal irrigates system we must recognize that speaking sprinkler systems consume far more water than drippers (James 1988). Not only do they have greater flows and consequently require larger supply pipes and pumps, they are also more inefficient as the water droplets be inclined to evaporate when thrown into the air.
7.7.1 Drip Irrigation System (Microirrigation) To cover extra region below irrigation system, it has become necessary to bring in a new irrigation techniques drip and sprinkler irrigation systems by using of water, to increase the productivity per unit of water. Drip irrigation or microirrigation, (sometimes called trickle irrigation) that works by applying water slowly, directly to the soil. This method minimizes the use of water and fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of plants, either onto the soil surface or directly onto the root zone, through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters. It is the most competent technique of irrigating (Bosch 1992). The high performance of a drip irrigation system comes in essential from two principal factors. The first is the water immerses into the soil before it can evaporate or get away. The second is that the water which is applied just where it is needed, (at the plant’s roots) rather than sprayed everywhere. Drip irrigation systems are easy and beautiful forgiving of faults in design and installation, there are some guidelines that if followed, will make for a much improved drip system (Ravina 1997). Modern drip irrigation has arguably become the world’s most valued innovation in agriculture since the invention of the impact sprinkler in the 1930s, which replaced flood irrigation. The system become more popular for row crop irrigation, especially in areas where water supplies are limited or recycled water is used for irrigation. It plays a big role in this equation as it allows you to save not only water, but precious time and energy as well. The majority big drip irrigation systems utilize some type of filter to stop clogging of the small emitter flow path by small waterborne particles (Sheen Zar). Microsprayers emit water from an orifice onto a deflector plate and produce a fan category of water distribution prototype with fine water droplets. A type of drip system used in market and high class landscapes called ‘‘hard-piped’’ uses hidden PVC pipe rather than poly drip tubing. The PVC pipe is installed underground and a pipe goes to each plant place, so it takes a lot of pipe. At each plant, the emitters
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are installed above ground on short poly tubes called ‘‘risers’’. Hard pipe systems can be attractive luxurious owing. For optimal operation of the system, we need 1 to 2 emitters per plant, depending on the size of the plant. Trees and large shrubs may need more. Obviously, using two allows for a backup if one clogs up (which happens now and then, even on the best designed and maintained drip systems.) In general, fan-jets have executed well when used for directional sprays and confined area applications. The addition of determining vanes (spokes) to the deflection area creates watercourses of water, which are less vulnerable to distortion, and result in spoke-shaped request patterns (Edstrom 1998). Water conduct and filtration are essential to ensure sustained operation of any microirrigation device. It is not wise for homeowners to consider injecting any treatment chemical into their system for maintenance or cleaning. Drip tape or tubing must be managed to avoid leaking or plugging (Fig. 7.1). Drip emitters are easily plugged by silt or other particles not filtered out of the irrigation water. The measurement lengthwise of drip tube could not exceed 60 m (2000 ) from the point the water enters the tube to the end of the tube. Thus, you could have 120 m (4000 ) of tube if the water entered the tube in the middle (that would be 60 m from the point the water enters the tube to the end of the tube in each direction, which would be okay (Camp 1993)). A well-designed drip irrigation system loses practically no water to run-off, deep percolation, or evaporation. Drip irrigation reduces water contact with crop leaves, stems, and fruit. Thus, conditions may be less favorable for the onset of diseases. Irrigation scheduling can be managed precisely to meet crop demands, holding the promise of increased yield and quality.
Fig. 7.1 Drip irrigation system (Source: Wikipedia web)
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7.7.1.1 The system Components and Operation Variable for Biophilic Architecture Model (Sanders 2007) I. Water Source A. Surface (pond, river, creek) B. Well C. Municipal II. Pumping System A. Electric powered pump B. Gas or diesel driven pumps C. Gravity system III. Distribution System A. Permanent 1. Underground mainlines a. Pipe—PVC plastic or polyethylene plastic b. Hydrants—attachment point for manifold lines c. Drainage valves—important for maintenance of system B. Annual 1. Above ground mainline a. Pipe (1) (2) (3) (4)
Vinyl lay flat hose Polyethylene plastic PVC plastic Aluminum
b. Fittings (1) Hydrants (2) Air relief valves (3) Solenoid valves IV. Filtration System A. Primary filters 1. Media type—for use with surface or wells 2. Screen type—some wells and community water systems or secondary for ponds 3. Sand separators—remove sand from well and surface water 4. Disk core—use as secondary filter for ponds B. Secondary filter—screen type
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C. Holding/settling ponds—pump from wells to holding or settling ponds in cases where quantity of water may be limiting or a great amount of particulate matter may be present in the water source. V. Injection Units-Chemicals/Fertilizer A. B. C. D. E.
Electric powered pump Water powered pump Venturi Water siphon devices Considerations 1. Fertilizers a. Must be completely soluble b. Compatibility of the materials 2. Water treatment a. Chlorine (Bleach, HTH) b. Acids (phosphoric, sulfuric) 3. Pesticides—consult your county extension agent
VI. Systems of controls1 A. Pressure regulators B. Flow control valves C. Pressure gauges 1. Line gauges 2. Portable check gauges D. Air relief valves E. Water meters 1. Flow meters 2. Totalizing meters F. Soil moisture measuring devices (tensiometers or soil blocks) G. Rain gauge H. Daily water records VII. Zone Controls A. Hand valves B. Electric valves (controlled by timer) C. Volumetric valves (shuts off when a volume of water is applied)
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Important: Install injector ahead of primary filters and after back flow prevention device.
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VIII. Miscellaneous A. B. C. D.
Time clocks Computer controllers Radio control devices Master computer controller
IX. In-field Delivery System A. Feeder tubes (1/4 or 3/8 inches, depending on length of rows) B. Row laterals 1. Line source tubes—most row crops2 a. Water emission distances—20, 30, 44 cm, etc. b. Flow rates (gal per 100 ft per hour) 2. Point sources/emitters—fruit, nursery, and greenhouse crops a. Types: (1) Pre-spaced (2) Plug-in b. Emission rates—1.75, 3,7 and 7,4 l/h 3. Pressure (up to 50 psi) compensating emitters3 a. Types: (1) Pre-spaced (2) Plug-in b. Water quality maintenance (flushing) (1) Manifold ends (2) Row laterals 7.7.1.2 Advantage/Disadvantages of Drip Irrigation System Drip irrigation is the slow and precise delivery of irrigation water just where the plants need it at the roots. The advantages and disadvantages of drip irrigation are as follows.
2 3
Note: lower pressures associated with line source systems (3–10 psi). Note: higher pressures associated with point source systems (10–20 psi).
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Advantages The advantages of drip irrigation are: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Improved fertilizer and pesticide management Improved double cropping opportunities Improved farming operations and management Allow safe use of recycled water Minimize soil erosion. Decreased energy costs Lower labor cost Ability to irregular irrigates shaped fields System integrity issues Operate at lower pressure than other types of pressurized irrigation, reducing energy costs Better weed control High uniform of water distribution in which be controlled by output of each nozzle Design flexibility Moisture within the root zone can be maintained at field capacity System longevity Improved plant health Soil type plays less important role in frequency of irrigation Less pest damage Water efficiency and conservation Less water quality hazards Improved opportunities for use of degraded waters Greater water application uniformity Enhanced plant growth, crop yield, and quality.
Disadvantages These disadvantages also may be subdivided along the lines of water and soil issues, cropping and cultural practices, and system infrastructure issues (Muhammad and Claude 1983). The most disadvantages of drip irrigation are: • • • • • • •
Reduced upward water movement Initial cost can be extra than in the clouds systems Smaller wetting pattern The sun can have an effect on the tubes used for drip irrigation Monitoring and evaluating irrigation events Soil/Application rate interactions Drip tape causes extra cleanup costs after harvest. You will need to plan for drip tape winding, disposal, recycling, or reuse
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• Less tillage options • Waste of water, time, and harvest, if not installed properly. Restricted plant root development • Line spacing and crop turning round issues • High request efficiency frequently results in a failure to meet (Salinity). The leaching requirement • Plant growth issues.
7.7.2 Sprinkler Irrigation System Sprinkler irrigation is a way of applying irrigation water, which is similar to rainfall. Water is distributed through a system of pipes frequently by pumping. It is sprayed into the air and irrigated entire soil surface through spray heads so that it breaks up into small water drops, which fall to the ground. Irrigation sprinklers are used in biophilic architecture concept in excess of green areas in different places of the architectural spaces to water crops, lawns, gardens, or other plants in the event of drought (Burt and Styles 2007). The system can be used also for recreation or as a cooling system. Sprinklers provide efficient coverage for diminutive to large areas and are fitting for employ on all categories of properties. It is also adaptable to nearly all irrigable soils since sprinklers are available in a wide variety of discharge capacity. Irrigation must be scheduled when fields are dry enough to retain all of the applied liquid within the root zone. If soils are too wet throughout irrigation, some of the applied wastewater may run-off the field or leach below the root zone and become unavailable to the crop. These unused nutrients could contaminate surface or ground water supplies (North Carolina State University). Determining when and how much wastewater to apply for the prevailing conditions is referred to as irrigation scheduling. The irrigation systems are ordinary in the painting and have enabled users to expediently irrigate large areas with little effort. The most ordinary category of sprinkler irrigation system at present in use is a pressurized fluid distribution system. These systems characteristically utilize a wide network of fluid release means feeding fluid to a plurality of sprinkler heads deliberately spaced or located about or within an area to be irrigated. While these systems have provided an important advantage over physical or even less developed irrigation techniques, there motionless exist several intrinsic deficiencies in these traditional systems, especially in light of the significant advances made in the computer and technology industries. First, these systems are expensive to install. Several parts of system have to be acquired, such as pipes, sprinkler heads, equipment, nozzles, valves, etc. All of these parts have to be fit jointly according to a master plan, which is very expensive and work intensive. In addition these systems are expensive to operate. Not only are they expensive to install, but they
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are also not very healthy or durable over long periods and frequently require repairs and significant upkeep. Moreover, these systems tend to provide large amounts of coverage overlap, which ultimately leads to waste and increased costs for normal everyday operation. Third, it is difficult to cover target areas without multiple sprinkler heads. If a rainfall event occurs on a day on which stationary sprinkler irrigation is required, the events are assumed to have identical starting times. Thus, the rainfall and irrigation hydrographs are combined. For an irrigation event with a duration less than or equal to the duration of rainfall, the model first disaggregates the rainfall into 10 intensity-duration blocks of equal volume. If the sprinkler system is for a new installation, we must ensure the region soil examination maps to make certain that the soils in the field are irrigable and we should have a readily available source of water near the green area.
7.7.2.1 Sprinkler Types There are two types based on the manner in which it be used to manage the water to the soil. Spray-type sprinklers are the category of sprinkler which sprays a unchanging water pattern alike to how a showerhead mechanism. Rotor-type sprinklers employ a rotating stream of water to manage the water to the ground. Spray-type sprinklers are normally utilized for the lesser areas. Rotor-type sprinklers are utilized for larger areas.
Spray Type Spray heads are most normally used on small green building areas; turf, shrubs or flower beds. There are heads intended to spray in all different patterns—depending on the area to be watered. The most common spray patterns are full, half and quarter circles. Some heads are adjustable to a wide variety of angles. In addition to circle patterns, spray heads can also spray rectangle (Stringham and Keller 1979). The system put out a lot of water in a short amount of time. This means they have a high application rate. There is a large range of precipitation rates for different types and brands, but the average output is 3.25–3.75 cm per hour. It works fine on flat green areas and with soils that can absorb the water rapidly. If spray heads are used on steep slopes or with a clay soil, the watering times should be cycled to allow the water to infiltrate into the soil instead of running off onto the street.
Rotor Type They are practical to cover large areas, and characteristically be relevant water more consistently than spray type. The water pressure at the rotor inlet and the
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nozzle used determines the radius of a rotor-type sprinkler. Most rotors come with several nozzles. Rotors can spray in complete or part circle patterns, and some brands are adjustable to a wide variety of angles. The application rate of a rotor is usually lower than that of a spray head. Typical values are 1.5–2 cm per hour. This slower output allows them to be used on all soil types with less cycling. More nozzles give us better control and helps avoid over-watered areas. For a standard rotor you need to use a different nozzle for each arc, so you need one size nozzle for a 1/4 circle, another for 1/2 circle, another for 3/4, and another for full circle. Therefore, for even a simple sprinkler system you need at least 3–4 different nozzle sizes (Tom Scherer 2005). If we also need different radius distances, we will likely require even more nozzles. With stream rotors, we do not to use diverse nozzles for each different arc, so they do not come with multiple nozzles. A big problem with all of the rotors is that they do not perform as well in actual use as the manufacturer’s performance data tables suggest. The problem is that the radius the manufacturer measures on their indoor test range is not accurate out in the real world where the wind blows. The suitability of a variety of irrigation methods, i.e., surface, sprinkler depends mainly on the following factors: • • • • • •
Natural surroundings Kind of crop Kind of technology Previous experience with irrigation Necessary labor inputs Costs and benefits.
The irrigated area purpose includes two large categories: existing irrigation systems—those systems installed earlier than the guidelines were finalized—and new or expanded irrigation systems. The irrigated land for new or expanded systems should be based on typical irrigation plan guidelines, which are based on the effective design area. The expression expanded irrigation system applies to new irrigation mechanism that wet an area of a field that was not wetted before acceptance of the new strategy (Fig. 7.2). Existing irrigation systems—for motionless sprinkler systems intended and installed in harmony with standard overlap recommendations (sprinkler spacing between 50 and 70% of verified wetted diameter) and laid out with several overlapping laterals, the irrigated area grant is the entire ‘‘net wetted area’’ in the ground. Obviously these overlap areas cannot be counted twice, hence the term ‘‘net’’ is used. The sprinkler spacing is represented by the inscribed rectangle. For a stationary sprinkler system, two sprinkler designations within the field affect determination of irrigated acreage. • Interior sprinklers • Exterior sprinklers. An interior sprinkler is any sprinkler that receives overlap on all sides. For a rectangular spacing within the recommended spacing range (less than 70% of
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Fig. 7.2 Wetting pattern for a single sprinkler
wetted diameter), an interior sprinkler receives overlap from eight adjacent sprinklers, although only four sprinklers contribute significant overlap. For stationary sprinkler systems arranged in a single lateral pattern, the net wetted area should be computed based on 90% of the wetted diameter. The outer portion that does not overlap with an adjacent sprinkler is not included for reasons explained in the next section. For any system in which the lateral spacing exceeds 70% of the wetted diameter, each lateral should be treated as a ‘‘single lateral’’ case. If sprinkler spacing along the lateral also exceeds 70% of wetted diameter, each sprinkler should be treated as a single sprinkler case (Stationary sprinkler).
7.7.2.2 Operating Sprinkler Systems The main objective of a sprinkler system is to apply water as uniformly as possible to fill the root zone of the crop with water. A sprinkler system can be collected of individual or several sprinklers (Fig. 7.3). In systems that employ many sprinklers, the sprinklers are emotionally involved to a tube at a programmed spacing in order to realize a uniform submission quantity. When selecting a sprinkler system, the most vital physical parameters to consider are: • • • •
The The The The
form and dimension of the green areas landscape of the ground local microclimate amount of time and labor required to operate the system.
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Fig. 7.3 Relative position of interior and exterior sprinklers
7.7.2.3 Wetting Patterns The wetting pattern from a single rotary sprinkler is uniform. It is essential that the water is applied at a rate that will allow uniform wetting of the root zone. Normally the area wetted is circular. The heaviest wetting is close to the sprinkler. For good uniformity, several sprinklers must be operated close together so that their patterns overlap. The soil type will determine the pattern of wetting. The depth of the wetting pattern is increased relative to the width due to lateral movement. This is particularly the case in sandy soils where, at high rates of application movement due to gravity is comparatively more significant than that due to capillarity. The two extremes of clay and sandy soils with show quite different wetting patterns. Clay based soils will provide broader shallower wetting patterns. For good uniformity the overlap should be at least 65% of the wetted diameter. This determines the maximum spacing between sprinklers (Berg 1980). The uniformity of sprinkler applications can be affected by wind and water pressure. Spray from sprinklers is easily blown about by even a gentle breeze and this can seriously reduce uniformity. To reduce the effects of wind the sprinklers can be positioned more closely together. Sprinklers will only work well at the right in service pressure optional by the producer.
7.7.2.4 Application Rate The function rate depends on the dimension of sprinkler nozzles, the operating pressure and the distance between sprinklers. At what time we select a sprinkler system it is vital to create sure that the typical application rate is less than the basic infiltration speed of the soil (Aarstad 1981). In this means, all the water applied will be willingly absorbed by the soil and there should be no overflow.
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7.7.2.5 Sprinkler Drop Sizes A sprinkler system has to be designed to apply water uniformly without run-off or erosion. As water sprays from a sprinkler it breaks up into small drops between 0.5 and 4.0 mm in size. The small drops fall close to the sprinkler while the better ones fall close to the rim of the wetted circle. Large drops can damage delicate crops and soils and so in such conditions it is best to employ the lesser sprinklers. Drop size is also controlled by pressure and nozzle size. When the pressure is low, drops tend to be much larger as the water jet does not break up easily.
References Aarstad JS, Miller DE (1981) Effects of small amounts of residue on furrow irrigation. Soil Sci Soc Am J 45:115–130 Alam M, Dumler T (2002) Using subsurface drip irrigation for alfalfa. In: Proceedings of the Central Plains Irrigation Shortcourse, 5–6 Feb 2002, Lamar, CO, CPIA, 760 N. Thompson, Colby, Kansas, pp 105–109 Bakker M et al (1999) Multiple uses of water in irrigated areas: a case study from Sri Lanka. SWIM Paper. International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka Berg RD, Carter DL (1980) Furrow erosion and sediment losses on irrigated cropland. J Soil Water Conserv 35(6):264–273 Blass S (1973) Water in strife and action (Hebrew). Massada limited, Israel Bosch DJ et al (1992) An economic comparison of subsurface microirrigation and center pivot sprinkler irrigation. J Prod Agric 5(4):430–439 Burt CM, Styles SW (2007) Drip and micro irrigation design and management for trees, vines and field crops, 3rd edn. Irrigation and Training Research Center Press, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA Camp CR et al (1993) Microirrigation management for double-cropped vegetables in a humid area. Trans ASAE 36(6):1639–1644 Cornish J et al (1990) Irrigation for profit—water force Victoria. Irrigation Society of Australia, Numurkah, Victoria Edstrom JP, Schwankl LJ (1998) Weed suppression in almond orchards using subsurface drip irrigation. In: Abstract for 1998 Weed Science Meetings. Field Crops, 3rd edn, Irrigation Training and Research Center, pp 35–36 Freeman AM III (1993) The measurement of environment and resources values: theory and methods. Resources for the future, Washington, DC Gibben DC (1986) The economic value of water. Resources for the future, Washington, DC Hanley N, Splash CL (1995) Cost-benefit analysis and the environment. Elgar Publishing, Brookfield, VT James LG (1988) Principles of farm irrigation system design. Wiley, New York Mony DC (1970) Climate, soils and vegetation. University Tutorial Press, London, UK, p 176 Muhammad I, Claude H (1983) Irrigation, 5th edn. Irrigation Association, Arlington, Virginia Mulcahy S, Schroen J (1993) Irrigation and drainage—reference manual. Department of Agriculture Melbourne, Vic. Record number AU9530021, Australia North Carolina State University, Irrigation System. http://www.bae.ncsu.edu/programs/extension/ evans/irr-cal/ag-553-6.pdf. Accessed 13 June 2009 Ravina I et al (1997) Control of clogging in drip irrigation with stored reclaimed municipal effluent. Agric Water Manage 33:127–137
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Sanders DC (1993) Vegetable crop irrigation. Extension Horticultural Specialist Department of Horticultural Science, North Carolina State University 9/93, Author Reviewed 8/97 HIL-33E. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-33-e.html. Accessed 01 July 2009 Sanders DC (2007) Drip or trickle irrigation systems, Revised 1/01, Author Reviewed 1/01 HIL-33-A. College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, North Carolina State University. Extension Horticultural Specialist. http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/hil-33-a.html. Accessed 01 July 2009 Scherer T (2005) Selecting a sprinkler irrigation system, AE-91 (Revised), August 2005 Sheen Zar, Agricultural Trading Co. Ltd. http://www.sheenzar.com/?pageID=47. Accessed 08 Aug 2009 Stationary sprinkler, Irrigation system, Irrigated Acreage Determination Procedures for Wastewater Application Equipment, North Carolina State University. http://www.bae.ncsu. edu/programs/extension/evans/irr-cal/ag-553-6.pdf. Accessed 16 Dec 2008 Stringham GE, Keller J (1979) Surge flow for automatic irrigation. In: Proceedings of 1977 irrigation and drainage specialty conference, ASCE, Albuquerque, New Mexico, pp 10 Wikipedia web. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drip_irrigation. Accessed 15 Sept 2009 Williams J (2007) Managing water for weed control in rice. UC Davis, Department of Plant Sciences. Retrieved on 2007-03-14
Chapter 8
Green Areas in Biophilic Architecture
8.1 Introduction Green areas are the most important visual associations between land, buildings and the sky; the most prominent of all plant life, and without their presence, our townscapes would be naked. A sense of continuity is given by old green area and they remain well-known marker when unneeded buildings, hedgerows and path make way for new developments. The retention of existing green areas will obviously help to create an immediate settled landscape to a new shelter estate and they are much more likely to survive the impact of young people’s activities. Most green areas will take a number of years to reach maturity so that new planting will look sparse and Lilliputian for a number of years. Nevertheless, new planting must be carried out to ensure the continuity of green life into the future. The irregular shape of green areas, their color and texture, is a necessary complement to the inorganic nature of building. Our modern lives seem to be dominated by conflicts of one kind or another, and on the particular subject of trees, it is the pressure on land and the rise of consumer power that is placing the professional adviser and his love of green areas in some difficulty.
8.2 Clime and Earth Climate 8.2.1 Why is it Winter, Spring, Summer, Autumn? Because the slopes of the earth’s axis takes on his tour of the sun does not go from pole to pole, but is tilted relative to the poles. One side will be farther from the sun (in winter), while the opposite pole will be closer and more directly oriented towards the sun (in summer). In cold climate zones, winter sunshine will be for less time, and the beams will fall much inclined to the ground. This is evident in
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Fig. 8.1 Earth climates map (source: Thrower (1970))
nature and can be simply illustrated by an architect’s lamp sun, a small ball earth and a knitting needle axis (Fig. 8.1). Climate is the weather conditions at a location over a long period and is described using statistical information calculated based on meteorological observations over a sufficiently long period to prevent extreme weather situations from significantly influencing the result. The climatic regions of the world can be divided in many ways, and in varying degrees of detail (Randall Thomas 1997). • The hot climatic zone covers a broad belt around the equator stretching as far as about 30N and S. This is often called the tropical climatic zone and covers the areas where the average temperature for all the months exceeds 18C. • The temperate climatic zone borders onto the hot climatic zone and its demarcation to the north and south is approximately at the Arctic and Antarctic Circles (66330 ). This climatic zone has marked differences between the seasons. In summer, the western sides of the continents between latitudes 30 and 40N and S are under the influence of high-pressure areas over the adjacent oceans, resulting in a dry, warm climate. The winters, on the other hand, are wetter. This type of climate (often called a Mediterranean climate).
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• The cold climatic zone is characterized by cool, light summers and cold, dark winters; most areas have little precipitation. The border to the temperate climatic zone is placed where the average temperature of the warmest month is less than 10C. This zone is identical to the ‘‘arctic and alpine climate’’.
8.3 Clime, Plants and Environment Condition In the world, macroclimatic factors such as light, temperature, moisture, protective snow cover, wind and various soil conditions are predominantly essential. These environmental factors influence the categories of plants that are able to grow, reproduce and other life processes of the individual plants. This may, for instance, concern competition from other plants and the influence of grazing and human disturbance. In their natural environment, plants are exposed to the influence of a vast array of environmental factors and every species has a tolerance range for each of them. In one case, this range may be broad, i.e., the factor in question is able to vary substantially without having a limiting effect. For another environmental factor, the tolerance range may be narrow and only small variations can be tolerated. In such situations, the factor for which the species has the narrowest tolerance range will usually be the limiting factor. Species that are very tolerant to variations in environmental conditions will be capable of being common in many types of ecosystems and will be widely distributed. Other species place very strict demands on the environment and are found in few localities, or within a limited geographical area. To be able to gain a better understanding of the regional variations in the flora and vegetation, it is significant to know the extent to which some environmental factors vary both in global distributions and regional variations. A vegetation type consists of a number of species, which have their environmental requirements met within a specific area. Species with narrow tolerance limits for specific environmental factors can be used as indicator species for certain vegetation types (Randall Thomas 1997). The information, which the vegetation types can give, about the environmental conditions in an area depends upon how well we know the environmental requirements of the individual species, and also what we know about the ecological interactions in nature. For plants representing the winter a challenge: why sleep mode? Problem for the plant is actually the hazard of drying out, since in the winter less moisture available. If all the leaves were in full bloom, large quantities of water would evaporate from them and many would be damaged by frost. Most trees lose leaves, but new buds are already formed in the autumn that are protected against freezing during winter and drying by various types of bud scales as in beech, ash and chestnut. Some trees are evergreen and therefore have mostly small, round leaves and/or wax covers to reduce evaporation, e.g., spruce trees, ivy and privet. The mechanism is an adaptation to winter.
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8.4 The Green Areas Perception Today modern architecture may practically be said to have won its first fights all over the world, but in very few of them has it had any assistance from landscape architecture. Even now, one sees many great modern buildings whose setting is an incongruous medley of dwarf walls, crazy paving, and all the tricks of the Edwardian landscape gardener; and everywhere one can find housing, architecturally sound, but spoilt by a complete absence of any understanding of what can and what cannot be done with the space between buildings. This is the more unfortunate because modern architecture needs the landscape architect. One of the best qualities of the modern movement is its increasing awareness of the connection between the space within building and the space around them, and of the interdependence of building and green areas. Across nearly half of the world’s land surface, the original vegetation is forest. In places, it is easy to tell that forest is the natural vegetation because the landscape is still covered by it. However, there are many other parts of the world that are presently almost treeless and could not support forest, even before human interference. This is because the climate is simply unsuitable for a dense tree cover. To have forest one needs two things: enough warmth and enough water. Below a certain threshold of temperature or water availability, the only plants that can survive are low shrubs or herbaceous plants. Climate on the large scale, across, brings about the broad-scale distribution of vegetation types. However, even looking at the world much more locally, we see that there are also very substantial differences in the average climate. For example, a south-facing slope has a different climate from a north-facing one (Adams 2007). Plants and other vegetations have an important role to play in site layouts because of their amenity value and effect of tempering the wind. They can also provide some control of summer-time solar gain to avoid excessive temperatures at a cost of a wintertime loss of passive solar gain and a year-round loss of light.
8.5 Green Area and Architectural Framework No architectural concept is complete without green areas. Exclusive of soil such growth media to grow plants or vegetations, without water to encourage them, and without the wildlife attracted by the sustenance thus offered, an architectural element has not the fully rounded totality of a factual architecture. Green areas inside and outside the architectural element also require to be implicit more in terms of ecology as an interface between us and the natural world. Therefore, biophilic architecture comes into sight as human requirement. At a time when an architectural element is viewed as an ecosystem, it is obvious that biophilic architecture can play a vital role in creating a healthy indoor environment. Moreover, when we are deprived of this wealthy and natural world of
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delicately changing light, colors, and scents, as well as the unusual sounds of wind through leaves and the visual indicators of the changing seasons, we are diminished. Children growing up in an environment without close and caring contact with nature, run the risk of being ignorant of the need to protect and enjoy the natural world, not only for their own sake and that of their families, but also for their children’s children (David Pearson 2004). Plants are extremely fundamental to our existence; it is the green plants which absorb energy resulting from sunlight and synthesize the organic material that is essential for all life. The plant cover is made up of numerous individual kinds of vascular plants (trees, shrubs, herbs, grasses and ferns—often called higher plants) and cryptogams (mosses, lichens, algae and fungi—often called lower plants). The species are not scattered in a fortuitous manner; rather, they live together under specific environmental conditions. Woodlands, mires, freshwater sites, salt marshes and alpine ridges, all have their own typical environmental conditions and species.
8.6 Plants and Local Microclimate The effect of a shelter belt of trees on wind speed can extend across the field as far as 20–30 times the height of the plants (Adams 2007). Microclimates are caused by local differences in the quantity of heat or water received or attentive near the surface. Such local differences make up what are known as microclimates. Microclimates help to provide details part of the irregularity in vegetation that occurs on smaller scales; they decide which plants can grow where. A local microclimate can be different from its surroundings by receiving supplementary energy; consequently, it is modestly warmer than its surroundings. On the other hand, if it is shaded it could be cooler on average, because it does not acquire the direct heating of the sun (Fig. 8.2).
Fig. 8.2 Trees shade morphologic in correspondence to world climate specific
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Humidity may vary: damper when water accumulates, or drier when there is little water. In addition, the wind velocity may be diverse; affecting the temperature and humidity because wind tends to eliminate heat and water vapor. They are also essential in understanding how so many diverse species of plants coexist, without being out-competed by one strong species. Essentially, there are two main reasons why climate varies from place to place: • First, the amount of energy arriving from the sun. • Second, the circulation of the atmosphere and oceans, which take heat and moisture from one place to another. One of the major factors determining the relative warmth of a climate is the angle of the sun in the sky (Adams 2007) (Fig. 8.3). Local microclimates can clarify certain facial appearance of growth shape, leaf shape and physiology of plants. All these influences go into ‘‘making’’ the microclimate. It is amazing how hot the surface of a temperate or tropical forest canopy can turn out to be on a sunny summer’s day, with leaf temperatures exceeding 45C. In tropical rainforests, although it is cloudy and humid for most of the time, a small number of sunny hours are sufficient to dry out the air at the top of the canopy and actually bake the leaves. Both the canopy and the understory microclimates present their own separate challenges, and the plants require adaptations to meet these. In the cooler forest understory, out of the direct sun, overheating is not a problem and leaves can grow bigger than at the top of the canopy. Many of the types of plants that grow down near the floor of the forest have large plate-like leaves 30 cm or more across; undivided leaves this size is hardly ever seen up in the forest canopy (Adams 2007). The plants that exist on the forest floor—at low light scales, milder temperatures and higher humidity—are specialized to a microclimate made for them by the canopy trees that absorb most of the sunlight. Their photosynthetic chemistry is specialized to low light levels and they cannot cope with direct sunlight. The leaves at the top of a tree also build the microclimate for the leaves below them. Even on the same plant, leaves that are out in full sunlight develop slightly differently from those in the shaded branches down below. The sun leaves are thicker with more layers of photosynthetic cells packed in, to take advantage of the
Fig. 8.3 Trees form in correspondence to earth climate
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abundant light. The wind velocity tends to be at its smallest in the lower part of the canopy where the high density of leaves blocks movement of air. The light scales are so low that it can be difficult to get a good photo without using a flash. In this twilight, photosynthesis can only be carried out slowly, and there is just a sparse layer of plants on the forest floor, many of them barely making a living. The sun angle creates the divergence in general between temperatures at different latitudes of the earth; it makes an important difference on a local scale too. If a slope is angled towards the sun when the sun is near to the ground in the sky, it obtains supplementary of a full beam and so the surface temperature of soil or leaves will be warmer (Mony 1970). On a slope that is in the wrong direction relative to the sun, much of the day is spent in shadow or being sunlit at an angle, so it will be colder than if it had been on the flat. The same factors, which affect microclimates, counting the plants themselves, translate into larger effects on the heat balance and moisture balance of the earth’s surface. In many respects, the macroclimate (over hundreds of kilometers) is the sum total of all the microclimates across broad areas. For example, the local effect of a boreal forest canopy heating up in the sun because it has shed the snow from its branches can make a great difference to regional climate if it occurs on a broad enough scale. When individual leaf in a rainforest canopy evaporates water and cools itself, this contributes to the heat balance of the whole tree and the whole forest. In its own tiny way, it also ultimately helps to affect the distribution of heat. Consequently, any changes in the average shape of leaves, or size of trees, or the amount of bare ground around the world could all add up to a globally modify the climate (Adams 2007). For every plant, there are certain maximum and minimum temperature restrictions for typical growth, and restrictions beyond which the plant cannot stay alive. Within these restrictions dishonesty an additional variety of temperatures, which most favorable for plant growth? A given temperature has different effects on a plant depending on its condition of development: whether they give flowers first or fruit when exposed to those situations, for example. A plant’s response to night temperatures may have considerable bearing on its geographical position or distribution. In flowering phase a lot of plants are responsible for themselves. At the same time they have a high sensitive to the environment temperature in different day-hours, where they may not be able to replicate successfully when temperatures are determinedly high (Mony 1970). Perceptibly, it is essential to choose a plant that is flexible in the fit zone. Occasionally, in a particularly sheltered mark, we may be smart to use plants that are a half-zone tendered. However, this should be well documented before you risk specifying a plant outside of hardiness zone. Part of site assessment should be to evaluate what plant species and cultivars are currently doing well in the area to be designed. In places where summer heat can be intense, it is even more important to evaluate plant performance in the area being considered for planting. Green area environments, where there is much reflected and reradiated heat, are areas where drought tolerance and heat tolerance of plant material should be among the foremost selection criteria (Headley and Bassuk 1991).
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It is in these places where inadequate soil volume has the most detrimental effect on tree growth and longevity. Sun and shade patterns can also play a significant role in selecting plants for the local microclimate. At least 4–6 h a day of direct sunlight is necessary for most plant tree growth. Some smaller trees will tolerate partial shade. Many shrubs and grasses will tolerate or even prefer shaded conditions. The tree has always been a cultural symbol. The best time to begin a tree form is in late winter before spring growth begins. It is easiest to start a tree form from a 1-year-old plant, but you can also use older, mature plants. Select 1–3 of the most vigorous growing trunks or upright branches (depending on the number of main trunks desired) and prune all other upright (vertical) branches to ground level. There are many shrub species that can develop into tree form like; Aralia, Buxus, Callicarpa, Camellia, Choisya, Dracaena, Elaeagnus, Erica, Fuchsia, Garrya, Haithisus, Mespilus, Olearia, Philadelephus, Photinia, etc., are also involved. Not only in relation to the other creatures in nature, but also for our own sake, particularly in relation to civilized beings, we could begin to understand the whole nature with respect. The fact that we live, give us a principle equally shared with other living creatures, where the birth, death or lifeless mode is a common incident among all creatures. Internal external spaces can be structured to create unity of interior and exterior spaces. Building and garden usually do not arise together and seldom at the same time. Mostly a building is build first and the garden made around it, but if there was a garden first, little of it remains undisturbed by the time the building is build. House–building is always a drastic intervention into an existing order, if not for the biological society of weeds which covers and protects the earth. The layout of the building requires a planner, that of the garden also. Often the representatives of these two entwined disciplines do not meet, or come together too late, when they can but tolerate each other. It would be better if they met to discuss and decide every detail before the first sod was broken. Best of all, the planning of building in its garden should be a mutual undertaking (Birksted 1999). It is the last which affects most people most of the time and wherein now lays the greatest danger to our total landscape scenery. In visual terms, existing green areas help to screen or restrict undesirable views, enlarge the landscape scale by diffusing green area boundaries, and relate to other green areas on adjoining land. Neighbors can also be sensitive to the removal of existing green areas particularly when they have relied on yours for privacy and pleasure rather than wasting their own for such bulky objects.
8.7 Green Areas, Biophilic Architecture and Seasons Impact Besides improving the microclimate and the indoor climate, the retention of rainwater is another important advantage. Scientific knowledge on green areas is still limited to temperate climate, due to a development, which took place in north
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Europe. The optimized green areas are described in the following words: a green leaf area which is 5–10 times higher than one of a green park is a much more effective and economic means to create better climatic living conditions in cities. Any plant selected should, of course, be suited ecologically to the site. Architect can then consider, for deciduous plants, how long they are in leaf and how transparent they are to solar radiation, both in leaf and bare providing a selection of such data. Thus, if we choose an elm for our tree and locate it so that it will block out 85% of the Sun’s radiation when in leaf in the summer (i.e., 15% transparency), it will still block out 35% during the winter. Depending on the design, this can be a strong argument for less permanent solar shades (Randall Thomas 1997). Besides this advantage for the microclimate of cities, there is more positive effect for the user of buildings with green areas. The most interesting facts are: the cooling effect in summer, the warming effect in winter and the increase of lifespan for the roof (Almusaed 2004). The functions of green roofs on different seasons are as following;
8.7.1 In the Summer Cooling effect in the summer is a result mostly of evaporation and shading effect of the green area, but also by its capacity to reflect solar radiation and the energy consumption through photosynthesis and heat storage by its embedded water (Almusaed 2004). A surface of plant life reduces the strong thermal radiation that normally occurs on the black surfaces usually used in cities. By extending the insulating properties of the waterproof layer, green areas can decrease energy consumption in hot urban environments considerably. Because the leaf surface of plants is evaporative, a major quantity of the sun’s radiation on a green roof is put to work evaporating the moisture in the plant. The larger the full amount of leaf area on a green area, the greater this natural cooling effect (Almusaed 2007). Although trees and shrubs in green area provide greater cooling than ground covers, they also need greater soil depths, imposing higher loads on the roof deck. Structural load limitations will ultimately determine how much energy decrease is potential. The heat transmission through a green area outside to inside can be reduced by more than 90% through green areas. The green area is more effectual in dropping heat gain in the spring and summer than heat loss in the fall and winter. This is because the green area can diminish heat gain through shading, insulation, evapotranspiration and thermal mass. However, it can reduce heat loss only through improved insulation and by decreased radiation heat losses. This is effective on summer evenings, but not in winter when the growing medium is frozen and the improved insulation and decreased radiation heat loss effects were dominated by snow coverage (Liu and Baskaran 2003). Through the daily dew and evaporation cycle, plants on vertical and horizontal surfaces are able to cool cities during hot summer months. In the process of
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evapotranspiration, plants use heat energy from their surroundings (approximately 592 kcal/l water) when evaporating water. One square meter of foliage can evaporate over 0.5 l of water on a hot day and on an annual basis, the same area can evaporate up to 700 l of water (Green roofs web 2008).
8.7.2 In the Winter Heating effect in the winter comes generally from the thermal insulation effect of the air pillow within the vegetation and the truth that the cold wind does not hit the earth surface. If the vegetation is forming a thick layer like a fur, it increases the thermal insulation effect of the roof effectively. Some minor effects are the thermal mass of the earth layer, the reflection of infrared radiation from the house by the plants and the heat production if dew is formed in the morning (the condensation of 1 g water releases 530 cals of heat). The experiment revealed that, if the air temperature reached -11C, the earth temperature was only -2C, and if the air temperature reached -14C, the temperature underneath 16 cm of earth was only 0C. At the same time, the temperature over the earth that is to say underneath the grass was about -3C at the lowest (Almusaed 2006).
References Adams J (2007) Vegetation–climate interaction, Springer in association with Praxis Publication, New Jersey, USA, pp 198–245 Almusaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Aarhus, Denmark, pp 204 Almusaed A (2006) Biophilic architecture: towards a new potential of healthy architecture, rethinking sustainable construction. In: 12th Rinker international conference, next generation green buildings, Sarasota, FL, USA Almusaed A (2007) Saleable passive house (marketing activities in the context of passive sustainable principles), building low energy cooling and advanced ventilation technologies the 21st century. In: PALENC, the 28th AIVC conference, Crete Island, Greece Birksted J (1999) Relation architecture to landscape, E& FN SPON, London, pp 179 Green roofs, green roofs benefits (2008) http://www.greenroofproducts.com. Accessed 12 May 2008 Headley DB, Bassuk NL (1991) Effect of time of application of sodium chloride in the dormant season on selected tree species. J Environ Hortic 9(3):130–136 Liu K, Baskaran B (2003) Thermal performance of green roofs through field evaluation. In: Proceedings for the first North American green roof infrastructure conference, awards and trade show, Chicago, IL, 29–30 May, 2003, pp 1–10 Mony DC (1970) Climate, soils and vegetation. University Tutorial Press, London, p 176 Pearson D (2004) The Gaia natural house book, creating a healthy and ecologically sound home, Gaia Books Limited, UK, pp 258–273 Thomas R (1997) Environmental design. E& FN SPON, London Thrower NJW (ed) (1970) Man’s domain: thematic atlas of the world. McGraw–Hill
Chapter 9
Climate Change and Human Health (The Challenges and Remediation Act)
9.1 Introduction Global climate is an explanation of the climate of a planet as a total, with all the regional differences averaged. In general, global climate depends on the sum of energy received by the Sun and the amount of energy that is trapped in the system. These amounts are different for different planets. Scientists who study Earth’s climate and climate change study the factors that affect the climate of our whole planet. Today, climates are changing. The exterior energy stability is the ensuing of radiative mechanisms such as incoming and outgoing short-wave and long-wave radiation, and also non-radiative components such as sensible heating, latent heating, and the change in energy storage in water or substrate on land. The climate where you live is called regional climate. The climate of a regional (macroclimate) depends on many factors including the amount of sunlight it receives, its height above sea level, the form of the ground, and how close it is to oceans, and green areas on the earth surfaces. Since the equator receives more sunlight than the poles, climate varies depending on distance from the equator.
9.2 What is Global Climate Change? The objective answer for this question refers to the variation in the Earth’s global climate or in regional climates over time. It describes changes in the variability or regular state of the atmosphere over time scales ranging from decades to millions of years. It explains the full extent of the implications of the greenhouse effect. At the same time as the average temperature of the Earth may increase, it is the changes in the Earth’s climate systems that will be most dramatic. Global climate change is reasoned by the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the lower atmosphere. The global concentration of these gases is increasing, mostly unpaid to
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human activities, such as the combustion of fossil fuels (which release carbon dioxide) and deforestation (because forests remove carbon from the atmosphere), cities extending and wrong consumption of our natural resources. Extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, cyclones and frosts may affect areas previously unaffected or strike with increased frequency. Rising sea levels may affect rainfall patterns, soil erosion and local ecosystems. Many precedent human societies have been strongly affected by climate change and it is impractical to explore the longterm destiny of past cultures and civilizations without recognizing this. The nature of social organization, its flexibility, and adaptive capacity are critical in determining the success or otherwise of human responses to any external stresses. Global climate change, which is found, is not explained by the influence of the sun but the sun’s activity could lead to a human-induced climate change become more damaging if it is climate change due to increased insulation, which depends on the ratio of the sun. There are indications that certain elements, including clouds over the northern hemisphere and the air brakes on global warming, and if these factors changed, the global warming could be even faster. Removal of carbon dioxide and - indirectly, because of global warming - including the expulsion of methane and other gases, increase the greenhouse effect that prevents heat radiation from the land and ocean surface to disappear from the earth to the universe. Human societies in excess of the ages have depleted natural resources and tainted their local environments. Populations have also modified their local climates by cutting down trees or building cities. It is now apparent that human activities are perturbing the climate system at the global scale. Climate change is likely to have wide-ranging and potentially serious health consequences. Some health impacts will result from direct-acting effects (e.g., heat wave-related deaths, weather disasters); others will result from disturbances to complex ecological processes. The sun influences earth’s climate. What is new is that the changes predictable to occur as quickly that nature will have more than tricky to keep up. When the climate revolves out to be warmer, we have to remain for that some species will get it too hot for us, but could flourish further north (McMichael and Haines 1997). Biologists to assess a species must be clever to spread at least 2 km a year to remain up with the expected changes in climate. It is possibly easy sufficient for most birds and other flying animals, but for many of the animals who cannot fly and most of our plants will exceeds the increase for example, have looked after the previous Ice Age. A large number of events within the animal and plant species, and changes in physical systems in nature surrounded by the last 20 years points strongly toward the environment is concerning to change. It ends that the UN Climate Change, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), in the second of its three reports on climate change, published every 5 years. Representatives from over 100 countries agreed in Geneva a summary for policymakers. The summary that was posted on the web point to melting glaciers, thawing of permafrost, later freezing and earlier autumn thaw in the spring, extending the growing season in middle and high latitudes, shifting the polarity of the spread of certain plants and animals reduction in populations of some plants, earlier flushing in some plant species.
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9.3 Climate Change in History Earth’s climate has been changing for billions of years. It warmed and cooled several times extensive before humans were around. There were not any people on earth millions and billions of years ago to explain what climate was similar to, but the Earth reserved proceedings of past climates in unique habits. Sediments and fossils deposited millions of years back make available an evidence of ancient environments (Watson et al. 1996). Skinny layers of mire and sand that appearance at the base of lakes evidence seasonal changes. Foam of ancient air attentive inside glaciers record what the atmosphere was like (Fig. 9.1). Tree trinkets demonstrate what climate was similar to every year of a tree’s life. Regarding 2 million years ago, the proto human lines of the genus Homo, which gave rise to Homo sapiens, appear in the fossil record. As they evolved, a remarkable decrease in global temperatures around 900,000 years ago initiated a fairly regular pattern of repeated ice ages that each last around 100,000 years, but alternate with shorter, warmer eras of 8,000–40,000 years. Within this cycle, the last ice age ended around 18,000 years ago, except for the Younger–Drays event
Fig. 9.1 Shows how total climate has changed during the time [Source: a part from PALEOMAP project (2008)]
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that abruptly returned the earth to ice age-like temperatures for only around 200 years (Vanderheiden 2008). During the last 2 billion years, the Earth’s climate has exchanged between a frigid ‘‘Ice House’’, like today’s world, and a sweltering ‘‘Hot House’’, like the world of the dinosaurs. The Ice Age was tens of thousands of years in the past, however, and it had been an aberration. During most of the geological record, the Earth had been bathed in uniform warmth, such was the fixed opinion of geologists. The glacial epoch it seemed to have been a relatively stable condition that lasted millions of years. It was a surprise when evidence turned up, around the end of the nineteenth century, that the recent glacial epoch had been made up of several cycles of advance and retreat of ice sheets, not a uniform Ice Age but a series of ice ages. The study revealed that the chief oscillation of temperatures had come around 12,000 years ago. The changes had been rapid, where ‘‘rapid’’ for climate scientists at mid-century, meant a change that progressed over as little as 1 or 2,000 years. Most scientists believed such a shift had to be a local circumstance, not a world-wide phenomenon. There were no data to drive them to any other conclusion, for it was impossible to correlate sequences of verves (or anything else) between different continents. That would only become possible when radiocarbon dating overcame the many inaccuracies and uncertainties that beset the technique in its early years. The current model for Holocene climate history is that a wide array of different paleoclimatic records indicates that there have been significant changes in summer and winter temperature, seasonality, and precipitation in the past 11,500 years (IPCC 2007). Some of these changes have been gradual over millennia; others have been very rapid and have occurred at centennial or even decadal scales. Paleoclimatic records from high latitudes suggest that in these areas the major changes have been in temperature and in seasonality. Records from low latitudes suggest that there have been major changes in precipitation and in the overall hydrologic regime. There appears to have been climate variability at a wide range of temporal scales. In addition, there appears to have been considerable spatial variability in climate change, particularly in moisture. The relative importance of external forcing factors, such as orbital forcing, solar variability, and volcanic activity, and the complex interactions between these factors and their impacts on the Earth’s climate system and its circulation and climate models are not fully understood (Bradley 2003; Bradley et al. 2003; Labeyrie et al. 2002; Oldfield 2005). The role of human activities in determining vegetation cover and land-use and in influencing Holocene climate remains unsettled.
9.4 The Human Challenges on Climate Change Climate change is by far the biggest challenge that humanity has ever faced.
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9.4.1 What can we do to Meet the Challenge? The plants responding to climate change. Manmade climate change is no longer amazing that climate scientists are debating the existence of, but rather how severe they are likely to be, and what implications they may have. In just a few hundred years, humanity has dramatically increased the atmospheric content of CO2 by burning ever-greater quantities of coal, oil and gas. The trend is always faster and so far, all attempts to prevent a looming disaster for the world failed. We discuss, therefore, no longer on our huge releases of carbon dioxide affect the climate, but how much the temperature rise over the last several decades, due to our emissions, and how much these emissions will affect climate for the next 100 years. Global climate change offers a unique case study for observers from a variety of backgrounds, both scholarly and otherwise, since it presents what most can agree are a set of problems that cut across a wide range of disciplines. Climate change leads to more cases of extreme heat, extreme storms, extreme droughts, extreme floods, extreme precipitation and more frequent cases of the phenomenon known as El Niño, which involves changing sea surface temperatures in the Pacific and the resulting climatic changes in a belt all the way around the middle of the Earth. Some islands are threatened by higher water levels because the higher temperature will have oceans to expand, and because higher temperature moves fresh water (including ice) to the oceans. Nature has already responded to climate change. This applies to both animals and plants. Geography fields moved, growing seasons are upset, propagation times have changed. Some organisms are better able to move or change than others. Trees can, for example. Not just change the site. This means that creating an imbalance in ecological systems. The oceans are also affected. Warmer seas and increased contribution of carbon dioxide in seawater is important for water temperature and its acidity. This could have huge implications, and some changes have already happened. Some species, for instance have changed their distribution area. Aggregations, not only can move, are particularly vulnerable. Both on land and at sea there is a risk of extinction because of global climate change. Climate change challenges our existing political institutions, ethical theories, and ways of conceptualizing the human relationship with the environment. It defies current principles of distribution, transcends current discourses on rights, and disrupts the sense of place on which our connections to the world. We desperately need to think more clearly, about how best to understand the social and political obstacles to fair and effective global climate policy the obstacles that are at the root of the current international climate policy impasse and the conceptual tools of political theory can assist in this regard (Amjad Al-musaed 1998). Climate change is shaping and will continue to shape the political, economic, and cultural landscape as much as the biophysical landscape throughout this century. Alongside scientific information and technological innovation, we also need normative analyses in relation to the political and ethical implications of
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climate change. As with other forms of change, we need to think about the distributive impacts of such change: • Who are the winners and losers? • What are the appropriate forms of justice (ecological, global, social, and intergenerational) we need to deploy to help us think through the ethical dimensions of climate change? • What sort of societies and economies can ‘‘best fit’’ and adapt to climate change? The global climate change is at the present faster than the previous has happened, except maybe the catastrophic extinction periods, where 60–90% of earth’s life extinct at different periods in earth’s history. Global warming poses the risk of heat by the Gulf Stream Ocean currents may change or cease. The ice in Antarctica, Greenland and the high mountains is melting and there is evidence that this happens. Global warming could lead to difficulties in finding fresh water in many places in the world. Possibilities for irrigation may be impaired. Soil may be liable to suffer water stress (Fig. 9.2). Rising temperatures will promote the degradation rate of dying algae and oxygen in the water and thus will quickly cause oxygen depletion. The threat may be reduced by reducing the discharge of nutrients more than what would otherwise be considered necessary to achieve a good status. Rising temperatures will lead to worse conditions for species that prefer cold water and change in population size of a single species can cause significant changes for a number of other species in the entire ecological system. Increased precipitation in winter will cause an increase in leaching of nutrients from agricultural land and open waters. As mentioned under ‘‘Marin nutrient load will result in more nutrients cloudy water, worse conditions for eelgrass and other bottom plants, and greater risk of oxygen depletion. Climate change will shape not only the physical, but also the intellectual
Fig. 9.2 The world climate change (Source: Richard et al. 2008)
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landscape of the twenty-first century, and green/environmental theorists will point the way in sketching out the contours of this new terrain for others to follow. In dissimilarity, discusses the press and large sections of the population is whether there is anything to worry about. But it took probably also true about 100 years before Darwin’s evolution theory was generally accepted only in the Western world, and many hundreds of years before people accept that the Earth is round. Since it is less than 20 years ago, manmade climate change was recognized in a larger circle, is actually climate challenge in record time become a top priority in international politics. Climate change currently contributes to the worldwide burden of disease and premature deaths (very high confidence). Human beings are bare to climate change through changing weather prototypes (temperature, precipitation, sea-level rise and more frequent extreme events) and indirectly through changes in water, air and food quality and changes in ecosystems, agriculture, industry and settlements and the economy. At this early stage, the effects are diminutive but are projected to progressively make stronger in all countries and provinces. Future climate changes may have considerable effects on the hydrologic cycle and temperature, with significant consequences for sea level, food production, world economy, health, and biodiversity.
9.4.2 How and why Does the Natural Climate System Vary on Decadal to Millennial Time-Scales? Do we sufficiently understand natural climate change, and what is the relative meaning of natural processes versus human activities in clearing up the global warming of the last few decades? How much of the recent warming is induced by natural (solar, volcanic) rather than anthropogenic forcing?
9.5 Global Climate Change, Desertification and Green Areas Misplaced Desertification is the unrelenting degradation of dry land ecosystems by differences in climate and human activities. One input judgment is that future climate change could critically undermine efforts for sustainable development in hot climate regions. In exacting, climate change could add to existing problems of desertification, water scarcity and food production, while also introducing new threats to human health, ecosystems and national economies of countries. The most serious impacts are likely to be felt in North African and eastern Mediterranean countries. Vegetation is such a vital element of the climate system that in this replica, counting the vegetation was the simple method to clarify what happened in the past. Looking at the past climate offers a reasonable very possibly
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Fig. 9.3 The global and continental temperature change (Source: IPCC 2007)
the simply method to analysis models, which have to be accurate if they are leaving to forecast future climate changes. For a moment during the past 6,000 years, the southern border of the Sahara desert moved 500 km south, making the desert a much larger portion of northern Africa. The Sahara, the largest desert in the world, covers all of North Africa, from the Atlantic coast to the Red Sea (Cochran and Brown 1978) (Fig. 9.3). Across the world, desertification affects the livelihoods of millions of people who rely on the benefits that dry land ecosystems can provide. In dry lands, water scarcity limits the production of crops, forage, wood, and other services ecosystems provide to humans (Sidny Draggan and Galal Hassan 2008). Dry lands are, therefore, highly vulnerable to increases in human pressures and climatic variability, especially sub-Saharan and Central Asian dry lands. If existing drifts in emissions of greenhouse gases go on, global temperatures are expected to rise quicker over the next century than in excess of any time throughout the previous 10,000 years. Important uncertainties enclose predictions of local climate changes, but it is possible that the hot climate areas will also warm considerably (Bunyavanich et al. 2003). On a global scale, there is increasing evidence that climate is changing and of a discernible human influence. The high natural variability of the hot climate makes both the detection of climate change and attribution of its cause very difficult. Nevertheless, observations suggest that climate may already be changing in the region. Many of the environmental impacts of past human activities are mediated through changes in land-use/cover. These impacts include feedbacks into the climate system, both directly and by means of changes in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. Future climate change could critically undermine efforts for
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sustainable development in the hot climate regions through its impacts on the environment and social and economic well-being. While in many respects climate change exacerbates existing problems rather than creates new ones, the sheer magnitude of the potential problem means it cannot be ignored. It is likely that the first impacts of climate change will be felt in the Mediterranean water resource system. Some water supplies could become unusable due to the penetration of salt water into rivers and coastal aquifers as sea level rises. Water pollution, already a major health hazard in the region, would become still worse as pollutants become more concentrated with reductions in river flow.
9.6 Climate Change Impacts upon General Human Life and Health Climate change is of immense meaning to the health care which will be provided by health professionals in coming years. Health contains physical, social and psychological well being. Inhabitant’s health is a main objective of sustainable development. Human beings are bare to climate change from side to side changing weather patterns (for example more intense and recurrent extreme events) and indirectly though changes in water, air, food quality and quantity, ecosystems, agriculture, livelihoods and infrastructure. People need to know how our changing climate will affect the health of our community and there is a significant role for health professionals to raise awareness in this area. To evaluate the potential impacts of climate change on health, it is essential to consider both the sympathy and susceptibility of populations for definite health outcomes to changes in temperature, rainfall, humidity, storminess, and so on. Susceptibility is a function both of the changes to exposure in climate and of the aptitude to adapt to that exposure. A study by scientists at the World Health Organization in 2003, found that 160,000 people die every year from side-effects of global warming, such as increased rates of death resulting from a range of causes from malaria to malnutrition, predicting that the number world double by 2020. Diseases spread by animals such as rats (Bunyavanich et al. 2003). Climate change will introduce three different types of health impact: • Direct impacts through death and injury from heat waves, storms, floods and drought. • Indirect impacts through the occurrence of health conditions exacerbated by changing weather conditions, e.g., respiratory diseases exacerbated by atmospheric pollution, or ensuing outbreaks of disease, such as typhoid, cholera, etc., related to climate events such as floods, etc. • Migratory impacts resulting from the movement of sources of infection resulting from the Diaspora of diseases via various carriers with warming climates, e.g., malaria and trypanosome.
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The direct health impacts of climate change we see all around us on a regular basis, including deaths resulting from fires, floods and drought (Roaf et al. 2005). These direct, indirect and migratory impacts can cause death, disability and suffering. Unwell health increases vulnerability and decreases the capacity of individuals and groups to adapt to climate change. Populations with high rates of disease and debility cope less successfully with stresses of all kinds, including those related to climate change. Climate change currently contributes to the worldwide burden of disease and premature deaths (very high confidence). Human beings are exposed to climate change through changing weather patterns (temperature, precipitation, sea-level rise and more frequent extreme events) and indirectly through changes in water, air and food quality and changes in ecosystems, agriculture, industry and settlements and the economy. At this early phase, the effects are small but are projected to progressively amplify in all countries and regions. It is vital to differentiate between climate and health relations and weather and health relations. Climate unpredictability happens on many time scales. Weather proceedings take place at daily time scale and are linked with many health impacts (e.g., heat waves and floods). Climate variability at other time scales also has an effect on health. In exacting, the El Niño Southern Oscillation has been revealed to influence inters annual unpredictability in malaria, dengue, and other mosquito-borne diseases. Climate change is the long-standing change in the normal weather situation for a particular site. Climate change will become apparent as a change in annual, seasonal, or monthly means. Thus, incremental climate change will be placed over upon the natural unpredictability of climate in time and space.
9.6.1 Natural Disasters Human-induced climate change is moving prototypes of excessive weather crossways the globe, consequential in higher risk of humanitarian disasters. This is particularly factual in areas where there previously are high levels of human susceptibility concludes a new report entitled Humanitarian Implications of Climate Change. Ninety percent of disaster victims worldwide live in developing countries, where scarcity and population pressures power growing numbers of people to live in evils way on flood plains and on unbalanced hillsides. As the devastating impact of recent natural disasters such as hurricane Katrina indicates, humankind is vulnerable to extreme weather events even in wealthy nations. Clearly, such extreme events have always been part of life; however, with the likelihood of anthropogenic global climate change being a phenomenon already underway, there is the prospect that ‘acts of God’ may in fact be getting a little help. Climate change is predicted to have a range of serious consequences, some of which will have impact over the longer term, like spread of disease and sea level rise, while some have immediately obvious impacts, such as intense rain and flooding. While recognizing the importance of the other predicted consequences of
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climate change, this report focuses on this second category: the ‘extreme weather events’ responsible for natural disasters. They include (Jason and Camilla 2006): • • • •
Extreme temperature highs—heat waves Storms, including windstorms, hurricanes, etc. High levels of precipitation, and associated flooding Lack of precipitation, and associated drought
Given observed changes in average climate indicators like global average surface temperature, there must still be a link established to changes in specific extreme events like hurricanes and floods. This is highly complex, both in terms of understanding the physical processes at work, and because extremes are by nature rare, with or without climate change, and make data difficult to gather and compare.
9.6.2 Water Quantity and Quality Affected on Climate Change Clean fresh water is essential to life. Modifying in temperature, precipitation patterns and snowmelt can have impacts on water availability. Higher water temperatures and changes in the timing, intensity, and duration of precipitation can influence water quality. All counties of the world show a generally net negative impact of climate change on water resources and freshwater ecosystems. Areas in which runoff is projected to decline are likely to face a reduction in the value of the services offered by water resources. Higher temperatures reduce dissolved oxygen levels, which can have an effect on aquatic life. Where stream flow and lake levels fall, there will be less dilution of pollutants; however, greater than before frequency and intensity of rainfall will create more pollution and sedimentation due to runoff (IPCC 2007). In addition to the characteristic impacts on water running, climate change introduces an additional element of uncertainty concerning, future water resource management. The beneficial impacts of increased annual runoff in other areas are likely to be tempered in some areas by negative effects of increased precipitation unpredictability and seasonal runoff moves on water provide water quality and flood risks (IPCC 2007). Evaluating these impacts is challenging because water accessibility, quality and watercourse flow are sensitive to changes in temperature and precipitation. Supplementary vital factors comprise greater than before demand for water caused by inhabitant’s growth, changes in the economy, progress of new technologies, changes in watershed characteristics and water management choices. Climate change may also reduce the water available for drinking and washing. Reductions in water availability would hit southern Mediterranean countries the hardest. In Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, Syria, Malta and the Lebanon, water availability already falls below, or approaches 1,000 m3/person per year, the common benchmark for water scarcity (Cochran and Brown 1978). Even
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relatively well-endowed countries, such as Spain, Greece and Italy, could suffer ever-more frequent regional water shortages due to the twin problems of climate change and rising demand (Jacqueline Karas 2007). Crete, for example, could experience serious water shortages in 5 out of 6 years by 2010. Saving water will remain water in streams and assist to sustain healthy watersheds. We can all show the way by example and decrease our water footprint, encouraging others to create similar promises.
9.6.3 Air Quality Impacts The air is complete of particles and gases that could have an effect on human health, such as pollen, fungal spores, and pollutants from fossil fuel emissions. Air pollution is previously a growing health difficulty in numerous cities, including all worlds, mainly because of increasing traffic levels, and will get not as good as in large urban areas under circumstances of climate change. There are many well documented unpleasant health belongings of air pollution counting cardiac and respiratory disease. What is fewer well identified is that increased temperatures may interrelate with air pollution to complex these illnesses. Earth level ozone, which is probable to increase with increasing temperatures, might guide to increasing occurrence of asthma (Bunyavanich et al. 2003). An American research establishes that by the 2050s, climate change could be accountable for a 4% increase in the deaths related to ozone, one type of air pollution, in the New York area (Ebi and Paulson 2007). Current studies demonstrate that relatively small increases in urban air pollution can activate an increased number of potentially deadly heart attacks in people with vulnerable arteries. Climate change is predictable to supply to some air quality evils (IPCC 2007). Respiratory chaos’s may be intensified by warming-induced amplifies in the frequency of pollution (ground-level ozone) actions and practical air pollution. Ground-level ozone can injure lung tissue, and is especially damaging for those with asthma and other chronic lung diseases. Sunlight and high temperatures, combined with other pollutants such as nitrogen oxides and volatile organic mixes, can cause ground-level ozone to amplify. Climate change could amplify the concentration of ground-level ozone, except the magnitude of the effect is uncertain. Intended for other pollutants, the effects of climate change and/or weather are not as much of well studied and results differ by region (IPCC 2007). Air pollution has an effect on the local and universal climate both directly and indirectly. Ozone in the lower layers of the atmosphere supplies to global warming even more than some greenhouse gases incorporated in the Kyoto Protocol, and particulate substance in the atmosphere also has important climate impacts. However, although black carbon, or soot particles, has a warming effect, other particles, for instance sulfates and nitrates, may cool the climate. Climate change, by changing pollen production, may affect
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occasioning and duration of seasonal allergies. Scientists and policy makers should no longer treat air pollution and climate change as distinct problems, because the two are very closely related. On the other hand, measures to slash black carbon emissions, for instance from diesel combustion, will have double benefits, defensive both human health locally and also the climate regionally and worldwide. An increasingly significant factor in the past few years, particularly in Southeast Asia, has been the contribution to urban air pollution of smoke from large fires experienced in countries around the globe, exacerbated by heat wave conditions (Roaf et al. 2005). Both the restricted ecological commotion grounded by the tremendous occurrence and the conditions of population dislocation and immigration would have an effect on the risk of communicable disease occurrences. Still displacement owing to long-term increasing environmental worsening, counting sea level rise, is linked with such health collisions. Future climate change could cause significant air-quality degradation by changing the dispersion rate of pollutants, the chemical environment for ozone and aerosol generation, and the strength of emissions from the biosphere, fires and dust. The sign and magnitude of these effects are highly uncertain and vary will regionally.
9.6.4 Social Impacts Climate change will affect everyone. Impacts in turn can have an effect on socio-economic development paths from side to side, for example, adaptation and alleviation. The increase in the number of immigrants and moved peoples has greater than before obviously. The tinted boxes along the top of the figure exemplify how varieties of aspects tell to the integrated appraisal structure for considering climate change. Climate change is already with us. From African farmers to Pacific islanders, vulnerable populations across the globe are already feeling the impacts. Climate change will likely have implications for the social and political stability in Middle East and North Africa in the future. The time to take action is now. Those already affected by poverty, malnutrition and disease will face displacement and new hardships. In the developed world, our industries, livelihoods and public health will face serious threats from drought, disease and extreme weather events. The issue of climate change has thrust itself into the forefront of global debate. However, while the natural science of climate change is more and more sure on what will occur to earth’s climate, the discuss on the possible social penalty of climate change for human society is motionless in its early years. Employment policies are supposed to be integrated into climate change policies to keep away from creating fences to the economic, technological and societal transformation to a low-carbon society. The future measures particularly comprise mechanisms to assist workers regulate to structural skills and create economic and social changes easier to forecast.
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9.6.5 Gardening Effects Plants, similar to humans, are creature prejudiced by the changing climate. Even in the hottest and driest places on the Earth, the garden has for all time been an vital climatic design characteristic, to improve the pleasure of life, from side to side the prosperity of color and texture, perfumes and appearance, but also a incredibly effective method of providing cooling. The original dynasties of Mesopotamia were famous for their gardens. The position selected for the Garden of Eden was probably the most beautiful mark of its type in the complete world, and the climate was then ideal. Nowhere else was there a position which could have lent itself so completely very attractive such a paradise of botanic expression (Amjad Al-musaed 1998). The Garden of Eden was placed by historians at the confluence of the Tigris and the Euphrates and the poetry of the Sumerians, living over 5,000 years ago in that region, lyrically details the beauty of the trees, and plants and flowers enjoyed at the time. Most have also heard of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and numerous will have interpret the wealthy poetry of the Persians, live tributes to the attractiveness of the gardens and their filling with ponds and watercourses set, in an prepared manner, in the immense walled domains and parks (Wiber 1979). On such a great tradition of gardening were built the Roman gardens were influenced by Egyptian, Persian, and Greek gardening techniques. Formal gardens existed in Egypt as early as 2800 BC. During the eighteenth dynasty gardening techniques in Egypt, were fully developed and beautified the homes of the wealthy. Porticos were developed to connect the home with the outdoors to created outdoor living spaces. Persian gardens developed according to the needs of the arid Arab land. Roman gardens, as one are able to perceive today in Pompeii, where numerous have been reconstructed from the archaeological proof garnered from the exposed city. Vines and fruit trees, woods, flowers, and herbs flourish, still reflecting the wall paintings around the houses (Macdougall and Jashmemski 1981). The gardens were enclosed to protect from drought and were rich and fertile in contrast to the dry and arid Persian terrain. Pleasure gardens originated from Greek farm gardens, which served the functional purpose of growing fruit. The secret of the success of gardening in some of the hottest places on Earth was by creating a microclimate fed throughout incredibly selective watering systems. The strategies and secluded from the barren deserts beyond by high walls that kept out the hot winds and sun and contained the moister micro-climate within: cold and moist air sinks, and many such gardens contain sunken sections, often covered by a canopy of trees to reduce evaporative transpiration rates and contain the coolth. The greatest achievement of an urban gardener was in Chinese Desert in (Oasis city of Turfan). There the main of the town crop, grapes, is also used such as an air conditioning system for the whole city where all the pavements and courtyards of houses in the old city are planted with vines that keep out the sun and provide a luxurious micro-climate beneath the vines. Other strategies for gardening in deserts include the planting of only drought-tolerant species (Cochran and
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Brown 1978) and of minimizing the water loss rates by very careful diurnal and seasonal strategies for planting, watering and harvesting species. Plants crossways the nation are affected by global warming. We have perhaps seen that many plants in our garden are flowering earlier. Gardeners around the world are already experiencing some of the effects, with important rainfall over the past a small number of winters and periods of summer drought having an impact on what we plant and how we preserve our gardens (Baxter et al. 2008).
References Ahlenius H (2007) Climate feedbacks. United Nations Environment Programme/GRID-Arendal. Retrieved 21 Jan 2008 Amjad A (1998) The use and abuse of the history in architecture. In: Ion Mincu architectural symposiums, 1998, Bucharest Baxter JM et al (2008) Climate change impacts annual report card 2007–2008. Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership, Lowestoft. http://www.mccip.org.uk/arc/2007/default.htm. Accessed 03 June 2009 Bradley RS (2003) Climate of the last millennium. Climate System Research Center, Department of Geosciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst. http://stephenschneider.stanford.edu/ Publications/PDF_Papers/Bradley.pdf. Accessed 12 Dec 2009 Bradley RS et al (2003) Climate in medieval time. Science 302(5644):404–405. doi: 10.1126/science.1090372 Bunyavanich S et al (2003) The impact of climate change on child health. Ambul Pediatr 3:47–67 Cochran AT, Brown J (1978) Landscape design for the Middle East. RIBA Publications, London Ebi KL, Paulson JA (2007) Climate change and children. Pediatr Clin North Am 54:213–226 IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: the physical science basis. In: Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M (eds) Contribution of Working Group I to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Jacqueline K (2007) Climate change and the Mediterranean region. http://www.greenpeace.org. Accessed 11 Jan 2009 Jason A, Camilla B (2006) Climate change and natural disasters: scientific evidence of a possible relation between recent natural disasters and climate change, after requested by the European Parliament’s Environment, Public Health and Food Safety Committee. Brief 02a Labeyrie L et al (2002) The history of climate dynamics in the Late Quaternary. In: Alverson RBK, Pedersen T (eds) Paleoclimates, global change and the future. Springer, Berlin, pp 33–62. http://www.climate.unibe.ch/*stocker/paper/labeyrie03pages.pdf. Accessed 07 Dec 2009 Macdougall EB, Jashmemski WF (1981) Ancient Roman gardens. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington McMichael AJ, Haines A (1997) Global climate change: the potential effects on health. Br Med J 315:805–809 Oldfield F (2005) Environmental change, key issues and alternative perspectives. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 121–145 Richard W et al (2008) Natural climate variability and global warming a holocene perspective. Environmental Change Research Center, University College London. Wiley, New York Roaf S et al (2005) Adapting buildings and cities for climate change. A 21st century survival guide. Architectural Press, Maryland, pp 91–94 Ruddiman W (2005) Debate over the early anthropogenic hypothesis. Real Clim. Retrieved 21 Jan 2008
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Sidny D, Galal H (2008) Desertification. www.greenfacts.org/en/desertification/index.htm. 12 May 2009 Vanderheiden S (2008) Atmospheric justice: a political theory of climate change. Oxford University Press, USA Watson R et al (1996) Climate change 1995. Impacts, adaptations, and mitigation of climate change: scientific and technical analyses. In: Second assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Welbergen JA (2008) Climate change and the effects of temperature extremes on Australian flying-foxes. Proc R Soc B 275:419–425. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1385 Wiber DN (1979) Persian gardens and gardens and garden pavilions, 2nd edn. Dumbarton Oaks, Washington
Chapter 10
The Urban Heat Island Phenomenon upon Urban Components
10.1 Introduction In a city, air temperatures are often as much as 3–4C higher than over open country (Camilloni and Barros 1997). These upper temperatures are produced by the combustion of fuels in factory, heating, and transport systems, and, additional highly, the release at night of heat which has collected throughout the day in the fabric of the city, for the bricks and concrete of the buildings act as huge storage space heaters. This consequence is compounded by air pollution that decreases nighttime terrestrial radiation, and by the low humidity, which results from the lack of vegetation. A heat island is developed during calm conditions; winds disperse heat (Anthony Nicholl Rail 2007). Partially as a result of the urban heat island (UHI) effect, monthly rainfall is about 28% greater between 30–60 km downwind of cities, compared with upwind. Heat islands can affect communities by increasing summertime peak energy demand, air conditioning costs, air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions, heat-related illness and mortality, and water quality. They can be developed on urban or rural areas. As it would be predictable, there is a minor fact regarding non-UHIs, since they typically do not correspond to a risk for the human being or the environment. In the meantime, UHIs have been abundantly addressed throughout decades in urban areas with an extensive variety of climates and landscapes (Al-musaed 2007a, b) (Fig. 10.1). The non-natural heat-absorbing materials used in massive buildings, streets, sidewalks, and other public works cause the heat island effect in cities. The reason of heat island effect is that the center of the city is warmer than the city periphery or a rural area comes down to a difference between the energy gains and losses of each region (Rebecca Jerram and Thomas Kvan 2008).
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Fig. 10.1 Urban heat island dealings
10.2 The Objective Factors of Urban Heat Island Phenomenon There are many factors that contribute in relative cities warmth: (1) The physical frameworks of the city extends unprompted; consequently, it turns out to be a major area of the city center. The green areas diminutive and take a negligible part of the city typically marginal. (2) Many fixed edifices (civil and industrial buildings) and mobile elements such as cars, public transport and another feature contributing to the warm cities that will increase the phenomenon dramatically. (3) The most important motive of this situation is that the city texture has a less water and climate is dry no rain, particularly in hot climate, so the air temperature of the superficial city’s increases produces numerous hot points. According to the NASA study, the heat island effect in urban areas can be most effectively reduced with more green space (vegetation offers moisture to cool the air). In addition, light-colored surfaces can reflect sunlight, and should be used on rooftops (Hansen et al. 2001). (4) Excessive using of solid elements with less thermal properties such as some of building materials in the front of a less using of soft materials with high thermal properties such plants amplify the phenomenon radically (Henry et al. 1989). When green areas are replaced by asphalt and concrete for roads, buildings, and other structures essential to provide accommodation—growing populations. These surfaces absorb—rather than reflect—the sun’s heat, causing surface temperatures and overall ambient temperatures to increase (Fig. 10.2). One of the essential causes of heat is the UHI phenomenon that traps heat in solid thermal mass like concrete and black roads that absorb, amass, and then re-emit this heat to the urban air at night. The replacement of vegetation by streets, buildings, and asphalt frequently guide to a greater absorption of sunlight throughout the day and a slow release of heat throughout the nighttime (Fig. 10.3).
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Fig. 10.2 Earth surface temperature through 24 h
Fig. 10.3 The thermal field interaction between buildings
Selection of building material is a key in overturning the heat island effect, for it is the dense, dark-colored structures that draw sunlight and keep it for long periods. Green roofs, with their landscaping and incorporation of natural materials, are ideal in their resistance to heat absorption. (5) Using of a very high buildings in the center of the cities increases temperature few degrees. The high buildings surrounded by many urban areas give a multiple surfaces for reflection and absorption of sunlight, increasing the efficiency with which urban areas are heated. This is called the ‘‘canyon effect’’. (6) Such in many cities undergoes of UHI phenomenon the mainly common of the top roofs buildings is a using dark colors which absorb the heat energy rapidly and emit it sluggish. (7) The UHI could also amplify cloudiness and precipitation in the city, as a thermal circulation sets up between the city and nearby area.
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10.3 The Impacts of Heat Island Phenomenon on Urban Human Life On arid climates when the sun rises, buildings roofs and asphalt road surface temperatures can rise up to 30–45C hotter than the air, while shaded or moist surfaces frequently in more rural environs remain close to air temperatures. The above situation makes a difference of temperature between the earth surfaces and cosmos space, which generates a gigantic colonization of air from the earth surface up to the space, such a resultant of this phenomenon, is a no air zone in a large scale of the city. The effect of UHI is the constant for which kinds of microclimates exist. An investigation employment by D. Parker published in journal Nature in 2004, just to experiment the UHI theory, by comparing temperature registering on calm nights with those taken on windy nights (Parker 2004). The hypothesis consist that if the UHI theory is accurate then the instruments should have evidences a greater temperature increase for calm nights than for windy ones, because wind blows excess heat away from cities and away from the measuring instruments. Increasing temperatures from UHIs, mainly during the summer, can influence a community’s environment and quality of life. Materials commonly used in urban areas, such as concrete and asphalt, have significantly different thermal bulk properties (including heat capacity and thermal conductivity) and surface radiative properties (albedo and emissivity) than the surrounding rural areas. This causes a change in the energy balance of the urban area, often leading to higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas (Thornton et al. 2002). At the same time as some impacts may be useful, such as expanding the plant growing season, the greater part of them are negative. The impacts are given below.
10.3.1 Increase Energy Consumption Higher temperatures guide to larger confidence on mechanical cooling. Air conditioning requires often rises sharply as convinced comfort thresholds are exceeded. An investigation shows that electricity demand for cooling increases 1.5–2.0% for every 0.6C increasing in air temperatures, starting from 20 to 25C, suggesting that 5–10% of community-wide demand for electricity is used to compensate for the heat island effect (Akbari 2005). The fraction of buildings using air conditioning continues to rise, especially in Middle East, south Asia, Latin America, Africa, and southern Europe. The heat island from time to time supplies the incremental amplify in discomfort that tips people from confidence on natural ventilation to mechanical cooling. UHIs increase generally electricity demand, as well as peak demand, which generally occurs in a hot summer weekday afternoons, when offices and homes are running cooling systems, lights, and appliances. During extreme heat events, which are exacerbated by UHIs, the
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Fig. 10.4 Increasing of summertime temperatures increase cooling requirements. The data is the peak load for Southern California Edison in 1988 (Akbari 2005)
resulting demand for cooling can overload systems and require a utility to institute controlled, rolling brownouts, or blackouts to avoid power outages (Fig. 10.4). Air conditioning employ normally causes hit the highest point require for electricity, therefore this tendency will also require added investment in expensive generating capacity. An increase in energy consumption also amplifies the sum of pollution emitted into the air. City surfaces with plants offer high moisture levels that cool the air when the moisture evaporates from soil and plants (Parker 2004). The influence of plants must employ eventually to keep up with the increased require in energy. Improving energy efficiency can decrease the global warming effects of carbon in the atmosphere, improving air and water quality, and encouraging sustainable development in the cities.
10.3.2 Amplify Air Pollution As illustrated above, UHIs raise order for electrical energy in summer. The upper temperatures shaped by the UHI effect are not simply uncomfortable; they also have insinuations for air pollution. Smog is shaped by photochemical reactions of pollutants in the air. These reactions are more probable to take place and strengthen higher temperatures. The consequence is a growth of smog, which can intimidate human health and injure the natural environment. Elevated of the earth temperatures can also directly increase the rate of ground-level ozone formation. The capacities of formation increase fast in the variety of 30–40C, that is, characteristic urban summer temperatures. The ground level of ozone is formed when NOx and volatile organic compounds respond in the attendance of sunlight and hot climate. The summertime impacts are particularly strong with the deterioration of air quality, for the reason that higher air temperatures increase ozone. The condition is that all other variables are identical, such as the level of forerunner emissions in the air and wind velocity and course; supplementary ground-
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level ozone will form as the environment turn out to be sunnier and hotter. The chemical reactions involved in troposphere ozone formation are a series of complex cycles in which carbon monoxide and VOCs are oxidized to water vapor and carbon dioxide. The reactions involved in this process are illustrated here with CO, but similar reactions occur for VOC as well. Oxidation begins with the reaction of CO with the hydroxyl radical. The hydrogen atom formed by this reacts rapidly with oxygen to give a peroxy radical HO2 OH þ CO ! H þ CO2 H þ O2 ! HO2 Peroxy radicals then go onto react with NO to give NO2, which photolysis to give atomic oxygen, and through reaction with oxygen a molecule of ozone: HO2 þ NO ! OH þ NO2 NO2 þ hm ! NO þ O O þ O2 ! O 3 The net effect of these reactions is: CO þ 2O2 ! CO2 þ O3 This cycle involving HOx and NOx is terminated by the reaction of OH with NO2 to form nitric acid or by the reaction of peroxy radicals with each other to form peroxides. The chemistry involving VOCs is much more complex but the same reaction of peroxy radicals oxidizing NO to NO2 is the critical step leading to ozone formation. (Thornton et al. 2002). These pollutants are destructive to human health and also conduce to multifaceted air quality problems such as the formation of ground-level ozone (smog), fine particulate matter, and acid rain. When nitric acid is dominate over the city consequently, acid rain in urban areas corrodes metallic surfaces and damages urban infrastructure, buildings, historical monuments, and plants, and also affects water bodies and soils with low alkalinity or capacity to control pH changes (Henry et al. 1989). The sluggish atmospheric circumstances of the heat wave catch pollutants in urban areas and insert the stresses of severe toxic waste to the previously dangerous stresses of hot weather, creating a health trouble of undiscovered dimensions. Air in cities contains solid particles of diverse sizes and origins. The negative effect of UHI founds place in the early morning when the sun starts to warm the city’s roofs, walls and streets, and heat starts to build up and accumulate in the city center area, causing a diversity of cyclitic convection of heat increasing and drawing the, cooler city surroundings air into this system. Typically, air would increase to the rooftop and stratify, but heat being supplementary to the system by chimneys, factories, air conditioners and cars, the air rises on top of the city. The column of air carries a freight of particles of dust and smoke. The smallest particles will drop only after they have been carried away from the rising column of
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air and out over the suburbs. Other particles will stay over the city all day. At night, the surfaces that radiate their warmth to the sky most rapidly are the streets and rooftops. If numerous of the city rooftop area are at the same height, there will be a strong tendency for a cool layer of air to be formed at that level, with cool air at the rooftops now lying below warmer air; a stable stratification is set up coupled with the dust dome which in turn has an outer, cooler layer than its inner portion. The rural and hot climates area is cooling rapidly and the city air is cooling slowly. Heat is being removed from the rural area by light winds and unobstructed radiation to the night sky. In the city, pockets (domes) of air are trapped, still receiving heat from the release of energy stored in the walls. By dawn, the city is likely to be (5–10C) higher than the surrounding desert (Andrew et al. 1979). The composition of particles is of vast concern, because they regularly absorb metals, toxic organic compounds, and gases.
10.3.3 Increased Health Risk The advanced pollution concentrations, combined with greater air temperatures, activate or make worse a range of medical difficulties, counting heat prostration, respiratory difficulties, and even cardiovascular failures. Air pollution can have an effect on the human health in numerous ways with in cooperation short-term and long-term effects. Diverse groups of persons are exaggerated by air pollution in diverse ways. Several persons are greatly more sensitive to pollutants than are others. Children and old people often suffer more from the belongings of air pollution. People with health evils such as asthma, heart, and lung disease could also suffer more when the air is polluted. In the same way, increasing of daytime temperatures, abridged nighttime cooling, and advanced air pollution levels linked with UHIs can affect human health by causal to general discomfort, respiratory difficulties, heat cramps and exhaustion, non-fatal heat stroke, and heat-related humanity. Excessive heat events or unexpected and theatrical temperature amplifies, are mainly dangerous and can effect in above-average rates of humanity. Excessively dry and hot conditions can provoke dust storms and low visibility. Droughts take place when an extended period overtakes without considerable rainfall. A heat wave combined with a drought, is a very dangerous situation. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that from 1979–2003, excessive heat exposure contributed to more than 8,000 premature deaths in the United States (Nugent 2004).
10.3.4 Impaired Water Quality UHIs also impair water quality. Rapid temperature changes in water ecosystems resultant from warm storm water runoff can be chiefly stressful, still deadly to aquatic life. Once these pollutants are in the water, they can have unwanted health and environmental impacts, such as infected fish, damaging algal blooms, and
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dangerous drinking water. High pavement and rooftop surface temperatures can heat storm water runoff. Hot asphalt road and roof surfaces transfer their surplus heat to storm water, which then drains keen on storm drains and raises water temperatures as it is free into streams, rivers, ponds, and lakes (Weng and Yang 2004). Air pollutants from human and natural sources be able to deposit back onto land and water, sometimes at huge distances from the source, and can be a vital contributor to declining water quality.
10.3.5 Increase Thermal Discomfort The UHI increases the duration and degree to which the residents will feel uncomfortably warm. High temperatures, high humidity, sunlight, and important workloads increase the probability of heat stress. Most people who are aware of the danger of heat sickness are those who work in industries, where heat is produced, or those doing work connecting important physical action during hot weather. A large amount of heat can also create workers to lose their attentiveness or become exhausted or irritable, and thus increases the possibility of accidents and injuries. Thermal discomfort depends not only on thermal conditions of the outside environment but also on those of the body. Heat discomfort is not a sickness, and symptoms comprise the reddening of the skin and amplify the worrying situation. Heat discomfort will take place long before any illness occurs. Heat trash is an early signal of possible heat stress (Almusaed 2004). It is frequently coupled with hot, humid circumstances in which skin and clothing stay damp due to un-evaporated worry. Heat rash may engage small areas of the skin or the entire trunk. Heat stress can be a serious problem in hot working environments. The core body temperature for a human must be maintained within a very narrow range, regardless of workload or adverse environmental conditions. An increase in core body temperature of 2.8C above normal can result in death. The body firstly reacts to heat by sweating and by circulating blood closer to the skin’s surface to lower the main body temperature. Acclimatization (to heat) is a process of adaptation that involves a stepwise adjustment to heat over a week or sometimes longer. An acceptable schedule for achieving acclimatization is to limit occupational heat exposure to one-third of the workday during the first and second days, one-half of the workdays during the third and fourth days, and two-thirds of the workday during the fifth and sixth days (Zhao and Kerstin 2008).
10.4 Mitigation of Heat Island Effects A long-term strategy of planting shade trees and creating of reflective buildings materials for roofs walls, and pavements can mitigate the UHI effect and help to diminish associated economic, environmental, and health-related costs. There are
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Fig. 10.5 The benefits of Mitigation Strategies (adapted from Akbari 2005)
two main strategies to diminish the UHI effects exist (Lee 1993). One introduces additional green areas into the built environment, and the other engages choosing correct building materials that reflect the sun’s rays. Both strategies diminish the UHI effect—the temperature in center cities is at 2–10 higher than in nearby rural areas. With regard to the first, plants dish up to filter carbon dioxide and other toxins. With regard to the second, using light-colored roofing material or reflective coatings lowers surrounding temperatures (Fig. 10.5). These measures may limit the frequency, duration, and strength over periods of hot weather. Strategies to reduce overheating, such as the use of cold roof and clean sidewalks, and planting trees providing shade, have many advantages. These measures are: (1) Lowering of the temperature of environment. Communities can take a many steps to lowering temperature of environment. These temperature reduction strategies include: • By means of greater, the concept of biophilic architecture, vegetated green roofs, living green walls, and planting trees and vegetation employ the evapotranspiration and evaporative-cooling procedures of vegetation on construction surfaces and integrate open green spaces. In addition, trees, shrubs, and other plants help reduce ambient air temperatures during a process known as ‘‘evapotranspiration.’’ This happens when water absorbed by vegetation evaporates off of the leaves and surrounding soil to naturally cool the surrounding air. Trees also insert oxygen to the atmosphere, break down a quantity of pollutants and diminish dust (Al-musaed 2007a, b). • It has been predictable that 300 trees can counterbalance the quantity of aerial pollution that a human being generates in a life span. 1 m2 of green areas can remove up to 2 kg of airborne particulates from the air every year, depending on foliage type.
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• Decrease the level of heat-absorbing surfaces such as paved, asphalt or concrete surfaces and amplify their permeability, where the certain that the individual built form’s configuration (size, clustering and form) does not give confidence heat-island effects (Myer 1991). The current surfaces (roofs, infrastructure, pavements, etc.) with vegetated surfaces such as green roofs or green gardens and open-network road surface or specify cool materials to decrease the heat absorption. • Using soft cool building materials and controlled to cool paving materials. Adjust current and new urban city block layouts and configurations with explain patterns, materials and surfaces that absorb a smaller amount of solar energy (Berdahl and Bretz 1997). • Increasing of the shading effects, that take place by assemblage of physical volumes, or planting trees. Planting shade trees reduces the amount of heat absorbed by buildings by directly shielding them from the sun’s rays. • To create an efficient effect, we have to employ the well reflective and high emissivity roofing material for the roof surface, or install a green roof for the roof region. Therefore, we have to increase the reflectivity of buildings surfaces such as rooftops by frequently using of light colors. Creation highly reflective roofs will keep buildings cooler and reduce energy bills. Research conducted in Florida and California indicates that buildings with highly reflective roofs require up to 40% less energy for cooling than buildings covered with darker, less reflective roofs (James 2002). Opt for roof, surface and building colors so as to decrease effects (evade black or dark colors but utilize white and light colors). • Design the roads and street canyons width, height ratios and their orientations in such a way to control the warming up and cooling processes, the thermal and visual comfort conditions, and assist in air pollution dispersal (Ken Yeang 2006). • Design the built form with the topography of the locality, to ensure that the heat-island effect does not affect the climate of the larger region surrounding the designed system and to reduce the wider impacts on people and on the surrounding natural and built environment (Ken Yeang 2006). (2) Slow thermal reactions leading to formation of ozone pollution. As a result, we require to control the traffic systems reduction, distraction, and rerouting to reduce the production of air and noise pollution, and heat discharges. For parking the optimal solution is in building vehicular parking spaces underground or as covered structured parking. Use an open-grid pavement system (with impervious surfacing such as porous concrete) for the parking-lot areas (Ken Yeang 2006). (3) Reducing the energy consumption. (4) Increase of the physical comfort and the quality of the life. The economic price of the success strategies is outweighed not merely by the cooling energy reserves, but in addition by the decrease in greenhouse gas releases, esthetic value of urban forestry, and the increased quality of human health (Hinkel
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and Kenneth 2003). These can be defined as win strategies. Mitigation of the UHI impact by increasing the employ of surfaces covered in vegetation and building materials with higher than usual reflectivity; in mixture with a strengthening of emissions decreases programs has the potential. Using top roof such climatic skin roof can help our mitigation strategy for reducing of UHI effect. A study by Singapore researchers found that such gardens reduce roof ambient temperature by 4C and that heat transfer into the rooms below is lower. A study in Tokyo shows that if the temperature in Tokyo goes down by 0.8C because of rooftop gardens, electric-bill savings equivalent to approximately $ 1.6 million per day could be achieved (Wong 2008). A significant attempt is being put into sinking fossil-fuel greenhouse gases by developing renewable energy sources and dropping carbon concentrations in the atmosphere. On the other hand, existing levels of the heattrapping gases in the atmosphere, and their longevity, propose that it is essential to decrease the quantity of heat pollution released into the atmosphere. The UHI mitigation strategies, can support to diminish direct energy utilize in buildings, and if applied on a community-wide basis, can decrease generally ambient air temperature in a specified region (Gallo and Tarpley 1996). The consequences is a decrease in criteria pollutants such as NOx from power generation, as well as decrease in the configuration of smog as more sunlight that is reflected back into the atmosphere rather than absorbed by the metropolitan landscape.
References Akbari H (2005) Energy saving potentials and air quality benefits of urban heat island mitigation. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, 19 pp, 251 K. Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses, Arkitektskole in Aarhus. Århus, Denmark, pp 176–205 Al-musaed A (2007a) Heat island effects upon the human life on the city of Basrah, building low energy cooling and advanced ventilation technologies the 21st century. In: PALENC 2007, the 28th AIVC Conference, Crete island, Greece Al-musaed A (2007b) Biophilic architecture, the concept of healthy sustainable architecture. In: The 23th conference on passive and low energy architecture, PLEA 2006, 6–8 September 2006, Geneva, Switzerland. Andrew J et al (eds) (1979) Earth integrated architecture. In: Scalise JW (ed) Arizona State University, Arizona Berdahl P, Bretz S (1997) Preliminary survey of the solar reflectance of cool roofing materials. Energy and Buildings 25(2):149–158. (Special issue on Urban Heat Islands and Cool Communities) Camilloni I, Barros V (1997) On the urban heat island effect dependence on temperature trends. Clim Change 37:665–681 Gallo KP, Tarpley JD (1996) The comparison of vegetation index and surface temperature composites for urban heat-island analysis. Int J Remote Sens 17:3071–3076 Hansen JE et al (2001) A closer look at United States and global surface temperature change. J Geophys Res 106:230–248 Henry J, Glynn Heinke G (1989) Environmental science and engineering. Prentice Hall, Eaglewood Cliffs, pp 318–325
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Hinkel KM, Kennth MH (2003) Barrow urban heat island study. Department of Geography, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati. http://www.geography.uc.edu/*kenhinke/uhi/Hinkel EA-IJOC-03.pdf Accessed 09 Sept 2009 James W (2002) Green roads, research into permeable pavers. Stormwater 3(2):48–50 Jerram R, Kvan T (2008) Liveable Melbourne. University of Melbourne, Melbourne Lee H-Y (1993) An application of NOAA AVHRR thermal data to the study or urban heat islands. Atmos Env 27B:1–13 Myer WB (1991) Urban heat island and urban health: early American perspective. Prof Geogr 43(1):38–48 Nicholl Rail A (2007) Urban thermal plumes, their possible impact on climate change, sudbury, Suffolk. Nugent O, Holmes R (ed) (2004) Primer on climate change and human health. Pollution Probe. http://www.pollutionprobe.org/Publications/Primers.htm. Accessed 15 Sept 2009 Parker DE (2004) Large-scale warming is not urban. Nature 432(7015):290. doi:10.1038/432290a. http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/cru/projects/soap/pubs/papers/jones_Nature2004.pdf. Accessed 2 Aug 2007 Rail AN (2007) Urban thermal plumes, their possible impact on climate change. Sudbury, Suffolk Thornton JA et al (2002) Ozone production rates as a function of NOx abundances and HOx production rates in the Nashville urban plume. J Geophys Res 107(D12):4146 Weng Q, Yang S (2004) Managing the adverse thermal effects of urban development in a densely populated Chinese city. J Env Manag 70:145–156 Wong NH (2008) Urban heat island effect: sinking the heat, innovation the magazine of research and technology, vol 9, no. 1. http://www.innovationmagazine.com/innovation/volumes/v3n2/ free/coverstory2.shtml. Accessed 23 Sept 2009 Yeang K (2006) A manual for ecological design. Wiley, Chichester, pp 163–168 Zhao W, Kerstin AL (2008) Preventing heat stress in agriculture. http://are.berkeley.edu/ heat/preventinginag.html
Chapter 11
The Green Areas Benefits Upon Urban Sustainability Role
11.1 Introduction Establishing plant material covering the buildings provides numerous ecological and economical benefits such as acoustical insulation benefit, thermal insulation benefit, energy saving, mitigation of the urban heat island effect, increased long life of building membranes, as well as providing a more esthetically pleasurable environment to labor and live. In addition, the clear esthetic and psychological benefits of life form surrounded by garden-like settings, common ecological and economic benefits include the recovery of green space, moderation of the urban heat island effect, enhanced storm water management, water and air purification, and a decrease in energy utilization (City of Burnsville 2006). In the following stages, we aim to describe in detail some of benefits and advantages of green areas. Numerous reimbursements can result from the adoption of green areas over the buildings and using the concept of biophilic architecture.
11.2 The Acoustical Insulation Benefit The growth media, plants, and layers of trapped air in a green area system dish up as superb sound insulators. Sound waves are absorbed, reflected or deflected. The growth media (substrate) tend to block lesser sound frequencies and the plants block upper frequencies. Tests have shown that green areas can decrease the indoor noise pollution from outdoor contributors by as much as 10 dB. A reading upon green area effects illustrates that a green area with a 12 cm growth media (substrate layer) can reduce sound by 40 dB and a 20 cm substrate layer can reduce sound by 46–50 dB (Cleveland (Topic Editor) 2008; Table 11.1). This suggests that a green area can reduce sound by 8 dB compared with a conventional building system. As a result, acoustical benefit will achieve the back
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Table 11.1 The acoustical rate in different building components (Almusaed 2004) Building components Acoustical rate (dB) Standard non vegetated walls or roofs Vegetated dry walls or roofs Vegetated wet walls or roofs
32.5 42 50
facade or the roof building by means of green areas compared with the situation with a non-vegetated roof that is frequently completed of a highly reflective material. Noise-stage diminutions can supply major benefits to constructions in noise-impacted areas, such as locations close to airports, industry buildings, or big roads. In an office, edifice below the flight path of San Francisco’s International Airport planted with a mixture of native grasses and wildflowers has concept to accomplish noise transmission reductions of up to 50 dB. This resultant shows that green area over buildings can be practical for special buildings such as airports or near airports or buildings with permanent device activity as well as for noisy discotheques. In general, it has been verified that green areas be able to insulate up to 3 dB for interior sound insulation, and up to 8 dB for reflective sound (Suter, November 1991). Careful arrangement of buildings and the utilizing of shelterbelts can also progress the acoustic aspects of a site. Decrease can vary from 1.5 to 30 dB per 100 m of shelterbelt, depending on the category of vegetation in the shelterbelt.
11.3 Thermal Insulation Benefit In the past, green areas on the roofs have been used to insulate edifices. The major and vital role of green areas on biophilic architecture is that to conserve, insulate and hold back a change of energy flux, between outside and inside. The green areas amplified the thermal performance of the green covering system and constantly lowered the heat transfer between the construction and its environment all over. For cold and temperate climate, the energy flux occurs from hot inside spaces to cold outside environment and contrary meant for hot climate. Thermal insulating green areas build up with official property values are permitted to be supplementary to the conventional thermal insulation. Due to this special build-up, the building owner saves approx. 2 l/m2 fuel oil per year. The green areas on the roofs reduced the daily energy demand due to heat flow through the roof by 83–85% in the spring/summer and 40–44% in the fall/winter, with an overall annual reduction of 66% (Maureen et al. 2006). In the past, green areas have been used to insulate buildings. Shading the exterior facade of the building envelope has been given away to be more efficient than internal insulation. Shading the external facade of the construction envelope has been revealed more efficient than internal insulation. Green areas insulate buildings by preventing heat from moving through the
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climatic skin areas. Their insulation properties can be maximized by using an increasing medium with a low soil density and high moisture comfortable and by selecting plants with a high leaf area directory. In the winter, the additional insulation supplied by the growing medium (substrate) helps to diminish the amount of energy necessary to heat the building. The amount of the energy rate savings impact is a function of (Almusaed 2008): • • • •
the size of the building, its location, the depth of the growing medium, and the type of plants and other variables.
The insulation obtainable by green roofs significantly lowers heating and cooling statements. Investigations in Canada found that the average daily energy requires conditioning the space of a building under a green area over the spring and summer was 75% less than under a conventional material (Peck and Callaghan 1999). The insulation value of the growing medium reduced as it became frozen in the winter but the expanded polystyrene drainage panel under the green area provided added insulation and enhanced the system’s energy efficiency in the winter. Depending on the category and height of the expanded polystyrene drainage, elements are reaching thermal resistance values which correspond to 4–10 cm of ordinary thermal insulation material. The thermally insulating drainage component is prepared from expanded polystyrene and has water saving pockets on the superior part with openings for ventilation, overflowed water and evaporation. Of course, the substrate and vegetation layer are as long as extra thermal insulation and energy savings. By means of insulation characteristics can be maximized by utilized a growing medium (substrate) with a low soil density and a high moisture content and by choosing plants with a high leaf area index (the big plants leaves is better). Depending on the climate zone, the achievement of a green area can permit for a diminution in the supplies for conventional insulation. This could engage in recreating a role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adapting urban areas to a prospect climate with greater incidences of deficiency and extreme heat. The attenuated temperature swing of the green area represents the decisive supplementary shield zone (Table 11.2).
Table 11.2 The plants effect on plant layers Layer Description position Top layer Mid layer Bottom layer
Plants, even dead leaf, shade the surface of the substrate without blocking the air stream 5–50 cm of substrate. The effect depends on the kind of substrate: materials with high porosity and light colors are to be preferred The drainage layer can be composed of substrate or of material with big pores to drain the water, which cannot be retained by the cavity of the substrate
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Compared to roofs composition, a conventional flat roof is only composed of a thin layer of bitumen, sometimes protected by a layer of irritate, and therefore very susceptible to damages. An uncovered membrane absorbs solar radiation throughout the day, and its compared to roofs composition, a conventional flat roof is only composed of a thin layer of bitumen, sometimes protected by a layer of irritate, and therefore very susceptible to damages. An uncovered membrane absorbs solar radiation throughout the day, and its surface temperature rises. It reradiates the absorbed heat at night, and its surface temperature drops. These daily temperature fluctuations create thermal stresses in a membrane, affecting its long-term performance and ability to defend an edifice from water infiltration. When a climatic skin covering is dry, a green layer will proceed like a simple insulation layer. However, the situation will change when the layer is frozen; in view of the fact that the air trapped in the frozen layer continues to supply insulation, the situation is similar for wet growth media (substrate). The R value of this coating is not stable, but differs with moisture happy. However, even under ideal conditions, the R value for green areas should not be predictable to go beyond 1 per inch (2.54 cm). On the other hand, while the green area is wet, the insulating value will be negligible. Both the insulation and thermal mass effects add to a ‘damping’ of the reply of the green area modifies in temperature changes in temperature. However, commonly both effects are not important at the same time. Insulation is inversely proportional to dampness content, while heat absorption (heat capacity) is proportional. Therefore, green areas continue to supply energy benefits regardless of the dampness content. Predictions of thermal energy management benefits are possible only with the assistance of building envelope analysis techniques that can integrate the: • surface energy balance, • thermal capacitance of the green roof media, and • thermal conductivity of the green roof media and roof deck. The first two processes are moisture dependent. Therefore, both climate and external factors such as irrigation must be taken into account. The rather complex composition of the green area enhances the comfort of the covering buildings significantly. Green area is more efficient in dropping heat gain than heat loss; consequently, it is more thermally effective in the summer than in the winter. Many plants have to adapt against freezing. These plants give the impression to protect their soft, sensitive growing instructions by accumulating a little basin of water in a rosette of leaves; this covers the growing tip with water that has heated up during the sunny days, protecting it from frost each night. Other plants have an internal heating. There are widespread families of plants identified as the arums containing many thousands of species, which create heat in the flowering structures by burning up sugars, to vaporize certain chemicals that attract flies to come and pollinate the flowers. The most proficient of these self-heating plants seems to be the skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus), which grows in swamps in North America, creating quite a stink with the chemicals that it evaporates. The amount of heat released by a
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skunk cabbage can raise the temperature inside its flowering head to 35C (almost as warm as the human body temperature), even when the air temperature is below freezing (Jonathan Adams 2007). The dark leaves can absorb more sunlight, which makes it leaves warmer. By making its own tissues warmer, it also contributes to the local climate, and ultimately the temperature of the whole planet. Imagine that the planet starts to cool, because the ‘‘sun’’ gets weaker for some reason. Plants will be starved of warmth, and the darker ones that can gather more heat and keep themselves warm will be favored. They will grow more vigorously and push out the cooler, lighter-colored ones. If the dark-colored plants blanket the whole surface, they will tend to make the global climate warmer, counteracting the cooling. Therefore, the planet’s temperature will adjust back up toward the point that it was at before.
11.4 Esthetical Benefit Solitary benefit frequently mentioned in sustain of green areas is esthetics greening up the scenery. In urbanism, they are capable of produce areas of green in a full and solid landscape, and in the scenery, they combine with their environs. Plants are the majority visible section of a green area, and are the main contributors to the buildings esthetic functions providing an agreeable views landscape or an environment for free time activities. It can simply supply visual interest right through the year, even in areas with very cold winters. The roofs are not evergreen in the strict sense of the word, but they do offer interest year-round (LASR-CC Team, May 2004). Plants provide people pleasing the esthetic requirements of natives looking down upon the greenly over the building from neighboring constructions (see Chap. 1, ‘‘Biophilic Architecture Hypothesis’’). Esthetic form requires, escalating the value of the possessions and the marketability of the building as a complete, mainly for accessible green areas. They are a large amount of enhanced looking than asphalt, gravel or tar, where natural views generate supplementary productive, healthy, happy, creative, relaxed populace. Such landscaping might be associated with dereliction. If people are aware of the value to fauna biodiversity, they may be grateful for the natural landscape. Green areas supply numerous opportunities for live with several variations of colors and patterns. Studies show that free time activities in natural surroundings such as garden and park are important for helping people handle with stress and meeting other non-stress-connected needs. Psychosomatic researches have shown that the restorative effect of natural view holds the viewers concentration, diverts their awareness away from themselves and from worrying thoughts thereby improving health (Almusaed 2004). Architecture is no different from any other discipline in constantly seeking absolutes and at the same time reacting from them. Architects have in their own technique required to discover the absolute. From time to time, it has seemed that spiritual ideals have been expressed in a part of architecture. Because with other
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disciplines, such absolutes have been more open to argument when the example discussed is theoretical rather than definite (Almusaed 2004). While architecture is fundamentally one of the realistic arts, a philosophical ritual has in the past run beside or from time to time ahead of the modern production of architectural elements (LASR-CC Team, May 2004). Every month there are a hundred new building materials available; everyday the experience gained in space research, marine examination or barrier building stretches the range of material further so that the choice of day to day environmental support turns out to be more vital to take in evidence in confirmation the new model of biophilic architecture. The means to building a successful biophilic architecture is identification that it requirements to satisfy from afar. Great wide brush splashes of color position out fine at substantial distance, while diminutive, complicated plant details acquire lost totally. By means of the green areas form and position over architectural concept, it can be measured by three criteria: • performance, • Identity, • economy of means. Everyone has a subconscious or usual means to be familiar with the architectural elements that are used everyday symbols of comfort, familiar functions and occasionally, visual excitement. Values of performance should not be static, but more dynamic. In this century, an explosion of technological capability resources that we can put up practically anything we desire. A much better quality life for humanity has been made possible by means of biophilic architecture. The efforts of extension on the green areas and the excessive of introduction the nature into architectural program can constitute the hybrid concept sciences of architecture today. As architecture is a social art, the value of a building must lie mostly in its potential to create environment out of human circumstances. As we have seen in other behavior, architecture that is the product of any society reflects in its form the prejudices of that society. In best terms, the architect regards his building as the personification of a social ideal. Sometimes this is the product of the accepted standard in experimental buildings. This is more often an embodiment of the new life. Therefore, we have to read all these aspects to generate the new concept of esthetic architecture by means of social and environmental factors beside the influence of form in creating the competent and efficient architecture in combination with nature. Vitruvius remarked that all such disciplines have a common bond of union and interaction with one another building was seen as an assembly of elements, just as the universe itself was defined as the general assemblage of all nature, and the creation of each entailed a necessary conformity to the simple precepts of geometry and proportion (Ching 1996). Form is a comprehensive term that has numerous meanings. It may refer to an external appearance that can be known, as that of manage or the human body that sits in it. It may also allude to an exacting condition in which amazing acts or manifests itself, as at what time we talk of water in the form of ice or vapor. In art
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and design, we frequently utilize the term to signify the formal structure of an employment the manner of arranging and coordinating the elements and parts of a composition to create a logical image. Architectural form is the point of contact between mass and space (LASR-CC Team, May 2004). Architectural forms, textures, materials, modulation of light and shade, color all combine to inject a quality or spirit that articulates space. The quality of the architecture will be resolute by the ability of the designer in using and connecting these elements, both in the interior spaces and in the spaces around architectural elements. In this context, form suggests position to both internal structure and external outline and the principle that provides unity to the whole at the same time as form frequently includes a sense of three-dimensional mass or volume, shape refers more specially to the vital aspect of form that presides over its manifestation the configuration or relative disposition of the lines or contours that define a figure or form.
References Adams J (2007) Vegetation–climate interaction. Springer in association with Praxis Publication, New Jersey, pp 13–95 Almusaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole I Aarhus, Århus, Denmark, p 165 Almusaed A (2008) Towards a zero energy house strategy fitting for south Iraq climate PLEA 2008. In: Proceedings of the 25th conference on passive and low energy architecture, Dublin, 22–24 October 2008 Ching DK (1996) Space and order. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York City of Burnsville, Minnesota (2006) Burnsville storm water retrofit study. Available at http://www.ci.burnsville.mn.us/DocumentView.asp?DID=449. Accessed 22 June 2009 Cleveland CJ (Topic Editor) (2008) Green roofs. In: Cleveland CJ (ed) Encyclopedia of earth. Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment, Washington, DC. http://www.eoearth.org/article/Green_roofs. Accessed 25 January 2009 LASR-CC Team (May 2004) Street & urban design plan. Short Elliott Hendrickson Inc., Lyndale. Avenue South Renewal Creek to Cross town Streetscape and Urban Design Project. http://www.ci.minneapolis.mn.us/ward13/docs/Lyndale_Streetscape.pdf. Accessed 07 Feb 2009 Maureen C et al (2006) BCIT green roof research program, CMHC external research Grant. Center for the Advancement of Green Roof Technology. http://commons.bcit.ca/greenroof/ publications/cmhc_report.pdf. Accessed 17 October 2009 Peck SW, Callaghan C (March 1999) Status report on benefits, barriers and opportunities for green roof and vertical garden technology diffusion. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation Suter AH (November 1991) Noise and its effects. Administrative Conference of the United States. http://www.nonoise.org/library/suter/suter.htm. Accessed 09 July 2009
Chapter 12
Plants, Oxygen and Human Life Benefits
12.1 Introduction Going on the way to guarantee blossoming, the new model of biophilic architecture. The system have to not add to the heat-island effect of the existent built environment, the built form’s climatic skin surfaces, sloping surfaces and grade surfaces must all have completely vegetated surfaces where possible (natural as against artificial surfaces). Where this is attained, the ensuing built structure and built environment will turn out to be much greener and added vegetated, and in the course will generate new environment for wildlife with the likelihood of the return of species that were common or were previously present prior to the urbanization of the locality (Adams 2007). An average middle-aged tree takes in up to 23 kg of carbon dioxide through its leaves annually during photosynthesis, storing up to 1,000 kg of carbon dioxide in its lifetime.
12.2 Green Areas and Oxygen Quantity Produced The competence of plants to produce oxygen varies quite a bit. It is also potential to build an artificial process involving photosynthesis that would successfully do the same thing but it would not be a beautiful to walk through (Yeang 2006). An average of human requires are: 2,600 g of food, 686 g of oxygen (O2) and 400 g of water. They then produce 857 g of CO2, 857 g of water and 1,972 g of waste. At standard temperature and pressure, the equivalent volume of oxygen is about 50 l per h. A resting, healthy adult on an average, cool day breathes in about 50 l oxygen per h (Fig. 12.1). In addition, it will necessitate to take into evidence oxygen production reduces as carbon dioxide concentration increases, assuming this hypothetical person is in a limited space with all these plants, the CO2 concentration will increase suitable
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Fig. 12.1 Plants, oxygen and human life
Table 12.1 Oxygen produced by vertical and horizontal green areas Green areas type Description effects Vertical green areas
Horizontal green areas
A plant leaf produces about 0.005 l oxygen per h. Therefore, a mature human need about 50/0.005 = 10,000 leaves which would be provided by about 500 small plants for one person. If the average of shrub or other medium size plant has 30 leaves per plant, then that would be 5 ml/leaf 9 30 leaves = 150 plants (Wizkid 2008). An average of 18 cm2, leaf area can release atmosphere of 0.005 l oxygen per h. An average of person who consumes 50 l oxygen per h. Consequently, an average of 18 m2 of vertical green area is sufficient for one person. In addition, an average of 5 m2 of vertical green areas is satisfactory. There are many assumptions, average leaf, and average plant In a 1.5 m2 of uncut grass, produces enough oxygen per year to supply one person with their yearly oxygen intake requirement (Burton 2009).
to the person’s expiration. This will slow down the plant’s photosynthetic rate (Adams 2007). Hospitals and health facilities utilize the therapeutic benefits of green areas. These facilities sometimes use gardening as a tool to enhance the healing process for patients (Table 12.1).
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In addition, the person can enjoy the comfort, fresh air, and landscape while restoring their health (Ismail 2003). The query is how we can obtain the oxygen and air quality from the plants.
12.3 Photosynthesis Process such a Source of Air Quality In photosynthesis, plants absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen, and through transpiration, they absorb water at the roots and release it into the air, principally at the leaves. Plants can also cleanse or filter the air when dust and pollutants adhere to their dry twigs or leaves (which are eventually washed by rain and impurities are deposited on the ground). Thus, highly planted zones will have higher oxygen content, higher relative humidity and fewer pollutants and are likely to provide the right type of area from which to draw the supply air for a natural ventilation system (Thomas 1996). Photosynthesis is accepted out by the numerous different organisms, ranging as of plants to bacteria .The best known form of photosynthesis is the one carried out by higher plants. Plants are the only photosynthetic organisms to have leaves. A leaf may be sighted as a solar collector crowded full of photosynthetic cells. Green plants are the only plants that produce oxygen and create food, which is called photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is debatably the most important biological process on earth. It is the process by which plants, some bacteria, and some protestants use the energy from sunlight to make sugar, which cellular respiration converts into ATP (adenosine tri-phosphate), the ‘‘fuel’’ used by all living things. The process is a chemical process where plants and some bacteria can imprison and biologically fix the energy of the sun. This chemical reaction can be explained by the following simple equation: 6CO2 þ 6H2 O + light energy!C6 H12 O6 þ 6O2 Photosynthesis evolved near the beginning in the evolutionary history of life, while all forms of life on Earth were microorganisms (Fig. 12.2). Although the dates are tricky to estimate with any correctness, the first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved about 3,500 million years ago, and utilized hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water (Olson 2006). Six molecules of water plus six molecules of carbon dioxide makes one molecule of sugar plus six molecules of oxygen. Although photosynthesis can occur in different ways in different species, some features are always the same. The conversion of impracticable sunlight energy into usable chemical energy is related with the actions of the green pigment chlorophyll. Plants absorb light primarily using the pigment chlorophyll, which is the reason that most plants have a green color. Although all cells in the green parts of a plant have chloroplasts, most of the energy is captured in the leaves. The cells in the interior tissues of a leaf, called the mesophyll, can contain between 450,000 and 800,000 chloroplasts for every square millimeter of leaf (Olson 2006).
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Fig. 12.2 Leaf action and photosynthesis
Chlorophyll absorbs the sunlight, from sunlight, green plants combine carbon dioxide and water to make sugar and oxygen. Besides chlorophyll plants also use pigments such as carotenes and xanthophylls. (Campbell et al. 2006). The uncooked materials of photosynthesis, water and carbon dioxide, go through the cells of the leaf, and the products of photosynthesis, sugar and oxygen, leave the leaf. Directly or indirectly, photosynthesis plugs all of our food supplies and many of our requirements for fiber and building materials. Photosynthesis is crucially important for life on Earth, since as well as it maintaining the normal level of oxygen in the atmosphere, nearly all life depends on it either directly as a source of energy, or indirectly as the ultimate source of the energy in their food (Bryant and Frigaard 2006). The energy amasses in petroleum, natural gas and coal all came from the sun by means of photosynthesis. This being the case, scientific research into photosynthesis is vitally important. For the reason that our superiority of life, and certainly our very survival, depends on photosynthesis, it is essential that we understand it. Oxygen and carbon dioxide enter and leave through the stomata. Through understanding, we can avoid adversely affecting the process and precipitating environmental or ecological disasters. Through understanding, we can also learn to control photosynthesis, and thus enhance production of food, fiber and energy. Understanding the natural process, which plants have developed over several billion years, will also allow us to use the basic chemistry and physics of photosynthesis for other purposes, such as solar energy conversion, the design of electronic circuits, and the development of medicines and drugs (Devens Gust 2006). Photosynthesis means, ‘‘Putting together with light.’’ This takes place in chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll in them. The most important result of
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photosynthesis is a carbohydrate, such as the sugar glucose, and oxygen that is free to the atmosphere. In all, photosynthetic organisms convert around 100,000,000,000 tons of carbon into biomass per year (Field et al. 1998). All of the sugar shaped in the photosynthetic cells of plants and other organisms is resulting from the first chemical combining of carbon dioxide and water with sunlight (Fig. 12.3). The chemical reaction is catalyzed by chlorophyll acting in performance with other pigment, lipid, sugars, protein, and nucleic acid molecules. Sugars produced in photosynthesis is able to be afterward converted by the plant to starch for storage space, or it can be joint with other sugar molecules to shape particular carbohydrates such as cellulose, or it can be combined with other nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur, to build complex molecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. In addition, there are trace amounts of hydrogen, neon, krypton and a number of other gases as well as varying amounts of water vapor and small quantities of solid matter. Because of rising CO2 production resulting from human activities, the CO2 level in much of the atmosphere’s air is higher, at about 0.035%. The increase in carbon dioxide and associated gases is bound to have an effect on our atmosphere. Nearly all oxygen in the atmosphere is consideration to have been generated through the process of photosynthesis.
Fig. 12.3 Plants and environment cooperation
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12.4 The Role of Photosynthesis over Microclimate Clean, dry air near sea level has the following approximate composition: • • • •
Nitrogen (N2) 78% Oxygen (O2) 21% Argon (Ar) 1% Carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.03%
Plants have expanded ways to adapt some of the absorbed light energy to heat quite than to utilize the absorbed light essentially for photosynthesis. However, in demanding the first part of photosynthetic electron move in plants is quite receptive to excessively high rates of electron transfer, and part of the photosynthetic electron move chain may be close down when the light intensity is too high; this phenomenon is identified as photo inhibition. Plants in a form of can manifest the excess of light energy; • Thermal debauchery in light harvesting system • Destructive reactions causing damage to photosynthetic equipment The ablaze of fossil fuels liberates not only carbon dioxide, but also hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and other trace materials that pollute the atmosphere and give to long-term health and environmental evils. Increasing carbon dioxide will indicate increasing the atmospheric temperature (global warming). Plants absorb carbon dioxide and are consequently carbon sink. Because photosynthesis helps control the composition of the atmosphere, sympathetic photosynthesis is vital to understanding how carbon dioxide and other ‘‘greenhouse gases’’ influence the global climate. Photosynthesis by means of plants eliminates carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and restores it with oxygen. Thus, it would be tending to ameliorate the belongings of carbon dioxide released by the burning of fossil fuels. The quantity of overall CO2 obsession in plants increasing under optimal conditions is partial primarily by the quantity of CO2 accessible. Consequently, the increase of CO2 in the atmosphere will guide to rather higher rates of plant growth in environments where the CO2 concentration restrictions growth rates. However, the question is complex because of the fact that plants themselves react to the quantity of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Plants are also esthetically pleasing to the eye and brighten up the environment in homes and workplaces. Homes and workplaces always have floors that are concreted and do not have the soil essential for plant life. In the direction of get life giving plants into homes and workplaces, planters that hold the soil required the plants to grow (Almusaed 2004). Increasing the competence of natural photosynthesis is able to amplify making of ethanol and other fuels resulting from agriculture. However, facts gained from photosynthesis investigate can be used to improve energy production in a great deal more direct means. Some plants living in desert climates, such as cacti, keep their stomates closed during the day to minimize evaporation (stomates
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are openings in the leaf surface to enhance gas exchange). In warm and dry situation, plants will lock their stomata to avoid loss of water. Under these situations, CO2 will diminish, and dioxide gas, shaped by the light reactions of photosynthesis, will amplify in the leaves, causing an increase of photorespiration. These plants take up CO2 during the night when the stomates are open, and temporarily bind the CO2 to organic acids in the leaf. During the day, the CO2 is released from the acids and used for photosynthesis (Vermaas 2009). Investigate in photosynthesis in all its sides has established to contain opened many ways in a diversity of disciplines, varying from biophysics, plant physiology to biophilic architecture. Discerning the facts of photosynthesis can guide to propose of original, selective herbicides and plant increase controllers that have the potential of being environmentally safe. Certainly, it is likely to build up an innovative crop plants that are resistant to definite herbicides, and to thus get weed control precise to one crop class. An interdisciplinary advance to this multifaceted, yet fascinating, range of problems, challenges, and opportunities has determined development. Photosynthesis is the foundation of the food and energy provide, and innovative exploitation of solar energy is possible to be of more and more serious meaning in the future.
References Adams J (2007) Vegetation–climate interaction. Springer in Association with Praxis Publication, NJ, pp 191–192 Bryant DA, Frigaard N-U (2006) Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated. Trends Microbiol 14(11):488. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2006.09.001 Burton B (2009) Green roofs and brighter futures. http://www.newcolonist.com/greenroofs.html. Accessed 15 August 2009 Campbell NA et al (2006) Biology: exploring life. Pearson Prentice Hall, Boston Field CB et al (1998) Primary production of the biosphere: integrating terrestrial and oceanic components. Science 281(5374):230–240 Gust D (2006) Why study photosynthesis, center for bioenergy & photosynthesis. Arizona state university. http://bioenergy.asu.edu/photosyn/study.html. Accessed 20 July 2009 Ismail Said (2003) Therapeutic effects of garden: preference of ill children towards garden over ward in Malaysian hospital environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Jurnal Teknologi 38(B):55–68 Olson JM (2006) Photosynthesis in the Archean era. Photosyn Res 88(2):109–117. doi: 10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5 Thomas R (1996) Environmental design. E & FN SPON, London, UK, p 64 Vermaas W (2009) An introduction to photosynthesis and its applications. http://www.worldandi. com. Accessed 19 Nov 2009 Wizkid (2008) Plants making oxygen. USA State, Energy Department, Biology Archive. http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/newton/askasci/1993/biology/bio027.htm. Accessed 23 June 2009 Yeang K (2006) A manual for ecological design. Wiley, UK, p 141
Chapter 13
Evapotranspiration and Environmental Benefits
13.1 Introduction Evapotranspiration is one of two important ‘latent heat’ effects in green areas. The moisture retained in the root zone is absorbed by the plants and evaporates from the leaf surfaces. This process will continue as long as there is sufficient moisture in the growth media. The effect is to actively cool the air immediately over the roof surface. Therefore, green areas are more effective than reflective roofs in combating problems related to the ‘urban heat island effect. ‘Evaporation from vegetation’ is usually specified a more precise term evapotranspiration or ET for short (Charlie Miller). The term evapotranspiration comes from combining the prefix ‘‘evapo’’ (for growth media evaporation) with the word transpiration. Both soil evaporation and plant transpiration correspond to evaporative procedures; the difference between the two rests in the path by which water moves from the soil to the atmosphere (Allen et al. 1998). Evapotranspiration (ET) is a term used to describe the sum of evaporation and plant transpiration from the earth’s land surface. Evaporation and transpiration take place at the same time and there is no simple way of distinguishing between the two processes. Evaporation is a process of water changing from a liquid into a gas or a vapor. Water lost by transpiration must enter the plant via the roots, consequently pass to the foliage, where it vaporized and lost to the atmosphere throughout miniature pores in the leaves known as stomata (Allen et al. 1998). A green area can help to increase the thermal performance of a building by keeping the temperature within the building cooler in summer months, therefore, reducing air-conditioning costs. This process is only important in warm months. It will have a noticeable impact on the heat gain and loss of a building, as well as the humidity, air quality, and reflected heat in the surrounding neighborhood. In conjunction with other green installations, green area can play a role in altering the climate of the city as a whole. On a summer day, the temperature of a gravel roof can increase by as much as 25C to between 50 and 60C. Covered with grass, the temperature of the roof would not rise above 25C, thus resulting in energy cost
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savings. 20 cm of substrate with a 20–40 cm layer of thick grass has the combined insulation value of 15 cm of mineral wool. Spaces under a green roof are at least 3–4C cooler than the air outside, when outdoor temperatures range between 25 and 30C. In the summer, green area planting shades the building from solar radiation and, through the process of evapotranspiration, can reduce, if not eliminate any net heat gain. This in turn helps to cool the surrounding area, as well as decreasing the amount of energy required to cool the building (Peck and Kuhn 2001). The evaporation part of ET is included of the return of water back to the atmosphere throughout direct evaporative loss from the soil surface, rank water (depression storage), and water on surfaces (catch water) such as leaves and/or roofs. Apart from the water accessibility in the topsoil, the evaporation from a cropped soil is mostly resolute by the division of the solar emission attainment the soil surface. An element (such as a tree) that contributes to evapotranspiration can be called an evapotranspirator. The water normally come in the plant through the root district, is used for various biophysiological functions including photosynthesis, and then passes back to the atmosphere through the leaf stomata’s (Allen et al. 1998). Transpired water is that which is used by vegetation, subsequently lost to the atmosphere as vapor. Transpiration is the evaporation of water from a plant’s leaves, stem, flowers, or roots back into the atmosphere. Transpiration will end if the vegetation turns out to be stressed to the floppy point, which is the point in which there is deficient water left in the soil for a plant to transpire, or if the plant to atmosphere vapor concentration gradient becomes excessive to plant physiological processes (e.g., photosynthesis). The transpiration velocity is also prejudiced by crop distinctiveness, environmental characteristics and farming practices. Diverse types of plants could include diverse transpiration rates. Plant growth encompasses both the relative action of the plant (e.g., dormant vs. actively growing) and plant size. For example, dormant plants utilize and consequently require extremely little water, while lush, vigorously growing plants (under similar conditions) will need significantly more water. Plant size and density also affect ET. Small plants and areas with sparse plant awnings use far a smaller amount of water than great plants and areas with dense plant awnings. Not simply the kind of crop, but also the crop increase, environment and organization should be careful when assessing transpiration. When joint as a sum, the two generate evapotranspiration a vital part in the movement of water and water vapor through the hydrologic cycle. The procedure of evapotranspiration is one of the major regulars of solar energy at the Earth’s surface (Allen et al. 1998). Energy used for evapotranspiration is generally referred to as latent heat flux; on the other hand, the term latent heat flux is wide, and comprises other associated processes unconnected to transpiration counting condensation, and snow and ice sublimation. Apart from precipitation, evapotranspiration is one of the mainly major mechanisms of the water cycle. At sowing nearly 100% of ET comes from evaporation, while at full crop cover more than 90% of ET comes from transpiration (Dag et al. 2006). Evapotranspiration facts are regularly presented as a profundity of water loss over a particular period in a method similar to that of precipitation.
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The evapotranspiration rate is usually expressed in millimeters (mm) per unit time. The rate expresses the quantity of water lost from a cropped surface in units of water depth. The time unit can be an hour, day, decade, month, or even an entire growing period or year. Potential evapotranspiration is another term utilized in the study of evapotranspiration. It is the quantity of water that could be evaporated if there was enough water available. It is regularly calculated indirectly, from other climatic factors, but also depends on the surface category, such the soil type for bare soil, and the vegetation. We can describe the process such a measure of the ability of the atmosphere to eliminate water from the surface through the processes of evaporation and transpiration presumptuous no control on water supply (Allen et al. 1998). Frequently a value for the potential evapotranspiration is calculated at a nearby climate position on a suggestion surface, conventionally short grass. This worth is called the orientation evapotranspiration, and can be rehabilitated to a possible evapotranspiration by increasing with a surface coefficient. It is an indication of the energy accessible to evaporate water, and of the wind obtainable to convey the water vapor from the ground up into the lower atmosphere (Chiew et al. 1995). On this basis, any irrigation that supplies more water than PET can accommodate could be sighted as wasted water. Evapotranspiration is supposed to identical potential evapotranspiration when there is sufficient water. Plant category refers to the species or assortment of plant creature mature and can greatly influence the velocity of. Grass and numerous non-native plants need significant water when grown in the special climates such desert. In contrast, many native plants are adapted to the desert and require a smaller amount of water. Phase of plant progress also plays a serious role in formative.
13.2 Factors Affecting the Evapotranspiration The rate of evapotranspiration at any location on the Earth’s surface is controlled by several factors: • Energy convenience. The flow of heat from the foliage to the air above, in joules per square centimeter of canopy per second, is proportional to the difference between the concentrations of heat (J/cm3) in air close enough to the leaves to be at the leaf temperature. It gets about 600 calories of heat energy to change 1 g of liquid water into a gas (Brown 2000). • Humidity and temperature labor in performance with each other to decide the aridness or drying influence of the atmosphere. The vapor pressure deficit is the meteorological variable utilized to count the drying influence of the atmosphere. The estimate divergence (or gradient) in vapor pressure (concentration of water vapor) between the moist vegetation and the drier atmosphere over. Relative humidity, the humidity variable most normally reported in weather forecasts, is a poor indicator atmospheric dryness (Brown 2000). The flow, E. of water vapor
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to the atmosphere per unit area of cover (g/cm2 s), is proportional to the difference between the vapor concentration (absolute humidity g water/cm3 air) in cover leaves. Solar radiation contributes huge amounts of energy to vegetation. Therefore is the meteorological parameter with the greatest impact on ET on most days. In actuality, solar radiation is one component of the total radiant energy balance of vegetation referred to as net radiation. Wind is the next most vital issue in determining ET rate. The wind has two main responsibilities; first, it transports heat that builds up on contiguous surfaces such as dry desert or asphalt to vegetation, which speed up the evaporation. Exchange between air inside or just over the woods and air, higher up improves the availability to leaves of CO2. An 8 km/h wind will increase still-air evapotranspiration by 20%; a 24 km/h wind will increase still-air evapotranspiration by 50% (Burba et al. 2006). A windbreak can reduce the wind velocities and decreases the ET rate of the field directly beyond the barrier. Source and availability of water. Physical attributes of the vegetation. Such factors as vegetative cover, plant height, leaf area index and leaf shape and the reflectivity of plant surfaces can affect rates of evapotranspiration. For example, coniferous forests and alfalfa fields reflect only about 25% of solar energy, thus retaining substantial thermal energy to promote transpiration; in contrast, deserts reflect as much as 50% of the solar energy, depending on the density of vegetation. Stomata resistance. Plants regulate transpiration through adjustment of small openings in the leaves called stomata. As stomata close, the resistance of the leaf to loss of water vapor increases, decreasing to the diffusion of water vapor from plant to the atmosphere. Soil propriety and texture. Plant type, diverse plants transpire water at different rates. Geographic patterns, areas on the sphere with a large amount solar radiation experience more evapotranspiration because there is supplementary solar energy available to evaporate the water. Some plants come into view to rise more quickly in an atmosphere wealthy with carbon dioxide, but this could not be right for all species. Considerate the consequence of greenhouse gases necessitates vast deal enhanced information of the communication of the plant realm with carbon dioxide than we encompass nowadays.
Energy is necessary to change the condition of the molecules of water from liquid to vapor. Direct solar radiation and, to a lesser degree, the ambient temperature of the air supply this energy. The driving force to take away water vapor from the evaporating surface is the difference between the water vapor pressure at the evaporating outside and that of the surrounding atmosphere. Minimum evapotranspiration rates generally occur during the coldest months of the year. Maximum rates generally coincide with the summer season. However, since evapotranspiration depends on both solar energy and the availability of soil moisture and plant maturity the seasonal maximum evapotranspiration actually
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may precede or follow the seasonal maximum solar radiation and air temperature by several weeks (Burba et al. 2006).
13.3 Estimating Evapotranspiration Evapotranspiration is difficult to calculate. Specific devices and precise measurements of a variety of physical parameters or the soil water balance in lysimeters are required to determine evapotranspiration. But evapotranspiration can be calculated or expected by means of numerous methods but the most usually methods uses are; • • • •
Catchment water balance Hydro meteorological equations Energy balance and microclimatological methods Lysimeters.
References Allen RG et al (1998) Corp evapotranspiration—guidelines for computing crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and drainage paper 56. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy Brown P (2000) Turf irrigation management series: II, The University of Orizona, This information has been reviewed by university faculty. ag.arizona.edu/pubs/water/az1195.pdf. Accessed 13 June 2009 Burba G et al (2006) Water biogeochemistry and ground water management. Judith S Wein, http://www.eoearth.org/article/Evapotranspiration. Accessed 26 Sept 2009 Charlie Miller PE Role of green roofs in managing thermal energy. http://www. roofmeadow.com/technical/.../Thermal_effects_020408.doc. Accessed 15 Sept 2009 Chiew FH et al (1995) Penman-Monteith, FAO-24 reference crop evapotranspiration and class-A pan data in Australia. Agric Water Manage 28:9–21 Dag A et al (2006) Evapotranspiration-regulated irrigation scheduling in olive using recycled water. Annual Report Submitted to MERIMIS, Research Center. http://www.merimis.org/ Evapotranspiration.html. Accessed 03 Oct 2009 Peck S, Kuhn M (2001) Design guidelines for green roofs. Ottawa, Canada. http://www. cmhcschl.gc.ca/imquaf/himu/himu_002.cfm. Accessed 13 Jun 2009
Chapter 14
Socio and Healthy Human Psychology upon Biophilic Architecture
14.1 Introduction We live in an era fraught with degraded natural resources, loss of biodiversity, and the reality of global climate change and it is still unknown effects. Therefore, one of the major problems facing us is how to establish and maintain environments that support human health and at the same time are ecologically sustainable. Green areas seems too important to people. Most people today believe that the green world is beautiful. The psychological researches of green over the human behavior show that green are a cool color that symbolizes nature and the natural world. It also represents tranquility, good luck, health, and jealousy. Examples abound. People plant trees, shrubs, flowers, and nature houseplants; cities invest heavily in trees; citizens band together to preserve green areas settings they have never seen; landscapes for centuries have been the subject of painting and poetry. Environments dominated by plants, on the other hand, are less complex and have patterns that reduce arousal and, therefore, reduce our feelings of stress (Al-musaed 2006). Researchers have also found that green can improve reading ability. Some students may find that laying a transparent sheet of green paper over reading material increases reading speed and comprehension. It has long been a symbol of fertility and was once the preferred color choice for wedding gowns in the 15th century. Consider how green is used in language: green thumb, green with envy, greenhorn (Wolf 2007). In the middle ages, matters were more complicated. Many people did not believe that nature was beautiful. Others thought it was only beautiful as part of a greater whole. Still others believed that nature, though beautiful, was a temptation that conflicted with love of God. People, like trees and snowflakes, differ from each other. They see the world through conceptually different eyes and bring diverse backgrounds to any new experience. People diverge as well, in what they like and dislike. The gardens are evidence of individual achievement, which overcomes the helplessness of low-income areas, showing that, indeed, individuals can bring about a change (sense of mastery of the environment). New leaves and flowers
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give the gardener enhanced feelings of pride and self-esteem. Given this wondrous diversity, it is just as wondrous to find some strong and pervasive consistencies in the way people interpret the environment and in their preferences (Kaplan 1995a, b). In fact, even the sight of a green area, the view from a window at home or at work, can afford pleasure. In the same way, landscape areas can also be a cause of satisfaction; whether or not one participates in their maintenance. Not only are the individual species often interesting, but the landscaped areas creates a ‘‘space’’, a setting that can be a source of our satisfaction to be in or to see. The satisfaction derives from contact with many forms of nearby nature. The notion of open space is often used interchangeably with green areas. A green area at this point refers not to magnificent places that are professionally maintained but to plot a land where individual grow plants of their choosing. In fact, gardening is an amazing phenomenon.
14.1.1 Why Should This Activity Be So Popular? Certainly, the opportunity to grow fresh vegetables is an attraction. However, many gardeners do not grow edibles. It is clear that the tenant flower competitions nurtured more than flowers. The simple sight of green areas provided pride and joy, even to those who did not participate directly. For the active participants, the benefits were even more extensive. From observations and casual exchanges with these and other gardeners, one can learn a great deal. Green areas can approach in many sizes and can be grown in many places—even on buildings roofs. There is probably no single nature-based activity that is so widely shared by the population. People who garden come in every color, size, shape, nationality, and income level. People garden whether they live in rural areas, in the suburbs, or in the innermost, built-up, teeming portions of cities. They do it individually, in family groups, or as part of a community. In fact, gardening is an amazing phenomenon.
14.2 Specific Hypothetical Perspective In the next, a synopsis of theoretical explanations for restorative and other benefits will first be given, and then empirical evidence of benefits of nature will be summarized.
14.2.1 Cultural Perspective It is often claimed that the human in general have a particular love for nature, a love often reflected in their art and material culture. Different cultures have
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various civilizations about how to use free spaces, how using of nature in complex form should happened, and where it should be placed that depend on the local cultural perception. Nature and identity in cross-cultural perception presents many dissertations, which explore diverse cultural interpretations of the earth’s surface. Contrasted with each other and with the potentially cosmopolitan culture of science, these detailed studies of ways in which different cultures conceptualize nature appear in the context of global environmental change. The character of the natural environments experienced by dissimilar cultures and at different times could be expected to vary (Wohlwill 1983) affirmed, ‘‘A culture’s response to nature must be viewed in the context of that culture’s total environmental experience at a given time’’. Other work in environmental psychology has, however, addressed the subject of environmentalism symbolism, suggesting that physical objects and places slowly obtain social sense through their associations over time with group activities and experiences (Stokols 1990).
14.2.2 Evolutionary Perspective For every biological phenomenon, two different kinds of causes must be understood. Proximate (immediate) causes are those that explain a structure or event in an individual organism. Ultimate (evolutionary) causes are those that explain the existence of a structure or capacity in all members of a species. The evolutionary study of behaviors and social structures is quickly becoming an independent discipline. This new power of evolutionary theory to explain human behavior has not widely appreciated or utilized for natural environment. The evolutionary perspectives postulate that since the human species developed in natural environments, we are predisposed to respond positively to types of nature content and environments that were once favorable to well-being and survival for pre-historic people. More generally, proponents for the evolutionary perspectives do acknowledge that cultural and individual learning are involved in people’s responses to nature, whereas proponents of the cultural approaches in the same manner do not neglect that some genetic aspects might be present. Thus, the theoretical approaches described above need not be seen as mutually exclusive. Nevertheless, we do not know whether our responses towards nature in general, or more specifically nature in indoor settings, are caused by characteristics of the setting, characteristics of the individual, or universal genetic predispositions. One might assume that all of these characteristics play a role (Bringslimark 2007). A related perspective is the biophilia hypothesis, which states that humans have an evolved sensitivity to and need for other living things. Wilson proposes that it involves the ‘‘connections that human beings subconsciously seek with the rest of life.’’ Thus, biophilia could manifest as a desire to have plants and other living things around one in the indoor context (Kellert 2005).
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14.3 The Psychological Benefits of Passively Viewing on Nature Greening 14.3.1 Which Physical Environments Are Excellent for Humans? How can the physical environment be designed to promote physical and mental health and well-being. These are clearly composite issues that include a large number of diverse aspects, a number of which are physical and others of which are psychological. The psychological aspects of the correlation between the physical environment and human health and well-being are a most important worry of that field of study known as environmental psychology (Bringslimark 2007). In numerous cities, and especially in inner-city areas, greenery is now part of the neighborhood. The story of community open spaces and community gardens is being told across the modern world. The discussion proceedings on the ‘‘meanings of the green area’’, for example, provide a rich assortment of insights about the many ways in which gardening makes a difference to people. Ideally, however, one would also have some more systematically collected data to document the types of benefits resulting from this action. Unfortunately, there has been relatively little research on the psychological dimensions of gardening. Here again, as with any research, the choice of method can make a difference. For example, Francis has collected information on the meaning of gardens by interviewing gardeners both in California and in Norway. From this information, he extracts some themes about why green areas play such an important role. One of his conclusions is that much of the meaning of green areas for people can be traced to the concept of control. The green area is a place that people can directly shape and control in a world and environment largely outside their direct control. In the Netherlands, every square meter of land is a manmade landscape: original nature is nowhere to be found. The Oostvaardersplassen, which make up one of the Netherlands’ most important nature reserves—were, after the land was reclaimed, originally an industrial site; they were only turned into a nature reserve later. Human creation has made nature more natural than natural: it is now hyper natural (Oosterling 2005). It is a simulation of a nature that never existed. It is better than the real thing; hyper natural nature is always just a little bit prettier, slicker and safer than the old type. Let us be honest: it is actually culture. The more we learn to control trees, atoms and the climate, the more they lose their natural character and enter into the realms of culture. Culture is that which we control. Green areas are all those things that have an independent class and reduce outside the extent of human influence. In this new classification, greenhouse tomatoes belong to the cultural category, whereas computer viruses and the trafficjams on our roads can be considered as natural phenomena. We allot them to nature because they function as nature, even though they are not green. Human actions are not nature, but it can cause it real nature in all its functioning, dangers and possibilities. In spite of all our attempts and experiments,
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it is still hardly practicable to mold life. Every time nature seems to have been conquered, it rears its head again on some other battlefield. Perhaps we should not see nature as a static given, but as a dynamic process. It is not only human what are developing; nature, too, is changing in the process. In the present section, empirical evidence for benefits of viewing nature will be summarized. The evidence comes from studies of passive encounters with nature either through slides, photographs, videos, window views or indoor plants. All of the studies cited concerned settings that varied for elements (Bringslimark 2007). Our reflection of green areas has changed greatly over the centuries. The method in which we distinguish between greenly and culture remains relevant, because it says something about the human perspective,
14.3.2 What Is Our Place in Nature? Nature in the biophilic architectural context has beneficial effects not attached to some healing process, such as increased positive emotions.
14.4 Stress, Green Areas, and Mental Health Stress has been a central concept in explanations for how passive views of nature affect health and well-being. As commonly defined, stress occurs when there is an imbalance between environmental demands and individual coping resources. Stress is seen both as an outcome in itself, involving negative emotions and increased physiological arousal, and as a contributor to many other outcomes, such as depression, impaired immune system functioning, and poorer long-term health (Russell 1997). Psychosocial stress is known to be an essential risk factor in the production of hypertension. Where knows that hypertension is in spin a risk factor for coronary artery heart disease and stroke. This would go some way to explain the findings of the study. Towns systemization and population growth have produced several stress, these trends have created new pressure and complete some of the old satisfaction harder to realize. Peace and calm, fascination, the chances to share with others and to do what one desire are all profoundly essential to human beings. Green is a calming color and, since it has, predominates in most landscapes; simply viewing an attractive landscape can reduce stress and provide a relaxing diversion. Important distinctions in this observe is between acute and chronic stress. Acute stress can be adaptive; a person mobilizes resources in an attempt to meet demands. In contrast, chronic stress is viewed as a risk factor for a variety of negative health outcomes. It is clear that scenes enclosing green area can help faster and total recovery from acute stress. In additional, if repeated instances of
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stress recovery are faster and more complete, then it is more likely that chronic stress can be avoided. The green areas settings them satisfaction more available even the view can lead to psychological gains. The recently researches on the effect of green areas over human life shows that a spending one time in green areas lowers stress levels. A research published by Richard Mitchell from Glasgow University. He looked at the number of deaths occurring in low- and high-income groups. The researcher found that the gap in terms of death rate between high- and low-income groups were half of what would be expected in green environments compared with urban areas. This could in part be due to our bodies being attuned to a more natural environment. Many of us know that being in pleasant natural surroundings can be relaxing. A walk in the countryside or through a leafy park feels as though it is doing us good (John Richard 2008). Many causes have been place advance to explain this: inadequate diet amongst the poor, stressful environment high crime or noise for example and better access to healthcare among the wealthy. Green is thought to relieve stress and help heal. Those who have a green work environment experience fewer stomachaches. Although the central question is;
14.4.1 Why Should Green Areas Reduce Stress Levels in the Majority of the People? One would be expecting stress levels to be lower that we are among those whom we know and love like family and friends, stipulation we have logical living accommodation and have enough money to live on (Ulrich et al. 1991). These factors should be sufficient to become the stress levels low whether or not we are in a green environment. People feel more satisfied with their homes, with their jobs, and with their lives when they have sufficient access to nature in the urban environment. People value green areas settings for the diverse opportunities they provide—to walk, to see, to think. They are not necessarily aware of the many forms of encounter they have with nature or of the variety of benefits that accrue. Given the positive influence of green elements in the residential context, it is reasonable to ask whether nearby nature can also increase satisfaction in the work setting. We are aware of very little research on this question. Certainly, some enlightened businesses have incorporated natural elements in and near the work environment. Perhaps the common use of big potted plants in lobbies also reflects at least an intuitive recognition of the role of natural elements. Peoples evolved in open space: around trees and grass, on beaches, and near lakes (many people find being near open water relaxing). To the cells in our bodies, these surroundings are normal: they are where we should be. Natural environments can of course be bleak or even dangerous. However, humans are adapted to even the unpleasant aspects. It can be refreshing and probably healthy to feel the wind, rain and cold on our bodies—up to a point anyway.
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Green areas metaphors give us a familiar sentiment of appreciation. In commercials, cars always drive through beautiful untouched landscapes. Strange that in this make-believe countryside there is not a poster in sight, while logos and brands are so omnipresent in our environment, we can probably tell them apart better than we can bird or tree species. The fresh air and physical exertion involved in gardening and building grounds maintenance permits people to reduce stress, release aggression, improve muscle tone and coordination, reduce weight and exercise aerobically while pursuing a constructive outcome that results in a harvested product, an attractive landscape or an improved environment. The view of green areas has been shown to make a difference with respect to health measures as well as satisfaction. Looking out the window provides an opportunity to let the mind wander. It is thus evident that observing is an important form of involvement with nature. Noticing the buds and blossoms, the changing colors, the nest of a bird or wasp are all, in a sense ‘‘uses’’ of nature. Other activities bring one in closer contact with nature walking or hiking, picnicking and gardening. Entrance to green areas at the place of work is, in fact, associated to lowered levels of perceived employment of the stress and higher levels of job satisfactions. The findings indicated that workers with a view of natural elements, such as trees and flowers, felt that their jobs were less stressful and were more satisfied with their jobs than others who had no outside view or who could see only built elements from their window. Furthermore, employees with nature views also reported fewer ailments and headaches (Owen 1994). A study for a group goal of old people between 64 and 91 years old shows that social integration in a community coheres positively with contact of these people with public green in the neighborhood. The results of the various studies provide strong support that nearby nature affords a wide range of both psychological and physical benefits. Different researches show for a range of goal groups that especially group dynamics within horticultural therapy can have beneficial effects for patients with a psychiatric background (Kaiser 1976). Researches with Alzheimer patients showed that physical exercise is able to improve the cognitive abilities. Specifically designed green areas can be a source of sensory stimulation for Alzheimer patients in terms of color, smell and texture, and it can stimulate emotion and positive feelings and memories (Lewis 1995). A plant raising on the windowsill or in the garden gives an older adult something alive to nurture, providing anticipation for development and new leaves shoots and flowers.
14.5 Psycho Physiological Benefits In our daily life, we meet many demanding challenges that can insist our attention, and over time, our ability to focus can weaken. Humor produces psychological and physiological belongings on our body. Scenes of green areas were be used as stimuli to analyze the psychological and physiological responses of subjects. A while viewing wild land scenes, it is clear that a just looking at everyday green
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areas, as compared to built scenes that not have greenly, is significantly more effective in promoting restoration from stress, as reflected in outcomes such as the risk factors associated with heart illness and depressions. Stress dropping influences have been start with viewing videotapes of nature versus urban scenes. Psycho physiological stress decrease benefits may also mediate a variety of shortand long-term health benefits (Caspersen et al. 1991). The plants have been connected with an increase in pain broadmindedness.
14.5.1 Affective Benefits A social individual not only needs to guarantee the hold from his/her group in the present, but rather, it also needs to have some security that this support will be provided in the future. The function of the affective signs lies in satisfying this necessity. When people smile to others, they transmit them the promise that they can count on them in the future. Some studies have indicated that people in general prefer natural scenes dominated by vegetation more than urban scenes lacking vegetation (Kaplan 1993). Many investigate proposes that screening images of nature can sustain the positive feelings and decrease the negative feelings. The possibility to view nature from a window has also been associated with positive feelings and satisfaction with one’s work (Kaplan 1993) and residence. In general, positive affective responses from viewing nature seem to come up after a short time, within a few minutes or less. Affection is typically identified with emotion, although in reality these are very diverse phenomena although closely related.
14.5.2 Cognitive Benefits A few minutes spent on a crowded city street apparently reduces the brain’s ability to hold things in memory and as well as our self-control. Urbanization, the frenetic energy of dense environments, and the loss of natural areas in our cities all put a strain on the brain (Lehrer 2009). The basic idea is that nature, unlike a city, is filled with inherently interesting stimuli (like a sunset, or an unusual bird) that trigger our involuntary attention, but in a modest fashion. Passive visual in touch with nature has been creating to encourage reinstatement from mental tiredness to a better degree than a touch with environmental situation with smaller amount or no elements of nature, as reflected in cognitive performance (Seller et al. 1999). That is surely that employment of more plants in green areas and similar in dense urban environments, annoying to put excessively much nature in the city in the form of big open green spaces can reduce the thickness to the point where everyone has to make everywhere, with negative environmental consequences. It also reduces the energy of the city.
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14.5.3 Gardening Benefits Many people believe of gardening as a chore. Others take up gardening as a hobby. Although many specialists consider that gardening is a labor of love. It can be a creative experience as well. It is one thing to throw some seeds down and then wait to see what grows. Gardening offers nutritional benefits to those who choose to plant a vegetable garden. Creating a vegetable garden is a way of ensuring that there is a continuous supply of fresh vegetables to consume. Vegetable gardeners know exactly where their produce is coming from and they know exactly what chemicals were used to grow the produce. The operation contributes to physical health, since activities such as digging, planting, weeding, and harvesting are all part of three types of physical activity; endurance, flexibility, and strength. Even an activity as simple as gardening can contribute towards weight loss. Any physical activity that gets the heart beating faster is better for the body than no activity at all (Lohr et al. 1996). Gardening gets a person outdoors, exposed to natural air, and refocused on a pleasant activity. In research to be published in February in the journal Hort Science, the researchers discovered that among the other health benefits of gardening is keeping older hands strong and nimble.
14.5.4 The Social Benefits of Gardening It is not just our body that will benefit of green areas benefits. The psychological benefits of being outdoors, working in the sunshine and fresh air, are also clear. The benefits that were mentioned include: increased orientation to place, task and seasons, increased attention span, improved or increased interactions with other residents both during and outside the gardening-program times, reminiscence, increase or improved physical functioning, displays of initiative, increased motivation, and the opportunity to experience success and accomplishment (Mooney and Nicell 1992). Recently researches have shown that just looking at trees and plants reduces stress, lowers blood pressure and relieves tension in muscles. Contacts that are more social can indirectly guide to enhanced health because they can reduce the sense of loneliness and the chance of dying, depression and loss of cognitive functions especially with elderly. Gardening together can help us to improve relationships with others. The social benefits of green areas are improved by the presence of landscape and gardens. Studies show that green spaces around homes provide the outdoor settings where people gather, interact, and build relationships (Wolf 2008). Plants are effective in challenging human responses because their environment is in contrast with the social world in which we move. The garden is a safe place, a friendly setting where everyone is welcome (McGinnis 1989). According to they react to care, not to the strengths or weaknesses of the person providing it (Lewis 1992). Experiencing provides a variety of individual benefits. Different studies
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from various countries show that people–plant interactions promote human wellbeing of different target groups, not only curative but also as a preventive treatment for individuals as well as groups. These findings show that apparently people think that working with plants is beneficial for human well-being. People of all ages and cultural backgrounds prefer natural views to built settings in cities. Trees, in particular, enhance public judgment of visual quality in cities, and are highly valued elements of communities (Kaplan and Kaplan 1995a, b). The benefits of horticulture for psychiatric patients are improved communication with others, learning practical skills/teamwork/planning, improved selfconfidence and better concentration (Seller et al. 1999). Study shows that 25 Individuals living in greener buildings reported more social activities and more visitors, knew more of their neighbors, reported their neighbors were more concerned with helping and supporting one another, and had stronger feelings of belonging. A sequence of studies of inner-city neighborhoods shows green spaces with trees contribute to healthier, more supportive patterns of interrelations among residents, including greater sharing of resources (Lewis 1995). Notices that for these populations, who no longer need to raise children, living plants provide a substitute and offer opportunities for tomorrow in an institutional setting which otherwise might be very sterile. Children and youth may have the most to gain from green surroundings (McGinnis 1989). Play in places with vegetation can support children’s development of cleverness and cognitive abilities. Children with mental health problems experience self-fulfillment learn basic biology and develop group activities. Green areas can stimulate children to be active outdoors; activity has positive effects on different health determinants, for children especially on overweight.
14.5.5 The Spiritual Benefits of Gardening To see the plant grow day by day is a phenomenon. Although you set your labors in charitable the plant what it requirements to grow up, it is the influence on high that creates this plant exists from the ground. Somebody had created all these belongings. Consequently, to have a link with these creations you also allow yourself to be connected with the creator. Green areas are bodily places, appealing all our senses in a variety of ways, hopeful us to be additional in touch with ourselves and in tune with nature’s slower, gentler rhythms (Hull 1989). Just spending time in a green area, enjoying the places of interest, sounds and smells around us, can invoke a powerful wisdom of belonging and spiritual peace. Taking care of plants also satisfies the human instinct to nurture. There is a big payoff for these efforts when a plant grows and blooms spectacularly (Burchardt et al. 2002). There is no question that we gain a far greater personal reward from a homegrown plant. Brought up from slip or seed than one we purchased all grown up. Gardening is versatile and can be done by almost anyone. Gardeners do not have to experience extraction symptoms when the outdoor growing season ends. Green
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areas can be lodged through the off-season by means of cultivating plants in a hobby greenhouse or under artificial lights (McGuinn and Relf 2001). Winter activities can include the incorporation of products from the garden and landscape in dried arrangements and seasonal decorations. In spiritual crossing we can discover that every season has an own spirit (Hassink and van Dijk 2006). A number of psychologists have pointed out that spiritual awakenings are sometimes accompanied by psychological distress when the radically new experiences are too difficult to integrate; a spiritual emergence can become a spiritual emergency. Spring is full of energy, summer presents staying power, autumn is right for thankfulness, and winter harbors a sense of abstraction. In view of the fact that gardening cuts across the characteristic seasons it takes on a different temperament with each month of the calendar and almost every week. The wild plants that occupied the garden were a stable prompt of the folly of sin (Brunson 1999). However, the phenomenon of the promise renaissance was also obvious in the interment of each kernel and the subsequent springing of the sprout ‘‘in originality of life’’. Gardening provides a number of metaphors for the life.
14.5.6 The Physical Benefits of Gardening Any activity that is energetic sufficient to leave you slightly out of breath and raise the heartbeat counts as reasonable intensity train, which, according to the experts, can help protect against many body disease. Acquire moving for just half an hour three times a week and you can expect some benefit, so if the sun is shining. 14.5.6.1 What Better Incentive Do You Need for Venturing into the Garden and Pulling Up Those Weeds? A recent study has proven that gardening activities can parallel many of our most popular exercise routines. Pruning trees and shrubs takes the same amount of effort as walking (Prema et al. 1986). Collecting and gathering leaves equals riding a bicycle at 10 mph. Digging, laying sod and stacking wood is as strenuous as playing softball. Mowing the lawn may just be as good as aerobics for keeping fit. Many old timers mock at the idea of going to a fitness center. They consider that good old-fashioned employment in the home garden or vegetable patch is a much better road to health and fitness. When we come to burning calories digging and shoveling come top of the list with mowing and weeding not far behind. Spend half an hour doing any of the following activities and expect to use up: (Healthy living). • • • •
Digging and shoveling: 250 calories. Lawn mowing: 195 calories. Weeding: 105 calories. Raking: 100 calories.
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14.5.7 Horticultural Therapy Program An important source of satisfaction derived from gardening is thus that it holds one’s attention in a multitude of ways, even when the garden lays dormant (Rice and Remy 1998). For numerous people, what previously were simple tasks be able to become obstacles to practicing favorite activities such as gardening. Therapists and contributors in horticultural therapy programmers usually report the same positive benefits like social integration, increase of self-confidence, self-esteem and concentration, and learning of practical skills, structure and routine. The therapeutic benefits of gardening have been well documented for some time now (Nixon and Read 1998). The therapeutic value of gardening has been applied to the treatment of mentally and physically challenged emotionally impaired and elderly patients in specialized programs at progressive health care facilities. The role of horticultural therapy is a using and recognition of gardening as a recreational and therapeutic activity where it is defined as a process of using plants and garden related activities to promote well-being of mind, body and spirit (Fjeld et al. 2002). A good definition of horticultural therapy is; Horticultural therapy is the use of plants and plant related activities to improve the social, educational, psychological and physical adjustment of an individual, thus improving mind, body and spirit.
Community or allotment gardens are other forms of horticulture but their therapeutic aspect is not directly apparent. People are working alone or in groups to grow crops in their (back) garden or to plant trees or shrubs. Most people have a back garden were they nurse their plants and sometimes grow crops (Oosterling 2005). Horticultural therapists have found that, for elderly patients in particular, green area can stimulate all the senses—providing interesting sights, sounds, textures, tastes and scents—and stimulate memories and connection with the past (Perrins-Margalis et al. 2000). As a result a simple visibility of nature may have influential preventative and healing effects on people’s health. Converging evidence from different types of measures that natural settings contribute to positive outcomes. However, the outcomes stalk from both the positive influence of natural vegetation and attractive landscapes and the negative effects of windowless rooms and the urban settings. In a similar vein, studies of environmental preference show that natural environments tend to provide more of the characteristics preferred in an environment (compared to build environments). Through its biophilic component, restorative environmental design can support a future cultural health that builds on some echo of a biological past (Penninx et al. 1997). To maximize use of ‘contact with nature’ in the health promotion of populations, collaborative strategies between researchers and primary health, social services, urban planning and environmental management sectors are required. This approach offers not only an augmentation of existing health promotion and prevention activities, but provides
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the basis for a socio-ecological approach to public health that incorporates environmental sustainability (Frumkin 2003).
References Al-musaed A (2006) Biophilic architecture. Towards a new potential of healthy architecture, rethinking sustainable construction, 12th Rinker international conference, next generation green buildings, Sarasota, Florida, USA Bringslimark T (2007) Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ph.D. thesis, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, p 26 Brunson L (1999) Resident appropriation of defensible space in public housing: implications for safety and community. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Illinois, UrbanaChampaign, IL, pp 24–30 Burchardt T (2002) Degrees of exclusion: developing a dynamic, multidimensional measure. In: Hills J, Le Grand J, Piachaud D et al (eds) Understanding social exclusion. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 25–33 Caspersen CJ et al (1991) The prevalence of selected physical activities and their relation with coronary heart disease risk factors in elderly men: the Zutphen Study, 1985. Am J Epidemiol 133:1078–1092 Fjeld T et al (2002) The effect of indoor foliage plants on health and discomfort symptoms among office workers. Indoor Built Environ 7:202–207 Frumkin H (2003) Healthy places: exploring the evidence. Am J Public Health 93:9 Hassink J, van Dijk M (2006) People planting interaction. Farming for Health, Springer, pp 45–55 Healthy living, get fit by gardening, www.saga.co.uk Hull RB (1989) How the public values urban forests. J Arboricult 18, 2, 1992, 88 John Richard R (2008) Green areas reduce stress, natural environments help lower psychosocial stress http://generalmedicine.suite101.com/article.cfm/green_areas_reduce_stress. Accessed 27 Oct 2009 Kaiser M (1976) Alternative to therapy: garden program. J Clin Child Psychol 5:21–24 Kaplan R (1993) Physical models in decision making for design: Theoretical and methodological issues. In: Marans RW, Stokols D (eds) Environmental simulation: research and policy issues. Plenum Press, New York, pp 61–86 Kaplan R, Kaplan S (1995a) The experience of nature: a psychological perspective. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Kaplan R, Kaplan S (1995b) The experience of nature, a psychological perspective. Ulrich’s bookstore, UK Kellert S (2005) Building for life: designing and understanding the human–nature connection. Island Press, Washington, DC Lehrer J (2009) How we decide. Houghton Mifflin, Co, UK, pp 167–203 Lewis CA (1992) Effects of plants and gardening in creating interpersonal and community wellbeing. In: Relf D (ed) The role of horticulture in human well-being and social development: a national symposium, 19–21 April 1990, Arlington, Virginia. Timber Press, Portland, pp 54–66 Lewis CA (1995) Human health and well-being: the psychological, physiological, and sociological effects of plants on people. In: Matsuo E, Relf PD (eds) Horticulture in human life, culture and environment: international symposium 22 August 1994. ISHS, Leuven, 31–39. ISHS Acta Horticulturae no. 391 Lohr VI et al (1996) Interior plants may improve worker productivity and reduce stress in windowless environments. J Environ Hortic 14(2):97–100 McGinnis M (1989) Gardening as therapy for children with behavioral disorders. J Child Adolesc Psychiatr Ment Health Nurs 2(3):85–103
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McGuinn C, Relf PD (2001) A profile of juvenile offenders in a vocational horticulture curriculum. HortTechnology 11(3):427–433 Mooney P, Nicell PL (1992) The importance of exterior environment for Alzheimer’s residents: effective care and risk management. Health Care Manage Forum 5(2):20–33 Nixon B, Read S (1998) Therapeutic horticulture for young people with complex mental health problems. In: Stoneham J, Kendle T (eds) Plants and human well-being: proceedings of a conference held at the University of Reading, 18–19 September 1996. The Sensory Trust, Bath, pp 49–76 Oosterling H (2005) Untouched nature. In: Van Mensvoort K, Gerritzen M, Schwarz M (eds) Next nature. BIS Publishers, pp 81–87 Owen PJ (1994) Influence of botanic garden experience on human health. Master Thesis Kansas State University, Department of Horticulture, Forestry and Recreation Resources, Manhattan Penninx BW et al (1997) Effects of social support and personal coping resources on mortality in older age: the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam. Am J Epidemiol 146(6):510–519 Perrins-Margalis NM et al (2000) The immediate effects of a group-based horticulture experience on the quality of life of persons with chronic mental illness. Occup Ther Ment Health 16(1):14–34 Prema TP et al (1986) An attempt at Indianisation of psychiatric nursing. Nurs J India 77(6):154–156 Rice JS, Remy LL (1998) Impact of horticultural therapy on psychosocial functioning among urban jail inmates. J Offender Rehabil 26(3/4):169–191 Russell H (1997) The effect of interior planting on stress. University of Surrey Seller J, Fieldhouse J, Phelan M (1999) Fertile imaginations: an inner city allotment group. Psychiatr Bull 23(3):291–293 Stokols D (1990) Instrumental and spiritual views of people-environment relations. American Psychologist 45:641–646. (Program in Social Ecology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92717, USA) Ulrich RS et al (1991) Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments. J Environ Psychol 11:201–230 Wohlwill JF (1983) The concept of nature, a psychologist’s view. In: Altman I, Wohlwill JF (eds) Behaviour and the natural environment. Plenum Press, New York Wolf KL (2007) City trees and property values. Arborist News 16(4):25–39 Wolf KL (2008) Social benefit of civic nature. University of Washington, http://www. naturewithin.info/CivicEco/CivicNature_Wolf.pdf. Accessed 28 Oct 2009
Chapter 15
Green Roofs
15.1 Introduction It is simple to observe why paradise was imaged in this manner. For those living in barren lands, in deserts that were cold at night and insufferably hot through day, an abundant green area was not just a position of calmness for the spirit but also a vital to life. Yet, it seems that the green areas of ancient times were quite unlike what most of us would imagine. Vita Sackville-West, whose own walled gardens at S singhurst are almost as famous as the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, reacted coolly when she visited Persian gardens in the 1920s (Geddes-Brown 2007). The first known historical references to manmade gardens above grade appear to be the ziggurats of ancient Mesopotamia, built from the fourth millennium until about 600 B.C. located in the courtyards of temples in major cities, the ziggurats were great stepped pyramid towers of stone, built in stages. They were accessible via stairways spiraling upward on their outer edges. The best preserved of the ancient ziggurats is the ziggurat of Nanna, in the ancient city of Ur. It was built by Ur-Nammu, the first king of the third dynasty of Ur, who reigned from 2113 to 2095 B.C., and by his son Shulgi, who reigned from 2095 to 2047 B.C. It was completely remodeled by the last neo-Babylonian king, Nabonidus, who reigned from 556 to 539 B.C., in an effort to surpass the splendor of Etemenanki in Babylon (Osmundson 1999). Hanging garden in all probability rose throughout the rebuilding of Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar II. Where in the center of Mesopotamia, précis in Babylon city, we can imaginative a biggest and attracted form of hanging garden in all history, as a result that green roofs do have a long tradition worldwide. The most famous green roofs were the Hanging Garden of Babylon, considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World. These terraced structures, constructed around 600 B.C., were built over arched stone beams and waterproofed with layer of reeds and thicker tar. Soil, plants, and trees were then planted. Ancient stories say King Nebuchadnezzar built the garden for his homesick wife, Amyitis who had come
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Fig. 15.1 The ziggurat of Nanna in the ancient city of Ur (now Thiqar in south Iraq) still stands today. Built during the third dynasty of Ur, beginning in 2113 B.C
from green, rugged land with mountains. Babylon was flat, dry, and far from green. The hanging garden probably did not hang (Fig. 15.1). There are no record of hanging garden from the time Nebuchadnezzar ruled, although there tablets describing the place, the city of Babylon and the wall. In fact, none of the historians who wrote about this magnificent garden even saw it (Stevenson 1992). The garden has plants cultivated above ground level, and the roots of the trees grow firmly attached to supple branches. No contemporary accounts of their construction or existence have been found. Exotic flowers and plants covered the terraces. Shade came from cypress trees and palms, and there was a rich smell of aromatic plants and flowers in the air. The creation of green roofs is prepared also in a conventional means in a numerous Scandinavian and European countries. The combination of ground and plants rooted on the roofs prepared it potential to take out roofs insulate comparatively healthy, tight to the air and water, challenging to the wind and fire (Figs. 15.2, 15.3). In Scandinavia, roofs were covered with sod that was stripped from surrounding grassy meadows. This was complete to insulate dwellings. Underneath the sod is structurally heavy timber beams interspaced with birch bark to act as a waterproofing layer. Eventually, cheaper, lighter, more effective, and mass-market based systems were developed to replace sod roofs (Fig. 15.4).
15.2 What is a Green Roof? Green roof recognized as vegetated roof coats, eco-roofs or nature roofs are multibeneficial structural works that assist to mitigate the effects of urbanization on water excellence by filtering, absorbing, or detaining rainfall. It has turn out to be an incredibly vital component of sustainable urban progress within the last 35 years. It adds natural attractiveness to a landscape that is increasingly prepared up of classical buildings material such pavement. They are constructed of a lightweight
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Fig. 15.2 The hanging garden imagined by Almsad Fig. 15.3 Green roof from Scandinavian countries
Fig. 15.4 Grube house from Viking in Denmark
soil media, underlain by a drainage layer, and a high quality impermeable membrane that protects the house structure. The soil is planted with a specialized mix of plants that can thrive in the harsh, dry, high temperature conditions of the roof,
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and tolerate short periods of inundation from storm events (ENSR Corporation 2006). The vital factors to judge when edifice a green roof are the drainage system, sun and wind contact, and the types of plants for precedent climate, which be able to be optional by a local landscape architect. Green roofs are adaptable for all construction types that have a flat or low-slope roof that can sustain the weight of the vegetation and its bear system. Currently, green roofs, sky gardens, and rooftop gardens can be create in almost all the big cities around the world. The plants absorb CO2 and supply a refuge to insects and birds. They supply cooling in summer and protect the building by absorbing rainwater in winter. On a hot summer day, the outside temperature of a green roof is able to be cooler than the exterior air temperature. There are possible worries and disadvantages to installing a green roof, including the complexity of repairing leaks, relatively innovative technology, opposition with other roof functions such as solar panels, and installation costs. Irrigation systems are occasionally incorporated. However, it has planned, it certain beats conventional black tar on a warm city day growing consciousness and the economical and ecological compensation are the dynamic factors for this vast accomplishment. The green component surrounded by the architectural composition usually appears in the form of a green roof and less often in that of a green façade outside layer. The latter may especially be found in vernacular architecture.
15.3 Green Roofs Today Nowadays, plants are rarely used as a finishing façade stroke. The green roofs or façade coating does not indicate that we are dealing with a neglected building, as it might seem at a first look. The green roof is a Scandinavian variation of the ground roof. Attention, because the soil is not really an insulator, it protects by its mass, but does not insulate. The green roof, by its lightness and the air, which is there, is, as for him, more insulators (Al-musaed et al. 2006). On the dissimilar, it produces many positive effects in terms of design, construction, health, and ecology. Its function is not limited to the mere protection of the façade. The green roofs and façade coating indirectly affects the inhabitants feeling of comfort, and has a significant esthetic function within the building’s vicinity. The bio-ecological and ecological green façade coating significantly contribute to the formation of balance between man and environment. The new concept of roof gardens really started to take form in the world during the late 1980s early 1990s. The most familiar Green roofs in North America were installed in the 1930s on Rockefeller Center in New York City. These rooftop gardens continua to be succeed today. Green roofs have been installed in the USA, as places such as Chicago City Hall, and more are planned, like Ford’s River Rouge renovation in Detroit. The highest density of green roofs occurs in Germany, widely considered a leader in green roof research, technology, and usage, where it is estimated that
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10% of all flat roofs are green. For many years, Germany and Switzerland have established green roofs as sustainable and economical building constructions (Green Roof News 2005). Germany is widely considered the leader in green roof research, technology, and usage. It is estimated that 12% of all flat roofs in that country is green and the green roof industry in West Europe is growing 10–15% per year (Gruzen Samton 2005–2007). Now, green roof expertise is seen as an efficient friendly environment approach toward urban devise administration. Green roofs cost more upfront (about 1.5–2 more expensive than a traditional roof), but they last 20–30 years longer than traditional roofing. Green roofs last longer because they protect the roof’s waterproof layer from damaging UV rays and from the day/night temperature fluctuations that can cause cracking. The green roof has added insulation leads to 5–15% reduction in summer electricity usage (Green Roofs Web 2009).
15.4 Green Roofs Types 15.4.1 After Roofs Inclination There are two types of roofs.
15.4.1.1 Incline Green Roofs Cold and temperate climates provide architect possibility to create an inclined green roof with only 3 cm thickness substrate. In this situation, only grass and sedum species are able to stay alive if they are resistant against dryness and frost. Evidently, they cannot create a dense and thick green layer and therefore have an extremely modest positive effect in respect of passive heating and cooling. The vegetation has to be resistant against rigorous climatic conditions, like dryness, strong wind, and in many regions frost (Fig. 15.5).
Fig. 15.5 Green roof pattern
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Fig. 15.6 School of Art and Design, Singapore. Photos: Sidonie Carpenter, extensive green roof component
With a substrate thickness of 5–10 cm a mixture of sedum and allium species together with wild grasses like Poa compress, Poa pratensis angustifolia, Festuca vivpara, and bromus tectorum are forming a dense cover. Green roof systems of wild grasses and herbs on thin earth layers of 8–18 cm only and inclination of 5– 30% as used at the present time in several building around the world. Proofed is not only to reduce environmental pollution and to save heating and cooling energy, but stated to be more economical than common roofing, when taking into account their lifespan. Green roofs without inclination need to have either more than 30 cm of substrate (earth) or a special layer for drainage. In the first case, the vegetation grows higher, requirements care and usually watering and nutrition. The advantage by means of inclined green roofs is that they require no special drainage layer if the inclination is more than 5%. However, with slopes of more than 20–30% particular barriers or other means, which prevent the substrate from slipping down, strength is necessary. Also working on the inclination is more difficult (Figs. 15.6, 15.7). Regularly, there are many types of incline green roofs, most practical is one slope surface incline, and others can be more than one slope surface inclination (two or more) and curving or warp form (Fig. 15.8).
15.4.1.2 Flat Green Roofs Flat green roof form is a type of green roof usually set on a flat roof by the addition of a thin substratum, with extensive, low height vegetation. Compared to the
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Fig. 15.7 The California Academy of Sciences, as featured on thegrowspot.com
Fig. 15.8 Heden proposal, Gothenburg, Sweden, and Monterey Bay Shores
traditional garden roof, low or zero up keeping, and a consequent low cost (Fig. 15.9). Among the several reasons that give good reason for the experimental study of flat roofs, we name that it is the exterior and most eminent surface in the building; that it is the building element, which receives the most sun particularly in summer; that it is more exposed of the night cooling by radiation. It is elevated mass and thermal capacity influence the thermal behavior of flat roofs, which usually have a negative impact on the thermal comfort of the spaces below the roof. Certainly, the use of an ecological flat roof produces environmental advantages, as it adds green space to the area occupied by the building itself; in short, the benefits provided by vegetation to the environment are very well known. A large amount has been said about the advantages that the addition of vegetation to a building brings, above all concerning the increased of thermal protection (Fig. 15.10).
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Fig. 15.9 The EFA, radio satellite station Custav Peichi Aflenz Austria 1976–1979
In winter season, the ecological roofs with insulation have a similar consumption level, which shows that the presence of thermal insulation is paramount under these conditions. Green roofs work best on flat or low incline roofs, and retrofitting a green roof onto an offered dwelling could not be probable because of the additional weight added by the vegetation (Fig. 15.11). The employment of an ecological roof is a possible option to the flat roof, assuring extra summer protection and offering quite a lot of environmental advantages.
15.4.2 After Structure form Arrangement The type of green roof category divided after the load that the structure could support and determine the structural arrangement. The structural engineer or architect can assist in selection which type of system is excellent suited to the building planned, building materials and esthetics, based on the structural analysis of the construction. Where green roof plants are selected based the type of green roof selected, soil depth, loading capacity, climate, type of irrigation system, and
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Fig. 15.10 Inviting garden, with view of Boston’s harbor
Fig. 15.11 The famous Chicago city hall green roof
height and slope of the roof itself. Contemporary green roofs can be categorized as ‘‘intensive’’ or semi-intensive or ‘‘extensive’’ systems depending on the plant material and planned usage for the roof area.
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15.4.2.1 Extensive Green Roofs (Climatic Skin Roof) Extensive green roofs are fine matched to roofs with small load bearing capacity and sites, which are not destined to be utilized as roof gardens. In this system, the height of the plants does not exceed 25 cm maximum and the mixing of more than a few varieties gives them a multicolored feature unreliable with the partiality of the seasons. Predominantly modified to the edifices of great surfaces, skewed roofs or previously existing residences, for their low thickness of substrate (3 to approximately 25 cm), their heaviness of excess ranging between 30 and 100 kg/ m2 (with maximum water capacity), their restricted protection and their colonizing and very resistant vegetation (Al-musaed 2004). It is preferably that the right for places that get modest or no maintenance, or where structural potentials are an anxiety. The grow media (soil) mixture composed primarily of mineral materials assorted with organic medium. Owing to the shallow soils and the extreme environment on numerous roofs, plants are typically low growing ground cover that is extremely sun drought tolerant. Plants such as sedums, hardy grasses and selected herbs are more familiar utilized because they are low to the soil, will not be shattered by nesting birds, necessitate less maintenance and can stand almost any variety of weather conditions. The types of plants fitting for extensive green roofs are those native mainly from locations with dry and semi-dry grass conditions or with rocky surfaces, such as an Alpine environment. As a technique of surviving great conditions, they have developed special mechanisms such as water storage organs, thicker leaf surface, silver surface hairs, narrow leaves, etc. The intention is to recreate the original environmental benefits at roof level to ensure that the ecological impact of the structure is minimized. In addition to the ecological benefits, the protection provided by the landscape element can double the life of the waterproofing membrane. Easy to create, economical to install, and requiring little if any maintenance. Extensive green roofs can be installed over various roof decks; though a structural engineer should always first inspect the structure to define it weight load limitations. The challenge in creating extensive green roofs is to replicate many of the benefits of green open space, while keeping them light and affordable. Thus, the new generation of green roofs relies on a marriage of the sciences of horticulture, waterproofing, and manufacturing. The most familiar vegetated roof wrap in temperate climates is a single un-irrigated 8–10 cm. layer of lightweight growth media vegetated with succulent plants and herbs. Usually, extensive green roofs can be creating on roofs with slopes up to 30%, and can be retrofitted on top of existing structures with modest, or most frequently, no supplementary structural sustain (Gruzen Samton 2005–2007). The costs are lower than simple intensive or semi-Intensive green roofs. The mineral substrate layer, containing modest nutrients, is not extremely deep but fitting for less difficult and low growing big plants. An extensive green roof is much lighter than intensive green roofs. Soil depth is 2.5–15 cm. and weight load 21–67 kg/m2. Only disadvantage, this kind of roof is not workable.
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15.4.2.2 Semi-intensive Green Roofs Semi-Intensive green roofs in terms of necessities fall in between extensive and intensive green roof arrangements. This system can be utilized as a functional outdoor space; for this reason the name. Whether irrigation is required or not depends on the local climate and on the variety of plants that are used. Shrubs, herbs, and grasses are able to be used on semi-intensive roofs. Maintenance is still quite labor intensive because the concept of the majority of semi-intensive green roofs is still a garden. The height of the green roof, an assortment of grasses, bulbs, and annuals were planted in the increasing media mounds. Grasses put in texture and movement to the roof landscape and a home for birds and insects as they do in conventional scenery. A deeper substrate plane permits more potential for the propose; different grasses, herbaceous perennials, and shrubs such as lavender can be planted even as tall growing bushes and trees are still absent (Hermann et al. 2004). This kind of green roofs requires extra supplementary maintenance, higher costs, and more weight are the characteristics for the intermediate green roof category compared to that of the extensive green roof.
15.4.2.3 Intensive Green Roofs (Garden Roofs) This kind of roof is marked by a substrate height of more than 60 cm, with a saturated weight increase of between 290 and 968 kg/m2. The irrigation system is artificial and a wide variety of plants, more costly, and in need of more maintenance than their extensive counterparts, can accommodate vegetables, shrubs, and small trees. Intensive green roofs use a wide variety of plant species that may include trees and shrubs, which have a deep-rooted plant that require deeper substrate layers, are generally limited to flat roofs, require intense maintenance, and are often park-like areas accessible to the public. Different growth media categories and depths permit for a better choice of plants, as well as flowering shrubs and trees. It be supposed to be noted that, depending on such location specific aspects as site, structural competence of the edifice, financial statement, user requirements, materials and plant accessibility, every individual green roof determination be diverse, likely a mixture of both intensive and extensive systems. Intensive green roofs are installed primarily over concrete roof decks to withstand the weight requirements. Preferably, these green roofs have relatively flat roof surfaces (1–1.5%) or soft roof slope percentages of up to 3%. These parks like green roofs can be at or above grade and require considerable maintenance to sustain their esthetic appearance. This poses a weight issue that should be considered in the building and planning stages, so as not to overburden the building below. At what time correctly designed, a balance exists between the performances of the system itself and the commitment to the cost of the structure beneath. The static of the roof has to be checked carefully, due to the substrate weight. Intensive
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green roofs are extra richly designed roof landscapes, such as roof gardens and on top of/underground parking garage roofs that are proposed for human interface and will require to be engineered to be conventional to the weight supplies. In order to guarantee a good performance, regular care is fundamental. Pathways, terraces, water fountains, ponds, and other architectural skin result in beautiful and spectacular spaces. Depending on the plant assortment, added water compilation cisterns, basin boards, irrigation, fertilization, and/or maintenance may be essential, just as it would be for a conventional garden. Because of the added demands they impose, intensive roofs are much less frequent than extensive roofs. The most disadvantages in arrangement this system is that with complexity in system and expertise.
15.4.2.4 Mix Green Roofs That represents difference types of green roofs. Generally (extensive roof), including an area with intensive (garden) roof where can wrap over the functional spaces in building, which need a special level of insulation and comfort (Table 15.1). As well esthetical reasons there are a numeral of factors at engage in recreation to make an eventual alternative for a roofs garden form. For choosing this type of greenly areas over a roof, it is vital to understand that the roof system concept must Table 15.1 The characteristic varieties of the four different forms of green roofs Characteristic Extensive Semi-intensive Intensive Mix Green roof Green roof Green roof Green roof Maintenance Low Periodically Irrigation Low Periodically Plants utilized Sedum-herbs Grass-herbs and and grasses shrubs
High Frequently Shrubs and trees
Structure build-up height
50–200 mm
100–250 mm
Weight Costs Plant diversity Accessibility
60–150 kg/m2 Low Low
120–200 kg/m2 Middle Middle
150–400 mm on underground buildings [1,000 mm. 180–500 kg/m2 High High
Energy efficiency Thermal insulation
Special Periodically Grass-herbs, shrubs, and trees 50-more than 1,000 mm.
60–500 kg/m2 High High
Often May be partially inaccessible accessible Low Middle
Usually accessible
Partial accessible
High
Over middle
Middle
High
High
Middle
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be intend to influence the environmental benefits allied with that roof, and that designing a roof to maximize many environmental benefits. The following criteria can be used to characterize the four diverse forms of green roofs.
15.5 Green Roofs Components On the top of any roofs form, architects can create a complex of component such green roof which is determined by architect as creator. The necessary components may vary from extensive to intensive roofs and by roof site configuration. A green roof is composed primarily of four components: Waterproofing layer (a seal), drainage layer and filtration, substrate of growth (growth medium), plants, and vegetation.
15.5.1 Waterproofing Layer (A Seal) A waterproofing membrane is laid in a straight line on the roof decking. The waterproof skin underneath the green roof must be completely waterproof (hydro isolate stratum) and resistant against aggressive roots and humid acid. The layer is frequently of bitumen, rubberized asphalt, polyolefin (cartouche ethylene propylene ? polypropylene), PVC, or compounded thermoplastic composition. In Europe several materials with expert characteristics are on the market, mainly used are PVC-covered polyester fabric and polyolefin-covered fiberglass fabric. The joints are hot air welded and can be sealed with liquid plastic. Bituminous roofing material is not root proof. Some roots live with special microorganism in symbiosis, which dissolve the bitumen and use it for nutrition; as a result, it is essential to create different forms of root stop. The usually method is that which use a chemically treated, root resistant under layer to be fully bonded to the deck by torching in the approved roof garden consultancy manner. Waterproofing layer is provided by a composition which comprises an aqueous dispersion of coalesce able particles of thermoplastic polymer. The method is useful in the waterproofing of tunnel linings. Thermoplastic compositions are inclined to hold up better against acid conditions caused by fertilizers and acid rain.
15.5.2 Drainage Layer and Filtration The means environmental benefit of green roofs is that they absorb rainwater and diminish runoff. Any excess water not absorbed by the substrate or used by plants is obliged to be drained off. The drainage layer has concurrently to capture and retain rainwater or irrigated water and permit overload rainwater to drain away.
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With very small inclination of 5–10% frequently, a drainage system is afforded underneath the substrate. Roofs that are steeper may not require one because they will drain naturally with gravity. Drainage layers are characteristically of an egg carton style configuration, contribution closely spaced reservoirs to capture water. This can be a layer of 4–8 cm of expanded clay or similar aggregate of 4–8 mm diameter or a special porous mat with drain grooves. With steeper roofs, no special drainage layer is necessary if the substrate has a certain drainage capacity (Fig. 15.12). Rubber, polyethylene, and expanded polystyrene are suitable for the production of drainage elements. Preferably, utilized a natural drainage layer—plastics make poor habitats for invertebrates. Between the reservoirs, drain holes are positioned to release excess water so that it does not rise to the soil level. Profiled drainage elements retain rainwater for dry periods in troughs on the upper side. The surplus water is drained off through the channel system on the underneath. Special holes ensure evaporation and necessary ventilation. The substrate must be able to store and drain water, should have enough airports and diminutive nutritive substance. Filter sheet is a significant component, which has a function that prevents well particles from being washed out of the substrate soil, in that way ensuring the efficiency of the drainage layer. This layer is important for three reasons. • Roots and soil in the drainage layer reduce the rainwater storage capacity of the reservoirs. • Roots submerged in trapped rainwater will rot, introducing potentially fatal fungal diseases to the plant material. • Roots in the drainage layer are one-step closer to the waterproofing medium. The filter sheet layer is water retentive and, through capillary action, transmits water from the drainage layer’s reservoirs to the growing medium so that the roots are able to receive water (Sitaram Shetty 2006). It is mostly essential to fix a filter layer when the soil (substratum) is very fine. The filter later separates the drainage and substrate layer. Its primary role is to hold soil in place and prevent soil from clogging up the drainage layer below. The filter layer is usually made from a light-
Fig. 15.12 The drainage layer (egg carton manner design)
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weight polyester geo textile. This is inexpensive, non-woven, landscape fabric, which you can find at most home improvement stores. On roofs at an angle of over 10, it is not recommended to utilize a filter layer on the total roof as it will take action as a slip layer. Instead, it is supposed to fix approximately the roof perimeters—openings.
15.5.3 Substrate (Growing Medium) Natural soils are mostly heavy when wet, so the substrate for green roof needs to be lightweight and have a sufficient nutrient supply as well as balanced water–air relation. The natural soils are useful just in the areas, which connect the green roofs such intermediary areas. In the green roof manufacturing, there is a need to classify growing substrates that are lightweight, permanent, and can sustain plant health without leaching nutrients that may harm the environment. Substrate or top soil medium have to be mixed with lightweight aggregates like pumice, slag, expanded slate, or expanded clay. If the weight is of no meaning sand and gravel can also be used. Synthetic soil mixes are frequently used with green roofs. The specific mix and amount will depend on whether the roof in intensive, extensive, or mix as well as the categories of vegetation grown. Preferably, that the mixing procedure is approximately 75–80% inorganic to 20–25% organic compost. The highly organic substrate such as peat is not recommendable for green roofs because it will decompose resulting in substrate shrinkage and can leach nutrients such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in the runoff (peat is not environmentally friendly). The same runoff problems can happen when fertilizer is useful. By reducing the amount of organic matter in the substrate and by applying the minimal amount of fertilizer to maintain plant health, potential contaminated discharge of N, P, and other nutrients from green roofs is likely to be reduced considerably while still maintaining plant health (Getter and Rowe 2006). The thickness of it must keep up a correspondence with the type of plants and the climatic condition. The depth of the substrate depends upon the type of planting form, area, and green roofs type. Extensive green roofs usually have soil depths between 8 and 20. Intensive green roofs are normally 20 and more than 1,000 cm depth. A thickness of more than 16–18 cm is not desirable for extensive green roofs. In general, the thickest cover with best effects of passive heating and cooling as well as longest lifespan will be created by an 8–18 cm thick layer of substrate covered by wild grasses. Green roofs advantage from these particular mixes because the mixes clutch water in reserve for the plant roots in its place of drenched them and supply a lightweight, disease retardant, relatively wind-proof medium for excellent root health (Cote et al. 2004). Engineers are supposed to asking for establish roof weight and total saturated roof weight before completing the estimating phase for any green roof project.
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15.5.4 Plants and Vegetation Plant spices and size depend on the depth of the roof overburden (growing medium) and local climate, but the plants are almost always drought understanding. Plant species will vary between extensive and intensive green roofs. Location, wind, rainfall, air pollution, edifice height, shade, and soil depth are all factors in determining what plants can be grown and where. Extensive roofs will necessitate highly drought tolerant species growing 3–80 cm height. Extensive green roof sustain just small size vegetations. Intensive green roofs can sustain small- and medium-sized trees if designed properly. It is essential to recognize where the plants were previously grown and if the growing circumstances were comparable to the ones on the roof to guarantee their capability to adapt and thrive. Plant species are selected that have properties such as shallow root systems, good regenerative qualities, resistance to direct solar radiation, drought, frost, and wind. Vegetative cover can consist of a thin layer of moss and lichens to an assortment of native grasses, shrubs, or even intricately landscaped gardens with multiple species and a soil substrate of 15 cm or more. Climatic conditions on a rooftop are often extreme. Unless one is willing to provide shading devices, irrigation and fertilization, the choice of planting material should be limited to hardier or indigenous varieties of grasses and sedums. Root size and depth should also be considered in determining whether the plant will stabilize in 10 cm or in 60 cm of growing medium (Peck and Kuhn 2007). The deeper the soil layer, the higher the plant that can be sustained. Low growing plants such as grasses, sedums, and other cactus like plants are used where the depth is only a small number of centimeters. Where the average depth is several centimeters, shrubs and even small trees can be used. One of a negative effect of plants and vegetation on the roofs is that, with growing a higher substrate of the grasses and herbs, which creates problems with strong winds and long dry periods. The result might be that the vegetation dies out, at least partially. The same negative effect was experimental with substrate of high nutritive substance. If a certain layer for drainage is used underneath the substrate preferably, a fleece is used in order to prevent the substance to penetrate into the drainage reducing its effect (see Sect. 15.5.4 in biophilic).
15.6 Green Roofs Maintenance and Warranty The major problem with roof gardens is the lack of understanding of roof maintenance. The problem of maintenance in roof gardens can be easily understood by comparing a roof garden to a potted plant. Efficient maintenance is the key to the growth and increase of healthy and beautiful roof gardens. Green roofs are not natural; they are artificial and need to be looked after continuously. Green roofs are usually more effectual than conventional roofing systems in shielding the roof
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membrane. This decreases standard maintenance costs and enlarges the life of the membrane itself. Maintenance programmers for green roofs are usually argued before setting up so that the user knows what levels are necessary. Extensive green roofs will not maintain a homogenous manifestation, if they are not weeded frequently, and checked for plants with aggressive root systems, and the drainage points need to be checked for blockage. Once an appropriately installed green roof is healthy well known, its maintenance supplies are typically minimal. There are fundamental minimum supplies for all roofs, however; the quantity of watering, feeding, and weeding amplifies with the complication of the roof or the user’s idea of it. Plants for green roofs have to be chosen with care if the roof is predictable to keep on more or less maintenance free. Warranties accepted by means of a complete system from waterproofing upwards can be inaugurated for 10, 15, or 20 years insurance backed. Both plant maintenance and warranties of the waterproofing membrane are necessary. Depending on whether the green roof is extensive, semi-intensive, intensive, or mix required plant maintenance will vary from 2 to 3 yearly inspections to ensure for weeds or damage, to weekly visits for irrigation, clipping, and replanting. However, of which types of green roofing systems, we have the last due to its amplified weight and more plantings that are intensive are inclined to have higher maintenance requirements. Automatic irrigation systems can bring water frequently with electrically controlled timers, as long as an optimum quantity of water constantly, with full coverage over all planting areas. Soil-moisture sensors are accessible to indication hazardously dry surroundings and activate the irrigation system. People do not realize that these gardens do not grow in the approved manner, if the irrigation is switched off, or not controlled it correctly. Supplemental irrigation in adding to natural precipitation at smallest amount once a week could be necessary in the primary 6 months or so depending upon the category of roof membrane and water supplies of the planting substance. With insufficient drainage, the plants will in addition be at risk to the impact of wide degrees of variability in the moisture content of the soil. If too much water is present the soil will be adversely affected and the plants will drown or rot (Peck and Callaghan 1999). In a several cases, green roof maintenance may engage re-waterproofing of the roof membrane. For example, roofs surface can leak from drainage backups or root pierce or if the exact waterproofing membrane system, root barrier, and/or drainage layer are not selected. Areas where irregular inspection for leaks is sensible include probable such as adjoining vertical walls, roof vent pipes, outlets, air conditioning units, perimeter areas, etc. (Banting et al 2005). Maintenance and visual inspections of the waterproofing membrane are able to be difficult by the detail that the green roof system totally coats the membrane. Eventually, after 30–50 years, the membrane will have to be replaced. Depending on the roof size, building height, type of planting, and depth of growing medium, the system will either be removed and reinstalled over the new membrane, or replaced entirely (Peck and Kuhn 2007). Damage of the green roofs vegetation occurs just as soon as people, other than gardeners, walked over the seeded areas.
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References Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole Århus, Århus, p 175 Almusaed A et al (2006) Biophilic architecture, the concept of healthy sustainable. In: PLEA2006—the 23rd conference on passive and low energy architecture, Geneva, Switzerland, 6–8 September 2006 Banting D et al (2005) Report on the environmental benefits and costs of green roof technology for the city of Toronto. http://www.toronto.ca/greenroofs/pdf/fullreport103105.pdf. Accessed 13 July 2009 Cote RP et al (2004) Moose Greek eco-industrial park, guidance for developers. http://ecoefficiency.management.dal.ca/Files/Research/Moose_Creek_-_Final_Copy.pdf. Accessed 20 July 2009 ENSR Corporation (2006) United States Environmental Protection Agency region I, stormwater TMDL implementation support manual. ENSR Corrporation, Virginia Beach Geddes-Brown L (2007) The walled garden. Merrell Publishers Limited, London, p 10 Getter KL, Rowe DB (2006) The role of green roofs in sustainable development. Horttechnology 16(3):469–471 Green Roof News (2005) International Green Roof Association global networking for green roofs Green Roofs Web (2009). http://www.ecohuddle.com/wiki/green-roofs. Accessed 28 June 2009 Gruzen Samton (2005–2007) DDC cool & green roofing manual. NYC Department of Design & Construction Office of Sustainable Design. http://www.nyc.gov. Accessed 17 June 2009 Hermann J-M et al (2004) SIBERIA 2000—excursion report. http://www.wzw.tum.de/vegoek/ publikat/berichte/blv1/blv1.html. Accessed 12 June 2009 Osmundson T (1999) Roof garden, history, design, and construction. W. W. Norton & Company, New York, p 112 Peck SW, Callaghan C (1999) Greenbacks from green roofs: forging a new industry in Canada. Prepared for: Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. Environmental Adaptation Research Group, Environment Canada, Downsview Peck S, Kuhn M (2007) Design guidelines for green roofs. http://www.cmhc.ca. Accessed 12 June 2009 Sitaram Shetty B (2006) Rain water harvesting in costal districts of Karnataka state, India. National Seminar on Rainwater Harvesting and Water Management 11–12 Nov. 2006, Nagpur. http://portal.unesco.org Stevenson DWW (1992) Aproposal for the irrigation of the hanging garden. http://www.jstor.org/ pss/4200351. Accessed 13 July 2009
Chapter 16
Green Walls
16.1 Introduction Green walls suggest natural precipice situations. They can be utilized as an impressive outdoor system, or can be used indoors, with the help of lighting. In the temperate climate of Scandinavian countries, it is simple to observe that walls gave protection from wind and rain, but in the hot countries that lie in the region of the Mediterranean, and in such ancient lands as Persia, Sumer, and India, the motivation of the walls was to produce a cool resting place. Such gardens traditionally had a lot of scented flowers and climbing plants, and often pavilions, which encouraged breezes and provided shade (Geddes-Brown 2007). However, green walls are not regular walls with vines clinging to them. They are vertical soil structures tilt up work areas that hold up a variety of plants, not just vines. In the Mediterranean and middle east areas, concerning to 2500 years ago the elegance courtyards of systematical big dwellings were decorated and sheltered with many kinds of vines that was the original appearance of green walls. Green walls proffer several occasions to improve the greenery inside the city organizations. Where thermal enhancement, sound reduction, privacy screening are important solution that incorporates ecological principals with engineering practices. The types of green walls sometimes referred to as urban gardening, because they are well suited for an urban environment where space on the soil is very limited but vertical space is abundant. The plants may live in soil or a hydroponic medium. If the wall is to be a primarily self-sustaining ecosystem, it should be much easier to use soil as a planting medium. The wall may be hydroponic, but be aware that hydroponic chemical plant nutrients may destroy or disrupt the non-hydroponic component of the vertical green areas. Green wall system can be implemented anywhere: indoors or out and in any climatic environment (Delaney 2009). Green walls are mainly composed of plants that absorb and filter out airborne toxins. All plants are able to remove toxins, but a number of plants are improved at filtering out such harmful substances than others. Choosing the plants for operative green walls is an
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complex process so it is vital to select the plant that are healthy adapted to the environment that they will be living in. Not all green walls are created identical and various achieve a healthier employment of maintaining plant health, the majority can be constructed of different materials such as metals or plastics and present a range of selections including depths, which are able to take into report by the architect (Kadas 2006).
16.2 Why Green Walls A motivating variety of plants can be grown in a smallest amount of growing medium. These amazing sky farms are able to plainly carry life to an old neglected construction in the heart of the city and they are flattering more and more popular inside office buildings, houses, and trade stores because of their wonderful beauty and their natural air purification properties. The plants on living walls employ sunlight to produce biomass rather than storing it as heat. They requisition carbon dioxide and cleanse the air. Their yielding, varied surfaces absorb sound. The plants and soil can diminish tempest water runoff by storing roof water. In addition, correctly maintained living walls are gorgeous. The green wall is a unique outdoor modular planter with green surface development. An organic produce has massive environmental benefits including photosynthesis, pollution filtration, and soil stabilization. A low shrubby plant has a fewer leaves that evaporate water, relative to the size of its root system and relative to the patch of soil, it is rooted into. Thus, it makes less water demand on its own area of soil, and it is less likely to die of drought (Jonathan 2009). A green wall can be applicant onto an existing edifice or placed a few centimeters away from accessible walls to take action as a barrier or entry screen. If green wall elements are fond of an existing wall, waterproofing and the structural implications of additional mass have to be measured. The system can generate a central value for those of the short planting space in condominiums, or apartments with small balconies. Throughout flow irrigation system when we water the top pot it waters all the lower pots, with no waste of water. When the horizontal green area is limited, we can use the concept for a green wall. With green walls, we can employ the vertical space to create green areas covering outer buildings envelope. The choosing of soils and plants will vary by region and even microclimate. Green walls can be grown presently on any type of wall, with or without the employ of soil, and they can be placed both on outdoor and indoor walls. As long as there is no scarcity of water for the living wall, no soil is necessary (Yu-Peng 2009). The system can be quite impressive in look, and in some cases, they even work to filter clean air into the edifice in which they are growing upon. The potential of vertical green areas is great, but a smaller amount of the solution used. They perform well in full sun, shade, and interior requests, and can be utilized in both tropical and temperate locations. Having the Sun directly overhead gives a lot more energy to the surface than if the Sun is at an angle. The idea is to select a
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plant category that is related to the Sun feature and microclimate of the green wall structure and therefore contributing to the environment in which it will flourish. Evergreen species generate a stratum of air between the masonry and the environment, plummeting the heat loss by convection. As well that, opposing to popular idea, facades covered by vegetation can be utilized as barriers for great humidity in winter, because leaves labor in the evasion of direct contact of rain water with the masonry (Dunnett and Kingsbury 2004). All plant species has a catalog of characters that represent what the best environment be supposed to be. Uniqueness can be recognized as what explains the plant (Georgi and Zafiriadis 2006). It could comprise expressions such as, a fast growing ground wrap that be able to revolve red, bronze, or brown in full sunlight.
16.3 Green Walls Types There are two main categories of green walls systems:
16.3.1 Extensive Green Walls 16.3.1.1 Spots Green Suspended Walls This system is composed of pre-vegetated panels or incorporated fabric system that is affixed to a structural wall or frame (Fig. 16.1). This can be developed to modular systems, to put right on fractions or on the complete vertical surface to make plant growth possible without relying on rooting space at ground level. In this situation, the positive environment effect is diminutive. Modular panels are able to be included of polypropylene plastic containers, geo-textiles, irrigation, and growing medium and vegetation. The modular panels can be planted at a height comfortable for approximately anyone making green wall panels ideal for curative gardens, aided living actions, children and other physically deprived situations. The essential role of this coating is esthetic with provisory exploit.
16.3.1.2 Compact Green Suspended Walls System The same such spots green walls in form and structural system but the difference is with coverings areas. Where the plants variety take the essential part of wall conception. Climbing plants are the vital component for this system adjacent to other kinds of plants. Climbers with their extraordinary varieties of flowers present a creative option to improve city configurations in walker sectors and to integrate greenery into building theories.
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Fig. 16.1 Spots green suspended walls, imagine by Architect (Boston Group)
Fig. 16.2 Compact green suspended walls system, Aarhus University in Denmark
In summer, climbing plants shading decreases the gain of solar radiation, unpaid to the angle of the perpendicularity of their leaves to the sunrays. It strength, as well, generate wind barriers, modify the wind direction and make the hot air be conducted faster to the top of the building. The evaporation and transpiration are responsible for an additional cooling power (Valesan 2008) (Fig. 16.2).
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The climbing plants require a fine provider of moisture and irregular pruning, depending on species, appearance, and wildlife control. In mainly luggage woody or herbal climbers either planted into the ground level or in planter boxes to envelop the constructions with the vegetation organization. Sustaining structures need minimal maintenance, with only irregular monitoring of the worry and structural relations. Summer green climbers offer shade in summer to cool urban building surfaces. The cooling consequence depends on the density and the size of foliage of the climber. Using trellises, nets, strings, cages, or poles to support growing plants constitutes green walls (Greenwood 2000). For trellis and cable, systems verify the penetrations of the anchors, spacers, and supplementary equipment in addition to the cable tension. The irrigation is simple to make with a trellis or cable system presumptuous the plant and the root system is at the bottom of the mechanism used to bear the climbing plant (Darlington 1981). The irrigation, no matter a bubbler, soaker, drip or other short volume technique, is supposed to be functioning to the original requirement. This technique is especially suited, but not limited, to small green walls. An ordinary maintenance necessity for exterior green walls is to weed the wall, where the trellis and cable systems are supplementary vulnerable to weed growth as the region the climbers are planted is lying on the horizontal plane. Dissimilar the soil based green walls; weed stones include a harder time rooting on a vertical surface. It can be attached to existing wall or assemble as separate structure. Modest ground area is necessary. The cost is low, and an ecological benefit is significant.
16.3.2 Intensive Green Wall 16.3.2.1 Living Walls System In this system, the green areas is not an essential part of the external wall, and not a part of wall structure, the greenly come just for covering. Where greenly raised from a box plants with soil. As a result soil come up such a starting element towards build living wall. Boxes are able to puts in intermediary open spaces such as balconies. Watering (irrigation) process occurs by manual procedure. This technology is most closely allied with green roofs and allows a greater variety of plant growth forms than green facades. The fresh air should be able to freely pass of over or past the wall. Also, keep in mind that the growing medium must be somewhat permeable to air, as the roots of plants require some oxygen. Living green walls can also be transferred in two separate categories: • Hydroponics wall that uses recirculation water to deliver nutrients directly to the roots of the plant material; • Soil or growing media based walls. These walls are made of an assortment of modules that keep growth media to sustain plant material.
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Fig. 16.3 Tower flower. Paris, France, 1999
Vines climbing over walls and high shrubs next to the walls, while as long as shade, also decrease the wind velocity next to the walls appreciably (shading and insulation effects) (Fig. 16.3).
16.3.2.2 Energetic Biophilic Walls (Climatic Skin Layer) In this system the green covering turn out to be a part of the wall formation (structural and thermal insulation, air space, and climatic skin layer). A climatic skin layer develops into a system with three elements (soil component, artificial regular irrigation system, and plant variety). A climatic skin layer becomes an essential part of wall composition. An efficient energetic biophilic wall must be solid, esthetic durable and functional. Under functional category, there are three standard function those are, energy saving, thermal and acoustical insulation, and environmental friendly. Heterogeneous wall is the characteristic of containing dissimilar buildings materials in wall composition. The efficient heterogeneous external wall consist of three layers; these are a physically powerful buildings material on the internal layer and thermal insulation layer in the middle (thickness of this layer determines the energy saving amount), and esthetical soft face (climatic skin layer) in the external layer. In the last layer can employee the concept of biophilic architecture by using sustain wall layer (climatic skin layer). The layers consist of the tow mains natural elements; soil and vegetation, which cover the external walls. The system is a principal part of heterogenic external wall. For understanding the nature of various forms of vegetation we have to know something about plant life and the characteristics and behavior of plants, because this layer play an essential function in building biophilic wall structure and esthetics. The composition of the vegetation on biophilic wall depends on the interaction of the various elements of the environment in which it lives. Where climatic
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conditions are extremely important, and so are those of relief, soils, and other ‘‘natural’’ phenomena. However, not all the vital elements affecting plant distribution can be regarded as ‘‘natural’’ in this sense. Consequently, the system is an effective manner to create a positive environmental assessment. The construction is carefully planned to guarantee the forbidden growth of roots and shoots. This system supports a great variety of plant species, counting a combination of groundcovers, ferns, low shrubs, perennial flowers, and edible plants. The system can benefit individual buildings as well as the environment by acting as sunscreens or providing additional insulation (reducing both heating and cooling costs), shielding outside noise, providing garden space for apartments and houses on small lots and adding aesthetic interest. Shallow rooting, deficiency tolerant plants. There are several diverse varieties of sedum, with diverse shadow and diverse flowerings, so that a green sustain wall can have a wide-ranging appearance, rather than looking like an whole crop of a single variety. The plants are in a growth medium, an engineered mixture of lightweight soils, vermiculite, and other materials that supplies a fine environment for the sedum. The shallow depth of the soil helps in observance weeds from founding themselves on the wall, as the majority weeds cannot stay alive in the arid and shallow soil environment on a vegetated wall. Local plants that can stay alive in that environment may set up themselves on the wall, as healthy. A big leaf is preferable for this system in hot climates, to combat the overheat effects than a small leaf, because it creates a wider, thicker boundary layer that resists the cooling effect of the breeze. A leaf can lose heat very effectively by evaporating water brought up by the plants from its roots; the heat is taken up into the latent heat of evaporation, vanishing into water vapor in the surrounding air it is the same principle by which sweating cools the human body. Evaporation from the leaves occurs mostly through tiny pores known as stomata, which they also use to let CO2 into the leaf for photosynthesis (Schmidt 2006). These categories of problems are consideration to limit the size that leaves of green areas can achieve without distress too much water loss or heat damage. Air quality is in a straight line related to the urban heat island effect. Accumulation energetic living walls consequences in a decrease in urban temperatures through the reintroduction of plants that would positively influence air quality by means of the diminution of pollution days and air born particulates. This system is very important to management the actual crises of environment and amplify the opportunities to create enhancement of surroundings, and help to discover an access to nature by providing of incorporation of green areas into the urban architecture to combat the negative phenomenon of urban heat island (Fig. 16.4). A climatic skin layer is an energetic biophilic covering which is hung on the building structure, regularly from level to level. The term is used to describe a building façade which does not a part of building structure and do not carry any dead load from the building other than its own load. The framing (sustainer system) is attached to the building structure, can be carried by the floor or roof loads of the building. The wind and gravity loads of the climatic skin layer are transferred to the building structure, typically at the floor line. A climatic skin layer is
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Fig. 16.4 Climatic skin layer, detail for a proposal project of cultural house from Gjellerup, Aarhus, Denmark
able to classify by means of their method of fabrication and installation in two categories: fasten systems, unitized modular systems. • In the fasten system, the climatic skin layer farm (sustainer system) and plants hanging panels are installed and connected together piece by piece. • In the modular system, the climatic skin layer is composed of large units that are assembled and plants hanging panels in the factory transported to the location and up righted on the building. Vertical and horizontal sustainer systems of the modules mate together with the adjoining modules. Thermal performance of plants hanging panels of the climatic skin layer is a function of insulation (Liu 2002). Water penetration in the soils layer of climatic skin layer is a function of plants hanging panels frame construction and drainage details. Water can enter the exterior wall system by means of five different natural forces: gravity, kinetic energy, air pressure difference, surface tension, and capillary action. For permission of water penetration to the climatic skin wall, all of these forces must be accounted for in the system drawing. Irrigation system must be selected to be fit to this category of wall. We have to select dripping system, that labor by means of gravitational proceedings. The artificial irrigation system for climatic skin layer is composing of: • water tank (water resource), • PVC water conducts (distribution), • perforate advising element for watering (terminals). The climatic skin layer should be designed for accessibility for maintenance. Low-rise buildings can generally be accessed from the ground using equipment with articulated arms. For high-rise construction, the building should be planned for rock stage access for general maintenance, and repair work. The best strategy for sustainability of climatic skin layer is to employ good design practices to
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ensure the durability of the installation and to use systems that have a good thermal break and high R-value. Unitized systems range in performance ability from industry standard to high performance walls.
16.4 Analytical Instruction Modular systems are self-sufficient units that require only the soil medium and the vegetative layer for a functioning green wall. It include in general with green roofs the covering of construction surfaces with vegetation, but there are contribution diversities in the request and structure of these technologies and the consequential impacts on urban ecosystems. The architects must be able to engage in creation activities that are a fundamental role to achieve the original generation of biophilic architecture. Using the old experiences—and new human models, perhaps a few numbers of architects can be a part of this role today. However, in the near future, the idea would be practical and simple (Table 16.1). The relative efficiency of the methods is significant and both types of greenery are valuable, but with a little variation in the relative efficiency. The high efficiency of green walls is not so common known. Consequently, green wall can help to improve the exterior environment, but may be primarily used to reduce energy costs during the summer months. It is essential to image what an exterior living wall will look like during the winter. But green walls, on the other hand, can be a public display of beauty, art, expression and just as important as green roofs. Green roofs have extended term experimental in value, variety, conception. By means of interesting in statistical details, it can be hypothesized that a green wall will offer the similar or associated benefits. At this time is the benefits may vary, depending upon the display of systems presented; trellis systems, cable systems, growth media based systems, or a hydroponic system. Through numerous systems appear multiple benefits. The vertical green layer works as skin covering of the architectural element, competent to decrease the sum of energy required for heating or cooling the indoor spaces. The climate performance of the biophilic architecture be able to be considerably affected by green walls, as well the visible changes concerning temperature, the solar gain by direct solar radiation and long-wave heat as well as convection. In addition the, changes in the humidity levels are also supposed. Consequently, green wall can help to improve the exterior environment, but may be primarily used to reduce energy costs during the summer months. It is essential to image what an exterior living wall will look like during the winter. But green walls, on the other hand, can be a public display of beauty, art, expression and just as important as green roofs. Green roofs have extended term experimental in value, variety, conception (Velazquez and Kiers 2007). By means of interesting in statistical details, it can be hypothesized that a green wall will offer the similar or associated benefits. At this time is the benefits may vary, depending upon the display of systems presented; trellis systems, cable systems, growth media based
High, to create architectural elements composition Low potential High
Middle
Middle potential High
Middle, need large conceptual process
Middle, need a large conceptual process
Compact green suspended Living walls walls
Intensive green walls
Low, just climbing plants Low Middle, a large superficial High, plants and 2 dimension green area vegetation, 3 dimension plants Thermal insulation Low, very diminutive Low, diminutive Middle, can be efficient Middle, need a financial Costs Low cost Middle, need a financial plan plan Plants utilized Low, limited Low, limited Middle, numerous kinds of plants
Visibility from the High outside Fruit production Low, or non Clean atmosphere Low, limited green area
Effectively in architectural creation process Potential
Spots green suspended walls
Table 16.1 Different categories of green walls and roof Criterions Extensive green walls
Low
High in selection plants
Middle, limits in creation arts work
High High, is recommendable for combat urban heat island phenomenon High, more efficient High, excellent High, come into sight High, come into sight of of building cost building cost Middle, numerous High, a variety of kinds of kinds of plants plants
Middle High, very effective system
High, in selection plants High
High, efficiency in architectural integrality
Energetic biophilic walls
Green roof
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Low, is more decorative
Recreation
Low, or non
Acoustical benefit Low, or non Urban heat effects Low, employment reduction
Environment friendly
Low, just visual
Middle, need relationship between building and green areas Low, diminutive Middle, employment
Low, just visual
Middle, need relationship between building and green areas Middle, more efficient Middle, employment
Table 16.1 (Continued) Criterions Extensive green walls Intensive green walls Compact green suspended Living walls Spots green walls suspended walls
High, green is a part of buildings model High, is very effective High, effective in combating the phenomenon act Low, Just visual
Energetic biophilic walls
High, can walk through the green areas
High, is very effective High, effective in combating the phenomenon act
High, green is a part of buildings model
Green roof
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systems, or a hydroponic system. Through numerous systems appear multiple benefits. Architects can look for improved solutions where the façade is more of a filter between the external and internal environment rather than just a tinted glass barrier. In hot climate, the sun shading, are larger and deeper cavities in the external form, and the whole perimeter zone of a building and how it affects day lighting and internal temperature. Natural daylight filtered into a building for lighting; reduce the heat load for artificial lighting on air conditioning. Architects work with engineer to design the shape of façades with deeper cavities for light and air penetration.
References Carter T, Keeler A (2008) Life-cycle cost-benefit analysis of extensive vegetated roof systems. J Environ Manage 87:350–363. http://rshanthini.com/tmp/CP551/SDProjectPapers/ LCCBAGreenRoof.PDF Darlington A (1981) Ecology of walls. Heinemann, London 138 p Delaney B et al (2009) How to make a living wall. http://www.wikihow.com/Makea-Living-Wall. Accessed 24 Jun 2009 Dunnett N, Kingsbury N (2004) Planting green roofs and living walls. Timber Press, Portland, UK, p 185 Geddes-Brown L (2007) The walled garden. Merrell Publishers Limited, London, p 6 Georgi NJ, Zafiriadis K (2006) The impact of park trees on microclimate in urban areas. Urban Ecosyst 9:179–210 Greenwood JS (2000) Guidelines for shade planning and design. http://www.cancernz. org.nz/Uploads/Guidelines_Under_Cover.pdf. Accessed 22 Aug 2009 Jonathan A (2009) Vegetation–climate interaction. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg Kadas G (2006) Rare invertebrates colonizing green roofs in London. Urban Habitats. http://www.urbanhabitats.org/v04n01/invertebrates_full.htm. Accessed 23 Oct 2009 Liu K (2002) Energy efficiency and environmental benefits of rooftop gardens. National council of Canada. Ottawa. http://irc.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/fulltext/prac/nrcc45345/nrcc45345.pdf. Accessed 20 Aug 2009 Schmidt M (2006) Evaporation cooling of green roofs and façades. In: Fourth annual international greening rooftops for sustainable communities, conference, awards & trade show, Boston, MA Valesan M (2008) Green walls and their contribution to environmental. In: 25th conference on passive and low energy architecture, Dublin, 22–24 Oct 2008 Velazquez L, Kiers H (2007) Hot trends in design: chic sustainability, unique driving factors & boutique green roofs. In: Proceedings of the 5th annual greening rooftops for sustainable communities conference, Minneapolis Yu-Peng YEH (2009) Green wall—the creative solution in response to the Urban Heat Island Effect, National Chung-Hsing University. http://www.nodai.ac.jp/cip/iss/english/9th_iss/ fullpaper/3-1-4nchu-yupengyeh.pdf. Accessed 12 Aug 2009
Part III
Bioclimatic Architecture
Chapter 17
Interaction between Architectural Creation and Environmental Impact
17.1 Introduction Bioclimatic architecture offers an exciting opportunity to achieve environmental, social, and economic benefits. Much remains to be understood about energy, environmental, and life-cycle processes. The concept of passive bioclimatic architecture deserves a deeper explanation. The hypothesis is that this affiliation leads to positive responses in terms of human performance and health and even emotional states (Al-musaed 2004). Bioclimatic architecture combines the interests of sustainability, environmental consciousness, green, natural, and organic approaches to evolve a design solution from these requirements and from the characteristics of the site, its neighborhood context, and the local microclimate and topography. The development of the energy sector is especially relevant as it is inevitably linked to many aspects of sustainability, e.g. protection of the natural life-support systems, the eradication of energy poverty of geopolitical conflicts. Sustainable development is development that meets the requirements of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. In passive bioclimatic architecture area this definition is based on two concepts; • The concept of satisfaction actually comprises needs, and to get an optimal positive life conditions and maximum life performances by intelligent ideas. • The concept of limits of the capacity of the environment to fulfill the needs of the present and the future, limit a height environment cost, and get an earth more friendly and economic. Passive bioclimatic architecture combines the interests of sustainability, environmental consciousness, green, natural, and organic approaches to evolve design solutions from these requirements and from the characteristics of the site, its neighborhood context, and the local microclimate and topography. Bioclimatic architecture concerns itself with climate (or perception of climate) as a major contextual generator, and with benign environments using minimal
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energy as its target. The one takes into account climate and environmental conditions to help achieve thermal comfort inside. It deals with design and architectural elements, avoiding mechanical systems, which are rather regarded as support. Bioclimatic practices are the result of adaptation to climatic and environmental conditions that become part of vernacular architecture. Over time, you can find lot of houses in the history of housing, who used the passive solar energy. They have a series of basic principles to keep the heat. The vital objective of bioclimatic architecture is to outline attributes and put them into a clear, sensible, organized format so that the developers, designers, planners, and architects can learn about the importance of a connection to the natural environment in all their building projects.
17.2 Energy upon Ambience The first law of existing energy phenomena in ambient consider that the energy form cannot be creased or destroyed. Its form may be changed, but its magnitude persists. This is the essence of the first law of thermodynamics, more commonly known as the law of conservation of energy. According to the law of thermodynamics, there is just as much energy left after it has been through the system as was supplied at the power point. As energy cannot be consumed in the strict sense of the term, it follows that it cannot be conserved or for that matter, wasted. The simplest measure of energy grade is temperature, and experience shows that the most common form of heat engines operate by taking in energy at a high temperature (called source temperature) and giving it out at a low temperature (called sink temperature) (Procos 1996). Change of energy through temperature on ambient environment can take four possible routes: conduction, convention, radiation, and evaporation.
17.2.1 Conduction Conduction is the transfer of heat in a solid or fluid at rest. This transfer of heat is by direct molecular interaction (Weldon 1991). In this process, energy travels through material by one hot vibrating molecule shaking the cooler ones adjacent to it, thereby making them hotter and passing the heat along (or, more technically, by the transfer of kinetic energy between particles) (Thomas 1997). Table 17.1 shows a range of thermal conductivities and other properties of some materials. Rudely, if an object is cold to touch, it is almost certainly an excellent conductor as it conducts the heat away from the hand. The specific heat capacity is the amount of heat that a material will store per unit of mass and per unit of temperature change.
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Table 17.1 The properties of selected materials (source: Randall Thomas 1997) Material Density Thermal conductivity Specific heat capacity (kg/m3) (W/m K) (J/kg K) Bricks Concrete, dense Glass fiber quilt Asphalt Aluminum Water (20C) Sand (dry)
1,700 2,000 25 1,700 2,700 1,000 1,500
0.73 1.13 0.035 0.50 214 0.60 0.30
800 1,000 1,000 1,000 920 4,187 800
17.2.2 Convection Convention is the process of heat transfer by flow and mixing motions in fluids. If the fluid movement is caused by density difference (because of temperature differences), it is called free convection. If we consider a hot surface and a cold fluid, the fluid in immediate contact with the surface is heated by conduction. It thus becomes less dense and increases in movement, ensuing in what are identified as natural convection circulation currents. This is not the case, for instance where a blower or pump cause the flow-forced convection results. Convection originating from wind is also considered to be forced convection. Convection as an outcome of processes other than the difference of density with temperature is identified as obligatory convection and includes the movement of air caused by fans.
17.2.3 Radiation Radiation is the process of temperature transfer by means of electromagnetic wave. All molecules emit radiation depending on their temperature, and they absorb radiation from their environment. For radiant heat transfer, there is a change in energy form, and bodies exchange heat with surrounding surfaces by electromagnetic radiation such as infrared radiation and light. Surfaces emit radiated heat to, and absorb it from, surfaces that surround them. This absorption of radiation by the air can be neglected in the case of average distances between walls in architectural elements. The unstable nature of materials be able to be broken, for example, heat loss throughout windows be capable to be reduced by utilizing a low emissivity coating on the glass; solar collectors are usually matt black to maximize their heat absorption. For natives, the denote radiant temperature of their surroundings is vital for comfort, as is the difference or uniformity of radiant temperature— imbalances that formulate one hot and cold on diverse sides can be unpleasant.
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Radiant heat transfer can be felt most perceptibly, for example, by standing outside facing a bonfire on a clear night (Thomas 1997).
17.2.4 Evaporation Molecules in a vapor state enclose a great deal of energy, more than the similar molecules in a liquid state. Consequently, energy has to be additional to revolve a liquid into a gas. In very hot and humid conditions, the water content of the air is high and so the surface temperature must be comparatively higher to lose heat. The quantity of heat necessary to modify liquid water into a vapor is the latent heat of apparition. The amount of energy transferred in evaporation and condensation is considerable compared to that required to heat or cool a liquid or gas; for example, to vaporize 1 kg of water at boiling point, it takes about 500 times as much heat as is required to increase the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1C. Steam at 100C is more likely to burn one’s skin than dry air from a hot oven at over 200C (Thomas 1997).
17.3 Energy upon Architectural Conception During the heating season, shade significantly restricts the possibilities of the use of solar energy or potential ambient energy. It is of importance to realize in this context that obstructions have less implication for diffuse than that for direct irradiation. In the summer, shade may be welcome to prevent the indoor air temperature from rising too much. Deciduous trees can be very effective. In addition to shade, trees and plants provide wind shelter (Cassar et al. 1993). The cooling effect because of evaporation of moisture from leaves may be disappointing, because leaves retain moisture during drought. Wind affects infiltration through crack etc., and the heat transfer by convention on the outside surfaces of building. A high wind speed at the same outdoors temperature increases the heating load during the heating season. Therefore, shelter from wind is important. Weather outlines the expected ambience energy patterns depicted by mappings of pressure, temperature, and wind potentials. Obstruction placed in the flow stream stagnates and diverts energy as classic airfoil experiments show. The balance between environmental conservation, which aims to protect natural resource, and economic progress, which aims to develop human infrastructure, is what is known as sustainable development that is principal objective of my research. Too much emphasis on the environmental side will limit the ability to deliver improvements in living standards, particularly for the developing world, while too much emphasis on the economic side will lead to depletion of vital natural resources that cannot be readily recreated. It is commonly accepted that the
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planet faces an environmental crisis precipitated by anthropocentric activity that is resulting in reduction in the earth’s productive capacity from which serious consequential social and environmental effects are starting to flow (Kohlers 2001). The significance of the problem has given rise to global cooperation in the form of a range of major international agreements constructed with the objective of seeking a balance between the opposing yet interdependent forces of society, economy, and environment. The imperative to protect the atmosphere rises out of its various properties and the relationship it has with the maintenance and support of the earth’s ecosystems. It is now generally accepted that a link exists between atmospheric degradation and the onset climate change and climate variability. In passive bioclimatic architecture, the earth is valuable as a shelter, particularly in conjunction with landscaping. Earth coupling is not in the usual architectural vocabulary, but is a very effectual way to benefit the architecture by more stabile earth temperatures than those of the atmosphere. Earth temperatures stabilize at varying depths depending upon climate and geologic characteristics. In the process of changing our ways, we should focus on the natural cleansing effect and the power of self-regeneration found in the world woodlands and rivers. Economic development that wastes limited resources and destroys the environment brings only momentary prosperity; it lacks sustainability and threatens the very existence of future generations. Now more than ever, it is time to return to our point of origin, to deepen our understanding of the environment and correct our ways of mishandling the earth’s forests and woodlands, which play such an important role in shaping and developing the human spirit. Now is the time to change our consciousness in this regard and focus on earth energy to come up with the appropriate means of utilizing our resources such as sunlight, wind, water, and so on. Architecture, as much as any other design activity, is dependent on a satisfactory reconciliation of the intuitive with the rational. A building has to be both poem and machine. Few buildings achieve this felicitous equipoise. Those that are sensually stimulating often lack sound construction technique, or fail to fully meet the operational requirements.
17.4 Physical Environment and Human Comfort Physical environment is notion of all parameters, which have direct contact with human feeling (acoustic, optic, and thermal) and physical comfort stands for the total of the energetic and informational material conditions that turn a building pleasant, comfortable, and hygienic (Parker and Dunlop 1994). This refers mainly to three distinct but interdependent fields, space (houses dimensioning structure and pile conformation of each room), the construction (from the point of view of the usage properties in particular, in point of physical protection and maintenance), and technical equipment (all kinds of installations).
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17.4.1 Acoustical Environment Sounds play an important role in creating atmosphere. In house, there is a conflicting requirement because speech intelligibility is important for sermons but due to the size of some building materials have an important effect on the sound environment. Hard materials are cold and give a reverberant space, whereas soft materials are warm and produce a dry sound environment.
17.4.2 Optical Environment Natural and artificial lighting need to be soft in character and evenly distributed throughout the space. Indirect lighting is preferable so that visual distraction is minimized. On solution for introducing indirect perimeter, day lighting is to use a system of screened skylights between columns to light the interior areas to uniform level. Artificial lighting within the living room can be installed so as to re-create the effect of natural light. The level of natural lighting on the floor of the living space in the house will vary throughout the day and around the year due to the angle of incidence of the sun on the building surface. The apparent color of daylight is not constant, as the special distribution at any particular time depends upon the scattering and absorption of the sun’s light in the prevailing atmosphere.
17.4.3 Thermal Environment The surrounding climatic environment has both physical and emotional effect on main. It is therefore a factor of central importance in building design. One of the architect’s main tasks is to create as good as possible an environment, both inside and outside the architectural elements, for all human activities.
17.4.3.1 Thermal Comfort Comfort may be defined as the sensation of complete physical and mental well being. Thus defined, it is only to limited extent within the control of the designer. Hence, if a group of people is subjected to the same room climate, it will not be possible, due to biological, emotional, and physical variance, to satisfy everyone at the same time. The notion of thermal comfort has two inter-conditioning elements; • Subjective, which accord to the feeling of comfort on human body? • Objective, which takes into consideration the physiological impact on human body?
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We sense comfort if we were able to preserve our thermal equilibrium exclusive of a large amount effort and uncomfort in our environment if we have to shake to produce heat or worry abundantly to lose it. Thermal neutrality is defined as the condition in which the person in question desires neither a warmer nor a colder environment. Human comfort takes on added importance for solar dwellings, which are either very or partially dependent on the sun for their energy needs (Weiss 1998). The manner in which earth energy is collected, stored, and distributed can greatly affect the comfort of the occupants. While explaining, this is important to realize that the body is sensitive to heat flow rather than temperature. Yet, the feeling of comfort depends on the inside temperature and on the surfaces of the building elements, and implies building and thermal insulation measures corresponding to the normal operating conditions of the buildings. The thermal comfort is a psycho-physiological feeling which corresponds to the balance between the inside heat production of the metabolic processes related to the activity at a certain moment and the changes of energy man–environment.
17.4.3.2 Thermal Comfort on Internal Environment Thermal comfort is affected by heat conduction, convention, radiation, and evaporative heat loss. Thermal comfort is maintained when the heat generated by human metabolism is allowed to dissipate, thus maintaining thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. Any heat gain or loss beyond this produces a sensation of discomfort (Fang et al. 2004). It has been long recognized that the sensation of feeling hot or cold is not just dependent on air temperature alone. The internal environment of the building needs to feel comfortable. Comfort conditions will vary from person to person, but field studies carried out throughout the world have shown a close relationship between the preferred indoor temperatures and the mean outdoor temperature. When the ambient temperature drops, the body will limit heat loss by reducing blood flow to the surface, which reduces the skin’s temperature, and no sweating (Thomas 1997). This data provides a background of experience against which to consider indoor temperatures in hot climate or cold moderate climate. Higher temperatures are acceptable in spaces with transitory occupancy. Such spaces are often useful in many types of buildings in order to provide a buffer zone between warm outside conditions and cooler ones inside (and inverse), thus allowing a gradual acclimatization thereby avoiding thermal shock. The place where a buffer zone is provided, the temperature differential between outside and inside should be limited to about 15C. Normally, internal temperature swings are limited to about 2–4C to take into account economic considerations for the building structure and plant provisions, but higher temperature swings are permissible in spaces with intermittent occupancy. In hot arid climates, the band of comfortable internal temperature is wider than that experienced in temperate climate. The light clothing worn in the arid
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climate means that higher temperatures are acceptable physiologically, and these can be estimated using clothing resistance, metabolic rate, with an acceptable temperature of 27.3C (Al-musaed 2004). The situation is very different in temperate climate, where the dark clothing, which has different clothing resistance, metabolic rate can be at 22.3C. In practice, air-conditioning systems in the hot climate are usually designed to temperatures between 22 and 26C, in accordance with Western practice for continuously occupied spaces, assuming the metabolic rates and hence the degree of activity is the same (Cunningham 1990). There has been a fashion recently to imitate this practice for a building like a building using air-conditioning. Mechanization needs maintenance, space, and is often dirty and noisy; the opposite characteristics of purity, tranquility, and serenity are needs in building (Al-musaed 2004). Internal relative humidity is also related to external conditions. When the outside relative humidity is low, the inside relative humidity should also assume lower values in order of 45–50%. Relative humidity affects the body sweat and this is an important mechanism for body heat loss especially when the internal temperature raises about 26C. Again, a broader tolerance is permissible for transitory occupancy. Air movement is also important to disperse heat and moisture but care should be taken to avoid draughts. Ventilation should be sufficient to dilute odors and distribute cool air as well as to keep fresh atmosphere (Matsui and Takeda 1996). A fresh air quantity of 5–10 L/s per person should be allowed using passive means wherever possible. Discomfort is felt if there are large variations in the environmental conditions around the body such as (Thomas 1997): • Wide variations in air temperature. As warm air rises, it is quite common to have a temperature gradient in a room such that it is cool near the floor and hot near the ceiling. This can give the unsatisfactory situation of a hot head and cold feet. • Wide variations in radiant temperature. This can be felt by sitting next to 0.1 large cool windows or a high-temperature source such as an open fire. • Draughts, draught discomfort depends on the difference between the skin and air temperature, the air speed in the room and the turbulence of the air movement (turbulent flow is contrasted with smooth or laminar flow). In essence, the thermal comfort of an internal environment is tightly related to the combined and simultaneous action of four parameters of the environment acting upon human body. That is inside airing temperature, the relative humidity in the room, the speed of air movement in the room, and the temperature of the inside surface of the building elements. The thermal protection is materialized both at the spatial-volumetric outlook level and at the level of architectural details (lens shade and specific elements), the microclimate being improved by shadow-generating natural elements (vegetation, physic volume, etc.). It is important to understand that the evolution of architecture is marked by searches that tend to go over the level touched at some point in time by the architectural thinking and its forms of expressing. The activities of designing various included phenomena, the functioning way as well as operations specific for figurative applied thinking and sensitivity. All these are correlated in a continuous
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cycle starting from creating the desired status and leads to the creation of complex process. At last, begins with the formative vision of the form, then it is followed by the radiated vision and then to the realization of the architectural object which appears as another desire with improving life style as target. The architecture does not mean only to analyze styles, approve or deny a front (façade); the architecture is first a program that translates in life the necessities of a beneficiary. By this, it is greatly different from the fine arts, music, etc., because it is connected both with the technical–economical exigencies and the period of time in which it is performed. The architecture is connected with its time, its beneficiary and the technical possibilities of the exterior. Only under these conditions, the edifice of architecture can come to life. The designing theme that is at the basis of the solution issuing has to be very actually sometimes even to be anticipated. The architectural elements being a product of the human work shape and condition our attitudes, our habits, and the relationship of people with people. It instigates networks.
References Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole Århus, Denmark, p 53 Cassar M, Clarke WO (1993) A pragmatic approach to environment improvements in the Court auld Institute Galleries in Somerset house, ICOM Committee for conservation Cunningham MJ (1990) Modeling of moisture transfer in structures-I. A description of a finite difference model. Build Environ 25(1):5561 Fang L et al (2004) Impact of indoor air temperature and humidity in an office on perceived air quality, SBS symptoms and performance. Indoor Air 14:74–81 Kohlers M (2001) Green roofs in temperate climates and in the hot-humid tropics—far beyond the aesthetics, Plea Matsui T, Takeda H (1996) Evolution of performance for ecological house, part 2. p 205 Parker DA, Dunlop JP (1994) Solar photovoltaic air conditioning of residential buildings. In: Proceedings of the 1994 summer study on energy efficiency, vol 3. FSEC, USA, p 190 Procos D (1996) The process solar house in Halifax, Canada. In: de Herde A. (ed) Building and urban renewal. Architecture et climat, Louvain-la-Neuve, pp 200–210 Thomas R (1997) Environmental design. E & FN SPON, London, pp 12–34 Weiss H (1998) Secrets of warmth: for comfort or survival. Mountaineers Books, Seattle Weldon AE (1991) Environmental and economic benefits of renewable energy conversion. p 3
Chapter 18
Vernacular Architecture and Human Experiences
18.1 Introduction A space that is enclosed by a wall in such a way as to be easily defended is not the same as a space simply defined by a wall. Nor is the concept wall limited to walls that are parts of buildings as we see when we look at the Great Wall of China. The earliest existing religious shrines in India are in caves. Since prehistoric times, people have sought protection from the elements and from enemies in caves. Examples of vernacular architecture may be generally alienated into domestic, agricultural, and industrial classes. The vernacular architecture of agriculture comprises all the buildings of the farmstead apart from the farmhouse and its domestic ancillaries. Domestic vernacular architecture comprises the buildings designed for living as normally understood: eating, sitting, sleeping, storage, etc., and the ancillary buildings, which, at certain times, have been quite extensive: brew-house, bake-house, kitchen, sculleries, washhouse, etc. Some societies were more realistic than others were, some more symbolic. Some emphasized granaries, others temples. For various reasons, the elite controlled the specialized crafts associated with building. In other places, the building arts found expression that is more common. It is thus a mistake to divide the history of architecture into prehistory and history, with writing serving as the traditional dividing point in that distinction. It is wrong to see the Stone Age as primitive or as a unified historical moment. Architecture, like civilization itself, was born in our prehistory, much as the other arts, and was plural from the start. Architectural history is local history. Distinctive combinations of local materials and methods, cultures and settings, and clients and builders create a built environment that cannot be reduced to generalizations. Vernacular architecture is a body of knowledge and design technique, created by the experience of our predecessors, and given to us as a guide (Crouch and Johnson 2001). The architectural space personality is shaping the limits of excessive closing and absorbent opening. Generally, there are three kids of spaces in architecture and town planning: the space deriving from outside volumes agglomeration, the space
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deriving from the inside space of the building with no direct connection with the outside space, and the space deriving from the combination of the two above presented spaces. The multitude of the relations with the natural or built environment, the pluralities of the relation between the areas of urban agglomeration constitute the framework of the contemporary architecture development. There has always been a constant interaction between man and environment, representing what the ecologists call ‘‘a complex ecosystem’’ (Possehl 1993). Space thermal control is made the following relation sun-window-habitable space-thermal mass.
18.2 Vernacular Architecture Values 18.2.1 Vernacular Architecture Conception Ever since his existence on Earth, man has concentrated his effort on the provision of food, clothing, shelter, and transportation. Stabile homes, a precondition of the above, eventually developed into vernacular residential buildings. Critics believed the wide application of modern architecture (Al-musaed 2004). Why is the architecture of one place dissimilar from that of somewhere else? A part of the answer is because of variations in climate, available building materials, and the like and partly because people in different cultures have different histories, beliefs, and ideas that fuse with their material resources and constraints to make a distinctive local architectural tradition. Architecture is immensely diverse as are the social arrangements that it serves. Nomads require movable buildings. Kings need palaces. The religious require special structures (Crouch and Johnson 2001). It is there for us to use and modify for our contemporary needs and to hand on, hopefully enriched, to our successors. In this logic, architectural history is similar to literature and different algebra. Mathematics evolves by adding one timeless and position less reality to another, but literature and architecture have no such spiritual truths. New books and new buildings draw on ‘‘gene pools’’ of existing ideas, combining them in ways that are ever new yet related to tradition. Every society lives in the tension created by the intersection of the natural environment and human culture, and each develops its own architectural responses to that tension. India’s earliest temples served the prehistoric Vedic religion that we know in its late form as Brahmanism or Hinduism. The temples were made of ephemeral materials, and little has survived. The central information of Islamic societies was developed, leading the existing societies, which had their own traditions, languages, and materials before the preamble of Islam. A lot of the characteristics that some suppose are: Islamic can be traced back to pre-Islamic times, and in general, these are accountable for the tones which distinguish design and the arts in the extensive Islamic world. However, bearing this in mind, we require looking at the intrinsic values of Islam in order to define the term ‘Islamic’ additional with regard to architecture,
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planning, and design and so on. I believe there are five values, which are central to the mode in which Islamic design can be seen in its factual sense: • • • • •
first and supreme, a focal point on the inner, unified family and its values, kindness for neighbors and the wider society, a lack of pretension, a difference between public and private roles and realms, and protection of the environment and the shrewd employ of its resources.
The input point to stand in mind is that there is no ideal Islamic architectural design. It might be that some of the better-known buildings and progresses can be regarded as life form of Islamic design, but they will all be crop of the Islamic society in which they were developed, and several would have been based on preIslamic designs resulting from local socio-cultural traditions. The only exception to this quarrel we can believe of as being a truthfully Islamic characteristic is the minaret (Egnatia Epirus 1994). In Japanese culture, the word building has both legal and psychological connotations of family. However, the Japanese house not only satisfies the essential require of people for shelter, but also integrates the people’s social, economic, and esthetic requirements. In India, caves are a reasonable, permanent answer to the problem of shelter, present relief from oppressive summer heat and torrential monsoon rains, and are protected places for spiritual purposes as well. Knowledge of architectural history varies as greatly in traditional as in modern cultures. Certain architectural forms make intangible qualities of belief tangible; a structure can be the intellectual bridge between the visible and the invisible. When people copy and spread that structure’s formal elements, they also spread the beliefs that informed it. The imposing domed form of the stupa with many variations in numerous Asian locations correlates with the spread of Buddhism throughout Asia and beyond.
18.2.2 Vernacular Architectural Spaces Values The value of vernacular architectural spaces was not generally recognized until Violet le Due wrote his book The habitation of man in all Age, which describes vernacular architecture in terms of four major characteristics experiential value, participation, intended meaning, and environmental adequacy. The idea of experiential value refers to the fact that with growth of professionalism building designers have become alienated from nature and environment. However, the shaping of a socially acceptable and individually satisfying environment demands participation with the people as well as with the environment. We can see many examples around the world that reveal how people under given environmental, social, and technical limits have striven to create the most suitable living conditions in the accordance with nature.
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Good purposeful design of anything has intended meaning which blends form, function, and human values. There is a coherent unity or wholeness, which is difficult to define, except by a phrase like the one, ‘‘it feels just right’’. The designer and examples abounded in architecture, science, engineering, and arts have interpreted a series of needs and blended these into a whole. Environmental adequacy has tree essential attributes, flexibility in environment control, identification of need and economy of material, and labor resources.
18.2.3 Architectural Elements Values The architectural elements are those which express to value one type climatecultural and corresponding to specific functions. The real value of the architectural elements occurs when, with their help, it succeeds in integrating the outside–inside relation, creating spaces in degradation, corresponding to the tradition in form and function, optimal forms and volumes. The forms of these elements are much diversified, being consecrated as symbols established a long time ago: many hundreds or thousands of years earlier. By means of architectural elements, it is possible to generate a special effect with functional-spiritual character which transmits onlookers or users adequate psychics. The architectural elements transmit a message where the isomorphic transfer indicates operation to preserve of one invariant when it traverses a transformations field. The invariant it identified with a phenomenological essence leads to notice the necessity of all aspects that a phenomenon presents it. A selected significance has to be included in a certain object (sign) to maximize the interaction (significance-semiotic sphere). The vernacular architecture plays this role as source of valorous semiotics express. Esthetics, as a division of philosophy, rarely concentrated on architecture. It was rather theorists and historians of architecture who could formulate meaningful concepts and categories relevant for appreciating and discussing architectural forms (Al-musaed 2004).
References Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole Arhus, Denmark, pp 178–205 Crouch DP, Johnson JG (2001) Traditions in architecture. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp 3–57 Epirus E (1994) Alternative energy sours and traditional architecture in the town of Metsovo, Foundation. pp 117–132 Possehl GL (1993) Harappan civilization: a recent perspective. American Institute of Indian Studies, New Delhi, pp 37–182
Chapter 19
Vernacular Architecture from Hot Regions (Basrah, Iraq)
19.1 Introduction The region of Basrah, the city of Sinbad, is, some would say, the most beautiful part of Iraq. It is Iraq’s second largest city and principal port. Its commercially advantageous location, near oil field and 121 km from the Arabic Gulf, has made it prosperous (Al-musaed 1996). In 1948, many oil refineries have been built in the city. It is an area of countless birds and a variety of animals, full of trees and gardens and canoes gliding on the mirror-surfaces of calm lagoons. Riverside Basrah, lying languidly among trees along the Shatt al Arab, still has the power to enchant. But the region of southern Iraq to the southwest of Basrah has now ‘‘gone’’—I mean it has now been taken over by industry, oil and port of Ommqasr. Basrah was founded with Kufa by order of the Caliph Omar as soon as the Sassanian capital at Ctesiphon fell to the Muslim armies. Outside of the Zubeir, where there is a desert in Basrah, was once a good place for picnics. Ashar is the heart of the city; its covered bazaar and mosque mark the end of the creek that links it and the river to Old Basrah. Upstream is Maqli, the garden suburb fanning out from the forest of cranes at the wharves of the Old Basrah port and the railway station. Flowers, palms and the blessed water were glory of all Iraq, but particularly of the south. It was a town of great trade of spices, rice and dates growing thereabouts. It has been called the Venice of the east, which have a number of canals and they add real enchantment. In Basrah, more than 635 rivers and canals had direct connection with the great river (Shatt al Arab) (Al-musaed 2007). The houses are of yellow brick. Their windows are often protected from the appalling Basrah heat by long, broad shutters held open by adjustable iron struts, a special feature of Basrah architecture. Wooden front doors are studded with iron, and decorated with knockers of brass.
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19.2 Climate in Basrah Climate in Basrah is alike to that of the extreme southwestern United States with hot, dry summer, cold winter, and an agreeable spring and fall. Roughly, 90% of the annual rainfall happens between November and April, most of it in the winter months from December through March. The remaining 6 months, particularly the hottest ones of June, July, and August, at approximately 32C, are dry. The influence of the Persian Gulf on the climate of Basrah is limited. However, near the gulf the relative humidity is higher than in other parts of the country (Al-musaed 2004). The average temperatures in Basrah range from higher than 48C in July and August to below freezing in January. A majority of the rainfall occurs from December through April is more abundant in the mountainous region, and may reach 100 cm a year in some places. The summer months are marked by two kinds of wind phenomena: the southern and south-easterly (sharqi), a dry, dusty wind with occasional gusts to 80 km an hour occurs from April to early June and again from late September through November. The shamal, steadies wind from the north and northwest, prevails from midJune to mid-September. Very dry air, which accompanies the shamal, permits intensive sun heating or cooling effect. Dust storms accompany these winds and may rise to high of several thousand meters, causing hazardous flying conditions and closing airports for brief periods. Both the diurnal, and to a lesser extent, the annual variations of temperature are wide. Wind is strong, not restricted by vegetation, and carries much sand and dust (Fig. 19.1). The global wind patterns as they affect Basrah are illustrated in January and July. In most regions the wind speed and direction are considerably modified by the land and gulf, particularly at the times when prevailing winds are light. The wide diurnal temperature variations and the consequent differences between air, ground and water temperatures give rise to a large variety of local wind effects. In the western and southern desert region in Zubeir, the climate is characterized by hot summers and cool winters. This region also receives brief violent rainstorms in the winter that usually total about 10 cm. Most nights are clear in the summer, and about one-third of the nights are cloudy in the winter. The combination of rain shortage and extreme heat makes much of Basrah a desert. Because of very high rates of evaporation, soil and plants rapidly lose the little moisture obtained from the rain, and vegetation could not survive without extensive irrigation.
19.3 Vernacular Architecture and Buildings Specific The traditional living way in arid climate is accurately reflected in the households’ organization, in their volumetric configuration, in the forms of useful locations they engender. The shadow is wanted to create by means of both architectural
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Fig. 19.1 Clime analyze for Basrah, Iraq
details and volumes, which have become a landmark of the local architecturespecific character, and by means of natural elements (vegetation, water, etc.) (Fig. 19.2). The northern orientation is perfect for the summer functional rooms. These half shades are limit that has depth and width, and of considerable dimensions with its universe of lights, shades, and experiences, becoming an important theme of design to resolve the transition between inside and outside (Oliveira 2000). The way people use houses in arid climate regions has an important bearing on their effectiveness. Living in the basement during the hours of heat sun, sleeping on the roof at night, heating only those rooms being used are common-sense measures that give some adjustment between men, the houses and the climate. In the modest houses, the daily removals are usual in summer, using those terraces shadowed during various parts of the day. The over-night supplied coolness of rooms is
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Fig. 19.2 Traditional house from Basrah, Iraq
protected by systems of galleries or loggia, of wooden jigsaws walls, etc. (Al-musaed 2004).
19.4 Vernacular Architecture Mechanism 19.4.1 Habitat Spaces with Thermal Role Habitat spaces on bioclimatic concept in arid climate can be: 19.4.1.1 Closed Spaces Functional Spaces For the vernacular tradition houses in Basrah, the functional spaces are the place where the whole family carries on its activity with maximum convenience. A. Habitable rooms. Those spaces are related to outside both directly and by means of buffer space. The habitable rooms having high-level height, warm air raises during summer, and then it is evacuated by the currents of air deriving from the difference of temperature between the outside space and the cold air storage place. The windows are small and inside patio-oriented. Daily inside removal in a traditional house takes place between the rooms located at the same horizontal level (Al-musaed 2004).
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In the north-oriented rooms, habitable during summer, plants are developed and have thicker walls to keep the room cool; while in the south-oriented rooms, ground floor is used during winter. The design of such a building has a deep bioclimatic character. The rooms are isolated, the shadows are deep and the two spaces can overlap generating the vertical seasonal removal. B. Guest room. This room is isolated from the rest of the house, they have a separate entrance usually with window giving to the narrow, winding streets, and the windows are made of wooden jigsaw panels. The intermediary spaces provided for the relation with the dwelling, often are well sun-oriented and properly ventilated. C. Kitchens, bathrooms and storerooms. These spaces are isolated from the dwelling may be with street-oriented windows; they do not need special physic comfort. The kitchen, as a heat and smell source, is located deep in the house, north-oriented, taking into consideration the dominant wind. A buffer space provides for the relation with the yard. The same solution is agreed for the bathroom and the storerooms. D. Basement. The basement is the buried basement where the cold air is stored using the ground’s thermal inertia and is connected with the outside only by means of a gap in the ceiling. In arid regions, the basement is vaulted, sometimes decorated, made out of burnt brick. The basement is connected with the terrace by means of the Bagdir, where the difference of pressure between the two spaces results in a cool current of air (Al-musaed 2004).
Intermediary Spaces Those spaces used to solve the integration of two components are opposite in meaning namely, the inside and the outside space and help bringing the two spaces to the closest level possible from one another, aiming to achieve the appropriate comfort. A. Loggia. This space is deeper than the galleries and has the role of supplying shadow and removing the sun and strong winds’ effects just like a buffer space. They are used for guests and are separated from the outside by means of a tracery work made of rectangular wooden panels. B. Gallery. This is an intermediary space surrounding the patios; it is an outside open corridor with a porch used for traffic. It protects not only the doors, the windows but also external walls (Fig. 19.3).
Open Spaces A. Patio (courtyard). The patio is for the traditional dwelling the outside space that creates a microclimate and the most efficient form of using the inside space of house. The system’s efficiency can be amplified by supplying the place with fountains, water pools, and big leaves plantations. The water pools and the vegetation get warmer during the day and keep a convenient temperature during
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Fig. 19.3 Gallery in traditional house from hot climate
Fig. 19.4 Traditional Patio function in the day (Basrah, Iraq)
the cold night period. Thus, the air stays due to the difference of density in the upper part of the patio and allows a comfortable environment in the lower part of the patio (Al-musaed 2004) (Figs. 19.4, 19.5). In the case of the houses with several levels, the patio can be covered above the ground floor, leaving a gap for ventilation or it may be covered with a grid, sometimes a tarpaulin is stretched over the patio under the form of a bar-supported tent. Such tarpaulins are also stretched over roofs, on terraces, having a very important bioclimatic role as a Rawak in the shape of an outside open corridor. This space plays an important role on local microclimate and helping in ameliorates of the surrounding environment.
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Fig. 19.5 Traditional Patio function at the night (Basrah, Iraq)
Fig. 19.6 Wooden terrace in the front of house
B. Terrace. Houses in arid zones have two types of terraces: B1. In the front of house. This terrace plays the role of lowering the temperature and creating a pleasant atmosphere, it can be covered by the shadow of the trees and the climbing plants which give cooling effect or it can be covered by a light fabric canvas (Fig. 19.6). B2. On the roof of house. This terrace is a space surrounded by four walls that have 1.8–2.2 m height provided with shadow and can be used as a sleeping place (Fig. 19.7). C. Tak and Iwan. The Tak is an original and typical space, intermediary in architecture from Mesopotamia. It looks like a square room with one side open plane and is connected with the patio, it is used in the houses provided with water pools or fountains and sometimes an arch or a cupola-terrace covers it. The Iwan is north-oriented and as it has no outside wall, shady, cool, high space, fit for reception is created. This type of space is also an intermediary space (Fig. 19.8).
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Fig. 19.7 Terrace on the roof for sleeping in summer
Fig. 19.8 Iwan such as traditional spaces for houses from arid climate regions
19.4.2 Architectural Elements with Thermal Role 19.4.2.1 Wind Tower (Bagdir) This element is an air pipe provided with inside ventilation channels, in direct connection with the closed spaces of a dwelling. The basic principle of its functioning is the wind and thermal pressure got due to difference of temperature, resulting in a thermal depression which engenders currents of air by opening and closing the ventilation doors. The wind Bagdir is useful to reduce the sand and dust volume often brought in by the winds. Bagdir harness summer breezes, they are
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Fig. 19.9 Wind tower is an original architectural element in a hot climate region
usually closed during winter. During the day, heat is absorbed from the air, which passes, downwards by the walls of the passageways, to be released at night, hence warming the air and causing it to move upward. Doors and windows can be opened to assist the upward air movement at night, if there is a wind at night the flow is downwards and the air warms slightly but still allows some cooling (Givoni 1994). When there are no daytime breeze airs can flow through opening in the side of the Bagdir. Sometime fountain was used or an underground stream placed at the basement of a tower to permit cooling by evaporation with some increase in moisture content (Al-musaed 2004) (Fig. 19.9).
19.4.2.2 Ventilation Gaps This element is an opening located at the upper part of the houses, which is decorated with a grid network under the form of a drilled screen wall and used for ventilation and lighting.
19.4.2.3 Shanashil Shanashil is made of wooden jigsaws piece or made out of tiny wooden fragments allowing the inside ventilation and lighting and preventing the penetration of the outside excessive heat because wood warms up due to absorption and does not convey heat by radiation (Fig. 19.10). The thermal role of those elements is also a reflection of the sunlight changing the current of air direction.
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Fig. 19.10 Wooden jigsaws pieces
19.4.2.4 Fountains, Water Pools (Selsebil) Those elements help water integration in the architecture, by their privileged location in the house’s design, and help in creating a local favorite microclimate (Fig. 19.11). 19.4.2.5 Doors and Window Building elements had function of air current control. The windows are small sized, located in the upper part and wooden-framed. The doors are usually wooden elements decorated with metal (Fig. 19.12). 19.4.2.6 Outside Decoration Outside decorations that are profiled elements of bulky volumes under various forms play the role of creating pronounced shadows on the sun-warmed facades, changing the current air direction and creating a shade.
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Fig. 19.11 Fountain in traditional house from hot climates
Fig. 19.12 Traditional doors and outside beautification
19.4.3 Natural Elements with Positive Effects 19.4.3.1 Plants and Vegetation Vegetation is used in association with the town’s buildings and streets to diminish the sun, wind and pollution effects (Wilmers 1991). Climate decides the form and the component of trees, which can help in creating the necessary adaptation to clime consequence. The solution with green spaces can be divided (Al-musaed 2004):
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Fig. 19.13 Palmer is a specific tree in Basrah
High Trees with Thick Leave (Palmiers) This type of trees help in; hindering the sunbeams, lowering the air temperature of the environment of the house, changing the wind direction and lowering the temperature of shadow on the roof, walls, terraces, ground (Fig. 19.13). Horizontal Plants They have the function of lowering the temperature at the surface of the ground and weaken sun radiation. Vertical Plants These forms of plants create cool spaces near the buildings by covering them with green leaves that would directly affect the volume of the building. Water The water is used as environmental ameliorates element; the water pools are dug in the floor or raised on a richly decorated porch, in testimony of its importance.
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19.5 Habitat-Specific Concept 19.5.1 Urban Texture Specific Dwellings are compact with interior courtyard; the streets are sinuous and pass through houses volumes. The shady interior courtyard has the effect that the rooms do not communicate directly with the overheated air outside, but through intermediate buffer spaces. In the mean time between courtyard and street, at least a wall or a building is always interposed. This isolation from the street indicates concerns for defense (Al-musaed 2004). The architectural elements are strongly decorated, reproducing special typologies and traditional houses (Fig. 19.14).
19.5.2 Specific Volume The particular forms of houses were shaped to create a strong shadow by different volumes. The house functions inside the house have to take in evidences the distribution of shadow over interior courtyard. The shady interior courtyard has the effect that the rooms do not communicate directly with the overheated air outside,
Fig. 19.14 Urban texture specific (Basrah city)
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Fig. 19.15 Volumes specific habitat from Arid zones (Iraq)
but through intermediate buffer spaces. This isolation from the street indicates concerns for defense (Al-musaed 1996). The architectural elements are strongly decorated, reproducing special typologies and traditional houses. Flat roofs, courtyard position, and a compact form of residential unit explain the new concept of bioclimatic house. The relation between living space and outside can be read through: • Necessity to achieve a strong shade. • Requirement to get natural ventilation (Fig. 19.15).
19.5.3 Specific Habitat Plan Buildings plans in arid climate regions have an endomorphic form (in open tree form) in which the bundle is hierarchical and situates, each entity having a relational and structural role well specify, by principle univocal function, i.e. development of residential units from 0 (entrance) to a concentrate of living spaces in the depth of house plan such as open tree. Houses from hot climate regions traditionally have a vital space that is intermediary, which includes service rooms, buffer spaces, transit spaces, such as loggers, Balcones, terraces, basements, etc. Little used rooms are best located along the warmer and brighter
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south side in the houses. These parts of the house need to be heated occasionally, such as a spare bedroom perform better with a low thermal capacity with insulation on the inside of the room. Storage rooms need to be kept dry but heat, light, and thermal capacity are of little concern, though the preference is for constant cool temperatures (Al-musaed 1996). Basements and rooms under the stairs, condition dry, are perfect for storage. Durable substance can be stored outside the insulated envelope altogether such as under the eaves or in unheated sheds. In both cases, the most important concern is keeping they dry (Al-musaed 2004). Intermediary space can take place between public and private spaces. Intermediary space can take place between open and closed spaces. Energetic role of intermediary space is between hot exterior spaces and interior functional spaces and contrary; therefore, the essential role of intermediary spaces is thermal buffering. For the house, thermal buffering represents a reduction in heat loss/gain, and through the building elements it shares with the buffer space (Al-musaed 2002). This is because those elements lose/gain heat to a space, which is at a higher or lower temperature than the outdoors. The magnitude of the heat loss/gain reduction depends on the temperature of the intermediary space. This, in turn, depends on the thermal characteristics of the envelope of the intermediary space and of the elements, it affects on the parent building. Thermal buffering is not a substitute for thermal insulation. Building elements in contact with intermediary spaces should be insulated to the same standard as external elements. The more compact the envelope of the intermediary space, and the better the insulation, the more effective it becomes as thermal buffer. On the other hand, the enhanced the insulation of the buffered elements, the less heat they will lose/gain towards the buffer (and the need for buffering will be less). The incorporation of conservatories into the plan and form of a house requires particular care as this will affect both the heat loss and solar gain of the house and determine those of the conservatory (Fig. 19.16).
19.5.4 Specific Building Materials As besides earth and sand materials can hardly be provided, the first building systems have been invented. Arches and cupolas made out of burnt or sun-dried bricks filled in gaps could be closed only with wood provided with great efforts (Al-musaed 2004). Finishing materials have been made out of burnt clay, such as enameled ceramics. Folk’s intuition and millenary experience determined the peoples of such zones to use building materials and systems not only to achieve long lasting buildings but also to protect against excessive temperatures. Where building materials were insufficient to protect against heat, the spatial-volumetric outlook and the auxiliary device camp up. Mud-build is also an essential material in house from hot climate.
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Fig. 19.16 Specific habitat plan for hot climate
19.5.5 Energy on Vernacular Dwellings Energy on vernacular dwellings is allocated throughout based on thermal zones by utilizing the energy in diverse functional spaces such as cascade. It is important to hold the thermal level constant on the different building spaces. The old builders had avoided to emplacing the spaces with a large difference in temperature collectively. They used the natural convection in a maximum form in the interior dwelling to transfer the excessive energy to the exterior (Al-musaed 1996). Sometimes temperatures in different parts of large spaces can vary. Therefore, the old builder has divided this space into number of smaller zones with neighboring elements defined as voids. Service spaces or intermediary spaces such as store rooms, toilets and corridors were often be grouped together into the one zone among other zones may be significant. Thermal zoning tries to ensure the best match possible between the distribution of room and the distribution of the available energy. At last we can perceive that a vernacular house from arid climates was influenced by the first house created by Sumerians civilization in Ur city northwest of Basrah which was displayed with heavy facades; limited openings on the external elevations but those that do exist are well shaded. These simple ideas used with modern and traditional materials can produce an energy effective house, which is traditionally in arid climate. In vernacular houses in arid climate, builder creates closed spaces that are embraced by walls to conserves the cool interior. The opposition of light and shade is dramatically expressed in these architectures of walls (Santamouris 1999). The spatial relation between the interior and exterior is limited to a few apertures in the thick walls, through which the light penetrates, revealing the thickness of walls. In such cases, the border between the interior and
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the exterior has depth. Just in architecture from warm dry climates is of walls, where in the temperate climates it is roofs. Open spaces, covered by large roofs, are interesting due to the mix of diffuse light and shade that are essential esthetic factors in these buildings. For well-operated open spaces, require to introduce many sustain effects such as depth, reflection areas, veils, chiaroscuro, and more attenuate of sun glow (Al-musaed 1996). The transition from the intense and crude light of the exterior and the shade of the interior via the eaves, pergolas, and other elements produce an intermediation of chiaroscuro and create an interior shade that is perceived as a shade surrounded by half shades.
References Al-musaed A (1996) Town texture specific for the warm zone. AD Review, issue nr 12, Bucharest Al-musaed A (2002) Environments effect on contemporary houses. International UIA Berlin congress 2002, Germany Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole, Aarhus Al-musaed A (2007) Evaporative cooling process adaptive for baghdad city climate, building low energy cooling and advanced ventilation technologies the 21st century, PALENC 2007. The 28th AIVC conference, Crete island, Greece Givoni B (1994) Passive and low energy cooling of buildings. Wiley, USA Oliveira AR (2000) Eco-techture: bioclimatic trends and landscape architecture in the year 2001. Loft Publications, Barcelona Santamouris M (1999) Energy and climate in the urban built environment. James & James (Science Publishers), UK Wilmers F (1991) Effects of vegetation on urban climate and buildings. Energy Buildings 15–16:507–518
Chapter 20
Vernacular Architecture from Cold and Temperate Regions (Aarhus, Denmark)
20.1 Climate in Aarhus Viewed over a longer period of time, the climate in Denmark has never been constant. Cold periods have replaced warm periods, and the greatest variations in climate are indicated by glacial and interglacial periods. Climate data for the eastern part of Jutland (Al-musaed 2006):
20.1.1 Temperature The Golf stream in the North Sea gives cool summers with a mean temperature around 16C and not particularly cold winters with mean temperatures of around 0.5C (Fig. 20.1).
20.1.2 Wind There is a good deal of wind, strongest in the winter and weakest in the summer. The winds from west are cool in the summertime because of the temperature in the North Sea, a part of the golf Stream. Winds from east are warm in the summer and cold in the winter because of the inland climate in Russia and Siberia. In Aarhus, especially winds from the east can be strong because of the nearby lake and the lack of screening from the seascape. Precipitation: Rain falls throughout the year, with the greatest rainfall in September, October and November. The smallest amounts of precipitation occurs in February and April. In the winter precipitation, sometimes, fall like snow.
A. Almusaed, Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84996-534-7_20, Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011
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Fig. 20.1 Clime analyze for Aarhus, Denmark
20.1.3 Sunshine The average of hours of sunshine is from about 250 in June to about 40 in January. A low-pressure system is often followed by days with a cloudy sky, which reduce the hours of sunshine a lot. Humidity: Humidity goes from about 66% in the summer to about 95% in the winter.
20.2 Habitat Type in History The basic functional structure, construction and materials were nearly the same all over Denmark but could be mixed with local traditions, different materials, and detailing from district to district. The four-winged farmhouse, as an archetype of a Danish farmhouse, which could be seen all over the country, is typical of this period (Fig. 20.2). When the wing house was built in a town context, the houses were often built like row houses—shoulder to shoulder to the front (street façade)—and with courtyards formed by wings to the back. The number of courtyards could differ
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Fig. 20.2 Wing house typical for Scandinavian countries (Source: Schmidt 1999)
from one to two or three. Open gates gave the connection between the street and the courtyards. Behind the house structure were gardens for vegetables as closed greens or as links to the open landscape. In the town, the wing to the street façade was normally used as living area, and the different wings around the courtyards were used as workshops and storerooms. In the seventeenth and eighteenth century, demands for more substantial houses meant that the half-timber construction was more and more replaced by houses with solid brick walls. Still built like wings, separate or built together, as we see in the halftimber house and with the same modular principles in construction. This building principle has its roots in the early renaissance In Scandinavian countries, most of the old towns, houses are built or rebuilt as brick houses. The house type could easily be understood by studying a cross section. The length of available crossbeams (often 6–10 m) limits the depth of the wing. The two facades and an inner wall in the middle support the beam. Boulders originally support the walls (Fig. 20.3). The bearing walls were always half-timber filed with mud or brick. The steep attached saddle roof (angle 50–60) gives good protection from precipitation (rain, snow, etc.). The inside of the roof was originally wood. The floor mud covered with wood (boards) or tiles. Half-timber house conclusions: • The traditional half-timber house and the wing type house consist of a number of structural bays each the same width and the same depth, which makes the building process rational.
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Fig. 20.3 Traditional Danish houses
• It is adaptable to many uses in any of its specific configurations and is easily changed into new configurations. • The modular construction is rational to build. • Day light follows the modular construction in the façade, which means a good quality of light in the rooms behind.
20.3 Vernacular Architecture Mechanism In order to understand the influence of climate factors on houses in Denmark, we must notice that the influence of climate is clear on the conception of habitat space in Denmark (Fig. 20.4). Wind and sun are the most important thermal factors influencing habitat space, form and plan configuration lay out, and orientation in vernacular houses (before 1900) in Denmark. Temperature rate and lack of insulation meant that these houses most of the year needed to be heated by an open fireplace or oven to keep an acceptable indoor comfort for human beings (20–22C). Precipitation, rain and snowfall for more than 200 days a year are significant factors in the tradition for steep roofs (45–60C) all over country. The thermal influence on the built form and orientation of buildings has the strongest influence in the countryside. In the towns other factors were more important. Exceptions are chipper towns like Sonder Ho on Fano and Dragor on Amager where all the houses are orientated east/west to provide maximum sun exposure and minimum wind exposure to the individual house. In vernacular dwellings there is, especially in windy places, local tradition for thermal thinking in using the landscape possibilities; screening from trees, hills and dunes, to save costs from heating (Fig. 20.5).
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Vernacular Architecture Mechanism
Fig. 20.4 Traditional Danish houses orientation and emplacement
Fig. 20.5 Buffering space placement, in relation to cold north coordinate
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20.3.1 Closed Functional Spaces 20.3.1.1 Living Spaces Rooms for living, dining, etc. are nearly always orientated to the sunny south facade to get maximum warmth from the sun. We can observe that living spaces in farmhouses can be divided according to two types of spaces of which the first is a large living space that had orientation toward the South, and other small buffer spaces that had orientation toward the North. 20.3.1.2 Service Spaces Kitchen and service rooms are mostly orientated toward the North façade, the cool side of the house. Storeroom for food is often situated in the basement to keep a low temperature from the ground (ca. 8C). 20.3.1.3 Sleeping Spaces Sleeping space for two or more people formed like a wood paneled closet, often placed close to the chimney. The small space inside the (alkove) only needed a minimum of energy support to keep warm.
20.3.2 Intermediary Spaces 20.3.2.1 Udskud A narrow extension for storage, etc. to the façade in windy direction can give extra protection and save energy.
20.3.2.2 Vindfang Vindfang is a room to stop the wind, exchange of cool–warm air. It is placed between the main entrance and the living rooms to save energy.
20.3.3 Open Functional Spaces 20.3.3.1 Courtyard Space The central courtyard is used for practical purposes connected with agriculture. The courtyard is in the traditional farm surrounded by wings, which can differ
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Fig. 20.6 Trees and building elements such buffering areas against dominant strong cold wind
from one or two to four depending on local traditions and the size of the farm (Fig. 20.6). The closed four-winged farmhouse is the archetype of Danish. The open gate gives access to the courtyard. The courtyard gives protection against wind from different directions and improves the climate comfort (Fig. 20.7).
20.3.4 Landscape Elements with Thermal Elements In the way, the farmhouse was placed in the landscape; thermal thinking could play an important role.
20.3.4.1 Solvendt In the plan, lay out the living wing was often placed east/west (solvendt) to get maximum sun exposure.
20.3.4.2 Shelter (Læ) On windy places, the house was often placed to the leeward of a hill—or dune on the west coast of Jutland.
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Fig. 20.7 Courtyard position in farm Danish houses
20.3.4.3 Windbreak (Læhegn) Windbreak around houses is a widespread tradition for determining a better comfort around houses and to save energy.
20.4 Habitat Concept Specific 20.4.1 Specific Urban Texture Urban texture in Denmark is with buildings placed to end, as row houses, to make long, continuous walls that define both the streets and the collection of private open spaces opposite to them. The walls of the building not only describe the boundary between public and private, but also at the same time also physically and perceptually define the public streets and squares, the spaces in which the community lives its collective life. These walls create a clear physical boundary between these two; the urban, hard-edged and social world of the streets, and the natural, soft, private and semi-private world of backyard and garden. Since-access to houses varies: 1. If the street is on the south side of the house, access is through the south end the garden. 2. If the street is on the north side of the house, access is through the north wall of the house.
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Fig. 20.8 Texture urban specific (Aarhus city)
3. If the street is on the east or west Side, access is through the east or west side of the garden (Fig. 20.8). Thus there are two significantly different house plans, one with entrances on the north side, directly from the street, and one with entrances on the south side, through the garden—and three different kinds of gardens—one with public access through its full length, one with public access through a portion near the house (the side access houses), and one in which the garden is completely private. Because of access requirements, the row of houses along east–west streets may be of any length, but there can only be two such rows between the streets. Rows of houses along the north–south streets can only be two houses wide, but there can be any number of such rows between cross streets.To achieve south orientation for all houses, streets must run north–south or east–west; diagonal or significantly curving streets will not work. As a result, the layout of streets must be, at least schematically, a rectilinear grid. The varying physical relationships between houses, garden, and streets mean that the relationship of the particular household to its neighbors, and to the more public life in the streets, depends on its particular location.
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Streets are narrow and cobbled, and through they are in a general way laid out to form a grid, in fact, each street is different from any other street. The two sides may not be parallel; the line of the street may not be straight or quite lined up with compass points. In general, building façades are simple without emphasis profiles, which give shade. The facades to the north are generally with reduced window size. In many cases they are washed and painted with bright colors; this is because of the wish to acquire reflected natural light from ceiling and the walls.
20.4.2 Specific Habitat Plan House plans in temperate climate had a retimorphic plan (in network form) which has the close form characteristic and loop where as reason for relation of unvoiced is not possible. The proprieties of these structures will be put in evidence on the land of architectural domain. This type of structure it is dominant in cold and temperate climate regions. This shows repartition of living spaces in the form of network (Fig. 20.9).
20.4.3 Specific Habitat Volume House form in Denmark was concept on basis of illustrious volumetric form, tied by geo climatic conditions, which was formed by a graduate of building volumes, starting from that roof with little slope till pointed roofs. Fig. 20.9 Specific habitat plan (Aarhus city)
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Fig. 20.10 Specific habitat volume for cold climate architecture
The aggressive effect of wind obliges builder to find a practical solutions to combat the negative effect of strong wind, one of these solutions are by inclined roofs and other achieving a half-hipped roof, which makes a fluid circulation of wind over the roof. The roofs are covered, as a rule with tiles, scales, sieve, shingle, wood board, and sometimes with thatched (Fig. 20.10). Needed to occur an internal thermal comfort that can be occurring by inclinator roof, that intersect in the top (place where accumulates warm air).
20.4.4 Specific Construction Material Danish landscape and Danish building are inseparable sites had to be near supplies of wood, clay and straw (principal materials), materials that up to the middle of last century were generally used for houses for ordinary people (Fig. 20.11). Fields and meadows are cultivated fields around the houses and meadows and grazing cattle or woods alternating with lakes or winding rivulets. Construction materials in architecture from Denmark constitute also of backed brick, tile, mudbuilt, etc.
20.4.5 Heating System 20.4.5.1 Fireplace Open fireplaces or ovens support the climate comfort in the seasons of the year where extra heat is needed. In the kitchen, the open fireplace was used for cooking.
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Fig. 20.11 Specific buildings material
Fig. 20.12 Chimneys position in Old Danish houses
20.4.5.2 Chimneys The fireplaces and ovens are connected to chimneys placed in the middle of the house as a part of the wall system and open to the air above the roof. The chimney is often placed in a plan strategic way, so it could serve more than one room. In bigger houses up to three or four chimneys were necessary to warm up the whole house (Fig. 20.12).
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References Al-musaed A (2006) Vernacular passive houses from Aarhus city. The 23rd conference on passive and low energy architecture, Geneva, Switzerland, PLEA2006, September 2006 Schmidt H (1999) Vikingetidens byggeskik I Danmark. Moesgård museum Jysk arkæologisk selskab, p 57
Chapter 21
Improvement of Exterior and Interior Energy Allocate
21.1 Improvement of Exterior Energy Allocate 21.1.1 Ameliorate of Local Microclimate The microclimate of a site can have a deep effect on how people use its outdoor spaces, and on how readily and efficiently its buildings can provide comfortable and beautiful environments (Pearlmuttere 1993). A site’s microclimate can be altered by design to warm, cool, shelter, expose, and reduce unwanted pollution and sound. A well designing of surrounding landscape can be a good long-term investment for reducing heating and cooling costs by protecting against winter wind and summer sunlight. Both the summer ventilation and cooling loads and the winter heating load can be reduced by well-considered site use. Close surveillance is required to emphasize the preference areas on a site. Existing vegetation, geology and topography all engage in recreating a part in creating a unique microclimate for every site. There are analytical tackles available for simulating the wind flow patterns around buildings, trees and landforms and for onsite investigations of microclimate. Effective landscaping can also help control noise and pollution and reduce the consumption of water, pesticides and fuel for garden maintenance (Fig. 21.1). The limited variations may be due to earth relief, the vicinity of extensive water surfaces, and the structure of the soil, vegetation, etc. This can play an important role in determining the form, volume, orientation, and relating outdoor–indoor of the bioclimatic building purpose. The following subjects will take these effects on local microclimate (Pearlmuttere 1993).
21.1.2 The Effect of Local Earth Relief The attendance of hills in a certain location can readily be assessed by means of the methods described in the following sections. Wind direction can vary sharply A. Almusaed, Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84996-534-7_21, Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011
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Fig. 21.1 Different natural surroundings
Fig. 21.2 Different natural earth reliefs
with location. At any time, the weather is clear and calm, the heating and cooling of hills may produce a valley wind (Fig. 21.2).
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21.1.3 The Effect of Water and Vegetation The temperature of dry soil, covered in dust, varies the most: at night, it is coldest and during the day, it gets warmed up quickly. On the other hand, the temperature range of wet compact clay soil is smaller. However, the influence of the soil on the microclimate may be greatly modified by vegetation. The effect of forests and trees on the microclimate is very complex. Cautiously positioned trees can save up to 50% of a household’s energy consumption for heating and cooling (Wilmers 1991). The presence of trees generally reduces the day–night variation, increases the air humidity and decreases the wind speed. Plants can be used as shading as well as windbreaks to control heat gain and loss correspondingly. Deciduous trees will provide shading in summer without, unlike an awning, blocking the sunlight in the winter (Wilmers 1991) (for more information, see Chap. 8; Fig. 21.3). In summer, shading and evapotranspiration (the process by which a plant actively moves and releases water vapor) from trees can reduce surrounding air temperatures as much as 5C and air temperatures directly under trees by up to 14C. In winter, trees, fences or geographical features can be used as windbreaks to shield against cold wind. The use of trees and landforms as shelterbelts is one of the most influential aids available for influencing the microclimate. A wind tunnel is the understandable design tool for investigating the effects of shelterbelts, but would be outside the resources of an architectural apply. For ameliorating a local microclimate, architects must think on • implantation of trees and creation of green belts and surfaces. • creation of urban evaporative cooling systems in the margins of ways, and public spaces. • strong shading using urban furniture elements for arid climate. • green roofs concept for wipe out a heat island effects.
Fig. 21.3 Some local microclimate from arid and temperate zones
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21.2 Improvement of Interior Energy Allocate 21.2.1 Architectural Functions and Human Comfort Activity The human body has its own mechanism for heat production. The heat generated by metabolic activity greatly exceeds that required to maintain deep body temperature at its normal level. We do not need any external sources of heat; the principal physiological requirement for thermal comfort is to discharge the excess heat. In order to do this, however, we require surroundings that will allow us to keep cooling without stress. Physiological factors are of main importance with regard to comfort. The internal temperatures of the human body have to be kept within narrow limits at around 37C. Any fluctuation from this value is a indication of illness, and a increase of 5C or a fall of 2C from this value can lead to death. The body converts food into energy. The rate at which this is complete depends largely on the activity level. The ‘‘internal heat load’’ of a body depends on its metabolic activity and varies greatly (Paul Gut, Fislisbach 1993). The energy, which is released in this conversion, is dissipated by the body as heat and used for a small part as external work. The sensation of comfort depends to a great degree on the effortlessness. With which the body is able to regulate the one balance, with on one side energy production and heat gain, and on the other side heat loss, in such a way that the internal body temperature is maintained constant at 37C. The factors affecting this comfort may be divided into personal variables (activity and clothing) and environmental variables (air temperature, mean radiant temperature, air velocity and air humidity). The second group of variables depends directly on technological place and house design. Sensitivity to indoor function varies considerably as a function of an occupant activity and other personal factors. Activity on the building affects the rate of metabolic heat production. More generally, the sensation of comfort or discomfort may also reflect an individual’s disposition and the perception of his/her surroundings, including indoor air quality, the architecture and ambience of a living space, light levels, the availability of sunshine, the level of noise and other factors (Fig. 21.4). The human body could gain or lose heat by higher than explained processes depending on whether the environment is colder or warmer than the human body
Fig. 21.4 Metabolic rate of different activities (1 met = 58 W/m2)
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surface. When the surrounding temperature (air and surfaces) is above 25C, the clothed human body cannot get rid of enough heat by conduction, convection or radiation. The body has the ability to balance its temperature by various means (Paul Gut, Fislisbach 1993). Interior functional spaces reflected the human activity in which the space occupants practiced. In bedroom situation, the optimal comfort temperature is 18C for temperate climate and 21C for hot climate which correspond the position of occupant in this room, and the optimal comfort temperature for living room or/and eating room is between 19C for temperate climate and 22C for hot climate. The situation is different in the warm spaces such as kitchen, in which the optimal comfort temperature is between 20C for temperate climate and 23C for hot climate, so we have three situations such as reclining, sitting, and standing. The building must supply an environment that does not harm the health of the inhabitants. Furthermore, it should supply living and working conditions, which are comfortable (Paul Gut, Fislisbach 1993). Every architectural function corresponds to a physic activity. Architect must take in evidence these optimal comforts of temperature. The metabolic rate is the amount of energy produced per unit of time by the conversion of food. It is determined by the kind of activity. To reduce the variation between people of different size, the rate is expressed in W/m2 of body surface. The average body surface of a male adult is approximately 1.8 m2 (Matsui and Takeda 1996). The metabolic rate per m2 for various activities is as follows: sitting 58–70 W/m2, walking 115–270 W/m2, house activity 140–256 W/ m2. Clothing also offers thermal resistance against the environment. This thermal resistance is expressed in m2 K/W. Thermal resistance for various kinds of clothing is: nude 0 m2 K/W, lightweight clothing (short and T-shirt) 0.05 m2 K/ W, warm clothing 0.23–0.31 m2 K/W. The type of clothing is also determined by activity that is to be carried out, the ambient temperature and the sex (Solar handbook, Communities 1986; Fig. 21.5). Comfort conditions as described are not usually found in outdoors and clothing alone is often not sufficient to compensate. An important function of
Fig. 21.5 Insulation values of different kind of clothing (1 clo = 0.155 m2 K/W)
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Fig. 21.6 The interaction between energy, activity, human comfort and architectural programs
buildings is to provide the necessary protection against the outdoor climate (Fig. 21.6). However, not all types of buildings and not all rooms in a building have to fulfill the same needs. While designing a building and working out the thermal concept, the following functional parameters should be analyzed (Paul Gut, Fislisbach 1993): • • • •
What kind of activities and functions will be approved out in the building? When do these activities take place during the course of the day? Where and in which room do these activities receive place? What are the predictable seasonal changes for these functions?
21.2.2 Building Thermal Zones Such as Cascade Energy in the building must be allocated throughout regardless of thermal zones in the building by utilizing the energy in diverse house functional spaces such as cascade. This form of thermal hierarchy can transform the building plan. It is better to assemble the interior spaces that have the same temperature and intern contribution, such as living rooms or bedrooms toward the center of house plan, and the spaces which have more high temperature such as kitchen in the periphery of building plane. Architects and engineers have to avoid emplacing of spaces with
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Fig. 21.7 Hierarchy thermal comfort on architectural spaces position
a large collective difference of temperature. Humans must use the natural convection in a building interior in maximum form, for achieving transfer of energy to the exterior; this difference in temperature is necessary for creation of natural ventilation by airflow (Fig. 21.7). Architects can benefit from the thermal stratification of air, through placement of more warm spaces in the highness. Thermal zoning is a vital consideration in recently designed environmental buildings. On the other hand, in an existing building, the original architect decided the configuration of rooms. One has to adapt to the existing layout, deciding which rooms are used, and which rooms are used for adults, and children. A thermal zone represents an enclosed space in which the air is free to flow around and whose thermal conditions are relatively consistent. In most cases, any room closed off with a door would be a separate zone. Sometimes temperatures in different parts of large spaces can vary. In these cases, the space can be divided into a number of smaller zones with adjoining elements defined as voids. This way, heat is free to flow among the zones, but their thermal characteristics can be analyzed individually. Service spaces or intermediary spaces such as store rooms, toilets and corridors grouped together into one zone among other zones may be significant (Watson and Labs 1983). We like to differ temperature in different building functional spaces, e.g. we like bathrooms to be very warm, living rooms to be a comfortable temperature, and bedroom to be modest cooler. A well-organized passive bioclimatic building recognizes these differences and creates thermal zones for the different building functional spaces (Fig. 21.8). Thermal zoning tries to ensure the best match possible between the distribution of room and the distribution of the available energy. The thermal zones are as follows. 21.2.2.1 Functional Essential Spaces This zone includes living space, e.g. bedrooms and living rooms. The optimal temperature for these zones in house is between 18 and 21C. The best place for
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Fig. 21.8 Thermal comfort in cold and hot climate habitat
functional essential spaces is extremely in center of the building in the buildings from temperate climate and architects must warn their external walls, and at the side of courtyard in the buildings from hot climate. Radiant heat from functional auxiliary spaces such as kitchens and bathrooms can penetrate into these spaces, from kitchen to eating space in living room, and from bathroom to bedroom. The next best option is with a south, east, and southeast facing window in buildings from cold climate, and northeast in buildings from hot climate. In general, adults tend to make little use of bedrooms except for sleeping and do not need to be especially warm. In a well-insulated house, a large part of their heating can be supplied by warmth rising from a well-heated room below. Adult bedrooms in bioclimatic house, e.g., can be placed on the cooler side of the buildings. However, they need good light and an easterly window or skylight is preferred (Fig. 21.9). The main living rooms need constant warmth and light and are best placed on the south or north depending on geographical clime zone of the building with large windows and good thermal capacity to hold any thermal gain through the evening (Al-musaed 2004). 21.2.2.2 Functional Auxiliary Spaces This zone includes bioclimatic house, e.g. kitchens and bathrooms. The optimal temperature for this zone is between 20 and 23C. That means a 23C for bathrooms and 20C for kitchen. This zone is modest warm and can be located in the periphery of the house plane for • creation of natural ventilation; • to be beside functional essential spaces for creation of radiant heat and corresponding building functional schema.
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Fig. 21.9 The optimal buildings orientation in hot and cold climates
Kitchen, e.g., can produce a great contract of heat. The ideal location of kitchen is the periphery of the house, with cooker placed toward the interior wall for temperate climate and exterior wall for hot climate.
21.2.2.3 Intermediary Spaces This zone includes storage rooms, buffer spaces, transit spaces, such as loggers, balconies, terraces, basements, etc. The optimal temperature for this zone is less than 16C for bioclimatic buildings from temperate climate in winter season, and 28C for bioclimatic buildings from hot climate in summer season. Few used rooms are best located along the colder and darker north side in the buildings from cold and temperate climate and warmer and brighter south side in the buildings from hot climate. These parts of buildings need to be heated occasionally, such as a spare essential architectural function, perform better with a low thermal capacity with insulation on the inside of the room (Weldon 1991). Auxiliary architectural spaces need to be kept dry but heat, light, and thermal capacity are of little concern, through the preference is for constant cool temperatures. Durable substance can be stored outside the insulated envelope altogether such as under the eaves or in unheated sheds. In both cases, the most important concern is keeping them dry.
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Going on the study of passive bioclimatic buildings from hot and temperate climates, we can see the visible and incredibly vital thing to give attention for the spaces where the conceptions and architectural creations require such types of spaces, in which it takes many names and calls, therefore in the following items we will explain the important insight of these kinds of spaces: • Intermediary space is the spaces which have a semi-action character between two difference signification meanings, this space can take social, cultural, and actually energetic functions. Intermediary social space can take place between public space and private space in house from hot climate. In the same form, intermediary space can take place between open and closed spaces. Energetic role of intermediary space is between hot exterior spaces and interior functional spaces and contrary, therefore the essential role of intermediary space is a thermal buffering. The passive bioclimatic building has three concepts of spaces those are functional comfortable space, intermediary space, and outdoor space. • Intermediary spaces are conservatory, garages, balconies, loggias, terraces, service rooms, etc., which share building elements with heated or cooled rooms that can act as thermal buffers. The temperature in the intermediary spaces tends to be higher than the outdoor temperature in cold climate because of the heat gains received through the walls separating it from heated rooms and the situation is overturned in arid climate. For the parent building, thermal buffering represents a reduction in heat loss/gain through the building elements it shares with the buffer space. This is because these elements lose/gain heat to a space that is at a higher or lower temperature than the outdoors. The magnitude of the heat loss/gain reduction depends on the temperature of the intermediary space. This in turn depends on the thermal characteristics of the envelope of the intermediary space and of the elements it affects on the parent building. Thermal buffering is not a substitute for thermal insulation. Building elements in contact with intermediary spaces should be insulated to the same standard as external elements. The more compact the envelope of the intermediary space, and the better the insulation, the more effective it becomes as thermal buffer. On the other hand, the enhanced the insulation of the buffered elements, the less heat they will lose/gain toward the buffer (and the need for buffering will be less). The incorporation of conservatories into the plan and form of a building requires particular care as this will affect both the heat loss and solar gain of the house and determine those of the conservatory (The patrimony of passive cooling 1999). For a poorly insulated building, the thermal buffering provided by the incorporation of a conservatory can be quite considerable, especially on windows and uninsulated external walls. For well-insulated new building, it is small. Transitional space or unheated space is other name of intermediary space, is a traditional spaces used for stairs, utility spaces, circulation, and any other areas where movement take place. These areas do not require total climatic control and natural ventilation is sufficient. For arid zones, the transitional spaces are located on the south sides of the building where the sun’s penetration is not as great.
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An atrium can also be used as a transitional space. In temperate zones, the transitional spaces should be located on the north side of the building to minimize the heat losses. Courtyards, entrances and vestibules are transitional spaces between the outside world and the private domain. Location, orientation and building shape plays the vital role on resolution of the interior house function and distribution those function on house plan. Living space in cold climate most occupied and has the greatest heating and lighting requirement that should be arrayed along the south face of the building. Spaces that are least used (closets, storage area, garages) should be placed along the north wall where they can act as an intermediary space or buffer between high use living space and the cold north side. The situation is dissimilar in arid climate, where the south facing must be treated by intermediary spaces to avoid the exceed heat.
References Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole in Aarhus, Denmark Matsui T, Takeda H (1996) Evolution of performance for ecological house. Part 2 Thermal Environment by actual Measurement and Simulation ditto Paul G, Fislisbach (1993) Climate responsive Building, Swiss Centre for Development Cooperation in Technology and Management, 1st edn. SKAT. Niedermann AG, St. Gallen, Switzerland Pearlmuttere D (1993) Roof geometry as a determinant of thermal zone. Architect Sci Rev 36(2):57–79 Solar Handbook Communities (1986) The European passive solar handbook . Trafalgar Square Publishing. Luxembourg The patrimony of passive cooling (1999) Proceedings of the symposium on Mosque. The environmental control in Mosque architecture. King Saudi University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, February, pp 1–14 Watson D, Labs K (1983) Climatic design: energy efficient building principles and practices. McGraw-Hill, New York Weldon AE (1991) Environmental and economic benefits of renewable energy conversion, p 36 Wilmers F (1991) Effects of vegetation on urban climate and buildings. Energy Build 15–16:507–518
Chapter 22
Improvement of Thermal Insulation (Passive Buildings)
22.1 Introduction Thermal insulation is installed in building for more than a few reasons. All of these speak about the primary character of a thermal insulating material; it provides moderately excellent resistance to the course of heat. To understand how insulation works, we must perceive that the fundamental obligation for thermal insulation is to provide a considerable resistance course to the flow of heat through the insulation material (Givoni 1992). To achieve this, the insulation material must reduce the rate of heat transfer by conduction, convection, radiation, or several mixtures of these mechanisms (Weldon 1991). A variety of finishes are used to protect the insulation from mechanical and environmental damage, and to enhance appearance. In order to realize the insulation mechanism, it is vital to understand the concept of heat flow or heat transfer. In general, heat always flows from warmer to cooler surface. This flow does not stop until the temperature in the two surfaces is equal. Heat is ‘‘transferred’’ by three different means: conduction, convection, and radiation. Insulation decreases the transference of heat: • Conduction is direct heat flow through solids. • Convection is the flow of heat (forced and natural) within a fluid. A fluid is a substance that may be either a gas or a liquid (Catherine and Linden 1997). • Radiation is transmission of energy through space by means of electromagnetic waves.
22.2 Insulation Roles The roles of insulation are given below.
A. Almusaed, Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84996-534-7_22, Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011
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Fig. 22.1 Energy saving concept is a way to protect our beings
22.2.1 Energy Saving and Conservation At the same time, all thermal insulates be inclined to reduce energy consumption and associated atmospheric problems (Fig. 22.1). Insulation in walls, ceilings and sometimes floors is also attractive in all buildings intended for human use because comfort conditions are more simply achieved. The façade and the roof must be airtight and the accomplishment must be approved out with a great deal of precision. Heat management of the external building components is the most effective assess for energy efficiency in buildings. Every house needs a building envelope with a ground floor, exterior walls and roof; the passive building focuses on extreme improvements to these building components high quality heat insulation is thus supplementary.
22.2.2 Energy Changes and Control That represents regulation of the input and output energy, where the insulation thickness must be sufficient to limit the heat transfer in a dynamic system or limit the temperature change, with time, in a static system. We can observe that the changes of energy are various in evaluations between temperate climate and hot climate (winter and summer). The uncomfortable change of energy in temperate climate is in the winter in direction inside outside; the situation is opposite in hot climate, where the uncomfortable change of energy occurring in summer in direction outside inside (Fig. 22.2). Changes in energy can take place between insides of the interior spaces. Energy changes also by opening of doors. The air change has been measured to about 5 m3 per opening of door, and with persons in the building it is calculated that there are 130 openings, on average, during the day. Other form of energy change is infiltration
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Fig. 22.2 Energy changes and control
in which energy is lost from building in two ways: one is by infiltration and the other is by conduction (Al-musaed 2004). Air infiltration occurs where there are openings in the exterior envelope (Givoni 1992). Differences in air pressure at that moment allow too much air to simply enter or exit a building. A very well insulated building possibly will have infiltration losses of around 38% of the seasonal heat losses. As a result, by substantially reducing the infiltration rate, 90% solar heating is without problems achievable. The problem is that infiltration is reduced to this level with great difficulty. The 1.5 air change per hour for standard building is reduced to about 0.5 air change per hour by income of good quality weather stripping around openings and by caulking building cracks (Procos 1996). The most frequent openings are those created by joining of divergent building materials such as: • • • • • •
Windows or doors and their framing, Air duct joints in intermediary spaces, Electrical cable, etc. joining and plumbing intrusions, Sub floor and band joists, Fireplace, Others.
22.2.3 Condensation Control Specifying adequate insulation thickness with a successful vapor retarded system is the most effective means, as long as a system for controlling condensation on the
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membrane surface and within the insulation system on cold piping, ducts, chiller and roof drains. Adequate insulation thickness is desired to keep the surface temperature on the membrane upper than the highest possible design dew point temperature of the ambient air so condensation does not appearance on the surface.
22.2.4 Fire Protection This is an important task of insulation.
22.3 Insulation Types In general, there are two types of insulation that intervene in environment control of buildings or sustainable building; these are permanent insulation and movable insulation.
22.3.1 Permanent Insulations An encouraging surface effect of insulation is the increase of the surface temperature on the inside of the exterior walls. The higher indicates radiant temperature in the room, and increases the comfort level. On the other hand, windows can have a principal influence on the mean radiant temperature: insulating glazing will subsequently be a more efficient means of increasing the comfort level. 22.3.1.1 Permanent Insulation Types There are three types of insulation: • Mass insulation with air or an additional gas with thermal properties similar to air surrounded by interstices inside the material. Much cellular insulation and all fibrous and granular insulations are of this category. • Mass insulation with low down conductivity gas within interstices inside the material. A number of closed cellular insulations are of this category. • Reflective insulation bounding on one or both sides of an air-space. There are also others types of insulation can operate employ it for sustainable building. Super Insulation Super insulation means insulation to levels significantly in overload of the local building. They are two solution components to a super-insulated building covering:
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• High levels of insulation with minimum thermal bridges, and airtight construction • High levels of insulation are skilled by constructing a thicker than normal wall and filling it with an insulation material. On the other hand, simply adding more insulation does not turn a conventional get-together into a high-performance assembly. The wall system and junctions among building components have to be carefully designed to be airtight and avoid thermal bridges or discontinuities (Oliver and Paul 1997). At the same time as more insulation is added, the thermal discontinuities become more vital.
Transparent Insulation Transparent insulation materials are used in windows, on walls uncovered to direct solar irradiation, and as insulation for absorbers in solar collectors. Transparent insulation can be described as materials that have a high thermal insulation and a high solar transmittance (Moore and Suzy 2001). According to general practice, the term includes materials that, strictly, are not visually transparent, but translucent (semi-transparent) (Fig. 22.3).
22.3.1.2 Placement and Position of Insulation In principle, insulation can be added to every building component, except where limitations occur because of architectural, authorized or technical constraints such as intermediary spaces. In addition to the effectiveness of the nature of insulation material available, the following aspects may affect the choice of material in a Fig. 22.3 Permanent insulation type
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particular construction (walls, roof and floor), insulation of material (where and how is the material fixed), durability, condensation and fire. In some situation, insulation can take place in internal wall that is when buildings or rooms are occupied only occasionally, and therefore heated intermittently; internal insulation to the external walls can reduce the thermal mass around the space and thus reduce the response time, minimizing the amount of energy necessary to bring the room up to acceptable comfort levels.
22.3.1.3 Effectiveness of Insulation Materials The effectiveness of insulation materials is dependent on their conductivity and thickness of application. The conductivity depends on the temperature of the insulation material, the moisture content of the material, and the structure of a material. A thermal insulation material must be applied in sufficient thickness. Thermal resistance with amplified thickness but there is a cost limit to the thickness of application.
22.3.2 Movable Insulation External wall and, several times, roof must be regarded as permeable, environmentally interactive membranes with adjustable systems. In temperate and in the same positions in hot climate, the external wall has to serve cold winter and hot summers. In this position, the external wall should be passing through a filter-like, with changeable parts that make available good functions in cold and in warm periods. In the hot and cold climate, a number of walls for illustration (thermal mass) should have a moveable part that control and permit good energy changes for internal comfort. This movable part can be a movable insulation. It refers to a diversity of systems and techniques used in buildings to reduce heat loss through weak points on façades and roofs (windows, thermal mass, etc.). A conventional building can loss from 20 to 50% of its heat all the way through windows and others forms of elements which they haven’t any form of thermal insulation such as thermal mass in south orientation of passive solar building in temperate climate (Al-musaed 2004). Passive solar building with large amounts of glass is principally defenseless to nighttime heat loss through windows and thermal mass in the winter (Fig. 22.4). Heat loss can take place with these weak thermal points in several ways. These include conduction, convention, radiation, and infiltration. Conduction is heat transfer through solid objects such as the sheet of glass and sash (Oliver and Paul 1997) (Fig. 22.5). Convention is heat transfer by air circulation and is often the driving force that causes slow but continuous air movement where heat is lost to the sheet. Radiation is heat transfer contained by the electromagnetic spectrum. Infiltration is heat loss
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Fig. 22.4 Movable insulation exploit
Fig. 22.5 Movable insulation role
by air movement through the seals around the sash or cracks and other openings where the window attaches to the wall. Effective movable insulation should be designed to reduce all types of heat loss. It should have an opaque material. Any opaque material will serve up, as a radiation shield, excluding a reflective surface, may be practical in reflecting interior heat. Correct installation with an excellent tight fit and tight air seal is required to reduce convective heat loss and infiltration (Szokolay 1991). 22.3.2.1 Movable Insulation Types Interior Movable Insulation Interior movable insulation has many advantages over exterior forms because it
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• Secluded from weather condition basics, • Can be simpler and easier to function, • Does not get in the means with the exterior look of the building (Moore and Suzy 2001). The disadvantage of these insulations can be: • The difficulty of moisture condensation between the insulation and the window. • Alterations to the interior look of a room and meddling with the furniture and living space. There are many forms of interior movable insulation, but we will take and discuss some of these elements Thermal Curtains and Shades Conventional curtains and ‘‘thermal’’ liners used in most buildings have modest, if any, insulation value (Rajapaksha 2002). To be an effectual form of insulation, thermal curtains and shades must seal tightly to the window frame to stop convective losses. The material should also be resistant to the weakening effects of sunlight heat and moisture (Langston and Grace 2001). Thermal Shutters Interior thermal shutters differ according to the materials used and the income for fitting them in the window. Methods for preventing convective losses depend on how the thermal shutter is installed. Between the Glazings Certain types of windows can provide accommodation for groundbreaking strategies that engage insulating the space between the glass panes. Various methods involve using Styrofoam beads, shads, louvers, or blind between the window glazings. Skylight and Clerestories Insulation Skylight and clerestories are frequently used for passive solar heating and natural lighting but are usually subject to greater heat loss than normal windows. Movable insulation is very precious for these types of windows. Sliding, louvered and hinged shutters can be employed to reduce heat loss through skylight.
Exterior Movable Insulation Advantages of exterior movable insulation are that:
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• Moisture condensation is not difficult, • The system does not take up any interior living space, • They can design to reflect sunlight into the building for additional solar heat gain during the day, • They can give safety value and better summer sun protection than interior types. Disadvantage of exterior movable insulation is that it is extra expensive. Exterior movable insulation can be: Exterior Hinged and Sliding Shutters Exterior shutters can be installed with hinges to swing into place or installed on a track mechanism to slide into place. Exterior hinged shutters can reflect sunlight into the home during the day as well as reduce heat loss at night if painted white or coated with a reflective material (Al-musaed 2004). Exterior Roll Shutters These systems are generally either a roll down shutter or equipment alike to an overhead garage door. • The roll type shutter is made of narrow slats that are injured onto a cylinder at the top of a window. • The garage door-type shutter operates similarly but can be designed to compete the siding of the rest of the house concession that it presents a consistent exterior when the door is closed.
22.4 Insulation in Passive Buildings Concept The passive gain of inward solar heat through the windows will cover close to 40% of the heat losses if all strategy is followed. Optimized south facing glazing with none or smallest window gaps to the north is necessary. The majority of windows are supposed to be fixed as these have a higher act than the gap category (Haugun 1991).
22.4.1 Windows Window plays a vital role in passive buildings classification in two ways: • It diminish heat loss in spite of their huge areas of glazing • It permits the sunlight to create extra heat through the glass. For passive building, we can utilize upgraded triple glazed windows with double LE shields and double argon filled hollow space as well as warm rim glazing-profile. We turn out to be aware of a modest loss of light-transmission and a slight brown tinting of the light due to the second layer of LE coating.
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For this cause, and the reality that it costs modestly more, we can replace the regular triple glazed windows with single LE shield and single argon fill in both ‘‘low-energy buildings’’ as well as ‘‘passive buildings’’ (Langston and Grace 2001). Actually, we can see the new models of low-energy windows with 0.7 W/m2 C. 22.4.1.1 Low-Energy Windows The main mechanism of heat transfer in multilayer glazing is thermal radiation from a warm pane of glass to a cooler pane. While the enhancement of the previous years is typified by a full-size enhancement of the energetic value, windows still have the lowest level of insulation of all exterior components of a building. Coating a glass surface with a low-energy window material and facing that coating into the gap between the glass layers blocks a significant amount of this radiant heat transfer, thus lowering the total heat flow through the window. The decrease of the thermal transfer of windows has been achieved, as particularly the thermal properties of the glazing that has the highest crash on the heat losses, were enhanced. Regularly, there are the following types of glazing (Table 22.1). The competent glazing consists of two- or three-layer pane, which is unconnected from each other by a layer of air. The heat losses due to transmission are reduced to the half of a single glazing, but they are still very high.
22.4.2 External Door Insulating or replacing external doors can assist to diminish draughts and heat loss at building. The typical door for a low-energy building has a U value of Table 22.1 Overview of U values for different types of glazing Glazing Air-space for glazing U value for glazing U value for window width (mm) (W/m2 K) (including frame) (W/m2 K) Single Double
– 20 12 9 6 3 Double low-Energy 10 Triple 20 12 9 6 3 Triple low-energy 10 Passive house 10
or more
or more
? 10 ? 10
5.6 2.9 3.0 3.2 3.4 4.0 1.1 2.0 2.1 2.3 2.5 3.0 0.7 0.7
3–4 2.5 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.5 1.5–1.7 2.2 2.3 2.5 2.8 3.3 1.0–1.2 0.8
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1.0 W/m2 C. This can be improved by adding an extra internal door swinging into the room. Otherwise, doors with U value of 0.8 W/m2 C must be sourced (ECN). As with all components making up a passive building, the total performance of the building must be considered. A large building with many doors will have much larger heat-losses and this must be compensated by significant improvement of all components. In many well-designed buildings of moderate size, the standard door is sufficient to meet the passive criteria.
22.4.3 Wall A wall is frequently solid structure that describes and sometimes protects an area. The standard wall insulation consists of 145 mm of semi rigid Rockwool insulation carefully fitted between 45 9 145 mm studs spaced 600 mm apart with minimized cold bridging.
22.4.4 Roof The characteristics of a roof are dependent ahead the purpose of the building that it covers. The thick roof takes away too much headroom except in the widest building type with increased roof pitch. The need for perfect air tightness is more difficult to achieve in practice with an attic-roof truss. We can develop ways to do this but it is essential the finishing teams are willing to work to the exact specifications and with the tools required. The passive upgrade consists of special cold-bridge free roof truss without vertical enforcements. The space for insulation within the truss is 400 mm on the sloping part, 500 mm on the horizontal fraction on top. The vapor barrier is installed in a particular way to create it connect to the vapor barrier in the walls on the soil floor. U value 0.082 W/m2 C (Al-musaed 2004).
22.4.5 Cold Bridging Effect Cold bridging is an expression utilized in Civil engineering and damp proofing. It is the condition when the inside walls of a building turn out to be cold sufficient for condensation to take place. A well insulated and ventilated building can avoid this problem. Cold bridges are divisions through the material of significantly inferior thermal resistance than the rest of the building. These happen chiefly in the region of openings and at joint of wall-floors and wall roofs. Building element intersections: The linear thermal transmittance to exterior has to be below 0.01 W/m K. One disadvantage with the super-insulated wall is the loss of floor area.
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A standard Nordica 125 has an internal floor area of 8.6 m 9 14.4 m = 125 m2 in the passive version the same size building has a floor area of 121 m2. This means a loss of 3.3% of the interior floor area is (Sugawara and Hoyano 1996). One more important part of the passive building concept is that the shape of the building be supposed to be optimal. The result of this is that only dense bodies should be utilized. The domestic electric usage must also be reduced by installing the most energy efficient models of appliances available and low-energy lightning.
22.4.6 Air Tightness Air tightness is a concept of control of the ventilation airflow rates. It creates achievable to minimize energy use while maintaining a high-quality indoor environment. The entire building envelope is required to be very airtight. The vapor barrier should be overlapping 500 mm and preserved everywhere. All windows and doors are required to meet the required air-leakage values \0.6 air changes/h at n 50pa. The total energy performance of a passive building is, to a large degree, needy on how airtight the building is (Sugawara and Hoyano 1996). One more cause for why this is of supreme significance is the risk for condensation within the wall. The temperatures inside the external layers of a super-insulated wall are fairly low. If humid warm air from the interior migrates into the wall, the dew point will be met and condensation will occur in the insulation.
22.4.7 Heating by Radiant Asymmetry Human feel uncomfortable even when simply partly exposed to a cold surface (radiant asymmetry). A well-known example of radiant asymmetry is what we recognize when sitting around a campfire on a winter. The surface of our bodies facing the fire is hot while the side facing away is cold. Cold surfaces also create convective currents from the cold window surfaces to the ground so that people have to turn up the thermostats (Brown 1985).
References Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole in Aarhus, Denmark Brown GZ (1985) Sun, wind and light, architectural design strategies. Wiley, New York, pp 65–67 Catherine S, Linden J (1997) Eco-Tech: Sustainable architecture and high technology. Thames and Hudson, London
References
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Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands (ECN) http://www.demohouse.net/uploads/ media/Low_energy_windows.pdf. Accessed 26 July 2008 Givoni B (1992) Comfort, Climate analysis and building design guidelines. Energy Build 18:11–23 Haugun D (1991) Cold climate building research at Wasa base, Antarctica. In: Proceedings of the 6th International Cold Regions Engineering Conference, West Lebanon, pp 272–281 Langston CA, Ding GKC (2001) Sustainable practices in the built environment, plant tree, 2nd edn. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford Paul O (1997) Encyclopaedia of vernacular architecture of the world. Cambridge University Press, Iraq Procos D (1996) The process solar house in Halifax, Canada. In: de Herde A (ed) Building and urban renewal, architecture et climat, Louvain-la-Neuve, pp 280–290 Rajapaksha I (2002) Passive cooling design in the tropics. Callwey, Munchen Sugawara M, Hoyano A (1996) Development of a natural ventilation system using a pitched roof of breathing walls. In: Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate—Indoor Air 96, vol 3, pp 717–722 Suzy M (2001) Living homes: sustainable architecture and design. Chronicle books, San Francisco, pp 52–69 Szokolay SV (1991) Climate, comfort and energy: design of houses for Queensland Climates. Architectural Science Unit, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland Weldon E (1991) Environmental and economic benefits of renewable energy conversion
Chapter 23
Improvement of Energy Saving Concept
23.1 Introduction Improvement of energy saving concept is a mechanism of helping the thermoinsulation by acting of extra layer, green covering help building to save energy. Better-insulated structures need a smaller amount of energy to heat and cool than those that are not comparably insulated. Energy savings are realized when cooling the structure, as the heat of the sun has less effect on the surface temperature of the roof. It is important that green covering be adequately insulated so that no heat can escape from the room covered by the green. Green buildings covering can decrease heating cost by about 13%; saving the money and greenhouse gas emissions. Double skin façade is a form of extra façade, which takes a role of protecting the external buildings elements against the burly action of a summer sun. The principal benefit of the curtain wall is that because it can take the defensive roll of external wall in hot climate or such a defensive skin for building envelope in both hot and cold climate. Consequently, it can play the passive bioclimatic functions in buildings from extreme climate, and also it bears no vertical load, it can be thin and lightweight in spite of the height of the building. Heat recovery system is a supplementary way of improving energy saving concept. Heat Break Transfer Concept takes in evidence the thermodynamic theory. The idea consists of a layer of a comfortable temperature, which takes the role of equilibration between inside and the outside temperatures.
23.2 Green Buildings Covering A well-insulated green can considerably contribute to custody the building cooler during the hotter months (Al-musaed 2004). The position of plants in maintaining air quality is well conventional. By absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen via photosynthesis, plants renew the atmosphere that allows all animal life,
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counting human life, to exist. Forests, farms, and lawns can achieve this mission in suburban, rural, and undeveloped areas. Paradoxically, in the city, where air pollution is heaviest because of traffic and industry, the limited land available for plants compounds an already difficult problem. Green covering can also assist to moderate the climate of urban areas (Grady 1990). Cities appear hotter than outlying areas in the summer, in fact, are warmer, by as much as 7C at night and 7C during the day. Urban areas are hotter because materials, such as asphalt and concrete, which have a low albedo, or reflective power, cover most of the land area. These surfaces absorb and keep heat energy from the sun, rather than reflecting it. As a result, built-up areas get hotter and stay hotter than outlying areas, where plant cover reflects more sunlight (Theodore 1999).
23.3 Double Skin Façade Walls must give buildings user protection against hot, cold, wind, external noise, and enhance security. The structure must stop and alternate the heat gain, so those peak system loads do not correspond with climax external conditions. Therefore, a well-insulated heavy construction is needed. In addition, a sustainable external element is necessary. The external face should be light colored in warm climate and dark colored in cold climate, which mean, it have a low solar absorption (Berger 1997). For an efficient bioclimatic architecture, architect can oriented to a curtain wall such as sustainable exterior elements. Curtain wall is synonymous to double skin façade, double-leaf façade, double façade, double envelope, wall filter façade, and ventilated façade (Oesterle et al. 1999). The name of ‘‘curtain wall’’ is derived from the idea that the wall is thin and ‘‘hangs’’ like a curtain on the structural frame. The walls are supported from the bottom at each floor level. The curtain wall must fulfill the same functional necessities as any other system of external walling. Curtain walls are not proposed to supporter in maintaining the structural integrity of a building. Deceased loads and live loads are thus not proposed to be transferred via the curtain wall to the foundations. We can see that when the flow of air affects a building, the airflow is deflected across the surface of façade causing changes in pressure. The major problem in the design of curtain walls lies in the framework, which holds the panels and it is normally metal, or timber. It possibly will be faced outside with any non-combustible material suitable for exposure to the weather (Fig. 23.1). It can be constructed in place or prefabricated. The sustainable function in buildings from different geographic zones is such as an exterior cladding supported at each story by steel frame, rather than comportment its own load to the foundations. The curtain wall on façade is a couple of skins separated by an air corridor (Oesterle et al. 1999). The main layer of skins is usually insulated. The air space between the skins layer is as insulation against temperature extremes, winds, and the sound. If there are two skins of glass, or other thermal opaque materials so for shading interior space that the sun-shading devices are often located between the skins.
23.3
Double Skin Façade
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Fig. 23.1 Double skin façade (the shape)
All elements can be arranged differently into all numbers of permutations combinations of solid and almost transparent membranes. The buffer façade consists of two layers of glazing or others materials, with air space between the two layers preserved, the principal roles of curtain walls are controlling of solar gain, access to fresh air, embodied energy, esthetics. Of course, there is a certain level of energy consumption, but this is significantly reduced as internal temperature, which is already lower than outside temperature. Double skin facades offer protection from the exterior environmental conditions; these shading devices are less expensive than the system mounted on the exterior. The principal benefit of double skin façades over traditional architecture is that they permit the application of blinds even for the buildings with substantial wind.
23.4 Heating Recovery Systems by Ventilative Development To find out of a source of energy that is innovative to develop an existent source of energy is a creation process. Recently, architecture becomes more technologic in design and creation. It has been converted into more energy intensive. Energy intensity bears an association to air pollution and environmental belittling. Fresh air is vital for the healthy life form of building occupants, the highest values of comfort are achieved by introducing controlled ventilation with energy recovery; health and thermal comfort being on one occasion are again the major significant factors for planning a project. Intended for the past two decades, there has been
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Fig. 23.2 Heat recovery system
Fig. 23.3 Heat recovery concept by means of tub
raising evidence that dependence on the natural exchange or air between the indoor and the outdoor air in-filtration and ex-filtration possibly will not be satisfactory for good moisture control and indoor air quality (Maulbetsch and Di-Filippo 2001). It furthermore has become increasingly understandable that traditional ventilation methods, like opening a window or use of a common bathtub fan, are not given that adequate ventilation. A properly designed and installed ventilation system is the key to a positive moisture control and help to ensure a healthy indoor environment for the building occupant. This system consists of two separate air management (Fig. 23.2). One collects and exhausts stale indoor air and the other draws in fresh outdoor air and distributes it right through the building function. That means using of stale indoor air is eliminated in air refreshing process and charging the outdoor fresh air set up with optimistic energy. This process can be present by using mechanical ventilation, which used fan to preserve a low velocity flow of fresh outdoor air into the building at the same time as exhausting out an equal amount of stale indoor air (Fig. 23.3). The incoming air can also heat or cold the internals building spaces, thus resulting in technically simple solutions for cool/heat provide system. In addition to all, this is what makes the heating or cooling system competent. By means of
23.4
Heating Recovery Systems by Ventilative Development
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natural ventilation, the air change rate depends in the lead wind speed and direction and upon temperature conditions. Air is introduced to the building through inlet ducts in utility racks by a flexible connections, the air is injected into every room by jet placed in the sides of the utility racks. An open window does not filter the incoming air or precisely control ventilation rates. The energy recovering system can bring in fresh air that is necessary to the building users recovering up to 45% of the cooling energy in hot climate and 65% of heating energy in cold and temperate climate. The filters must be cleaned every 2 months. Fresh air is supplied to all levels of the building while stale air is removed from areas with high levels of pollutants and moisture. By means of energy recovery system, the energy transfers from exhaust stale air to fresh clean air throughout a special system. Both the exhausted polluted air and the introduced fresh air pass through a system for cooling or heating (Al-musaed 2004). Only the cool/heat is transferred and the two air streams stay physically separate. Typically, an energy recovery system is able to recover 40–70% of the energy from the exhaust air and transfer it to the incoming air. This significantly reduces the energy required to cool/heat fresh air to a comfortable temperature. Tight buildings diminish energy costs by keeping in the comforted air-conditioned air. However, tight buildings without adequate ventilation catch humidity and pollutants so they feel unventilated, aggravate allergies and source general discomfort for building occupants. Moisture damage to windows and other parts of the building covering can result when humidity is excessively high. New buildings, additions, and even remodeling projects are far more airtight. A tight building stander today can engrave the overall heat gain/loss by 25–50%. This is progress; a tight building is more comfortable, because it is less drafty and less expensive to cool/heat, because the energy man pay for stays in the building longer. On the other hand, a tightly constructed building needs also a mechanical ventilation to keep the air inside fresh and stop the buildup of indoor air pollutants such as excess moisture, carbon dioxide, formaldehyde and various volatile organic components found in buildings materials, paints, furnishing, cleaning products and smoke. The energy recovery system is intended to provide continuous or timed ventilation throughout a building, and recover the energy carried in the exhausted stale air. Uniform and comfortable ventilation is best achieved with a tight building and mechanical ventilation particularly in extreme seasons. An energy recovery system brings the fresh air from the outside, preheats it in the winter and pre-cools it in the summer. It can give clean fresh air every day at the same time as helping to keep energy costs low. One set of ducts collects stale moist air from the auxiliary functional rooms. This stale polluted air passes through the energy recovery units and is exhausted to the outside. The other ducting system draws in fresh clean air from outdoors through the energy recovery units (Hauser et al. 1982). When the buildings with a high value ventilation system. Consequently, man can control the excellent the ventilation rate (Fig. 23.4).
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Fig. 23.4 Heat recovery system (application form)
23.5 Heat Break Transfer Concept We all depend on energy to improve in our lives. However, using energy means nothing on its own; it is just a way to achieve something else. In addition, we are becoming more aware of some of the problems that come from wasting energy. The significant way of wasting energy is energy losses by exchange of energy through external elements. Energy losses in a building mainly occur by conduction through external surfaces radiation, and convection. Conduction takes place when a temperature gradient exists in a solid medium, such as external wall, windows, roofs, floors. Energy is transferred from the more energetic to the less energetic molecules when neighboring molecules collide. Conductive heat flow must occur in the direction of decreasing temperature because higher temperatures are associated with higher molecular activities. Heat transfer through radiation takes place in the form of electromagnetic waves, mainly in the infrared region. Somebody because of the thermal agitation of its composing molecules emits the radiation. The first approach of the radiation is described for the case that emitting body is a so-called black body. Heat energy transferred between a surface and a moving fluid at different temperatures is known as convection. Condensation on the windows may be a sign of heat loss. A damp area around the window from the exterior is another sign of heat loss. During the winter, a typical window loses up to ten times more heat than an equivalent area of an outside wall or roof. Windows can account for up to 30% of the heat loss from a conventional building, adding significantly to heat cost. Drafts, window condensation and mould can also affect our comfort and indoor air quality. Sustainability is a wise approach to the way we live. In addition, using energy in a more sustainable way is a part of this approach (Devins 1982). We can save energy, protect the environment, and move society forward in a smart manner. If we start doing this, now we win as individuals and society. The concept of energy losses break consists of a using of some thermal effects to decrease or stopping the transfer of energy between exterior spaces and interior through external element. This concept can be useful using in architecture on the extreme climate regions, such as hot and cold climates.
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Heat Break Transfer Concept
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Fig. 23.5 Heat break transfer concept
By a deep study of specialists about the optimal thermal effect that can help in realization this concept, consequently we must seek for a suitable source of energy, which must be permanent and easy to get (Smith and Gunter 1972). Creation of this system subsequent to the intelligent sustainable building concept needs a well integrate of the energy in the building’s components (Fig. 23.5).
23.5.1 Underground Energy is Source of Permanent Energy The vital and efficient energy that can be used by us is underground thermal inertia; we can become aware of that, the earth can serve in many climates as a heating or cooling source. Its high thermal capacity keeps the soil temperature, below a certain depth, considerably lower than the ambient air temperature during summer or higher that the ambient air temperature during winter. Seasonal variation of the earth temperature decreases with increase of depth, moisture content of soil and soil conductivity (Donald and Kenneth 1993). It is estimated that a small number of meters below the earth surface, the earth temperature remains constant during the year. In regions with temperate climate such as in cold climate, the temperature of the soil at depth of 2–3 m can be low enough during summer or high enough during winter, to serve as a cooling or heating source. Below the frost line, the temperature of the earth in cold climate stays constant at 8C. In hot dry climates such as in hot climate, the temperature of the soil at depth of 2–3 m can be lower during summer
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and winter is constant about 13C. Using of the underground constant temperature can be useful for architects and designer because the temperature is between 8 and 13C, and 3 m above the earth, can help us to find a controlled thermal flux from underground to building elements by means of a determinant tube canals. We can create a form of energy break on external walls, roofs, and windows (Al-musaed 2004). An energy break is used especially to reduce the conductive transfer of external walls, roofs, and windows. Their results are • Separation of the inner spaces of the outer spaces. • Limitation of energy losses/gains from the outside. • Minimization the possibility of condensation on exterior surfaces framing. The majority of insulating materials and energy loss break method used in the building makes use of the low thermal conductivity in still air and try to avoid creating thermal bridges.
23.5.2 Sun Energy such Resource of Permanent Energy This category of sources is permanent just in hot climate, in which architect can use with objective in the winter; in temperate and cold climate sun energy is not, constant somewhere we have apparent yearly 2–3 months, which are exclusive of sun shining. Consequently using of this kind of source is expected narrow.
23.5.3 Heat Break Concept in Double Skin Façade Architect can employ of energy break concept by move a flux of convenient air from the underground space by means of the double skin façade to generate a thermal obstacle, to stop or annihilate the transfer of energy interior–exterior and inverse for cold and hot climates. Architect can also create u-insulate ducts canals on perforate bricks, to insulate the external walls of negative effects of outside, these canals do not need to be in equivalent section areas, because our task is to produce an optimal form of energy action. The situation is dissimilar for windows; somewhere canals must be insulating to employment just on windows areas. The space between the inner walls or roofs and outer must be diminutive, and the air moving velocity be required to be fit evaluate to make the effectiveness of the system labor (Al-musaed 2004).
References Al-musaed (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses, Arkitektskole in Aarhus, Denmark, pp 100–210 Berger JJ (1997) Charging ahead: the business of renewable energy and what it means for America. University of California Press, Berkeley, 1998. Pub TJ807.9.U6 B47
References
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Devins DW (1982) Energy, its physical impact on the environment. Wiley, New York, c1982. Main TD195.E49 D48 Donald W, Kenneth L (1993) Climatic building design, energy-efficient building principles and practice. McGraw-Hill New York. NY pp 87–105 Grady W (1990) Green home: planning and building the environmentally advanced house. Camden house publishing, Buffalo, pp 151–157 Hauser SG et al (1982) A progress report on the experimental evaluation of dry/wet air-cooled heat exchangers. Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland Maulbetsch JS, Di-Filippo MN (2001) Spray cooling enhancement of air-cooled condensers, 12th conference on cooling towers. International Association for Hydraulic Research, 12–15 November 2001 Oesterle E, Lieb RD, Lutz M, Heusler W (1999) Double-skin façade, Integrated planning, Prestel, pp 87–91 Smith EC, Gunter AY (1972) Cooling systems combining air and water as the coolant. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York City Theodore O (1999) Roof garden, history, design, and construction. W. W. Norton & Company, New York
Chapter 24
Windows Between Optical and Thermal Roles
24.1 Introduction To get a light in the building is the essential function of windows. Consequently, well-designed and protected windows improve comfort year round and reduce the need for heating in winter and cooling in summer. Aesthetics appearance, view, and optical performance, are usually quite important to the occupant. Shutters can be used to control the amount of heat (and light) transferred through the glass, and box pelmets and long-wide curtains can limit air movement over the glass and prevent draughts (Al-musaed 2004). Tinted windows have the disadvantage of absorbing solar radiation and can become very warm especially in building’s climate where temperature is more than 50C. Some of this heat is then radiated to the interior space, causing discomfort living spaces. Tinted windows also hinder the building occupants’ view of the external environment and have need of higher artificial lighting energy use to balance for daylight loss (Parker and Dunlop 1994) (Table 24.1).
24.2 The Optical Roles of Windows Windows are sources of light and cover dissimilar optical characteristics and insinuations for visual comfort. Of course, they are also sources of heating gains and losses (Fig. 24.1). Although the field of day lighting is as old as building itself, contemporary advances in window expertise have opened up innovative opportunities for decreasing artificial lighting necessities in buildings. Windows are a limit hollows that permits light and ventilation to penetrate in room, in needs limit, on corresponding of the physical comfort. The natural skylight is best suitable for the majority purposes, because of the human eye’s optimal physiological adaptation to this light supply (Parker and Dunlop 1994). Therefore, attention
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Table 24.1 The characteristic of glazing system (Source: Anonymous 1992) Type U value Light Solar radiant (W/m2 K) transmittance heat transmittancea
Single (4 mm clear float glass) Double glazing (6 mm clear float inner, 12 mm airspace, 6 mm clean float outer)c Double with low-emissive coating (6 mm Pilkington K inner, 12 mm airspace, 6 mm clear float outer) Double with low emissive coating and cavity (6 mm Pilkington K inner 12 mm airspace with argon, 6 mm clear float outer)
Mean sound insulationb (dB)
Direct
Total
5.4 2.8
0.89 0.76
0.82 0.61
0.86 0.72
28 30
1.9
0.73
0.54
0.69
30
1.6
0.73
0.54
0.69
30
a
Direct solar radiant heat transmittance covers the entire solar spectrum of approximately 300–2,200 mm. Total solar radiant heat transmission is the sum of the direct transmittance plus the proportion of absorbed radiation re-radiated inwards b Mean sound insulation is for the frequency range 100–3,150 Hz c At airspaces above 12 mm the U value is about the same
Fig. 24.1 Windows the vital part of buildings, it permit natural light into the building as far as lighting, views and fresh air are concerned. Windows are an extremely influential factor in climatic design, as the weakest climatic element of the building envelope
24.2
The Optical Roles of Windows
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Fig. 24.2 Relation hollowfull in hot and cold climates
should be paid to the use of daylight in housings wherever this is possible. Operational places in the surrounding area of windows are generally to be preferred over such in larger depth of a room. In addition to their permeability for daylight, windows have an important psychological function; they expose the users to the environment. Windows should allow a view to all of the three ranges; foreground (direct environment, vegetation, and roads), center (building, landscape, and horizon) and the sky. To meet these requirements, a reasonable arrangement of window openings is necessary (Al-musaed 2005) (Fig. 24.2). It is very important to understand that visibility via window is dependent on windows shape and height as well as losing of energy in a straight line proportional to windows dimension. After many specialists’ opinion in architecture, they declare that windows can occupy approximately 30–40% of facade in temperate climate and 20–30% of the facade in arid climate (hollow-full).
24.3 Windows Orientation and Emplacement For getting an optimal lighting, which is very significant for a passive bioclimatic building, situation of relationships requires a depth study of the optimal orientation, which keeps up a correspondence with the better lighting for specific function. During summer, all windows receive net heat gains especially those facing east and west. East and west-facing windows receive substantial solar radiation in the morning and afternoon. They not only receive little winter, autumn and spring sunlight but also excessive summer sunlight (Lstiburek 2004). They should consequently be kept small, especially those facing west, and be well shaded (Al-musaed 2004).
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Every cardinal point has its own characteristics. The west orientation, for example, is bad in afternoon where the sunlight becomes horizontal during summer. The north direction is totaling different and it is without a direct sunlight. Consequently, the light in this orientation is very constant such as in glow and temperature. In support of a perfect working, different functions of building are needed.
24.3.1 Optimal Orientation for Buildings in Temperate and Cold Climate (Southeast) For an optimal orientation, it is preferable that: • Bedrooms, living room and other spaces, which have the same activity, have preference orientation towards southeast, east and south. • Eating space and children play spaces have preference orientation towards south and southwest. • Circulation spaces, and auxiliary functional spaces, have preference orientation towards west and northwest. • Spaces, which need a constant level of light, such as kitchen, bathroom preference orientation towards North, northeast, and northwest.
24.3.2 Optimal Orientation for Buildings in Hot Arid (Northeast) For an optimal orientation, it is preferable that: • Bedroom, living room and other living spaces, which have the same activity, have a preference orientation towards, northwest, north, northeast, east. • Eating space and children plays spaces, and other spaces that include the same activity, have a preference orientation towards, northwest, west. • Circulation spaces, and auxiliary functional spaces, have preference orientation towards, south, west, and southwest. • Spaces that need a constant level of lighting, such as kitchen, bathroom can be oriented towards south, southwest.
24.4 The Thermal Roles of Windows For thermal treatment of windows, we must be acquainted with the components of windows that play a thermal role correlated to energy exchange interior exterior, in cold climate (winter) and hot climate (summer). These are pane glass and frames (Al-musaed 2005). By perception on how windows control thermal comfort,
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windows designer can create an optimal solution, which collaborated welcoming with environment. Windows in residential building consume approximately 2% of all the energy used in industrial countries. Well-organized windows can greatly improve the thermal comfort on buildings during both heating and cooling seasons. Therefore, windows play significant role in the design that strongly affect their energy use (Solar Handbook 1986). Windows Size This part of study depends of the lighting level necessary for each functional space in the building, but the situation is different when we discuss the thermal manner in correspondence to the windows size in hot and in cold climate.
24.4.1 Windows in Hot Climate In hot climates, spectrally selective glazing admits visible light wavelengths while reflecting unwanted infrared wavelengths. The larger the ratio of a window is visible transmittance to its shading coefficient (a measure of solar transmission) the greater is its selectivity (Al-musaed 2004). During summer, interior surface temperatures of tinted glass, clear glass and clear glass with tinted film can get hot. Some tinted glass surfaces get as warm as 40C. These surfaces radiate heat to the building occupants and convection heat create warm air that moves to building occupants. Sunlight itinerant through glass and striking occupants will also make them feel hot. Sunlight striking room surfaces heats up the space, further contributing to occupant discomfort (Al-musaed 1999). Just as people turn up the heat in response to cold windows surfaces in winter, they may use air conditioning to counter the effects of warm windows surfaces and sunlight in summer. However, if air conditioners are not sized or installed properly, some areas of a room may become comfortable while others will hot. Window designers can answer to both winter and summer discomfort by offering high-efficiency window. Windows with a spectrally selection low-emissive coating help prevent thermal discomfort in warm and cold temperatures. The windows transmit only visible sunlight while reflecting all the invisible heat associated with it. Windows size in hot climate is comparatively dissimilar for the reason that the height level of illuminations, sunlight brightness, and thermal gain in summer. As a result, the rapport is as following (house example): • Living room, study area, and other spaces with the similar activity, which needs height precision, the rapport is 1/4–6. • Bedrooms, eating spaces, and other spaces with the similar activity, the rapport is 1/9–13. • Circulations, bathroom, store building, intermediary spaces and other spaces which have an auxiliary characters 1/14–18. The total windows area expressed as a percentage of total floor area. Larger areas of glass are better suited in buildings with higher levels of thermal mass and larger north-facing windows (Al-musaed 2004).
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24.4.2 Windows in Cold and Temperate Climate In cold and temperate climates, windows with low-emissive coatings are of interest. These nearly invisible, multilayer coatings are deposited on glass or plastic at the time of produce or as an off-line process. The coatings reduce radiation heat losses by reflecting heat back into the building. The bottom-line effect is an increase in the insulating value 0 of the window (Al-musaed 2005). In winter, a window’s interior surface temperature drops. How far it drops depends on the insulating value of the window. The surface temperature of single glazing, for example, will be extremely bad insulating to external temperatures. That is to say, interior surface temperature of double glazing will be much warmer but still significantly lower than interior temperature. Frames, which can take an area 10–30% of a typical window, also have perceptible effects; surface temperatures of insulating frames will be much warmer than the high conductive frames (Al-musaed 2004). Warmer glass surface temperatures translate into more comfortable spaces or occupants during the winter because comfort is a function of radiant heat transfer among people and their surroundings. If the people are exposed to the effects of a cold surface, they experience significant radiant heat loss to that cold (thermodynamic theory), so they feel uncomfortable (Al-musaed 1999). For receiving the rational lighting level in a building and for climate specific motivation, windows size in cold climate correspond the following rapport between windows area and floors area, which can be as following (house example) (Fig. 24.3) • Living room, study area, and other spaces with the similar activity, which needs height precision, the rapport is 1/3–5. • Bedrooms, eating spaces, and other spaces with the similar activity, the rapport is 1/7–10. • Circulations, bathroom, storehouse, intermediary spaces and other spaces which have an auxiliary characters, the rapport is 1/10–15.
24.5 Improvement of Windows Functions Heat gain in summer and heat loss in winter are the severe problems in which architects, engineers must get basic explanation for the thermal part of windows problems, in the following part of this research we will try to describe these problems and suggest the best possible explanation.
24.5.1 Reducing of Heat Gain in Summer Heat gain is a resultant of greenhouse effect. The greater part of this solar heat gain approaches through the windows, glazed doors, and skylights. A greenhouse effect
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Fig. 24.3 Windows size in hot and cold climates
happens when radiation from the sun come in the building through the glass. The greenhouse effect can be used to advantage in winter to keep a building warm. In summer, however, it should be avoided by shading glass from the direct rays of the sun. External shading devices are an effective way to reduce heat gain through windows in summer and keep a building cool. External shading reduces heat gain by 71–79%, while interior covering can decrease heat gain by as 17%. Shading devices are frequently exposed to sun and weather. Therefore, their major ecopriority is life-cycle issues, in particular toughness and maintenance supplies. Shading devices permit the ventilation from the outside of the window. If shading is fixed too closely to the window, warm air can be trapped and heat conducted into the room. If external shading is not feasible, internal shading devices such as close fitting blinds, lined curtains (Calthorpe 1993). Permanent shading includes structures such as attic, pergolas or verandahs. Typically, these are the division of the building construction. They are suitable to employ over north-facing windows. Permanent shading is tough and does not call for constant modification (Ander 2003). It is important to allow an adequate distance between the top of the window and the underside of the shading device. This avoids partial shading of the window in winter. This should be about one-sixth or 16% of the height of the window.
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Adjustable shading can also be used (Hutcheon and Gustav 1983). These include canvas blinds, conventional or roller shutters, angled metal slats and shade-cloth over pergolas. Such devices permit greater flexibility to make adjustments on a day by day, or even hour by hour, basis, in response to changing weather conditions and individual comfort levels.
24.5.2 Reducing of Heat Loss in Winter Glazing is frequently the weakest connection in the building when it approaches to winter heat loss, fact a single-glazed, 3-mm-deep pane of glass can lose from 10 to 17 times additional heat than an insulated wall of the similar area. In winter, all windows need protection from heat loss (Al-musaed 2005). To decrease winter heat loss, it is essential to catch a layer of insulting unmoving air between the window and the building space. Heavy, creased curtains and pelmets are able to attain economy up to 38%, while double glazing can offer savings of around 35%. Thickened and/or coated glass has a negligible cause on stopping heat loss. For combater, the heat losses by windows, architects have to take in evidence some of this strategy are (Al-musaed 2004): • Inside window coverings, in which are utilized to catch a layer of unmoving air between the glass surface and the covering, decreasing heat flow through the glass (Brown 1985). Avoid vertical blinds, conservative or timber venetians that do not provide a good air fasten (Al-musaed 2005). Slim or lace curtains be supposed to be utilized in conjunction with appropriate coverings. • Double glazing, in which is a second alternative to stop heat loss through windows. While practical for any window, it is essential that it be used if internal coverings are not ideal or are unsuitable, such as the kitchen, emphasize or clerestory windows, or simply those where unobstructed views sun penetration (Anon 1992). Isolated double-glazed widows will still necessitate suitable summer shading. • A high-performance window with low-emissive coating and smart solutions will be much warmer but still significantly lower that indoor temperature. For even better performance, gaps between the layers of multi-glazed windows can be filled with gases—such as argon, krypton, or xenon—that have better insulating properties than air.
24.6 Windows and Heat Break Transfer Concept The concept can be used for both cold and hot climates. The major problem which we need to but in evidences in a normal situation is the heat loss, which occurs in
References
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Fig. 24.4 Window and heat break transfer concept
cold and temperate climate at the north part of the buildings, and the heat gain, which occurs in hot climate at the south part of buildings. The main idea of this system consists of generates an air layer between the windows glasses such as thermal mass. In this situation, the source of energy has to be stable, efficient and regular. Therefore, we need to take in action the geothermal energy such a permanent source of energy (Al-musaed 2005). The air layer has to move throughout special insulated canals where the air input velocity must be commensurate with the output air in concordance with a well function of a thermal windows responsibility and the heat transfer (loss or gain) (Al-musaed 2004) (Fig. 24.4).
References Al-musaed A (1999) Intelligent architecture: passive means of creating a comfortable architecture site in the warm zone. AD review, No. nr3 Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole in Aarhus, Denmark, pp 100–210 Al-musaed A (2005) Bio-ecological sustainable windows, the world sustainable building conference, SB05. Tokyo, September 2005 Ander GD (2003) Daylighting, performance and design. AIA, Van no strand Reinhold, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York, p 19 Anonymous (1992) Pilkington data sheets for anti-sun, Reflect-float, and sun-cool glass; and K glass and Kappafloat. Pilkington, St Helens Brown GZ (1985) Sun, wind and light: architectural design strategies. Wiley, London, pp 65–67
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Calthorpe P (1993) The next American Metropolis: ecology, community, and the American dream. Princeton Architectural Press, New York Hutcheon NB, Gustav O (1983) Handegord. Building science for a cold climate. National Research Council, Canada Lstiburek J (2004) Builder’s guide to cold climates. The Building Science Press, Westford Parker DA, Dunlop JP (1994) Solar photovoltaic air conditioning of residential buildings. In: Proceedings of the 1994 summer study on energy efficiency, FSEC, USA, vol 3, pp 190–196 Solar Handbook Communities (1986) The European passive solar handbook. Trafalgar Square Publishing. Luxembourg
Chapter 25
Illuminations by Sun–Skylight Tubes
25.1 Introduction The notion of comfort in a luminous ambience refers to the distribution of luminance and chromatic ties on the interior envelope of a space that is one of different fields of vision for a subject within an ambience (Mudri L 2005). Luminance and chromatic ties are at present not often studied as far as comfort in buildings is concerned. Sun lighting and bioclimatic concepts are inseparable considerations when designing a building because of the historical and practical significance of natural lighting in architecture. Sunlight is as old as architecture itself. The sun is a source of free, plentiful light, and daylighting—the method of lighting building interiors with sunlight and diffuse skylight—is an effort to reap this bounty. Many of us get enough sunlight; in fact, we spend 99% of our day indoors, and so experts are now considering how architecture can enhance the indoor–outdoor connections. Today, through biological and technological research, the trend is to look backward into the earlier philosophies and at the benefits of stronger indoor/ outdoor integration. In addition, home owners who want a healthy home environments might want to brush up on the latest facts in technology and biology. To begin, note that window glass blocks 97% of daylight (UV-B) that produces vitamin D (Al-musaed 1999). In addition, interior daylight drops significantly with just a few windows. To bring more daylight into the home, we may consider bottom-up shades that open windows to the upper reaches of the sky, skylight or peninsulas of windows, such as a bay window. As we go into the winter months, it becomes even more important to create opportunities to go outside during daylight hours. Decreasing daylight causes depression in 1–10% of the population, according to Mead. This condition is sometimes called winter blues or seasonal affective disorder (Beyle 2000). Also, in winter there is the tendency to gain weight or experience sleep disorders. Light can also be used to make getting up in the morning less of a struggle. Ideally, if you have your bedroom windows on the east side of the house, the sun will wake you provided you want to get up at sunrise. Architects and
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designers have the obligation to find the optimal and the intelligent solution, which correspond to the importance of natural light for these functional spaces. Some of these solutions are through determining certain directions by arteries optics or some of the optical canals, which conduct the light from the bright side of the building to the darkest building spaces (Al-musaed 2004). The use of advanced daylighting technologies, such as sunlight tubes, optical arteries, illumination canals and, of course, improved windows may increase the amount of daylight available inside buildings. The most effective daylighting strategies might still be the simplest: optimized building orientation and form, optimized window size and placement, a light switch and maybe a light shelf. In the following subjects, we will describe some of these concepts (Luis 1999).
25.2 Tubular Sun–Skylight in History Reading the old history on Egypt, we can observe that ancient Egyptian buildings have the first idea on tubular sun–skylight tube systems, where they lined vertical shafts with gold leaf with the idea of reflecting daylight deep into their massive stone structures. Whenever there has been a dark interior room, there has been the concept of brightening them using some kind of conduit with which to ‘‘tube’’ daylight indoors (Fig. 25.1). The ancient Egyptians built sun temples that were aligned so that at sunset of the summer solstice, sunlight would enter the temple and make its way along the axis of the building to the sanctuary (Al-musaed 2004). These sun temples helped in determining the length of a year, because the sun would penetrate the temple only once per year. This would indicate that they did not use candles or oil lamps to offer the necessary light. Sunlight was deflected down to long underground passageways to give light to fulfill their artists’ needs.
Fig. 25.1 Sun–skylight concept in history
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25.3 The Concept of Sun–Skylight Tube In our understanding of the innovative lighting system, we can affirm that the sun– skylight tube is that system which redirects natural sunlight into interior spaces, reducing the need for electric lighting during the day. The actual sun–skylight tube is an aluminum tube lined with reflective silver sheets (Figs. 25.2, 25.3). Tubular sun–skylights are energy efficient high performance lighting systems that are cylindrical in shape and are designed to light rooms up with natural light. The sun–skylight tube system is effective in either sunny and overcast weather conditions, or even when it is raining (Al-musaed 2004). A small apparent collector dome on the roof allows sunlight to enter into a highly reflective (sun–skylight tubes) that extends from the roof level to the ceiling level (Luis 1999). Some sunlight tubes will be studied to get the sufficient lighting level, which corresponds the interior spaces function inside the space and to improve the gradient of luminance distribution in space (Al-musaed 2004). Sun– skylights and roof lights are also used for the top floor of deep plan offices but they also come with their inbuilt problems: inasmuch as large format roof lights or skylights have the attendant problems of too much glare during summer months and are also often the source of overheating as a result of solar gain. If anything shadows the opening of a sun tube, such as chimney or the ridge of a steep roof, the designer must simply place the tube at a slightly higher place to get the shadow away (Grady 1990). Fig. 25.2 concept
Sun–skylight tube
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Sun–skylight tube
Fig. 25.4 Heliostat composition
25.4 How the Sun–Skylight Tube System Works The light tube is perhaps the most technologically exciting of innovative daylighting systems because of the long distances over which it can work (Fig. 25.4).
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In principle, light tubes collect, direct and channel sunlight into virtually any area of a building. The system consists of three major components (Al-musaed 2004): • Collector/concentrator, known as ‘‘heliostat’’ • Transport system • Emitter(diffuser)
25.4.1 Collector or Concentrator Before it enters the light tube, sunlight needs to be concentrated. Heliostat is an instrument that consists of a mirror moved by clockwork, by which a sunbeam is made apparently stationary, by being steadily directed to one spot during the whole of its diurnal period; also, a geodetic heliotrope is another instrument. The sun– skylight collector is represented by a mirror and lens systems, while the light tube is represented by tube with a reflective inner wall, which can be with or without a lens system, as well as a duct with a reflective inner wall. Light distribution will be studied using transparent materials and reflector system. The mirror tube can be angled if necessary for installation; the sunlight should be angled to the south, toward the sun (Goot 2001). The recommended method is for the mirror tube to penetrate the roof, plumb or vertically. Then the back of the mirror will always catch the daylight as the sun moves through the sky, making it intensive on roof placement. Below the roof, elbows can be used to move around obstacles (Al-musaed 2004). Assembling shorter mirror tube sections into a long run will give more assembly joints. A movable mirror or reflecting system can be used to align the incoming sunlight with the axis of the light tube, minimizing reflection losses. A light tube with this feature is called a ‘‘sun tracker or follower’’.
25.4.2 Light Transporter System The most important function of the light transportation system is to transfer the exterior light source to the internal emitter. The transport system can be alienated into numerous types, the most basic form being a simple empty shaft along which a collimated beam of light can pass through. Hollow mirrored tube, for illustration, is a system where mirrored light guides use the inner surface reflectance to reflect and diffract light over the necessary distance. It functions according to the position of incident rays and its competence is dependent on the ratio of length to cross section (Beyle 2000). With increased reflections in the smaller cross section over long distance, loss of light tends to be substantial owing to multiple reflections off-axis light beams (Fig. 25.5).
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Sun–skylight application
25.4.3 Emitter or Diffuser (Distributor) Emitters distribute light from the transportation system into the under attack spaces. Where light is piped for various distances, so that the natural source of the light becomes less obvious, it is logical to expect building users to require the same quality of light that they would get from normal luminaries. The suggestion is a ‘solar up lighter’, which uses a concave mirror to direct piped light onto the ceiling (Al-musaed 2004). A passive collector system is stationary, relying on solar optics to receive diffuse light. Owing to the reduced light intensity, the collector needs to receive as much light from the sky hemisphere as possible to compensate for the transmission loss. Solitary problem with the light tube system is that it will be approximately very ineffective at the time there is no sunlight. Therefore, a number of kinds of artificial backup lamp are required. An active system relies on sunlight as its primary source and tracks the movement of the sun to maximize direct sunlight. Sensors and an internal clock keep an eye on the process of tracking. The sensor is utilized only on clear days and at the same time as the internal clock is implemented on cloudy or overcast day. The sun–skylight tube provides natural daylighting by way of a silverside mirror and aluminum tube, and the newest development utilizes the patented form. The tubes can be almost any length, taking the natural lighting deep into the heart of the building. A single 450 mm diameter sun–skylight tube can light up to 25 m2 to regular daylight level even on cloudy days (Al-musaed 2004). Sun–skylight tube on the other hand plays an increasing role in providing natural daylight without any of the penalties normally associated with windows or skylights (David 1999). The efficiency of fixed light tubes suffers from absorption that occurs when light is reflected from the walls of the tube. Unless the sun is creased up with the axis of the tube, the light is reflected constantly as it passes through the tube. Even if the surfaces of the tube has high reflectance, say 90%, a large fraction of
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Fig. 25.6 Light pipe in Potsdam Platz (Berlin)
incoming light is lost with a little reflection. The light loss is proportional to the length-to-width ratio of the tube. Therefore, efficiency is sacrificed if the tube is long relative to the width (Fig. 25.6).
25.5 Sun–Skylight Tube Advantage The greatest advantage of the sun–skylight tubes is that apart from being completely energy free, there is no heat transfer with sun–skylight tubes because of direct sunlight. In addition, there is no heat gain from the electrical light equipment themselves and this element alone drastically reduces the cooling load otherwise required by the building interior. A major further advantage, however, is that employees naturally prefer to work under direct daylight rather than under the oppressive nature of electric lighting (Caldwell 1986).
25.6 Developments of Future Technology A perfect light tube would have a big exterior collecting surface; it would conduit the light into a thin medium and transport the light wherever it is required. A small conduit is attractive to minimize heat loss and to create a light tube that is simple
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to install. Funneling the light from a large collector into a small tube requires a tracking mirror and a lens system. These do not have to be precision components. Both the tracking mirror and the lens system should be able to adapt to changes in the conditions in the sky, from direct sunlight to a diffuse sky (David 1999). Light tubes are able to keep away from light loss by using the principle of arteries optics: an optical phenomenon is called ‘‘total internal reflection’’. This requires the light tube to be made of a solid transparent material, such as glass or plastic (Al-musaed 2004). The light tube can be long, and it can have any number of bends. To make this economical, the light tube must be of small diameter. The small diameter is a key advantage in itself, but involves difficulty at each end of the light tube. This concept is now used with high-intensity electric lamps as the light source, for special effects. The present light tubes are expensive for daylighting. However, until reflective materials technology is advanced, there would be no practical daylight-tube design.
References Al-musaed A (1999) Traditional ways of inside environment improvement in the warm-dry zone (example Iraq). In: Ion Minco symposium Al-musaed (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole in Aarhus, Denmark Beyle N (2000) The smallest lighthouse keeper. The Cape Codder, June 20 Caldwell B (1986) Lighthouses of Maine. Gannett Books, Portland David LJ (1999) Energy efficient buildings: sustaining an argument. World Architecture 74:116 Goot M (2001) Portsmouth resident wants to start local lighthouse group’’. Foster’s Daily Democrat, Dover, NH, May 22 Grady W (1990) Green home: planning and building the environmentally advanced house. Camden house publishing, Buffalo, pp 151–157 Luis T (1999) High performance building guidelines. The New York city, Department of Design and Construction (DDC), NY Mudri L et al (2005) Interpretation models and their applications for luminous ambience PLEA 2005. In: The 22nd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture. Beirut, Lebanon
Chapter 26
Illumination by Optical Arteries
26.1 Introduction Glass fiber (optical arteries) development in world, with the eventual result that the fiber were being developed exclusively for the transmission of white light, today the arteries can be used to illuminate the auxiliary functional spaces in the building such bathrooms, stories, besides the decorative lighting effect and sensor applications for intelligent architecture which is required. Recently, a development includes a side for emitting fibers that glow sideways and the use of larger cables to carry more light. Hence, the material is useful for primary lighting in specialized applications such as safety and illuminates lighting (Al-musaed 2004) (Fig. 26.1). Fiber optic lighting is of particular interest to the lighting designer. It provides an abundant, dynamic palette of vibrant effects, which can be presented in normally unaccommodating settings. Requiring minimum upkeep, the medium allows the designer true flexibility; it permits originality and brings a fresh, individual approach to lighting design.
26.2 How Arteries Optics Works The principal idea of the heliostat system is based on a light which is captured by a Fresnel lens, coupling the concentrated light into a light guide and transported it via a light guide to the preferred place. This has an advantage; that is a small diameter (in the range of a few centimeters) and the almost open run of the light guide like usual power cables (Caldwell 1986). The Fresnel lens is guided to be permanent perpendicular which is orientated towards the sun, so the effective light meeting area is maximized (the so-called cosine-lost inherent in redirecting solar tracking systems is eliminated).
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Fig. 26.1 Lighting by optical arteries
To understand how the light leaves the light source unit and which is ducted through conduits rather that is similar with electrical cables functions. The light ricochets the walls of these ‘‘arteries’’ and is eventually emitted from the end to be used directly, re-gathered with lenses or diffused as with other point sources. Side emitting fibers have multiple fractures, which spill light along their length. Distressing or partly removing the index can also cause the light to leak. The transport of light in the interior core of fiber is achieved by successive reflections on the surface separation, constituted by the core and coating. Using arteries optics, packages for light transmission has been done by the Japanese to bring natural light into skyscrapers. There are two problems with using arteries optics skylight; • The optic arteries material is expensive. • It only transmits the sunshine which strikes it directly. That means the diffused light on cloudy days is not transmitted, while the sunlight is very bright.
26.3 The Application of Optical Arteries Idea Many people prefer the application of natural lighting in these zones where architect has neglected the natural illumination for a few architectural functions in his design but we can imagine many methods and forms for application of the optical fiber.
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26.3.1 Spaces Illumination The dark functional spaces can get a constant level of a light by using this system of illumination. Spaces of low optical quality can become better, by using these equipments. This technology can be practical for many bad designed spaces such halls, bathrooms, and stores, where they can transformed in high optical quality (Al-musaed 2004). This is impressively demonstrated in the pilot installation. As a result, a new concept is now available for building owners. Consequently, architects and designers can bring the light directly from the sunny side of building to other side which needs a constant level of lighting and illumination. Daylight provides light that supplements or replaces electric lighting; the addition of daylight in an apace may also bring benefits related to esthetics, health, and energy savings. Perimeter day lighting systems, such as windows, bring day lighting to about 6 m into a building. Core day lighting techniques bring daylight deeper into a building (Hastings 1987) (Fig. 26.2). On the other hand, the application of traditional core day lighting methods, like atria and courtyards, are limited by building height and design. Many building owners are reluctant to turn what could be rentable space into a day lighting atrium.
26.3.2 Other Applications of Optical Arteries 26.3.2.1 Signs Arteries optics can be used such as in signs; fiber points provide vivid color changes and animations. In interior and exterior signs, with single or multiple light Fig. 26.2 Applications of optical arteries idea
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sources, they are often sequentially controlled. Artery optic points are used for outlining, infill, in the back and fore ground and as eye catchers or shouters.
26.3.2.2 Esthetical Application Mirrors with optics installed through or behind removed silvering provide intense displays with high brightness points of light, at levels previously impossible due to high temperatures and frequent maintenance requirements. In or around water and plants, arteries optics provides prominent effects. It is an excellent medium for use in such environments, as they carry no electrical power or heat. A recent development in arteries has been used a side of emitting fibers, which spill light sideways, rather like illumination lengths of string. The arteries may be arranged in linear form for outdoor garden or green roofs. When fed by color changing light, the effect can be stunning. As with other fiber optic materials, many effects may be created in combination with natural and artificial light. Color flow sequencing can be achieved by arranging the arteries ends to join common end input in order that the color wheel will create the impression, which is necessary, by form and colors (Hastings 1987).
26.3.2.3 Applicative System For lighting applications in show interest’s spaces or subjects, larger size conduits are employed providing sufficient, pure white light for viewing comfort. The cold nature of the beam results from the response caused by the fiber absorbing, and not transmitting the harmful ultraviolet and long infrared wavelength that are directly emitted by high luminance lamps or intensive sunlight in hot climate regions (Al-musaed 2004).
26.4 The System Components
• Collector/Concentrator, includes the exterior plastically clothing, and Fresnel lens, by using of heliostat system. • Polymer fibers, these are mostly used in sign making and are sized by diameter, mostly from 0.3 to 2 mm polymer arteries are generally unsheathed single fibers. Arteries contain approximate 300–400 fibers (Al-musaed 2004). • Color wheels, the wheels are manually or mechanical as in effects projectors. The light source uses a 95 mm wheel. • Spot lenses, these lenses are used to collimate light from optic ends. The smaller lenses are commonly used for direct viewing, whilst the larger lenses are used with greater diameter optics for throwing beams of light for decorative purposes.
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References Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole in Aarhus, Denmark Caldwell B (1986) Lighthouses of Maine. Gannett Books, Portland, Maine Hastings RJ (1987) Creation physics and the speed of light (unpublished manuscript)
Chapter 27
Illuminate by Light Shelves
27.1 Introduction The concept of light shelves function consists of window that includes a face toward the sun which receive a vast quantity of energy that could be used for a day lighting. A light shelf is a lighting element that permits daylight to enter deep into a building. The horizontal light-reflecting overhang is placed above eye-level and has a high-reflectance upper surface. This surface is then used to reflect daylight onto the ceiling and deeper into a space (Schrum and Parker 1996). In principal, if a window faces anywhere between southeast and southwest and if it receives direct sunlight, each component of window area could illuminate 20–100 component of interior space (Franco 2001). However, this is possible only if the sunlight can be distributed efficiently. The challenges in distributing this free lighting energy are lighting geometry and glare. In order for illumination to be useful, it must come from overhead. A light shelf is a mirror that is inside a window, facing upward. The mirror reflects incoming sunlight toward the ceiling. The ceiling then distributes the light into the interior space. A light shelf is a horizontal light-reflecting overhang placed on top of it. This devise, which is most effective on southern orientations, improves daylight penetration, creates shading near the window, and helps reduce window glare. Exterior shelves are more effective shading devices than interior shelves. A combination of exterior and interior will work best in providing an even illumination gradient. As with any kind of daylight, entering the space becomes heat energy. This increases the cooling load in hot weather and decreases the heating load in cold and temperate climate weather. Light shelves disperse sunlight efficiently; as a result, the quantity of heat energy supplementary to the space is not much better than would be additional by an equivalent quantity of electric lighting.
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27.2 Light Shelves Role The vital role of light shelf is a bioclimatic device that permits daylight to enter deep into building interior spaces. Light shelves are reflective horizontal surfaces that extend from the exterior into the interior of a building. They can extend the useful variety of perimeter day lighting on a building’s south side to about 6–8 m on sunny days depends of the regions climate. The exterior types of the system used also as sunshades. Light shelves can stop unwanted direct sunlight, which is a source of glare, from incoming a space. Sunlight is reflecting onto the ceiling, minimizing glare and boosting light levels in the space. Light shelves work well at high solar angles, but at lower angles, the shelves require to extend deeper into the room to catch the sunlight. Light shelves can also decrease the quantity of heat that enters a space (Floyd and Parker 1995). The glare problem is avoided by a system that limits the use of diffusers to make use of day lighting through windows. It also provides the unique advantage of variable the light from the window so that it comes from an overhead direction, humanizing the quality of illumination (Coley and Crabb 1994). The light shelf itself is a simple device that is installed inside the window. In most applications, it must be combined with other devices to avoid glare from sunlight incoming the lower portion of the window (Fig. 27.1).
Fig. 27.1 Light shelves concept
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The light shelf itself is not difficult to install. Light shelf systems, including exterior shading device, are now available from manufacturers as prefabricated components. The biggest disadvantage of light shelves is that only the portion of windows above head height is working for day lighting. Light shelves require periodic cleaning, which is easy to abandon.
27.3 Light Shelves Position and Functions For an efficient function of light shelf system, it requires direct sunlight. The windows should face toward the sun for a large portion of the time that the space is occupied. Tinted or reflective glazing may very much reduce the potential benefit of light shelves, or make them uneconomical. These types of glazing typically block about 70–80% of incoming sunlight. In some cases, the system may be used with glazing at lower heights where people cannot get close to the glazing. As with any kind of day lighting, the electric lighting must be arranged and controlled so that it can be turned off to exploit the daylight provided by the light shelf system. The location is apparent for tall windows, where the light shelves can provide deeper penetration than day lighting that achieved by shading windows (Scarazzato et al. 2001). The light shelves can throw all the energy of direct sunlight into the space. In contrast, using shading to tame sunlight for day lighting leaves most of the potential day lighting energy outside the building. For a well-organized function of light shelf system that needs: • A good treatment of windows. The portion of the window below the light shelf needs separate treatment to prevent glare. A window must be exposed to direct sunlight to be an applicant for a light shelf. Effective day lighting by any method is still infrequency. It is impossible to communicate the visual effect of day lighting by words or figures. • The simplest materials and function of light shelf such reflector. It could be as simple as aluminum foil taped to a piece of cardboard. • The distribution function of day lighting is from the portion of the window that extends above the light shelf. The bottom portion of the window contributes daylight only to the thin zone under the light shelf. The window must face toward the sun for a large part of the time, and outside objects cannot shade it. If the window glazing is tinted or reflective, the day lighting potential is reduced substantially. • The ceiling is another and vital distributor form of sunlight, which is received from light shelf. The ceiling then distributes the light to the occupants. The ceiling plays the same role as the electric lighting equipment. In most cases, the ceiling should be highly reflective to save as much light as possible. The height and orientation of the ceiling and the diffusion characteristics of the ceiling distribute the daylight.
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27.4 Distance Sunlight’s Reflective System Skylight can be reflected to a dark space of the building. That can be achieved by using of a new technology and methods. One of this is that with light guides. This concept is not new because simple Egyptian cultures that used mirror strategy to light deep spaces within the tombs of the pharaohs. The use for building spaces illumination is well known in architecture in general and in particular this research (Lam 1986). Direct sunlight for illumination source is currently limited. Reflective sunlight can be realization in this situation through the following sections explaining below.
27.4.1 Sun Reflective Spots Such supporting daylight (supplement sun light) which has targeted to reflect sunlight from sunny part dark part on north part, the sunlight can be guided from the sun to functional spaces by mains of the following devices (Fig. 27.2): • Reflective surface on the top of façade, which have to take the sunlight from the other part of the building • Reflective shelves on the windows • Ceiling spaces.
Fig. 27.2 Distance sunlight’s reflective system
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27.4.2 Special Sunlight Canals According to the general idea of sunlight canals which is placed on the top of the building, where all components of system composed of two different types of sunlight devices which have been developed and have been implemented within a direct installation. We can use a heliostat technology for living space illumination. We are able to consider that all the light from the sun is parallel, because it is so far. Each mirror is originally adjusted, so they each reflect light onto the same spot. When the sun moves in any direction all mirrors are adjusted by precisely the same amount to track, the sun and they still reflect light onto the same spot. This is mathematically exact and works anywhere in the world when reflecting on any spot. The practice of new inflexible materials of low weight for angled mirror or heliostat mirror and redirection mirror in mixture with new fixing techniques enables a precise and adjustable light redirection to the concentrator (Love 1995). A system of two adjustable Fresnel lenses (concentrator) concentrates the sun light by declining the lit area. This guarantees an optimum coupling into the tubular hollow light guide with estimated 30–40 cm [ built-in with a prismatic layer. A 90 redirection element guides the sun light into the sun luminaries accumulated on the internal walls (bad illuminate spaces) or dark spaces such the basement. The tubular sun luminaries consist of two longitudinal elements and a central element (Luecke and Slaughter 1995). By income of reflective optical components, the longitudinal elements of the sun luminaries distribute sun light with respect to common glare limitations all over the basement (task lighting). A sure portion of light diffusely penetrates the tubes as long as balanced ambient lighting. At the same time, the user can adjust a mirror fixed inside the central element to extract Fig. 27.3 Illumination by reflective sunlight through special canal
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direct sun light causing a bright spot on a table below. Thus, a visual (psychological) connection to the outside can be created simply (Fig. 27.3). On the other hand, color effects can be generated by adding prismatic components below the central element (effect: highlighting/spectral colors). Supplementary to sun light distribution, fluorescent lamps incorporated in the longitudinal elements are automatically dimmed to zero in case of glossy outdoor conditions. During night or in case of too less sunshine, the lamps are automatically twisted on to guarantee stable indoor luminance. When demonstrating the direct installation to many potential customers the need for such sun lighting systems was definitely confirmed.
27.4.3 How the Light System Works There are generally three elements to formulating day lighting systems.
27.4.3.1 Light Collection System That includes all external system that starts from captures sunlight to redirect it to transportation system. This system can take place on the exterior of a building, on the roof, or at exterior walls. There are two types of day lighting collection systems: active optical forms that follow the sun moving by a tracking system (heliostat system) and redirects the direct beam solar into the interior of building (Scarazzato et al. 1996; Fig. 27.4). The passive optical system which consist of many angled mirror on the face of reflector, every one keep up a correspondence with a moving of sun (A-musaed 2004).
27.4.3.2 Light Transportation System This system is between the collection systems and distributes system. The surface of this system is relative reflective, smooth. The most common types of transportation systems are moreover arteries optic or light ducts lined with highly reflective material. Transportation system can occur by means of reflection of sunlight between two mirrors from sunlight source to living space.
27.4.3.3 Light Distribution System The sunlight distribution system receives its light input from the transportation system and distributes light onto a target area or space. This element of the system then carries light from the transportation system and emits light within the
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Fig. 27.4 The reflective sunlight’s component
building. The advices used to accomplish this once again include optical fibers, optical light pipes, or light guides. The light can be distributes by direct clear panel, or indirect diffusing panel.
References A-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole, Aarhus Coley DA, Crabb JA (1994) Computerized control of artificial light for maximum use of daylight. Light Res Technol CIBSE 26(4):189–194 Floyd DB, Parker DS (1995) Field commissioning of a daylight-dimming lighting system. In: Proceedings of the 3rd European conference on energy-efficient lighting, Newcastle upon Tyne, pp 80–90 Franco IM (2001) Preliminary comparative study for passive and dynamic shading devices concerning to light and thermal behaviour. In: Proceedings of the 18th international conference on passive and low energy architecture, vol 1, Florianópolis, November 7–9, pp 305–307 Lam WMC (1986) Sun lighting as a form giver for architecture. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co, New York, p 87 Love JA (1995) Field performance of daylighting systems with photometric controls. In: Proceedings of the 3rd European conference on energy-efficient lighting, Newcastle upon Tyne, pp 73–87 Luecke GR, Slaughter J (1995) Design, development, and testing of an automated window shade controller. J Solar Energy Eng 117(4):326–332
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Scarazzato PS et al (1996) The dynamic of daylight in tropical humid climates and its influence on indoor environment. In: Proceedings of the 7th international conference on indoor air quality and climate, vol. 1, Nagoya, pp 925–930 Scarazzato PS et al (2001) The performance of daylighting systems under partly cloudy skies. In: Proceedings of the performance of exterior envelopes of whole buildings VII—integration of buildings envelopes, Clearwater Beach, December 2–7 Schrum L, Parker DS (1996) Daylighting dimming and energy savings: the effects of window orientation and blinds, FSEC-PF-305-96. Florida Solar Energy Center, Cocoa
Chapter 28
Cooling by Effective Shading
28.1 Introduction Passive cooling is based on the interface of the building and its surroundings. Before adopting a passive cooling strategy, we must be certain that it matches the local microclimate. Nowadays, this is called ‘‘passive cooling’’. Paradoxically, passive cooling is considered an ‘‘alternative’’ to mechanical cooling that requires complex refrigeration systems. By employing passive cooling techniques into contemporary buildings, we can eliminate mechanical cooling or even to a small extent decrease the size and cost of the equipment (Givoni and La Roche 2001). Buildings are cold mainly to enhance human comfort. There is a range of what people actually define as comfortable, based on cultural expectation and clothing, as well as some rigorous scientific testing of human subjects. In the case of cooling, the task is to promote heat rejection at the skin surface (Bahadori 1978). The body rejects heat by evaporation (sweat), convection (from moving air) and by radiation to cooler surface. It is worthwhile to distinguish between a method that cools the building and a method that cools the person directly. The relative air velocity will either increase or decrease the evaporative and convective cooling of the body. Where the temperature is above skin temperature, say 34C, then any increases in air velocity will, by reducing the thermal resistance of the air film around the body, increase the convection heat gain from the environment and so increase discomfort (Al-musaed 2004). Before the advent of the new technology of passive cooling in hot climate, people kept cool using natural methods: breezes flowing through windows, water evaporating from spring and fountains, as well as large amounts of stone and earth absorbing daytime heat. These ideas were developed over thousands of years as integral parts of the design of houses. Today, these are called ‘‘passive cooling’’ (Butters 2002), in which the cooling operation is ensured by the transfer of energy from the space or air abounding the space, to reach a lower temperature and/or humidity level than that of the natural ambience (Al-musaed 2004).
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The development of cooling processes has passed through several stages, starting from simple intuitive applications of natural openings of the buildings, which allowed for ample cross air movement and produced a significant cooling effect. Even if the outdoor air is not at the desired temperature, air movement creates a cooling sensation as it moves around the human body. Passive cooling encompasses natural processes and techniques of heat dissipation and modulation, and protection against overheating, as well as related building design techniques. It is a naturally occurring means without any form of energy input other than renewable energy sources or the use of other major mechanical systems. Passive cooling systems are also closely linked to the thermal comfort of occupants. Indeed, some of the techniques used for passive cooling do not remove the cooling load of the building itself, but rather extend the tolerance limits of humans for thermal comfort in a given space (The patrimony of passive cooling 1999). Therefore, increasing the effectiveness of passive cooling with mechanically assisted heat transfer techniques, which enhance the natural cooling processes, becomes possible. Such applications are called hybrid-cooling systems. Their energy consumption is maintained at very low levels, but the efficiency of the systems and their applicability are greatly improved. The hybrid-cooling cover, besides the system of natural processes and techniques, also uses mechanical systems such as ventilators to a lesser extent (Fig 28.1). The sustainable cooling system includes passive and hybrid-cooling with the application of more than one cooling system. We will further discuss this. Most Fig. 28.1 The shading effect on a traditional façade in a hot climate (Baghdad city)
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importantly, all these systems must be created so as to integrate unique systems for any one particular place. The position of the building and the internal space layout determine the exposure of the interior space to incident solar radiation, as well as to daylight and wind. The building shape controls both heat losses and heat gains, by reducing or increasing the ratio of the exposed surface to the volume. The objective is to limit thermal gains during the summer, from high outdoor air temperatures and incident solar radiation. Thermal insulation can reduce the heat conducted through the building materials (Brown 1985). During summer, it reduces thermal gains, and during winter, it reduces energy losses. The concept of energy losses can also help to create an equilibrium in the change of energy between inside and outside. In the following, we will discuss the cooling by intelligent sustainable systems that will use different cooling systems with a combination of many strategies, where the dominant method will be the one we will talk about. All these systems would be competent in hot climate, and some of these can also be used for cold climate (Al-musaed 2004).Reradiated heat has a different wavelength and cannot pass out through the glass as easily. In most climates, trapping radiant heat is desirable for winter heating, but must be avoided in summer. Shading of wall and roof surfaces is important to reduce summer heat gain, particularly if they are dark colored and/or heavyweight. Considering the factor of cooling, we suggest the following (Al-musaed 2004): • The most important consideration is the orientation of the aperture, which is to be shaded. South-facing windows are easy to shade, because during summer months, when shading is necessary, the angle of the sun is high. However, east and west-facing windows are much more difficult to shade because the sun is much lower in the sky. • Use plants to shade the building, particularly windows, to reduce unwanted glare and heat gain. Shading of roof and wall surfaces is important to reduce summer heat gain. Lighter colored shading devices reflect more heat. Internal shading will not prevent heat gain unless it is reflective. • Shading on the building structure or outer spaces is not sufficient to cool the inside of the building. Shading can reduce the temperature between 5 and 10C (Cook 1989). The solution lies in combining cooling systems such as evaporative cooling by water or trees and/or earth inertia cooling, ventilative cooling, etc., which can help us to create an efficient cooling system.
28.2 Shading Types 28.2.1 Shading by Agglomerate of Volumes These types of shading are essential for cities with hot climate, where the architectural creation concept starts from a shadow as a protective envelope against high temperature, and a cooling source that covers all architectural creations (Fig. 28.2).
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Fig. 28.2 Different kinds of shading for bioclimatic buildings in hot climate
Fig. 28.3 Shading resulting from compact volumes
Therefore, the first step toward an efficient cooling system by effective shading in architecture is how we can create different volumes, which help in generating a necessary shade for cooling and in the process of saving energy (Fig. 28.3). The important and original space that can help us in a hot climate is the courtyard, which is a consequential space of a combination of different volumes and space in the space concept.
28.2.2 Shading on Courtyard The courtyard represents an effort to bring the forces of nature under partial control. As pockets of space that are open to the sky, courtyards increase some aspects of the climate, such as daylight, and attenuate others, such as the heat. The courtyard can work well with existing shading, water and vegetation. It is important to make the courtyard with two floors for creating enough shading on courtyard walls (Thompson and Steiner 1997). Shading or otherwise avoiding heat gain is the first rule of thermal comfort in the courtyard of buildings in hot climate. While the courtyard is by definition open to the sky, there are reasons, in addition to the hot sun, including dusty winds and bats or other forms of intruders, for at least temporarily filtering this space (Al-musaed 2004) (Fig. 28.4).
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Fig. 28.4 Courtyard from a traditional house in Damascus, Syria
Fig. 28.5 Bioclimatic houses project from Iraq
The shading of the courtyard reduces significantly its effective temperature by neutralizing the element of radiation and by maintaining the external wall surfaces surrounding the courtyard at a relatively low heat (Fig. 28.5). The result is a courtyard, which is very useful during most of the year, where a large portion of the inhabitants’ activities can take place. Shading in courtyard can be created by the structure of the building, but it is also preferable to create it with trees (Al-musaed 2004).
28.2.3 Shading by Space in Space Concept This concept considers the vital role of shading in architecture in hot climate. The concept consists of two volumes such as space in space concept. These volumes have two different functions (Fig. 28.6).
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Fig. 28.6 Shading by space on space concept
The covering volume has a protective area exposed directly to sunlight, considered as the first line of defense against excessive heating. Covering space can include auxiliary functions such as service rooms, stores, flat green area for recreation, flat plate, etc. The other volume includes the essential function: that is, protecting from the exterior heat overload.
28.2.4 Shading by Natural Elements (Vertical Plan) Plants are very effective in blocking unwanted direct solar beam radiation, converting a great deal of the heat into stored biochemical energy in their leaves, while still providing an attractive view to the outdoor. The best method of shading east and west-facing windows is growing trees, shrubs or other vegetation spaced a few meters from the buildings.
28.2.4.1 Shading by Trees Trees with high canopies are useful for shading roofs and large portions of building structure. Trees offer an excellent natural cooling. They provide shade over the walls and roof. They also will shade driveways, sidewalks and patios that can reflect heat to the building. Since big trees, such as palm trees in hot climate and spruce in temperate climate, give more shade than little ones, we must devise a site plan that preserves as many existing trees as possible (Al-musaed 2004) and plant new trees immediately after construction. Trees provide a cooling bonus. To keep themselves cool, trees pump water from the ground into their leaves (Moore 2001). As this water evaporates from the surface of the leaves, it cools the tree. This ‘‘evaporative cooling’’ cools the surrounding area, too. Deciduous trees are best for south-facing yards, because their canopies are broad and dense (Fig. 28.7). When the leaves fall in the winter, many deciduous trees allow solar heat to reach the building. Evergreens can work well for north and northwest yards.
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Fig. 28.7 Shading by using trees
Passive cooling is also achieved by planting trees and bushes around buildings to create a thermal break.
28.2.4.2 Shading by Shrubs Shrubs offer less shading, but they have several other advantages. They usually cost less, reach mature size more quickly and require less space. Shrubs can shade walls and windows without blocking roof-mounted solar panels.
28.2.5 Shading by Devices (see Movable Insulation) The drawing of shading device is a rather complicate mission with many parameters implicated, from solar geometry to esthetics or maintenance. Shading device can be internal or external (Fig. 28.8). The control or otherwise of solar radiation is an important part of building design. In a relatively hot climate; it represents one of the most important sources of potential summer heat gains. Even in a relatively cold climate, direct solar radiation can be a source of extreme local discomfort, equivalent to a 1000 W electric bar radiator for every square meter of exposed window. Both external and internal shades control heat gain (Fig. 28.9).
28.2.5.1 Internal Shading Device All interior shading devices are less effective than exterior shading devices. In addition, the user must adjust the interior shading device to reduce solar heat infiltration. Interior shading devices should be designed to be durable and should be light colored to minimize glare, especially if these are the only shading devices.
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Fig. 28.8 Shading by different forms of devices
Fig. 28.9 The effects on internal heat flow of external against internal shades
Interior shades, such as roller shades, blinds and drapes, can reduce heat gain. However, interior shades do not block sunlight as well as exterior shades. Interior shades work in three ways (Al-musaed 2007). Interior shades reflect sunlight back out of the window before it can turn into heat. They block the movement of hot air from the area around the window into the room and insulate the room from the hot surfaces of the window glass and frame.
28.2.5.2 External Shading Device Principally, external shading devices are designed to provide protection against direct sunlight, although they can also offer protection against glare from a bright overcast sky. The categories include fixed canopies and overhangs, intended as integral parts of the structure, attached screens (Beckett 1974), etc. Well-planned external shading is the most effective method of reducing solar heat gain. In addition, it offers possibilities for incorporating lighting during day and passive
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heating. The most important benefit with external shades of all categories is that the solar heat absorbed by them is dissipated into the open and is not released indoors as with internal shades. The decorative model shape of the permanent external shading system is able to add to the necessary architectural temperament of the exterior. In cold and temperate climates, the major disadvantage with fixed opaque shading devices is the supplementary reduction in the transmission of diffuse daylight, particularly on cloudy days. Changeable shades are better in this respect, but have to be easy to operate, sturdy and able to endure strong winds. Even with changeable shades, on days with irregular sunshine the necessity for regular readjustment of the shades arises. The property of sun control devices on the day lighting of rooms can be worked out for individual cases from first principles using established methods of daylight calculation (Beckett 1974). External shading is much easier to integrate into the design of a new building, that is, it can be retrofit. Fixed shading devices have some inherent disadvantages, the first of which is due to their inability to allow synchronization between the heating season and the altitude of the sun. If a fixed shading device is designed for hot climate, for example, to prevent overheating in September, the result is that solar energy will be rejected to the same extent in March. March, unlike September, has a relatively high demand for solar heating and such control would be unwelcome. Fixed shading devices will also usually cast a shadow on a portion, albeit a small portion, of the collection window for most of the heating season (Givoni 1992). This is expensive in terms of cost of glass and higher energy losses than gain over this area of shaded window. External shading devices can be of the following types.
Shading by Overhangs System Overhangs may be solid, louvered, supportive vegetation or a combination of all of these aspects. Some shutters, eaves, trellises, light shelves and awnings serve the same purpose as an overhang. Most buildings have a built-in shading device. Overhangs block the high-angle summer sun, but allow the lower winter sun to strike the building. Fixed overhangs will always be a compromise, since the sun’s angle is the same in spring and autumn. We might want solar gain in March, but not in September. We can use overhangs also in combination with bioclimatic solution in hot climates.
Shading by Awnings Awnings work like the visors on baseball caps by blocking high-angle sunlight. Awnings on buildings can cover individual windows or sections of outside walls. They are most effective on the south side of the house. Some awnings stay in a fixed position. Others can be rolled up in the winter to allow low-angle sun to
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Fig. 28.10 Different types of awnings
Fig. 28.11 Trellises, outward appearance
reach the living space in the building. In some bioclimatic solutions, we can combine the awning function with water or/and vegetation to enhance the physical comfort in living spaces. So, awnings function in shading and ameliorating the environments of living spaces (Fig. 28.10). Awnings and overhangs are the most effective means of solar control since they prevent sunlight from striking the windows. Movable systems are adjustable according to season, but are more prone to failure or mistreatment. Fixed overhangs are more dependable, but their design must account for daily and seasonal variation of the sun’s path.
Shading by Trellises Trellises are permanent structures that partly shade the outside of a building. Clinging vines growing over the trellis add more shade and evaporative cooling. Fast growing vines create shade quickly, while trees can take years to provide useful shade. Trellises and climbing plants are design solutions that are attractive and flexible. Trellises can be used on flat roofs in hot climates to shade sleeping places, or to shade the roof surface during the hot period of summer (Fig. 28.11).
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Fig. 28.12 Shade screens
Shade Screens Outside shade screens prevent sun from entering a window. We must place these only on windows exposed to direct sunlight. These devices are often called sunscreens or solar shields (Fig. 28.12). The screens are made of aluminum or plastics, which are lightweight, durable and easy to install. New forms of solar cells can be used such as shade screens in the south orientation also for the vital function of producing electrical energy.
References Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole in Aarhus, Denmark Al-musaed A (2007) Shading effects upon cooling house strategy in Iraq, 2nd PALENC Conference and 28th AIVC Conference on Building Low Energy Cooling and Advanced Ventilation Technologies in the 21st Century, September 2007, Crete island, Greece Bahadori MN (1978) Passive cooling systems in Iranian architecture, Scientific American, vol 238, no 2 Beckett HE (1974) Windows, crosby lockwood staples. London, p 181 Brown GZ (1985) Sun, wind and light: architectural design strategies. Wiley, pp 65–67 Butters C (2002) Architects in the time and space, understanding sustainability. UIA Congress, Berlin Cook J (ed) (1989) Passive cooling. MIT Press, Cambridge Givoni B (1992) Comfort, climate analysis and building design guidelines, energy and buildings Givoni B, La Roche P (2001) Radiant cooling systems for developing countries. Accepted for ISES 2001, Adelaide Australia Moore S (2001) Living homes: sustainable architecture and design. Chronicle books, San Francisco, p 36 The patrimony of passive cooling (1999) Proceeding of the symposium on Mosque. The environmental control in Mosque architecture. King Saudi University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, pp 1–14 Thompson GF, Steiner FR (1997) Ecological design planning.Wiley, New York
Chapter 29
Cooling by Comfort Ventilation
29.1 Introduction Cross ventilation is obtained by having windows in both sides of the room, causing airflow across the space. Positive pressure on the windward and/or a vacuum on the lee side of the building that cause air movement across the room(s) from the windward to the lee side provided the windows on both sides of the room are open. Cross ventilation is the channeling of breezes through openings on opposite external walls (Hyde 2008). The significant part of the total heat loss can be diminished by lowering the rate of ventilation. Air movement cools the body as a result of evaporation of perspiration or connective heat losses. Wind is characterized by speed and direction, and by whirling, fluctuating, turbulent flows. Measurements of wind speed and direction are taken at a standard height of 10 m above unobstructed terrain. The temperature of the sky is lower than the temperature of the earth’s surface. The design of wind catchers and wind scoops is based on historical examples from the Middle East. These devices can be deployed to take advantage of particular site conditions, collecting cool winds, promoting cross-ventilation through the building and encouraging the extraction of excess warm air.
29.2 Cross Ventilation The cross ventilation standard is similar to all Natural Ventilation philosophy based on the necessity of ensuring a fresh and comfortable indoor climate. This is done with negligible energy consumption and at low cost (Hyde 2008). If direct cross ventilation proves to be unfeasible or impractical, wing walls can be engaged. Wing walls are introduced as soon as there is a wall that is long sufficient to have two windows that open to a frequent space. The wing walls are placed on the inside (windward) edge of the windows (Brager et al. 2000). Some conclusions are:
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• Cross ventilation is improved by an irregularly-shaped, spread-out building (Marc Rosenbaum 2008). • Find out of the direction of the dominant wind that blows in local microclimate at different times throughout the year. • Facing the building at the oblique angle to the prevailing wind is better than facing it directly perpendicular to the wind direction. • Maximize airflow by make straightening doors and windows contrary of each other. • Wing wall that join out can perform as scoop to improve wind detain, and can also make dissimilar pressures on the similar side of a building, considerably rising the air flow through the adjacent space compared to a building with a flat façade. Skylight windows when opened operate as wing walls. • Sizing the inlet area equal to the outlet area is best. • Horizontally formed windows (width greater than height) labor better than vertical windows. • Highest velocities are attained when windows and doors are unscreened, and hence one tactic is to do insect protection with a screened porch but leave the windows between the porches and building unscreened (Marc Rosenbaum 2008). • Open windows on contradictory sides of the building to make a cross breeze and turn on a ceiling fan. Open the doors to interior rooms to allow air to flow throughout the building (Fig. 29.1). The windows on the windward side of the building are opened less than the windows on the lee side, in order to obtain a most favorable airflow with as little breeze as possible (Hyde 2008). The position and sizing of windows appreciably determine the cooling effects felt from cross ventilation. It is significant to have the inlet opening as low as aesthetically possible to supply airflow at inhabitant levels. High and low openings can promote stack effect cooling, but the stack is weak in most places at night. In addition, wind velocities tend to drop off at night. Most discomfort in a continuously ventilated building occurs during the evening hours (Marc Rosenbaum 2008). Ventilation is an important factor in all cooling processes because all cooling system needs ventilation as a driver dynamic factor. Therefore,
Fig. 29.1 Cross ventilation in different situation
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the concept of ventilation or air stream (naturally or mechanically) is vital when an architect starts to create or build own cooling system in his project (Vickery and Karakatsanis 1987).
29.3 Wind Catcher Wind catcher is a conventional piece that is supposed to have the influence to catch weak winds where good winds overtake through its loop and holes during the night. The weak winds become tangled through the catcher and pass away before daybreak. Wind catchers in building provide the means for natural ventilation within structure (Croome 1991). They are vital architectural elements in a residential building in hot climate. Wind flowing around and across building drives natural ventilation, and can be used in many ways; • Wind towers can be used to draw air out of the building, subsequently encouraging a natural air flow. • Wind scoops can collect and deliver external air to the building, • A combination of wind towers and wind scoops can provide a natural form of air delivery and extraction. The optimal form of wind tower is vertical that projects above its environs and has an open top (Fig. 29.2). Catcher can work at the daytime in corresponding of the pressure differential that is created by a building in the bath of an air stream. A positive pressure will be exerted on the windward face of the building, and a negative pressure will form over the roof and leeward face. The greater the restriction of air flow due to the building form, the greater the positive pressure at the windward face. This will also produce a more powerful negative pressure over the roof and the wind tower Fig. 29.2 Wind catcher in bioclimatic architecture
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(Kolokotroni et al. 2002). Additionally, the wind catcher itself will act as an obstacle to the airflow, creating an area of positive pressure in front of the device, and a negative over the opening of the chimney. At night, the function of catcher in hot climate can cover the dominant cold wind by orienting the wind catcher against northwest (Liddament 1996). The building can be aerodynamically shaped to encourage an increased velocity air stream over the building. This improves the draw and therefore the performance of the wind tower. The use of a wind tower allows the building to be oriented regardless of the dominant wind direction.
29.4 Nocturnal Ventilative Cooling The term ‘‘nocturnal ventilative cooling’’ applies here to the method of keeping the building closed (unventilated) during the hot daytime hours and cooling the structural mass at the night by circulating outdoor air, either through the indoor space (whole space ventilation), or through air passages without the mass elements (Al-musaed 1996). Cooling of buildings by opening windows and doors during mild weather is a familiar method original to practically all climates. In a hot climate, native residential cooling methods also include pre-cooling building thermal mass by nighttime ventilation to mitigate anticipated uncomfortably warm conditions during the next day. Nocturnal ventilation could decrease the indoor maximum temperatures to about 27C (1C above the outdoor average). In addition, decrease the minimum to about 21C (Givoni 1994). This form of cooling is used for cooling the structural mass of the building interior by allowing air movement from the cooler outside during the night and closing the building to block the warm outside air during the daytime (Aynsley 1988). When an insulated high-mass building is ventilated at night, its structural mass is cooled by convention from the inside, bypassing the thermal resistance of the envelope, while during the daytime, the cooled mass acts as a heat sink.
29.5 Ventilative Cooling Types There are two types of ventilative cooling: ventilative cooling by open loop, and ventilative cooling by closed loop.
29.5.1 Ventilative Cooling by Open Loop Ventilative cooling is the method of using outdoor air to cool the house. It is only useful when the outer temperature is below the indoor temperature. This method combines the approaches of building cooling and people cooling, if the air velocities are high enough and are felt within the occupied zone. It is an applicable
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Fig. 29.3 Ventilative cooling by open loop
Fig. 29.4 Ventilative cooling by open loop
method to hot climates. For achieving this form of cooling in the hot summer daytime, designer must take into consideration that the air introduced in the living space must be fresh (direct from exterior), and air temperature must be under 21C (comfort temperature). This situation is difficult in a normal case, and hence accommodation medium is needed through which the exterior fresh crosses and the connection with this medium must be indirect (Fig. 29.3). The medium can be an underground space, or other non-humidification medium. The comfort ventilation requirements are intended to reduce or eliminate the need for air conditioning in buildings. The requirements apply to all living spaces including bedrooms, living rooms. The requirements do not apply to kitchen, hallway, entries, and bathrooms or closets. There are two ways to meet the requirements. Adequately sized and positioned windows may be provided or, alternatively, wiring may be installed for ceiling fan (Fig. 29.4).
29.5.2 Ventilative Cooling by Closed Loop This form of cooling can be achieved by using a closed circuit. The circuit penetrates another separate medium which is more cold (Langston and Ding 2001) (Fig. 29.5).
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Fig. 29.5 Ventilative cooling by closed loop
Fig. 29.6 Ventilative cooling by closed loop
Using such a hybrid smart system is recommendable for hot climate. Forced air conduit is a characterizing of this system (Fig. 29.6).
References Al-musaed A (1996) Town texture specific for the warm zone, AD Review, issue nr 12-1996, Bucharest Aynsley RM (1988) A resistance approach to estimate airflow through buildings with large openings due to wind. ASHRAE Trans 94:1660–1670 Brager G, Ring E, Powell K (2000) Mixed-mode ventilation: HVAC meets Mother Nature. Eng Syst 17:60–70 Croome DJ (1991) The determinants of architectural form in modern buildings within the Arab World. Build Environ 26:349–362
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Givoni B (1994) Passive and low energy cooling of buildings. Wiley, USA, p 55 Hyde R (ed) (2008) Bioclimatic housing—innovative designs for warm climates. Earthscan, London Kolokotroni M, Ayiomamitis A, Ge Y (2002) The suitability of wind driven natural ventilation towers for modern offices in the UK: a case-study. World Renewable Energy Congress VII (WREC 2002), 29 June–5 July, Cologne, Germany. Elsevier Langston CA, Ding GKC (2001) Sustainable practices in the built environment, Plant tree, 2nd edn. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford Liddament M (1996) A guide to energy efficient ventilation. Air Infiltration and Ventilation Centre, Coventry Marc Rosenbaum PE (2008) Passive and low energy cooling survey. http://www.buildinggreen. com/features/mr/cooling.cfm. Accessed 14 Feb Vickery BJ, Karakatsanis C (1987) External wind pressure distributions and induced internal ventilation flow in low rise industrial and domestic structures. ASHRAE Trans 93(2):2198– 2213
Chapter 30
Cooling by Direct Evaporative Systems
30.1 Introduction Through centuries, human has always made use of a great deal of cleverness to keep cool in hot climate and seasons. All cooling techniques were based on careful design in which heat and mass transfer principles did not make use of any mechanical energy: they were especially passive. Passive downdraught evaporative cooling is a technique that has been used the porous ceramic pots leaking moisture in the air at the top of shaft or ceiling space. In this tradition, windcatchers guide outside air over water-filled porous pots, including evaporation and bringing about a significant drop in temperature before the air enters the interior. In arid, hot climates, body temperature is partially controlled by the rapid evaporation of perspiration from the surface of the skin. In hot climates with high atmospheric moisture, the cooling effect is less because the high moisture content of the surrounding air. In both situations, however, the evaporation rate is raised as air movement is increased. Both of these facts can be applied to natural cooling of structures. The provision of shading and the supply of cool, dry air will enhance the process of evaporative cooling. Evaporative cooling is only effective for comfortable cooling in dry climates. When outdoor humidity rises, the cooling capability of direct evaporative systems declines unless occupants are willing to suffer with high humidity. Evaporative cooling techniques can be broadly classified as passive and hybrid.
30.2 Evaporative Cooling Approach Evaporative methods can be used to enhance the cooling rates in convective cooling systems. One way of doing this is to bring the outdoor air into the building through a moist filter or pad. Passive cooling methods with earth tubes and/or cool towers use the same principles but utilize natural systems for air driver and distribution. If underground intake pipes are made from a porous material, and ground
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above them is well cool and watered, some evaporation will occur at the inner surface of the pipe. Cool towers utilize wet cooling pads, and the force of gravity. Heavier, cool air ‘‘falls’’, via gravity, into the building and its momentum floods the habitable area. The cool tower exploit, as well as that of the earth cooling tubes, can be improved and distribution comprehensive, by the placement of thermal chimney ‘‘drivers’’ which can pull the cooled air through the building with an increase in both air quantity and velocity (Amjad Al-musaed 2007). In the either case, the cooler air now has an upper relative humidity, but this is not usually a problem and can even be a benefit in arid, hot climates (Amjad Almusaed 1996). In some times of hot regions summer, they may be a time of higher humidity, south and southwest desert monsoon season. While sensible heat continues to be mitigated by passive cooling techniques, the latent heat contained in the humid air is more difficult to dissipate, which renders evaporative cooling less effective. The rate of evaporation is greatly enhanced in such a system because a much larger surface area is exposed to the night air. With all evaporative cooling methods, it is important to maximize airflow across the exposed water. Fresh air must be continually available to replace the humid air being built up near or over the water. Failing this, air will be quickly saturated with water vapor, and the evaporation and cooling rates will decline abruptly. Two-stage evaporative system can also be combined hybrid solar systems using the same storage (rock bed) system for both seasons. This type of systems is necessarily suited for new construction because of the requirement for the bedrock, which is most effectively located beneath the structure (Fig. 30.1). It works well during hot, humid periods in the southwest using only slightly more power than direct evaporative cooling and the comfort attained is similar to that of refrigerated air-conditioning. At night, one evaporative cooler cools the rock bed while the other cools the building using a one-stage evaporative cooler. During the day, hot outside, air is drawn through the night-cooled bedrock where it is pre-cooled before entering the main building evaporative cooler. Since no moisture has been deposited in the bedrock, the pre-cooled air has not had moisture introduced into the building. A good-looking feature of this type of system is the combining of heating and cooling system in order to make the best possible use of components during the whole year. An air heater may be used to provide hot air during the heating season to the rock bed where the bedrock, fans, ducts and many of the control systems are used both during the heating and cooling season. This method of cooling uses wetted pad or water spray on which air is blown to decrease its dry bulb temperature. Evaporate cooling can be direct if inlet air is blown directly in the wet media, in this case evaporative cooling provides sensible cooling while increasing latent content of air (Amjad Al-musaed 1997). Evaporative cooling can also be indirect, when outside air cooled directly through the evaporative cooler transfers its ‘‘coolth’’ to the indoor air to be conditioned through an air to air heat exchanger. In that case, evaporating cooling provides sensible cooling while keeping constant the latent capacity of air.
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Fig. 30.1 Evaporative cooling by bath water
Fig. 30.2 Evaporative cooling by direct means
30.3 Direct Evaporative Cooling Systems This system applied to comfort cooling by application the simply add moisture to a moving air stream to cool the air while add to its humidity (Fig. 30.2). In this system can be used of vegetation for evapotranspiration, as well as of fountains, pools and ponds where the evaporation of water results in lower temperature in the room. The procedure of cooling is only work for a moving air stream; therefore, this approach requires a source of air drier than the air in the living space that must be cold (Fig. 30.3).
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Fig. 30.3 Evaporative cooling by direct means (watering front)
Fig. 30.4 Evaporative cooling by direct means (on the top of the roof)
A significant procedure identified as volume cooler is utilized in vernacular architecture. The system is based on the employ of tower water contained in a jar or spry is precipitated (Fig. 30.4). External air introduced into the tower is cooled by evaporation and then transferred into the building. A contemporary version of this technique uses a wet cellulose pad installed at the top of a downdraft tower, which cools the incoming air. Natural down-draft evaporative cooler are devices recently developed at the University of Arizona’s environmental research laboratory. These towers-like devices are equipped with wetted pads sprays at the top that provide cool air by gravity flow (Fig. 30.5). These towers are regularly described as reverse chimneys; just as the column of warm air in a chimney increases, the column of cool air, in this instance, falls. The airflow rate depends on the competence of the evaporative cooling tool, tower
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Fig. 30.5 Evaporative cooling by direct means (a complex system of fountain) Fig. 30.6 Evaporative cooling by direct means of cooling tower (Source: Chalfoun 2008)
height and cross section, as well as the resistance to air flow in the cooling tool (Cunningham and Thompson 1986) (Fig. 30.6). The experiment shows that the cooling tower decreased the temperature from 41.7°C air surrounding to 23.3°C at the 3:00 pm internal space (Cunningham and Thompson 1986) (Fig. 30.7). The wind tower, is used in many hot arid countries, literally scoops air from the prevailing wind stream. The incoming air is evaporative cooled as it passes over receptacles of water, and warm air is expelled via leeward openings. Other systems which can be useful to be used in hot climate are wetted layers or volumes of water, spring water, and vegetation, that take place in the front of external doors, windows, catching wind, perforate faces in facades, or special volumes, in which warm air stream penetrated via wetted front or volume to be cold (Fig. 30.8).
358 Fig. 30.7 Evaporative cooling by direct means (in front of window)
Fig. 30.8 Evaporative cooling by direct means (outdoor cooling system)
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For hybrid cooling system, mechanical forces can be used to drive air stream from the cooler sources by conducts to living space that must be cold, the capacity of this ventilator can vary between 20 and 50 W (Amjad Al-musaed 2007) (Fig. 30.9). Water quality is important to the longevity and performance for any direct evaporative system (Fig. 30.10). Minerals in the supplied water will concentrate in the sump and eventually begin to create scale or deposits on the pads. These deposits can severely degrade the efficiency of the systems, so a water treatment system such filters, such as changing periodically of the water can be useful (Fig. 30.11). Direct cooling system include also establishment of an wet obstacle for cooling, this obstacle can be from straw, plastics thread lines (net) with water which raining down (simulation of natural raining form), warm airflow through this net to be cold (Fig. 30.12).
Fig. 30.9 Evaporative cooling by direct means (front cooling façade)
360 Fig. 30.10 Evaporative cooling by direct means (throughout fountain system)
Fig. 30.11 Evaporative cooling by direct means (in front of buildings elements such as windows and external doors)
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Fig. 30.12 Evaporative cooling system for microclimate ameliorates
References Al-musaed A (1996) Town texture specific for the warm zone, AD Review, issue nr 12-1996, Bucharest Al-musaed A (1997) The functional role of the patio in the warm and dry zone (e.g. Iraq), AD Review, issue nr. 2 Al-musaed A (2007) Evaporative cooling process adaptive for Baghdad city climate. In: 352nd PALENC conference and 28th AIVC conference on building low energy cooling and advanced ventilation technologies in the 21st century, September 2007, Crete Island, Greece Chalfoun NV (2008) Design and application of natural downdraft evaporative cooling devices. http://cala.arizona.edu/research/hed/publications/ASES97/Ases97.html. Accessed 16 June 2008 Cunningham W, Thompson T (1986) Passive cooling with natural draft cooling towers in combination with solar chimneys. In: Proceeding of the passive and low energy architecture PLEA’86, Pecs, Hungary, 1–5 September 1986
Chapter 31
Cooling by Indirect Evaporative Systems
31.1 Introduction Indirect evaporative coolers obtain benefit of evaporative cooling effects; however, cooling occurs without rising of internal air humidity (Aynsley 1988). Airs in this situation do not need adding moisture. This system is very expensive and consumes more energy than direct system. Air that circulates underneath the cooled area by means of passive or hybrid ventilation is cooled convectively and then injected into the space to be cooled. The system should be placed in a free air affecting. The convective heat losses can occur by passive means if there is no wind or forced convection. Daytime shading can increase the lifetime of the system by reducing the deterioration by means of ultraviolet radiation (Fig. 31.1).
31.2 Cooling by Water Roof Spray The exterior surface of roof is kept wet by using sprayers. The sensible heat on the roof surface is converted into latent heat of vaporization as water evaporates. (Al-musaed 2004).
31.3 Cooling by Roof Bond The roof bond consists of a shaded water pond over a non-insulated concrete roof. Evaporation of water to the dry atmosphere occurs during day- and nighttime (Evans 2001). The temperature within the space falls as the ceiling acts as a radiant cooling panel for the space, without increasing indoor humidity levels.
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Fig. 31.1 Indirect cooling systems
The limitation of this technique is that it is confined only to single storey structure with flat, concrete roof, and the capital cost is quite high.
31.4 Cooling by Perforate Front Wall This arrangement consists of interior kernel spaces which include wet sand or other material connected by special canals using for function the capillary phenomenon (Fig. 31.2). This system can be created by a perforate front, where natural warm airflow passing through the fretwork front, which captured cool from the front. This front can take place in the front of opening on facade or in front of the building, or such as shading covering element or volume.
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Fig. 31.2 Indirect cooling system
Fig. 31.3 Indirect cooling system in the summer and with reverse heating system in the winter
31.5 Cooling by Using of Cold Water Storage Tank Water comes directly from the water station by steel pipes which are located underground; therefore, the water is constantly cold. The main idea of the system consists of an envelope of brick, steel, plastic or solid, well isolated, including a spiral plastic or steel form which covered water storage tank situated underground or above on the roof on a special tight space (Fig. 31.3).
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The warm air passes throughout the tank space to catch the coolness with helping of an exhaust fan. A tank of water is placed in a special tight space which is situated between the underground and a hanging ceiling or any other elucidations. The main significant state for a well functioning of this system is to be tightly and a well thermally insulated (Al-musaed 2004).
References Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole in Aarhus, Aarhus Aynsley RM (1988) A resistance approach to estimate airflow through buildings with large openings due to wind. ASHRAE transactions, vol 94 Evans JM (2001) Bioclimatic traditions in South America, Lessons for the past and pointers for the future. In: Proceedings of PLEA 2001, Florianopolis, SC, Brasil
Chapter 32
Cooling by Thermal Earth Inertia
32.1 Introduction We can create and obtain a passive cooling system by making an underground chamber which stores cool air. Passive or hybrid cooling system employs the natural cooling techniques for sustainable building design, from extreme climate. Conduction or convection can achieve heat dissipation to the ground (Al-musaed 2005). This kind of energy is successful and efficient with employment air such element of transporting coolth. An infrequent other situation transporting element can be water. In summer the soil temperature, at a depth of a few meters, is always below the average of exterior environmental temperature in a summer of hot climates and is above of exterior environmental temperature in a winter of cold and temperate climates (Fig. 32.1). Architect can use this form of energy in three methods for cooling: • Using the direct cooling system. • Using the indirect cooling system. • Such heat breaks transfer over windows, external walls and roofs. Cooling of living spaces occurs in summer. In hot climate, the difference between the outer temperature and the coolth underground temperature at the depth of 1–1.5 m can be up to about 18–22C. Architects and engineers can use the underground temperature which is cool enough, such a source of cooling for buildings; it can be used by many form and ways (Al-musaed 1999). The combination of different cooling systems can be used in bioclimatic architecture. Shading of the soil by physic elements, tree, and grass, can help in reducing or elimination both the solar and the long-wave radiant exchanges at the soil’s surface. In this situation, the earth temperature is likely to be below the ambient air level even in midsummer, where the temperature of the earth at depth 3 m, is around 8C in temperate climate and 13C in hot climate in summer. The earth
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Fig. 32.1 Different systems of cooling using of thermal earth inertia
temperature influences strongly by air temperatures and vary during the year, depending on macroclimate and microclimate. In the winter the ground can no longer received the heat during the day and lose the heat at the night. The solution is to raise these underground temperatures to form the necessary of thermal comfort. Passive cooling can be done by digging underneath the building and utilizing cooler underground air fill chambers and using passive vents to cool living spaces inside the building through passive circulation practice.
32.2 Cooling by Underground Thermal Inertia Systems Underground temperatures can be very beneficial in balancing the thermal comfort of the building. Normally, we think more about the above ground temperatures and
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Fig. 32.2 Thermal earth inertia is an efficient source of cooling
other climatic elements in designing a building for creating a thermal comfort (Fig. 32.2). One of the important problems which architect must thinking on when he start to create an efficient cooling system using of earth inertia is the amount of heat conducted and who widely it is diffused varies from one soil type to another (Al-musaed 2007). The moisture content of the soil is a major influence on conductivity and diffusivity, and accounts for large variations on how heat moves through the earth. Another problem is the sizing of the cooling system that must pass the living space area. The better design use and understanding of these elements and resolve the problems for create a naturally comfortable building.
32.2.1 Cooling Using a Free Underground Space The system consist of an open space that can be used such a functional space (with social or service characteristics). It is necessary to appreciate that the using of this space has to be limited, that mean it can be utilizes only for a period of the time, because it must be healthy and comfortable, thus it have to be well protected from the negative effects of the outer environments such as dust, pollute air, humidity, etc (Fig. 32.3). At the same time this space be required to be a tightly and a well controlled from the rest of the building, interior or/and exterior, moreover, the connections must occurs simply throughout the terminals, which have to include air filters against, dust, bacteria, humidity, and ionizer effects.
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Fig. 32.3 Wind catcher and thermal earth inertia are a combinative form for an efficient cooling
32.2.2 Cooling Using Bedrock on Underground Spaces This includes a layer of thermal mass such as bedrock, where the earth temperature (thermal earth inertia) transferred directly to the bedrock. Consequently the thermal mass becomes such a source of cooling in summer. The cooling process can occurs by the effect of radiation or using of the air such a transporter of the coolth, in which it can be managed in correspondence to the living space area and the thermal mass capacity. For an optimal functioning of the system, we must take in evidence(Al-musaed 2007): • Velocity of airflow, which has to be suitable for the thermal indoor comfort. • Airflow circulation which must be tight. • Existing of an air filter such a protected healthy element in both terminals input/ output. • Simply to be repaired and easy to maintain. The system can be used in correspondences with other types of cooling such a complex system (Fig. 32.4).
32.3 Underground Building The contact of external building elements with a mass of soil is another form of thermal buffering. Soil temperatures are warmer than the outdoor air in winter and cooler in summer. On slopping sites, cutting into the incline can help to reduce envelope exposure as well as shield buildings from the wind and improve solar access between buildings. The underground building is an extreme case of this
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Fig. 32.4 Wind catcher, thermal earth inertia and 50 W ventilator are a competent combinative in cooling system
method, although another approach is to build banks of earth right up to the external wall (David Lloyd Jones 1998). These systems need careful design, as waterproofing, drainage and structural support are required. This building is total anchorite in the earth, and the single area, which is free, is roofs, or partial external walls.
32.4 Cooling by Underground Earth Tubes The subterranean world is actually only cooler in summer, when the surface is warmed by the sun. In winter, underground spots are relatively warmer because of their ‘‘thermal inertia’’, the cooling tubes system consists of long pipes buried underground with one end connected to the building and the other end to the outside. Hot exterior air is drawn through these pipes where it gives up some of its heat to the soil, which is at a much lower temperature at a depth of 3–4 m below the surface. This cool air is then introduced into the building. Special problems associated with these systems are possible condensation of water within the pipes or evaporation of accumulated water and control of the system (Al-musaed 2005). The requirement of detailed data about the performance of such systems hinders the large-scale use of such systems. In the 1970s and early 1980s, earth tubes acknowledged a great deal of concentration from architects and builders, as an option or aid to conventional air conditioning. While the concept of routing air through underground tubes or chambers to achieve a cooling effect appears like a good proposal (Al Hemiddi 1991).
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Possibly a few hundred systems were constructed, but information on the practical application of the concept is imperfect. Cooling tubes are long, underground metal or plastic pipes through which air is drawn. The idea is that as the air travels through the pipes, it gives up some of its heat to the surrounding soil, entering the building as cooler air. This will occur only if the earth is at least several degrees cooler than the incoming air (The US Department of Energy Office of Energy, Efficiency and Renewable 2007).
32.4.1 Tubes Material The main considerations in selecting tube material are cost, strength, corrosion resistance, and durability. Tubes made of aluminum, plastic, and other materials have been used. The selection of material has modest influence on thermal performance. PVC or polypropylene tubes perform almost as well as metal tubes (Almusaed 2007).
32.4.2 Tube Diameter Optimum tube diameter varies widely with tube length, tube cost, flow velocity, and flow volumes. Diameters between 15 and 45 cm come into view to be most appropriate.
32.4.3 Tube Location Earth temperatures and, as a result, cooling tube performances vary considerably from sunny to shady location. Where possible, the inlets in open loop systems and the cooling tubes themselves should be placed in shady areas (Al-musaed 2005).
32.4.4 Tube Length There is no simple formula for determining the correct tube length in relation to the quantity of cooling preferred. Local soil conditions, soil moisture, tube depth, and other site-specific factors should be considered to determine the proper length.
32.5 Earth Tubes Types A cooling tube system uses either an open- or closed-loop design. There are two types of earth cool systems:
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• In an open loop system, the outdoor air is drawn into the tubes and transported directly to the inside of the building. This system provides ventilation while optimistically cooling the building’s interior (Al-musaed 1999). • In a closed-loop system, interior air circulates through the earth cooling tubes. A closed loop system is more efficient than an open loop design. It does not exchange air with the outside.
32.5.1 Vertical Closed-Loop In the vertical closed-loop ground heat exchanger, an air can circulated through preserved pipe loops covered in vertical boreholes (Fig. 32.5). The boreholes are typically 45–60 m deep. Heat is transferred from the ground during the winter and to the ground during the summer. A vertical heat exchanger can be installed on smaller lots somewhat than the horizontal system.
32.5.2 Horizontal Closed-Loop In horizontal closed-loop ground heat exchanger, air is circulated through sealed pipe loops buried horizontally, about 2 m underground. During cold weather, the pipe lops absorb heat from the earth and deliver it to the house. In the summer, the process is reversed for air conditioning, and the system transfers the heat from the building to the ground (Al-musaed 2005). The outer piping system is able to be either an open system or closed-loop. • An open system takes advantage of the heat retained in an underground body of air. The air or water is drawn up through a well directly to the heat exchanger, where its heat is extracted. The air is discharged either to an above-ground body Fig. 32.5 Cooling using of vertical closed-loop
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Fig. 32.6 Cooling using of horizontal closed-loop
of air or water, such as a stream or pond, or back to the underground air or water body through a separate well. • Closed-loop systems collect heat from the ground by means of a continuous loop of piping buried underground (Fig. 32.6).
32.6 General Consideration of Cooling Tubes The devises of earth cooling tubes, take place by a vary system in size and form, some system have tubes in parallel terminating in a header, and some used a radial prototype collecting in a central sump (to make moisture removal easier), some were only a single tube. It is important to design the system to minimize the cost and maximize the benefits. The tube length over 10 m for example is inefficient. Generally, the small diameter tubes are more effective per unit than large tubes, the long tube is unnecessary, tubes should be placed as deeply as possible, closed loop systems are more effective than open loop systems, and the tube thermal resistance is unimportant the ground thermal resistance dominates (Al-musaed 2005). Pipes must be with wings to easier the energy transferred and the interior of pipes must have perforate obstacles to slow of the fluids speed circulation, for occurs the optimal exchange of energy between the air or water and the soil (earth). The dark and humid atmosphere of the cooling tubes may be a breeding ground for odor-producing mold and fungi. Furthermore, condensation or ground water escape may accumulate in the tubes and encourage the growth of bacteria. Good construction and drainage could eliminate some of these problems. Insects and rodents may enter the tube inlet to deter potential intruders.
References Al Hemiddi (1991) Preliminary investigation of the effect of a passive direct evaporative cooling system on courtyard at UCLA. In: Proceedings of PLEA 1990, Seville, Spain Al-musaed A (2007) Cooling by underground earth tubes, building low energy cooling and advanced ventilation technologies the 21st century. In: PALENC 2007, The 28th AIVC Conference, Crete island, Greece
References
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Al-musaed A (1999) Intelligent architecture, the hybrid system corresponding to the temperate climatic zone, AD, Review, issue, 7-1999, Bucharest Al-musaed A (2005) Thermal earth inertia such a source of energy for bio-sustainable house, the world sustainable building conference SB05, Tokyo, September 2005 Jones DL (1998) Architecture and the environment: bioclimatic building design. Overlook Press Publication, New York, pp 143–144 The US Department of Energy Office of Energy, Efficiency and Renewable (EERE). http://www.eren.doe.gov. Accessed 30 Aug 2007
Chapter 33
Passive Heating Concept
33.1 Introduction To find out a natural sources of energy for cooling and/or heating is a sustainable architectural concept, and to activate these sources of energy by a fine architectural perception and integrate these systems in buildings form. Therefore, we can define passive bioclimatic architecture, such as a building in which a comfortable interior climate can be maintained without active cooling and heating systems. The building heats and cools itself, hence passive. Passive bioclimatic design principles include orientation of windows relative to the position of the sun, thermal mass, natural ventilation, sunlight, and shading areas (Al-musaed 2004). In architecture, passive solar can be most effectively used for space solar heating by means of south glazing, sunspaces, solar galleries, atria, and attached greenhouses. A thermal mass can avoid direct solar gain overheating and provide time-period retention of solar heat. The thermal mass may consist of dark concrete, brick, stone, marble, gravel, tile, eutectic salts, or water. Passive and hybrid solar systems are the most applicable to architectural projects for space heating and air tempering. Every glazed opening that receives direct solar radiation is a passive solar receiver. How thermal mass may be located, its characteristics of solar gain and retention, and its size relative to the area of glazing affect indoor comfort levels and systemic time-frame thermal sustainability. Passive heating systems work best on areas, where there is a large difference between daytime and nighttime temperatures. Passive heating strategies in particular make use of the building components to collect, store, and distribute solar heat gains to reduce the requirement for space heating. It does not require the use of mechanical equipment because the heat flow is by natural means (radiation, convection, and conductance) and the thermal storage is in the structure itself. In addition, passive solar heating strategies provide opportunities for day lighting and views to the outdoor through well-positioned windows. All buildings elements (including windows) should be well insulated and the plan compact to avoid any heat loss. Buildings should be massive with
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insulated walls and roofs, and have provision for natural ventilation to allow heat gain and loss. These building will generally be of high thermal mass, well shaded, ground coupled and compact in plan. The heating and cooling efficiency of a building can be improved by reducing its surface to volume ratio. This can be accomplished by minimizing the exterior walls and roof areas to produce more compact house shape. The color of the building’s exterior surfaces is also important. Solar heat gain into a building can be increased with skylights, un-shaded windows, and reflective surfaces, such as pools of water, metallic, or light-colored materials. Grass reduces radiation from the ground, and vines and creepers can provide shade in summer. Pollution becomes a problem only when the natural assimilative ability of ecosystems is reached. South part of buildings gets the solar radiation throughout the winter. East and west parts get extra solar radiation in summer than in winter. Solar energy is regularly inexpensive as a practicable energy choice in northern latitudes. In reality, the energy of the sun can offer an important part of cold climate regions. The main competent and least costly way to valve, this resource is through design and construction of buildings that accumulate and store solar energy without mechanical devices. Passive solar heating creates the use of warmth enthused by the natural processes of reflections, radiation, conduction, and convection (Adriian et al. 2005). Sustainable development became a central idea in the 1990s and the overriding goal of global environmental and development policy. Essential element for the implementation of the concept of sustainable development in the field of energy is orientation towards energy services, the efficient use of energy and greater use of renewable energy sources, especially the direct or indirect use of solar energy (Weiss 2003).
33.2 Natural Phenomenon and Passive Heating 33.2.1 Greenhouse Phenomenon The greenhouse phenomenon, also called the greenhouse effect or global warming, has lately been receiving a great deal of scientific and popular notice (N’SoukpoeKossi and Leblane 1990). Phenomenon is a source of energy in which architects can use it in temperate climate. The greenhouse effect is a natural warming process of the sunspaces. When the sun’s energy reaches the transparent surfaces, some of it is reflected back to space, and the rest is absorbed (Fig. 33.1). The absorbed energy warms the sunspaces, which then emits heat energy back toward space as long wave radiation.
33.2.2 Thermodynamics Phenomenon Thermodynamics is the study of the properties of the system that have a temperature and engage the flow of energy from one place to another. It is easy to
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Fig. 33.1 Greenhouse effect
demonstrate that when two objects of the same material are placed together (physicists say when they are put in thermal contact), the object with the higher temperature cools while the cooler object or space becomes warmer until a point is reached after which no more change occurs, and to our senses, they feel the same. When the thermal changes have stopped, we say that the two objects are in thermal equilibrium (Langston and Ding 2001). This phenomenon can be successful used in enhancing the thermal functions of building construction, and create many intelligent sustainable systems that can assist in creating a thermal comfort in living spaces.
33.3 Passive Heating Procedure 33.3.1 Heating Process In sustainable building, passive heating of building features can be used to heat buildings, as well as provide light. The best time to incorporate passive solar technologies in a building is during the initial design. Passive solar features can often be included in new buildings without significantly adding to construction costs, while at the same time providing energy savings up to 50% (Al-musaed 2004). Creation of the buildings that we live and work in, to capture the ambient energy of the sun through passive solar features, is one of the least expensive and most environmentally friendly methods of providing for our energy needs (Pearlmuttere 1993). Passive heating systems can reduce the auxiliary heating cost in buildings without compromising occupant comfort. In residential architecture, the building
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Fig. 33.2 Passive heating process
envelope, it can be regarded as a concept of an effective solar receiver that can be designed to be the principal heating, air tempering, cooling, and day-lighting system of the building. The outer ‘‘skin’’ and roof can be formed and for optimizing the detailed building thermal capacity, which have to respond to the diurnal and seasonal solar and climatic energies. Sustainable concepts are applied most easily in a new building, where they can be incorporated into the original design. Every passive building includes five distinct elements; the collector, absorber, the storage, the distribution, and the control. Those elements constitute a complete sustainable building heating, which work together for the system to be successful (Fig. 33.2).
33.3.1.1 The Source of Energy (Sun) The sun is the primary source of almost all types of energy, even the nonrenewable fossil fuels, such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas. The sun produces a lot of energy every second and it has been doing that for millions of years. Many of specialists consider that the sun is like a symbol of life and civilization for human existing. The antique Egyptians saw the sun as the eye of Ra, the falcon-headed god, creator of light and all things. To the Aztecs, the sun was the result of Huitzilopochtli, the god of war, jumping into a fire as commanded by the four gods of creation, the Sumerians call the sun Shamash, god of justice because as the sun he could see all things. Apollo was the Greeks’ sun god, responsible not only for illuminating the Earth with light, but with illuminating the human mind with understanding. We have the opportunity to use this clean and permanent energy in our contemporary life, such as a source of a clean energy for our new passive sustainable buildings.
33.3.1.2 Collector It is the first element in sustainable heating system, in which heating will be collecting. The large area of glass or plastic sunlight enters the building. The collector should be orientated against south and should not be shaded by other buildings or trees from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. each day during the heating season.
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33.3.1.3 Absorber Absorber is the hard-darkened surface of the storage element. Contents of a thermal mass that take this roll, many form of thermal mass we will disputes in the following stages.
33.3.1.4 Storage Storage elements represent the thermal mass, and all forms of materials in which heats can be stored.
33.3.1.5 Distribution Heat distribution usually occurs after the collection and storage of solar energy. The aim of the distribution is that solar heat reaches the locations where it may be of use. Heat distribution is directly dependent on building design and heating system. In many buildings, the challenge for the architects is to reduce the need for distribution as much as possible. The most efficient mode of distributing solar energy is to design the layout of living spaces in such a way that the solar energy is collected and stored in or adjacent to the living space where it will be used thermal zone. If this is not possible, the energy will have to be transported to other living spaces in the building (Lebens 1980). The distribution of solar energy in a living space must prevent large difference between surface temperatures and the air temperature near ceiling and floor. If sufficient primary and secondary mass is available in a direct system, the distribution by the exchange of heat between the walls (radiation) and from the walls to the air (convention) will be adequate. Temperature differences are rather a result of the heating system or the poor heat resistance of the window. Distribution in a direct gain system improves using diffusing glass. In a thermosyphon system (Trombe wall), the risk exists as a large vertical temperature gradient in the living space. This will depend on the mixing of the indoor air with the out flowing air, on the heating system and the air infiltration. High surface temperatures may happen, for example, with Mass walls. If too much solar heat is released in the living space; it may be partially transferred to the adjacent room by simply opening a door. Air circulation from one space to the other is enhanced if the door height is extended up to ceiling level: this avoids stagnant pocket of hot air near the ceiling. The amount of thermal radiation transferred to the adjacent living space will generally be small. A remote storage system or a large surplus of solar heat on the south side will necessitate heat distribution to all locations requiring heat. A central air heating system may already regulate the distribution by means of the re-circulation of air. Designing a building, where distribution takes place exclusively by means of natural airflow (free convection and flow as a result of wind pressure) is a risky
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task. The flow resistance (in the rock bed) may result in a velocity, which is lower than velocities as a result of infiltration and ventilation. The system would no longer work in that case. Moreover, a serious acoustic problem would happen in the building. It is safer to rely upon ducts and fans for the transfer of heat.
33.3.2 Controls All heating systems require controls. In traditional heating systems, thermostat is a normal advice to control of the energy. When the air temperature in a living space is too low, the heating is turned on by thermostat. Generally, these systems use the buildings as the collector. Controls may be make active and the movable insulation in which it can help to increases the system performance.
33.4 Energy and Building Orientation 33.4.1 South Building Facing South building facing is an input component of any passive solar system in the northern hemisphere. The system must include enough solar glazing for a good performance in winter, but not so much that cooling performance in summer will be compromised. When the solar glazing is tilted, its winter effectiveness as a solar collector increases. However, tilted glazing can cause serious overheating in the summer if it is not shaded very carefully (Grady 1990). Ordinary vertical glazing is easier to shade, less likely to overheat, less susceptible to damage and leaking and so is usually a better year-round solution. Even in the winter, with the sun low in the sky and reflecting off snow cover, vertical glazing can often offer energy performance just as effective as tilted (Slessor and John 1997). Windows allow direct sunlight to heat the building interior. In an energy efficient building, south facing windows can provide up to 30% or more of the heating load. A suspended eave or awning on south facing windows will prevent overheating throughout the summertime. In addition, too much glass on the west side of the building, where the low evening sun that hangs for hours and can effortlessly overheat interior spaces that have already been warmed all day by the southern sun (Thomas and Donn 2001).
33.4.2 North Building Facing It is important to understand that orientation towards the north is a very bad variety in bioclimatic buildings from cold and temperate climate, in which the changes of
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energy (outside–inside) find a strong action, thus architects must give this problem in a great attention. A north facing exterior wall will take delivery of not much sunlight during the winter and this will be a major source of heat loss because heat always moves towards cold (Kell 1994). In addition, building shading of north side open space more often than not renders it unusable for outdoor use. To alleviate these situations, the building should be shaped so that the roof slopes downward from the south to the north wall. This reduces the height of north face of the building and, therefore, the area through which heat is lost. This is also allows sunlight to reach more area of north side outer spaces. Variations of dropping heat loss circumstances manifest in north walls embrace backing the building into a sloped hillside or providing a berm, both of which decrease the uncovered north area (Arizona Solar Center 1980).
References Adriian M, Rachell X, Joseph C (eds) (2005) Technology needs for adaptatiion to climate change Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole in Aarhus, Denmark Arizona Solar Center (1980) A project of Western SUN Arizona and Western Solar Utilization Network, Rodale Press, Inc http://www.azsolarcenter.org/tech-science/solar-architecture/ passive-solar-design-manual/passive-solar-design-manual-intro.htm. Accessed 12 January 2008 Grady W (1990) Green home: planning and building the environmentally advanced house. Camden House Publishing, Buffalo, pp 151–157 Kell D (ed) (1994) Energy saving using passive solar design—G71. Cement and Concrete Association of Australia Langston CA, Ding GKC (2001) Sustainable practices in the built environment. Plant tree, 2nd edn, GB Lebens RM (1980) Passive solar heating design. Applied Science Publishers Ltd, London, pp 12–28 N’Soukpoe-Kossi CN, Leblane RM (1990) Application of photo acoustic spectroscopy in photosynthesis research. J Mol Struct 217:69–84 Pearlmuttere D (1993) Roof geometry as a determinant of thermal zone. Architect Sci Rev 36(2):57–79 Slessor C, John L (1997) Eco-Tech: sustainable architecture and high technology. Thames and Hudson, London Thomas G, Donn M (2001) Designing comfortable homes. Cement and Concrete Association of New Zealand and Energy Efficiency Conservation Council Weiss (2003) Solar heating system for houses. James & James (Science Publishers) Ltd, UK, p 2
Chapter 34
Solar Passive Heating Components
34.1 Introduction The concept of thermal mass involves using building materials that can absorb, store and release heat and coolness into the building. From this it can be understood that a thermal mass is any material in the building that absorbs and stores heat. Concrete, brick, tile and other masonry materials are the most common choices for thermal mass in a passive bioclimatic architecture, these materials absorb and release heat slowly and are easily and inexpensively integrated into the building conception. They are most effective when dark colored and located in direct sunlight. The addition of thermal mass allows solar energy to be saved generally for only a modest cost increase. The first and simplest form of thermal storage is thermal storage wall, which consist of a vertical wall for accumulation of heat energy received from the sun. This heating mode blocks and collects solar radiation outside the living space by creating a thermally massive wall between it and the sun. To be effective the thermal mass must be sized and placed in regard to the thermal relationship, solar gain and indoor space use. This element can be used by architects for also hybrid intelligent systems.
34.2 Sunspaces The sunspace can be built as part of a new building or as an addition to an older building. Sunspaces closed off from occupied space can act as a thermal buffer for the out gassing (with separate sunspace ventilation) of materials and items before bringing them into a living space and an intervention against intruders. It is a popular passive solar retrofit (Al-musaed 2004). The attached sunspace or conservatory consists of a glazed enclosure built onto the south face of a building. Depending on the climate and the way in which the sunspace is used, there may be a heat storage wall separating the sunspace from the living space or other storage within the sunspace: this serves to stabilize the temperature in both the sunspace A. Almusaed, Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84996-534-7_34, Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011
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and the building. Ideally, the sunspace is situated adjacent to south-facing building (Thompson et al. 1997). If shading, solar access, or other considerations stop this, the southeast or southwest corner can be used instead, although such an orientation may increase summer overheating problems. Sunspace is a separate thermal zone, insulated from the living space itself, and heated to some degree by solar radiation and to some degree by heat loss from the building. The main advantage of such a sunspace is that it both collects heat and provides additional living space. Because higher temperatures are acceptable in sunspaces, more solar energy can be collected than comfort or glare would allow in a sunlit living space. At night, lower allowable sunspace temperatures provide the freedom to incorporate more glazing than would be sensible for fully conditioned spaces. While a sunspace is admittedly less efficient than a solar air collector is, the fact is that it also provides living space for many hours of the year help justify the high cost of energy savings (IEA 2003). The effectiveness of sunspaces as an energy-saving feature depends very much on its energy concept and the answer of the following questions: • How it is constructed? • How the occupants use it? The sunspace such thermal storage decreases temperature swings, assists in avoid nighttime freezing, and enhance the heat available at night. Therefore, an un-insulated stone wall between the sunspace and construction is able to be used to store the heat. In the same situation the storage can also be added in the form of masonry wall, floors, or water-filled containers. Again, low-e glazing and movable insulation decreases heat loss for the period of sunless periods. Alternatively, it is possible to use the sunspace as a collector, in which case the emphasis is on lightweight surfaces, and the extraction of the warm air to remote storage, within or below the heated building (Fig. 34.1). Temperatures within this sunspace will vary greatly and so it may not be suitable for living or growing plants unless some solar control is used, and is certainly not recommended in temperate climates. The method of distribution of the collected energy in a sunspace will be determined by external climate, the use Fig. 34. 1 Sunspaces component and thermal mass position
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of the sunspace as collector or direct gain space, and the connections between the sunspace and the living space: fans will usually be needed if the sunspace is to be used mainly as a collector. In general, the passive action of sunspace is an attractive option to both the architect and the proprietor of its dual function. Besides contributing to a significant portion of a building’s space heat, it provides bright well-ventilated living space that can serve as a recreation or dining area.
34.2.1 Sunspace’s Disadvantage In hot climates, there are overheating problems in summer. Sunspaces can experience large temperature swings. The glazed roof of the sunspace can produce rapid cooling of any thermal mass at night, thermal energy is delivered to the building as warm air. It is less easy to store heat from air than from direct solar radiation. In temperate climate, the increased humidity caused by growing plants may cause condensation and discomfort in the building. A sunspace, as an extension to the living space, can be used only for limited periods during the year. The sunspace can give relatively small energy savings in comparison with its cost, although its true additional cost is difficult to assess because it provides other amenities (Fig. 34.2). The main purpose of passive solar heating design is to tame the daily and seasonal fluctuations in space air temperature. If this is not achieved and the collection area is oversized, two important side effects will result: first, the inhabitant will become uncomfortably hot on clear days, even in the heating season, and second, this will cause opening of windows to alleviate the discomfort. Such opening of windows within the heating season means that some of potentially collectable solar energy is wasted; it is not stored for later use.
34.3 Thermal Storage Elements In sustainable bioclimatic building brick walls, concrete floors, etc., store heat energy during the day by being exposed to the sun’s radiation, releasing it to the
Fig. 34. 2 Sunspace and thermal mass display at the day and the night
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cool room at night. In passive space, heating systems commonly use dense materials, as thermal storage materials. Water contained in low-cost, non-pressurized cylinders has proven to be the most practical and effective approach to the capture and storage of thermal energy for space and hot water heating. The solar storage water tubes can also be used in buildings, where the water which, stored in plastic, fiberglass, or glass-lined steel containers, is not only the lowest cost, widely available thermal storage material/system, but it also has the highest thermal energy storage capability. On a weight basis, these high-density storage materials cannot compete with water. Thermal storage is important in low-energy buildings because it decreases temperature variations that would otherwise cause discomfort or increase auxiliary heating requirements. Heat stored in the thermal storage during an overheated period is released later during an under-heated period. The mass, sometimes referred to as ‘thermal inertia’, resists changes in temperature by good quality of its heat capacity. However, thermal mass may prolong the period of thermal discomfort in the case of consecutive days of net heat input.
34.4 Thermal Mass Function Most of the energy received from the sun is in the form of short-wave (visible) radiation, and consequently, it is the surface color of the area it strikes that controls the quantity of energy absorbed or reflected. Of the energy absorbed by the thermal mass, some will be conducted into the thermal mass and the rest will disappear from the surface by convection and radiation. Connective losses in a straight-line will increase living space air temperatures but radiated energy cannot be transformed to heat until it strikes an object or surrounding surface. If the objects it strikes are furnishings and the surrounding surfaces have low thermal capacities or low conductance, their surface temperatures will move up quickly, causing large heat losses to the living space air. In such a situation, overheating will happen soon. Thermal mass elements such as dark masonry bulkheads, water containers, eutectic salt arrays, and concrete forms can be located close to exterior glazing to allow greater space for any interior purpose (Fig. 34.3).
Fig. 34. 3 Passive heating and thermal mass arrangement
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There are two methods of handling the incident solar energy as it enters the collection space: by diffusing the light and thus dispersing it to all areas of thermal mass throughout the space; and by absorbing the majority of the solar radiation at the area in direct contact with the non-diffused solar radiation. The thermal mass of buildings is a vital factor in heating and cooling strategies. The best climate for the use of thermal mass is in temperate climate where there is a large diurnal temperature change (warm during day and cold at night). In climates that are cold or humid, significant amounts of mass could be detrimental in terms of energy use or thermal comfort. Thermal mass must be mentioned in relation to its role in the reaction and thermal retention of solar energy. In the following sections three locations of thermal mass in building composition (wall, roof, under floor) will be discussed.
34.5 Thermal Mass (storage) Types 34.5.1 Simple Frontal Storage Wall A thermal wall (mass wall) consists of two or three parts. • An absorbing surface (brick or concrete, etc.) • A wall with high thermal capacity (masonry, water, etc.) • A transparent cover (glass, plastic). Heat is stored in this thermal mass and distributed to the living space by re-radiation through the back of the wall, and/or by convection of cool living space air past the warm face of the mass by natural thermosyphoning (Langston and Ding 2001). This thermosyphoning effect created on the sunny face of the wall by placing a glazed screen about 50 mm away from the wall face, punching holes in the top and bottom of the wall, and letting room air naturally thermosyphon and become warm (Al-musaed 2004). Ideally, the heat is stored in the wall during the daytime and released to the living spaces during the daytime and released to the living spaces during the nighttime. In contrast to windows, there is no need for transparency. There is, therefore, a wider selection in transparent insulation materials for solar walls. Such walls are known as Trombe walls. When horizontally stacked drums of water used for the thermal mass, it is known as a drum wall, and when vertical tubes of water are substituted, it is known as a water wall. Control of this heating mode is affected in several ways; • The size of the thermal mass is optimized to ensure a sufficient time lag before re-radiation occurs. • External blinds and overhangs reduce summer overheating. • Manually operated dampers can control the direction and volume of thermos phoning air.
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34.5.2 The Size Thermal Storage Wall The correct thermal wall size varies with local microclimate, and macroclimate; the amount of insulation used; and the latitude of the building site. The first two elements affect the rate of temperature loss from a space, which is influenced by the amount of difference between outside and inside temperatures; and how much insulation is used to slow that rate. Latitude is important because it affects the amount of solar radiation received at the collecting surface on any particular day. Local condition sideways, it is generally true that thermal wall size will need to be increased as one moves further north in latitude. Other conditions that bear on wall size include obstructions to solar radiation exposure, such as tree, structures, etc. While unrestricted solar access will determine an optimal thermal wall size, reduced or variable access to the sun will require a larger wall area to compensate for reduced solar impact. Sizing guidelines identified herein are based on providing enough heat on a clear. In view of the fact that thermal storage walls are placed between the solar collecting glazing and the interior space to be heated, overheating is less problematic than with a direct gain design. In temperate climates, or where site conditions allow less that recommended wall size, can benefit from the use of reflectors, which bounce the sun’s rays to the collection window, thereby increasing the amount of solar radiation moving through the glazing and intercepted the energy absorber wall. Thermal wall size reduction can occur by as much as 15% if substantial insulation is used at all other wall and roof location to reduce heat loss from the building.
34.5.3 Bedrock as Thermal Storage Bedrock is a thermal storage element where is in numerous situation used by architects in an intelligent bioclimatic building, where heat can be taken from the greenhouse by a fan and stored in a bedrock located in the move slowly space under the floor of the building. For adequate passive heat transfer from the bedrock to the neighboring living space to be heated, 50–75% of the floor must take action as a heat transfer area. Hot air blown through cool rocks will heat the rocks and cool the air. Conversely, cool air blown through warm rocks will heat the air and cool the rocks. In bioclimatic solar systems, warm air from air flat plate collectors heats the rocks in the rock bin during the day. When required, cool room air is passed through the warm rocks in the opposite direction to heat the air up. Phase change material in containers or water in bottles is sometimes substituted for the fist-sized rocks. The discharge of the bedrock storage energy can be also entirely passive by means of radiation and natural convection from container surface. A convenient approach, which is often used, is to place the bedrock under the floor of the
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building. Also possible is to place the bedrock behind one of the walls. Most active discharge bedrock in passive solar buildings uses one-way flow, i.e., a temperature wave moves through the bed of one direction. In two-way flow active discharge bedrock, the flow is reversed during the discharge cycle. The hottest air is returned to the room. Most active solar energy space-heating systems use two-way flow bedrock (Ernest et al. 1991).
34.5.3.1 Bedrock Sizing System The size of any system must be able to cover the need of this energy for building inhabitant. Every heating system consists of others subsystems, the sizing of these subsystems cannot be treated separately due to coupling effects. The passive forms of heating require that the building conception load shall be calculated for the worst-case elevation at the solar orientation that produces the highest heat gain. In order to take into account the influence of local microclimate, shading, and the dynamic behavior of the whole building, graphical and thermal simulation tools have been developed. The forms of heating system require that the design procedure to be described below consist of finding a good competition between the pressure rise characteristics of the fan and the pressure drop characteristics of the rock and associated ducting. The input data as following: • • • • •
The The The The The
area of south glazing related to remote (bedrock) storage (m2) area of the smallest duct, inlet or outlet (m2) volume of habitable space through which the air is being forced (m2) length of the bedrock (m) size of rocks to be used (diameter in mm).
Various rules of thumb are to be found in the literature. However, these indications only suffice to obtain a sizing for a particular system and do not permit an estimation of the expected performance or influence of sizing parameter variation on performance. Also required are the following rules of thumb (Al-musaed 2004): • The bedrock volume should be 0.6 m2/m2 of living space. • The airflow rate through the rock bed should be 0.03 m2/s for 1 m2 of south glazing or cooling source. • To prevent excessive noise, the air velocity should not exceed 3.5 m/s. • For comfort, the living space air change rate should not exceed 10 ac/h. • The pressure drop across the bedrock should be in the region of 40–75 Pa. The pressure drop across the ductwork should be less than a fifth of bedrock pressure drop. The system moves warm air to the bedrock and returns cool air to the greenhouse from the bottom of the bedrock. • In temperate climate, 0.75–1.5 m2 of fist-sized rock for each m2 of south-facing greenhouse glass should be used (De Kerckhove 2001).
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References Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole in Aarhus, Denmark De Kerckhove D (2001) The architecture of intelligence. Birkhauser, Basel Ernest DR, Bauman FS, Arens EA (1991) The prediction of indoor air motion for occupant cooling in naturally ventilated buildings. In: ASHRAE transactions, pp 542–561 IEA (2003) Solar energy houses, strategies, technologies, examples, 2nd edn. James and James, UK, pp 37 Langston CA, Ding GKC (2001) Sustainable practices in the built environment, plant tree, second edn, GB Thompson GF et al (1997) Ecological design planning. John Wiley, New York
Chapter 35
Passive Heating Systems
35.1 Introduction The passive solar design approach uses the necessary elements of collection and storage of heat in combination with the convection process. The simplest of approaches is a direct gain design. Sunlight is admitted to the living space by south-facing glass and practically all of it is converted to thermal energy (Minke 2001). The walls and floor are used for solar collection and thermal storage by intercepting radiation directly, and/or by absorbing reflected or reradiated energy. As long as the living space temperature remains high in the interior space, storage mass (wall, floor) will conduct heat to their cores. At night, when outside temperatures drop and the interior space cool, the heat flow into the storage masses is reversed and heat is given up to the interior space in order to reach equilibrium. This re-radiation of collected daytime heat can maintain a comfortable temperature during cool nights and can extend through numerous cloudy days without recharging. Direct gain design is simple in concept and can employ a wide of materials and combination of ideas that will depend very much upon the site and local microclimate; building location and orientation, the specific of microclimates; building shape (depth, length, and volume); and space use (Egnatia Epirus 1994). The principle factor of an efficient passive solar heating is the orientation. The system must be created to be able to control the solar radiation reaching a contiguous district but not part of the functional space. Sun enters the building through windows and is captured and stored in thermal mass (e.g. water tank, masonry wall) and gradually transmitted indirectly to the building by convention and conduction. An indirect-gain passive solar building has its thermal storage between the south-facing windows and the functional space.
A. Almusaed, Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84996-534-7_35, Ó Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011
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35.2 Direct Gain System A direct gain requires about one-half to two-thirds of the total interior surface area to be constructed of thermal storage materials. These can include floor, ceiling and wall elements, and the materials can range from masonry (concrete, adobe, brick, etc.) to water. Water contained within plastic or metal containment and placed in the direct path of the sun’s ray has the advantage of heating more quickly and more evenly than masonry wall during the convection process (Ernest et al. 1991). The convection process also prevents surface temperatures from becoming too extreme as they sometimes do when dark-colored masonry surfaces receive direct sunlight. The masonry-heating problem can be alleviated by using a glazing material that scatters sunlight so that it is more evenly distributed over wall, ceiling, and floor storage masses. This decreases the entering in the space. A correctly designed mass can contain internal temperature swings to 10°C. The system can be controlled in many ways: movable insulated shutters used at night can reduce heat loss, external reflectors can increase solar gain; external blinds and overhangs can reduce overheating; and vertical glazing will allow the low winter sun to penetrate at nearly right angles, whilst reflecting the high, glancing rays of the summer sun (Al-musaed 2004) (Fig. 35.1). The distribution or concentration of the thermal mass provides the first subdivision of direct gain passive types. Both have south-facing apertures but differ in the way in which the sunlight is handled when it enters the building. One allows the sunlight to fall on a concentrated area of thermal mass and the other diffuses or reflects the sunlight so that it is distributed over a large area of thermal mass. The use of diffusing glass, blinds or reflection from a light-colored surface behind clear glass, will all have the effect of spreading the incoming solar radiation evenly throughout the living space.
35.3 Indirect Gain System For an effective passive heating system, the thermal storage materials have to be placed between the interior habitable space and the sun so there is not direct Fig. 35.1 Direct heat gain action
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Fig. 35.2 Indirect heat gain system
Fig. 35.3 Indirect heat gain action (internal wall)
heating. Instead, a dark-colored thermal storage wall is placed just behind a south-facing glazing (windows) (Fig. 35.2). Sunlight enters through the glass and is directly absorbed at the surface of the storage wall where it is either stored or eventually conducted through the material mass to the inside space. In the most cases, the masonry thermal storage mass cannot absorb solar energy as fast as it enters the space between the mass and the window area. Temperatures in this space can easily exceed 17°C. This build up of heat can be utilized to warm a space by providing heat-distributing vents the top of the wall, where the heated air, rising upward due to less density, can flow into the interior space (Calthorpe 1993) (Fig. 35.3). Vents at the bottom of the wall allow cool air to be drawn into the heating space thereby replacing the out flowing hot air, and picking up heat itself. The top and bottom vents go onto circulate air as long as the air entering the bottom vent is cooler than the air leaving the top vent. This is known as a natural convective loop. At night, the vents can be closed to keep cold air out and the interior space is then heated by the storage mass, which gives up its heat
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Fig. 35.4 Indirect heat gain action with a complex system
by radiation as the living space cools. A variation of the vented masonry wall design is one that employs a water wall between the sun and the interior space. Water walls used in this way need not be vented at top and bottom and can be constructed in many ways (Fig. 35.4). A south-facing greenhouse space is constructed in front of a thermal storage wall exposed to the direct energy of the sun. This wall would be at the back of the greenhouse and the front of the primary structure. The thermal wall absorbs heat at the same time the interior space of the greenhouse is being heated. If a vented masonry wall is used as storage, heat can also be released into the living space by convection. This combination also works with an un-vented water wall. The greenhouse, then, is heated by direct gain while the living space is heated by indirect gain. The advantage is that a tempered greenhouse condition can be maintained during days of no sun, with heating from both sides of the thermal storage wall.
35.4 Heating Technique 35.4.1 Heating by Trombe Wall (Thermosyphon) The Trombe wall is the primary example for an indirect gain approach developed in 1956 by Jacques Michel, an architect. A typical Trombe wall consists of a 200–600-mm thick concrete south wall to collect and store energy from the low-latitude winter sun. Thick masonry wall coated with a dark color, heat absorbing material and faced with a single or double layer of glass is placed from about 15 cm away from the masonry wall to create a small airspace. Solar heat is collected in the space between the wall and the glazing (Fig. 35.5). Heat from sunlight passing through the glass is absorbed by the dark surface, stored in the wall, and conducted slowly inward through the masonry. It takes 10–15 h for the heat to travel through the wall so immediate heating is made possible by circulating living space air in the gap between the glass and wall.
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Fig. 35.5 Hybrid heating technique by Trombe wall system
Fig. 35.6 Heating by Trombe wall system
This is done without the use of fans; dampers are used on the lower openings to shut off thermosyphoning at night. The heat migrates through the wall, reaching its rear surface in the late afternoon or early evening. This is called ‘‘time lag’’ heating. When the indoor temperature falls below that of the wall’s surface, heat begins to radiate into the living space (Fig. 35.6). Heat loss from the Trombe wall can be controlled by an insulating curtain that is closed at night in the space between the glazing and the wall and by the use of double-glazing across the face of surface of this massive concrete wall to the living space (Fig. 35.7).
35.4.2 Heating by Remote Storage Walls The remote storage wall is similar in form to the Trombe wall, but is insulated on the living space side, to stop energy transmission by conduction and radiation: all heat transfer is by convection, possibly fan assisted. The performance of such a
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Fig. 35.7 Heating by a solar complex system
Fig. 35.8 Indirect heat gain (exterior water wall)
system is questionable in northern Europe and would only work with night insulation.
35.4.3 Heating by Water Wall The water wall is the same as mass and simple or Trombe wall systems except that contained water replaces the solid wall. Water heat storage is of enormous potential profit because it, which distributes heat gain quickly by convection and thus it, has the capability of providing passive solar energy storage with greatly reduced surface temperatures. This will reduce the possibilities of spring and autumn overheating within the space. Water is also attractive because it is cheap, easy to install and compared with concrete has a high thermal capacity per unit volume. The problems with water are those of containment, corrosion and flood risk. The water wall system must also have a large south-facing glazed area on the outside of the contained water storage (Fig. 35.8).
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35.4.3.1 Exterior Water Wall for Indirect Heat Gain The exterior water wall is a variation of the Trombe wall. In space of a masonry wall, water containers are positioned between the living space and the glazing. Exterior water wall can be built in a number of ways. Long and, hard plastic tubes are often used. However, any durable container will work, including 55-l drums, paint cans, or glass jars. A water wall absorbs and stores solar heat in much the same way as a Trombe wall, with the exception that water holds more heat than equal volume masonry. Insulating curtains are used at night to control heat from the water containers through the glazing (Fisher and Pedersen 1996).
35.4.3.2 Interior Water Wall for Direct Heat Gain Because of the material’s good convective properties, interior walls of water are much more efficient for thermal collection, storage, and re-radiation than masonry walls. Water walls should be of dark color to increase heat absorption when exposed to direct sunlight, and will perform well without the problem of heat build-up in the living space. The convection process carries heat away from the storage surfaces quickly, preventing heat build-up, and allows the storage mass to heat evenly in a relatively short time (Fig. 35.9). Extensively variable interior temperatures are not often a problem when interior water walls are used for heat storage.
Fig. 35.9 Direct heat gain (interior water wall)
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35.4.4 Heating by Roof Pond An indirect heat gain design, which makes available both heating and cooling, is the thermal pond approach, which uses water encased in ultraviolet ray inhibiting plastic beds underlined with a dark color. This heating mode transfers the thermal storage to the roof, and consists of plastic bags of water that are supported by steel decking which is placed horizontally above the ceiling of a building. The majority thermal storage roofs use waterbed-like containers in which to store solar energy, covering much or all of the ceiling (Limam and Allard 1995). The water must be in direct conductive contact with the (normally metal) ceiling which supports it and the thermal energy is conducted through the ceiling and heats the buildings by radiation. The water-filled bags are covered by movable insulation panels, which retract to allow solar radiation to be collected during the winter and radiation cooling in summer to the night sky. For an intelligent system, the movable insulation panels can be automatically opened and closed, depending on the indoor temperature, the storage water temperature and the sol–air temperature. For the passive system, in the winter time of year, the insulation covers are left open during the day to allow the radiation to be absorbed and re-radiated into the living space, whilst at night the covers are closed to conserve heat. The living space below is heated by radiation from the steel ceiling (Fig. 35.10). The carcass of water in the roof is exposed to direct solar gain, which it absorbs and stores. Being located on the ceiling the thermal storage will radiate uniform low-temperature heat to the entire house. The roof pond can also be used to cool during the summer. The insulation covers the water during the day and the water absorbs excess heat from the building, then at night when the insulation is reserved this heat is radiated to the cool night sky.
Fig. 35.10 Roof pond heating system
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35.4.5 Isolated Gain System Architects and designers can intervene hard in creation a passive or hybrid heating systems in which heating can be integrated in building structure without a large change of building composition. In isolate gain, system is not important to take in evidence the obligation of orientation in bioclimatic building because of the separate body of systems (building heating storage system). In isolated gain systems, solar collection is thermally isolated from the living space of the house. In true passive systems, energy transfer from the collector to the living space will be by non-mechanical processes, such as convection or radiation. The isolated gain design approach uses a fluid (liquid or air) to collect the heat in a flat plate solar collector attached to the structure. The most common of these processes for transferring energy from the collector or heating resource (storage) is the particular from of convection known as a thermosyphon or thermosyphonic loop. The thermosyphonic loop consist of a thermodynamic phenomenon which say that if the fluid is heated in the collector, becomes buoyant and rises, drawing in cooler fluid from below; the warmer fluid transfers its energy to remote storage or to the living space and its occupants, becomes cooler and sinks to the bottom of the collector, from where the cycle continues, as long as the collector is being sufficiently warmed. Heat is transferred through ducts or pipes by natural convection to storage area-comprised of a container (for air) or a tank (for liquid), where the collected cooler air or water is displaced and forced back to the collector.
35.4.5.1 Air If air used as the transfer medium in a convection loop, heating air coming from the collector typically directed into a rock (or other masonry mass material) bin where heat is absorbed by the rock from the air. As the air passes its heat to the rocks it cools, falls to the bottom of the container and is returned to the collector completing the cycle. At night, the interior space of the structure is heated by convection of the collected radiant energy from the rock container.
35.4.5.2 Water If water is selected to be a transfer medium of energy, so the process have to works similar to a heating by air system, except the water storage tank. While the hot water leaving the collector, the cool water introduces into the collector. In naturally occurring convection systems (non-mechanically assisted), collectors must be lower than storage units, and it must be lower than the spaces that have to be heated.
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35.4.6 Thermosyphon Collector Thermosyphon (heat siphon) is a form of isolated gain system that describes the natural movement of air or water due to the differences in the temperature. The flow of air through a thermosyphoning collector is driven by the difference in weight per unit volume between the unheated and heated columns of air. A particular type of isolated gain collector is known as a thermosyphon system even though the thermosyphonic loop is used in many systems. A lightweight, glazed, plate collector is positioned in the best location for solar gain, separate from and below the thermal storage. The basic elements of the thermosyphon system include a collector with black painted absorber plate, and usually a remote thermal storage mass. The air in the collector rises as it is heated and enters the living space through a ceiling level vent. This movement creates exemplify that pulls air into the collector through its floor level vent (Fig. 35.11). All vents should, if possible, have the same area as that of the channel (i.e. unrestricted flow), although if this area is halved there is only a 10% reduction in total heat benefit from the collector. The cross-section area of the channel within the collector should be at least 1/20 of the collector area. A maximum channel area is about 1/10 of the collector area; an increase above this may decrease collector performance by setting up convection currents within this space. A south wall thermosyphon collector is often not linked to a storage element. However, when the collector is placed below the house, it can be hooked up with a rock storage container. Here again, the heat circulates naturally, but much of it is absorbed and stored as it passes through the container (Fig. 35.12). This stored heat is then distributed to the indoor air by means of convection, or conduction and then convection. The thermal storage mass can be located under the floor of the building, below windows, or in prefabricated wall elements. A thermosyphon collector can be built either into the south wall of a building or at a level lower than the building. Fig. 35.11 Thermosyphon heating system
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Fig. 35.12 Thermosyphon heating system
35.4.7 Auxiliary Heating In almost all locations, there is an uncertainty in the weather pattern. Without inter-seasonal storage (whose cost-effectiveness for single projects is dubious at present), it is not possible to dispense entirely with an auxiliary heating system. The auxiliary heating system will have to provide supplementary heat in certain parts of the building, at certain times, for longer or shorter periods, and with variable intensities in order to obtain the required thermal comfort level. The first criterion that influences the choosing process of a competent auxiliary heating system is by designing of passive building with thermal properties. The choice of passive solar component, the method of heat distribution (water or air), the storage provided (capacity and location), partitions within the internal volume, and the use of certain architectural or passive control devices, etc. (Briggs 1987). The second criterion is more psychological in nature: local user habits and traditions of heating modes and systems used. For example, some countries prefer the use of water distribution systems with room control systems, and other prefers air systems. Also of great importance are the life-style and behavioral aspects such as room occupation, intermittence of house occupation, and the acceptance of lower standards of comfort. The final criterion when choosing an auxiliary heating system is cost.
References Al-musaed A (2004) Intelligent sustainable strategies upon passive bioclimatic houses. Arkitektskole in Aarhus, Denmark Briggs JR (1987) Environmental control of modern records. In: Guy Petherbridge (Ed.) Conservation of Library and Archive Materials and the Graphic Arts, Butterworths, London Calthorpe P (1993) The next American Metropolis: ecology, community, and the American dream. Princeton Architectural Press, New York
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Egnatia Epirus (1994) Alternative energy sources and traditional architecture in the town of Metsovo Foundation Ernest DR, Bauman FS, Arens EA (1991) The prediction of indoor air motion for occupant cooling in naturally ventilated buildings. ASHRAE Transactions, pp 542–561 Fisher DE, Pedersen CO (1996) The heat balance method of calculating building heating and cooling loads. European Directory of Sustainable and Energy Efficient Building Limam K, Allard F (1995) Ventilation-thermal mass subtask, final report. PASCOOL CE Project JOU2-CT92-0013, D.G. XII, Brussels Minke G (2001) Inclined green roofs-ecological and economical advantages and passive heating and cooling effect. Plea 2001
Chapter 36
Remembering Conclusion
Architecture is a major element of human life. It is a major concern, a major purchase, and has a major effect upon our life. We spend over 90% of our time indoors. Mainly, our present technologic archetype of architecture is a composite of materials, energy, and systems synergistically counter to human vitality and health. The architecture should be examined, though in bioclimatic design it becomes a system or subsystem. Although the holistic integration of systems is critical to bioclimatic architecture, every system within the system has its climatic advantage or disadvantage. The role of architectural composition, through its complex activities, is to create the framework material, of the organized space, with a view to satisfy the material and spiritual needs of the person and society. Comfort is defined as the sensation of complete physical and mental well being. Such definition, is only limited to the control of the designer. Hence, if a group of people are subjected to the same room climate, it will not be possible, due to biological, emotional, and physical variance, to satisfy everyone at the same time. • Over the ages, man has used his ingenuity to make his protective space safe, warm, and with protected weather. For instance, the house is not only a roof, but also a home. It is the place where the moral climate is formed and it strengthens the spirit of the family. The settlement is not only the relation system which permits existence and species perpetuation, but also a complex form that expresses a deeper necessity of man as a spiritual being: his need to communicate and unfurl his activities, an adequate climate morally, culturally, and energetically. • History reflected the patters of vernacular architecture, which shows that orientation shape, materials, and mass are the starting key points in building design for any climate. Vernacular architecture is a body of knowledge and design technique, created by the experience of our predecessors, and given to us as a guide. It is there for us to use and modify for our contemporary needs and to hand on, hopefully enriched, to our successors.
A. Almusaed, Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture, DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84996-534-7_36, Springer-Verlag London Limited 2011
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• In our life, we perceive that the natural contiguous keeps us healthy and in turn, probably promotes physical performance as well. Occupants of built environments do not want simply to work, play, eat, or sleep in a functional building. They want to be inspired, invigorated, comforted, and reassured by their surroundings. They want spaces that will make them more appropriate and comfortable. • Sustainable developments, emphasis on limiting infrastructure and materials use, help in contributing to affordability during the construction of a project by eliminating some costs altogether. In the long term, sustainable design principles of energy and healthy architectural spaces and material durability help in making a home affordable. Renew ability is the key to our human range and our prime resource for architecture. Every site is definite as to its location, natural relief, local vegetation, and its macro–microclimate. • A well-designed surrounding landscape can be a good long-term investment for reducing heating and cooling costs by protecting against winter wind and summer sunlight. Cautiously positioned trees can save up to 50% of a building hold’s energy consumption for heating and cooling. The trees would generally reduce the day–night variation, increase the air humidity, and decrease the wind speed. Plants can be used as shading and windbreaks as well to control heat gain and loss correspondingly. • Plants play a vital role on the environmental performs. They do not offer us only food and useful products, but also play an important role in nature-balancing process. Plants are very important for our existence; the green plants absorb energy produced by the sunlight and synthesize the organic material, which is vital for all kinds of life. • Shade trees have an essential responsibility in the course of saving energy. Recent investigation conducted by Pacific Northwest Research Station located in California shows that shade trees in the west and south sides of a building in California can diminish a house owner’s summertime electricity bill by about $25.00 per year. (See ‘‘Shade trees and energy saving procedure’’ in Chap. 5) • A green building is a confusing expression for biophilic architecture. Green building is a construction, which can be shaped by means of renovation process. Whereas, the biophilic architecture struggles against the negative effects of urban heat island in local microclimate scale, and improve the human physical comfort to create a healthy human life. • Nowadays, the global climate change is faster than what had happened before, probably except the catastrophic extinction periods, where 60–90% of the Earth’s life extinct at different periods in Earth history. Global warming has the risk of overheat which affects the Gulf Stream Ocean currents. Therefore it might be changed or stopped. • For greater effects of biophilic architecture, it might be used vegetated green roofs or living green walls, planting trees and vegetation by means of evapotranspiration process in evaporative-cooling procedures of vegetation on construction surfaces and integrate it in open outer green spaces.
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• Green areas can help us to increase the thermal performance of a building by keeping the temperature within the building cooler in summer months. Therefore, this will reduce the air-conditioning costs. This process is only important when it is warm. It will have a noticeable impact on heat gain and loss of a building, as well as the humidity, air quality, and reflected heat in the surrounding neighborhood. • The biophilia hypothesis asserts that people have an evolved affinity for others life, and the implementation of biophilic design may serve to a further acceptance by laypeople of that essentially biological hypothesis. However, the outcome as stalked from both the positive influence of natural vegetation and attractive landscapes and the negative effects of windowless rooms and the urban settings. • Biophilic architecture offers an exciting opportunity to achieve environmental, moral, social, and economic benefits more efficiently. Much remains to be understood about energy, environmental, and life cycle processes to engage young and enthusiastic researchers in the worldwide greenly architecture community and for those interested in biophilic architecture • A good biophilic architecture plan would avoid unfavorable local microclimates to avoid frost pockets for sensitive crops, and allowing for the effect of aspect on temperature or water balance. They can also try to make new microclimates, which will prefer the growing plants. Shelterbelts of planted trees or bushes create a drag that slows down the drying or cooling winds that blow across architectural volume. • The green roof or façade coating affects indirectly the inhabitants feeling of comfort, and have a significant aesthetic function within the building’s vicinity. The biophilic architecture coating contributes significantly to the balance information between human being and the environment. In fact, green building elements nowadays contribute, to some extent, to a better microclimate through evaporation, filtering of dust from the air, and reduce temperature at the rooftop. Besides improving the microclimate and the indoor climate, the retention of rainwater is another important advantage. The most interesting things are the cooling effect in summer, the warming effect in winter, and the increase in lifespan for the green area. • Green walls prefer several occasions to improve the greenery inside the city organizations, where thermal enhancement, sound reduction, privacy screening are important solutions that incorporate ecological principals with engineering practices. The types of green walls are sometimes referred to as an urban gardening, because they are well suited for an urban environment, where the space on the soil is very limited, but vertical space is abundant. Green walls suggest natural precipice situations. • Bioclimatic architecture must be capable of a constant adjustment. However, unlike electro-mechanically dependent buildings, it must do all this without the support of sophisticated artificial installation. It has to respond both cyclically and intermittently. It must cope with momentary, daily, and seasonal changes in temperature, sunshine, daylight, and air velocity; it has to respond to sparse occupation on some occasions and over-occupation on others.
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• It must be assimilated in both occasional changes in internal partitioning and servicing and more frequent re-location, replacement, and additions of heatproducing equipment. In essence, adjustment of the envelope means that around one-quarter of building’s wall, the surface must be capable of opening and closing. • Energy in the passive bioclimatic design must be allocated throughout regarding of thermal zones by utilizing the energy in diverse architectural functional spaces such as cascade. The first step towards passive biophilic architecture is to reflect the energy distribution on the buildings form and volume, wherever the energy distribute be obliged to correspond the function and activity in these spaces. • It is important to take into regard the thermal level of different architectural spaces. This form of thermal hierarchy can be transformed in the architectural plan. It is better to assemble the interior spaces that have the same temperature and the internal contribution. It is better to emplace essential functional spaces towards the center of the architectural plan, and the spaces that have more high temperature toward the periphery of the architectural plane. • The contemptible sustainable building provides us with an opportunity to reach extremely low levels of energy consumption by employing high-quality, costefficient measures to general house components—such measures are in turn of advantage to the ecology and economy sector. We have responsibility to bring together all factors that determine houses’ quality to be relatively cheap. We would like to consider the factors, which would help us to reduce the remarkable buildings, cost by helping mathematical models, operation research science, and marketing researches, etc.
Index
A Abelia, 70 Absorber, 281, 380, 381, 390, 402 Action space by free movement, 25–29 Acoustical environment, 224 Advantage/disadvantages of drip irrigation system, 104–106 Affective benefits, 180 After structure form arrangement, 194–199 irrigation system, 96–100, 104, 106, 108, 194, 197, 203, 206, 210, 213 After roofs inclination, 191–194 Air, 401 Air and light, 69 Air Quality impacts, 134, 135 air pollution, 5, 134, 135, 139, 143, 145, 148, 202, 293 level ozone, 134, 143, 144 air-quality, 135 Air tightness, 287, 288 Allium, 54–56, 79, 194 garlic taste, 54 onion, 54, 55, 79 odor, 7, 54, 55, 93, 226, 347 Alliaceae, 55 Liliaceae, 55 temperate climates, see also hot climate, 49, 55, 67, 191, 196, 227, 249, 306, 341, 367, 386, 390 Brazil, 55, 70, 80 Africa, 71, 72, 130, 135, 136, 142 Allium species, 55–56, 192 a. fistulosum, 55 Aloe, 70 Madagascar, 70, 73 Arabian Peninsula, 70 A place to grow, 69
Applicative system, 322 Architectural elements values, 232 Architectural functions and human comfort activity, 268–270 metabolic activity, 268 metabolic heat, 268 hot climate, 64, 130, 131, 140, 142, 145, 152, 216, 225, 238, 241, 243, 247, 248, 269, 273, 274, 279, 282, 291, 295, 298, 305, 308, 322, 333, 334, 336, 337, 339, 341, 342, 348–350, 353, 354, 357, 367, 383 cold and temperate climate, 152, 191, 260, 306, 309, 325, 341, 383 Architectural hypothesis, 12–21, 35 Arab courtyard, 14 Architectural creation, 13–15, 9, 11, 17, 31, 32, 215, 274, 335 Greek, 13, 136, 380 Frank Lloyd Wright, 13 Vitruvius, 13, 33, 156 sustainable development, 3, 129, 131, 143, 378, 406 Postmodern, 14 Modernism, 14 Chinese, 14, 81, 136 universe, 14, 124, 156, 235 vernacular space, 14, 15 Japanese space, 14 gaps, 15, 241, 247, 285, 308 natural ventilation, 143, 161, 246, 271, 272, 274, 295, 345, 347, 377, 378 Architecture, form and perception, 19–21 Analytical creation phases, 30–32 artificial lighting, 216, 224, 301 Ameliorate of local microclimate, 265 bioclimatic sustainable building, 265
409
410
A (cont.) local microclimate, see also Clime, 265 plants and environment condition, 265 Amplify air pollution, 143–145 photochemical reactions, 143 Aesthetical application, 322 Application rate, 110, 111, 105, 107, 108 Ash, 65, 66 Great Britain, 65 Auxiliary heating, 379, 403 Axis, 33, 113, 114, 312, 315, 316
B Basement, 235, 237, 241, 246, 256, 273, 329 ground’s thermal inertia, 237 bagdir, 237, 240, 241 Basrah, 233–238, 244, 245, 248 Basil Ocimum basilicum, 78 Beautyberry, 78 central America, 70, 74, 76 bedrock as thermal storage, 390, 391 greenhouse, 5, 59, 80, 81, 104, 123, 124, 130, 135, 139, 148, 149, 153, 164, 170, 176, 183, 291, 306, 307, 377–379, 390, 391, 396 bedrock sizing system, 391 Biophilic architecture hypothesis, 39–46 architectural sustainability, 39 human performance, 39, 219 emotional states, 1, 39, 219 biophilic architecture, 11, 35, 39–43, 48–51, 57, 61, 78, 100, 106, 116, 120, 147, 151, 152, 156, 165, 173, 211, 213, 400, 406, 407, 408 Physical frameworks, see also natural Framework, 39, 140 Natural resources, 11, 39, 129, 173 Environmental consciousness, 219 Sustainability, 39, 46, 157, 185, 212, 219, 223, 296, 377 Architectural functions, 268, 320 Bionic architecture, 39 Green building, 1, 40, 107, 291, 406, 407 Bougainvillea, 70 South America, 70 Peru, 70, 80 Argentina, 70, 80 Building thermal zones such as cascade, 271–275 thermal hierarchy, 270, 408 thermal zone, 248, 270, 271, 408 Bulk Density, 88, 89
Index C Calycanthus, 71 Calamagrostis, 50, 53 Camellia, 63, 71, 120 Southern Asia, 53, 64, 71 Campsis radicans, 57 north American, 57 trumpet creeper, 57 deciduous woody vine, 57 Caragana, 71 Eastern Europe, 71, 81 Asia, 53, 58, 64, 66, 70–76, 82, 130, 135, 142, 231 Carex, 50, 52, 53 Cyperaceae, 49, 52 Ceratostigma, 71 Plumbaginaceae, 71 Chamomile, 78 Chamaemelum nobile, 78 Chervil, 78 Anthriscus cerefolium, 78 Chimneys, 144, 262, 356 Chives, 55, 79 allium scboenoprasum, see also Allium, 79 Choisya, 72, 120 Rutaceae, 72 United States, 72, 145, 234 Mexico, 72, 82 Clematis, 57, 58 Clethra, 72 Climate change impacts upon general human life and health, 131–137 Climate change in history, 125, 126 Climate in Aarhus, 251, 252 north Sea, 251 Siberia, 59, 73, 251 Aarhus, 208, 212, 251, 252, 259, 260 Geneva, 124 Ice Age, 124–126 holocene climate history, 126 Clime and earth climate, 113–115 climatic zones, 113 the hot climatic zone, 114 equator, 123 the temperate climatic zone, 115 arctic, 114, 128 antarctic, 115 the cold climatic, 114, 115 Clime, plants and environment condition, 115 macroclimatic factors, see also Plants and local microclimate, 115 biotic environmental, 115 biotic factors, 47 environmental factors, 47, 115
Index ecosystem, 4, 61, 115, 116, 124, 129, 130, 131, 133, 145, 205, 213, 223, 230 Climbing plant, 56–60 wisteria, 57 kiwifruit, 57 common ivy, 57 bittersweet, 57 Climbing roses, 58 pink Perpetuate, 58 golden Showers, 58 climbing Iceberg, 58 Climate in Basrah, 234 sharqi, 234 shamal, 234 Closed functional spaces, 256 Closed spaces, 236–240 living spaces, 260, 301, 304, 342, 367, 368, 379, 381, 389 service spaces, 248, 256, 271 sleeping spaces, 256 chimney, 144, 248, 254, 256, 256, 262, 313 udskud, 256 vindfang, 256 Clustered form, 44 Cognitive benefits, 180 Cognitive performance, 180 negative environmental consequences, 180 Cold bridging effect, 287, 388 Collection the data, 30, 31 informative character, 30 natural isomorphic structure, 30 Collector, 22, 161, 281, 313, 315, 316, 318, 322, 380, 382, 386, 387, 390, 401, 402 Collector/Concentrator, 315, 323 Collection system, 330, 331 tracking system, 319, 330 heliostat system, 319, 323, 330 Color wheels, 322 spot lenses, 322 lenses, 322 Colors, 7, 34, 50, 54, 62, 69, 80, 117, 141, 148, 154, 155, 179, 260, 322, 330 environmental psychology, 34, 175, 176 economic parameters, 34 radiant spectrum, 34 rainbow, 34 a phenomenon of light, 34 visual perception, 34 saturation, 34 greenish colors, 34 Compact green suspended walls system, 207–209
411 Conduction, 220, 221, 225, 267, 269, 277–279, 282, 296, 393, 397, 402 Condensation control, 279, 280 Contrast, 13, 34, 50, 51, 55, 69, 95, 136, 169, 170, 175, 177, 226, 327, 389 human visual system, 34 visual perception, 34 brightness of the object, 34 Convection, 144, 207, 213, 221, 248, 269, 271, 277, 296, 305, 333, 363, 367, 377, 378, 381, 388–390, 393, 394, 396–399, 401, 402 Cooling by direct evaporative systems, 353–361 Middle East, 67, 81, 138, 142, 205, 345 Turkey, 80 Iran, 343 Iraq, 188, 233, 235, 236, 238, 246, 337 Cooling by water roof spray, 363 Cooling by roof bond, 363, 364 Cooling by perforate front wall, 364, 365 capillary phenomenon, 364 Cooling by using of cold water storage tank, 364, 365 Cooling by underground thermal inertia systems, 368–370 thermal comfort, see also thermal comfort on internal spaces, 1, 193, 220, 224–226, 268, 271, 274, 294, 304, 305, 334, 336, 368, 369, 379, 389, 403 Cooling by using a free Underground space, 369, 370 Cooling by using rock bed on underground spaces, 370 Cooling by underground earth tubes, 370 thermal inertia, 370 Cross ventilation, 345–347 Courtyard space, 256, 257 Landscape elements with thermal elements, 257
D Daphne, 72 Hymelaeaceae, 72 petaloid sepals, 72 Dasiphora, 72 rosaceous, 72, 74, 76 Dill, 79 anethum graveolens, 72 Dimensional transfer, 25, 27, 28 Symmetry, 29, 33 Direct gain system, 381, 394
412
D (cont.) Direct evaporative cooling systems, 355–361 evapotranspiration, 99, 121, 147, 167–171, 267, 355, 406, 407 the wind tower, 347, 348, 357 hybrid cooling system, 334, 359, 367 Direct impacts, 132 Distance sunlight’s reflective system, 328–331 Doors and window, 241, 242, 346 Double skin façade, 291–293, 298 buffer façade, 293 Drainage layer and filtration, 199–201 drain grooves, 200 expanded polystyrene, 153, 200 filter sheet layer, 200 Drip irrigation system (micro-irrigation), 100–106 micro irrigation, 100 trickle irrigation, 100 drip irrigation system, 100, 101, 104 sprinkler irrigation system, 100 flood irrigation, 96, 100 micro-sprayers, 100 hard-piped, 100 risers, 101 irrigation scheduling, 99, 106 Drip systems, 96, 101 drip nozzles, 101 Durability sustainable design, 7 Dynamic approach, 20, 21
E Earth tubes types, 372–374 open loop system, 374 closed-loop system, 373, 374 Eccremocarpos scaber, 58 dainty foliage, 58 Elaeagnus, 72, 73 e. triflora, 73 northeastern Australia, 73 Edge-to-edge contact, 41 Effectiveness of insulation materials, 282 Electromagnetic radiation, 221 Elms, 64, 66, 67 Indonesia, 67 equator, 47, 53, 67, 114, 123 Energy saving and conservation, 278 thermal insulation, 122, 151–153, 194, 198, 210, 214, 225, 247, 274, 277, 281, 282, 335 energy saving, see also energy efficiency, 67, 68, 151, 153, 210, 278, 291, 294, 379, 386, 387, 406
Index Energy changes and control, 278, 279 air infiltration, see also energy saving concept, 88, 279, 281 Energy on vernacular dwellings, 248, 249 vernacular dwellings, 248, 254 thermal zoning, 248, 271 Energy upon architectural conception, 222, 223 ambient energy, 222 cooling effect, 211, 121, 222, 234, 239, 246, 353, 363, 371, 407 living standards, 222 anthropocentric activity, 223 earth’s ecosystems, 223 operational requirements, 223 Energetic biophilic walls (climatic skin layer), 210, 214, 215 energetic biophilic wall, 210, 214, 215 environmental friendly, 210 climatic skin layer, 210–212 heterogenic external wall, 210 air quality, see also amplify Air pollution, 45, 134, 135, 143, 144, 161, 167, 211, 212, 268, 294, 296, 407 sustainer system, 212 thermal performance, 152, 167, 212, 407 analytical instruction, 213 urban ecosystems, 213 hydroponic system, 213 Energy upon ambience, 220–222 Energy crisis, 4 Energy pollution and human healthy, 4 Energy efficiency, 6, 143, 153, 198, 278, 374 Erica, 73 Ericaceous, 73 Evaporative, 99, 121, 136, 147, 167, 168, 225, 267, 333, 338, 343, 353, 355–359, 363, 406 Evapo-transpiration and environmental ameliorate benefits, 167–171 stomata, 162, 165, 167, 168, 179 evapotranspiration (ET), 99, 121, 147, 167–171, 267, 355, 406, 407 the thermal performance of a building, 167, 407 biophysiological functions, 168 potential evapotranspiration, 169 Evaporative cooling approach, 353–355 convective cooling systems, 333, 353 fresh air, 8, 161, 179, 181, 209, 226, 293–295, 302, 354 rock bed, 354, 382, 391 wetted pad, 354, 356 Esthetical benefit, 155, 157
Index psychosomatic researches, 156 architectural form, 157 Estimating evapotranspiration, 171 catchment water balance, 171 Euonymus, 73 Extensive green roofs (climatic skin roof), 169 grow ( growth) media, see also introduction on growing media, 169 alpine environment, 169 environmental benefits, see also clime, plants and environment condition, 169 extensive green roofs, 169 semi-Intensive green roofs, 196, 197 External shading device, 307, 340–343 External doors, 286, 357, 360 Extensive green walls, 207–209, 214, 215 Exterior water wall for indirect heat gain, 399 glass jars, 399 paint cans, 399 Exterior movable insulation, 284, 285 moisture condensation, 284, 285 Exterior hinged and sliding shutters, 285 Exterior roll shutters, 285
F Face- to- face contact, 41, 42 Factors affecting the evapotranspiration, 196–171 energy convenience, see also energy efficiency, 196 meteorological parameter, 196 physical attributes, 196 stomata resistance, 170 geographic Patterns, 170 greenhouse gases, 5, 123, 130, 134, 149, 164, 170 Fatsia, 73 Festuca, 51, 52, 192 Ficus pumila, 58 juvenile leaves, 58 Vietnam, 58, 74 Japan, 15, 28, 53, 58, 59, 73, 74, 231, 320 Fire protection, 280 Flat green roofs, 193, 194 Gothenburg, 193 thermal behavior, 193 ecological roofs, 194 Formative vision, 20, 227 Fountains, water pools (selsebil), 227, 242 Forsythia, 73 Functional essential spaces, 271, 272 functional auxiliary spaces, 271
413 Functional auxiliary spaces, 272, 273 Functional spaces, 304, 312, 319, 321, 328, 408
G Gardening effects, 136, 137 global warming, see also climate change, 136 iconic plants, 137 Gardening benefits, 183 Physical activity, 183 Physical health, 183 Gallery, 227, 238 Garrya, 73, 120 Garryaceae, 73 General consideration of cooling tubes, 374 Graham Thomas, 58 English roses, 58 Grasses design, 50, 51 cultural requirements, 50 colorful foliage, 50 Grasses selection, 51–56 Global climate change, desertification and green areas misplaced, 129–131 eastern Mediterranean, 129 north Africa, 129, 130, 135 Atlantic coast, 130 Green areas and oxygen quantity produced, 159–161 Green area and architectural framework, 116, 117 standard temperature, 116 carbon dioxide, 48, 61, 127, 144, 147, 159–165, 206, 291, 292 Green areas, biophilic architecture and seasonal impact, 120–122 Green areas placement and variety upon biophilic architecture, 42–46 architectural perception, 35, 40, 42 Green buildings covering, 291, 292 albedo, 142, 291 Green house phenomenon, 378, 379 Green roofs, 187–204 hanging Gardens of Babylon, 136, 187 Sissinghurst, 136 Ziggurats of ancient Mesopotamia, 187 Courtyards, see also patio, 14, 136, 187, 205, 252, 253, 255, 321, 337 Ur, 187 Nabonidus, 187 Etemenanki in Babylon, 187 Nebuchadnezzar II, 187 Babylon, 136, 187, 188
414
G (cont.) seven Wonders of the World, 187 Amyitis, 187 European countries, 188 Scandinavia, 188–160, 205, 253 underneath, 122, 188, 199, 200, 202, 363, 368 earth-friendly, 188 stratum of vegetation air pollution, see also energy pollution and human healthy, 5, 134, 135, 139, 143, 145, 148, 202, 293 Green roofs today, 190, 191 vernacular architecture, 220, 229, 230, 232–234, 236, 251, 254, 405 Scandinavian variation, 190 bio-ecological, 10, 190 York City, 190 Chicago City Hall, 190 Ford’s River Rouge, 190 Detroit, 190 Germany, 64, 190, 191 UV rays, 191 Green roofs maintenance & warranty, 202, 203 waterproofing membrane, 196, 199, 203 Green roofs types, 191–199 Green walls, 205–216 vertical garden, 205 Persia, 136, 187, 205, 234 Mediterranean, 114, 129, 131, 133, 205 hydroponic medium, 205 hydroponic chemical plant, 205 living walls, 206, 209, 211, 214 intermediary spaces, see also buffering space, 237, 247, 248, 256–271, 279, 281, 305, 306 vertical space, 205, 206, 407 vertical green (layer) areas, 160, 205, 206 Green walls types, 207–213 Green roofs components, 199–202 Grevillea, 74 New Guinea, 74 New Caledonia, 74 Sulawesi, 74 Grid form, 43, 45 Guest room, 237
H Habitat type in history, 252–254 one wing house iron Age, 252 middle age, 159, 173, 252 one winged farmhouse, 252
Index crossbeams, 254 half-timber filed, 254 Habitat specific concept, 245–249 Habitat concept specific, 258–268 Habitat spaces with thermal role, 236–240 Habitable rooms, 236, 237 buffer space, 236 patio, 238, 239 Hakea, 74 Australia, 67, 70, 73, 74 Healthy human life, 7, 40, 406 Heat climate change, 5 Heating system, 261–263 Heat break transfer concept, 296–298 Heat break concept in double skin façade, 298 Heating recovery systems by ventilative development, 293–296 stale indoor air, 294, 295 fresh outdoor air, 295 air change rate, 295, 391 energy recovery system, 295 Heating by radiant asymmetry, 288 Heating by roof pond, 400 Heating process, 379–382 Heating by Trombe wall (thermosyphon), 396–397 Solar heat, 396 Masonry, 59, 207, 385, 386, 388, 389, 393–397, 399, 401 Airspace, 302, 396 Heat loss, see also energy saving, 302, 296, 306, 308, 317, 335, 363, 377, 383, 386, 388, 390, 397 Heating by remote storage walls, 397, 398 Heating by water wall, 398, 399 Herb, 47, 49, 50, 54, 77–82, 117, 136, 192, 196, 197, 198, 202, 209 botanists, 77 Hierarchy, 34, 271, 408 hierarchy by Size, 34 hierarchy by Shape, 34 hierarchy by Placement, 34 expression, 34 hierarchy in architecture, 34 architectural composition, 34 visually dominant, 34 strategically placed, 34 linear sequence, 34 axial organization, 34 radial organization, 34 accommodate, 34, 197 Horizontal green plan, 49–61 flowers metamorphose, 49 slightest breeze, 49
Index narrow-leaved, 49 Poaceae, 49, 50, 53 Cyperaceae, 49, 52 bamboo, 50, 57 cultivated, 49, 54, 67, 79, 188, 261 calamagrostis, 50, 53 Horizontal closed- loop, 373, 374 pipe lops, 373 Horticultural therapy program, 184, 185 horticultural therapy, 179, 184 therapeutic value, 184 How arteries optics works, 319, 320 Hop, 79 Human settlement and architectural phenomenon, 15–17 human settlements, 15 human community, 15 physical elements, 16 requires state, 16 constructed object, 16 application process, 16 human behavior, 16 anthropological invariant, 16 holothymic, 16 homogeneous spaces, 16 living anthropologists, 16 architectural phenomenon, 15 inhabited structure, 16 Inhabited phenomenon, 16 hypostases reveals, 16 environmental transformations, 17 phenomenon of shelter, 17 isolated phenomenon, 17 Initiates contained, 17 dissected analyzes, 17 Hydrangea petiolaris, 59 easternmost Siberia, 59 Korea, 59, 73, 74 north America, 59, 65–67, 70–74, 77, 82, 154, 190 deciduous, 52, 57, 59, 64, 66, 69, 70–74, 77, 80, 121, 222, 267, 339
I Illicium, 74 China, 15, 28, 58, 74, 229 Illuminations by sun-skylight- tubes, 311–318 Illumination by Optical arteries, 319–322 Impaired Water Quality, 145, 146 water ecosystems, 133, 145 environmental impacts, 130, 145 Improving growing media structure, 91, 92
415 Improvement of exterior energy allocate, 262–267 Improvement of interior energy allocate, 268–275 Improvement of thermal Insulation, see also passive building, 277–289 Improvement of windows functions, 306–308 heat gain, 309, 317, 333, 335, 339, 340, 377, 378, 391, 394–396, 398, 399, 400, 406 Incline green roofs, 191, 192 temperate climates, 191, 197, 249, 306, 341, 367, 386, 390 Increase energy consumption, 142, 143 Increased health risk, 145 Increase thermal discomfort, see also thermal comfort on internal environment, 146 heat stress, 146 thermal discomfort, 46, 305 acclimatization, 146, 225 Indirect impacts, 131 Indirect gain system, 394–396 thermal storage wall, 385, 390, 395 thermal storage mass, 395, 402 vents, 395 greenhouse space, 396 Insulation roles, 277–280 Insulation types, 280–285 Insulation in passive buildings concept, 285–288 Intensive green roofs (garden roofs), 197, 198 water fountains, ponds, 198 fertilization (fertilizer), 198 Intensive green walls, 214, 215 Increase energy consumption, 142, 143 Latin America, 142 southern Europe, 142 Interior movable insulation, 283, 284 Interfering nodes, 31, 32 spatial impact, 31 Interaction between architectural creation and environmental impact, 219–227 bioclimatic architecture, 5, 9–11, 292, 347, 367, 377, 385, 405, 407 passive bioclimatic architecture, 219, 223, 377, 385 vernacular architecture, 7, 190, 220, 229–234, 236, 254, 405 Interconnecting surfaces, 41, 42 Interfering creation process, 30 Interior water wall for direct heat gain, 399 thermal collection, 399 Internal shading device, 339, 340
416
I (cont.) Intermediary spaces, 237, 247, 248, 256, 271, 273–275, 279, 281, 305, 306 transitional spaces, see also intermediary spaces, 274, 275 Introduction on plants and vegetations such green covering, 47–82 source of energy, 4, 47, 162, 293, 297, 309, 378, 380 world’s climates, 47 vascular plants, 47, 117 grasses, 47, 49, 50, 51, 53, 56, 57, 61, 88, 117, 120, 152, 192, 196, 197, 198, 201, 202 shrubs, 47, 49, 54, 57, 60, 61, 63–65, 69, 70–77, 80, 97, 101, 107, 116, 117, 120, 121, 173, 183, 185, 197, 198, 202, 210, 211, 338, 339, 406 environmental conditions, 47, 71, 115, 117, 226, 293 non-biological , 47 environmental factor, 47, 115 animals biotic, 47 living organisms, 47 ferns, 47, 77, 117, 211 bryophytes, 47, 48 fern allies, 47 Aristotle, 48 photosynthesis, 48, 69, 119, 121, 159, 161–164, 168, 191, 211 nutrients, 48, 69, 83, 88–93, 106, 128, 163, 196, 201, 205, 209 Introduction on growing media, 85–94 silty clay, 85 clay soils, 85, 88 biological habitat, 86 Irrigation management, 97, 98 Irrigation system benefits, 96, 97 climate change, see also introduction on climate change, 5, 6, 97, 123–135, 173, 223, 406 Irrigation Scheduling, 99 Irrigation systems competent for biophilic architecture, 100, 111 Irrigation systems growing crops, 184 heavy water, 95 flood irrigation water, 96 herbicides, 96, 165 river Nile, 96 Egyptian, 96, 136, 312, 328, 380 gray water, 96, 401 Isolated gain system, 401 thermodynamic phenomenon
Index collector, see also the source of energy, 380, 386, 401 Isomorphic transfer, 30, 31, 231, 401
J Jasmine, 60, 74 Oleaceae, 74
K Kerria japonica, 74 Kitchens, bathrooms, storerooms, 237 wooden jigsaw panels, 237 storerooms, 237
L Lady’s mantle, 79, 80 Lagerstroemia, 74, 75 northern Australia, 74 Oceania, 75 southeast Asia, 74, 135 Indian sub continental, 74 Lavender, 75, 79, 80, 197 Lemon verbena, 80 Argentina, 70, 80 Paraguay, 80 Uruguay, 80 Peru, 70, 80 Light shelves role, 327 glare, 313, 325–327, 329, 340, 386 exterior shading device, 327, 340 Light shelves position and functions, 327 reflective glazing, 327 tinted, 135, 216, 301, 305, 327 Light transportation system, 316, 330 light distribution system, 330, 331 Lilac, 75 Lindens, 64–66 Living walls system, 209, 210 Linear form, 43, 44, 322 Local design, 7 Loggia, 15, 236, 237, 274 wooden panels, 237 low energy buildings, 286, 388
M Macroclimate, see also Plants and local microclimate, 97, 119, 123, 368, 390 the period of peak water Magnolia, 75
Index Maple, 64, 65 Aceraceae, 64 Sapindaceae, 64 Acer, 64 Mediterrean region, 64 Material efficiency, 7, 8 middle Eastern European, 8 Migratory impacts, 132, 133 Mitigation of heat island effects, 146–149 built environment, 159, 229 strategies to reduce overheating, 147 Florida, 59, 148 California, 143, 148, 176, 193, 406 Ozon pollution, 148 Tokyo, 149 greenhouse gases, 149, 164, 170 Singapore, 149, 192 Mint, 76, 80 herbaceous rhizomatous, 80 perennial plant, 77, 80, 82 Miscanthu, 53 Miscanthus, 53 bio-energy crops, 53 ornamental varieties, 53 ethanol, 53, 164 Mix green roofs, 198, 199 Movable insulation, 282–285 Movable insulation types, 282–285
N Natural phenomenon and passive heating, 378, 379 Nocturnal ventilative cooling, 348 North building facing, 382, 383 cold and temperate climate, 152, 191, 260, 306, 309, 325, 341, 382
O Oak, 61, 64 Olearia, 120 New Zealand, 75, 120 Open spaces, 176, 209, 237–240 Open functional spaces, 256, 257 Operating Sprinkler Systems, 110, 111 Operational - program space, 23 Optical environment, 224 Optimal orientation for buildings from temperate and cold climate (southeast), 304 Optimal orientation for buildings from hot arid (northeast), 304 Orientation of transfer, 28, 29
417 TUKU, 28 India, 28, 74, 82, 205, 229–231 KEN, 28 Ancient Greece, 28 Modular, 20, 21, 28, 206, 207, 212, 213, 253, 254 Le Corbusier modules, 28 Proportions, 28, 33 Outside decoration, 242, 243
P Palmer, 67, 68, 244 arecales, 67 Mesopotamians, 67 middle Eastern, 67, 81 date Palm, 67 Patio (courtyard), 237–239 traditional dwelling, 237 water pools, 237, 239, 242, 244 rawak, 238 local microclimate, 40, 109, 117, 118, 120, 219, 238, 265, 267, 333, 346, 390, 391, 393, 406, 407 plants and local microclimate, 117–120 Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 59 North America, 57, 59, 65, 67, 70–74, 77, 82, 154, 190 Quebec, 59 Florida, 59, 148 Texas, 59 Passive heating concept, 283–377 auxiliary heating, 379, 403 sunspaces, 377, 378, 385–387 thermal mass, 121, 122, 140, 230, 282, 309, 348, 370, 377, 378, 381, 385–389, 393, 394 indoor comfort, 370, 377 Passive heating procedure, 379–382 Parsley, 81 Permanent insulations, 280, 281 comfort level, see also thermal comfort on internal spaces thermal comfort on internal spaces, 382, 308, 403 Permanent insulation types, 280–282 Photosynthesis process such a source of air quality, 161–163 carbohydrates, 163 chemical reaction, 69, 89, 143, 144, 161, 163 mesophyll, 161 the pigment chlorophyll, 161 chloroplasts, 161, 162 chlorophyll, 69, 161–163
418
P (cont.) nitrogen (N2), 164 oxygen (02), 48, 61, 88, 128, 133, 144, 147, 159, 161–164, 209, 291 argon (Ar), 164 Photo inhibition, 164 physical benefits of gardening, 183 Physical environment and human comfort, 223–227 Physical comfort, 40, 148, 223, 301 Plants and environmental condition, 115 microclimates, 50, 117–119, 144, 407 water vapor, 118, 144, 163, 168, 169, 211, 267, 354 biological society, 120 Plants and vegetation, 47, 48, 202, 214, 243 Plants age, 98 Plants species, 98 Plant roots configuration, 98 Plants selection, 68, 69 Placement and position of insulation, 281, 282 Poa, 51, 52, 192 genus, 51–55, 64, 66, 70–76, 125 species, 9, 47, 51–57, 59–64, 66, 67, 70–77, 81, 82, 95, 98, 115, 117–121, 128, 136, 137, 154, 159, 162, 169, 171, 174, 175, 179, 191, 192, 197, 202, 207, 209, 211, 405 hemispheres, 51 monoecious, 51 poa pratensis, 51, 192 Pointed form, 43 Polygala, 76 Polygalaceae, 76 Polymer fibbers, 322 Pyracantha Varieties, 59, 60 Psycho physiological benefits, 180–185
R Radiant vision, 21 Radial form, 43, 44 Radiation, 221, 222 Reducing summer heat gain, 306–308 Reducing winter heat loss, 308 Remembering conclusion, 405–408 protective space, 405 vernacular architecture, 7, 190, 220, 229, 231, 235, 236, 251, 254, 405 natural contiguous, 3, 39, 406 physical performance, 39, 406 sustainable development’s, 3 significant aesthetic function, 407
Index sustainable building, 6, 9, 10, 280, 297, 369, 379, 380, 408 Renewable energy, 6 Rhododendron, 75, 76 ericaceous, 76 Nepal, 76 Rhythm, 18, 33, 182 patterned repetition, 331 Root injure, 98 roots mature, 98 Rotor type, 107–109 radius of a rotor-type sprinkler, 108 the irrigated area purpose, 108 existing irrigation systems, 108 net wetted area, 108, 109 overlap areas, 108 interior sprinklers, 108 exterior sprinklers, 108, 110 Rubus, 76 Rue, 81 glycerinate Rue’s, 81
S Salvia, 76 Lamiaceae, 76 Sedum, 54, 55, 191, 192, 196, 198, 202, 211 Sedum species, 54 grey Chi, 54 lepidoptera, 54 Sega, 81, 82 Salvia officinalis, 80 Scented Geraniums, 81 pelargonium, 81 Sealable produces under marketing activity, 9 Selective shading trees, 64 Semi – intensive green roofs, 196, 197 Semiotics and representation in architecture, 17, 18 objective – Descriptive action, 17 reverse projection action, 18 characterized action, 18 associative action, 18 figures sensitivity, 17 perceptive act, 17, 18 mental operations, 17 process semiotics, 17 euclidian geometry, 18 assemblies geometry, 18 Shading types, 335–343 Shading by agglomerate of volumes, 335, 336 Shading by space in space concept, 337, 338 Shading by natural elements (vertical plants), 338, 339
Index Shading by devices, 339–343 solar radiation, 121, 154, 168, 170, 171, 202, 208, 213, 301, 303, 335, 339, 377, 378, 386, 387, 389, 390, 393, 394, 400 summer heat gains, 340 Shading by overhangs system, 341 Shading by awnings, 341 Shading by trellises, 342 Shade screens, 343 Shade screens, 343 Shading on courtyard, 336, 337 Shelter (Læ), 357, 358 Shade trees and energy saving procedure, 67, 68, 406 California, 67, 143, 148, 176, 193, 406 Sacramento Municipal Utility, 68 energy savings, 68, 153, 291, 379, 386, 387 Shading trees, 62, 64 light shade, 57, 60, 63 medium shade, 63 full shade, 64 Shanashil, 241 wooden jigsaws piece, 2, 241 Shelter - protection space, 23–25 operational- program space, 23 operations of Inclusion- exclusion, 23 foetal species, 23 protective cover, 23 mental biopsychology, 23 affordable habitat, 23 human comfort, 5, 7, 11, 24, 223, 225, 268, 270, 333 egocentric condition, 24 intimate space, 24 epidermal extension, 24 personal space, 24 social space, 24 egocentric report, 25 Shrub and bushes, 69–77 Signs, 321, 322 artery optic points, 322 Size, 33 physical dimension, 33 pattern of symbols, 33 Simple frontal storage wall, 322 thermally massive wall, 322, 385 Skylight and clerestories insulation, 385 Social Impacts, 389 Social benefits of gardening, 181, 182 visual quality, 182 Socio and healthy human psychology upon biophilic architecture, 173–185 sense of mastery of the environment, 173
419 amazing phenomenon, 174 Soil density, 88, 89 mycorrhizal strands, 89 Soil characteristics, 89–92 Soil drain, 89–90 Soil salt, 90 fertilizer, 90, 91, 97, 100, 103, 105, 199, 201 Soil pH, 90, 91 pH value, 91, 92 nitrogen, 91, 93, 134, 163, 164, 201 phosphorus, 91, 163, 201 potassium, 91, 93 zinc, 91 manganese, 91 Soil state, 98 Soil temperature and root growth process, 89 chemical reactions, 89 granular structure, 85, 89 Solanum jasminoides Album, 60 South building facing, 382 passive solar system, 384 cooling performance, 384 Spatial pressure, 40, 41 Spaces illumination, 321 Special sunlight canals, 329, 330 fresnel lenses, 329 indoor luminance, 329 Specific hypothetical perspective, 174–176 physical environment, 176, 223 Specific building materials, 247, 248 arches, 247 cupolas, 247 Specific habitat plan, 246, 247 loggers, 246, 273 basements, 246, 247, 273 terraces, see also terrace balcones, 239, 244, 246, 273, 274 thermal buffering, 247, 274 Specific habitat volume, 260, 261 Specific habitat Plan, 246, 247 retimorphic plan, 260 Specific volume, 245, 246 arid climate, 142, 225, 235, 236, 240, 246, 248, 267, 274, 275, 304 flat roofs, 191, 193, 197, 246, 343 Specific urban texture, 258–260 Spiritual benefits of gardening, 182, 183 bodily places, 182 cultivating plants, 183 Spots green suspended walls, 207, 208, 214 polypropylene plastic containers, 207 geo-textiles, 207
420
S (cont.) Spray type, 107 spray rectangle, 107 Sprinkler drop sizes, 111 Sprinkler irrigation system, 100, 106–111 nozzles, 96, 106, 108, 110 valves, 100, 102, 103, 106 fittings, 106 Sprinkler types, 107–109 Static approach, 19, 20 Storage, 381 Stress, green areas and mental health, 177–179 stress, 8, 38, 65, 97, 99, 124, 128, 132, 144–146, 154, 155, 168, 173, 177–179, 180, 183, 211, 268, 320 physiological arousal, 177 psychosocial stress, 177 hypertension, 177 chronic stress, 177 Glasgow University, 178 green environment, 129, 178 green areas metaphors, 179 Alzheimer patients, 179 Structural transfer, 25, 26 Substrate (growing medium), 201 synthetic soil, 93, 201 environmentally friendly, 11, 201, 379 passive heating, 191, 201, 377–380, 385, 388, 393, 395 Sun energy such resource of permanent energy, 398 Sun reflective spots Super Insulation, 328 thermal bridges, 281, 298 airtight, 278, 281, 288, 295 Sunspaces, 281, 287, 378, 385–387 thermal storage, 385–390, 393–397, 400, 402 sunless periods, 386 Sunspsace’s disadvantage, 281, 287, 378, 385–387 Symmetry, 29, 33, 288 self-similarity, 33 sense of harmonious, 33 proportionality, 33 Synthetic Lightweight soil for structural buildings elements, 92, 93 Tak and Iwan, 239, 240 lightweight soil, 92, 93, 211 horticulture structure, 92 synthetic soil, 93, 201 root penetration, 88, 93 soil percolation, 93
Index T Tarragon, 82 Asteraceae, 82 western North America, 77, 82 eastern Asia, 53, 74, 77, 82 Russian (Rusia), 82 Terrace, 53, 74, 187, 188, 198, 235, 237–239, 240, 244, 246, 273, 274 Texture, 29, 33, 40, 49, 61, 62, 63, 85, 86, 91, 93, 96, 113, 136, 140, 157, 170, 179, 184, 197, 245, 258, 259 buildings texture, 33 perceptible quality, 33 non-tactile sensations, 33 physical dimension, 33 The acoustical insulation benefit, 151, 152 San Francisco’s International Airport, 151 the applications of optical arteries idea, 320–322 the concept of sun-skylight tube, 313, 314 shading devices, 202, 292, 293, 307, 325, 335, 339, 340, 341 The effect of local earth relief, 265, 266 The effect of water and vegetation, 267 The application of optical arteries idea, 320–322 The green areas benefits upon urban sustainability role, 151–157 acoustical insulation, 151, 210 water management, 92, 99, 133, 151 The efficient process for plants watering, 98, 99 drip irrigation, 98, 100, 101, 104, 105 soaker hoses, 98 needless applications, 99 The green areas perception, 116 The greenhouse effect, 5, 123, 124, 307, 378 The human challenges on climate change, 126–129 El Niño, 127, 132 Antarctica, 127 Greenland, 128 Darwin’s evolution theory, 129 The idea of affordability, 6 The impacts of heat island phenomenon on urban human life, 142–146 arid climates, 142, 225, 249 city periphery, 139, 142 gigantic colonization of air, 142 albedo and emissivity, 142 The indicators of obvious appearance upon architectural theory, 32–35 aesthetic value, 32, 35 axiology, 32
Index philosophy of art, 32 Comic, 32 Sublime, 32 tragic, 32 epistemology or ethics, 32 Immanuel Kant (the German philosopher), 32 The optical roles of windows, 301–303 The objective factors of urban heat island phenomenon, 140–142 The urban heat island phenomenon upon urban components, 139–149 water quality, see also Air Quality impacts, 139, 143, 145, 156, 359 physical frameworks, 139, 140 NASA, 140 asphalt road, 142, 146 dark colored structures, 141 canyon effect, 141 The psychological benefits of passively viewing on nature greening, 176, 177 Physical and mental health and well-being, 176 Netherlands, 176 natural phenomena, 176, 211 The right temperature, 69 The source of energy (sun), see also windows, 309, 380 The system components and operation, 102 water Source, 102, 103 pumping System, 102 distribution System, 102, 106, 330, 403 filtration System, 102 secondary filter, 102 injection Units-Chemicals/Fertilizer, 103 systems of controls, 103 zone Controls, 103 miscellaneous in-field Delivery System, 103 The thermal roles of windows, 304–306 The size thermal storage wall, 390 thermal l wall size, 390 Thermal comfort on internal environment, 225–227 metabolic rate, 226, 268, 269 clothing resistance, 226 relative humidity, 7, 161, 226, 234 draught discomfort, 236 Thermal comfort, see also Thermal comfort on internal spaces, 10, 193, 220, 224–226, 261, 268, 271, 272, 293, 304, 305, 334, 336, 368, 369, 379, 389, 403
421 thermal neutrality, 225 thermal insulation, 225, 247, 274, 277, 281, 282, 335 psycho -physiological feeling, 225 Thermal curtains and shades, 284 Thermal environment, 224–227 Thermal insulation benefit, 152–155 symplocarpus foetidus, 154 Thermal mass (storage) types, 389–392 Thermal mass function, 388, 389 passive bioclimatic architecture, 219, 223, 377, 385 thermal mass, 122, 140, 230, 282, 305, 309, 348, 370, 377, 378, 381, 385, 387–389, 393, 394 Thermal shutters, 284 Thermal storage elements, 387, 388 dense materials, 387 non -pressurized cylinders, 387 thermal storage, see also thermal mass, 385–388, 390, 393–396, 400, 402 auxiliary heating requirements dense materials, 387 Thermodynamics phenomenon, 378, 379 Thermosyphon collector, 403 thermosyphon system, 381, 402 intelligent sustainable systems, 335, 379 Thyme, 81, 82 Topological psychology in architecture, 23 topological psychology, 23 active principle, 23 passive receiver, 23 action space, 23 Transparent insulation, 281, 289 Treatment of the data, 31 Trees, 61–69 environmental challenges, 61 Tubes material, 372 Tube diameter, 372 Tube location, 372 Tube length, 372 Tubular sun- skylight in history, 372 seven Wonders of the World, 372
U Underground building, 170, 171, 198 Underground energy is source of permanent energy, 297, 298 Urban heat island, 5, 139, 140, 141, 151, 167, 214 Urban texture specific, 245 interior courtyard, 245 houses volumes, 245
422 V Ventilative cooling types, 248 Ventilative cooling by closed loop, 248–250 Ventilation gaps, 241 Vernacular architecture and the buildings specific, 234–236 Vernacular architecture mechanism (Basrah, Iraq), 236–244 Vernacular architectural spaces values, 231, 232 Violet le Due, 231 experiential value, 231 Vernacular architecture conception, 230, 231 brahmanism, 230 Stupa, 231 Hinduism, 78, 231 gene pools, 230 Islamic societies, 230 prehistoric Vedic religion, 230 Islamic architectural design., 230 Vernacular architecture and human experiences, 229–232 great Wall of China, 229 stone Age, 229 Vernacular architecture values, 230–232 Sonder, 254 Fano, 254 Dragor, 254 Amager, 254 Vernacular architecture mechanism (Aarhus, Denmark), 254–258 Vertical closed-loop, 373 Vertical greens, 60–82 Vitis coignetiae, 60 Viburnum, 67
W Water quality, 5, 98, 104, 105, 133, 139, 143, 145, 146, 359 Waterproofing Layer (a seal), 188, 199 waterproof skin, 199 rubberized asphalt, 199 bitumen, 154, 199 polyolefin, 199 thermoplastic composition, 199 fiberglass fabric, 199 microorganism in symbiosis, 199
Index Water quantity and quality affected on climate change, 13–134 Egypt, 96, 312, 328, 133, 136, 380 Libya, 133 Tunisia, 133 Morocco, 133 Algeria, 133 Malta, 133 Syria, 133, 137 Lebanon, 133 Weigela, 76 Caprifoliaceous, 76 Wetting patterns, 110 patterns overlap, 110 What is global climate change, 123–125 global climate change, 123, 124, 127, 128, 130, 132, 173, 406 human responses, 124, 181 IPCC(Intergovernmental Panel on climate Change), 124 ecological processes, 124 Wide-ranging form, 43, 45 intrinsic human inclination, 43 psychologically beneficial, 45 Windbreak (Læhegn), 258 Wind tower (Bagdir), 240, 241 ventilation channels, 240 air pipe, 240 summer breezes, 62, 240 Windows in cold and temperate climate, 306 Windows orientation and emplacement, 303, 304 Windows in hot climate, 305 Windows size, 305–307 Windows size in cold climate, 306 Wormwood, 82 Artemisia absinthian, 82 Wind catcher, 345, 347, 348
Y Yuccas, 76, 77 central American, 76
Z Zauschneria, 77
