Biology of Spiders

Biology of

SPIDERS

It is hoped that the reader approaches the subject of spiders with as much curiosity as this cat in this Japanese silk painting. Curiosity does not necessarily kill the cat—nor the spider. (“Cat and Spider” by Oide Makoto, 1836–1905; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.)

RAINER F. FOELIX

Biology of

SPIDERS Third Edition

1 2011

1 Oxford University Press Oxford University Press, Inc., publishes works that further Oxford University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education. Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam

Copyright © 2011 by Oxford University Press The copyrights for the first and second editions of Biology of Spiders have been with Georg Thieme Verlag KG, Stuttgart, Germany 1979, 1992, and were transferred to the author in 2009. Published by Oxford University Press, Inc. 198 Madison Avenue, New York, New York 10016 www.oup.com Oxford is a registered trademark of Oxford University Press All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Oxford University Press. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Foelix, Rainer F., 1943– [Biologie der Spinnen. English] Biology of spiders / Rainer F. Foelix. — 3rd ed. p. cm. ISBN 978-0-19-973482-5 (pbk.) 1. Spiders. I. Title. QL458.4.F6313 2010 595.4’4–dc22 2010009511

1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

Contents

Preface vii 1. An Introduction to Spiders

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2. Functional Anatomy 17 3. Metabolism 49 4. Neurobiology 83 5. Spider Webs

136

6. Locomotion and Prey Capture 7. Reproduction

218

8. Development

262

9. Ecology

287

10. Phylogeny and Systematics Bibliography Index

411

188

345

327

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Preface

It is now exactly 30 years that Biology of Spiders was first published, and I never expected nor planned to follow up with any further editions. When the science editor of Oxford University Press asked me last year whether I would prepare a third edition, I had at first strong reservations because I knew vaguely how much work would be in stock for me: 12 years had passed since the second edition, and literally thousands of articles about spiders had been published during that time. I took up the challenge anyway and subsequently spent an entire year working exclusively on this new edition. Going through the enormous amount of spider literature was only possible through the internet, rapid information exchange by e-mail, and the support of kind colleagues who sent me with their latest spider publications. Including the major results of arachnological research of the past decade, it was thus possible to update all ten chapters. This is not to say that it is a complete revision—of course, there will be omissions, deliberate and unconscious ones. My goal was always to provide a readable book on the biology of spiders, not an encyclopedia. The fact that this new edition nevertheless contains more than 500 new references gives some idea of how much of the recent literature has been incorporated. Particular attention was paid to the illustrations. Since all the former drawings and photographs had to be scanned anew, this provided a good opportunity to improve and to correct any flaws in the 200 illustrations of the last edition. Almost 100 new pictures have been added to the present edition, often originals that were taken specifically for this book. Many unique photographs were contributed by fellow arachnologists, to whom I am most grateful. My thanks go to the following colleagues for their help and support: Friedrich Barth, Jon Coddington, Paula Cushing, Bill Eberhard, Bruno Erb, Cheryl Hayashi, David Hill, Martin Huber, Yael Lubin, Peter Michalik, Wolfgang Nentwig, Martin vii

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PREFACE

Nyffeler, Brent Opell, Bastian Rast, Robert Raven, Jerome Rovner, David Schürch, Karin Schütt, Paul Selden, Robert Suter, Rolf Thieleczek, George Uetz, Benno Wullschleger, and Samuel Zschokke. I also wish to express my gratitude to the following institutions: The Naturama Aargau for use of their computer and graphics facilities, the Neue Kantonsschule Aarau for letting me work on their electron microscopes, and the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, DC, for allowing access to the scientific literature. Finally, I´d like to thank my editor Phyllis Cohen and her colleagues Lisa Stallings, Karla Pace, and Jennifer Kowing at Oxford University Press and Anindita Sengupta at Glyph International for transforming my manuscript into an attractive book. R. F. F. Aarau January 2010

Biology of

SPIDERS

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An Introduction to Spiders

1 Most people dislike spiders. And, usually, they know very little about them. This lack of knowledge is also apparent when it comes to illustrations of spiders, which commonly look more like caricatures than real spiders. For instance, if we look at early illustrations, the only feature that is depicted correctly is the number of legs (fig. 1.1a). This rendering improved somewhat in the later Middle Ages, when naturalists developed a deeper interest in insects and spiders and started to look at them more closely (fig. 1.1b). What is typical for spiders, what makes them different from other arthropods, and why are they actually quite interesting? This first chapter provides a brief but concise introduction to spiders and their biology. Spiders are distributed all over the world and have conquered all ecological environments, with perhaps the exception of the air and the open sea. Most spiders are relatively small (2–10 mm body length), yet some large tarantulas may reach a body length of 80–90 mm. Male spiders are almost always smaller and have a shorter life span than females. All spiders are carnivorous. Many are specialized as snare builders (web spiders), whereas others hunt their victims (ground spiders or wandering spiders). Insects constitute the major source of prey for spiders, but certain other arthropods are often consumed as well. A spider’s body consists of two main parts: an anterior portion, the prosoma (or cephalothorax), and a posterior part, the opisthosoma (or abdomen). These are connected by a narrow stalk, the pedicel (fig. 1.2). The prosoma’s functions are mainly for locomotion, food uptake, and nervous integration (as the site of the central nervous system). In contrast, the opisthosoma fulfills chiefly vegetative tasks: digestion, circulation, respiration, excretion, reproduction, and silk production.

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Figure 1.1 (a) In medieval times spiders were depicted rather crudely and anthropomorphic. Of all the typical spider features only the number of legs is correctly shown in this wood-cut from 1491 (Hortis Sanitatis; Mainz, Germany). (b) In contrast, all main characters of a spider are correctly pictured in this copperplate engraving of a garden spider: eight legs, eight eyes, two body parts, and most important, silk producing spinnerets (Rösel von Rosenhof, 1761).

The prosoma is covered by a dorsal and a ventral plate, the carapace and the sternum, respectively. It serves as the place of attachment for six pairs of extremities: one pair of biting chelicerae and one pair of leglike pedipalps are situated in front of four pairs of walking legs. In mature male spiders the pedipalps are modified into copulatory organs—a quite extraordinary feature, not found in any other arthropod. The opisthosoma is usually unsegmented, except in some spiders considered to have evolved from ancient species (Mesothelae). In contrast to the firm prosoma, the abdomen is rather soft and sacklike; it carries the spinnerets on its posterior end.

A Sketch of Spider Systematics At present taxonomists recognize about 40,000 spider species, which they group into 110 families (Platnick, 2009). How this diversity should be arranged into a “natural” system of classification is still very much a matter of controversy. This is best illustrated by the fact that about 20 different spider classifications have been proposed since 1900. The order of spiders, Araneae, is usually divided into three suborders, the Mesothelae, the Mygalomorphae, and the Araneomorphae. Until recently the Mygalomorphae were referred to as Orthognatha because of the nearly parallel

An Introduction to Spiders

Figure 1.2 External appearance of a spider´s body: (a) side view, (b) ventral view. E = epigynum (in adult females).

alignment of their chelicerae, while the Araneomorphae correspond to the former Labidognatha, which possess vertical chelicerae opposing each other (fig. 1.3). The Mesothelae represent the phylogenetically oldest spiders because they exhibit a clearly segmented abdomen, as well as several other “primitive” characters. The Mygalomorphae comprise all the tarantulas; their chelicerae lie almost parallel to each other (fig. 1.4), and their spinnerets are often reduced. More than 90% of all spiders belong to the Araneomorphae (Labidognatha). Their classification into higher taxa is still problematic. Formerly, one classification separated the Cribellatae from the Ecribellatae, based on the presence of a spinning plate (cribellum) situated in front of the spinnerets as the distinguishing character of the Cribellatae. All Araneomorphae without such a cribellum were grouped together as Ecribellatae. Nowadays it is generally assumed that all spiders were originally cribellate, and that the ecribellate spiders evolved later by a reduction or loss of the cribellum. However, several aspects remain unclear, such as possible parallel evolutions (convergences) among cribellate and ecribellate spiders. This “cribellate problem” will be discussed briefly in chapter 10. Among the Ecribellatae, some spider families with simple genital structures (the so-called Haplogynae) were separated from those with complex genital structures, the Entelegynae (fig. 1.5). This classification dates back to Eugène

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Figure 1.3 Movement of the chelicerae in orthognath (a) and labidognath spiders (b). (After Kaestner, 1969.)

Figure 1.4 (a) Orthognath chelicerae (Brachypelma, ventral view), having a roughly parallel alignment. (b) labidognath chelicerae (Tegenaria, posterior view), opposing each other.

Simon’s “Histoire Naturelle des Araignées” (1892–1903). Over the past years, however, several arachnologists have voiced the opinion that the Haplogynae are not really a homogenous group (Brignoli, 1975; Lehtinen, 1975; Platnick, 1975; Platnick et al., 1991). Some haplogynes have quite complex genital structures (Burger et al., 2006a, b), and some haplogynes seem to be secondarily reduced entelegynes. Despite all these arguments, there are still some families that represent “classical” haplogyne spiders, such as the Scytotidae, the Pholcidae, and the Dysderidae. Following Simon’s classification, the Entelegynae were further divided into Dionycha and Trionycha, depending on whether the legs have two or three tarsal claws (fig. 1.6). Although this subdivision also became questionable, there is again some justification to maintain at least some classical Dionycha, such as the Salticidae, the Clubionidae, and the Thomisidae.

An Introduction to Spiders

Figure 1.5 Comparison of the female reproductive tracts in (a) haplogyne, and (b) entelegyne spiders. Gray arrows indicate the direction of sperm transfer into the spermathecae (Rec), black arrows denote the sperm transfer toward the egg cells prior to fertilization. Cd = copulatory ducts, F = fertilization duct, Ut = Uterus. (After Uhl et al., 2009.)

Figure 1.6 (a) Ancient spiders probably had three tarsal claws on each leg, as seen here in the “primitive” spider Liphistius. (b) In some spider families, the Dionycha, the middle claw was supposedly lost. However, a reduced middle claw (arrow) is often still present, like in this tarsus of a young jumping spider. The two main claws (1, 2) are serrated like a comb.

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Since the following text will often refer to certain spider families, the main families and their systematic position are listed below (for more details of modern spider systematics, see chapter 10). Order Araneae 1. Suborder Mesothelae (1 family) Family Liphistiidae (85 species) 2. Suborder Mygalomorphae (Orthognatha) (15 families) Family Atypidae (45 species) Ctenizidae (120 species) Dipluridae (180 species) Theraphosidae (900 species) 3. Suborder Araneomorphae (Labidognatha) (90 families) Family Dysderidae (560 species) Pholcidae (1000 species) Scytotidae (220 species) Amaurobiidae (750 species) Dictynidae (550 species) Eresidae (100 species) Clubionidae (560 species) Gnaphosidae (2100 species) Salticidae (5200 species) Thomisidae (2100 species) Lycosidae (2350 species) Pisauridae (340 species) Oxyopidae (420 species) Agelenidae (500 species) Araneidae (3000 species) Linyphiidae (4300 species) Theridiidae (2300 species) Uloboridae (260 species) To familiarize the uninitiated reader with this seemingly abstract system, the following natural history of some spider families will serve as an introduction.

Funnel-web Spiders (Agelenidae) Funnel-web spiders are familiar to most of us. In European houses, for example, we usually find Tegenaria in the bathroom, often trapped in the tub, where it cannot scale the smooth walls. Aside from its considerable size (10 mm body length), Tegenaria is quite conspicuous because of its long, hairy legs (12–18 mm) and the two long spinnerets protruding from its abdomen (fig. 1.7). Outdoors we can readily find the somewhat smaller Agelena in short grass or low bushes. The sheet webs of agelenids usually cover vegetation or bridge the corners of buildings. The flat web narrows like a funnel on one end, forming a small silken tube. This retreat is open

An Introduction to Spiders

Figure 1.7 (a) Juvenile house spider (Tegenaria) sitting at the entrance of her retreat. (b) Agelenid funnel web, covered with early morning dew. (Photo: Paas.)

on both ends, and most of the time the spider sits there in ambush, its outstretched front legs poised to receive vibrations from the web. When an insect blunders onto the web, the spider quickly darts out from its hideout, bites the victim, and carries it back. The actual feeding process always takes place inside the retreat. During the return to the tube the spider shows remarkably good orientation. For this reason funnel-web spiders have been a favorite subject for sensory physiologists (see chapter 4). The water spider Argyroneta aquatica was long considered to be a member of the agelenid family, but is now placed in its own family (Argyronetidae). It is the only spider that lives constantly under water. Rather than build a web, it attaches an air bubble to a water plant and uses it as a residence. It hunts mostly fly larvae or small crustaceans, which it catches while swimming about freely under water. To eat the prey the spider must return to its diving bell. The abdomen of the water spider is always encased in a shiny air bubble, and this silvery reflection has earned it the scientific name Argyroneta (Greek, argyros = silver). From time to time the air bag is replenished at the water surface. Thus the respiration of a water spider does not differ in principle from that of its land-living relatives.

Orb-Web Spiders (Araneidae) The most impressive web design belongs to the orb weavers. The orb web of the common garden spider certainly represents the best-known type of all webs (figs. 5.23, 5.25). The spider either sits right in the center of the web or hides in a retreat outside of it. Insects flying into the web become stuck to the sticky threads long enough for the spider to rush out from the hub to bite or wrap its victim. Araneids are among the most successful spider families, as the enormous diversity

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of their species (3000) testifies. Thus it comes as no surprise to find that there are hundreds of structural variations on the orb-web design as well. Some examples are given in chapter 5. The body structures of araneids also varies considerably; most notable are the tropical orb weavers, which can be very colorful and exotically shaped (fig. 1.8). An orb web is typical not only of the Araneidae but also of two other spider families, the Tetragnathidae and the Uloboridae. Uloborids build an orb web that is very similar to the webs of the araneids, but that differs from them in one important aspect: the catching threads are not studded with glue droplets but are decorated instead with an extremely fine mesh of cribellate silk (“hackle band”; fig. 5.18).

Figure 1.8 Orb web spiders. (a) The best known of all orb weavers, the garden spider Araneus diadematus (Photo: Grocki and Foelix.) (b) This Gasteracantha versicolor from Madagascar is armored with long spines on its hard abdomen (Photo: Emerit.) (c) A North American orb weaver, Micrathena gracilis, hanging on a horizontal thread. Note the position of the spinnerets (arrow).

An Introduction to Spiders

Wolf Spiders (Lycosidae) Wolf spiders are vagabonds that lie in ambush or freely hunt their prey. They are best recognized by their characteristic eye arrangement of four uniformly small eyes in the anterior row of eyes and two large median eyes in the posterior row (fig. 2.2). About 2300 different species occur all over the world, and they vary quite a bit in size. Smaller wolf spiders (4–10 mm body length) roam freely among stones or low vegetation; only the larger representatives (Arctosa, Trochosa, Alopecosa; 10–20 mm) dig burrows. Certain species live close to the water and can even walk on its surface (fig. 6.11). Members of the aptly named genus Pirata hunt insects on the water surface, or even dive after tadpoles or small fish (Gettmann, 1978). A few species of wolf spiders (Aulonia, Hippasa, Sosippus, Aglaoctenus), thought to be more primitive varieties, build webs reminiscent of the sheet webs of agelenids (Brady, 1962, 2007; Job, 1968, 1974). The most famous wolf spider is certainly the Mediterranean tarantula (the name being derived from the Italian town of Taranto). True tarantulas (Lycosa, Hogna) can reach an impressive 30 mm of body length (fig. 1.9), but they are not related to the big tropical “tarantulas,” the mygalomorphs, also known as bird spiders. Although tarantulas have long had a reputation as dangerous spiders, the ancient fear of their dangerous bite has been proven to be unfounded. Probably any bites alleged to be from a tarantula were in fact inflicted by black widow spiders. Tarantulas live in silk-lined burrows in the soil. Some species even construct a sort of lid to close the tube, creating a burrow similar to that of the trapdoor spiders (Ctenizidae). At night tarantulas leave their burrows to prowl in search of insects. However, wolf spiders generally do not actively run down their prey, as their name might suggest, but sit quietly and wait until a victim happens to come by (Ford, 1978; Stratton, 1985). Wolf spiders react mainly to vibrations caused by the wing beat or by the characteristic walking pattern of the prey. Visual cues also play a role in detecting prey, but the eyes of wolf spiders perceive only a rather coarse image, and thus only objects close by can serve as visual stimuli. This becomes apparent during courtship, when the dark palps or front legs of the male are waved in a species-specific manner to attract the attention of the female. Female wolf spiders are well known for their brood care. After laying their eggs, they attach the egg case to their spinnerets and carry it around wherever they go (fig. 7.35). Some weeks later, just before the young spiderlings are ready to leave the cocoon, the mother rips the cocoon wall so that the young can emerge. As soon as the spiderlings have crawled out, they clamber onto their mother’s back (figs. 7.35, 7.36). Since there may be more than 100 spiderlings, they huddle in several layers. They ride on their mother’s abdomen for about a week, then gradually disperse and take in food for the first time. Another group of spiders, the Ctenidae, is often considered as a separate family but could also be classified as a subfamily of the Lycosidae (Homann, 1971). The most notorious ctenid spider is the extremely venomous and aggressive Phoneutria (fig. 3.7). A less ferocious ctenid spider, which will be mentioned in many of the following chapters, is Cupiennius salei from Central America (fig. 6.17; Barth, 2002).

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Figure 1.9 Wolf spiders. (a) A young male of the famous European tarantula, Lycosa tarentula. (b) Portrait showing the four small eyes of the front row and the large Posterior Median Eyes (Photos: Ortega-Escobar.) (c) The Australian wolf spider Tasmanicosa lives in silk-lined tubes in the soil. (d) At dusk the spider sits at the entrance of its burrow waiting for prey to pass by. (Photos c, d: Rast.)

Crab Spiders (Thomisidae) Crab spiders lie quietly in ambush and do not build webs (fig. 1.10). They sit motionless on leaves or in blossoms where, with attentively outstretched legs, they await landing insects. Their small eyes can produce sharp images only at very short distances, yet they perceive motions as far as 20 cm away (Homann, 1934). If prey comes within reach (0.5–1 cm), it is seized by the spider’s strong front legs and then paralyzed by its poisonous bite. Even large insects, such as butterflies or bumblebees, are successfully attacked (fig. 9.5). The victim is sucked out through the tiny

An Introduction to Spiders

Figure 1.10 Crab spiders. (a) A small Diaea with the typical “over-sized” front legs that are used for grasping prey. (b) Portrait of Diaea showing the well developed eyes. (c) Portrait of a large Thomisus with exotic processes in the head region; also note the strong spines on the front legs. (Photos: Erb and Foelix.)

bite holes (fig. 3.1). Since its exoskeleton remains intact, the victim appears practically unharmed when the spider has finished its meal (Foelix, 1996). Crab spiders may be very colorful—they are often white, pink, or bright yellow, and some are green. To some degree adult females can adapt their coloration to the background on which they sit. Even the less colorful species are usually well camouflaged and are hard to detect among the vegetation.

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The name “crab spider” comes from their ability to walk sideways very adroitly. The family Philodromidae was formerly grouped together with the Thomisidae, although they bear only a superficial resemblance to crab spiders (Homann, 1975). Most notably, their legs are all of equal length, a feature typical of wandering spiders. Also, recent molecular phylogenetic analyses exclude the Philodromidae from the Thomisid family (Benjamin et al., 2008).

Jumping Spiders (Salticidae) At least for an arachnologist, the “jumpers” are among the most attractive, if not most congenial, spiders. They are all rather small (3–10 mm) with short, stout legs and a square prosoma (fig. 1.11). Most conspicuous are the anterior eyes, which occupy the entire front of the carapace (fig. 4.17). Jumping spiders react very definitely to visual stimuli such as passing insects or the approaching finger of an observer: first they turn to face the object, then they walk closer. They can distinguish different shapes at a distance of less than 10 cm; this limit can be observed while the spider stalks prey and also during courtship. Males often possess conspicuously marked legs, which they use for display toward females (fig. 7.24). The hunting behavior of jumping spiders reminds one of cats: they stalk and pursue their prey until it is close enough for a final pounce. Long jumps up to 16 cm can be seen when a jumping spider flees. Before it jumps, the spider always attaches a safety thread to the ground, so that if it falls off an edge it will simply be held back by the thread and can quickly climb back the few centimeters to the point of takeoff (fig. 6.8). Jumping spiders are most active during the day. They prefer sunshine; in cloudy or rainy weather they withdraw inside small silken nests. These shelters not only protect them from the environment but also permit them to molt safely, to build egg cases, and to hibernate.

Tarantulas (Theraphosidae) These often large and hairy spiders (fig. 1.12) usually occur in tropical and subtropical regions. Most species lead a hidden life on the ground in crevices or tubes, but some are arboreal, building silken retreats in the trees. They are typical sit-andwait predators, mostly active at night, except for the adult males, which can be seen wandering around in broad daylight. Most tarantulas do not venture far from their retreat; often they leave it only briefly for capturing prey. Typical morphological features are the nearly parallel chelicerae (orthognath), two pairs of book lungs, little differentiated palpal coxae, and reduced anterior spinnerets. Because of their size, tarantulas have a reputation of being highly poisonous. This is not true for most species. The actual bite may be painful due to the large chelicerae (they can actually penetrate through fingernails!), but the effects of the venom are in most cases comparable to a wasp´s sting. In some genera (e.g., Hysterocrates, Poecilotheria), however, the bites can be more severe, causing painful muscle cramps that may last for several weeks (Ezendam, 2007; Höfler, 1996).

An Introduction to Spiders

Figure 1.11 Jumping spiders are easily recognized by their large eyes, especially the main eyes in the middle. Frontal views of (a) Phidippus, (b) Habronattus (Photos: Hill) and (c) Heliophanus. (Photo: Chu and Foelix.)

Most tarantulas are shy and take to flight rather than inflicting a bite. Interestingly, Old World tarantulas are a bit more aggressive (or better said, more defensive) than their New World counterparts. There is another difference between those two groups: Many New World tarantulas defend themselves by brushing off urticating hairs from their abdomen (fig. 4.5). These tiny, barbed hairs can penetrate the skin or get into the eyes or the respiratory tract, where they cause strong irritations and allergies. Such hairs are lacking in Old World tarantulas. Tarantulas can live for many years;more than 25 years have been recorded for some females. Males live much shorter (2–10 years). In contrast to most other

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Figure 1.12 The large tarantula Pterinochilus from Central Africa lives in silken tubes under stones and is most active at night. A bite may be painful but has no severe effects. (Photo: Rast.)

spiders, tarantulas can still molt after becoming mature. This is quite common in females but happens very rarely in males. Tarantulas play an important role in basic research because substantial quantities of venom or hemolymph can be obtained due to their size. Toxicologists have studied about 60 different tarantula venoms (Bode et al., 2001; Escoubas and Rash, 2004), and pharmacologists unravel antimicrobial peptides in tarantula blood, which inhibit the growth of bacteria and fungi (Lorenzini et al., 2003). Some people are highly afraid of large tarantulas and consider them ugly and creepy creatures. Some others find them fascinating and keep them as pets. As a famous tarantula expert has aptly put it, “To anyone who has learned to know this spider, it is as handsome as a goldfinch and fully as interesting” (Baerg, 1958, p. 1). For those who are particularly interested in tarantulas, there are many books that describe how to keep and breed them; a recent comprehensive treatise, for instance, is The Tarantula Keeper´s Guide by Schultz and Schultz (2009).

Functional Anatomy

2 Prosoma The dorsal plate of the prosoma is called the carapace. It bears a distinct indentation along its midline (fig. 2.1). This indented area extends on the inside of the carapace as a solid cuticular ridge, which serves as the attachment site for the dorsal muscles of the sucking stomach. Several furrows radiate from the dorsal groove: two shallow, diverging lines separate an anterior cephalic part from a posterior thoracic part. Even fainter subdivisions may be recognized laterally, pointing from the center of the carapace toward the coxae of the legs. It seems doubtful whether these furrows correspond to the original segmentation of the prosoma, although embryological studies indicate that the prosoma is formed by six fused segments. The “head” part of the prosoma bears the eyes and the chelicerae. Most spiders have eight eyes, which are arranged in specific patterns in the various families. Usually the eyes lie in two rows (sometimes in three), and accordingly they are referred to as anterior lateral eyes (ALE), anterior median eyes (AME), posterior lateral eyes (PLE), and posterior median eyes (PME) (fig 2.2). The relative position of the eyes is very important for the systematic classification of spiders. Just by looking at the arrangement and relative size of the different eyes, one can often immediately determine the family of a particular spider. For example, all jumping spiders (Salticidae) possess one row of large frontal eyes, with the AME being the largest; wolf spiders have four uniformly small frontal eyes, but rather large PLE and PME (figs. 1.9, 2.2). The area between the anterior row of eyes and the edge of the carapace is called the clypeus.

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Figure 2.1 Carapace of the “primitive” spider Hypochilus, dorsal view. Two grooves (c) extend from the thoracic furrow (Th), separating the carapace into a “head” and a “thoracic” portion. The latter is further subdivided by radial furrows (Rf).

Figure 2.2 Eye pattern in (a) the wolf spider Lycosa and (b) the orb weaver Tetragnatha. The wolf spider has uniformly small eyes in the anterior row, the orb weaver has relatively small eyes in both rows of eyes. (a, After Kaston, 1972; b, After Bristowe, 1958.).

Often the eyes stand close together in pairs, sometimes clearly raised above the surrounding cuticle, as in the Theraphosidae and Filistatidae. In their most extreme arrangement, the eyes are perched on the ends of eye stalks, as in some midget spiders (Micryphantidae; fig. 2.3). Often the males of Micryphantidae have prosomal glands, which open through tiny pores onto the head region. The secretion of these glands is sucked up by the females during courtship and apparently serves a special

Functional Anatomy

Figure 2.3 Aberrant position of the eyes in a male midget spider, Walckenaeria acuminata. (a) Front view of the prosoma with eye stalk (after Crome, 1957). (b) Orthognathous spiders (like this Liphistius bristowei) have their eyes close together on a small tubercle. Note the almost panoramic field of vision that results from the arrangement of the individual eyes on the eye hill (ALE = Anterior Lateral Eyes, AME = Anterior Median Eyes, PME = Posterior Median Eyes, PLE = Posterior Lateral Eyes).

function in sexual behavior (Blest and Taylor, 1977; Schaible et al., 1986). Some spiders have fewer than the usual eight eyes. The so-called six-eyed spiders (Dysderidae), the spitting spiders (Scytodidae), and some daddy-longlegs spiders (Pholcidae) have only six. In some species we find a reduction to four (Tetrablemma, Theridiidae) or even to two eyes (Nops, Caponiidae), and some cave-dwelling spiders have lost their eyes altogether (Millot, 1949; Sanocka, 1982). In some wolf spiders from Hawaiian caves, for instance, the eyes have either been reduced in size (Lycosa howarthi) or they have disappeared completely (Adelocosa anops) (fig. 2.4; Howarth, 1972; Gertsch, 1973).

Sternum An undivided sternal plate (sternum) lies on the ventral side of the prosoma (fig. 1.2b). Developmentally it is derived from four fused sternites; the partition lines can sometimes just be discerned in very young spiders. Anteriorly, a small medial plate, the labium, is attached to the sternum. In most spiders, the labium and sternum are hinged together by a cuticular membrane (fig. 2.5). Both the sternum and carapace are rather stiff parts of the prosomal exoskeleton. They are, however, connected by a soft pliable area, the pleurae (the stippled area of fig. 1.2a), which enables them to move in relation to each other. A small shift of the carapace toward the sternum

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Figure 2.4 Eyes in cave spiders. (a) The wolf spider Lycosa howarthi from a Hawaiian cave shows a reduction in eye size, especially in the posterior row of eyes (Photo: Foelix and Howarth.) (b) The dysderid spider Parastalita stygia from a Slovenian cave has no eyes at all. (Photo: Foelix and Kuntner.)

Figure 2.5 (a) Mouth parts of a wolf spider (Lycosa) as seen ventrally. Chel = chelicerae, Lab = labium, Max = maxilla (endite). (After Kaston, 1972.) (b) Mouthparts of a jumping spider (Portia), frontal view. The mouth opening (M) lies between the two maxillae (Max) and behind the chelicerae (Chel). 200 x.

Functional Anatomy

(caused by connecting lateral muscles) increases the hemolymph pressure in the prosoma and in the legs; this in turn leads to the stretching of certain leg joints (see chapter 6).

Chelicerae The chelicerae are the first appendages of the prosoma. In the spider embryo they lie behind the mouth opening, but during subsequent development they migrate to an anterior position, as do the antennae of other arthropods (fig. 8.4). Each chelicera consists of two parts, a stout basal part and a movable articulated fang. The inner edge of the fang is finely serrated and is apparently used to clip silk threads (H. M. Peters, 1982). Normally the fang rests in a groove of the basal segment like the blade of a pocket knife. When the spider bites, the fangs move out of their groove and penetrate the prey. At the same time, venom is injected through a tiny opening at the tip of the fang (fig. 2.6). It is interesting that this opening is never located at the very tip but always subterminally, which is mechanically more stable and also prevents clogging of the tip. The same technically superior solution has evolved independently in other animals (e.g., in the stinger of scorpions or the fangs of venomous snakes; fig. 2.7). Movement of the cheliceral fang is achieved by two antagonistic muscles within the basal segment: a rather weak extensor muscle that opens the fang, and a much

Figure 2.6 (a) The movable cheliceral claw (fang) normally rests between the cheliceral teeth of the basal segment. Note the serrated edge of the fang and the opening of the venom gland (arrow) (Cupiennius, 250 x). (b) Schematic drawing of a chelicera. Arrows indicate the movements of the fang, caused by the action of the flexor and the extensor muscle. Pl = plagula sklerite. (After Millot, 1949; Foelix et al., 2005.)

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Figure 2.7 Optimal technical solution for drug or venom injection: (a) hypodermic needle, (b) venom tooth of a viper, (c) cheliceral fang of a spider, (d) stinger of a scorpion. (Photos: Foelix and Erb.)

larger flexor muscle that pulls it back (Foelix et al., 2005). This strong closing muscle is important when holding a struggling prey after the initial bite, because all the legs are then quickly withdrawn. Both sides of the cheliceral groove are often armed with cuticular teeth (fig. 2.6a). These act as a buttress for the movable fang. Spiders whose chelicerae are equipped with such teeth mash their prey into an unrecognizable mass. Spiders without such teeth (e.g., thomisids) can only suck out their victims through the small bite holes (fig. 3.1; Homann, 1985; Foelix, 1996). The number and size of the cheliceral teeth are important diagnostic characteristics for the taxonomist. Mesothelae and most tarantulas have many teeth (up to 15), but only in a single row (Raven, 1985; Haupt, 2003). Most labidognath spiders have two rows of just a few teeth, but set in a specific pattern. A single row of cheliceral teeth is considered to be the ancient (plesiomorphic) condition. The chelicerae are used not only for subduing prey or for defense, but also serve as “pliers” for all kinds of grasping; therefore they have been referred to as the spider’s “hands.” The versatility of the chelicerae is best demonstrated when we look at their main tasks in various spider families. Trapdoor spiders (Ctenizidae) use their chelicerae to dig burrows, nursery-web spiders (Pisauridae) to carry egg cocoons, and orb weavers (Araneidae) to transport small prey. In the long-jawed orb weavers (Tetragnathidae) and the cribellate Dictynidae, the males and females interlock their chelicerae during mating. Some spiders, such as the small Archaeidae

Functional Anatomy

Figure 2.8 (a) Extreme development of the chelicerae in the assassin spider Archaea from Madagascar (After Legendre, 1972.) (b) The higly elongated chelicerae are used to literally spear prey, often other spiders. This is usually done while the spider is hanging upside down; for clarity this picture has been turned by 180° (Photo: Hormiga.)

from Madagascar, possess extremely long chelicerae (fig. 2.8), and they literally spear their prey with these enormous appendages. Often male spiders have larger chelicerae than the females (fig. 2.8). The common zebra spider, Salticus scenicus (fig. 6.20), is a typical example of such sexual dimorphism. In another jumping spider (Myrmarachne), the male’s chelicerae are five times larger than the female’s, but the male’s chelicerae lack a fang duct and therefore they cannot envenom prey (Pollard, 1994). Instead they skewer their victims on their elongated cheliceral fangs. Finally, some money spiders (Linyphiidae) possess chelicerae with stridulatory organs for producing sounds (see chapter 9). It has already been noted that Orthognatha and Labidognatha move their chelicerae in quite different manners (fig. 1.3). The opposed chelicerae of Labidognatha supposedly have the advantage of a much larger span, so that even rather large prey could be overpowered (Kaestner, 1952). However, direct observation and experiments do not support this theory. Many orthognath (mygalomorph) spiders subdue quite large prey, sometimes even twice their own size (Nentwig and Wissel, 1986). This is due to other factors than the cheliceral span (e.g., an aggressive wrapping behavior). It should also be pointed out that orthognath chelicerae do not simply move up and down but can also be spread sideways. Likewise, labidognath chelicerae do not only extend laterally but can also move forward. This is very noticeable in the assassin spiders (Archaeidae), which spear other spiders with their elongated chelicerae (fig. 2.8). There is another commonly held belief that has been challenged: the strict division into “primitive” orthognath and “higher” labidognath spiders (Kraus and Kraus,

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1993). Some ancient spiders (e.g., Mesothelae or Hypochilidae), have their chelicerae neither parallel nor opposing each other, but in an intermediate position termed plagiognath (fig. 1.4). It is conceivable that this condition actually represents the older arrangement from which orthognathy and labidognathy was derived. Actually, only few orthognath spiders have strictly parallel chelicerae (e.g., Atypus; fig. 5.22); most theraphosids (tarantulas) conform more to the plagiognath position.

Pedipalps and Mouth Parts The second pair of appendages are the pedipalps. Their segmentation corresponds to that of the legs, except that one segment, the metatarsus, is lacking (fig. 2.9). Despite their general resemblance to legs, the palps are usually not used for locomotion. Instead, they often play a role during prey catching, when they constantly touch and manipulate the prey. The most notable modification of the palps is found in male spiders. Male palps act as copulatory devices, and they also have an important signaling function during courtship (fig. 7.20a). The coxae of the pedipalps represent another specialization, for these have been transformed into chewing mouth parts (maxillae or endites). In “primitive” spiders, such as Mesothelae and tarantulas, the maxillae are only slightly modified, whereas in the Labidognatha they are broadened laterally. In most Labidognatha, the anterior rim of each maxilla is clearly serrated; this rim, the serrula (fig. 2.10), is used as a saw for cutting into the prey. The inner sides of the maxillae are fringed by a dense cover of hair that acts as a filter while the spider is sucking in the liquefied food. The mouth opening is bordered laterally by the maxillae, in front by the rostrum, and in the back by the labium. These four mouth parts form the mouth proper, which leads into a flattened pharynx. The pharynx consists of a movable, hinged front (rostrum) and a back wall (labium) and is lined by cuticular platelets. These contain very fine grooves covered by small teeth, which together function as a microfilter. The pharyngeal lumen can be widened by the

Figure 2.9 Segmentation of (a) a leg and (b) a pedipalp. Pt = patella, Tr = trochanter. (After Kaston, 1972.)

Functional Anatomy

Figure 2.10 The serrula, a cuticular ridge on the palpal coxae, (a) sawlike in the wandering spider Cupiennius, and (b) more like a rough file in Hypochilus. 220 x.

action of several muscle bands (see fig. 2.23). Thus the pharynx acts as a suction pump.

Walking Legs Four pairs of legs fan out radially from the pliable connection (pleura) between carapace and sternum. Each leg has seven segments: a coxa and a trochanter, which are both short; a long femur and a kneelike patella; a slender tibia and metatarsus; and, finally, a tarsus with two or three claws (fig. 2.9). Usually the front legs (1 and 2) are relatively long, and the first pair of legs in particular is often used as feelers to probe the environment. The sensory capacity of the legs stems from a variety of sensory hairs that densely cover the distal leg segments.

Tarsal Claws The tip of the tarsus bears two bent claws, which are generally serrated like a comb (figs. 2.21, 2.22). Some spiders (Trionycha) have an additional middle claw. All claws arise from a single cuticular platelet (pretarsus). They can be lifted or lowered as a unit by the action of two antagonistic muscles, the musculus levator praetarsi and the musculus depressor praetarsi (see fig. 2.20). The middle claw is important for web spiders, because they use it to catch hold of the silk threads of their webs; in fact, only the middle hook and not the large main claws grasps the thread (Foelix, 1970a). The thread is pushed by the middle claw against serrated bristles situated opposite the claws (fig. 2.12). There it is held, snagged in the little notches of these bristles. To release the thread, the middle claw is lifted by the musculus levator praetarsi; the inherent elasticity of the thread simply causes it to spring back out of the clasp of the claw (Wilson, 1962b).

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Figure 2.11 Most web spiders exhibit three tarsal claws: two combed main claws (Cl) and a smooth middle hook (m). The silk thread (th) is grasped only with the middle hook and pushed against serrated bristles (s). 600 x. Inset: Detail of the middle hook (m) opposing a serrated bristle (s); the silk thread fits into the notches (x) of the serrated bristle. 1,000 x.

Figure 2.12 (a) The orb weaver Zygiella climbing a vertical thread. (After Frank, 1957.) (b) Grasping a thread: interaction of the middle hook (M) and the opposing serrated bristles (sb). (After Foelix, 1970a.)

Functional Anatomy

Figure 2.13 Claw tufts. (a) The jumping spider Salticus scenicus walking upside down on a plant stem. Only the claw tufts (arrows) make contact with the substrate. (Photo: Schulte.) (b) The claw tufts consist of two patches of scopula hairs, located on the ventral side of the pretarsus, directly beneath the claws. (Photo: Erb.) 160x. (c) lateral view of a claw tuft of the jumping spider Marpissa. 300 x.

Scopulae and Claw Tufts Many hunting spiders possess dense cushions of hair on their feet, the scopulae; those lying directly under the claws are called claw tufts (fig. 2.13). In some spiders, especially in tarantulas (mygalomorphs), the entire ventral side of the tarsus and metatarsus may be covered by such scopula hairs. All spiders that have claw tufts on the tips of their legs can easily walk on smooth vertical walls, and even on window panes. Under experimental conditions, Cupiennius could hold about 10 times its own body weight when sitting on a vertical glass plate (Seyfarth, 1985; personal communication). This remarkable ability can be explained if we look at the fine structure of the scopula hairs. The ventral surface of each hair splits into thousands of fine cuticular extensions (“end feet”), giving the hair the appearance of a hand broom (scopa means broom in Latin). A crab spider with only about 30 scopula hairs on each foot can nevertheless achieve 160,000 contact points with the substrate because each scopula hair has 500–1000 end feet (Foelix and Chu-Wang, 1975). Thus, the actual contact between the foot and the substrate is mediated by the thousands of microscopic end feet (fig. 2.14). The commonly held belief that the scopulae function like suction cups is erroneous. Electrostatic forces are not involved either. The spider’s surefooted grip

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Figure 2.14 (a) Horizontal section of a scopula hair (Lycosa) illustrating the “footprint” that a single scopula hair produces when in contact with the substrate, 4,800 x. (Photo: Chu and Foelix.) (b) Side view of a single scopula hair from a tarantula showing the numerous extensions on the ventral side, terminating in little “end feet” (arrowheads). 6,000 x.

is achieved merely by the forces of physical adhesion. Adhesion is enhanced by the capillary forces of an extremely thin water film on the substrate (Homann, 1957; Roscoe and Walker, 1991). If the water film is absent, as with Teflon foil, then even scopulae-equipped spiders begin to slide or fall off, although normally they can easily walk upside down on glass plates. It has been calculated that a spider weighing 3 g would have 70 ponds (or 0.7 N) of capillary force available, provided that all possible contact points are established (Homann, 1957). Using an atomic force microscope, the adhesive force (van der Waals forces) of a single end foot was determined as 38 nN for a scopula hair in the jumping spider Evarcha (Kesel et al., 2003). If all end feet on all legs made contact, such a spider (body mass 15 mg) could theoretically hold 2.4 g, which corresponds to a safety factor of 160! This explains why a spider can still hold fast when some legs are lifted during walking. Incidentally, the same phenomenon of highly efficient adhesion forces is known in some reptiles, such as in skinks, which can walk surefootedly on walls and ceilings (Hiller, 1968). One problem that is not fully resolved is how such a grip is loosened again. It has been suggested that a spider can, by degrees, detach its scopula hairs hydraulically by gradually increasing the hemolymph pressure (Rovner, 1978). Slow-motion

Functional Anatomy

pictures of moving salticids show clearly that the entire pretarsus (claws plus claw tufts) can be flexed or raised (Hill, 2006a). Apparently the adhesive hairs are pressed in a controlled fashion against the substrate, mostly by the action of the musculus depressor praetarsi. The release seems to be caused by the contraction of the musculus levator praetarsi (fig. 2.20a), resulting in gradually “peeling off” from the substrate. Additionally, hydraulic forces may also be involved, since an increase of the hemolymph pressure will lift the tarsus and bend the pretarsus (Speck and Barth, 1982). In their natural surroundings, spiders with scopulae certainly have the advantage of being able to climb securely on overhanging rocks or leaves. Thus certain environments that normally would be inaccessible become available. The contact with a smooth substrate is always made by the distal claw tufts, not by the hairs covering the ventral sides of tarsi and metatarsi. A close inspection shows that the adhesive side of those scopulate hairs normally does not point toward the substrate but actually faces the leg surface. However, their adhesive function comes into play during prey capture (i.e., when a struggling victim needs to be held down securely; (Rovner and Knost, 1974; Rovner, 1978). Just before seizing a prey, the scopulate hairs can be erected hydraulically, thereby exposing their adhesive sides (Foelix et al., 1984). Recent studies found that the leg scopulae exert strong friction only when pushed against a substrate, but not when pulled toward the body (Niederegger and Gorb, 2006). This is because the adhesive end feet lie on the inside of the scopulate hair and can only make contact when pushed onto a surface (fig. 2.15). Similarly, when a spider sits on a vertical wall facing down, gravity pushes against the scopulae of the forelegs, thereby bringing the end feet into contact with the wall and increasing the adhesive forces.

Leg Joints and Musculature The movability of the seven leg segments is determined not only by the extensive musculature but also by the different types of joints. Most joints are dicondylous; that

Figure 2.15 Scopula hairs covering the tarsus and metatarsus bear the adhesive end feet on the internal side. (a) When the leg is pulled toward the body, only the external, non-adhesive side touches the ground. (b) When the leg is pushed distally, the flexible scopula hairs bend backwards and the end feet come in contact with the substrate. (After Niederegger and Gorb, 2003). (c) Triangular end feet seen at high magnification. 8,000 x.

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Figure 2.16 Range of movements for the leg joints in the wandering spider Cupiennius. The angles that each joint can move were measured on a live animal. Top: Lateral view of leg 1. Bottom: Dorsal view. (After Seyfarth, unpublished.)

is, they can move only in one plane (vertical movements; fig. 2.16). In contrast, the coxa-trochanter joint represents a kind of “saddle joint” (like in our thumb) and thus can be moved up and down as well as forward and backward (laterally). This lateral movability is absolutely necessary for locomotion and is most important for legs 2 and 3 (see chapter 6). The joint between patella and tibia also moves laterally and assists in positioning the leg tip precisely (Frank, 1957). A so-called passive joint lies between the tarsus and metatarsus; although a hinge is present, muscles are not involved in the movement between the two segments (figs. 2.17, 2.20). There is little variation in the leg musculature of different spider families. For instance, 33 different leg muscles have been described for the orb weaver Zygiella (Frank, 1957); the tarantula Eurypelma (synonym Dugesiella), with 30, has just about as many (Dillon, 1952; Ruhland, 1976). Cursory spiders, which need to hold down their struggling prey, tend to have better developed muscles than web spiders, which subdue their prey by wrapping (Clarke, 1986). Most joints are equipped with several muscles (fig. 2.17) that either bend the joint (the flexors) or stretch it (the extensors). Two remarkable exceptions are the femur-patella joint and the tibia-metatarsal joint, both of which lack extensors (Petrunkevitch, 1909). How these joints can be stretched at all puzzled arachnologists for a long time. Later it was shown that the extension is caused by a hydraulic mechanism, that is, an increase in the hemolymph pressure (Ellis, 1944; Parry and Brown, 1959a, b; R. S. Wilson, 1970; R. S. Wilson and Bullock, 1973; Anderson and Prestwich, 1975). The hydraulically mediated extension of these joints can be elicited by carefully and gently squeezing a leg with forceps. In contrast, no such movement occurs if the leg is squeezed after its tip has been cut off. An important question is where the

Functional Anatomy

Figure 2.17 Diagram of the leg musculature and its innervation in the tarantula Dugesiella; NA, NB = motor nerves A and B. (After Ruhland and Rathmayer, 1978.)

“pressure pump” is located within the living spider. It turns out that a contraction of prosomal muscles (fig. 2.34; Shultz, 1991), which traverse the carapace vertically, leads to a reduction in the volume of the prosoma and thus to increased pressure there (fig. 2.18). This hemolymph pressure has been measured directly in several spiders (Homann, 1949; Parry and Brown, 1959a, b). In a tarantula, pressures of 40–60 mm of mercury (Hg) were measured during rest and 100 mm Hg during walking. At maximal activity (struggling), values of 480 mm Hg were observed (Stewart and Martin, 1974). These values are generally comparable to human systolic and diastolic blood pressures, which for a 20-year old are normally 120 and 80 mm Hg, respectively. Histologically, all spider leg muscles are typical striated skeletal muscles. Each cell consists of many myofibrils, with light I-bands (isotropic) and darker A-bands (anisotropic). The Z-disks, which define the functional unit of a myofibril (the sarcomere), can be seen clearly under the light microscope. The ultrastructure of the contractile elements (actin and myosin) is similar to that of skeletal muscles of other

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Figure 2.18 Synchronous recording of blood pressure in the prosoma and leg 2 of the tarantula Dugesiella. In the resting state the blood pressure is about 30 mm Hg. The onset of activity is marked by a concomitant increase of blood pressure in the prosoma and in the leg. (After Stewart and Martin, 1974.)

arthropods (fig. 2.19; Zebe and Rathmayer, 1968; Sherman and Luft, 1971; Fourtner, 1973). However, spider muscles contain only few mitochondria (Linzen and Gallowitz, 1975), and since mitochondria ultimately provide the energy for the cell, it is not surprising that spider muscles fatigue rapidly. It has been known for many years that, although spiders can achieve high levels of momentary activity, they usually become exhausted after a few seconds of exertion (Bristowe, 1932). During activity, mainly anaerobic energy sources (phosphate, glycogen) are used, whereas fat is burned during rest (Prestwich, 1988a, b; Paul, 1990; Eschrich and Paul, 1991). After a period of high activity, a long period of recovery follows with an elevated aerobic metabolism. D-Lactate accumulates as an end product in the muscle tissue, then spreads into the hemolymph, causing a drop in pH. This metabolic acidosis contributes to the rapid exhaustion in spiders. Some muscles are elongated at one end into long “tendons.” These tendons consist of fine cuticular tubes covered by a thin epithelium (hypodermis). Every time a spider molts, the cuticular part of the tendon is discarded along with the shed skin (exuvium). A typical example for such tendons is provided by the claw muscles

Functional Anatomy

Figure 2.19 (a) A bundle of muscle fibers from the prosoma; the previous attachment to the cuticle was on the left side. 160 x. (b) Longitudinal section of a muscle cell still attached to the cuticle (Cut). The actual connection is made by an intercalated tendon cell. 600 x. (c) Longitudinal section of two leg muscle fibers (Pholcus). The muscle fiber pictured in the upper half is in the relaxed state. It clearly shows dark A-bands and light I-bands with distinct dark Z-lines. The lower muscle fiber is contracted, hence the light I-bands have almost disappeared. Mitochondria (M) are rare. 7,000x . Inset: motor nerve endings branch on the surface of the muscle and form multiple synapses (Golgi preparation) 340 x.

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Figure 2.20 Muscles and tendons of the tarsal claws. (a) The m. levator praetarsi lifts the claws; the m. depressor praetarsi lowers them. The long tendons of both muscles pass through a “collar” near the metatarsal joint. (After Sherman and Luff, 1971.) (b) Detailed view of the metatarsal joint region and the collar: whereas the tendon of the levator muscle runs freely through the hemolymph, the tendon of the depressor muscle enters the leg artery. Arrows indicate the direction of the blood flow. (After Pack and Foelix, 1983, unpubl.)

located in the metatarsus and tibia. Their long tendons operate the claws as reins manipulate a bridle (Fig. 2.20). It is beyond the scope of this book to list all the different muscles in a spider’s body. I shall give just one example to show how complex the muscle arrangement can be: the pedicel alone is provided by 36 muscles, 17 paired and 2 unpaired (Dierkes and Barth, 1995). Readers with a deeper interest in spider myology are referred to the detailed works of Palmgren (1978, 1981).

Innervation The innervation of spider muscles is polyneuronal, that is, each muscle cell is supplied by several (usually three) motor nerve fibers (Rathmayer, 1965b). The nerve endings are distributed over the entire length of a muscle fiber, where they form numerous neuromuscular contacts (synapses; fig. 2.19c). Each spider leg is traversed by three main nerves (A, B, C). Nerve A is the smallest and contains sensory as well as motor fibers (Rathmayer, 1965a). The many thousands of nerve fibers

Functional Anatomy

Figure 2.21 (a) Cross-section of the three leg nerves (A, B, C) in the femur of Zygiella. Nerve C is purely sensory and contains about 5,000 small fibers. Nerve B is a motor nerve consisting of about 120 large fibers. 2,400 x. (b) The small nerve A is made up of two motor axons (Ax) and about 50 sensory axons. Peripherally the nerve fibers are enveloped by a glial cell (GI). 14,500 x.

(axons) that form the large nerve C (fig. 2.21) arise from the numerous receptors on the spider leg and thus this nerve is purely sensory. Nerve B consists of fewer but larger motor fibers. Physiologically, spiders have both fast and slow contracting muscle fibers, and it has been reported (Brenner, 1972) that slow muscle fibers have an inhibitory innervation similar to that of insect and crustacean muscles.

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Later histochemical and electrophysiological investigations revealed four different types of muscle fibers: chiefly A fibers, which contract rapidly but also fatigue quickly; B and C fibers, which are somewhat slower but contract for a longer time; and D fibers, which are rich in glycogen and can remain contracted permanently (Maier et al., 1987; Paul et al., 1991).

Leg Receptors All leg segments are covered with various sensory hairs, discussed here only briefly (fig, 2.22; for details, see chapter 4). Most of these sensilla are movable, articulated setae, or bristles, which function as mechanoreceptors (touch, vibration). Each leg receptor is associated with several primary sensory cells, and consequently, sensory nerves are built up by thousands of separate sensory fibers (fig. 2.21a; Foelix et al., 1980). A particularly interesting type of sensillum is the trichobothrium, a very thin hair set almost at a right angle to the leg axis (figs 2.22, 4.6). Originally the trichobothria were thought to represent hearing organs (Dahl, 1883), but later they were considered “touch-at-a-distance” receptors because they react to air currents and low-frequency air vibrations (Görner and Andrews, 1969). Less conspicuous mechanoreceptors are the slit sensilla, which occur on all leg segments, singly or in groups (lyriform organs; figs. 2.22b, 4.9) The slits of the lyriform organs are usually located near the leg joints, where they measure the strain in the surrounding cuticle (Barth, 1972a,b). Inside the joints lie groups of proprioceptors, which gather information on the position of a particular leg joint (Rathmayer, 1967; Rathmayer and Koopmann, 1970). In addition to the mechanosensitive sensilla, we also find chemosensitive hairs on all distal leg segments (Foelix, 1970b; Foelix and Chu-Wang, 1973b). These hairs are characterized by an open tip in which several nerve fibers are exposed directly to the environment. It has been known for a long time that spiders can test the chemical quality of a substrate merely by probing it with the tips of their legs (Bristowe and Locket, 1926; Kaston, 1936; Bristowe, 1941). Another chemoreceptor (or, more precisely, a humidity receptor), is the so-called tarsal organ, which usually forms a spherical pit on the dorsal surface of each tarsus (figs. 2.22b, 4.14).

Internal Organs of the Prosoma: An Overview Inside the prosoma lie the central nervous system (CNS), part of the intestinal tract, a pair of venom glands, and an extensive musculature (Palmgren, 1978) for the extremities, the pharynx, and the sucking stomach. Figure 2.23 gives a simplified picture of the spatial relationships of the various organs. A special feature is the narrow esophagus, which traverses the CNS horizontally, dividing it into a supraand a subesophageal ganglion. Another peculiarity of spiders is the branching of the midgut. These branches (diverticula) extend into the entire prosoma and may even enter the leg coxae (fig. 3.11). Similar gut diverticula fill the abdomen, but there they are further subdivided into many lobules. A more detailed description of the prosomal organ systems follows in chapters 3 and 4.

Functional Anatomy

Figure 2.22 Leg receptors. (a) Lateral view of a tarsus in Agelena. Most sensilla are simple tactile hairs (T), but a few slender trichobothria (Tr) and chemosensitive hairs (Ch) can also be seen. TO = tarsal organ, Cl = main claws, M = middle hook. 250 x. (b) Dorsal view of the tarsus-metatarsus joint in Araneus. The metatarsal lyriform organ (Ly) lies close to the joint; the tarsal organ (TO) superficially resembles an empty hair socket. 230 x.

Opisthosoma An Overview of the Internal Organs The midgut enters the opisthosoma through the narrow stalk of the pedicel. Many lobed diverticula branch off the main tract before it widens into the large stercoral packet (figs. 2.24, 2.25). From there a short hindgut connects to the anus. Embedded between the many branched gut diverticula are the heart and the abdominal arteries; the excretory organs (Malpighian tubules), which empty into the stercoral pocket; the respiratory organs (book lungs and tubular tracheae); the reproductive

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Figure 2.23 Longitudinal section of the prosoma. Endo = endosternite, Esoph = esophagus, P = pharynx, SUPRA = supraesophageal ganglion, SUB = subesophageal ganglion.

Figure 2.24 Longitudinal section of the opisthosoma of a female spider.

Functional Anatomy

Figure 2.25 Magnetic resonance images (MRI) of an orb web spider (Nephila), lateral view. (a) The midgut branches show up nicely after feeding the spider with a contrast agent. (b) The ampullate silk glands appear as bright semi-circles in the abdomen. (Photos: Hronsky.)

organs (ovaries and testes); and the various spinning glands, which are connected to the spinnerets via long ducts.

Segmentation In most spiders the opisthosoma is soft and expandable. It usually shows no trace of segmentation. Only the Mesothelae, believed to represent an ancient form from which present-day spiders are derived, possess a clearly segmented abdomen (fig. 2.26). A close look at the opisthosoma in this suborder provides an idea of its basic organization for all spiders. Twelve abdominal segments can be distinguished. Each consists of a dorsal tergite and a ventral sternite. Both parts are connected by the pliable pleurae (fig. 1.2), which are not segmented, but form a continuous band on each side (fig. 2.26a). The first abdominal segment is merely a small stalk (pedicel) that unites the prosoma and the opisthosoma. The next segments (2–6, or body segments 8–12) are the largest and in these the tergites are most easily recognizable. The posterior segments (13–17) become gradually smaller and terminate in the anal tubercle (segment 17). Looking at the ventral side, the second sternite is by far the largest. Its posterior margin forms the entrance to the respiratory organs (book lungs) and to the reproductive organs (epigastric furrow). In the Mesothelae and Mygalomorphae, a second pair of book lungs lies underneath the sternite of the third segment. This second pair, however, is lacking in most other spiders. The fourth and fifth sternites each carry a pair of spinnerets. The next sternites (6–12) are not as clearly marked and are recognizable only as a series of ventral furrows. As can be seen from figure 2.26, the spinnerets of the Mesothelae lie approximately in the midregion of the

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Figure 2.26 External segmentation of the opisthosoma in Liphistius. (After Millot, 1949.) (a) Lateral view: the platelike tergites are marked with the numbers of the respective body segments. Ch = chelicera, P = pedipalp, L1-4 = legs, B 1, 2 = book lungs, Sp = spinnerets. (b) Ventral view: two pairs of book lungs are illustrated on segments 8 and 9; segments 10 and 11 bear two pairs of spinnerets each. St = sternum. (c) Dorso-lateral view of a Liphistius showing the almost parallel chelicerae, the carapace with radial furrows and an anterior eye hill, and the distinct tergites on the dorsal opisthosoma. (d) Ventral view of the opisthosoma with the two pairs of book lungs (B 1, 2) and the eight spinnerets (Sp) in the typical central position. (Photos: Foelix and Erb.)

abdomen, but in all other spiders they are situated caudally. The terminal position of the spinnerets is the result of a longitudinal expansion of the third sternite during phylogeny such that the spinnerets became displaced posteriorly. Immediately in front of the spinnerets, at the borderline between the third and the fourth sternite, another respiratory opening (spiracle) can be seen in many spiders. This is the entrance to the tubular tracheae. The segmentation of the opisthosoma is visible not only externally but also in the internal organization of the abdomen. This becomes obvious when one

Functional Anatomy

Figure 2.27 Internal segmentation of the opisthosoma in Liphistius. Well-developed longitudinal muscles connect the segments ventrally, whereas the dorsal longitudinal muscles (dorsoL) are inconspicuous. Dorso-ventral muscles connect tergite and sternite of the same segment. (After Millot, 1949.)

considers the abdominal musculature (fig. 2.27). On the one hand, a segmentally arranged longitudinal musculature traverses the abdomen dorsally from tergite to tergite and ventrally from sternite to sternite. On the other hand, some muscles run intrasegmentally (that is, within a single segment) in a dorsoventral direction, connecting the corresponding tergites and sternites. The heart is also segmentally organized. In spiders with a transparent cuticle, the heart tube is visible from the outside along the dorsal midline of the opisthosoma. On either side of this line are several small indentations of the cuticle (apodemes) that serve as insertion sites for the dorsoventral musculature. The serial arrangement of apodemes (sigillae) is further evidence of segmentation (fig. 8.7).

Exoskeleton As members of the arthropods, spiders possess a hard external body shell, the exoskeleton. The exoskeleton is made of a stiff material called the cuticle. The function of the cuticle is manifold: it is the building material of the entire body surface, the joint membranes, tendons, apodemes, sensory hairs, and even the lining of the esophagus and the respiratory and reproductive organs. Apart from its purely structural function, the cuticle also protects the spider and prevents desiccation of its

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Figure 2.28 Cuticle (C) of a wolf spider after Mallory staining. In the prosoma (a) three layers (exo-, meso- and endocuticle) are apparent, whereas the opisthosoma (b) is made up mainly of endocuticle. 650 x. (c) Electron microscopical view of the leg cuticle in Zygiella. Endoand mesocuticle (Endo/Meso) exhibit the typical lamellar structure. EXO = exocuticle, P = pigment granules of hypodermis cells, Pc = pore canals. 31,500 x.

body (Nemenz, 1954, 1955). A spider cuticle is similar in composition to an insect cuticle (Barth, 1969, 1970; Neville, 1975), and, accordingly, various layers of epi-, exo-, meso-, and endocuticle can be distinguished (fig. 2.28). In contrast to most insects, however, spiders possess a mesocuticle even in the adult stage. The epicuticle is extremely thin, and because it forms the outermost layer, it determines the permeability properties of the entire cuticle. Mechanically abraded epicuticle is replaced by material supplied by the pore canals, which traverse the cuticle layers vertically and terminate at the surface. The exocuticle, lying just beneath

Functional Anatomy

Figure 2.29 Epicuticle and part of the exocuticle of Cupiennius. (After Barth, 1969.) (a) The lamellae of the exocuticle are traversed by a pore canal that splits into delicate channels shortly before reaching the epicuticle. (b) Each cuticular lamella consists of many parallel layers of differently oriented microfibers; in sections this gives the impression of arcuate structures as pictured in (a). (After Barth, 1973a.)

Figure 2.30 (a) Longitudinally broken exocuticle from a tarantula (Ephebopus) showing stacks of lamellae, traversed by numerous pore canals (Pc). (b) Surface view of a cuticle lamella with swirling (chitin?) filaments.

the epicuticle, is much thicker. It consists of many stacked lamellae (figs. 2.29, 2.30), which are structures also characteristic of the meso- and endocuticle. Each lamella is composed of microfibers that are ostensibly arranged in a paraboloid fashion. Careful analysis reveals, however, that each lamella is made up of many thin layers of microfibers (Barth, 1973a); these microfibers are oriented in the same direction within any given layer but change their direction by increments

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from layer to layer so that a complete rotation (180°) of the fiber direction takes place within one lamella (fig. 2.29b). From a technological viewpoint, the cuticle is thus a kind of laminated composite material. Its basic component is a protein into which the microfibers, made of chitin, a polysaccharide, are incorporated. This construction confers great strength and, at the same time, high elasticity to the cuticle. Most likely, it is the exocuticle that is toughest, and hence this layer is most responsible for the overall qualities of the cuticle. This becomes evident in the soft cuticle of the opisthosoma or of the joint membranes, where an exocuticle is lacking altogether (fig. 2.31). In contrast, the stiff sensory hairs consist almost entirely of exocuticle, as do the shed skins (exuvia) after a molt. Although endo- and mesocuticle do not differ in their structure, they react differently to certain dyes (for example, Mallory stain; fig. 2.28a). Since the endocuticle is the last cuticular layer to be secreted by the epithelial cells, it seems that the mesocuticle is simply a more sclerotized form of cuticle. The pore canals mentioned earlier constitute the direct connection between epithelial cells and the cuticular surface. They measure 1–2 Pm in width and spiral through the cuticular lamellae. Only near the epicuticle do they begin to fan out into finer canals (fig. 2.29a). In addition to the exoskeleton, the underlying epithelium (hypodermis), which secretes the cuticle, also belongs to the integument. It has often been claimed, from light microscopical observations, that the hypodermis is syncytial because cell borders are usually unrecognizable. All electron microscopic investigations, however, have shown convincingly that the epithelial cells are separated by cell membranes.

Figure 2.31 Composition of the cuticle in different body regions (Cupiennius). The hard exocuticle is weIl developed in the prosoma and the legs (femur) but is lacking in the opisthosoma and the joint membranes. (After Barth, 1973a.)

Functional Anatomy

The epithelial cells normally form a single layer, yet other cells (e.g., sensory and gland cells), may be interspersed among them. Each epithelial cell may contain inclusions, such as pigment granules or guanine crystals. The different pigments that give spiders their typical coloration (yellow, orange, red, brown, and black) belong predominantly to the ommochromes (derivatives of the amino acid tryptophan) but rarely to the black melanin (Seligy, 1972; Holl, 1987a). Some spiders are distinctly green (e.g., Araniella cucurbitina, Micrommata virescens), which is due to certain bile pigments (biliverdin; Holl, 1987b). White is produced by a reflection from guanine crystals, which are concentrated in the peripheral gut cells (guanocytes, fig. 3.13). It is argued that the production of color pigments is metabolically costly, yet is maintained through the action of sighthunting predators such as wasps or birds (Oxford and Gillespie, 1998). Most colors, or color patterns, are genetically determined, either by major genes or by polygenes. Aside from the colors caused by pigments, many spiders appear quite colorful as a result of a special diffraction of light (interference) within the cuticle. Such an interference may take place in the general body cuticle or may be restricted to special hairs or scales (Townsend and Felgenhauer, 1999). In both cases it is always a regular stacking of thin cuticle layers, often alternating with thin air spaces, that produces a particular color. For instance, the bright green chelicerae in the jumping spider Phidippus or the tube web spider Segestria are caused by a fine cuticular lamellation in the basal segments (Ingram et al., 2009), whereas the deep blue iridescence of certain tarantulas resides entirely in small, lamellated hairs (Foelix et al., 2009; fig. 2.32). Depending on the thickness of these lamellae (50–150 nm),

Figure 2.32 (a) The deep blue color of the chelicerae in the tarantula Ephebopus cyanognathus is due to tiny blue hairs (Bl); SH = sensory hair. (b) Cross-sectioned blue hairs show very fine lamellae in the outer cuticle of the hair shaft. Inset: The alternating thin layers of cuticle and air spaces cause an interference of the incoming white light; most of the reflected light will appear dark blue. 35,000 x. (Photos: Foelix and Boucke.)

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Figure 2.33 (a) Muscle attachments on the abdominal cuticle appear as scaly patches (sigillae) under the microscope (Amaurobius). (b) Tiny slit-like pores in the cuticle represent epidermal gland openings (Idiothele). (c) Longitudinal section of a dermal gland duct traversing the endo- and exocuticle; the terminal slit opening is marked by an arrow.

Figure 2.34 (a) Endosternite from the prosoma of Araneus, dorsal aspect. The lateral processes serve as insertion sites for muscles. (After Gerhardt and Kaestner, 1938.) (b) Endosternite (E) with attached muscles: (top) longitudinal section; (bottom) corresponding cross-section of one-half of the prosoma. The lateral muscles (M. lat.) connect carapace and sternum via the pleural membrane; their contraction causes an increase in hydrostatic pressure. (After Whitehead and Rempel, 1959: Eckweiler and Seyfarth, 1988.)

Functional Anatomy

Figure 2.35 (a) Endosternite of the house spider Tegenaria, longitudinal section. The endosternite (Es) consists of a fibrous matrix which is secreted by connective tissue cells (CT). The muscle cells (M) interdigitate directly with the endosternite. 4,400 x. (b) The attachment of a muscle cell (M) to the leg cuticle (Cu) is always mediated by an intercalated tendon cell (T). Note the conspicuous desmosomal connections between tendon cell and muscle cell. The tendon cells are tightly packed with microtubules, which probably transmit tension from the muscle to the cuticle (Cu). 21,000 x. (Photo: Choms and Foelix.)

different colors are reflected—an effect that is well known from certain butterfly scales or from shiny feathers in peacocks or hummingbirds.

Endoskeleton It is a little-known fact that spiders, like other arthropods, also possess an internal skeleton (Bitsch and Bitsch, 2002). Parts of the exoskeleton invaginate into the

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body. Such invaginations are termed apodemes or entapophyses, and they serve as attachment points for muscles. A typical example is the tergal apodeme (fig. 2.23), which projects from the thoracic groove of the carapace into the prosoma and provides the attachment site for the dorsal muscles of the sucking stomach. Other less conspicuous indentations are the sigillae, small patches of cuticle with a scaly appearance (fig. 2.33). Their serial arrangement on the opisthosoma (see fig. 8.7) indicates that they are also insertion points for muscles. Besides this ectodermal endoskeleton, spiders also have mesodermal skeletal elements, called entosterna. The mesodermal endoskeleton is quite different from the ectodermal exoskeleton. Chitin fibers, which are typical for the exoskeleton, are completely lacking in the endoskeleton (Cutler and Richards, 1974). Histologically, the entosterna resemble the cartilage of vertebrates. Connective tissue cells secrete a homogeneous substance into which collagen fibers are incorporated (Baschwitz, 1973). The largest of these entosterna is the endosternite, a bowllike platelet that lies in the middle of the prosoma (fig. 2.34). The many lateral projections of the endosternite serve for the attachment of the lateral stomach muscles and also for muscles of the limbs (fig. 2.35a). Additional but smaller entosterna lie between various muscle strands in the opisthosoma. It is noteworthy that the muscle cells are inserted directly into the entosterna. In contrast, the muscles attached to the exoskeleton always possess a specialized intercalated epidermal cell, the tendon cell (fig. 2.35b; Smith et al., 1969; Baschwitz, 1974). During molting the muscles do not really detach from their insertion points; they always maintain their connection with tendon cells. With regard to development, the endosternite of arachnids apparently evolved by a fusion of an arterial membrane with connective tissue of the prosomal muscles (Firstman, 1973).

Metabolism

3 Spiders have developed an unusual mode of food intake: digestion is initiated outside the body. After the prey has been subdued by a venomous bite or wrapped with silk, the spider regurgitates some digestive fluid from the intestinal tract onto the victim. After a few seconds, a drop of the predigested liquid prey is sucked in, and this process is then repeated many times. Feeding behavior differs markedly among the various spider families and depends on whether cheliceral teeth are present or not. Theridiids and thomisids, which have few or no cheliceral teeth, inflict only a small wound on their prey. The digestive fluid is pumped in and out through this hole, and the dissolving tissue is gradually sucked out. After the meal the prey remains as an empty shell that appears externally unharmed (fig. 3.1). Spiders with cheliceral teeth mash up their prey so that it can hardly be identified afterward. For instance, when an orb weaver has finished with a fly, it leaves only a small ball of conglomerated cuticular parts (fig. 3.2). Similarly, after a large tarantula has captured a frog, the combined action of the digestive fluid and the continuous mashing of the chelicerae soon produces an unrecognizable mass of tissue with only a few protruding bones (Gerhardt and Kaestner, 1938). Although spider venom may contain some proteolytic enzymes (Kaiser and Raab, 1967), it plays an insignificant role in actual digestion. Little is known about the glands situated inside the maxillae and the rostrum. Probably their secretions probably serve mainly as saliva to soften the food.

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Figure 3.1 (a) Cheliceral fangs of the crab spider Xysticus (rear view). Note the large openings of the poison canal and the lack of cheliceral teeth. 160x. (b) Backside of a fly´s head showing the two bites holes inflicted by the cheliceral fangs shown in (a). 110x. (From Foelix, 1996).

Venom Glands and Toxicity Spiders belong to the actively poisonous animals (i.e., they use their venom offensively to paralyze or to kill their prey). The quick immobilization is certainly the primary function of the venom—the lethal effect is only secondary (Friedel, 1987; Friedel and Nentwig, 1989). All spiders except for the uloborids, and the small holarchaeids possess a pair of venom glands, usually located in the prosoma (figs. 3.3, 3.4). The claim that the

Metabolism

Figure 3.2 Remnants of a blowfly after a garden spider (Araneus diadematus) had been feeding on it. Only few cuticular pieces such as some bristles or the corneal lenses of the compound eye can still be identified. Note that all hair shafts are no longer connected to their sockets, which indicates that the endocuticular joint membranes were dissolved by the digestive enzymes. 150 x. (Photo: Peters and Hüttemann).

Figure 3.3 (a) Position of a venom gland within the basal segment of a chelicera in a tarantula, lateral view. (After Gerhardt and Kaestner, 1938.) (b) Position of the venom glands in Cupiennius, lateral view. (After Malli et al., 1993). (c) Position of the venom glands (VG) in Dolomedes, dorsal view of the prosoma. Ch = chelicera. (After Kaston, 1972).

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Figure 3.4 (a) Prosoma of a theridiid spider, longitudinal section. The large venom glands (VG) extend far into the carapace. Chel = chelicera, Clyp = clypeus, SEG = supraesophageal ganglion. 100x. (b) A strong muscle layer (M) surrounds the body of the venom gland. 200x. (c) The wall of the venom gland in longitudinal section: the muscle layer (M) is connected via a basal membrane (BM) to the glandular cells (G). Secretory droplets (S) containing venom accumulate toward the lumen of the gland. 2,800 x.

ancient Mesothelae lack venom glands (Haupt, 2003), has recently been refuted (Foelix and Erb, 2010). Each venom gland consists of a long, cylindrical part and an adjoining duct, which terminates at the tip of the cheliceral fang (fig. 2.6). A conspicuous muscle layer surrounds the body of the gland and expels the venom rapidly as the muscle contracts (fig.3.4b,c). The muscle fibers are cross-striated and have their own motor nerves, which facilitates the rapid triggering of venom release. The glandular epithelium itself is also innervated (Järlfors et al., 1971); possibly this nervous supply stimulates or regulates the synthesis of venom. In the large tarantulas (mygalomorphs), the venom glands are quite small and lie inside the chelicerae (fig. 3.3a). In contrast, most labidognath spiders have relatively large venom glands that may extend out of the chelicerae and reach far into

Metabolism

the cephalothorax (fig. 3.4a). In some extreme cases (Filistata, for example), the glands may be even larger and subdivided into lobules. The most curious specialization is found in the spitting spider Scytodes (fig. 3.5), in which the gland consists of an anterior part that produces the venom and a posterior part that produces silk and a gluelike substance (Kovoor and Zylberberg, 1972). Scytodes catches its prey by quickly spitting silk and glue onto it (Monterosso, 1928; Dabelow, 1958), thereby both entangling the prey’s appendages and fixing it to the ground. High speed video images (1000 frames/s) showed that the silk-glue ejection is very fast, close to 30 m/s, and lasts only for 30 ms (Suter and Stratton, 2009). Upon contact with the prey, the silk contracts by about 50%, which helps immobilize the prey. The slowmotion pictures also revealed how the zigzag pattern (fig. 3.6) comes about: the chelicerae are lifted upward, producing the vertical component of the pattern, while a rapid oscillation (300–1800 Hz) of the cheliceral fangs produces the horizontal spread. It is still unclear whether the ejected venom has any effect on the captured prey (Clements and Li, 2005). Chemically, spider venom is heterogeneous in that it may contain many different substances. It is a mixture mostly of large, neurotoxic polypeptides (molecular weight 5,000–13,000) and smaller biogenic amines and amino acids; proteolytic enzymes may also be present (Kaiser and Raab, 1967; Habermehl, 1975; Bachmann, 1976). Because almost all spiders have venom glands, they are all potentially poisonous—at least with regard to their normal prey. However, only about 200 of the 40,000 species of spiders are dangerously poisonous to humans (Maretic, 1975; Diaz, 2004). And only four genera (Atrax, Latrodectus, Loxosceles, Phoneutria) are known to cause potentially deadly bites (Isbister et al., 2003).

Figure 3.5 (a) Dorsal view of the spitting spider Scytodes; note the feeble legs and the massive prosoma with distinct markings (Photo: Erb) (b) Longitudinal section of the prosoma of Scytodes. The enormous venom glands consist of an anterior portion that produces venom and a posterior part that synthesizes a gluey substance. Rapid contraction of the prosomal muscles squirts out a mixture of venom and glue from the chelicerae. CNS = central nervous system. (After Millot, 1949.)

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Figure 3.6 (a, b) Spitting pattern of a Scytodes with the typical zigzag pattern of the capture threads. (Photos: Suter.)

The prime example of a spider dangerous to humans is certainly the black widow spider, Latrodectus mactans, from the family Theridiidae (fig. 3.7a, b). The bite itself is not particularly painful and often is not even noticed (Maretic, 1983, 1987). The first real pain is felt after 10–60 minutes in the regions of the lymph nodes, from where it spreads to the muscles. Strong muscle cramps develop, and the abdominal muscles become very rigid (this is an important diagnostic feature). Another typical symptom is a contorted facial expression, called facies latrodectismi, which refers to a flushed, sweat-covered face, swollen eyelids, inflamed lips, and contracted masseter muscles. If the breathing muscles of the thorax become affected, this can eventually lead to death. Besides the strong muscle pain, the black widow spider venom (BWSV) also elicits psychological symptoms, which range from anxiety feelings to actual fear of death. Apparently the toxin can pass the blood-–brain barrier and directly attack the central nervous system. Without any treatment the symptoms will last for about 5 days, and a complete recovery may take weeks. About 80 years ago, lethality was 5% in the United States (Thorp and Woodson, 1945), but since 1970 it is less than 1% (Zahl, 1971). The best treatment against a bite from a black widow is a combination of calcium

Metabolism

Figure 3.7 Dangerous poisonous spiders. (a) A Black Widow (Latrodectus) from South America, dorsal aspect. The black abdomen has contrasting white and red chevron markings. (b) A North American black widow (Latrodectus mactans) with the typical (red) hourglass mark on the ventral side of the abdomen. (c) Portrait of a brown recluse spider (Loxosceles); note the six eyes and the droplet of venom hanging between the chelicerae (arrow). (d) Portrait of the ctenid Phoneutria fera, a rather aggressive spider from South America. (Photos b–d: Rast.)

gluconate with opioids and benzodiazepines plus an antivenom (McCrone and Netzloff, 1965; R. F. Clark, 2001). Calcium causes the pain to subside quickly, and the antidote binds to the toxin. The patient feels relieved within 10–20 minutes and will recover within a few days (Isbister and Gray, 2003). The venom (BWSV) is a neurotoxin that affects the neuromuscular endplates (fig. 4.30b) but also affects synapses in the central nervous system. The synaptic vesicles become completely depleted, causing a permanent blockage of the synapse (Clark et al., 1972; Griffiths and Smyth, 1973; Tzeng and Siekevitz, 1978;

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Wanke et al., 1986). One component of the poison (α-latrotoxin) binds to a presynaptic receptor of cholinergic synapses (Meldolesi et al., 1986). This is in contrast to toxins in orb-web spiders, which act on synapses that use glutamate as neurotransmitter (Kawai et al., 1982; Michaelis et al., 1984). Over the past years a number of spider toxins have been used extensively in neurobiological research because they block specific ion channels (e.g., for Ca2+) of the cell membrane (Adams et al., 1989; Jackson and Parks, 1989). The lethal dose 50 (LD50) is usually given as a measure for the toxicity of a given substance. This term refers to the dosage of venom that will kill 50% of injected experimental animals. For the venom of Latrodectus mactans, the LD50 for a mouse is 0.0009 mg/g body weight. As can be seen in table 3.1, however, susceptibility to the venom varies greatly among different animals (Maroli et al., 1973). Some animals (e.g., horses, cows, and sheep), are more sensitive to a black widow spider’s bite than humans, and significant losses of cattle have been reported from such bites. Other animals, such as rats, rabbits, dogs, and goats, seem to be much hardier (Maretic and Habermehl, 1985). It is also noteworthy that bites of the closely related brown widow (Latrodectus geometricus) are not nearly as severe as those of the black widow (Müller, 1993). Symptoms are mild and tend to be restricted to the bite site and surrounding tissues. Tarantulas (mygalomorphs), despite their large size, are much less dangerous than is commonly thought. A tarantula bite, it is true, is deadly for mice or insects, but for a human it is usually no worse than a wasp sting (Schanbacher et al., 1973). The venom consists of various polypeptides (molecular weight 5,000– 20,000) and is most likely a neurotoxin (Perret, 1973; Lee et al., 1974; Escoubas et al., 2000). In a detailed analysis of a tarantula venom (Eurypelma), the following low-molecular-weight components were found: ATP, ADP, AMP, glutamic and aspartic acid, γ-aminobutyric acid, and glucose; a high-molecular-weight protein (molecular weight 40,000) was identified as the enzyme hyaluronidase (Savel-Niemann, 1989).

Table 3.1 LD50 of venom from Lactrodectus mactans for various animals. After Maroli et al. (1973). LD50 Animal

mg/animal

Frog

2.18

mg/g body weight 0.145

Chicken

0.19

0.002

Mouse

0.013

0.0009

Cockroach

0.015

0.0027

Fly

0.000013

0.0006

Metabolism

It might be added that American tarantulas are rather docile and bite only if provoked, whereas African (Pterinochilus) and Asiatic species (Poecilotheria) are a bit more aggressive and can inflict painful bites. Although it may be safely said that a tarantula bite is not dangerous to humans, it is usually deadly for dogs (Isbister et al., 2003). The European tarantulas (Lycosidae; fig. 1.9) have never deserved their bad reputation, which has stuck to them since the Middle Ages (Crome, 1956b). The symptoms of tarantism were probably related to many other causes ranging from other spider bites, notably those of the black widow, to epilepsy. However, some tropical lycosid spiders may well be dangerous, such as Lycosa erythrognatha of Brazil (Lucas, 1988). After sustaining a bite, the skin surrounding the injured area becomes necrotic, and secondary bacterial infections are likely to occur (Bücherl, 1956). Another well-known spider whose bite is much feared is the American brown recluse Loxosceles reclusa (Sicariidae; fig. 3.7c). The bite causes local swelling as well as necrosis of the skin (Sams et al., 2001). The responsible enzyme is a sphingomyelinase that can cause a deep wound (Kurpiewski et al., 1981). The venom is also hemolytic (Bernheimer et al., 1985), and this may lead to kidney failure and sometimes to death. Overall, however, most Loxosceles bites are harmless (Vetter, 2008; Vetter and Isbister, 2008). In Australia, the funnel-web spider Atrax robustus (Dipluridae or Hexathelidae) is dangerous. Effects of the bite are severe pains, shivering, muscle cramps, loss of eyesight, and paralysis of the breathing center (Gage and Spence, 1977; Spence et al., 1977). Whereas the neurotoxic venom (atracotoxin or robustoxin; Sheumack et al., 1985; Miller et al., 2000) has severe effects on primates, dogs, cats, and rabbits are almost immune to it (Sutherland and Tibbals, 2001). In humans, only about a dozen fatal cases are known from Atrax bites over a period of 100 years (Gray, 1981; Isbister et al., 2005). An effective Atrax antivenom was released in 1981, and no deaths or adverse effects have been reported thereafter. In Europe, there are two other spiders one should handle cautiously, although neither is really dangerous: Cheiracanthium (Clubionidae) and the water spider Argyroneta (Argyronetidae). Their bites are painful, but the symptoms (itching, shivering, vomiting, slight fever) disappear within 2–3 days (Habermehl, 1974; Wolf, 1988). Most of the smaller spiders, however, cannot even pierce the human skin. In those rare cases where the skin is broken (as may happen from our garden spider), the effects—local swelling, blisters, and raised body temperature—are negligible (Maretic, 1971). The rather large “Hobo” spider (Tegenaria agrestis) is feared in the United States, yet seems innocuous in Europe; it is not really clear whether its bite has any necrotic effects (Binford, 2001). Most poisonous of all are certain ctenid spiders (Phoneutria; fig. 3.7d) of South America (Bücherl, 1953, 1971; Schenberg and Pereira Lima, 1971). In contrast to most other dangerous spiders mentioned above, these ctenid spiders are rather aggressive. Their bite is very painful and can cause shock. The observed effects are tremors, sweating, accelerated heart beat, vomiting, and feeling cold and tense. The venom is a complex mixture of aspartic acid, glutamic acid, histamine, hyaluronidase,

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lysine, and serotonin that targets the nervous system by activating the Na+ channels of nerve and muscle membranes (Entwistle et al., 1982; Fontana and Vital Brazil, 1985; Bucaretchi et al., 2000). One representative, Phoneutria nigriventer, injects about 8 mg (dry weight) of venom per bite. This amount would theoretically be sufficient to kill 300 mice (LD50 = 0.013 mg/animal). Nevertheless, the bite is rarely deadly for humans, probably because only small amounts of toxin are injected during a defensive bite. Most victims recover within 1–2 days, and only few require antivenom therapy. Although 2700 Phoneutria bites were reported in Brazil during the year 2006, only 0.5–1% of all people bitten showed any severe evenoming effects (Bucaretchi et al., 2008). The large wandering spider Cupiennius salei is one of the best studied spiders (Barth, 2002) and belongs to the same family as Phoneutria (Ctenidae). Its bite is harmless for humans, but not for arthropods. Chemically, the venom contains three molecular groups: (1) many ions and low-molecular-mass compounds such as amino acids and amines; (2) neurotoxins (CSTX, Cupiennius salei toxins), neurotoxic enhancer peptides, and cytolytic peptides (cupiennins); and (3) a highly active hyaluronidase that acts in combination with the cytolytic peptides as a spreading agent for the neurotoxins (Kuhn-Nentwig et al., 2004). The total amount of venom present is about 12 μl/gland in female spiders; it takes more than 2 weeks to replenish an empty venom gland. Interestingly, Cupiennius does not inject more venom per bite than is necessary. Harmless prey animals receive a smaller dose of venom than strong and aggressive prey. This economical use of venom implies that the spider must know which kind of prey it is dealing with before the actual bite (Wullschleger and Nentwig, 2002). Apparently olfactory information is helpful in making the right decision (Hostettler and Nentwig, 2006). Furthermore, the most efficient spot to quickly paralyze a cricket, for instance, lies around the coxae of the front legs—and this is exactly where most of the spider bites were observed. In small prey the bite lasts rather long (3 minutes), and venom is probably injected in several small doses; in large, struggling prey more venom is applied but during a shorter bite (Boevé, 1994). Overall, it seems that Cupiennius can adjust the amount of venom to a specific prey type, thus making optimal use of the available venom (Wigger et al., 2002). Finally, it should be stressed that, at least statistically, spider bites are much less dangerous to humans than the poisonous stings of bees, wasps, and hornets. This is because we encounter those hymenopterans more often than spiders, and, in addition, often in swarms (Maretic, 1982). From a biological view point, the venom of spiders is primarily designed to paralyze their prey (i.e., mainly insects); defensive bites against large animals (including humans) are only secondary. Some spiders possess strong and quickly acting venom; others have much less effective toxins. Among the first category are spiders (e.g. Thomisidae and Mimetidae) that attack potentially dangerous prey such as bees, bumblebees, or other spiders. Many web spiders, which carefully wrap their prey before biting it, belong to the second category (fig. 6.22; Friedel, 1987). Anyone interested in the details of spider toxins and their effects can consult the web site www.arachnoserver.org.

Metabolism

Internal Digestion The liquefied food is sucked through the narrow mouth opening by the action of the muscles of the pharynx and the stomach. An initial filtering effect is brought about by the many bristles bordering the mouth opening. A second filtration occurs in the flattened pharynx, as the food passes the rostral cuticular lining. This rostral plate possesses a median furrow and thousands of laterally situated cuticular platelets arranged like shingles (fig. 3.8). Only very small particles (≤ 1 μm) can pass through this filter, whereas all larger ones get caught. This can be nicely demonstrated by feeding a spider a suspension of India ink in a neutral red solution. The entire gut content will turn red but will contain only a very few grains of India ink; the ink particles become lodged in the lamellae of the rostral plate (Bartels, 1930). Obviously, the spider needs to clean this filter device, and this is done with an antiperistaltic stream of digestive fluid. When a carmine dye solution was fed to a spider, it took only 30 minutes for the dye particles to appear at the mouth parts in the form of a solidified pellet. Shortly thereafter the pellet was brushed off with the palps (Zimmermann, 1934). In the lateral walls of the pharynx lie cells that are ostensibly connected with the sense of taste (Millot, 1936). However, this conclusion is based on histological

Figure 3.8 (a) Rostral plate in Cupiennius, inside view near the mouth opening. The liquefied food is sucked into the direction of the arrow and is filtered in the lateral ridges on both sides of the median groove (MG). 80x. (b) Detail of the filter apparatus from the tarantula Chromatopelma, showing undulating ribbons of fine cuticular teeth. 1,200x.

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observations and still needs confirmation (see chapter 4). The fact that spiders readily accept a drop of water but quickly reject a weak quinine solution proves that they are capable of tasting. However, the seat of taste reception need not be located only beyond the mouth, but could also be in the contact chemoreceptors (taste hairs) on the maxillae and the palps. The sucking stomach serves as the main pump for food intake. In contrast to the narrow esophagus, the stomach is of large diameter. In cross-section it typically exhibits the shape of a collapsed square (figs. 3.9, 3.10). This shape is produced by the pliable cuticular walls, which are closely apposed in the resting state. Several strong muscle bands connect the upper stomach wall with the dorsal apodeme and the lateral walls with the endosternite. When all these muscles contract, the stomach lumen increases greatly and the stomach thus functions as a suction pump. Several thin annular muscles, which lie between the expanding muscles, act antagonistically; that is, they act to diminish the stomach lumen (Schimkewitsch, 1884). A precise coordination of both sets of muscles causes wavelike contractions of the sucking stomach. Thus despite an extremely small mouth opening, the food is taken in rather quickly. Regulatory valves, which are present at the entrance and exit of the sucking stomach, ensure that the food passes in a caudal direction as the annular muscles contract (Legendre, 1961a). The midgut has its origin directly behind the sucking stomach. Its proximal part is still situated in the prosoma, while its median and posterior portions are in the opisthosoma. The proximal part gives off two lateral extensions, each of which

Figure 3.9 Cross-section of the sucking stomach (SM). Note the striated muscles connecting the stomach wall dorsal to the carapace (C) and laterally to the endosternite (ES). Md = midgut diverticles. 280 x.

Metabolism

Figure 3.10 Diagram of the sucking stomach. (a) Dilation muscles connect dorsally to the carapace and laterally to the endosternite. Smaller circular muscles can constrict the lumen of the sucking stomach. (After Kaestner, 1969.) (b) The inside of pharynx (Ph), esophagus and sucking stomach are lined by a thin cuticle, which is shed with each molt. This picture shows the molted foregut of a purse-web spider (Atypus).

splits into several fingerlike processes (fig. 3.11a). The arrangement and shape of these diverticula may vary considerably among different spider families; in most cases the diverticula extend into the coxae of the legs. The branches of the midgut fill out most of the opisthosoma and surround many organs, such as the spinning glands and the reproductive tracts. Gut diverticula are also present in the prosoma and may be numerous there. For instance, in jumping spiders the midgut extensions even penetrate between the eyes (fig. 3.11b). Such an extensively developed intestinal system explains in part why spiders can survive for a long time without eating. In one experiment with black widows, adult spiders were not fed at all, yet continued to live for 200 days (Kaston, 1970). Wellnourished tarantulas often do not feed for several months. The entire pharynx, as well as the sucking stomach, is covered by a thin cuticular lining. The midgut lacks such a lining and is therefore the only part suitable for

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Figure 3.11 Midgut. (a) Behind the sucking stomach (SM) branches of the midgut (MgD) extend into the prosoma and even enter the legs. Tegenaria, dorsal view. (After Plateau, 1877, and Zimmermann, 1934). (b) Longitudinal section of the prosoma in the jumping spider Phidippus. Branches of the midgut (MgD) are shown in gray. (After Hill, 2006.)

digestion, that is, the absorption of nutrients. It has been known for a long time that spiders possess two different kinds of cells in the intestinal epithelium: secretory cells and resorptive cells (Bertkau, 1885; Millot, 1926; fig. 3.12). The secretory cells contain digestive enzymes, which can be seen as dark cytoplasmic granules under the microscope. Most of the intestinal cells are of the resorptive type. They can be recognized by their many inclusions (the “food vacuoles”). The resorptive cells process the nutrients further and then pass them on to the underlying interstitial tissue or into the hemolymph. After prey has been captured, the following cellular events take place in the intestinal epithelium (Nawabi, 1974). Within a few minutes the secretory cells empty their enzymatic granules into the gut lumen. After about an hour, while the prey may still be in the process of being sucked out, the first food vacuoles appear inside the resorptive cells. Initially the food vacuoles are seen only at the cell’s apex, but soon they become distributed throughout the entire cell. Eight hours after food intake has begun, most of the secretory cells are devoid of enzymatic granules. At the same time, the first excretory products can be detected basally in the resorptive cells. After 24 hours the secretory cells have resynthesized their enzymatic granules, and the resorptive cells contain only a few food vacuoles. Excretory products are often concentrated apically in the resorptive cells, or they may be deposited as crystals in the underlying interstitial tissue. This tissue also serves as a reservoir for accumulated glycogen and lipids. In addition to the secretory and resorptive cells, the intestinal epithelium contains two other cell types: basal cells, which eventually replace old secretory and resorptive cells, and guanocytes, in which guanine crystals become deposited (Millot, 1926; Seitz, 1972c, 1975). The guanocytes can be thought of as specialized resorptive cells, which take up metabolites (e.g., purines) and store them temporarily in

Metabolism

Figure 3.12 Fine structure of midgut cells (Tegenaria). (a) The secretory cells (S) are characterized by many densely stained enzyme granules, whereas the resorptive cells (R) possess irregular food vacuoles. Lu = gut lumen, M = Malpighian tubule, IS = interstitial tissue. 3,000 x. (b) Secretory cell with zymogen granules (Z) and extensive endoplasmic reticulum; the light resorptive cell shows pinoytosis (arrow) and large food vacuoles (Vc). 9,000 x.

the form of crystals. Guanocytes may form a contiguous cell layer directly beneath the hypodermis (fig. 3.13). Because the guanine inclusions totally reflect the incoming light, they appear white and can be seen through transparent parts of the cuticle. The white cross-pattern on the abdomen of the common garden spider Araneus diadematus (fig. 3.13a) is a well-known example of such an accumulation of guanine. In some spiders (Nephila) the white appears somewhat matte due to small, cuboidal guanine crystals; other spiders (Tetragnatha) have a distinct silvery appearance caused by larger but much thinner guanine platelets (Millot, 1926; Oxford,

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Figure 3.13 (a) Abdomen of the garden spider Araneus diadematus, dorsal view. The markings in the form of a white cross are caused by guanine cells, which shine through the transparent cuticle. (Photo: Foelix and Grocki.) (b) Histological section of the abdomen showing guanine crystals deposited in specialized guanine cells (Gu) at the periphery of the gut diverticula (D). C = cuticle, H = hypodermis. 400 x. Inset: Guanine crystals at high magnification. 2,000 x.

1998). The gut cells also contain mineral-rich particles (spherites), which may store certain ions (e.g., calcium), or help in excretion (e.g., guanine) or in detoxification (e.g., lead) (Ludwig and Alberti, 1988). Whereas the shape of the midgut appears rather confusing due to its elaborate branching, the next section of the digestive system is structurally much simpler. The posterior end of the midgut widens to form the stercoral pocket, or cloacal chamber (fig. 2.24). It consists mainly of a large, blind sac into which the Malpighian tubules (see below) exit, and it connects to the anus via the short hindgut. The excrement stored in the stercoral pocket is periodically passed to the outside at the anus.

Excretion The fact that the intestinal cells can accumulate guanine and thereby perform an excretory function has already been mentioned. The main excretory organs, however, are the Malpighian tubules. These originate from either side of the stercoral pocket as two thin evaginations and are thus entodermal derivatives, in contrast to insect Malpighian tubules, which are of ectodermal origin. Histologically, the Malpighian tubules do not differ much from the stercoral pocket or from the hindgut (Seitz, 1975). The excretory cells form a flat epithelium with a typical apical brush border (fig. 3.14a). Below the excretory cell bases lie delicate muscle cells that probably assist in the transport of the excretion products. The excretory substances are

Metabolism

Figure 3.14 Excretory organs. (a) Malpighian tubule in longitudinal section (Tegenaria). The flat tubule cells possess typical brush borders (Mv). Empty spaces in the lumen (Lu) represent excretions that have dissolved during tissue preparation. IS = interstitial tissue. 8,000 x. (b) Coxal gland (Zygiella). The interior of the gland cell is filled with excretions (Ex) that are transported toward the lumen (Lu). Muscle cells (M) and their processes (arrows) surround the base of the excretory cells and apparently aid in dispersing excretions. 4,400 x. (c) Nephrocyte (Zygiella). The excretory products (Ex) are accumulated in intracellular compartments. N = nucleus. 4,700 x.

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first taken up at the base of the cell. There the cell membrane is highly infolded, a typical feature of cells with augmented transport activity. Inside the cytoplasm the metabolites are concentrated and stored before they are expelled into the lumen of the Malpighian tubule. The main excretory products are guanine, adenine, hypoxanthine, and uric acid. All these substances are nearly insoluble in water, a property reflected in their tendency to crystallize. Less conspicuous excretory organs, the segmentally arranged coxal glands, lie in the prosoma (fig. 3.14b). They open to the outside at the coxae of the walking legs. In “primitive” spiders (Mesothelae, Orthognatha) two pairs of coxal glands open onto the posterior side of the first and third coxae (Buxton, 1913; Raven, 1995). They release fluid only during feeding and seem to play an important role in ion and water balance (Butt and Taylor, 1991). The Labidognatha have retained only the anterior pair, and even these show gradual stages of regression in the various families. The original type of coxal gland consists of four parts: a saccule, a collecting duct, a labyrinth, and an excretory duct. This original type becomes substantially reduced in orb-web spiders, in which a collecting duct is lacking, and the labyrinth apparently no longer has an excretory function. Additional excretory “organs” are represented by the many nephrocytes. These huge cells tend to accumulate at specific sites in the prosoma—for instance, beneath the subesophageal ganglion. With a diameter of 30–80 μm, they are the largest cells of the spider’s body. Presumably the nephrocytes take up metabolites from the hemolymph and store them intracellularly (fig. 3.14c).

Circulatory System Spiders, like most invertebrates, have an open circulatory system. This does not mean that they lack blood vessels. On the contrary, they have quite distinct arteries that originate from the heart and that branch through the entire body (figs. 3.15, 3.16). The artery walls contain myofilaments (Pack, 1983) and can change their diameter in response to certain ions (vasoconstriction/dilatation; Paul et al., 1994). The leg arteries even reach into the most distal segments (tarsi), where they are open ended, like the needle of a syringe. There the hemolymph and blood cells can be seen seeping freely between the tissues. The flow of the hemolymph back to the heart follows the gradient of decreasing pressure. Its course is by no means random but is guided along specific pathways (Colmorgen and Paul, 1995). The blood eventually collects in lacunae on the ventral side of the body before passing the respiratory organs (book lungs) and returning via the lung veins into the heart.In summary, spiders have a “closed” arterial system, no capillaries, and an open venous system, in which the gas exchange takes place.

Heart and Blood Vessels The heart lies dorsally in the anterior part of the opisthosoma (figs.3.15, 3.17). It is formed by a muscular tube suspended in a wide chamber (the pericardial sinus) by dorsal, ventral, and lateral ligaments. The heart tube itself has two or three pairs of

Figure 3.15 Diagram of the arterial circulatory system. A = arteria, Pc = pericardial sinus; 1, 2, 3 = lateral opisthosomal arteries; Tr = trunci peristomacales. (After various authors.)

Figure 3.16 Corrosion cast of the prosomal arteries of the tarantula Eurypelma, dorsal view. A liquid plastic solution (Mercox) had been injected into the heart and had spread into the aorta (Ao), the two trunci peristomacales (Tr), the head arteries (C), the palpal vessels (P), and the leg arteries (1–4); after polymerization and removal of the soft tissues all blood vessels stand out clearly. (Photo: Paul.) 67

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Figure 3.17 Position of the heart in the opisthosoma of the banana spider Heteropoda. L1–6 = lateral ligaments, Os = ostium. (After R. S. Wilson, 1967.)

buttonhole-shaped slits (ostia), which open to the pericardial sinus. This sinus is covered by a thin layer of smooth musculature. When the heart tube contracts (systole), the ostia, acting as passive valves, close automatically (fig. 3.18a). During this contraction the heart elongates, and the hemolymph is pushed forward into the anterior aorta in the prosoma and backward into the posterior aorta in the opisthosoma. Special valvelike structures at either end of the heart tube (in addition to the closed ostia) prevent a backflow of the hemolymph (fig. 3.18b,c). The course of the various arteries through the body can be followed after carefully injecting a spider’s heart with carmine, India ink, or liquid plastic resins (Petrunkevitch, 1910; Crome, 1953; Bihlmayer et al., 1989). The anterior aorta passes through the pedicel and then, close to the sucking stomach, splits into two lateral branches (trunci peristomacales; figs. 3.15, 3.16). Each of these branches divides again, into the arteria cephalica, which supplies the supraesophageal ganglion, the chelicerae, and the mouth parts, and the arteria crassa, which sends off one artery per extremity. The two arteriae crassae are cross-connected horizontally by means of six rami transversales; from these vessels smaller arteries branch off ventrally and penetrate the subesophageal ganglion. From the last ramus transversalis emerges horizontally the arteria spinalis, which proceeds along the upper side of the subesophageal ganglion. Most of the arterial hemolymph is directed to the central nervous system and to the skeletal muscles (Millot, 1949). Diffusion distances are about 60 μm in the central nervous system (Kosok and Seyfarth, 1994) and 60–90 μm in muscle tissue (Bihlmayer et al., 1990). It seems that muscle cells with a high oxidative capacity are much better supplied with hemolymph (Paul et al., 1994). Since they are completely bathed in lymph, muscle cells with high oxidative capacity have a relatively large exchange area per volume of tissue, and this makes up for the rather large diffusion distances.

Metabolism

Figure 3.18 (a) Diagrammatic cross-section of the heart tube. Arrows indicate direction of hemolymph flow. Dors. Lig., lat. Lig, ventr.Lig. = dorsal, lateral, and ventral ligaments; Os = ostium; Pc = pericardial sinus. (b and c) Heart valves: the valve leading into the aorta is a flapvalve (b), whereas the one at the caudal end of the heart (c) is funnelshaped. (After Crome, 1953.)

In most spiders the organs of the opisthosoma receive a direct tracheal supply and thus are less dependent on oxygen carried by the hemolymph. Still, the opisthosoma has two or three arteries of its own that originate laterally from the heart tube (fig. 3.15); their degree of ramification is quite high, and the terminal diameter of the arterioles (50 μm) is similar to those in the prosoma (Zahler et al., 1990). The expansion of the heart (diastole) is caused by the ligaments that connect the heart tube with the exoskeleton. When the heart tube is in the contracted stage (systole), these ligaments are stretched and under tension. When the contraction subsides, the ligaments shorten passively due to their inherent elasticity. This in turn causes the ostia to open, and hemolymph enters the heart lumen from the pericardial sinus (R. S. Wilson, 1967; figs. 3.18a, 3.23b). In other words, heart tube and pericardium work together as a pressure and suction pump (Paul, 1990). Spider circulation operates as a low-pressure system. The heart generates between +5 and +15 torr during systole. These positive pressures diminish little in the aorta and in the prosomal arteries, but drop to slightly negative values in the lung veins and in the pericardium (fig. 3.19). During diastole, even the heart lumen shows a negative pressure (suction), which leads to a refilling of the heart tube through the ostia. This pumping mechanism of pressure and suction results in a continuous flow of hemolymph through the book lungs, which ensures an efficient gas exchange (Paul et al., 1994).

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Figure 3.19 Time course of the hemolymph pressure in various parts of the circulatory system during one heart beat of Eurypelma. Note the negative pressures in opisthosoma and lung vein, which lead to a venous backflow due to a suction effect. (After Bihlmayer, 1991 and Paul, 1994.)

Structure and Function of the Heart The heart tube consists of a thin outer layer (adventitia) composed of connective tissue and of the actual muscle layer (myocardium) that forms the circular heart lume (Seitz, 1972a). An inner layer (intima) seems to be lacking in spiders; instead, the muscle cells are in direct contact with the hemolymph (Sherman, 1973a). As in vertebrates, the heart muscle cells are cross-striated, branched, and multinucleate. In contrast to regular skeletal muscles (fig. 2.19), they contain many mitochondria (fig. 3.20; Midttun, 1977), which provide for the continuous energy demand of the heart. In spiders, as in most other arthropods, the heartbeat is controlled neurogenically. A threadlike ganglion on the dorsal side of the heart tube (fig. 3.17) gives off axons that innervate the heart muscle cells (R. S. Wilson, 1967; Legendre, 1968; Sherman et al., 1969; Ude and Richter, 1974). This ganglion probably contains pacemaker neurons that control the heartbeat via intercalated motoneurons. The heartbeat itself is the result of the synchronous contraction of the entire heart tube. Heartbeat frequency has been investigated in many spiders (Bristowe, 1932; Sherman and Pax, 1970a; Carrel and Heathcote, 1976). In general, the heart rate decreases with increasing body size. Large tarantulas have a heartbeat frequency of 30–40 beats per minute, whereas small spiders show a resting frequency of >100. During running, the heartbeat accelerates rapidly. A wolf spider, for which a resting frequency of 48 beats per minute was measured, increased its heart rate to 176 beats per minute after only 30 seconds of activity (Sherman and Pax, 1968). The volume that a spider heart pumps out with each beat (stroke volume) varies from 0.7 ml/min at rest to 4.3 ml/min after a high activity (Eurypelma; Paul, 1986). In many spiders the heart beat frequency can be determined simply by counting the pulsations of the abdomen under a binocular microscope. By applying a fine

Metabolism

Figure 3.20 Two prehemocytes (PHc) in the process of being pinched off from the heart wall (HW). 3,100x.

wire electrode to the body, directly over the heart, one can also record an electrocardiogram (ECG). This method not only automatically yields the heart rate, but also proves its neurogenic origin by registering oscillatory bursts. ECGs have been obtained even from extirpated spider hearts. The resting frequency is about the same as in the living animal and is apparently determined by the heart ganglion (Sherman and Pax, 1968, 1970a). Adding L-glutamate causes the heart to contract. L-glutamate is perhaps the natural neurotransmitter in the spider heart, for other known neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine or γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), have no effect on heart action (Sherman and Pax, 1970b,c). The central nervous system (CNS) can also exert an excitatory or an inhibitory effect on the heartbeat (R. S. Wilson, 1967). This is obvious because even minor sensory input influences the heart rate: spiders that are physically restrained for observation show a markedly faster heartbeat than normal. Indeed, cardioregulatory neurons have been demonstrated in the CNS by morphological and electrophysiological methods (Gonzalez-Fernandez and Sherman, 1984).

Blood Cells and Hemolymph The spider’s hemolymph exhibits a large variety of blood cells (hemocytes). Although little is known about the function of specific hemocytes, it seems likely that they play a role in blood clotting, wound healing, and fighting off infections. Structurally, at least four different types can be distinguished (Seitz, 1972a,b; Sherman, 1973b, 1981). Most common are the granular hemocytes, which have many dense granules

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Figure 3.21 Blood cells of Tegenaria. (a, b) Living hemocytes show highly refractive granules when viewed in a phase contrast microscope; pseudopodia are the first sign of blood clotting. (a, 260 x;b, 650 x.) (c) A granular hemocyte just entering the hemolymph space between two air spaces of a book lung. 7,000 x.

concentrated in the cytoplasm (fig. 3.21); it has been suggested that the granular hemocytes contribute to the sclerotization of the exocuticle (Browning, 1942). Some hemocytes, called leberidiocytes, enclose a single secretory vacuole. Other blood cell types are believed to act as phagocytes or as storage cells. During molting, the relative percentage of the different hemocyte types changes drastically. The curious origin of the hemocytes should be mentioned here: they derive directly from myocardium cells of the heart wall (Franz, 1904; Millot, 1926).

Metabolism

This is easily seen in young spiders, where immature “prehemocytes,” or hemoblasts, sit on the luminal side of the heart tube, where they undergo mitotic divisions (fig. 3.20). These hemoblasts develop into the different types of hemocytes by acquiring specific cell organelles (Seitz, 1972a). Fresh spider hemolymph appears bluish because of the copper-containing respiratory pigment hemocyanin. It is a large protein similar to hemoglobin, but instead of iron there are two atoms of copper in the center of the molecule, which bind to oxygen. Its chemical structure has been analyzed in detail in the tarantula Eurypelma (Linzen et al.,1985; Paul et al., 1992). One hemocyanin molecule consists of 24 subunits, and each subunit is made up by more than 600 amino acids. Since each subunit contributes a mass of about 72,000, the total mass exceeds 1.7 million—a huge molecule. For comparison, hemoglobin has a mass of 66,400, with subunits of only 16,000. However, hemoglobin can bind 210 cm3 O2/l, whereas hemocyanin in spider blood can bind only 12 cm3 O2/l. What is the reason for this large difference between hemocyanin and hemoglobin? First, hemoglobin is highly concentrated in human blood (150 g/l), because it is packed into special blood cells, the erythrocytes. The concentration of hemocyanin in spider blood is much lower (40g/l), as it is freely dissolved in the hemolymph. Second, the subunits of hemoglobin that can bind one molecule of oxygen are about five times smaller (16,000 vs. 72,000) than in hemocyanin, and they are therefore more efficient at transporting oxygen. However, spiders do not really need a highly efficient respiratory pigment because they are inactive most of the time, and oxygen consumption is very low at rest. Hemocyanin is synthesized in special blood cells, the cyanocytes (fig. 3.22). Initially the hemocyanin is stored in crystalline form, but mature cyanocytes may deliver it to the hemolymph (see Fahrenbach, 1970). Because hemocyanin has a strong affinity for oxygen, this element can be given off to the surrounding tissue only if the local oxygen pressure is low there (pO2 < 10 torr). Values of 1–10 torr were recorded in muscle tissue of Eurypelma helluo, whereas the “arterial” hemolymph inside the heart lumen measured 31 torr (Angersbach, 1975). However, hemocyanin may be more of a storage site for oxygen than a carrier of oxygen. Only a few studies have concentrated on the composition of spider hemolymph (Loewe et al., 1970). For the tarantula Eurypelma, the inorganic ions were determined many years ago (Rathmayer, 1965c), and later the organic components were elucidated (Schartau and Leidescher, 1983). Among the cations, Na+ is predominant (200 mM/l) as compared to Ca2+, Mg2+ (4 mM/l each), K+ (2 mM/l) and Cu2+ (1.3 mM/l); among the anions, Cl- (240 mM/l) is prevalent with respect to PO43– (3 mM/l) and SO42– (0.7 mM/l). The pH value is about 7.5 (Angersbach, 1978), the osmolarity (480mosmol/l) lies in the same range (400–600 mosmol/l) as for other spiders (Pinkston and Frick, 1973; Cohen, 1980). Most of the organic substances of the hemolymph are proteins, and of these, hemocyanin makes up 80%. Other organic substances are free amino acids (mainly proline), carbohydrates (mainly glucose), and fatty acids (palmitic, linoleic, and stearic acid). Outside the body, the hemolymph coagulates quickly. Coagulation is initiated by many fine pseudopodia that grow out from the hemocyte (fig. 3.21; Deevey,

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Figure 3.22 Cyanocytes (Cy) from the lung sinus of Tegenaria. The cytoplasm is packed with bundles of hemocyanin crystals (Cy). A = air space, N = nucleus. 3,200 x. Inset: Hemocyanin crystal at higher magnification. 40,000 x.

1941; Gregoire, 1952). The hemolymph accounts for about 20% of the body weight of a spider (Stewart and Martin, 1970). It is surely imperative for a spider to maintain a certain volume of hemolymph, since the hydraulics of the leg joints depend on the pressure, and thus on the quantity, of the hemolymph. Under normal conditions the exoskeleton protects the spider from desiccation. If extremely dry spells occur, or if the spider suffers direct blood loss through injury or autotomy, the animal attempts to replace lost fluid by drinking.

Respiratory Organs Most spiders possess two entirely different kinds of respiratory systems: one pair of strictly localized book lungs, and one or two pairs of tubular tracheae, which can branch throughout the body. The “primitive” spiders (Mesothelae, Orthognatha, Hypochilidae) have book lungs only, but always two pairs. These are situated on the second and third abdominal segments. In the majority of labidognath spiders, only the first pair of book lungs has been retained, while the second pair has been modified into tubular tracheae. The book lungs are structurally very uniform in all spiders (fig. 3.23), but the tubular tracheae vary considerably in relative size and pattern of distribution (Lamy, 1902; Kaestner, 1929).

Metabolism

Figure 3.23 Structure of a book lung. (After Kaestner, 1929.) (a) Three-dimensional representation of the lower part of a book lung. The white arrow indicates the air entering the atrium of the book lung, the black arrows show the direction of hemolymph flow. (b) Cross-section of the opisthosoma at the level of the book lungs. The arrows show the hemolymph coming from the lung sinus (Ls), passing through the book lung, and then entering the heart (H). Lv = lung vein, M = abdominal muscles, Md = midgut diverticula, Mg = midgut, N = abdominal nerves, Pc = pericardial sinus.

Book Lungs The book lungs lie ventrally in the anterior opisthosoma (fig. 2.24). Their location is often visible from the outside as a hairless patch of cuticle that borders posteriorally on a narrow slit, the lung slit (fig. 1.2), which leads to the interior of the abdomen. There a small atrium enlarges and then extends into many horizontal air pockets which are in contact with blood-filled lamellae (fig. 3.24). In other words, these are stacks of air-filled spaces alternating with leaflets of hemolymph spaces— hence the descriptive term book lung. The leaflets as well as the atrium are covered by a very thin cuticle (0.03 μm; Reisinger et al., 1991). Short vertical extensions of this cuticle form minute columns that act like struts to prevent collapse of the narrow air pockets (fig. 3.25). Each leaflet is formed by a doubling of the thin hypodermis (0.02 μm), leaving an open space in between where the hemolymph can circulate freely. In regular histological preparations the acidophilic hemolymph stains distinctly, yet the thin hypodermis extensions are hardly visible (fig. 3.25a,b). Only the nuclei of the hypodermis cells are apparent; they become more conspicuous if they lie exactly opposite each other within one leaflet. In such cases, the two hypodermis cells seem to form a pillar between two air spaces.

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Figure 3.24 Microscopic structure of a book lung. (a) Longitudinal section (wolf spider). At = atrium, LS = lung sinus with stained hemolymph, S = lung slit. 85 x. (b) Cross-section (Tegenaria). The hemolymph is unstained in this preparation, but hemocytes (Hc) are clearly recognizable in the lung sinus (LS). Note the extremely thin walls of the air pockets (Air). 1,100 x.

For the house spider Tegenaria, the entire surface area of the two book lungs was measured as 70 mm2, and the corresponding lung volume as 0.6 mm3 (Strazny and Perry, 1984). In the large tarantula Eurypelma, the surface of all (four) book lungs is considerably higher (70 cm2), and its volume lies between 10 and 20 mm3 (Reisinger et al., 1990). It is interesting that the two pairs of book lungs in tarantulas seem to serve two pathways of blood circulation: hemolymph from the prosoma passes only through the anterior pair of book lungs, while hemolymph from the opisthosoma flows only through the posterior pair (Paul et al., 1989). Practically all the hemolymph that returns from the lacunae to the heart has to pass through the book lungs. The hemolymph coming from the prosoma flows along two lateral lacunae in the pedicel and enters the “lung sinus” in the anterior part of the abdomen. Lacunae are also present in the posterior opisthosoma, and the flow of hemolymph there is directed forward toward the lung sinus. Streaming along the midline of the abdomen, the flow of the hemolymph divides to enter the leaflets of each book lung laterally (fig. 3.23b). Oxygen from the air spaces must penetrate the thin cuticular lining and the hypodermis cells of the book lung in order to reach the hemolymph. Since both the cuticle and hypodermis are extremely thin (fig. 3.25b), they pose no significant barrier to the process of diffusion.

Metabolism

Figure 3.25 Ultrastructure of a book lung. (a) The hemolymph space (Ly) often contains two cells stacked on each other and thus forming a minute supporting column between neighboring air pockets (Air) (Tegenaria). N = nucleus. 5,000 x. (b) To reach the hemolymph (Ly), oxygen must diffuse through the cuticular lamella (C) lining the air pocket and through the underlying cellular layer (Zygiella). 22,000 x (c) Cryofracture of the book lung of Phidippus showing the cuticular struts projecting into the air pockets (Air). 9,000 x. (Photo: Hill.)

After the hemolymph has become oxygenated, it leaves the book lungs laterally and continues upward into another sinus, the lung vein, which then connects with the pericardial sinus. At diastole, the oxygenated hemolymph is sucked into the heart tube via the opened ostia. During the following systole, the exiting hemolymph can meet different pressures in the prosoma and the opisthosoma. During quick runs, for instance, there is a much higher hemolymph pressure in the prosoma

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than in the opisthosoma, due to the contracted entosternal and lateral muscles. For brief periods the hemolymph cannot be pushed through the pedicel into the prosoma, which will lead to a deficit in oxygen (Paul et al., 1987). This is probably one of the main factors for the exhaustion that spiders show after several minutes of running. Following strenuous activity, the respiration and heart rate is markedly increased. Hemocyanin becomes fully oxygenated, and the oxygen transport capacity of the hemolymph is fully used. During the long recovery (several hours), D-lactate needs to be oxidized, and the phosphagen and glycogen stores have to be refilled in the muscle tissue. The energy necessary for these processes comes from an oxidation of lipids (Paul, 1990). The lung slits can be enlarged by the action of specific muscles, thus actually increasing the gas exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide (Fincke and Paul, 1989). A ventilation of the book lungs has been deduced from the observation of pulsating book lung lamellae, in synchrony with the heart beat (Willem, 1918; Hill, 1977b). According to this “bellows hypothesis,” an inflation of the lateral lamellae occurs when the hemolymph flows into the pericardial sinus during a contraction of the heart (fig. 3.26). After relaxation, hemolymph enters the book lungs from the medial side, leading to a compression of the air spaces laterally and thus to effective ventilation of the book lung. The final exchange of gases (O2, CO2) within the book lung is the result of diffusion that takes place through the extremely thin walled lamellae (Paul, 1992a, b). The importance of the book lungs becomes clear after one closes the lung slits with petroleum jelly; after only 2 minutes the animals become severely paralyzed,

Figure 3.26 Bellows hypothesis of book lung ventilation. (a) When hemolymph is pumped from the medial to the lateral side (during a heart systole) the air pockets become compressed and air is pushed out. (b) When the hemolymph pressure drops (during diastole) the lateral parts of the air pockets expand and air is sucked in. (After Hill, 2006.)

Metabolism

and after several hours most of them are dead (Kaestner, 1929). In contrast, water spiders (Argyroneta) can stay submerged for several hours, if their abdomen is enclosed by an air bubble (Heinzberger, 1974).

Tubular Tracheae The tubular tracheae lie behind the book lungs in the third abdominal segment. Externally they are barely visible as one or two small openings, the stigmata, or spiracles. Most spiders have only a single stigma, which is located in front of the spinnerets (figs. 1.2b, 2.24). The tubular tracheae have developed differently among various spider families (Opell, 1987). Some families (e.g., Filistatidae) have only very short tubes; others, such as Salticidae and Thomisidae, have highly branched tubes that pervade the prosoma and even the extremities (fig. 3.27). Spiders with prosomal tracheae (Argyroneta, Dysdera, Segestria) usually have a small heart and a low heart frequency, presumably because the gas exchange is more efficient due to the additional tubular tracheae (Bromhall, 1987).

Figure 3.27 Tubular tracheae in a leg of Dysdera. (a) The branching tracheae are clearly visible because they were filled with black cobalt sulfide. 20 x. (Photo: Bromhall.) (b) Longitudinal section of a tracheal tube (tt) showing the cuticular reinforcement on the inside of the tube. M = leg muscles. 2,800 x. (c) Cross-section of several tracheal branches. Ly = hemolymph. 1,200 x.

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Figure 3.28 Tracheal systems. (a) Four cuticular tubes arise from a common spiracle and branch inside the abdomen of this tetragnathid spider (Nanometa). (b, c) Extensive branching into smaller tubes in tracheae of Glenognatha. (Photos: Alvarez-Padilla and Hormiga.)

Usually, a median stigma leads into a small atrium from which two lateral and two medial tubes arise (fig. 3.28). The two lateral tubes correspond to the second pair of book lungs of some primitive spiders, but the two median tubes are derived secondarily. They develop from muscular insertion points (entapophyses) in the third abdominal segment; presumably they became hollowed out and because of their thin cuticle can now function as respiratory organs (Purcell, 1909, 1910). The lateral and median tubes of the tracheal system are hence of completely different origin. Furthermore, tracheal tubes can either split into many branches or be unbranched. If unbranched, they remain restricted to the opisthosoma; if highly branched (as they are, for example, in Dictynidae), they also enter the prosoma and supply the various organs there with oxygen. The tracheal walls are only 0.1–0.3 μm thick, and the oxygen transfer occurs by lateral diffusion over the entire length of a tracheal tube (Schmitz and Perry, 2001). The tracheae in spiders, unlike those in insects, always terminate in an open end without contacting a cell, so oxygen is not delivered directly. Instead, it is always the hemolymph that is responsible for the final transport of oxygen to its destination. The uptake of oxygen increases by a factor of 2.8 shortly after a fast run. This is still much lower than in insects (a factor of 35), presumably because their tracheal system works more efficiently than that of spiders (Anderson and Prestwich, 1985).

Metabolism

Comparison of the Two Respiratory Systems The question of which of the two respiratory organs is more efficient cannot be answered clearly because comparative physiological studies are lacking. It is usually assumed, however, that a highly branched system of tubular tracheae would provide the better solution (Levi, 1967). In species with branched tubular tracheae, the circulatory system is normally reduced: the heart is shorter, and the number of ostia and arteries is smaller. Such is the case for the water spider Argyroneta aquatica (Crome, 1953). The small book lungs of a water spider cannot store much oxygen compared to the extensively developed tubular tracheae (Braun, 1931). If both the lung slits and the stigma of a water spider are sealed, it takes days before any effects (disturbed motor behavior) become noticeable. In comparison, a relative of Argyroneta, the house spider Tegenaria, is paralyzed within a few minutes after such an operation. The question of relative efficiency is further complicated by the fact that the water spider can apparently also exchange gases through its integument. Carbon dioxide can pass directly through the abdominal cuticle and into the captive air bubble, thus preventing carbon dioxide poisoning (Crome, 1953). Some lesserknown spider families (Caponiidae, Symphytognathidae) have no book lungs at all (Hickman, 1931; Forster, 1959). Instead, these spiders possess, in the second abdominal segment, special tubular tracheae called sieve tracheae. Sieve tracheae are delicately branched and arise immediately from the atrium. The following simplified summary gives an overview of the types of respiratory organs and their respective development in different kinds of spiders (Kaestner, 1929): 1. One pair of book lungs only (e.g., Pholcidae). 2. Two pairs of book lungs only (Mesothelae, Orthognatha). 3. One pair of book lungs and one pair of tubular tracheae (Araneidae, Lycosidae). 4. One pair of sieve tracheae and one pair of tubular tracheae (Caponiidae). 5. One pair of sieve tracheae only (Symphytognathidae). The extent of the tracheal system differs greatly, even within a single spider family. For example, among the Uloborids, tracheae may extend into the prosoma and even into the legs. In the more active species the tracheal branches entering the legs have rather large calipers, presumably to meet the larger oxygen demands of the muscles (Opell, 1998b). It seems that the two systems, tubular tracheae and book lungs, are somewhat complementary: if the tracheal development is increased, the book lungs are less developed. In general, spiders with a well-developed tracheal system seem to have greater aerobic capabilities. Experiments comparing a welltracheated jumping spider with a poorly tracheated wolf spider running on a tread mill indicate that tracheae support aerobic metabolism only at very high activity levels. During low activity the tracheae supply certain organs (nervous system, gut) with oxygen but do not play a role for the muscles engaged in physical exercise (Schmitz, 2005).

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Phylogenetically, book lungs must be regarded as more ancient (“primitive”) than tubular tracheae. This can be concluded from embryological studies (because book lungs are homologous to appendages), and also from the observation that all primitive spiders have only book lungs and no tracheae. Elaborate tubular tracheae occur only in small spiders, which are more prone to desiccation; perhaps tubular tracheae have evolved as an adaption to provide the necessary protection (Levi, 1967).

Neurobiology

4 The behavior of spiders, like that of all animals, is controlled by the central nervous system. Of the various types of sensory organs that collect information about the environment—(e.g., mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and visual receptors), the mechanoreceptors are the most important among spiders. The sensory organs are not merely windows to the outside world but act as selective filters that provide a species-specific, limited, and yet highly relevant, picture of the environment.

Mechanical Senses Mechanoreceptors respond to external stimuli such as touch, substrate vibrations, and air currents, and also keep the spider informed about leg and joint positions. Usually different receptor types exist for the various stimuli. In contrast, structurally similar receptors may serve quite different functions. The most common mechanoreceptor is the hair sensillum (fig. 4.1). It may appear as a simple tactile hair or as a more complex filiform hair (a trichobothrium; fig. 4.6). Whereas tactile hairs are distributed over the entire body surface, the trichobothria occur only on the extremities. Other less conspicuous but nevertheless characteristic mechanoreceptors of spiders are the slit sensilla (fig. 4.9). These small sensory organs are embedded in the exoskeleton at strategic points. Their function remained obscure for many years, but during the last decades their mechanosensitive capacity has been proved beyond doubt (Barth, 1976). In addition to these external mechanoreceptors, there are internal proprioceptors inside the legs; these measure the relative positions of the joints.

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Figure 4.1 Mechanosensitive hair sensilla. (a) The hair shaft arises from a distinct socket from the cuticle. This narrow socket allows only limited movement of the hair shaft. (b) A flat, asymmetric socket that determines movement in essentially one plane; the white line indicates the axis for the up / down movement. M = pliable socket membrane (c) A stout hair (cuspule) from the mouth parts of a tarantula. Note the “fingerprint” pattern on the hair shaft cuticle. (d) A thin section of the same hair type reveals dendrites ending at the hair base (hb). So = socket cuticle.

Tactile Hairs The hairiness of spiders is proverbial, and it is certainly this characteristic that contributes most to the general dislike many people have of spiders. For those interested in the biology of these animals, however, this hairiness sparks some scientific questions. Why are spiders hairy? Do the thousands of hairs merely decorate the exoskeleton, or do they fulfill some vital functions? The fact that most of these hairs are innervated proves that they are sensory organs. This can also be demonstrated

Neurobiology

in a simple behavioral experiment: touching only a single hair triggers escape or aggressive reactions from the spider. If certain tactile hairs on the coxa are bent, the spider Cupiennius reacts by abruptly lifting its entire body, thus gaining more distance from the ground (Eckweiler and Seyfarth, 1988; Seyfarth, 2002). It is hard to imagine that the thousands of hairs on a spider’s body are all innervated, yet examination of histological sections shows that, indeed, all large, movable, articulated hairs have a triple innervation. Only the short body hairs and most adhesive scopula hairs lack innervation. The regular tactile hair consists of a long, exocuticular hair shaft that is suspended in a slipper-shaped socket in which it can move (figs. 4.1, 4.2). Three dendritic nerve endings are attached to the base of the hair shaft (Foelix and Chu-Wang, 1973a, Barth et al., 2004) and monitor movements of the shaft. Electrophysiological recordings show that the tactile hairs react like typical phasic receptors, that is, only changes from the resting position are answered with nerve impulses (Den Otter, 1974). Furthermore, the initial bending of the hair elicits more nerve impulses than its return to the resting position (fig. 4.2b). Direct contact with a tactile hair causes not only a deflection but also a bending of the entire hair shaft. This is mainly due to the limited range of movement (12–15° maximally) that is possible within the narrow socket (fig. 4.1). Actually, bending occurs before the hair shaft contacts the socket rim (Barth et al., 2004). As a consequence, the hair is more sensitive to small displacements than to large deflections (Dechant et al., 2001). The fact that the dendritic terminals are only

Figure 4.2 (a) Innervation of a tactile hair, longitudinal section. The dendritic terminals (TB) attach to the base of the movable, suspended hair shaft. CF = connecting fibers, SM = socket membrane (After Barth et al., 2004). (b–d) Electrophysiological recordings from tactile hairs. (b) Displacement of the hairshaft (lower tracing) elicits nervous impulses from two sensory cells (1, 2). (c) Stimulation with a 50 Hz vibration. (d) Responses from three sensory cells of a trichobothrium after lateral displacement of the hair shaft. (b–d after Harris and Mill, 1977a.)

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indirectly attached to the hair base via extracellular fibers is interpreted as protection against mechanical damage or overstimulation. The large leg spines (fig. 4.3) are also triply innervated (Harris and Mill, 1977a). These spines become erect when hemolymph pressure increases. Nerve impulses of the leg spines, unlike those of simple tactile hairs, can be recorded only during the

Figure 4.3 Bristles and spines can fulfill mechanical tasks. (a) Crab spiders have a row of spines on the inside of their front legs (tarsi and metatarsi), which function as a catching basket during prey capture. (b) Spines can be erected hydraulically by an increase in blood pressure; note the asymmetrical socket that allows only up and down movement (Thomisus). (c) The cellar spider (Pholcus) bears serrated bristles on the tarsi of the fourth legs; tiny hooks are used to manipulate silk threads during prey capture. (d) Similar serrated hairs occur on the tarsi of the fourth legs in theridiids. Note the fine silk threads that fit exactly into the notches (arrows) of the hair shafts.

Neurobiology

erection phase, but not during the return to the flat resting position; the spines might therefore also act as hemolymph pressure receptors. Although a triple innervation of tactile hairs is the rule in spiders, there are some exceptions. For instance, the sensilla of the coxal hair plates are only singly innervated (Seyfarth et al., 1990). The adhesive scopula hairs usually are not innervated at all, but some within the claw tufts are attached to a single sensory cell (Foelix et al., 1984). Aside from specific sensory functions, many hairs also serve purely mechanical tasks (fig. 4.3). The row of specialized bristles forming the calamistrum on the fourth leg of cribellate spiders is used to comb out fine catching threads. Each bristle is serrated on one side and thus acts as a comb (figs. 5.17, 5.18; Foelix and Jung, 1978). Theridiid and pholcid spiders also have a row of serrated bristles on their fourth legs. These tarsal bristles comb out sticky silk threads from the spinnerets as the spider wraps its prey (fig. 4.3d; Huber and Fleckenstein, 2008). Some spiders (e.g., Zelotes, Gnaphosidae) have specialized brushlike hairs that are used as cleaning devices during grooming (Berland, 1932). Salticids, for instance, often wipe the big lenses of their front eyes with hair brushes located on the inside of their pedipalps. Another modification of hairs are the scales, where the hair shaft is leaflike, consisting of several layers of a fine cuticular meshwork (fig. 4.4.). They appear either white (total light refection) or iridescent due to a diffraction of light (interference). Scales have a small socket and are not innervated. Finally, the scopula hairs

Figure 4.4 Scales have a flattened hair shaft that consists of thin cuticular layers, sometimes with alternating air spaces. Two types of scales from the jumping spider Salticus scenicus are shown here: (a) a smooth, leaf-like scale between two sensory hairs (b) a spiny scale seen with phase contrast and a with the transmission electron microscope (c), showing the internal cuticular meshwork (Photos: Foelix and Erb.)

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must be mentioned here, since they provide for increased adhesion to the substrate (see chapter 2). The short hairs covering the opisthosoma of many spiders may have special functions. In the water spider Argyroneta aquatica, for instance, these abdominal hairs are necessary for establishing the air bubble that surrounds the opisthosoma (Braun, 1931). Some female wolf spiders have special “knobbed” abdominal hairs, used by the young spiderlings to hold on to their mother (Rovner et al., 1973). A more impressive example of how a spider can use its abdominal hairs is found in the New World tarantulas. When these animals feel threatened, they can quickly brush off clouds of abdominal (urticating) hairs (fig. 4.5) with their hind legs. Each hair is covered by hundreds of little barbs, which cause severe itching when in contact with the skin, especially in the nose and eye region. Experiments showed that these urticating hairs can work themselves 2 mm deep into human skin (Cooke et al., 1972, 1973). Sometimes this happens quite inadvertently when one works with dead tarantulas (preserved in alcohol or as dry exuvia), as many museum curators can testify.

Figure 4.5 Urticating hairs from New World tarantulas (a) The four main types I - IV (After Cooke et al., 1972). Normally, a particular species has just one type, but some species may have type I and III together. (b) Empty socket of a type I hair from the abdomen of Acanthoscurria. (c) Detached hair shaft of type I; note the barbs pointing in opposite directions. The arrow points to the hair base (Photos b,c: Erb.). (d) Type II hair with a separate stalk at the base that breaks easily out of the socket; the hair shaft exhibits spirally arranged barbs. 900 x.

Neurobiology

Trichobothria The filiform hairs, or trichobothria, are extremely fine hairs within special sockets. They are much less numerous than the common tactile hairs and are arranged in straight lines or in small clusters on certain leg segments (fig. 4.6a). In Tegenaria, for instance, they form one dorsal row on each tarsus and metatarsus, with the length of their respective hair shafts gradually increasing toward the tip of the leg. The tibia, in contrast, has four rows of trichobothria with hair shafts of different lengths (Görner, 1965; Christian, 1971, 1973). The arrangement of trichobothria is constant within a species and is hence often used by systematicists to characterize certain spider species and to clarify

Figure 4.6 (a) Distribution of trichobothria on the dorsal side of a leg in Cupiennius; 2–6 groups occur on tibia and metatarsus; most trichobothria are concentrated on the distal tarsus. (After Barth et al., 1993). (b) Innervation of a trichobothrium of the house spider Tegenaria, longitudinal section. When the hair shaft is deflected (dashed line), the heImet structure pushes against the dendritic terminals (T), triggering nerve impulses. M = articulating membrane. (After Christian, 1973.) Inset: the directional sensitivity of a trichobothrium as seen from above; displacements of the hair shaft within each of the three sectors indicated are preferentially answered by one of three sensory cells (1, 2, 3). (After Görner, 1965.)

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taxonomic relationships (termed trichobothriotaxy; Emerit and Bonaric, 1975; Lehtinen, 1980). The large wandering spider Cupiennius has almost 1000 trichobothria: about 100 on each leg and about 50 on each palp (Barth et al., 1993; Barth, 2002). Even in small spiders such as Philodromus or Pardosa, there are 20–40 trichobothria per leg. Such a large number of trichobothria and their concentration on the distal leg segments suggest a behavioral significance. Interestingly, most web spiders exhibit much fewer trichobothria (about 10 per leg, mainly on the tibiae, none on the tarsi) than ground spiders (Peters and Pfreundt, 1986). On the other hand, web spiders have more slit sensilla (see below), which is probably related to the way they perceive prey—namely, through vibrations of the web. The most striking feature of the trichobothria is their extreme sensitivity, which lies mainly between 40 and 600 Hz. The shorter trichobothria move only a little at low frequencies; long trichobothria oscillate much more because their slender shafts reach into the higher, more turbulent air layers (Barth and Höller, 1999). The sensory cells are particularly well tuned for frequencies from 50 to 120 Hz, which corresponds to the number of wing beats per second in many insects. Indeed, a wandering spider such as Cupiennius can locate a buzzing fly accurately if it comes closer than 20–30 cm and sometimes jumps straight into the air to grasp it (fig. 4.7; Brittinger 1998). In contrast, web spiders do not attack a fly passing close by, but only raise their front legs in defense (Klärner and Barth, 1982). The long, slender trichobothrial hair shaft (5 μm) is suspended in a very thin cuticular membrane (0.5 μm; fig. 4.8) so that the slightest air current (1 mm/s) will make it quiver. The surface of the hair shaft has a feathery appearance owing to its many fine cuticular extensions. These extensions cause an increase of drag forces and thus a higher mechanical sensitivity toward air movements. Many trichobothria show a preferred direction of deflection (e.g., along the leg axis or perpendicular to it). The deflection angle is limited by the socket rim and was measured as 25–35°;

Figure 4.7 Air movement and prey capture in Cupiennius. (a) The spider is sitting on a leaf, while a tethered fly is buzzing nearby. These vibrations stimulate the trichobothria (Inset) and the spider raises its front legs. (b) The spider orients quickly toward the fly and gets ready to jump. (c) Within a few milliseconds the spider has catapulted itself onto the fly. (After Brittinger, 1998.)

Neurobiology

Figure 4.8 (a) Trichobothrium from the tarsus of a tarantula; the thin hair shaft (Hs) has been pulled out of its socket but remnants of the thin articulating membrane (M) are still recognizable. (b) Slightly oblique section of a trichobothrium in a young Latrodectus. This micrograph was taken just before the animal molted; thus the “outside” (exuvial space) is filled with hemolymph and hemocytes (Hc). 1,500 x.

it varies with the stimulus frequency (Barth et al., 1993). Four dendritic nerve endings attach to the specialized hair base (the “helmet”), and three of the four have a specific directional sensitivity (fig. 4.6, inset). Each sensory cell reacts to displacements within a defined sector, and there is little overlap between the three neurons (Görner, 1965; Harris and Mill, 1977a). In the field, air currents and low-frequency air vibrations (sound) are the normal stimuli. The air vibrations that an insect produces with its wings suffice to trigger a directed capture response from a hunting spider. Even a totally blinded spider can accurately locate a buzzing fly as much as 30 cm away (Görner and Andrews, 1969; Barth et al., 1993). For this reason trichobothria have also been called “touch-at-a-distance” receptors. Localization of a vibrating prey is still possible, even after all trichobothria have been plucked off (Hergenröder and Barth, 1983a; Reissland and Görner, 1985). This means that some other receptor must be involved. Most likely single slit sensilla on the tarsi elicit an oriented prey-catching behavior, whereas the trichobothria signal only a general alertness. In ground spiders, the trichobothria probably trigger either flight or attack; in web spiders they are believed to play a role in the localization of prey or enemies. In spiders living on the water surface, trichobothria can trigger oriented escape reactions, for instance, from frogs (fig. 6.14b; Suter, 2003). An interesting variation of trichobothria are the spoon- or racket-shaped bothria on the tarsi of many mygalomorph spiders. In contrast to the regular trichobothria with long, feathery hair shafts, those bothria have a short, spoon-shaped shaft

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arising from the typical socket. Although little is known about the possible function of these odd trichobothria, it has been suggested that they may be linked to the special hunting behavior of tube-dwelling spiders (e.g., trap door spiders; Buchli, 1969).

Slit Sense Organs The exoskeleton not only serves as a protective shield and as the insertion site for the muscles, but it also transmits mechanical stress that may be caused by substrate vibrations, by gravity, or by the spider’s own movements (Barth, 1976, 1985a). The specific stress (strain) receptors are the slit sense organs, or slit sensilla, which are embedded in the exoskeleton. They are distributed over the entire body surface but are most numerous on the legs. An adult Cupiennius, for instance, has more than 3000 slit sense organs. Of these, 85% lie in the hard exocuticle of the extremities, whereas only 3% are found in the soft abdominal cuticle (Barth and Libera, 1970). Slit sense organs may occur either singly or in groups (fig. 4.9). Most conspicuous are those groups where the slits run strictly parallel to each other. They are then called lyriform organs because their shape is reminiscent of a lyre. Lyriform organs are found mostly on the extremities (about 15 per leg), particularly near the joints (Figs 4.10). Single slit sensilla can be found anywhere on the body surface, yet some specific localization and orientation of these organs is still noticeable. On the legs, for instance, the single slits are generally oriented parallel to the leg axis (fig. 4.9a). There is no difference in the basic design of single slit sensilla and that of lyriform organs (Barth, 1971). Each slit is only 1–2 μm wide, yet it may be 8–200 μm long. The slit is bordered by a cuticular lip on either side, and the gap between these ridges is spanned by a thin cuticular membrane (fig. 4.11). Beneath this covering membrane, a trough extends downward and widens into a bell-shaped structure at the border of the exo- and mesocuticle. Each slit sensillum has two dendrites, but only one of these traverses the trough and attaches to the covering membrane. The dendritic tip contains a tubular body, which is a microtubule assembly characteristic of arthropod mechanoreceptors. The cuticular structures of the slit sensilla are important for transmitting adequate stimuli to the nerve endings. Even very small loads or slight strains on the cuticle lead to a deformation of the slit. Most effective are those forces that are oriented perpendicular to the slit (Barth, 1972 a, b). In technical terms one could say that the slits function as mechanical filters. When the slit narrows, the covering membrane is indented, and the tip of the dendrite becomes deformed. Only compression, not dilation, of the slit elicits nerve impulses (Barth, 1973b). In the lyriform organ all the slits are of different lengths, and peripheral slits can be deformed more easily than central ones (Barth and Pickelmann, 1975). This implies that they are differentially sensitive. The site of maximal compression usually coincides with the attachment site of the dendrite, which means that the system works with maximum sensitivity. The function of the slit sensilla cannot be generalized, as different slit sensilla are used for different tasks. Usually, the slit sensilla are categorized as proprioceptive

Neurobiology

Figure 4.9 (a) A single slit sensillum from the leg of a theridiid spider in the typical lengthwise orientation within the leg cuticle. 1,200 x. (b) A high magnification of the slits in the crab spider Diaea reveals the attachment sites of the dendrites as tiny cuticular rings (arrows). 1,900 x. (c) Metatarsal lyriform organ in Araneus diadematus. The slits are here arranged perpendicular to the leg axis and lie at the border of the metatarsus (Mt) and the tarsus (Ta). 1,000 x. (From Foelix, 1970a.)

mechanoreceptors, but this is not entirely accurate because the stimuli need not be related to the spider’s own movements. For a single tarsal slit sensillum, responses to airborne sound have been shown electrophysiologically (Barth, 1967); the highest sensitivity was noted between 300 and 700 Hz. Some slit sensilla on the pedicel may act as gravity receptors because they probably register the relative movements between prosoma and opisthosoma (Barth and Libera, 1970). Modified slit sensilla resembling the campaniform sensilla of insects occur on the spinnerets.

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Figure 4.10 Distribution of lyriform sensilla on the back side of the first leg of Cupiennius salei. Single slit sensilla are indicated as dashes, lyriform organs as black dots; the latter are enlarged to show greater detail. (After Barth and Libera, 1970.)

Figure 4.11 (a) Diagram of a single slit sensillum from a tarsus of Cupiennius. Each slit is supplied by two dendrites, but only one of these extends to the covering membrane. Exo, Meso = exo-, mesocuticle. (After Barth, 1971.) (b) Covering membrane of slit sensillum with dendritic attachment. 14,000 x. (c) Attachment site (arrow) of dendrite at the cover membrane (inside view of a single slit sensillum from an exuvium). 12,000 x

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They probably register movements of the spigots and control the tension of the dragline (Gorb and Barth, 1996). The metatarsal lyriform organ (fig. 4.9c) is a highly sensitive vibration receptor (Walcott and van der Kloot, 1959; Liesenfeld, 1961). In the web spider Zygiella (Araneidae) and Achaearanea (Theridiidae), a displacement of the leg tip by 0.1– 0.25 μm (at 2–5 kHz) sufficed to elicit a response. However, if a vibrating needle is hooked to the web, the spider will only attack within a narrow frequency range (400–700 Hz). It has been known for more than 100 years that spiders react to a vibrating tuning fork in the same manner as to a buzzing insect (Boys, 1881; Barrows, 1915). Even small vibrations on the water surface can be perceived by slit sense organs: insects which have fallen onto the water and begin to struggle are quickly and precisely located by the pirate spider Dolomedes (Bleckmann and Barth, 1984). Vibrations, incidentally, are important not only for capturing prey but also during courtship, when the male signals his presence to the female (see chapter 7). Tibial and femoral lyriform organs are used for kinesthetic orientation. Wandering spiders (Cupiennius, Pardosa) can normally orient themselves according to their previous motility pattern; that is, they can retrace the direction and distance of a previous run without the help of external stimuli (fig. 4.12). This is no longer true if the tibial or femoral lyriform organs have been destroyed (Seyfarth and Barth, 1972; Görner and Zeppenfeld, 1980; Seyfarth et al., 1982). Slit sense organs are typical of all arachnids, but in none of the arachnid orders (harvestmen, whip spiders, whip scorpions, and scorpions) are they as diversified as in the true spiders (Araneae). Whereas spiders have about 300 slit sensilla per leg,

Figure 4.12 Involvement of lyriform organs in kinesthetic orientation. The spider (Cupiennius) caught a fly and was then chased away; the dead fly was moved to another place (*). In (a), a normal spider returns in a direct course to the previous capture site. In (b), all tibial lyriform organs had been destroyed; the direction of the return run (indicated by the angle α) deviates markedly from the ideal course (dashed line). (After Seyfarth and Barth, 1972.)

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whip spiders and harvestmen have only 45 or 58, respectively (Barth and Stagl, 1976). It is interesting that similar sense organs, the campaniform sensilla, are found in insects; these insect organs likewise measure strain-induced deformation of the cuticle.

Proprioceptors Aside from the lyriform organs, spiders possess a number of other sensory organs that provide information about their own bodies (e.g., the position or the movements of a joint). Such joint receptors may be long tactile hairs, which are close to an articulation and become bent when the leg is flexed (Seyfarth, 1985). A special case of such sensilla is represented by the hair plates, which have also been discovered in several spiders (Seyfarth, 1985; Seyfarth et al., 1990): many short tactile hairs occupy a small area on the coxae. During locomotion they are pressed down by the overlying pleural membrane (stippled area in fig. 1.2a). Such proprioceptive hair plates have been known in insects for a long time (Pringle, 1938); they control body posture and also act as gravity receptors (Markl, 1962). An important group of proprioceptors in spiders are the internal joint receptors. Several groups of sensory cells (ganglia) lying inside the palps and legs of spiders (fig. 4.13a) provide the animal with information about each joint (Rathmayer, 1967; Rathmayer and Koopmann, 1970). These proprioceptors register not only the position, but also the beginning, direction, and velocity of changes in position of a joint. The more freedom of movement a joint has, the more proprioceptor ganglia are present. The coxa-trochanter joint, which can move in all directions, has five proprioceptive ganglia. All the other joints possess only two or three ganglia, which are located near the pivoting points of the joint. Within a given joint, one ganglion may be sensitive only to bending, while the other may respond only to stretching of the joint (Mill and Harris, 1977). The sensory cells of the ganglion are multipolar and lie directly below the joint membrane (fig. 4.13b; Parry, 1960). Their dendrites fan out into the hypodermis beneath the joint membrane and terminate there as delicate free nerve endings. The shearing forces generated during leg movement are presumably transmitted to the dendritic terminals via rigid hypodermis cells (Foelix and Choms, 1979). The situation is further complicated by small nerve fibers that make synaptic contacts (fig.4.30a; 4.34b) with the sensory cells and their dendrites. These efferent nerve fibers possibly originate in the CNS and might control (inhibit) the activity of the proprioceptor. Corresponding synaptic connections have been found in other spider mechanoreceptors such as tactile hairs and slit sensilla (FabianFine et al., 1999, 2000).

Chemical Senses It has been known for a long time that spiders react to chemical stimuli. Just as humans can differentiate between the sense of smell (olfaction) and taste, so can spiders. Taste involves contact with a substance, usually at high concentration,

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Figure 4.13 Position and structure of proprioreceptors in a spider leg. (a) Each leg contains 20 receptor groups, which invariably lie near the joints. (After Rathmayer and Koopmann, 1970; Seyfarth et al., 1985.) (b) Longitudinal section of R10, a receptor group located at the femur-patella joint. Ten sensory cells form a compact ganglion, which gives off branched dendrites. The dendritic terminals fan out into the hypodermis cells (Hy) underlying the joint membrane. (After Foelix and Choms, 1979.)

whereas olfaction involves volatile substances that affect receptors over relatively large distances, and often at very low concentrations. With many highly volatile substances (such as essential oils), one can easily elicit a behavioral reaction from the spider simply by putting the compound close to the animal (Peckham and Peckham, 1887) Strongly odoriferous substances usually cause the spider to run away, or at least to exhibit a local reaction such as withdrawing a leg. Although such experiments prove the existence of an olfactory sense, they tell us little about the significance of olfaction under natural conditions. In the natural environment the spider most likely uses olfaction to find a mate during courtship and perhaps to recognize prey and enemies (see chapter 9). It has been shown that male spiders are apparently attracted by the “scent” given off by the female (Blanke, 1972, 1975b; Willey and Jackson, 1993). A male will not be attracted to a female until just before her last molt; immediately after she molts, however, often several males will flock around her web. Presumably the mature female produces sex-specific substances (sex pheromones) that attract the male. Such pheromonal effects are well known from studies of insects (such as butterflies),

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and the pheromones involved have been chemically analyzed in great detail. The sex pheromones of only a few spiders have been identified chemically (e.g., R-3hydroxybutyric acid in a linyphiid; Schulz and Toft, 1993). Although there can be little doubt about the spider’s ability to smell, the location of the olfactory organs has been under debate for a long time. The tarsal organs (fig. 4.14a) have remained likely candidates since they were first described in detail by Blumenthal (1935). Usually the tarsal organs are small pits on the dorsal side of each tarsus, although in some spider families they may appear rod shaped, like a hair (Forster, 1980). In either case they are multiply innervated (by about 20 neurons) and are connected to the external environment by seven small pores (Foelix and Chu-Wang, 1973b). The first electrophysiological investigations showed that

Figure 4.14 (a) Tarsal organ from a leg of a theridiid spider. The dendritic endings of seven sensilla lie within the bright cuticular pit. Inset: Internal view of the tarsal organ in Cupiennius (exuvium), showing the dendritic sheaths (d) leaving the cuticular pit. 950 x. (Photo: Anton and Tichy.) (b) Electrophysiological recording from the tarsal organ (Cupiennius). Brief exposure to moist air (50% humidity) elicits responses from a moist cell (M), whereas dry air triggers a dry cell (D) of smaller amplitude. (After Ehn and Tichy, 1994.)

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different volatile substances can excite the tarsal organs (Dumpert, 1978). However, according to more recent studies (Ehn and Tichy, 1994), the tarsal organs are primarily hygroreceptors. Each of the seven sensilla consists of three sensory cells, two responding to changes in humidity (fig. 4.14b,) and the third one reacting to changes in temperature. The sensitivity of these sensory cells is noteworthy: while the “warm” cell can resolve temperature differences of 0.4°C, the “moist” and “dry” cells will discriminate differences of 10% in humidity. Such humidity receptors serve a vital role for most spiders—namely, avoiding possible dessication. They enable spiders to find the right moisture in their environment and also to find water droplets (dew), which they can imbibe directly. Although the tarsal organ does respond to certain pungent odors such as acids or ammonia vapor, it appears to be unresponsive to alcohols, aldehydes, esters, and so on, and to natural scents coming from other spiders or insects. Thus we are still left with the question of where the spider’s odor receptors are actually located. A putative olfactory organ was described between the rostrum and the palps (Legendre, 1956), but its function has never been determined. The most important chemoreceptors of spiders are the contact chemoreceptors, or taste hairs, which are found mainly on the distal segments of the legs and palps (Foelix, 1970b; Foelix and Chu-Wang, 1973b; Harris and Mill, 1973). At first glance these hair sensilla resemble the normal tactile hairs, yet they differ from them in three respects: (1) they arise at a steep angle (about 70°) from the leg surface; (2) the hair shaft is S-shaped; and (3) the hair tip is open to the outside (fig. 4.15). Each taste hair is usually innervated by 21 sensory cells: 2 nerve endings (mechanoreceptors) with tubular bodies terminate at the hair base, while the other 19

Figure 4.15 (a) Chemosensitive hairs have a wide socket, a curved hair shaft with a spiral ornamentation, and a blunt tip (arrow) (Xysticus). (b) The tip has a distinct pore opening (arrow) that is typical of taste hairs. (Photo: Jantscher). (c) Serial cross sections of the hair tip show several dendritic nerve endings (de) being exposed to the outside. (Photos: Chu-Wang and Foelix.)

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Figure 4.16 (a) Diagram of a chemosensitive hair. Two mechanosensitive dendrites (arrow) terminate at the hair base, while the chemosensory dendrites traverse the hair shaft until they reach the terminal pore opening. (After Foelix and Chu-Wang, 1973b.) (b, c) Electrophysiological recording after stimulation of a single hair sensillum. (b) Stimulation with a 1 M salt solution causes several neurons to respond with spikes. (c) Displacement (D) of the hair shaft in a distal or proximal direction triggers the response of a mechanoreceptor at the hair base. (After Harris and Mill, 1977a, b.)

(chemosensitive) dendrites traverse the hair shaft to the opening near the hair tip (fig. 4.16). An adult spider (Araneus) can have more than 1000 chemosensitive hairs, most of which are concentrated on the tarsi of the first legs. This distribution helps explain many observations of spider behavior. For instance, spiders readily accept freshly killed flies after briefly touching them with their legs. Old dead flies, in contrast, are quickly discarded (Heil, 1936; Eberhard, 1969). Apparently spiders can determine the chemical properties of a substrate merely by probing it with their tarsi. Bristowe (1941, 1958) noted this ability in many different spiders and coined the term “tasteby-touch” sense. The observation that most spiders drop certain bugs or ticks after briefly touching them can be easily explained by the presence of chemicals detected by the taste hairs. The chemical sensitivity of these sensilla has also been proved directly by using electrophysiological methods (Drewes and Bernard, 1976; Harris

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and Mill, 1977b). Aside from salt and sugar solutions, many amino acids (particularly proline) were found to be effective stimulants (Vallet et al., 1998). In addition to testing the quality of food, contact chemoreceptors are also used during courtship. Many male ground-living spiders follow the trail of a conspecific female and often begin their courtship rituals (such as palp drumming) when they encounter threads she has laid down (Bristowe and Locket, 1926; Kaston: 1936; Rovner, 1968a; Dijkstra, 1976). While walking along the female’s dragline, the male will keep the inside of both palps in close contact with her thread (fig. 7.21; Tietjen, 1977). Interestingly, male palps bear about three times as many chemosensitive hairs as in females. Such sexual dimorphism is well known from insect antennae, which also exhibit many more sensilla in the male. Most likely, some specific substances (sex pheromones) are associated with the female’s silk, since it can trigger the male’s courtship behavior. If the female’s spinnerets are sealed with wax so that no silk can be deposited on the ground, then the male fails to court (Dondale and Hedgekar, 1973). So far, little is known about pheromones in spiders (Schulz, 2004). For instance, it is not clear where exactly pheromones are produced and how they are perceived. In Cupiennius, the female sex pheromone (S-1,1′-dimethylcitrate) is attached to the dragline (Schulz et al., 2000). The male spider apparently registers the specific scent (or taste?) with chemosensitive hairs on his palps (Tichy et al., 2001). Volatile sex pheromomes have been identified in the desert spider Agelenopsis aperta (8-methyl2-nonanone; Papke et al., 2001) and recently in the wasp spider Argiope bruennichi (trimethyl methylcitrate; Chinta et al., 2010). In general, it can be said that airborne pheromones cause males to search for females, whereas contact pheromones tend to stimulate male courtship directly (Gaskett, 2007). It seems that olfaction is involved mainly in web spiders (Blanke, 1972), but also in some ground spiders (Tietjen, 1979a,b). The borderline between olfaction and taste is not very distinct, and it may well be that the taste hairs also sense certain smells. Contact chemoreception has been extensively studied in insects. The hair receptors of insects are similar to those described for spiders, and they are similarly located on the legs and mouth parts. In flies, stimulation of a single tarsal hair with sugar water triggers the extension of the proboscis. A comparable reaction was elicited from wolf spiders after a single chemosensitive hair on the palp was touched with a 0.2 M salt solution: the spider responded by flicking the entire palp in withdrawal (Drewes and Bernard, 1976). Some chemosensitive hairs do occur on the mouth parts (on the maxillae and labium), but the presence of “taste cells” in the pharynx (Millot, 1936, 1946) remains questionable. More recent microscopic investigations of the gullet have shown that the supposed “taste cells” are in fact gland cells (De la Serna de Estaban et al., 1985). Nonetheless, it is known that spiders wipe their mouth parts extensively after having bitten into distasteful prey (Bristowe, 1941). An extremely high concentration of chemosensitive hairs was recently found in male Liphistius spiders, where up to 2,000 hairs occur on a single tarsus. Since these hairs are absent in females and juveniles, it is very likely that these hairs are specialized for the female pheromone (Foelix et al., 2010).

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Vision In most spiders the sense of vision plays only a minor role in behavior. Many spiders are active at night and are thus more dependent on tactile and chemical cues than on sight. For web spiders, visual stimuli seem to be especially unnecessary, since these spiders can build their webs at night and can catch their prey in total darkness. But to conclude from these observations that vision is irrelevant for such spiders would be premature. The orb weaver Araneus sexpunctatus (synonym Nuctenea umbratica) can detect very subtle changes in light intensity (Homann, 1947); the time it leaves its retreat in the evening is apparently closely related to the diminishing light at dusk. Other orb weavers drop very quickly out of the hubs of their webs when an observer approaches them, and this behavior is most likely a response to visual stimuli alone. Vision is important to some spiders other than orb weavers. Sheet-web spiders (Agelenidae) and wolf spiders (Lycosidae) can perceive polarized light, and they use it to orient themselves. For most modern hunting spiders (Lycosidae, Thomisidae, Salticidae), the sense of vision is important, not only for capturing prey but also for recognizing the opposite sex during courtship. Jumping spiders kept in the dark (or under dark red light) cannot catch prey or notice a conspecific (Jackson, 1977). Even if a fly bumps into the spider (Phidippus), she will not attempt to seize it. However, this is not true for all species: Trite planiceps is capable of capturing prey under red light and even in the dark (Forster, 1982, 1985; Taylor et al., 1998). Apparently it uses vibratory cues for a successful orientation. In a later section we will look in more detail at the highly developed eyes of salticids.

Eye Structure and Function Most spiders have eight eyes arranged in two or three rows on the frontal carapace. These are referred to as anterior median eyes (AME), anterior lateral eyes (ALE), posterior median eyes (PME), or posterior lateral eyes (PLE), according to their position (figs 4.17, 4.21). All eyes are ocelli, or simple eyes. Beneath a single cuticular lens lie a cellular vitreous body and the visual cells, which together with pigment cells compose the retina (fig. 4.18; Blest, 1985). Structurally the eyes are of two different types, main eyes and secondary eyes (figs. 4.18, 4.19; Homann, 1928; Land, 1985). The main eyes are always the AME. The light-sensitive parts (rhabdomeres) of the visual cells lie distally; that is, they point toward the light, and are thus called everted eyes (fig. 4.18b). Since the main eyes lack a reflecting layer (tapetum), they appear black. In some spiders the retina can be displaced sideways by the action of one to six muscles, which leads to a considerable increase of the visual field (fig. 4.21). Actual focusing of the image does not occur; this is not really necessary, since the lenses are small and of short focal length, yielding a large depth of field for objects at close range. In Cupiennius an object must be no no closer than 4 mm away for the main eyes to be in focus and 7–19 mm away for the secondary eyes to produce a sharp image (Barth, 2002).

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Figure 4.17 (a) Head-on view of the jumping spider Saitis barbipes. Most of the frontal carapace is occupied by the anterior row of eyes. (Photo: Antoine.) (b) Horizontal section through the anterior row of eyes. AME = anterior median eyes, ALE = anterior lateral eyes, PLE = posterior lateral eyes, ON = optic neuropil of the CNS, R = retina. 75 x.

The optic nerve usually arises from the middle of the eye cup. In some spiders (such as Agelenidae), however, the optic nerve emanates from one side of the eye cup, because the axon of each visual cell originates laterally (fig. 4.18b). The main eyes of most spiders are small and have few visual cells (Homann, 1971). Jumping spiders (Salticidae) and crab spiders (Thomisidae) are an exception; their specialized main eyes are discussed below. Those spiders with only six eyes (Dysderidae, Sicariidae, Oonopidae) lack main eyes. The secondary eyes are “inverted”; that is, the light-sensitive rhabdomeres point away from the incoming light (fig. 4.19). This construction is similar in principle to

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Figure 4.18 (a) Diagrammatic sagittal section through a main eye. (After Homann, 1971.) (b) Fine structure of a main eye of Agelena. Preret. M. = preretinal membrane, Sc = sensory cell. (After Schröer, 1977, unpubl.)

Figure 4.19 The three types of secondary eyes differ in the structure of their tapetum (T). (After Homann, 1971.)

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that of the vertebrate retina. Most secondary eyes possess a light-reflecting tapetum of crystalline deposits and therefore appear light. It has been assumed that such eyes are especially suited for seeing at night or in dim light, but this has never been substantiated experimentally. Although the tapetum varies a great deal among the different spider families, we can distinguish three basic types (fig. 4.19): (1) a primitive tapetum (PT), which fills the entire eye cup and leaves holes only for nerve fibers; (2) a canoe-shaped tapetum (CT), which consists of two lateral walls and a medial gap to allow nerve fibers to exit; and (3) a grated tapetum (GT), which resembles the grill of an oven. In some spider families (for instance, Salticidae and Oxyopidae). a tapetum is altogether lacking. Whereas the main eyes are structurally rather uniform in most spiders, the secondary eyes differ considerably among different spider families. Since these differences are small among members of one family, the anatomy of the secondary eyes has been used for the systematics of spiders (Homann, 1950, 1952). PT-type secondary eyes are typical for the Mesothelae, Orthognatha, and haplogyne spiders (the “primitive” spiders). The CT type is common among theridiids, agelenids, clubionids, amaurobiids, and many linyphiids and araneids. The GT type is found in many hunting spiders: Lycosidae, Pisauridae, and in the cribellate Psechridae and Zoropsidae. Even within the same species, different types of secondary eyes can occur together. Araneus diadematus, for instance, has ALE of the CT type. Its PLE, however, are only laterally of the CT type; medially, they lack a tapetum (Homann, 1971). The most efficient secondary eyes are those with a grated tapetum. The spherical lens ensures an image of high quality (fig. 4.20), and the elongated vitreous body provides the necessary distance for a sharp focus. The resolution of the image depends on the number and density of rhabdomeres in the retina. The large PME and PLE of the wolf spider Pardosa contain about 4000 rhabdomeres, whereas the small anterior eyes (AME, ALE) have only 300 and 120, respectively (Foelix, 1989, unpublished data). In the orb-web spider Araneus there are many fewer photoreceptors (ALE = 80), and the ancient liphistiid spider Heptathela has only 13–14 visual cells per eye (Uehara et al., 1994). Obviously, with such a small number of photoreceptor cells in the retina, a spider would not be expected to detect much more than movement (Homann, 1971). The secondary eyes may have some other advantages. For instance, in experiments with the funnel-web spider Agelena, it was noted that the secondary eyes are 100 times more sensitive to light than the main eyes (Görner and Claas, 1985). Similarly, the extremely enlarged secondary eyes (PME) of the nocturnal hunter Dinopis are about 3000 times more sensitive than the large main eyes of the diurnal jumping spider Portia (figs.4.20, 6.26, 9.9).

Perception of Polarized Light Although by human standards most spiders have poor vision, some spiders can see something we cannot—polarized light. Sunlight becomes polarized when light waves are scattered by molecules or other small particles in the earth’s atmosphere. The light waves then vibrate in a specific direction at each point of the sky.

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Figure 4.20 (a) The large lenses of jumping spider eyes (Portia) provide amazingly detailed images. (b) In this picture the images of a web spider (Zygiella) were photographed behind the lenses of the main eyes.

This results in a specific polarization pattern that changes with the position of the sun. Whereas the human eye, or generally speaking any vertebrate eye, cannot register the polarization pattern of the sky, arthropod eyes can. Studies of bees and ants have shown that they use polarized light for orientation (von Frisch, 1967; Wehner, 1976). Similar observations have been made for some wolf spiders and sheet-web spiders (Papi, 1955; Gömer, 1962; Magni, 1966). The wolf spider Arctosa perita dwells along the banks of rivers and the shores of lakes and can easily walk on the water’s surface (fig. 6.11). If this spider is thrown onto the water, it returns directly to shore (Papi, 1955). However, if Arctosa is transferred from its customary northern shore to the opposite southern shore of a lake and is then thrown onto the water, it will run out onto the lake, but only if the sky is clear. If the sky is overcast, the spider will return to the closest shore. Apparently, under a clear sky the spider orients itself by using the sun and the direction of the polarized light. It uses visual landmarks for its orientation if the sky is cloudy. In the large wolf spider Lycosa tarentula (fig. 1.9), it was shown experimentally that only the main eyes (AME) are capable of detecting polarized light: if the AME were

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covered with black paint, spiders could no longer orient toward their burrow. In contrast, covering any of the secondary eyes did not affect their homing performance (Ortega-Escobar and Muños-Cuevas, 1999). The sheet-web spider Agelena labyrinthica becomes disoriented during a return to its retreat if the normal pattern of light from the sky is changed by rotating a polarization filter above the spider (Görner, 1958). Again, it was shown that only the main eyes (AME) can analyze the plane of polarization. Apparently their ventral visual cells have rhabdomeres with specifically aligned microvilli that are probably responsible for detecting polarized light (Schroer, 1974, 1976). The retina of the main eye seems to be divided into two functional parts: a ventral part for polarized light perception and a dorsal part for the perception of relatively coarse images. A similar subdivision was also found in the AME of the wolf spider Lycosa tarentula (Kovoor et al., 1993). In some spiders the detection of polarized light takes place in the PME. This is the case in Drassodes (Gnaphosidae), where the lensless PME are located on top of the carapace, pointing skyward, and forming a right angle to each other. Apparently both eyes cooperate as polarization filters and are used for navigation. During dusk they work as an optical compass, enabling the spider to find its way back to the retreat (Dacke et al., 1999, 2001). Finally, even in some spiders that are not renowned for their visual system (in this case, the large tarantulas), a discrimination of polarized light was demonstrated in behavioral experiments (Henton and Crawford, 1966).

The Visual Sense of Jumping Spiders It is well known that the behavior of jumping spiders is strongly dependent on their visual sense. Orientation, prey capture, courtship, and escape are all essentially controlled by visual stimuli. Indeed, among the most distinctive features of jumping spiders are their large eyes. Especially impressive is the anterior row of eyes, which consists of the large main eyes (AME) and the slightly smaller ALE (fig. 4.20). The PLE are also of considerable size, whereas the PME are much reduced (some arachnologists refer to the PME as PLE, and vice versa). Many elegant experiments (Homann, 1928; Crane, 1949; Schmid, 1998; Ortega-Escobar, 2006) have demonstrated that the secondary eyes are primarily movement detectors, while the main eyes perceive detailed images (form perception). Before we discuss these experiments in any detail, we must become acquainted with the specialized anatomy of the jumping spider’s eyes. The efficiency of any eye is determined by the design of its optics and by the structure of the retina. Both are well developed in the eyes of jumping spiders. The main eyes are characterized by large lenses, a large vitreous body with a focal length of 770 μm and a retina with multiple layers of visual cells (fig. 4.21; Land, 1969a; Eakin and Brandenburger, 1971). The main eyes can be compared optically with a telephotographic lens, through which only a small area of an image can be seen, but at high resolution. The movable retinas of the main eyes partly compensate for the narrow angle of vision; six antagonistic muscles are attached to the main eye

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Figure 4.21 Horizontal section of the prosoma of a jumping spider. Visual angles of the various eyes are indicated. The angle (58°) given for the left main eye refers to the maximum visual angle that the spider can attain by using its retinal muscles to shift the eye cup laterally. Abbreviations as in Fig. 4.17. (After Homann, 1928 and Land, 1969b.)

(Scheuring, 1914), and they can move the retina in all three dimensions (fig. 4.21). This, of course, greatly increases the visual field. The retina is composed of four different layers of visual cells (fig. 4.22a), and it is possible that each layer is preferentially sensitive to a certain wavelength of light. De Voe (1975) and Yamashita and Tateda (1976) showed that the retina of a jumping spider indeed has different spectral sensitivities. Maximal sensitivities were found at wavelengths of 360, 480, 500, and 580 nm, and it was concluded that each retinal layer contains a different visual pigment. In the most distal layer (layer 4), the rhabdomeres are aligned roughly perpendicular to the rhabdomeres of layers 1–3. Therefore, one could expect that layer 4 might detect polarized light. The specialization of layer 4 is underscored by the fact that, for optical reasons, it can no longer receive a truly focused image. This corresponds somewhat to the situation found in insect ocelli, where the focal plane of the lens also lies behind the retina. Layer 1 is probably best suited for high-acuity vision (Land and Nilsson, 2002). Another interesting feature of the jumping spider’s main eyes is the distribution of the 1000 visual cells within the retina. The density of visual cells is 10 times higher in the central region (the fovea) than in the periphery (fig. 4.22b), and the angle of divergence between neighboring receptors is very small in the fovea (12’, compared to 40’ in the periphery). The spider’s greatest visual acuity must therefore lie in the center of the retina (Homann, 1928; Land, 1969b). Due to a

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Figure 4.22 Retina from the main eye of a jumping spider. (a) Horizontal section showing four different receptor layers (1–4), surrounded by a pigment layer. (b) Schematic frontal view of layer 1 of the retina; each circle represents the terminal of a visual cell. Note that the density of receptors is highest in the central retina (fovea). (After Land, 1969a.)

very small angle of divergence (2.4’), the best resolution was found in the main eyes of Portia (Williams and Mclntyre, 1980). This was convincingly demonstrated when Portia differentiated conspecifics from other jumping spiders, even at distances of 20–30 cm (Forster, 1982; Jackson and Blest, 1982; Harland et al., 1999). The back of the retina is covered by dark pigments, as in vertebrate eyes. The visual cells of the main eyes, however, lack the individual pigment screens found in the photoreceptors of the secondary eyes. The secondary eyes of jumping spiders are either elongated (the ALE have a focal length of 330 μm) or spherical (PLE with a focal length of 240 μm) and possess relatively large visual fields (Figs 4.21, 4.23). The extent of the entire visual field of a jumping spider is effectively the sum of the individual visual fields of the secondary eyes (fig. 4.24). It is significant that the visual fields of the ALE overlap by 40° (Homann, 1928); the resulting binocular vision enables the spider to estimate distances. The very narrow visual fields of the main eyes, in contrast, do not overlap. Structural characteristics of the secondary eyes are the lack of a tapetum, the location of the visual cell bodies outside the eye cup (fig. 4.23), and the occurrence of pigmented and unpigmented supporting cells between the rhabdomeres (fig. 4.25; Eakin and Brandenburger, 1971). The rhabdomeres consist of thousands of tiny fingerlike processes (microvilli) of the visual cell membrane; they are the site where the light-sensitive photopigment (rhodopsine) is located. Like in human visual cells, these microvilli are constantly regenerated and may differ during day and

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Figure 4.23 (a) PME of a jumping spider. The bodies of the visual cells (S) are situated outside the eye cup and thus do not interfere with the incoming light. A tapetum is lacking. L = lens, R = retina, Vb = vitreous body. 150 x. (b) ALE of a theridiid. The retina (R) is bordered by the canoe-shaped tapetum (T); a vitreous body is barely visible as a thin layer beneath the lens (L). The visual cells (S) are demarcated by pigment granules. 540 x.

Figure 4.24 The visual fields of the large secondary eyes (ALE, PLE) of a jumping spider (Phidippus) projected onto a sphere. Note that the visual fields of the ALE overlap, which allows binocular vision. The small visual fields of the main eyes are boomerang-shaped and lie within the overlapping zone of the ALE. Since the retinas of the main eyes can be moved by muscles, their visual fields can be shifted laterally (dotted arrows) and thus cover the same range as the ALE. (After Land, 1985.)

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Figure 4.25 Fine structure of the retina. (a) Longitudinal section of an ALE of a jumping spider. The rhabdomeres (Rh) of the visual cells are surrounded by pigmented (P) and unpigmented supporting cells (Sc). Rf = axons of visual cells. 3,600 x . Inset: The light-sensitive rhabdomeres consist of thousands of tiny, fingerlike processes (microvilli); their regular arrangement is shown here in cross-section. 44,000 x (b) Cross-section corresponding to (a). Note the pronounced isolation of the rhabdomeres by the interspersed pigment cells. 3,000 x.

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night: night-active wandering spiders (Cupiennius), for instance, have many more microvilli at night than during the day (Grusch et al., 1997). The single-layered retina has only one cell type, which is maximally sensitive to wavelengths between 535 and 540 nm (Yamashita and Tateda, 1976). The number of visual cells in the secondary eyes is much higher than in the main eyes: 3,000–6,000 cells in an ALE and 8,000–16,000 in a PLE versus around 1,000 in an AME (Land, 1972b). How does a jumping spider use its sophisticated eye structures? The exceptional visual abilities of jumping spiders become most evident during prey capture (Homann, 1928; Land, 1969b; Forster, 1982). Moving prey is usually first detected by the wide-angle lenses of the secondary eyes. These eyes respond to small movements of an object, analogous to our peripheral vision (Duelli 1978; Komiya et al., 1988). The maximum distance at which a spider can detect an object is about 3 m. When large dragonflies approached a jumping spider, the spider quickly turned and kept facing the dragonfly (Young and Lockley, 1988). However, for recognition, an object has to be much closer, perhaps 30 cm. If prey moves nearer than 20 cm, it becomes fixed with the movable retinas of the spider´s main eyes. The image of the prey is projected exactly onto the fovea, the central region of the retina. If the prey moves on, the eye muscles shift the retinas appropriately to maintain foveal vision. Behavioral experiments show that a true perception of images occurs at distances of less than 8–10 cm. In this range only about 100 visual cells are stimulated, yet even this may suffice to allow prey to be distinguished from conspecifics. At this distance the spider will pursue the prey, and at less than 3–4 cm it will stalk it. During the recognition process, the muscles of the retinas are in constant motion (fig. 4.26): the shape of the object is quickly scanned horizontally, and, at the same time, the main eye is rotated along its optical axis. This scanning procedure is apparently necessary to permit identification of an object; only thereafter does the spider stalk the prey. The final leap is performed at a distance of 1–2 cm. From the foregoing description, a definite division of labor between the main eyes and the secondary eyes is thus apparent. Although most of the total retinal area

Figure 4.26 The movable retinas can be nicely seen in the main eyes of the salticid Lyssomanes. In (a) they are aligned in parallel, but then move independently in both eyes (b, c) so that the dark background of each eye will partly disappear. In (d) the main eyes are “cross-eyed,” looking into different directions. (Photos: Hill.)

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belongs to the secondary eyes, it serves only for perceiving and locating movement. The small central region of the main eyes’ retina is the only area suitable for form perception. The importance of the main eyes becomes clear when one covers the lenses of the main eyes with opaque wax (Homann, 1928): stalking behavior is completely absent during prey capture, and the final leaps are too long and often unsuccessful. A male with his main eyes blinded will likewise not perform the typical courtship dances that he usually does in front of the female (fig. 7.23). In contrast, eliminating the visual input from the secondary eyes produces less drastic effects. Obviously, the total visual field becomes extremely narrow, and therefore the spider has difficulty in noticing the prey at all. If prey is located, the stalking behavior is initiated much earlier (at a distance of 10 cm), and the final jump is aimed too far. The perception of images can be impressively demonstrated by setting a mirror in front of a male jumping spider. The mirror image is then threatened like a real conspecific opponent (fig. 4.27). This reaction astonished naturalists already during the 19th century: “the hunting spider is, I fancy, the lowest animal in the scale, which has been deceived or flattered by a looking glass” (Hutchinson, 1879, p. 581; see also Peckham and Peckam, 1894). This behavior seems to be unique for jumping spiders; wolf spiders, which also orient visually, do not react to their image in a mirror (Rovner, 1989). Models of prey will also be attacked if they are placed in front of a jumping spider. It is interesting that three-dimensional models are definitely preferred to two dimensional figures (Drees, 1952). Salticids (and lycosids) are also capable of perceiving video images, which they apparently interpret as real (fig. 4.28). They behave appropriately when presented with images of prey

Figure 4.27 A male jumping spider (Trite auricoma) threatens his own image in a mirror. (Photo: L. Forster.)

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Figure 4.28 Visually acute spiders can perceive video images and respond to them as if real. Here a male wolf spider (Schizocosa ocreata) is presented with two images of courting males, to which he may react with signaling movements. (Photo: Uetz.)

(i.e., they attempt to attack the picture on the screen); courtship behavior can be elicited by showing the opposite sex of the same species (D. L. Clark and Uetz, 1990). That jumping spiders are often conspicuously colored has been noted repeatedly as an indirect argument for their color vision. This seems reasonable, since in fish and birds a colorful phenotype is often correlated with the ability to differentiate colors. Somewhat more convincing evidence comes from behavioral experiments in which jumping spiders could distinguish blue and orange paper strips from 26 shades of gray (Crane, 1949; Kaestner, 1950; Nakamura and Yamashita, 2000). The sensitivities of the main eyes to different parts of the visible spectrum further argue for color vision (De Voe, 1975; Yamashita and Tateda, 1976; Yamashita, 1985). Since we still lack rigorous proof, we should perhaps remember that it took several decades to demonstrate color vision in the domestic cat. What use jumping spiders make of their ultraviolet (UV) receptors (maximum spectral sensitivity at 360 nm) also remains to be explained. Experiments dealing with prey capture under UV light have given both positive (Young and Wanless, 1967) and negative results (Kaestner, 1950). Most spider eyes seem to be insensitive to red light, as are most insect eyes. A spectral sensitivity between 330 and 700 nm was found in the jumping spider Maevia (Peaslee and Wilson, 1989). However, the sensitivity was much reduced around 700 nm (i.e., in the red part of the spectrum). It should be emphasized that the visual acuity of jumping spider eyes can easily compete with that of the compound eyes of insects (Homann, 1928). The main eyes of a jumping spider are even superior to the insect’s compound eyes in optical resolution. And even human eyes are only about five times better in terms of resolution (Land and Nilsson, 2002).The commonly used term simple ocelli does not apply

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here; on the contrary, the highly developed eyes of jumping spiders demonstrate just how sophisticated ocelli can be.

Temperature Perception There can be little doubt that spiders can sense changing temperatures. The distal parts of the legs and spinnerets seem to be most sensitive to thermal stimuli, but no specific thermoreceptors have been identified so far (Den Otter, 1974; Pulz, 1986). It has been hypothesized that a change in temperature would deform the shaft of certain hair sensilla, thereby transmitting mechanical forces onto nerve endings. The only proof for temperature-sensitive cells comes from electrophysiological recordings of the tarsal organs (Ehn and Tichy, 1994, 1996; see fig. 4.14). In addition to perceiving the ambient temperature, spiders can apparently sense temperatures within their own body. If body temperature rises above 32° C, tarantulas will move abruptly and display avoidance behavior. Again, it is not known where the internal temperature sensors are located, but the heart ganglion has been suggested as a possible candidate (Pulz, 1987).

Multimodal Sensory Input After having dealt separately with the various sense organs, it should be stressed that under normal conditions all the different sensory inputs are working together, providing multiple messages for a spider (Uetz, 2000; Gibson and Uetz, 2008). For instance, the courtship of jumping spiders and wolf spiders is not only guided by visual signals, but vibratory (seismic) and chemical signals also come into play (Elias et al., 2005; Uetz and Roberts, 2002; Roberts and Uetz, 2004, 2005; Rypstra et al., 2009). These different channels may convey redundant information or contribute different qualities. The chemical signals may identify the particular species, sex, reproductive state, receptivity, and so on (Roberts and Uetz, 2005), but this information is slightly different from the one gained through seismic or visual signals (McClintock and Uetz, 1996; Uetz and Norton, 2007; Gibson and Uetz, 2008). It was noted that female wolf spiders (Schizocosa) responded more readily to conspecific males if multiple modalities were involved (Roberts et al., 2007). Some modalities can make a fine scale analysis that others cannot: for instance, the visual input of Schizocosa ocreata allows females to differentiate between males of their own species (which bear prominent hair tufts on their forelegs) and related species such as S. rovneri (which lack hair tufts). Amazingly, even in cases where only one leg is tufted and the other is not (as is the case in regenerated limbs), the female prefers such an asymmetric male over a male without any leg tufts (Uetz et al., 1996; Uetz and Smith, 1999). The sensory input of many, but not all, spiders is dominated by mechanical stimuli (e.g., tactile, vibratory, air movements, cuticular strains). This provides the spider with a detailed picture of the mechanical events in the environment. The

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peripherally located sensory organs act as selective filters, which already influence the spider´s behavior. It is noteworthy that the number of sensory cells in the periphery far exceeds the number of nerve cells in the central nervous system (Barth, 2002).

Peripheral Nerves The axons of the various sensory organs form small bundles and join with others to build up sensory nerves. All the nerve fibers passing from the periphery toward the central nervous system (CNS) are called afferents. Conversely, all the nerve fibers emanating from the CNS to reach the effector organs (muscles, glands) in the periphery, are called efferents. The peripheral nerves may consist of purely afferent (sensory) fibers or purely efferent (motor) fibers, or both. Some of the efferent axons may contain small dark granules, which identify them as neurosecretory fibers. Only the peripheral nerves of the legs and palps have been studied in some detail. There are three main nerves (A, B, C; fig. 2.21) in each extremity, a small nerve A (motor and sensory fibers), a medium-sized nerve B (only motor fibers), and a large nerve C (only sensory fibers) (Rathmayer, 1965a, b). Whereas nerve C contains thousands of small nerve fibers, nerve B has only a few hundred axons, although of large diameter. The actual number of nerve fibers depends on the species and also on the size of the spider. Large spiders, having many more hair sensilla than small ones, also have many more afferent fibers. In the wandering spider Cupiennius, the course of the three leg nerves has been followed through all the leg segments (Seyfarth et al., 1985). In the distal parts (tarsus, metatarsus) only nerve C is conspicuous, consisting of two separate bundles of sensory fibers. Within the tibia they merge into a large single nerve. In the proximal parts (femur, trochanter, coxa), many more sensory nerves are added (fig. 4.29). The large motor fibers of nerve B lie on the dorsal side of nerve C. Although the distribution of the three nerves is the same in all legs, the number of nerve fibers is not. The front legs have more sensory nerve fibers than the hind legs because the front legs bear more sensory organs. This was nicely demonstrated in the small orbweb spider Zygiella, in which 7000 sensory axons were counted in leg 1 (coxal level), 4400 in leg 2, 4200 in leg 3, and 3900 in leg 4 (Foelix et al., 1980). The sensory fibers are rather small (0.35. μm average diameter), thus allowing for tight packing of thousands of axons within a slender spider leg. Furthermore, there is also an orderly packing of the sensory fibers within the nerve C (Brüssel and Gnatzy, 1985). For instance, all of the hundreds of axons coming from tibial sensory organs remain together in one group without intermingling with axons coming from the metatarsus (fig. 4.29, inset). This orderly arrangement of sensory fibers is even maintained after entering the CNS; receptor fibers from distal leg segments terminate in ventral fiber tracts, those from proximal leg segments project into dorsal sensory tracts (Anton and Barth, 1993). A corresponding somatotopic organization of sensory fibers is also present in insect leg nerves (Zill et al., 1980).

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Figure 4.29 The leg nerves consist of a small branch A and a massive branch B, C (Cupiennius; after Seyfarth et al., 1985.) (Upper right) Cross-section of a leg nerve at the coxa level. The dorsal part (of branch B, C) is made up by large motor axons (Moto), the ventral part by small sensory axons. These sensory fibers are grouped in bundles, according to their origin from different leg segments. Fe = femur, Tr = trochanter, Pt = patella, Mt = metatarsus. (After Brüssel and Gnatzy, 1985.)

Microscopically, each leg nerve consists of several axon bundles that are separated by glial cell extensions. Each bundle may contain from a few up to several hundreds of “naked” axons, which are not insulated from each other (as is the case in vertebrates). On the outside the glial cells are covered with a basal lamina and also with collagen fibrils (Foelix et al., 1980; Foelix, 1985). Although one might say that the fine structure of peripheral spider nerves is similar to that of insect nerves, there is one important difference: the peripheral nerves of spiders often contain synaptic connections (Foelix, 1975, 1985), which are lacking in insects. Such synaptic contacts may occur between axons or between axons and sensory cells (fig. 4.30). Their functional implication (peripheral summation, central inhibition?) is still unclear, yet we must assume that some nervous integration is already taking place at the periphery. In spider eyes, synapses from efferent fibers have been found on the photoreceptor cells (Uehara and Uehara, 1996). Apparently these fibers control the circadian sensitivity in the eyes of nocturnal spiders (Yamashita, 2002).

Central Nervous System Compared with other arthropods, spiders have a highly condensed CNS. Instead of a chain of interconnected ganglia (a ventral nerve cord) extending throughout the

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Figure 4.30 Synapses in the peripheral nervous system. (a) An axosomatic contact on a sensory neuron in the leg of Amaurobius. Note one synaptic vesicle (arrow) fusing with the presynaptic membrane. 36,000 x. (b) Motor endplate on a leg muscle of Zygiella. The synaptic vesicles (sv) align in a single row at the presynaptic membrane before releasing their neurotransmitter onto the muscle membrane. mf = myofilaments, sr = sarcoplasmic reticulum; T = T-system. 75,000 x.

body, spiders have only two compact ganglia: the supra- and the subesophageal ganglion. They are both located in the prosoma (figs 4.31, 4.32). True abdominal ganglia exist only in the embryo. During development they migrate into the prosoma, where they fuse with the ganglia of the appendages, giving rise to the large subesophageal ganglion. The much smaller supraesophageal ganglion sits in front and on top of the subesophageal ganglion; it consists of the cheliceral ganglia and the “brain” (the association centers). The boundary between supra- and subesophageal ganglion is marked by the esophagus, which divides the CNS horizontally (fig. 4.32b). Several nerves emanate from each ganglion and together constitute the peripheral nervous system.

General Structure That the compact CNS of spiders is composed of individual ganglia can clearly be seen in young spiderlings, where septa of connective tissue, which also contain blood vessels and sometimes tracheoles, delineate the borders of adjacent ganglia (fig. 4.32a). In the ancient Mesothelae, segmentation of the CNS is still apparent in the adult (Millot, 1949). The star-shaped subesophageal ganglion consists mainly of the fused ganglia of the 10 appendages (fig. 4.31a). The different ganglia are interconnected by many interneurons. Motor nerves for the palps and legs exit laterally from these ganglia.

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Figure 4.31 (a) Nervous system of Tegenaria, dorsal view. The CNS lies in the prosoma and gives off nerve bundles to the extremities and to the organs of the opisthosoma. (After Gerhardt and Kaestner, 1938.) (b) CNS of Tegenaria lateral view. The esophagus (Eso) divides the CNS into a supra- (SUPRA) and a subesophageal ganglion (SUB). Chel = cheliceral nerves, PG = palpal ganglion, 1–4 = leg ganglia, AG = abdominal ganglion, CE = cauda equina, CB = central body, CP = corpora pedunculata, S1,2 = Schneider’s organs 1 and 2. (After Kühne, 1959.)

Caudally, the abdominal ganglia are attached to the subesophageal ganglion, and from them a tapered nerve bundle, the cauda equina, arises, which innervates the entire opisthosoma. The cheliceral ganglia stem originally from the subesophageal ganglion, but during embryonic development they migrate forward and come to rest on either side above the esophagus. Topographically then, the cheliceral ganglia belong to the supraesophageal ganglion, though, remarkably, the fibers that connect these ganglia remain behind the esophagus (the postoral commissures). The cheliceral ganglia give rise to the nerves for the musculature of the chelicerae, the pharynx, and the venom glands (Saint Remy, 1887). The “brain” itself receives only the optic nerves and thus contains only visual and association centers. The combination of the cheliceral ganglia and the brain is called the syncerebrum, or supraesophageal ganglion.

Cellular Structure Histological sections show a distinct division of the CNS into a marginal layer of neurons (the cortex) and a central mass of nerve fibers (the neuropil) (fig. 4.33).

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Figure 4.32 Prosoma of a young Tegenaria, longitudinal section. (a) The CNS is clearly divided into separate ganglia (cf. Fig. 4.31). Ao = aorta, Cb = central body, Ch = chelicera, Chg = cheliceral ganglion, E = eye, ES = endostemite, GI = venom gland, MX = maxilla, Pg = palpal ganglion, 1-4 = leg ganglia. (b) This sagittal section demonstrates the subdivision of the CNS into a central neuropil (Np) and a peripheral cortex (Ctx). O = esophagus, Ph = pharynx, Ro = rostrum, St = sucking stomach. 220 x.

The surface of the CNS is covered by a connective tissue layer, which is rather thick in Orthognatha (Legendre, 1958, 1961b; Babu, 1965). The cell bodies of the neurons are found mostly on the ventral side of the CNS, and most of them give off only a single axon (that is, they are pseudo-unipolar; see fig. 4.39). Several different types of neurons can be distinguished, the largest of which are thought to be motoneurons; others are interneurons, which connect different ganglia, and some can be

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Figure 4.33 The complexity of the CNS is apparent in electron micrographs. (a) Border region of cortex (CTX) and neuropil (NP) of the central body. 2,700 x. (b) Detail from the neuropil. Innumerable small nerve fibers intertwine and make synaptic contacts (S). 11,500 x . Inset: The delicate ramifications result from repeated branching of one dendrite (Golgi preparation, 400 x).

identified as neurosecretory cells (Babu, 1965, 1969). The total number of motoneurons has been counted as 900 for a female orb-web spider (Argiope) but only 60 for the male (Babu, 1975). The entire CNS apparently contains 30,000 neurons, 13,000 of which belong to the supraesophageal ganglion. In the larger wandering spider Cupiennius, 100,000 neurons were counted for the whole CNS: 51,000 in the supraesophageal ganglion and 49,000 in the subesophageal ganglion (Babu and Barth, 1984). The typical synapse is a so-called dyad synapse, in which one presynaptic fiber containing synaptic vesicles contacts two postsynaptic nerve fibers (fig. 4.34). This divergent arrangement of synapses is commonly seen in the CNS of arthropods

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Figure 4.34 (a) Diagram of the typical dyad synapse found in the spider’s nervous system, in which one presynaptic fiber contacts two postsynaptic fibers (1, 2). Synaptic vesicles (sv) aggregate around a presynaptic density (D), fuse with the cell membrane (arrows) and release their neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft (C). (After Foelix and Choms, 1979.) (b) Dyad synapse from the peripheral nervous system in Zygiella, as seen at high magnification in the electron microscope (72,000 x).

(Fahrenbach, 1979; Foelix, 1985). Often, the connectivity is much more complex (e.g., by forming serial or reciprocal synapses between several different nerve fibers). The neuropil is a dense network of nerve fibers, and most of the synaptic connections occur there (fig. 4.33b). During postembryonic development, the number of nerve fibers forming the neuropil increases markedly (Meier, 1967) because of the repeated branching of the dendritic processes. The number of neurons within the cortex remains constant, however (Babu, 1975). Thus the apparent growth of the CNS is caused mostly by an increase of the neuropil. In very young spiderlings the CNS takes up almost 50% of the volume of the prosoma; in adult spiders the volume drops to 5–10%, even though the adult CNS is 10–20 times larger than in early nymphal stages (Babu, 1975). In terms of weight, the spider’s CNS makes up only 0.1 % of the total body weight in a tarantula, but 2.5% in wolf spiders and even 5% in jumping spiders (Meyer et al., 1984). These differences are most likely due to the optical centers, which are much more pronounced in the visually oriented wolf and jumping spiders. The neurotransmitters in the spider CNS are acetylcholine, about 10 different amino acids (e.g., glutamine, glycine, γ-aminobutyric acid [GABA], serine, taurine), and several biogenic amines (e.g., histamine, serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine; Meyer et al., 1984; Schmid et al., 1992). Analogous to the insect CNS (Walker,

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Figure 4.35 The dorsal giant fiber system in the CNS of Cupiennius. (a) Dorsal view: The cell bodies of 6 neurons (G) lie near the midline in the protocerebrum. The giant fibers descend into the subesophageal ganglion and enter longitudinal tracts (T) before branching into the ganglia of palps and legs (1-4). (b) Frontal section at the level of the protocerebrum showing branches in a dorsal and a ventral region of the leg ganglia. (c) Longitudinal section illustrating the extensive distribution of the giant fiber system through the entire CNS. ChelG = cheliceral ganglion. (After Schmid and Duncker, 1993.)

1982), it is believed that some of these neuroactive substances are excitatory (e.g., aspartate and glutamic acid), while others are inhibitory (e.g., glycine and GABA). Catecholamines can modulate certain behaviors or may cause unspecific behavioral arousal. Histamine was found in the visual system and seems to be mainly a neurotransmitter of photoreceptors. It also occurs in six giant neurons of the brain (fig. 4.35). Since the dendrites of these giant neurons branch into specific areas of the subesophageal ganglion, it is likely that they play a modulatory role on both the sensory inputs and the motor outputs (Schmid and Duncker, 1993). Octopamine, the invertebrate counterpart of noradrenaline, was also identified in the spider CNS. Its distribution suggests a role as a neurotransmitter/ modulator or even as a hormone at peripheral sites (Seyfarth et al., 1993).

Supraesophageal Ganglion (“Brain”) The dorsal part of the brain, the lobus opticus, receives information from all eight eyes and is a particularly complex part of the CNS. The visual fibers of the optic nerves project into specific areas of the optic lobe, where they make synapses with ganglia

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cells (Trujillo-Cenóz, 1965). If a fluorescent dye is injected into a specific eye, the dye will slowly spread from the retina through the optic nerve into a well-defined area within the optic lobe, the first optic neuropil (ON1). Using this method on each eye separately, one can draw a precise map of each ON1 for each eye (fig. 4.36).The neighboring eyes also have neighboring neuropils, and there is no overlap between those areas. In other words, the distribution of these optic neuropils in the brain corresponds to the arrangement of visual fields of the eyes (see fig. 4.24). Thus we can speak of a similar order in the visual pathway of spiders as we know it also from the visual system of vertebrates (retinotopy). The visual pathway, however, does not end in the first optic neuropil (ON1) but continues into two further relay stations (ON2, ON3). Furthermore, this pathway differs between main eyes and secondary eyes (fig. 4.37; Strausfeld and Barth, 1993). Generally speaking, the pathways coming from the main eyes seem to be involved in the perception of form and texture, whereas those originating from the secondary eyes are specialized for detecting (horizontal) motion (fig. 4.38; Strausfeld

Figure 4.36 Visual pathway from the eyes to the brain in a wolf spider (Pardosa). A small main eye (AME) is shown after injection of a fluorescent dye: the dye has spread through the 300 visual fibers into the first optic neuropil located in the dorsal brain (AME’). From similar experiments with the secondary eyes, a precise mapping of each eye and its target in the brain was obtained. The large PME and PLE (4,000 visual fibers each) project through the optic nerve (N. opt.) into specific dorsal and ventral regions (PME’, PLE’) of the brain. The tiny ALE (100 visual fibers) terminate in a small ventral region (ALE’). (After Foelix, 1989, unpubl.)

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Figure 4.37 Visual pathways of main and secondary eyes differ in the spider brain (Cupiennius). In the main eyes (AME) the visual information passes through two optic neuropils (ON1, ON2) and projects into a third one (ON3) situated in the rear of the brain, called the centraI body. Each of the secondary eyes (PLE, ALE, PME) has its own set of three successive neuropils; the last optic neuropil (ON3) lies more anteriorly than the centraI body and is termed the mushroom body (MB). (After Strausfeld and Barth, 1993.)

et al., 1993). The optical neuropils are only modestly developed in web spiders (2% of the brain volume) but much more prominent in the visually oriented hunting spiders (20%) and jumping spiders (30%) (Barth, 2002). The three secondary eyes (ALE, PLE, PME) supply three successive neuropils (ON1, ON2, ON3); the main eyes (AME) have their first and second optic neuropil (ON1, ON2) in a similar location, but their third optic neuropil (ON3, central body) lies at the rear of the brain (fig. 4.37). The ON3 of the secondary eyes lies right behind ON2 and was named corpora pedunculata or mushroom body (Hanström, 1921, 1928, 1935) in analogy to the insect brain. However, it is probably not homologous or functionally analogous to the mushroom bodies of insects (Strausfeld et al., 1993). The central body not only integrates visual information, but is probably also a motor and association center. For a long time the central body was claimed to be especially well developed in orb-web spiders (and supposedly related to the

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Figure 4.38 Organization of the optic neuropils (ON1-3) of the secondary eyes (Cupiennius). (a) The visual fibers from a PME terminate in a ON1. L-cells pass the visual information from ON1 to ON2, and T-cells further from ON2 to ON3. Note the crossing of fibers (chiasmata) between optic neuropils. (b) Diagram of visual pathways of secondary eyes. The projections change their direction but seem to maintain a certain order while passing from one neuropil to the next. The horizontal direction (arrows in ON1) of the visual world becomes represented as three parallel strips in ON3. T-cell axons project across the bridge onto giant output neurons, which lead to thoracic muscles. (After Strausfeld and Barth, 1993.)

construction of their elaborate webs). However, studies comparing the relative volume of the central bodies in web spiders and wandering spiders showed hardly any differences (Weltzien and Barth, 1991).

Subesophageal Ganglion As mentioned earlier, the subesophageal ganglion lies ventrally, below the esophagus (fig. 4.31), and consists of the fused ganglia of the appendages. Each ganglion receives incoming sensory fibers, which may terminate there or continue to neighboring ganglia—even onto the other side (contralateral) of the subesophageal ganglion (fig. 4.39). The outgoing fibers stem from large motoneurons, situated in the peripheral cortex. The various ganglia are connected by many interneurons. Functionally, they link the sensory input to the motor output (Milde and Seyfarth,

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Figure 4.39 (a) Subesophageal ganglion of a tarantula (Poecilotheria), horizontal section. Simple connections are pictured on the left: an interneuron (IN) connecting the pedipalp ganglion with the ganglion of leg 1; an afferent fiber (Sf) coming from leg 2; a motoneuron (M) exiting into leg 4. Connections of greater complexity are shown on the right: an interneuron (IN) sending branches to all extremities; a motoneuron (M) of the third leg ganglion, the axon of which exits into the second leg; three sensory fibers from the first leg, which either remain ipsilateral (near leg 2) or continue contralaterally to the palpal ganglion. Abd = abdominal nerve. (After Babu, 1969.) (b) A local interneuron in the fourth ganglion of Cupiennius, which transmits tactile input from leg 4 to a motoneuron. The fine dendritic branches were made visible by injecting a dye intracellularly. (After Milde and Seyfarth, 1988.)

1988; Gronenberg, 1989, 1990). Morphologically, they may be simple and restricted to a small area, or they may be more complex, connecting all ganglia on both sides. About half of these plurisegmental interneurons combine the information of specific mechanoreceptors (tactile hairs, trichobothria, slit sensilla), and the other half processes information of various other sensory organs. Knowing the intersegmental connections between the sensory system and the motor system allows us to explain certain aspects of spider behavior (e.g., the inhibition observed between neighboring legs; Hergenröder and Barth, 1983b; see below). The dorsal neuropil is traversed by six pairs of longitudinal tracts that enter the supraesophageal ganglion on the anterior side; they are thought to consist mainly of motor fibers (Babu and Barth, 1984). Additionally, five pairs of sensory tracts pass through the medial part of the neuropil. There are also well-developed cross-commissures, connecting the left and the right side of the subesophageal ganglion (Babu et al., 1985).

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Neurosecretion (Stomatogastric System) As their name implies, neurosecretory cells exhibit characteristics of both nerve cells and gland cells, for they have axons and produce secretions. Functionally these cells are a link between the nervous system and the hormonal system. The activity of neurosecretory cells in spiders is probably correlated within certain events in their life cycle such as molting or sexual maturation. (That hormones control development in insects has long been established; the respective endocrine organs are the corpora cardiaca and the corpora allata.) The neuroendocrine system of spiders consists of several groups of neurosecretory cells in the CNS and several “retrocerebral” organs that act as reservoirs or even as production sites of neurosecretions (Gabe, 1955). Clusters of neurosecretory cells are present in the supra- as well as in the subesophageal ganglion (Juberthie, 1983). In the subesophageal ganglion, a serial (metameric) distribution of these cells is evident. Neurosecretory cells can be identified histologically by specific stains such as paraldehyde-fuchsine or chrome-hematoxylin-phloxine. Behind the brain (“retrocerebral”) lie several neuroendocrine organs: Schneider’s organs (also known as stomatogastric ganglia or sympathetic ganglia; Legendre, 1953, 1985), the Tropfenkomplex, the stomadeal bridge, and the esophageal ganglion with the nervus recurrens. The arrangement of this complex is shown in figure 4.40. The first Schneider’s organs lie directly behind the supraesophageal ganglion and are continuous with the Tropfenkomplex, where the neurosecretions are released into the hemolymph. The second Schneider’s organs are situated along the lateral walls of the sucking stomach, close to the aorta. The stomatogastric system consists of the stomadeal bridge, the anterior rostral nerve, and the posterior nervus recurrens. The nervus recurrens terminates in the small esophageal ganglion, which has not yet been shown to be a source of neurosecretion (Kühne, 1959). Further endocrine storage organs (paraganglionic plates) have been described in the subesophageal ganglion and in the posterior part of the brain (Bonaric, 1980). The specific functions of the neuroendocrine organs are largely unknown. Definite neurosecretory cells appear only shortly before the spider reaches maturity, and it is believed that maturation of the reproductive cells is closely related to neurosecretion (Babu, 1973). Whether the molting process is controlled by neurosecretions is still uncertain (Kühne, 1959; Streble, 1966; Eckert, 1967).

The Central Nervous System and Behavior We want to examine here a few examples of the ways that a spider’s CNS works to integrate a variety of sensory information, enabling the spider to respond appropriately to environmental stimuli, and, especially, to orient itself. External sensory input as well as proprioceptive input can be stored in the memory and can be recalled later. Actually, the process of learning may occur within seconds: a single run out of the retreat is often sufficient for the sheet-web spider Agelena to return to it in a direct course (Bartels, 1929; Görner, 1958). Such “engrams” can be formed

Neurobiology

Figure 4.40 Neuroendocrine and stomatogastric systems. (a) Dorsal view of the supraesophageal ganglion (SEG). StBr = stomadeal bridge, nsc = neurosecretory cells, Schn. 1, 2 = Schneider’s organs 1 and 2, TrK = Tropfenkomplex, eG = esophageal ganglion with nervus recurrens, S = sucking stomach. (After various authors.) (b) Detail from Schneider’s organ 1 of Tegenaria. Many nerve fibers possess dark neurosecretory granules and also make synaptic contacts (Sy). 3,800 x. Inset: 15,000 x. (c) The actual release (arrows) of neurosecretory droplets (S) into the hemolymph (HL) is pictured here at high magnification. 26,000 x. (Photo: Bonaric.)

either through visual or kinesthetic input. Usually the behavior of a spider is the result of the integration of several kinds of sensory input. When Agelena catches prey on its sheet web and then carries it back to its retreat, it uses visual and kinesthetic cues to make the return run. Additionally, the inclination of the web (gravity) and the pattern of elasticity of the web may play a role in the spider’s navigation (Bartels and Baltzer, 1928; Baltzer, 1930; Holzapfel, 1933, 1934; Görner, 1966, 1973, 1988). Even when all external cues are eliminated, Agelena can still return to its retreat in a straight line; in this case the spider’s orientation has to be purely kinesthetic (idiothetic). In experiments in which visual and kinesthetic cues contradict each other, the spider reacts with a compromise. For instance, if the position of a light source is shifted immediately after prey is captured, Agelena initially turns in the correct direction, toward the retreat. While running back, however, the spider gradually drifts off to one side in an attempt to correct its course according to the new position of the light (fig. 4.41a). This deviation from the

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Figure 4.41 Direction of return runs to the retreat by Agelena. (a) On the left, a control run, on the right, a run after the light source had been displaced clockwise by 110°. The spider is influenced by the visual cue; shifting the light causes it to deviate markedly from the straight course of return. (After Görner, 1972.) (b) Choice of starting direction on return runs of Agelena in a right-angle frame under polarized light. The spider was lured to prey (X) via a detour (stippled line). The black dots give the initial direction of each individual return run. Note that the average starting direction of all the returns is very close to the ideal return route (dashed line). (After Görner, 1958.)

correct course shows that a comparison must take place in the CNS between the course as judged visually and that based on kinesthetic cues. Indeed, later investigations showed that visual and kinesthetic information seem to enter a common storage site, where they are integrated to give a compromise solution to the problem of direction (Görner, 1966; Dornfeldt, 1972). Apparently one of the two means of orientation can also be switched off: some spiders orient themselves purely kinesthetically despite existing visual cues (Moller, 1970). For the wolf spider Lycosa tarentula, it is now known that the correct turning angle for homing depends on the visual input gathered by the Anterior Lateral Eyes; if they are covered by black paint, the turning angle is random, as it is in complete darkness (Ortega-Escobar, 2006). The ability of spiders to evaluate sensory information to alter their behavior has been seen in many experiments. For instance, Agelena returns straight back to its retreat even if it has been forced to make a detour on the way out (fig. 4.41b). This means that during the run out onto the web, the spider processes visual and kinesthetic information in the CNS and then “calculates” the shortest return. Besides the ability to orient themselves, Agelena and Cupiennius can also estimate distance (Seyfarth and Barth, 1972; Dornfeldt, 1975). This is evident when the spider searches for lost prey: at first the spider returns in a straight line to the capture site, but when it nears the site, it changes its course into irregular “searching” loops (fig. 4.12). The same kind of searching movements are performed by female wolf spiders if their cocoon has been taken away (Görner and Zeppenfeld, 1980).

Neurobiology

The orientations reported above refer to rather short distances, but some spiders can navigate over distances of several hundred meters (Henschel, 2002; Nørgaard, 2005). Males of the desert spider Leucorchestris arenicola, for instance, go on long nocturnal excursions in search of females. Their outward path is very meandering, but the return path often follows a straight line leading back to their own burrows. How do they master such a complex task? Theoretically, the male spider could use landmarks and memorize its surroundings as a kind of topographic map—but there is little evidence for that. Alternatively, the spider could store information of his position in relation to his burrow, while walking (“path integration”). For short distances, idiothetic information coming from proprioreceptors on the legs may be sufficient, but for longer distances external cues (wind direction, polarized moon light) would be necessary. Probably a combination of both internal and external information (“allothetic navigation”) is used, but at present we can only marvel how some males can make a 800-m round trip and still find their home burrow in the dark. Integration of information by the CNS also occurs in the visual system of salticids (Land, 1971). A jumping spider adjusts the long axis of its body to be perpendicular to the path of a moving object so that the object can be fixed with the main eyes. The turn is triggered by input from the secondary eyes and is executed without any visual feedback. Thus when an object appears 80° to the left, the information coming from the retinas is sent to the legs as the command “turn 80° to the left, then stop.” Each retinal area receives a slightly different image and therefore conveys slightly different information to the leg muscles. The CNS has to transform the information about the position of an object provided by the secondary eyes into a complex motor pattern that results in a precise and precalculated turn. When a moving object enters the visual field of the secondary eyes, a jumping spider will not always react by turning toward it. Sometimes the spider simply sits there and shows no apparent reaction at all. However, a closer examination reveals that the muscles of the main eyes are active, although the legs do not move. Apparently the CNS receives the stimulus from the secondary eyes, but transmits the information only to the main eyes and not to the leg muscles (Land, 1971). The processing of vibrational stimuli was analyzed indirectly in behavioral experiments on the wandering spider Cupiennius (Hergenröder and Barth, 1983a, b). Apparently, information from the front legs is more important than that coming from the hind legs. Furthermore, a neural network seems to exist that is graded in the same direction: if a front leg is stimulated, then an inhibitory effect is observed on the posterior legs—not only on the same side (ipsilateral), but also on the other side (contralateral). It was also shown that input from the trichobothria (air vibration) and from the slit sensilla (substrate vibration) is processed together in the CNS. If both systems signal “prey,” the stimuli are added, and attack behavior is elicited. However, if the trichobothria signal “no prey,” they will have an inhibitory effect and any reaction is suppressed. One can eliminate the trichobothrial input by plucking off all trichobothria with fine forceps. This leaves only the slit sensilla as a source of vibrational input and, as a result, the spider will turn toward the prey. To attribute specific functions to specific areas of the brain is not yet possible. Short exposures of the supraesophageal ganglion to a laser beam produced several

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irreversible changes in the web pattern of Araneus, but such experiments have not led to a mapping of the centers responsible for web building (Witt, 1969). We can speak of learning as the alteration of behavior by experience. Although spiders are better known for their stereotypical behavior, many experiments have demonstrated their capacity to learn and their behavioral plasticity. In one such experiment, dead flies that had been soaked in either a 6% glucose solution (sweet) or a 0.5% quinine solution (bitter) were thrown into the orb webs of Araneus diadematus. The spiders were then lured to the quinine flies with a tuning fork of the frequency of middle C and to the glucose flies with a fork of the frequency C1 (one octave above C). Glucose flies were always bitten and eaten, but the quinine flies were rejected. If the flies were replaced by glass beads and touched with a C1-tuning fork, the spiders still tried to bite into them. In contrast, glass beads vibrating at the frequency C were rejected, indicating that the spider associated the frequency C with the bitter taste of the quinine flies (Bays, 1962). Young jumping spiders (Phidippus) seem to learn to avoid ants. At first inexperienced spiderlings tackle ants but are quickly repelled by the ant’s defense (bites, stings, formic acid). During later encounters with ants, the spiders always back away, probably because they remember their bad experiences (Edwards and Jackson, 1994). Another experiment showing a spider’s ability to learn from experience involved the sector-web spider Zygiella (fig. 5.25). When prey hits the web, the spider will rush down along the signal thread; at the hub it chooses the radial thread that leads to the prey. When returning to its retreat, it uses exactly the same path, in reverse. If the entire web is turned upside down and the spider is then lured onto the web by a fly or tuning fork, the spider can still quickly reach the source of vibration. However, it has great difficulties on its way back. At first the spider runs in the original direction, which leads it to the periphery of the web. Only after some searching and several periods of rest does the spider find its way back to the retreat. If this experiment is repeated many times, the spider returns much faster (LeGuelte, 1969). Such improvement depends on the number of trials and also on the amount of time that elapses between trials. Definite improvement occurs only if trials are separated by less than 4 hours, suggesting that spiders have something akin to a “short-term memory.” Long-term effects can also be demonstrated. Spiders tested after 24 hours do not return to the retreat quickly on their first attempt, yet in subsequent trials they learn the way faster than inexperienced control spiders do. A clear example of memory in spiders is provided by web spiders, which can relocate prey previously captured. If a spider is busy feeding on a fly when a second fly gets stuck in the web, she leaves the first prey at the hub and rushes to the new one. After wrapping it up, she will leave it at the capture site and return to the first fly. If that fly has been removed in the meantime, the spider makes typical searching movements for several minutes (Rodriguez and Gamboa, 2000). The same is true if the second prey is taken out of the web (Grünbaum, 1927; H. M. Peters, 1951). In both cases the spider seems to remember the existence and location of a previously captured fly.

Neurobiology

Figure 4.42 Orientation toward prey in a jumping spider. In situation A the spider sees the fly on the branch below and will jump down directly onto the prey (dashed line). In B the spider would have to jump up against gravity and would not succeed (1). Instead, the spider makes a detour (2), stops briefly for visual re-orientation (3), continues to the upper branch (4) and then gets ready for the final pounce (5). (After Hill, 2007.)

Jumping spiders can even remember uncaptured prey. They will often make detours while pursuing prey they have spotted at a site (for example, on a leaf) that is not directly accessible, but they retain a memory of the relative position of the prey at all times. This is expressed in the form of quick turns that reorient the spider to face the expected position of the prey (fig. 4.42; Hill, 1979, 2007; Tarsitano and Jackson, 1992, 1994). Another good example of memory in spiders comes from experiments with wolf spiders. If the cocoon is taken away from a female, she will search for it for several hours. If the cocoon is given back within a day, she will readily accept it and attach it again to her spinnerets. However, if more than 24–48 hours pass, then most spiders will no longer take their cocoon back (Peckham and Peckham, 1887). Apparently they cannot remember such a loss for more than two days. Several experiments on learning in spiders have used T- or Y-mazes (Popson, 1999; Punzo and Ludwig, 2002). Jumping spiders in a T-maze learned to associate a certain color with a hidden prey (cricket). Although no clear learning effect was

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evident after four training trials, any further training session improved the successful correlation between a specific color and prey (Jakob et al., 2007). Similarly, the same jumping spiders (Phidippus) learned in only eight trials to avoid aposematic and distasteful prey (milkweed bugs; Skow and Jakob, 2006). From these descriptions it is clear that spiders are not simply reflex machines; they can react quite differently to the same stimulus. Their behavioral plasticity was highlighted when two garden spiders (Araneus diadematus) built their orb webs under condition of weightlessness in the space capsule Skylab (Witt et al., 1977). This is particularly remarkable because gravity is normally an essential factor in the orientation of Araneus (H. M. Peters, 1932). In 2008 this experiment was confirmed when two other orb web spiders (Larinoides, Metepeira) were sent into outer space, where they were filmed while constructing their webs. During the first three days at near zero gravity they seemed disoriented and produced only random silk lines. Thereafter they started building rather symmetrical orb webs (fig. 4.43). Since it was not possible to drop down from their threads, they had to change to a different kind of locomotion. Although it is not quite clear how they managed this, a lot of leg flailing was involved while climbing inside their chamber on preexisting threads (Cushing and Stowe, 2008; personal commmunication). At any rate, it was astonishing that these spiders were able to construct complete orb webs under such adverse and unfamiliar conditions. Considering that most spiders have only a brain the size of a pin head, it is not surprising that they were traditionally portrayed as simple, instinct-driven animals, without the ability for any complex behavior. After many years of research into the behavior of many different spiders, this view has gradually changed into admiration.

Figure 4.43 Spider webs built in outer space: (a) The spider (Larinoides patagiatus) finished a small, somewhat irregular orb web despite the lack of gravity. (b) Orb web just before completion of the last turns of the sticky spiral. (Photos: BioServe Space Technologies, Univ. of Colorado.)

Neurobiology

Figure 4.44 Tiny orb web built by the first instar of an Anapisona (1 mm). Despite the small size of this orb, its precision (e.g. regularity of the sticky spiral) is at least as high as in a much larger web built by an adult spider. (Photo: Eberhard.)

This is perhaps best summed-up in a remark from Michael Land (2004) on one of his favorite jumping spiders (Portia): “The flexibility of its locomotor strategies . . . and the variety of cunning tactics . . . would certainly fit most definitions of intelligence.” Actually, some spider brains are much smaller than a pin head (e.g., in some tiny orb weavers), yet despite their minute brains they are capable of constructing a complex web (fig. 4.44). The precision of these miniature orbs is by no means reduced, on the contrary, they are even more regular than those of their larger relatives (Eberhard, 2007). Since those tiny brains contain only a very limited number of nerve cells, we can only marvel at the performance of this miniaturized neural circuitry.

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5 The evolution of spider silk has been an event comparable in importance to the evolution of flight in the insects, or warmbloodedness in the vertebrates. M. R. Gray, 1978 The most characteristic feature of spiders is their ability to produce silken threads. Although certain insects (e.g., some lepidoptera, hymenoptera, and neuroptera) are also capable of silk production, this ability is usually restricted to a single stage in their life span, such as building a cocoon prior to pupation. In contrast, all spiders possess spinning glands, which they use not only for making egg sacs (cocoons) and draglines but also for building snares.

Spider Silk Silk is the secretory product of the spinning glands. Although different spinning glands produce different kinds of silk, all silks are proteinaceous and belong to the fibroins. The molecular weight of the fibroin from the orb weaver Nephila is 30,000 (Braunitzer and Wolff, 1955). This value refers to liquid silk inside the spinning gland; the molecular weight of a solidified silk thread is 200,000–300,000, or about 10 times higher. The transition from the water-soluble liquid form into the insoluble, solid silk thread is not yet fully understood, but apparently the molecules of the polypeptide chain change their orientation from an α-configuration that is soluble (with predominantly intramolecular hydrogen bonds) to the insolubleβ-configuration (β-pleated sheet form with intermolecular bonds). From the silk moth, it is known 136

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that the liquid α-fibroin can be transformed into the β-configuration simply by pulling it. A closer look at the spider silk reveals that each thread is actually a composite of α-chains and β-pleated sheets (fig. 5.1). These sheets are stacked in an accordionlike fashion, thereby forming protein crystals; they are embedded into a matrix of loosely arranged amino acids (Vollrath, 1992). The protein crystals are responsible for the strength of a silk thread, while the amorphous matrix has rubberlike properties (Gosline et al., 1984, 1986; Xu and Lewis, 1990). How strong or how elastic a thread is depends also on its water content (Work, 1977; Work and Morosoff, 1982; Edmonds and Vollrath, 1992). A dry silk thread is rather stiff and breaks if extended beyond 30% of its length. Wet threads are highly viscoelastic and can be stretched more than 300% before snapping. In many spider webs we find dry, stiff threads for the basic framework and moist elastic threads for catching prey (Tillinghast et al., 1984; Tillinghast, 1987). The tenacity of spider silk is slightly less than that of nylon (Lucas, 1964), yet its elasticity is twice as high (31% vs. 16%). Compared to many other natural and

Figure 5.1 (a) Structure of spider silk. The stiffness of a thread is due to crystals of amino acids (β-configuration), while the elasticity is caused by the loose α-helices. (After Vollrath, 1992.) (b) Diagram of a silk protein. Most of the protein fiber consists of many repetitive building blocks (X, Y); each unit contains 10–50 amino acids. The end regions are made up by non-repetitive regions. (After Römer and Scheibel, 2007.)

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Figure 5.2 Tensile strength is a measure of the greatest longitudinal stress a material will take before tearing apart. It is evident that spider silk is stronger than many other natural products and about half as strong as steel. (After data in Vollrath, 1993.)

technical materials, spider silk is quite remarkable (fig. 5.2). In terms of tensile strength it is clearly superior to bone, tendon, or cellulose, and it is still half as strong as the best steel. Another vivid illustration would be to calculate the so-called breaking length: a dragline would have to be 80 km long before rupturing under its own weight. Spider silk proteins have very unusual amino acid compositions (Table 5.1). Amino acids with short side chains (alanine, glycine, serine) can constitute well over 50% of a fibroin (Peakall, 1969; Work and Young, 1987; Lombardi and Kaplan, 1990). It seems that most of the alanine residues are incorporated into crystalline β-sheets that account for the strength of the silk along with contributions from the glycine-rich Gly-II helical regions, while proline-containing motifs confer stretch (Dong et al., 1991; Hayashi et al., 1999). Interestingly, the dragline silk from the major ampullate glands is both strong and extensible (35%), whereas the axial thread of the sticky spiral is less strong but highly extensible (200%). The “wrapping silk” from the aciniform glands (fig. 5.4) has only half the tensile strength of a dragline but can be stretched by 40%. Dragline silk is often noted for its exceptional toughness, but aciniform silk is even tougher and outperforms man-made Kevlar by a factor of 7 (Hayashi et al., 2004). Recently it was found that adding tiny amounts of certain metals (zinc, titanium, aluminum) makes spider silk even tougher and more elastic (Lee et al., 2009). For instance, it takes 10 times more energy to break a dragline treated with such metal ions than a normal one. Although the mechanism is not quite clear, it seems that the weak hydrogen bonds within the protein are in part replaced by stronger metallic bonds. It is hoped that such “improved” natural fibers will have a wide application in the biotechnology of the future.

Spider Webs Table 5.1 Amino acid composition of the silk of Araneus diadematus (After Witt et al., 1968). The amino acids arginine. aspartic, isoleucine, lycine, phenylalanine, threonine, tyrosine, and valine make up only 1–6% of the total fibroins. Amino acid Alanine Glycine Serine Glutamic Proline

Frame

Cocoon

Attachment disk

Total web

(ampullate gl.)

(tubular gl.)

(piriform gl.)

27% 20% 5% 9% 13%

33% 24% 6% 18% 2%

25% 12% 19% 14% 4%

29% 25% 5% 15% 5%

Silk proteins are large and contain highly repetitive units; an individual fibroin of more than 3000 amino acids may be characterized by a single module of about 10–50 amino acids in length that occurs several hundred times in a row (fig. 5.1). The genes that encode spider fibroins are correspondingly long and iterative (Hayashi and Lewis 2001), making them difficult to fully decipher, but this has been achieved recently (Ayoub et al., 2007a,b). With knowledge of the genetic instructions for spider silk, silk protein can be synthesized biotechnologically via the transfer of plasmids into bacteria, yeast, plants, or host animals (Römer and Scheibel, 2007). In practice, however, there are still hurdles to overcome, such as optimizing protein length and producing ample quantities, before this in vitro spider silk can be used on a commercial scale. What is promising is that besides recreating exact copies of spider silk, molecular biologists can now mix and match building blocks from different silks and even other proteins to design new kinds of silk-based proteins with new properties. It is also possible that rather than just spinning into threads, the engineered silk can be turned into flat films or membranes, which could be widely applied in biomedicine (Scheibel, 2004; Vendrély and Scheibel, 2007). In folk medicine spider silk has served as wound dressing for centuries (Bon de St. Hilaire, 1710). In modern medicine spider silk has recently been tested as a natural (biocompatible) material to guide regenerating nerve fibers. It was found that neural sheath cells (Schwann cells) quickly adhere to silk threads (fig. 5.3), which subsequently support and direct the regrowth of nerve fibers. Adding spider silk fibers to neural grafts is thus considered a promising avenue in peripheral nerve regeneration (Allmeling et al., 2006, 2008). In another biomedical application spider cocoon threads were used in cartilage regeneration (Gellnyck et al., 2003). A novel biomaterial called SilkBone (Oxford Biomaterials) is now being developed, in which a composite of silk proteins and the mineral components of bones will have both absorbable and load-bearing properties. Such biomaterials are tolerated in the human body and after grafting should be gradually replaced by the regenerating bone tissue.

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Figure 5.3 Spider silk can be used as a guide line in regenerating nerves. (a) Neural sheath cells (sc) attach to silk fibers (S) within 20 minutes. (b) After one hour these sheath cells flatten and grow along the axis of the silk thread. (Photos: Allmeling.)

Silk Glands All silk glands are located inside the abdomen. Each gland leads to a specific spinneret, which opens to the outside in the form of a tiny spigot. As one might expect, the most simple spinning glands occur among the ancient spiders (Orthognatha), which often exhibit only a single gland type (Palmer et al., 1982; Palmer, 1985). In contrast, at least four different kinds of silk glands are found in wandering spiders and even more (seven or eight) in the highly developed orb weavers (H. M. Peters, 1955; Mullen, 1969; Richter, 1970). The following glands can be distinguished morphologically and histologically: ampullate glands, aciniform glands, tubuliform glands, aggregate glands, piriform glands, and flagelliform (or coronate) glands. Each type of gland secretes a different kind of silk with its own specific characteristics (H. M. Peters, 1982; Craig, 1997, 2003). Figure 5.4 surveys the location as well as the function of the various silk glands. The tubuliform glands provide the silk thread for the egg sac and are thus found only in female spiders. The aggregate glands are typical of the araneids; they produce the glue substance for the web’s catching spiral. The entire set of spinning glands of a tropical orb weaver is depicted in figure 5.5. Silk from the “higher” spiders (Araneomorphae) is apparently much stronger than in the ancient Mesothelae and Mygalomorphae. It may be that the success and high species diversity seen in araneomorph spiders was the result of developing high-perfomance silk fibers (Garb et al., 2007; Swanson et al., 2009).

Structure Each spinning gland comprises the gland proper and a thin duct. Most glands are pear shaped and always consist of a single layer of epithelial cells (fig. 5.6). Silk is secreted into the glandular lumen in the form of tiny protein droplets and can be stored in the sacklike middle part of the gland. The extrusion via the glandular duct

Spider Webs

Figure 5.4 Location and function of the various silk glands.

is most likely caused by an increase of the spider’s abdominal hemolymph pressure and sometimes also by the active extraction of silk from the spigots with the hind legs. The transition from liquid silk into a solid thread is irreversible. It has nothing to do with exposure to air but is mainly brought about by an ion exchange and a parallel alignment of the silk proteins: First water, sodium, and chloride are withdrawn within the duct system, then the silk proteins get aligned and become packed

Figure 5.5 Spinning apparatus of the golden silk spider Nephila. Only one half of the paired set of silk glands is depicted. (After H. M. Peters, 1955.)

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Figure 5.6 Ampullate gland of the garden spider Nuctenea cornuta. (a) Inset: the gland consists of a coiled tail (T), a sacklike midpiece (S), and a looped duct (D). 70 x. The glandular epithelium of the “sac” exhibits basally located nuclei (N) and apically concentrated secretory droplets (S). 1,300 x. (b) Secretory droplets (S) just prior to discharge into the glandular lumen. 7,600 x.

closer together, while hydrogen bonds are formed between neighboring chains (fig. 5.7; Knight and Vollrath, 2001; Heim et al., 2009). The conversion from an aqueous protein solution into semicrystalline β-sheets has recently been studied with X-ray and neutron small-angle scattering (Martel et al., 2008). In a first step, the elongated fibroin molecules (30–40 nm in diameter) aggregate into bundles (100 nm thick, 260 nm long)—if the right parameters of biospinning (shear forces, fibroin concentration, high pH, ionic composition) are mimicked. Only after that

Spider Webs

Figure 5.7 Diagram of dragline formation. The liquid silk coming from the gland undergoes an ion exchange within the long duct system and water is removed. Silk proteins gradually align in parallel (1-3) and get packed tightly; the silk turns solid when pulled out of the spigot (arrow). (After R. S. Wilson, 1962b; Lewis, 2006; Scheibel 2009.)

aggregation is the second step initiated—namely, the structural conversion into β-sheet-rich fibers. Unlike venom glands, spinning glands do not possess any musculature for expelling their secretions. In orb-web spiders, though, the amount of silk leaving the gland can be controlled by valves situated just in front of the spigots (figs.5.7, 5.8). The diameter of the valves can be regulated by muscular action, thereby varying the thickness of the thread (R. S. Wilson, 1962a, b). Most silk threads have a diameter of only a few micrometers (fig. 5.9), and many are even thinner than 1 μm. The dragline of orb-web spiders is less than 2 μm thick (Denny, 1976; Brandwood, 1985); its diameter depends on the weight of the spider (i.e., it is larger in heavy spiders). The surface of a dragline is coated by a very thin layer of glycoproteins (200 nm), which can be removed mechanically or by washing the thread (Augsten et al., 1999). The safety factor of draglines ranges from 4–6 times for orb weavers to only 1–2 times for jumping spiders. During a fall the spider is drawing new silk, thereby keeping the load below failure level (Ortlepp and Gosline, 2008). A well-known example of extremely fine silk threads is found in the catching silk (“hackle band”) of cribellate spiders, where the individual fibers measure only 0.01–0.02 μm (fig. 5.19).

Physiology The most thoroughly investigated silk glands are the ampullate glands; they will therefore serve as a representative example for the other types of glands. The ampullate gland consists of a tubular tail portion, a sacklike midpiece, and a thin looped duct (figs. 5.5, 5.6). Experiments using radioactive marker substances have shown that the synthesis of silk is restricted mostly to the tail portion, while the “sac” functions mainly as a reservoir (Peakall, 1969).

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Figure 5.8 (a) Several spigots of piriform glands on the anterior spinneret of the spider Amaurobius. While most spigots exhibit a distinct terminal pore, one shows remnants of exuding silk (arrow) (b) Spigot from a spinneret of the jumping spider Marpissa. The silk thread inside the glandular duct is clearly visible when using a phase contrast microscope. (Photo: Erb.)

The secretory cells are typical columnar epithelial cells with basally located nuclei and apically concentrated secretory granules (fig. 5.6b). The granules consist of protein and are a product of the endoplasmatic reticulum; Golgi bodies are lacking in these gland cells (Bell and Peakall, 1969). The secretory granules move toward the apical cell membrane and empty into the glandular lumen. Resorption of water takes place within the lumen of the long duct (Kovoor and Zylberberg, 1980). The silk thread that exits from the ampullate gland serves as a dragline. In many spiders such a dragline is continually left behind as the spider walks around. It is anchored at intervals to the substrate by the action of the piriform glands. This results in distinct “attachment discs” (fig. 5.10), which are barely perceptible with the naked eye. Aside from draglines the ampullate glands also provide the material for the frame threads of orb webs and for the gossamer threads of young spiderlings. When the reservoir of a silk gland becomes depleted, new synthesis of fibroin starts within a few minutes in the tail portion of the gland. Many spinning glands seem to have two different cell types, which contribute chemically different secretory products (Kovoor, 1972, 1987). While one type secretes only fibroin, the other

Spider Webs

Figure 5.9 (a) Dipluridae have extremely long posterior spinnerets and the spigots are distributed over the entire length of the apical segment, as shown by the many emanating silk threads. Note that the hind legs are not used for pulling out the threads. (Photo: Rast.) (b) Two silk threads emerging from the spigots of small ampullate glands (a) fuse to form a “bridging thread” (B). A large spigot of a tubuliform gland (tu) and several smaller spigots of aciniform glands (∗) are located on the same spinneret (Linyphia triangularis). 1,900 x. (Photo: Peters and Hüttemann.)

apparently synthesizes mucopolysaccharides, which may contribute to the hygroscopic properties of the sticky spiral of orb webs. These sticky capture threads have been closely investigated over the past years (Tillinghast, 1981,1984; Vollrath and Tillinghast, 1991; Vollrath et al., 1990). In short, the viscous coating not only has an adhesive function, but it is also a water reservoir to maintain the high elasticity of the catching thread. When this thread

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Figure 5.10 Production of an attachment disc of Drapetisca on a glass slide. (a) Anterior spinneret with a spigot for the ampullate gland (A) and several spigots for the piriform glands (P). (b) The dragline (L) is produced by the ampullate gland, the many delicate fibers of the attachment disk come from the piriform glands. The symmetrical arrangement of these threads is due to their origin from the paired anterior spinnerets. (Photos: Schütt.)

is produced, the two core fibers coming out of the ampullate gland spigots are immediately covered by a viscous secretion of the neighboring aggregate glands (fig. 10.11). This coating is hygroscopic (i.e., it takes up water from the atmosphere and quickly separates into small droplets, which sit astride on the core fibers (fig. 5.24). A chemical analysis of those droplets has revealed glycoproteins, covered by an aqueous solution of organic substances (mostly amino acids) and inorganic salts (KNO3, KH2PO4). The function of the glycoproteins is to act as a glue, while the surrounding salt solution attracts water. When water molecules enter the core fibers, they become plasticized, giving the capture thread more elasticity. It has been claimed that the sticky droplets can act as tiny windlasses, being able to reel in the core fibers and thus keeping the capture thread taut (Vollrath and Edmonds, 1989). However, this interpretation has been questioned (Schneider, 1995) and later studies pointed to molecular “nano-springs” in the core protein as the cause for that extreme elasticity (Blackledge et al., 2005). It is remarkable that old, abandoned spider webs are not attacked by fungi or bacteria. Earlier chemical investigations had shown that the sticky substance of the orb web’s catching thread is acidic (pH 4) and hence resistant to decomposition by bacteria (Schildknecht et al., 1972). The axial threads of the web are apparently protected from bacteria by the hydrogen ions that arise from the dissociation of the phosphate. On the other hand, the acidity produced by the hydrogen ions would denature the proteins and the stickiness would be lost. Since this is not the case, the presence of nitrate ions probably prevents denaturation of the proteins.

Spider Webs

Spinnerets A spider has three pairs of spinnerets on its abdomen (fig. 5.11); phylogenetically they represent modified extremities (Shultz, 1987b). The spinning glands terminate in “spigots” on the surface of each spinneret (figs. 5.8, 5.12). All three pairs of spinnerets (anterior, median, and posterior) are extremely mobile because they are equipped with a well-developed musculature. In some tarantulas the spinnerets can be seen moving in step with the legs, alternating as the spiders walk (Seyfarth, 1980; personal communication). Like the other extremities, the spinnerets have more flexors than extensors. If the muscles are attached at the joint membrane between two segments of a spinneret, then both segments are moved with respect to each other. Some muscles traverse the spinneret and can shift the entire spigot-studded terminal area (R. Peters, 1967). During the construction of a web or cocoon, the spinnerets must move independently, yet must also be able to work together in a highly coordinated manner. The spinnerets can move in several ways: lifting, lowering, twisting, and also a synchronous spreading of all spinnerets can be observed. The effective working range of the spinnerets is enhanced to a great extent by the movements of the abdomen itself. Phylogenetically, spiders originally had four pairs of spinnerets (fig. 5.13), but among extant spiders this ancient trait is retained only in some Mesothelae—that is, those spiders that also have other “primitive” characteristics. In the less primitive Orthognatha, we find two to three pairs of spinnerets, and sometimes even a reduction to one pair (Glatz, 1972, 1973). For instance, in Nemesia the anterior spinnerets are lacking, the median pair is rudimentary, and only the posterior spinnerets carry functional spigots. Most extant spiders possess three pairs of functional spinnerets.

Figure 5.11 Spinning apparatus of Segestria senoculata. (a) Arrangement of the three pairs of spinnerets and the colulus (C). (b) The anterior spinnerets (A) consist of three segments, the posterior (P) of two, and the median (M) of only a single segment. The different spigots belong to four different kinds of silk glands. (After Glatz, 1972.)

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Figure 5.12 Ventral view of the spinnerets in Araneus diadematus. More than 1,300 spigots of six different silk glands terminate on the three pairs of silk glands. A = anterior, M = median, P = posterior spinnerets, a = anus. Arrowheads point to the “triads” where the sticky capture thread is produced. 30 x. (Photo: Peters and Hüttemann.)

They develop embryologically from the anlagen, or primordia, of the extremities of body segments 10 and 11. Each anlage splits in half so that two further pairs of spinnerets originate medially, resulting in eight spinnerets altogether. However, the anterior median pair (on body segment 10) is often extremely reduced, and many ecribellate spiders (such as Araneidae, Linyphiidae, Theridiidae, and Thomisidae) have only a vestigial bump, which is referred to as the colulus. This rudimentary structure is probably now without any function (Marples, 1967). In many spiders the colulus is absent altogether. Cribellate spiders possess an additional spinning organ, the cribellum, a small plate located in front of the three pairs of spinnerets (fig. 5.14). It is assumed that the cribellum and the colulus are homologous organs, since both develop from the primordia of the anterior median spinnerets. The cribellum can take the form of a single small plate (as it does in Hypochilus), or it may be divided into two (as in Amaurobius), or, rarely, even into four parts (as in Dresserus). The cribellar area is densely covered with many tiny spigots (fig. 5.15). In an adult female Stegodyphus pacificus (Eresidae), the cribellum contains over 40,000 spigots (Kullmann, 1969); young spiders have fewer spigots, but the number increases with each molt. The delicate cribellar spigots produce the extremely thin silk threads (0.01 μm) of the “hackle band” (fig. 5.16; Lehmensick and Kullmann, 1956; Friedrich and

Spider Webs

Figure 5.13 Diagram of the arrangement of spinnerets in different spiders and their possible origin from an ancestral form. The numbers 10 and 11 indicate body segments 10 and 11. Functional spinnerets are drawn in black, residual ones in white, and those lacking are stippled. The cribellum is represented as two black rectangles, the colulus as a white crescent. (After Marples, 1967.)

Langer, 1969); they are combed out of the cribellum by rhythmic movements of the calamistrum, a row of comb-shaped hairs situated on the metatarsi of the fourth legs (fig. 5.17). Only one of the fourth legs is used to brush with the metatarsus over the cribellum to pull out the cribellate silk; the tarsus is hooked to the opposite fourth leg, so that both hind legs move quickly together in a saw-mill fashion (fig. 5.17a). After 1–2 minutes the movement stops briefly, and a puff of catching wool is added to the support threads of the web (fig. 5.19b, c). This is either done with the fourth legs or directly with the spinnerets. A slightly different type of combing out the cribellate silk uses a combination of leg 3 on one side and leg 4 on the opposite side; this is typical for hypochilid and filistatid spiders (Eberhard, 1988; Lopardo and Ramirez, 2007) and is considered as an ancient trait (Griswold et al., 2005). The calamistrum consists of a row of strong bristles, which bear tiny teeth along the hair shaft (fig. 5.18). These act like a tiny comb for the fine cribellate silk threads.

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Figure 5.14 The cribellum (cr) consists of a single or a divided platelet, that is normally hidden in front of the spinnerets. A divided type of cribellum is shown here (Amaurobius) in the light microscope (a), and in the scanning electron microscope (b). (c) Only one cribellar half is pictured for the eresid spider Stegodyphus; it is crossed by a silk thread (S). The many thousands of tiny spigots can barely be resolved at this low magnification. Inset: Spigots seen from above at high magnification; in Amaurobius there are 3,500 spigots in one cribellar half (Photos: Foelix and Erb.)

The base of the calamistrum hairs is equipped with three sensitive nerve endings, just like the regular tactile hairs (Foelix and Jung, 1978). Male cribellate spiders, incidentally, do not have a calamistrum or a cribellum. Both structures disappear with the final molt into the adult stage. Newly emerged spiderlings also lack calamistrum and cribellum; they appear only after the third molt, and only then is it possible for the young spiderling to produce its first capture web.

Spider Webs

Figure 5.15 (a) Tiny spigots from the cribellum of Uloborus plumipes. Note the pliable spigot shafts which exude the fine threads of the “catching wool”. 8,500 x. (Photo: Peters and Hüttemann.) (b) Cross-section of a spigot from the cribellum of Amaurobius. The silk thread lies within the circular lumen and measures only 80 nm in diameter. 60,000 x. (c) Corresponding longitudinal section of a cribellar spigot. 40,000 x.

In some cribellate spiders (Stegodyphus), each calamistrum hair looks more like a tiny brush than like a comb because the little teeth occupy a large area of the flattened hair shaft (fig. 5.19a). And in Eresus the calamistrum hairs are not arranged in a single row but form a large oval field (1 x 2 mm) on the dorsal metatarsus, containing hundreds of brush-like hairs.

Webs Ecologically one can divide spiders into two groups: the wandering spiders and the more sedentary web spiders. Only web spiders use their ability to produce silk for the construction of snares. The various web spiders have developed quite different webs and prey-catching strategies. The well-known orb-shaped web is one of the many kinds of webs built by different spider families. The funnel weavers (Agelenidae) and the sheet-web weavers (Linyphiidae) construct horizontal sheets, whereas the cobweb spiders (Theridiidae) and the daddy- longlegs spiders (Pholcidae) build somewhat irregular meshes (Kirchner, 1986; Eberhard, 1992). “Primitive” web builders, such as the cribellate Amaurobius or the ecribellate Segestria, weave only a tubular retreat with simple signal or catching threads radiating from

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Figure 5.16 Cribellar capture threads in the uloborid Waitkera (a) and the dictynid Mexitlia (b) showing the linear or looped arrangement of cribellate silk on the axial threads. (Photos: Opell). (c) Two thin, straight axial threads support two coiled threads (m) and the surrounding “catching wool” of cribellate silk (cs) (Amaurobius) 1,200 x.

its entrance (fig. 5.44). The greenish cribellate spider Dictyna usually lives on leaves on which it lays down its catching threads in a zigzag fashion on top of underlying radial supporting threads (fig. 5.41). Cribellate catching threads contain one or two straight axial threads, accompanied by sinuous supporting threads, and covered by a dense network of very fine (20–30 nm) cribellate silk fibrils (fig. 5.16; H. Peters 1992; Eberhard and Pereira, 1993). Although this fine “catching wool” works without any glue, it is nevertheless quite sticky and even adheres to absolutely smooth surfaces such as glass. The two main adhesive mechanisms seem to be van der Waals forces and hygroscopic forces (capillary adhesion) (Hawthorne and Opell, 2003). Interestingly, the length of the

Figure 5.17 The calamistrum, a special tool on the metatarsus (Mt) of leg 4 (Amaurobius). (a) A typical brushing movement of both legs 4 is performed to comb out adhesive silk from the cribellum. (After Gerhardt and Kaestner, 1938). (b) Close-up of the calamistrum. Although the calamistrum seemingly consists of two rows of bristles, only the lower row functions as a comb. (After Kaston, 1972). (c) At high magnification the calamistrum hairs show a line of fine teeth forming a miniature comb.

Figure 5.18 Fine structure of the calamistrum. (a) Amaurobius has a double row of hairs but only the lower row exhibits fine teeth along the hair shaft. (b) Eresus has a large field of calamistrum hairs on metatarsus 4. This high magnification of the hair shafts shows 2 rows of small cuticular teeth which are used to comb out the fine silk threads from the cribellum. 153

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Figure 5.19 (a) The calamistrum hairs (C) of Stegodyphus are tiny brushes which comb out the fine adhesive silk (CS) from the cribellum. Note the much larger diameter of a regular silk thread (t) 1,000 x. (b) Cribellate silk is brushed in regular bundles onto the axial threads by means of the calamistrum (Mallos). Here the capture thread is adhering to a wing of a house fly. 1,100 x. (c) Detail of the contact between cribellate silk and fly wing. 3,400 x. Inset: In some species (Amaurobius, Hyptiotes) these threads appear beaded. 28,000 x. (Photo: Opell.)

contact zone between the cribellate silk and the substrate does not really enhance the stickiness, which is in contrast to the sticky spiral thread in araneid orb-weavers (Opell and Hendricks, 2007). Comparing the performance of cribellate fibrils with ecribellate sticky threads, it was noted that the latter generate much more adhesion (Opell, 1998, 1999), and this was interpreted as the advantage of the more modern gluey thread over the phylogenetically older cribellate silk. It was always claimed that “dry” cribellate silk would last much longer, whereas gluey threads would keep their stickiness only for a few days. Recent experiments, however, showed that gluey threads from old orb webs (up to 10 months old) were just as sticky as new webs (Opell and Schwend, 2008). In nature, of course, webs are exposed to wind, rain, and contamination and deteriorate quickly; this may be the main reason that gluey orb webs are replaced every 1–2 days. Interestingly, other properties like tensile

Spider Webs

strength and elasticity also do not change in older silk threads (when kept in the lab); in fact, they become stiffer during the first year and only after 4 years is a certain degradation observed (e.g., a lower breaking load; Agnarsson et al., 2008). The core fibers in the cribellate catching thread are quite strong yet not as elastic as in the ecribellate gluey capture thread. Although the cribellate capture thread is extensible, this is not due to the core fibers but to the surrounding fine cribellate silk (Blackledge and Hayashi, 2006b).

Sheet Webs and Frame Webs Sheet webs are built by Agelenidae and by Linyphiidae, yet those sheets differ as much in their structural details as does the behavior of their respective inhabitants. The Agelenidae weave a flat, slightly concave silk mat with a funnel-shaped retreat at one end (fig. 1.7). There the spider hides and rushes out only when prey has blundered into the web. The webs of Tegenaria commonly bridge the corners of rooms in European houses; the corresponding agelenid in North America belongs to the genus Agelenopsis. The much smaller Agelena prefers the outdoors and is abundant in grass and low bushes. Its web consists of a sheet measuring, at most, 40–60 cm, suspended by oblique and vertical threads. Flying insects hit these vertical threads and drop onto the sheet. The very delicate webs of the linyphiids are also horizontal, but convex, sheets with similar vertical threads that serve as tripping lines for insects (fig. 5.20). Some silk threads of the linyphiid web contain sticky droplets, but these do not play a significant role in catching prey (Benjamin et al., 2002). In most cases an insect becomes trapped between the vertical “knock-down” threads. The spider, hanging beneath its sheet, quickly rushes by and shakes the web so that the victim will fall down. The bite is applied through the fine meshwork of the horizontal sheet, and the victim is pulled down. The damage done to the web is mended after feeding. Linyphiid webs are built in sections over several days and last for a long time (Benjamin and Zschokke, 2004). Some species add a second smaller sheet under the main dome. To a certain extent the frame webs of the theridiids resemble those of linyphiids. The structure of the sheet, however, is very loose and irregular, and the trapping threads are regularly studded with glue droplets (fig. 5.21; Wiehle, 1949). These threads are attached tightly to the substrate and break easily when an insect (often an ant) touches them. The insect is then glued to the broken thread and suspended helplessly in the air. While trying to free itself, the animal contacts neighboring catching threads and becomes progressively more entangled. Meanwhile the alerted spider quickly climbs down and eventually has to squeeze through the dense mat of the tangle web (Barrantes and Weng, 2006). Sticky threads are then flung over the victim with the hind legs (fig. 4.3d), before biting it. Theridiid webs are built at night, and it takes the spider several days to finish it (Benjamin and Zschokke, 2003; Jörger and Eberhard, 2007). Although the web is often referred to as a “tangle web,” the web building itself is rather organized, especially the construction of the gum-footed trapping threads. It seems that these

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Figure 5.20 Web of Linyphia triangularis. The spider hangs suspended upside down under the dome of the horizontal sheet web. (After Bristowe, 1958.)

vertical threads are always double, because the spider never cuts the original supporting thread (as orb weavers do) but simply adds a new thread with glue droplets (Benjamin and Zschokke, 2002). Some theridiids build special retreats inside or outside the frame web. A wellknown example is Achaearanea saxatile, which constructs an open silk tube that hangs vertically in the middle of the web. The spider camouflages the tube by adding plant and soil material to its surface. The South African Achaearanea globispira builds an even more elaborate retreat, which contains a helical silken tube (fig. 5.21b; Henschel and Jocqué, 1994). A single thread suspends the retreat, while several glue-studded catching threads extend from the bottom of the retreat to the ground. This remarkable construction serves probably as protection from the sun as well as from predators (wasps and ants). The more primitive webs, which consist only of a tubular retreat with radial catching threads, have already been mentioned, but one of the most extraordinary variations on such a retreat is the silken tube of the purse-web spider Atypus. This catching device is about 15–30 cm long and 1 cm in diameter; most of it is buried vertically in the soil and only a short, fingerlike end extends horizontally on the ground. The spider lives inside the silken tube and attacks insects that happen to crawl over the tube (fig. 5.22). The long chelicerae pierce through the walls of the

Spider Webs

Figure 5.21 (a) Diagram of the web of Steatoda castanea (Theridiidae). The vertical trapping threads are studded with glue droplets. (After Wiehle, 1949.) (b) The retreat of Achaearanea globispira consists of a silken case covered with sand grains and a spiral silk tube inside that houses the spider. (After Henschel and Jocqué, 1994.)

tube into the victim, which is then dragged inside. The slits cut into the wall of the tube by the action of the cheliceral teeth are quickly repaired before feeding.

Orb Webs The orb web is certainly the best known of all webs. Essentially it is made up of three elements (fig. 5.23): (1) radial threads, which converge in a central spot, the hub; (2) frame threads, which delineate the web and serve as insertion sites for the radial threads; and (3) the catching spiral (Wiehle, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1931). The scaffolding of the orb web is provided by the radial and frame threads; neither type is sticky. The catching spiral, in contrast, consists of a thread studded with glue droplets (fig. 5.24a). The microscope reveals that there are in fact two axial threads (1–2 μm in thickness), which are embedded in a gluey substance (Vollrath et al., 1990, Opell and Hendricks, 2007). These axial threads stem from the flagelliform glands and are much more elastic than the dragline fibers that originate from the ampullate glands. While the core fibers are drawn out of the spinnerets, a glue substance is added by the aggregate glands (Vollrath and Knight, 2001). The resulting thin coating then contracts into regularly aligned beads along the capture thread (fig. 5.24b). This coating is hygroscopic due to the presence of choline chloride and N-acetyltaurine (Townley et al., 1991). A higher water content renders the thread more elastic; if the coating is experimentally removed, then the catching spiral becomes as stiff and inelastic as a radial thread (Vollrath and Edmonds, 1989). Inside the gluey droplets are sticky glycoproteins that form tiny rings around the

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Figure 5.22 (a) The silken tube of the purse-web spider Atypus. The spider bites the prey through the wall of the silk tube and then pulls it inside. (After Bristowe, 1958.) (b) Ventral view of Atypus, showing the parallel chelicerae (Chel) and the enlarged coxae (E) of the palps; note the four book lungs in the abdomen. (After Kaston, 1972.) (c) Dorsal view of a female Atypus piceus; the arrows indicate the parallel orientation of the chelicerae. (d) Ventral view of the large cheliceral fangs and the opposing row of cuticular teeth. The broadened palpal coxae form chewing mouth parts (maxillae). (Photos: Erb.)

axial fibers (fig. 5.24c); they make the actual contact between capture thread and prey. The number of these contact points together with the very extensible axial fibers determine how adhesive a viscous capture thread will be (Opell and Hendricks, 2007; Opell et al., 2008). Stickiness also varies from species to species: threads of Argiope trifasciata, whose droplet volumes are 20 times those of Cyclosa turbinata, are about three times stickier than C. turbinata threads (Opell, 2002; Opell and Hendricks, 2007). The orb web as a whole is thus a combination of strong frame and radial threads with a very elastic catching spiral. Frame and radii provide a mechanically stable construction, which is also well suited for signal transmission (courtship plucking,

Spider Webs

Figure 5.23 Structure of an orb web. Drawing was traced from a photograph of a web of Araneus diadematus.

prey vibrations). The elastic capture thread is an adaptation to struggling prey; the impact and movements of an insect cause little damage because the kinetic energy is largely absorbed by the yielding catching spiral and turned into heat (Denny, 1976; Lin et al., 1995). Even the radial threads have a remarkable extensibility (40%) and thus also function as shock absorbers when prey flies into the web (Köhler and Vollrath, 1995). The hub usually consists of irregularly interconnected threads. In some orb weavers (such as Tetragnatha) the hub is removed after its construction, and the web then appears with a large hole in the center (an “open hub”); in other genera (such as Argiope) the hub may be covered with a fine sheet of silk. Immediately surrounding the hub is the so-called strengthening zone, but this part of the web cannot always be determined as separate from the hub itself. More important is the next part, the free zone, which is crossed only by the radial threads (fig. 5.23). Here the spider can easily change from one face of the web to the other. The actual catching area is that part of the web covered by the sticky spiral.

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Figure 5.24 Fine structure of the sticky spiral in Araneus diadematus. (a) The viscous coating forms regular droplets of 5–10 μm along the axial threads. (Photo: Foelix and Kaufmann.) (b) The phase contrast microscope reveals a dense core of glycoproteins (arrow) inside the glue droplets (Photo: Erb). (c) The scanning electron microscope shows that this core forms a tiny ring around the axial threads. (Photo: Vollrath.)

Wherever two threads cross in the web, they form a solid connection. It is still a matter of debate, however, whether these connections represent a genuine fusion of two threads or whether another substance cements them together. Several studies have demonstrated that spiders do use a cement that can form either stiff or flexible connections (Eberhard, 1976; Kavanagh and Tillinghast, 1979). Altogether, an orb web contains 1000–1500 connection points, most of which occur between the radii and the spiral thread ( Jackson, 1971). Gluing two threads firmly together takes only about 0.2 seconds, which is faster than any man-made instant glue (Zschokke, 2009; personal communication). The number of radii varies little within a particular species of orb weaver and is often characteristic of that species. The web of the garden spider Araneus diadematus, for instance, usually has 25–30 radial threads forming fairly regular angles of 12–15°. Webs of very young A. diadematus often have many more radii than those of adults (Witt et al., 1972). In the horizontally inclined orbs of Tetragnatha, one finds only few radii (about 18), whereas 50–60 are present in the webs of the small araneid Mangora. These numbers of radii imply that many orb weavers show a species-specific geometry in their webs. However, there is also some variation in the orb web pattern, even within the webs of the same species and even in webs of an individual spider. Thus it is not yet known whether one can really identify a certain

Spider Webs

Figure 5.25 (a) Typical web of the sector spider Zygiella. During daytime the spider hides in the retreat, but keeps contact with the hub by means of a signal thread (tracing of a photograph by Witt). (b) First web built by a young Zygiella; note the round shape of the web and the missing free sector. (Photo: Zschokke.)

species by solely looking at its web structure. It seems more likely that distinct web designs can be detected at the genus level (e.g., in Argiope, Cyclosa, Hyptiotes, Nephila and Zygiella; W. Eberhard and S. Zschokke, 2009; personal communication), but systematic studies and quantitative analyses are lacking so far. Zygiella, for instance, typically builds a web with a “free sector” that is crossed only by a sturdy signal thread (fig. 5.25a); this thread connects the hub with a silken retreat outside the web. To observe how this free sector comes about is quite interesting. While laying down the sticky spiral, the spider usually stops before reaching the signal thread and reverses its course from a clockwise to a counter-clockwise direction, and vice versa. Thus the sticky spiral actually results from the spider’s moving like a pendulum. An interesting detail in a Zygiella web is that the radii consist of a single thread near the hub, but of a double thread at the periphery, where the tension is higher (Zschokke, 2000a). During the day Zygiella hides in a retreat, keeping one leg touching the signal thread to detect any vibrations occurring in the web. Although Zygiella typically builds free-sector webs, closed orb webs are often built by the juveniles (fig. 5.25b). Even adults occasionally produce orbs without the free sector; this happens if the signal thread deviates from the plane of the web by more than 40°. Signal threads leading to a safe retreat, such as a curled leaf, occur in many other araneid spider webs. Having such a signal thread means that the spider is less exposed to predators (such as birds or wasps), for it needs to be present on the web only when actually catching prey.

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The colonial orb-weaver Parawixia bistriata can build webs of two different designs, apparently adapted for different prey types. Small webs with a very fine mesh size are built at sunset to catch small dipterans; much larger, wide-meshed webs are constructed during the day, and only when termites are swarming (Sandoval, 1994). It seems that this plasticity in web design occurs in response to fluctuating prey availability. A common addition to the orb web is the so-called stabilimentum (Simon, 1895) or decoration (McCook 1889). This silken band leading to the hub is added to neighboring radii in a zigzag manner. In some species it forms one straight line crossing the hub vertically, in others it assumes the shape of an X, with four arms radiating obliquely from the hub (fig. 5.26). Webs with such cruciate stabilimenta do not always exhibit all four arms but are often asymmetric due to missing arms (Justice et al., 2005). In various species and in the webs of young orb weavers, the stabilimentum may be circular, either as a solid disc or a broad spiral (fig. 5.26c; Lubin, 1986). The spiral form was found to be built more often by hungry spiders (Watanabe, 1999). Numerous studies have dealt with the possible function of stabilimenta. Initially it was believed that they had a stabilizing effect (hence the name), but this is very unlikely as these silk bands are only loosely added to the finished web. Furthermore, stabilimenta are not observed in webs of nocturnal spiders, which points more to a visual function. Of the many roles that have been attributed to stabilimenta, only the most pertinent ones are mentioned here: (1) Prey attraction. It was claimed that the silk of the stabilimentum reflects UV light, which would be attractive for pollinating insects (Craig and Bernard, 1990). Later investigations did not find a higher UV reflection of the stabilimenta than in any other part of the orb web (Zschokke, 2002). Nonetheless, in webs of Cyclosa with stabilimenta, 150% more prey was caught than in webs lacking stabilimenta (Tso, 1998). Although this strongly indicates some attraction, it is unclear whether this was caused by a reflection of UV light. (2) Defense. Argiope webs with stabilimenta caught less prey (30%) than those with stabilimenta, and it was assumed that the main function of stabilimenta was defense rather than attraction (Blackledge, 1998; Blackledge and Wenzel, 1999). Also, mud-dauber wasps were less successful hunting Argiope spiders in webs with stabilimenta, which also indicated a defensive function (Blackledge and Wenzel, 2001). (3) Camouflage. Almost all spiders that make stabilimenta sit at the hub, and, at least in the case of X-shaped stabilimenta, the spider holds its legs in roughly the same orientation. But the body is often brightly colored (e.g., black and yellow), which makes the spider rather conspicuous. A very convincing camouflage is observed in Cyclosa species, where the spider adorns the vertical stabilimentum with remnants of prey and old shed skins (Neet, 1990); the spider itself sits in the middle of that line of detritus, its legs pressed tightly to its body, and it is thus practically invisible. However, some experiments have shown that this camouflage is more tied to the detritus than to the stabilimentum (Rovner, 1976).

Spider Webs

Figure 5.26 Stabilimenta. (a) A vertical zigzag pattern is typical for the European Argiope bruennichi. (b) Many tropical Argiope species build a cross-shaped stabilimentum. (c) Some uloborids construct veritable spiral stabilimenta. (Photo: Pollard.)

(4) Bird deterrent. Since stabilimenta are, at least for human eyes, very conspicuous structures, a signal function was postulated (e.g., for birds to avoid flying through such webs; Eisner and Nowicki, 1983; Horton, 1980; Nentwig and Heimer, 1987). Probably, different functions must be attributed to the stabilimenta of different types of orb webs (Robinson and Robinson, 1973). Aside from the above-mentioned functions, stabilimenta may also serve as a protective shield against heat radiation from the sun (Humphreys, 1992). Although stabilimenta have been studied in

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80 different orb weavers for more than 100 years, no general consensus has been reached so far (Bruce, 2006)—or, as one review put it, “The function of web decorations remains an unresolved issue” (Herberstein et al., 2000; p. 667). The silk glands producing the stabilimenta were not known until recently. By dripping hot paraffin onto the spinnerets (H. M. Peters, 1982) while the spider (Argiope) was weaving its stabilimentum, fine silk threads could be preserved that were just exiting the spigots of the aciniform glands. In Uloborus the piriform glands are additionally involved (H. M. Peters, 1993a). Exactly the same glands also provide the threads for wrapping prey (swathing silk, fig. 6.22). Most orb webs are built vertically, but Uloborus builds an orb web that is usually oriented in a horizontal plane. With the exception of cribellate catching silk it closely resembles the araneid orb web, even in details. This remarkable example of a possible convergence is interesting from a phylogenetic viewpoint and will be discussed later. All orb webs presented so far have been basically two dimensional. Several orb weavers, however, add further silk lines to the orb and thus make it three dimensional. Many tropical uloborids make quite elaborate variations, e.g., by adding a cone-shaped orb onto a regular orb web (fig. 5.27; Lubin et al., 1982; Lubin, 1986). Another example is Theridiosoma, which builds a complete orb web but attaches a thread laterally to the hub. When this thread is tightened, the web

Figure 5.27 Uloborus bispiralis from New Guinea exhibits an orb plus cone construction. The spider sits weIl protected on the inside of this “cage web.” (Photo: Lubin.)

Spider Webs

Figure 5.28 (a) In the modified orb of Theridiosoma the hub of the web is pulled out by a tension thread and the spider (∗) sits as a living link in between, holding the web with its hind legs. (b) The theridiosomatid Wendilgarda builds a most unusual modification of an orb web, in which the sticky threads are attached to the water surface. Inset: Close-up of the attachment, showing loops of fine silk threads floating on the water surface. (Photos: Coddington.)

bulges, resembling an inside-out umbrella (fig. 5.28a). The spider itself sits as a living bridge: its hind legs grasp the radii near the hub while its front legs pull on the tension thread. When an insect flies into the web, Theridiosoma at once releases its front legs so that the web jerks back into the two-dimensional plane and entangles the hapless victim. In Wendilgarda the orb web is much more reduced: a horizontal thread is spanned across a creek and several sticky vertical threads extend down onto the water surface, where they are attached by small loops of floating silk (Coddington and Valerio, 1980; fig. 5.28b). These sticky lines skate erratically over

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the water surface or they are dragged actively back and forth by the spider to capture some insects on the water surface, usually water striders (Eberhard, 2001). A sort of spring trap is built by the cribellate spider Hyptiotes (Uloboridae). Its triangular web is most likely a reduction from an orb (fig. 5.29a). Four radial threads, which enclose three sectors, converge into one mooring thread. Again, the spider forms a living link by holding the mooring thread tightly with its front legs. When prey is hitting the web, Hyptiotes quickly releases some loops of thread with the hind legs so that the entire web is instantly sagging, thereby ensnaring the prey. The often heard claim that this collapse is so extensive that the web could only be used once is not really correct. At least for small prey items, it has been shown that this type web can be used repeatedly (Zschokke, 2000; fig. 5.29b). As there are more than 2000 orb-weaver species, I cannot touch on all the structural variations that orb webs may exhibit, but in many cases the differences are relatively minor and concern only the symmetry of the web. Nephila, for instance, builds a broad orb web in which the lower half is much larger than the upper. Consequently, the sticky spiral does not really spiral around the center but only crosses the lower half of the web in a “pendulum” fashion. A further characteristic of the Nephila web is that an auxiliary spiral persists in the finished web. Nephila also constructs a three-dimensional mesh above the hub, called a barrier web, which most likely has a protective function (Higgins, 1992).

Figure 5.29 (a) The spring trap of Hyptiotes consists only of three sectors of an orb web. Inset: The spider itself forms a living bridge between a tension thread (S) to the web and an attachment thread (A) to the substrate. (b) The web shows only slight damage after having caught three small flies (at 1–3). (After Zschokke, 2000.)

Spider Webs

The rather different web of the “orb weaver” Cyrtophora also consists of a threedimensional network but has a central tentlike construction (fig. 5.30). This “canopy” resembles an orb web inasmuch as it also contains radial threads and a spiral thread. However, the number of radii is much higher (around 200 split radii), and the spiral is not sticky. Formerly, the Cyrtophora web was considered to represent an intermediate step between the sheet web of the linyphiids and the orb web of the araneids: the transition to the orb could have evolved by a reduction of the irregular network and a tilting of the central sheet (Kullmann, 1972a). However, the opposite opinion has also been expressed, namely, that the Cyrtophora web is derived from an orb web (Lubin, 1973). Indeed, this is more likely, since Cyrtophora is morphologically (as determined by its genital structures and its spinning apparatus) a specialized araneid (H. M. Peters, 1993b). The Basilica spider Mecynogea builds a somewhat similar dome web that at first glance resembles a linyphiid snare (Exline, 1948; Willey et al., 1992). However, the very regular horizontal sheet (dome) actually consists of many radii and a nonviscid spiral (fig. 5.31). Finally, an extreme variation occurs in the so-called ladder-webs—orb webs that can be seven times longer than they are wide (fig. 5.32). First discovered in New Guinea (Robinson and Robinson, 1972), they are now known from Australia, New Zealand, Africa, South America, and Florida (Eberhard, 1975; Stowe, 1986; Kuntner, 2008; Harmer, 2009). The hub may be located centrally (Teloprocera, Australia; Cryptaranea, New Zealand), close to the top (Tylorida, New Guinea), or near the bottom (Scoloderus, South America). Most radial threads run in a vertical direction, while the sticky “spiral” criss-crosses in a horizontal fashion. Initially ladder-webs were interpreted as an adaption for catching moths. It was known from regular orb webs that moths lose only their wing scales on the sticky threads but then can escape rather quickly (Eisner et al., 1964); in a ladder web moths slide down a much greater distance and are therefore exposed longer to the attacking spider. Although this may be true for certain species, it does not apply to others such as the Australian Telaprocera, which builds its elongated web against tree trunks. In this case the shape of the ladder web is strongly influenced by external factors, such as the width of the tree trunk (Harmer and Herberstein, 2009). It seems that the ladder web is an adaptation to the narrow tree trunk: the only way the spider could increase its capture area was by elongating its web vertically. Interestingly, ladder webs occur among different orb web families (Araneidae, Nephilidae, Tetragnathidae), and most likely they evolved their elongate shape independently. It is also noteworthy that ladder web spiders build more typical regular orb webs as young juveniles, but as the spider matures, webs change more and more into an elongate shape (Kuntner, 2006; Kuntner et al., 2008). Similar tendencies in web transition were also seen in Nephylengys, in which the adult webs become highly eccentric (Kuntner, 2007).

Construction of an Orb Web Before the actual construction of an orb web begins, there is a rather long walking (or exploratory) phase, where many threads are laid down without leading to an apparent web structure (Zschokke, 1996). One of the first steps in web building is

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Figure 5.30 Web of Cyrtophora. The horizontal sheet resembles an orb web; it is surrounded by an irregular mesh of threads above and below the sheet. The spider sits underneath the tentlike center of the sheet. (After Wiehle, 1927.) Inset: Fine structure of the horizontal “canopy” showing short fusion zones where radial (Rad) and spiral threads (Sp) cross each other. (After Kullmann and Stern, 1975.)

Figure 5.31 (a) The web of the North American Mecynogea looks at first glance like a linyphiid web, but is actually a modified orb web. The spider hangs underneath the dome (black arrow). (b) A closer look at the horizontal dome (white arrow in a) shows a very regular, non-sticky meshwork that serves as the capture area. (Photo: Chevalier.)

Spider Webs

Figure 5.32 (a) Ladder webs are extremely elongated orb webs—they may be seven times longer than wide. (b) Detail of the lower part of a ladder web (Scoloderus, French Guiana) containing the hub; in the upper part the sticky threads run almost parallel to each other. It takes 3 hours to build such an elaborate web. (Photos: Coddington.)

establishing a horizontal line bridging the gap between two branches, for instance. It is commonly claimed that such a bridging thread is the result of releasing a silk thread into the air that is eventually caught by a nearby branch. Although this may be true under natural conditions with a slight breeze, it is also possible that the spider pulls a dragline behind as it walks from one elevated point to another one. Indeed, this was observed in the laboratory when no air movements were present (Zschokke, 1996). The first observable web structure is the proto-hub, a central spot where several threads come together. The following description of orb-web construction is based on the behavior of the garden spider Araneus diadematus (H. M. Peters, 1939a,b), but it does not strictly apply to all orb weavers (Eberhard, 1990b). The building of an orb web folIows three distinct phases: (1) the construction of the frame and radii; (2) the laying down of the auxiliary spiral; and (3) the establishment of the sticky (or catching) spiral.

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Figure 5.33 Construction of an orb web. (After H. M. Peters, 1939a.)

Frame and Radial Threads The spider starts with a horizontal thread by simply exuding a silk thread into the air while sitting on an elevated point. This thread is carried away by wind or even the slightest draft until it gets caught on some object, e. g. a twig. Actually, this horizontal thread is only a provisional structure; the spider bites through it (fig. 5.33a, at X), grasps the cut thread with its front legs, and moves from point A toward point B. At the same time a new thread is reeled off behind the spider while the original thread AB is curled up by the front legs. About halfway (at M), the old and the new thread are connected. Since more silk is used for the new thread AM, the entire thread AMB sags a bit. At M the spider descends vertically until it reaches the surface to which it fastens the thread (fig. 5.33b, at C). The resulting Y-structure is essentially the basic framework of the future orb, with M being the center.

Spider Webs

The next step establishes additional radial threads. This is a rather complicated procedure, especially because the spider is constantly producing a new thread wherever it goes. The first radial threads are always made together with a frame thread—that is, in one move. The spider walks on the existing radius from M to B and fastens the new thread at B (fig. 5.33c). There it turns around and uses the new thread MB as a guide line. Obviously, while walking back on MB, it is spinning a new thread again. After a short distance the spider attaches this thread to the new MB at the point D. The spider now keeps running via M toward the starting point A, where it attaches the thread (fig. 5.33d). From A the spider returns to D, again doubling the thread AD (fig. 5.33e). This produces the final frame thread AB and, at the same time, the radius DM, which is, however, replaced immediately because the spider bites through at X (as it did with the first horizontal thread) while running back to the hub (M). The new thread XM becomes transformed into the final radius DM. The rather sharp buckle at D is somewhat compensated for by letting out more thread so that the new radius DM is longer than the previous one. Following the same pattern, the next frame thread plus radial thread is executed (fig. 5.33f). The basic scaffold of radial threads is then filled up with further radii. Again, these are produced twice; that is, an existing radius serves as a guideline while a new (temporary) radius is pulled behind as the spider walks from the center to the periphery. This radius is fastened only briefly to the frame, then bitten through at the periphery and subsequently replaced while the spider returns on it to the hub. The sequence of the placement of radial threads is by no means haphazard but follows two basic rules: (1) the direction of placement of a new radius alternates; and (2) the first radial threads, which fill the gaps between the original radii, are always constructed directly below an already existing (original) radius. This procedure of consecutive placement of radii becomes clearer in figure 5.34. The spider always decides at the hub in which sector the next radius is to be placed. As soon as it has completed a radial thread and has arrived back at the hub, it briefly tugs on all the finished radii with its front legs. The observer gets the impression that the spider “measures” the angle between two neighboring radii. That an oversized angle would determine the placement of the next radial thread seems plausible, and various experiments, such as burning out radii while they were being laid down (Hingston, 1920), provided support for this hypothesis. However, other factors, such as web tension, also seem to be involved. Although the precise mechanism triggering the placement of radial threads is not yet known, it is clear that the front legs do have a measuring function (Reed et al., 1965). If the front legs are removed, the regularity of the angles between adjacent radial threads is impaired. Normally, the angles between the 20–30 radii of an orb web (for Araneus diadematus) are astonishingly constant, about 15°. It is true, though, that the upper half of the orb web contains fewer radii (and thus larger angles between neighboring threads) than the lower half.

Auxiliary Spiral While the spider is still busy building the radii, it is also interconnecting these threads by a few narrow circles in the center of the web.

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Figure 5.34 (a) Recording of the movements of a garden spider (Araneus diadematus) while building the first radial threads of an orb web. (After Zschokke, 1993). (b) Completion of frame and radii construction. The numbers give the sequence of placement of the first radial threads; note the opposite directions of radii 1-4. H = hub. (After H. M. Peters, 1939a.)

This hub region is then extended into the so-called strengthening zone by further peripheral turns. After construction of the radial threads has been completed, the strengthening zone is continued into a wide spiral toward the periphery, forming the auxiliary spiral (fig. 5.35a). Although the auxiliary spiral has only a few turns, it ties the radii together and helps stabilize the half-finished orb web. The auxiliary spiral thread also serves as a scaffold and a handy guide for the spider when it comes to laying down the catching spiral (Zschokke, 1993). Without an auxiliary spiral the spider can cross the radii only awkwardly, since each radial thread would sag greatly under the spider’s weight. After the auxiliary spiral is finished, the spider pauses for a moment before it tackles the last step of orb-web construction.

Catching Spiral The auxiliary spiral begins at the hub and ends well before reaching the peripheral framework (fig. 5.35a). When laying down the sticky spiral, the spider starts at the periphery and uses the auxiliary spiral as a guide line. While crossing the radial threads in a spiral fashion, it constantly fastens the sticky thread to each radius. In this process both the front legs and the hind legs play an important role. One front leg reaches for the next radius and touches it with a quick, brushing movement, apparently to ascertain its position. At the same time, one of the fourth legs pulls the thread out of the spinnerets and dabs it against the radius (fig. 5.35b). While doing so, the spider keeps the distance between successive turns about equal (Vollrath and Mohren, 1985).

Spider Webs

Figure 5.35 (a) An orb web after completion of the auxiliary spiral (Aux). The first turns of the sticky spiral (SS) can be seen in the lower part of the web. (b) Araneus diadematus in the process of laying down the sticky spiral. Note that one front leg quivers briefly while touching the next radius (arrow). (Single frame from a movie by Witt.)

As the construction of the sticky spiral proceeds, the auxiliary spiral is simultaneously taken down. In the finished web, only the remnants of the crossing points can be recognized. The catching spiral is not continued into the center of the web but terminates shortly before it. This results in a rather open space between the catching area and the hub, called the free zone. The sticky spiral is by no means a continuous spiral. It often reverses its course from clockwise to counterclockwise, and vice versa. Such turning points can easily be seen at many points in the web (fig. 5.23, 5.36). Since the position of the hub is slightly off center, that is, shifted toward the upper part of the web, most of the sticky spiral is confined to the lower half of the web. The laying down of the sticky spiral is the most time-consuming stage of orb web construction. Whereas building the framework and the radii takes only about 5 minutes, the sticky spiral requires at least 20 minutes (fig. 5.37; Zschokke and Vollrath, 1995). That the entire orb web in all its complexity is created in less than an hour is astounding. The total length of the threads is about 20 m. Since most threads are only 1–2 μm thick, the weight of an orb web is extremely low, between 0.1 and 0.5 mg. These values become even more impressive if one considers that a female Araneus diadematus easily weighs 500 mg.

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Figure 5.36 (a) Placing of the sticky spiral. Spiral construction begins at the periphery (0’); the numbers indicate the time elapsed in minutes. (After Wiehle, 1927.) (b) Recording of the movements of a garden spider while placing the sticky spiral. The apparent bundling of spiral turns results from the spider following the five turns of the auxiliary spiral. (After Zschokke and Vollrath, 1995.)

Figure 5.37 Time spent during the different phases of orb web construction. Note that the initial phases, radii and auxiliary spiral (aux), take only 15–20 minutes, whereas the construction of the sticky spiral takes more than 40 minutes. (After Zschokke and Vollrath, 1995.)

It is also remarkable that the construction of the orb web is controlled only by the sense of touch, without any visual feedback. Even when all eight eyes are covered with opaque paint, the spider still builds a perfectly normal web. This achievement is quite routine for the spider, for it usually builds its web at night anyway. More surprisingly, perhaps, is the fact that gravity is also dispensable for the orb web’s construction. This was most convincingly demonstrated by the two garden spiders that

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were sent into orbit with the space capsule Skylab in 1973. Despite complete weightlessness, they still built regular orbs (fig. 4.43; Witt et al., 1977). However, if the orientation of the web is changed while the spider is building its web, then certain deviations in the web’s geometry will occur (Vollrath, 1986a, 1988). Incidentally, male orb weavers can build the same webs as females, at least until they reach sexual maturity. After that point they rarely make webs at all, and those are then rather small and rudimentary. Most notably, a sticky catching spiral is always lacking because the spigots producing the capture thread (triad, fig. 10.11) disappear during the final molt (Sacher, 1991; Müller and Westheide, 1993). Although this means that they can no longer catch prey, this matters little since their adult life lasts only about one week.

Relation of Structure and Function in the Orb Web The ultimate purpose of any spider web is to capture prey, and the orb web is certainly no exception. Its highly geometrical construction suggests its special effectiveness and economy as a trap. As we have just seen, the orb web is built with a minimum of material (0.1–0.5 mg of silk) and time (30–60 minutes). The tightly strung radial threads converging in the web’s center give the spider two advantages: (1) they transmit vibration signals from the periphery to the center, where the spider usually sits; and (2) they provide direct and quick access routes (Witt, 1975; Barth, 1982). The web can thus be regarded as an extension of the spider’s sensorium. It has been shown that the longitudinal vibrations of the radii are especially important, since they follow a specific direction and are hardly attenuated. High-frequency energy sources, such as buzzing flies, emit the most effective signals toward the web’s center (Masters, 1984a, b; Masters and Markl, 1981; Masters et al., 1986). The spider’s first reaction to a fly that has hit the web is to jerk the radial threads several times with its front legs (Klärner and Barth, 1982). Only when the prey has been located in relation to the center does the spider rush out on a directed course— in most cases exactly on that radial thread leading straight to the prey. Tensions in the orb web are not evenly distributed but are highest in the periphery and lower toward the center. The forces acting on the mooring threads, frame threads, and radii decrease in a ratio of 10:7:1 (fig. 5.38; Wirth and Barth, 1992). This is also mirrored in the thickness of the respective threads: mooring and frame threads are about 6 μm in diameter, the radii only 2–3 μm. As a consequence, the actual stresses within a web are less because higher tensions are balanced by stronger threads. It also seems that the amount of tension in a thread can be controlled by the spider and that adjustments can be made to environmental conditions (e.g., strong winds) as well as to its own body weight. The radii serve as communication channels not only during prey capture but also during courtship, when the male approaches the female’s web. Usually the small male sits at the edge of the web and rhythmically plucks the threads, apparently in order not to be mistaken for prey. The mechanical properties of the sticky spiral, especially its great elasticity, are also very important: it can be stretched several times its original length without breaking. This is of course advantageous when a vigorously struggling insect is trapped in the web. Aside from these mechanical

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Figure 5.38 (a) Forces in a completed orb web of Araneus diadematus. Pretensile forces (μN) are much higher in the peripheral mooring threads than in the radii. (b) Forces in a half-finished web. The high values of tension measured in the auxiliary spiral reflect its stabilizing effect on the whole web structure. Note that tension in a radial thread decreases markedly toward the hub. (After Wirth and Barth, 1992.)

stimuli, the web can also carry chemical signals, which stem from the spider’s secretion of pheromones. It is known that a female’s empty web may elicit courtship behavior of the male (Blanke, 1973a, b). The carrying of chemical stimuli is not restricted to orb webs alone but applies also to the draglines of wandering spiders (Tietjen and Rovner, 1980). The hub is usually slightly off-center (i.e., it lies above the geometrical center of the orb). This is probably not just accidental but serves a purpose: the spider sitting in the center can run a little faster downward than upward in the web (Zschokke and Nakata, 2010). This means that prey in the (larger) lower half can be reached as quickly as in the (smaller) upper half of the web. As there is a higher probability of insects flying into the larger half, an asymmetric orb web is actually a more efficient trap (Masters and Moffat, 1983). Most threads in an orb web are quite thin (1–3 μm), and one would expect that insects could not really see them because the resolution of their eyes is rather limited (Wehner, 1981). However, the threads do reflect light and are therefore noticed by many flying insects. They can be avoided, if they are seen early enough (Craig et al., 1985; Craig, 1986). However, the natural conditions are often in favor of the spider (e.g., under low levels of light or during windy weather), when the shaking web becomes practically invisible (Craig, 1988, 1990). The capture efficiency of orb webs seems to be superior to that of sheet and tangle webs because of the low

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visibility and the strong adhesive properties of orb web threads (Rypstra, 1982). There may be a trade-off, though, between low visibility and impact absorption of a web (i.e., strong-impact-absorbing webs are more visible, and thus avoided, while barely visible webs may be too fragile to retain prey). Most orb webs have a vertical orientation in space or, to be more precise, they are slightly tilted. The spider sits almost invariably on the “underside” of the hub, with its head facing down (exceptions are Verrucosa ornata and some Cyclosa species). In case of a disturbance or danger, the spider can simply drop to the ground on a safety thread, a response that is typical of many orb weavers. Vertically oriented orb webs are designed to intercept flying insects, and the extensibility of the capture thread helps maximize the size of the prey. In contrast, horizontal orb webs are more suited for small, light weight prey. Although orb webs often have a species-specific structure, many Araneid spiders can move with ease in a foreign web. The pioneer French entomologist J. H. Fabre successfully transferred an Argiope bruennichi to a web of Argiope lobata (cited by Wiehle, 1928). Similarly, Araneus diadematus has no difficulties catching prey in the foreign web of Argiope aurantia (Richardson, 1973). On the other hand, Zygiella does not feel at home in a web of Araneus, because it keeps climbing to the web’s periphery and then dropping from the frame (Wiehle, 1927). Incidentally, it seems that some spiders can and do take over foreign webs under natural conditions (Enders, 1974; Eberhard et al., 1978). In nature orb webs must be replaced often because they quickly become damaged or destroyed by wind, rain, or early morning dew. As a rule, a garden spider (Araneus diadematus) builds a new web every day (Wiehle, 1927). Only the previous framework may be used again for the new construction. Taking down the old web is a rather systematic procedure. While walking out from the hub the spider destroys three to five radii together with the crossing sticky threads, thus producing an open sector in the orb (Carico, 1986). After 30–60 minutes, the web is reduced to the frame and perhaps a few radii. At this point the spider starts building a new web. Some species of orb weavers practice a much faster technique (about 1 minute) of taking their web down. Cutting the lateral frame threads makes the entire web collapse so that only the horizontal bridge thread remains. The new web construction begins here by first establishing the basic Y-structure. Incidentally, the material of the old web is eaten by some orb weavers, other species simply throw it away, and some use it to wrap their egg cocoons (Carico, 1984). If the web is only slightly damaged, as, for instance, after catching small prey, the spider may or may not mend the hole. In general, repair does not consist of reconstructing the original design but of patching the holes to make the web stable again. The cribellate orb weaver Uloborus, however, often performs elaborate repairs, sometimes replacing the entire half of a web in an orderly fashion (fig. 5.39; Eberhard, 1972).

“Drug Webs” In 1948 the German zoologist H. M. Peters, who had always been bothered by the fact that his garden spiders built their webs at an ungodly hour (between 2 A.M.

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Figure 5.39 Web repair. After destruction of the left half of the web, the spider (Uloborus diversus) first gathered all broken threads into a seam and then started to rebuild the missing sector. Note the turning points of the spiral thread. The right half of the web was left unchanged, but the hub was built anew. (Photo: Eberhard). Inset: Typical body shape of an uloborid spider.

and 5 A.M.), asked his colleague from pharmacology, P. N. Witt, for a stimulant that might shift the spider’s web building to an earlier hour. Unfortunately, the drug (amphetamine) did not yield the desired effect. The spiders built at their usual hours, yet, surprisingly, the web structure was definitely altered: the radial threads as well as the catching spiral were placed irregularly (fig. 5.40a). In the following years Witt tested a great variety of drugs (e.g., caffeine, mescaline, and strychnine) on orb-web spiders and investigated how these substances affected web construction (Witt, 1956, 1971). It was soon clear that certain drugs produced specific effects. For instance, a certain dosage of caffeine results in a typical “caffeine web” (fig. 5.40b), which is distinctly different from a mescaline web or an amphetamine web. The drugs can affect the size and shape of the web, the number of radii and spiral turns, the regularity of placement of the radial and spiral threads, the mesh width, and so forth. Relatively small doses of caffeine (10 μg/animal) result in smaller but wider webs than normal; the radii often form oversized angles, yet the

Spider Webs

Figure 5.40 Drug webs. (a) One of the first drug webs, built after administering the stimulant Amphetamine to a sector spider (Zygiella). Only slight irregularities in web design can be observed (compare with Figure 5.25). (b) Drug web of a Zygiella constructed after a relatively high dose of caffeine. Severe alterations in almost all web parameters are obvious. (After Peters et al., 1950 and Witt, 1956.)

regularity of the catching spiral is not affected. At higher doses (100 μg/animal), the alterations in the webs become much more noticeable, and their regular design disappears. Most drugs tend to have a negative influence on web regularity. Only with very low doses of the hallucinogen LSD-25 could an increase in web regularity be observed. If the drug concentration was raised by one order (to 0.1–0.3 μg/ animal), the regularity of the angles between radial threads decreased slightly. Testing a drug on a spider is actually a rather simple procedure. The substances do not have to be injected but are simply dissolved in sugar water.A drop of such a solution is then touched to the mouth of the spider, and it is imbibed quickly. For quantitative studies, small drops of the drug of known concentration and exactly determined volumes are delivered from a microsyringe to the spider’s mouth. To study the effects of the drug, photographs of the spider’s web are taken before and after the drug is administered. Structural alterations of the web can then be measured directly on the photographs. The use of statistical methods allows one to detect even very subtle changes that would not be apparent from a purely visual comparison of the control and “drug” webs (Witt and Reed, 1965).

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The initial hopes that drug webs could be used in applied medicine (Groh et al., 1966), were not fulfilled, and this line of research was discontinued 20 years later. More recently, orb webs have also been used as bioassays for side effects of pesticides (Samu and Vollrath, 1992). While some fungicides and insecticides had apparently no influence on spider webs, others suppressed web-building frequency and severely affected web size and building accuracy. Again, it seems unlikely that these findings will have any impact on the actual use of insecticides in agriculture. Finally, an interesting “natural drug web” should be mentioned here (Eberhard, 2001): The parasitoid wasp Hymenoepimecys attaches an egg to the abdomen of the orb weaver Plesiometa (Tetragnathidae). The developing larva feeds on the hemolymph of the spider for 1–2 weeks, at first without any noticeable effects on its host. But then, on the night when it will kill its host spider, the larva induces the construction of a highly altered “cocoon web” that essentially consists only of a hub and many radial threads. After another molt the larva kills and consumes the spider. Thereafter the larva spins a cocoon on the spider´s web, pupates within four days, and after another week an adult wasp will emerge. The remarkable feature of this story is that the special design of the cocoon web (much simpler yet stronger) is apparently chemically induced by the wasp larva, most likely by some neuromodulators that it injects into the spider´s hemolymph. If the larva is experimentally removed and the spider survives, a gradual return to more normal orb webs can be observed later. This type of recovery is also known from some typical drug webs, which were induced by a single drug application in the laboratory (Witt et al., 1968).

Is Web Building Genetically Determined or Learned? The elaborate and highly regular structure of the orb web provokes the question as to whether the first webs of a spider exhibit the same complexity of those built by adults or whether some learning process leads by degrees to the “complete” orb web. The question is answered if we inspect the very first web built by a young orb web spider: it is already a perfect, miniature orb (fig. 5.25b). Detailed measurements have even shown that the early webs are often more regular than the webs of adults (Witt et al., 1972). Learning from previous experience does not seem to play a role in web building (Reed et al., 1970). This finding was further demonstrated in experiments in which young spiderlings were confined to narrow glass tubes so that they could not build any webs. When they were released after several months, they could weave orbs as regular as those of their normally reared siblings, which served as a control. However, one cannot conclude that web building is an entirely stereotyped process. A certain plasticity of this behavior has been shown in many experiments. For instance, if one burns out a radial thread with a hot wire just after it has been constructed, the spider will replace it immediately. One may repeat this game more than 20 times before the spider gives up replacing the radial thread and proceeds to build the auxiliary spiral (Hingston, 1920). This shows clearly that already existing

Spider Webs

structures influence the further construction of the web. Apparently the spider can integrate the feedback from its sensory input and adapt its behavior to a given situation. However, the spider does not replace the burnt out radii indefinitely, but at some point simply proceeds to the next phase of web construction, even though the previous phase has not been completed. Similar conclusions can be reached if one transfers a spider engaged in building a web to another web that is at an earlier stage of construction (P. J. Peters, 1970). The spider then usually repeats phases (for example, laying down the auxiliary spiral) that it had already completed in its own web. In some cases, however, it was observed that important steps in web construction were not repeated, resulting in a rather irregular web. In the first instance the spider apparently reacted to its sensory feedback in completing the web; in the latter case the spider seems to have followed the original “program” coded in its central nervous system (CNS). This explanation is certainly an oversimplification, since other factors, such as sensory feedback from the silk glands, may also determine the extent to which stages of web building are repeated. The statement that even very young spiderlings can already build perfect orb webs needs to be scrutinized. When spiderlings leave their cocoon, they do not build an orb web right away, although they are capable of silk production. Rather, they live communally in a mesh of irregular threads, and only after 2 weeks do they separate and start building their first orb webs (Burch, 1979). If the young spiderlings are taken out of the cocoon prematurely and kept isolated from one another, they can trail draglines and sometimes build a small retreat (H. M. Peters, 1969). Some days later, irregular orb webs appear. Successive webs are improved to perfection within a few days. Most likely, however, this improvement is not the result of a learning process but is rather a reflection of the fact that the CNS is still developing. At the time the spiderling hatches from the egg, its CNS contains only neuroblasts. The precise correlation between differentiation of the CNS and the type of web built at specific times in early development still needs to be established. The juvenile webs of the cribellate orb weaver Uloborus are especially interesting (Szlep, 1961; Eberhard, 1977a). The spiderlings build an orb web immediately after leaving the cocoon, but this first web differs from the adult web in three major respects: (1) the catching threads are lacking; (2) the auxiliary spiral is not removed; and (3) instead of a catching spiral, many “extra” radial threads are filled in between the original 15–20 radii. The main reason for this deviation from the normal orb web is that before the second molt Uloborus does not have a cribellum or a calamistrum; thus it cannot produce cribellate silk for the catching thread. After the second molt, a cribellum and a calamistrum are present, and the spider weaves a regular orb web for the first time. Again it seems likely that the stage of maturation of the CNS plays a role in determining which kind of web will be built during the ontogeny of Uloborus. In conclusion, then, juvenile spiders often build different webs than adults do. However, these early webs cannot be regarded as merely incomplete versions of the adult’s web. Learning does not seem to be involved in the “adult” orb web. In the more specialized orb weavers (Zygiella, Nephila, Eustala), the juveniles show a

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stronger tendency to build the original orb web pattern than the adults (Eberhard, 1985; Eberhard et al., 2008). This seems also to be true for other families like the cob-web spiders (Theridiidae), which are probably derived from orb web ancestors (Agnarsson, 2004; Griswold et al., 1998).

Orb Webs and Evolution The orb web is often considered the evolutionary summit of web-building spiders. It is rather hard to imagine how such a complex structure could have come about at all, yet it is even more difficult to explain how an orb web could develop in two different groups of spiders, the cribellate Uloboridae and the ecribellate Araneoidea (Araneidae, Tetragnathidae). Was the orb web “invented” in both groups independently or in only one group, which gave rise to the other (Kullmann, 1972a)? There are in fact good reasons to assume convergence in the evolution of the orb web. The two groups use different catching threads (cribellate silk versus ecribellate glue-coated threads), and it is hardly plausible that this difference developed only after the structure of the orb had been achieved (H. M. Peters, 1984, 1987; Kovoor and Peters, 1988). One hypothesis, then, is that the orb web developed independently twice, starting from simpler precursors in both groups (fig. 5.41). According to this hypothesis, the ancestral forms of web were merely a retreat with threads radiating from its opening. Cribellate spiders (such as Filistata and Amaurobius) have a “hackle band” along the radial threads, whereas the corresponding plain tripping threads of ecribellate spiders (like those of Segestria or Ariadna) have only a signaling function (stage I). At the next level of evolution (stage II), the area of the catching plane is enlarged and extends somewhat into open space. In ecribellate spiders this led to the formation of three-dimensional webs (like those of linyphiids and theridiids). The next step postulates the omission of the primary retreat (stage III); secondary retreats may develop at the web’s periphery or in its immediate surroundings. In the sheet webs of linyphiids and the cobwebs of theridiids, we begin to find glue droplets on some threads to facilitate the ensnarement of flying insects. Still later (stage IV) the web becomes centric and the spider now sits in the hub. The last step would then lead to the typical orb web (stage V), which has a catching spiral with cribellate silk in cribellate spiders, while it is equipped with glue droplets in ecribellate orb weavers. A later consideration of orb-web phylogeny suggested that the orb was already present in webs of common ancestors of uloborids and araneids but subsequently evolved in different directions, one with cribellate silk, the other with sticky silk (Levi, 1980). The hypothetical evolution of the orb web as pictured in figure 5.41 was well accepted 40 years ago but is viewed critically by most arachnologists today. Although the sequence of events seems logical on the cribellate side, it is somewhat questionable on the ecribellate side. For instance, the web of Cyrtophora is no longer considered as a precursor of the orb web but is most likely derived from it; similar views have been expressed for the horizontal dome web of the linyphiids (Levi, 1980). In other words,

Spider Webs

Figure 5.41 Hypothetical evolution of the orb web in cribellate (left) and ecribellate spiders (right). (After Kullmann, 1972a and Wiehle, 1931.)

the orb web could be the ancient form from which the others have evolved (i.e., just the opposite sequence from the one shown in fig. 5.41;Blackledge et al., 2009). The idea that the orb is the “primitive” state and evolved only once (monophyletic) was proposed decades ago (Levi, 1980; Coddington, 1986). It is assumed that an ancestral orb was first developed in cribellate spiders: an irregular ground-web changed into a highly structured aerial web. Later, on the way toward an ecribellate orb web, the cribellum became reduced while the typical flagelliform glands for gluey capture threads evolved. The metabolically “costly” cribellate catching silk was replaced by

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highly elastic and gluey capture threads of ecribellate orbs. This hypothesis is supported not only by behavioral data (Eberhard, 1990b), but also by a cladistic analysis using 60 different characters in 18 families of orb web spiders (Orbiculariae; Coddington, 1990), and more recently by a molecular analysis of silk (Garb et al., 2006). Although nothing final can be said about the evolution of the orb weavers, we know now from newly discovered fossils of the Jurassic and Cretaceous time period (Eskov, 1984; Selden, 1990; Selden and Penney, 2003) that the orb web must be a rather “old” invention—probably in the order of 100 million years. The orb web, in fact, is probably not the terminal point of the evolution of spider webs. Many orb webs of both cribellate and ecribellate spiders show various degrees of reduction and modification. The araneid Zygiella leaves the center of the web and uses one isolated radius as a signal thread leading to its retreat (fig. 5.25). Since this signal thread is not crossed by the sticky spiral, two sectors of the web remain open. The uloborid spider Hyptiotes goes much further in reducing the original orb: only three sectors remain (fig. 5.29). Miagrammopes, likewise a cribellate spider, spins only a single horizontal thread, which is dressed with catching silk in its middle (Lubin et al., 1978). The ogre-faced spider Deinopis is famous for its small, sticky sweep net that it actively throws over insect prey (see chapter 6). A closer inspection revealed that it is a strong modification of an orb web, where the little capture web corresponds to the sticky spiral (fig. 5.42; Coddington and Sobrevila, 1987).

Figure 5.42 (a) Deinopis builds a cribellate sweep-net that it casts over flying or crawling insects. (b) The web is derived from an orb web as can be seen in this incomplete Deinopis web, where frame (Fr) and radial threads (R) can be recognized; the small capture web (ss) would correspond to the sticky spiral. (Photos: Coddington.)

Spider Webs

Similar reductions are also found on the ecribellate side—that is, among the Araneidae. The bolas spider (Mastophora in America, Dicrostichus and Cladomelea in Australia) uses only a short thread with a large drop of glue on its end (fig. 6.24). To produce such a capture thread, viscid material is drawn with the hind legs from the spinnerets to a short horizontal silk line. Then this line is severed, and a sticky globule accumulates at the lower end of the now vertically hanging thread (Yeargan, 1994). This bolas is thrown after insects which fly close by. In Archemorus the orb web is also abandoned entirely. The spider sits patiently on the upper surface of a leaf, mimicking detritus or bird droppings. When an insect passes nearby, it is detected visually. Archemorus suddenly leaps at the victim and seizes it with its well-armored front legs (Robinson, 1980). Another curious “bird dropping” spider is Celaenia from Australia and New Zealand. While simply dangling on a short thread, it grabs moths that fly by (Forster and Forster, 1973). Because the moths caught are invariably males, it is believed that Celaenia exudes an attractive scent that mimics the sex pheromone of the female moth. Other quite fantastic modifications of the orb web are known from the tropical Poecilopachys and Pasilobus (Robinson and Robinson, 1975). Pasilobus, for example, builds a triangular horizontal web consisting of three radii and 4–11 drooping, sticky threads. When a moth brushes against such a strand, the sticky thread ruptures at a predetermined point near one of the marginal radial threads. The insect becomes stuck to the broken sticky thread, and finds itself suspended and tethered in flight (fig. 5.43). The alerted spider rushes out along the middle radial thread and hauls in its line with the attached prey. Orb webs without any sticky spiral are typical for the American araneid Wixia (Stowe, 1978, 1986). There are only a few radii and they are directly attached to twigs; they function as tripping lines for passing insects.

Figure 5.43 Pasilobus from New Guinea constructs an extremely modified “orb” web. The sagging threads of the sticky “spiral” rupture when an insect brushes against them. (After Robinson and Robinson, 1975.)

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Figure 5.44 (a) The ancient spider Liphistius (Malaysia) builds a silken tube into the soil and 6–8 radial lines extending from the entrance (Photo: Sainsbury and Hijmensen). (b) A similar web design is found in segestriid spiders, e.g. in Ariadna (South Africa); the radial tripping lines are attached to the ground via tiny stilts (arrowheads). (Photo: Hormiga.)

These examples show that evolution has not stopped at, but has gone beyond, the orb web. In some instances the modifications and reductions have been so radical that there is no hint at all of the original structure, as in the case of the bolas spiders, for instance. Among the tetragnathids, only the juvenile Pachygnatha build orb webs, but the adults forsake web building altogether and return to a free, hunting way of life (Balogh, 1934; D. Martin, 1978). The specialized Hawaiian tetragnathid Doryonychus raptor also has no web, but impales small insects with the highly elongated tarsal claws of its front legs while dangling from a single thread (Gillespie, 1992).

Spider Webs

A very basic issue not dealt with previously is how spider webs per se could have evolved. It is speculated that the spinning threads were originally used only for wrapping the eggs in an egg sac (Kaston, 1964; Shultz, 1987b; Krafft, 2002; Selden et al., 2008). Perhaps a retreat was also present at an early stage, and tripping threads emanating from it could alert the spider to insects passing by. At this stage, however, the silk threads were only a means to detect and not to trap prey. This is, for instance, the case in the ancient Liphistius (Mesothelae), which builds a silken tube in the soil with several silk strands radiating from the mouth of the burrow (fig. 5.44). A definite improvement was achieved when special catching threads could hamper or even detain prey, making it much easier for the spider to overpower its victim. In conclusion, we can safely assume that snares developed from enlarged living quarters or retreats. Perhaps the silk was originally used to line retreats in the tidal zone, as a protection from flooding (Decae, 1984). It is known that submerged spiders can survive for days if they are enclosed by an air-filled silk tube. The reason is that the silk sheet functions as a “physical gill,” allowing the constant diffusion of oxygen from the surrounding water into the air space (Rovner, 1986, 1987). The “modern” hunting spiders such as lycosids, salticids, oxyopids, and pisaurids, have probably secondarily reverted from snare building to a nomadic way of life.

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6 In keeping with their varied life styles and different habitats, spiders have developed diverse modes of moving about and capturing prey. Both locomotion and prey capture are complicated by the fact that spiders can move in all three dimensions. Vertical locomotion is accomplished sometimes by jumping, but mostly by climbing on vegetation or on their own silk thread. Many spiders are able to “fly”; that is, they emit a line of silk that is caught by the wind, which, in turn, carries the spider aloft (Eberhard, 1987). Almost everyone has witnessed this phenomenon in autumn when watching gossamer strands drift through the air. Usually, however, only the shiny silk threads are noticed; the tiny passengers are easily overlooked.

Walking Any regular kind of walking is characterized by a specific rhythm or stepping pattern. If we look at all eight legs of a spider at the same time, it becomes obvious that two sets of legs always move alternately. For instance, legs 1 and 3 on the left side (L1, L3) are active together with legs 2 and 4 on the right side (R2, R4). In other words, while legs L1-R2-L3-R4 are moving, legs R1-L2-R3-L4 are at rest (fig. 6.1a). Such a diagonal rhythm is commonly observed among arthropods, regardless of the number of legs they use. In insects, for example, the typical walking pattern is L1-R2-L3 and R1-L2-R3. The movements of the different legs are not absolutely synchronized but show slight temporal delays. The onset of activation is quite obviously metachronous in slowly moving spiders, when a wavelike motion passes over the legs on each side of the body. As a consequence, we can also define the walking pattern by watching the stepping sequence on the right or left side. The most 188

Locomotion and Prey Capture

Figure 6.1 (a) Regular walking pattern: diagonal rhythm. Synchronously moving legs are connected by solid or dashed lines. (b) Two possible walking patterns for a spider lacking the first left leg and the fourth right leg. The spider uses the stepping pattern on the right. (After D. M. Wilson, 1967.)

common stepping sequence in spiders is described by the formula 4-2-3-1 or 2-31-4, 3-1-4-2, or 1-4-2-3, since any leg can take the first step (D. M. Wilson, 1967; Seyfarth and Bohnenberger, 1980). If a spider is moving extremely slowly, the sequence 4-3-2-1 occurs, and the wavelike motion of the legs becomes especially apparent. In contrast, during running, one set of legs moves practically synchronously and alternates more strictly with the other set of legs. This gives the impression of a very precise and “mechanical” run. If a spider loses a leg, it quickly adjusts its gait to the new condition. First, the position of the remaining legs is corrected in such a way that the “gap” is more or less compensated for. The spider also modifies its walking pattern, and the length of the steps may increase. This behavioral plasticity is probably caused by an altered proprioceptive feedback: certain sensory inputs are now lacking altogether, and because of the new positions of the legs, the remaining joint receptors provide the spider with slightly different information than before. Even if several legs are missing, a spider can still change its walking pattern to achieve smooth locomotion. An interesting experiment with a large tarantula, from which two legs from opposite sides (L1 and R4) were amputated, should be mentioned here (D. M. Wilson, 1967). Theoretically, two possibilities to compensate for the loss of these two legs exist (fig. 6.1b). The spider could either retain a diagonal rhythm and move four legs (R1-L2-R3-L4) synchronously while balancing its body on the two legs R2 and L3, or it could move three legs at a time (R1-L3-R3 or L2-R2-L4), although this would completely offset the diagonal rhythm. The experiment showed that the spider adopts the second alternative, which is indeed the mechanically more stable. The fact that certain pairs of legs (R2-L2 and R3-L3) now move together proves that the diagonal rhythm is not rigidly “programmed.” Apparently the basic pattern of the walking program is determined by a “central oscillator” located in the

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central nervous system, but it can be modified by feedback from sensory organs in the legs (Seyfarth, 1985). Most spiders run in a jerky fashion. At intervals of several centimeters the animal halts abruptly, and after a brief pause it starts again, often changing its direction slightly. When a wolf spider stops, it often freezes the position of its legs momentarily, making the diagonal walking pattern particularly noticeable. In contrast, when a jumping spider stops, it typically arranges its legs legs symmetrically around its body (fig. 6.2); this stance allows for a sudden leap and is also seen in other wandering spiders. When web spiders stop moving, many of them also draw their legs close to the body in a kind of resting or protective stance (Ehlers, 1939).

Mechanics of Walking Since all the legs of a spider are anatomically equal (except in length), they also move basically in the same manner. Yet quantitative differences may play a role, especially with respect to torsion of the leg axis. As a rule, legs 1 and 2 are directed forward and pull, whereas legs 3 and 4 point backward and push (fig. 6.3). During the motion of a single leg, one can differentiate a pulling or pushing phase (remotion) and a lifting phase (promotion, a forward motion made without contacting the ground). To move the animal ahead, the joints of the first two pairs of legs must bend, while the joints of the hind legs (legs 4) must stretch. The third legs are laterally directed, so bending or stretching of their joints hardly contributes to forward movement; however, a torsion of their coxal joints does (fig. 6.4).

Figure 6.2 (a) Walking and (b) jumping positions of the salticid Philaeus. (After Ehlers, 1939.)

Locomotion and Prey Capture

Figure 6.3 (a) Contribution of the different legs to the propulsion of the spider. The initial leg position is shown with dotted lines. The first and fourth legs operate mainly by bending and stretching; legs 2 and 3 show torsion. Here only the torsion of the patellar joint is shown for leg 2. (b) Working range of the legs of a wolf spider during slow walking (5 cm/s). Dotted line = propulsion by torsion; vectors = relative contributions to propulsion by bending and stretching. (After Ehlers, 1939.)

The legs must move in a coordinated fashion, not only in time but also in space. For instance, if the spider makes a left turn, the legs on the right side must increase their stride (Ehlers, 1939). Walking is not necessarily limited to a forward direction. Many spiders—especially crab spiders and jumping spiders—can run adroitly sideways, or even backward. In the latter case, the walking pattern still follows the diagonal rhythm, but in reverse. This explains why jumping spiders can walk backward just as fast as forward. If the spider turns on the spot, all the legs on one side of the body move forward as usual, while the legs on the other side move in the opposite direction (Land, 1972a). The walking speed of a spider is typically only a few centimeters per second, but large spiders such as Lycosa or Tegenaria can easily reach a speed of 40–50 cm/s. The length of the steps increases with the spider’s speed: at 6–7 cm/s, a Tegenaria takes steps of only 1 cm, but doubles that at 30 cm/s. As mentioned earlier, spiders can perform impressive sprints, although they become exhausted after a few seconds. The reason for this exhaustion seems to be connected to the fast breakdown (10–20 s) of aerobic, energy-rich phosphagen (Linzen and Gallowitz, 1975; Prestwich and Ing, 1982). Spiders can also gain energy from anaerobic glycolysis or from stored ATP (Prestwich, 1983a, b), but these sources are only used as a last resort. The complete exhaustion that occurs after about 2 minutes of high activity is probably caused by an accumulation of lactate. Since lactate is slowly metabolized,

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Figure 6.4 Sequence of leg movements of a slowly walking wolf spider (Alopecosa). Only the left legs are pictured. Note the simultaneous movements of the first and third legs, and of the second and fourth legs, respectively. Bottom: Footprints as recorded on smoke paper. Whereas legs 1 and 2 touch the substrate only with their claws (dots), legs 3 and 4 leave long scratch marks. (After Ehlers, 1939.)

recovery takes rather long (i.e., 10–20 minutes) (Prestwich, 1988a, b). However, under normal circumstances it is not necessary for spiders to run at high speed for several minutes. A short sprint will usually suffice to reach a safe place. In general spiders with legs that are equal in length are better runners than those with legs that vary in size. This can be easily confirmed by comparing the running of wolf and garden spiders. Garden spiders have a short third pair of legs and cannot run as quickly on the ground as wolf spiders can. However, while running on a thread, the web spider can use its short third legs quite efficiently (Ehlers, 1939; Jacobi-Kleemann, 1953). Apparently the araneid’s legs are well adapted for hanging from threads and less adapted for supporting the weight of the body above the legs. They also lack the traction that adhesive hairs (scopulae; see chapter 2) provide for efficient locomotion in wandering spiders.

Locomotion and Prey Capture

Locomotion on a Thread For a spider, the simplest form of locomotion is to let itself drop by its own silk thread. This can be done without any help from the legs, but usually one of the fourth legs pulls the thread sideways when the spider wants to stop (fig. 6.5a). Orb web spiders often use their fourth legs to reel out the thread from the spinnerets, thus regulating the speed of the downward motion (Ehlers, 1939). While descending by a thread, the garden spider stretches out its first pair of legs in anticipation of contact with the ground; the second pair of legs is spread horizontally to keep the spider from spinning around (Jacobi- Kleemann, 1953). Climbing back up a vertical thread is accomplished mostly with the aid of the two pairs of front legs (fig. 6.5b), while the third pair of legs or the palps gather up the loose thread. During this process, the connection with the spinnerets is always maintained so that the spider can quickly drop down again. When moving upside down on a horizontal thread the garden spider uses all of its legs. In this case, the hind legs are moved more rapidly than the front legs, and the third legs often move twice as fast as the others (Jacobi-Kleemann, 1953). This is probably due to the fact that the third legs are rather short. Similarly, crab spiders move their short hind legs at a faster rate than their long front legs (Ferdinand, 1981). The dragline can also be used as a brake during a fast run. For instance, when the “raft spider” Dolomedes is hunting on the water surface and needs to stop fast, it grasps the trailing thread with the tarsal claws of its hindlegs. Since the thread is anchored at the river bank, the inertial movement is quickly reduced, and the spider comes to a halt next to the prey (Gorb and Barth, 1994). The mode of locomotion during web building does not differ in principle from the spider’s normal walking in the completed web. It simply appears more complex because, aside from a merely

Figure 6.5 (a) Crab spider Diaea dropping on its own thread. (After Bristowe, 1958). (b) Jumping spider Philaeus climbing back on its own thread. Only the two pairs of front legs grasp the thread, while the palps reel it in. (After Ehlers, 1939.)

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locomotor purpose, some leg movements also function in placing the threads. For instance, a third and a fourth leg together always pull a radial thread close to the spinnerets so that the spiral thread can be fastened to the radius ( Jacobi-Kleemann, 1953).

Running on a Sheet Web It has always been puzzling how funnel-web spiders (Agelenidae) can move swiftly over their silken sheet (up to 45 cm/s; Fröhlich, 1978), whereas their insect prey can only walk clumsily on it. Bristowe (1941, p. 236) explained that “the insect’s position can be compared to a man trying to run through soft snow up to his knees pursued by an enemy on skis.” Although this image seems convincing, a closer look at the running technique of Agelena reveals a different picture. As high-speed cinematography clearly shows, the spider does not run flat footedly, but puts the tarsi at a rather steep angle onto the sheet web (fig. 6.6; Dierkes, 1988). Feathery hairs on the tarsi push against the densely woven fibers of the sheet web and prevent the feet from sinking in. In other words, Agelena is running on tip toe, thus minimizing the contact area between the legs and the sheet web. In contrast, most insects put their legs in a flat manner on the sheet web, which causes considerable adhesion between the leg cuticle and the silk threads. Consequently, their movements are severely hampered.

Figure 6.6 High-speed cinematography of a running funnel-web spider (Tegenaria). Pictures (a) and (b) were taken at an interval of 1/60 of a second; running speed was 33 cm/s. Note how the tips of the legs (arrow heads) are put vertically onto the web. Only the hind tarsi form a rather flat angle, because they are in the pushing phase. (c) Tarsus 3 in an Agelena, set vertically on the web and actually indenting it (arrow)—yet without sinking in. (Photos: Dierkes.)

Locomotion and Prey Capture

Jumping Jumping is most obvious in the salticids, although many other hunting spiders (lycosids, clubionids, and oxyopids) are also capable of at least short leaps. We shall take a closer look at the mechanism of a salticid’s jump. It was once believed that the strong front legs were responsible for propelling the spider in a leap. Actually, however, the front legs are often lifted above the ground just before the spider takes off (fig. 6.7). The front legs play a role only in landing and, of course, in seizing prey. The thrust for the takeoff comes from the hind legs, either from the fourth or third pair, and sometimes from both. Which technique is used depends on the species. Evarcha jumps off with the third pair of legs, Salticus with the third and fourth, and Sitticus with mostly the fourth. Just before taking off, the spider fastens a safety thread to the ground. Then the legs are

Figure 6.7 Takeoff of the jumping spider Sitticus. The jump results from a rapid stretching of the fourth pair of legs. (Tracing of slow-motion pictures by Parry and Brown, 1959b.). On the left actual frames from a video recording are shown for a short jump of Sitticus. (Videofilm by Suter.)

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pulled close to and symmetrically around the body (fig. 6.2b). A very quick extension of the fourth pair of legs, a torsion and extension of the third pair of legs (or both), initiates the leap. The stretching of the legs is largely caused by an increase in hemolymph pressure and probably by a concomitant sudden relaxation of the flexor muscles. The technical aspects of a salticid’s jump are impressive (Hill, 1977, 2006). In a normal horizontal jump over a distance of 5–10 cm, the takeoff speed is 80–90 cm/s, and the acceleration is around 50 m/s2 (fig. 6.8). Before landing, a distinct backward pitch can be detected in slow-motion films; this ensures a favorable position for grasping a prey (fig. 6.9). In addition, the safety line that is usually pulled behind during a leap exerts some braking effect at the end of the jump, as well as a slight upward tilt of the body. The precise control needed for such targeted jumps has been compared to a basketball player who has to carefully adjust the direction and velocity of a thrown ball. Even upside-down jumps (i.e. from the underside of a leaf), are as accurate as the regular leaps on a horizontal surface. Besides capturing prey, salticids use their jumping ability for escape. Normally they will jump only a few centimeters, but in some cases they cover up to 25 times their own body length (Ehlers, 1939). Compared with the jumps of some insects (grasshoppers or fleas, for instance) this may seem like a modest performance, yet, salticids do not have any oversized jumping legs. And, perhaps even more important, while grasshoppers may have a large jumping range, salticids have accuracy: their jumps are “on target” (Hill, 2006). Short leaps are often interspersed in the normal walking pattern whenever the spider has to bridge a small gap. This leaping is also seen in other wandering spiders that live predominantly on vegetation. Again, the takeoff is caused by the action of the second, third, and fourth pairs of legs, while the first legs are lifted off before jumping (Ehlers, 1939). In the wandering

Figure 6.8 Horizontal jump of Phidippus over a gap of 6 cm. Successive pictures were taken at 15 ms intervals. Note the backward pitch (arrow, left) after take-off and the slight forward pitch (arrow, right) just before landing, which is caused by the braking effect of the dragline. (Photos: Hill.)

Locomotion and Prey Capture

Figure 6.9 Near vertical jump of Phidippus. (a) Note the spreading of all legs and slight backward pitch just before landing. (b) Predatory jump onto a tethered fly, starting from a vertical surface. Note the backward pitch after take-off and the closing of the legs when reaching the prey. (Photos: Hill.)

spider Cupiennius, controlled leaps over a distance of > 40 cm and at a speed of > 1 m/s have been recorded (Karner, 1999).

Wheeling Locomotion Humans are usually credited with the invention of the wheel; however, a few animals came up with the same trick long ago. Some dune spiders (e.g., Carparachne, Heteropodidae) can actively roll down sand dunes. They do so by flipping their body sideways and then cartwheeling over their bent legs (fig. 6.10). The rotation is so fast –(20 revolutions per second) that the spider appears only as a blurred ball, zooming downhill at a speed of more than 1 m/s (Henschel, 1990a). This behavior is successfully used to escape predatory wasps (Pompilidae), which try to dig into a spider’s burrow. Wheeling behavior is not unique to Carparachne but was also observed in a salticid dune spider, which actually uses strong winds to propel itself over level sand. Incidentally, a similar somersaulting locomotion was observed in some beach crustaceans (Stomatopods) when they were washed ashore and tried to rush back to the sea (Caldwell, 1979; Full et al., 1993). Wheeling is certainly very exceptional and seems to occur only in animals that live on smooth, sloping surfaces, such as dunes.

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Figure 6.10 Wheeling locomotion of the dune spider Carparachne aureoflava. The legs contact the ground only at the flexed tibio-metatarsal joints, thus leaving impact marks in the sand. (After Henschel, 1990a.)

Locomotion on and under Water Some spiders are not capable of walking on water; among them are thomisids, linyphiids, theridiids, most salticids, and many araneids (Stratton et al., 2004). Many pisaurids and lycosids (such as Dolomedes, Pardosa, and Pirata), however, can walk on water as well as they do on land. These semiaquatic spiders have a hydrophobic cuticle (and a dense hair cover) that repels water and keeps the spider dry, even when completely submerged (Suter et al., 2004). Propulsion is mainly by means of the second and third pairs of legs. The first legs are used as feelers and are stretched forward, while the fourth pair of legs is dragged behind. The smaller, lightweight species can raise their bodies high above the water (fig. 6.11) and by making use of a breeze can even sail across the water surface (Suter, 1999). The larger and heavier species walk rather flatfootedly on the water’s surface so that the entire tarsus (and sometimes the metatarsus) is in contact with the water. In the large “raft spider” Dolomedes, the body rests on the surface of the water as well. Incidentally, Dolomedes does not make use of the diagonal walking pattern when moving on water. Instead, the third pair of legs and, after a short delay, the second pair of legs are pulled back in synchrony (fig. 6.12; Suter and Wildman, 1999). Dolomedes thus moves in a manner similar to that of the water striders (Gerridae) among the insects. The legs are moved only at their insertion sites in the cephalothorax or at the coxal joints; the other leg segments, are neither bent nor stretched (Ehlers, 1939). Thus the spider rows across the water (fig. 6.13; Barnes and Barth, 1991). During prey capture, Dolomedes uses a more complex, galloping

Locomotion and Prey Capture

Figure 6.11 The wolf spider Pardosa amentata afloat on the surface of water, cleaning its first right leg with its mouth parts. The tips of the other legs indent the water surface slightly. The sun rays project these indentations as large shadowy patches onto the bottom of the shallow pond.

gait (fig. 6.12) that is five times quicker than ordinary rowing (75 cm/s; Bleckmann and Barth, 1984; Gorb and Barth, 1994). In response to an attack by a frog, Dolomedes can jump straight up and then continue in a fast galloping gait (fig. 6.14; Suter, 2003). Although this strategy is often successful for avoiding frogs lunging horizontally above the water surface, it fails with fish quickly approaching from below the water surface (Suter and Gruenwald, 2000). The orb-web spider Tetragnatha, which is usually found near lakes or ponds, can also walk nimbly on the water’s surface. In this spider only the first and second pair of legs move in the diagonal rhythm, whereas legs 3 and 4 are pulled behind passively. Despite this unusual technique, Tetragnatha can attain the remarkable speed of 15–20 cm/s, faster than this spider walks on land (Ehlers, 1939). The only spider that can walk and swim under water is the water spider Argyroneta aquatica (fig. 6.15). Because of the air bubble that surrounds its abdomen, this spider is always in a labile, ventral-side-up position. The legs are in direct contact with the water and are not covered by air; this would increase buoyancy to such an extent that the spider could no longer dive. The legs are used not only for walking under water (along plants or silk threads), but also for free swimming. Although they move according to the diagonal rhythm, they also beat up and down; that is, the joints are bent and stretched, yet none of the customary lateral torsion of the coxal or body joints occurs (Ehlers, 1939).

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Figure 6.12 (a) Rowing in Dolomedes (dorsal view): During the propulsive stroke legs 3 and 2 are pulled back horizontally, thus generating thrust. During the recovery the spider is gliding over the water surface. (b) Galloping (side view): The anterior 3 pairs of legs generate thrust by moving vertically and backward. During the recovery the spider is essentially airborne. (After Suter and Wildman, 1999.)

Figure 6.13 Stepping pattern of Dolomedes while walking on land and rowing on water. Black bars indicate power strokes of legs 1–4 on one side of the body. Interspaces correspond to the return strokes. Note the alternating gait during walking as compared to the metachronal movement of legs 1–3 seen during rowing. (After Barnes and Barth, 1991.)

Locomotory Activity Most spiders are active at night. Notable exceptions are the jumping spiders, which move about during daytime but withdraw into their silken nests at dusk (Jackson, 1979). They are diurnal, of course, because of their dependence on vision. Similarly, lynx spiders (Oxyopidae), crab spiders (Thomisidae), and many wolf spiders (Lycosidae) are also active mostly during the day.

Locomotion and Prey Capture

Figure 6.14 (a) Dolomedes galloping, just following a propulsive stroke and just before becoming fully airborne, (b) jumping vertically, first lofting itself (1, 2) by rapidly pushing all legs downward into the water and then maintaining its balance near the apex of its leap. In this case, after an attack by a bullfrog, the spider was jumping up and away within 20 ms and escaped uninjured. (Photos: Suter.)

Figure 6.15 The water spider Argyroneta aquatica carrying a mayfly larva to its diving bell (Air). (Photo: Vollrath.)

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In contrast, many wandering spiders are hardly ever seen in the daytime; they venture from their retreats only at dusk. Before Cupiennius leaves its hideout, it goes through a fixed sequence of preparatory steps, each of which is correlated with a particular light level (Seyfarth, 1980). When the light intensity drops to about 15 lux, the animal turns around and stands above its retreat; there it waits until the illumination has decreased to 0.1 lux. Only then does the spider start to wander. In females maximum activity is reached within 2 hours after dark; in males only around midnight (fig. 6.16). Overall, males are more mobile, presumably because they are mainly out searching for females (Marc, 1990; Schmitt et al., 1990). In general, the night activity is advantageous for several reasons: (1) many prey animals (e.g., crickets, cockroaches, moths) are also nocturnal; (2) diurnal predators such as birds or reptiles are not encountered; and (3) high temperatures of the surface soil (> 70°C in the desert) and possible desiccation are avoided (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1961). The duration of both activity and resting times is controlled endogenously. This can be concluded from the observation that Cupiennius shows almost the same activity rhythm (namely, 24.9 hours), when kept continuously in the dark as it does under natural conditions. Such a circadian rhythm of locomotory activity is probably present in many other spiders (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1978). The large desert tarantulas have also been known as strictly nocturnal animals (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1968, 1981). Although this is true as far as their hunting and free-wandering activity is concerned, it does not mean that they are completely inactive during day. Weaving activities, such as silking over the openings of their burrows, take place during daylight (Minch, 1978). The activity rhythm of web-building spiders has been studied mainly among the araneids (Ramousse and Davis, 1976; Ramousse and LeGuelte, 1979;

Figure 6.16 Locomotory activity of the wandering spider Cupiennius salei. Males are active most of the night, while females roam only for 2–3 hours right after sunset. (Mean values of ten animals each; after Schmitt et al., 1990.)

Locomotion and Prey Capture

Ramousse, 1980). Most species of Araneus build their webs preferentially at the beginning or at the end of the nocturnal period. Surprisingly, the first nymphs of Araneus are active mostly during light phases, but this behavior reverses after the spiderlings molt (Le Berre, 1979). Many araneids are strictly nocturnal and may even destroy their web before daybreak (Eberhard, 1976; Stowe, 1978). Quite a few species have therefore been overlooked previously because most spider watchers tend to be diurnal.

Prey Capture The many ways in which prey is captured in a web were described in chapter 5. The wandering spiders, however, do not rely on a snare, but must locate and overpower their prey directly. First we will take a close look at the predation strategy of wandering spiders and then compare the effectiveness of different methods of prey catching in some web spiders.

Wandering Spiders The ctenid spider Cupiennius will serve as a typical example for the events that take place during prey capture (Melchers, 1967). Cupiennius usually lies in ambush rather than hunting its prey actively. An attack is launched only when a prey animal comes very close. Most impressive is the speed of capture: the entire sequence, from

Figure 6.17 Prey capture in Cupiennius salei. (a) The spider in its attentive posture on a banana leaf. (Photo: Seyfarth.) (b) Only the tarsi of the front legs handle the prey. The rapid change in the position of the legs (in only 25 ms!) is indicated by the dashed lines and the arrows. (After Melchers, 1967.)

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attacking to subduing of the prey, can occur in less than 0.2 seconds (fig. 6.17). One would expect that the spider’s extremely fast grasping movements would follow a rigid motor pattern. However, high-speed cinematography (at 1,000 frames/s) has shown that these movements are by no means stereotyped but are well adapted to each specific situation. First, the prey must be noticed and located. Visual cues play hardly any role for Cupiennius, for an experimentally blinded animal can catch its prey just as efficiently as an unblinded one. Instead, vibrations of the substrate or of the air (by wing beats), or the immediate contact with a victim elicit directed catching movements (Barth, 1982): the spider turns very rapidly toward the prey and grasps it with the front legs. The first gentle touch with the forelegs is quickly changed into a power grip. The legs are able to improve their secure hold by means of the adhesive hairs (scopulae) on the tarsi (Rovner, 1978). The prey is rapidly pulled toward the spider’s body and the chelicerae and their fangs move apart. Then follows the bite into the nearest part of the victim’s body. Immediately after the bite, the tips of the legs release their grip so that the prey is held in the air only with the chelicerae, thereby minimizing danger to the spider from the prey’s defenses. This behavior is also advantageous because the victim has no contact with the substrate and therefore cannot apply any directed force to free itself (fig. 6.18). Only after the prey has become immobilized by the spider’s venom does actual feeding (the chewing and the exuding of digestive juice) begin. As an extra security measure, large prey items are fastened to the ground by some silk threads before the spider feeds. In summary, the entire prey capture process consists of the following steps: 1. Locating the prey. 2. Turning toward the victim and grasping it with the tips of the front legs. 3. Pulling the prey to the chelicerae and biting it (venom injection). 4. Releasing the grasp with the legs and holding the prey only with the chelicerae. 5. Fastening some silk threads over the immobilized prey. 6. Feeding. For most wandering spiders, mechanical vibration is the main trigger for prey capture. This is true even for vibrations transmitted on the water surface (Williams, 1979; Bleckmann, 1982). A Dolomedes resting at the edge of a pond can clearly distinguish between the ripples caused by wind and the surface vibrations generated by an insect. A buzzing fly emits vibrations of high frequency (about 100 Hz) and small amplitude, whereas the natural “background noise” produced by gusts of wind is of low frequency (1–10 Hz) but high amplitude (fig. 6.19; Bleckmann and Rovner, 1984; Barth et al., 1988). Wolf spiders (for instance, some species of Pirata) use visual clues to orient themselves toward prey (Gettmann, 1976); most likely such spiders react to the prey’s movements (Homann, 1931). Classic examples for visually guided prey capture are the jumping spiders (fig. 6.20). Their highly developed main eyes can analyze shapes and therefore also recognize motionless prey (fig. 4.20; Jackson and Tarsitano, 1993; for details, see chapter 4).

Locomotion and Prey Capture

Figure 6.18 (a, b) Prey capture in the wolf spider Lycosa. (a) The spider has seized a cricket and is catapulted through the air. (b) Often the spider lands on its back clamping the prey tightly above with all its legs. (Photos a, b: Rovner.) (c) Prey capture in the nursery-web spider Dolomedes. After the bite, prey is held only with the chelicerae.

As noted for Cupiennius, some hunting spiders place silken threads over the paralyzed victim and attach it to the substrate. The advantage of this behavior is that spiders that roam in the higher foliage strata can secure their prey near the catching site. If the spider is disturbed, the prey can then be left and still be relocated quickly (Rovner and Knost, 1974; Greenquist and Rovner, 1976). The method of prey capture described for Cupiennius gives a general idea of how spiders hunt and capture their prey but does not apply equally to all wandering spiders. Even among the ancient Orthognatha, we find many different levels of

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Figure 6.19 Vibrations coming from the natural environment perceived by a spider (Cupiennius) sitting on a leaf. (a) wind, (b) crawling prey (cockroach), (c) courtship signals from a conspecific male. (After Barth, 1986.)

complexity with respect to predation (Buchli, 1969). On a rather simple level are some tarantulas (Theraphosidae) that merely move about until they come across potential prey. Other tarantulas (Avicularidae) climb in trees and jump at passing prey animals. The sedentary trapdoor spiders show a somewhat more complex behavior: they hide in a silk-lined, earthen tube, which is covered by a hinged lid, the “trapdoor” (fig. 6.21) At night the spider lifts the trapdoor slightly and stretches out its front legs. The more “primitive” representatives of trapdoor spiders jump out and chase passing prey, whereas the more advanced species leave the tube only if prey is within easy reach. Ummidia, for instance, pops the door open and lunges with the front legs at a passing prey, while the hind legs hold tight to the burrow. In defense, the trap door is pulled shut and held firmly closed from inside with fangs and pedipalps (Coyle, 1981; Bond and Coyle, 1995). A further improvement was achieved when radial threads (signal or tripping threads) were added to the entrance of the burrow. This method is also used by the ancient Mesothelae (fig. 5.44a; Klingel, 1966; Bristowe, 1975). Their signal lines appear like tiny telegraph wires; they are attached to the ground by little stalks. These threads transmit vibrations to the burrow and and serve as guide lines when the spider rushes out of the burrow (Haupt, 2003). Some Australian trapdoor spiders (e.g., Aganippe, Anidiops) attach a fan of “twig lines” to the burrow’s entrance (fig. 6.21), which enlarge the foraging area and also aid in the transmission of

Locomotion and Prey Capture

Figure 6.20 Prey capture in the jumping spider Salticus scenicus. (a) The spider sits vertically on a glass wall and fixates its victim, a young wolf spider. (b) Salticus stalks the prey and is now within jumping distance. (c) The victim is seized with the front legs and the bite is applied.

vibrations (Main, 1976). Finally, in the orthognath Dipluridae, we find sheet webs similar to those of the Agelenidae. As soon as a prey item falls on the web and sets up vibrations, the spider rushes out of it hiding place to attack it.

Web Spiders Prey capture by web spiders does not differ in principle from that seen in wandering spiders. But there are many variations in the specifics of predation among the web spiders. For example, web spiders do not usually feed at the capture site but carry their prey to a safer place (into a retreat or to the hub of an orb web). The orb weavers (Araneidae) and the comb-footed spiders (Theridiidae) show another peculiarity: they often subdue their prey by first wrapping it with silk before biting it. The funnel-web spider Coelotes (Agelenidae) provides a good example of how sheet-web spiders capture their prey. Coelotes preys mainly on beetles that blunder onto its sheet web (Tretzel, 1961a). The slightest vibrations in the web cause the spider to dart out from its subterranean retreat. In several quick sprints it takes a

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Figure 6.21 The Australian trapdoor spider Anidiops villosus (Ctenizidae) digs deep burrows into the soil to protect itself from desiccation. When the door lid is closed, the entrance is hardly visible (above). Note the plant stems (Acacia) radiating from the entrance; they enlarge the capture area and also transmit prey vibrations to the burrow. (Photos: Main.)

straight course toward the victim. When the spider has reached the beetle, it turns the insect on its back and tries immediately to puncture the intersegmental membranes of the abdomen with its chelicerae. The venom takes 8–10 minutes to produce any paralysis, and during this time the spider holds on firmly with its chelicerae. Only after the movements of the victim begin to weaken does the spider loosen its grasp somewhat and release digestive juice over the wound. When the beetle is severely paralyzed, its wings often open up, and the spider now has easy access to the softer parts of the body. The actual feeding begins only after the prey has been

Locomotion and Prey Capture

carried into the spider’s retreat. There the immobilized prey may still be fastened to the ground with a few silken threads (Tretzel, 1961b), as was described above for some wandering spiders. Prey capture has been most thoroughly studied in the orb weavers. Their methods of catching prey are even more variable than in other kinds of spiders. The common garden spider Araneus diadematus, for example, often follows this sequence: (1) locating the prey in the web; (2) rapidly moving toward the prey; (3) immobilizing the prey; and (4) transporting the prey to the hub. Quite different strategies may be utilized, however, for the last two steps (H. M. Peters, 1931, 1933). A fly buzzing close to a web does not elicit prey capture behavior directly; to produce this effect it has to touch the web itself (Klärner and Barth, 1982). When a fly becomes entangled in the sticky spiral thread of the orb web, it produces specific vibrations, which immediately excite the spider. Even if the fly then remains quiet, the spider will pluck several radial threads, apparently to probe the load on each radius. In other words, it tries to find the exact position of the prey. Even minute loads (0.1 mg) can be localized within the web (Liesenfeld, 1956). Especially if the fly moves its wings again, the spider will rush out of the hub using the exact radial thread that leads to the prey. The victim is briefly touched with the front legs and palps, then the hind legs wrap silk around it. Only thereafter follows a brief bite. Using its legs and chelicerae, the spider then cuts the neatly wrapped “package” from the web and carries it to the hub. There it is attached by a short thread before it is eaten. The feeding process always takes place in the hub, never at the actual capture site. This rather general description must be made more specific. The main point is that the garden spider usually wraps its victim before biting it. This is in contrast to most wandering spiders. However, if the prey is very small (such as a fruit fly), it is simply grasped with the chelicerae and carried to the hub. Large insects, which cause strong vibrations in the web, are also bitten immediately, but then the bite lasts many seconds or even minutes. Such a long bite probably prevents a possible escape of strong prey animals. On the other hand, aggressive prey, such as wasps, are always wrapped first and then bitten. Apparently in this situation it is safer for the spider to keep the dangerous prey at a distance. These few examples demonstrate that the biting behavior is not rigid but depends on the type of prey. The same can be said for the spider’s methods for transporting the subdued prey: if the victim is relatively light (about 10 mg), it is always carried with the chelicerae; heavier prey (about 80 mg) is always attached to a short thread and hauled behind with the fourth leg (H. M. Peters, 1933). Other orb weavers (e.g., Argiope species) behave like Araneus; that is, the prey is first wrapped and then bitten (fig. 6.22). As a regular exception Argiope bites first when preying on moths (Table 6.1; Robinson and Robinson, 1974). Many moths are stuck in the web only very briefly. They merely lose some wing scales on the sticky threads but escape quickly (Eisner et al., 1964). To capture a moth, then, the spider must be at the point of impact immediately. Even flies remain in an orb web for an average of only 5 seconds before they can free themselves (Barrows, 1915). Usually, however, this is plenty of time for an alert orb-web spider

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Figure 6.22 The tropical orb weaver Argiope argentata offensively wrapping a prey. The broad silk band emerges from the median and posterior spinnerets. (Photo: Robinson.)

Table 6.1 Strategy of attack of Argiope argentata toward different prey. (After Robinson and Robinson, 1974). Strategy Prey Grasshoppers Flies Moths

Wrap – Bite 100% 74% 17%

Bite – Wrap – 2% 75%

Bite – Pull – 24% 8%

to rush out for the capture. Once the spider has left the hub, most prey animals have hardly any chance for escape. Unlike Argiope, the tropical orb weaver Nephila attacks all of its prey with a bite first and then performs the wrapping while sitting in the hub (Robinson and Mirick, 1971). This strategy can be inefficient and even risky, if the “wrong” prey animals are encountered. This was shown in experiments with bombardier beetles (Brachynus, Carabidae), which were released into the webs of Nephila and Argiope (Eisner and Dean, 1976). Bombardier beetles possess a fantastic defensive weapon: they can aim explosive secretions toward an aggressor. When ejected from the beetle’s abdomen, these secretions have a temperature of 100°C! Whereas a Nephila will be completely repelled by this weapon as it tries to bite the insect, an Argiope has already tightly wrapped the beetle before the explosion can be triggered. Only when Argiope tries to bite through the swathing silk does the beetle try to defend itself. This has,

Locomotion and Prey Capture

however, little effect and leads only to further wrapping. Whereas Argiope can always overpower the bombardier beetle with the wrapping method, Nephila never succeeds with the biting strategy. Of course, it is true that bombardier beetles are not an essential item in the large prey-spectrum of araneids. Nonetheless, there are a number of insects that do use defensive chemical secretions. For instance, some stinkbugs (Pentatomidae) can defend themselves against a Nephila but not against an Argiope (Robinson, 1975). The claim that Nephila always attacks with a bite is perhaps only true for adult spiders. Inexperienced juveniles were observed to also throw silk onto novel prey; however, after some experience they no longer exhibited this behavior (Linden, 2008). In general, the offensive wrapping of prey yields two advantages for the spider: there is less danger of being harmed by strong prey (a biting grasshopper or stinging wasp), and it takes less time than applying the long bite. This second advantage becomes even more important when several prey items get caught in the web within a short period of time. The spider can fasten the first victim securely at the hub and can then rush toward the second. Such additional prey is also wrapped and bitten, but it is left at the capture site as a “reserve.” Within the araneid family, we find at least three related strategies of prey capture, which suggest successive steps in the evolution of their predatory behavior (Robinson, 1975; fig.6.23). Strategy 1 is encountered from time to time in all araneids, especially if the prey is small. Strategy 2 is typical of Nephila. Wrapping at the capture site makes it much easier to handle and carry bulky prey such as butterflies or dragonflies. Strategy 3 is preferred by Araneus and Argiope; its advantages have already been mentioned. The cribellate orb weavers (Uloboridae) have a fourth strategy: the prey is wrapped but not bitten at all. A bite would not be of much use

Figure 6.23 Different strategies of predation in orb weavers (Araneidae). (After Robinson, 1975.)

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Table 6.2 Predation strategies of spiders. (Eberhard, 1967). Level

Strategy

Type of web

1

Grasping and biting

No web

2 3 4

Family

Theraphosids, clubionids, salticids Grasping, biting Ground web Agelenids Grasping, biting and occasional wrapping Aerial web Linyphiids Grasping, biting, wrapping or wrapping Aerial web Theridiids, araneids, and biting or wrapping only uloborids

anyway, as uloborids do not have venom glands. The offensive wrapping of prey is probably a more recent step in evolution, which might have derived from the defensive wrapping that takes place at the hub. In summary, about four different levels in the predation strategies of spiders can be distinguished, as listed in table 6.2. Wrapping of the prey is usually performed with alternating movements of the hindlegs. In Theridiids, however, the fourth legs can also be used simultaneously, especially during the initial attack wrapping, when sticky threads are employed. In orb weavers (Araneids) the prey is often rotated in “rotisserie” fashion with the front legs, while the fourth legs alternatingly apply swathing silk. Phylogenetically, prey wrapping could have evolved from egg-sac construction, as it involves similar movements (Barrantes and Eberhard, 2007).

Prey Capture without Venom Uloborid spiders lack venom glands but still capture and subdue prey quite efficiently. Their method consists of an extensive wrapping of the victim that may last for more than an hour and use more than 100 m of silk line (Lubin, 1986; Opell, 1988). Apparently strong tension is produced by the tightly applied wrapping threads (Eberhard et al., 2006). This will compress the softer parts of the prey´s body, bend and even break the extremities, and eventually asphyxiate the victim. There is no bite after wrapping but simply a regurgitation of digestive fluid over the entire food package. It is not clear how the enzymes can get inside the prey— perhaps through broken legs or joint membranes. During the feeding process fluid is sucked back in through the silk cover of the food parcel, and this may take several hours. Thereafter the whole package is dropped, the silk shroud still in one piece, and the silk seemingly unharmed by the digestive juices. This is quite surprising, since one would expect the silk proteins to be broken down by the regurgitated enzymes of the midgut. However, a closer inspection has shown that the wrapping silk consists of two types of threads: the thinner fibers are apparently digested and thus recycled, whereas the thicker fibers are resistant. Those resistant fibers form a lasting net around the food parcel and also act as a mechanical filter for solid particles when the fluid is sucked in (Weng et al., 2006).

Locomotion and Prey Capture

Predation Specialists So far I have tried to establish some general principles underlying the many different approaches spiders use to capture their prey. Some spiders, however, have developed highly specialized methods of predation that do not fit any general scheme. A few representatives of such spiders were mentioned earlier, such as the spitting spider Scytodes and the triangle spider Hyptiotes. The bolas spider Mastophora was briefly mentioned in chapter 5 but deserves a more detailed discussion here. One would think that the method of a bolas spider (to throw a sticky droplet after a flying insect; fig. 6.24) could hardly be successful. Such a strategy seems even more absurd if we consider that these spiders hunt at night. However, bolas spiders are quite adept at capturing certain moths (Spodoptera) or, to be more precise, only male Spodoptera. The explanation of this baffling phenomenon is that bolas spiders apparently secrete a volatile substance that imitates the sex pheromone of the female moth (Stowe et al., 1987; Yeargan, 1988). The male moths are attracted by this scent and fly in circles around the spider. Thus the spider has a much better target at which to throw its bolas. On the average, a bolas spider catches two or three moths a night. This is comparable to the number of prey a regular orb weaver catches with its web (Eberhard, 1977, 1980). Although Mastophora may often miss their target, a moth rarely escapes once it has been struck. The spider usually pulls in the line, bites the still struggling prey, and wraps it mummylike, in silk. Feeding may ensue immediately, but often a new bolas thread is prepared first (Yeargan, 1994). Remarkably, early-instar bolas spiders do not use bolas for hunting but chemically attract moth flies (Psychoda), which they grab with their front legs.

Figure 6.24 Hunting method of the bolas spider Mastophora. (a) A front leg holds a short thread with a glue droplet (arrow) at its end. (b) When a moth passes close by, the bolas is hurled at it. (From Eberhard, 1977; Copyright © 1977 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science.)

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Female spiders in later instars switch to capturing moths by swinging their bolas, whereas the tiny male bolas spiders retain their juvenile hunting behavior (Yeargan and Quate, 1996, 1997). Some spiders have become specialized for a certain prey type and have developed appropriate capture methods. Well-known examples are the pirate spiders (Mimetidae), which prey exclusively on other spiders, and the Zodariidae, which hunt only ants. The pirate spider Ero attacks other spiders by very briefly biting into one of their extremities. The injected venom acts very quickly; the victim is paralyzed within a few seconds. Ero then approaches again and starts sucking the prey from the bite hole. Ero uses an even more specialized method when it is after the orb weaver Meta segmentata: Ero uses the courtship thread of the male and plucks it, supposedly imitating courtship signals. The female Meta is apparently tricked, since she comes out of the hub, only to fall victim to Ero (Czajka, 1963). Other members of the mimetid family also use this method of “aggressive mimicry” by plucking the threads of web spiders. The vibrations are presumably mistaken as coming from prey and, when the web owner rushes out, it is immediately bitten (Jackson and Whitehouse, 1986). The ant hunter Zodarium (Zodariidae) attacks ants (Cataglyphis) either in the morning (Pekár et al., 2005) or at dusk, especially the guards at the nest entrance (Harkness, 1975, 1976; Harkness and Harkness, 1992). At first the ant tries to escape, but Zodarium will touch it quickly several times and then bite into one of its legs. After waiting at a safe distance until the ant is completely paralyzed, the prey is then carried away and eaten at a secluded place (Cushing and Santangelo, 2002; Pekár, 2004). Strangely enough, other ants do not come to the defense of the victim. It is believed that Zodarium camouflages itself chemically by producing a secretion that imitates the typical ant scent (Jocqué and Billen, 1987). Exclusive ant hunters are sometimes also found in other spider families, such as the Salticidae and Gnaphosidae (Edwards et al., 1974; Jackson and van Olphen, 1991). Many theridiids prey preferentially on ants (Carico, 1978), and one species is known to specialize on termites (Eberhard, 1991). One member of the gnaphosid family, Callilepis nocturna, has a highly specialized method of hunting ants (Heller, 1974, 1976). Callilepis runs in short bursts; the motion resembles that of certain ants (e.g., Formica), but the body does not have an antlike appearance at all. Thus Callilepis cannot be considered an ant mimic. The ant is always attacked head-on (fig. 6.25a). The tarsi of the spider’s front legs contact the ant’s head and probe for the base of the antennae (fig. 6.25b, c). Then follows a quick bite (0.2 seconds) at the base of one antenna, and the spider withdraws completely (fig. 6.25d). A minute later Callilepis searches for the victim again and applies a longer bite. Initially the bitten ant is quite aggressive, but within a few seconds its injured antenna becomes limp and the ant starts walking in small circles (right-hand circles if the left antenna was bitten and vice versa). Thus the ant hardly moves away from the spot where it was first attacked, and it can thus easily be relocated afterward. Callilepis tucks the paralyzed ant underneath herself and runs quickly to a hiding place. During this maneuver she is often attacked by other ants, but somehow

Locomotion and Prey Capture

Figure 6.25 Prey capture technique of the ant spider Callilepis. (a) The spider assumes a jumping position and raises its front legs. (b) One tarsus contacts the base of an antenna. (c) Both tarsi of the front legs locate the bases of the antennae. (d) Bite at the base of one antenna. (After Heller, 1974.)

she manages to dodge them. Once she has reached a safer place, she closes it off with a silken cover and starts feeding. The prey is never chewed, but is sucked from the “neck” and abdomen. After 1 or 2 hours the undamaged cuticular shell is all that remains of the ant. The very rapid and precise capture method of Callilepis represents an adaptation to cope with strong and potentially dangerous prey. The bite is made only at the vulnerable base of an antenna, and the legs are immediately removed from the reach of the ant’s formidable mandibles. The predation strategy of Callilepis is rather rigidly “programmed”: if both antennae of the ant are cut off, the spider still attacks but never bites it. Apparently the bite is highly “blocked” when Callilepis cannot locate the antennal bases. On the other hand, if one glues two antennae on the ant’s abdomen, the spider will bite there. The antennae must therefore be considered the key stimulus for the spider’s bite (Heller, 1976). Certain tropical jumping spiders seize tree ants (Pseudomyrmex) and then let themselves drop off a branch. While dangling on their safety thread, they start feeding on the victim. Although the attacked ant releases an alarm pheromone that will recruit conspecifics, this is to no avail. The agitated helpers can only run back and forth on the branch above, but do not succeed in climbing down the safety thread toward the spider (Robinson and Valerio, 1977).

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Figure 6.26 Prey catching in the Australian ogre-faced spider Deinopis. The spider extends a rectangular web with cribellate catching threads between its front legs (a, c). (b) When an insect comes within reach, the web is swept over the prey. (From Kullmann and Stern, 1975.) Inset: The huge front eyes enable Deinopis to hunt at very low light levels. (Photo: Land.)

I want to conclude this chapter with a description of the unique prey capture of the ogre-faced spider Deinopis. This tropical spider hangs upside down in a vertical frame of threads (fig. 5.42), somewhat similar to an orb weaver (Robinson and Robinson, 1971; Coddington, 1986). The actual catching web, however, is held between the front legs (fig. 6.26). Although the spider hunts mostly at night, it locates its prey visually. This is made possible by two huge posterior median eyes (1.4 mm in diameter), which are similar to the main eyes of jumping spiders

Locomotion and Prey Capture

(anterior median eyes: 0.4 mm diameter). Unlike the main eyes of jumping spiders, the enormous eyes of Deinopis do not have better resolution but are 2000 times more sensitive to light (Blest and Land, 1977). For a nocturnal hunter this is, of course, a definite advantage. When an insect comes within reach of Deinopis, its front legs spread the rectangular catching web and throw it like a sweep net over the prey. The elastic web is jerked several times so that the victim becomes completely entangled in the hackle threads. Additionally, Deinopis uses its hind legs to pull out silk threads from the spinnerets to wrap the prey. During this process the prey is bitten once, or several times, and thereafter actual feeding begins. It is curious that the spider often starts constructing a new catching web while it is still busy feeding. This is possible because the wrapped prey is handled only with the palps, and the legs are thus free for building a new capture web. Deinopis can use two different hunting strategies depending on the type of prey: flying insects, causing air vibrations, are attacked by flinging the capture net upward; ground-living insects are perceived visually and are overwhelmed by throwing the net downward (Coddington and Sobrevila, 1987). At dawn (5 A.M.) the capture web is taken down within a few minutes, and the silk package is probably eaten. During the day Deinopis shows a cryptic behavior, either by pressing flatly against a branch or dangling on a thread with front and hind legs closely apposed, resembling a dead twig (Getty and Coyle, 1996). This stick mimicry is so perfect that it is virtually impossible to detect these spiders during the day. Although spiders always catch live prey, this does not mean that they do not also feed on dead animals. In the laboratory they accept crushed insects and even animals that have been dead for several days (Knost and Rovner, 1975). Whether scavenging is common in nature has not been thoroughly investigated, yet there are some indications that it occurs regularly in some wandering spiders (Gettmann, 1978). In colonies of the social spider Stegodyphus mimosarum, even cannibalistic scavenging has been observed (Lubin and Bar Shahal, 1995, personal communication).

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7 Spiders are always dioecious; that is, they invariably have separate sexes. Aside from a few exceptions (e.g., the water spider Argyroneta; Schütz and Taborsky, 2005), the females are larger than the males. In black widow spiders, for instance, the small males weigh about 4–5 mg, which represents only 1–2% of the female’s mass (Andrade, 1996). Sexual dimorphism is especially obvious in many tropical orb weavers (such as Nephila, Gasteracantha, and Micrathena), in which the males appear to be dwarfs (fig. 7.1). (Actually, this often-cited example of male dwarfism in Nephila is more likely a case of female giantism; Hormiga et al., 2000). There has been much speculation about the biological meaning of the small body size of male spiders, but so far no consensus has been reached (Gerhardt, 1924; Vollrath, 1980). In any case, the small spider males are very agile, and some can even “fly” on their own thread, just as young spiders do. Because of their small body size, males need fewer molts to reach maturity than do females; consequently, males mature earlier. After their last molt the males have conspicuously thickened palpal tarsi and can thereby be distinguished easily from the females. The female palps represent simply a kind of shortened leg (without a metatarsus), but the male palps have tarsi that are specialized for the storage and transfer of sperm. This function of the male palps as copulatory organs is highly unusual, and nothing comparable exists in other arthropods. In contrast to females, most male spiders change their habits after their last molt. They leave their retreats or webs and become vagabonds; often they no longer even catch prey. As soon as they have charged their palps with sperm, they start wandering around, searching for a female. Usually they are rather cautious when approaching a female because they always risk being dealt with as prey. Spiders have therefore developed a special courtship behavior that generally precedes 218

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Figure 7.1 Size dimorphismus of the orb weaver Argiope aemula from New Guinea. The dwarfed male approaches the female sitting in the hub. (Photo: Robinson.)

mating. This courtship is species specific and ensures that hybridization is avoided. The common belief that spider males are eaten by the females during or after copulation is true only for a very few species. In most cases a male either walks away or beats a hasty retreat right after copulation. His palps are then refilled with sperm. This procedure, however, can be repeated only a few times, as most male spiders have rather short lives; many die soon after copulation. Females usually live much longer because they must still lay eggs and build cocoons. In some species the females also exhibit brood care for the developing young.

Internal Sexual Organs The internal sexual organs, the testes and ovaries, lie as paired structures inside the abdomen. The reproductive cells, the sperm and the eggs, are released to the outside in both sexes through a ventral opening (the epigastric furrow), which is situated between and slightly behind the book lungs (fig. 7.2). The males exude their sperm through this opening onto a special sperm web before transfering it to their palps.

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Figure 7.2 Position of the external sexual organs of Araneus diadematus; ventral view. The genital opening lies inside the epigastric furrow (arrow). The epigynum (E) is situated in front of this furrow. Book lungs are outlined with dots. In the male the distal palpal segment (tarsus) is transformed into a conspicuous bulb that is used for sperm transfer. (After Grasshoff, 1973.)

The sperm web is partly produced by small glands which open via tiny spigots along the anterior margin of the epigastric furrow (fig. 7.3). They have been variously referred to as epiandrous glands (Marples, 1967), ventral spinning field (Melchers, 1964; fig. 7.5c), and epigastric apparatus (Lopez and Emerit, 1988). The internal sexual organs are more complex in females, which also have a special storage site for sperm, the seminal receptacles (fig. 7.13).

Testes and Sperm Cells The two testes are straight or convoluted tubes (figs. 7.4, 7.5) that merge into a common duct that leads medially via a gonopore into the epigastric furrow. The differentiation of sperm cells (spermiogenesis) takes place in the epithelium of the testicular tubes; it begins weeks before maturity and continues throughout the rest of a male’s life (Michalik and Uhl, 2005). The early stages of sperm cells (spermatids) are flagellated, although—like in whip spiders and whip scorpions—the flagella have a rather unusual arrangement of their axial tubules: the axonemes are assembled according to a 9 + 3 rather than the common 9 + 2 pattern (fig. 7.6a; Osaki, 1969; Bacetti et al., 1970; Alberti and Weinmann, 1985). Another exceptional axonemal pattern is found in spermatids of linyphiid spiders, which exhibit a 9+0 arrangement (Michalik and Alberti, 2005); it is not known whether such a flagellum is motile, but it is possible that it could beat in helicoidal waves.

Reproduction

Figure 7.3 (a) Small spigots (Sp) of epiandrous glands occur in clusters along the epigastric furrow (EF) of a male Amaurobius. (b) A close-up reveals a small pore (arrow) at the tip of a spigot, where a fine silk thread can be exuded.

Figure 7.4 Internal male sexual organs in the cellar spider Pholcus. A pair of tubular testes inside the abdomen leads into convoluted ducts (vasa deferentia) which merge just before the genital opening. (After Michalik and Uhl, 2005.)

During spermiogenesis the flagellum is apparently resorbed by rolling itself tightly around the nucleus of the sperm cell (figs. 7.6b, 7.7; Reger, 1970). Concomitantly, the nucleus assumes a spiral shape (fig. 7.6c) and the number of mitochondria becomes reduced (Lopez et al., 1983). The differentiated sperm cell is a disk, surrounded by a protein coat (Boissin, 1973), which is added in the deferent ducts of the testes.

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Figure 7.5 Different male genital systems, dorsal view. Go = genital opening, V. def = Vasa deferentia. (a) in Liphistius, (b) in Philodromus (After Michalik, 2009). (c) Position of the highly convoluted testes within the abdomen of the tarantula Grammostola. The genital opening is covered by a ventral spinning field (vSp), consisting of epiandrous glands. A section of these glands, which contribute silk for the sperm web, is shown in the Inset. (After Melchers, 1964.)

Three kinds of coatings can be distinguished among spider sperm cells: (1) cleistosperms, in which each sperm cell has its own, separate coat; (2) coenosperms, in which up to 100 sperm cells are enclosed by a common coat (Bertkau, 1877); and (3) synsperms, in which several spermatids fuse into one syncitium (Alberti, 1990). Mesothelae and Theraphosidae have coenosperms and are therefore considered as “primitive” (Alberti et al., 1986; Michalik et al., 2004: Michalik, 2007). Most Araneomorphs are cleistosperm and this is regarded as a derived character, as is synspermy, found in some haplogyne spiders. The globular packaging of sperm cells can be interpreted as a kind of protection during storage or transport. When sperm is taken into the male palps and also when it is transferred to the receptacula of the female, the sperm cells remain packed in little cysts and are therefore immobile. Only before fertilization does the protective protein coat dissolve, rendering the sperm cell motile (Brown, 1985). If water is added to freshly deposited spider sperm, vigorous movements can be observed (Bösenberg, 1905; Gerhardt and Kaestner, 1938). In the course of spermatogenesis, cell divisions (mitosis and meiosis) can be studied particularly well. In those cells that are just in the process of dividing, the chromosomes can be made visible by special staining techniques. Under favorable

Figure 7.6 Fine structure of spider sperm cells. (a) Spermatid of the lynx spider Oxyopes in longitudinal section. The cross-section of the flagellum shows the unusual 9 + 3 arrangement of microtubules, typical for spiders and whip spiders. (Drawn from electron micrographs by Osaki, 1972). (b) Differentiation of the mature sperm cell by rolling the flagellum around the nucleus. (After Bösenberg, 1905). (c) Spermatids of Holocnemus and Pholcus at high magnification; note the cork-screw-shaped nucleus in Pholcus. (Photos: Michalik.)

Figure 7.7 (a) Cross-section of a testicular tube in Zygiella. The lumen is filled with ring-shaped sperm cells. 540x. Inset: 1,500 x. (b) Differentiated sperm cell of Pisaurina as seen in the electron miroscope. The flagellum (arrows) has been incorporated into the cytoplasm. A = acrosome, N = nucleus. 24,000 x. Inset: Cross-section of flagellum showing the typical 9+3 arrangement of microtubules. 50,000 x. (Photo: Reger.)

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conditions the entire set of chromosomes can be counted under the microscope. Most spider species investigated to date (more than 600) exhibit 10–40 chromosomes in the diploid stage (Král et al., 2006). Crab spiders have about 22 chromosomes, wolf spiders 22–28, and jumping spiders 28–30 (Hackmann, 1948; Mittal, 1964, 1966; Painter, 1914). The number of chromosomes can vary considerably even within the same genus—for example, from 2n = 13 in Scytodes globula to 2n = 31 in S. fusca (Araujo et al., 2008), or from 2n = 14 in Atypus affinis to 2n = 41 (42) in A. muralis and A. piceus (Rezák et al., 2006). Aside from the “regular” chromosomes (the autosomes, A), two special chromosomes represent the sex chromosomes (X chromosomes). Whereas female spiders possess a dual set of these X chromosomes (2A + X1 X1 X2X2), male spiders have but a single set (2A+ X1 X2). Consequently, after meiosis the haploid egg cells have A + X1 X2 chromosomes, but the sperm cells are of two types: either they likewise possess A+ X1 X2 or they lack sex chromosomes altogether (A + 0). Sex determination is thus dependent on the type of sperm cell that fertilizes the egg. Some spider species have only one X chromosome in the male, others even three. A Y chromosome, as is typical for many insects and mammals, is very rare among spiders (Maddison, 1982).

Ovaries and Egg Cells The ovaries are paired, elongated structures situated in the ventral part of the abdomen (see fig. 2.24). They are reminiscent of the ovaries of birds, because the egg cells (oocytes) bulge into the body cavity and are connected to the ovarian epithelium by a short stalk (the funiculus). How the egg cells are released is still a matter of conjecture. The so-called oviducts represent the inside of the ovarian epithelium and are therefore not in an adequate position to take up the maturing egg cells to enter the lumen of the “oviduct” (Sadana, 1970). In many spider families the egg cells contain a typical structure that has been called the vitelline body, or Dotterkern (von Wittich, 1845). It consists of several concentric lamellae (figs. 7.8a,b), which have been identified as endoplasmic reticulum (Sotelo and Trujillo-Cenóz, 1957; André and Rouiller, 1957). Nothing definite is known about the function of the vitelline body, but ostensibly it represents an organizing center for yolk formation (Osaki, 1972). Later fine structural studies indicated that the vitelline body contains either mitochondria or bacteria (Wolbachia; Reimers-Fadhlaoui, 1995; Oh et al., 2001). Most likely, these bacteria are symbiontic, but their precise role needs to be determined. Yolk accumulation occurs in two steps (Seitz, 1971). At first, very fine grained yolk particles aggregate in the young egg cell until the cell reaches a diameter of approximately 100 μm. Only after copulation does a second accumulation of yolk begin, this time in the form of much larger granules (fig. 7.8c,d). The second phase of yolk accumulation can take place only if enough food is available. After copulation, female Cupiennius, for example, voraciously attack their prey. Within 2 weeks the volume of an egg cell increases 10–12-fold. Accordingly, the female’s abdomen swells visibly, and just prior to egg deposition four-fifths of her opisthosoma is taken up by the ovaries.

Reproduction

Figure 7.8 Egg cells. (a) Histological section of young egg cells in Zygiella. A large pale nucleus (N) with a distinct nucleolus (n) is seen in the cell on the right; in the cell on the left a conspicuous vitelline body (VB) is surrounded by fine granular yolk. (b) A higher magnification of the vitelline body reveals symbiontic bacteria (Photo: Reimers). (c) Mature egg cell with large yolk granules. (d) The periphery of a mature egg cell contains various yolk droplets and microvilli projecting into the chorion layer (Ch).

The total mass of the eggs that a female spider produces is impressive. Cupiennius, for instance, produces 1,500–2,000 eggs for her first cocoon, equivalent to a weight of 1.5–2.5 g (Melchers, 1963). The subsequent four or five cocoons are each made at intervals of 45 days; they contain successively fewer eggs. It is noteworthy that the yolk of an egg cell must contain the entire energy that is needed for embryonic development, hatching, molting, as well as all the activities

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of a young spiderling before it actually catches its first prey. If the embryonic development happens to fall into the cold season, this will mean up to 200 days without any external energy input (Schaefer, 1976b). It is certainly advantageous that the metabolic rate during early development is much reduced (i.e., only 10–20% of the adult metabolism; Anderson, 1978).

External Sexual Organs Male spiders lack primary copulatory organs. Instead, their pedipalps have been modified to transfer sperm. In many “primitive” spiders (Orthognatha, Haplogynae, but not Mesothelae) the males have only slightly modified pedipalps and the females correspondingly rather simple copulatory organs. On the other hand, in entelegyne spiders a good correlation between the highly differentiated palp of the male and a complex epigynum of the female is evident. The external sexual organs are often so specific to a species that systematicists use them as decisive characters for species identification (fig. 10.13). It is tempting to postulate that the highly specialized “lock-and-key” mechanism of male and female copulatory organs serves to prevent cross-breeding between different species. However, we have no experimental proof for this assumption. More likely, hybridization is already inhibited at the behavior level: courtship is discontinued if one of the spiders does not react in a speciesspecific way. In fact, many male spiders do try to court females of the “wrong” species fig. 7.9); they are, however, usually unsuccessful, because the females are responsive only to males of their own species (Crane, 1949; Grasshoff, 1973). A good example is seen in the courtship of several closely related wolf spiders, so-called ethospecies, which differ very little in their morphology but can be distinguished by their behavior (Hollander and Dijkstra, 1974; Uetz and Denterlein, 1979; Uetz and Stratton, 1982; Kronestedt, 1990). Schizocosa ocreata and Schizocosa rovneri, for instance, exhibit almost identical genitalia, yet do not cross-breed under natural conditions, because females accept only conspecific males (Stratton and Uetz, 1981). However, if the females were briefly anesthetized with carbon dioxide, males of the “wrong” species did mount them and copulated successfully. Such females laid fertile eggs from which hybrid spiderlings developed (Stratton and Uetz, 1983, 1986). Under natural conditions there are further barriers that prevent cross-breeding (e.g., a slightly different habitat of the two species or a seasonal separation of the courtship periods; fig. 9.4). At any rate, behavioral differences are apparently more important for the isolation of species than genital morphology, as the above experiment clearly shows. It cannot be excluded, however, that interspecific hybridization may occur occasionally in the wild (e.g., in Tegenaria species; Oxford and Smith, 1987; Oxford and Plowman, 1991).

Male Copulatory Organs The simplest form of a male palp is seen in the haplogyne and orthognath spiders. The tarsus of the palp (the cymbium) carries an extension in the form of a

Reproduction

Figure 7.9 A female garden spider (Araneus pallidus) immediately after her final molt. Note the two males waiting: on the left an A. pallidus (A.p.), on the right an A. diadematus (A.d.). (Photo: Grasshoff.)

pear-shaped bulb, or palpal organ, which acts as a reservoir for the sperm (fig. 7.10a). A blind duct spirals through the bulb and opens at its very tip; the narrow portion of the tip is called the embolus. The bulb functions like a pipette and can take up a droplet of sperm. The sperm cells are then stored inside the duct (spermophor) until mating. It is not entirely clear how the sperm are expelled because elevated hemolymph pressure does not seem to be involved. Presumably the mass of sperm becomes displaced by a glandular secretion which is discharged into the spermophor (Harm, 1931). The male palps are much more complex in entelegyne spiders (fig. 7.10b) because the wall of the palpal organ consists of hard, sclerotized parts (the sclerites) and soft areas (the hematodochae); both can bear special protrusions (apophyses) that play an essential role during copulation. Such complex genitalia can only be understood by regarding them as functional units (Grasshoff, 1975; Weiss, 1982). Recently, freeze-fixation of mating spiders with liquid nitrogen and subsequent serial sectioning of the locked copulatory organs have provided further insights into the function of the palps (Huber, 1993, 1994). The soft hematodochae are inflatable and allow the palpal organ to expand hydraulically (Homann, 1935). Normally the entire bulb is collapsed so that the fragile embolus is protected from mechanical damage. When the hemolymph pressure increases, the hematodocha expands, and the sclerites become erect and project from the rest of the palp (fig. 7.10b). Theses sclerites assume defined spatial

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Figure 7.10 (a) Simple type of a male palp in Segestria florentina. The spiraled spermophor can be seen through the bulb. 80 x. (After Harm, 1931.) (b) Complex type of a male palp in Araneus diadematus. The diagram shows the expanded state. The extensible hematodochal areas are lightly stippled. (After Grasshoff, 1968.) (c–e) Scanning electron micrographs of male palps (B = bulb, CY = cymbium; Sclerites: C = conductor, E = embolus, MA = median apophysis, ST = subtegulum, T = tegulum). (c) Lateral view in Poaka graminicola, (d) ventral view in Neolana dalmasi, (e) ventral view in Dolomedes triton. (Photos: c, d from Griswold et al., 2005; e Foelix and Kreiter.)

positions, and this is a precondition for a secure coupling with the female’s epigynum. The various sclerotized parts of the palpal organ have specific names. The spoon-shaped base of the tarsus is referred to as the cymbium, the basal appendage of the tarsus as the paracymbium. The arrangement of the different sclerites (tegulum,

Reproduction

Figure 7.11 A mechanical diagram depicting the coupling of the bulb and the epigynum in Araneus. (a) The spine of the median apophysis (M) hooks onto a process (Sc, the scapus) of the epigynum. (b) The median apophysis twists and becomes enveloped by the scapus. The sclerites R, St, and the embolus shift their position so that the embolus becomes situated in front of the epigynal opening. The inflation of the hematotocha (H) causes a rotation of the tegulum (T), which in turn presses the conductor (C) to one side of the scapus and the embolus into the epigyne. (After Grasshoff, 1973.)

subtegulum, median apophysis, conductor, embolus) is shown in figures 7.10 and 7.11. In some entelegyne species the embolus can be drawn out into a long, spiraled thread, sometimes several times the length of the male’s body. These lengthy emboli often break off during copulation and remain stuck in the epigynum of the female. This happens regularly in the golden silk spider Nephila (Kuntner, 2007) and in the black widow Latrodectus (Wiehle, 1961; Andrade, 1996; Snow et al. 2006). Until recently it was believed that this would prevent further copulations, but it has been shown that females with emboli that have been broken off in their epigynes, as well as males with mutilated emboli (stumps) can mate again (Breene and Sweet, 1985). It is believed in such multiple matings that sperm from the first male fertilizes most of the eggs (first-male sperm priority; Austadt, 1984; Watson, 1991, but there are also exceptions (Masumoto, 1993). Although first-male sperm priority may be true for entelegyne spiders (with separate fertilization ducts), last-male sperm priority applies for haplogyne spiders because the last sperm to enter the cul-de-sac situation of the female genital organs would be the first to exit and thus to fertilize the eggs. Under natural conditions, however, it is not always as the theory predicts, and there is also the possibility of mixing sperms of different males (Uhl, 1998, 2000). Mating plugs may consist of parts of the male genitalia or of a special male secretion; in either case they are thought to serve as paternity protection devices (Uhl et al., 2010).

Female Copulatory Organs The terminal part of the oviduct is referred to as the uterus externus. In the Orthognatha and the Haplogynae, it ends in the primary genital opening (gonopore)

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Figure 7.12 (a) Simple copulatory apparatus in a female Dysdera crocata, longitudinal section. Bc = bursa copulatrix with a dorsal evagination (Div); R = seminal receptacle. (After Cooke, 1966.) (b) Complex copulatory apparatus in a female Araneus diadematus. Cd = copulatory duct; EF = epigastric furrow; Fd = fertilization duct; GO1 and GO2 = internal and external genital opening. (After Gerhardt and Kaestner, 1938.)

and is situated between the anterior book lungs. The spermathecae, or seminal receptacles, connect directly with the uterus externus, which is probably the site of fertilization. Thus, in the Haplogynae the copulatory duct is at the same time a fertilization duct (fig. 7.12a). In the Entelegynae the females possess a special copulatory organ located in front of the genital opening, the epigynum. This is a slightly raised sclerotized plate with several cuticular infoldings, which constitute the connecting ducts (sperm ducts) and the seminal receptacles (fig. 7.12b). A closer look at the epigynum shows that it is quite complex. Aside from the primary genital opening (gonopore), which lies hidden in the epigastric furrow, we find other orifices that play a role in reproduction. Those of the coiled connecting ducts (or sperm ducts) lead to the seminal receptacles (figs. 7.13, 7.14), and from there, special fertilization ducts connect with the uterus externus. During mating the male’s embolus is inserted through the external genital opening into the sperm duct. Both structures must match; that is, a long, convoluted sperm duct usually requires a lengthy, coiled embolus. The embolus may penetrate right up to the seminal receptacles, where the sperm cells are deposited. Only when the female starts laying her eggs do the sperm in the receptacles become active and migrate through the fertilization ducts to the egg cells. The expulsion of the sperm cells is most likely caused by special glands whose secretions displace the sperm mass (Cooke, 1966; Coyle et al., 1983). In haplogyne species without receptacula (e.g., Pholcus), the glandular secretion serves to store the sperm mass prior to fertilization (Uhl, 1993, 1994). Several batches of eggs can be fertilized, even if only a single copulation has taken place. Interestingly, the sperm of different males is encapsulated in discrete packages, which seems to avoid the mixing of different sperm. Thus sperm competition is prevented or at least severely limited. Females apparently have

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Figure 7.13 (a) Diagram of an epigynum, ventral view. Cd = copulatory ducts, EF = epigastric furrow, F = fertilization duct; Go = genital opening; R = seminal receptacle; Ut. ext. = uterus externus. (After Wiehle, 1967). (b) Epigynum of Cupiennius salei. External view of the sclerotized parts on the left, internal view on the right. Abbreviations as in (a). (After Melchers, 1963.)

control over the sperm transferred by different males (i.e., they can prefer sperm of certain males; Burger et al., 2006a). Due to the different duct systems present in Haplogynes (“cul de sac”; fig. 1.5) and in Entelegynes (“conduit” type; Austadt, 1984), last male sperm priority is expected for Haplogynes and first male sperm priority for Entelegynes, although physiological and behavioral factors also influence sperm priority (Eberhard, 2004). Fertilization presumably takes place in the uterus externus. One hour after oviposition, the sperm nucleus is already moving toward the center of the egg. At that time the female pronucleus has just completed the second maturation division at the egg’s periphery and will start its migration toward the center (Suzuki and Kondo, 1994a, b). The actual conjugation of the two nuclei takes place 1–2 hours later, followed by the first cleavage division. There is some evidence that parthenogenesis may occur in spiders. For instance, female Dysdera hungarica that were kept isolated from males produced egg sacs, and apparently a few of the (unfertilized) eggs developed into spiderlings and even adult spiders (Gruber, 1990). The tiny tropical spider Theotima (Ochyroceratidae) was

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Figure 7.14 Epigynum of the black widow Latrodectus mactans; internal view of sclerotized parts after dissolution of soft tissue with potassium hydroxide. Cd = copulatory ducts; EF= epigastric furrow; R = seminal receptacles. 200 x.

long suspected to be parthenogenetic, since no males had ever been found. Isolated spiderlings that were raised in the laboratory all developed into females; they laid viable eggs which led to a next generation of females (Edwards et al., 2003). In the linyphiid Pityohyphantes, 1–2% of the embryos were haploid (n = 14), which would also indicate development from unfertilized eggs (Gunnarsson and Andersson, 1992). The sperm ducts and seminal receptacles are lined with cuticle. In some spiders that continue to molt even in their adult stage (Mesothelae and Orthognatha), the lining of the seminal receptacles is also shed. This means that female tarantulas, for example, which have mated previously become “virginal” again after each molt; they need to mate again in order to produce fertile eggs. Male tarantulas molt only exceptionally once they have reached sexual maturity. Usually they die within a few years after their last molt.

Filling the Palps (“Sperm Induction”) Before a male spider goes in search of a female, he charges his palpal organs with sperm. First he spins a sperm web, which is usually a small triangular structure (2–4 mm2) that is suspended horizontally. The male presses his abdomen against the rim of the triangular web and moves his abdomen up and down until a drop of sperm emerges

Reproduction

from his genital opening. Thereafter the male (of many species) moves to the underside of the sperm web and reaches with his palps around the margin of the web. The palps are dipped alternately into the sperm drop (figs. 7.15, 7.16). Most likely, capillary forces play a role in the uptake of sperm, since the tips of the palps are often “soaked” between the mouth parts before the bulbs are filled (Blest and Pomeroy, 1978). This process is sometimes called “palpal lubrication.”

Figure 7.15 A male Tetragnatha hanging suspended beneath his sperm web, charging the palps with a droplet of sperm. (After Gerhardt, 1928.)

Figure 7.16 A male tarantula (Nhandu) reaches with both palps (P) around the rim of his sperm web (SW) and dips the pointed bulbs alternatingly (Inset) into the hanging sperm droplet (S). (Photos: M. Huber.)

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Sperm can be taken up either directly, as just described, or indirectly, in which case the sperm cells must be sucked through the mesh of the sperm web (Gerhardt, 1929). Different spider families use different methods of transferring the sperm to the palps. In some species (e.g., Scytodes), the sperm web is reduced to a single thread, which is held by the third pair of legs and drawn across the genital opening. The exuded sperm droplet adheres to this thread and is then drawn into the bulb (Gerhardt, 1930). In most araneomorph spiders the sperm web is a rather small structure, but theraphosids (tarantulas) construct relatively large sperm mats (Costa and PérezMiles, 2002). A small area of this mat is reinforced—probably by the action of the epigastric glands (fig. 7.5)—and the sperm droplet is deposited there. Charging the palps is a long affair, often taking more than an hour. The first sperm induction occurs some days after the male spider has reached maturity, but it can then be repeated many times. For a long time arachnologists thought that sperm induction was a precondition for the courting behavior of the male. However, through a series of elegant experiments, this idea has been refuted. Male spiders with their palps removed or with a covered genital opening display quite normally toward a female (Rovner, 1966, 1967; Costa, 1998). It is likely that the initiation of courtship is triggered by the central nervous system, probably via hormones, some days after the spider’s last molt. Perhaps this explains why newly molted males, which have not yet filled their palps with sperm, do not court in the first days following molting.

Courtship Courtship can be defined as those ritualized behavioral patterns that are preparatory to mating. It is paramount for male spiders to avoid being mistaken for prey. Furthermore, females, which appear rather passive at first glance, need to be sufficiently stimulated before copulation can take place. Of course, female spiders are not completely passive during courtship. Some female wolf spiders (Lycosa rabida) indicate their willingness to mate by vigorously waving their legs (Rovner, 1968a). Even more active is the female Alopecosa cuneata: she grasps the male’s front legs (tibiae) with her chelicerae and pulls him slowly toward her (Kronestedt, 1986); only after slackening of this ritual grip does copulation follow. It is believed that pheromone glands located in the male’s thick tibiae trigger this peculiar behavior (Dahlem et al., 1987; Juberthie-Jupeau et al., 1990). Because almost every spider species has developed its own courtship, it is hardly possible to make valid general statements about this behavior, but to give at least an outline, we will group the courtship behaviors into three categories or levels. Each level is defined by the mechanism that triggers the male’s courting (Platnick, 1971): level 1 requires direct contact between male and female; level 2 needs female pheromones to stimulate the male’s courtship behavior; and level 3 postulates a visual recognition of the female by the male.

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Level 1 Crab spiders (Thomisidae) and sack spiders (Clubionidae) have only a very modest courtship. Typically, the male simply crawls over the female, pulls the female’s abdomen close, and inserts one palpal organ into the female’s genital opening. Many Haplogynae (Haupt, 1977, 1979) and tarantulas also show little in the way of preliminaries (Baerg, 1928; Gerhardt, 1929). After direct body contact, the male and female exchange a brief interplay with their front legs and palps before they copulate. Some crab spiders (Xysticus), however, have developed a rather interesting courtship: the male “ties” the female with some strands of silk before mating (fig. 7.17). These threads do not hold the female captive, though, for she has no trouble freeing herself after copulation. Similar ties are also used by Nephila (Araneidae) when the minute male places a few threads over the legs of the large female (Robinson and Robinson, 1973); again, these ties can have only a “symbolic” significance.

Level 2 Courtship at this level is somewhat more complex. Often male spiders (e.g., Filistata, Segestria, and Amaurobius) will lure females by pulling or drumming on their webs. Female pheromones are usually involved as well. The males use their contact chemoreceptors, and perhaps also olfaction, to recognize the silk of the females. Draglines of female wolf spiders are known to induce “following behavior” and courtship in the male (Tietjen, 1977, 1979a, b; Pollard et al., 1987). In Amaurobius ferox, direct body contact is necessary to elicit courtship behavior, whereas in A. similis and A. fenestralis, the presence of pheromones alone suffices to stimulate

Figure 7.17 Copulation of the crab spider Xysticus. The male “ties” the female to the ground and then crawls under her abdomen to start mating. (After Bristowe, 1958.)

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Figure 7.18 Recording of male vibratory signals from two different Amaurobius species courting at the webs of the respective females. A. similis drums only with his palps, whereas A. ferox strums with one or two palps and additionally vibrates his abdomen. (After Krafft, 1978.)

the male. The males of the different Amaurobius species use various vibratory signals, which they generate with their legs, palps, and abdomens. Each species has its own code (fig. 7.18; Krafft, 1978), and a male of A. similis, for example, will court only at a web of its own species. The specific signals of the males are often answered by specific vibrations of the female; for instance, in Cupiennius the male signals have a frequency of 75 Hz, but those of the female are only 40 Hz (Schüch and Barth, 1985). Furthermore, the vibration pattern is very structured into “syllables” and “pauses” typical for each species. This ensures reproductive isolation, as females tend to respond only to signals of their own males (Barth, 1993). In some spiders the males apparently recognize the nests of the immature females and spin their own nests right next to them (Bristowe, 1941; Jackson, 1986a; Toft, 1989). Immediately after the final molt of the female (that is, during a period of time when the female is essentially defenseless), copulation takes place. To refer to such behavior as “rape” may simply reflect our anthropomorphic point of view. It may well be that copulation is possible only during that time, when the cuticle of the female is not yet fully sclerotized. Mating right after the female’s final molt is also common among many orb weavers, such as Argiope. When a male web spider (for instance, of Araneidae, Agelenidae, and Linyphiidae) approaches a female in her web, he is particularly prone to being dealt with as prey. Another risk is that the female might disrupt the courtship because prey has entered the web or because another male has appeared on the scene. The male tackles these problems in different ways, but mostly by somewhat restraining the mobility of the female. Araneid males initially remain at the periphery of the web and make their presence known by plucking the threads with their front legs. Their actual approach to the female can be a tedious and lengthy procedure. Usually the male attaches a special thread, the mating thread, to the female’s web. By plucking and beating this thread rhythmically with his front legs, and especially with his third pair of legs, the

Reproduction

Figure 7.19 Courtship of the orb weaver Zygiella x-notata. (a) The male’s front legs beat with a high frequency (60 Hz) on the mating thread (m); (b) the male’s plucking entices the female to leave her retreat (R) and to approach the male. (Photos: Blanke.)

male entices the female to move from her web onto the mating thread (fig. 7.19). If she is receptive, she will advance toward the male. After a short exchange of foreleg dabbing, the female assumes a typical copulatory posture (fig. 7.27). Pheromones, which are emitted a few days after the last molt (Blanke, 1972), often play a role in helping the male find the opposite sex (Papke et al., 2001). Male araneids apparently can recognize the female pheromone chemotactually on the web and also seem to be guided by olfaction, at least for short distances of about 60–80 cm (Blanke, 1975b). It is noteworthy that female spiders can also detect pheromones. Black widows (Latrodectus hesperus), for instance, show courtship behavior in response to male silk (Ross and Smith, 1979). In the related species

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L. revivensis, females were observed to react aggressively toward the silk of conspecific females (Anava and Lubin, 1993). Although the courtship behavior of araneids may appear rather uniform at first glance, we find some remarkable variations from the usual pattern. The males of Nephila and of some Argiope species do not use any mating threads but climb directly into the hub of the female’s web, where they start a tactile courtship. In other Argiope species the male also crosses the female’s web but then cuts a hole near the hub, attaches a short mating thread, and commences a vibratory courtship. From an evolutionary point of view, a tactile courtship at the web’s hub may represent the original type of courtship in araneids (Robinson and Robinson, 1978, 1980). Normally, a rather lengthy courtship is necessary before the female spider allows the male free access to her web. In the case of Linyphia triangularis, however, the male is always dominant and conquers the female’s web without encountering any resistance (Rovner, 1968b). The female never attacks him; on the contrary, if prey happens to fall on the dome of her web (fig. 5.20), the male will chase the female away and feed alone. During courtship the male destroys most of the female’s web; within a few minutes the dome may be reduced to a small silken band. The female remains entirely passive during this action, and her passivity probably signals to the male that she is willing to accept him. At any rate, copulation occurs immediately after her web has been destroyed. The purpose of the web reduction is apparently to remove the female sex pheromone, so that no other males will be attracted (Watson, 1986). Webs of females (Linyphia litigiosa) that have already mated are not reduced by the male, presumably because the silk threads no longer contain female pheromones. However, webs of other female linyphiids (e.g., Frontinella pyramitela) elicit courtship in males even after 30 days, even if they are unoccupied; in such cases it seems likely that a contact pheromone is involved (Suter and Hirscheimer, 1986). Courtship is somewhat more complex for many wolf spiders (Lycosidae) and nursery-web spiders (Pisauridae). The behavior of the male is influenced not only by tactile and chemotactile stimuli, but also by vibratory and visual signals. When a male Lycosa rabida notices a female passing by, he assumes a typical courtship posture (fig. 7.20b): the front legs are raised, the palps touch the substrate, the body is lowered (Rovner, 1968a). The subsequent behavior of the male consists of characteristic courtship movements and intermittent periods of resting. First the palps are waved altemately in a circular fashion, called palpal rotation (fig. 7.20a); then they contact the substrate again. One front leg is stretched forward and is raised and lowered several times. At the same time the abdomen vibrates up and down. The palpal rotation soon changes to palpal “drumming,” which is audible to the human ear. It has been shown that the palpal drumming includes a stridulation that is produced in the tibio-tarsal joint of the palp (Rovner, 1975): a cuticular spur scratches over parallel ridges (the “file”) of the tibia, thus producing sounds. After the stretched front leg is snapped back into a flexed position, the male remains inactive for about 15 seconds, or he may approach the female slightly. It is during those pauses that the female becomes active. About 5 seconds after the male’s palpal drumming, the

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Figure 7.20 (a) Palp rotation as an element in courting by male wolf spiders. (After Bristowe and Locket, 1926). (b) Courting attitudes of the male wolf spider Lycosa rabida. In the initial phase (1) the first pair of legs is raised and flexed; the tibiae are extended horizontally; the abdomen vibrates vertically. 2 = Stretching of leg 1; 3 = Fully extended leg 1. (After Rovner, 1968a.)

female responds by briefly waving her front legs. Usually, she also takes a few steps toward the male. The male now repeats and intensifies his courtship movements: leg stretching, palpal rotation, abdominal quivering. When he is within reach of the female, he cautiously extends one front leg, but he does not actually touch the female. The first contact is always initiated by the female and apparently signals her readiness for copulation. From this description it is evident that Lycosa rabida exhibits a reciprocal courtship; that is, both partners take turns exchanging signals. The visual signals are largely confined to perception of motion. This can be concluded from the observation that a male often initially directs his courtship toward other males (although he receives only a threat in response). Males without their palps or front legs can still court successfully and be accepted by the female. This means that the acoustical and vibratory signals are not necessary components of courtship. On the other hand, leg waving by the females has been elicited by playing back the acoustical signals of the male over a tiny loudspeaker (Rovner, 1967). It is plausible that acoustical and vibratory signals play a major role in courtship only in the dark. In fact, Lycosa rabida is active at night as well as during the day. In Schizocosa ocreata, males use both vibratory (seismic) and visual signals while courting a female. The seismic component is thought to be ancestral, whereas the visual component is considered as more recently derived. When comparing courting males under light and under dark conditions, their mating success is about the same (60–70%), although courtship in the dark lacks any visual cues. However, courting in the dark takes much longer, probably because the female cannot gather the necessary information about her mate as quickly as under light conditions (Taylor et al., 2006). Chemotactile signals seem to be the most important factors in

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the male wolf spider’s courtship behavior. When male spiders are put into empty boxes that have previously housed conspecific females, they start exhibiting their typical courtship behavior (Bristowe and Locket, 1926; Kaston, 1936; Rovner, 1968a; Dijkstra, 1976). They show no reactions, however, if males or immature females have been kept in these boxes. If a male wolf spider comes across the dragline of a mature female, he will stop immediately and will commence probing the substrate with the tips of his legs and palps. His front legs start quivering, and the entire courtship sequence may follow, just as if the female were present. He will take the female’s dragline between his palps (fig. 7.21) and then follow it toward the female (Tietjen and Rovner, 1980, 1982). A similar trail-following behavior can be seen in Dolomedes (Pisauridae), in which the male tracks the female’s dragline even on the surface of the water (Roland and Rovner, 1983). Draglines from males or other species are largely ignored, which indicates that a sex pheromone elicits this trail-following behavior. However, it seems that these pheromones are not really species specific but rather trigger a first arousal in males. In the closely related wolf spiders Schizocosa ocreata and S. rovneri (etho-species), males are unable to distinguish silk from females of those two species. In contrast, females are responsive only to species-specific visual and vibratory cues (Roberts and Uetz, 2004). Other species of wolf spiders show courtship movements that are similar to yet distinctly different from those of Lycosa rabida. Legs and palps can be waved together or alternately; the palps may be held in a certain position or vibrate excitedly, or describe aerial loops. Each species has its own typical repertoire. This has been

Figure 7.21 Trail following in the wolf spider Lycosa punctulata. (a) The male takes the female’s dragline between his palps and uses it as a guide line toward the female. (b) Distribution of chemosensitive hairs (ch) on the tarsus of the male palp (dorsal view). Most of the sensory hairs are located on the inner side of the palp, where they have maximal contact to the dragline. (After Tietjen and Rovner, 1980.)

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studied in detail in five species of the wandering spider Cupiennius (Barth, 1993). In addition to an audible palp drumming, males of Cupiennius salei also exhibit a rapid abdominal quivering, which causes specific substrate vibrations. These vibrations are transmitted on plant leaves over distances of 1 m and more and cause a receptive female to respond with vibrations of her own (fig. 7.22). The male can then orient himself and gradually approach the female. Again, this example shows clearly the reciprocal communication that takes place between male and female spiders during courtship (Barth, 1985b). The nursery-web spider Pisaura is famous for its extraordinary courtship. The male first catches a fly, wraps it in silk, and carries it in his chelicerae to the female. If the female is receptive, she seizes the “bridal gift” and starts feeding on it (Nitzsche, 1981, 1987; Stålhandske, 2001). At the same time the male begins copulating with her. When delivering his nuptial gift, the male is sometimes attacked by the female. His response then is to “play dead,” remaining completely motionless. As soon as the female starts feeding on his gift, the male slowly “comes back to life” and initiates copulation (Bilde et al., 2006; Hansen et al., 2008). Despite such tricks, males are not always safe from female attacks; Dolomedes (Pisauridae) males are often eaten, probably because they approach the female from the front and without the necessary caution (Gerhardt, 1926). Incidentally, a synchronization of the male’s courtship with feeding in the female is known to occur in several other spider families—for example, in the araneid Meta segmentata (now Metellina segmentata) (Blanke, 1974a), and the uloborid Uloborus geniculatus (now Zosis geniculatus) (Gerhardt, 1927). Courting males of the funnel-web spider Agelenopsis can induce a quiescent (cataleptic) state in females. This is probably achieved by a male pheromone that is effective over only very short distances (about 3 cm). It is assumed that this “knock-out” pheromone allows mating with otherwise aggressive females or that the copulation time is prolonged, thereby increasing reproductive success (Becker et al., 2005).

Figure 7.22 Reciprocal communication in the courtship of the wandering spider Cupiennius. Pulses of abdominal vibrations in the male are answered by typical abdominal vibrations of the female (starting at arrow). (After Rovner and Barth, 1981.)

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Level 3 In salticids, oxyopids, and some lycosids, visual signals are the primary releaser for courtship, although tactile and chemical stimuli are also involved (Jackson, 1977, 1978). It is presumed that courtship of these spiders has developed from courtship levels 1 and 2. All male jumping spiders display their specific courtship movements in front of the females (Richman and Jackson, 1992). These movements range from the simple lifting of a leg to the complex, sequential movements of several extremities (fig. 7.23). Usually, those extremities, which are mostly used in the courtship display, are also conspicuously colored (fig. 7.24; Bristowe, 1929; Kaston, 1936;

Figure 7.23 Courtship in jumping spiders is initially only visual (a; Phidippus princeps) but can later also involve direct contact with the front legs (b; Phidippus texanus). The male spiders are on the right. (Photos: Hill.)

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Figure 7.24 (a) Courtship in the jumping spider Saitis barbipes is mostly performed with the male´s conspicuous third legs (3). (Photo: Rast). (b, c) The male rocks sideways and rapidly lifts and lowers both third legs in front of the female. (Single frames from a video-film by H. Antoine.)

Crane, 1949). When a male notices a female, he approaches her in a zigzagging dance. At the same time, he displays species-specific courtship movements such as raising his front legs, vibrating his palps, and twitching his abdomen. The female remains rather passive, yet she watches the male. In some species the female responds by vibrating her palps, and sometimes she may even weakly imitate the male’s courtship routine. During this initial phase of courtship, the primary objective of the male is to identify himself as a mate of the right species. If the female is receptive toward the performing male, she assumes a quiet, crouching position. The next phase, which leads directly to copulation, is very similar for all jumping spiders. The male extends his forelegs so that they are parallel and touch the female. After further fondling, he climbs on the female’s back and begins copulation. Although most male jumping spiders use their first legs for signaling toward the female, some genera (e.g., Saitis, Maratus, Habronattus) have specialized their third legs for that purpose (Hill, 2009). In the Mediterranean Saitis barbipes, the third legs are red and bear conspicuous black hair brushes on tibia and metatarsus. During courtship these legs are waved up and down, while the white-tipped tarsi vibrate rapidly (fig. 7.24). In the Australian peacock spider Maratus volans (see cover picture), an inflatable flap covering the abdomen also comes into play. The strong dependence of a jumping spider’s courtship on visual clues becomes evident when one covers a male’s main eyes with black paint. He still shows signs of excitement if a female is present, but he no longer performs the typical courtship dances (Homann, 1928; Crane, 1949). Conversely, when the main eyes of the

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female are painted black, she will not accept a courting male. This demonstrates that the courtship in salticids is indeed a reciprocal visual affair. If a male addresses the female of another species—(and this occasionally happens in nature), the female withdraws at some point in the first phase of courtship. Apparently, without the species-specific movements of the male, there will not even be a chance for him to copulate. Aside from the important visual signals (movement and size and shape of the mate), chemical stimuli also play a role in salticid courtship. Chemical cues alone do not suffice to trigger the courtship dances, as they do in lycosids, yet contact with the female’s silk still seems to have a stimulating effect on the male. Furthermore, it seems that very young females (1–2 weeks after their final molt) are preferred by the courting males. Older females (6 weeks postmolt) are less attractive to the males, probably because their pheromone production has decreased. Within the large family of jumping spiders, we find species with a rather “primitive” courtship, which relies on the spider’s chemotactile or olfactory sensitivity, as well as gradually more “advanced” species that use visual cues almost exclusively when they court (Crane, 1949; Pollard et al., 1987). Detailed investigations have shown that, even within the same species, different courting strategies are employed ( Jackson, 1977). For instance, if a male Phidippus johnsoni encounters a female outside the nest, he will perform the usual visual type of courtship. If the same male comes across a nest in which a female is hidden, however, he shows a completely different courting behavior: the tarsi of his front legs are rubbed over the surface of the female’s nest, and his whole body oscillates up and down. After a while, the male enters the nest and mating ensues. Because empty silken nests of the females can also trigger the male’s courtship, it is assumed that some volatile pheromones adhere to the silk threads (Jackson, 1981,1987). It is interesting that only the first type of courtship is dependent on light, but not the second. When both sexes are put together under dark red light, no courtship behavior is elicited from either spider, even if they bump into each other. As soon as a white light is turned on, however, the male begins the visual type of courtship within a few minutes. Exceptionally, some salticid species also use sound in their courtship; the males can stridulate with a plectrum-and-file system on their pedipalps. The cryptically colored Phidippus mystaceus, for instance, produces a soft, audible trill that is systematically repeated (G. B. Edwards, 1981). These sound signals are emitted at a rather large distance from the female, before any visual courtship begins. Even more complex, multimodal courtship signals occur in the jumping spider Habronattus (Elias et al., 2003, 2005). Aside from an elaborate visual display, three different vibratory (seismic) signals (“thumps,” “scrapes,” “buzzes”) occur in the males. Visual and vibratory modalities are independently employed but are precisely coordinated in time. Experiments have shown that the seismic signals are an important component of the male´s courtship display: females preferred males that performed a visual and vibratory courtship over males that had been “muted” and could only produce visual signals. An interesting case of two morphologically different males occurring within the same species is known from the jumping spider, Maevia inclemens (Clark and Uetz,

Reproduction

Figure 7.25 An exceptional dimorphism of males occurs in the jumping spider Maevia inclemens. One morph is grey and rather inconspicuous (a), the other one is black and has typical hair tufts above the eyes (b). The two male types perform different courtships but are about equally accepted by the females. (Photos: Clark.)

1992, 1993). One male form is black, with small hair tufts above the main eyes, the other one is gray with black and white body stripes and orange pedipalps (fig. 7.25). Probably the gray morph is the original version (plesiomorphic) and the tufted one is derived, since all juvenile forms are gray. Although the two morphs show distinctly different courtship behaviors, the females are about equally receptive toward both forms. Apparently they do not choose a particular look (phenotype) but simply react on the basis of the initial male movements. Lynx spiders (Oxyopidae) also can recognize each other from a distance of several centimeters. The males often have darkly colored palps, which they wave in front of the females (Gerhardt, 1933; Bristowe, 1962). Each species has its own sequence of palp, leg, and abdominal movements; they also show an exchange of leg stroking before mating.

Copulation The mechanics of the copulatory organs were briefly explained earlier. During copulation, the palpal organ of the male is inserted into the female’s genital opening, and the sperm is deposited in her seminal receptacles. Haplogyne spiders insert the entire bulb of the palp into the female’s genital opening (fig. 7.26); in entelegyne spiders only the bulb’s tip, the embolus, enters the copulatory duct. Characteristic of the Entelegynae are their extensible hematodochae; such spiders can inflate the

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Figure 7.26 Locking mechanism of male and female genitals in Pholcus. The male bulb becomes fixed in the female genital cavity by means of several sclerites (A = appendix, P = procursus, U = uncus). The embolus (E) releases the sperm mass directly into a secretion of the adjacent gland. Actual copulation occurs upside down (see Figure. 4.27b) but is shown here inverse for better comparison with Figure. 7.12 a. (After Uhl et al., 1995.)

normally collapsed palpal organ and thereby push the embolus into the sperm duct of the female’s epigynum. Only after the palpal organ has been coupled with the epigynum do the hematodochae swell to their maximum size. This hydraulic action also leads to the erection of the leg spines. In some species the hematodochae swell only once and very briefly before the palps are withdrawn from the epigynum. This is the case in most species of araneids. In other species (as in most linyphiids) the hematodochae pulsate rhythmically for several hours. There are also differences as to whether the palps are inserted simultaneously or consecutively: most Haplogynae employ both palps at the same time, whereas the Entelegynae insert first one and then the other palp. The mating behavior of spiders and its impressive diversity have been studied extensively from a comparative point of view (Gerhardt, 1911–1933; Bristowe, 1941). The many variations of the mating positions of spiders can be reduced to three or four basic types (fig. 7.27): Type 1 is characteristic of the “primitive” wandering spiders (Mesothelae, Orthognatha, and Haplogynae). The male approaches the female from the front (fig. 7.27a), the female raises her prosoma, and the male inserts one or both

Reproduction

Figure 7.27 Mating positions of various spider families: (a) tarantulas, (b) linyphiids, (c) lycosids, (d) clubionid Cheiracanthium. (After von Helversen, 1976.)

palps into the female’s genital opening. Afterward both spiders separate cautiously. In most mygalomorphs, spurs on the first legs of the male serve to lock the female fangs, probably as a precaution against cannibalistic tendencies in the female. Type 2 is widespread among web spiders. The spiders mate in essentially the same position as in type 1, but with both partners hanging upside down from the web (fig. 7.27b). The male’s palps are inserted into the female consecutively. Type 3 is found among the “modern” wandering spiders (e.g., the Clubionidae, Lycosidae, Salticidae, and Thomisidae). The male climbs over the prosoma of the female, and then turns toward either the left or right side of her opisthosoma. The female twists her abdomen in such a way that one of the male’s palps can be inserted (fig. 7.27c). Each time the other palp is used, the male changes to the other side of the female’s abdomen. Type 1 is most likely the original mating position for spiders, and types 2 and 3 are derived from it (von Helversen, 1976). Cheiracanthium (Clubionidae) uses a modified, fourth kind of position: the spiders face each other with their ventral sides in contact (fig. 7.27d). It should also be mentioned that a certain kind of mating position is not necessarily stereotyped within one family. Most agelenids, for instance, copulate according to type 3, yet some Tegenaria species follow type 1.

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The supposed aggressiveness of the female spider toward the male is largely a myth. When a female is ready for mating, there is little danger for the male. If a male courts at the wrong time, however, he may well be attacked and eaten by the female. In some clubionid species, the female allows only one copulation and reacts aggressively toward any further advances of males (Pollard and Jackson, 1982). In general, most species separate quite peacefully after copulation. Only in some exceptional cases does the male fall victim to the female, such as in certain Argiope and Cyrtophora species. In Argiope bruennichi, for instance, only few males survive mating; they can only escape if a copulation lasts less than 8 seconds (Schneider et al., 2005, 2006). The infamous black widow (Latrodectus mactans) does have a bad reputation, but, contrary to popular belief, the male usually withdraws unharmed (Kaston, 1970; Ross and Smith. 1979). In some Latrodectus species the males live for several weeks in the female’s web and may even feed on her prey (McCrone and Levi, 1964; Anava and Lubin, 1993). In contrast, in the Australian redback spider (Latrodectus hasselti), males are often cannibalized by the female (Forster, 1992). It seems, however, that these males actually have a higher reproductive success than those males that can escape (Andrade, 1996, 2003). In the related brown widow (L. geometricus) the male is also often consumed by the female. Interestingly, it is the male that initiates the cannibalism by somersaulting right in front of the females’s mouth parts. It is thus an active male self-sacrifice (to enhance his reproductive success) rather than aggression on part of the female (Segoli et al., 2008). The small male of Araneus pallidus starts copulation by jumping toward the ventral side of the female’s abdomen and fixing one palp to the epigynum. During this process he tumbles backward so that his abdomen rests right underneath the female’s prosoma. The female immediately seizes his abdomen with her chelicerae and within a few minutes starts feeding on him (fig. 7.28b). Apparently, this is more of a technical necessity than pure cannibalism. If the female is prevented from biting the male, he constantly slips off her abdomen and is unable to insert his palp (Grasshoff, 1964). A very similar mating behavior has also been observed in Cyrtophora cicatrosa (Blanke, 1975b). In several daddy-long-legs spiders (Pholcidae), males and females cohabit peacefully in the same aggregation of webs. Although the male is dominant, he often cedes his prey to the female. This “chivalrous” behavior probably ensures that the female will stay in the web—or, seen from an evolutionary view point, that the number of eggs a male can fertilize will be increased (Eberhard and Briceño, 1983, 1985). Finally, the unique behavior of the cobweb spider Tidarren cuneolatum should be mentioned here: The small male amputates one of his palps just before the final molt (Knoflach and van Harten, 2000). The autotomy is achieved by fixing one palp to the web and then twisting it off at the femur-trochanter joint. So far there is no explanation for this self-amputation. Copulation is initiated by the female and regularly ends in consumption of the male. Interestingly, the male is not always killed by the female but often dies before she actually attacks him. In the related species Tidarren argo, the female tears off the remaining male palp just after copulation has begun. The separated palp stuck in the epigyne remains functional for several hours; during this time the female is feeding on the palpless (and hapless) male (Knoflach and van Harten, 2000, 2001).

Reproduction

Figure 7.28 Copulation in two Araneus species. (a) A. diadematus: the male embraces the female’s abdomen and inserts one bulb. (After Gerhardt, 1911.) (b) A. pallidus: the small male turns a somersault of 180° and falls directly in front of the female’s chelicerae. He is bitten immediately and thus fixed in the mating position. (After Grasshoff, 1964.)

A similar exotic example concludes this discussion of mating—namely, the strange case of traumatic insemination. This term describes a mode of copulation in which sperm is not guided through genital ducts but is directly injected through the body wall. Although this behavior has been known for a few insects (e.g., the bed bug), it was only recently discovered in a spider (Rezák, 2009). Females of Harpactea sadistica (Dysderidae) have atrophied spermathecae and thus lack any cavities for sperm storage. The male, after some tapping as preliminaries, grasps the female and sinks his cheliceral fangs into her abdomen. Then both needlelike emboli alternate in piercing the lateral abdominal wall and deposit sperm near the ovaries. Fertilization takes place internally and instead of eggs, embryos are laid. Whether this highly unusual mode of sperm transfer evolved as a strategy against the “last-mate-sperm priority,” which is common in other dysderids, or whether it is merely a zoological curiosity is still an open question.

Agonistic Behavior So far we have dealt only with reproductive behaviors that take place between sexes. Of course, different types of behavior are elicited when two males of the same

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species meet during courtship. All those activities that are related to a competitor (e.g., threatening, fighting, or fleeing) are referred to as agonistic behavior. Such behavior occurs among spiders in both sexes but is more elaborate in males. When two male wolf spiders (Pardosa) encounter each other in the presence of a female, they assume specific threat postures and sometimes start to fight (fig. 7.29). Usually the attacking male will be the winner. Once he has established his dominance, he is likely to maintain it during further bouts (Dijkstra, 1970). The loser tends to slink away, while the winner flaunts about jerkily. He will then soon encounter the female and circle her, walking sideways. Rising as if on tiptoe, he waves one or both palps in the air and then starts his usual courtship. The agonistic behavior has a selective advantage for the species: the winner has a better chance of mating with the female (Aspey, 1975) and thus of passing on his genome. When two male linyphiids (Linyphia triangularis) meet, they also exhibit specific threat and fighting behaviors, which they never show toward females (Rovner, 1968b). Both males spread their large chelicerae (fig. 7.30b), extend their front legs perpendicularly from their bodies, and vibrate their abdomens rapidly. If neither of the two opponents is impressed, they will move closer and finally begin to fight. First they push each other with the tips of their legs, and later they interlock their chelicerae. The loser drops quickly from the sheet web on which they had been vying for the female; usually the larger male turns out to be the winner. The males may also start to fight without a female present. It seems that the first male to reach the female’s web will defend his territory, the dome of her web. Females will defend their web only against other females, but not against courting males. In most jumping spiders, threatening behavior between males is strongly ritualized (fig. 7.30a); actual fights are rare (Crane, 1949; Jackson, 1982). By no means does the larger male always win the ritualized contest, but the more aggressive male wins. If two males (Marpissa marina) encounter each other in the vicinity of a silk nest, then the “home owner” is always the superior one ( Jackson and Cooper, 1991). The threat signals are visual, as are normal courtship signals, and they consist mainly of raising and lowering the legs. In the more primitive jumping spiders, the threat movements are identical with regular courtship movements, probably because the

Figure 7.29 Agonistic behavior of male wolf spiders (Schizocosa crassipes). (a) The primary reaction to another male is the cautious extension of one front leg. (b) The dominant male (left) threatens the submissive male which remains in a resting position. (After Aspey, 1975.)

Reproduction

Figure 7.30 Agonistic behavior. (a) Two male jumping spiders (Phidippus) face each other with raised front legs and spread chelicerae (Photo:Hill.) (b) Two male Linyphia triangularis threaten each other with wide open chelicerae. (Photo: Rovner.)

male cannot distinguish between a female and a male spider at greater distances (Bristowe, 1929). In the most “advanced” jumping spiders, in contrast, the threat movements clearly differ from the courtship movements (for instance, different legs are used). A key stimulus for a male’s threatening behavior lies in certain contrasting patterns on the palps or on the carapace of a potential competitor. Such markings occur only in the males (Crane, 1949). When a female is not ready for mating, she may also threaten a male: she moves her legs up and down as she walks sideways in a zigzagging fashion (Forster and Forster, 1973).

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Agonistic behavior between female spiders has been studied in a few species. In the wandering spider Cupiennius, the female–female interactions are actually more aggressive than the strictly ritualized fights among the males (Schmitt et al., 1992). Female wolf spiders threaten each other by raising their front legs and opisthosomas and by opening their cheliceral fangs, yet bite only rarely (Nossek and Rovner, 1984). The entire behavior is aimed to prevent any further approach or attack by the opponent and to maintain a certain territory of their own. This is certainly true for web spiders, which often have to fend off invading competitors (Buskirk, 1975a; Riechert, 1978, 1982). They use vibrations of the web as warning signals. In linyphiids, the web owner is usually at an advantage and manages to defend its web even against larger females.

Brood Care Within a few weeks after copulation, the female is ready to begin laying her eggs and produce an egg case (or cocoon). Fertilization takes place just before the eggs are deposited; the sperm cells that had been stored in the seminal receptacles are released as the eggs pass through the uterus externus. The fertilized eggs are then squeezed one by one through the genital opening. Generally, they are surrounded by a clear, viscous liquid, and after a short time this fluid dries up, cementing the eggs together. Normally, egg laying takes only a few minutes, even when there are very many eggs. Araneus lays almost 1000 eggs within 10 minutes (Pötzsch, 1963), Cupiennius lays 1500-2500 in about 8 minutes (Melchers, 1963)—quite an impressive performance, especially if one considers that each egg measures at least 1 mm in diameter (fig. 7.31). Evidently, egg laying is a rather energy-consuming process. This is reflected in the increase of the heart rate, which in Cupiennius is elevated from a normal 60–70 beats/min to about 160 beats/min during egg laying. After all the eggs have been deposited into the egg sac, the female looks rather skinny because of her shriveled abdomen. Although large spiders may have cocoons containing thousands of eggs, some very small spiders such as Oonops (1–2 mm in size) lay only two eggs, and Monoblemma (<1 mm in size) lays only a single one. A newly hatched Monoblemma spiderling is relatively large (0.4 mm) and is tended by its mother for more than a week (Edwards and Edwards, 2006).

Egg Case Construction The eggs are never directly exposed to the environment but are always protected by silk. In the simplest case only a few silk threads are wrapped around the eggs (fig. 7.31a). A typical cocoon, however, consists of a basal plate and a cover plate, which enclose and protect the egg mass. One of the main advantages of an egg case is the favorable humidity level that is maintained inside; hence the eggs can develop without depending as much on climatic conditions. Most important in this respect

Reproduction

Figure 7.31 Egg sacs. (a) Pholcus wraps her batch of eggs with a few strands of silk and carries it in her chelicerae. (b) After hatching the young Pholcus stay for a while with their mother. (Photo: Schulte). (c) An opened cocoon of Araneus diadematus. The basal plate is seen on the right; the tightly packed eggs rest on the cushion of downy silk threads. (d) The cocoon of the pirate spider Ero furcata. The closely woven cocoon wall is covered with stronger, sinuous silk threads. The young spiderlings emerged through a hole at the top of the egg sac (arrow). 15 x.

is the outer layer, which often has a texture similar to strong paper (Hieber, 1985). The outer layer may also serve as a mechanical barrier against egg parasites (flies and wasps) and as a thermal insulation against fluctuating temperatures. The silk threads making up a cocoon are of varying diameter (1–6 μm; Opell, 1984) and originate from different silk glands (mainly the tubuliform and piriform glands, but also in part from the aciniform glands; Peters and Kovoor, 1989). The firmness of the cocoon wall is due to the tightly criss-crossing silk fibers; furthermore, single threads seem to fuse into stronger, composite fibers (fig. 7.31d).

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To understand the various types of cocoons, we will take a closer look at their construction; the cocoon of the orb weaver Araneus quadratus will serve as an example (Crome, 1956a). Before the spider starts making her egg sac, she withdraws for several days into her retreat. She then spins a thin layer of single, tightly woven threads. Using only abdominal movements, she molds this first layer into a disk, the basal plate (fig. 7.32a). This sheet is covered on both sides with flocculent, curly silk threads. The spider then crawls underneath the basal plate and keeps turning around in circles, spinning continuously. This motion leads to the construction of a cylindrical wall (fig. 7.32b). The palps are constantly held in contact with one side of this wall, while the side opposite is dabbed with the spinnerets (compare fig. 7.34a). Thus the cylindrical wall gradually grows until it has reached a height of 5 mm after about 2 hours. The size of cocoon is directly correlated with the size of the spider but not necessarily with the number of eggs that will be deposited. The spider pauses for a few minutes before she starts laying the eggs. When she has finished, she abruptly pulls away from the egg mass and begins to cover it with silk threads (fig. 7.32c). This gradually becomes the cover plate, to which the spider keeps adding loops of thread. A loose mesh thus ultimately envelops the entire surface of the egg sac. Finally, the spider spins a few suspension threads to attach the egg sac to neighboring leaves or twigs (fig. 7.32d). During the next days the spider will stay near the cocoon. If some suspension threads are severed, she will replace them and, if necessary, also tackle larger repairs. Most female orb weavers die only a few days after having built their egg sac. Outwardly the cocoon remains unchanged from October until spring, while inside the spiderlings develop. It is not until May that the offspring will emerge. In summary then, the construction of an egg sac passes through the ollowing stages: 1. Weaving a horizontal silk disk, the center of which is condensed into the basal plate. 2. Adding the cylindrical wall.

Figure 7.32 Stages in the construction of an egg sac in Araneus quadratus. (a) Basal plate with attachment threads. (b) Addition of the cylindrical wall. (c) Egg chamber with a cover plate below. (d) Section through the finished cocoon. The lower part is filled with a loose mesh of silk threads. Attachment threads suspend the cocoon. (After Crome, 1956a.)

Reproduction

3. Egg laying. 4. Closing the egg chamber with a cover plate. 5. Surrounding the egg case with a loose mesh of threads. 6. In some species, spinning an additional tougher cocoon wall, to which suspension threads are attached. Wolf spiders follow basically the same sequence of steps as araneids in constructing their cocoons. However, instead of crawling beneath the basal plate, the spider stays on top of it to form the cylindrical wall, and she sits above the egg chamber when laying her eggs. Originally the egg case is white, but it is then tightly wrapped with bluish green threads rather than encased in a downy meshwork. The finished cocoon is lentil-shaped and has a tough, paperlike surface. It is attached to the spinnerets and carried around until the young hatch (see fig. 7.35a). If one tries to take the egg case away from the spider, she will vehemently defend it and will often even pierce the cocoon wall with her chelicerae in an effort to hold onto the cocoon. If one does remove the cocoon, the spider will search for it for hours. Often she will accept artificial substitutes such as small paper balls or snail shells, which she then attaches to her spinnerets. The construction of a spider’s egg sac is often cited as an example of rigid or “programmed” behavior. For instance, if a Cupiennius is stopped while building her cocoon and placed on another cocoon that is in a more advanced stage of construction, the spider will resume her building at the point at which she was interrupted (Melchers, 1963). This may lead to the construction of another cylindrical wall, even though that structure was already present. Nonetheless, there is some degree of plasticity in this behavior. For instance, when Cupiennius is disturbed while building her own cocoon, she never returns to her half-finished product but starts making a new one. This means, however, that she has now to repeat the initial phases of egg-sac construction. Since this is done in a somewhat abbreviated manner, the result is a functional yet rather odd-looking egg sac. If that second cocoon turns out to be too tattered, the spider will simply eat it. From this behavior we can conclude that the spider is quite capable of perceiving the condition of the cocoon’s surface. Although egg-sac construction appears to be rather “programmed” in Cupiennius, this is by no means true for all spiders. If in Cyrtophora, for instance, the egg sac is tilted by 90° while it is under construction, the spider must deposit her eggs from the side rather than from below. Cyrtophora adapts easily to this condition and finishes a normal cocoon. Even if the cocoon is turned upside down, the spider tries to compensate for its new position; thus there is no question that her behavior can be flexible enough to meet new situations (Kullmann, 1961).

Types of Cocoons Many spiders lay their eggs inside their retreats, which can then be called egg nests. The jumping spider Heliophanus (fig.1.11c) spins only a few threads around her 20–40 eggs; she then guards them within her closed silken retreat (fig. 7.33a).

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Another jumping spider, Marpissa, builds three to five flat cocoons, which she stacks inside her nest (fig. 7.33b). Each cocoon contains 20–40 eggs and is encased by a basal plate and a cover plate. Thus different types of cocoons may occur within the same family of spiders (here, in the Salticidae). The same is true of the Gnaphosidae, in which some genera have only simple cocoons inside their nests, and others build more complicated egg sacs with impregnated and camouflaged cocoon walls. When the walls are camouflaged, the female’s guarding of the eggs becomes superfluous (Holm, 1940). One spider that makes a camouflaged cocoon is Agroeca brunnea (Clubionidae). Its egg sac is one of the most unusual types of cocoons and looks like a miniature Japanese lantern. The bell-shaped egg sac is attached by a short stalk to grass blades or to twigs (fig. 7.34a). In its unmasked condition it is pure white, but usually the spider glues soil particles or plant material to the outside so that it blends well with its surroundings. The interior of the cocoon is divided by a horizontal “wall” (which is really the cover plate) into an egg chamber and a molting chamber (fig. 7.34b). About 1 week after hatching, the 40–60 young spiderlings crawl from the egg chamber into the molting chamber, where they stay for 2–3 weeks (Lüters, 1966). Some days after molting, they cut a circular hole into the cocoon wall, and the spiderlings emerge one after the other. It is true that the various spider families do not always have one type of cocoon, yet we can differentiate two basic types of cocoons among the entelegyne spiders. The Trionycha usually have an egg sac surrounded by a loose mesh of threads, whereas the Dionycha have a tough, thin-walled egg sac (Holm, 1940). If the egg cases are rather simple, as in Heliophanus or in Pholcus (fig. 7.31a), it must always be considered that this does not necessarily represent a primitive stage, but that it could as well be the result of a secondary reduction. A firm and tough coccon wall may pose a problem for young spiderlings when trying to leave their egg case. From the orb weaver Argiope, it is known that the spiderlings are able to dissolve the inner fibers by enzymatic digestion (proteases).

Figure 7.33 (a) Section through an egg nest of the jumping spider Heliophanus cupreus. The female guards the 20–30 eggs inside the closed silk nest. (b) Egg nest of the jumping spider Marpissa rumpfi. Cocoons are arranged in several layers and enclosed in an open silk chamber (n). (After Holm, 1940.)

Reproduction

Figure 7.34 Cocoon of the clubionid Agroeca brunnea. (a) Construction of the cylindrical wall. The diameter of the cocoon corresponds to the distance between palps and spinnerets. (Drawn from a photo by Lüters, 1966.) (b) Section through the finished cocoon. A septum divides the cocoon into an egg chamber and a molting chamber. The cocoon wall is studded with camouflaging soil particles. (After Holm, 1940.)

The outer, stronger fibers, however, are more resistant and do not dissolve. Nevertheless, the spiderlings manage to push those fibers aside and gradually create a small opening from which they “hatch” (Foradori et al., 2002).

Caring for the Young Many spiders do more for their offspring than just construct a cocoon. As we have seen, some species camouflage, guard, and defend their egg sac; others even care actively for the newly hatched spiderlings, either by protecting them in special ways or by directly feeding them. A wolf spider mother will assist her offspring during hatching by opening he rim of the cocoon with her chelicerae (fig. 7.36). Without this help, the young spiderlings are unable to leave the egg sac (Fujii, 1978). Normally the newly emerged spiderlings climb immediately onto their mother’s back, where they hold fast to her abdominal hairs (Rovner et al., 1973). There may be more than 100 tiny spiderlings resting on top of each other in several layers (Higashi and Rovner, 1975).

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Figure 7.35 Cocoon of the wolf spider Pardosa amentata. (a) The lentil-shaped egg-sac is attached to the spinnerets and carried around by the mother. (b) After hatching the young ones stay closely packed on their mother´s back for about a week. (Photos: Erb.)

Figure 7.36 Brood care in Pardosa amentata. (a) The mother opens the seam (S) of the cocoon wall with her chelicerae. (b) Spiderling, just hatched from the cocoon. (c) Two spiderlings climbing the legs of their mother.

Reproduction

During the 7 or 8 days spent on the mother’s back, the spiderlings live exclusively from their yolk supply. The mother likewise feeds very little during the entire period of brood care (Nyffeler, 2000b). Whether the spiderlings gain any particular advantage by being carried around is still unclear. Certainly they enjoy some kind of protection from predators and to some extent from adverse microclimatic factors, yet experiments have shown that the young can survive easily when raised isolated from their mother and from each other (Engelhardt, 1964). Several other experiments have demonstrated that young wolf spiders do not climb exclusively onto their own mother but will also try to climb onto male spiders—even those of a different species (Meyer, 1928; Engelhardt, 1964; Higashi and Rovner, 1975). In such experimental situations the males often simply eat the spiderlings. It is also possible to trick a female spider into accepting a foreign cocoon or young other than her own. Even spiderlings of another species are readily accepted, and they will soon settle down on the back of their surrogate mother. From these experiments it is evident that a mutual recognition between the mother spider and her offspring does not exist (Engelhardt, 1964). This is in contrast to the social crab spider Diaea ergandros, where the mother does recognize her own offspring. Although she tolerates foreign spiderlings, she only provides her own young with captured prey (Evans, 1998). Nursery-web spiders (Pisauridae), which are related to wolf spiders, also care for their young. The female carries the globular cocoon in her chelicerae. Before the young hatch, the mother constructs a tentlike web and suspends the egg sac inside it. The emerging spiderlings stay for several days in this nursery web. After molting, they gradually disperse and start their regular free-hunting life. In species where the mother spider provides food for the young spiderlings, one can differentiate several levels of organization: (1) leaving caught prey passively at the disposal of the spiderlings; (2) actively feeding them liquefied food from her midgut; and (3) laying an additional batch of small eggs as a supplementary food source, upon which the young ones feed (oophagy or egg cannibalism; Gundermann et al., 1991; Tahiri et al., 1989; Kim et al, 2000). Active brood care that involves feeding of the young is found in only a very few spider species (in about 20 of the 40,000 known species)—namely, in certain theridiids, eresids, and in some agelenids, such as Coelotes terrestris (Tretzel, 1961b; Gundermann, 1986; Gundermann et al., 1988). The young Coelotes remain for about 1 month in the funnel web of their mother. When the mother catches prey, the young “beg” for food by touching their mother’s chelicerae with their palps or legs. Usually the mother simply drops the softened prey, and one of the young spiders quickly grabs it and carries it into a hideout to feed on it. As long as the prey is still struggling, the mother refuses to turn it over to a spiderling; her message comes across as she vigorously beats her hind legs against the sheet web. The mother can distinguish her young (and their vibrations) from prey or enemies quite well. Prey animals produce vibrations of higher amplitude and higher frequency than those of young spiders. Nevertheless, the mother often “checks” her young with one palp; only thereafter can they continue to run around in the web. It is clear that this discriminatory ability, together with a tolerance

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toward the same species are necessary preconditions for any communal living (see chapter 9). The young spiderlings enjoy the advantage of being provided with much larger prey items than they could overpower themselves. Among the cobweb spiders, Theridion pictum and Achaearanea saxatile also leave caught prey for their young (Hirschberg, 1969). When Achaearanea has caught prey, she performs stroking movements in the web to attract the young spiders. Conversely, plucking movements serve as warning signals that send the young ones scurrying to the retreat (Nørgaard, 1956). The cobweb serves here as a means of communication between mother and young spiders, just as does the sheet web in Coelotes. The highest organization of brood care in spiders has evolved in a few species among the theridiids and the eresids. The mother feeds her young mouth-to-mouth with a special substance that she regurgitates. This kind of food transfer is well known from bees, ants, and termites but it is extremely rare in spiders. Theridion notatum, Theridion impressum, and a few Stegodyphus species rank among these exceptions. The regurgitate consists of a mixture of predigested food and the mother’s own intestinal cells, which are in a process of lysis (Nawabi, 1974). From time to time the mother exudes a drop of regurgitate at her mouth opening, and soon several spiderlings gather there to drink the liquid. Some spiderlings stroke their mother’s legs, apparently to stimulate her to regurgitate. During the first days after hatching, the young are fed chiefly with regurgitate, and prey is offered only as an extra. In Theridion impressum the mother stops regurgitation feeding after the young have undergone their first molt. Prey animals, however, are still consumed communally (Kullmann, 1974). When the young spiders have grown further, the mother chases them away (Hirschberg, 1969). Regurgitation feeding has also been demonstrated by using radioactive markers such as labeled phosphorus (32P). This method permits quantitative measurements of the regurgitated substances (Hirschberg, 1969; Kullmann and Kloft, 1969). In such studies the radioactive isotope (for example, (Na2H32PO4) is first fed to a fly. When the radioactively labeled fly is then given to the spider mother, she becomes radioactive (fig. 7.37). After the young spiderlings have hatched from the cocoon, they are checked every day to see whether they have become radioactive. By measuring the amount of radioactivity in the spiderling, one can also determine how much food it has received from the mother. It was surprising to learn that regurgitation feeding already becomes established on the first day after hatching. During the next days the young spiderlings feed additionally on prey animals. Thereby they quickly gain weight and are ready to molt after only one week. The regurgitate is not absolutely necessary for the survival of the spiderlings. If they are kept in isolation and offered only the softened prey caught by their mother, they also grow up, although more slowly. Apparently the combination of regurgitate and the consumption of prey provides for the optimal development of the young spider (Hirschberg, 1969). It is remarkable that regurgitation feeding is found in two completely unrelated families, the ecribellate Theridiidae and the cribellate Eresidae. This highly developed brood care has probably evolved independently in both spider families

Reproduction

Figure 7.37 Use of radioactive isotopes to demonstrate regurgitative feeding. (a) After having built the cocoon, the spider is fed with a radioactively labeled fly and becomes radioactive herself. (b) The newly emerged spiderlings are fed mouth-to-mouth and in turn become radioactive. Radioactivity is represented in black. (After Kullmann and Kloft, 1969.)

(Kullmann et al., 1971, 1971/1972). It also seems plausible that regurgitation feeding represents a first step in the development of communal (or social) life. This mode of feeding requires not only close contact, but also tolerance and cooperation between conspecifics. An extreme form of brood care is found in some subsocial spiders, where the body of the mother is consumed by the young spiderlings. This so-called matriphagy occurs in several spiders, e. g. Amaurobius ferox (Bristowe, 1958; Kim et al., 2000), Diaea ergandros (Evans et al., 1995), Cheiracanthium japonicum (Toyama, 2001) and several Stegodyphus species ( Jacson and Joseph, 1973; Schneider and Lubin, 1997). The advantage for the offspring is much quicker weight gain and thus a more advanced stage when it comes to start life on their own. In the Australian crab spider Diaea ergandros the mother stores food in large eggs that are never laid. The nutrients of the eggs are apparently converted into the hemolymph, and the spiderlings imbibe it from the leg joints of the living, unresisting mother. After some weeks the mother is unable to move and is then eaten entirely by her offspring. It is believed that matriphagy facilitates the evolution of social behavior by reducing cannibalism among the siblings (Evans et al., 1995).

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8 The ontogeny of a spider can be divided into three periods: an embryonic period, a larval period, and a nympho-imaginal period (Vachon, 1957). The embryonic period encompasses development from the time an egg is fertilized until the typical shape of the spider’s body is established. During the subsequent larval period, the prelarva and larva still lack certain morphological characteristics and hence are referred to as “incomplete stages” (Holm, 1940). The larval stages are unable to feed on their own and live solely on their yolk supply. Not until the nympho-imaginal period, when all the organ systems are finally present, do the young spiders become self-sufficient. The imago (adult) differs from the nymph (or juvenile) essentially by being sexually mature. All stages from the prelarva to the adult are separated by a molting process. Growth occurs only during a molt (that is, between two consecutive stages) and thus takes place in graduated steps. Spider eggs are always enveloped by two layers, an inner vitelline membrane and an outer chorion (fig. 7.8d). The chorion appears opaque and granular because the liquid that surrounded the egg during egg laying has dried onto it (fig. 8.8). Immersing an egg in paraffin oil renders the chorion transparent so that the internal egg structure and all developmental processes can be observed directly. Immediately beneath the vitelline membrane lies a thin plasmatic cortical layer. This peripheral zone gives off delicate extensions that radiate toward the center of the egg cell, where the nucleus is located. The main part of the egg, however, consists of yolk granules and “vitelline fluid.” The yolk granules tend to be larger in the lower part of the egg; however, this does not reflect true polarity because turning the egg upside down will reverse the yolk distribution (Holm, 1940).

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Early Development Fertilization presumably takes place in the uterus externus (see fig. 7.13). One hour after oviposition, the sperm nucleus is already moving toward the center of the egg. At that time the female pronucleus has just completed the second maturation division and is also on its way toward the center (Suzuki and Kondo, 1994a, b). The actual conjugation of the two nuclei occurs 1–2 hours later (Montgomery, 1908). The zygote begins a series of mitotic divisions called cleavage. A few hours after fertilization, one can recognize two cleavage nuclei that shift their position from the center of the egg to the periphery; actual cell membranes have not yet formed. At the same time, the cortical plasma divides into many polygonal patches (fig. 8.1a–c). When the two cleavage nuclei have divided four more times (which for Agelena happens about 24 hours after the egg was laid), all 32 nuclei have moved to the periphery (Holm, 1952). Following three further nuclear divisions, each cleavage cell (nucleus) coalesces with from four to eight patches of the cortical cytoplasm, establishing large, flattened cells. Thirty-five hours after egg laying, a thin blastoderm has formed by a process that can be called “superficial” cleavage, because the entire yolk mass, which does not divide, becomes concentrated in the center of the embryo. In this stage of development the embryo is called a blastula. The yolk granules now sink to the bottom part of the blastula, leaving behind a space, the blastocoel, that is filled with perivitelline fluid (fig. 8.1d). The next stage is marked by the so-called contraction of the blastula (at 50–55 hours), which involves a transfer of the perivitelline fluid to the outside, so that the overlying blastoderm settles on top of the yolk mass.

The Metameric Phase The polarity of the embryo first becomes apparent immediately after the contraction of the blastula, when one side of the flattened blastoderm is transformed into a columnar epithelium. Gradually a diffuse germinal disk, which consists of rather small cells, develops (at about 75 hours after egg laying). Ten hours later, a slight indentation called the primitive groove, or blastopore, appears in the center of the germinal disk. It is at this spot that the migration of the mesendoderm cells into the interior takes place (gastrulation; Chaw et al., 2008). The area, which is then underlaid by the mesendoderm cells, is referred to as the primitive plate (fig. 8.1e). The primitive plate is initially flat, but soon one portion of it bulges outward to form the primitive knot, or cumulus (at about 100 hours). This probably represents an organizing center for the formation of the dorso-ventral axis of the embryo (Holm, 1952; Akiyama-Oda and Oda, 2003, 2006). The cumulus gradually shifts toward the margin of the germinal disk. By this time the primitive plate is several cell layers thick because most of the mesendoderm has already migrated into the interior. Between the cumulus and the primitive plate lies an area of flat cells called the dorsal field. This sector of the gastrula enlarges laterally, while the cumulus becomes reduced in size and finally disappears completely (130 hours after fertilization).

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Figure 8.1 Early embryonic stages of Agelena labyrinthica. (a) The cleavage cells spread within the cortical plasm (30 hours). (b) Blastula stage prior to contraction (48 hours). (c) Blastula stage after contraction. (d) Blastula of the tarantula Ischnothele in optical section. Pvit= periviteIline space. (e) Formation of the primitive plate (pp) and of the cumulus (cp) (100 hours). ( f ) Beginning of segmentation of the prosoma (150 hours). (g) Primordia of the four pairs of legs (160 hours). (Photos: Holm.)

Development

When the sector of the dorsal field has spread half way around the developing embryo (180°), the first signs of segmentation appear in the form of two or three concentric furrows around the blastopore (fig. 8.1f ). At about 150 hours, the germinal disk stretches into a broad germinal band, which consists of a cephalic lobe, a caudal lobe, and five intervening metameres (somites) that represent the respective segments of the pedipalps and the legs. The cephalic lobe soon gives off an additional segment, the cheliceral segment, while the caudal lobe splits to form the first abdominal segment. About the same time, the primordia of the extremities become visible as slight elevations on the prosomal segments; somewhat later (170–200 hours), similar budlike thickenings appear on the developing abdominal segments (fig. 8.1g, 8.2). Whereas the prosomal segments manifest themselves synchronously, the abdominal segments are added successively at the caudal end. This seems to be the ancestral mode of segmentation in arthropods; in insects body segments are formed simultaneously, which is probably a phylogenetically derived trait (Damen, 2007). The addition of caudal segments is controlled by Delta-Notch genes signaling from the blastopore region (Oda et al., 2007). In the interior of the body, the coelomic cavities become established when the mesoderm separates (fig. 8.3). The walls of these cavities later differentiate into muscle tissue.

Inversion of the Embryo When the germinal band has reached its maximal length so that the cephalic and the caudal lobes almost touch each other (day 10), a longitudinal furrow appears in the midline of the germinal band (figs. 8.3, 8.4). This median furrow gradually widens, and the halves of the germinal band pull apart from each other laterally, again exposing the mass of yolk beneath the median furrow. The marginal areas of the embryo extend laterally until they meet in the dorsal midline; thus the originally convex germinal band straightens and finally curls in the opposite direction (inversion or reversion).

Figure 8.2 Early embryonic stages in the cob-web spider Achaearanea. (a) Superficial cleavage on the surface. (b) Germ disc formation. (c) Beginning of segmentation. (d) Appearance of appendages. Ch = chelicera, P = palp. (From McGregor et al. 2008, with permission of Wiley Press.)

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Figure 8.3 (a) Germinal band shortly before inversion (Cupiennius salei, 130 hours). The abdomen is clearly segmented (1–5). On the prosoma the extremities differentiate. Ceph = frontal lobe, Ch = chelicera. (After Seitz, 1966.) (b) Longitudinal section of an embryo shortly before inversion (Agelena labyrinthica). Note the metameric coelomic cavities (dashed lines). Abbreviations as in (a). (After Wallstabe, 1908.)

In some “primitive” spiders (the Mesothelae and certain Orthognatha), the embryo develops without such an inversion process (Crome, 1963; Yoshikura, 1975). During the early developmental phases, a postabdomen composed of nine segments appears. It is sharply flexed toward the ventral side, and at this stage of development the embryo very much resembles those of some “primitive” arachnids (e.g., scorpions). Inversion is typical of most labidognath embryos and, from an evolutionary point of view, is considered a more advanced form of development. The anlagen of the pedipalps and legs initially have only two segments, but these soon divide into four, and then into six or seven segments of equal length (figs. 8.4, 8.5). Little is known about the genes controlling the leg segmentation, but several genes involved in leg development have been isolated (Schoppmeier and Damen, 2001). As in insect legs, a key role seems to be played by the Hox genes (fig. 8.6; Hughes and Kaufman, 2002) and also by the more ancient Notch genes (Prpic and Damen, 2009). The gene expression patterns are similar in legs and pedipalps but differ in the mouth parts (chelicerae) and the opisthosomal appendages (Prpic and Damen, 2004). The formation of segments in arthropods and vertebrates may share a genetic program in a common ancestor. For instance, the Notch pathway plays a major role in vertebrate and in spider segmentation (Stollewerk et al., 2003). The anterior extremities of the abdomen gradually become smaller and move apart (fig. 8.5d). Invaginations in the second and third abdominal segments represent the future book lungs and the tubular tracheae, respectively. The next abdominal extremities, on segments 4 and 5, shift toward the posterior end of the embryo and differentiate into spinnerets. A slight constriction of the first abdominal

Development

Figure 8.4 Late embryonic development in Agelena labyrinthica (abbreviations as in Figure. 8.3). (a) Beginning of inversion, lateral view. Abdominal view of the same stage is seen on the right. The germinal line splits along the midline and both parts expand laterally (arrows). The anlagen of the abdominal extremities appear on segments 2-5. (b) In the middle of the inversion process the extremities consist of 5 segments and rest on top of the ventral yolk mass. (c) The lateral body walls have merged along the dorsal midline, and another segment has been added to the legs. (d) Completed inversion. The yolk mass is completely grown over by the embryo; prosoma and opisthosoma are flexed toward each other. The abdominal appendages move apart and differentiate into respiratory organs (segments 2, 3) and spinnerets (Sp). The extremities have attained their final number of segments about 15 days after the egg was laid. (After Wallstabe, 1908.)

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Figure 8.5 Later embryonic stages in the grey widow spider Latrodectus geometricus. (a) Lateral view (abbreviations as in Figure. 8.3; 1., 2. = primordia of respiratory organs, 3., 4. = of spinnerets). (b) Ventral view of the prosoma. The mouth opening (M) is still located in front of the chelicerae. (Photos: Liu, Maas and Waloszek)

segment indicates the border between prosoma and opisthosoma. The initially distinct segmentation of the body becomes less apparent during later developmental stages. However, abdominal segmentation is often still noticeable in young spiders, either directly in the form of fine furrows or indirectly as a segmentally distributed pattern of abdominal hairs or muscle attachments (sigillae; fig. 8.7).

Figure 8.6 Several Hox genes are known to determine the fate of segments and the morphology of appendages. Note the staggered expression of those genes (dark shading = strong expression, light shading = weak expression). Chelicerae develop without the Hox genes, but Deformed (Dfd) is expressed in all legs. (After McGregor et al., 2008.)

Development

Figure 8.7 (a) Lateral view of the opisthosoma of a young spider (Nuctenea umbratica). The embryonic segmentation (dashed lines) is reflected in the serial distribution of hair sensilla. 1-12 = abdominal segments. (Tracing of a photograph by Holm, 1940.) (b) Even in the adult stage traces of segmentation may still be recognized, as seen here on the ventral abdomen of a crab spider (Thomisus). Note the serial arrangement of four rows of sigillae (arrows). One sigillum (muscle attachment) is shown at higher magnification in the Inset. EF = epigastric furrow.

The typical shape of the spider’s body emerges at the end of the inversion process. The embryo at this stage is then termed a prelarva by some authors (Vachon, 1957; Legendre, 1958). The spider embryo has a marked capacity for regeneration, at least until segmentation begins. Even the loss of half of the embryo can be tolerated, and a normal embryo is formed (Holm, 1952). The cumulus ostensibly acts as the organization center, for if it is extirpated, no dorsal field, and consequently no germinal band, develops. This interpretation has been challenged by experiments in which spider embryos whose cumuli had been destroyed by X-rays still developed normally (Seitz, 1970). However, it could be that some of the endodermal cumulus cells survived the radiation and hence could still regulate the development of the embryo.

Organ Development Most organ systems develop during the larval period from the cells of the three germinal layers. The nervous system, sensory organs, respiratory organs (book lungs and tracheae), venom glands, silk glands, foregut, and hindgut develop from the ectoderm. The mesoderm differentiates into the musculature, blood vessels, coxal glands, and reproductive organs. The endoderm provides the material for the midgut and the Malpighian tubules.

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Development of the Nervous System The primordia of the nervous system appear as medial, pillowlike thickenings of the ectoderm. Neuroblasts gather within each segment and form ganglia that sink into the interior of the embryo, where they aggregate to produce a coherent mass of nervous tissue. All abdominal ganglia migrate into the prosoma. There they combine with the ganglia of the extremities and form the large subesophageal ganglion. The cheliceral ganglion shifts anteriorly so that it comes to rest above the esophagus (fig. 8.5b); topographically it is now a part (the tritocerebrum) of the supraesophageal ganglion. The proto- and deuterocerebrum of the supraesophageal ganglion develop as invaginations of the cephalic lobe and become connected with the subesophageal ganglion only secondarily (Dawydoff, 1949). The outgrowth of nerve fibers gives rise to a neuropil and the peripheral nervous system. Development of the Gut The abdominal yolk mass becomes cleaved by intersegmental membranes that later divide further to form the prospective midgut diverticula. The median axis of the embryo remains unsegmented, however, and will become the glandular part of the digestive canal. The foregut and hindgut are ectodermal invaginations and therefore possess a lining of cuticle (fig. 3.10b). The union of the three independently formed parts of the intestinal tract does not take place until after hatching (Legendre, 1965). In Agelena, hatching occurs about 2 weeks after the egg was laid. Special cuticular denticles, or “egg teeth,” which are situated at the base of the larval pedipalps, help tear the chorion sheath of the egg. It is possible that transient hatching glands are also involved in perforating the egg membranes (Yoshikura, 1955). While these membranes are being shed, the spiderling molts for the first time (fig. 8.8; Holm, 1940).

Classification of Developmental Stages Normally it is the emergence from the egg that marks the transition from embryonic to postembryonic life. This can also be said of spiders (Holm, 1940); yet the stage at which hatching occurs may vary in different spiders. For instance, in most spiders it is the prelarva that sheds its egg membranes, but in some spiders this happens first at the larval stage. For this reason, Vachon (1957) classified the different developmental stages without regard to when the spider hatches; instead, he defined the completed inversion process as the end of the embryonic period. The subsequent larval period begins with a spiderlike prelarva, which after molting develops either into another prelarva or into a more advanced larva (see table 8.1). After one or two additional molts, the first complete stage, nymph 1, appears (fig. 8.9). The next 5–10 nymphal stages (juveniles) differ mainly by their increasing size. Only with the last molt do the spiders reach sexual maturity and begin adult life. The main criteria for determining the different developmental stages are summarized in table 8.1. The descriptions of embryonic development in spiders are rather confusing because various authors use different terms (e.g., prelarva, larva, pullus, postpullus,

Development

Figure 8.8 Hatching spider larvae (Amaurobius). (a) The granular egg shell is shed while the first molt takes place. (b) The larva has completely freed the chelicerae (ch) and palps (P), and the upper parts of the legs (1–4). 90 x. Table 8.1 Developmental Stages in Spiders. (After Vachon, 1957.) Larval: Not self-sufficient (yolk)

Nympho-Imaginal: self-sufficient (prey)

Characteristic

Prelarva

Larva

Nymph

Mobility Leg segmentation Hairs, spines Claws Cheliceral claw Spinnerets Sexual organs

None Incomplete Neither None Undiff. Barely diff. Undeveloped

Very little Complete Both, undiff. Simple No poison canal Without spigots Undeveloped Developed nonfunct.

Adult Complete Complete Large variety Differentiated Differentiated Functional Developed functional

prenymph, nymph) for the embryonic stages. Although several authors have dealt with this problem (Canard, 1987; Downes, 1987; Canard and Stockmann, 1993), no general consensus has been reached so far. In general, there is now a tendency to define hatching (i.e., the opening of the egg membranes) as the end of the embryonic period. The following immobile stages (1–3) are called postembryonic

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Figure 8.9 Developmental stages in spiders. (After Vachon, 1957.)

or fetal—until the first true molt occurs, in which a skin with extremities is shed. The following stages are then juvenile (nymphs), and they look like miniature spiders.

Growth and Molting The rigid exoskeleton of an arthropod limits the growth of the body. In spiders only the soft abdomen can expand; the prosoma and the extremities, which are encased in hard exocuticle, cannot. Growth can thus occur only during a molt. The new cuticle lies wrinkled beneath the old body shell (fig. 8.16b) and can be stretched during and immediately after the molting process. It is this folding-extension mechanism that allows for a finite increase in size from one developmental stage to the next. In addition to an increase in size, some body proportions may also be changed, and certain sensory organs (such as hair sensilla) may increase in number or may appear for the first time. Most obvious are the changes in sensory organs between the immobile larvae and the very agile nymphal stages (Wurdak and Ramousse, 1984). Larvae of Araneus have only a few short sensory hairs (on the distal leg segments), a single lyriform organ (on the metatarsus), and eyes without lenses. After molting into the first nymph, all types of sensory hairs are present (tactile and taste hairs, trichobothria, tarsal organs), each leg exhibits several single slit sensilla plus 14 lyriform organs, and the eyes are now equipped with bulging lenses. The legs have typical claws (instead of two simple hooks), the spinnerets bear functional spigots of various silk glands, and the mouth parts are differentiated into cheliceral teeth, an open cheliceral fang, and a serrula as a cutting edge on the maxillae. Only quantitative changes of the sensory equipment are oberved during all the ensuing stages.

Development

Figure 8.10 Growth of a Tegenaria agrestis during nine molts (1–9). Dotted line= body growth, solid line = growth of opisthosoma, dashed line = growth of prosoma. Egg = time of egg laying (-145 days). The ordinate is represented logarithmically. (After Homann, 1949.)

Early nymphal stages may molt every few days, but later instars need several weeks to prepare for the next molt (Eckert, 1967). The intermolt intervals are, of course, dependent on nutritional conditions. If provided with an ample supply of food, young Tegenaria molt about the time at which their weight has doubled (fig. 8.10; Homann, 1949). The number of molts depends on the ultimate body size. Small spiders need only a few molts (about 5), whereas large spiders pass through about 10 molts to reach the adult stage (Bonnet, 1930). The small males achieve maturity with one or two fewer molts than the larger females. In black widows, for instance, the male matures twice as fast as the female (Deevey, 1949; Forster and Kingsford, 1983). For most spiders the last molt marks the transition to sexual maturity; only in some exceptional cases do adult spiders still molt further (see below). In general, young spiderlings molt independently of each other. However, in the colonial araneid Eriophora bistriata, where all the little orb webs are built closely together, the spiderlings molt at the same time (Fowler and Gobbi, 1988a). It is believed that this synchronization is due to a chemical communication (pheromones).

The Molting Process An experienced arachnologist can usually predict when a spider is getting ready to molt. The animal withdraws into its retreat for several days and stops feeding.

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A closer examination of the spider’s body reveals a darkening of the legs caused by the new hair sensilla shining through the old cuticle. Another sign is the movement of the abdomen away from the prosoma so that the pedicel becomes visible from above (fig. 8.11a). The definite signal for the imminent molting process of most spiders is their suspension on a molting thread. Tarantulas do not use molting threads, but simply lie on their backs while they molt (fig. 8.12a; Melchers, 1964; Minch, 1977). However, in some tube-dwelling tarantulas, it was observed that the young stages molt while hanging from the ceiling of their caves (M. Huber, 2009, personal communication). The spiderlings hold to the ceiling with their front legs and perform a backward somersault during the molting process (fig. 8.12b). This is similar to molting in higher spiders (figs. 8.13, 8.14). The fact that large tarantulas molt while lying on their back may simply be due to their heavier weight. In all spiders three successive phases of the molting process can be distinguished: (1) lifting of the carapace; (2) liberation of the abdomen; and (3) extraction of the extremities.

Lifting of the Carapace At the beginning of the molting process, the heart rate increases, and more hemolymph is pumped into the prosoma. The weight of the cephalothorax increases

Figure 8.11 Two young Tegenaria agrestis (a) immediately before and (b) after molting. Notice the change in the volumes of the prosoma and opisthosoma. (After Homann, 1949.)

Development

Figure 8.12 (a) Tarantulas usually lie on their back while molting. On the left the shed skin (Ex) can be seen, on the right the freshly molted animal. Note the lack of pigmentation and the legs pressed tightly to the body. A very delicate mesh of silk fibers (arrows) encloses the spider. Ch = chelicerae. (b) A young tarantula (Haplopelma lividum), hanging from the ceiling of her cave; she has just molted and is now dangling below the shed skin. (Photo: M. Huber.)

by 80%, while the abdomen shrinks and loses about 30% of its weight. The normal hemolymph pressure of 150 mm Hg (about 17.5 psi) doubles because of the increased frequency of the heartbeat and the concomitantly higher stroke volume. Under normal conditions the cuticle can withstand pressures of 600–750 mm Hg before it will split. Shortly before molting, however, the cuticle loses about

Figure 8.13 Molting sequence. (a) Spider suspended on the molting thread; lateral tearing of the cephalothorax. (b) Lifting off of the carapace and lateral fission of the abdominal cuticle. (c) Freeing of legs and abdomen. (d) Complete liberation from the shed skin. (After Bonnet, 1930.)

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Figure 8.14 Late stages in the molting process of a crab spider. (a) The spider has just freed itself from the old skin (Ex) and the legs are hanging straight down. (b) All legs are repeatedly bent and stretched to regain mobility of the joints. (Photos: Schulte.)

two-thirds of its rigidity because at this time most of the endocuticle has been dissolved from the inside (see below). It has been shown experimentally that at this stage a pressure of 200–300 mm Hg is sufficient to rupture the cuticle of the cephalothorax (Homann, 1949). The first tearing occurs along the frontal or lateral parts of the prosoma. The chelicerae, which normally point slightly forward, are moved back and forth, producing additional tension near the clypeus. The first tear is most likely to develop in this region and then extend laterally above the coxae until the entire carapace lifts off like the lid of a tin can (fig. 8.13).

Liberation of the Abdomen The two tears running along both sides of the prosoma soon spread to the opisthosoma. The old abdominal cuticle appears wrinkled because the volume of the abdomen has decreased due to the shift of the hemolymph anteriorly. Wavelike contractions of the abdominal musculature finally cause the abdomen to separate completely from the old skin (the exuvium). Just before the abdomen frees itself, the spinnerets attach a thread to the inside of the shed skin, and the spider descends a bit farther on this thread (Fischel, 1929).

Development

Extraction of the Extremities About the same time that the abdomen becomes free, the extremities are pulled out of their old cast. This is by far the most difficult part of the molting process, and consequently most complications arise during this phase. For instance, it may happen that a spider cannot extract all of its extremities from the old skin, a situation that is often fatal. Usually, however, the new cuticle is soft and sufficiently pliable that even rather bulky parts (such as the bulb of the male palp) can be pulled through the narrow lumen of the old skin. The increase in hemolymph pressure causes the folded leg cuticle to stretch somewhat and, by this action, the leg coxae are pushed out of the exuvium. The many hairs and spines arising from the new leg cuticle are advantageous because they point distally and thus prevent the leg from slipping back into the old cast. However, the increase in hemolymph pressure is only partly responsible for the extraction of the legs. When the femora are halfway free, the cephalothoracic muscles become active. Several legs remain fixed in their positions and act as braces for those legs that are pulled out. This is usually done in a particular sequence; for example, legs 1 and 4 on one side stay in a fixed position, while legs 2 and 3 are partially extracted on the other side. When the “new” legs are exposed down to the patellae, muscles of the legs themselves, the flexors, are activated. This leads to a shortening and, subsequently, to a jerky withdrawal of the legs from the old cuticle. Again, the hairs and spines of the legs help in this process, since they allow the legs to be moved only toward the body. As soon as the first legs are completely free, they aid in pulling out the remaining ones. Immediately after molting, the legs usually hang down in a completely stretched fashion, but they are then bent abruptly (fig. 8.14). A period of “gymnastics” follows during which all extremities are flexed repeatedly. Presumably this helps to maintain elasticity of the joints while the cuticle begins to harden. The largest force needed for extracting a leg (0.5 pond, or 5 mN) must be exerted at the beginning of the liberation process because friction is greatest when the entire leg is still encased in the exuvium. Once the extraction is underway, the friction diminishes rapidly (Homann, 1949). The suspended position that most spiders assume during molting is not absolutely necessary but is physiologically very economical. Often the freshly molted legs would still be too limp to support the weight of the spider. Perhaps this also explains why some wandering spiders lie on their backs while they molt. The entire molting procedure lasts only 10–15 minutes for small spiders but may take several hours for large tarantulas. Some spiders start to groom themselves extensively after molting, pulling all their extremities through the chelicerae and mouth parts.

Physiology of Molting In a strict sense, molting comprises two different processes: (1) apolysis, the separation of the old cuticle from the hypodermal cells; and (2) ecdysis, the shedding of

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the entire old skin (exuvium), which corresponds to what most people think of as molting. Apolysis precedes ecdysis by about 1 week.

Cellular Events The epidermal cells secrete certain enzymes (chitinases and proteases) into the gap that develops between the epithelium and the cuticle, the exuvial space. These enzymes gradually dissolve the endocuticle but attack neither the exocuticle nor the nerve fibers associated with the sensory hairs. The dissolved components of the endocuticle are largely resorbed, which means that very little material is actually lost in the molting process (fig. 8.15a). For a large tarantula weighing 80 g, the dry weight of the shed skin was 2 g (Melchers, 1964). About 4–5 days before the spider molts, the hypodermal cells secrete the first new layer of the cuticle (the cuticulin). The enzymes circulating in the exuvial fluid probably become activated only after the cuticulin layer has been deposited, that is, after the surface of the hypodermal cells is protected (fig. 8.16). Ecdysis begins when the endocuticle has largely been digested. That the prosoma tears first along the pleural areas (fig. 8.13a) seems logical when one remembers that exocuticle is lacking in the joint regions, and thus only the thin epicuticle remains there after apolysis. The following sequence of events, which is similar to that observed in insects, occurs when spiders molt: 1. Activation of the hypodermal cells (cell division and cell growth). 2. Secretion of the exuvial fluid and apolysis. 3. Secretion of the first new cuticle (cuticulin). 4. Activation of the enzymes in the exuvial fluid (dissolving of the endocuticle). 5. Absorption of the dissolved substances from the old cuticle. 6. Secretion of the new cuticle. 7. Ecdysis, the shedding of the old skin. 8. Stretching of the wrinkled new cuticle. 9. Sclerotization of the new exocuticle. Subsequently, as further endocuticle is deposited during the weeks following the molt, the exoskeleton will increase considerably in thickness. It is interesting that the sensory hairs remain functional during most of the molting process. The reason for this is that the innervation of the old sensilla is maintained while the new hairs develop on the surface of the hypodermis (fig. 8.17). The long dendrites innervating each “old” hair sensillum lie freely in the exuvial space and become wrapped by a sheath cell (cell 2 in fig. 8.17). This cell starts to secrete cuticle on its outside, thus producing the new hair shaft. Another sheath cell (cell 3 in fig. 8.17) is responsible for the formation of the socket in which the hair shaft is articulated. About 24 hours before ecdysis, all new hair sensilla are completely developed, and only then is the continuity between the old and the new sensory hair broken. When the exuvium is cast off, only the tips of the dendrites are lost, and the new hair sensilla are thus functional immediately after molting (Harris, 1977).

Development

Figure 8.15 (a) Exuvium from a young tarantula, (Brachypelma). Ch = chelicerae, Cp = carapace with the cuticular corneas of the eyes (arrow), P = pedipalp, Sp = spinnerets. About natural size, weight of exuvium 0.2 g. (b) eye region of a molted carapax seen from the inside (Brachypelma); note the lens in the main eye (AME). (c) molted anterior median eye with discarded lens still attached by a membrane (Monocentropus).

Hormonal Control For spiders, molting is triggered and controlled by hormones, as it is for insects and crustaceans. An increase of the molting hormone ecdysone is found in the spider’s hemolymph a few days before ecdysis (Eckert, 1967; Bonaric and de Reggi, 1977). By injecting ß-ecdysone, it is possible to shorten the intermolt periods, or even to induce ecdysis (Krishnakumaran and Schneiderman, 1968; Bonaric, 1976). Various

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Figure 8.16 Molting legs. (a) Leg tip at the beginning of molting. The new tarsal claws (arrow) are already visible inside the old skin. (b) Cross section of a leg shortly before molting (Hypochilus). The old cuticle is separated from the new one by a liquid-filled exuvial space (EX). Note the corrugated new cuticle and the hair shafts (Hs) of the newly formed hair sensilla.

experiments have demonstrated that ecdysone does not act in a species-specific way. For instance, when pieces of integument from a young Tegenaria are transplanted into a nymph of Coelotes, they molt synchronously with the host. Even when adult integument is used, ecdysis can be induced (Eckert, 1967). Little is known about the production site of the molting hormone. A type of endocrine tissue that is diffusely distributed in the prosoma and that has been termed the “prosomal gland” (Legendre, 1958) might be responsible for producing ecdysone. This seems plausible because the molting hormone in insects originates from an analogous gland, the prothoracic gland. Other endocrine tissues, such as the neurosecretory cells of the central nervous system or Schneider’s organs, are also most likely to be involved in the control of molting. It has been known for a long time that, in addition to the hypodermis, the hemolymph is also affected by the molting process (Browning, 1942). Shortly before molting, special blood cells, the leberidiocytes, which are characterized by a large fluid-filled vacuole, appear in the hemolymph. Presumably these cells participate in regulating the amount of water in the spider’s body by absorbing water from the hemolymph (Seitz, 1976). It is interesting that 20-hydroxy-ecdysone (20E) seems to have an inhibitory effect on cannibalism in spiders. Unmated female house spiders (Tegenaria) have a

Development

Figure 8.17 Formation of new tactile hairs before ecydsis. The old cuticle is separated from the hypodermis (Hy) by the exuvial space. The endocuticle (EC) has been largely dissolved. The dendritic connection between old and new hair sensillum is still continuous. T = dendritic terminals; 1-4 = sheath cells. (After Harris, 1977.)

rather high level of 20E during the time of their sexual receptivity and only during that period are they tolerant of the male. Later, with a decreased concentration of 20E, they show cannibalistic behavior in 35–45% of the encounters. After an artificial injection of 20E into female spiders, no cannibalism at all was observed (Trabalon et al., 2005).

Autotomy and Regeneration As a last resort in perilous situations, most spiders can “amputate” one of their own legs. This voluntary separation of an extremity following a dangerous stimulus is widespread among arthropods and is called autotomy (also called autotilly or autospasy in a more narrow sense; Pieron, 1907; Roth, 1981; Roth and Roth, 1984). Fortunately for the spider, though, lost legs can be replaced, at least as long as the animal still has to go through another molt. Regeneration of autotomized legs is thus restricted to juvenile spiders, except for those few cases where molting continues in the adult stage.

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Autotomy One can easily induce a spider to autotomize a leg by pulling or squeezing the femur of that leg. Tampering with the distal leg segments (the tarsus or metatarsus) does not usually lead to autotomy. It has been shown that anesthetized spiders cannot autotomize their limbs (Bonnet, 1930), so autotomy is indeed a voluntary act. The leg is usually autotomized between the coxa and the trochanter (Wood, 1926), and rarely between the patella and the tibia (e.g., in linyphiids; Berland, 1932). An externally applied pulling force is not important for autotomy. More significant is the spider’s own sudden jerking upward of the coxa while the femur maintains its position and acts as a brace. The trochanter tilts sharply, and the high tension that develops between the coxa and the trochanter causes the membrane of the joint to rupture dorsally (fig. 8.18a). Further separation poses no problem because the site of amputation is traversed by only one muscle (M. gracilis), which readily detaches itself from the trochanter and then withdraws into the coxal cavity. All other muscles insert on marginal thickenings (sclerites) of the joint membrane. These muscles aid in closing the open coxa by pulling the sclerites toward each other—a closing mechanism similar to that of certain garbage cans (Bauer, 1972). Additionally, the hemolymph pressure forces the joint membrane to bulge forward, which also helps seal the wound. Under natural conditions, autotomy is used mostly as a defense against an aggressor, often another spider, such as an attacking female. When bees or wasps get caught in a spider web, they sometimes manage to push their stinger into the soft joint membranes of the spider’s legs. The afflicted leg is usually autotomized

Figure 8.18 (a) Site of autotomy in a spider leg (Philodromus), lateral view. A rapid jerk upwards (large arrow) causes a high tension in the joint membrane so that a tear (small arrow) develops dorsally near the edge of the trochanter (Tr). The articulation of the coxal apodeme (Apo) and the trochanter is shown already disrupted (*). (After Bauer, 1972.) (b) Closing of the wound after autotomy; frontal view of coxa. Left: The wound opening (W) is bordered by sclerites (black) of the joint membrane. Right: The large wound is sealed by a closing movement (arrows) of the sclerites. (After Bonnet, 1930 and Bauer, 1972.)

Development

within seconds, before the deadly venom can spread into the body of the spider (Eisner and Camazine, 1983). Leg autotomy is also effectively used by Filistata when grabbed by a scorpion (Formanowicz, 1990). Although the scorpion will eat the severed leg, the spider can escape. This is reminiscent of lizards, which readily autotomize their tail after being seized by a predator. Another opportune use for autotomy may arise during molting, when an extremity cannot be freed from the old skin. Even if molting itself has been successful, injured or malformed legs can still be autotomized afterward. Such limbs are not discarded but are usually eaten by the spider (Bonnet, 1930). Not all spiders show the same readiness to part with one of their limbs. Some spiders may autotomize at the slightest provocation (Philodromidae, Pholcidae, Selenopidae), others only as a last resort (Salticidae, Thomisidae, Uloboridae, Theraphosidae), and a few under no circumstances (Tetragnatha, Metellina; Vollrath, 1990). Under natural conditions, most spiders lose one or two legs during their lifetime (Oppenheim, 1908). A careful inspection of field collections showed that between 5% and 20% of all spiders had at least one leg missing. Although this loss may affect the efficiency of prey capture, it is remarkable how well the spiders can compensate: orb weavers with only three or four legs could still build fairly regular webs (Vollrath, 1987a, 1990).

Regeneration When a juvenile spider loses a leg, it will often (but not always) be replaced at the next molt (fig. 8.19). Whether the leg is regenerated or not depends on the time of amputation: only if the leg has been severed within the first quarter of the intermolt

Figure 8.19 Regeneration during subsequent molts in a young tarantula (Brachypelma). Left: the right leg 4 (arrow) is missing in this exuvium. Middle: After the next molt a new leg has regenerated (*), but only about half size. Right: After a further molt the regenerated leg has almost reached its normal size.

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phase will regeneration take place (Bonnet, 1930). If the leg is lost later, no regeneration occurs. Apparently, regeneration is an all-or-nothing process that is controlled hormonally. Regeneration of an autotomized leg cannot be observed directly because the leg grows inside the old coxa (fig. 8.20a). The formation of the new leg is comparable

Figure 8.20 (a) This juvenile crab spider (Misumenops) had lost both right front legs and only the coxal stumps (1, 2) remained. After the next molt complete legs of 8 mm length had regenerated within the short coxae (1 mm!). (b) Comparison of the legs of a tarantula before autotomy (above) and after regeneration (Reg 1, 2) in the subsequent two molts. The arrow indicates the site of autotomy. (Tracing of a photograph by Ruhland, 1976.) (c) The strongly folded regenerate developing inside the old coxa. (After Bonnet, 1930.)

Development

to the differentiation seen during normal ontogeny. However, because of the limited space of the coxal cavity, the new leg will be highly folded (fig. 8.20c). After ecdysis the regenerated leg appears a bit shorter and thinner than the original leg, but all leg segments are present in the right proportions (fig. 8.20b). Even claws, spines, and sensory organs are regenerated, although the sensory organs are not always complete. The tarsal organ, for instance, is lacking in the first regenerate (Blumenthal, 1935), and there are usually fewer sensory hairs than normal. However, these are rather quickly supplemented in the course of further molts. Whether a regenerated leg really replaces the original completely is a question that cannot be answered fully. Aside from the sensory organs, all the muscles and their innervation must be formed entirely anew. An analysis of regenerating tarantula legs has shown that the new legs do indeed have all 30 leg muscles, and all of them are inserted at the proper sites (Ruhland, 1976). However, the number of muscle fibers is less than normal. The pattern of innervation in the new leg muscles is also the same as it was in the original. Yet it is rather odd that newly regenerated legs are often stretched out and held away from the body and are not used for walking at all. If they are occasionally used for walking, their movements are not well coordinated with the other legs. This impaired function is presumably caused by undifferentiated neuromuscular contacts in the regenerated leg. A spider’s ability to regenerate a missing part is not restricted to legs; pedipalps, chelicerae, endites, the labium, and even the spinnerets can be regrown as well (Bonnet, 1930). If only the distal segments of these extremities are severed (and, of course, if the leg is not autotomized), the missing segments are regenerated directly at the site of injury. This is the case in black widows, yet, interestingly, they cannot regenerate a completely autotomized leg (Randall, 1981). This suppression of regeneration (if autotomized at the coxa-trochanter joint) has also been noticed in some orb web spiders (Nephila, Tetragnatha, Uloborus, Zygiella; Vollrath, 1990). The potential for regeneration in spiders is enormous. If several legs are amputated early in an intermolt phase, they will all regenerate by the time of the next molt. Indeed, in one drastic experiment, all eight legs were induced to autotomize, and all were nevertheless regenerated simultaneously (Bonnet, 1930). This was, however, possible only because the torso of the spider was fed artificially. If a regenerated leg is amputated again, it can also be replaced at the next molt (Bonnet, 1930; Ruhland, 1976). After the final molt, a spider can still autotomize its legs, but no signs of regeneration will be detectable in the remaining coxa.

Life Cycle and Longevity The exact course of the life of a spider has been investigated in only a few spiders. In the temperate zones of central Europe, the main reproductive period is in May (Tretzel, 1954), and the spiderlings hatch during the summer. Some species may reach the adult stage in autumn, but most overwinter as nymphs. If the egg sac is constructed during late fall, as it is for most species of Araneus, the hatched spiderlings will remain inside the cocoon until spring.

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Only females of the European spider Tegenaria atrica can be found in spring. They lay their eggs in April, and the spiderlings hatch 21 days later. By the end of August, most of the spiderlings have molted nine times and are then adults. In late summer there are thus two generations of females (a young and an old one), but only one generation of males (a young one). The reproductive period lasts from August to October, and shortly thereafter the males die. The young females overwinter; their ovaries start to grow as early as November (Collatz and Mommsen, 1974). Most spiders of temperate regions live only one year, but some may live for two. For instance, Amaurobius in Britain or Pardosa species in Canada have a 2-year cycle (Dondale, 1961; Pickavance, 2001), and so does the dune-dwelling salticid Yllenus in Poland (Bartos, 2005). Depending on the geographical location, some species (e.g., Philodromus) live on an annual cycle in warmer regions but are biennial farther north (Putman, 1967). Under particularly cold conditions, even more extended life cyles (up to 4 years) may occur (Leech, 1966). The “primitive” spiders are renowned for their longevity. The orthognath purseweb spider Atypus (fig. 5.22) can survive 7 years, and large tarantulas can live more than 20 years (Berland, 1932; Canard, 1986). Another spider noted for its long life is the cribellate Filistata, which can live to be 10 years old. As a rule, only female spiders have a high life expectancy; most males die shortly after mating.

Ecology

9 The interactions between spiders and their environment have been investigated systematically only within the past few decades. During this time, however, information about the ecology of spiders has burgeoned to such an extent that it is impossible to include all aspects in the scope of this book. For more detailed discussions, especially of field experiments, refer to Spiders in Ecological Webs by David Wise (1993), and to Ecophysiology of Spiders, edited by W. Nentwig (1987).

Occurrence and Distribution of Spiders Spiders are found almost everywhere on earth, from Arctic islands to dry desert regions. They are particularly abundant in areas of rich vegetation (Shaking bushes over an opened umbrella or sweeping through low vegetation with a butterfly net are thus very efficient methods of collecting large quantities of spiders.) However, spiders are also found in rather barren environments such as sand dunes, tidal zones (Lamoral, 1968), and mountain tops. It is no exaggeration to say that spiders have conquered all possible ecological niches on land (Turnbull, 1973). Such widespread distribution leads to the question of how spiders manage to populate very remote areas, such as islands. One explanation is based on the ability of many young spiders to float through the air on their own threads (gossamer threads). This ballooning, as it is called (although technically it is more like “kiting”) is actively undertaken by the spider. The spiderling stands on “tiptoe,” facing the wind, and inclines its abdomen upward while exuding a silk thread (fig. 9.1). This is achieved in a similar way as making the first thread for a web (bridge thread), yet several fine loops of threads may be involved in ballooning threads (Richter, 1970b; 287

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Figure 9.1 (a) Ballooning in a young crab spider (Xysticus). The spiderling, standing on tiptoe and exuding a silk thread from the spinnerets, is waiting for a breeze that may lift it into the air. (Photo: Schulte.) (b) Three adult social spiders (Stegodyphus dumicola) tiptoeing on their capture web just before ballooning. These large and heavy spiders (> 1 cm, > 100 mg) use multiple threads while airborne (Photo: Aharon.)

Eberhard, 1987). The strands are caught by the slightest air current; if both silk and the spider´s body provide enough drag forces, the spiderling is lifted off (Humphrey, 1987). Another method to become airborne is to fix the dragline to the ground and then walk a short distance before raising the abdomen and waiting for a breeze. The launched yet still attached spider may then float from side to side and up and down until the silk thread breaks (Brændegaard, 1937). Usually, only small spiders weighing around 1 mg can be lifted easily. The length of the silk threads and the body posture can increase drag (i.e., a “spread eagle” position of the legs is most efficient for staying aloft; Suter, 1999). Still, in most cases the voyage ends after a rather short distance (Morse, 1993). Under favorable wind conditions, however, these aeronauts may attain quite remarkable

Ecology

distances and heights. Spiders as a kind of “aerial plankton,” have been caught from airplanes flying at altitudes of several thousand meters (Glick, 1939; Gertsch, 1949). Charles Darwin noted in his diary (1839) that innumerable small spiders had been blown into the rigging of The Beagle more than 100 km off the coast of South America. The French arachnologist Berland (1932) believed that spiders could not really bridge large distances by ballooning. One of his arguments was that the spider fauna of Madagascar and East Africa is quite different, although they are less than 400 km apart. He was even more convinced that very isolated islands (such as those in the Pacific) could not have been colonized by aerial spiders: “sur mer c´est impossible, et il n´ y a aucune chance pour que des Araignées atteignent par exemple les Hawai” (p. 403). Nowadays researchers are more inclined to believe that at least some spider families (Tetragnathids, Thomisids) could have reached remote islands passively (i.e., by ballooning; Gillespie, 2002; Gillespie and Baldwin, 2009). An interesting case is some large endemic linyphiids (Orsonwelles, 14 mm body length) found in the Hawaiian archipelago. Six different species occur on the oldest (volcanic) island Kauai (5 Mio years), three on the adjacent Oahu (3.8 Mio years), and only one on the youngest island (Hawaii, 0.5 Mio years). This distribution strongly indicates a single ancestral colonization (in Kauai) and a subsequent speciation and radiation (Hormiga, 2002). Unfortunately, the origin of the ancestral colonizing species still remains a mystery. Formerly it was believed that only young spiders could fly on their own threads, but later many small males (Richter, 1971; Blanke, 1973a) and even some mediumsized females (1 cm body length; Wickler and Seibt, 1986) were found to do so as well (fig. 9.1b).Among the different spider families, ballooning is most common in the dwarf spiders (Erigonidae), the Linyphidae, Thomisidae, Araneidae and Tetragnathidae, with peak periods in late spring and early fall (Salmon and Horner, 1977; Dean and Sterling, 1985). Young spiderlings are real featherweights (0.2 mg; Coyle et al., 1985; Greenstone et al., 1987), which can take off at the slightest breeze. Adult females of 100 mg can still be lifted off, if they release several loops of thread into the air. In Stegodyphus (Eresidae), these ballooning threads fan out to form a triangular sheet (1 m in length and width) that apparently functions like a kite (Schneider et al., 2001). In the linyphiids, adult males and females can take to the air—often thousands of them at a time (Bristowe, 1939; Van Wingerden and Vugts, 1974; Vugts and Van Wingerden, 1976). Whereas the gossamer threads of young spiderlings are seen in an Indian summer, the mass flight of linyphiids occurs during fall and winter. A prerequisite for aeronautical behavior is a sudden rise in temperature (Duffey, 1956). If the weather shifts to warm, sunny days after a long period of cold, the temperature on the ground will rise rapidly. This causes an updraft of air, and the spiders are easily lifted, especially small ones. Dispersal seems most effective if the atmosphere is non-ideally convective (warm ambient temperatures plus a light breeze) (Reynolds et al., 2007). Of course, how far spiders will travel depends mainly on the wind. Under favorable conditions, they can travel up to several hundred kilometers (Okuma and Kisimoto, 1981). The fact that the islands of the Great

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Barrier Reef in Australia have been colonized by seven different spider families, but not by any of the large mygalomorphs, can only be explained by an aerial dispersal (Main, 1982). Only a few of the aeronauts will survive; many fall victim to birds (such as swifts and swallows), or they land on open water or in some other wholly unsuitable environment. However, since the number of spiders transported is so great, there are always a few that will survive to invade new habitats. Less than a year after the catastrophic explosion of the volcano Krakatoa in 1883, the first settler on the barren island was a web spider (linyphiid), and 50 years later, more than 90 species of spiders were recorded there (Bristowe, 1931, 1934; Thornton and New, 1988). Most likely they had drifted in by winds from the neighboring islands of Java and Sumatra. Similarly, only 2 years after the eruption of Mount St. Helen’s volcano in 1980, more than 40 spider species were found, which had colonized the previously dead land by air. Their take off points must have been up to 30 km away (Edwards, 1986). The “primitive” spiders (Mesothelae, Orthognatha) disperse only exeptionally by air (Coyle, 1983; Coyle et al., 1985). Their mode of life is strictly terrestrial and bound to their silk-lined burrows. When the young ones leave their mother’s home, they will establish small new tubes of their own very close by (Decae, 1987). A first step toward ballooning is seen in some wandering spiders. They let themselves drop from one leaf down to the next, until they have found a suitable habitat (Barth et al., 1991). This “drop-and-swing-dispersal” can lead to true aerial flight when strong side winds break the safety thread of the spiderlings, carrying them aloft. The small spiderlings that usually live together during their first period of life gain two advantages by their aerial dispersal: (1) they become rapidly distributed over the available habitats so that overcrowding is minimized; and (2) they escape the gradually emerging cannibalistic behavior of their siblings (Tolbert, 1977). However, it is still unclear whether aerial dispersal is caused only by overcrowding and food shortage; other environmental factors such as temperature and humidity may also induce this behavior (Duffey, 1998).

Habitat Most spiders live in strictly defined environments. The limitations are set by physical conditions, such as temperature, humidity, wind, and light intensity, and also by biological factors, such as the type of vegetation, the food supply, competitors, and enemies. Ecologically, vegetation can be classified into four vertical layers (Duffey, 1966): (1) a soil zone, consisting of leaf litter, stones, and low plants up to 15 cm in height; (2) a field zone, consisting of vegetation from 15 to 180 cm; (3) a bush zone of shrubs and trees of 180–450 cm in height; and (4) a wood zone of trees and treetops greater than 450 cm in height. Each zone has its characteristic microclimate, various niches for retreats, and a different spectrum of prey animals. Accordingly, we often find a corresponding “stratification” of different spider species (Toft, 1976, 1978).

Ecology

Among wolf spiders, Pardosa pullata lives in the lowest zone (0–5 cm), whereas Lycosa nigriceps is dominant in the lower field zone (20–30 cm; Duffey, 1966). Even within the same zone, the microclimatic conditions can vary considerably, and these may cause an ecological separation of different species. For instance, Pardosa pullata and Pirata piraticus live together in bogs where sphagnum moss is found. However, Pardosa keeps almost exclusively to the surface of the moss, whereas Pirata prefers the more secluded stem region of the moss (Nørgaard, 1951). Continuous monitoring shows that the temperature fluctuates a great deal on the surface of the moss layer, but varies little inside (fig. 9.2). However, it cannot be stated as a general rule that only a single species will live in a given microhabitat. The American wolf spiders Lycosa carolinensis and Lycosa timuqua live in the same habitat, hunt the same type of prey, and are both active at night (Kuenzler, 1958). The same is true for two linyphiids (L. triangularis and L. tenuipalpis), which share exactly the same habitat on Calluna heaths; they can even be manipulated to accept each others webs (Toft, 1987, 1990). Other species, particularly among the jumping spiders, migrate back and forth between different vegetative zones (Luczak, 1966). Generally, small spiders usually stay close to the ground (Tretzel, 1955). A vertical distribution of various spider species can be studied nicely on tree trunks. It is interesting that the composition of the spider fauna changes not only with respect to the height of a tree, but also depending on the structure of the bark,

Figure 9.2 Temperature fluctuations in the habitat of the wolf spider Pirata piraticus during two summer days. On the surface of the sphagnum moss the temperature changes between 8° and 39°C (dashed curve). In contrast, the temperature stays near 20°C inside the moss layer (solid line). During sunny periods the female exposes her egg sac to the sun at the entrance of her silken tube. (After Nørgaard, 1951.)

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the microclimate, the prey availability and even on the age of a particular tree (Wunderlich, 1982; Simon, 1991; Schütt, 1997). Many web-building spiders are vertically distributed within a vegetation zone. The two orb weavers Argiope aurantia and Argiope trifasciata build their webs at different heights during the period from May to September (fig. 9.3). Only during the adult stage do their habitats overlap (Enders, 1974, 1977; Brown, 1981). An explanation for this vertical stratification might be found in the distribution of prey animals. Spiders that build their webs higher up can also include larger flying insects among their prey. This becomes evident when comparing the prey of the cross spider Araneus marmoreus with that of Argiope bruennichi. The webs of Araneus, built 50–70 cm above the ground, trap mostly small dipterans, whereas the lower webs (0–50 cm) of Argiope capture rather large grasshoppers (Pasquet, 1984). In the tetragnathid Leucauge, small spiders build close to the ground, whereas larger and older ones construct their webs at a height of 1.5 m, where they catch fewer but larger flies (Hénaut et al., 2006). Spiders are abundant in tree canopies, making up between 10% and 25% of the arthropod fauna (Basset, 1991). Using an insecticide knockdown (“fogging”) from tree canopies in tropical Africa showed a dominance of theridiids, salticids, and araneids in lowland forest, but in highlands the linyphiids dominated (Sørensen, 2004). The species richness and the density of spiders seem to increase with elevation and as the climate gets more temperate (Russell-Smith and Stork, 1995). In general, a specific spatial distribution of spider species would seem to be an adaptation to interspecies competition—that is, a strategy that aims to avoid such competition (Tretzel, 1955). Later investigations of different species of wolf spiders showed, however, that the distribution pattern was determined more by

Figure 9.3 Vertical stratification of the orb webs of Argiope aurantia and A. trifasciata. Throughout the summer the height of the webs above the ground is different for both species. Only in September, when both species are adult, do the heights of their webs overlap. (After Enders, 1974.)

Ecology

Figure 9.4 Seasonal separation of the reproductive period in three different species of wolf spiders (Pardosa). (After Tretzel, 1955.)

environmental factors than by interspecific competition (Schaefer, 1972, 1974). Ecological separation may also be achieved by different reproductive periods, as has been shown for certain species of Pardosa in figure 9.4 (Tretzel, 1955; Kronestedt, 1990). The same habitat may be used at different times of day by different species. Such differences in activity are known for many species of wandering spiders, but also for some web spiders, which exhibit different daily periods of web building. It should be noted that not only different species, but even different genera and families, may compete for the same habitat (Wise and Barata, 1983). For instance, Hypochilus, Achaearanea and Coelotes occupy the same rocky outcrops in the Appalachian mountains, and they have been called “ecological equivalents” (Riechert and Cady, 1983). Analyzing a desert spider community of 90 species, however, led to the conclusion that most related species are separated by spatial and temporal differences (Gertsch and Riechert, 1976). In this context the guild concept should be mentioned: animals that utilize the same resources (e.g., prey) in similar ways can be assigned to a certain “ecological guild.” Among spiders, one can regard wandering spiders and web spiders as just two guilds (Uetz, 1977), or one could define many more different guilds (Post and Riechert, 1977). For instance, for the habitat “agricultural fields,” about eight different guilds have been established (running/ stalking/ambushing/foliage-dwelling ground spiders, and sheet/tangle/orb and space web builders; Uetz et al., 1999). It appears that a certain habitat structure determines specific spider assemblages (guilds). Detailed investigations of the guild composition in agricultural crops are important to assess the role of spiders as a possible biocontrol. The habitats of web spiders not only require specific microclimates, but also must meet certain spatial demands. The environment must provide plenty of

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attachment sites for the scaffolding of the web (Uetz et al., 1978). In addition, sufficient open space must be available, either vertically (for orb webs) or horizontally (for sheet webs). Web spiders are thus not distributed at random in their environment, and their population density is necessarily limited. It is likely that the space a web spider occupies is about as large as is necessary to provide for the animal’s minimal energy requirements (Riechert, 1974). Web spiders are sit-and-wait predators, and they probably expend less energy for prey capture than do wandering spiders. In addition, web spiders often catch several prey items in their webs at once and thus can maintain a cache of food. In general, web spiders also kill larger prey than errant spiders do. Apparently, catching prey with a web is more efficient than direct attack (Enders, 1975). This view, however, has been challenged following the demonstration that several species of wandering spiders can also overpower rather large prey (fig. 9.5; Rovner, 1980c). For instance, some salticids subdue dragonflies that are two or three times their own size (Robinson and Valerio, 1977), and crab spiders are well known to tackle even bumblebees successfully. The web itself can be considered the spider’s territory, since it is usually defended against invaders. Sometimes the web is conquered by a conspecific, or even an unrelated spider (Hoffmaster, 1986). Such web robbery may be committed by conspecific males, who normally do not build webs of their own after their final molt (Eberhard et al., 1978). In all other cases web robbery can be interpreted as a competition for the same habitat, because such incidents happen more often during periods of high population density. Wandering spiders rarely show any territorial behavior. Only for the wolf spider Pardosa has a “mobile territory” been described: an area of 10 cm in diameter in the immediate vicinity of the spider is defended against invaders (Vogel, 1971, 1972). More recently, however, a highly territorial behavior was observed in the sparassid spider Leucorchestris arenicola. This large desert spider defends an area of several meters in diameter around its burrow (Birkhofer, 2002). A special type of web invasion is found in the pirate spider Ero and in the small theridiid Argyrodes. Ero sneaks into the web of another spider and lures the owner by carefully plucking the threads (aggressive mimicry). When the web spider moves toward the source of vibration, it is suddenly attacked and succumbs to the venomous bite. Argyrodes parasitizes in the webs of various orb weavers (e.g. Argiope, Cyrtophora, Nephila), where she stealthily removes previously caught prey (Wiehle, 1928; Kullmann, 1959). She builds her irregular web close to the orb web and attaches “signal lines” at the hub. All her movements are very slow and deliberate so that she will not be detected. The signal for stealing prey is always triggered by the orb weaver, or more specifically, by her wrapping the prey (Vollrath, 1979). Only those movements stimulate Argyrodes to climb slowly toward the hub, where the prey package is normally stored. It is then localized with slow circular motions of the front legs and carefully cut out. Usually, Argyrodes is just stealing a prey, but rarely she may eat the host spider, or her cocoon, or the spiderlings (Exline and Levi, 1962; Wise, 1982; Whitehouse, 1986; Kerr, 2005). Often several Argyrodes parasitize in one orb web; the maximal number of parasites per web was 45 (Vollrath, 1987b). Such a high pressure may cause the host

Ecology

Figure 9.5 Capture of large prey. (a) A jumping spider (Marpissa) has just delivered a bite to a big hawker dragon-fly (Aeshna) and is now waiting for it to succumb. (b) Crab spiders (Misumena) are well-known for overpowering bees. Often they hold their victims by the “neck”, but the first bite may be applied anywhere on the body, for instance on the abdomen (c). (Photos a, b: Erb; c: Schulte.)

spider to search for another web site (Larcher and Wise, 1985; Rypstra, 1981). Occasionally several species of Argyrodes (e.g., A. elevatus and A. caudatus) coexist in the same web. Interspecific competition is apparently reduced by occupying different regions in the web and by being active at different times (Vollrath, 1976). Several interesting ecological investigations have focused on the question of whether spiders occupy a certain habitat more or less by chance, or whether they select it specifically. The funnel-web spider Agelenopsis and the orb weaver Nephila have been shown to build their webs not only at sites where the microclimate is

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favorable, but also where prey is rather abundant (Riechert, 1974, 1976; Rypstra, 1985). For instance, if the spider constructs its web in bushes that are in bloom, it will have a better chance of catching insects there. Frequent damage to a web may also influence a spider to shift its web to another location (Chmiel et al., 2000). Some spiders have been observed to change the sites of their webs if they do not catch enough prey (Turnbull, 1964; Olive, 1982). In contrast, the abundance of prey seems to have no effect on the selection of web sites by some orb-web spiders (Enders, 1976). However, orb weavers build larger webs when hungry, and thus probably enhance their foraging success (Higgins and Buskirk, 1992; Sherman, 1994). Other orb weavers (Argiope) seem to catch more prey simply due to their bright coloration: if their strong yellow bands are painted black, they lure three times fewer prey into their web (Bush et al., 2008).

Prey Animals Insects are by far the largest part of the diet of a spider. Other arthropods, such as sowbugs or millipedes, are also on the list, as are spiders themselves. It is rather unusual to find vertebrates among a spider’s prey (McCormick and Polis, 1982), although tadpoles, frogs, or small fish may fall victim to certain lycosids or pisaurids (fig. 9.6b). The large desert spider Leucorchestris (3 cm body length, 5 g weight) can capture small geckos of about her own size (Henschel, 1990b), and the raft spider Dolomedes overpowers fish that outweigh her 4–5 times Reports claiming that large tarantulas also feed on lizards, snakes, or birds are often anecdotal, yet have been verified occasionally, even under natural conditions (Rick West, 2009, personal communication). One of the earliest scientific illustrations of a tarantula (Anna Sybille Merian, Metamorphosis insectorium Surinamensium, 1705) shows the spider feeding on a dead bird; it was long debated whether this was fact or fiction, but from what we know now, it may well be true. Apparently, also small bats are sometimes caught by large spiders, for instance in the strong webs of tropical orb weavers. One documented case is that of a Argiope savignyi capturing, wrapping, and feeding on an adult proboscis bat (fig. 9.6a; Timm and Losilla, 2007). Among the insects, flies and the wingless Collembola contribute to the bulk of the spider’s diet. Because Collembola occur in huge numbers, they are very important to many small spiders (Bristowe, 1941). Beetles, grasshoppers, and butterflies are another abundant source of prey. However, certain insects, such as stink bugs, ants, and wasps, as well as certain beetles, moths, and caterpillars, are generally avoided by most spiders. Either these insects actively use chemicals to defend themselves (as do ladybugs) or they may have an unpleasant taste. Only very rarely are other invertebrates such as snails (Nyffeler and Symondson, 2001) and earthworms (Nyffeler et al., 2001) attacked and eaten by spiders. The webs themselves can be regarded as selective filters for the potential prey. Insects with well-developed flying abilities and acute eyesight (like the hoverflies, the Syrphidae) can apparently avoid spider webs. Pollinating insects (bees, wasps, certain flies, and beetles) are rarely found trapped in the space webs of

Ecology

Figure 9.6 Vertebrates as prey of spiders. (a) A proboscis bat (Rhynchonycteris naso) got entangled in the orb web of an Argiope savignyi in the rain forest of Costa Rica. It was subsequently wrapped and fed upon for several hours. The spread bat wing measures about 10 cm. (From Timm and Losilla, 2007, with permission of the Carib. J. of Sci., Univ. Puerto Rico at Mayaguez.). (b) Large wandering spiders like this Brazilean pisaurid (Ancylometes) occasionnally capture small vertebrates such as frogs or lizards. (Photo: Höfer.)

theridiids and linyphiids, but plant-sucking insects (Aphidae, Homoptera, and Thysanoptera) are caught extremely often, that is to say, selectively (Nentwig, 1980). Nonetheless, all kinds of “aerial plankton” become stuck in spider webs: dust particles, salt crystals (fig. 9.7), algae, fungal spores and pollen grains (Linskens et al., 1993). Pollen adhering to the sticky threads of orb webs is most likely ingested when the spider eats (“recycles”) her old web. It seems that young spiderlings may even derive some energy from this unusual food source (Smith and Mommsen, 1984).

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Figure 9.7 Spider webs as aerial filters. (a) Fresh sticky spiral of an orb weaver with glue droplets. (b) Pollen grains clinging to a sticky spiral. (c) Scales from a butterfly wing on a sticky thread. Arrowhead marks one scale sticking to a glue droplet. (d) Salt spray from the nearby ocean forming tiny crystals of sodium chloride along a sticky thread. (Photos a–c: Erb, d: Foelix.)

However, in experiments trying to feed linyphiids with pine pollen, no food uptake and no gain in weight was observed (Carrel et al., 2000). Even more surprising is the observation that some male crab spiders regularly drink nectar from blossoms and apparently exploit its sugar content (Pollard, 1993; Pollard et al., 1995; Jackson et al., 2001). Most exceptional is a jumping spider (Bagheera kiplingi) from Central America that is perhaps the only vegetarian spider. More than 90% of its diet consists of protein and lipid-rich nubbins from the leaf tips of Acacia trees; only occasionally are ants or ant larvae eaten (Meehan et al., 2009). Most spiders are not particular about the type of prey they feed on. Such spiders are called polyphagous, that is, they are generalists with respect to their prey. A good example is Linyphia triangularis, which, in one experiment, accepted 150 of 153 offered species of prey (Turnbull, 1960). In contrast are stenophagous spiders,

Ecology

which are specialized for feeding on only a very few species of prey, such as ants (Zodarium, Callilepis) or other spiders (Ero). One would expect that predation by spiders would severely limit insect populations. Indeed, we have impressive hypothetical calculations (Turnbull, 1973) based on an estimate of the population density of spiders (130/m2) and on an assumption that each spider consumes 0.1 g of prey daily. The conclusion is that all the spiders living on 1 ha of land would devour 1.3 × 106 × 0.1 × 365 = 4.75 × 107g, or 47,500 kg of prey per year. Although 0.1 g/spider/day is certainly an inflated estimate, even half that amount would be astounding. Bristowe (1958) gave a less quantitative yet less abstract estimate when he stated that “the weight of insects consumed annually in Britain exceeds that of the human inhabitants” (p. 53). More recent estimates from wooded areas and agricultural land in central Europe are much more modest, assuming only 100 kg (or perhaps only 1 kg!) of insect prey/hectare/year (Kirchner, 1964; Nyffeler, 2000a; Nyffeler and Benz, 1979, 1987). The results of such studies are strongly dependent on the habitat of the spiders. In natural grassland, but also in orchards (Mansour et al., 1985; Mansour and Whitcomb, 1986), spiders are quite numerous and will have a measurable effect on the insect population; we only need to consider the high density of various wolf spiders in the litter zone, or of agelenids, linyphiids, and araneids in undisturbed grass and wood areas. In the modern agricultural landscape, in contrast, the absolute numbers and species diversity of spiders are rather low, and so is the effect of spiders as a means of pest control. One way to improve this situation would be to provide a less monotonous environment, for instance by creating more extensive border regions between fields and woods or by leaving pockets of uncultivated land as “ecological cells.” Such an approach would quickly lead to a marked increase in the number of spider species, as has been shown in experiments (Nentwig, 1986). Equally important, however, is a reduction in the use of herbicides and pesticides (Riechert and Lockley, 1984). Overall, spiders hardly play a major role in the control of insect pests. As we have seen, most spiders are generalists with respect to their diet but, for efficient pest control, spiders would need to specialize in eating such pests. Perhaps some sac spiders (Clubionids) that prey on citrus leafminers play such a role in citrus plantations (Amalin et al., 2001). These spiders are nocturnal hunters that can sense the vibrations of the larvae inside the leaves. They either puncture the leaf mines directly or cut them open to pull out the larvae, before biting and feeding on them. However, most spiders do not form social colonies (as ants or bees do), so their populations cannot become very dense. Despite those restrictions, spiders may have an important “buffer effect,” for instance, during the early development of an insect population, when growth is exponential (Clarke and Grant, 1968). A good example is the spiders living in the litter zone of forests, where densities of 50–200 individuals/m2 have been recorded (Nyffeler, 1982; Nyffeler and Sunderland, 2003). At such high densities, spiders may well serve in controlling aphid, lepidopteran, and heteropteran pests (Riechert and Bishop, 1990). In summary, it can be said that spiders are effective predators of certain insect pests, and they have been successfully used in orchards and in rice paddies (Maloney et al., 2003).

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Many spiders can adjust to the available food supply by eating more prey when it is abundant. This maximal energy uptake allows the spider not only to grow, but also to mature more quickly (Miyashita, 1968; Ward and Lubin, 1993). If a long period of food deprivation then follows, such well-fed spiders have better chances of surviving it. (A similar strategy of an “optimal food uptake” is found in a completely different group of animals, snakes.) Of course, small spiders take in much less biomass than large spiders do. The small wolf spider Pardosa eats about 3.5 mg of insects daily, equivalent to 12% of its body weight (Edgar, 1970). Comparable values were found for the larger wolf spider Trochosa (3–12%; Breymeyer, 1967; Breymeyer and Jozwik, 1975) and the sheet-web weaver Linyphia (10-25%; Turnbull, 1962). Some spiders produce relatively more eggs when the food supply is abundant (Blanke, 1974b; Kessler, 1973a; Wise, 1975). In general, however, the number of eggs is mainly a function of the spider’s size: the larger the spider, the more eggs she will lay (Petersen, 1950; Kessler, 1971a). The number of eggs decreases with an increased level of brood care. The astonishing ability of spiders to survive several months without food is primarily the result of their low rate of metabolism (fig. 9.8; Anderson, 1970). The amount of oxygen a tarantula consumes at rest is only one-fifth of the oxygen a coldblooded vertebrate needs, and only one-hundredth of that used by a warm-blooded animal (Paul, 1990). Sit-and-wait predators such as crab spiders have only 50% of the metabolism that would be expected for their body size. High rates of metabolism (100%) were observed in orb weavers and comb-footed spiders, and this is associated with high reproductive rates, fast growth, high population densities, and wide distribution (Anderson, 1994, 1996).

Figure 9.8 (a) Oxygen consumption in three spider species in the course of 24 hours. Note the much higher metabolism of the day-active jumping spider (Phidippus) as compared to the sedentary theridiid Achaearanea and to the tube-dwelling Filistata. (After Anderson, 1970.) (b) Decrease in body weight and metabolism in Lycosa lenta during starvation. (After Anderson, 1974.)

Ecology

Under conditions of starvation, metabolism is reduced drastically–in extreme situations by more than 80% (Collatz and Mommsen, 1975). Wolf spiders, which have a life expectancy of only 300 days, can survive up to 200 days without food (Anderson, 1974). Although such experiments were conducted in the laboratory, long periods of starvation no doubt occur naturally, for example, while the spider overwinters. In autumn the house spider Tegenaria deposits mainly fat, but also some carbohydrates and proteins in its body; this fuel is then metabolized during the winter, when no sources of food are available. After 50 days of starvation, 60% of the stored carbohydrates, 47% of the fatty acids, and 9% of the original proteins have already been metabolized (Collatz and Mommsen, 1974).

Enemies Even the most skilled predators can fall victim to other hunters, and this applies likewise to spiders and their many foes. The main enemies of spiders are spiders themselves (Jackson, 1992). Many wandering spiders will attack each other, and web spiders, while defending their territories, often duel successfully with invaders. The pirate spiders (Mimetidae), which feed exclusively on other spiders, have already been discussed (see chapter 6). Another unusual example of a spider that prefers to attack other spiders is the cryptic jumping spider Portia (Jackson and Blest, 1982; Forster and Murphy, 1986; Harland and Jackson, 2004). Portia has a large visual field and excellent eyesight (fig. 9.9). She approaches prey—(mostly other spiders) very slowly and in a robotlike fashion. Even other jumping spiders with similarly acute vision do not notice this stealthy approach. This slow, cryptic stalking is only employed toward other salticids (Harland and Jackson, 2000). When quite close (1–2 cm), Portia suddenly lunges and bites (fig. 9.10b). The venom seems very potent against spiders: it paralyzes them within 10–30 seconds, whereas it takes about 4 minutes to be effective against insect prey ( Jackson and Hallas, 1986). When stalking web spiders, Portia uses an “aggressive mimicry” tactic; she lightly plucks the threads to lure the victim. The approaching web spider has hardly any chance to launch an attack and, even if she manages to get a hold of a leg, Portia will autotomize immediately. Portia’s success as a spider hunter thus lies in a clever combination of camouflage, slow motion, excellent vision, a rapid lunge, a highly effective venom, and various prey-specific capture strategies. Other, less sophisticated spider hunters may also be quite successful. The fragile-looking pholcids, for instance, are capable of overpowering rather large spiders such as Tegenaria or araneids (fig. 9.10a). They can also use “aggressive mimicry” by imitating prey vibrations. When the web owner rushes out, it is quickly wrapped in silk threads using the long hindlegs. This is a rather safe method because Pholcus always keeps a good distance from its victim (Jackson and Brassington, 1987). Among the nematodes (roundworms), several species are known as parasites of spiders (Müller, 1983; Poinar, 1987). Early juvenile stages of the nematode enter the spider’s opisthosoma and feed on its tissues (fig. 9.11). Effects of the parasite are a reduction of the muscles, the midgut, and the reproductive system, leading to

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Figure 9.9 The jumping spider Portia is a visually guided hunter. The arrangement of the smaller secondary eyes on the prosoma provides a huge visual field, while the large main eyes have the highest acuity of any spider eyes. 20 x.

Figure 9.10 Spiders as spider enemies. (a) The pholcid Holocnemus pluchii attacks the araneid Cyrtophora citricola, which has just caught prey. (From Blanke, 1972.) (b) The salticid Portia fimbriata, having delivered a fatal bite to a large theridiid.

Ecology

Figure 9.11 (a) A funnel-web spider (Coelotes), parasitized by a nematode (N). The roundworm occupies almost the entire abdomen of the host. (After Müller, 1983.) (b) Two parasitic mites (M) on the chelicera of a jumping spider (Phidippus); they can imbibe hemolymph at the soft joint membrane ( jm) next to the cheliceral fang.

parasitic castration: the host’s behavior may also change, for instance a migration toward a source of water is commonly observed, which is apparently important for the emerging nematode. Most of the infected spiders die just before or after the emergence of the parasite. Among the insects, certain types of wasps are the arch enemies of spiders (fig.9.12). The spider wasps (Pompilidae) hunt spiders exclusively, whereas the mud daubers (Sphecidae) pursue insects as well as spiders. The wasp goes actively after spiders, for instance orb weavers, trying to force them out of their retreats (Eberhard, 1971). As soon as the spider drops to the ground, the wasp attacks it frontally with its mandibles and forelegs, and pushes its stinger into the prosoma. Some sphecid wasps (Chalybion) employ aggressive mimicry: they land in the web

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Figure 9.12 Wasps as spider enemies. (a) The pompilid wasp Anoplius fuscus has paralyzed a wolf spider and is now carrying it away. (Photo: Krebs.) (b) The pompilid Episyron funerarius stings a Cyrtophora citricola into the abdomen (arrow). (From Blanke, 1972.) (c) The araneid Cyclosa conica with a larva (L) of an ichneumonid wasp attached to its carapace. (Photo: Blanke.)

and lure the spider (Argiope) by plucking the threads (Blackledge and Pickett, 2000). The fate of the spider is always the same: it is paralyzed by the wasp’s sting, and an egg is laid on its abdomen. When the wasp larva hatches, it feeds on the living tissue of the paralyzed spider until the spider succumbs. Different species of pompilid wasps use different strategies (Rathmayer, 1966). Some species paralyze the spider only temporarily, deposit an egg on it, and fly away. Other species first dig a hole into which they drag the paralyzed spider. When the spider recovers after a few hours, it finds itself locked inside a narrow tube where it cannot move. Most pompilids, however, paralyze the spider permanently, or at least for several weeks, and enclose their victim in an underground chamber.

Ecology

The wasp’s venom acts very rapidly (in less than 1 second), via the hemolymph, on the motor system of the spider. Apparently neuromuscular transmission is blocked rather than the muscles themselves (Rathmayer, 1978). In general, pompilids do not hunt one particular species of spider, although they may have a preference for certain species. The wasp Episyron rufipes, for instance, goes mostly after araneids, whereas Pompilus cinctellus searches for salticids. Some spider wasps (for example, Pseudagenia) do not dig holes in the ground but build tiny cells of clay into which they carry the paralyzed spiders. Some other wasp species (such as those of the genus Anoplius) do not even bother to hunt their own spiders; instead they attack other pompilids and take paralyzed spiders away from them. It is curious that spiders scarcely defend themselves when they are attacked by pompilid wasps. As soon as the wasp appears, the spider appears to be terrified and tries to escape (Bristowe, 1941). The spider’s panic flight is probably caused by a scent that the excited wasp exudes (Petrunkevitch, 1926). Some wolf spiders (such as Geolycosa), however, do make some attempts to defend themselves, either by pushing the wasp away or by maintaining a plug of sand between themselves and the wasp (Gwynne, 1979; McQueen, 1979). One spider, the cribellate Amaurobius, pays no heed to pompilid wasps. If a pompilid gets ensnared in the hackle band of the catching threads, Amaurobius simply overpowers it and eats it (Bristowe, 1941). Even large tarantulas frequently fall victim to pompilids, and only rarely do they counterattack. A famous example is the huge wasp Pepsis, with a body length of 8 cm and a wingspan of 10 cm. It persecutes tropical tarantulas and does not even hesitate to follow them into their burrows. In its choice of prey, Pepsis, incidentally, is strictly species specific. If it is put in a cage with another (“wrong”) species of tarantula, it does not attack and, in fact, may be killed by the spider. In order to determine the “right” species, the wasp crawls over the entire spider, with its antennae vibrating. Only after a thorough olfactory inspection and positive identification of the spider does Pepsis set its stinger into the soft pleural areas near the spider’s coxae (Petrunkevitch, 1952). Mud daubers (Sphecidae) sting mainly web spiders (Rehnberg, 1987), which they drag along the ground or, if these are light enough, carry off in flight. The immobilized spiders are either enclosed in natural cavities (in soil or in wood) or they are sealed off in vertical mud tubes that look like little pipe organs (Coville, 1987). Even the very poisonous black widow spider is not safe from wasp attacks: Chalybion cyaneum regularly preys on black widows (Irving and Hinman, 1935). A single sphecid wasp may have a considerable effect on a spider population, as one female catches 100–300 spiders in the course of one summer (Bristowe, 1941). The tropical Trypoxylon species may take an even higher toll, since they provision each clay cell with an average of 20 spiders, taken in less than a day (Coville and Coville, 1980). It should be stressed that the spiders serve as a food source only for the developing larvae and not for the adult wasps, which feed mostly on plant juices (nectar and honey dew). Members of the wasp family Ichneumonidae also plague spiders. They attach their eggs to the spider’s body or deposit them in the spider’s egg sacs. Polysphincta

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raids orb weavers and fastens its eggs to their abdomens (fig. 9.12c). The larva lives as an ectoparasite on the spider’s body, ingesting its body fluid (Nielsen, 1923, 1932). The hatched larvae of other ichneumonids (e.g., Gelis), feed on spider eggs inside the cocoon (Horstmann, 1970; Kessler, 1971b; Kessler and Fokkinga, 1973). Certain dipteran flies are also known to act as cocoons, or eggs, parasites. Well-known examples are members of the families Chloropidae, Sarcophagidae, and Asilidae. It is astonishing that these flies manage to deposit their eggs in the spider cocoons, since the cocoon wall is usually tough and is often well camouflaged. Certain “spider flies” (Acroceridae) attack the spider directly and are true endoparasites (Schlinger, 1987). The young fly larva attaches to a spider’s leg, crawls slowly onto the abdomen, and penetrates between the lamellae of a book lung. There it may spend several months, or, as in the case of large tarantulas, several years. The fourth instar, or mature larva, is the active feeding and destructive stage. Although it will last only 1–2 days, this period is deadly for the spider because all its body tissues will be devoured by the parasite. The enormous larva will then break through the dorsal abdomen, attach itself to the spider’s web, and pupate within a few days. In general, a host spider is parasitized only by a single acrocerid larva, but in large tarantulas up to 14 larvae have been found in one abdomen. It is interesting that the more primitive “spider flies” (Subfamily Panopinae) are always associated with the likewise primitive tarantulas, whereas the more advanced Acrocerinae parasitize the higher evolved Araneomorphae—which makes a good case for coevolution. Finally, vertebrates are also enemies of spiders. Many fish, particularly trout, eat spiders that happen to fall onto the surface of the water. Among amphibians, toads are considered to feed most often on spiders; spiders constitute about 5% of a toad’s diet (Bristowe, 1941). Lizards, including geckos, occasionally eat spiders, but in general reptiles were thought to have little effect on the spider population. However, observations in the Bahamas and Caribbean showed that islands with lizards (Anolis) had 10–30 times fewer spiders than those without lizards (Schoener and Toft, 1983; Pacala and Roughgarden, 1984; Schoener and Spiller, 1987). The lizards reduced not only the total number of individuals but also the number of species and had a strong impact on rare species (Spiller and Schoener, 1998). The influence of birds as a factor controlling spider populations is difficult to estimate. It is true that spiders are a major prey for many birds during winter (Askenmo et al., 1977; Hogstad, 1984), and in the spring spiders are also fed to the nestlings. In great tits (Parus major), spiders make up 75% of the biomass fed to the nestlings during the early breeding season, but later there is a switch to large caterpillars (Naef-Daenzer et al., 2000). It seems that most spiders are relatively poorly perceived, and hence little harassed, by birds for several reasons: (1) many spiders hide in retreats; (2) most web spiders sit motionless in their webs; (3) many species are camouflaged; and (4) most spiders are active at night. Birds, in contrast, are visually oriented and usually active during the day. Thus, it is no surprise that the spiders found in the stomachs of birds were always rather conspicuous species, whereas cryptic forms, such as Cyclosa, were absent. Overall it can be said that birds

Ecology

are important predators on spiders in forests, especially in the canopy region, but probably less so in open fields and grassland (Gunnarsson, 2008). Only a few spider enemies are found among the mammals. In shrews spiders make up 1–2% of their diet (Bristowe, 1941). Bats also prey on spiders (Kolb, 1958; Shiel et al., 1991) and, as recent analyses of bat feces have shown, they can pick up ground spiders as well as orb weavers (Wolz, 1992). Monkeys feed on all kinds of arthropods and apparently do not spare spiders. The South American woolly monkey Lagothrix has been observed to eat the poisonous brown recluse spider, Loxosceles (fig. 3.7c), without any adverse effects (Macedo, 1980, personal communication,). Not all enemies of spiders threaten the life of the spider directly. Some only steal their prey, as do the kleptoparasitic spiders of the genus Argyrodes and Mysmenopsis (Coyle et al., 1991). The scorpionfly Panorpa also invades spider webs to steal prey (Thomhill, 1975; Nyffeler and Benz, 1980), as do certain wasps and dragonflies (Fincke, 1984). Many small birds, especially hummingbirds, were watched snatching silk material and wrapped prey (Young, 1971). Cribellate silk is used as a kind of Velcro to link their nesting material to twigs and leaves, or to attach lichen to the outside of their nests. Regular silk threads, mostly from cocoons, are used by several birds (e.g., New World flycatchers) to suspend their nests like a hammock between forked branches (Hansell, 1993). Some tiny flies and gnats may partake in a spider’s meal, but owing to their small size have hardly any effect on food intake (Robinson and Robinson, 1977). A bit more significant parasite is the symphytognathid spider Curimagua bayano, which shares the prey of the rightful web owner (Vollrath, 1978). This tiny spider (1–2 mm body length) rides on its host, a large (40 mm) Diplura, in a way reminiscent of young wolf spiders sitting on top of their mother. When Diplura is feeding on its prey, Curimagua climbs down the large chelicerae of its host and imbibes the liquefied prey tissue. In fact, Curimagua seems unable to capture any sort of food on its own. Some spiders live close to other species, often within in their webs, but not doing any harm. Such commensalism is known, for instance, from the juvenile Philoponella (Uloboridae) that builds its own web inside large sheet webs of the social spider Anelosimus (Rypstra and Binford, 1995). Usually Philoponella catches only small prey (2 mm) that would be ignored by the host. Occasionally, however, the host spiders are also preyed upon.

Adaptations Some spiders can tolerate a certain fluctuation in environmental factors and are referred to as euryecious. In contrast, stenecious species are less flexible to changing conditions. The distribution and population density of spiders in their habitat are therefore not accidental but are functions of a whole range of graded factors within a given biotope. These factors are not merely of a physical nature (e.g., temperature, humidity, or wind conditions), but are more related to the type of vegetation

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present in the spider’s habitat. Often, certain spiders associate with certain plant species. For instance, in tussocks of broom sedge (Andropogon virginicus) live five typical spider genera: Phidippus, Oxyopes, Eustala, Clubiona and Mangora; the population density of these spiders is about the same in all tussocks, independent of the biotope in which this grass may grow (Barnes and Barnes, 1955). Of the many specific adaptations of spiders to their environment, I discuss here only those that show how well spiders can cope with rather extreme environmental conditions.

Thermoregulation The ambient temperature is certainly important for determining the activity of a spider. Many web spiders, for instance, cease building their webs when the temperature drops below a critical point. Although spiders belong to the poikilothermic animals, it would be incorrect to believe that their body temperature simply reflects the ambient air temperature. Spiders can adjust their behavior to keep their body temperature higher or lower than the temperature of the environment. Such thermoregulation is well known in lizards, yet a comparable ability in spiders has only recently been observed (Lubin and Henschel, 1990). The Australian wolf spider Geolycosa godeffroyi lives in a burrow in the soil but often comes up to the surface to warm its body in the sun (Humphreys, 1974, 1975, 1987). Its body temperature can then climb quickly to 40°C, although the ambient air temperature may be only between 15 and 25°C (fig. 9.13). The spider avoids overheating by returning to its cool burrow; this situation is reversed at night, when the burrow provides insulation from the cold outside. In winter the spider was found to maintain its body temperature at 1.8°C inside the burrow while the

Figure 9.13 Changes in the air temperature and body temperature of the wolf spider Geolycosa in a 24-hour period. Early in the morning (6:00), when the spider is still inside the burrow, its body temperature is 8°C higher than the ambient air temperature. Exposure to the sun causes a rapid increase in body temperature (first peak). The following fluctuations in body temperature result from the spider’s shuttling between the warm outside and the cool burrow. (After Humphreys, 1974.)

Ecology

outside temperature was minus 2.5°C. Throughout the year, the spider maintains a body temperature that is, on average, 4°–5°C above the ambient air temperature. An even larger temperature difference has been noted inside the egg sacs of Geolycosa, which the spider periodically exposes to the sun at the entrance of its burrow (see fig. 9.2). In hot and arid deserts, sand-living spiders not only show a high heat tolerance (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1991), but they also dig 10–20 cm into the soil, thus reducing the temperature fluctuation to merely 2°C, as compared to more than 40°C on the surface. Additionally, their silk-lined burrows may help in attracting water, as the woven silk seems to act like a sponge, taking up the humidity from the early morning fog (Henschel, 1997). Behavioral thermoregulation has also been observed in various web spiders. Some araneids (Nephila, Cyrtophora) of tropical and subtropical regions are often exposed to extreme solar radiation when they sit in the center of their webs. The spider reacts by adjusting the axis of its body to make it parallel to the incident sun rays, thus keeping the exposed body area to a minimum (Krakauer, 1972; Robinson and Robinson, 1974). The light-reflecting guanine crystals of the abdomen may also play a role in preventing overheating. If the body temperature increases to above 40°C, the spider withdraws into the shade (Blanke, 1972); such high temperatures cause an anesthesialike state in the spider, and such stupors can easily be induced experimentally. Some web spiders can also adjust their body temperatures to cold conditions. In Florida, for instance, Nephila may experience rather low temperatures during winter. In response, these spiders orient their webs in an east-west direction; the spider’s body thus becomes fully exposed to the sun’s rays and can reach 7°C above the ambient air temperature (Carrel, 1978). In addition to temperature, there are other factors (such as wind and light) that play a role in determining the orientation of a web. In response to wind, Araneus gemmoides builds her web parallel to the prevailing wind direction, whereas Araneus diadematus simply reduces the area of the exposed web. Both strategies tend to prevent mechanical load and possible damage of the web (Hieber, 1984). Behaviorally mediated thermoregulation entails one disadvantage for spiders: a higher body temperature also means a higher transpiration rate and a correspondingly greater loss of water. If a spider loses more than 20% of its body weight because of transpiration, it will die (Cloudsley-Thompson, 1957). It seems, however, that most spiders can take up water from moist soil, provided that the humidity of the substrate is more than 12%. Normally, early morning dew is quite sufficient for that purpose. A rather curious example of a passive thermoregulation is provided by the parasitic pompilid wasp that attacks the eresid spider Stegodyphus lineatus in the hot Negev desert (Ward and Henschel, 1992). The spider is paralyzed inside its aerial silk tube and a single egg is laid on its abdomen. If it were left inside the tube, the immobile spider would heat up to 40°C and die within a few days. Instead the wasp moves the spider to the cooler nest entrance, which incidentally is the same position the spider normally adopts in response to the heat of the day. Wind convection at the nest entrance causes a considerable drop in temperature, and the host is thus kept cool long enough for the wasp larva to develop into a pupa.

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Overwintering In the temperate zones, poikilothermic animals have to adjust to the harsh cycles of the seasons. Spiders have developed several adaptations to survive such adverse conditions as cold, dampness, flooding, and, naturally, lack of food. Spiders meet these challenges by colonizing the appropriate microhabitats, by increasing their resistance to cold, and by reducing their metabolic rate. They are thus well prepared for overwintering, and, as a consequence, mortality during the cold winter months is surprisingly low. About 85% of the spider fauna overwinter in the soil, mainly in leaf litter, which is a good insulator against the cold. During this time most spiders assume a rigid posture, with the legs drawn close to the body so that the exposed body surface is kept to a minimum. The microhabitat of the leaf-litter zone protects the spider not only from extreme temperature fluctuations but also from desiccation (Edgar and Loenen, 1974). Even heavy snow cover is by no means lethal for spiders. On the contrary, the insulating properties of a layer of snow ensure a rather steady temperature of about 0°C (Buche, 1966). Thus, ambient air temperatures of minus 40°C, which have been recorded, for example, in Canada, have little effect on the spiders beneath the snow (Aitchison, 1978, 1987). Spiders of the temperate zones can be placed into one of five groups, based on their annual cycles or periods of maturation (Schaefer, 1976a, b, 1977): (1) eurychronous species, which take a long time to mature and overwinter in various developmental stages (these spiders constitute 23% of the species investigated); (2) stenochronous species, whose reproductive period lasts from spring until summer and which overwinter as nymphs (45%); (3) stenochronous species, whose period of reproduction is during the fall and whose young spiderlings remain inside the egg case during winter (7%); (4) diplochronous species, which have two separate reproductive periods (spring and fall) and overwinter in the adult stage (4–13%); and (5) stenochronous species, with their reproduction period in winter (winter-active spiders; 9%). Some members of the linyphiids (erigonids), lycosids, clubionids, thomisids, and tetragnathids belong to this latter group. They can build webs even below 0°C and also catch prey (e.g., collembolans) (Hågvar, 1973; Aitchison, 1984). The winter-active spiders of the temperate zones are mostly found among the family Linyphiidae, but also among juveniles of Theridiidae and some Agelenidae (Catley, 1992). They are not particularly resistant to cold but simply most active at rather low temperatures. Below minus 4°C they become as rigid as other spiders do, and below minus 7°C they die. Those spiders that overwinter passively are much more cold resistant. Most garden spiders (Araneus species) can withstand temperatures of minus 20°C, even in unprotected locations (Kirchner, 1973). It is not quite clear how these spiders achieve their remarkable resistance to cold. The spider’s hemolymph contains glycerol, which acts as an antifreezing agent, and the glycerol content is markedly higher in winter than in summer. Nevertheless, it seems unlikely that the glycerol alone can account for such resistance to cold, since this chemical lowers the freezing point of the spider’s hemolymph by only 1°C (Kirchner and

Ecology

Kestler, 1969). The freezing point (or melting point, to be more precise), however, is not equivalent to the much lower undercooling point (i.e., just before ice crystals are formed) that is measured in live spiders (Kirchner, 1987). This is apparently due to certain proteins of the hemolymph, which can lower the freezing point by 20°C (Duman, 1979; Husby and Zachariassen, 1980; Zachariassen, 1985). It remains still a bit mysterious, however, how cold-resistant spiders manage to survive long and cold winters (Kirchner and Kullmann, 1975). In general, spiders living in cooler climates have a lower super-cooling point than those that prefer warmer regions. For instance, wolf spiders species (Pardosa) show more cold-hardiness in Canada than in Great Britain (Bayram and Luff, 1993; Murphy et al., 2008). Many spider eggs can also withstand temperatures as low as minus 24°C (Schaefer, 1976a, b, 1977). One would expect that the egg stage would thus be an ideal form to survive the winter, yet only 7% of European spiders actually use this strategy. Perhaps it is more favorable for a young spider to be self-sufficient by early spring.

Special Adaptations: Camouflage and Mimicry More impressive than the physiological adaptations of spiders toward the changing physical conditions of their environments are adaptations that protect spiders from their enemies. These protective measures range from simple camouflaging colors to complex behavior, including mimicry. Most spiders are rather drab and are not very noticeable within their environment. Even such conspicuously green species as Micrommata virescens or Araniella cucurbitina are difficult to detect in nature, because they live mostly on leaves. More interesting are those spiders that can actively change their coloration to match the substrate they live on: The crab spiders Misumena varia and Thomisus onustus, for example, change the color of their white or yellow abdomens to correspond to the white or yellow blossom on which they are sitting. This process usually takes a few days (Weigel, 1941) and is reversible. The change is due to either producing or destroying yellow pigments (ommochromes). White spiders contain mostly intracellular guanine crystalls (see fig. 3.13) and only small “progranules” of yellow ommochromes. During a color change, these pro-granules fuse into larger granules, which gradually produces a yellow appearance (Insausti and Casas, 2008). The advantage of this color adaption seems twofold: first, insects visiting the blossoms do not perceive the camouflaged spider and can be taken by surprise, and second, the spider is not recognized by its enemies (Bristowe, 1958). Although this sounds logical, later studies gave rather contradictory results. It turned out that yellow crab spiders (Misumena vatia) on yellow flowers did not catch any more prey than white spiders on yellow flowers (or vice versa). In other words, the supposed camouflage had no positive effect on prey capture (Brechbühl et al., 2010). Whether an approaching insect can actually perceive a crab spider sitting on a blossom depends on the kind of insect visiting the flower: solitary bees and syrphid flies strongly avoid blossoms harboring crab spiders, whereas honey bees and bumble bees pay no heed to blossoms with spiders, regardless of the color match between

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spider and blossom. Even more puzzling are observations of Australian crab spiders (Thomisus spectabilis), where flowers with crab spiders were actually more attractive to honey bees than the flowers without spiders (Heiling et al., 2005). This attraction may be due to a high UV reflectance that some crab spiders (Thomisus) exhibit with respect to a nonreflecting background (i.e., blossoms). It seems that the spiders can perceive the difference in UV reflectance and then preferentially select the background with the highest UV contrast (Bhaskara et al., 2009). In addition, Thomisus sitting on matching flowers appear cryptic in the color vision of birds and should thus be protected from predation (Théry and Casas, 2002; Théry et al., 2005). We should also bear in mind that many insects can see UV light and therefore their visual impressions may be quite different from ours. White and yellow crab spiders, for instance, were found to absorb UV light and are probably inconspicuous to insect eyes, especially when sitting in the middle of blossoms (Sato, 1987). Aside from this slow color change, a rapid color change, like a kind of startle response, can also occur in some spiders. The tropical araneid Cyrtophora cicatrosa drops immediately out of its web when disturbed; at the same time, the color pattern of its abdomen changes rapidly so that the animal blends with its background (Blanke, 1975a). This rapid color change probably results from a quick reduction of the light areas (that is, the guanine deposits) in the abdomen. The return to normal coloration takes only a few minutes. Startle reactions among spiders such as dropping suddenly on a thread are quite common. When the spider falls to the ground, it often pulls its legs close to its body and “plays dead,” a behavior that is called catalepsy. Some web spiders, such as Argiope, react by violently shaking their webs if they are disturbed by sudden vibrations or by shadows passing overhead. The most striking response occurs in daddy-longlegs spiders (Pholcidae), which can tremble so rapidly in their webs that they become too blurred to be seen ( Jackson, 1990; Jackson et al., 1990). Many wandering spiders quickly assume defensive postures when threatened. The front legs are jerked upward, the chelicerae are widely spread, and the whole prosoma is lifted up (Tretzel, 1959). Tarantulas may remain in such threatening postures for several minutes. Perhaps the most impressive adaptations are the various kinds of mimicry. Spiders are renowned for their ant mimicry: several hundred species copy the shapes and body colors of ants, and also move in a way that is very similar to that of ants (Cushing, 1997). Striking examples are found in certain salticids and clubionids, whose short and sturdy forelegs look like the antennae of ants. This optical illusion is even more convincing when one watches a spider in motion: the forelegs are rarely used for walking but instead are raised above the body, quivering in an antlike fashion. The other legs are thin, and the prosoma (or opisthosoma) may be constricted so that the typical shape of an ant’s body is achieved (fig. 9.14; Ceccarelli, 2008). The up-and-down movement of the spider´s opisthosoma mimicks the abdominal “bobbing” of ants, which is used for recruiting nest mates. Of course, morphological and behavioral adaptations vary considerably among different spider species (Jackson, 1986a; Elgar, 1993). Some species are only superficially antlike and still walk with all eight legs, whereas others are detailed copies of

Ecology

Figure 9.14 Ant mimicry in Australian salticids. (a) the spider Myrmarachne sp. and (b) its model ant Opisthopsis haddoni. (c) the spider Myrmarachne lupata and (d) its model ant Polyrhachis sp. These spiders resemble their model ants not only morphologically but also behaviorally, e.g. by waving their first legs like antennae. (Photos: Ceccarelli.)

a specific ant species (Reiskind, 1977). The Central American Castianeira rica (Clubionidae) has one of the most interesting types of mimicry because it exhibits multiple mimicry (Reiskind, 1970). Females of this species look like a rather generalized version of the ant subfamily Ponerinae, but the bright orange males resemble ants of the genera Atta and Odontomachus. In contrast, the second and third nymphal stages of C. rica are black and shiny like ants of the subfamily Myrmicinae, while the fourth and fifth nymphs are yellow-orange, mimicking leaf-cutter ants (Atta). The crucial question of ant mimicry, namely, whether the spider derives any advantage from its resemblance to ants, has been discussed often (Berland, 1932); certainly, there is little experimental evidence that would demonstrate a biological meaning for this mimicry. It has been proved, however, that birds cannot distinguish at least one ant mimic (Synageles, Salticidae) from the actual ant (Engelhardt, 1971). Furthermore, it is known that birds usually avoid eating ants, presumably because they are distasteful. In one experiment, when a Synageles was fed to a bird by hand, it was readily accepted; however, when Synageles was offered in a dish together with ants (Lasius niger), the bird ate neither. This speaks clearly in favor of protective mimicry (Batesian mimicry), for which a requisite is that the model and the mimic occur in the same habitat (Pekár and Král, 2002; Nelson et al., 2005). This is indeed true for most cases of ant mimicry in spiders. Furthermore, those spiders that live together with ants almost never feed on ants ( Jackson and Willey, 1994). The only example of an “aggressive mimicry” is the crab spider Aphantochilus (Oliveira and Sazima, 1984) and perhaps the antlike Amyciaea, which lures ants by her movements before seizing them (Hingston, 1927; Mathew, 1954). Overall, we must conclude that ant mimicry in spiders has mainly a protective function. This is also supported by the observation that the antlike Myrmarachne species rarely become victims of sphecid wasps, in contrast to the more typicallooking jumping spiders (Edmunds, 1978, 1993). Other, more indirect evidence that ant mimicry is self-protective for spiders is provided by the ant-mimicking

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salticids Synageles venator and Peckhamia picata, which lay only three or four eggs: this low number of offspring must have a relative good chance for survival. One might object that the low number of eggs is simply a result of their small and narrow abdomen. Among the different Myrmarachne species, for instance, only the small ones lay few eggs (2–6), whereas the larger ones lay about 25, which is close to the usual 25–35 eggs found in the cocoons of regular, middle-sized jumping spiders (Bristowe, 1939). The East African species Myrmarachne melanotarsa is remarkable because more then 50 of these ant mimics aggregate into one common nest complex. When meeting their “model” ant (Crematogaster sp.), they either move quickly away or they adopt typical ant movements to deceive the ant. Since these spiders are living in “social” groups, they may at first glance appear like a swarm of ants, which might serve as a further protection against predators (collective mimicry; Jackson et al., 2008). Spiders that simply live in ant nests without copying the host morphologically or behaviorally are called myrmecophilics (Hölldobler and Wilson, 1990). Some species are only occasional visitors in ant colonies, whereas others live there permanently as commensals. A typical example is Masoncus pogonophilus (Linyphidae), which is found in colonies of the Florida harvester ant Pogonomyrmex badicus. When the host ants emigrate to a new nest site, the spiders also move along the same trails (Cushing, 1995). It is interesting that not only do spiders mimic insects, but insects also mimic spiders. Some fruit flies (Rhagoletis, Zonosemata) have a conspicuous pattern of dark stripes on their wings that resembles the legs of certain jumping spiders (Salticus, Phidippus). When they lift and lower their wings, it gives the impression of a moving spider (Greene et al., 1987; Mather and Roitberg, 1987). A Rhagoletis fly gives such a display when encountering a Salticus spider. The jumping spider apparently mistakes the fly for a threatening conspecific and carefully withdraws. However, in experiments in which the stripes on the wings were removed, the spider recognized the fly and attacked immediately. This protective mimicry is rather specific and works only with jumping spiders. Other visual hunters such as lynx spiders or preying mantis are not fooled by this mimicry. Later it was found that large, adult jumping spiders are also not tricked by mimicking fruit flies (Hasson, 1995).

Communication As mentioned in chapters 4 and 7, spiders have developed various means to communicate with each other. Especially during courtship, mechanical, chemical, or visual signals may play important roles in communication. The exchange of chemical signals was probably the first type of communication to evolve in spiders (Weygoldt, 1977) because contact chemoreceptors permit mutual identification of the sexual partners. Also important are receptors that perceive various mechanical signals, especially the vibrations transmitted by a web (Barth, 1982). It is likely that the vibrational signals emitted by web spiders during courtship are species specific

Ecology

and thus also serve to identify potential males. Wandering spiders also generate vibratory signals during courtship; the vibrations may be transmitted by a solid substrate (such as the ground or leaves) or through the air as sound. The following discussion of communication in spiders is restricted to the exchange of acoustical signals; the other modes of communication were described in chapter 7. Like certain insects, several species of spiders produce sounds. They can use three methods: (1) drumming with parts of the body (palps, legs, or abdomen) against the substrate; (2) stridulation—that is, generating a sound on the spider’s body by moving a “scraper” over a “file”; and (3) vibration of the abdomen (Rovner, 1980b; Rovner and Barth, 1981). Drumming is seen in many male wolf spiders during courtship (see chapter 7). Females react to it, so the communicative function of drumming is clear (Bristowe and Locket, 1926; Harrison, 1969). In some wolf spiders (e.g., in Hygrolycosa), both sexes drum in an alternating fashion (Kronestedt, 1996). The male’s abdominal drum-rolls on dead leaves are considerably louder than the female’s and are audible to the human ear over a distance of several meters. This is probably caused by stout, knoblike hairs on the ventral abdomen of the male, which allow for a stronger impact during drumming. The situation is somewhat more complex for stridulation. Many types of stridulatory organs have been well described structurally, yet any communicative function ascribed to them has been met with skepticism (Berland, 1932; Legendre, 1963). However, investigations of the cobweb spider Steatoda bipunctata have shown that stridulation is indeed involved both in courtship and in agonistic encounters (Gwinner-Hanke, 1970). In Steatoda bipunctata, only the adult male possesses stridulatory organs. These consist of ridged areas (1 mm2) on the prosoma that are apposed to strong cuticular spurs on the opisthosoma (see fig. 9.15a). When the spider vibrates its abdomen vertically, the organs produce faintly audible sounds similar to the sound of a fingernail run along the teeth of a comb. The main frequency of the sound is around 1000 Hz, or, as a music connoisseur would say, a C’’’. The male stridulates only in the presence of a female, or if a competing male is nearby. In such a case, only the dominant male will stridulate (Lee et al., 1986). Proof that the stridulatory organs have a communicative function is seen from the female’s reactions: she waves her forelegs, plucks the threads of her web, vibrates her entire body, and makes searching movements. The male’s direct contact with the female’s web is not necessary, and this is evidence that the stridulatory signals are transmitted through the air as sound. When the stridulatory organs are put out of action by covering them with glue, the males do not start courtship at all. Courtship is probably elicited by chemical substances that adhere to the female’s threads. These threads alone suffice to trigger the male’s courtship; they fail to do so after the substances have been washed off with ether. In the related theridiid Steatoda grossa, however, it is not yet clear whether a communicative function can be assigned to the stridulatory organs, since the females do not show any definite reactions toward stridulating males (GwinnerHanke, 1970). How can the female spiders differentiate between the stridulations of males belonging to different species? How can the female wolf spider Schizocosa ocreata

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Figure 9.15 Stridulatory organs. (a) The kleptoparasite Argyrodes (Theridiidae) has strong cuticular spines (S) on its opisthosoma (Op). The spines are scraped across the rippled area on the prosoma (pro). The hair sensilla projecting from the opisthosoma may function as proprioreceptors. 420 x. (Photo:VolIrath and Foelix.) (b, c) The male wolf spider Pardosa fulvipes has spiny bristles on the coxae of legs 4. These are rubbed over the rills on the cover of the book lungs. (b) 70 x; (c) 1,300 x. (Photos: Kronestedt.)

recognize when a “wrong” male (e.g., Schizocosa rovneri) is stridulating nearby? The answer most likely lies in the different way the sound is produced: Schizocosa ocreata stridulates for several seconds at 800 Hz, whereas Schizocosa rovneri produces short clicks (0.2 seconds) at 500 Hz, which are separated by long pauses (Uetz and Stratton, 1982). Although both species use the same “instruments” (stridulatory organs on the palps), they apparently play different “melodies.” Visual stimuli are not as important to triggering receptive behavior in females as are acoustic stimuli. If the female can “hear” the male, either by airborne or by substrate vibrations, she will respond positively in 80% of the time. If the acoustic input is blocked experimentally (fig. 9.16), the response drops to less than 40%. Furthermore, acoustic communication can be perceived over a greater distance than visual display. Morphologically, the stridulatory organs are always paired “files” that lie close to cuticular teeth on an adjacent body part. Eight types of stridulatory organs, occurring in over 100 species of 23 families, have been described (Legendre, 1963, 1970). In addition to the type described for Steatoda (opisthosoma–prosoma), stridulatory organs may lie between the chelicerae and the pedipalps (as they do in Scytodes) or between the opisthosoma and the fourth legs (fig. 9.15b,c; Hinton and Wilson, 1970; Kronestedt, 1973). Many of the large tarantulas have stridulatory organs in both sexes, not just in males. When one of these spiders is threatened, it emits a

Ecology

Figure 9.16 Experimental chamber used to study the relative importance of visual, chemical and acoustical stimuli in wolf spider courtship. The female is sealed inside a transparent plastic bubble, which prevents chemical and acoustic communication. In order to eliminate the transmission of ground vibrations the bubble can be raised by a thin wire. (After Uetz and Stratton, 1982.)

hissing noise that is quite like the defensive hissing of a snake. In general, then, stridulatory organs may serve a defensive purpose when present in both sexes and are used for identification when restricted to the male of the species (Meyer, 1928). Stridulation is common among crustaceans (in fiddler crabs, for example) and insects. Crickets, grasshoppers, and cicadas use stridulation mainly to identify their own species. Many beetles, roaches, bugs, and butterflies also possess stridulatory organs, which in many cases serve to startle predators. In leafcutter ants, stridulation functions as an alarm system: when an ant is in trouble, buried under sand or caught in a spider’s web, it will stridulate vigorously; this attracts other ants in the vicinity that quickly come to the aid of the victim (Markl, 1967). Some kinds of acoustical communication can even occur between spiders and their predators. It was shown experimentally that courting male wolf spiders stop movement and courtship when exposed to bird calls. And, surprisingly, these spiders can differentiate the threatening bird calls from nonthreatening noises (Lohrey et al., 2009). It seems, however, that the airborne sounds from the bird calls are transmitted (and perceived) as substrate-coupled vibrations.

Social Spiders Anyone who has collected live spiders knows that they have to be kept apart, or they are likely to kill each other. The reputation spiders have for being solitary and

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intolerant is certainly well deserved. Yet among the 40,000 different species of spiders, about 20 species are known to live together in peaceful colonies; these are the social spiders. What exactly is meant by “social” spiders? There are many different interpretations in the literature (Kullmann, 1972b; Krafft, 1985; D’ Andrea, 1987), and they are all derived from the concept of sociality in insects (see E. O. Wilson, 1971). A more recent discussion of social spiders called simply for a “cooperation among mutually tolerant individuals” (Downes, 1995). This definition abandons an earlier postulated interattraction (“a tendency to aggregate”; Kullmann, 1972b) as a necessary precondition for sociality. Although there are a number of spiders that live together communally, only few (about 20) fulfill the main criterion of sociality (i.e., cooperation in prey capture and in brood care). These spiders belong mainly to web spiders: the agelenids (Agelena consociata, A. republicana), the eresids (five species of Stegodyphus), the theridiids (four species of Anelosimus, two species of Achaearanea), and two dictynids (Mallos gregalis, Aebutina binotata; Avilés, 1993). It was long held that only web spiders could be social because the threads of their webs transmit vibrations and thus serve as the necessary means of communication. However, in recent years a social crab spider (Diaea socialis; Main; 1988), a social huntsman spider (Delena cancerides; Rowell, 1985; Yip et al., 2009), and a social lynx spider (Tapinillus sp.; Avilés, 1994) have been reported. A subsocial behavior has also been noted in the web-building wolf spider Sosippus: the young spiderlings first ride on their their mother´s back, and then stay for months in her sheet web (Brach, 1976; Brady, 2007). Sometimes the mother captures large prey on which several young ones feed communally. It should be pointed out that all these spiders have not quite reached the eusocial level of termites, ants, bees, or wasps because all the adult female spiders can reproduce and they have never developed a real division of labor nor a caste system (Ainsworth et al., 2002). This has led to the opinion that spider sociality was just the “poor cousin” to insect sociality. However, the main function of sociality in insects is reproductive, whereas spider sociality has mostly a foraging function (Whitehouse and Lubin, 2005). In a widely accepted classification of spider sociality, four different categories are distinguished (Avilés, 1997): 1. Nonterritorial, permanent-social (quasi-social; Wilson 1971; e.g., in Anelosimus eximius) 2. Nonterritorial, periodic-social (subsocial; e g., in Stegodyphus lineatus) 3. Territorial, permanent-social (communal; e.g., in Philoponella republicana) 4. Territorial, periodic-social (subsocial; e.g., in Eriophora bistriata) The highest level of sociality is represented by the first category, as it involves living in a communal nest and cooperating in web building, prey capture, feeding, and brood care. Any direct aggression is lacking among these social spiders (Lubin and Bilde, 2007). Since all the members stay together and mate in the same colony, there is a high degree of inbreeding, and after a certain population density is reached, a collapse or even extinction of a colony is common. This strong inbreeding has led

Ecology

to the speculation that social systems in spiders are unstable and may represent evolutionary dead ends (Wickler and Seibt, 1993; Agnarsson et al., 2006). Despite such theoretical claims, most social spiders are highly successful and are widely distributed geographically, mainly in tropical and subtropical regions (Avilés et al., 2007). One of the first social spiders studied was the African funnel-web spider Agelena consociata (fig. 9.17a). Several hundred, or even a thousand, individuals may live together in one web without showing any animosity toward each other (Darchen, 1979; Riechert et al., 1986). This tolerance must no doubt be based on mutual recognition because social spiders are just as aggressive toward their prey as are their solitary relatives. Most likely, a spider is recognized as a member of the same species

Figure 9.17 Social spiders. (a) Two females of the African funnel-web spider Agelena consociata in close contact on the communal sheet web. (Photo: Krafft.) (b) Several Stegodyphus dumicola females attacking a cricket (arrow) together in their cribellate web. (Photo: Bar Shahal.)

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by the typical vibrations it generates in its web. When a spider is made to vibrate artificially, its conspecifics attack it immediately. However, they quickly release it after they briefly touch it with their first tarsi. Sometimes they also use their pedipalps for a closer inspection, but a spider of their own species will never be bitten. Certain chemical substances (pheromones) probably help the spiders recognize a conspecific because spiders washed with a mixture of ether and alcohol are bitten (Krafft, 1971). The chemical signals are apparently not very specific because it is possible to exchange spiders from different web communities and even of different species without eliciting any aggressive reactions. For example, the solitary Agelena labyrinthica can be peacefully introduced into the web of the social Agelena consociata (Krafft, 1975), and, similarly, populations of social Stegodyphus species (S. mimosarum, S. dumicola) can be mixed (Seibt and Wickler, 1988a). However, some kind of hierarchical system seems evident in Agelena consociata—at least, for example, when one of the spiders is to carry prey from the web to the retreat. Most social spiders thus differ remarkably from the “closed” societies of certain ants, where members of the same species from different nests often fight each other; the open societies of social spiders are more comparable to the anonymous schools of fish or flocks of birds (Rypstra, 1979). An exception is the social huntsman spider Delena cancerides, which is highly aggressive toward conspecifics from other nests (Rowell and Avilés, 1995; Yip et al., 2009). Even more impressive than the mutual tolerance of social spiders is their cooperation. Web building, prey catching, feeding, and brood care are often performed communally. Of course, cooperative web building is not particularly coordinated and is dictated mainly by necessity. Several animals of different age classes spin largely independently of each other when repairing or extending the existent web structure. Prey catching in Agelena consociata is also communal (Darchen, 1965; Krafft, 1971). When prey falls on the sheet web, its movements attract the attention of all spiders in the vicinity. If the prey is small (less than 1 cm), only a single adult spider rushes in, grasps the victim, bites it, and carries it off to the common retreat. There the actual feeding begins and as many other spiders participate as can find a place on the prey. If a larger prey animal has blundered into the web, several, mostly adult, spiders attack it. Some hold fast to the legs or wings, while others climb on the victim’s back to inflict the poisonous bite. Nevertheless, only one spider carries the prey to the retreat. The spiderlings do not participate in hunting but wait until food is brought to them by an adult spider. During the entire course of hunting and feeding, aggression is never displayed between conspecifics. This lack of aggression is apparently not typical for all social spiders. The social Stegodyphus species (fig. 2.17b), for instance, also hunt and feed together, but not as peacefully as it may appear at a first glance (Seibt and Wickler, 1988b, c). Transportation of large prey is not really well coordinated but is rather a tug-of-war of several individuals that eventually ends in the retreat. Similarly, communal feeding is not free of conflicts, but includes mutual leg kicking and dominance of the larger spiders (Ward and Enders, 1985). Apparently there is competition for food,

Ecology

especially in larger colonies. It must also be pointed out that no active recruitment of new spiders occurs during prey capture, as is typically seen in social insects. Thus we do not find a true division of labor in these social spiders. It is curious that sociality is not obligatory in certain spider species. For instance, in Stegodyphus dumicola, many individuals live singly in small nests outside the colonies and, in fact, reproduce at a higher rate than their social siblings (Henschel, 1992). Nevertheless, a social mode of life gives a species an important advantage: A group of cooperative spiders can overpower larger prey than a single spider could (Christenson, 1984; Nentwig, 1985; Rypstra, 1990; Pasquet and Krafft, 1992). In addition, sociality has other advantageous effects (group effects) that cannot be explained solely on the grounds of better nutrition: (1) a higher rate of metabolism and more rapid growth; (2) a higher life expectancy; (3) a lower rate of mortality, (4) a smaller number of eggs; and (5) better protection from predators such as birds, wasps, ants, and other spiders (Henschel, 1998). The fact that social spiders produce fewer eggs than their solitary relatives (Agelena consociata, 12; Agelena labyrinthica, 50–100) seems paradoxical at first. However, it is a general trend that a higher level of sociality correlates with a lower number of eggs laid. As in other animals, a relatively small number of offspring will suffice to continue the species if brood care is highly developed. The longer life of a spider within a group has been demonstrated in experiments where social spiders were kept singly and their life spans were compared to those of their grouped siblings (Darchen, 1965). Similar observations of social insects are well known: bees kept in isolation survive only for a few days, although inside the hive they live longer than a month.

The Origin of Sociality Social spiders have been found in quite different families, such as Dictynidae, Eresidae, and Desidae (Downes, 1994) among the cribellate spiders, and Agelenidae, Theridiidae, and Thomisidae among the ecribellates. As these families are hardly related, sociality in spiders must have evolved independently several times. How did this sociality originate? Only a few of the approximately 20 species of social spiders have members that live together on a permanent basis, while all the other species are only “periodically social”; that is, their individuals congregate only temporarily (Kullmann, 1972b). Furthermore, although some species (e.g., of Araneidae and Uloboridae) form web colonies, each member retains its individual snare (Buskirk, 1975b; Lubin, 1980b; Burgess and Uetz, 1982; Uetz, 1986). One might refer to such loosely organized web colonies, which usually lack any cooperation, as parasocial. Representatives are the communal orb weavers Metepeira (fig. 9.18), Metabus, and Eriophora; the latter two are quite tolerant toward each other and actually share a communal retreat outside their orb webs. It is assumed that the aggregation of many webs into a large colony (several hundred or even thousands of webs) yields several advantages: (1) a better exploitation of certain habitats (e.g. large, open spaces), (2) an increased prey

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Figure 9.18 Colonial orb weavers (Metepeira) build their orbs close together – sometimes up to 100 in 1 m3. Although each orb is used individually, the interconnecting silk threads are used communally. Neighboring spiders show a high degree of tolerance toward each other. (Photo: Uetz; a negative image is shown here for better visibility of the orb webs.)

capture efficiency (e.g., larger prey is caught; Hodge and Uetz, 1996), and (3) better protection from certain predators (e.g., wasps, birds), especially inside a colony (Rayor and Uetz, 1990; 2000; Uetz et al., 2002). In Metepeira it was noted that web aggregation seems to be related to environmental conditions such as the availability of prey. Under harsh conditions spiders build solitary webs, but when prey is abundant, larger colonies are formed (Uetz, 1986). Those species in which the temporary social bond is closely linked with brood care may be called subsocial. It is a little known fact that subsocial behavior can already be observed in some species of the supposedly solitary tarantulas (e.g., in Hysterocrates gigas [fig. 9.19] or in Poecilotheria subfusca). Those species often show a high mutual tolerance; the spiderlings may stay for many weeks together in the burrow of their mother and may even share prey (Darchen, 1967; Jantschke and Nentwig, 2001; Varrecchia et al., 2004; Shillington and McEwen, 2006). It is now generally assumed that evolution from a solitary to a permanently social mode of life has proceeded through various subsocial stages (fig. 9.20). Quite likely, any higher form of sociality originated from a mother–offspring relationship (Markl, 1971). This relationship seems to be the basis of social systems of insects and spiders (Buskirk, 1981), as well as of the highly organized social systems of certain mammals. As an alternative explanation, neoteny has been proposed (i.e., the persistence of juvenile behavior patterns, such as mutual tolerance) into adulthood (Burgess, 1978; Kraus and Kraus, 1988).

Ecology

Figure 9.19 Subsocial behavior in the tarantula Hysterocrates. The mother spider not only tolerates her young ones in her burrow but actually captures prey which she then leaves to the spiderlings. (Photo: M. Huber.)

The decisive point on the route to sociality in spiders was probably that the young ones did not disperse but stayed in their mother’s web, even after reaching maturity. As a consequence, inbreeding and group selection became effective, as is seen in the skewed sex ratio of social spiders: each colony has 5–10 times as many females as males. This is of advantage for the size of a colony because resources are invested into reproductive females rather than in “unnecessary” males (Avilés, 1986, 1997; Vollrath, 1986b; Avilés and Maddison, 1991; Lubin, 1991; Lubin and Bilde, 2007). The evolutionary origins of sociality in spiders (fig. 9.20) probably should be sought among the solitary web spiders, since their threads play a central role in communication between individual spiders. It even seems that their webs needed to be irregular, because only such webs can be used by several individuals simultaneously. Among the freely roaming wandering spiders, we find very few social species, probably because the “connecting wires” are lacking. However, even in the case of social crab spiders, there are many threads holding their communal leaf nest together (Main, 1986; 1988), and the social lynx spiders actually build a communal web (Avilés, 1994). Within some spider families (such as Eresidae and Theridiidae), we see several different periodically social stages that ultimately may have led to permanent sociality (Kullmann, 1972b). Among theridiid species, gradually improved methods of brood care can be observed, starting with the mere guarding of the egg case, followed by passive provision of the brood with food (e.g., the dead mother may serve

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Figure 9.20 Hypothetical origin of sociality in spiders. (After Shear, 1970.)

as their nourishment, as in Amaurobius and Coelotes; Kim and Horel, 1998; Kim et al., 2000, Gundermann et al., 1988), and, finally, actively supplying food for the spiderlings. Examples for the latter are regurgitative feeding, carrying prey to the young, and communal prey hunting and feeding. Benefits for the young are faster growth and better survival. Initially, maternal brood care in subsocial species was restricted to the own offspring. At higher social levels it was probably extended to other spiderlings within the colony. “Allo-maternal” care refers to guarding of several egg sacs from different females or also to feeding of young spiderlings from other mothers. In some species (e.g., Stegodyphus dumicola) even “allo-matriphagy” was observed, which means that young spiderlings were eating female spiders that were not their mother (Salomon and Lubin, 2007). Each increase in the complexity of brood care denotes a higher level of sociality. A comparison between the two social theridiids Anelosimus eximius and Anelosimus studiosus is enlightening in this regard (Brach, 1975, 1977). A. eximius can be regarded as a typical social spider because these spiders demonstrate tolerance and cooperation (fig. 9.21) almost as well as Agelena consociata. In A. studiosus, however, tolerance is not permanent among the members of a colony. After the death of the colony founder, the mother, the colony remains together peacefully only until one

Ecology

Figure 9.21 (a) Communal hunting in the theridiid Anelosimus eximius. Several females fling sticky threads over a fly that became entangled in the mesh of the cobweb. (b) Young spiderlings gather around a female to be fed mouth-to-mouth (left) or they may feed communally on the prey killed by the adults (right).

sibling female has reached maturity. This female then tolerates only juvenile spiders and adult males, but chases any other adult females away. This aggression toward conspecific females precludes the formation of large colonies in this species. In contrast, up to 1000 individuals may live together peacefully in one web of the consistently placid A. eximius; their huge webcomplexes may take up 1000 m3 (Leborgne et al., 1994). A gradual development of sociality may also be noted among the Dictynidae, for instance from the communal yet territorial Mallos trivittatus to the communal, nonterritorial Mallos gregalis ( Jackson, 1978). The colonial orb-weaver Eriophora

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bistriata (Parawixia) could be placed between parasocial and quasi-social, because, despite building individual webs, a communal capture and feeding behavior can be observed when handling larger prey (Fowler and Diehl, 1978; Fowler and Gobbi, 1988b; Campón, 2007). In Coelotes, the young ones usually stay in their mother’s web for about 1 month before they disperse and build their own individual webs. During their early communal life they are provided with food by their mother (or may even eat their mother; Gundermann et al., 1988; Assi-Bessekon, 1997). The communal phase can be prolonged experimentally by several weeks by amply feeding the mother spider. If the young ones are prevented from dispersing by keeping them in a small enclosure, they may live together until adulthood. They remain very tolerant, and some even hunt prey together. It may well be that prolonged tolerance and cooperation developed under the condition of having abundant prey available. Or, as Krafft (2002, p. 30) has put it: “La plasticité de la tolérance ouvre la voie vers la socialisation.”

Phylogeny and Systematics

10 Now a book on biology is hardly the place to insert a chapter on classification. W. S. Bristowe, 1938 Despite Bristowe’s warning, it seems necessary to cover the descent and classification of spiders briefly. I must admit, however, that our real knowledge of the phylogeny of spiders is quite scanty, and hence to present any reliable pedigree is quite impossible.

Fossils Fossil spiders are rare, despite the fact that at present about 1100 fossils are known (Selden and Penney, 2010). Compared to insects, only one fossil spider is found for 1000 fossil insects. For the paleontologist, the task of reconstructing the ancient history of spiders is thus somewhat like trying to put a jigsaw puzzle together with most of the pieces missing—and without the picture on the box lid. Furthermore, 90% of fossil spiders date from the Tertiary period and are thus relatively young (less than 65 mio years old; Selden et al., 2009); they resemble extant families so closely that they provide hardly any clues as to their phylogeny (fig. 10.1). However, much older amber, containing silk threads with sticky droplets (140 million years) has recently been found in cretaceous sediments (Brasier et al., 2009; Peñalver et al., 2006; Zschokke, 2003, 2004). The oldest spider described so far was Attercopus fimbriungis from the Devonian period of North America (fig. 10.2; Selden et al., 1991). Later studies, however, 327

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Figure 10.1 (a) Fossilized amber spider (Hersiliidae) from the Dominican Republic, about 20 million years old. The typical long spinnerets (arrows) can easily be recognized. (From Wunderlich, J.: Spinnenfauna gestern und heute. Bauer Verlag, Wiesbaden, 1986.) (b, c) In Baltic amber (40 million years old) even silk threads have been preserved; arrow indicates small glue droplets on a capture thread. (Photos: Zschokke.)

have questioned the presence of real spinnerets, and consequently a new order of arachnids (Uraraneida) was established to accomodate Attercopus. The same may be true for the mesothele Permarachne from the Permian period (Eskov and Selden, 2005). Most likely, all the early spiders from the Carboniferous were Mesothelae, like the Arthrolycosidae (Petrunkevitch, 1933, 1955) and Arthromygalidae, which share the plesiomorphic traits of having a segmented abdomen and four book lungs. A good example is Palaeothele montceauensis from the Upper Carboniferous of France (fig. 10.3a), and probably also Arthrolycosa from the Permian period. Perhaps it was already in the Permian that an “arms race” started between insects and spiders;

Phylogeny and Systematics

Figure 10.2 The oldest fossil “spider” is Attercopus fimbriungis from the Devonian period (380 million years old). (a) The “spinnerets” bear about 20 spigots. 180 x. (b) Large cheliceral fang opposing several cheliceral teeth. 55 x. (Photos: Selden.) (c) A very similar cheliceral fang of the “primitive” extant spider Atypus is shown here for comparison. 35x.

that is, a rapid coadaptive radiation took place in both groups (fig. 10.4). It is assumed that the first three-dimensional webs for capturing flying insects evolved during the Permian period, although definite proof is lacking (Shear and KukalovaPeck, 1990). Opisthothele spiders are known since the Triassic time. The oldest known representative of the mygalomorphs is Rosamygale (Hexathelidae) from France (Selden and Gall, 1992), and of the araneomorphs Triassaraneus and Argyrachne from South Africa (Selden et al., 2009). The latter already resemble modern orb weavers (Araneoidea), and therefore it is conceivable that the first orb webs may have arisen then. Only few fossil spiders (Juraraneus, Jurarchea) have been described for the Jurassic period, but recently new specimens have been reported from China (fig. 10.5; Huang et al., 2006). Many more fossilized spiders are known from the Cretaceous (fig. 10.6), including well-preserved amber spiders (Petrunkevitch, 1942; Penney and Selden, 2006; Wunderlich, 2008). Modern orb weavers from the araneid, tetragnathid, and uloborid families were already present at that time

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Figure 10.3 (a) A carboniferous mesothele spider (Palaeothele montceauensis) from France (about 290 million years old). Note the imprints of the chelicerae (ch), two booklungs (1, 2) and the spinnerets (*). (Photo: Almond). (b) Hypothetical archetype of a chelicerate from which the various arachnid orders may be derived. M = mouth, G = genital opening, A = anus, 1–6 = prosomal segments. (After Størmer, 1955.)

(Selden, 1989, 1990; Selden and Penney, 2003). From some araneids of the Lower Cretaceous (Cretaraneus), we can conclude that they were already able to construct a typical orb web 130 million years ago (fig. 10.7). An interesting case in point is the so-called K-T boundary, the transition from the Cretaceous to the Tertiary period, which is marked by a mass extinction of many animals (ammonites, dinosaurs, etc.). It appears that spiders fared relatively well during that time and hardly suffered a taxonomic or numerical decline (Penney et al., 2003). In the mid-Tertiary period, nearly all extant families have fossil representatives. In contrast, our modern cursorial spiders (e.g., salticids, thomisids, clubionids) are not known from pre-Tertiary times. This supports the hypothesis that those hunting spiders derived from web-building spiders.

Evolutionary Trends Because the paleontological record of fossilized spiders is scant, we must apply indirect methods to elucidate (at least partly) their phylogeny. Comparative studies of

Phylogeny and Systematics

Figure 10.4 Relationship between spiders and insects over geological times showing co-evolution of both groups. (Note that the specimens / species are represented logarithmically disguising the non-linear increase of specimen numbers). First winged insects appeared between the Devonian and Carboniferous period, first web spiders probably during the early Triassic. (After Vollrath and Selden, 2007, based on data from Penney, 2004.)

Figure 10.5 (a) A male spider (Eoplectreurys gertschi) from the Middle Jurassic in China (about 165 million years old). Note the distinct palps (P) and bristle clusters (sp) on the distal tibiae. emb = embolus, Pro = prosoma, Op = opisthosoma. (Photo: Selden.)

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Figure 10.6 (a) A fossilized diplurid spider (Cretadiplura ceara) from the early Cretaceous in Brazil (120 million years old). Note the two long spinnerets which were probably used for weaving funnel webs (Photo: Selden.) (b) A camera lucida drawing of the same specimen identifying the major body parts: B1, B2 = 2 pairs of book lungs, Ch = chelicerae, E = eye tubercle, Pro = prosoma, PS = posterior spinneret. (After Selden et al., 2006.)

the spider’s closest living relatives, the whip spiders and whip scorpions (Weygoldt and Paulus, 1979; Shultz, 1990), and of spider embryology are particularly suited for this purpose. A reconstruction of the Paleozoic archetype of a spider would exhibit the following characteristics (fig. 10.3b; Bristowe, 1958; Savory, 1971): • • • • • • • •

Six prosomal and 12 abdominal segments consisting of tergites and sternites. Body segment 8 bearing the genital opening. Body segments 8 and 9 with respiratory organs. Body segments 10 and 11 carrying spinnerets. Prosoma and opisthosoma initially broadly joined together, later constricted Prosoma consisting initially of 6 segments, later of a single plate (carapace). Chelicerae of 2 or 3 segments, formerly chelate (pincers). Palps resembling legs.

During the course of evolution, this archetype acquired several new characteristics that can be explained primarily as adaptations to a terrestrial mode of life (Grasshoff, 1978). For instance, preoral digestion, typical of arachnids, is possible only on land. Concomitantly, more efficient mouthparts were needed, and apparently the palpal coxae were best suited and thus were preadapted for that purpose. Also, the chelicerae may have proved to be more efficient tools than pincers, once

Phylogeny and Systematics

Figure 10.7 (a) A well-preserved fossil spider (Cretaraneus) from the lower Cretaceous in Spain (130 million years). 15 x. Inset: The tarsus has two combed main claws (k), a smooth middle hook (m), and serrated bristles (arrowheads), all of which are typical for orb weavers (cf. Figure. 2.11). 480x. (From Selden, P. A.: Orb-weaving spiders in the early Cretaceous. Nature 340, 1989, p. 711.) (b) Part of an orb web with a captured moth fly (Psychodidae) has been preserved in this piece of Dominican amber. (Photo: Poinar.)

their terminal segment was modified into a movable claw and the basal segment became mainly a site of muscle attachment. Further improvements were certainly the development of cheliceral venom glands and a second, postcerebral pump (the sucking stomach) within the intestinal tract. Other changes involved (1) a constriction of the seventh body segment, which led to the formation of the typical pedicel; (2) the hydraulic extension of certain leg

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joints (see chapter 2); (3) a direct transfer of sperm with modified palps instead of deposited spermatophores; (4) a concentration of all ganglia into a solid central nervous system within the prosoma; and, finally, (5) the development and refinement of the spinning apparatus for use in prey catching. In general, spiders probably became smaller and lived shorter lives, while their entire behavioral repertoire became more complex. Most arthropod groups show a division of the head region into 6 segments, but in chelicerates the first (antennal) segment is seemingly missing. However, a molecular analysis has found the same expression of the Hox genes in spiders as in insects (Damen et al., 1998). This suggests that the cheliceral segment of spiders is homologous to the first antennal segment in insects, and the pedipalpal segment should correspond to the second antennal segment. Chelicerates, myriapods, crustaceans, and insects probably all share a single mode of head segmentation, which would also argue for a monophyletic origin of all arthropods, which at present is favored by most authors (Weygoldt, 1998). During the emergence of terrestrial arthropods, fundamentally different organs (wings, breathing organs, spinnerets) evolved in parallel from the same ancestral structures (gills), due to certain developmental genes (pdm, nubbin; Damen et al., 2002).

Classification Systematics deals with the study and classification of different organisms and their relationships. All spiders share certain common features (e.g., silk glands, chelicerae, eight legs), which they inherited from a common ancestor, although these features may be somewhat different now. For instance, early spiders had chelicerae that worked in parallel (orthognath), but later most spiders developed into a direction where chelicerae worked in opposition (labidognath). Similarities among species can be explained by branching lines during their evolution (phylogeny). Most evolutionary changes happened only once in one particular direction (polarity), which means there should be only one evolutionary history that is correct. However, to reconstruct the “correct” evolutionary pathway is quite difficult. Usually only probable hypotheses can be formulated, and even those have to be constantly adjusted as new observations and insights come to light. In a phylogenetic classification, a particular group is called a taxon (or a clade). In theory, a taxon would comprise one common ancestral species and all of its descendants. If that is the case, such a clade is called monophyletic. Among spiders, all labidognath spiders (Araneomorpha) or all jumping spiders (Salticidae) or wolf spiders (Lycosidae) are considered as monophyletic, because they all share some derived features (synapomorphies). For example, all salticids share the same feature of having highly developed eyes, especially complex main eyes, and all lycosids share the same typical eye pattern (see fig. 2.2). If similar taxa do not have a common ancestor, they are called polyphyletic. This is for example the case for wolf spiders and tarantulas (Mygalomorphs).

Phylogeny and Systematics

The traits or characters that systematicists use to infer phylogeny may be morphological, sometimes behavioral, and recently often molecular (e.g., DNA sequences). Ideally, as many characters as possible should be compared to create a reliable tree (pedigree) that reflects the relationships between taxons. Nowadays powerful computer algorithms are applied to find the most plausible (most parsimonious) branching diagram (cladogram). It should be pointed out, though, that a computer-generated cladogram is not necessarily better than a traditional classification based on morphological similarities. In most cladograms, characters are usually considered to be of equal importance (0 = absent; 1 = present), whereas in phylogenetic systematics (Hennig, 1966), it is advised to weight characters (complex traits having a higher value than simple ones). Although a computer-based analysis may be less subjective than a personal interpretation of similarities, it is still influenced by the selection of characters, the interpretation of homologies, or the particular computer program that is used. For instance, cladograms on mygalomorph taxonomy came out quite different when molecular analyses (rRNA genes) had been used (Hedin and Bond, 2006) in comparison to cladograms that were based on morphological characters (Raven, 1985; Goloboff, 1993), and it is difficult to say which one is closer to the truth.

Spider Phylogeny Spiders comprise about 40,000 species in more than 100 families (Platnick, 2009). Various spider pedigrees have been presented over the last 100 years, but the first true phylogenetic classification was published only 30 years ago (Platnick and Gertsch, 1976). This work emphasized the separation of the ancient (plesiomorphic) Mesothelae and the derived (apomorphic) Opisthothelae. The main difference is the clearly segmented abdomen in the Mesothelae as compared to the basically unsegmented body of the Opisthothelae. Other ancient traits of the Mesothelae are four book lungs and ventrally located spinnerets. Surprisingly, the male palps are rather complex (Kraus, 1978; Haupt, 1979, 2003), and therefore the question arises whether this is a plesiomorphic character for all spiders or whether this was a single modification that happened only in the Mesothelae (autapomorphy). The most important synapomorphies of the Araneae (which would indicate their monophyly) are the following (Coddington, 2005; Coddington and Levi, 1991): (1) abdominal extremities transformed into spinnerets; (2) abdominally located spinning glands; (3) chelicerae with venom glands; (4) male palp modified for sperm transfer; and (5) loss of abdominal segmentation, except in Mesothelae and some Mygalomorphae (yet even there the segmentation is only external). Opisthothelae can be subdivided into two lines, the paraphyletic Mygalomorphae and all the “true” spiders, the Araneomorphae. Although Mygalomorphae can produce silk threads, they cannot cement them together because they lack the appropriate type (piriform) of silk glands. Species diversity is rather limited: mygalomorphs have fewer than 2500 species, which is only about 7% of all spider species. Only few distinctive features can be compared among mygalomorphs, which makes

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phylogenetic analysis more difficult. The anterior median spinnerets, which are still present in the Mesothelae, are completely lacking in mygalomorphs, and the anterior lateral spinnerets are strongly reduced. Raven (1985) offered a cladogram for all mygalomorphs based on the comparison for 39 characters (fig. 10.8). He distinguished two groups: the Tuberculotae (with an oblique thoracid region and eyes raised on tubercles) and the Fornicephalae (with an arched head region). Among the latter group, the Atypidae and Antrodiaetidae are marked by the common trait of very few tarsal trichobothriae, which seems to be an apomorphy. All the other families of the Fornicephalae share a rastellum (a reinforced part of the chelicera adapted for digging) and tubular burrows with trapdoors. However, as already stated above, different cladograms were obtained when a molecular analysis of the 15 mygalomorph families was performed (Hedin and Bond, 2006; Ayoub et al., 2007a). Araneomorphs make up 90% of all spider species (fig. 10.9). A common derived trait (synapomorphy) is a fusion (or a reduction) of the anterior median spinnerets into a cribellum or a vestigial colulus. Cribellate families always contain rather few species in comparison to their ecribellate sister groups. For instance,

Figure 10.8 Cladogram of the monophyletic main groups of spiders: Mesothelae, Mygalomorphae, Araneomorphae. Only the families of the Mygalomorphae are listed here; the much larger infraorder Araneomorphae is shown in Figure. 10.9. (After Raven, 1985; Coddington and Levi, 1991.)

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Figure 10.9 Cladistic hypothesis for arranging the various families of the Araneomorphae. (Some smaller families are omitted in this diagram; after Coddington and Levi, 1991; Griswold et al., 2005)

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among the orb weavers, we find only around 300 cribellate species (Uloboridae, Deinopidae) but more than 10,000 ecribellate Araneoidea. The ancient web spiders probably used cribellate webs. One of those basal representatives is the extant Hypochilus (Paleocribellatae), which also exhibits other primitive traits (e.g., four book lungs). The largest systematic unit within the Araneomorphae, the Araneoclada, shares several synapomorphies, the most important being the transition of the posterior book lungs into tracheae. The Araneoclada can be divided into a small group, the Haplogynae, and a much larger group, the Entelegynae. All haplogyne spiders (except Filistatidae) are now believed to have lost the cribellum. Most of them live in tubes or are vagabonds, but some still build webs (e.g., Pholcidae). In general, they have simple reproductive organs, although there are some exceptions (Burger et al., 2006a, b). Entelegyne spiders have more complex reproductive organs (with an epigyne and separate fertilization ducts in the female; see fig. 1.5.). Male entelegyne genitalia are very diverse. In plesiomorphic forms, they are simple bulbs without distinct processes (apophyses). In more modern forms, the bulb is subdivided (embolus, tegulum, subtegulum) and bears several apophyses (conductor, median apophysis; fig. 7.10). The various parts of an entelegyne bulb are connected by inflatable membranes (hematotochae) that can expand the whole bulb just before copulation. It seems that the older, simpler forms eject sperm by muscular action, whereas modern bulbs work hydraulically (Huber, 2004). Males may also have apophyses on other parts of their palps—for instance on the tibia. Well-known is the so-called retrolateral tibial apophysis (RTA; fig. 10.10), which is found in almost half of the entelegyne spiders; this group is therefore referred to as the “RTA-clade” (Coddington and Levi, 1991; Sierwald, 1990). As shown by molecular analyses (Spagna and Gillespie, 2008), the cribellum was apparently lost repeatedly in the RTA clade, and prey capture webs were abondoned in favor of a vagabond lifestyle. At the base of the Entelegynae one can separate some primitive, cribellate families (e.g., Oecobiidae, Eresidae, Hersiliidae) from the higher evolved families; the former have eyes with a simple reflecting tapetum (Homann, 1971); the latter have derived and complex tapeta as well as special spinning glands for building cocoons (Coddington, 1989). A large entelegyne group are the orb weavers (Orbiculariae), which consists of two superfamilies: the large Araneoidea (13 families, 11,000 species) and the much smaller Deinopoidea (2 families, 300 species). These two were not considered to be related until phylogenetic classifications were applied (fig. 10.11). The evolutionary diversification and success of the Araneoidea is largely attributed to their innovations in silk use, particularly by the “invention” of a gluey (ecribellate) capture thread (fig. 5.24); an additional factor may have been a much higher fecundity in orb spiders (Blackledge et al., 2009 a, b). The most typical (autapomorphic) character of the Araneoidea is the triad (fig. 10.12), a combination of three spigots on the posterior spinneret that produces the gluey capture thread (Coddington, 1986; Schütt, 2000, 2003). Other autapomorphies of the Araneoidea are serrated bristles around the tarsal claws (used for grasping the silk thread; fig. 2.12) and a typical scaly surface structure of the cuticle (Lehtinen, 1996).

Phylogeny and Systematics

Figure 10.10 Palp of a male Amaurobius, retrolateral view. Arrow indicates a distinct apophysis of the tibia (Ti), the so-called retro-lateral tibial apophysis (RTA). All entelegyne spiders having that apophysis make up the “RTA-clade.”

Interpretations based on cladistic analysis consider the orb web as primitive and cribellate (Coddington, 1986, 1989; Coddington and Levi, 1991). Only in a few cribellate representatives (mainly in Uloboridae) did the plesiomorphic characters persist (cribellum/calamistrum, tracheae, distribution of trichobothria), while the cribellum disappeared in the sister group of the higher Araneoidea. In some families (Linyphiidae, Theridiidae) it must be assumed that even the orb web disappeared. In other words, their sheet and frame webs would not be precursors of an orb web, as was postulated by Kullmann et al. (1971/72; fig. 5.41), but would be derived from ancestors that originally built orbs (Agnarsson et al. 2004; Arnedo et al., 2004; Griswold et al., 1998). Entelegyne spiders outside the Araneoidea have rarely been analyzed phylogenetically, and therefore their classification remains uncertain. Amauroboids, for instance, are defined by small changes in the morphology of their spinneret spigots. The group is heterogeneous, containing both cribellate (Amaurobiidae) and ecribellate forms (Agelenidae), hunters and weavers. Lycosoids were formerly defined by a synapomorphy of their eyes, the “grate-shaped tapetum,” but this now seems to have evolved in another family (Stiphidiids) as well. Most of the Lycosoids (Ctenidae, Lycosidae, Oxyopidae, Pisauridae) have abandoned web building and became vagabonds. The former subdivision of Entelegynae into two-clawed Dionycha and threeclawed Trionycha has become dubious because three claws is the plesiomorphic state (fig. 1.6), and many Dionycha have in fact three claws, at least as juveniles.

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Figure 10.11 Phylogeny of the orb weavers (Orbiculariae) presented in a cladogram. (After Griswold et al., 1998).

For instance, Ctenus and Phoneutria exhibit three claws in the nymphal stages, but only two as adults (Homann, 1971). Two claws must be the derived condition. It is assumed that the third claw (middle claw) was reduced in several spider families during the transition from a life in a web to free hunting. One subgroup of the Dionycha, the Gnaphosoidea, share an interesting apomorphy: namely flattened lenses in the posterior eyes (PME; see chapter 4). Detailed cladistic analyses (comparing 150 different characters in more than 50 species) have so far confirmed the monophyly of Neocribellatae, Entelegynae, and Orbiculariae; in contrast, Lycosoidea, Dictynoidea, and Amaurobioidea appear to be polyphyletic (Griswold et al., 1999, 2005)

Suborders Most of the previous classifications of spiders were derived from the system of the French arachnologist Eugène Simon (Histoire naturelle des Araignées, 1892–1903). Later systematicists disagreed about the various suborders, especially about the

Phylogeny and Systematics

Figure 10.12 (a) The most significant synapomorphy of the Araneoidea is the so-called triad, the combination of one spigot from the flagellate gland (1) and two spigots from aggregate glands (2, 3), located on the posterior spinneret (Larinioides). (b) The capture thread consists of axial threads originating from the flagellate gland (1) and glue droplets coming from the aggregate glands (2, 3). (c) The three spigots of a triad as seen in the light microscope. (Photos: Foelix and Erb.)

position of the Mesothelae (Liphistiidae). Although some authors (Millot, 1949; Glatz, 1973) grouped them with the Mygalomorphae into one suborder Orthognatha; others assigned the Mesothelae a much more isolated position (Platnick and Gertsch, 1976): they are thought to be a sister group of all other recent spiders, which are then classified as the suborder Opisthothelae. Similarities that no doubt exist between Liphistiidae and some orthognath families (such as an abdominal segmentation in the Antrodiaetidae) are not considered synapomorphic but symplesiomorphic, and thus do not indicate direct relationships. In most current systems of classification, the order Araneae (Araneida) is divided into three suborders of equal rank: the Mesothelae, the Mygalomorphae (Orthognatha) and the Araneomorphae (Labidognatha).

The Cribellate Problem The idea that all orb weavers (Orbiculariae) are monophyletic is rather new and was not immediately accepted by all arachnologists. Since it was a basic issue in arachnology not long ago, it seems appropriate to discuss this “cribellate problem” briefly here. Formerly the labidognath spiders (Araneomorphae) were divided into two suborders, the Cribellatae and the Ecribellatae, but later this classification was questioned repeatedly (Lehtinen, 1967; Platnick, 1977). In general, cribellate forms are

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considered primitive (plesiomorphic) because the cribellum corresponds to the anterior median spinnerets of the Mesothelae. The ecribellate forms lack both a cribellum and anterior median spinnerets; instead they may possess a vestigial structure with no apparent function, the colulus. Based on embryological studies, however, anterior median spinnerets, cribellum, and colulus are believed to be homologous structures. What relationships exist between the Cribellatae and the Ecribellatae? Did they evolve independently from a common ancestral group? Or is one derived from the other? Is there any fundamental difference at all between cribellate and ecribellate spiders? Most arachnologists agree that cribellate spiders are monophyletic; that is, they are all descendants of a common ancestor. It is argued to be highly improbable that a complex character combination like the cribellum–calamistrum could have evolved independently several times. However, many ecribellate spiders hardly differ from some cribellate forms except that they lack such a cribellum–calamistrum complex. One could deduce, then, that ecribellates evolved from cribellates by having lost their cribellum and calamistrum. To put it pointedly, ecribellates are in fact cribellate spiders that have simply lost their cribellum during their evolution. But have all ecribellate spiders passed through a cribellate stage? If so, such a transition would have taken place more than 30 times, independent of each other, during the spider’s phylogeny. An alternative explanation would assume that, through convergent evolution, similar spider families developed among the cribellates and the ecribellates, comparable to the parallel evolution of marsupials and the other mammals. Both interpretations may be valid. Transformations from a cribellate to an ecribellate form probably occurred between the Oecobiidae and the Urocteidae (Kullmann and Zimmermann, 1976), or from the Psechridae to the Lycosidae (Homann, 1971). In contrast, the similarities between the ecribellate orb weavers Araneidae and cribellate Uloboridae could be the result of convergence (Kullmann et al., 1971/72). Superficially the orb webs of both are strikingly similar, but a closer investigation reveals distinctly different catching threads (araneids use glue, whereas uloborids use a cribellate hackle band) that originate from different, nonhomologous silk glands (Kullmann, 1972a; H. M. Peters, 1984, 1987). It is difficult to imagine that the araneid orb web evolved from an uloborid orb; instead, both webs could be merely analogous snares, having evolved independently.

Family Relationships The number, position, relative size, and internal structure of the eyes are important characters for classifying spider families. In ancient spiders, all eight eyes were probably the same size but then developed differently during their phylogeny. The lateral eyes, which can be separated into three groups according to the type of tapetum present, are systematically quite useful, since their synapomorphies can be established rather well (Homann, 1971). Probably all complex lateral eyes with a grated tapetum are of monophyletic origin; at the same time they represent an apomorphic character. This means that all

Phylogeny and Systematics

Figure 10.13 Epigynes of four closely related wolf spider species of the genus Alopecosa (dorsal view, cf. Figure. 7.13). A. aculeata (A) and A. taeniata (B) show only minor differences in the structure of their epigynes, yet differ distinctly in their courtship behavior. (From Kronestedt, 1990; Copyright © 1990 by The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters.)

spiders with a grated tapetum are related to one another (e.g., the Psechridae, Zoropsidae, Lycosidae, Oxyopidae, and Senoculidae). It seems noteworthy that these families contain both cribellate and ecribellate forms. As mentioned previously, the Lycosidae are presumably derived from the Psechridae by loss of the cribellum. Like the reduction of the third claw, the loss of the cribellum may be correlated with the transition from life within a web (Psechridae) to free hunting (Lycosidae). Whereas genital structures are used mainly for the separation of species (fig. 10.13), the classification of families relies more on the structure of the

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spinnerets, chelicerae, tarsal claws, and the labium. The divergence in spider classification is caused less by the different opinions of systematicists about the observable facts than by their interpretation of them. Recently many classical families have been radically rearranged and may even group cribellate and ecribellate forms within the same genus (Lehtinen, 1967; Forster and Wilton, 1973). Instead of a classical pedigree of spider families (Bristowe, 1938), a more modern spider phylogeny based on cladograms (Coddington and Levi, 1991; fig. 10.9) was presented in the last edition of this book. Although many data and standardized methods had been used to compile this cladogram, it was not expected to be the final word on spider phylogeny. In fact, my closing sentence was, “Critical counter proposals can be anticipated in the near future.” Somewhat surprisingly, this did not really happen. This does not mean that everything about spider phylogeny is now clear and accepted. As Coddington (2005, p. 24) pointed out: “On the family level some progress has been made over the last three decades, but to go below that still needs large sampling and rigorous phylogenetic studies.”

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Index

abdomen, 39 abdominal hairs, 257 abdominal ganglia, 118, 119 abdominal musculature, 41 abdominal segments, 39, 265 Achaearanea, 156, 260, 265 aciniform glands, 140 Acroceridae, 306 activity, 32 activity rhythm, 202 adaptations, 307 Adelocosa howarthi, 19 afferent fibers, 116 adhesion, 28 adhesive end-feet, 29 adhesive hairs, 29 aerial plankton, 297 aerial dispersal, 289, 290 Aganippe, 206 Agelena, 8, 107, 128, 155, 194, 264, 267 Agelena consociata, 318, 319 Agelenidae, 8, 151 Agelenopsis, 101, 155, 241 aggressive mimicry, 294, 301, 303, 313 Aglaoctenus, 11 agonistic behavior, 249 Agroeca, 256, 257

aggregate glands, 140 air vibrations, 91 allothetic navigation, 131 Alopecosa, 11, 234 Amaurobius, 144, 148, 151, 235, 236, 261, 271, 305, 324 Amaurobius ferox, 236 Amaurobius similis, 236 amber spiders, 327, 328 ampullate glands, 140 anal tubercle, 39 Ancylometes, 297 Anelosimus, 324, 325 Anidiops, 206, 208 ant mimicry, 312, 313 Anterior Lateral Eyes, 17, 130 Anterior Median Eyes, 17 apodemes, 41 apomorphic, 335 Araneidae, 9 Araneoclada, 337, 338 Araneomorphae, 335 Araneus diadematus, 10, 64, 134, 148, 160, 169, 177, 209, 230 Araneus marmoreus, 292 Araneus pallidus, 248, 249 Araneus quadratus, 254

411

412

INDEX

Araneus sexpunctatus, 102 Araneomorphae, 4 Araniella cucurbitina, 45, 311 Archaea, 22 Archaeidae, 22 Archemorus, 185 Arctosa, 11, 106 Argiope, 101, 121, 158, 163, 177, 209, 219, 248, 292, 296 Argyrodes, 294 Argyroneta, 9, 57, 79, 81, 88, 199, 201, 218 arteries, 66, 68 Arthrolycosa, 328 attachment discs, 144, 146 attack strategies, 210 Attercopus, 327, 329 Atrax, 53, 57 Atypus, 24, 156, 158 Aulonia, 11 autapomorphy, 335, 338 autosomes, 224 autotomy, 281, 282 auxiliary spiral, 169, 171, 173 Bagheera, 298 ballooning, 287-290 barrier web, 166 basal cells, 62 Batesian mimicry, 313 bats, 296, 307 birds, 306 black widow spider, 54, 55, 218. See also Latrodectus Black Widow Spider Venom, 55 blastocoel, 263 blastoderm, 263 blastula, 263, 264 blood cells, 71 blood coagulation, 73 blood pressure, 32 blood vessels, 66 bolas spider. See Mastophora bombardier beetles, 210 Brachypelma, 283 brain, 118, 119, 123 brain size, 134, 135 bridal gift, 241 brood care, 252, 260

Brown Widow, 56 Brown Recluse, 57 caffeine web, 178, 179 calamistrum, 87, 149, 150, 153 Callilepis, 214 camouflage, 311 Caponiidae, 19 carapace, 5, 17 Carparachne, 197 Castianeira, 313 catalepsy, 312 cataleptic state, 241 catecholamines, 123 catching spiral, 157, 172 cauda equina, 119 Celaenia, 185 central nervous system, 117 Cheiracanthium, 57, 247 chelicerae, 21 cheliceral dimorphism, 23 cheliceral fang, 21 cheliceral ganglia, 119 cheliceral gland, 21 cheliceral teeth, 22, 49 chemical senses, 96 chemosensitive hairs, 100 chorion, 262 Chromatopelma, 59 chromosomes, 222, 223 circadian activity, 117 circulatory system, 66 clade, 334 cladogram, 335 classification, 334, 335 claw muscles, 32 claw tufts. 27 cleavage, 231, 263 cleistosperms, 222 cloacal chamber, 64 cob-web spiders. See Theridiidae cocoon, 252 construction, 254 types, 255 Coelotes, 207, 259, 324, 326 coenosperms, 222 cold resistance, 310 Collembola, 296 colonizing spiders, 289

INDEX

color change, 312 color vision, 114 colulus, 148 communication, 314 contact chemoreceptors, 99, 101 copulation, 245, 246 copulatory ducts, 231 corpora pedunculata, 125 courtship, 234 coxa, 25 coxa-trochanter joint, 30, 282, 284 coxal glands, 66 coxal hairs, 85 crab spiders, 12. See also Thomisidae Cribellatae, 5 cribellate problem, 341 cribellate silk, 152 cribellate spigots, 148, 151 cribellum, 148 cross-breeding, 226 Ctenidae, 11 Ctenus, 11 Ctenizidae, 11, 22 Cupiennius, 11, 27, 30, 90, 236, 241 venom, 58 cumulus, 263, 264, 269 Curimagua, 307 cuticle, 41 cuticular lamellae, 43 cyanocytes, 73, 74 Cyclosa, 158, 177, 306 cymbium, 226 Cyrtophora, 167, 168, 183, 248, 255, 312 daddy-longlegs-spiders. See Pholcidae Deinopis, 105, 184, 216 Delena cancerides, 318, 320 Delta-Notch genes, 265 development, 262 developmental stages, 270-272 Diaea, 13, 193, Diaea ergandros, 259, 261 Diaea socialis, 318 diagonal rhythm, 188, 189 diastole, 69, 77 dicondylous, 29 Dictyna, 152, 183 digestion, 59 digestive enzymes, 62

Dionycha, 6, 339 Diplura, 307 Dipluridae, 145, 207 distribution, 287 Dolomedes, 95, 193, 198, 204, 205, 241, 296 Dominican amber, 333 dorsal field, 263 Doryonychus, 186 Dotterkern, 224 dragline, 101, 143, 193, 235, 240 drop-and-swing-dispersal, 290 Drassodes, 107 drug webs, 177, 179 drumming, 315 Dugesiella, 30 Dysdera, 79, 230, 231 ecdysis, 278 ecdysone, 279 ecological cells, 299 ecology, 287 Ecribellatae, 5 efferent fibers, 116 egg case, 252 egg cells, 224 egg membranes, 225 electro-cardiogram, 71 embolus, 227 embryo, 263 embryonic inversion, 265 endites, 24 endocuticle, 42 endoskeleton, 47 endosternite, 48 enemies, 301 entapophyses, 48, 80 Entelegynae, 5, 6, 338 epiandrous glands, 220, 222 epicuticle, 42 epigastric furrow, 5, 39, 219, 220 epigynum, 220, 230, 231 Ephepobus, 43 Eresidae, 260 Eresus, 151, 183 Eriophora, 273, 321, 325 Ero, 214, 294 esophagus, 36, 60 ethospecies, 226 eurychronous, 310

413

414

INDEX

euryecious, 307 Eurypelma, 30, 67, 73, 76 Evarcha, 28 evolutionary trends, 330 excretion, 64 exhaustion, 191 exocuticle, 42 exoskeleton, 41 extensors, 30 exuvial space, 278 exuvium, 32, 279 eyes, 102 main eyes, 102, 104 muscles, 102, 107 reduced, 19 secondary eyes, 102, 103, 109 structure, 104, 107 female aggressiveness, 248 fertilization, 231, 263 fertilization duct, 230 Filistata, 53, 183, 235 first-male sperm priority, 229, 231 flagelliform glands, 140, 157 flexors, 30 following behavior, 235 food vacuoles, 62 fossil spiders, 327 form perception, 107, 112 Fornicephala, 336 fovea, 109, 112 frame threads, 157, 159, 170 free zone, 159, 173 Frontinella, 238 funnel web spiders, 8, 194 ganglia, 118 garden spider. See Araneus diadematus Gasteracantha, 10, 218 gastrulation, 263 Geolycosa, 308 germinal band, 265 germinal disc, 263 giant fiber system, 123 glial cells, 117 gossamer threads, 287 Grammostola, 222 gravity, 134 gravity receptors, 93

growth, 262, 272, 273 guanine crystals, 63, 64 guanocytes, 45, 62 guild concept, 293 gut diverticula, 37 habitat, 290 Habronattus, 15, 243, 244 hair plates, 96 Haplogynae, 5, 6, 338 Haplopelma, 275 Harpactea, 249 heart, 66 beat, 70 ganglion, 70 ligaments, 69 valves, 68 Heliophanus, 255 hematodochae, 227 hemoblasts, 73 hemocyanin, 73 hemocytes, 71 hemoglobin, 73 hemolymph, 71 hemolymph pressure, 31, 70 Hippasa, 11 Hobo spider, 57 Holocnemus, 223, 302 Hox genes, 266, 268 hub, 159, 176 humidity receptors, 99 hybridization, 226 hydraulic mechanism, 30 Hypochilus, 18, 148, 280, 338 hypodermis, 32, 44 Hyptiotes, 166, 213 Hysterocrates, 14, 322, 323 idiothetic orientation, 129 innervation, 34 inhibitory, 35 interference colors, 45 interneurons, 120, 127 interspecies competition, 292, 295 iridescence, 45 jumping, 195 horizontal, 196 vertical, 197

INDEX

jumping spiders, 14 visual sense, 107 kinesthetic orientation, 95 kleptoparasites, 307 Labidognatha, 5, 23, 24 Labium, 19, 24 ladder webs, 167 larva, 262, 272 last-male sperm priority, 229, 231 lateral muscles, 78 Larinoides, 134 Latrodectus, 53, 54, 229, 232 venom, 55, 56 Latrodectus mactans, 56 Latrodectus geometricus, 56, 248, 268 Latrodectus hasselti, 248 Latrodectus hesperus, 237 Latrodectus revivensis, 238 Latrotoxin, 56 Learning, 132 leberidiocytes, 72 leg extension, 30 leg joints, 29 leg musculature, 30, 31 leg receptors, 36 lethal dose 50, 56 Leucauge, 292 Leucorchestris, 131, 294, 296 life cycle, 285 L-glutamate, 71 light sensitivity, 105 Linyphia, 145, 156, 183 Linyphya litigosa, 238 Linyphia triangularis, 238, 250 Linyphiiddae, 151 Liphistius, 109, 186 Liphistius bristowei, 19 Lithyphantes, 183 Lobus opticus, 123 locomotion, 188 galloping, 198, 200, 201 jumping, 195 on a thread, 193 wheeling, 197, 198 locomotory activity, 200 longevitiy, 286 Loxosceles, 53

LSD, 179 lung sinus, 76 lung slit, 75, 78 Lycosa, 18, 28, 205 Lycosa erythrognatha, 57 Lycosa howarthi, 19 Lycosa punctulata, 240 Lycosa rabida, 238, 239 Lycosa tarentula, 12, 106, 130 Lycosidae, 11, 238 lynx spiders, 314. See also Oxyopidae lyriform organs, 92 Lyssomanes, 112 Maevia, 114, 244, 245 main claws, 26 male copulatory organs, 226 male dwarfism, 218 Mallos, 154, 325 Malpighian tubules, 37, 64 Mangora, 160 Maratus, 243 Marpissa, 27, 144, 250, 256 Mastophora, 185, 213 mating plugs, 229 mating positions, 246, 247 mating thread, 236, 238 matriphagy, 261 maxillae, 24 mechanical senses, 83 mechanosensitive sensilla, 36 Mecynogea, 167 memory, 132, 133 mesocuticle, 42 Mesothelae, 4, 5, 24, 39, 52, 118, 206, 222, 266, 335 Meta, 214, 241 metabolism, 49, 300 Metabus, 321 metameres, 265 metameric phase, 263 metatarsal lyriform organ, 95 metatarsus, 25 Metepeira, 321, 322 Mexitilia, 152 Miagrammopes, 184 Micrathena, 10, 218 Micrommata virescens, 45, 311 Micryphantidae, 18

415

416

INDEX

middle claw, 25 midget spiders, 18 midgut, 36, 60 branches, 39 diverticula, 61, 62 Mimetidae, 214 mimicry, 312 mirror image, 113 Misumena, 311 Molting, 272-278 hormonal control, 279 physiology, 277 process, 273 Monoblemma, 252 monophyletic, 334 motoneurons, 120 motor nerves, 34 movement detectors, 107 mud daubers. See Sphecidae multimodal sensory input, 115 muscles, 31, 32 muscle fiber types, 36 Musculus depressor praetarsi, 25, 29, 34 levator praetarsi, 25, 29, 34 mushroom body, 125 Mygalomorphae, 4, 23, 27, 39, 335 myocardium, 72 Myrmarachne, 23, 313, 314 myrmecophilics, 314 nectar, 298 nematodes, 301 Nemesia, 147 Nephila, 136, 141, 166, 210, 218, 229, 235, 309 Nephylengys, 167 nephrocytes, 66 neuromuscular endplates, 55 neuropil, 119, 122 neurosecretion, 128 neurosecretory cells, 121, 128 neurotoxin, 55 neurotransmitters, 122 Nhandu, 233 Nops, 19 Notch genes, 266 Nuctenea, 142 nursery web spiders, 22 nymph, 262

ocelli, 114 olfaction, 97 ogre-faced spider. See Deinopis ommochromes, 45, 311 ontogeny, 262 oocytes, 224 Oonops, 252 open hub, 159 opisthosoma, 5, 37 longitudinal section, 38 segmentation, 40 Opisthothelae, 335 optimal food uptake, 300 optic nerve, 103, 123 optic neuropils, 124, 125, 126 Orbiculariae, 338, 340 orb web, 157 construction, 167, 170, 174 evolution, 182 fossil, 184 function, 175, 176 orientation, 177 repair, 177, 178 replacement, 177 tension, 175 visibility, 176 orb-web spiders, 9 orientation, 128, 131 organ development, 269 Orthognatha, 4, 23 ostia, 68 outer space webs, 134 ovaries, 224 overwintering, 310 Oxyopes, 223 Oxyopidae, 245 Pachygnatha, 186 Palaeocribellatae, 338 Palaeothele, 328, 330 palpal drumming, 236, 238 palpal organ, 227 palpal rotation, 238, 239 palpal stridulation, 238 palps, 24 parasocial, 324 Parastalita stygia, 20 Parawixia, 162 Pardosa, 90, 124, 199, 250, 258, 293, 295

INDEX

parthenogenesis, 231 passive joint, 30 patella, 25 pedicel, 5, 39, 68 pedigree, 335 pedipalps, 24 Pepsis, 305 pericardial sinus, 66 peripheral nerves, 116 Permarachne, 328 pest control, 299 pharynx, 24, 59 pheromones, 237 Phidippus, 15, 45, 102, 132, 134 Philaeus, 190, 193 Philodromidae, 14 Philodromus, 90, 222 Philoponella, 307 Pholcidae, 151, 248 Pholcus, 86, 221, 253, 301, 312 Phoneutria, 11, 53, 57, 58 phylogeny, 327, 335 pigments, 45 Pirata, 204, 291 pirate spiders. See Mimetidae, Ero piriform glands, 140 Pisauridae, 22, 238, 259 Pithyophantes, 232 plagiognath, 24 plagula, 21 Plesiometa, 180 plesiomorphic, 335 pleurae, 19, 25 Poecilotheria, 14, 57, 127, 322 polarization pattern, 106 polarized light, 105, 108 pollen, 297 polyphagous spiders, 298 polyphyletic, 334 population density, 299 pore canals, 44 Portia, 105, 135, 301 Posterior Lateral Eyes, 17 Posterior Median Eyes, 17, 107 predation specialists, 213 predation strategies, 211, 212 prelarva, 262, 269 pretarsus, 25, 29 primitive groove, 263

primitive plate, 263, 264 prey abundance, 296 prey animals, 296 prey capture, 203 in wandering spiders, 203 in web spiders, 207 without venom, 212 prey consumption, 299 prey size, 294 proprioceptors, 36 prosoma, 5, 17 internal organs, 36 longitudinal section, 38 prosomal muscles, 31 proto-hub, 169 Pterinochilus, 16, 57 radial threads (radii), 157, 160, 170, 175 radioactive isotopes, 260 rastellum, 336 receptacles, 230, 231 regenerated legs, 284, 285 regeneration, 283 regeneration potential, 285 regurgitation feeding, 260 reproduction, 218 resorptive cells, 62 respiratory organs, 74 retina, 102, 104, 108 retinal movements, 102, 105, 109 retinotopy, 124 rhodopsine, 109 rostral plate, 59 rostrum, 59 RTA-clade, 338 Saitis barbipes, 243 Salticidae, 14 Salticus scenicus, 27, 207, 314 scales, 87 sclerites, 228 Schizocoa crassipes, 250 Schizocosa ocreata, 114, 115, 226, 239, 315 Schizocosa rovneri, 115, 226, 315 Schneider’s organs, 128 Scoloderus, 167, 169 scopula, 27 Scytodes, 53, 213

417

418

INDEX

searching movements, 130 seasonal separation, 293 secretory cells, 62 Segestria, 45, 79, 147, 151, 183, 235 segmentation, 39 seismic signals, 115 sensory nerves, 35 serrula, 24 serrated bristles, 25 sex chromosomes, 224 sex pheromones, 97, 101 sex ratio, 323 sexual dimorphism, 218 sexual organs, 219, 226 sigillae, 41, 48 signal thread, 161 sheet webs, 145 short-term memory, 132 silk, 136 biomedical applications, 139 composition, 138, 139 dry, 137 liquid, 136 properties, 137, 138 tensile strength, 138 silk glands, 140 physiology, 143 structure, 140 valves, 143 silk thread, 144 Sitticus, 195 slit sensilla, 36, 92, 131 social spiders, 317-326 sociality, origin of, 321 somites, 265 Sosippus, 11, 318 spermathecae, 230 sperm cells, 220 flagellae, 220, 223 motility, 222 induction, 232, 234 spermiogenesis, 220 spermophor, 227 spider families, 8 spider flies. See Acroceridae spider wasps. See Pompilidae spigots, 147 spines, 86 spinnerets, 39, 147, 267

spiracle, 5, 40 spitting spider, 53 stabilimentum, 162, 163 starvation, 301 Steatoda, 315 Stegodyphus, 148, 151, 154, 217, 261, 288, 289, 309, 318, 320 Sphecidae, 303, 305 stenecious, 307 stenochronous, 310 stenophagous, 298 stepping sequence, 188 stercoral pocket, 64 sternites, 39 sternum, 5, 19 sticky threads, 145 sticky spiral, 169, 174 stigma, 80 stomach muscles, 60 stomatogastric system, 128, 129 strengthening zone, 159 stridulatory organs, 316 stridulation, 315–317 subesophageal ganglion, 118, 126 suborders, 340 subsocial, 322 supraesophageal ganglion, 118, 123 sucking stomach, 60 Sybota, 183 Synageles, 313 synapomorphy, 334, 335 synapses, 34, 55, 117, 121 synsperms, 222 systematics, 4 systole, 68, 69, 77 tactile hairs, 37, 83, 84 tapetum, 102, 104 tapetum types, 105 tarantism, 57 tarantula, 11, 14, 52 bite, 56 mediterranean, 11 New World, 15 Old World, 15 venom, 56 tarsal claws, 25 tarsal organ, 36, 98 tarsus, 25

INDEX

Tasmanicosa, 12 taxon, 334 Tegenaria, 9, 57, 76, 155, 194 Telaprocera, 167 Tetrablemma, 19 Tetragnatha, 18, 160, 199, 233 Tetragnathidae, 10 temperature receptors, 99, 115 tendon cell, 48 tendons, 32 tergal apodeme, 48 territory, 294 testes, 220, 222 Theraphosidae, 14 Theridiidae, 156, 157 Theridion, 260 Theridiosoma, 164, 165 thermoregulation, 308 Thomisidae, 12 Thomisus, 13, 86, 311, 312 thread connections, 160 tibia, 25 Tidarren, 248 trapdoor spiders, 11, 206 traumatic insemination, 249 tree canopies, 292 triad, 148, 175, 338, 341 trichobothriotaxy, 90 trichobothrium, 36, 89, 91, 131 Trionycha, 6, 25, 339 Trite planiceps, 102 trochanter 25 Trochosa, 11 Tuberculotae, 336 tubular tracheae, 79 tuning fork, 95, 132 Uloboridae, 10, 212 Uloborus, 164, 177, 181, 183, 241 ultraviolet receptors, 114 Ummidia, 206 urticating hairs, 15, 88 uterus externus, 229 UV-reflectance, 312 van der Waals forces, 28, 152 vegetarian spider, 298

venom, 53 venom glands, 50, 53 ventral spinning field, 220 Verrucosa, 177 vertebrate prey, 296 vertical distribution, 291 vertical stratification, 290, 292 vibrational stimuli, 131 vision, 102 visual acuity, 108 visual courtship, 243 visual field, 110, 113 visual pathway, 124, 125 vitelline body, 224 Waitkera, 152 Walckenaeria acuminata, 19 walking, 188 walking legs, 25 walking mechanics, 190 walking speed, 191 water spider. See Argyroneta web, 151 building, 167, 180 evolution, 187 invasion, 294 linyphiid, 155 old webs, 146 orb webs, 157 primitive, 156 replacement, 154 theridiid, 155 young spiders, 181 weightlessness, 134, 175 Wendilgarda, 165 Wixia, 185 Wolbachia bacteria, 224 wolf spiders, 11 Xysticus, 235, 288 yolk, 262, 266 yolk accumulation, 224 Zodariidae, 214 Zodarium, 214 Zygiella, 132, 161, 177, 179, 223, 237

419