Bifurcations in Hamiltonian systems: computing singularities by Gröbner bases

Lecture Notes in Mathematics Editors: J.--M. Morel, Cachan F. Takens, Groningen B. Teissier, Paris 1806 3 Berlin Hei...

Author: Henk Broer | Igor Hoveijn | Gerton Lunter | Gert Vegter

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Lecture Notes in Mathematics Editors: J.--M. Morel, Cachan F. Takens, Groningen B. Teissier, Paris

1806

3 Berlin Heidelberg New York Hong Kong London Milan Paris Tokyo

Henk Broer Igor Hoveijn Gerton Lunter Gert Vegter

Bifurcations in Hamiltonian Systems Computing Singularities by Gr¨obner Bases

13

Authors Henk Broer Department of Mathematics and Computing Sciences University of Groningen P.O. Box 800 9700 Groningen The Netherlands e-mail: [email protected] http://www.math.rug.nl/˜broer

Gerton Lunter Department of Statistics Oxford University 1 South Park Road Oxford OX1 3TG United Kingdom e-mail: [email protected] http://www.stats.ox.ac.uk/˜ lunter

Igor Hoveijn Department of Mathematics and Computing Sciences University of Groningen P.O. Box 800 9700 Groningen The Netherlands

Gert Vegter Department of Mathematics and Computing Sciences University of Groningen P.O. Box 800 9700 Groningen The Netherlands

e-mail: [email protected]

e-mail: [email protected] http://www.cs.rug.nl/˜ gert

Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek Die Deutsche Bibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie; detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at http://dnb.ddb.de

Mathematics Subject Classification (2000): 58C27, 58F14, 58F36 ISSN 0075-8434 ISBN 3-540-00403-3 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specif ically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microf ilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer-Verlag. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York a member of BertelsmannSpringer Science + Business Media GmbH http://www.springer.de c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003 Printed in Germany The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specif ic statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Typesetting: Camera-ready TEX output by the author SPIN: 10904428

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Preface

“How can anything a computer produces have to do with chaos? I thought computers were based on logic.” Inspector Morse, in response to an explanation of the Mandelbrot fractal.

This book deals with nonlinear Hamiltonian systems, depending on parameters. Such systems occur for example in the modeling of frictionless mechanics and optics. The general goal is to understand their dynamics in a qualitative, and if possible, also quantitative way. The dynamical behavior generally is expressed in terms of equilibria, periodic and quasi periodic solutions as well as corresponding homo– and heteroclinic connections between those. Such connections often are accompanied by chaotic dynamics. In many important cases, it is possible to reduce a skeleton of the dynamics to lower dimensions, sometimes leading to a Hamiltonian system in one degree of freedom. Such reduced systems allow a singularity theory or catastrophe theory approach which gives rise to transparent, in a sense polynomial, normal forms. Moreover the whole process of arriving at these normal forms is algorithmic. The purpose of this book is to develop computer-algebraic tools for the implementation of these algorithms, which involves Gr¨ obner basis techniques. This set-up allows for many applications concerning resonances in coupled or driven oscillators, the n-body problem, the dynamics of the rigid body, etc. in Hamiltonian mechanics. A version of the spring–pendulum is used as a test case. The present work appeared earlier as the PhD thesis [Lun99a] of Gerton Lunter, written under supervision of Henk Broer and Gert Vegter.

Background General background of this work is the theory of nonlinear Dynamical Systems as it has evolved since Poincar´e [Poi87]. A main aspect of this development is that the 19th century programme of the explicit analytic computation of individual evolutions (solutions) largely has broken down. Indeed, since then the emphasis has shifted to considering the whole phase space as it contains all possible evolutions, in simple cases expressed by devices like phase portraits.

VI

Preface

More generally, increasing importance was given to the study of geometric objects like tori and stable or unstable manifolds, and their relative positions in phase space with respect to each other, periodic evolutions, and equilibria. Another development was that the interest moved away from individual systems, and towards the study of dynamical properties that are persistent for small perturbations of the given system, compare the treatment of the term ‘genericity’ by Smale [Sma67] in the 1960s. Parallel to this development is the introduction of parameters into dynamical systems, so as to eﬀect deformations or unfoldings of these in a systematic way, compare Thom [Tho72], also see Arnold [Arn88]. Summarizing one could say that during one century, the emphasis in dynamical systems shifted from the explicit analytic computation of a given evolution to the consideration of generic properties of families of dynamical systems deforming a given one, where the methods became more geometric and qualitative. In a parallel development, during the past 50 years the electronic computer became increasingly important for studying concrete dynamical systems, possibly depending on parameters. On the one hand we saw visualization of phase portraits, chaos, invariant manifolds, bifurcation diagrams, etc., while on the other hand also the computation of underlying dynamical characteristics like normal form coeﬃcients, dimensions, Lyapunov exponents, power spectra, etc., became possible. Here, apart from purely numerical computations, also symbolic computations and computer algebra plays a role. The present book is focused on various forms of normal form computations, which are deeply involved with computer algebra. We restrict to the Hamiltonian context, where moreover the systems can be approximated by those admitting a reduction to one degree of freedom. Therefore, apart from the approximation aspect, we are back in the paradise of the 19th century. The one degree of freedom reduction supports the coherent dynamics of the original model, while it also provides a skeleton for the chaos. By this combination of geometric and algebraic methods, the quantitative element resurfaces: the geometric descriptions can be traced in detail to the original physical model equations.

Formal normal forms, a perturbation problem Several methods exist by which dynamical systems can be reduced to lower dimensions. One standard way is by restricting the system to an invariant manifold, like a center manifold. Factoring out symmetry is another way to reduce the phase space. In the Hamiltonian context this also is the classical approach, since symmetry by Noether’s theorem [Arn89] is related to the existence of (ﬁrst) integrals and therefore conservation laws. A textbook example of this is the Kepler problem, where rotational symmetry thus leads to the conservation of angular momentum and a cyclic variable, which allows reduction to one degree of freedom. In this example the symmetry group is the circle or a 1-torus. In many applications the symmetry group is a higher dimensional torus.

Preface

VII

In the present Hamiltonian context we concentrate on reduction by symmetry. Within the class of general Hamiltonian systems, those that admit a symmetry group like an n-torus, are highly degenerate: in other words, having such a torus symmetry is not a generic property. Nevertheless, the theory of formal normal forms near certain equilibria or (quasi–) periodic orbits admits the local approximation of the given system by a symmetric one. This method of simplifying formal series goes back to Poincar´e and Birkhoﬀ [Poi28, Bir50] also see Gustafson [Gus66]. For general information, see e.g. Arnold [Arn89, Arn88]. To be somewhat more precise, if the original vector ﬁeld is denoted by X, where for the moment parameter dependence is suppressed, then the present normal form theory asks for a canonical transformation Φ, such that Φ∗ (X) = N + R. Here N is the normalized, symmetric part, that describes the slow dynamics after factoring out the symmetry, while R is the small remainder term. In this way the study of the dynamical system is divided into two parts. The ﬁrst is to understand the symmetric approximation N and the second to take the perturbation R into account. Since this book will be entirely devoted to the former of these two problems, we just give a few remarks about the latter, e.g., see Broer and Takens [BT89]. Indeed, in this setting the occurrence of separatrix splitting as associated to chaos, is a ﬂat phenomenon. One could say that the approximation N contains the regular skeleton supporting the chaotic zones of instability. Remarks - The expression Φ∗ (X) = N +R is reminiscent to the division algorithm. Below this fact will be elaborated further in the context of Gr¨ obner basis techniques [CLO92]. - Concerning regularity, our context mainly is assumed to be C ∞ . However, if one restricts to the real analytic C ω case, the remainder term R can be estimated in an appropriate exponential way. Compare Neishtadt [Nei84, BRS96, BR01].

Singularity and Catastrophe Theory, polynomial normal forms In many examples factoring out the symmetry leads to Hamiltonian systems in one degree of freedom where the dynamics largely is determined by the level curves of the corresponding Hamilton functions. The presence of parameters in the original problem so brings us in the setting of families of real functions in dimension 2. Since the reduced phase space is 2-dimensional, in a further simpliﬁcation process we may abstain from symplecticity of the transformations, since this only aﬀects the time parametrization of the dynamics and not the level curves of the functions. Now singularity and catastrophe theory normal forms

VIII

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can be computed, which to a large extent are polynomial. For a general reference, e.g., see Thom [Tho72], Br¨ocker and Lander [BL75]. Regarding the reduction to one degree of freedom Hamiltonian systems, we have selected two diﬀerent approaches. The ﬁrst of these is the planar reduction method, compare Broer and Vegter et al. [BV92, BCKV93, BCKV95], comparable to the classical Keplerian reduction. It is to be noted that the formal integrals obtained after the formal normalization show up as distinguished parameters in the singularity theory. The second approach concerns the energy–momentum map, compare Duistermaat [Dui84], Van der Meer [Mee85], Cushman and Bates [CB97]. Also see [BHLV98]. Both methods, after a formal normal form, reduce to one degree of freedom Hamiltonian systems after which singularity theory is used. As said before, here further simplifying transformation are applied. In the former case this leads to so-called right equivalences and in the latter to left–right equivalences. The most interesting cases contain rather strong resonances, which also gives discrete symmetries in the normal form. Furthermore, certain discrete symmetries are considered that are a priori to the original physical problem, such as time reversibility. For general background on the use of singularity and catastrophe theory to dynamical systems, frequently using contact equivalence, see Golubitsky, Schaeﬀer, Stewart and Marsden [GS85, GSS88, GMSD95]. In these references, as well as in Wassermann [Was75], also distinguished parameters play a role. However, in view of the special nature of the distinguished parameters, which are nonnegative action variables, a new unfolding theory was developed in [BCKV93]. For general background also see Damon [Dam84, Dam88, Dam95] and Montaldi [Mon91].

Algorithms, setting of the problem An elementary observation is that, without the help of computers, the computations mentioned so far can not be extended to the level that is of interest for serious applications. A good example of this in the dissipative setting is given by Marsden and McCracken [MM76]. Fortunately the proofs involved here are highly constructive and lead to algorithms that can easily be implemented on computers. The algorithm of formal normal forms already has been widely implemented on computers. In the Netherlands e.g. the Dynamical Systems Laboratory at the CWI Amsterdam has been active in this, unifying the process and making it more sophisticated. The singularity theory normal form also is algorithmic in nature. See Kas and Schlessinger [KS72]. Here, however, implementation largely was lacking, while the complication of practical computations renders the use of computers essential. As indicated before, this program is deeply involved with computer algebra, in particular with Gr¨ obner basis techniques [CLO92]. It turns out that the methods of planar reduction and the energy–momentum map may be formalized in a uniﬁed way with help of standard bases. A recent reference in

Preface

IX

this direction of applying computational algebra to dynamical systems is Gatermann [Gat00]. One of the key ideas is to keep track of all normalizing transformations, which makes it possible to translate the mathematical conclusions back into the original physical context of the model. This task is eﬀectively carried out for a mechanical example. In that sense, key aspects of the qualitative model are made quantitative. For a general reference on the application of computer algebraic methods in perturbation theory see Rand and Armbruster [RA87].

The scope and beyond Extension of the research at hand can be pursued in the following directions. As introductory reduction algorithms also the Liapunov–Schmidt or the Moser– Weinstein method, as well as the restriction to center manifolds, may be taken into consideration. After this again a singularity and catastrophe theory approach seems feasible. Again compare [GMSD95]. Moreover, combinations of these approaches are of importance. Another option is to incorporate the work of Hummel [Hum79], who investigates periodic points of diﬀeomorphisms by contact equivalence. Also here discrete symmetries are essential. For earlier, theoretical results compare Takens [Tak74a] and see [GS85, GSS88, GMSD95, BGV02]. Also at the level of concrete applications and case studies many extensions are possible, beyond the present case study of a spring pendulum and the resonances considered here. We just mention mechanical examples like driven or coupled oscillators (compare, e.g., [TRVN00]), the rigid body, etc. For earlier work in this direction compare, [Han95a, Han95b, Hov92, BHvN98, BHvNV99]. Also see [Lun99a, Lun99b]. Moreover, the research at hand forms the beginning of a theoretical basis for the future development of a coherent set (package or library) of computer programs, suitable for further use. A further development that may be of great importance is the combination of computer algebraic and numerical means, compare Sim´ o [Sim89]. In this way it becomes possible to be more eﬃcient in dealing with the constants, parameters and transformations, only keeping track of essential things. Another aspect is the computation and visualization of invariant manifolds, e.g., compare Vegter et al., [HOV95, BOV97].

Acknowledgements We like to thank Richard Cushman, Hans Duistermaat, Karin Gatermann, Martin Golubitsky, Heinz Hanßmann, Hans de Jong, Bert Jongen, Bart Oldeman, Wim Oudshoorn, Jasper Scholten, Dirk Siersma, Carles Sim´ o, Floris Takens and Ferdinand Verhulst for helpful and encouraging discussions along the way, Jeroen Gildemacher for his cartoons, and the reviewers for their detailed comments.

Table of Contents

1

I 2

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

V

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 A further setting of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.1 The planar reduction method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.2 The energy–momentum map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1.3 Standard bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Sketch of the results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Reduction methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.2 The planar reduction method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.3 The energy–momentum map method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.4 Standard bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Discussion – reduction methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Discussion – standard bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 2 2 5 7 8 8 9 12 14 15 15 16 17

Applications Method I: Planar reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 BCKV-restricted morphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Details of the planar reduction method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Some notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Birkhoﬀ normalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4 Reduction to planar 1 degree-of-freedom system . . . . . . . . . 2.2.5 Reduction to the central singularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.6 Inducing the system from a versal deformation . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.7 BCKV normal form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Spring-pendulum in 1:2-resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 The system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Dynamics and bifurcations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

21 21 23 23 24 25 26 28 30 30 31 32 32 33 39

XII

Table of Contents

3

Method II: The energy-momentum map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Description of the method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Birkhoﬀ normalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Circle-equivariant vector ﬁelds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 The energy–momentum map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.4 Removing the χ-dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Application to several resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 The 1:2 resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 The 1:3 resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 The 1:4 resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Spring-pendulum in 1:2 resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Bifurcation analysis of the 1:2-resonant normal form . . . . . 3.4.2 Pictures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Inducing the system from the model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

45 45 47 47 47 49 51 53 54 55 56 57 57 60 61

II

Theory

4

Birkhoﬀ normalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Introduction to Hamiltonian mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Birkhoﬀ normal form theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Semisimple quadratic part, and resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Second normalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Algorithms for the Birkhoﬀ normal form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Another formulation of Birkhoﬀ’s result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Deprit’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 The exponential-map algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

71 71 72 74 76 78 79 80 80 82

5

Singularity theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Introduction: The ﬁnite dimensional case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Functions and right-transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.1 Equivalence and versal deformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 BCKV normal form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Maps and left-right transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4.1 The tangent space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85 85 86 87 88 88 90 91 94 95

Table of Contents

XIII

6

Gr¨ obner bases and Standard bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Algorithms and real numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Motivation: Gr¨ obner bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Term orders for Gr¨ obner bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Basic question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Rephrasing the basic question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.4 A criterion for Gr¨ obner bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Standard bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Deﬁnitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3 Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.4 Normal form property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.5 The standard map theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.6 Normal form algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.7 Reduced normal forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Instances of standard bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 Gr¨ obner bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.2 Standard bases for submodules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.3 Standard bases for subalgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.4 Standard bases for modules over subalgebras . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.5 Left-Right tangent space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 The ring of formal power series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.1 Three approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.2 Existence of a normal form for formal power series . . . . . . . 6.5.3 Truncated formal power series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

97 97 99 99 100 101 101 102 104 104 104 106 107 108 110 111 112 112 114 115 119 122 128 129 129 131

7

Computing normalizing transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Deformations of functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Finding a universal deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 The algorithm of Kas and Schlessinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 Solving the inﬁnitesimal stability equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.4 Application: The hyperbolic umbilic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Deformations of maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Adaptation of Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 Solving the inﬁnitesimal stability equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.3 Example of a LR-tangent space calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . .

133 133 134 135 136 137 139 140 140 144 146

A

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 A.1 Classiﬁcation of term orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 A.2 Proof of Proposition 5.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

1 Introduction

Our concern is with Hamiltonian systems that by symmetry are reducible to one degree of freedom (or at least reducible to a large approximation). As a concrete example and as a case study for our approach we often consider a model for the spring–pendulum near one of its stronger resonances. For motivation and background the reader is referred to our extensive preface. Focusing down further, we shall formulate the main goal of the present book. After reduction of the (approximating) Hamiltonian system by symmetry, we apply singularity theory to obtain transparent normal forms for the dynamical skeleton. For this we need coordinate transformations and reparametrizations, all of which can be obtained in an algorithmic way. It is our purpose to develop computer algebraic methods for this. Therefore, the emphasis lies on the algorithmic methods, especially in later chapters. The earlier chapters are dealing with the translation between the context of dynamical systems on the one hand and that of the computer algebraic implementation of the singularity theory algorithms on the other hand. Two reduction methods have been selected. These methods, dubbed the planar reduction [BCKV93] and energy–momentum map [Cus83, Dui84, Mee85] methods, both apply Birkhoﬀ normal form transformation to obtain an (approximate) system with symmetry, and then proceed with reduction to a one degree of freedom system, in diﬀerent ways. Algorithms for computing the reparametrizations involved are developed in chapter 4 onwards, and ﬁnd application in both reduction methods in chapters 2 and 3. The algorithmic approach also enabled us to compute nondegeneracy conditions. Some of these were already found in [Dui84], also see [GMSD95], whereas certain others are rather hard to ﬁnd by paper-and-pencil calculations. As a byproduct of developing these algorithms we gain a deeper insight in the two reduction methods. Both methods are applied (and tested) on the concrete example of the spring–pendulum in a few strong resonances close to equilibrium. This enables us to make comparisons between the two methods, concerning their applicability and the strength of their dynamical conclusions. See Sect. 1.2 for a discussion. Partly summarizing, we mention that the key ideas for making the planar reduction method algorithmic, and hence constructive, with suitable changes, are also applicable to the energy–momentum map method. In fact, this led to a

H. Broer, I. Hoveijn, G. Lunter, and G. Vegter: LNM 1806, pp. 1–18, 2003. c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003

2

1.1. A further setting of the problem

unifying approach to both methods, presented in chapters 6 and 7. The relevant notion for this uniﬁcation is the standard basis, which deepened the understanding of the algorithms, and facilitated their derivation. Indeed, standard bases, and the Gr¨ obner bases of which they are a generalization, prove to ﬁt several ideas from both methods in a rather unexpected way.

1.1 A further setting of the problem In this section, we explain the two reduction methods considered, by applying them to a simple two degree-of-freedom system. Our goal of explicitly computing coordinate transformations and reparametrizations, boils down to solving the so-called inﬁnitesimal stability equation. In the context of polynomial rings, an eﬃcient procedure based on Gr¨ obner bases solves this equation. The two reduction methods motivate two diﬀerent generalizations of this idea, leading standard bases. 1.1.1 The planar reduction method The starting point is an article by Broer, Chow, Kim and Vegter [BCKV93], in which a two-step reduction method is used to ﬁnd a polynomial model for a certain class of Hamiltonian dynamical systems. The reduction starts with a Birkhoﬀ normalization. The resulting near S1 symmetry then is used to reduce to a planar one-degree-of-freedom system. Subsequently, right-equivalences (i.e., planar coordinate changes that are not necessarily symplectic) are used to ﬁnd a polynomial and versal model system. Both steps are qualitative, in the sense explained above. On the one hand, to pull quantitative information through the Birkhoﬀ normalization is feasible, as it was long known how to compute the associated (symplectic) conjugacy explicitly. On the other hand, for the versal deformation such explicit computations were, to our knowledge, not done before. As said earlier, our aim is to see how much quantitative information about the original dynamical system could be mustered by computing the conjugacies along the lines of the planar reduction method. This program was presented in [BLV98] and carried out in detail in [BHLV98]. We now illustrate the planar reduction method by a simple example; for more details see [BCKV93, BCKV95]. Suppose we have a Hamiltonian living on R4 with a degenerate quadratic part, whose Hessian has corank 1. Then after Birkhoﬀ normalization, truncation, and suitable time-reparametrizations, generically the following normal form results: (1.1)

H(x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 ) =

1 1 2 1 x1 + y12 + y22 + x32 + g 12 (x21 + y12 ), x2 , y2 , 2 2 3

with g containing all terms of degree 4 and higher. This system has an S1 symmetry (which is exact due to the truncation): rotation in the x1 , y1 -plane.

1. Introduction

3

The semi-simple quadratic part λ := 12 (x21 + y12 ) is the conserved quantity associated to this symmetry. We may treat λ as a parameter, and reduce to a planar system by ignoring the dynamics in x1 , y1 . This step is analogous to the reduction step in the Kepler problem. The resulting reduced system is H r (x2 , y2 , λ) =

1 2 1 3 y + x + g(λ, x2 , y2 ). 2 2 3 2

We now apply (non-symplectic) right transformations to normalize the system further. Since the system has one degree of freedom now, these transformations diﬀer from symplectic ones by just a time reparametrization. The function that results when putting λ = 0 is called the central singularity. It may be brought into polynomial normal form 12 y22 + 13 x32 using the Splitting Lemma [BL75, Gib79, Mar82] and a classiﬁcation theorem for singularities [Mar82, Sie74]. Hence we may assume that g(0, x2 , y2 ) ≡ 0, that is, the system is now reduced to some deformation of the polynomial normal form. The last step in the simpliﬁcation process is ﬁnding a versal unfolding. To do this, we look at the tangent space to the orbit associated to the action of the group of right transformations on the central singularity. Locally, this tangent space may be identiﬁed with an ideal in the ring Ex2 ,y2 of (germs of) functions depending on x2 , y2 . Generators of this ideal are ∂/∂x2 and ∂/∂y2 acting on the central singularity, resulting in the ideal x22 , y2 . As a real vector space, this is a codimension-1 subspace of the maximal ideal of Ex2 ,y2 (also called the ring of (germs of) potential functions), and is complemented by, e.g., the 1-dimensional vector space spanned by the monomial x2 . The monomials chosen to complement the tangent space are called deformation directions. Adding the term µx2 to the central singularity yields the versal unfolding: H u (x2 , y2 , µ) =

1 2 1 3 y + x + µx2 . 2 2 3 2

This happens to be the normal form of the fold catastrophe, one of the elementary catastrophes classiﬁed by Ren´e Thom [Tho72]. By the general theory it is known that H r is conjugate to H u by a reparametrization µ = µ(λ), and a coordinate transformation (right-equivalence) φ of the x2 , y2 depending on the parameter λ: H r (x2 , y2 , λ) = H u (φ(x2 , y2 , λ), µ(λ)); we say that H r is induced from H u by φ and µ. Up to this point we treated λ as an ordinary parameter, but actually it is a distinguished parameter, in the sense that it is a function on the 4-dimensional phase space. To reﬂect the special nature of λ in the normal form we restrict the class of allowed reparametrizations, so that changes in other parameters (which do not appear in our simple example) do not depend on λ, just as they do not depend on the phase variables x2 , y2 . Moreover, reparametrizations of λ are required to respect the zero level, which is natural since the ‘action’ λ is always positive. Following this idea (see also [BCKV93, BCKV95] and chapter 2), the ﬁnal so-called BCKV normal form becomes

4

1.1. A further setting of the problem

Fig. 1.1

(1.2)

Bifurcation diagram for (1.2): Hamiltonian saddle–node bifurcation

H B (x2 , y2 , λ, µ) =

1 2 1 3 y + x + (µ + λ)x2 . 2 2 3 2

The bifurcation diagram is depicted in Fig. 1.1. We now return to the original question: How to compute this reparametrization and coordinate transformation? An algorithm due to Kas and Schlessinger [KS72] details how to compute such conjugacies and essentially reduces the problem to solving several instances of the so-called inﬁnitesimal stability equation, which is related to the tangent space and the versal unfolding. For our example, this equation takes the form (1.3)

g(x2 , y2 ) = α1 (x2 , y2 )

∂F ∂F + α2 (x2 , y2 ) + β1 x2 . ∂x2 ∂y2

Here F = 13 x32 + 12 y22 is the central singularity; the expressions entering the inﬁnitesimal stability equation are just the generators of the tangent space. The functions g are related to the g(λ, x2 , y2 ) above (in fact, they are the coeﬃcients of g(λ, x2 , y2 ) expanded in powers of λ and the other parameters) and our task is to solve for functions αi and real numbers βi . If the number of deformation parameters βi is minimal, the βi are uniquely determined, but in general the αi are not. This is related to the fact that, for transformations inducing some deformation from a (uni)versal one, the reparametrizations are unique but the coordinate transformations generally are not. Algorithmically this is no problem – underdetermined systems are no more difﬁcult to solve than uniquely determined ones. Since we only want a ﬁnite part of the formal power series of the reparametrization and/or the coordinate transformation, solving the inﬁnitesimal stability equation (1.3) is essentially a problem of ﬁnite-dimensional linear algebra. Though this solves our problem, two diﬃculties immediately emerge, one practical and another more fundamental in nature. On the practical side, the dimension of the matrices involved quickly becomes an issue: the number of monomials of

1. Introduction

5

degree at most k increases rapidly with k. Since all matrix entries are symbolic expressions, solving the matrix equation soon becomes intractable – and many of such equations have to be solved. More profound is the problem that the codimension of f , i.e., the number of deformation directions needed to complement the tangent space, can not be deduced straightforwardly from generators of this space. In other words, given generators of a formal power series ideal, it is in general not straightforward to ﬁnd the highest order terms that determine its codimension as a real vector subspace of the ring.1 In the case of the polynomial ring, both problems are solved by Gr¨ obner bases. Given arbitrary ideal generators, Buchberger’s algorithm ([Buc65, BW93, CLO92], Sect. 6.4.1) yields generators of the same ideal that satisfy certain additional properties. These properties make computation of the codimension trivial, and can moreover be used to implement an eﬃcient procedure for solving the inﬁnitesimal stability equation (1.3) in the ring of polynomials. In [BHLV98] we developed methods suitable for formal power series rings, and applied it to the planar reduction method. We used the term singularity Gr¨ obner bases, gleaned from [CW89]. Later it turned out that very similar ideas had already been developed, e.g., in [Mor82], using ideas of Hironaka (see [Hir64]). Hironaka coined the term standard bases for the analogue of Gr¨ obner bases in formal power series rings. (Actually, Hironaka and Gr¨ obner worked independently, with Hironaka’s work preceding that of Gr¨ obner by one year.) 1.1.2 The energy–momentum map Next, we turn to the energy–momentum map reduction method, using the same example as before and also using the same terminology. The idea is to normalize a map from phase space to R2 , whose two components are the Hamiltonian, and the conserved quantity λ associated to the S1 -symmetry. (In this context, this quantity is referred to as the momentum.) This may be contrasted to the planar reduction method, which treats the Hamiltonian as the central object, and λ as a distinguished parameter. Since both the Hamiltonian and λ are conserved, ﬁbers of the energy–momentum map are dynamically invariant. In our example the system has two degrees of freedom. Then, after dividing out the symmetry, the ﬁbers are 1 dimensional, so that they correspond to orbits of the system (though without time-parametrization). Since the set of ﬁbers smoothly deforms when the energy–momentum map is subjected to smooth left– right transformations, it is natural to use these equivalences to bring the map in normal form. Assume the system is already in (truncated) Birkhoﬀ normal form (1.1), so that it has an exact S1 -symmetry. We divide out this symmetry by going to 1

However, it should be noted that in our particular example, the computation of the codimension can be easily handled by ad hoc methods. This is not true anymore for the reduction method that uses the energy–momentum map.

6

1.1. A further setting of the problem

invariant coordinates. In this case ρ1 := 12 (x21 + y12 ), x2 and y2 together form a Hilbert basis (minimal set of generators; see [CLO92, Gat00, Hil93]) of the space of S1 -invariant functions. In these coordinates, the energy–momentum map E : R3 → R2 takes the form 1 1 E : (ρ1 , x2 , y2 ) → ( H , λ ) = ρ1 + y22 + x32 + g(ρ1 , x2 , y2 ) , ρ1 . 2 3 In order to compute E’s normal form, we have to know the tangent space of its orbit under left–right equivalences (B, A). These equivalences form a group, with operation (B , A ) ∗ (B, A) = (B ◦ B, A ◦ A ), and deform E in the following way: (B, A) : E → B ◦ E ◦ A, where B deforms the range of E, and A is S1 -equivariant. Generators of S1 ∂ ∂ ∂ equivariant vector ﬁelds (on R4 ) are 12 (x1 ∂x + y1 ∂y∂ 1 ), y1 ∂x − x1 ∂y∂ 1 , ∂x and 1 1 2 ∂ ∂ ∂y2 ; in invariant coordinates the ﬁrst becomes ρ1 ∂ρ1 whereas the second vanishes. (It follows that, in invariant coordinates, S1 -equivariance of A boils down to the requirement that the subspace ρ1 = 0 be invariant.) We want to compute the tangent space to the orbit of E under such transformations. It turns out that this tangent space is not an ideal, as it was in the previous example. This makes computing the codimension technically diﬃcult; see, e.g., the remark in [Mar82, p. 183]. These diﬃculties only become more profound when explicit reparametrizations are computed. In order to show what form the tangent space takes, we need to go into some detail here. Working with maps is less convenient than working with functions, so we try to reduce to the latter case. A small computation shows that the projection of the tangent space onto the second component is surjective; hence, we may restrict to left–right transformations that leave E’s second component invariant, and compute the tangent space of the orbit of E’s ﬁrst component under such transformations. (See Sect. 3.2.3 for an elaboration of this argument.) We call this the reduced tangent space. Let us denote coordinates on the range of E by ζ1 , ζ2 . Tangent vectors to the space of left–right transformations (B, A) are pairs of vector ﬁelds, on R2 (ζ1 , ζ2 ) and R3 (ρ1 , x1 , x2 ). One class of tangent vectors leaving the second component of E invariant is generated by the following: ∂ ∂ 0 , h1 (ρ1 , x2 , y2 ) and 0 , h2 (ρ1 , x2 , y2 ) , ∂x2 ∂y2 namely those generating right-transformations that leave ρ1 invariant altogether. (Here the hi are arbitrary functions of ρ1 , x2 , y2 .) Another class is formed by vectors generating left-transformations that leave the second component unchanged: ∂ f1 (ζ1 , ζ2 ) , 0 . ∂ζ1

1. Introduction

7

Here f1 is an arbitrary function of two variables. The third class of vectors generate left–right transformations, interacting in such a way that their combined action leaves E’s second component invariant: ∂ ∂ ∂ . , f2 (H, ρ1 )α and −ζ2 f3 (ζ1 , ζ2 ) , f3 (H, ρ1 )ρ1 −ζ1 f2 (ζ1 , ζ2 ) ∂ζ2 ∂ζ2 ∂ρ1 Again the fi are arbitrary functions, and α a vector ﬁeld on R3 such that αρ1 = H. Applying these tangent vectors to the map E and projecting to the ﬁrst component, the reduced tangent space (to the map E) becomes ∂H ∂H ∂H h1 ⊆ Eρ1 ,x2 ,y2 , + h2 + f1 (H, ρ1 ) + f2 (H, ρ1 )αH + f3 (H, ρ1 ) ∂x2 ∂y2 ∂ρ1 where Eρ1 ,x2 ,y2 is the set of functions depending on ρ1 , x2 , y2 . Observe that this is not, indeed, an ideal over Eρ1 ,x2 ,y2 . To complete the discussion of this example, we note that the ﬁrst two terms together span the tangent space related to the right-transformations only. Since in the planar reduction example this alone was enough to get to a codimension 1 singularity, the present tangent space has at most codimension 1. In fact, it is easy to see that x2 is not in the tangent space, so that the codimension is indeed 1. Normal form and versal unfolding are identical to the previous example; see Fig. 1.1 for bifurcation curves. This completes the qualitative analysis. We now have a versal model of the system; it remains to compute coordinate transformations inducing the actual (Birkhoﬀ-normalized) system from the versal model. One ingredient, Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm, may be moulded to ﬁt the present situation quite straightforwardly, the only technical complication being the step from the reduced tangent space back to the actual tangent space of the mapping. As in the planar reduction case, Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm requires solutions to the inﬁnitesimal stability equation. To compute these eﬃciently is more diﬃcult. In contrast to the planar reduction method, which uses right-transformations as equivalences and consequently yields an ideal as tangent space, currently the tangent space has a more complicated structure, since it is a combination of an ideal and a module over an algebra. Our initial idea was that once a suitable generalization of a Gr¨ obner basis for algebras (instead of ideals) was found, integration of the various parts would be straightforward. The required generalization was known in the literature as canonical subalgebra basis [Stu93, Stu96] or SAGBI basis [Vas98]. 1.1.3 Standard bases However, applying these ideas to our example of the left–right tangent space turned out to be diﬃcult. For some time we tried to resolve the diﬃculties in an ad hoc manner, resulting in several almost-identical algorithms and constructions.

8

1.2. Sketch of the results

From these, we could ﬁnally pinpoint the similarities and diﬀerences between the various constructions ranging from Gr¨ obner bases, standard ideal bases, canonical subalgebra bases to analogous bases for left–right tangent spaces. All of these constructions could be put in a general framework, built around two central objects called standard maps and standard bases. Viewing these constructions as instances of a more abstract construction greatly clariﬁed the situation. It suggested transparent notation, and eliminated the near-similar proofs. A central role is played by the standard map theorem, theorem 6.10. It was inspired by Greuel’s proof [GP88] of the ordinary Gr¨ obner basis theorem, which exploits an idea by Schreyer [Sch91] for computing the module of syzygies of ideal generators. In contrast to the usual proofs, Greuel’s proof uses the ideal structure only superﬁcially, which facilitated the generalization to other algebraic structures. Another object borrowed from Greuel that, with a small modiﬁcation, proved very useful, is the normal form map. This map plays the role of a ‘lazy’ division algorithm, analogous to the normal form algorithm for Gr¨ obner bases. (Incidentally, this map is unrelated to Birkhoﬀ’s normal form procedure.) The map is required to satisfy only mild conditions, and exists under very general assumptions on the base ring and term ordering: For the polynomial ring, it exists whenever the term order is a well-order, whereas for the formal power series ring, the term order should be a reversed well-order. For details also see [Lun99b]

1.2 Sketch of the results We brieﬂy present our results, splitting the presentation into two parts. First we discuss the results obtained in applying the algorithmic methods to the spring– pendulum in chapters 2 and 3. Second we discuss the algorithmic methods themselves, as far as they are new. 1.2.1 Reduction methods Both reduction methods for Hamiltonian systems around an equilibrium point and close to resonance, elaborated in chapters 2 and 3 respectively, have the same goal, namely describing the local dynamics of the system. Remark 1.1. To be precise, we describe the dynamics of the Birkhoﬀ normalized S1 -symmetric system, which diﬀers from the original system by a smooth coordinate transformation and a ﬂat (generally) non-symmetric perturbation. The perturbation problem involved here is ignored in this study, for some remarks and references see the preface. Since we focus on an integrable approximation, we do not ﬁnd chaotic dynamics in our ﬁnal model system. However, since the the real system is a ﬂat perturbation of the model system, the diﬀerence is extremely small for modest energies (i.e., for modest deviations from the equilibrium) so that our approximation is very good. This conclusion is conﬁrmed by numerical

1. Introduction

9

experiments. In two degree of freedom systems we can say even more, see the introduction to chapter 2. Since both reduction methods diﬀer considerably in their approach, but still have the same aim, it is interesting to compare their results. We chose to apply both methods to the spring–pendulum system in 1 : 2 resonance. This particular resonance was chosen because both methods are able to handle it. In chapters 2 and 3 we do a part of the analysis for other resonances as well, but only the 1 : 2 case is carried out fully. 1.2.2 The planar reduction method Our spring–pendulum model (see Fig. 2.1 in section 2.3.1) has various physical parameters, like pendulum length and mass, spring constant etc. For simplicity we use the coeﬃcients ai of the Taylor expansion of the system’s Hamiltonian as parameters, see (2.7). The Hamiltonian has two degrees of freedom, and can be brought in the form (1.4)

H 0 (x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 ) :=

x2 + y22 x21 + y12 + a1 2 + h.o.t. 2 2

Here the xi are conﬁguration variables and the yi momentum variables. The parameter a1 determines the frequency ratio of the two harmonic oscillators of the quadratic truncation (or linear truncation of the vector ﬁeld). We shall assume we are close to the 1 : 2 resonance, i.e., a1 ≈ 1/2. Next, we apply the Birkhoﬀ normalization procedure, and we truncate. The result is an S1 symmetry, and a conserved quantity λ. Regarding λ as a parameter and dividing out the symmetry, we get a planar system in the variables x, y. The relation between the original variables x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 and the planar variables x, y is as follows: On the section y2 = 0 we have x = x1 and y = y1 , modulo higher order terms. A singularity theory normalization of the planar system, as explained in Sect. 1.1, yields the following versal family: (1.5)

H u (x, y) = x(x2 + y 2 ) + u1 x + u2 y 2 ,

the Z2 -symmetric hyperbolic umbilic D4+ , see Proposition 2.13. Here u1 and u2 are deformation parameters. (The Z2 symmetry, originating from the system’s reversibility, and acting as (x, y) → (x, −y), is the reason that no deformation term u3 y is needed.) The family deﬁnes a Hamiltonian system in x and y which is equivalent (i.e., conjugate modulo time reparametrizations) to the planar reduction. We here reproduce the bifurcation diagram, Fig. 2.5, in Fig. 1.2. It depicts the phase diagrams that occur in the planar system (1.5); the shaded parts correspond to inaccessible regions either in the phase or parameter plane. (They occur because of singularities in the coordinate transformations; points in the inaccessible regions correspond to imaginary values of parameters or phase variables.)

10

1.2. Sketch of the results

Fig. 1.2 Bifurcation diagram for the model (1.5), and numerical iso-energetic Poincar´e maps. Grey areas correspond to non-physical states or parameter settings. Note the similarities between the bifurcation diagram and the Poincar´e maps, as well as the eﬀect of nonintegrability in the latter.

In the family (1.5) two curves of bifurcations occur, u1 = 0 and u1 + 3u22 = 0 (see Sect. 2.3.3). The former lies in an inaccessible region, whereas the latter corresponds to a line of Hamiltonian pitchfork bifurcations. With the help of explicit expressions for the normalizing transformations, we can pull back this curve to original parameters. The result is the following bifurcation curve: (1.6)

λ=

(a22 − a4 )(1 − 2a1 )3 (1 − 2a1 )2 + + O((1 − 2a1 )4 ), 64a22 128a42

see Proposition 2.18. Here the ai are coeﬃcients of the original Hamiltonian (1.4) or (2.7), and λ is the conserved quantity. An expression for the latter in original phase space variables can be computed using the Birkhoﬀ normalization procedure; see (2.8). Combining (1.6) and (2.8), the bifurcation equation can be checked by numerical simulations of the Poincar´e map. The results may be found in table 2.2 and Fig. 2.3.

1. Introduction

11

The ﬁnal step involves a versal model under a restricted equivalence class, the so-called BCKV-restricted morphisms; see [BCKV93, BCKV95, BHLV98] as well as Sect. 2.2.7. This class distinguished three levels of variables, namely phase space variables, distinguished parameters and ordinary parameters. The distinguished parameters are parameters for the ﬁnal model, but originate from phase space, as conserved quantities. These morphisms allow transformations of distinguished parameters to depend on both kinds of parameters, but disallow those of ordinary parameters to depend on distinguished ones. This ensures that reparametrizations applied on the reduced family may be pulled back to the original phase space without mixing parameters and phase space variables. This results in a model given in Proposition 2.16. It gives rise to the same qualitative behavior, i.e., bifurcations, but with an additional nondegeneracy condition; see also remark 2.17 in Chapter 2. Other resonances The planar reduction method cannot be used for resonances p : q with q odd. The reason is that the iso-energetic 3-torus on which the system lives has two singular points, corresponding to simple periodic motion. When reducing this to the plane, one of these is mapped to a circle, here referred to as the singular circle (see remark 2.5 and Sect. 2.3.3). It is then essential that the function is smooth at this circle, which only happens for q even (see Proposition 2.4). Having done the 1:2 case, the next case to consider is the 1:4 resonance. Again from Proposition 2.4 one can (correctly) guess that the versal family has a central singularity of the form (1.7)

α(x2 + y 2 )2 + βx(x2 + y 2 )2 .

With respect to equivalence via Z2 -equivariant planar right-transformations, this function has inﬁnite codimension. This seems to imply that the system in 1 : 4 resonance is highly degenerate, and that small perturbations can spawn many qualitatively diﬀerent kinds of dynamics. This is not the case: Both the oddresonance problem and this high-codimension phenomenon result from perturbing within the class of Z2 -invariant planar functions. If a perturbation is applied to the original system, then after Birkhoﬀ normalization this perturbation is ‘projected’ inside the class of functions generated by the S1 -invariants x2 + y 2 , λ, and one of (x2 − y 2 )(x2 + y 2 )A (x2 + y 2 − λ/C)B

and

x(x2 + y 2 )A (x2 + y 2 − λ/C)B .

(Here A, B and C are integers depending on p and q, see Proposition 2.4.) To require (1.7) to be versal with respect to arbitrary (Z2 -symmetric) planar perturbations is to ask for more than we need. The class of equivalences, arbitrary Z2 -equivariant right transformations, is also larger; however, the net eﬀect is still that (1.7) has inﬁnite codimension with respect to this class of perturbations. In the next section we consider another reduction method, which uses equivalences that respect the S1 -symmetry. It turns out that this method does ﬁnd ﬁnite codimension models for higher order resonances.

12

1.2. Sketch of the results

λ 0.4

0.2

− 0.1

Fig. 1.3

0.2

µ

Bifurcation curves for (1.8), with parameters a =

1 4

and b = 13 .

1.2.3 The energy–momentum map method As with the planar reduction method, we use the coeﬃcients of the Taylor expansion of the spring–pendulum system (equation 2.8) as basic parameters, and again assume that we are close to the 1 : 2 resonance, i.e., a1 ≈ 1/2. As normal form for the energy–momentum map we ﬁnd 1 1 1 1 ρ1 + + µ ρ2 + aψ + bρ1 ρ2 , ρ1 + ρ2 , (1.8) (H µ , λ) = 2 4 2 4 see (3.12). Here λ is the conserved quantity associated with the S1 symmetry, which in this case is just the quadratic part of H. In (1.8), a and b are coeﬃcients, µ the deformation parameter, also called the detuning parameter, and ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ are three S1 -invariants that form a Hilbert basis for the S1 -symmetric functions. They have a relation which is implicit from the following connection with the coordinates x, y used in the planar reduction case: ρ1 = x2 + y 2 ,

ρ2 = 4λ − 2(x2 + y 2 ),

ψ = 2x(2λ − x2 − y 2 ).

The bifurcations of this model, i.e., the µ values for which the number of relative equilibria changes, form a parabola and a cubic curve in the λ, µ plane; see Fig. 3.4 which is reproduced here as Fig. 1.3. Figure 1.4 displays the bifurcation sequence for ﬁxed, small and positive λ, and increasing µ. (We used the Poincar´e section transversal to the long periodic orbit; for the other Poincar´e section see Fig. 3.5.) The parameter µ is related to the quantity 1 − 2a1 , which measures the deviation from the 1 : 2 resonance. Three bifurcations occur as µ increases, hence its name of ‘detuning parameter’. Two of those are pitchfork bifurcations corresponding to the parabola and occur for small µ. The other is a saddle–node bifurcation and occurs for ﬁnite µ, in the limit as λ tends to 0. To pull back the bifurcation curve to original coordinates, the λ-level at the bifurcation points need to be computed, as in contrast to the planar reduction method, λ-levels are not preserved by the left–right transformations. The result is (1.9)

λ=

(2a22 + 6a3 − a4 − 2a5 )(1 − 2a1 )3 (1 − 2a1 )2 + + O(|1 − 2a1 |4 ) 2 64a2 128a42

1. Introduction

13

Fig. 1.4 Bifurcations of the energy–momentum map normal form around the 1 : 2 resonance for small increasing µ (left to right), crossing the solid curves of Fig. 1.3 three times, resulting in four structurally stable phase diagrams (top row). Below are some corresponding Poincar´e sections obtained by numerical integration.

for the pitchfork bifurcation; see Sect. 3.4.3. Here λ is the integral of the system, see (2.8). The saddle–node bifurcation occurs outside the origin, and for O(1) values of the detuning parameter 1 − 2a1 ; see (3.19) in Sect. 3.4.1, which means that a formal power series approximation of a coordinate transformation cannot be used to approximate the bifurcation curve in original parameters. Remark 1.2. The saddle–node bifurcation away from (λ, µ) = (0, 0), however relevant it may be for the physical model and numerical simulations under study, is outside the present theoretical consideration. A more careful analysis of the model will be needed to study this bifurcation. As can be seen from (1.8), the versal model has 1 parameter, so it has codimension 1. It therefore seems that this model has lower codimension than the planar model of the previous section. However, this diﬀerence is superﬁcial and due to accountancy only. Indeed, the planar reduction method regards λ as a (distinguished) parameter, whereas with the present energy–momentum method λ is part of the map. (Earlier computations on the energy–momentum map used only right-transformations, which resulted in a codimension 2 model, see [Dui81].) Other resonances The methods used for the 1:2 resonance can be applied more generally. The 1:4 resonance (see Sect. 3.3.3) results in a versal family with 2 parameters (or 3 if λ is counted as a parameter). Apart from small diﬀerences

14

1.2. Sketch of the results

in the formulas for the nondegeneracy conditions, the results agree with those in [Dui84]. The computations for the 1:3 resonance are rather involved. The complexity is evidenced by the lengthy expressions for the nondegeneracy conditions; see Sect. 3.3.2. For sketches of the bifurcation diagrams for both of these resonances, as well as for the cases p : q with |p| + |q| > 4, e.g., see [Dui84, GMSD95]. Other interesting resonances are the 1:1 and 1:-1 cases. In contrast to higher order resonances, the sign (referring to the positive-deﬁnite and indeﬁnite cases, respectively) makes a great diﬀerence here. In [Mee85] the 1:-1 resonance is analyzed in detail. Cotter [Cot86] analyzes the semisimple 1:1 resonance. It would be interesting to apply our methods to these cases, in order to obtain explicit bifurcation curves. This is relevant for systems like the restricted three-body problem around Routh’s mass ratio, see, e.g., [DH68, Mee85, MH92, MS71, Rou75]. Remark 1.3. An interesting example to apply the present techniques to, is the restricted three-body problem. Like the spring–pendulum, also this system has two degrees of freedom. The main diﬀerence with the former is that it has a hyperbolic instead of elliptic equilibrium, leading to diﬀerent ‘allowed zones’ in the bifurcation pictures. 1.2.4 Standard bases Gr¨ obner bases enabled the algorithmic treatment of polynomial ideals. We now brieﬂy sketch the ideas behind it, in order to give a heuristic introduction to standard bases and to indicate the relationship between Gr¨ obner and standard bases. Given any order on the monomials (satisfying some conditions that we ignore for now), a Gr¨ obner basis is a basis {h1 , . . . , hn } for an ideal I = h1 , . . . , hn such that every monomial that occurs as leading monomial of an element of I, according to the monomial order, is a multiple of the leading monomial of some hi . In a precise sense, a Gr¨obner basis is to its ideal what a matrix in row-echelon form is to its image, when regarded as a linear operator. To be speciﬁc, for a matrix A in row-echelon form it is easy to determine the codimension of its range, and for a Gr¨ obner basis it is similarly easy to determine the codimension of the corresponding ideal regarded as a real vector subspace of the ring in which it lives. Also, for such a matrix, solving the equation Ax = b for x is straightforward, and this corresponds to the existence of a so-called normal form map (or algorithm) solving a similar equation for ideals; in particular, it solves the ideal membership problem. Standard bases are a generalization of Gr¨ obner bases to algebraic structures other than ideals – and to a lesser extent, also to other base rings than the polynomial ring. They are best explained using Fig. 6.3 which is reproduced here as Fig. 1.5. For the case of Gr¨ obner bases, R is the polynomial ring, M = Rn and Ψ is the R-module homomorphism given by (a1 , . . . , an ) → ai hi , so that the image of Ψ is the ideal I. The map Ψ maps (a1 , . . . , an ) to ai LT hi ; here LT hi is the leading term of hi , so that the image

1. Introduction

15

Fig. 1.5 Diagram for the standard map theorem. Under computable conditions on Φ Ψ Φ and Ψ , the sequence L → M → R is exact and Φ, Ψ are standard maps.

of Ψ are all multiples of leading monomials of the ideal generators hi . Now the obner basis can be rephrased as: Is it true that question of {hi } being a Gr¨ LT Im Ψ = Im Ψ ? (Here LT applied to a set is the span of the LT f , where f ranges over the set.) If equality holds, the map Ψ is called a standard map, and the basis {hi } a standard basis. For ideal bases, the question whether the associated map Ψ is a standard map is settled by looking at S-polynomials (for syzygy polynomials), combinations of ideal generators that cancel leading terms. In other words, S-polynomials are the images under Ψ of elements of ker Ψ. The map Φ is constructed so that its image is the kernel of Ψ ; in other words L is the (ﬁrst) syzygy module of (h1 , . . . , hn ). It was Schreyer’s insight that including the syzygy module L considerably simpliﬁes the proof of the main result in Gr¨ obner basis theory. By making the maps Ψ and Φ explicit it is easy to abstract from the ideal structure, and apply the same idea to other algebraic structures. In essence, this is the idea of the standard map approach.

1.3 Discussion We present a discussion on our results and methods. 1.3.1 Discussion – reduction methods In the previous sections the application of both the planar reduction (PR) method and the energy–momentum (EM) method to the spring–pendulum in 1 : 2 resonance has been summarized. At this point therefore, we may try to compare both methods. Both methods arrive at precisely the same asymptotic expansion of the bifurcation curve for the Hamiltonian pitchfork bifurcation, (1.6) and (1.9), which also agrees well with the numerical results of table 2.2, Sect. 2.3.3. The polynomial normal forms the methods arrive at are rather diﬀerent. The PR method arrives at a homogeneous third order polynomial as planar Hamiltonian, which was easy to analyze. In contrast, the energy–momentum

16

1.3. Discussion

method yielded a map with a quadratic and a quartic polynomial as components. This model has a more complicated bifurcation structure than the planar model. However, as stated before, the additional bifurcation (a saddle–node bifurcation) occurs away from the origin in parameter space. Besides yielding a simpler model, the calculations associated to the PR method are simpler than those of the EM method, because the former employs (equivariant) right-transformations as equivalences in the second reduction stage, resulting in a tangent space with an ideal structure. The EM method also uses left-transformations, yielding a much more complicated tangent space. Technical complications also arise from the additional reduction step, used for reducing from a tangent space of maps to R2 , to one of functions to R. The dereduction step necessary when computing the reparametrization explicitly is not needed for the PR method. Finally, the more general transformations allowed in the EM method deform the H2 -level sets and require calculation of the inverse transformation, in order for the bifurcation curve to be found (see Sect. 3.4.3). The EM method is able to handle any resonance. In Chap. 3 the 1 : 2 resonance is analyzed in detail, and some calculations for the 1 : 3 and 1 : 4 case have also been done. The PR method is less suited for analyzing resonances with odd denominator, because square roots turn up in an essential way. In addition, the symmetry resulting from the Birkhoﬀ normalization is not fully exploited, leading to a higher codimension. Indeed, for the 1 : 4 resonance it is already inﬁnitely high. Interestingly, for the 1 : 2 case the codimensions are equal for both reduction methods. The PR method, and especially the ﬁnal BCKV normal form, seems better suited to de-reduction to the full phase space than the EM method. The reason is that the latter mixes the integral of motion H2 with the Hamiltonian H in the left-transformations on the energy–momentum map, whereas BCKV-restricted morphisms do not. For the organization of Hamiltonian level sets on levels of H2 this makes no diﬀerence. It does necessitate an additional computation to pull back the bifurcation curves in terms of H2 . Perhaps more importantly, if one is interested in the organization of the Hamiltonian’s level sets in the full phase space, the extra transformations need to be taken into account when drawing conclusions for the real system from the model. 1.3.2 Discussion – standard bases Standard bases arose in the course of our research, as a natural way to bring several very similar results on common denominator. The result was a unifying proof of the basic results on Gr¨ obner bases, based on a proof due to Schreyer and Greuel, which lent itself immediately to the necessary generalizations. We almost always work in the ring of truncated formal power series. Results for the formal power series ring are also given (see Sect. 6.5), and involve only an existence proof of the normal form map in this context. We give some remarks on the case of the rational function ring, where Mora’s algorithm takes the place of the normal form map. The structures we apply the standard map approach to,

1. Introduction

17

are ideals, modules and algebras, for which the results are already well-known. For example, what we call standard bases for algebras are known as canonical subalgebra bases or SAGBI bases in the literature. Our main application, standard bases for left–right tangent spaces, is surely new. It should be easy to adapt the approach to other situations as well. For example, the tangent space used by Golubitsky and Schaeﬀer [GS85] of unfoldings g(x, λ), where x ∈ R and λ ∈ R, consists of all germs of the form (1.10)

a(x, λ)g + b(x, λ)

∂g ∂g + c(λ) . ∂x ∂λ

Here a, b, c are arbitrary functions, and note that c does not depend on x. Because of this, this tangent space is not an ideal in the ring of functions in x, λ. In [GS85], the codimension of the vector space (1.10) is computed by noting that one may restrict to the space of truncated formal power series, for a suitable truncation degree, reducing the question to linear algebra. The standard map approach is a systematic and eﬃcient method for solving this linear algebra problem.

1.4 Outline This work is split into two parts. In Part I we discuss the two reduction methods for Hamiltonian systems considered here, and apply the algorithmic methods to compute exact bifurcation curves in original coordinates,comparing these with numerically obtained phase pictures. The dynamical system we consider is a two-degree-of-freedom spring–pendulum around 1 : 2 resonance. We decided to focus on one speciﬁc system, around a single resonance that can be analyzed by both methods, in order to make comparisons. The methods are general, however, and throughout generality is retained in the formulations as much as possible. After these applications, the theory behind these computations is developed in Part II. Much well-known material is summarized in some detail, such as Hamiltonian mechanics, Birkhoﬀ normal forms and singularity theory. We retain an algorithmic focus throughout, but especially in Chap. 4 about Birkhoﬀ normal forms, and Chaps. 6 and 7 about Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm and the inﬁnitesimal stability equation. We now give a short overview for each chapter. Chapter 2 deals with the planar reduction method, involving ﬁrst Birkhoﬀ normalization, then a symmetry reduction to the plane using the S1 normal form symmetry, and subsequently planar Z2 -equivariant singularity theory. A versal model of the planar unfolding is computed, with its bifurcation curves, which are pulled back to the original parameter space and compared to numerical results. Basically, this follows our paper [BHLV98]. Chapter 3 deals with the energy–momentum map method. This too starts with a Birkhoﬀ normalization, but then it immediately applies singularity theory to the energy–momentum map, with equivalences deﬁned by left–right transformations. Again a versal model is computed, its bifurcation diagram pulled back, and results compared to numerical pictures.

18

1.4. Outline

Chapter 4 summarizes some Hamiltonian mechanics and the Birkhoﬀ normal form. We quote Birkhoﬀ’s original result, as well as more modern version which allows normalization around resonances. In line with the algorithmic emphasis we make a comparison between several algorithms for calculating the Birkhoﬀ normal form, and propose one of our own. Chapter 5 introduces the necessary singularity theory. As explained before, we use both right-transformations as well as left–right transformations. To explain the ideas we ﬁrst give the ﬁnite-dimensional version, with a smooth Lie group acting on a smooth manifold. Then we quote analogous results for the case of smooth reparametrizations acting on function spaces, where technical complications show up that necessitate the use of the Mather–Malgrange preparation theorem. In this chapter we prove some smooth results, but this is not given great emphasis as in the applications we always use truncated formal power series. However, the results are important in order to show these ﬁnite expansions are indeed the ‘shadow’ or ‘projection’ or something ‘really out there’ in the form of smooth transformations. Chapter 6 develops the standard map approach to Gr¨ obner bases. Motivation for this approach has been given in this introduction, and is provided by Chap. 7 which applies the results obtained here. The chapter starts with a quick overview of Gr¨ obner basis, in a slightly diﬀerent perspective facilitating the step to more general situations. We proceed to give the abstract underpinnings of the standard map approach, listing the properties and constructions involved, and proving the standard map theorem 6.10. We proceed to prove the basic facts of Gr¨ obner bases using this approach, and doing the same for canonical subalgebra bases and a few others, culminating in the standard basis theorem for left–right tangent spaces as used in the energy–momentum reduction method. Chapter 7 shows how to combine Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm and the results from the previous chapter to perform the calculations of Chaps. 2 and 3. For the planar reduction method this is straightforward, and has been published in [BHLV98]. The complications for the energy–momentum reduction method are twofold. Most of the complications are related to the algebraic structure of the left–right tangent space, and are dealt with in Chap. 6. The other complication is technical in nature: The calculation of the tangent space involves a reduction from maps to R2 to functions, and to complete the calculation this reduction has to be undone. This involves reading the story of Chap. 3 backwards, and results in a long calculation.

2 Method I: Planar reduction

We apply the planar reduction method to a general two degree of freedom system with optional symmetry, near equilibrium and close to resonance. As a leading example the spring-pendulum close to 1:2 resonance is used. The resulting planar model is computed explicitly, and the bifurcation curves obtained are compared to numerical simulations.

2.1 Introduction Our goal is to obtain a description of the dynamics and bifurcations of a Hamiltonian system near equilibrium. To reach this goal, we use in this chapter the so-called planar reduction method, which we describe below. The result is a polynomial Hamiltonian model system living on the plane. This system is easy to analyze, yielding a qualitative description of the original system. In particular, bifurcation curves are easy to ﬁnd. What is new in the current approach is that in each step towards the ﬁnal polynomial model, the simplifying transformations are computed explicitly. This allows us to pull back the ﬁnal bifurcation curves to the original parameter- and phase-space, so that quantitative results for the bifurcations of the original system are obtained. These results can subsequently be checked against numerical simulations of the iso-energetic Poincar´e map, of which the planar model is an integrable approximation (see e.g. [BCKV93]). The agreement of numerical data and the pulled-back bifurcation curve is good, especially for small excitations. The reduction methods, used here and in the next chapter, consist of three parts: Birkhoﬀ normalization, symmetry reduction, and singularity theory. In each of these stages the coordinate transformations are explicitly computed, and especially in the ﬁrst and ﬁnal stage this is rather involved. For these calculations we summon the computer’s help, using algorithms described and developed in later chapters. Algorithms for Birkhoﬀ normalization are described in Chap. 4, whereas Chaps. 6 and 7 deal with the computation of the transformations for the singularity theory stage. The reduction methods can be applied to systems with an equilibrium at the origin, that have a nondegenerate quadratic part exhibiting a single resonance between two of the n degrees of freedom. Optionally, the system may have (e.g. discrete) symmetries. The system is ﬁrst subjected to the Birkhoﬀ normalization

H. Broer, I. Hoveijn, G. Lunter, and G. Vegter: LNM 1806, pp. 21–44, 2003. c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003

22

2.1. Introduction

procedure. The result is a formal coordinate transformation, and a normalized system with a Tn−1 torus symmetry. By Noether’s theorem (which holds for Lagrangian systems; see e.g. [AM78] for the Hamiltonian version), the 1-parameter continuous symmetries are related to conserved quantities, in this context also called momenta, see [CS85]. After applying the Birkhoﬀ procedure, n − 1 of such independent conserved quantities can be found explicitly. The large symmetry group and related conserved quantities imply that the system is integrable, but generically an n degree of freedom system (n ≥ 2) is not [BT89]. In fact, the formal transformation lifts to smooth coordinate transformations by a theorem of Borel and Schwarz [Bro81, Dui84, GSS88], but these do not form conjugations. However, they do transform the system to a perturbed version of the normalized system. This perturbation is ﬂat in the phase variables, so that formally conserved quantities are actually adiabatic invariants, and solution curves of the integrable system stay close to those of the original system for a long time. For two degrees of freedom the situation is even better. By KAM theory, there exist a fat Cantor set of tori with parallel dynamics. On this part of phase space, a smooth conjugation with the integrable system does exist. The KAM tori prevent chaotic solution curves from wandering through phase space, so that even these solutions stay within a bounded distance from the integrable system’s tori for ever. This provides a justiﬁcation for using the integrable approximation to study the full system; see also [LL92]. From here on, therefore, we shall ignore the ﬂat perturbation. Our aim in this chapter is to obtain formulas for bifurcation curves up to a certain degree. Therefore, we also need the Taylor series of the normalized system up to certain degree only. By performing the iteration in Birkhoﬀ’s procedure a ﬁnite number of times, we obtain a smooth (in fact, polynomial) transformation and approximate symmetries, which we make exact by truncating the system. The second part, symmetric reduction, is well-known and goes back to the Kepler problem, see e.g. [AM78, Bro79, CS85, CB97, Mee85, Tak74b]. The idea is to divide out the symmetry, and regard the associated conserved quantities as parameters (also called integrals), a procedure known as orbit space reduction. Sometimes this reduction is done on the entire phase space, and sometimes on each leaf of the foliation deﬁned by the levels of the integrals. Care has to be taken when the topological type of the leaf depends on the value of these integrals, and when the symmetry group does not act freely (i.e., when some points have nontrivial isotropy group); see [AM78, CS85] for details. The result is a reduced Hamiltonian system with one degree of freedom, and whose dynamics coincides with the projection of the dynamics of the original system onto the orbit space. At this point the planar reduction method, and the energy-momentum method of Chap. 3 start to diverge: Both the reduced system, as well as its subsequent treatment with singularity theory, are diﬀerent. The reduction method of this chapter now applies a symplectic transformation that reduces the system to the plane, which gives the method its name.

2. Method I: Planar reduction

23

The last stage consists of normalizing the planar system by arbitrary righttransformations. Such transformations are not symplectic, and therefore do not yield conjugations. However for 1 degree of freedom systems they do yield equivalences, i.e., conjugations modulo smooth time-reparametrizations. In particular, bifurcations are preserved, as they involve equilibria in the reduced system. The result is a polynomial model with parameters, together with transformations and reparametrizations that connect it with the original system. In the ﬁrst part of this chapter we describe the method in general terms, after which it is applied to the leading example of the spring-pendulum, a two degree-of-freedom system with a Z2 × Z2 spatial and reversing symmetry. Large parts of this chapter have been published in [BHLV98, BLV98]. The planar reduction method as used here was introduced in [BCKV95, BCKV93]. It stands in a long tradition, see e.g. [Mee85] for a historical overview. We here also mention the method described in [Dui84] which will receive full treatment in Chap. 3; see also [VvdM95]. 2.1.1 BCKV-restricted morphisms An important aspect of the equivalence transformations used to simplify the planar system, is their treatment of the distinguished parameter λ, the conserved quantity resulting from Birkhoﬀ normalization. It is a parameter to the planar system, but a special one since it depends on the original phase variables, hence the adjective distinguished. This special nature of λ is reﬂected in the class of reparametrizations allowed on the planar system: It is required that the zerolevel of λ is preserved, and that reparametrizations of ordinary parameters do not depend on λ; see remark 2.6 and [BCKV95, BCKV93] for more details. Theorem 5.16 implements these restrictions, yielding for the case of the 1 : 2 resonance a normal form x(x2 + y 2 ) + (λ1 + u1 )x + (λ2 + u2 )y 2 . Here λi and ui are distinguished and ordinary parameters, respectively. One consequence of the theorem is that a versal deformation requires at least two distinguished parameters. For our application we have only one at our disposal, a problem which is resolved by the path formulation, see [BCKV93, FSS98, Mon94]. The resulting normal form is given in Proposition 2.16, where one of the distinguished parameters depends explicitly on the other parameters, so that it traces out a path through the parameter space of the versal deformation.

2.2 Details of the planar reduction method In this section we give a detailed outline of the planar reduction method. The method is applied to the spring-pendulum around the 1 : 2 resonance in Sect. 2.3.

24

2.2. Details of the planar reduction method

Table 2.1

Overview of the planar reduction of the spring-pendulum in 1 : 2 resonance

Section: Context:

2.2.3 2.2.4 Birkhoﬀ Planar Original normal reducform tion

System: H0 Hn Hr 4 4 Phase space: R R D2 Coeﬃcients: ai , i ≥ 1 bi , i ≥ 2 bi , i ≥ 2 — b1 b1 , λ Parameters: Symmetry: Z2 × Z2 Z2 × S1 Z2

2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7 Central Versal BCKV normal defor- normal form mation form Hc R2 di ci , λ Z2

Hu R2 — u1 , u 2 Z2

HB R2 ai λ, b1 Z2

During the reduction, the system, the parameters it depends on, the phase space on which it lives, and its symmetry change several times. A summary is given in table 2.1. Using this as a guide, we start this section by outlining the reduction procedure leading to the BCKV normal form. In 2.2.2 we give some notation that will be used in the sequel, after which we begin discussing the reduction method proper. 2.2.1 Overview The starting point is a Hamiltonian H 0 with an equilibrium at the origin. It is supposed to be close to some resonance of the form p : q, and to depend on several coeﬃcients ai . Optionally, the system may be invariant (or reversing) under some symmetry group Γ , which is supposed to respect the symplectic structure. (Table 2.1 shows the symmetry group relevant for the spring-pendulum example in the various stages during reduction.) The ﬁrst step is to apply the Birkhoﬀ procedure around the resonance, resulting in a system H n which has acquired a (formal) S1 -symmetry. This step singles out a detuning parameter denoted by b1 , which measures the deviation from the resonance around which the Birkhoﬀ procedure is performed. For convenience, the other coeﬃcients are now denoted by b2 , b3 , . . ., and depend on the ai . The system H n has two independent conserved quantities: H n itself, and the formal integral λ conjugate to the cyclic variable associated to the S1 symmetry. In the cases we consider, this integral is equal to the quadratic part of H n . Since λ is conserved, trajectories of the system lie in level sets of λ. In the case that H 0 has an elliptic equilibrium at the origin, these level sets foliate the phase space, close to the origin, by compact sets that are homeomorphic to 3-spheres in R4 . After dividing out the S1 symmetry, on a leaf with λ nonzero and ﬁxed, we get an S2 (see 2.3.3). We go to a planar system by ﬂattening out this S2 to a disk with boundary D2 . The boundary is the image of an S1 -orbit which is singular with respect to the reduction, and is called the singular circle. It coincides with

2. Method I: Planar reduction

25

a singularity in the coordinate transformation to the plane. The reduced system so obtained is denoted by H r . The diameter of the singular circle depends on λ, and vanishes when λ does. If the planar coordinates are denoted x, y, then in x, y, λ-space the singular circles form a cone. From here on we ignore these singular circles, and consider the system in a full neighborhood of the origin in R2 × R. The system is most singular when λ = 0; this is called the central singularity, or organizing center [Mon94]. It is subjected to a transformation in order to bring it into a simple form. For the case of the spring-pendulum considered in Sect. 2.3, this is the Z2 -symmetric hyperbolic umbilic. We are left with a deformation H c of this singularity, in terms of the parameters b1 and λ. There exists a versal deformation of the hyperbolic umbilic with only two parameters. (In the non-equivariant case one ﬁnds three.) This deformation is denoted by H u . In Sect. 2.2.6 we ﬁnd the reparametrizations that induce H c from H u . This step is computationally involved, and is dealt with in the last two chapters. In this step we employ a standard basis and the corresponding division algorithm to compute the required morphisms eﬃciently. Finally, we use the reparametrizations of Sect. 2.2.6 to compute the BCKVrestricted normal form H B of our system. 2.2.2 Some notation Symmetries and coordinate systems In the sequel, we use Cartesian canonical coordinates xi , yi as well as complex variables zi , z¯i and Hamiltonian polar coordinates Li , φi , because certain transformations take a simple form in one of these coordinates. Two Z2 -symmetries will also play a role: a mirror symmetry S which acts on the coordinates x2 , y2 only, and a time-reversal symmetry T that acts on the momentum coordinates yi . The relations between the coordinates and symmetries are as follows:

(2.1)

√ 2Li eiφi , zi = xi + iyi = zi 1 φi = 2i log z¯i = arctan xyii , √ xi = 2Li cos φi = 12 (zi + z¯i ),

T : (x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ) → (x1 , x2 , −y1 , −y2 ) z1 , z1 , z¯2 , z2 ) (z1 , z¯1 , z2 , z¯2 ) → (¯ (L1 , φ1 , L2 , φ2 ) → (L1 , −φ1 , L2 , −φ2 )

z¯i = xi − iyi = Li = 12 zi z¯i = √ yi = 2Li sin φi =

√ −iφi 2L2i e 2 1 2 xi + yi 1 ¯i ) 2i (zi − z

S: (x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ) → (x1 , −x2 , y1 , −y2 ) (z1 , z¯1 , z2 , z¯2 ) → (z1 , z¯1 , −z2 , −¯ z2 ) (L1 , φ1 , L2 , φ2 ) → (L1 , φ1 , L2 , φ2 + π)

Parameters and coeﬃcients The dynamical systems we investigate depend on a number of variables. Certain variables are supposed to be constant during the evolution of the system, for example the mass of a pendulum. Throughout, we reserve the name coeﬃcient for ‘constant variables’ that can take on arbitrary values, except possibly a few isolated ones excluded by non-degeneracy

26

2.2. Details of the planar reduction method

conditions. The name parameter is reserved for ‘constant variables’ which are small. Asymptotic expansions are done in terms of phase space variables and parameters. Hamiltonian contexts The Hamiltonian system H we consider appears in several versions, in the corresponding stages of the normalization process. The current ‘stage’ or context is denoted by a superscript, e.g. H 0 for the original Hamiltonian, H n for the Birkhoﬀ normal form. Big-oh notation For brevity, we use the notation O(|x, y|k ) to denote terms of total order k and higher in x and y. In standard notation, this would be O((|x| + |y|)k ). Also, e.g. O(|ci , λ|k ) stands for O((|c1 | + |c2 | + · · · + |λ|)k ), when c = (c1 , c2 , . . .) is a vector of coeﬃcients. This will be clear from the context. Formal power series and functions In this work we often use formal power series. In order not to make the text unreadable, we shall all the same refer to them simply as functions or maps or vector ﬁelds. This is no problem since all operations on functions (maps, vector ﬁelds) are also allowed on formal power series, with the exception of conjugations with coordinate transformations that do not leave the origin ﬁxed. 2.2.3 Birkhoﬀ normalization The ﬁrst step in the reduction procedure is the application of the Birkhoﬀ normal form. The quadratic part of the system’s Hamiltonian H 0 determines the normal form. In particular, when the quadratic part is nondegenerate and nonresonant, the normal form system is integrable, and exhibits only trivial dynamics. On the other hand, if more than two harmonic oscillators are in resonance, reduction to 1 degree of freedom is not possible, and the planar reduction method cannot be used. We restrict our attention to the case of one resonance; for more remarks on this see the introduction to this chapter. In Chap. 4 a description of the Birkhoﬀ normal form procedure is given, together with algorithms that implement it. Here we give the results of the computation. The Birkhoﬀ normal form of a Hamiltonian H 0 with an elliptic equilibrium at the origin, is determined chieﬂy by the kernel of adH2 , where H2 is the quadratic part of H 0 . Since the Birkhoﬀ normal form procedure generally yields a divergent power series, we work in the ring R = R[[zi , z¯i ]] of formal power series (see Sect. 2.1 for remarks). Here zi , z¯i are complex coordinates that make adH2 act diagonally with respect to a monomial basis on R. When H 0 is invariant under some symmetry group Γ (that respects the symplectic structure), the normal form procedure may be carried out within the ring of Γ -invariant power series RΓ ; see Chap. 4 remark 4.4. For the case of the symmetry groups considered above, we have the following result. (In general the problem of ﬁnding basic invariant polynomials for a given group action is diﬃcult; see e.g. [Stu93].)

2. Method I: Planar reduction

27

Proposition 2.1. Let H2 = iz1 z¯1 + iωz2 z¯2 , where ω = 0, and assume Γ is either {Id}, {Id, T } or {Id, S, T, ST }. If ω ∈ / Q, a Hilbert basis for the algebra ker adH2 in RΓ is {z1 z¯1 , z2 z¯2 }. In the case that ω = p/q = P/Q, where p, P = 0, q, Q > 0, Q even and gcd(p, q) = gcd(P, Q/2) = 1, the Hilbert basis for ker adH2 additionally contains a) Γ = {Id}: b) Γ = {Id, T }: c) Γ = {Id, S, T, ST }:

z1p z¯2q , z¯1p z2q (p ≥ 0) or or z1p z¯2q + z¯1p z2q (p ≥ 0) z1P z¯2Q + z¯1P z2Q (p ≥ 0) or

z¯1−p z¯2q , z1−p z2q (p ≤ 0) z¯1−p z¯2q + z1−p z2q (p ≤ 0) z¯1−P z¯2q + z1−P z2q (p ≤ 0)

A ﬁnite set of invariants generating the invariant ring of a Lie group is called a Hilbert basis; the terminology above is justiﬁed since ker adH2 is the invariant ring of the Lie group consisting of exponentials of the vector ﬁeld associated to H2 ; see [Gat00, Hil93]. Note that since S 2 = T 2 = Id, the group Γ is isomorphic to Z2 in case (b), and isomorphic to Z2 × Z2 in case (c). Applying Proposition 2.1 to the spring-pendulum system, which has 2 degrees of freedom, we get the following: Proposition 2.2. (Birkhoﬀ normal form) Let H 0 be a Hamiltonian on R4 with vanishing linear part, invariant under T as deﬁned in (2.1). Let H20 = iz1 z¯1 + P = pq with Q even, Q, q > 0 iωz2 z¯2 be its quadratic part, and assume that ω = Q and gcd(P, Q/2) = gcd(p, q) = 1. Let ψ ψ ψ ψ

= z1p z¯2q + z¯1p z2q = z1−p z2q + z¯1−p z¯2q = z1P z¯2Q + z¯1P z2Q = z1−P z2Q + z¯1−P z¯2Q

if if if if

p > 0, p < 0, H 0 is S-invariant and p > 0, H 0 is S-invariant and p < 0,

then there exists a formal symplectic T -equivariant coordinate transformation φ such that H n := H 0 ◦ φ = H20 + f0 (z1 z¯1 , z2 z¯2 , ψ), where f0 (ζ1 , ζ2 , ζ3 ) = iαζ3 + quadratic and higher order terms, for some α ∈ R. If H 0 is S-invariant, φ can be chosen to commute with S too. The quadratic part H20 is conserved under the ﬂow of H n , i.e., H n is invariant under the S1 action Aξ : (z1 , z2 ) → (eqiξ z1 , epiξ z2 ), where ξ ∈ S1 ≡ R/2πZ. This action is nondegenerate except on the axes z1 = 0 and z2 = 0 on which points have isotropy subgroup (stabilizer) Zp ⊆ S1 and Zq ⊆ S1 respectively. Remark 2.3. (Complex coordinates) Both in Proposition 2.1 as in Proposition 2.2 we use complex coordinates zi , z¯i , connected to Cartesian coordinates through (2.1). Whenever we use complex coordinates, we shall assume that the symplectic form is dz∧d¯ z . The transformation from xi , yi to complex coordinates (with this symplectic form) is symplectic with multiplier 2i. Hence, real Hamiltonians in Cartesian (or Hamiltonian polar) coordinates correspond to purely imaginary Hamiltonians in complex coordinates. This explains why H20 is purely imaginary in the propositions above.

28

2.2. Details of the planar reduction method

2.2.4 Reduction to planar 1 degree-of-freedom system We now discuss the reduction to the plane, for a system in p : q resonance. The normalized system H n has an additional (formal) S1 symmetry, with action (z1 , z2 ) → (eiqξ z1 , eipξ z2 ) for ξ ∈ S1 = R/2πZ, and corresponding conserved quantity H20 = z1 z¯1 + ωz2 z¯2 . This symmetry enables us to formally reduce to a one degree-of-freedom system. We ﬁrst express the normalized system in Hamiltonian polar coordinates Li , φi (see (2.1)):

P/2 Q/2 (2.2) H n (L, φ) = L1 + ωL2 + f1 L1 , L2 , L1 L2 cos(P φ1 − Qφ2 ) . Here, and elsewhere in this section, the functions fi are of the same form as f0 in Proposition 2.2, diﬀering only by innocent linear changes of variables. Let p = P/ gcd(P, Q), q = Q/ gcd(P, Q), and let r, s be integers such that pr−qs = 1. Consider the following symplectic coordinate change: ˜1 φ˜1 L1 φ1 L rs p −q = = , . (2.3) ˜ ˜ q p −s r L2 φ2 L2 φ2 The action of a symmetry group Γ will also have to be transformed to the new variables. In these variables, the system, the acquired S1 -action and the action of the symmetry group generators S and T that will be used in the sequel, take the following form: ˜ = 1L ˜ φ) ˜1, L ˜ 2 , (pL ˜ 1 − sL ˜ 2 )P/2 (−q L ˜ 1 + rL ˜ 2 )Q/2 cos(gcd(P, Q)φ˜1 )), ˜ 2 + f2 (L H n (L, q T : (φ˜1 , φ˜2 ) → (−φ˜1 , −φ˜2 ), S : (φ˜1 , φ˜2 ) → (φ˜1 + qπ, φ˜2 + rπ), S1 -action : (φ˜1 , φ˜2 ) → (φ˜1 , φ˜2 + ξ), ˜ 2 is conserved (since the conjugate variable φ˜2 from which it is manifest that L 0 ˜ is cyclic), indeed, L2 = qH2 . Note that the transformation (2.3) is invertible; in particular, the S1 -action is nondegenerate (except at certain points). This may be contrasted to the q-sheeted cover used in [BV92]. We now reduce to a ˜ 2 , viewing L ˜2 planar system by dividing out the S1 -symmetry generated by L n as a distinguished parameter We denote the planar reduction of H we get in ˜ 2 a parameter is justiﬁed if we consider only small this way by H r . Calling L deviations from the system’s lower equilibrium 1 for then the system has little ˜ 2 , is small. (See also remark 2.6.) To emphasize energy, so H n , and therefore L ˜ the role of L2 as parameter, we write ˜ 2 = qL1 + pL2 λ := L 1

i.e., the pendulum not moving and hanging straight down, with gravity balancing the spring force.

2. Method I: Planar reduction

29

¯1 = L ˜ 1 − s λ, φ¯1 = φ˜1 , from now on. Next, we apply the translation L p which in the context of planar Hamiltonian systems is a symplectic trans¯ 1 , λ, L ¯ P/2 (L ¯1 − formation. The Hamiltonian then becomes H r = λq + f3 (L 1 λ Q/2 ¯ cos(gcd(P, Q)φ1 )). Finally, we return to Cartesian coordinates. Dropping pq ) the constant and hence dynamically irrelevant term λ/q, we get the following: Proposition 2.4. Under the assumptions of Proposition 2.2, let H n be a Hamiltonian in Birkhoﬀ normal form. There exist coordinates x, y, λ, φ on R4 such that λ is constant on orbits of H n , and the projections of those orbits onto the (x, y)-plane coincide with those of a planar Hamiltonian system H r (x, y), with parameter λ and independent of φ, of the form Q/2 2λ r 2 2 2 2 P2 −1 2 2 2 2 ; (x − y ) x + y − P even: H = f4 x + y , λ , (x + y ) pq Q/2 2λ r 2 2 2 2 P −1 2 2 P odd: H = f4 x + y , λ , (x + y ) 2 x x + y − , pq where f4 (ζ1 , ζ2 , ζ3 ) = b1 ζ3 + h.o.t. Remark 2.5. (Singular circle) The coordinate transformation to Hamiltonian polar coordinates used in (2.2) is singular at the coordinate axes L1 = 0 ˜ 1 − sL ˜ 2 = 0 and −q L ˜ 1 + rL ˜ 2 = 0 in the and L2 = 0. These axes become pL ¯ 1 = 0 and L ¯ 1 = λ/pq. The transformed coordinates, and after translation L ﬁrst singularity is removed by returning to Cartesian coordinates in the plane. The second singularity is called the singular circle (see Sect. 2.3.3). At this circle L2 = 0 so that the coordinate φ2 is ill-deﬁned, and therefore so is φ¯1 = pφ1 −qφ2 . In particular this implies that H r is constant on the circle; see also Sect. 2.3.3. Remark 2.6. (The parameter λ) The adjective distinguished refers to the fact that λ stems from the phase space of H n , and is a parameter only for the reduced system, not for the original one. If we are interested in the geometry of the local level sets of H n on the full 4-dimensional phase space, we may not let reparametrizations of ordinary parameters depend on the distinguished parameter, see Sect. 2.2.7. This should be contrasted to the point of view taken in Sect. 2.2.6, where we classify the geometry of level sets in R2 , and where it is permissible to treat λ as an ordinary parameter. Note that in either setting we do not allow reparametrizations of λ to depend on phase variables. Remark 2.7. (Symmetries) When q is even, the acquired S1 normal form symmetry group contains the reﬂection Z2 symmetry S as a subgroup. Before reduction the symmetry group is therefore S1 × Z2 × Z2 or S1 × Z2 , depending on the parity of q, leading to a symmetry group Z2 or Z2 × Z2 for the reduced system. See also Proposition 2.1.

30

2.2. Details of the planar reduction method

2.2.5 Reduction to the central singularity At this point the system is reduced to a planar Hamiltonian H r depending on a distinguished parameter λ and several ordinary parameters. Recall that parameters are supposed to be small. We now look at the ‘degenerate’ Hamiltonian that results when λ and the other parameters vanish. This is called the central singularity, also known as the organizing center [FSS98, Mon94] and is denoted by H0r . In the cases we consider H0r is ﬁnitely determined, i.e., a ﬁnite piece of the jet of H0r is equivalent to H0r itself, via a smooth planar coordinate transformation φ. This transformation is independent of the parameters of H r . Existence of this transformation is guaranteed by singularity theory. Since H r is invariant under the action of a symmetry group, this has to be taken into account by singularity theory; see section 5.3 for details. The result is a polynomial normal form H0r ◦ φ of H0r . The central singularity reduced normal form is deﬁned as H c := H r ◦ φ. At the origin of parameter space this is equal to the polynomial normal form, i.e., H c is in fact a deformation of this polynomial normal form. The ﬁnal step in the reduction process is to ﬁnd a versal deformation of this normal form which can serve as a model for H c . This versal deformation is denoted by H u and forms the ﬁnal model of the planar system. 2.2.6 Inducing the system from a versal deformation With the versal deformation H u in hand, we can ﬁnd bifurcation curves in terms of the model’s parameters. In order to pull-back these curves to the original parameter space, we need the explicit transformations that induce H c from the versal deformation H u . These transformations are used in the ﬁnal step where we ﬁnd the BCKV normal form, which incorporates the distinguished nature of the parameter λ. Let us denote the small parameters in H c by λ and c1 , c2 , . . ., and the coeﬃcients by d1 , d2 , . . .. For the moment we disregard the distinguished nature of λ, treating it, like the ci , as an ordinary parameter (see remark 2.6), and for notational convenience we write λ = c0 . We want to ﬁnd transformations that induce H c from the versal deformation H u . Assume that H u (x, y, u1 , . . . , uk ) is a versal deformation of the central singularity; see [BL75, Mon91]. It follows that there exists a pair of transformations (φ, ρ), where φ : R2 × Rc × Rd → R2 is a parameter-dependent coordinate transformation, and ρ : Rc × Rd → Rk is a reparametrization from (ci , dj ) to (u1 , . . . , uk ), such that H u (φ(x, y, ci , di ), ρ(ci , di )) = H c (x, y, ci , di ). These transformations obey the following additional constraints: φ is equivariant under the symmetry group, and both φ and ρ are trivial at the central singularity,

2. Method I: Planar reduction

31

i.e., φ(x, y, 0, di ) = (x, y) and ρ(0, di ) = 0. In Sect. 5.3.1 we give a necessary and suﬃcient condition for a deformation to be versal. It amounts to solvability of the well-known inﬁnitesimal stability equation2 adapted to our equivariant context. In the case of the 1 : 2 resonance, the central singularity is isomorphic to x(x2 + y 2 ), with a symmetry group Z2 acting on R2 via (x, y) → (x, −y). A versal unfolding is H u = x(x2 + y 2 ) + u1 x + u2 y 2 , and the condition boils down to: For every Z2 -invariant germ g vanishing at the origin there should exist Z2 -invariant germs αi (x, y), i = 1, 2, 3 and real numbers u1 , u2 such that (2.4)

g(x, y) = α1 (x, y)x

∂f ∂f ∂f + α2 (x, y)y 2 + α3 (x, y)y + u1 x + u2 y 2 . ∂x ∂x ∂y

Here f = x(x2 + y 2 ) is the central singularity. For this f the condition is indeed satisﬁed; see Sect. 5.3.2. Starting from the inﬁnitesimal stability condition, versality is proved by invoking the Mather-Malgrange preparation theorem [Mar82, Po`e76]. Our interest is not so much in proving existence, as in explicitly computing the transformations φ and ρ, up to a certain degree. An algorithm due to Kas and Schlessinger [KS72] accomplishes this; see Sect. 7.2.2. By using the fact that equations of the form (2.4) can be solved, it uses the solutions αi and ui to iteratively build the transformations φ and ρ. This algorithm can be regarded as a constructive proof of the existence of a formal solution for φ and ρ. Our ability to compute φ and ρ now rests on our ability to compute solutions to (2.4). This can be done eﬃciently using standard bases; see Chap. 6 and Sect. 7.2.3. 2.2.7 BCKV normal form BCKV theory classiﬁes the family of systems H r as 2 degree-of-freedom systems. For a given member of the family (i.e., for certain values of the coeﬃcients) it provides a normal form system, which is itself a 2 degree-of-freedom system. This should be contrasted to the deformation H u , which classiﬁes H r as a family of planar systems; see remark 2.6. The parameter λ is a phase-space variable that is constant under ﬂows of the system. In the BCKV normal form, reparametrizations are not allowed to depend on λ. It turns out to be possible to use H u for constructing a suitable unfolding B H (see theorem 5.16), corresponding to a generic path (surface) in a more general parameter space. (See also [Mon94].) In this setting many more parameters are needed for versality. The path arises when the coeﬃcients of such a versal normal form are expressed as functions of the available parameters. Moreover, these parameters will be expressed in the original (physical) constants of the system. This gives the natural set-up for the aforementioned perturbation problem. 2

See [GG73]. Necessity of this condition is immediate by considering deformations of the form H u (x, y, 0) + c1 g(x, y) for arbitrary (symmetric) g; see [Mar82, Prop. IV.3.2].

32

2.3. Spring-pendulum in 1:2-resonance

6 m1

x1

x2

m2 Fig. 2.1

The spring-pendulum with its axis of symmetry

See [BCKV93] for a general discussion. For the deﬁnition of BCKV-restricted unfoldings, see section 5.3.3.

2.3 Spring-pendulum in 1:2-resonance This chapter ends with the application of the planar reduction method to the spring-pendulum system. We start by introducing the system, followed by the reduction to the polynomial normal form. At the end of this section we discuss the 1 : 2-resonant dynamics of the spring-pendulum, and give bifurcation diagrams, numeric Poincar´e sections and a comparisons of the predicted pulled-back bifurcation curves with numerical data. 2.3.1 The system The spring-pendulum is a planar pendulum suspended by a spring constrained to move along the vertical axis. It is a typical two degree-of-freedom Hamiltonian system with a Z2 × Z2 (time-reversal and reﬂection) symmetry. We now describe the system. Masses are attached to both ends of the rod, while both rod and spring are massless. The conﬁguration is given by the displacement of the suspension point and the angle of the pendulum with the vertical axis, denoted by x1 and x2 . The potential energy is U (x1 , x2 ) = −m2 gl cos x2 + 12 a2 x21 when the origin is suitably chosen. The mi denote masses, M 2 = m1 + m2 , g the gravitational acceleration, l the length of the pendulum and a2 the spring coeﬃcient. The Hamiltonian of the system, expressed in conﬁguration coordinates xi and their conjugates yi reads (2.5)

H(x, y) = 12 a2 x21 − m2 gl cos x2 +

l2 m2 y12 +M 2 y22 −2lm2 y1 y2 sin x2 m2 l2 (2M 2 +m2 [cos(2x2 )−1]) .

This Hamiltonian exhibits two Z2 -symmetries, i.e., we have a symmetry group Γ := Z2 × Z2 . Generators are a time-reversible symmetry denoted by T , and reﬂection symmetry in the vertical axis, denoted by S; here

2. Method I: Planar reduction

33

T : (x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ) → (x1 , x2 , −y1 , −y2 ), S : (x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ) → (x1 , −x2 , y1 , −y2 ).

(2.6)

Writing H as a Taylor series in the xi and yi variables, and applying a rescaling of variables and time to tidy up the quadratic terms, we get: Proposition 2.8. Provided that m2 = 0 and a = 0, by a rescaling of variables and time we can bring the Hamiltonian (2.5) into the form (2.7) H 0 (x, y) :=

x2 + y22 x21 + y12 +a1 2 −8a2 x2 y1 y2 −16a3 x42 +16a4 x22 y12 +16a5 x22 y22 + 2 2 + 32a6 x32 y1 y2 + 64a7 x62 + 64a8 x42 y12 + 64a9 x42 y22 + h.o.t.,

where√the h.o.t. are O(|x, y|7 ) terms, and the symplectic form is dx ∧ dy. Here gM 1 a1 = a√l and a2 = 8al , and H 0 is invariant under S and T . We use (2.7) as starting-point, with no conditions on the coeﬃcients ai . That is, we forget about the algebraic relations between the ai that exist for this particular system. The system (2.7) has the same qualitative form as the spring-pendulum system. In fact, for a proper choice of the coeﬃcients ai , and modulo a rescaling, the latter is a high order perturbation of (2.7). The physical origin of the system imposes some constraints on the coeﬃcients, for example a1 > 0 and a2 > 0. We will not use these. Instead, we keep an eye on the non-degeneracy conditions encountered during the calculations, allowing the ai to otherwise take arbitrary values. It turns out that some of these conditions are implied by the physical constraints. 2.3.2 Reduction Birkhoﬀ normalization, reduction to a planar system Let us denote by H2 the quadratic part of H 0 . At a1 = 12 , the kernel of adH2 is generated as an algebra by z1 z¯1 , z2 z¯2 and z1 z¯22 + z¯1 z22 . These generators are invariant under the action of the Z2 ×Z2 -symmetry generated by S and T . After Birkhoﬀ normalizing the spring-pendulum Hamiltonian can be written as H n = H2 + f (z1 z¯1 , z2 z¯2 , z1 z¯22 + z¯1 z22 ). In the new Birkhoﬀ coordinates, the quadratic part of the Hamiltonian is an integral of motion. We denote this integral by λ := 2H2 , see also (2.9) below. Later on, we refer to this integral as the distinguished parameter. On the original phase space it has the expression

34

2.3. Spring-pendulum in 1:2-resonance

(2.8)

1 2 8a2 x2 + y22 + x1 x22 − 2x2 y1 y2 − x1 y22 λ = x21 + y12 + 2 1 + 2a1 4a4 (1 − 4a1 + 2a31 )x21 x22 + (1 + 4a1 − 2a21 − 2a31 )x22 y12 + + a1 (1 − a21 )

(4a1 − 8a21 )x1 x2 y1 y2 + (−1 + 2a31 )x21 y22 + (−1 + 2a21 − 2a31 )y12 y22 64a22 + (1 + a1 )x21 − a1 y12 x22 + y22 (1 + 2a1 )2 4a22 −2(3 + 4a1 )x22 y22 + (1 + 4a1 )(x42 + y24 ) + a1 (1 + 2a1 )2 (−10a3 − 2a5 )x42 + 12(a3 + a5 )x22 y22 + (6a3 − 2a5 )y24 + O(|xi , yi |5 ). + a1

We now transform to Hamiltonian polar √ coordinates. The generators zi z¯i and z1 z¯22 + z¯1 z22 take the form L1 , L2 and L1 L2 cos(φ1 − 2φ2 ). The coordinates L1 , L2 are globally deﬁned, and the angles φ1 , φ2 are well-deﬁned for L1 = 0 and L2 = 0, respectively. To reduce to a planar system we apply the symplectic transformation in these coordinates (see (2.3)), (2.9)

¯ 1 = L1 , L

λ = 2L1 + L2 ,

φ¯1 = φ1 − 2φ2 ,

φ¯2 = φ2 .

¯ 1 = 0 whereas This transformation is singular for L2 = 0 and L1 = 0, since then L ¯ ¯ φ1 is ill-deﬁned. This happens at L1 = λ/2, and the corresponding circle (in the ¯ 1 , φ¯1 polar coordinates) is called the singular circle. L The normalized system is independent of φ¯2 , whereas the new coordinate φ¯1 becomes constant in the unperturbed (ω = 12 ) linear ﬂow. After this we return to complex coordinates by the usual transformation (2.1). In complex coordinates, transformation (2.9) reads

z z¯ z2 (2.10) z1 = z1 , z2 = z2 1 − 2 1 1 , z¯2 z2 z¯2 where zi are the old complex coordinates. The singular circle in new coordinates is z1 z¯1 = 12 z2 z¯2 (a codimension-1 subspace; it is a circle only after reduction). Proposition 2.9. (Planar reduction) After Birkhoﬀ normalization and reduction to one degree of freedom, for the 1 : 2 resonance (a1 ≈ 12 ), the Hamiltonian (2.7) takes the form

H r = b1 ζ1 + b2 ζ2 +

1 ζ3 + b4 ζ12 + b5 ζ1 ζ2 + b6 ζ22 + b33

b7 ζ1 ζ3 + b8 ζ2 ζ3 + b9 ζ13 + b10 ζ12 ζ2 + b11 ζ1 ζ22 + b12 ζ23 + b13 ζ32 + O(|zi , z¯i |y ), where ζ1 = x2 + y 2 , ζ2 = λ, ζ3 = x(x2 + y 2 − λ), and the coeﬃcients for the terms up to order four in the original phase coordinates are given by

2. Method I: Planar reduction

35

1 1 − a1 ; b2 = a1 ; b3 = √ ; 3 2 a2 a22 b4 = 8 − 3a3 − a4 + a5 ; b5 = 8(6a3 + a4 − 2a5 ); 1 + 2a1 a22 b6 = −8 + 3a3 − a5 . 1 + 2a1

b1 =

The special form for the coeﬃcient of ζ3 was chosen for notational convenience in the formulas below. The coeﬃcient b1 vanishes at resonance (a1 = 12 ). It is considered to be small throughout, and is referred to as detuning parameter, since it measures the deviation from the resonant frequency. Remark 2.10. (Nondegeneracy conditions) From the expression of the bi , the ﬁrst nondegeneracy condition can be read oﬀ: 1 + 2a1 = 0. If we continue to normalize to higher orders, more conditions of the form a1 = p/q are found, where p/q ∈ Q. Reduction to the central singularity Because the system is planar now, we may use general (Z2 -equivariant) planar transformation φ for further normalization, as opposed to just the symplectic ones. The resulting system is not dynamically conjugate but equivalent to the original, i.e., it is conjugate modulo state-dependent time-reparametrizations; for more remarks see [BCKV95, BHLV98, BLV98, BCKV93]. The central singularity is deﬁned by b1 = 0 (resonance) and λ = 0. At this point the singularity still depends on the coeﬃcients b2 , b3 , . . .. In this section we bring the system at the central singularity in polynomial normal form x(x2 +y 2 ), which is independent of the bi . This singularity is the Z2 -invariant hyperbolic umbilic (see [PS78]), in Arnol’d’s classiﬁcation denoted by D4+ . First, by a simple scaling transformation φ0 we can achieve that the Hamiltonian takes the form H r := Hbr1 =λ=0 ◦ φ0 = x(x2 + y 2 ) + h.o.t. Remark 2.11. (Nondegeneracy conditions) This is possible provided that the coeﬃcient of the third-order terms (in x, y) are nonzero. This translates into the condition a2 = 0 (see Proposition 2.9). Next, we look for a near-identity planar morphism φ removing the h.o.t. from H r . This morphism should respect the Z2 symmetry (x, y) → (x, −y). By a generalization of [Mar82, theorem III.5.2] incorporating the symmetry group, H r is isomorphic to x(x2 + y 2 ); for details see Proposition 5.11 in Sect. 5.3.2. Armed with the knowledge that φ exists we set out to compute it, using the following iterative approach. Set φ1 (x) = x, and assume that (2.11)

H r ◦ φk = x(x2 + y 2 ) + O(|x, y|k+3 )

for some k. To ﬁnd φk with k = k + 1 we set φk = φk + αi ti , where {ti } span the space of Z2 -equivariant terms in x, y of degree k . This results in a

36

2.3. Spring-pendulum in 1:2-resonance

set of linear equations for the real numbers αi . By existence of the normalizing transformation, this set of equations is not over-determined, in fact it is usually under-determined. Proposition 2.12. There exists a coordinate transformation φ : R2 → R2 such that H c := H r ◦ φ is of the form H c = (1 + c1 )x(x2 + y 2 ) + c2 (x2 + y 2 ) + c3 x4 + c4 x2 y 2 + c5 y 4 + λ(d1 x + d2 x2 + d3 y 2 + d4 x3 + d5 xy 2 + d6 x4 + d7 x2 y 2 + d8 y 4 ) + λ2 (d12 x + d13 x2 + d14 y 2 ) + h.o.t., where the h.o.t. are terms of order O(|x, y|5 ), O(|ci , λ|3 ) and O(|x, y|3 |c, λ|2 ). Here di = di (bj ) are coeﬃcients, and ci = ci (bj ) are parameters, all of them rational expressions in the bi , with the ci vanishing at b1 = 0. Up to third order terms, the following is a suitable transformation φ: x → b3 x − 13 b53 b4 x2 + 13 b93 b24 − 13 b63 b7 x3 − b53 b4 y 2 − 13 b93 b24 + b63 b7 xy 2 , φ: y → b3 y + 23 b53 b4 xy + 23 b93 b24 − 43 b63 b7 x2 y x2 y. Proof: This is a corollary to Proposition 5.11. The transformation φ was computed using the algorithm outlined above. We say that H c is in central singularity reduced form, i.e., at the central singularity b1 = λ = 0 it reduces to the normal form x(x2 + y 2 ). We consider φ in the above proposition to be ﬁxed, i.e., independent of parameters. It does depend on the coeﬃcients b2 , b3 , . . . however, since H r |λ=b1 =0 also depends on those. Some leading order parameters and coeﬃcients of the deformation H c are: 2 c1 = − b1 b63 b4 , c2 = b1 b23 , 3 1 1 d1 = − 2 , d2 = b23 (b4 + 3b5 ), b3 3

d3 = b23 (b4 + b5 ).

Inducing the system from a versal deformation From proposition 5.12 in Chap. 5 it follows that H u = x(x2 + y 2 ) + u1 x + u2 y 2 is a versal deformation of the hyperbolic umbilic x(x2 + y 2 ) (in the context of Z2 -symmetric potential functions). Our system H c is now normalized to the extent that the algorithms of Sect. 7.2 may be applied. The result is as follows: Proposition 2.13. Let H c be a planar Hamiltonian depending on parameters ci and coeﬃcients di , with central singularity x(x2 + y 2 ) at c0 = c1 = . . . = 0, symmetric under the Z2 -action (x, y) → (x, −y). A versal deformation of this central singularity is given by H u := x(x2 + y 2 ) + u1 x + u2 y 2 ,

2. Method I: Planar reduction

37

so that there exist φ and ρ such that (2.12)

H c = H u (φ(x, y, ci , di ), ρ1 (ci , di ), ρ2 (ci , di )),

with φ(x, y, 0, di ) = (x, y), ρ(0, di ) = (0, 0). To compute a) φ modulo O(|x, y|A )+O(|ci |B ), it is suﬃcient to know H c modulo O(|x, y|A+2 )+ O(|ci |B ); b)ρ modulo O(|ci |B ), it is suﬃcient to know H c modulo O(|ci |B ) + O(|x, y|3 ). For system H c of Proposition 2.12, modulo O(|ci , λ|3 ) terms, and writing λ instead of c0 again, the reparametrization ρ reads 1 2 1 2 3 2 u1 = − c2 + O(ci ) + λ d1 − c1 d1 − c2 d2 + O(ci ) + 3 3 3 1 1 λ2 d12 − d22 − d1 d4 + O(ci ) + O(λ3 ), 3 3 2 4 c2 − c2 c1 + O(c3i ) + u2 = 3 9 1 1 2 2 5 λ − d2 + d3 + c3 d1 − c5 d1 + c1 d2 − c1 d3 + c2 d4 − c2 d5 + O(c2i ) + 3 9 9 3 9 1 2 1 1 λ2 − d13 + d14 + d2 d4 + d3 d4 − d3 d5 + d1 d6 − d1 d8 + O(ci ) + O(λ3 ). 3 9 3 9 The coordinate transformation φ, modulo O(|x, y|3 ) + O(|ci , λ|2 ) terms, reads 1 1 1 1 1 1 c3 + d6 λ x2 + (c5 + d8 λ) y 2 x → c2 + d2 λ + 1 + c1 + d4 λ x + 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 c4 − c5 − c3 + d7 λ− d8 λ− d6 λ xy. y → 1− d4 λ + d5 λ + c1 y + 6 2 3 2 2 6 2 2 6 Remark 2.14. (Relevant degree for H n ) To compute ρ up to second order, it suﬃces to know H c modulo O(|ci , λ|3 ) + O(|x, y|3 ) terms. In turn, for this, H n modulo O(|x, y|7 ) terms suﬃces, as λ is a quadratic polynomial on the phase space of H n . To compute φ up to terms given in Proposition 2.13, it suﬃces to know H c modulo O(|x, y|5 ) + O(|ci , λ|2 ) terms, and again H n modulo O(|x, y|7 ) terms suﬃces. Remark 2.15. (Singular circle) In Sect. 2.3.3 the singular circle of H u is deﬁned as the circular level set that touches the two saddle points arising for u1 < 0 (see Fig. 2.4). By a topological argument, its pull-back by φ must coincide with the singular circle of H c , deﬁned as the set of singular points of (2.10). Up to the order in x, y, ci and λ that φ and ρ were computed, we veriﬁed that they indeed do.

38

2.3. Spring-pendulum in 1:2-resonance

Proof (of proposition 2.13): The ﬁrst part is proved by inspecting the Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm described in section 7.2.2 and 7.2.3, and the division algorithm 6.14 of Sect. 6.3.7. The fact that H c is required up to order A + 2 in order to compute φ only up to degree A is due to the ﬁrst derivatives of the central singularity being of second degree. Similarly, in order to ﬁx ρ, it is suﬃcient to compute H c up to degree 2 in (x, y) as the deformation directions associated to ρ1 and ρ2 are of degree 2 or less (namely x and y 2 respectively). A little computer algebra yields the second part. BCKV normal form of H c The constructive proofs of Proposition 5.19 and Lemma 5.18 provide an algorithm for computing the BCKV normal form. Using the reparametrizations of Proposition 2.13, we choose for Υ the following: Υ (λ, ci ) = (u2 (λ, ci ) − u2 (λ, 0), c1 , u2 (0, ci ), c3 , c4 , . . .), which is invertible, and then σ ˜2 := u1 ◦ Υ −1 . The result is the following: Theorem 2.16. (BCKV normal form:) The system H c of Proposition 2.12 is equivalent, modulo BCKV-restricted morphisms and reparametrizations, and modulo terms of order O(|ci , λ|3 ), to 2 c B 2 2 2 H (x, y, λ, ci ) = x(x + y ) + y (λ + c2 ) + x × − 2 + O(c3i )+ 3 2 c1 d1 d2 2c2 d2 d1 d4 2 β 2 λ2 + d1 − − + O(ci ) βλ + d12 − − 3 3 3 3 d1 d3 d4 d1 d13 2d1 d2 d4 d21 d6 2 − d1 d14 − − + d1 d3 d5 − + d1 d8 + O(ci ) β 3 λ2 3 9 3 9

+ O(λ3 ) , where β = 9(−3d2 + 9d3 + c1 (2d2 − 6d3 ) + c2 (5d4 − 9d5 ) + c3 d1 − 9c5 d1 )−1 + O(c2i ) The coeﬃcient of x expressed in the ai reads: 1 (1 − 2a1 )2 + O((1 − 2a1 )3 )+ σ ˜2 = − 48α 1 4 −9a22 + 2a2 − 144a23 + 5a24 − 6a3 (a4 − 16a5 ) + 2a4 a5 + λ 2αδ 4αδ 2

−16a25 + a22 (−30a3 + a4 + 26a5 ) + 3a2 a6 (1 − 2a1 ) + O((1 − 2a1 )2 ) + O(λ2 ), √ 3 where α = 2a22 and δ = 2a22 + 6a3 − a4 − 2a5 . Remark 2.17. (Nondegeneracy conditions) The BCKV normal form is only well-deﬁned if β is, i.e., if d2 − 3d3 = 0. This translates into a2 = 0 and a22 = (1 + 2a1 )(3a3 + a4 − a5 ). For the spring-pendulum the ﬁrst condition is trivial, the second one is not.

2. Method I: Planar reduction

39

2.3.3 Dynamics and bifurcations The planar system In this section we regard the system as a planar system depending on the detuning parameter 1 − 2a1 and distinguished parameter λ. This gives an integrable approximation to the dynamics of the iso-energetic, or equivalently3 iso-λ, Poincar´e map. In Sect. 2.2.6 we arrived at the planar versal normal form H u (x, y, u1 , u2 ) = x(x2 + y 2 ) + u1 x + u2 y 2 . The level sets of this deformation are organized by a special level set that factorizes into√ﬁrst- and second-degree algebraic curves crossing in the point (x, y) = (−u2 , ± −u1 − 3u22 ). These curves are given by x = −u2 and (x − 12 u2 )2 + y 2 = −u1 − 34 u22 . For parameter values for which these curves cross, the second equation deﬁnes a circle separating compact level curves from unbounded ones. This circle is referred to as the singular circle, the reason being that it is the image of singular points of the transformation (2.10). √ The √deformation has the critical points (x, y) = (± −(1/3)u1 , 0) and (−u2 , ± −u1 − 3u22 . Saddle-center and and Hamiltonian pitchfork bifurcations occur along the curves u1 = 0 and u1 + 3u22 = 0, respectively (see ﬁgure 2.4). Plugging in the reparametrizations found in Proposition 2.13, Sect. 2.3.2, yields implicit equations for these bifurcation curves in the (λ, 1−2a1 )-plane. For practical reasons we choose to solve for λ in terms of 1 − 2a1 . The result is: Proposition 2.18. In the reduced system H c of Proposition 2.12, saddle-center and Hamiltonian pitchfork bifurcations respectively occur along the following curves in parameter space: (2.13)

(u1 = 0 :) (1 − 2a1 )2 4(5 + 8a1 )a22 + (4a21 − 1)(24a3 + 5a4 − 8a5 ) λ=− + 3456(1 + 2a1 )a42 +O((1 − 2a1 )3 ),

(2.14)

(u1 + 3u22 = 0 :) (1 − 2a1 )2 (a2 − a4 )(1 − 2a1 )3 λ= + 2 + O((1 − 2a1 )4 ). 2 64a2 128a42

Remark 2.19. (Phantom bifurcation) The parameter λ is nonnegative, and close to resonance (a1 ≈ 12 ) the solution (2.13) is negative. In the system H 0 , therefore, the corresponding bifurcation does not occur. This conclusion also follows from the observation that at the bifurcation (2.13) the singular circle disappears, whereas H r exhibits this singularity for all parameter values (as long as λ > 0). The second solution does deﬁne a bifurcation, however. We continue with its description. 3

see [BCKV93, Sect. 4.2]

40

2.3. Spring-pendulum in 1:2-resonance

Fig. 2.2 Qualitative picture of intersections of the reduced phase space with level sets of H n (here depicted as planes, which is the limiting situation for small energies, i.e., small balloons) through the singular point in ρ2 , ψ, χ-space, for three values of the detuning parameter.

Bifurcations and dynamical implications First we discuss the bifurcation of the reduced system H c in the plane. If we let a1 deviate suﬃciently far from the resonant value 12 , the corresponding points in the (u1 , u2 )-plane in Fig. 2.4 will trace out a line that crosses the parabola twice, as u1 is always negative. Assume the parabola is crossed from below. Then at ﬁrst the system has one maximum inside the singular circle, and a saddle point outside it. After the ﬁrst Hamiltonian pitchfork bifurcation, two saddle points have formed on the singular circle, together with a minimum inside, with no critical points outside. The two saddle points have a heteroclinic connection because of the Z2 symmetry. The second bifurcation destroys the maximum, leaving only a minimum inside the circle, and again a saddle outside of it. Topological remarks A priori the spring-pendulum lives on the ﬁxed-energy submanifold in R4 , in our case S3 . This sphere is homeomorphic to D2 × S1 modulo an identiﬁcation on ∂D2 × S1 . The normalized Hamiltonian H n on S3 has an S1 -symmetry. There is one S1 orbit on which points have stabilizer (or isotropy subgroup) Z2 , see Proposition 2.2; all other points have trivial stabilizer. As an illustration of this topology, consider the following model of S3 in the form of a map D2 × S1 → S3 given by (x, y, φ) → ( 1 − r2 cos φ, 1 − r2 sin φ, x cos 2φ − y sin 2φ, x sin 2φ + y cos 2φ). (Here r2 = x2 + y 2 and D2 = {r2 ≤ 1}.) This map is surjective, and injective on the interior of its domain. It provides a correspondence between S1 -invariant functions on S3 and functions on D2 that are constant on ∂D2 , that is, functions on S2 . This conclusion holds for any4 nondegenerate S1 -action on S3 , and justiﬁes viewing the bifurcations described above on S2 . This is the content of the remark 4

There exist mutually non-homotopic, even non-homeomorphic, nondegenerate S1 actions on S3 . This is in contrast to the case of S2 : up to homotopy between actions there exists only 1 nondegenerate S1 -action on S2 . Here, a nondegenerate action is an action that maps nonidentity elements to nonidentity elements.

2. Method I: Planar reduction

41

in Sect. 2.2, where we said that S3 divided out by an S1 -action gives S2 . After this division, the singular circle collapses to a single point on S2 , and is referred to as the pole. More precise information can be obtained by looking at the algebra. In general, the normalized Hamiltonian can be written as H n = f (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ, χ) where ρ1 = z1 z¯1 , ρ2 = z2 z¯2 , ψ = z1 z¯22 + z¯1 z22 and χ = (z1 z¯22 − z¯1 z22 )/i are invariants generating the S1 -invariant functions (i.e., they form a Hilbert basis). Note that for time-reversible Hamiltonians the Birkhoﬀ normal form is independent of χ, which explains why χ does not appear in Proposition 2.2. The invariants satisfy the relation ρ1 ρ22 = (ψ 2 + χ2 )/4. Moreover, reality conditions imply ρ1 ≥ 0 and ρ2 ≥ 0. The quadratic part H2 is an integral of H n , and without loss of generality we may reduce to H2 = 2ρ1 + ρ2 = , where is some small positive number. Then, the relation between the invariants deﬁnes a 2-dimensional manifold in the real space R3 (ρ1 , ψ, χ), the reduced phase space, namely ( − 2ρ1 )2 ρ1 = 14 (ψ 2 + χ2 ). Topologically it is a sphere in this real space, but it has a cone-like singularity at ρ2 = 0 (see ﬁgure 2.2). This singularity has dynamical signiﬁcance: it is always a ﬁxed point. We now interpret the bifurcations on this (topological) sphere. Levels of H n are surfaces in R3 (ρ1 , ψ, χ) and intersect the reduced phase space in a curve; again, see Fig. 2.2. For small energies the level sets of H n will be approximately planar on the scale of the reduced phase space (‘balloon’), and the intersection curves are smooth circles, except for the level of the pole. As in the previous section, suppose we traverse the (u1 , u2 )-plane on the left of the u2 -axis crossing the parabola of Hamiltonian pitchfork bifurcations twice. First, the Hamiltonian has one maximum somewhere on the sphere, and a minimum at the pole. The homoclinic5 connection appearing in the planar normal form after the ﬁrst bifurcation (see Fig. 2.5) corresponds to a level curve passing through the pole. In this situation, the pole is no longer a minimum. At the second bifurcation the homoclinic connection disappears, implying that the pole is an extremum again, now a maximum. Dynamics of the spring-pendulum At the pole, ρ2 = 0 and ρ1 is a maximum, corresponding to the pendulum oscillating vertically without swinging (x2 = 0, see ﬁgure 2.1). Points on this periodic orbit have nontrivial stabilizer, Z2 ; in other words, the period of this orbit is (to ﬁrst order) half that of the other periodic orbits. In the literature it is referred to as the short periodic orbit. Since the pole always exists and is always a ﬁxed point, the short periodic orbit always exists. Far from resonance (outside the parabola of Fig. 2.4) the pole is an extremum of the Hamiltonian, so that this orbit is stable. It is unstable close to resonance. In that situation, the spring-pendulum exhibits two stable periodic trajectories (the long periodic orbits), corresponding to the two extrema existing on the sphere (see the center picture in Fig. 2.2). Physically, the lower mass traces 5

The connection is not heteroclinic; see e.g. Fig. 2.2, center picture. In Fig. 2.5 the pole is blown up to a circle, so that there the connection seems to be heteroclinic.

42

2.3. Spring-pendulum in 1:2-resonance

out ∪-shaped and ∩-shaped paths, respectively. As the system moves away from resonance, one of these paths gets wider while the other gets narrower, until at bifurcation, the narrow one coincides with the short periodic orbit. After the bifurcation only one long periodic orbit remains (which is stable); the short periodic orbit has also become stable.

a1 = 0.40

a1 = 0.50

a1 = 0.68

a1 = 0.70

Fig. 2.3 Orbits of iso-energetic Poincar´e map of H 0 near 1 : 2 resonance, for various values of detuning parameter 1 − 2a1 (see Proposition 2.9). For these pictures we used a2 = 0.07, a3 = 0.001, other coeﬃcients zero and H 0 = 0.2.

Comparison with numerical simulations To check the results above, we integrated H 0 numerically, and plotted the iso-energetic Poincar´e section φ2 = 0

2. Method I: Planar reduction

43

for varying values of the energy and detuning parameter a1 . The resulting pictures, shown in ﬁgure 2.3, are similar to those found by computation and shown in Fig. 2.5. The diﬀerences (chaotic regions, subharmonics) are caused by the ﬂat perturbation between the normalized H 0 and H n , destroying integrability in H 0 ; see also remarks in Sect. 2.1. To check (2.14), we located some bifurcation points, by varying the detuning parameter a1 for ﬁxed H, a2 and a3 . Other ai were set to zero. The results are given in table 2.2. To compute λ we used equation (2.8); we see that for these values of the energy, λ = 2H to good approximation. The ﬁnal column gives the bifurcation value of λ given by (2.14) in each situation. The agreement with the measured value of λ is very good, especially for small H, as expected. Bifurcation diagrams and comments For the spring-pendulum in 1 : 2 resonance, the iso-energetic Poincar´e map is shown in Fig. 2.3 for various values of the detuning parameter. Its main bifurcation occurs at a1 ≈ 0.69, where an elliptic equilibrium disappears. To ﬁnd analytic expressions for this bifurcation value, ﬁrst the planar normal form is computed, which turns out to be x(x2 + y 2 ) + u1 x + u2 y 2 . Here ui are the unfolding parameters. Its bifurcation diagram is depicted in Fig. 2.4. The curve u1 = 0 corresponds to a saddle-center bifurcation, while u1 + 3u22 = 0 corresponds to a Hamiltonian pitchfork bifurcation. Using the reparametrizations, it turns out that the bifurcation curve u1 = 0 does not correspond to bifurcations in the original system. The other curve does, however. Fig. 2.5 gives the bifurcation diagram in original parameters. Grey areas are portions of the parameter- or phase-plane that do not correspond to a conﬁguration of the original system.

Table 2.2 Comparison of bifurcation values obtained numerically, and by means of the pull-back of the bifurcation curve, (2.14) H 0.01 0.01 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

a1 0.5385 0.463 0.51255 0.4876 0.5365 0.465

a2 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.2 0.2

a3 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

λmeasured 0.020 0.020 0.00200 0.00200 0.00200 0.00200

λpredicted 0.018 0.018 0.00198 0.00199 0.00201 0.00198

44

2.3. Spring-pendulum in 1:2-resonance

Fig. 2.4 Bifurcation diagram of the Z2 -invariant hyperbolic umbilic x(x2 + y 2 ) + u1 x + u2 y 2 . Across the bifurcation lines saddle-center bifurcations occur. Across the parabola u1 + 3u22 = 0 a Hamiltonian pitchfork bifurcation occurs due to Z2 symmetry.

Fig. 2.5 Bifurcation diagram of the planar reduced system H r , obtained from pulling back the bifurcation diagram of Fig. 2.4 to original coordinates. Grey areas denote portions of phase- or parameter-space that do not correspond to phase points of the original system.

3 Method II: The energy-momentum map

In this chapter we apply the energy–momentum map reduction method to the same class of systems as in Chap. 2, namely two degree-of-freedom systems with optional symmetry, near equilibrium and close to resonance. We calculate the tangent space and nondegeneracy conditions for the 1:2, 1:3 and 1:4 resonances starting from a Birkhoﬀ normalized Hamiltonian. The case of the spring-pendulum close to 1:2 resonance is treated in more detail. We arrive at a polynomial model which is diﬀerent from the one found in Chap. 2, and which has an additional saddle–node bifurcation.

3.1 Introduction Several methods for analyzing Hamiltonian systems around resonance are available. One is the planar reduction method [BCKV95, BCKV93] of the previous chapter, but many more are available, see e.g. [Arn93a, GMSD95, SV85, Sch74] and references there. This chapter uses a method introduced in [Dui84, Sch74]. Just as the planar reduction method of Chap. 2, it uses the Birkhoﬀ procedure followed by symmetric reduction. The singularity theory used subsequently is diﬀerent, however, and uses left-right transformations to normalize a certain map from phase space to R2 , the energy–momentum map. The remainder of the approach is again similar to that of Chap. 2: From a normal form of the map we compute bifurcation curves, and by explicitly computing the singularity theory transformations these are pulled back to original coordinates and parameters. The algorithms we use to compute the reparametrizations (and the bifurcation curves) are closely related to those used in the previous chapter. Both Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm and the division algorithm have their counterparts in the present setting. With the planar reduction method of the previous chapter, the tangent space is an ideal, leading to a division algorithm that could be borrowed from Gr¨ obner basis theory with little modiﬁcation. The energy– momentum map method leads to a more complicated tangent space. These complications surface again in the division algorithm. In fact the complications were such that modifying the previous approach in an ad-hoc manner turned out to be infeasible. Instead we used a structured approach that brought, amongst others, Gr¨ obner bases and standard bases for both tangent spaces into a common framework. Within this framework it was possible to derive the required division

H. Broer, I. Hoveijn, G. Lunter, and G. Vegter: LNM 1806, pp. 45–68, 2003. c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003

46

3.1. Introduction

algorithm systematically. These results are described in Chaps. 6 and 7, and are applied in this chapter. We now give an overview of the energy–momentum map method. For a general outline of this (and other) reduction methods, see the introduction to Chap. 2; here we shall be brief. After the Birkhoﬀ procedure and truncation (or, modulo a ﬂat perturbation), the system acquires an S1 symmetry, with associated conserved quantity H2 . We then construct the energy–momentum map E, mapping phase space to R2 . Its ﬁrst component is the Hamiltonian, and the second component is the conserved quantity H2 . This map encodes information about the dynamics of Birkhoﬀ-normalized system: Its ﬁbers are invariant manifolds of the system, with singular points corresponding to periodic orbits. Both the ﬁbers and singular points of E are smoothly deformed under the group of near-identity left-right transformations (B, A), with group operation (B , A ) ∗ (B, A) = (B ◦ B, A ◦ A ), and action E → B ◦ E ◦ A. Since after the Birkhoﬀ procedure the system has a (formal) circle symmetry, the map E has this symmetry too. It is necessary to do the singularity theory inside the space of symmetric mappings, since the orbit of E under left-right transformations has inﬁnite codimension in the general space. Hence, we must also restrict to right-transformations A that commute with the symmetry. Instead of doing this explicitly, we reduce the symmetry by using circle-symmetric coordinates. For a 2 degree-of-freedom system, we thus can reduce from a circleinvariant map on R4 , to a map on R3 that respects a certain algebraic relation between the variables. Just as in the planar reduction method, dynamical conjugacy is lost with arbitrary (circle-equivariant but non-symplectic) right-transformations. However, if the system has 2 degrees of freedom, it lives on a 4-dimensional phase space, and nondegenerate ﬁbers of E are 2-dimensional circle-invariant manifolds. After symmetry reduction we get 1-dimensional dynamically invariant manifolds, i.e., orbits of the reduced system. A universal deformation of E (i.e., a transversal section to its orbit under left-right transformations) can be related to a such a system that is equivalent, i.e., conjugate modulo a time-reparametrization, to the reduced Birkhoﬀ-normalized system, again, just as in the planar reduction method. In contrast to that method, it is not easy to de-reduce to the full system after normalization, because the ﬁbers H2 = constant are not preserved by the normalizing transformations (even though, after [Dui84], the transformations we use preserve E’s second component). The present method therefore seems less suited for studying the ﬂat perturbations; see [BCKV95, BCKV93] for more remarks. Our current goal remains to pull back bifurcation curves. Although the larger class of allowed transformations necessitates an extra calculation to obtain the H2 -level at the bifurcation point, this turns out to be straightforward in this case. A summary of this chapter was published as [Lun99b].

3. Method II: The energy-momentum map

47

3.2 Description of the method This section describes the general energy–momentum map method in detail. It follows [Dui84] to great extent. To avoid cluttering the formulas, the system’s dependence on parameters and coeﬃcients is suppressed in this section. From Sect. 3.4 onwards this dependence will be explicitly taken into account again. 3.2.1 Birkhoﬀ normalization The ﬁrst step is Birkhoﬀ normalization. Assume the Hamiltonian H has vanishing linear part. Then, after truncation (or modulo a ﬂat perturbation) the Birkhoﬀ-normalized Hamiltonian H n is S1 -symmetric, and assumes the form H n = H20 + f0 (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ, χ),

(3.1)

where we expressed the normalized Hamiltonian in the invariants ρ1 = z1 z¯1 ,

ρ2 = z2 z¯2 ,

ψ=

1 p |q| |q| (z z¯ + z¯1p z2 ), 2 1 2

χ=

1 p |q| |q| (z z¯ − z¯1p z2 ), 2i 1 2

and H20 = iρ1 + iωρ2 , with ω = pq , is an integral of motion. Note that H n , and thus also f0 , depend on several parameters. In the case of the 1 : 2 and 1 : −2 resonances, a second symplectic normalization removes the dependence on χ. This is a consequence of the unique normal form for Hamiltonians for these resonances; see [SvdM92]. Proposition 3.1. Suppose p : q = 1 : ±2 and the coeﬃcients of ψ and χ in H n do not both vanish. Then there exists a symplectic coordinate transformation that brings the Hamiltonian (3.1) in the form (3.2)

H N = H20 + f1 (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ).

For a proof, see Sect. 4.3.2. In [Dui84] the dependence on χ is removed by a nonsymplectic transformation. The present method leads to a shorter calculation, since we can calculate with Hamiltonians instead of vector ﬁelds. A preliminary calculation suggested that this approach cannot be used for higher resonances. Remark 3.2. (Comparison with Proposition 2.2) Note that we arrived at (3.2) without assuming a time-reversal symmetry on H. This may be contrasted to the result of Proposition 2.2, where this assumption was needed. However, the current result only holds for the 1 : 2 resonance, whereas Proposition 2.2 is more general. 3.2.2 Circle-equivariant vector ﬁelds In this section we calculate generators for the module of vector ﬁelds equivariant under the H20 -circle action, under which the system is invariant after Birkhoﬀ normalization. We pick the main line of the argument up again in Sect. 3.2.3.

48

3.2. Description of the method

From now on, we work in the ring of formal power series in the fundamental invariants, R = R[[ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ, χ]], instead of R[[z1 , z¯1 , z2 , z¯2 ]]. There is one relation between the variables, namely ψ 2 + χ2 − ρp1 ρq2 = 0.

(3.3)

For the 1 : ±2 resonance cases, we can restrict to R[[ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ]] right away, and use the relation ψ 2 − ρp1 ρq2 = 0. We ﬁrst deal with the general case. Arbitrary resonances A circle-equivariant vector ﬁeld in the variables z1 , z¯1 , z2 , z¯2 corresponds to a vector ﬁeld in ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ, χ-space that leaves the relation (3.3) invariant. Such a vector ﬁeld can always be written as α = f1

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ + f2 + f3 + f4 . ∂ρ1 ∂ρ2 ∂ψ ∂χ

The derivative of ψ 2 + χ2 − ρp1 ρq2 in the direction of α is ρq2 − qf2 ρp1 ρ2q−1 + 2f3 ψ + 2f4 χ. −pf1 ρp−1 1 Requiring this to be an element of ψ 2 + χ2 − ρp1 ρq2 R leads to conditions on the fi and the exponents p, q, in turn leading to the following generators vi of the R-module of equivariant vector ﬁelds: f1 f2 f3 f4 v1 2ρ1 pψ pχ 2ρ2 qψ qχ v2 v3 χ −ψ pρp−1 ρq2 v4 2ψ 1 v5 2χ pρp−1 ρq2 1 v6 2ψ qρp1 ρ2q−1 v7 2χ qρp1 ρ2q−1 Thesegenerators are independent over R, in the sense that there is no relation vi = j=i fj vj with fj ∈ R, for any i. Below we shall need the derivative of H2 along an arbitrary circle-invariant vector ﬁeld α. So let α be α = v1 v1 + · · · + v7 v7 , where vi ∈ R, then the derivative of H2 with respect to α is (3.4) αH2 = α(qρ1 +pρ2 ) = 2qv1 ρ1 +2pv2 ρ2 +2(qv4 +pv6 )ψ +2(qv5 +pv7 )χ. Note that we wrote, for convenience, H2 = qρ1 + pρ2 , which diﬀers from the quadratic part of H N in (3.2) by a factor i/q; since we are interested in the location of critical points, this diﬀerence is immaterial.

3. Method II: The energy-momentum map

49

The resonances 1 : ±2 An arbitrary vector ﬁeld now takes the form α = ∂ f1 ∂ρ∂ 1 + f2 ∂ρ∂ 2 + f3 ∂ψ , and the condition that the derivative of the relation ψ 2 − ρp1 ρq2 along α, which is −pf1 ρp−1 ρq2 − qf2 ρp1 ρ2q−1 + 2f3 ψ, is an element of the 1 ideal generated by the relation, yields the following generators of the module of equivariant vector ﬁelds: f1 f2 f3 v1 2ρ1 pψ 2ρ2 qψ v2 p−1 q pρ1 ρ2 v4 2ψ v6 2ψ qρp1 ρ2q−1

The numbering of the generators is chosen to stress the relation with the previous case. An arbitrary circle-equivariant vector ﬁeld, and the derivative of H2 along it, now take the form

(3.5)

α = v1 v1 + v2 v2 + v4 v4 + v6 v6 , αH2 = 2qv1 ρ1 + 2pv2 ρ2 + 2(qv4 + pv6 )ψ.

3.2.3 The energy–momentum map We now introduce the main object of interest, the energy–momentum map: E:

R4 → R 2 :

(ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ, χ) → (H n , H20 ).

Here H n is the Hamiltonian in Birkhoﬀ normal form, depending on the parameters, and H20 is the quadratic part of H n when the parameters vanish (see also Chap. 4, remark 4.5). Note that the relation ψ 2 + χ2 − ρp1 ρq2 = 0 is supposed to hold, so that it suﬃces to deﬁne E on the variety of points satisfying the relation, but we do not make this explicit in the notation. The ﬁbers of E are invariant under the ﬂow of H n . They are smoothly deformed by left-right transformations (A, B), where A : R4 → R4 are circleequivariant near-identity diﬀeomorphisms on R4 , and B : R2 → R2 are arbitrary planar near-identity diﬀeomorphisms, with action (A, B) :

E → B ◦ E ◦ A.

In the context of unfoldings, the left-right transformation (A, B) depends on parameters, and is the identity mapping at the origin in parameter space. The set of invertible left-right transformations forms a group, with the obvious composition as group operation. To ﬁnd a universal deformation of E, we look at the tangent space, at E, to the orbit of E under the action of the group. This tangent space is TE = {(αH + β1 (H, H2 ), αH2 + β2 (H, H2 ))}, where α runs over the circle-equivariant vector ﬁelds, and βi are arbitrary functions of 2 variables, see Sect. 5.4.

50

3.2. Description of the method

The set TE is a subset of R ⊕ R, the space of maps from Rn to R2 (recall that R = R[[ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ, χ]]). It is possible to reduce TE to a subset of R in the following way. Consider the map T going from the tangent space of the group of left-right transformations at the identity element, to R ⊕ R, deﬁned by (α, β1 , β2 ) → (αH + β1 (H, H2 ), αH2 + β2 (H, H2 )).

T :

We have Im T = TE . From (3.4) it follows that the image of the second component of T , denoted by T2 , maps surjectively into R. Therefore, since T is a linear map, the codimension of TE in R ⊕R is the codimension in R of the image of T1 , restricted to the kernel of T2 . In other words, to compute the codimension of TE , we may restrict to left-right transformations that do not alter the second component of E, and look at how those transformations change its ﬁrst component. If the codimension of T1 (ker T2 ) ⊆ R is ﬁnite, and t1 , . . . , td are complementing elements, then the elements (t1 , 0), . . . , (td , 0) span a complement of TE . By the results of Chap. 5, this immediately gives a universal deformation of E, say F , namely F : R4 ⊕ Rd → R2 : (x, u) → E + u1 · (t1 , 0) + · · · + ud · (td , 0) We shall r denote the space T1 (ker T2 ) by TE , the reduced tangent space to E. This reduced tangent space takes the following form: (3.6)

r := {αH + β1 (H, H2 )|αH2 + β2 (H, H2 ) = 0}, TE

where α runs over the circle invariant vector ﬁelds, and βi over the arbitrary functions in two variables. From (3.4) it follows that αH2 vanishes at the origin, hence β2 can be written as β2 (x, y) = xγ1 (x, y) + yγ2 (x, y). Also from (3.4) it follows that for every function f vanishing at the origin, there exists a vector ﬁelds α with αH2 = f . In particular, let α1 and α2 be deﬁned by α1 H2 = H, α2 H2 = H2 . Then, writing β2 (H, H2 ) = Hγ1 (H, H2 ) + H2 γ2 (H, H2 ), the reduced tangent space can be written as r TE = {αH + β1 (H, H2 )| α + γ1 (H, H2 )α1 + γ2 (H, H2 )α2 H2 = 0}, and with a change of variables α = α + γ1 α1 + γ2 α2 it becomes r TE = {α H + f1 γ1 (H, H2 ) + f2 γ2 (H, H2 ) + β1 (H, H2 )|α H2 = 0},

where we wrote fi = −αi H. Writing this diﬀerently, we arrive at the following: r Proposition 3.3. The codimension of TE is equal to the codimension of TE := T1 (ker T2 ) ⊆ R. This set can be written in the form

(3.7)

r TE = J + {1, f1 , f2 }R[[H, H2 ]],

where fi are as deﬁned above, and J is the ideal J = {αH|αH2 = 0}.

3. Method II: The energy-momentum map

51

Generators of J From (3.4) it follows that the set of equivariant vector ﬁelds α that leave H2 ﬁxed is generated, as an R-module, by v3 , ψv1 − ρ1 v4 ,

pρ2 v1 − qρ1 v2 , pv4 − qv6 , pv5 − qv7 , χv1 − ρ1 v5 , ψv2 − ρ2 v6 , χv2 − ρ2 v7 , χv4 − ψv6 .

The last ﬁve generators are actually multiples of v3 , taking the relation into account. The ﬁrst four, acting on H, yield the following generators of J:

(3.8)

h0 := ψ 2 + χ2 − ρp1 ρq2 , ∂H ∂H −ψ , h1 := χ ∂ψ ∂χ 2 ∂H ∂H ∂H ∂H 2 h2 := 2ρ1 ρ2 p +ψ , + p ρ2 − q ρ 1 χ −q ∂ρ1 ∂ρ2 ∂χ ∂ψ

∂H ∂H ∂H h3 := 2ψ p + p2 ρp−1 −q ρq2 − q 2 ρp1 ρ2q−1 , 1 ∂ρ1 ∂ρ2 ∂ψ

∂H ∂H ∂H + p2 ρp−1 −q ρq2 − q 2 ρp1 ρ2q−1 h4 := 2χ p . 1 ∂ρ1 ∂ρ2 ∂χ

Note that we added the relation h0 , so that we can work in the free ring R = R[[ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ, χ]]. Generators of J in the 1 : ±2-resonance case Sect. 3.2.3 is valid for the 1 : ±2 resonance case, up to the computation of generators of J. We give the details for that case here. Referring to (3.5), we ﬁnd the following generators of the R-module of vector ﬁelds that leave H2 invariant: pρ2 V1 − qρ1 V2 ,

pV4 − qV6 ,

ψV1 − ρ1 V4

(where p = 1, q = ±2). The last generator is zero modulo the relation ψ 2 −ρp1 ρq2 = 0. The other two generators, acting on H, together with the relation, yield the following generators of J: (3.9)

h0 := ψ 2 − ρp1 ρq2 , ∂H ∂H ∂H , + (p2 ρ2 − q 2 ρ1 )ψ −q h1 := 2ρ1 ρ2 p ∂ρ1 ∂ρ2 ∂ψ ∂H ∂H ∂H h2 := 2ψ p . + (p2 ρp−1 −q ρq2 − q 2 ρp1 ρ2q−1 ) 1 ∂ρ1 ∂ρ2 ∂ψ

3.2.4 Removing the χ-dependence At this point we introduce a nondegeneracy condition, namely that ∂H ∂φ and ∂H ∂ψ do not both vanish at the origin. (We would have needed this condition for other reasons later on anyway.) Under this condition it is possible to reduce the

52

3.2. Description of the method

dimension of the phase space by 1. This simpliﬁes the computations. Again, see [Dui84]. Note that the module generated by V4 , pρ2 V2 − qρ1 V3 , pV5 − qV7 and pV6 − qV8 is invariant under rotations in the ψ, χ-plane. This is obvious from the deﬁnition of the module, since H2 is invariant under such rotations – indeed, H2 is independent of ψ and χ. By a rotation in the ψ, χ plane, we can arrange that ∂H ∂χ (0) = 0. Now assume that in this situation, ∂H (0) = d = 0. By a further coordinate transformation, ∂ψ H can be made not to depend on χ at all, in the following way. Let H = h0 + fk (ψ, χ), f˜k (ψ) + 1
k≥n

where n ≥ 2, h0 ∈ R[[ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ]], f˜k is homogeneous of degree k in ψ, and fk is homogeneous of total degree k in ψ and χ, both with coeﬃcients in R[[ρ1 , ρ2 ]]. Write fn = f˜n + χgn , with f˜n not depending on χ, and let α be the vector ﬁeld ∂ ∂ gn χ −ψ . α=− d ∂ψ ∂χ It has time-1 ﬂow

gn gn α1 (ψ, χ) = ψ − χ + O(|ψ, χ|2n ), χ + ψ + O(|ψ, χ|2n ) . d d

0 Since ∂h ∂ψ (0) = d and and therefore

∂h0 ∂χ (0)

H ◦ α1 = h0 +

= 0, we have h0 ◦ α1 = h0 − χgn + O(|ψ, χ|n+1 ),

1
f˜k (ψ) + f˜n (ψ) +

fk (ψ, χ).

k≥n+1

Continuing in this way, all dependence in H of χ is removed, without changing the form of (3.8). From now on we write R for the ring R[[ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ]], and we add the relation ψ 2 − ρp1 ρq2 to the generators of the ideal J so that J is generated by h0 = ψ 2 − ρp1 ρq2 , ∂H ∂H ∂H , + p 2 ρ 2 − q 2 ρ1 ψ −q h1 = 2ρ1 ρ2 p ∂ρ1 ∂ρ2 ∂ψ

∂H ∂H ∂H h2 = 2ψ p . + p2 ρp−1 −q ρq2 − q 2 ρp1 ρ2q−1 1 ∂ρ1 ∂ρ2 ∂ψ Note that these expressions are exactly equal to (3.9) of the 1 : ±2-resonance case, where the removal of χ was done diﬀerently (namely, by a symplectic transformation).

3. Method II: The energy-momentum map

53

3.3 Application to several resonances In this section we compute standard bases for the left-right tangent space of Hamiltonians around several resonances. As a result, we get independent conﬁrmation of the calculations in [Dui84], and explicit non-degeneracy conditions. It is assumed that the Hamiltonian is in Birkhoﬀ normal form, so that it can be written as a function of the fundamental circle invariants, which for the p : q resonance are ρ1 = z1 z¯1 ,

ρ2 = z2 z¯2 ,

ψ=

1 p |q| |q| (z z¯ + z¯1p z2 ), 2 1 2

χ=

1 p |q| |q| (z z¯ − z¯1p z2 ). 2i 1 2

We further assume that the dependence on χ is removed. Using the relation ψ 2 − ρp1 ρq2 = 0 the variable ψ can be made to appear to ﬁrst order at most. The coeﬃcients associated to the lowest-order terms are given names as follows: (3.10) H = d1 ρ1 + d2 ρ2 + d3 ψ + d4 ρ21 + d5 ρ1 ρ2 + d6 ψρ1 + d7 ρ22 + d8 ψρ2 + d9 ψ 2 + d10 ρ31 + d11 ρ21 ρ2 + d12 ψρ21 + d13 ρ1 ρ22 + d14 ψρ1 ρ2 + d15 ψ 2 ρ1 + d16 ρ32 + d17 ψρ22 + d18 ψ 2 ρ2 + d19 ψ 3 + d20 ρ41 + d21 ρ31 ρ2 + d22 ψρ31 + d23 ρ21 ρ22 + d24 ψρ21 ρ2 + d25 ρ1 v23 + d26 ψρ1 ρ22 + d27 ρ42 + d28 ψρ32 . The reduced tangent space is of the form r TE = h0 , . . . , hk + {f0 , . . . , fl }R[[g1 , . . . , gm ]].

Once the basis ({hi }, {fi }, {fi }) is extended to a standard basis, the codimension and deformation directions can be deduced from the leading monomials of the generators: The deformation directions are the monomials not in the basis, and the codimension is their number. The coeﬃcients of the generator’s leading monomials should be nonzero, as otherwise the codimension increases. This leads to the nondegeneracy conditions. It often happens that a certain leading monomial can be reached through several reduction paths. The associated coeﬃcient may be diﬀerent for each path. Therefore we tried all diﬀerent paths, to make sure no spurious nondegeneracy conditions were included. Remark 3.4. (Rigorous codimensions) This is a computational study, and the codimensions obtained below are not rigorous, since we truncate at a certain degree. They are a rigorous lower bound, however. All this is rather academic, since the codimensions below are established, by diﬀerent means, in [Dui84]. A related remark is that the set of nondegeneracy conditions obtained may not be complete. Since a full (non-truncated) standard basis will contain inﬁnitely many elements, as is easily seen, there may in principle be inﬁnitely many (polynomial) nondegeneracy conditions. Indeed, in some cases we ﬁnd more of such conditions than appear in [Dui84].

54

3.3. Application to several resonances

Fig. 3.1

Standard basis of LR-tangent space for the 1 : 2 resonance.

3.3.1 The 1:2 resonance We use the expressions (3.9) for the generators of J, truncated at order 9 in the zi variables. We use a grading of the monomials with deg(ρ1 ) = deg(ρ2 ) = 2, deg(ψ) = 3, and the ordering satisﬁes ψ 2 < ρ31 < ρ32 . The computation of the standard basis then yields the following leading monomials: LM({hi }) = {ψρ1 , ρ1 ρ2 , ψ 2 }, LM({gi }) = {ρ1 , ψ}, LM({fi }) = {1, ρ1 , ρ22 , ρ32 , ρ42 , ψρ2 , ψρ22 }. This standard basis is depicted graphically in Fig. 3.1. Monomials are represented by lattice points in N3 . Since one of the ideal generators has leading monomial ψ 2 , the interesting things happen in the ψ 0 and ψ 1 slices. The monomials in the ideal are those in the grey rectangles. Fat dots denote fi -generators, and the medium-sized dots correspond to monomials obtained by multiplying an fi and an element of the algebra. The diagonal line, ﬁnally, shows where we truncated. From the ﬁgure, it is seen that the codimension is 1, and that the deformation term that makes the Energy–Momentum map versal, is ρ2 . This is called the detuning term. The requirement that, for each basis element, the coeﬃcients of the leading monomials do not vanish, leads to the following nondegeneracy conditions: (3.11) 8d23

d3 = 0, − 2d4 + d5 + 4d7 = 0.

A normal form for the Hamiltonian behind this tangent space is a simple function (a polynomial, for example) with few parameters, but which nevertheless captures all bifurcations. A suﬃcient condition for this is to include all terms whose parameters appear in the nondegeneracy conditions; perturbations in the other terms will not change the type of the singularity. This condition is generally not necessary. However, for our purposes it is useful to be able to choose

3. Method II: The energy-momentum map

Fig. 3.2

55

Standard basis of LR-tangent space for the 1 : 3 resonance.

parameters such that the normalizing transformation is the identity in leading order. It turns out that e.g. 1 1 + µ1 ρ2 + d3 ψ + d5 ρ1 ρ2 (3.12) H = ρ1 + 2 4 is a suitable normal form. Here d3 and d5 are (ﬁxed) parameters, and µ1 is the detuning parameter. 3.3.2 The 1:3 resonance For this resonance, the reduced tangent space was calculated up to order 8 in the zi variables. The variable ψ has degree 4, so that it appears at most to second degree. We use a monomial ordering satisfying ψ < ρ22 < ρ21 . With this ordering the leading monomials of the standard basis are LM({hi }) = {ψρ1 , ψ 2 , ψρ2 , ρ31 ρ2 }, LM({gi }) = {ρ1 , ψ}, LM({fi }) = {1, ρ1 , ρ21 ρ2 , ρ21 ρ22 , ρ1 ρ32 , ρ1 ρ22 , ρ42 , ρ32 }. A graphical representation of this standard basis is given in ﬁgure 3.2. Now the codimension is 3, with corresponding deformation directions ρ2 , ρ1 ρ2 and ρ22 . The nondegeneracy conditions for this resonance are somewhat complicated, so we introduce the following abbreviations: a = 12 (d10 + d11 ) b = 12 (d10 − d11 )

c = d4 − d5 − 3d7 d = 2d4 − 3d5

e = 12 (d6 + d8 ) f = −2d6 − 3d8

In terms of these quantities, the nondegeneracy conditions are the following:

56

3.3. Application to several resonances

Fig. 3.3

Standard basis of LR-tangent space for the 1 : 4 resonance.

d3 = 0, d4 + 3d5 − 27d7 = 0, c = 0, d = 0, 36 (9c + 2d)d43 + 216d(12c2 + 3cd + 2d2 )d23 + 16d2 (9c3 − 6c2 d − 3cd2 + 2d3 ) = 0, 216bd33 − 54ded23 + 4(6bc2 + acd − 19bcd + 8bd2 − 3cdd13 )d3 + 8(d − c)d(6ce − de + cf ) = 0, 5832bd53 − 1458ded43 + 27(168bc2 + 10acd − 228bcd + 64bd2 − 21cdd13 )d33 −108d(12c2 e − 25cde + 4d2 e − c2 f − 2cdf )d23 +4(216bc4 + 36ac3 d − 612bc3 d − 38ac2 d2 + 580bc2 d2 + 10acd3 − 228bcd3 + +32bd4 − 108c3 dd13 + 99c2 d2 d13 − 21cd3 d13 )d3 −16(3c − 2d)(2c − d)(3c − d)d(6ce − de + cf ) = 0. A normal form for this singularity is for example 1 1 H = ρ1 + + µ1 ρ2 +d3 ψ+d4 ρ21 +(d5 +µ2 )ρ1 ρ2 +(d7 +µ3 )ρ22 +d10 ρ31 +d13 ρ1 ρ22 . 2 6 3.3.3 The 1:4 resonance For this resonance we again chose the obvious grading, deg(ρ1 ) = deg(ρ2 ) = 2 and deg(ψ) = 5, and the monomial order deﬁned by ψ 2 < ρ52 < ρ52 . The truncation degree was set at 11, resulting in the following standard basis: LM({hi }) = {ρ21 ρ2 , ψρ1 , ψ 2 }, LM({gi }) = {ρ1 , ρ1 ρ2 }, LM({fi }) = {1, ρ1 , ρ1 ρ22 , ρ1 ρ32 , ρ1 ρ42 , ρ52 ρ42 , ψρ22 , ψρ2 , ρ32 , ψ}. The codimension is 2, with deformation terms ρ2 and ρ22 . The nondegeneracy conditions are the following:

3. Method II: The energy-momentum map

57

d3 = 0, . d4 − 2d5 = 0, 3d4 − 8d5 − 16d7 = 0, d4 − 16d7 = 0, d5 − 8d7 = 0, d4 − 4d5 + 16d7 = 0, 5d24 + 32d25 − 128d5 d7 + 256d27 + 32d4 d7 − 24d4 d5 = 0. A normal form is for example 1 1 + µ1 ρ2 + d3 ψ + d4 ρ21 + d5 ρ1 ρ2 + (d7 + µ2 )ρ22 . H = ρ1 + 2 8

3.4 Spring-pendulum in 1:2 resonance In this section we shall analyze the spring-pendulum system in the 1 : 2 resonance, by exhibiting a polynomial model of the Energy–Momentum map, and computing the reparametrizations that connect the model to the original system. The bifurcation analysis of the model leads to a bifurcation diagram, together with a ‘catalog’ of possible dynamics as depicted in phase diagrams. Using the explicit reparametrization the bifurcation curves are pulled back to the space of the spring pendulum’s original parameters, giving full information as to which subset of the full set of possible dynamics actually occurs, and where bifurcations take place in terms of the original parameters. This section’s analogue for the planar reduction case is section 2.3, but this section is organized slightly diﬀerently. We start with a bifurcation analysis of the polynomial normal form, and we give pictures of the bifurcation and phase space diagrams. This is followed by the computation of the explicit reparametrizations, of which we only give the results. These are then used to pull back the bifurcation curves to the original parameter space. 3.4.1 Bifurcation analysis of the 1:2-resonant normal form In Sect. 2.3 we encountered a third-order polynomial normal form, with a rather simple bifurcation structure. The normal form for this case is less simple, involving degree-four terms, which complicates the computations. The normal form for the 1 : 2-resonant system is: (3.13)

Eµ = (H µ , H2 ) = (H2 + µρ2 + aψ + bρ1 ρ2 , H2 ) ,

see Sect. 3.3.1. Here we wrote H2 for the quadratic part 12 ρ1 + 14 ρ2 as usual; a and b are ﬁxed coeﬃcients, and µ is the deformation parameter; see (3.10), (3.12). In Hamiltonian polar coordinates zi = ri e2πiφ1 , the fundamental invariants become ρi = ri2 and ψ = r1 r22 cos(φ1 − 2φ2 ). These variables are used in the sequel.

58

3.4. Spring-pendulum in 1:2 resonance

We restrict to the ﬂow-invariant level sets 2H2 = λ, for small λ, which corresponds to small-energy deviations from the elliptic equilibrium. The function H µ restricted to such level sets has critical points precisely where Eµ has critical points, namely where grad(H2 ) is parallel to grad(H µ ). A short calculation shows that a necessary condition1 for this is sin(φ1 − 2φ2 ) = 0. It is now convenient to introduce := cos(φ1 − 2φ2 ), so that = ±1. Now grad(H2 ) and grad(H µ ) are vectors in R2 (r1 , r2 ), and such vectors are parallel if their outer product vanishes. The resulting curve of critical points is (3.14) r2 −2µr1 − 2ar12 − 2br13 + 12 a + br1 r22 = 0. This implies that r2 = 0 is always a critical point; it corresponds to the ‘short periodic orbit’ that always exists. Equation (3.14), with the solution r2 = 0 divided out, can be solved for r22 . Obviously, critical points (dis)appear when the solution r22 of (3.14) passes through 0. This leads to a bifurcation curve in the µ, λ-plane implicitly given by (3.15)

(µ + 2bλ)2 − 2a2 λ = 0.

(pitchfork bifurcation)

The parabolic equation (3.15) has solutions for nonnegative λ only. Since the critical points emanate from r2 = 0 which itself is a critical point throughout the bifurcation, this is a pitchfork bifurcation. The bifurcation occurs at the point 1 b 2b2 (3.16) (r1 , r2 , ψ, χ) = µ + 3 µ2 + 5 µ3 , 0, 0, 0 + O(µ4 ). a a a Other bifurcations occur when the curve of critical points (3.14) in the r1 , r2 plane become tangent to level curves of H2 . When this happens, a small change in the level λ will (generically) create or destroy two critical points. One of these will be a saddle, the other a center or a node, so that this is a saddle–node bifurcation. The tangency condition is that grad(H2 ) and the gradient of the left-hand-side of (3.14) be parallel, and using the outer product once more we get the bifurcation equation (3.17) r2 2µ + 6ar1 + 10br12 − br22 = 0. Bifurcations occur at simultaneous solutions, in r1 , r2 , µ, λ, of 2H2 = λ, (3.14) and (3.17). This solution curve can be found by computing a Gr¨ obner basis with respect to an elimination term order (see Sect. 6.2.1) of the ideal generated by these three polynomials. Since only three generators are involved, we can get the same result (with, essentially, the same computation) using resultants.2 Computing the resultant of the pair 2H2 − λ, (3.14) and of (3.14), (3.17) with respect 1 2

We exclude the degenerate case r1 = r2 = 0. The resultant of two polynomials, with respect to the variable x, is their GCD with respect to the divisibility condition xa |xb ⇔ a ≤ b, i.e., it vanishes iﬀ the polynomials have a common root in x.

3. Method II: The energy-momentum map

59

to r2 , eliminates this variable, and reduces the system of 3 polynomial equations to a system involving only 2. The resultant with respect to r1 subsequently reduces this system to the following cubic curve in the µ, λ-plane, along which the saddle–node bifurcations occur: (3.18) 27a4 λ + 9a2 b2 λ2 + 32b4 λ3 − 126a2 bλµ (saddle–node bifurcation) −96b3 λ2 µ + 9a2 µ2 + 96b2 λµ2 − 32bµ3 = 0, where we used that 2 = 1, and we ﬁrst divided out two factors r2 corresponding to the pitchfork bifurcation. Note that the cubic curve is independent of now. Also note that the curve has quadratic contact with the line λ = 0 in µ = 0. By expanding around 0 it turns out that the curve has no solutions λ > 0 around (λ, µ) = (0, 0), for all values of the coeﬃcients a, b (provided b = 0). It has a 2 −a2 critical point at (µ, λ) = ( 5a 16b , 16b2 ). Not all points on the cubic correspond to saddle–node bifurcations. The reason is that due to the constraint 2H2 = λ = ρ1 + 12 ρ2 = r12 + 12 r22 , the solutions for the ri may be imaginary. The ‘turning points’ on the cubic, where real solutions turn into imaginary ones, is where either r12 or r22 pass through 0. From (3.14) it follows that r1 = 0 at critical points (provided λ = 0). So we turn our attention to the equation r2 = 0. The curve of pitchfork bifurcations (3.15) is just the curve where critical points satisfy r2 = 0, hence the turning points are intersections of the cubic (3.18) with the parabola (3.15). To compute these intersection points we compute the resultant of the two curves. With respect to λ this is 4096b10 µ2 (−a2 + 4bµ)2 (153a4 − 352a2 bµ + 256b2 µ2 ). From this we conclude that (3.18) and (3.15) have quadratic contact at (µ, λ) = 2 a2 (0, 0) and (µ, λ) = ( a4b , 4b 2 ). The last factor is quadratic in µ, with discriminant −32768a4 b2 . Provided that neither a nor b vanishes, this does not contribute additional (real) zeros. Since the part of the cubic connecting the turning points (µ, λ) = (0, 0) and 2 a2 ( a4b , 4b 2 ) passes through the λ < 0 region, namely through the critical point 5a2 −a2 ( 16b , 16b2 ), we conclude that saddle–node bifurcations occur only for λ>

a2 . 4b2

(condition for saddle–node bifurcation)

In order to get a useful expression for µ in terms of λ, we expand the cubic (3.18) a2 around the turning point. Writing Λ = λ − 4b 2 we get µ=

b3 10b5 3 47b7 4 a2 + 2 Λ2 − Λ + Λ + O(Λ5 ). 4b 3a 27a4 81a6

(saddle–node bifurcation)

We also computed the bifurcation locus, around the turning point. Writing M := 2 µ − a4b , then saddle–node bifurcations occur for M/b ≥ 0 at points which have √ the following expansion in M:

60

3.4. Spring-pendulum in 1:2 resonance

Fig. 3.4 Bifurcation curves of the normal form (3.13), for a = 14 and b = 13 . The parabola is a curve of pitchfork bifurcations; along the singular cubic curve saddle–node bifurcations occur. Dashed segments correspond to non-physical states of the system (λ out of bounds, leading to imaginary values of state variables).

(3.19) (r1 , r22 , ψ, χ)

=

√ 2 3 4M √bM + 512bM3 + 9|a| + 40 243|a | , 27 3a2 M 32M 80 M3 832M2 4|a| 3b 3 + 9b − 27|a| b + 243a2 , √ √ 28|a|M 8(6 3−5) 80(16−3 3)M2 M M3 2 , − sign(a) 2a 3b5 + 9b2 + b3 + 27 243|a|b

sign(b)

0

|a| 2b

+

M 3b

+ O(|M|5/2 ).

3.4.2 Pictures The surface on which H µ lives is the level set 2H2 = λ, which is a 3-torus in R4 . Using the S1 -symmetry to divide out one dimension, we can make 2dimensional pictures of level sets of H µ on this surface. There are two natural ways of choosing coordinates, which are both singular but have their singularities in diﬀerent locations on the 3-torus. We give pictures for both sets of coordinates. The bifurcation diagram consists of the parabola (3.15) of pitchfork bifurcations, and the cubic (3.18) of saddle–node bifurcations. For a = 1/4 and b = 1/3 these curves are shown in Fig. 3.4. Note that around the origin, the bifurcation diagram is similar to Fig. 2.5. a2 In Fig. 3.5 the level curves of H µ are plotted, for ﬁxed 2H2 = λ with λ > 4b 2, so that a saddle–node bifurcation is expected. The two sets of pictures correspond to the Poincar´e sections φ2 = 0 and φ1 = 0, corresponding to the pendulum and

3. Method II: The energy-momentum map

61

the spring having zero velocity, respectively. The fundamental invariants ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ in Cartesian coordinates on either Poincar´e section are ρ1 :

ρ2 :

ψ:

2 φ2 = 0 : x2 + y 2 4λ − 2(x2 + y 2 ) 2x(2λ − x − y2 ) 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 φ1 = 0 : 2λ − 2 (x + y ) x + y (x − y ) 2λ − (x2 + y 2 )/2

Note that the short periodic orbit ρ2 = 0 corresponds to the origin in the section φ1 = 0 (the right-hand column of pictures), whereas it corresponds to the outer circle x2 + y 2 = 2λ in the section φ2 = 0. Similarly, the origin in the left-hand column, i.e., ρ2 = 0, corresponds to the outer circle x2 + y 2 = 4λ of the other. Besides the saddle–node and pitchfork bifurcations found in section 3.4.1, a fourth ‘bifurcation’ is observed. It is caused by the coincidence of the level through ρ1 = 0 and the critical value of the saddle emanating from the saddle– node bifurcation. Since the subset ρ1 = 0 (spring not oscillating) is not an invariant subset, this coincidence appears to be a bifurcation only because of the choice of coordinates in the right-hand column, where ρ1 = 0 corresponds to the outer circle. This should be contrasted to the situation in the left-hand column, where the outer circle corresponds to ρ2 = 0 (pendulum not oscillating), which is an invariant subset. 3.4.3 Inducing the system from the model The Hamiltonian equation for the spring-pendulum system is derived in section 2.3.1. For reference we quote equation (2.7) up to order 4: H 0 (x, y) := x21 + y12 x2 + y22 − 4a2 x2 y1 y2 − 8a3 x42 + 8a4 x22 y12 + 8a5 x22 y22 + O(|xi , yi |5 ). + a1 2 2 2 After Birkhoﬀ normalization around 1 : 2 resonance, the Hamiltonian can be written in terms of the fundamental invariants ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ as in equation (3.10), analogous to H n in Sect. 2.3.2. The leading part, up to fourth order in phase variables, of equation (3.10), is (3.20)

H n = d1 ρ1 + d2 ρ2 + d3 ψ + d4 ρ21 + d5 ρ1 ρ2 + d7 ρ22 + O(|xi , yi |5 ),

with coeﬃcients depending on those of the original Hamiltonian as 1 a1 , d2 = , d3 = −2a2 , d4 = 0, 2 2 4(−2a22 + a4 + 2a1 a4 ) −2(a22 + (1 + 2a1 )(3a3 − a5 )) , d7 = . d5 = 1 + 2a1 1 + 2a1

d1 = (3.21)

Generally, the Birkhoﬀ normalized system depends on χ. However, since our system has a time-reversibility symmetry under which χ is sent to −χ, the

62

3.4. Spring-pendulum in 1:2 resonance

←− saddle–node −→

←− level crossing −→

←− pitchfork −→

←− pitchfork −→

Fig. 3.5 Bifurcations of the Energy–Momentum map normal form around the 1:2 resonance (large λ). The left-hand column corresponds to the section φ2 = 0 with a return time ≈ 4π; the section φ1 = 0 (right-hand column) has a return time ≈ 2π.

normalized Hamiltonian only depends on even powers of χ. By using the relation ψ 2 +χ2 = ρ1 ρ22 , all of these terms can be removed. Hence, a second normalization to remove terms involving χ is not necessary.

3. Method II: The energy-momentum map

63

In the new variables, the conserved quantity is λ := ρ1 + 12 ρ2 . Pulling this back to old coordinates yields 1 2 8a2 x2 + y22 + −x1 x22 + 2x2 y1 y2 + x1 y22 + O(|xi , yi |4 ). λ = x21 + y12 + 2 1 + 2a1 (For λ up to fourth order terms, see (2.8).)

←− pitchfork −→

←− level crossing −→

←− pitchfork −→

Fig. 3.6 Bifurcations of the Energy–Momentum map normal form around the 1:2 resonance (small λ).

Birkhoﬀ nondegeneracy conditions Depending on the order to which Birkhoﬀ normalization is performed, a number of nondegeneracy conditions are encountered. From the expressions for d5 and d7 the condition a1 = −1/2 follows

64

3.4. Spring-pendulum in 1:2 resonance

immediately. If normalization is continued up to eighth order, we should exclude the following values for a1 : 3 1 1 1 3 a1 = − , a1 = −1, a1 = − , a1 = − , a1 = 0, a1 = , a1 = 1, a1 = . 2 2 4 4 2 (We remark that as the normalization order is increased, more and more rational values of a1 must be excluded. In the limit of inﬁnite order, all rational numbers3 , except the value 12 around which we normalize, should be excluded. This is related to the non-convergence of the normalizing formal power series. Eﬀectively, this means that the higher the order to which normalization is performed, the smaller is the allowed deviation of a1 from the resonant value.) Energy–momentum map nondegeneracy conditions In Sect. 3.3.1 the tangent space to an arbitrary Hamiltonian (3.20) is computed, assuming that it is Birkhoﬀ normalized around the 1 : 2 resonance. This tangent space has minimal codimension (namely 1) if two nondegeneracy conditions are met. We may pull back these to the space of original parameters, simply by substituting the expressions for the coeﬃcients di . This yields the following nondegeneracy conditions: 0 = a2 , 0 = 4(1 + 4a1 )a22 − (1 + 2a1 )(6a3 − a4 − 2a5 ). Normalizing transformation From now on we suppose that the nondegeneracy conditions hold. We may then compute a standard basis for the left-right tangent space of H n . This serves as input for Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm, with which we can compute transformations that connect H n to the versal unfolding H u obtained in Sect. 3.3.1, namely 1 1 + µ ρ2 + aψ + bρ1 ρ2 . (3.22) Hµu = ρ1 + 2 4 This model has the drawback that generically a Hamiltonian H n cannot be induced from it by transformations that are the identity to ﬁrst order. Theoretically this is no problem. An practical nuisance however is that for such models, Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm does not yield a ﬁnite part of the formal power series in a ﬁnite number of steps. It turns out that adding a second deformation direction, for instance cρ21 , solves this problem. For reasons of convenience, and while it does not complicate the analysis, we chose to add two extra deformation directions, and use the model 1 1 + µ ρ2 + aψ + bρ21 + cρ1 ρ2 + dρ22 . (3.23) HµU = ρ1 + 2 4 3

modulo a scaling by a factor 2

3. Method II: The energy-momentum map

65

By following the calculation of Sect. 3.4.1 we then arrive at this equation for the pitchfork bifurcation: (µ + (b − c)λ)2 − a2 λ = 0, which occurs at

1 b − c 2 2(b − c)2 3 (r1 , r2 , ψ, χ) = µ + 3 µ + , 0, 0, 0 + O(µ4 ). µ a a a5

Now we discuss the computation of the inducing transformation. Since the unfolding H U has fewer terms than the target Hamiltonian H n , it is more eﬃcient to compute the inverse transformation, going from H U to H n . In particular, the expressions for the standard basis of H U ’s tangent space are much cleaner than H n ’s. Let Rd (a1 , a2 , . . .) be the space of parameters of the Birkhoﬀ-normalized system H n . We computed functions h(ai ) : Rp → R, A(ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ; ai ) : R3 ⊕ Rd → R3 , B(y1 , y2 ; ai ) : R2 ⊕ Rd → R2 such that these induce the actual system H n from the versal unfolding HµU : U H n = B ◦ (Hh(µ) , H2 ) ◦ A.

These transformations depend on the parameters a, b, c, d of the versal model (3.22). Several choices of these parameters yield transformations that are the identity to ﬁrst order, which is related to there being one deformation direction too much for this purpose. The natural choice is of course a = d3 = −2a2 ,

b = d4 = 0,

c = d5 ,

d = d7 ,

see also (3.21). With this choice, the resulting transformations are h= A1 (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ) =

A2 (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ) =

A3 (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ) =

1 − (1 − 2a1 ) 4 16a22 8(4a3 + a4 + 4a4 ) 4a6 − ρ1 ρ2 + ρ1 + − (1 + 2a1 )2 3(1 + 2a1 ) 3a2 −192a32 32a2 (8a3 + 5a4 + 8a5 ) 32a6 + ψρ1 + h.o.t. + (1 + 2a1 )2 3(1 + 2a1 ) 3 −32a22 16(4a3 + a4 + 4a4 ) 8a6 + ρ1 ρ2 + ρ2 + + (1 + 2a1 )2 3(1 + 2a1 ) 3a2 −192a32 32a2 (8a3 + 5a4 + 8a5 ) 32a6 ψρ1 + h.o.t. + + 2 (1 + 2a1 ) 3(1 + 2a1 ) 3 −288a32 16a2 (8a3 + 5a4 + 8a5 ) ψ+ + + 16a6 ψ 2 + (1 + 2a1 )2 (1 + 2a1 ) −8a22 4(4a3 + a4 + 4a4 ) 2a6 (4ψρ1 − ψρ2 ) + h.o.t. + + (1 + 2a1 )2 3(1 + 2a1 ) 3a2

66

3.4. Spring-pendulum in 1:2 resonance

B1 (y1 , y2 ) = B2 (y1 , y2 ) =

y1 + O(|y1 , y2 |3 + |ai |3 ) −24a22 4(8a3 + 5a4 + 8a5 ) 4a6 + (4y1 y2 − y22 ) + y2 + + (1 + 2a1 )2 3(1 + 2a1 ) 3a2 +O(|y1 , y2 |3 + |ai |3 )

Here h.o.t. denote terms of order n or higher in the phase variables, and order 3 or higher in the parameters ai . It remains to ﬁnd the bifurcation curves, in terms of the detuning parameter 1−2a1 and the integral λ. Because the transformations above are not symplectic, the λ-level sets of H U transformed by this coordinate transformation are not dynamically invariant, and do not correspond to λ-level sets of H n . Hence, to ﬁnd the bifurcation curves, we need to ﬁnd the location of bifurcations in H U , transform it back to original variables via A−1 , and compute λ at those phase points. Since A is the identity to ﬁrst order, its inverse is easy to ﬁnd. The pitchfork bifurcation in H U occurs on the line ρ2 = ψ = 0, and since A does not involve ρ21 (in fact, it does not include ρ31 terms either) the inverse also does not contain these terms. Hence, on line ρ2 = ψ = 0 the map A−1 is the identity to at least third order. Calculating λ at the point (3.4.3) and expanding in 1 − 2a1 results in the following expression for the pitchfork bifurcation: (3.24) (1 − 2a1 )2 (a2 − a4 )(1 − 2a1 )3 (a4 − 10a22 a4 + 5a24 )(1 − 2a1 )4 λ= + 2 + 2 + h.o.t., 2 4 64a2 128a2 1024a62 where the h.o.t. stand for O((1 − 2a1 )5 ) terms. It agrees with (2.14) found using the planar reduction method. For the saddle–node bifurcation it is not possible to ﬁnd a similar equation. The reason is that this bifurcation occurs at a ﬁnite distance from the origin, and only for O(1) values of the detuning parameter 1 − 2a1 , see (3.19), and the transformation A and its inverse are only valid near the origin.

Table 3.1 Comparison of bifurcation values, found numerically and analytically. Error bounds in last digit(s) of measured quantities are given H .004 .004 .004 .004 .004 .004 .0004 .0004

a1 .47513 ± 1 .48405 ± 5 .5562 ± 2 .46454 ± 1 .46550 ± 1 .53705 ± 1 .48882 ± 1 .51144 ± 1

a2 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1 .1

a3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

a4 −.3 −.3 −.3 −.01 −.01 −.01 −.01 −.01

a5 .2 .2 .2 .35 .35 .35 .05 .05

λmeasured .008025 ± 5 .008000 ± 2 .007999 ± 1 .008000 ± 4 .008000 ± 3 .007999 ± 1 .00080000 ± 1 .00080000 ± 1

λpredicted −− .00286 ± 2 .060 ± 1 −− .007988 ± 5 .007991 ± 4 .0007991 ± 14 .0007997 ± 13

3. Method II: The energy-momentum map

67

Numerical Poincar´ e sections To validate (3.24) we numerically computed an iso-energy Poincar´e map, using the section y2 = 0 and increasing; i.e., transversal to the long periodic orbit. We ﬁxed the energy, and coeﬃcients a2 , a3 , . . ., while varying a1 to ﬁnd the bifurcation value. The value of λ was then measured along trajectories close to the bifurcation point. Error bounds in a1 correspond to values that bracket the actual bifurcation value. These bracketing values were determined by computing phase diagrams and inspecting them visually. The error in λpredicted was obtained by propagating the errors in a1 . Error bounds in λmeasured correspond to the observed variation in the computed value for λ along a trajectory. This error bound may be too low, as it obviously depends on the trajectory. An alternative estimation method, estimating the remainder in the series (2.8) for λ, seems diﬃcult. Another perturbing eﬀect, which inﬂuences the error bound in λmeasured , is the eﬀect of chaotic dynamics, that is, the eﬀect of the higher-order perturbation terms that are thrown away in order to arrive at an integrable model. For the energies considered, this eﬀect is extremely small. However, this is a statement of belief rather than a hard fact. It is support by the fact that the nonintegrable eﬀects are due to a ﬂat perturbation, and that the chaotic regime begins to have a ‘noticeable’ eﬀect only for energies a factor 10 to 100 higher than we consider. The agreement of the predicted bifurcation value of λ and its actual value is excellent for small values of a4 and small values of the energy. For the case a4 = −0.3, the three consecutive terms in (3.24) are of similar magnitude, which suggests that more terms are needed for convergence, in agreement with the large deviation of λpredicted from the observed value of λ.

Fig. 3.7 Bifurcations in the Poincar´e section around the 1:2 resonance, for H = 0.004, a2 = 0.1, a3 = 0, a4 = −0.3, a5 = 0.2, other coeﬃcients 0, and a1 increasing from left to right: 0.47,0.47513, 0.48, 0.48405, 0.49, 0.5562, 0.57.

68

3.4. Spring-pendulum in 1:2 resonance

a1 = 0.46

a1 = 0.47

a1 = 0.48

a1 = 0.51

a1 = 0.60 Fig. 3.8 Some large-energy Poincar´e sections: H = 0.1. Chaotic regimes and subharmonic bifurcations are clearly visible, with the backbone of Fig. 3.7 still present.

4 Birkhoﬀ normalization

The Birkhoﬀ normal form procedure is a widely used tool for approximating a Hamiltonian systems by a simpler one. This chapter starts out with an introduction to Hamiltonian mechanics, followed by an explanation of the Birkhoﬀ normal form procedure. Finally we discuss several algorithms for computing the normal form.

4.1 Introduction Hamiltonian systems with more than 1 degree of freedom are diﬃcult to analyze directly.1 . The Birkhoﬀ procedure is an iterative procedure for constructing a coordinate transformation that normalizes the system, so that it has extra conserved quantities or integrals, and associated symmetries. Using these, the system can be reduced to fewer degrees of freedom, see e.g. [AM78, CS85], making the analysis more feasible. The coordinate transformation resulting from the Birkhoﬀ procedure is a formal transformation, which need not converge to an analytic function. The formal series can always be lifted to a C∞ transformation, but generically there does not exist a lifting that actually conjugates the original system and the normalized one, e.g. see [BT89]. This ties in with the fact that Hamiltonian systems with at least two degrees of freedom generically are nonintegrable, whereas Birkhoﬀ normalized systems do; see also [Ito89]. Hence, the symmetries and integrals obtained are only approximate, up to ﬂat perturbations. For small excitations these perturbations are extremely small, so that integral curves of the system stay close to those of the normalized system for a long time. For two degrees of freedom systems even more is true: KAM tori then prevent the occurrence of Arnol’d diﬀusion, so that solution curves stay close to the integrable system’s tori for all time; see also the introduction to Chap. 2. Birkhoﬀ’s original result [Bir50] dealt with Hamiltonians with a so-called nonresonant quadratic part, close to an elliptic equilibrium. For such a system on, say, a 2n dimensional phase space, Birkhoﬀ’s method yields 2n new coordinates, of which n are integrals of motion, and n are associated cyclic variables, each 1

But see [Sim96].

H. Broer, I. Hoveijn, G. Lunter, and G. Vegter: LNM 1806, pp. 71–84, 2003. c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003

72

4.2. Introduction to Hamiltonian mechanics

living on a 1-sphere. The system is independent of these n variables, i.e., the system has a Tn torus symmetry. Birkhoﬀ’s ideas have since been generalized considerably. It is used in the neighborhood of non-elliptic equilibria, around periodic trajectories or invariant tori, and also at resonances. In this work, we are interested in resonant Hamiltonians close to equilibrium. In this more general situation, Birkhoﬀ’s procedure still yields integrals, albeit not as many as before. This is the situation in which we apply the reduction methods of Chaps. 2 and 3; see the respective introductions for details. This chapter is organized as follows. The ﬁrst section introduces some aspects of Hamiltonian mechanics, the most important one being the exponential formula for coordinate changes. Then we state and prove Birkhoﬀ’s result in the versions we use in Chaps. 2 and 3. The last part is devoted to algorithms for computing the Birkhoﬀ normal form.

4.2 Introduction to Hamiltonian mechanics The aim of this section is to introduce the notions required to state and prove the Birkhoﬀ normal form theorem, and also to introduce the mathematics of Hamiltonian mechanics. For more thorough treatments see [Arn89, MH92, Sja90]. In Hamiltonian mechanics there is an isomorphism2 between (Hamiltonian) vector ﬁelds and the corresponding Hamiltonian function, or Hamiltonian, H. This isomorphism is given by the symplectic structure. Both the the Hamiltonian function and the associated vector ﬁeld may be transformed by changes of coordinates. The symplectic coordinate transformations are, by deﬁnition, those that respect the isomorphism. This means that within the class of symplectic transformations, computations on the level of vector ﬁelds can also be done on the level of the Hamiltonian functions, which is much easier. Without much motivation, we now give the basics of Hamiltonian mechanics, and refer to [Arn89, MH92, Sja90] for more details. Let R = R2n be an evendimensional space. The coordinates on this space come in pairs p1 , q1 , . . . , pn , qn , where the variable pi is called the momentum variable conjugate to the conﬁguration variable qi . Heuristically, qi is a position coordinate, and pi the associated momentum or ‘velocity’. Let H be a function on R. Associated to it is a vector ﬁeld X H deﬁned by (4.1)

XH =

∂H ∂ ∂H ∂ − . ∂p ∂q ∂qi ∂pi i i i

∂ Here ∂q∂ i and ∂p are the constant vector ﬁelds in the qi and pi -directions, respeci tively. The time-t ﬂow of this vector ﬁeld is denoted by X tH . For the derivative of an arbitrary function F in the direction of X H we write X H F or {H, F }: 2

This holds except for possible global obstructions; on R2n there are none.

4. Birkhoﬀ normalization

73

{H, F } := X H F :=

∂H ∂F ∂ ∂H ∂F F ◦ X tH |t=0 = − . ∂t ∂p ∂q ∂qi ∂pi i i i

The function {H, F } is called the Poisson-bracket of H and F . It is bilinear and antisymmetric, satisﬁes the Jacobi-identity, and is isomorphic to the ordinary Lie-bracket on vector ﬁelds via X, that is: (4.2)

X {H,F } = [X H , X F ].

Since applying the Poisson-bracket to homogeneous elements yields such elements again, (4.2) induces the structure of a graded Lie algebra [Bro79, Bro81] when the base ring and the vector ﬁeld module are ‘chopped up’ into homogeneous parts. This structure will be used later. Deﬁnition (4.1) of X H depends on the coordinates pi and qi , which is unpleasant when transforming coordinates. For this reason, X H is usually deﬁned in a coordinate-free manner as the unique vector ﬁeld satisfying dH = ω(·, X H ), where ω is a nondegenerate diﬀerential 2-form, called the symplectic form. In the coordinates used above it assumes the form ω = i dpi ∧ dqi . Conversely, any nondegenerate closed 2-form ω can locally be written in this way; this is Darboux’ theorem. Coordinate transformations with respect to which ω is equivariant are called symplectic, and also leave the Hamiltonian diﬀerential equations (4.1) invariant. It is easy to see that the ﬂow X tF of an arbitrary Hamiltonian F is a coordinate transformation; indeed, X −t F is its inverse. It turns out that such transformations are symplectic, see e.g. [Arn89, p. 204]. It is therefore natural to try to simplify a Hamiltonian system H by conjugating it with a symplectic transformation generated by another Hamiltonian F . The function H ◦X tF , as a function of t, satisﬁes the diﬀerential equation (4.3)

∂ H ◦ X tF = {F, H ◦ X tF }. ∂t

We now deﬁne adF to be the operator adF : H → {F, H}. This is a linear operator, whence the solution to (4.3) is (4.4)

H ◦ X tF = exp(t adF )H := H + t adF (H) + t2

1 adF (adF (H)) + · · · 2!

(See also [Gr¨ o67]). This formula is behind the proof of the Birkhoﬀ normal form theorem. Remark 4.1. (Formal series) We denote by Hi ⊆ R the subspace consisting of homogeneous elements of degree i. If F has no linear part, then adF maps Hi into Hi ⊕Hi+1 ⊕· · · , implying that (4.4) converges to a formal power series. (If F has a linear part, then X tF corresponds to a shift of the origin, and conjugation of formal power series with such transformations makes no sense.)

74

4.3. Birkhoﬀ normal form theorem

4.3 Birkhoﬀ normal form theorem The idea of Birkhoﬀ’s normal form procedure is to conjugate a Hamiltonian system H with the ﬂow of another Hamiltonian F , in order to simplify it. It is an iterative procedure, normalizing the system degree by degree. The end result is a Hamiltonian H in normal form, which has a circle or torus symmetry, and associated conserved quantities. The Birkhoﬀ procedure results in a formal power series, and any C ∞ transformation with this power series as Taylor series forms a conjugation between H and H , modulo a ﬂat perturbation; see the introduction for more remarks. Although our interest is in practical computations, we below give Birkhoﬀ’s result in the formal power series setting, which allows for a clear formulation. We restrict our attention to the case of normalizing around an equilibrium, which amounts to requiring that the Hamiltonian has vanishing linear part. In that case, the change in a Hamiltonian system H, when subjected to a coordinate change generated by F is to ﬁrst order described by adH2 (F ). Here H2 is the quadratic part of H, and adH2 is the associated adjoint operator. It is just the derivative of F along the vector ﬁeld associated to H2 . The image of adH2 describes, to great extent, the normal form to which H can be transformed. In particular, if adH2 is semisimple, then ker adH2 complements im adH2 and, if F is chosen appropriately, the transformed system H will lie in the kernel of adH2 . (The equation that F has to satisfy is called the adjoint equation). This means that H is constant under the ﬂow of H2 , that is, the ﬂow of H2 is a symmetry of H . Conversely, since adH (H2 ) = − adH2 (H ) = 0, we see that H2 is constant under the ﬂow of H ; indeed, H2 is the conserved quantity associated to the symmetry. If often happens that more functionally independent quantities are in ker adH2 , leading to more symmetries; see Corollary 4.3. Theorem 4.2. Let H be a Hamiltonian in R[[x]] without linear part, and write it as H = H2 + H 3 + · · · where Hi ∈ Hi is the homogeneous part of degree i; see remark 4.1. Let Gi ⊆ Hi be linear subspaces such that Gi + Im adH2 = Hi . Then there exists a formal symplectic power series transformation Φ such that 3 + H 4 + · · · H ◦ Φ = H2 + H i ∈ Gi (i = 3, 4, . . .). where H Proof: [Tak74c, Arn89, Bro79, Bro81, Mee85, MH92] The proof is by induction. Assume φi normalizes H up to order i, so that the partly normalized Hamiltonian is of the form 3 + · · · + H i + H + · · · H ◦ φi = H2 + H i+1 j ∈ Gj , j = 3, . . . , i. Choose Fi+1 ∈ Hi+1 such that H i+1 := H − where H i+1 1 adH2 (Fi+1 ) ∈ Gi+1 , and deﬁne φi+1 := φi ◦ X Fi+1 . By (4.4) we get

4. Birkhoﬀ normalization

75

3 + · · · + H i + H + · · · + adF (H2 ) + adF (H 3) + · · · H ◦ φi+1 = H2 + H i+1 i+1 i+1 3 + · · · + H i + (H − adH (Fi+1 )) + · · · = H2 + H i+1

2

3 + · · · + H i + H i+1 + H + · · · . = H2 + H i+2 (Here we used that adH2 maps Hi to itself.) So φi+1 normalized H up to order i + 1. Since φi and φi+1 coincide up to terms of order i, the sequence (φi )∞ i=1 converges as a formal power series. To see how theorem 4.2 implies the extra symmetries, we also formulate Birkhoﬀ’s original result: Corollary 4.3. Let H ∈ R[[x]] be a Hamiltonian without linear part, and with quadratic part H2 = ω1 (q12 + p21 ) + · · · + ωn (qn2 + p2n ). Assume that the non-resonance condition holds: For all nonzero vectors (k1 , . . . , kn ) in Zn we have k1 ω1 + · · · + kn ωn = 0. Then there exists a formal symplectic power series transformation Φ such that H ◦ Φ = H (L1 , . . . , Ln ), where Li = qi2 + p2i . The system H has a Tn torus symmetry. The Li are the ‘radial’ part of so-called symplectic Hamiltonian polar coordinates (Li , φi ). The system H is independent of the φi , so that the Tn torus action ζ:

Tn × R → R :

(ρi , Li , φi ) → (Li , φi + ρi )

is a Tn -symmetry of the system. The Li are conserved by the ﬂow, since by ∂ ∂H Hamilton’s equations ∂t Li = ∂φ = 0. i Proof of the corollary: It is convenient to use complex coordinates zi = qi + ipi , then H2 = ω1 z1 z¯1 +· · · , and it is easily checked that monomials in these variables are eigenfunctions of the adjoint operator: adH2 (z1α1 z¯1β1 · · · znαn z¯nβn ) = (ω1 (α1 − β1 ) + · · · + ωn (αn − βn )) (z1α1 z¯1β1 · · · znαn z¯nβn ). Using the non-resonance condition, it is seen that the eigenvalues are zero exactly for elements of the algebra generated by the functions L1 = z1 z¯1 ,. . . ,Ln = zn z¯n . Taking Gi to be the subspace of degree-i elements of this algebra, the result follows directly from the conclusion of theorem 4.2. Remark 4.4. (Symmetric normalizing) Often the Hamiltonian H is invariant with respect to some symmetry group Γ . We assume that Γ is compact and acts linearly on the phase space. We also assume that Γ respects the symplectic structure, i.e., {F, G} ◦ γ = {F ◦ γ, G ◦ γ} for all γ ∈ Γ . Then, in theorem 4.2 we may restrict to the space of Γ -invariant Hamiltonians, and φ can be chosen to

76

4.3. Birkhoﬀ normal form theorem

be Γ -equivariant, as the image of adH2 restricted to Γ -invariant Hamiltonians is element-wise Γ -invariant. If Γ anti-commutes with the Poisson-bracket, as happens if Γ is the time-reversal symmetry, then above remarks still hold true but the argument involves a number of minus-signs. Remark 4.5. (Normalizing a family) In our application, the Hamiltonian H depends on small parameters ui . In particular, the quadratic part depends on the ui , so that ker adH2 is also dependent on the parameters. However, it follows from the proof that one can ﬁnd Fi , with rational functions of the ui as i ∈ ker adH 0 , where H 0 is the quadratic part of H for coeﬃcients, such that H 2 2 i are also rational functions u1 = u2 = · · · = 0. Moreover, the coeﬃcients of the H i is in the ui . It can be shown that the coeﬃcient-values for which a term Fi or H singular (i.e., where its coeﬃcients have a pole) are generally dense in parameterspace, and correspond to high-order resonances in H2 . If one normalizes only to ﬁnite order, a full neighborhood of the origin is free from such singularities. Remark 4.6. (Generating function) The normalizing transformation φ is constructed as a composition X 1F3 ◦ X 1F4 ◦ · · · , with inﬁnitely many components X 1Fi and Fi ∈ Hi . The resulting transformation may be written in the form X 1F , where F = F3 + F4 + · · · , and again Fi ∈ Hi . The relation between the Fi and the Fi is given by the Campbell-Baker-Hausdorﬀ formula; see [DF76]. 4.3.1 Semisimple quadratic part, and resonance In this section, Theorem 4.2 is applied to the case where H has a semisimple quadratic part without or with just one resonance. Instead of coordinates pi , qi we use complex R-linearly independent coordinates zi , z¯i deﬁned by zi := qi + ipi , z¯i := qi − ipi . By assumption H2 is semisimple, and in these coordinates this means that the matrix XH2 is diagonalizable. Transforming coordinates (symplectically), we may suppose that H2 is of the form3 (4.5)

H2 = iω1 z1 z¯1 + · · · + iωn zn z¯n .

In complex coordinates, ω = dz ∧ d¯ z . It follows that since XH2 is semisimple, so is the operator adH2 . In fact its eigenfunctions are the monomials, in complex coordinates: n α1 β1 αn βn adH2 (z1 z¯1 · · · zn z¯n ) = ωi βi − ωi αi z1α1 z¯1β1 · · · znαn z¯nβn i=1

= (ω, β − α)z1α1 z¯1β1 · · · znαn z¯nβn . 3

The transformation from coordinates {p1 , p2 , . . . , q1 , q2 , . . .} to {z1 , z2 , . . . , z¯1 , z¯2 , . . .} is a symplectic transformation with multiplier 2i. This accounts for the factor i in (4.5). See also Chap. 2, remark 2.3.

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77

The kernel of adH2 is spanned by the monomials with exponents (α, β) ∈ N2n satisfying (β − α, ω) = 0. This set of exponents forms a semi-lattice (a set that is closed under addition, not under subtraction), therefore ker adH2 is an algebra. We consider two cases, namely that the components of ω are independent over Q (the non-resonant case), and that there exists essentially one relation over Q. Lemma 4.7. Let H2 be of the form (4.5). Deﬁne A := {(α, β) ∈ N2n : (β − α, ω) = 0}. Let ai be the exponent vector associated to the monomial zi z¯i . a) If the ωi are independent over Q, then A = N{a1 , . . . , an } and ker adH2 is generated, as an algebra, by {z1 z¯1 , . . . , zn z¯n }.

b) If the ωi obey one (up to scalar multiplication) non-trivial relation i (νi − µi )ωi = 0 with νi , µi ∈ N and νi µi = 0, then A = N{a1 , . . . , an , (µ, ν), (ν, µ)} and ker adH2 is generated, as an algebra, by {z1 z¯1 , . . . , zn z¯n , z1ν1 z¯1µ1 · · · znνn z¯nµn , z1µ1 z¯1ν1 · · · znµn z¯nνn }. The use of this lemma lies in the fact that, for semisimple operators like adH2 we have ∞ ker adH2 ⊕ Im adH2 = Hi . i=3

In other words, for the Gi in theorem 4.2 we can take ker adH2 ∩Hi . Remark 4.8. (Unique normal form) If H2 is nonresonant, this choice of Gi is best possible and the normal form is unique. In case of resonance, a normal form with Gi = ker adH2 is not unique; see [CS85, SvdM92, Mee85]. See also Sect. 4.3.2, where this non-uniqueness is exploited in the case of the 1 : 2-resonance. More speciﬁcally, for a singly-resonant system the statement is like this: Proposition 4.9. Let H be a Hamiltonian with n degrees of freedom. Suppose that the quadratic part H2 is of the form H2 = iω1 z1 z¯1 + iω2 z2 z¯2 + · · · + iωn zn z¯n p 2 with ω ω1 = q , gcd(p, q) = 1, q > 0, and suppose there are no further relations over Q between the ωi . Then there exists a formal symplectic coordinate transformation φ such that H2 + f (z1 z¯1 , · · · , zn z¯n , z1p z¯2q , z¯1p z2q ) if p > 0, H ◦φ= H2 + f (z1 z¯1 , · · · , zn z¯n , z1−p z2q , z¯1−p z¯2q ) if p < 0.

Remark 4.10. The normalized singly-resonant system has an n − 1 torussymmetry Tn−1 (φ1 , φ3 , . . . , φn ), with action ζ : (φ, z) → (e2πiqφ1 z1 , e2πipφ1 z2 , e2πiφ3 z3 , . . . , e2πiφn zn ).

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4.3.2 Second normalization In the proof of Theorem 4.2, the functions Fm were unique up to terms in ker adH2 . Part of this non-uniqueness reﬂects the fact that Hamiltonians have inﬁnitely many invariants under symplectic transformations.4 However, diﬀerent choices of Fm do change the ﬁnal normal form, since a term in ker adH2 may still give a contribution to the sum (4.4) via terms of higher order than H2 in H. Pursuing this idea leads to unique normal forms. The result for systems in 1 : 2 resonance can be found in [SvdM92]. In Chap. 3 the following result, which is a consequence of the unique 1 : 2-resonant normal form, is used. We use the following abbreviations for the fundamental invariants: ρ1 = z1 z¯1 ,

ρ2 = z2 z¯2 ,

ψ=

1 p |q| |q| (z z¯ + z¯1 z2 ), 2 1 2

χ=

1 p |q| |q| (z z¯ − z¯1p z2 ). 2i 1 2

Proposition 4.11. Suppose ω = p : q = 1 : 2 or 1 : −2, and suppose H is a Hamiltonian with 2 degrees of freedom with quadratic part H2 = iρ1 + iωρ2 . Let φ1 be the normalizing transformation of Proposition 4.9, and suppose that the coeﬃcients of ψ and χ in H ◦ φ1 do not both vanish. Then there exists a symplectic transformation φ2 such that H ◦ φ2 = H2 + f (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ). Proof: (Sketch) By Proposition 4.9 there exists a φ1 that brings H in the form (4.6)

H2 + f0 (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ, χ).

The second normalization is done by applying successive coordinate transformations XF1 s for increasing s, similar to the ordinary Birkhoﬀ procedure. The homogeneous degree-s generator Fs are now required to lie in ker adH2 . Jacobi’s identity says {H2 , {F, G}} + {F, {G, H2 }} + {G, {H2 , F }} = 0, and it follows that ker adH2 is closed under the operation of taking Poissonbrackets. Hence, by (4.4), transformations generated by the Fs do not disturb the general shape (4.6) of the normal form. To see how these transformations act on H ◦ φ1 , we look at the ﬁrst nonzero homogeneous part with degree higher than H2 , which is aψ + bχ. First apply a linear symplectic transformation z1 → ζz1 , z2 → z2 with |ζ| = 1 to reduce to the case b = 0. 4

For example, let H(p, q) be a 1 d.o.f. system with elliptic equilibrium at the origin such that H(0, 0) = 0, and let A(h) be the surface area bounded by the level curve H = h, then the Taylor coeﬃcients of A(h) around some h > 0 are (symplectic, not dynamic) invariants of H.

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79

Since ψ 2 +χ2 −ρ1 ρ22 = 0, it is possible to write f0 (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ, χ) = f0 (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ)+ It therefore suﬃces to remove all terms of the form ρt1 ρu2 ψ v χ. k Taking the Poisson-bracket of the monomials ρn1 ρm 2 ψ and 2iψ yields

χf0 (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ).

n−1 m−1 k ρ2 (2mρ1 − nρ2 )χψ k , {2iψ, ρn1 ρm 2 ψ } = 2ρ1 {2iψ, ρn1 ψ k } = −2nρn−1 χψ k , 1 m−1 k χψ k . {2iψ, ρm 2 ψ } = 4mρ2

This shows that indeed all relevant terms can be removed, provided that the coeﬃcients of ψ and χ in H ◦ φ1 do not vanish simultaneously.

4.4 Algorithms for the Birkhoﬀ normal form An important part of the Birkhoﬀ normal form computation, is the transformation of the Hamiltonian by a symplectic coordinate change. Related methods for vector ﬁelds, on which the Hamiltonian versions are based, can be found in e.g. [Tak74c, Bro81]. The oldest methods for transforming coordinates of Hamiltonian systems is the mixed-variable generating function method, also called the Hamilton-Jacobi method or Poincar´e-von Zeipel method; see [Arn89, Car81, LL92, How77, RA87, SV85]. This method seems however less suited to computer implementation (see [LL92]). Today, the most widely-used method for computing Birkhoﬀ normal forms is an algorithm by Deprit [Dep69, DHPR69], known also as the Lie-triangle algorithm. Recent expositions are [MH92, LL92, GG78]. Several implementations are available, e.g. see [ASJ93] or [RA87]. Various variations of Deprit’s algorithm are known in literature [CR89, Hen70], one of which is particularly fast on Hamiltonians of special form [Hen73]. A third class of methods is based on the exponential formula (4.4), and are (distantly) related to Kolmogorov’s quadratically convergent method. These methods have a lower time-complexity than the Lie-triangle algorithms. In [How77, HR84, DF76, Car81], essentially this method is presented, though not in ways that suggest eﬃcient implementations on a computer. In this section we give Deprit’s algorithms, and an algorithm based on (4.4), and discuss their computational complexity. Analyzing the complexity of the algorithms is not straightforward. The algorithms treated below use two main types of algebraic manipulations: calculation of Poisson brackets, and solving the adjoint ‘equation’ adH2 F ∈ G. The latter is the same for all algorithms, so the number of Poisson-bracket calculations is a better indicator of the algorithm’s eﬃciency. However, the time required for doing one such calculation depends on the number of terms in the factors: The number of terms in the bracket equals, roughly, the product of those in the factors. As a compromise, we chose to count the number of Poisson-bracket calculations performed on homogeneous factors. In fact this is measure of complexity is commonly used; see e.g. [Car81, BP97, Hen70].

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4.4.1 Another formulation of Birkhoﬀ ’s result Usually Birkhoﬀ’s normal form theorem is formulated as a perturbation result, where the Hamiltonian to be normalized depends on a small parameter , and for = 0 the Hamiltonian is integrable. The following result is similar to Theorem 4.2. The ‘interface’ is provided by setting G = G3 ⊕ G4 ⊕ · · · and having Hi be i is homogeneous of degree i + 2, and homogeneous of degree i + 2, then also H putting = 1 in the end is allowed. This procedure is known as ‘scaling’, and since we use formal power series convergence in is not an issue. Theorem 4.12. Let H = H0 +H1 +2 H2 +· · · be a Hamiltonian, with Hi ∈ H, and such that H0 has no linear part. Let G ⊆ H be such that Im adH0 ⊕G = H. Then there exists a formal (in ) symplectic coordinate transformation φ such that 1 + 2 H 2 + · · · H ◦ φ = H0 + H i ∈ G for i = 1, 2, . . .. with H Proof:

The proof is analogous to that of Theorem 4.2.

4.4.2 Deprit’s algorithm Two versions of Deprit’s algorithm are around. Both have as output a generating function W () = W0 + W1 + 2 W2 + · · · . Here is interpreted as a time variable, and the Wi are chosen such that H ◦ XW () = H, where XW () is the time- ﬂow of the ‘time’-dependent phase ﬂow of the Hamiltonian W . The central part of both algorithms is a recipe for computing the composition H ◦ XW () . Slow version The ﬁrst version of Deprit’s algorithm can be summarized as follows. For the non-autonomous version see e.g. [RA87, LL92]; here we stick to the autonomous case.

W =

∞

i−1 Wi ,

= H

i=1

Kn = Hn +

i Ki ,

i=0

S0 = identity operator, (4.7)

∞

Sn =

n−1 1 adWn−i Si n i=0

(n ≥ 1),

n−1 1 adWn−i Ki + iSn−i Hi . n i=0

This algorithm is derived by formally solving the diﬀerential equation (in ) for the operator ‘composition with XW () ’, resulting in the expressions for Sn , and calculating what new Hamiltonian corresponds to H in the new variables. See [Car81] for a derivation.

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81

The Sn are operators. On a computer these are implemented as recursive subroutines. Computing Sn requires 2n − 1 Poisson-brackets, computing Kn n−1 up to O(n+1 ) involves n + i=1 (2n−i − 1) = 2n − 1 brackets, and computing H n+1 terms takes 2 − (n + 2) brackets. For large n then, this algorithm is slow. Fast version By merging the diﬀerential equation for the Sn with the formulas for the Hamiltonian in the new coordinates, Deprit arrives at a faster algorithm with the same functionality. (See [Dep69], or [MH92] for a clear derivation.) It uses a triangular array of intermediate Hamiltonians Hji , and is summarized as follows:

W =

∞

i Wi ,

H=

i=0

(4.8)

Hji =

1 i

i−1 (j + 1)Hj+1 +

∞

i Hi0 ,

= H

i=0 j

i H0i ,

i=0

i−1 adWk Hj−k

∞

.

k=0

Proposition 4.13. Algorithm (4.8) performs 16 n(n + 1)(n + 2) Poisson-bracket up to O(n+1 ) terms. computations to compute H Proof: Computing Hji costs j + 1 Poisson-brackets, and requires Hki−1 to be known for k = 0, . . . , j + 1. To compute H0i for i = 0, . . . , n we therefore need the upper-triangular part of the matrix Hji with i + j ≤ n, computed at a cost n n−i of i=1 j=0 (j + 1) = 16 n(n + 1)(n + 2) Poisson-brackets. Remark 4.14. (Eﬃciency) It is not necessary to store the entire array Hji in memory. By traversing it suitably, it suﬃces to store two rows. Remark 4.15. (Homogeneous perturbations) In [Hen73], Henrard develops a modiﬁcation of algorithm (4.8). This algorithm has the same asymptotic order as (4.8), however the actual number of Poisson brackets is often lower in practice, and if the perturbation is homogeneous, only n2 Poisson bracket computations are necessary. For such Hamiltonians, Henrard’s algorithm also outperforms the algorithm of Sect. 4.4.3. Remark 4.16. (Solving the adjoint equation) Above algorithms do not constitute methods for computing the normal form yet. What fails is a method to construct W . In practice this is an additional calculation that can be done while computing the composition, see e.g. [Lun94]. If diagonalizing complex coordinates are used, this computation is straightforward.

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4.4.3 The exponential-map algorithm The idea of this algorithm is to write the normalizing transformation as a composition of transformations, each normalizing the Hamiltonian at a speciﬁc order of . These transformations are the ﬂows of generating Hamiltonians k Wk , as in Deprit’s case. The ﬁnal transformation therefore is of the form 1 1 φ = XW ◦ 2 XW ◦ ··· 1 2

This should be contrasted to the form of the transformation in Deprit’s case, φ = XW 2 1 +W2 + W3 +···

It turns out that the former coordinate transformation (composed with a Hamiltonian function H) can be computed more eﬃciently than the latter. Our algorithm is based on the proof of the normal form theorem for vector ﬁelds in [Tak74c]. It resembles Dragt and Finn’s algorithm [DF76], with the diﬀerence that we evaluate all operators directly instead of postponing evaluation to the end. This results in a dramatic increase of eﬃciency. In fact Dragt and Finn’salgorithm is√ not very eﬃcient, asymptotically: in [Car81] the estimate exp(π 2n/3)/(4n 3) is given for the number of Poisson brackets to compute to order n, comparing favorably with (4.7) but not with (4.8). Howland [How77, HR84] calculates normal forms using a method related to Kolmogorov’s quadratically convergent procedure. Quadratic convergence translates to O(k 2 log k) Poisson-bracket computations, which makes it of the same order as the algorithm proposed in this section. Howland does not show how his method could be implemented, however. The exponential-map algorithm is based on the proof of Theorem 4.2, and formula (4.4); see algorithm 4.17. Note that K0 = H0 throughout the algorithm, and is referred to only in the ﬁrst line of the inner for-loop when j = 0: − adKj (Fi ) = − adH0 (Fi ) = adFi (H0 ). This value can be computed easily while computing Fi . The algorithm can therefore be slightly rewritten so that this ad-computation is not needed, which also removes the need of initializing K0 , but for clarity this has not been done. Note also that the Ki is the only storage needed, and memory requirements are less than for Deprit’s algorithm by a factor 2. Algorithm 4.17. (Birkhoﬀ normal form) Input: Hi ∈ H for i = 0, . . . , k, subspace G ⊂ H s.t. Im adH0 ⊕G = H i ∈ H for i = 1, . . . , k, such that Output: Fi , H i ∈ G (i = 1, . . . , k) H 1 (H0 + H1 + · · · + k Hk ) ◦ XF ◦ · · · ◦ X1k Fk = 1 1 + · · · + k H k + O(ek+1 ) = H0 + H Complexity: O(k 2 log k) Poisson-brackets are computed.

4. Birkhoﬀ normalization

83

Algorithm: Ki ← Hi (i = 0, . . . , k) For i from 1 to k, do the following: Find Fi such that adH0 (Fi ) − Ki ∈ G For j from k − i down to 0, do the following: F ← − adKj (Fi ) Ki+j ← Ki+j + F q←2 While qi + j ≤ k do the following: F ← adFi (F )/q Kqi+j ← Kqi+j + F q ←q+1 EndWhile EndFor EndFor i = Ki . Output Fi , and H Proof of the algorithm: We prove correctness by proving invariance, over the outer for-loop, of the following assertion: (4.9)  k 1 1  (H0 + H1 + · · · + Hk ) ◦ XF1 ◦ · · · ◦ Xi Fi = K0 + K1 + · · · + k Kk + O(k+1 ),   (j = 1, . . . , i) Kj ∈ G. After initialization and for i = 0, (4.9) is trivially true. For i = k it implies the i . So we are done if we prove invariance of (4.9). output condition on Fi and H The inner for-loop computes (K0 + K1 + · · · + k Kk ) ◦ X1i Fi . By (4.4), and using linearity of the ad-operator, the order-i term in this expression is Ki + adFi (H0 ) = Ki − adH0 (Fi ). By the choice of Fi , indeed Ki ∈ G after this pass through the outer for-loop, and Ki does not change in subsequent passes. Each pass through the inner for-loop computes j Kj ◦ X1i Fi for some j, up to O(k+1 ) terms. By (4.4), this is a sum of terms of the form qi+j adqFi (Kj )/q! for q = 0, . . . , ∞, and this is just what is computed recursively in the inner Whileloop, for q-values that contribute to terms of order k or less. By having the counter j counting downwards, the high order Kj ’s are computed ﬁrst, eliminating the need of storing the ‘new’ Kj ’s in a separate array to prevent overwriting the old ones. This proves invariance of (4.9), and correctness of the algorithm. The number of Poisson-brackets computed by the algorithm can be estimated as follows. Through one pass of the inner for-loop, at most (k − j)/i brackets are computed. Summing this over j = 0, . . . , k−i this becomes k(k+1)/(2i)−(i−1)/2 for the number of brackets computed in the inner for-loop. The total number of brackets is then estimated by

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4.4. Algorithms for the Birkhoﬀ normal form

k k(k + 1) i=1

2i

−

i−1 k(k + 1) k(k − 1) ≤ Harmk − = O(k 2 log k), 2 2 4

where Harmk is the kth harmonic number, proving the asymptotic order of the algorithm. Remark 4.18. (Normalizing transformation) As it stands, the algorithm only computes the normal form, not the normalizing coordinate transformation. This transformation is obtained by evaluating I ◦ X13 F3 ◦ · · · ◦ X1n Fn , where I is the identity transformation, which is very similar to the computation of H◦X13 F3 ◦· · · done by the algorithm. Slight modiﬁcations are necessary to reﬂect the fact that I has linear terms, whereas H is quadratic to leading order. The resulting algorithm takes approximately twice as much time as algorithm 4.17, hence is also O(n2 log n).

5 Singularity theory

The space of functions – or maps – is huge. Fortunately, many of its elements may be regarded as equivalent in a natural way, for example under right- or left-right transformations. Singularity theory studies how such equivalences foliate these spaces into a more manageable family of orbits of equivalent functions or maps.

5.1 Overview Singularity theory plays a pivotal role in this work. It provides the theorems to prove existence of normalizing transformations to the one-degree-of-freedom model systems, which is the subject of Chaps. 2 and 3. In Chap. 7 the constructive counterparts of these theorems are used to compute the normalizing transformations. For this to work, the bases for the tangent spaces involved must be brought into so-called standard form. The algebraic structure of these spaces depends on the equivalence class (e.g. right-transformations, left-right transformations), and motivated the search for the appropriate generalizations of Gr¨ obner bases in Chap. 6. This chapter collects the results on singularity theory that are used throughout. Most of the results were taken from the rather technical [Mar82, Mat68]. More accessible introductions are [BL75, BG84, GG73, Gib79, Lu76, Was74], and [GS79, PS78, Sma67, Tho72] give much motivation and philosophy. Though we do not use it here, classiﬁcation of singularities touch at the core of the subject; see e.g. [Arn81, Arn93b, Sie74, Sie73]. The relation of singularity theory and symmetries has also been extensively studied; see e.g. [BF91, GS85, GSS88, Po`e76, BHvNV99] We note here that the Mather-Malgrange preparation theorem is only referred to in passing. This important theorem bridges the gap between ﬁnite-dimensional deformation theory, summarized in Sect. 5.2, and deformation theory in the smooth category. This chapter indeed deals with C ∞ functions and maps, but our interest lies in the computation of ﬁnite parts of reparametrizations. For this purpose, it makes sense to work with (truncated) formal power series, and Chaps. 6 and 7 are set in this context. Regarding the relevance of the current chapter for those, via the jet-map and Borel’s theorem, it is an exercise to show that the main results of singularity theory for smooth functions and maps, immediately

H. Broer, I. Hoveijn, G. Lunter, and G. Vegter: LNM 1806, pp. 85–96, 2003. c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003

86

5.2. Introduction: The ﬁnite dimensional case

imply those for the formal setting. In fact the formal results may be proven directly without much diﬃculty, and indeed the results of Chaps. 6 and 7 can be viewed as constructive (i.e., algorithmic) proof of the formal versions of theorems 5.5 and 5.22. The setup of this chapter is as follows. The ﬁrst section is an overview of the ﬁnite-dimensional analogue of singularity theory, giving a palatable introduction of the fundamental concepts. The next section presents singularity theory of functions, with right-transformations as the equivalence relation. This section also deals with BCKV normal forms, a speciﬁc kind of deformations geared to the application of Chap. 2. Finally, the elements of singularity theory dealing with maps under left-right transformations, necessary for analyzing the energy– momentum map in Chap. 3, are presented in Sect. 5.4.

5.2 Introduction: The ﬁnite dimensional case Almost every concept used in the singularity theory of functions and maps, has a direct counterpart in the ﬁnite dimensional context of Lie groups acting on smooth ﬁnite-dimensional manifolds. In this ﬁnite-dimensional setting, the proofs are straightforward and only involve the implicit function theorem. Since this theory is so technically undemanding but nonetheless conceptually rich, it is a good introduction to sections 5.3 and 5.4. Our main source for this section was [Gib79]. Let M be a manifold, G a Lie group, and suppose that both are smooth, ﬁnite dimensional manifolds. Let ζ : G × M → M be a smooth action of G on M . Instead of ζ(γ, f ) we sometimes simply write γf . For a given point f ∈ M , the action ζ gives rise to an orbit, in this notation given by Gf . We are interested in the tangent space to this orbit at the point f , which we denote by Tf (Gf ). Let ζf : G → M denote the map γ → ζ(γ, f ). Its image is the orbit Gf . The tangent space to Gf at f = ζf (Id) is just the image under the diﬀerential Dζf of the tangent space TId (G) to G at the identity element: Tf (Gf ) = DId ζf (TId (G)) . (Here, and elsewhere in this chapter, Dx denotes the (total) diﬀerential at x, not the diﬀerential with respect to x.) The codimension of Tf (Gf ) in Tf (M ) is also called the codimension of f . If this codimension is 0 the inverse function theorem can be applied, with the result that for every f in some neighborhood of f , there exist γ ∈ G such that f = ζ(γ, f ) = γf . We say that f is equivalent to f , and write f ∼ f . Concisely, Deﬁnition 5.1. f ∼ f

⇔

∃γ ∈ G : f = γf

An element f with the property that it is equivalent to every f in its neighborhood is called a stable element. Note that the dimension of Tf (Gf ) is never larger than the dimension of G itself, therefore G has to be ‘large’ enough in order for stable elements to exist.

5. Singularity theory

87

5.2.1 Deformations Stable elements, with codimension 0, form the simplest case. Now let us proceed, and suppose that the codimension of f is nonzero, say equal to d. Small changes to f along orbits of G will not change f ’s equivalence class; however changes transversal to its G-orbit will. A catalog of representatives of all equivalence classes that occur in a neighborhood of f is given by a transversal section of the orbit Gf at f . Such a transversal section, which is a submanifold in M of dimension d, can be parametrized as a d-parameter family of elements in M . Families depending on parameters are called deformations: Deﬁnition 5.2. A d-parameter deformation of f in M is a map F (u) : Rd → M such that F (0) = f , and the inﬁnitesimal directions in which F (0) = f is deformed are called “deformation directions”: Deﬁnition 5.3. Let F (u) : Rd → M be a deformation of F (0) = f . The ele∂F |u=0 ∈ Tf (Gf ) are called the deformation directions of F . ments ∂u i Note that this deﬁnition is coordinate-dependent. Instead of deformation direction the synonym initial speed is also used; and instead of deformations the term unfoldings is used often. The latter are sometimes deﬁned a little diﬀerently, see e.g. [Mar82], the diﬀerence being mainly notational, see e.g. [Mon94]. Now, the deformation F is a transversal section if its deformation directions complement the tangent space, or symbolically: (5.1)

Tf (Gf ) ⊕ D0 F (Rd ) = Tf (M ).

Deformations for which (5.1) hold are called transversal deformations. Now let G(v) : Rk → M be some deformation of f . It is is said to be induced from F if there exists a reparametrization h : Rk → Rd with h(0) = 0, and a deformation I : Rk → G of the identity element in G, such that G(v) = I(v)F (h(v)). If it happens that every deformation G of f can be induced from F in this way, then F is called a versal deformation. Again by the inverse function theorem it can be shown that a deformation is versal if it is transversal, see e.g. [Gib79, p. 90]. The “only if” direction is trivial. Sometimes the notion of universal deformation is used; this is a versal deformation with a minimal number of parameters. It thus turns out that the inﬁnitesimal data of the tangent space Tf is enough to write down a versal deformation, which captures all possible behavior of the singularity f in a full neighborhood of it, modulo the equivalences of the Lie group.

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5.3. Functions and right-transformations

5.3 Functions and right-transformations We now turn to the case of smooth functions on Rn acted upon by the group of right-transformations. Neither the manifold of smooth functions nor the group is ﬁnite-dimensional, and the previous section does not apply as it stands. It is a remarkable fact that the results do continue to hold true for this case. The proofs are much more diﬃcult, however, since the inverse function theorem cannot be used; see e.g. [Mar82, BL75] for proofs and more details. Additional complications arise from the necessity of truncating when doing actual computations. Lots of results exist that guarantee suﬃciency of certain truncation-orders in several special cases. These can be regarded as generalizations or extensions of the Morse lemma, which states1 that if a germ has a nondegenerate quadratic part, it is equivalent to the germ obtained by truncating at degree 2. Of this class of results we apply only two, namely propositions 5.7 and 5.8. In contrast to context of smooth functions, for formal power series the proof of the main theorem (theorem 5.5, the equivalence of transversal and versal deformations) is relatively straightforward. In fact the results of Chap. 7 can be regarded as constructive proof. (See also remark 5.23 below.) Another straightforward way of proving the results in the formal context is to proceed directly from the smooth results, using the jet-map and Borel’s theorem. We shall not make this explicit, however, and be satisﬁed with the algorithms of Chap. 7. Let us introduce the main players in more detail. The manifold M is the set of Γ -invariant C ∞ functions on Rn , symbolically M = EnΓ . Here Γ is some compact (usually ﬁnite) Lie group with a linear action on Rn . The group of transformations G that act on M is the group of origin preserving Γ -equivariant C ∞ maps on Rn , and they act on elements of M by composition on the right. The results of this section are well-known for the case that Γ = {Id}, and straightforward generalizations otherwise; see [Was75, BHLV98]. 5.3.1 Equivalence and versal deformations Deﬁnition 5.4. EnΓ is the set of germs of smooth Γ -invariant functions on Rn . VnΓ is the EnΓ -module of germs of smooth Γ -equivariant vector ﬁelds vanishing at the origin. The tangent space to the group of right-transformations G at the identity mapping is (isomorphic to) the module of vector ﬁelds VnΓ . Now the tangent space Tf (Gf ) to the orbit of f , again abbreviated to Tf , is: Tf := Tf (Gf ) = DId ζf (TId (G)) = {Xf |X ∈ VnΓ }. The notion of deformation of a d-parameter function (or, more precisely, of a germ of a function2 ) f is the straightforward analogue of a deformation in the 1 2

Actually it implies a little more, see e.g. [GG73, Thm. 6.9] Note the diﬀerence between germs of deformations, and deformations of germs: Transformations between the former may shift the origin as a function of the parameters. We use deformations of germs, requiring transformations to keep the origin ﬁxed.

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ﬁnite-dimensional context: a map from Rd to the space of functions M = EnΓ . Again, F is called a transversal deformation if Tf + D0 F (Rd ) = Tf (M ). In particular, f has a transversal deformation if and only if Tf ⊆ Tf (M ) has ﬁnite codimension. Secondly, a deformation F (u) : Rd → M is called a versal deformation of f = F (0) if for any deformation G(v) : Rq → M there exist maps φ and h, with φ : Rn ⊕ R q → R n , h : Rq → Rd , such that G(x, v) = F (φ(x, v), h(v)). It is easy to show that a versal deformation is transversal. The converse is much more diﬃcult to prove: Theorem 5.5. Suppose f ∈ M is a germ of a Γ -invariant C ∞ function, and F : Rd → M is a transversal deformation of f . Then F is a versal deformation of f For a proof, see [Was74, Thm 3.19]. Note that existence of a transversal deformation implies that f is ﬁnitely determined, by [Was74, Thm. 2.6] or [Mat68, Thm. 3.5]. For more information see also [Sie74]. We conclude this section by giving a few eﬀective conditions for equivalence of functions. The adjective ‘eﬀective’ refers to the fact that these conditions can be checked by doing calculations in ﬁnite-dimensional vector spaces. The propositions below are used in Sect. 5.3.2. Deﬁnition 5.6. a) j k is the jet map of order k, mapping germs in EnΓ to their Taylor polynomial up to and including order k. b) mk := {f ∈ EnΓ |j k−1 (f ) = 0} In particular j 0 (f ) is the constant part of f , and m1 = m, the maximal ideal in EnΓ . If Γ = {Id} then mk = mk . We stick to the case that Γ = {Id} a little longer, and drop the Γ from the notation. Note that Vn is generated, as an ∂ En -module, by xi ∂x with 1 ≤ i, j ≤ n. This means that the tangent space Tf is j just m · J(f ), where J(f ) is the Jacobian ideal of f : ∂f ∂f ,..., . J(f ) := ∂x1 ∂xn En The following proposition gives conditions under which (non-symmetric) germs are equivalent: Proposition 5.7. [Mar82, III.4.2] Let f, g ∈ En , and assume that g − f ∈ mk , i.e., j k−1 (g − f ) = 0.

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a) If Tf ⊃ mk then g ∼ f provided that j k (g − f ) is small enough. b) If m · Tf ⊃ mk then g ∼ f . (Here ‘j k (g −f ) small enough’ means that the coeﬃcients of the kth order Taylor polynomial of g − f at the origin are suﬃciently small.) The analogous result for germs with symmetry is this: Proposition 5.8. Let f, g ∈ EnΓ , and suppose that j k−1 (g − f ) = 0. Let M denote the ﬁnite-dimensional vector space mk /(m · mk ), and set Mm := M ∩ (mm /mm+1 ) = {h ∈ M : h is homogeneous of degree m}. a) Suppose that Tf ⊃ mk then g ∼ f provided that the projection of g − f into M is suﬃciently small. b) Suppose that m · Tf ⊃ mk then g ∼ f . c) Suppose that Tf ⊃ mk . Suppose further that the projection of f into M is an element of Mk . Then g ∼ f provided that j k (g − f ) is suﬃciently small. See appendix A.2 for the proof. 5.3.2 Applications The following examples are used in Chaps. 2 and 3, and use the propositions of the previous section. The Γ -invariant Morse lemma As a ﬁrst application of proposition 5.8, we extend the Morse lemma (see e.g. [Mar82, GG73]) to the Γ -invariant case. Proposition 5.9. Let f ∈ EnΓ be a germ without linear part, and a nondegenerate quadratic part. Then, for any g ∈ EnΓ with j 2 (g − f ) small enough, f ∼ g. Proof: Let f2 be the quadratic part of f . Since f2 is nondegenerate, we have Tf2 = m2 . As j 2 (f −f2 ) = 0 by deﬁnition, proposition 5.8 (c) implies that f ∼ f2 . Since j 2 (g − f2 ) = j 2 (g − f ) is small, applying the same proposition again yields g ∼ f2 . Together this implies f ∼ g. Remark 5.10. This result also follows from the symmetric splitting lemma, which is given in e.g. [BF91, App. A] The hyperbolic umbilic The next example is used in the 1 : 2 planar reduction, to produce a normal form of a singular Z2 -symmetric germ with vanishing quadratic, but non-vanishing third order part. This result is used in section 2.3.2 in the proof of proposition 2.12. Proposition 5.11. Let Z2 be a group with R2 -action (x, y) → (x, −y). Let f be the Z2 -symmetric germ f = x(αx2 + βy 2 ) + h.o.t., and assume α = 0, β = 0. Then f is isomorphic to ±x(x2 + y 2 ).

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Proof: By a linear transformation we may assume that α and β are in fact both +1 or −1. The tangent space Tg with g = ±x(x2 + y 2 ) is generated by ∂g ∂g ∂g x ∂x = 3x3 + xy 2 , y 2 ∂x = 3x2 y 2 + y 4 and y ∂y = 2xy 2 . Equivalently, Tg = 3 x , xy 2 , y 4 E Z2 = m3 . Now apply proposition 5.8(c) with k = 3 to g. Since g 2 is homogeneous, g ∈ M3 , so we conclude that f = g + h.o.t. ∼ g for arbitrary higher order terms. Symmetric deformation of the hyperbolic umbilic We conclude this section by giving a versal deformation of the normal form x(x2 + y 2 ) found in proposition 5.11 above. See also Sect. 7.2.4. Proposition 5.12. Let Z2 be a group acting on R2 by (x, y) → (x, −y). Then F (x, y; u0 , u1 , u2 ) := x(x2 + y 2 ) + u0 + u1 x + u2 y 2 is a versal deformation of x(x2 + y 2 ) in the space of Z2 -invariant functions. ∂ Proof: The module of Z2 -equivariant vector ﬁelds is generated by ∂x and 2 2 ∂ 2 2 2 2 3 4 y ∂y , so that Tf = 3x + y , 2xy E Z2 = 3x + y , 2xy , x , y E Z2 . This shows 2

2

that Tf + spanR {1, x, y 2 } = E2Z2 . By deﬁnition this means that F is a transversal deformation of x(x2 + y 2 ). An application of theorem 5.5 completes the proof.

Remark 5.13. These examples are the tip of an iceberg. For more on classiﬁcation of singularities see e.g. [Arn81, BF91, BL75, BG84, GS85, GSS88, Mar82, Sie73, Sie74]. 5.3.3 BCKV normal form The deformations appearing in Sect. 5.3.1, see for example Proposition 5.12, have two kinds of variables: the ordinary ‘phase space’ variables like x and y, and the deformation parameters u1 ,. . . ,ud . The diﬀerent roles played by these variables is clearly seen in the transformations (i.e., equivalence relation) between deformations: Transformations of the phase variables may depend on both kinds of variables, whereas transformations of the deformation parameters must not depend on the phase variables. In some applications, more than two classes of variables appear in a natural way. For example, there are problems where time, space and parameters appear and should be distinguished; see [Was75]. This section deals with yet another situation, where we have two kinds of parameters, namely ordinary and distinguished ones, the dependence between these variables in transformations of deformations is according to the following table: Variable → phase distinguished ordinary May depend on ↓ phase yes no no yes yes no distinguished ordinary yes yes yes

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In Chap. 2 this situation is met. There the distinguished parameters are phase variables which are no part of the (reduced) dynamical system. Since they are phase variables, the (ordinary) parameters of the model may not depend on them. Coordinate transformations that respect this structure are called BCKV transformations (see [BCKV93, BCKV95]). Since BCKV normal form puts restrictions on the reparametrizations, it is reasonable to expect the number of (equivalence classes of) normal forms to increase. This indeed happens, even to the extent that normal forms of ﬁnite codimension cease to exist. This problem is tackled using the path formulation [GS85, GS79, Mon94]. In eﬀect this amounts to ﬁxing a number of deformation parameters in the deformation, suitable to the problem at hand, in other words ﬁxing a path through the inﬁnite dimensional space of deformation parameters; see also [BCKV93]. The normal form and transformations are supposed to be equivariant under the action of some compact symmetry group Γ . BCKV theory – deﬁnitions and main theorem The main point was made above: reparametrizations may not depend on the distinguished parameters. Secondly, in the intended application, the distinguished parameter is an angular momentum, and therefore nonnegative. Hence, we also require the reparametrization of the distinguished parameter to respect the zero level. These ingredients lead to deﬁnition 5.15 below. Remark 5.14. (Notation) With BCKV deformations, there are three levels of variables: phase variables x ∈ Rn , distinguished parameters λ ∈ Rr and ordinary parameters u ∈ Rs . We abbreviate Rn × Rr × Rs by Rn+r+s , and similarly for subspaces. Deﬁnition 5.15. (BCKV-restricted morphisms:) Let two deformations F ∈ Γ Γ Γ En+r+s and G ∈ En+r+t of f = F (·, ·, 0) ∈ En+r be given, such that f (0, λ) = 0. F is said to be induced from G by Γ -equivariant BCKV-restricted morphisms if there exist germs of Γ -equivariant mappings Ψ : Rn+r+s → Rn+r+t , Φ : Rr+s → Rr+t and Θ : Rs → Rt such that the following diagram commutes: →

π

π

→

→

π ˜

π ˜

→

Rn+r × {0}s −−−−→ Rn+r+s −−−1−→ Rr+s −−−2−→ {0}r × Rs −−−−→ Rr+s   F         Ψ Θ Φ Φ Id R G Rn+r × {0}t −−−−→ Rn+r+t −−−1−→ Rr+t −−−2−→ {0}r × Rt −−−−→ Rr+t On Rn+r , Rn+r+s and Rn+r+t the action of Γ is deﬁned by trivially extending it on Rn . Commutativity of the diagram amounts to: There exist φ : Rr+s → Rr , ψ : Rn+r+s → Rn such that Φ = (φ, Θ), Ψ = (ψ, φ, Θ), ψ(x, λ, 0) = x, φ(λ, 0) = λ, φ(0, u) = 0, Θ(0) = 0, and F (x, λ, u) = G(ψ(x, λ, u), φ(λ, u), Θ(u)). The φ, ψ and

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Θ are the analogs of φ and ρi of (2.12), but obey more restrictions. Morphisms (Ψ, Φ, Θ) as above are called BCKV-restricted morphisms. Again, versal deformations are those deformations from which every other can be induced, and a universal deformation is a versal deformation with the minimal possible number of parameters. In [BCKV93, thm. 11], versal deformations with respect to BCKV-restricted morphisms are characterized. Next we prove the Γ -equivariant version of this: Γ Theorem 5.16. (BCKV-restricted versal deformations:) Let f ∈ En+r be a family of germs of Γ -equivariant germs depending on a distinguished parameter λ ∈ Rr . Let f0 ∈ EnΓ : x → f (x, 0) have codimension c. Then

1. f has a universal deformation with respect to Γ -equivariant BCKV-restricted morphisms if and only if f , considered as a deformation of f0 , is versal with respect to ordinary Γ -equivariant morphisms. 2. If F (x, λ, u) is a (uni)versal deformation of f with respect to Γ -equivariant BCKV-restricted morphisms, then F (x, 0, u) is a (uni)versal deformation of f0 with respect to ordinary Γ -equivariant morphisms. 3. If f (x, λ) is a universal deformation of f0 with respect to ordinary Γ equivariant morphisms, then r = c and F : Rn+c+c → R deﬁned by F (x, λ, u) = f (x, λ) +

c j=1

uj

∂f (x, 0) ∂λj

is a universal deformation of f with respect to Γ -equivariant BCKV-restricted morphisms. Proof: The proof for the non-equivariant case can be carried over to the present setting with obvious changes. See [BCKV93]. Path formulation As the number of distinguished parameters is ﬁxed, theorem 5.16 implies that if the central singularity f0 has a high codimension, there are no versal deformations with respect to Γ -equivariant BCKV-restricted morphisms. However, we can view the system as a subfamily of a versally deformed system. The normal form then includes functions that describe the submanifold, embedded in the versal system’s parameter space, that the system traces out. Bifurcations of the intersection of this submanifold with the bifurcation set yields additional information. This description is usually called the path formulation, see [GS85, GS79, Mon94, BF91]. For this ﬁnal reduction, we need the following: Deﬁnition 5.17. A BCKV-restricted reparametrization is a mapping (φ, θ) with φ : Rr+s → Rr , θ : Rs → Rs such that φ(0, u) = 0, θ(0) = 0. Note that it is not required that φ(λ, 0) = λ. The following lemma is a slightly stronger version of [BCKV93, lemma 7], and is used in the proof of proposition 5.19 below.

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Lemma 5.18. [BCKV93] Let r ≤ s, let π : Rs → Rr be a projection onto some ˜ : (λ, u) ∈ Rr+s → Rs be a map (a r-dimensional subspace of Rs , and let h ˜ ˜ u))|λ=u=0 ’normal form’) such that h(0, 0) = 0 and the derivatives Dλ (π ◦ h(λ, ˜ and Du (π ◦ h(λ, u))|λ=u=0 both have rank r. Then, for any h ∈ E(r + s, s) with h(0, 0) = 0 there exists a BCKV-restricted reparametrization Υ = (φ, θ) such that ˜ (λ, u))). π(h(λ, u)) = π(h(Υ Moreover, if also Dλ π◦h(λ, u) and Du π◦h(λ, u) both have rank r (at λ = u = 0), then Υ can be chosen invertible. ˜ u) has full rank, and π ◦ h(0, 0) = π ◦ h(0, ˜ 0), by the Proof: As Du π ◦ h(0, inverse function theorem there exists a function θ(u) with θ(0) = 0 such that ˜ θ(u)). Now Dλ π ◦ h(λ, ˜ θ(u)) has full rank, and moreover π ◦ h(0, u) = π ◦ h(0, ˜ π ◦ h(0, u) = π ◦ h(0, θ(u)), for all u, so, applying the inverse function theorem again, we ﬁnd a function φ(λ, u) with φ(0, u) = 0, such that π ◦ h(λ, u) = ˜ π ◦ h(φ(λ, u), θ(u)). The last remark follows by applying the lemma with the ˜ interchanged. roles of h and h Proposition 5.19. Let g(x, λ, u) : Rn+r+s → R be a generic Γ -invariant germ, and assume that f (x, σ1 , . . . , σs ) is a universal deformation of g(x, 0, 0) using unrestricted Γ -equivariant morphisms. Then there exists a BCKV-restricted reparametrization Υ such that for the normal form ˜r+1 (λ, u), . . . , σ ˜s (λ, u)), F (x, λ, u) := f (x, λ1 + u1 , . . . , λr + ur , σ where σ ˜i , i = r+1, . . . , s, are some functions, we have that g can be induced from F ◦ (πx , Υ ) using BCKV-restricted Γ -equivariant morphisms. Here πx denotes the projection πx : (x, λ, u) → x. Proof: Let h(λ, u) be a reparametrization, and Φ(x, λ, u) a coordinate transfor˜ i (λ, u) := λi + ui if mation, such that f (Φ(x, λ, u), h(λ, u)) = g(x, λ, u). Deﬁne h ˜ i (λ, u) := ui if r +1 ≤ i ≤ s, and set π(σ1 , . . . , σs ) = (σ1 , . . . , σr ). 1 ≤ i ≤ r and h The lemma now applies. By genericity we may assume that the relevant derivatives have rank r, so we ﬁnd an invertible BCKV-restricted reparametrization Υ ˜ i (Υ (λ, u)) for i = 1, . . . , r, which means that for such that hi (λ, u) = h F (x, λ, u) := f (x, λ1 + u1 , . . . , λr + ur , hr+1 ◦ Υ −1 (λ, u), . . . , hs ◦ Υ −1 (λ, u)), we have g(x, λ, u) = F ◦ (πx , Υ ) ◦ (Φ, πλ , πu ), where πλ : (x, λ, u) → λ and πu : (x, λ, u) → u, proving the proposition.

5.4 Maps and left-right transformations In Chap. 3, the object to normalize is the energy–momentum map, a parameterdependent map from phase space to R2 . We are interested in its ﬁbers. Since these are smoothly deformed by left-right transformations, we use these transformations to normalize the map. For more information see Sect. 3.1, and [Dui84].

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5.4.1 The tangent space In the language of Sect. 5.2, the manifold M is EnΓ × EnΓ , the Γ -invariant C ∞ maps from Rn to R2 . We include a symmetry group Γ , as in the application the energy–momentum map will be invariant under the circle symmetry produced by the Birkhoﬀ normal form. The transformation group G is Γ G := {(A, B) ∈ En,n × E2,2 |A, B origin-preserving and invertible}.

The ﬁrst component is the set of Γ -equivariant right transformations. The second component are the left-transformations. The group elements have the following action on M : ζ:

G×M →M :

((A, B), E) → B ◦ E ◦ A.

The group operation is (A, B) ◦ (A , B ) = (A ◦ A, B ◦ B ). The tangent space to G is then (isomorphic to) VnΓ × E2,2 . Again, using this we can ﬁnd the tangent space to the orbit of an arbitrary map E ∈ M under the action of G. This tangent space is denoted by TE : (5.2) TE := TE (GE) = {(αE1 + β1 (E1 , E2 ), αE2 + β2 (E1 , E2 )) |α ∈ VnΓ , β ∈ E2,2 }. Here Ei and βi are the components of the 2-vector-valued maps E and β. Remark 5.20. (Fixing the origin) In order to use germs (at 0) as lefttransformation, we have to require that element of M map the origin (in R4 ) to the origin (in R2 ). This will be assumed throughout. Remark 5.21. (Germs and symmetry) The group G acts on the manifold M consisting of germs at 0 ∈ R2 . Therefore, the action of the group must keep the origin ﬁxed. However, when considering germs of deformations of maps, this is only required when the deformation parameters are 0, and the codimension of the tangent space 5.2 only gives an upper bound of the codimension of elements of M as deformations. But, if the symmetry group Γ is such that the origin is the only ﬁxed point of the action of Γ , equivariance of the action of G implies that it ﬁxes the origin, and the codimension of 5.2 is equal to the deformationcodimension. From Mather’s results [Mat68] we can deduce the following theorem. (In his notation we have TE = (tE)(B) + (ωE)(A), and T (M ) = θ(E). Mather denotes the group G of left-right transformations by A.) Theorem 5.22. Let TE ⊆ T (M ) have ﬁnite codimension d, and let T (M )/TE be spanned by t1 (x) . . . , td (x) as a real vector space. Then E + µ1 t1 (x) + · · · + µd td (x) is a versal deformation of E.

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Remark 5.23. (Relation with preparation theorem) In fact [Mat68, Prop. 3.6] allows us to reduce the problem to a ﬁnite dimensional one, in the setting of truncated formal power series. The algorithms given in Chaps. 6 and 7 can be interpreted as constructive proof of theorem 5.22 for formal power series. Mather proves that this implies theorem 5.22 for smooth functions. It is in this step that many technical diﬃculties are met, the solution of which requires Malgrange and Mather’s preparation theorem (see also [Mar82, Ch. X]). As our focus is on the computation of a ﬁnite piece of the transformation, we shall not digress on this subject.

6 Gr¨ obner bases and Standard bases

This chapter explains how to compute the codimension of the tangent spaces used in chapters 2 and 3: ideals, and left-right tangent spaces of the form (3.7), both as subsets of the ring of formal power series. For ideals, this can be done by calculating the formal power series equivalent of a Gr¨ obner basis. This idea is generalized and applied to left-right tangent spaces.

6.1 Introduction A Gr¨ obner basis of an ideal in a polynomial ring is a set of generators with certain additional properties. One implication of these is that a normal form algorithm exists, equivalent to a ‘division’: Given an arbitrary polynomial, the algorithm expresses it as an ideal element, plus a unique remainder term in a certain minimal vector space. The dimension of this vector space is called the codimension of the ideal, which is ﬁnite for our application. That application is Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm, constructing a right transformation inducing an arbitrary unfolding from a versal one. The ideal is related to the versal unfolding’s tangent space, whereas the remainder terms are related to the (ﬁnitely many) deformation terms. Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm is the subject of Chap. 7. These ideas need to be generalized somewhat, ﬁrst of all because the tangent space we consider is not a polynomial ideal, but an ideal in the formal power series ring; see Chap. 5. Secondly, in the case of left-right transformations, the tangent space is no longer an ideal. For both of these cases, this chapter develops an appropriate normal form or ‘division’ algorithm. Overview The problem of computing the codimension of an arbitrary polynomial ideal I in a polynomial ring R was solved by Bruno Buchberger in his 1965 thesis [Buc65]. His idea was to introduce an ordering on the monomials. The largest monomial occurring in a polynomial, with respect to this ordering, is called its leading monomial, and the ideal generated by the leading monomials of ideal members he called the leading monomial ideal, written as LM I. The number of monomials not in LM I is precisely the codimension of I, i.e., the dimension of R/I as an R-vector-space.

H. Broer, I. Hoveijn, G. Lunter, and G. Vegter: LNM 1806, pp. 97–132, 2003. c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003

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We now brieﬂy sketch the main idea. Assume we have generators hi of I, then clearly multiples of leading monomials of the hi are in LM I, but the converse is not generally true. Buchberger developed an algorithm computing a basis hi generating the same ideal I, but with the additional property that their leading monomials do generate LM I. Such bases are called Gr¨ obner bases. Gr¨ obner bases are used to systematically solve a number of questions involving polynomial ideals. For some problems occurring in algebraic geometry, see [CLO98, GP88, MR88] and also [CLO92] which gives a good introduction to Gr¨ obner basis theory. Many generalizations have been developed, for example for submodules (see [GP88]), for ideals in power series rings [Bec90a, Bec90b, Hir64, Mor88], and for subalgebras of polynomial rings [AHLM99, KM89, Mil96, RS90, Stu96, Vas98]. One problem in polynomial ideal theory which Gr¨ obner bases solve, and which once was the main problem of the ﬁeld (see van der Waerden [Wae60], and [Win96]), is the ideal membership problem: for a given f , decide whether it is an element of an ideal I. If a Gr¨ obner basis of I is known, there is a normal form algorithm, which, for any equivalence class f +I deﬁned by a representative f ∈ R, returns a unique representative of that class. It is clear that this solves the ideal membership problem. A suitably modiﬁed version of the algorithm works in the ring of truncated formal power series, and is used in Chap. 7 to obtain reparametrizations and coordinate transformations related to versal unfoldings; see also [BHLV98, Lun99b]. In this chapter those generalizations are brought under a common umbrella. An abstraction is made both of of the base vector space (e.g. the ring of polynomials, truncated formal power series, or rational functions), and the algebraic structure of the set T of interest (ideal, submodule, subalgebra, left-right tangent space). Also the concept of ‘monomial’ is generalized: For our purposes the key property is not that monomials form an algebra, but that they form a basis of the base vector space (ring, module, algebra). The algebraic structure is described by a map Ψ whose image is T , and we investigate its monomial structure. If this map satisﬁes certain properties, it is called a standard map. The main implication is that for such maps, the set LM Im Ψ can be described explicitly, and using this, T ’s codimension can be computed. The idea for this approach is based on the presentation of Greuel [GP88] for standard bases of submodules. More precisely, the proof of the standard map theorem 6.10 follows Greuel’s proof of Schreyer’s method for computing the module of syzygies of an ideal, stripped of the algebraic details unnecessary in the general setting. We also use the Schreyer order [Sch91] of monomials, which we call the induced order in the general context. The algorithms for computing standard subalgebra bases, also known as SAGBI 1 or canonical bases, were taken from Sturmfels [Stu96]. The problems one encounters here are related to integer linear programming. Interestingly, 1

S ubalgebra Analogue of Gr¨ obner B ases for I deals, see e.g. [Vas98]

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these can be solved using Gr¨ obner bases again (see [CLO98, Ch. 8] and [Sch86, §16.4]). The algorithms to compute standard basis for left-right tangent spaces were based on these techniques, and also involve Gr¨ obner basis calculations. There are other possibilities for generalizations that are not mentioned yet, see e.g. [CCS99, Ch. 1]. In particular, we shall always assume that the coeﬃcients are elements of a ﬁeld, which avoids a number of complications that are encountered in the case of a base ring. For this topic we refer to e.g. [AHLM99, Mil96]. Organization of the chapter First we present the theory of Gr¨ obner bases, without proofs, so as to suggest a generalization. In Sect. 6.3 the abstract setup is given, with the standard map theorem 6.10 underlying the subsequent results. Section 6.4 deals with several instances of standard bases, starting from Gr¨ obner bases, and culminating in standard bases for left-right tangent spaces. The ﬁnal section is about the diﬀerences encountered when these spaces live in the ring of (truncated) formal power series, instead of the polynomial ring. 6.1.1 Algorithms and real numbers This chapter describes algorithms performing various computations. We here make some remarks how these algorithms are idealizations of their actual computer implementation. More down to earth, it can be regarded an attempt at justifying the use of real and complex numbers in the algorithm descriptions. Mathematical models of computers, for example Turing machines (see e.g. [Dav65]), are usually discrete. This is reasonable, since modern computers are digital, and have well-deﬁned discrete states. On the other hand, in mathematics we often use the ﬁelds R or C for computations, and their elements cannot be represented by a discrete model. So, when a mathematician wants to model algorithms performing ‘real’ calculations on a digital computer, there is a problem. One solution would be to restrict to so-called computable ﬁelds, for instance ﬁnite ﬁelds, see e.g. [BW93]. However, one could also argue that the discreteness of digital computers is a detail, which should not, in this case, receive much emphasis. The numbers used by actual computers form a ﬁnite subset of the rationals, which however for most practical computations form a suﬃciently dense subset of R to be a useful approximation of ‘real’ reals. A useful idealization of actual computers would then be a machine whose basic actions are conditional branches, and evaluation of formulas involving real (or complex) numbers. This is, very brieﬂy, the point of view taken in [BSS89]; see also [Shu94, BCSS96] and the references there. With this in mind, we in this book present algorithms acting on ordinary real numbers, and consider this to be a reasonable idealization of the actual implementation.

6.2 Motivation: Gr¨ obner bases In this section we develop, without proofs, the notion of Gr¨ obner bases for ideals. In the next section a generalization is given, which is presented along the same

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6.2. Motivation: Gr¨ obner bases

lines. This section will step over many details, with the intention of suggestion a slightly diﬀerent point of view towards Gr¨ obner bases, rather than to prove the main theorems once more. An attempt at rigor will again be made from section 6.3 onwards. 6.2.1 Term orders for Gr¨ obner bases An important ingredient for Gr¨ obner bases is the term order, an ordering of the monomials. To any polynomial f = 0, a monomial LM f is associated. It is called the leading monomial, and it is the largest monomial occurring in the polynomial, with respect to the term order. The coeﬃcient associated to this monomial is called the leading coeﬃcient (a real number, for now), and is denoted by LC f . The product of these is the leading term: LT f = LC(f ) LM(f ). The term orders that are used in this context, and the associated leadingmonomial functions, have the following properties: (f, g, h nonzero polynomials) a) The term order ≤ is a linear (or total) order, i.e., (1) it is transitive, (2) for any pair of monomials m, m we have m ≤ m or m ≤ m, and (3) if both hold then m = m . b) The term order ≤ is a well-order, i.e., every nonempty set of monomials has a smallest element. c) LM f ≤ LM g ⇔ LM(hf ) ≤ LM(hg). d) The set {LM f |f a polynomial} forms a basis of the polynomial ring. e) LM(f − LT f ) < LM f . f) LM(f − g) ≤ max(LM f, LM g), and equality holds unless LT f = LT g. These properties are not independent. Later we shall extend the notion of ‘monomial’ and ‘monomial order’, and require only some of the properties above to hold. For convenience later on, we set LM 0 = LT 0 = 0, and also 0 < m, for all monomials m. Examples For one variable there is only one term-order: 1 < x < x2 < · · · . With more variables it becomes more interesting. The lexicographic order, or lex-order for short, symbolically lex x1 . This order is an example of an elimination order (for xn ): A Gr¨ obner basis of an ideal with respect to this term order contains a polynomial from which the variables x1 , . . . , xn−1 are eliminated, if the ideal contains such elements at all. A direct Gr¨ obner basis calculation using the lexicographic order can take much time. Graded term orders perform much better. This is especially true for the graded reverse lexicographic order, or grevlex for friends. It is deﬁned by xα
αn 1 α2 Here we use the multi-index notation xα = xα 1 x2 · · · xn .

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There exist n! variants of the lex- and grevlex-orders, obtained by permuting the variables. Many more term orders satisfying the properties (a) to (f) above exist, and a full classiﬁcation is given in appendix A.1. 6.2.2 Basic question The deﬁning property of a Gr¨ obner basis can be expressed using the leadingmonomial function LM. Let hi be some polynomials, and let I = hi be the associated ideal. Let LM I := spanR {LM f |f ∈ I} be the linear span of all leading monomials of ideal members. The set LM I is in general diﬃcult to describe. On the other hand, the ideal LM h1 , . . . , LM hk is a monomial ideal with explicit generators. This ideal is easy to work with, for example the membership problem is trivial. In general LM h1 , . . . , LM hk ⊆ LM h1 , . . . , hk . We are interested in the following question: Given a set of generators {h1 , . . . , hk } of an ideal, under what conditions is it true that (6.1)

LM h1 , . . . , hk = LM h1 , . . . , LM hk

?

Bases for which equality holds are called Gr¨ obner bases. It is not diﬃcult to prove that Gr¨ obner bases exist for any ideal (of a Noetherian ring, to be precise). A very natural question to ask is: Given a set of generators {h1 , . . . , hm } for an ideal I, how can one modify this set of generators such that they still generate I but at the same time also satisfy (6.1)? The algorithm accomplishing this is the Buchberger algorithm. 6.2.3 Rephrasing the basic question We now put the basic question (6.1) in a diﬀerent form. At this point it is convenient to introduce some notation. Let R be the base ring. For Gr¨ obner bases we use R = R[x] = R[x1 , . . . , xn ], the polynomial ring over R in n variables. Consider the diagram of Fig. 6.1. In this diagram M is the free module Rk = ⊕ki=1 Rei , and ei = (0, . . . , 1, . . . , 0) denotes the i-th basis vector in Rk . The map Ψ is an R-module homomorphism mapping ei to hi , so that the image of Ψ is the ideal I = h1 , . . . , hk . The map Ψ is also an R-module homomorphism, but this one maps ei to LT hi . By construction, therefore, the image of Ψ is contained in LM I = LT I. The basic question posed in the previous section can now be rephrased as: Under what conditions do we have that (6.2)

Im Ψ = LM Im Ψ

?

Note that LM Im Ψ = Im(LT Ψ ): The map LT Ψ is not a linear map, and the diagram of Fig. 6.1 never commutes.

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6.2. Motivation: Gr¨ obner bases

Fig. 6.1

Gr¨ obner basis diagram

6.2.4 A criterion for Gr¨ obner bases In order to formulate the criterion implying equality in (6.2), we need a few more deﬁnitions. Monomials First of all we extend the notion of monomial to M . A monomial in M is an element of the form xβ ei for some β ∈ Nn and 1 ≤ i ≤ k. A term is a monomial multiplied by a coeﬃcient. Standard representations Assume that {h1 , . . . , hk } is not a Gr¨ obner basis and hence that equality fails in (6.2). In other words, for a certain α ∈ M we have LM Ψ α ∈ / Im Ψ. Consider the set {LM ψt} where t runs over the terms of α. The highest monomial of these is not equal to LM Ψ α, as otherwise the latter would be an element of Im Ψ. In other words, summing all Ψ t cancels this highest monomial. We say that an α ∈ M is a standard representation (of Ψ α) if such cancellation of the leading monomial does not occur. This can be expressed as: LM Ψ t ≤ LM Ψ α for all terms t of α. It is easy to see that every f ∈ I = Im Ψ has a standard representation, if and only if {h1 , . . . , hk } is a Gr¨ obner basis. Remark 6.1. Our notion of standard representation is the natural translation to the current set-up of a similar notion in [BW93, Def. 5.59]. Division; normal form Consider the following algorithm. It is a generalization of the polynomial division algorithm to the case of multiple polynomials. Given an input element f , it expresses f as a member of the ideal h1 , . . . , hk plus a remainder term r, subject to some conditions: Algorithm 6.2. (Normal form) Input: f, h1 , . . . , hk ∈ R Output: α ∈ M, r ∈ R such that 1. f = r + Ψ α 2. r = 0 or LM r ∈ / Im Ψ 3. α is a standard representation.

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Algorithm: α←0 r←f While r = 0 and LT r = cxβ LT(hi ) for some c, β, i, do: α ← α + cxβ ei r ← r − cxβ hi EndWhile Proof: The equality f = r + Ψ α is an invariant of the While-loop: The condition of the While-body implies the second statement, and α is a standard representation because if α = t1 + t2 + . . ., where the ti denote the terms of α in the order in which they were added, then LM Ψ ti , i = 1, 2, . . . is a strictly decreasing sequence of monomials. Termination, ﬁnally, is guaranteed because LM r is strictly decreasing, and the term order is a well-order. Now if f ∈ I and {h1 , . . . , hk } is a Gr¨ obner basis, the algorithm will terminate with r = 0 because at each stage r ∈ I and therefore LM r ∈ Im Ψ = LM h1 , . . . , LM hk . In other words, if {h1 , . . . , hk } is a Gr¨ obner basis the algorithm yields a standard representation for any ideal element. Conversely, if r = 0 for any f ∈ I then {h1 , . . . , hk } must be a Gr¨ obner basis. S-polynomials The conclusion of the previous section can be rephrased as: If for any α ∈ M which is not a standard representation, there exists a standard representation β such that Ψ α = Ψ β, then {h1 , . . . , hk } is a Gr¨ obner basis. So how do we ﬁnd those α ∈ M which are not standard representations? For such α we have “cancellation of leading monomials”. More precisely, let α = t1 + t2 + · · · , let m = maxi LM(Ψ ti ) = Ψtp , and assume the ti form a non-increasing sequence: Ψti = m for i ≤ p, and Ψti < m for i > p. Since α is not a standard representation, LM Ψ α < m. As t1 , . . . , tp are the only terms involving m this implies LM Ψ (t1 + · · · + tp ) < m, that is, Ψ(t1 + · · · + tp ) = 0. This gives some motivation as to why ker Ψ might be of interest. (Note however that α itself need not be an element of ker Ψ.) Generators sij of ker Ψ as a module over R are easy to give explicitly: (6.3)

sij =

LT hj LT hi ei − ej , gcd(LM hi , LM hj ) gcd(LM hi , LM hj )

(1 ≤ i < j ≤ k)

and the images Ψ sij are the well-known S-polynomials, see e.g. [CLO92]. Remark 6.3. (Binomial kernel) Note that the sij are binomials. This is related to the fact that Ψ is a monomial mapping: a mapping that maps monomials to monomials. See also Deﬁnition 6.8. Remark 6.4. (Buchberger’s criteria) The set of generators (6.3) is not a minimal set. Buchberger’s ﬁrst and second criterion (see e.g. [BW93, CLO92]) may be interpreted as suﬃcient conditions for generators to be superﬂuous.

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Gr¨ obner bases and Buchberger’s algorithm Recall the basic question: Under which condition is Im Ψ = LM Im Ψ . The answer is now easy to give: Theorem 6.5. (Gr¨ obner basis) If algorithm 6.2 gives output r = 0 on input f = Ψ (sij ) for all generators sij in (6.3), then {h1 , . . . , hk } is a Gr¨ obner basis. Buchberger’s algorithm consists of checking the criterion, and adding the nonzero r, which lies in the ideal Im Ψ by deﬁnition of algorithm 6.2, to the ideal generators until the criterion holds. At each step the ideal Im Ψ increases. Since the polynomial ring is Noetherian, an increasing chain of ideals stabilizes, implying termination of this algorithm.

6.3 Standard bases 6.3.1 Overview In this section we put the previous discussion in a more abstract setting. One advantage is that this makes the proof of the Gr¨ obner basis case more transparent. A more important advantage is that it allows for generalizations, in various directions. One direction is changing the base ring, from the polynomial ring to the ring of formal power series, and later to truncated formal power series. This is of interest to us because formal power series arise naturally from the Birkhoﬀ normal form procedure. Related to the change of base ring is the introduction of non-well-orders for the term orders. The notion of ‘leading term’ is undeﬁned for formal power series if the term order regards monomials with large exponents as large. The solution is to ‘ﬂip’ the term order and to regard 1 as the highest monomial. This destroys the well-orderedness however. A second direction to generalize in is to allow other algebraic structures than ideals, the objects ordinary Gr¨ obner bases deal with. A generalization to modules is well-known, see e.g. [GP88]. Another generalization, for subalgebras, is known as a SAGBI basis [Vas98], or canonical subalgebra basis as Sturmfels [Stu93, Stu96] calls it. For our purposes we need the analogous basis for still diﬀerent vector spaces. This section gives the basic set-up for all these cases. We formulate the standard map theorem, which lies at the heart of all generalizations of Gr¨ obner basis mentioned. In later sections we specialize to several cases of interest. 6.3.2 Deﬁnitions A few details in the deﬁnition of term order we use, is diﬀerent from the usual deﬁnition for Gr¨ obner bases; some others, like the Schreyer ordering, need to be generalized. Here we collect the necessary deﬁnitions.

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105

Base ﬁeld The ﬁeld of coeﬃcients is denoted by R; see also Sect. 6.1.1 for remarks. Note that it is sometimes useful to compute over a coeﬃcient ring, see e.g. [AHLM99, Mil96]; we shall not use this. Term order and monomials Let M be some vector space over R. Already in the previous section we used the name ‘monomial’ also for elements of the form xβ ei , which formed a basis of the free module Rk . Presently we want to be even more general. It is not possible to be very speciﬁc about the term ‘monomial’ here, because we do not want to be speciﬁc about the vector space M . For example, for Gr¨ obner bases M is a module, but for canonical subalgebra bases M would be a ring. So instead, we just suppose a set of monomials has been deﬁned, together with a term order. Also we suppose the functions LM and LC, for leading monomial and leading coeﬃcient are deﬁned on M . The functions LM : M → M and LC : M → R are required to have the following basic properties, for all f ∈ M and a ∈ R: 1. LM LM f = LM f (provided f = 0) 2. LC LM f = 1 (provided f = 0) 3. LM af = LM f (provided a = 0) 4. LC af = a LC f The leading term, denoted by LT, is deﬁned as LT f = LC f · LM f . The ordering of the monomials is extended to the terms by simply ignoring the coeﬃcient. (However, if we write t = t we mean that t − t = 0, instead of just t ≤ t and t ≤ t with respect to the term order.) The other properties we require of the leading-monomial function (and the related term order) are: a) The set spanR {LM f |f ∈ M } is dense in M . b) The term order ≤ is a linear (or total) order: For any pair of monomials m, m we have m ≤ m or m ≤ m, and if both hold then m = m , and the term order is transitive. c) LM(f − g) ≤ max(LM f, LM g), and equality holds unless LT f = LT g = 0. For convenience we also set LM 0 = 0. A few remarks are in order: – Generally, M is an inﬁnite dimensional R-vector space. – Property (c), (1) and (3) together imply that (6.4)

LM(f − LT f ) < LM f,

(f = 0)

– From (4) and (c) it follows that LT 0 = 0, and 0 < m for all (nonzero) monomials m. – The term order is not required to be a well-order. – The leading-monomial function is not required to be multiplicative. In relation to the last remark, note that M need not be a ring, or even a module over some ring, so that it is not clear what ‘multiplicative’ should mean. This

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level of generality is only needed here, and is enough to formulate the main result of this section, the standard map theorem. In the applications of Sect. 6.4 we always require the term order to be multiplicative, in some appropriate sense. For a linear subspace L of M , we write LM L for the closure of spanR {LM f |f ∈ L}. For example, we have M = LM M . Another example, if M is a ring and L an ideal, then LM L is the leading monomial ideal, also called the initial ideal. Reﬁned term orders Suppose we have a (linear) map Ψ : L → M , and term orders on L and M . For clarity we write LML and LMM for the leading-monomial functions on L and M respectively. The term order on L is said to be a reﬁnement of the one on M (via Ψ , if we want to be precise), if LMM Ψ α ≤M LMM Ψ LML α

(6.5)

for all α ∈ L. Using the basic properties, this implies that for all monomials m, m ∈ L we have (6.6) (6.7)

LMM Ψ m <M LMM Ψ m m
⇒

m
⇒

LMM Ψ m ≤M LMM Ψ m ,

which motivates the name reﬁnement. If L is a free module over M , the reﬁned term order on L is called the Schreyer order, see [GP88, Sch91]. Assumption From here on, it will be assumed that whenever there is a map Ψ : L → M and a term order on M , there is also a term order on L which is a reﬁnement, via Ψ , of the order on M . Moreover we will just write LM instead of LML or LMM ; which one is intended will be clear from the context. Standard representations Using the reﬁned term orders, it is possible to give an elegant deﬁnition of a standard representation (see Sect. 6.2.4). Again assume we have a map Ψ : M → R, then an element α ∈ M is said to be a standard representation if cancellation of leading monomials does not occur: Deﬁnition 6.6. An element α ∈ M is called a standard representation (of Ψ α) if LM Ψ α = LM Ψ LM α. 6.3.3 Setup Now we formulate the analogue of the basic question posed in section 6.2.2 in the current context. Assume we have a linear map Ψ : M → R, and we wish to know its image. In particular, we are interested in the set of leading monomials that occur in the image of Ψ . Related to Ψ is a map Ψ (see Fig. 6.2). On monomials m ∈ M it is deﬁned as Ψ m := LT Ψ m, and it is extended to all of M by linear combinations and closure. Ψ is a monomial map, and it is easy to describe its range. Moreover

6. Gr¨ obner bases and Standard bases

Fig. 6.2

107

Standard maps and bases

it is clear that Im Ψ ⊂ LM Im Ψ . The problem is to determine whether in fact Im Ψ = LM Im Ψ . When this is true, Ψ is called a standard map. (Usually Ψ is deﬁned in terms of some basis, which is then called a standard basis.) A related problem is to ﬁnd the kernel of Ψ . In the case where Im Ψ is the ideal h1 , . . . , hk , this is the question of ﬁnding the so-called syzygies for the ordered set of polynomials {h1 , . . . , hk }, i.e., k-tuples of polynomials (a1 , . . . , ak ) such that a1 h1 + · · · + ak hk = 0. It is easy to see that the set of these k-tuples indeed forms an R-module. The standard map theorem below gives a relation between the kernel of Ψ and the kernel of Ψ, which in the case of ideals boils down to a relation between syzygies of the set {h1 , . . . , hk } and those of the set {LM h1 , . . . , LM hk }. The latter module is generated by the (pre-images of the) S-polynomials (6.3). Remark 6.7. (Syzygies) Below we shall use the word syzygy to refer to syzygies on leading monomials of generators, i.e., elements of ker Ψ instead of elements of ker Ψ . 6.3.4 Normal form property In the case of Gr¨ obner bases, that is, a well-order and a polynomial ring, we used algorithm 6.2 to bring an arbitrary element of the polynomial ring into a normal form. The analogue of the algorithm can be written down in the current general context, but will in general not terminate. So instead of writing down a normal form algorithm, we assume existence of a normal form map with the necessary properties. The normal form map that we use here is very similar to the one used by Greuel [GP88], with the diﬀerence that he does not consider the α–part – see below. Assume we have the situation of Fig. 6.2. A normal form map for Ψ : M → R is a map Ψ NFΨ : R → M ⊕ R : f → NFΨ (f ) = NFΨ α (f ), NFr (f ) Ψ with the following properties (we write r = NFΨ r (f ), α = NFα (f )):

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a) f = Ψ α + r, b) r = 0 or LM r ∈ / Im Ψ, c) α is a standard representation. Heuristically, the map NFΨ performs a division, with α the ‘quotient’ and r the ‘remainder’. The map Ψ is said to have the normal form property if a normal form map NFΨ exists. This normal form property holds under very general (topological) conditions; for example it always exists in polynomial rings with a well-order as term order. 6.3.5 The standard map theorem The following theorem is inspired on the proof of the standard basis theorem (for ideals in the local polynomial ring, with non-well-orders) by Greuel [GP88], which he in turn attributes partly to Schreyer [Sch91]. Deﬁnition 6.8. A linear map Ψ is called a monomial map if Ψm is a monomial for every monomial m. Given a map Ψ , its associated monomial map Ψ is deﬁned on the set of monomials m by Ψm := LT Ψ m, and extended linearly for other elements. This is a good deﬁnition if Ψ m = 0 for all monomials m, which will be assumed. Now recall the deﬁnition of standard map: Deﬁnition 6.9. Let Ψ be the monomial map associated to Ψ . The map Ψ is called a standard map if LM Im Ψ = Im Ψ. Theorem 6.10. (Standard map theorem) Let L, M , R be vector spaces, and Φ : L → M and Ψ : M → R linear maps, having associated monomial maps Φ and Ψ , and assume they have the following properties: a) Im Φ ⊆ ker Ψ , ⊇ LM ker Ψ, b) Im Φ c) Φ : L → M has the normal form property. Then: 1. Im Φ = ker Ψ , 2. Im Ψ = LM Im Ψ , = LM Im Φ. 3. Im Φ Φ

Ψ

In other words, the conclusion of the theorem is that L → M → R is an exact sequence, and Φ and Ψ are standard maps. When applying the theorem, one constructs Φ such that condition (a) is satisﬁed. Condition (b) is easy to check, as it involves only monomial maps. It corresponds to the Gr¨ obner basis criterion (Theorem 6.5) in the case of polynomial ideals.

6. Gr¨ obner bases and Standard bases

Fig. 6.3

109

Diagram for the standard map theorem

Proof: Choose any β ∈ M , and let f := Ψ β be its image in R. Let NFΦ be a normal form for Φ (which exists by assumption (c)), and set A := NFΦ α (β) and ρ := NFΦ r (β). Then we have: (6.8)

ρ = 0 or LM ρ ∈ / Im Φ.

β = ΦA + ρ,

By assumption (a) we have ΦA ∈ ker Ψ . Therefore f = Ψ β = Ψ (ΦA + ρ) = Ψ ρ. We now claim: Either f = 0 and LM f = LM Ψ LM ρ, or ρ = 0. To prove this, assume ρ = 0 and deﬁne t1 := LT ρ, ρ := ρ − t1 , t2 := LT ρ . Then LM t1 > LM t2 = LM ρ , and using (6.5) and (6.7) we get LM Ψ t1 ≥ LM Ψ t2 ≥ LM Ψ ρ . Now if LM Ψ t1 > LM Ψ t2 , then LM Ψ ρ = LM(Ψ t1 + Ψ ρ ) = LM Ψ t1 = LM Ψ LM ρ, proving our claim. So assume on the contrary that LM Ψ t1 = LM Ψ t2 . In particular LC Ψ t2 = 0, hence also LC Ψt2 = 0. Deﬁne t2 :=

LC Ψt1 t2 . LC Ψt2

Then Ψt1 = Ψt2 , that is, t1 − t2 ∈ ker Ψ. Taking the LM on both sides yields (assumption (b)), LM t1 ∈ LM ker Ψ. Since LM t1 = LM ρ and LM ker Ψ ⊆ Im Φ this implies LM ρ ∈ Im Φ, contradicting (6.8). So indeed f = 0 and LM f = LM Ψ LM ρ = Ψ LM ρ, or ρ = 0. The ﬁrst part proves that LM Im Ψ ⊆ Im Ψ¯ . As the other inclusion is trivial, this proves (2). The second part says that if β ∈ ker Ψ then ρ = NFΦ r (β) = 0, that is, β = ΦA. In other words ker Ψ ⊆ Im Φ. Together with (a) this proves (1). Finally, using (1) we get that NFΦ r (β) = 0 for all β ∈ Im Φ, so that every such β has a standard representation, implying (3). The following two lemmas will be helpful in applying the standard map theorem 6.10.

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Binomial lemma In the case of Gr¨ obner bases, the kernel of Ψ is generated by binomials, which correspond to the S-polynomials. This holds more generally. The following lemma is a generalization of Lemma 4.1 of [Stu96]. The proof is diﬀerent, since we cannot use the well-ordering property of the term order. (Recall that a term is a monomial multiplied by a constant.) Lemma 6.11. (Binomial generators) Let Ψ be a monomial map. Then ker Ψ is the closure of (6.9)

spanR {t − t |t, t terms, and Ψt = Ψt }.

:= {LM f |f ∈ R}, and M := {LM f |f ∈ M }. For Proof: First deﬁne R such that Ψmr = c · r (if one exists), for some select an mr ∈ M every r ∈ R c ∈ R. Now let α ∈ ker Ψ . Using that M is the closure of spanR M , we may write α = m∈M cm m. Deﬁne LC Ψm cm m − cm α := mLM Ψm . LC ΨmLM Ψm m∈M

Write r = LM Ψm, then LC Ψm LC Ψm Ψ cm mr = cm LC(Ψmr ) LM(Ψmr ) = cm LC(Ψm)r = Ψ(cm m), LC Ψ mr LC Ψmr since LM Ψmr = r. This shows that α is in the closure of (6.9). For any r ∈ R, the sum of the coeﬃcients cm LC Ψ m over all m such that mLM Ψm = mr vanishes, since this is precisely the coeﬃcient of r in Ψα. But this means that α = α, which completes the proof. Standard representations of syzygies The following lemma asserts that syzygies cannot be standard representations: Lemma 6.12. Let t1 − t2 be a binomial in the kernel of Ψ, and let α be a standard representation of Ψ (t1 − t2 ). Then t1 > LM α. Proof: Since t1 − t2 ∈ ker Ψ we have LT Ψ t1 = LT Ψ t2 . By (6.4) it follows that LM Ψ t1 > LM Ψ (t1 − t2 ) = LM Ψ α = LM Ψ LM α, the last equality holding since α is a standard representation. By (6.6), this implies t1 > LM α. 6.3.6 Normal form algorithm It often happens that a map Ψ not only has the normal form property (see Sect. 6.3.4), but there even exists an algorithm that computes this normal form. Often this algorithm is the following. Note thatwhen hi are polynomials and Ψ is the module homomorphism (f1 , . . . , fr ) → i hi fi into the polynomial ring, then the algorithm below is just algorithm 6.2.

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111

Algorithm 6.13. (Normal form) Input: Map Ψ : M → R and associated monomial map Ψ. Output: α ∈ M, r ∈ R such that 1. f = r + Ψ α, 2. r = 0 or LM r ∈ / Im Ψ, 3. α is a standard representation. Algorithm: α←0 r←f While LT r ∈ Im Ψ, say LT r = Ψt, t a term, do: α ← α + t, r ← r − Ψt EndWhile In general it may be nontrivial to decide whether a term LT r is in the image of Ψ or not, and to ﬁnd a term t in the pre-image. Correctness of algorithm 6.13 is straightforward, but termination less so. If algorithm 6.13 does not terminate, there may exist other algorithms that do. One example is Mora’s normal form for the rational function ring; see [GP88, Mor82, Mor85]. 6.3.7 Reduced normal forms For computations it is sometimes useful to use a more restricted notion of normal form, the reduced normal form. Indeed, the algorithm of this section will ﬁnd application in Chap. 7. Whereas the ‘remainder’ r = NFΨ r of an ordinary normal form need only satisfy LM r ∈ / Im Ψ , for a reduced normal form this is required, not only of the leading monomial, but of all terms of r. In practice this means that computing such reduced normal forms is less eﬃcient compared to ordinary normal forms. The big asset of reduced normal forms is that the r-part of their output is unique, when computed relative to a standard basis. It is not true that the normal form property also implies the existence of a reduced normal form: in the rational function ring the Mora normal form exists, which cannot be extended to a reduced normal form. However, in many cases a reduced normal form does exist, and the algorithm below usually suﬃces: Algorithm 6.14. (Reduced normal form) Input: Map Ψ : M → R and associated monomial map Ψ. Output: α ∈ M, r ∈ R such that 1. f = r + Ψα 2. r = i∈I ti with ti terms such that ti ∈ / Im Ψ 3. α is a standard representation.

112

6.4. Instances of standard bases

Algorithm: α←0 r←0 g←f While g = 0 do the following: If LT g ∈ Im Ψ, say LT g = Ψt, t a term, then: α ← α + t, g ← g − Ψt Else: r ← r + LT g g ← g − LT g EndIf EndWhile

6.4 Instances of standard bases In this section we apply the previous theory to some known cases, such as Gr¨ obner bases and canonical subalgebra bases. This shows how the current approach uniﬁes some other approaches. The standard map theorem is also used to deﬁne the concept of standard basis for a left-right tangent space. 6.4.1 Gr¨ obner bases Let {h1 , . . . , hk } be a set of polynomials in R := R[x1 , . . . , xn ] = R[x]. Let M be the free R-module Rk := ⊕ki=1 Rei . The R-module homomorphism Ψ : M → R is deﬁned by Ψ ei = hi , so that Im Ψ = h1 , . . . , hk . See Fig. 6.1. For monomials in R we take the ordinary monomials, and in Rk we take the elements of the form ei xβ , where ei is the i-th canonical basis vector. For the term order (on M and R, with the one on M being a reﬁnement via Ψ of term order on R) we take a general well-order, but one which is multiplicative over R, that is, m < m implies mm < mm for all monomials m, m , m. Then the map Ψ , deﬁned in the general way by Ψm := LT Ψ m for monomials m ∈ M , is in fact an R-module homomorphism. Algorithm 6.2 implements a normal form NFΨ on R, so that the normal form property holds in this setting. Lemma 6.15. ker Ψ is generated, as an R-module, by the syzygies (6.10) sij :=

LT(hj ) LT(hi ) ei − ej . gcd(LM hi , LM hj ) gcd(LM hi , LM hj )

Moreover, LM sij = LM sij .

(i, j = 1 . . . m)

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113

Proof: By Lemma 6.11, ker Ψ is generated, as an R-vector space, by binomials. Let b := axβ ei − bxδ ej be a binomial in ker Ψ. Then axβ LT hi = bxγ LT hj . This implies that b is a monomial multiple of sij ; indeed, b = (axβ gcd(LM hi , LM hj )/ LT hj )sij , proving the ﬁrst claim. For the second claim, let m ∈ LM ker Ψ, then m = LM b for some binomial b ∈ ker Ψ. By the same argument as before, m is a monomial multiple of some LM sij . Now we can formulate the result of this section. Recall that {h1 , . . . , hk } is called a Gr¨ obner basis if LM h1 , . . . , hk = LM h1 , . . . , LM hk . (For the deﬁnition of standard submodule basis, see Sect. 6.4.2.) Theorem 6.16. Let sij be generators (6.10) of ker Ψ as an R-module, and let NFΨ be a normal form, and assume that NFΨ r (Ψ sij ) = 0

for all sij .

Then: a) {h1 , . . . , hk } is a Gr¨ obner basis for h1 , . . . , hk . Ψ b) {sij − NFα (Ψ sij )|1 ≤ i < j ≤ k} is a standard submodule basis for ker Ψ . Proof: Write αij = NFΨ α (Ψ sij ), and deﬁne uij := sij − αij . Let L be the free R-module generated by vectors vij , and deﬁne Φ : L → M by Φvij = uij . Since NFΨ r (Ψ sij ) = 0 we have Ψ sij = Ψ αij , that is Ψ uij = 0. This shows that Im Φ ⊆ ker Ψ . The binomial sij lies in ker Ψ, and αij is a standard representation of Ψ sij , hence by Lemma 6.12 it follows that LM sij > LM αij , in other words LM sij = = LM sij LM uij . Since sij 1≤i<j≤k = ker Ψ, this shows that Im Φ = 1≤i<j≤k LM(sij 1≤i<j≤k ) = LM ker Ψ , the middle equality holding because of Lemma 6.15. Finally, the map Φ has the normal form property, because the term orders involved are well-orders. The standard map theorem now applies. The statement Im Φ = ker Ψ means that the uij generate ker Ψ . The statement that Im Ψ = = LM Im Φ LM Im Ψ means that {h1 , . . . , hk } is a Gr¨ obner basis. Finally, Im Φ implies that the uij form a standard submodule basis (relative to the induced order). This completes the proof. Buchberger’s algorithm Most of the work has now been done. The ﬁnal keystone is Buchberger’s algorithm, which actually computes a Gr¨ obner basis for arbitrary ideals.

114

6.4. Instances of standard bases

Fig. 6.4

Standard submodule basis diagram

Algorithm 6.17. (Buchberger’s algorithm) Input: {h1 , . . . , hp } ⊂ R[x] Output: A Gr¨ obner basis {h1 , . . . , hk } ⊂ R[x] for h1 , . . . , hp . Algorithm: k←p While NFΨ r (sij ) = 0 for any 1 ≤ i < j ≤ k, do: hk+1 ← NFΨ r (sij ) k ←k+1 EndWhile During execution, Ψ is supposed to be deﬁned on ⊕ki=1 R[x]ei , mapping ei to hi as usual, for the current value of k. Proof of Algorithm 6.17: Since sij ∈ h1 , . . . , hk implies NFΨ r (sij ) ∈ h1 , . . . , hk , it follows by induction that hi ∈ h1 , . . . , hn for any i > n. However the ideal LM h1 , . . . , LM hk does increase at each step, implying termination by Hilbert’s basissatz. In turn, by Theorem 6.16 this implies that {h1 , . . . , hk } is a Gr¨ obner basis. 6.4.2 Standard bases for submodules A straightforward generalization of Gr¨ obner bases gives a useful result for submodules. Gr¨ obner bases are in fact a special case of standard submodule bases; see [GP88]. Let {h1 , . . . , hk } be elements of Rd := ⊕di=1 Ri . Here i is the i-th basis vector of Rd , and R is the polynomial ring R[x1 , . . . , xn ]. Let M be the module Rk := ⊕ki=1 Rei , where the ei denote the basis vectors of Rk . The R-module homomorphism Ψ : M → Rd is deﬁned by Ψ ei = hi , so that Im Ψ = h1 , . . . , hk R . See ﬁgure 6.4. For monomials in Rd we take the elements of the form xα i , as usual, and α x ei in Rk . Also for the term order on Rd we take an arbitrary multiplicative well-order, and a reﬁnement of it, via Ψ , on Rk . The generic algorithm 6.13 terminates for this setting, implementing a normal form map NFΨ .

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115

Lemma 6.18. Write LT(hi ) = xαi eni . Then ker Ψ is generated, as an R-module, by the syzygies (6.11)

sij =

xγij −αi xγij −αj eni − enj , LC hi LC hj

where the indices i, j run over the pairs with 1 ≤ i < j ≤ k and ni = nj , and γij is the exponent of lcm(xαi , xαj ). Moreover, LM sij = LM sij , where the indices i, j run over the same values as in (6.11). Proof:

The proof is a minor modiﬁcation of the proof of Lemma 6.15.

A basis {h1 , . . . , hk } is called a standard submodule-basis for h1 , . . . , hk if LM h1 , . . . , LM hk = LM h1 , . . . , hk . In terms of the map Ψ this means Im Ψ = LM Im Ψ . The result of this section is the following: Theorem 6.19. Let sij be the generators (6.11) of ker Ψ as an R-module, and let NFΨ be a normal form, and assume that NFΨ r (Ψ sij ) = 0

for all sij .

Then: a) {h1 , . . . , hk } is a standard submodule basis for h1 , . . . , hk . b) {sij − NFΨ α (Ψ sij )}, where ij runs over the same pairs as in (6.11), is a standard submodule basis for ker Ψ . Proof: The proof is word for word the same as that of Theorem 6.16, except that instead of invoking Lemma 6.15, one has to invoke Lemma 6.18. 6.4.3 Standard bases for subalgebras The bases we consider in this section are known as SAGBI bases (Subalgebra Analogue of Gr¨ obner Bases for Ideals), see e.g. [Vas98]. Sturmfels calls them Canonical Subalgebra bases, see [Stu96, Ch. 11]. We call them ‘standard subalgebra bases’ to emphasize the similarity with the other cases. The standard subalgebra basis criterion Let {g1 , . . . , gm } be polynomials in R = R[x]. Let M := R[y1 , . . . , ym ] be the polynomial ring in m variables, and αm deﬁne the ring homomorphism Ψ : y α → g1α1 · · · gm . Then the image of Ψ is the subalgebra of R generated by g1 , . . . , gm , which we denote by R[g1 , . . . , gm ]. In M and R we take the ordinary monomials, and as term order we take any multiplicative well-order, just as in the Gr¨ obner basis case. With such a term order the monomial map Ψ is a ring homomorphism as well. Now we can deﬁne what a standard subalgebra basis is:

116

6.4. Instances of standard bases

Fig. 6.5

Diagram for standard subalgebra bases

Deﬁnition 6.20. The set {g1 , . . . , gm } is called a standard subalgebra basis for the subalgebra Im Ψ = R[g1 , . . . , gm ] if Ψ is a standard map. Note that this is equivalent to: LM R[g1 , . . . , gm ] = R[LM g1 , . . . , LM gm ]. The criterion for standard subalgebra bases will be formulated in terms of a normal form map for Ψ . To apply this criterion we need an algorithm implementing the normal form. Algorithm6.13 implements such a normal form map NFΨ . Termination is guaranteed because LM r is strictly decreasing, and the term order is supposed to be a well-order. It is not yet a proper algorithm, since it is not explained how to decide whether a monomial is in Im Ψ or not – but see below. In order to prove the criterion in Theorem 6.23 below, we need two lemmas: Lemma 6.21. The kernel ker Ψ is an ideal generated by binomials. Proof: ker Ψ is an ideal since Ψ is a ring homomorphism, and it is generated as an R-vector space by binomials by Lemma 6.11. A ﬁnite number of these binomials therefore generate ker Ψ as an ideal. An element α ∈ M is called homogeneous if it is a sum of terms, each of which is mapped to the same monomial under Ψ. By the previous lemma, ker Ψ is generated by homogeneous elements. This notion is used in the following lemma, that is used to relax the condition on the generators of ker Ψ in Theorem 6.23 below. Lemma 6.22. Let s1 , . . . , sp be homogeneous generators of ker Ψ as an ideal. obner basis Assume that NFΨ r (Ψ si ) = 0 for all i = 1, . . . , p. Then there exists a Gr¨ {si }qi=1 of ker Ψ and representations α1 , . . . , αq with the properties (for all i = 1, . . . , q):

(6.12)

 All si are homogeneous,     s − α ∈ s − NFΨ (Ψ s ) p , j j j=1 α i i  Ψ α = Ψ s ,  i i   Ψ LM αi < Ψ LM si .

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117

Proof: The proof is by induction. First set si := si and αi := NFΨ α (Ψ si ), then properties (6.12) are satisﬁed. We turn {si } into a Gr¨ obner basis by adding elements that increase LM si , but leave (6.12) invariant. Assume {s1 , . . . , sq } is not yet a Gr¨ obner basis. Choose an s ∈ ker Ψ such that LM s ∈ / LM s1 , . . . , LM sq . Let m := Ψ LM s and write s = s=m + s<m where s=m is the homogeneous leading part of s, and Ψ LM s<m < m. Now Ψs=m is just m times the of m in Ψ s, which is zero, so s=m ∈ ker Ψ as well. coeﬃcient Since ker Ψ = s1 , . . . , sq we can write s=m =

q

ai si .

(ai ∈ R)

i=1

Since s=m and the si are homogeneous, we may assume that the ai are homogeneous too. Now Ψ LM s=m = m= Ψ max LM(ai si ) = i

(deﬁnition) (homogeneity) (compatible term orders)

max LM(ai )Ψ LM si >

(hypothesis)

max LM(ai )Ψ LM αi =

(compatible term orders)

i

i

max Ψ LM(ai si ) ≥ i ai si . Ψ LM i

q So adding := i=1 ai si and αq+1 := i=1 ai αi to the generators and repq+1 q resentations, leaves (6.12) invariant while LM si i=1 LM si i=1 . This proves q the induction step. Since the ideal LM si i=1 cannot increase indeﬁnitely, after a ﬁnite number of steps {s1 , . . . , sq } is a Gr¨ obner basis. sq+1

q

(property of LM)

The following theorem gives a criterion for standard subalgebra bases. It is the analogue of Theorem 6.16, which gives a criterion to recognize Gr¨ obner bases: the S-polynomials should reduce to zero. In this case, the part of the Spolynomials is played by the binomial generators of the so-called toric ideal ker Ψ (see e.g. [Stu96]). Theorem 6.23. Let {si }pi=1 be generators of ker Ψ as an ideal, let NFΨ be a normal form, and assume that NFΨ r (Ψ si ) = 0 Then:

for i = 1, . . . , p.

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6.4. Instances of standard bases

a) {g1 , . . . , gm } is a standard basis for the subalgebra R[g1 , . . . , gm ]. p b) {si − NFΨ α (Ψ si )}i=1 generates ker Ψ . p obner basis for ker Ψ, then {si − NFΨ Moreover, if {si }pi=1 is a Gr¨ α (Ψ si )}i=1 is a Gr¨ obner basis for ker Ψ .

Proof: If {si }pi=1 is a Gr¨ obner basis, set q = p and deﬁne ui := si − NFΨ α (Ψ si ), Ψ i = 1, . . . , q. Since si ∈ ker Ψ , and NFα (Ψ si ) is a standard representation, it q q follows by Lemma 6.12 that LM ui = LM si , and thus LM ui i=1 = LM si i=1 = q LM si i=1 = LM ker Ψ. Otherwise use Lemma 6.22, and deﬁne ui := si − αi , i = q q q 1, . . . , q. Then also LM ui = LM si , and LM ui i=1 = LM si i=1 = LM si i=1 = p LM ker Ψ. Note that in both cases we have ui ∈ sj − NFΨ α (Ψ sj ) j=1 , for i = 1, . . . , q. Let L be the free M -module generated by the vectors e1 , . . . , eq , and deﬁne the M -module homomorphism Φ by Φei := ui . By construction we have Im Φ ⊆ = LM ui q = LM ker Ψ. ker Ψ , and by the foregoing discussion Im Φ i=1 The map Φ has the normal form property – indeed, algorithm 6.2 provides a normal form – so we may apply the standard map theorem. The ﬁrst conp clusion, Im Φ = ker Ψ , proves that {u1 , . . . , uq } and hence {si − NFΨ α (Ψ si )}i=1 generates ker Ψ . The conclusion Im Φ = LM Im Φ implies that the {u1 , . . . , uq } is a Gr¨ obner basis for ker Ψ . Finally, from Im Ψ = LM Im Ψ we conclude that {g1 , . . . , gm } is a standard subalgebra basis for R[g1 , . . . , gm ]. Implementing the criterion In order to check the standard subalgebra basis criterion, it is necessary to compute NFΨ , and also to compute a (Gr¨ obner ) basis for the ideal ker Ψ. These two problems are solved by the following algorithm. Algorithm 6.24. (Gr¨ obner basis and normal form for binomial ideals, or: Finding syzygies for subalgebra bases, and representations of algebra elements.) Input: A monomial ring homomorphism Ψ : R[y] → R[x], an element m ∈ R[x]. Output: Gr¨ obner basis for ker Ψ; a monomial t with Ψt = m if it exists. Algorithm: Introduce an elimination term order with {yi } < {xj }. Compute a Gr¨ obner basis G of y1 − Ψy1 , . . . , ym − Ψym R[y,x] with respect to <. Output G ∩ R[y] Let t ∈ R[y, x] be the normal form of m with respect to G. If t ∈ R[y], output t, otherwise output “m ∈ / Im Ψ”. See [Stu96, Alg. 4.5] or [AL94, Th. 4.3.13] for a proof. For more eﬃcient algorithms to compute G, see [Stu96, Ch. 12]. Using this, algorithm 6.13 can be implemented. In general, to compute NFΨ (f ) one needs several invocations of algorithm 6.24. The slow Gr¨ obner basis computation for G is only required once, and the normal form algorithm to compute t is much faster.

6. Gr¨ obner bases and Standard bases

Fig. 6.6

119

Diagram for bases of modules over subalgebras

The analogue of Buchberger’s algorithm If the condition “NFΨ r (Ψ si ) = 0 for all si ” fails, then adding the nonzero normal forms to the set of generators does not change the subalgebra, but does enlarge the set of monomials in the image of Ψ. The condition can then be checked again, until it holds. This strategy is called the Buchberger algorithm in the case where Im Ψ is an ideal. In that case Ψ is also an ideal, and because of Hilbert’s basissatz these ideals cannot increase indeﬁnitely, assuring termination of the algorithm. This argument fails in the case of subalgebras, and indeed, it can be shown that (ﬁnite) canonical subalgebrabases do not exist for all subalgebras. Perhaps the simplest example is the ideal x2 ⊂ R[x], considered as an algebra. A basis for this algebra includes polynomials P with LM P = xp , for every prime p. Another example is the ring of polynomials in x1 , x2 , x3 that are invariant under cyclic permutation of the variables; see [G¨ ob95] or [Stu96, Ch. 11] for details. 6.4.4 Standard bases for modules over subalgebras As a generalization of the previous section, we now consider modules over subalgebras of polynomial rings. Standard bases for such objects are used in the sequel as building blocks for standard bases for left-right tangent spaces, the ultimate object of our interest. The standard subalgebra basis criterion Let {g1 , . . . , gm } and {f1 , . . . , fl } be polynomials in R = R[x]. The polynomial ring R[y1 , . . . , ym ] is again denoted αm by M . Deﬁne the M -module homomorphism Ψ : M l → R : ei y α → fi g1α1 · · · gm . l See Fig. 6.6; in this ﬁgure, ei is the i-th canonical basis vector of R[y] . The image of Ψ , which is written as {f1 , . . . , fl }R[g1 , . . . , gm ], is the object of interest. Algorithm 6.13 again implements a normal form. How to compute inverses of Ψ will be explained below. The kernel of Ψ is an M -submodule, generated by binomials. Lemma 6.22 has an obvious counterpart in the current context, with “ideal” replaced by “M submodule”, and “Gr¨ obner basis” by “standard submodule basis”. The proof remains valid too.

120

6.4. Instances of standard bases

The following theorem gives a criterion that guarantees Ψ to be a standard map, which, as usual, means that LM Im Ψ = Im Ψ. Here Ψ is deﬁned in terms of two sets of elements, {fi } and {gi }. The pair ({fi }, {gi }) is called a standard basis for the subalgebra-module Im Ψ = {fi }R[gi ] if Ψ is a standard map. A basis is called a standard subalgebra-module basis if the following criterion is met: Theorem 6.25. Let {si } be generators of ker Ψ as an M -submodule, let NFΨ be a normal form, and assume that NFΨ r (Ψ si ) = 0

for all si .

Then: a) ({fi }, {gi }) is a standard basis for the subalgebra-module {f1 , . . . , fl }R[g1 , . . . , gm ]. b) {si − NFΨ α (Ψ si )} generates ker Ψ . Moreover, if {si } is a standard submodule basis for ker Ψ, then {si − NFΨ α (Ψ si )} is a standard submodule basis for ker Ψ . Proof:

The proof is completely analogous to the proof of Theorem 6.23.

Implementing the criterion To turn the above discussion into a computer program, we need an algorithm that compute generators si of ker Ψ (that is, generators for the syzygies), and an algorithm implementing the normal form map NFΨ . In the application, the ﬁrst module generator f1 is 1, and this fact can be exploited. We specialize to this case. To describe the algorithm we introduce the following notation: RN = R[t2 , . . . , tl , y1 , . . . , ym , x1 , . . . , xn ], IN = t2 − LM f2 , . . . , tl − LM fl , y1 − LM g1 , . . . , ym − LM gm , GN = {gN 1 , . . . , gN q } = Gr¨ obner basis for IN with respect to , where is an elimination term order on RN with {yi } {ti } {xi }, and which is graded, with respect to the total degree, in the variables ti . Then we have: Proposition 6.26. With the deﬁnitions above, each binomial in GN ∩ {1, t2 , . . . , tl }R[y1 , . . . , ym ] is an element of ker Ψ via the binomial correspondence mei − m ej , mti − m tj → mti − m → mei − m e1 , m − m → mek − m ek for k = 1, . . . , l Here m and m are arbitrary monomials in R[y]. These elements together form a generating set of ker Ψ as an R[y]-module.

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121

Proof: First note that IN ∩ {1, t2 , . . . , tl }R[y] ⊆ ker Ψ via the binomial correspondence. For the converse, of the binomials in ker Ψ not generated by the elements mentioned above, let α be one with smallest leading monomial. This leading monomial is of the form ti m or m, with m ∈ R[y]. Since GN is a Gr¨ obner basis of IN , this monomial is a multiple of the leading monomial of some g ∈ GN . Both terms of g are at most linear in the ti , and do not involve xi , by the choice of term order. Subtracting the proper multiple of g from α yields an α with smaller leading monomial, which by choice of term order again, lies in GN ∩ {1, t2 , . . . , tl }. This provides the required contradiction. Remark 6.27. (Eﬃciency) It is most eﬃcient to ﬁrst enlarge the {gi } to a standard subalgebra basis. Then elements m − m ∈ GN , each resulting in l syzygies to be checked in the condition of Theorem 6.25, can all be ignored since they will automatically reduce to 0. Using the Gr¨ obner basis GN , and the standard map ΨN related to it, we can write down a normal form algorithm for Ψ . It is algorithm 6.13 with an explicit subroutine for ﬁnding the inverse image of a monomial under Ψ. Here the term order is essential. Algorithm 6.28. (Normal form for modules over subalgebras) Input: A map Ψ : R[y]l → R with Ψ e1 = 1, the associated monomial map Ψ, q → RN , and the a Gr¨ obner basis GN as above, the associated map ΨN : RN ΨN associated normal form map NF . Output: α ∈ R[y]l , r ∈ R such that 1. f = r + Ψ α, 2. r = 0 or LM r ∈ / Im Ψ, 3. α is a standard representation. Algorithm: α←0 r←f BeginLoop m ← (LT r) with ei replaced by ti . N rN ← NFΨ r (m) If rN ∈ {1, t2 , . . . , tl }R[y], then If rN ∈ R[y], then t ← e1 rN Else t ← rN with ti replaced by ei EndIf α←α+t r ← r − Ψt

122

6.4. Instances of standard bases

Else ExitLoop EndIf EndLoop Proof: The condition that LT r ∈ Im Ψ is equivalent to the existence of an rN ∈ {1, t2 , . . . , tl }R[y] that is equal to m modulo IN . Since the term order favors monomials without xi ’s and with lowest-degree ti ’s, if such a form exists it is N the output of the normal form NFΨ r (m). Correctness follows from the invariant f = r + Ψ α, and the fact that LM r decreases implies termination, using the well-orderedness of . The analogue of Buchberger’s algorithm If the basis ({fi }, {gi }) deﬁning the map Ψ , is not a standard basis, that is NFΨ r (Ψ si ) = 0 for some si , it may be turned into one by adding elements. There are two possibilities: Either the binomial si is of the form ej (y α − y β ), or it is of the more general form ej y α − ek y β with j = k. Syzygies of the ﬁrst form will not occur if {gi } is a standard subalgebra basis to start with (see remark 6.27). Using the normal form of syzygies of the second form, new elements are found and added to the {fi }, that increase Im Ψ but leave Im Ψ invariant. 6.4.5 Left-Right tangent space In Sect. 3.2.3 the codimension of the tangent space to the orbit of a map under left-right transformations was shown to be equal to the codimension of (6.13)

r TE = J + {1, f1 , f2 }R[[H, H2 ]] ⊂ R.

Here R is the ring of formal power series R[[ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ, χ]], J is an ideal, and f1 , f2 , H, H2 are all elements of R. The ﬁrst problem to solve is: How to compute the codimension of T , and ﬁnd elements in R complementing it. The second problem is: Given an arbitrary f ∈ R, write it explicitly as a sum of an element of T and a linear combination of the complementing elements. The result of this latter procedure can be used to build explicit reparametrizations connecting an arbitrary deformation to a universal one. The situation is analogous to the case of unfoldings of functions under righttransformations. There the tangent space was an ideal, the procedure to ﬁnd the codimension and complementing elements was Buchberger’s algorithm (for standard bases), and the normal form procedure computed the required representation for arbitrary functions f , which the algorithm of Kas and Schlessinger used to compute reparametrizations. The space of equation (6.13) is of the following general form: (6.14)

h1 , . . . , hk + {f1 , . . . , fl }R[[g1 , . . . , gm ]].

Spaces of this form are the image of Ψ in Fig. 6.7, except that for simplicity we here use the polynomial ring R = R[x] as a base ring, instead of the ring of formal

6. Gr¨ obner bases and Standard bases

Fig. 6.7

123

LR-tangent space diagram

power series R[[x]]. In the application we use truncated formal power series, but at this stage this would unnecessarily complicate the notation. Note that the discussion below is independent of the term order; indeed, in the polynomial ring the term order may be, but need not be, a well-order. (However, for a reversed well-order, the reduced normal form does not exist; algorithm 6.14 will not terminate in general.) In Fig. 6.7, the maps Ψ and Ψ are deﬁned on elements of the form (xα e1i , 0) and (0, e2i y α ). By linearity, Ψ is deﬁned on all of on all of Rk ⊕ R[y]l . The goal of this section is, ﬁrst of all, to formulate a condition guaranteeing that LM Im Ψ = Im Ψ. If equality holds, the map Ψ is called a standard map, and the triple ({h1 , . . . , hk }, {f1 , . . . , fl }, {g1 , . . . , gm }) is called a standard basis for the “left-right tangent space” (6.14). In what follows, two natural but diﬀerent R[y]-module Generators of ker Ψ k structures on R ⊕ R[y]l will be used. For lack of better names, we call them the (ordinary) R[y]- and monomial R[y]-module structures, and multiplication is deﬁned as follows: yi · (a, b) = (gi a, yi b), yi · (a, b) = (LM(gi )a, yi b).

(ordinary module structure) (monomial module structure)

By Lemma 6.11 the kernel ker Ψ is generated, as a linear vector space, by binomials. Write Ψ1 for the restriction of Ψ to Rk ×{0}, whose image is the ideal hi , and let Ψ2 be the restriction of Ψ to {0} × R[y]l . Then we have the following: Lemma 6.29. The kernel of Ψ is generated, as a linear vector space, by the following three sets of binomials: a) {(xα e1i − cxβ e1j , 0) ∈ ker Ψ1 }1≤i≤j≤k b) {(0 , y α e2i − cy β e2j ) ∈ ker Ψ2 }1≤i≤j≤l c) {(xα e1i , − cy β e2j ) | Ψ1 (xα e1i ) = Ψ2 (cy β e2j )}1≤i≤k, 1≤j≤l Moreover, any binomial in the kernel is in one of these three sets.

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Proof: By Lemma 6.11, ker Ψ is generated by binomials. A binomial in Rk ⊕ R[y]l has both monomials in the ﬁrst component, both in the second, or exactly one in either, corresponding to the three cases of the lemma. The binomials of case (a) generate (as vector space) an R-module. It is generated (as an R-module) by the ideal syzygies given in Lemma 6.15. The binomials of case (b) generate (as a vector space) a monomial R[y]-module. Generators of this object are just the subalgebra-module syzygies, which can be computed by algorithm 6.28. It remains to ﬁnd the binomials of case (c). The linear span of these binomials has a monomial R[y]-module structure. The projection of this module onto its second component, R[y]l , is the monomial R[y]-module Ψ2−1 (LM h1 , . . . , hk ). This module is generated by monomials. Assuming for the moment that we know its monomial generators vi ∈ R[y]l , we can say the following: Lemma 6.30. Let {s1 , . . . , sp } ⊂ Rk be the ideal syzygies of hi as deﬁned in lemma 6.15. Let {b1 , . . . , bq } ⊂ R[y]l , be a binomial standard basis of the submodule ker Ψ2 (the subalgebra-module syzygies). Let v1 , . . . , vr be monomial generators of the submodule Ψ2−1 (LM h1 , . . . , hk ) ⊆ R[y]l . Let < on Rd ⊕ R[y] be a reﬁnement of the term-order on R, such that if m ∈ R[y] and m ∈ Rd and m − m ∈ ker Ψ, then m > m . Then, for any m ∈ LM ker Ψ, (at least) one of the following holds: a) m ∈ LM s1 , . . . , LM sp R × {0}, b) m ∈ {0} × LM b1 , . . . , LM bq R[y] , c) m ∈ {0} × v1 , . . . , vr R[y] . Proof: Let m ∈ LM ker Ψ. Then there exists an m < m such that m − m ∈ ker Ψ. This binomial falls into one of the classes (a), (b) or (c) of Lemma 6.29. In case (a), m ∈ LM si × {0} = LM si × {0}, by Lemma 6.18. In case (b), m ∈ {0} × LM bi = {0} × LM bi , since {bi } is a standard submodule basis by hypothesis. In case (c) ﬁnally, m ∈ {0} × R[y]l by the choice of the reﬁned term order. This implies m ∈ LM hi × {0}, hence m ∈ Ψ2−1 LM hi = {0} × vi . Now we can describe ker Ψ completely: Lemma 6.31. Let {s1 , . . . , sp }, {b1 , . . . , bq } and {v1 , . . . , vr } be as in Lemma 6.30. Let w1 , . . . , wr ∈ Rk be monomials such that vi − wi ∈ ker Ψ for all 1 ≤ i ≤ r. (Here vi − wi denotes the element (−wi , vi ) ∈ Rd ⊕ R[y]l .) Then

(6.15)

ker Ψ = s1 , . . . , sp R × {0} + {0} × b1 , . . . , bq R[y] + v1 − w1 , . . . , vr − wr R[y]

where in the last term the monomial R[y]-module structure is used.

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Proof: By Lemma 6.11 it is enough to check that every binomial in ker Ψ lies in the right-hand-side of (6.15). So let m − m be any binomial in ker Ψ, and suppose m > m . If m − m is an element of the sets (a) or (b) of Lemma 6.29, then it is an element of si R × {0} or {0} × bi R[y] respectively, since {si } and {bi } generate the corresponding submodules. If m − m is in set (c), then by Lemma 6.30(c), m ∈ {0} × vi R[y] , say m = y α vi . Then (m −m ) −y α (vi −wi ) is in set (b), and these elements are in the right-hand-side of (6.15) as was already shown. Standard bases for left-right tangent spaces In order to formulate the theorem, we now introduce the map Φ. As in previous cases, the image of Φ will be the kernel of Ψ , if suitable conditions are met. Recall that Ψ1 is the restriction of Ψ to Rk × {0}. Deﬁnition 6.32. Let {s1 , . . . , sp }, {b1 , . . . , bq }, {v1 − w1 , . . . , vr − wr } be as in Lemma 6.31. Let 1i be canonical basis vectors of Rp , let 2i be those of R[y]q and 3i those of R[y]r . Suppose both Ψ and Ψ1 have the normal form property, and let NFΨ , NFΨ1 be normal forms. Then Φ is deﬁned as follows: Φ : Rp ⊕ R[y]q ⊕ R[y]r xα 1i y β 2i y β 3i

→ Rk ⊕ R[y]l α α 1 → NFΨ (i = 1 . . . p) α (Ψ1 si ), 0 (x sβi , 0) − x → 0, y bi − y β NFΨ (Ψ (0, b )) (i = 1 . . . q) i α y β (vi − wi ) − y β NFΨ → (Ψ (v − w )) (i = 1 . . . r) i i α

Wherever appropriate, multiplication is according to the ordinary R[y]-module structure. 1 The deﬁnition of Φ on Rp × {0} × {0} uses the normal form NFΨ α instead of Ψ k NFα , since the latter is not guaranteed to map into R × {0}, and only on that subset can we use the R-module structure, instead of the coarser structure of an R[y]-module. Extending the ordinary R[y]-module structure in the obvious way to Rp ⊕ R[y]q ⊕R[y]r , the map Φ becomes an ordinary R[y]-module homomorphism. The map Ψ is deﬁned as usual, by setting Ψm := LM Ψ m for monomials, and extending it linearly. Then, similarly extending the monomial R[y]-module structure a monomial R[y]-module homomorphism. to Rp ⊕ R[y]q ⊕ R[y]r , makes Φ

Theorem 6.33. Let {si } ⊂ Rk , {bi } ⊂ R[y]l and {vi − wi } ⊂ Rk ⊕ R[y]l be as in Lemma 6.31. Let Φ be deﬁned as above. Suppose that 1 1. NFΨ r (Ψ1 si ) = 0, Ψ 2. NFr (Ψ (0, bi )) = 0, 3. NFΨ r (Ψ (vi − wi )) = 0.

Then:

(i = 1 . . . p) (i = 1 . . . q) (i = 1 . . . r)

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Fig. 6.8

The full LR-tangent space diagram

a) The triple ({h1 , . . . , hk }, {f1 , . . . , fl }, {g1 , . . . , gm }) forms a standard basis for Im Ψ = h1 , . . . , hk R + {f1 , . . . , fl }R[g1 , . . . , gm ]. b) The map Φ is a standard map, and Im Φ = ker Ψ . Proof: Assumptions 1 to 3, together with the deﬁnition of Φ as an ordinary R[y]-module homomorphism, imply that Im Φ ⊆ ker Ψ . By Lemma 6.12 applied to Ψ and Ψ1 and their corresponding normal forms, we ﬁnd the following: LM Φxα 1i = LM(xα si , 0) LM Φy β 2i = LM(0, y β bi ) LM Φy β 3i = LM y β (vi − wi ) = LM y β vi ⊇ LM ker Ψ. Using Lemma 6.31 it follows that Im Φ The map Φ has the normal form property, because the term orders involved are well-orders. The standard map theorem 6.10 applies, from which the results = LM Im Φ follow immediately. The statement Im Ψ = Im Φ = ker Ψ and Im Φ LM Im Ψ means that the triple ({hi }, {fi }, {gi }) forms a standard basis for Im Ψ . This completes the proof. 1 Implementing the criterion The map NFΨ of Theorem 6.33 is just the r normal form algorithm 6.2 for ideals. The algorithm that computes NFΨ r is the ‘union’ of algorithm 6.28 for modules over subalgebras, and algorithm 6.2: For each leading term, try to write it as an ideal element and, when that fails, try to write it as an element of the subalgebra-module. In sections 6.4.1 and 6.4.4 it is explained how to compute syzygies of the ﬁrst and second kind, the si and bi of Theorem 6.33. We now assume that {h1 , . . . , hk } is already a standard ideal basis. This means that the Ψ1 si reduce to zero so that we can forget about syzygies of the ﬁrst kind. It remains to ﬁnd generators vi of the R[y]-module Ψ2−1 (LM h1 , . . . , hk ). Using the notation of section 6.4.4, this submodule is generated by the monomials in IN ∪ {LM h1 , . . . , LM hk } intersected with {1, t2 , . . . , tl }R[y] (here we use that {h1 , . . . , hk } is a standard

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basis). A possible line of attack is therefore: Compute generators of the largest monomial ideal contained in IN ∪ {LM h1 , . . . , LM hk } ∩ R[t, y] (which is automatically a Gr¨ obner basis), and select the elements in {1, t2 , . . . , tl }R[y]. With the proper term order, this amounts to one Gr¨ obner basis calculation, and one ‘inverse’ Gr¨ obner basis calculation. More precisely, this is the algorithm: Algorithm 6.34. (Computing syzygies vi − wi of the third kind) Input: A basis G for the ideal IN (see Prop. 6.26), a term order with {yi } {ti } {xi } which is graded in the ti , a map Ψ with Ψ e21 = f1 = 1, and such obner basis. that {Ψ e11 , . . . , Ψ e1k } = {h1 , . . . , hk } is a Gr¨ Output: Generators v1 , . . . , vr of the monomial ideal Ψ2−1 (LM h1 , . . . , LM hk ), corresponding elements w1 , . . . , wr ∈ Rk with Ψ2 vi = Ψ1 wi . Algorithm: Compute Gr¨ obner basis G for G ∪ {LM h1 , . . . , LM hk } with respect to . Compute G = G ∩ {1, t2 , . . . , tl }R[y] Find basis M of largest monomial subideal contained in G ⊆ R[t, y] M ← M ∩ {1, t2 , . . . , tl }R[y] and label the elements v1 , v2 , . . . , vr For i = 1, . . . , r, do the following: Find m ∈ R[x] and j such that Ψ2 vi = m LM hj wi ← me1j EndFor Proof: By the choice of term order , the elements in B ∩ {1, t2 , . . . , tl }R[y] generate B ∩ {1, t2 , . . . , tl }R[y], for any Gr¨ obner basis B, hence the output {v1 , . . . , vr } is indeed a basis for the largest monomial ideal contained in IN ∩ {1, t2 , . . . , tl }R[y]. The body of the ﬁnal For-loop is simply the normal form algorithm NFΨ1 for ideals written down explicitly – it takes only one pass for monomials. Remark 6.35. (A shortcut) If the basis G is a Gr¨ obner basis for IN to start with, the computation of G is a bit easier: Only syzygies of monomials and binomials need to be checked. The result is a monomial, and its reduction is either zero or a single new monomial. To compute the basis M in line 3 of above algorithm, note that a monomial is in G if and only if it is reduced to 0 by the ordinary normal form algorithm 6.2. The basis G consists of binomials and monomials only (because the Spolynomial that occur are either monomials or binomials; see [ES96, Prop. 1.1]). A reduction by a binomial results in a (nonzero) monomial, whereas a monomial reduction results in 0. Therefore, a basis for the largest monomial ideal contained in M can be found by running the normal form algorithm backwards via the binomials, starting from the monomials in G : Algorithm 6.36. (Finding largest monomial subideal) Input: A Gr¨ obner basis G consisting of monomials and binomials only.

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Output: A (Gr¨ obner) basis M for largest monomial ideal M ⊂ G Algorithm: M ← all monomials of G B ← all binomials of G For all monomials xα in M , do the following: For all binomials xβ − xγ in B (where xβ > xγ ) do + If xβ+(α−γ) ∈ / M , then Add it to M EndIf EndFor EndFor Output M Here α+ , where α is a vector in Zn , denotes the vector α with all negative entries replaced by zeroes. Proof: Let m be a monomial in G. We shall prove: If m can be reduced via a g ∈ G to m and m ∈ M , then m ∈ M . Since G is a Gr¨ obner basis a ﬁnite number of reduction steps yield a monomial m which is a multiple of some monomial in G. Since M contains all monomials of G this means that that m ∈ M , hence by ‘backward induction’ m ∈ M . Write g = xβ −xγ and m = xδ , and assume that LM g = xβ |m = xδ , then the reduct of m by g is xδ−β+γ . Assume that this monomial is in M , say xα |xδ−β+γ + with xα ∈ M . Using xβ |xδ it follows that x(α−γ) |xδ−β , and after multiplication + + with xβ this becomes xβ+(α−γ) |xδ . By the algorithm, xβ+(α−γ) ∈ M , hence xδ ∈ M . Remark 6.37. (Eﬃciency) When a monomial m is added to M , it may render other monomials in M redundant, namely those that are multiples of m. The algorithm becomes a little more eﬃcient if these are removed.

6.5 The ring of formal power series The analogue of a Gr¨ obner basis, in the ring of formal power series, is commonly called a standard basis.3 Introduced in 1964 by Hironaka [Hir64], it preceded the notion of Gr¨ obner basis, which was introduced by Buchberger in his thesis of 1965, see [Buc65]. Meanwhile it has been shown (see e.g. [Bec90a, Bec90b, Bec93]) that concepts in one context have close analogues in the other. The aim of this section is to show that the standard basis criteria developed above, for various subsets of the polynomial ring, have similar analogues in the ring of formal power series. Because of the modular (or ‘object-oriented’) set-up, we only have to show that the normal form property continues to hold. 3

In this chapter we call such bases standard ideal bases, and use the term standard basis in the more general sense explained before.

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6.5.1 Three approaches A polynomial has ﬁnitely many terms, so whatever term order is chosen, the leading or highest term is well-deﬁned. This is not so for formal power series. In that case, to guarantee existence of the leading term, the term order should be a reversed well-order, that is, every nonempty subset of terms should have a highest term. In this section we suppose that the term order is a reversed well-order. Unless the number of monomials is ﬁnite, a reversed well-order is not a wellorder, and the normal form algorithm 6.2 will not terminate in general, so existence of a normal form becomes an issue. There are diﬀerent ways to approach this problem. Instead of looking at all ideals, one can restrict to ideals generated by polynomials (cf. [CLO98, p. 165]). It turns out that such ideals admit standard bases consisting of rational functions. Moreover a suitable normal form algorithm exists, acting within the ring of rational functions. This algorithm is known as the Mora normal form, see [Mor82, Mor85], and leads to the theory of standard ideal bases in local rings, see [GP88]. Another way of dealing with the inﬁniteness is to truncate. This makes the set of monomials ﬁnite, and hence recovers the well-ordering property of the term order. Although Mora’s approach is more elegant than the method of truncation, the former only seems to work in the context of ideals. For our intended application we also need subalgebra bases, which are inﬁnite in general, so that we need to truncate anyhow. See section 6.5.3 for more details. A third approach is to let go of the algorithmic character altogether, and deﬁne the normal form map inductively. In this way we recover Hironaka’s result that every ideal has a standard basis, see also [Bec93]. This is the subject of the next section. 6.5.2 Existence of a normal form for formal power series In order to prove that a normal form map exists, we need some lemmas. We assume the term order is a reversed well-order. Lemma 6.38. Let u = 1 be a monomial, and assume u has no successor. Then there exists a strictly decreasing sequence of monomials ui , i ∈ N such that u = inf i∈N ui . Proof: The set of monomials is countable. Let wi be a counting of them, without duplicates, and assume w0 = 1. Set u0 = 1 and deﬁne ui+1 := wj

with j := min{k|ui > wk > u}.

(Note that j > i.) Each ui+1 is well-deﬁned since otherwise ui would be a successor of u. It is clear that {ui } is strictly decreasing. To prove that u = inf i ui , let wn be any monomial larger than u, then since un+1 = wj for some j > n, this implies that un ≤ wn by deﬁnition of un+1 .

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6.5. The ring of formal power series

The topology on the ring of formal power series R = R[[x]] is that of termwise convergence. This implies that a sum of terms i ti converges if |ti | → ∞ as i → ∞. Here | · | is the total degree: |cxα | := α1 + · · · + αn . Given a map Ψ : M → R, we extend the total degree function to M by setting |m| := |Ψm|. Now we can state the result: Proposition 6.39. Let Ψ : M → R be a linear map, such that the associated monomial map Ψ is well-deﬁned. Assume further that M has the topology of term-wise convergence, and that Ψ is continuous. Then Ψ has the normal form property. Remark 6.40. By the assumption that Ψ is well-deﬁned we mean that Ψ m = 0 for monomials m. Continuity of Ψ is equivalent to the statement that for any monomial m ∈ R there are only ﬁnitely many monomials m such that LM Ψ m = m. For the proof we need two more results. Lemma 6.41. Let ui be a strictly decreasing sequence of monomials. Then |ui | → ∞ as i → ∞. Proof: Assume it does not, then there is an inﬁnite, strictly decreasing subsequence u ˆi with |ˆ ui | =constant, but there are only ﬁnitely many monomials with a given total degree. Theorem 6.42. (Transﬁnite induction) Let P be a property of elements of a set T , and let T be well-ordered. Suppose that for all u ∈ T we have that if P (u ) holds for all u < u, then P (u) holds. (In particular, P (1) is true, where 1 is the smallest element of T .) Then P (u) holds for all u ∈ T . Proof: [Wae60, p. 17] Suppose the set S := {u ∈ T |P (u) does not hold} is non-empty. By well-orderedness it has a smallest element, say u; in other words P (u ) holds for every u < u. This implies, by assumption, that P (u) holds, a contradiction. Proof of Proposition 6.39: Let f ∈ R be given. Let T be the set of monomials of R, with the element −∞ adjoined, which is supposed to be smaller than any monomial. Let P (u), with u ∈ T , denote the following property:   αu ∈ M and ru ∈ R are well-deﬁned, P (u) ⇔ Ψ αu + ru = f,   / Im Ψ or LM ru ≤ u. ru = 0 or LM ru ∈ Assume P (u ) holds for all u > u. We show that P (u) also holds. If u = 1, the largest element, then set α1 := 0 and r1 := f , and P (1) holds. / Im Ψ Suppose u has a successor v > u, then P (v) holds. If rv = 0 or LM rv ∈ or LM rv = v, then set ru := rv and αu := αv , making P (u) true. If not, then

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LM rv ∈ Im Ψ, say LT rv = Ψtv . Deﬁne αu := αv + tv and ru := rv − Ψ tv , and P (u) holds. So suppose u < 1 has no successor, then by Lemma 6.38 a decreasing sequence ui of monomials exists, with inﬁmum u. (This is also true if u = −∞.) Applying Lemma 6.41 we ﬁnd |ui | → ∞. From the way the rui are constructed, using continuity of Ψ , this implies that the sequence rui converges. By deﬁnition of total degree on M , also |tui | → ∞. Since M has the topology of term-wise convergence, this implies convergence of αui . Deﬁne ru := limi→∞ rui and αu := limi→∞ αui . Again using continuity of Ψ we ﬁnd Ψ αu + ru = limi→∞ (Ψ αui + rui ) = f . If rui does not become constant from some i on, we have either ru = 0 or LM ru ≤ v for all v > u. Since u has no successor the latter inequality implies LM ru ≤ u. This shows that (∀u > u : P (u )) ⇒ P (u). For the application of Theorem 6.42, reverse the ordering of the monomials. Then the order becomes a well-order (the smallest element of any set of monomials {ti } is LM ti ). The conclusion is that P (u) holds for all u ∈ T , in particular for u = −∞. Deﬁne NFΨ (f ) := (α−∞ , r−∞ ), then P (−∞) implies that this is a normal form for Ψ . Example: Standard ideal- and subalgebra-bases The statement and proofs of the theorems on standard ideal bases (Gr¨ obner bases) and standard subideal bases in polynomial rings, remain unchanged in the present setting of formal power series. The term order is such that 1 is the largest monomial. Again the order is taken to be multiplicative, in the sense that m1 < m2 implies mm1 < mm2 for any monomial m for which multiplication is deﬁned. Only the normal form algorithm should be replaced by the normal form map, and the word “Gr¨ obner basis” should be replaced by “standard ideal basis”. We refer to sections 6.4.1 and 6.4.3 for details. 6.5.3 Truncated formal power series In actual computations it is not possible to work with objects that require and inﬁnite amount of data for their description. In particular, we cannot do computations with formal power series. In Sect. 6.5 two solutions to this problem were mentioned, namely restricting to rational functions, and truncating. In this section we describe the latter in more detail. How to truncate Let us suppose that a map Ψ : M → R has been ﬁxed, as well as a monomial order on R, and a compatible order on M . A natural and general way of truncating is to restrict to some ﬁnite vector space generated by monomials. In this section we give a condition on this vector space R that makes the truncation “nicely behaved”. The philosophy is as follows. Given spaces M and R , we restrict Ψ : M → R to a map between ﬁnite dimensional vector spaces Ψ : M → R , by setting Ψ := πR Ψ |M , where πR is the canonical projection to R . Then we want that the information contained in Ψ is also contained in the restriction of Ψ , insofar as

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6.5. The ring of formal power series

it pertains to the monomials in M and R . In more precise terms, the following seem natural conditions: (1) Im Ψ = πR Im Ψ, (2) (Ψ ) = (Ψ) , (3) Im Ψ = πR Im Ψ, (4) Ψ is a standard map ⇒ Ψ is a standard map. It is diﬃcult to see what the weakest condition on M and R is, given a map Ψ , such that these conditions are fulﬁlled. However, a natural condition on R and M exists that ensures conditions (1) to (4) above, namely (6.16)

R := {m|m a monomial,m > m }, M := {m ∈ M |m a monomial, Ψm ∈ R },

for some monomial m . The form of R implies that the maps LM and πR commute on R. This in turn implies (2) and (4). The form of M then implies (1) and (3). In practice the term orders are multiplicative, and a set R is ﬁnite-dimensional and nontrivial only if the term order is a graded term order. For instance, for pure lexicographic orders the set (6.16) either is inﬁnite-dimensional, or does not contain all variables. The vector space M is of the same form as R , because of the compatibility of the term orders. There is another way of describing the truncation. In the case that R is a ring, which includes all of our applications, the span of B is the quotient of R by an ideal, because of the multiplicative property of the term order. This ideal is called the truncation ideal. Generators of this ideal include m , but usually it is necessary to include more generators. The truncation ideal is never used in this work. Normal form For ﬁnite sets of monomials, a total order is always a well-order. Therefore algorithms 6.13 and 6.14 terminate, which proves that the normal form property holds in the context of truncated power series, and reduced normal forms exist.

7 Computing normalizing transformations

Given a singularity and a versal deformation of it, an arbitrary deformation can be induced from the versal one by a smooth transformation of coordinates and parameters. Kas and Schlessinger [KS72] developed an algorithm to compute this transformation, for deformations of functions. It requires a procedure to solve the inﬁnitesimal stability equation, which is provided by the normal form map NFΨ related to a standard ideal basis (see Chap. 6). A similar approach works for the case of deformations of maps, involving left-right tangent spaces instead of ideals.

7.1 Introduction In Chap. 5 we quoted a result from Mather that may be summarized as follows: A deformation is versal if it is transversal. The condition of transversality is an inﬁnitesimal condition. It is expressed in terms of the tangent space to the orbit of the undeformed singularity, under the group of transformations considered. If this tangent space has ﬁnite codimension (in the appropriate function space), and moreover the deformation directions span the quotient space, the deformation is called transversal. In contrast, versality is a local condition. A deformation is versal if it can be connected to an arbitrary deformation of the same singularity through smooth reparametrizations and coordinate transformations, on a full neighborhood in parameter- and phase-space. This local property immediately implies the inﬁnitesimal condition. Mather’s reverse implication however is a deep result. The algorithm of Kas and Schlessinger may be viewed as a ﬁrst step in the direction of Mather’s result. From the inﬁnitesimal or linearized condition, it gives a method of computing the formal power series solution of the required reparametrization and coordinate transformation. Mather’s result implies existence of such a formal solution, but gives no algorithm to compute it. On the other hand, the existence of a formal solution does not imply existence of a smooth solution in any neighborhood, the existence proof of which involves the Mather-Malgrange preparation theorem.

H. Broer, I. Hoveijn, G. Lunter, and G. Vegter: LNM 1806, pp. 133–151, 2003. c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003

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7.2. Deformations of functions

The main ingredient in Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm is a procedure to express any (truncated) formal power series into a ‘tangent’ part, and a ‘transversal’ part in some ﬁxed ﬁnite-dimensional vector space with a dimension equal to the codimension of the singularity’s tangent space. For deformations of functions under right-equivalences, this tangent space is an ideal. Given a standard basis of the ideal, the division algorithm is precisely such a procedure. It splits a truncated formal power series in an element of the ideal, the tangent part, plus a unique rest-term playing the role of the ‘transversal’ part. In the case of maps, and left-right transformations, the tangent space has a diﬀerent structure, but essentially the same ideas apply. The structure of the tangent space (for both cases) is described in Chap. 5. The machinery for computing standard bases for ideals and left-right tangent spaces is described in Chap. 6. The current chapter puts these results together and describes in detail how these are used to compute formal reparametrizations and coordinate transformations, up to any desired order. Section 7.2 deals with the relatively easy case of functions orbiting under the group of right-transformations. Section 7.3 deals with maps under left-right transformations. Base ring and formal power series Some of the results in this chapter are formulated in terms of the ring En of germs of functions Rn → R. Later we also use rings of formal power series R[[x]]. Both are abstractions of the ring used for actual computations, namely truncated formal power series (over a computable ﬁeld; see also the remarks in Chap. 6). To avoid excessive notation, we shall in this chapter not explicitly use this truncated ring. As long as a graded term ordering is used, all statement for the full power series ring continue to hold in the truncated setting. See also Sect. 6.5.3.

7.2 Deformations of functions The problem dealt with in Sect. 2.2.6 can be stated as follows. Suppose a deformation G(x, v) of a function f (x) = G(x, 0) is given. Here x ∈ Rn can be thought of as phase space variables, and v ∈ Rc as (small) parameters. Now consider the following two problems: 1. Produce a universal deformation F (x, u) : Rn+d → R of f (x), and 2. Compute a reparametrization h : Rq → Rd and coordinate transformation φ : Rn+q → Rn inducing G from F . (See Sect. 5.3 for deﬁnitions.) One could say that (1) gives a catalog of possible bifurcations, and (2) gives an index into this catalog for the given family G. The ﬁrst problem amounts to computing a basis for the vector space En /J(f ), where En is the ring of germs of functions on Rn , and J(f ) is the Jacobian ideal, ∂f ∂f ,..., . J(f ) = ∂x1 ∂xn En

7. Computing normalizing transformations

135

The hypothesis that such a (ﬁnite) basis for En /J(f ) exists is equivalent to requiring that J(f ) has ﬁnite codimension. Under this hypothesis, the basis elements can be computed by reducing to truncated formal power series. Chapter 6 describes algorithms to compute an analogue of Gr¨ obner bases for ideals in truncated formal power series rings. Using these bases, called standard bases, generators of En /J(f ) are easily found. Suppose t1 (x), . . . , td (x) ∈ En are such generators. Another way of putting this is to say that the equation (7.1)

g(x) = α1 (x)

∂f ∂f + · · · + αn (x) + µ1 t1 (x) + · · · + µd td (x) ∂x1 ∂xn

has a solution in αi ∈ En and µi ∈ R, for arbitrary g ∈ En . Equation (7.1) is called the inﬁnitesimal stability equation. Problem 2 is reduced, by an algorithm of Kas and Schlessinger [KS72], to solving (7.1) a number of times, in the ring of truncated formal power series. The standard basis of J(f ) is again used to compute the αi and µi eﬃciently. We now go into a bit more detail. 7.2.1 Finding a universal deformation We start by recalling a few results and deﬁnitions from Chap. 5, in particular Sect. 5.3.1. A deformation F (of f ) is called versal if any other deformation G (of f ) can be induced from it, and universal if it has the minimum possible number of deformation parameters. It is called transversal if the ‘initial speeds’ ∂F ∂F (see [Mar82]) or ‘deformation directions’ { ∂u |u=0 , . . . , ∂u |u=0 } complement the 1 d tangent space Tf = J(f ). By theorem 5.5, a deformation F is versal if and only if it is transversal, reducing the problem of ﬁnding a universal deformation of f to ﬁnding complements of the ideal J(f ) as a vector subspace of En . Proposition 7.1. Let f ∈ En be a germ of some function, and suppose that J(f ) ⊇ mp , where m is the maximal ideal of En . Let < be a term order with respect to which mp is a truncation ideal. Let {h1 , . . . , hk } be a standard basis w.r.t. < of the projection of J(f ) in the ring of truncated formal power series. Then the following monomials forms a basis for En /J(f ): {m : m ∈ / LM h1 , . . . , LM hk }. Suppose the monomials are labeled t1 , . . . , td , then a universal deformation of f is given by (7.2)

F (x, u) = f (x) + u1 t1 (x) + . . . + ud td (x).

Proof: Because {h1 , . . . , hk } is a standard basis, the ti complement LM(J(f )+ mp ). Since En /mp is ﬁnite dimensional, this implies that R{t1 , . . . , td } + J(f ) + mp = En , and using J(f ) ⊇ mp also R{t1 , . . . , td } + J(f ) = En , proving the ﬁrst

136

7.2. Deformations of functions

statement. Versality of F follows from theorem 5.5. If one from {t1 , . . . , td } is removed, the remaining ones do not complement J(f ), so F cannot be versal. This proves universality. In practice the truncation-order p may not be known beforehand. One chooses a large p and checks afterwards whether mp−1 ⊆ J(f ). 7.2.2 The algorithm of Kas and Schlessinger We now address the question of computing the transformations that induce arbitrary deformations from a universal one. Suppose F (x, u) : Rn+d → R and G(x, v) : Rn+c → R are deformations of f , and suppose F is (uni)versal. The goal is to ﬁnd a parameter-dependent coordinate transformation φ : Rn+q → Rn , and a reparametrization h : Rq → Rd , satisfying φ(x, 0) = x, (7.3)

h(0) = 0, G(x, v) = F ( φ(x, v), h(v) ).

Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm [KS72] accomplishes this, in the ring of truncated formal power series. The idea is to expand φ and h with respect to the total degree of the parameters v, and solve iteratively for increasing order in v. The details are as follows. Deﬁne φi (x, v), h(v) := hi (v), φ(x, v) := i≥0

i≥0

where φi and hi (v) are homogeneous of degree i in v, and denote the partial sums up to total order p in v by superscripting with the degree: φp (x, v) :=

p i=0

φi (x, v),

hp (v) :=

p

hi (v).

i=0

Now assume that (7.3) has been solved up to order p, that is, (7.4)

G(x, v) = F (φp (x, v), hp (v)) + O(v p+1 ) + O(xm )

(where it is supposed that we truncate at order m in x). This equation holds for p = 0 if we deﬁne φ0 (x, v) = x and h0 (v) = 0, since by assumption F (x, 0) = G(x, 0) = f (x). To solve (7.3) up to order p + 1 we add (p + 1)st order terms in v: F (φp+1 , hp+1 ) = F (φp + φp+1 , hp + hp+1 ) =

F (φp , hp ) + Dx F (φp , hp ) · φp+1 + Du F (φp , hp ) · hp+1 + O (φp+1 + hp+1 )2 = F (φp , hp ) + Dx f (φp , hp ) · φp+1 + Dv F (φp , hp )|v=0 · hp+1 + O(v p+2 ).

7. Computing normalizing transformations

137

To obtain the last equality we used the estimates φp (x, v) = x+O(v), φp+1 (x, v) = O(v p+1 ), hp (v) = O(v) and G(x, v) = f (x) + O(v). Now we plug in the explicit form (7.2) for F . Writing hp+1,k and φp+1,k for the k-th components of the p + 1st order terms of h and φ, the equation to be solved for (7.3) to hold up to order p + 1 is (7.5) G(x, v) − F ( φp (x, v), hp (v) ) = n

φp+1,k (x, v)

k=1

d ∂f + hp+1,k (v)tk (x) + O(v p+2 ). ∂xk k=1

By (7.4), the left-hand-side does not contain terms of order less than p + 1. Equation (7.5) can be solved by equating coeﬃcients of terms v σ left and right, where |σ| = σ1 + · · · + σd = p + 1. For each term v σ we obtain an equation of the form (7.1), the inﬁnitesimal stability equation. Since F (x, v) is supposed to be a universal deformation, these equations can be solved. This proves existence of a formal power series for φ and h (or a solution up to any desired order in x and v) solving (7.3). The algorithm of Kas and Schlessinger is a recipe for computing φ and h, given a procedure for solving (7.1). In practice it is important to be able to solve (7.1) eﬃciently, as for every term v σ one such equation is encountered. A procedure that meets this criterion is described in the next section. Remark 7.2. (Parameters vs. phase variables) It is important to note that the transformations obtained converge as power series in the parameters v, and not necessarily in the phase variables x. Even if a power series solution in x exists (i.e., no zeroth-order terms are needed), then Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm may not ﬁnd it, because of the non-uniqueness of the solutions αi (x) in (7.1). 7.2.3 Solving the inﬁnitesimal stability equation The problem of computing the transformations inducing a given deformation from a versal one is now reduced to solving (7.5), i.e., (7.1), a number of times. We re-state the problem slightly using the notation of Chap. 6. Write hi := ∂f ∂xi , suppose h1 , . . . , hn has ﬁnite codimension, and let t1 , . . . , td denote the monomials not in LM h1 , . . . , hn . Then hi + R{t1 , . . . , td } = En , in other words, for any g ∈ En it is possible to solve (7.6)

g=

n i=1

αi hi +

d

µi ti

i=1

for αi ∈ En and µi ∈ R. The procedure is as follows. First add new elements hi ∈ h1 , . . . , hn (i > n) to the ideal basis, using Buchberger’s algorithm (see Sect. 6.2.4), until the basis {h1 , . . . , hn , hn+1 , . . . , hk } is a standard basis. The output r of the reduced

138

7.2. Deformations of functions

normal form algorithm 6.14 of Sect. 6.3.7 is an element of R{t1 , . . . , td }, that is, d can be written as r = i=1 µi ti . Then, the following equation holds: g=

k i=1

αi hi +

d

µi ti ,

i=1

where αi are also output of the reduced normal form algorithm. This equation is, apart from the upper limit in the ﬁrst sum, of the form (7.6). So if only the numbers µi are required, this solves our problem. If it is also required to express the ideal member g − r in terms of the h1 , . . . , hn , we can use the extended Buchberger algorithm. To write down this algorithm, we need some notation: Deﬁnition 7.3. k a) Mk := i=1 En ei , the free k-dimensional En -module, b) Ψk : Mk → En : f ei → f hi (i = 1, . . . , k), an En -module homomorphism, c) Θk : Mk → Mn , an En -module homomorphism. Here the ei are just symbols, and the hi are elements of En . The algorithm below also uses the notation sij for the element of Mk (with k ≥ i, j) whose Ψ -image k is the S-polynomial of hi and hj . Note that NFΨ α maps En into Mk . With these notations, the algorithm is the following: Algorithm 7.4. (Extended Buchberger algorithm) Input: h1 , . . . , hn ∈ En Output: h1 , . . . , hk ∈ En and an En -module homomorphism Θ : Mk → Mn , with the properties: 1. {h1 , . . . , hk } is a standard basis for h1 , . . . , hn . 2. Ψk α = Ψn Θα, for any α ∈ Mk . Algorithm: k←n Θk ← identity map k While NFΨ r (Ψk sij ) = 0 for any 1 ≤ i < j ≤ k, do: k hk+1 ← NFΨ r (Ψk sij ) Θk+1 |Mk ← Θk , and k Θk+1 ek+1 := Θk sij − NFΨ α (Ψk sij ) k ←k+1 EndWhile Θ ← Θk In an implementation, the map Θ is easily represented by an n × k matrix of elements of En . Proof: For the proof of termination, and of the fact that {h1 , . . . , hk } forms a standard basis, see the proof of algorithm 6.17 in Sect. 6.4.1. To prove that

7. Computing normalizing transformations

139

Ψk α = Ψn Θk α for all k, we proceed by induction. The assertion is trivial for k = n, so assume it holds for some k. The deﬁnition of Θk+1 assures that it maps into Mn . By hypothesis, Ψk+1 |Mk = Ψn Θk+1 |Mk , so it remains to show that Ψn Θk+1 ek+1 = Ψk+1 ek+1 : k (7.7) Ψn Θk+1 ek+1 = Ψn Θk sij − NFΨ = α (Ψk sij ) Ψk Ψk sij − NFα (Ψk sij ) = k Ψk sij − Ψk NFΨ α (Ψk sij ) = k NFΨ r (Ψk sij ) = hk+1 = Ψk+1 ek+1 ,

where in the ﬁrst step the deﬁnition of Θk+1 , and in the second step the induction hypothesis was used. With the map Θ, solving the inﬁnitesimal stability equation (7.6) becomes Ψ trivial: Given g ∈ En , compute α := Θ NFΨ α (g) and µ := NFr (g), then write them in the form α = α1 e1 + · · · + αn en ,

µ = µ1 t1 + · · · + µd td ,

with αi ∈ En and µi ∈ R. Now α1 , . . . , αn , µ1 , . . . , µd solve (7.6). 7.2.4 Application: The hyperbolic umbilic Here we apply the method of the previous section to the singular germ x(x2 + y 2 ). This singularity is commonly known as the hyperbolic umbilic, or D4+ in Arnol’d’s classiﬁcation [Arn81]. For this singularity, the general method above is like using a mirror to look at your bangles.1 However, the underlying idea is the same as in the case of left-right tangent spaces, dealt with in Sect. 7.3, but without the technical complications, so it also serves as an introduction to the next section. 2 2 Let f = x(x2 + y 2 ), then the generators of J(f ) are h1 := ∂f ∂x = 3x + y and ∂f h2 := ∂y = 2xy. Take a graded term order with y < x, then the only syzygy is s12 = 2ye1 − 3xe2 , with Ψ s12 = 2y 3 , which is a monomial not in LM h1 , LM h2 . 2 Therefore NFΨ α (Ψ s12 ) = 0 and Θ3 becomes Θ3 ei = ei (i = 1, 2)

and Θ3 e3 = 2ye1 − 3xe2 .

New syzygies are s13 = 2y 3 e1 −3x2 e2 and s23 = y 2 e2 −xe3 , and these are reduced to zero, proving that {3x2 + y 2 , 2xy, 2y 3 } is a standard ideal basis for J(f ). Using algorithm 6.3.7 and the map Θ the inﬁnitesimal stability equation can be solved eﬃciently. 1

Hindi proverb

140

7.3. Deformations of maps

7.3 Deformations of maps This section is the analogue of Sect. 7.2 for the case of deformations of the energy–momentum map, instead of the planar Hamiltonian function. Let F (x, u) : Rn+d → R2 be a deformation of E(x) := F (x, 0). Universality of these deformations is deﬁned with respect to the class of left-right transformations (A, B) :

E → B ◦ E ◦ A,

where A : Rn → Rn and B : R2 → R2 . Suppose that G(x, v) : Rn+c → R2 is any deformation of E. Again there are the two basic problems: Finding a universal deformation F of E, and computing a coordinate transformation connecting it to G. Their solution is also similar in spirit to the function-case. For functions, the tangent space was the Jacobian ideal J(f ). For maps, the algebraic structure of the tangent space is much more involved, and this results in technical complications. The machinery of Chap. 6 helps us out, however. The energy–momentum map E : x → (H, H2 ) which we are interested in, is of a special form. The ﬁrst component is the Hamiltonian function, the second component is its quadratic part. Exploiting this, we arrived in Sect. 3.2.3 at the reduced tangent space: r = J + {1, f1 , f2 }R[[H, H2 ]]. TE

Here the fi are functions related to H and H2 , and J is an ideal whose generators are given by equation (3.9). The ability to write any (truncated) formal power r series as an element of TE plus a rest-term in some ﬁnite dimensional vector space, is crucial to computing the coordinate transformation. 7.3.1 Adaptation of Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm In this section we show how to compute the transformations inducing an arbitrary deformation from a universal one. So suppose F (x, u) : Rn+d → R2 is a universal deformation of E, and let G : Rn+q → R2 be an arbitrary deformation of the same map. We are looking for a left-right transformation (A, B), depending on parameters v ∈ Rq , and a reparametrization h : Rq → Rd , such that A(x, 0) = x, B(y, 0) = y, h(0) = 0, (7.8)

G(x, v) = B

F ( A(x, v), h(v) ), v

= B ◦ F (·, h) ◦ A.

We proceed in the same way as in Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm. Expand A, B and h with respect to the total order in the parameters v, and write

7. Computing normalizing transformations

A(x, v) :=

Ai (x, v),

B(y, v) :=

i≥0

141

Bi (y, v),

h(v) :=

i≥0

hi (v),

i≥0

where Ai , Bi and hi are homogeneous of degree i in v. Denote the partial sums up to and including order p by superscripting with p: Ap (x, v) :=

p

Ai (x, v),

B p (y, v) :=

i=0

p

Bi (y, v),

hp (v) :=

i=0

p

hi (v).

i=0

Assume that Ap , B p and hp solve (7.8) up to order p. This is true for p = 0 if we set A0 (x, v) = x, B 0 (y, v) = y and h0 (v) = 0, since F (x, 0) = G(x, 0) = E(x). To solve (7.8) for the next order p + 1 we add (p + 1)st order terms: B p+1 ◦ F (·, hp+1 ) ◦ Ap+1 = (B p + Bp+1 ) ◦ F (·, hp + hp+1 ) ◦ (Ap + Ap+1 ) = B p ◦ F (·, hp ) ◦ Ap + Bp+1 (F (A0 (x, v), h0 (v)), v) + B 0 (Du F (A0 (x, v), u)|u=0 · hp+1 ) + B 0 (Dx F (A0 (x, v), h0 (v))) · Ap+1 ) + O(|v|p+2 ) = B p ◦ F (·, hp ) ◦ Ap + Bp+1 (E(x), v) + Du F (x, u)|u=0 · hp+1 + Dx E(x) · Ap+1 + O(|v|p+2 ). This expression should be equal to G(x, v) up to (but not including) order p + 2 in v. Since the term B p ◦ F (·, hp ) ◦ Ap is already equal to G(x, v) up to O(|v|p+1 ) terms, the other three terms should account for the remaining terms in v of order p + 1. The resulting equation is (7.9) G(x, v) − B p ◦ F (·, hp ) ◦ Ap =

Bp+1 (E(x), v) +

d

(ti (x), 0)·hp+1,i (v) + αp+1 (x, v)E(x) + O(|v|p+2 ).

i=1

Here we wrote αp+1 for a vector ﬁeld on Rn of order p + 1 in v, and we used that F (x, u) is of the form F (x, u) = E(x) + u1 (t1 (x), 0) + · · · + ud (td (x), 0). Note that (7.9) is an equation of maps to R2 . From this point on, we use two facts that are particular to the application to the energy–momentum map. The ﬁrst is that the projection of the tangent space TE to its second component is surjective, so that deformation terms can be chosen of the form (ti , 0) (see Sect. 3.2.3). The second fact is more of a condition: We do not want to leave the circle-symmetric setting, in which we found ourselves after the Birkhoﬀ procedure; therefore the vector ﬁeld α is required to be circleequivariant.

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7.3. Deformations of maps

Collecting terms of the form v σ of order p + 1, solving (7.9) boils down to solving, given g(x) and E(x) and ti (x), several instances of an equation of the form g(x) = β(E(x)) + α(x)E(x) +

(7.10)

d

(ti (x), 0)µi

i=1

for maps β : R2 → R2 , circle-equivariant vector ﬁelds α, and real numbers µi . From the assumption that F (x, u) = E(x)+ i (ti , 0)ui is a universal deformation of E(x) it follows that this equation has a solution. In Sect. 3.2.3, the tangent space TE is reduced to r TE = J + {1, f1 , f2 }R[[H, H2 ]],

where J = h0 , h1 , h2 . With the results of Sect. 6.4.5 we can ﬁnd functions r t1 , . . . , td complementing TE . More precisely, given an element g ∈ R[[x]], there are a0 , a1 , a2 ∈ R[[x]] and γ0 , γ1 , γ2 ∈ R[[y1 , y2 ]] and µ1 , . . . , µd ∈ R such that (7.11)

g(x) =

2

ai hi + γ0 (H, H2 ) + f1 γ1 (H, H2 ) + f2 γ2 (H, H2 ) +

i=0

d

µi ti .

i=0

We shall refer to equation (7.11) as the inﬁnitesimal stability equation, since it is the equivalent of (7.1) in the current context. Solving this equation is the subject of section 7.3.2 below. A solution to (7.11) translates, reading Sect. 3.2.3 backwards, into a solution for (7.10). This works as follows. For the notation, see Sect. 3.2.3. Suppose the left-hand-side of (7.10) has the form g(x) = ( g1 (x), g2 (x) ) . Note that although at the ﬁrst pass we have g2 (x) ≡ 0, since the second component of the unfolding G(x, v) is constant, this may not be true at subsequent passes. Write (7.12)

g2 (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ) = a0 + ρ1 a1 (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ) + ρ2 a2 (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ) + ψa3 (ρ1 , ρ2 , ψ),

where a0 ∈ R. Using (3.4) or (3.5), we can ﬁnd a vector ﬁeld α such that α H2 = g2 − a0 .

(7.13) In fact, a1 α := q

a2 ∂ ∂ 1 1 ∂ ∂ ρ1 + ρ2 + + pψ + qψ ∂ρ1 2 ∂ψ p ∂ρ2 2 ∂ψ ∂ ∂ 1 p ∂ 1 q p−1 q−1 a3 ψ ρ2 + ρ 1 + ψ + ρ1 ρ2 2q ∂ρ1 2p ∂ρ2 4q 4p ∂ψ

7. Computing normalizing transformations

works. Now deﬁne

143

g := g1 − α H

and suppose ai , γi and µi solve (7.11) for this g. Recall that the ideal generators hi of J correspond to generators wi of the module of circle-equivariant vector ﬁelds that leave H2 invariant: ∂ ∂ ∂ + (p2 ρ2 − q 2 ρ1 )ψ w1 = 2ρ1 ρ2 p −q , ∂ρ1 ∂ρ2 ∂ψ ∂ ∂ ∂ + (p2 ρp−1 −q ρq2 − q 2 ρp1 ρ2q−1 ) w2 = 2ψ p . 1 ∂ρ1 ∂ρ2 ∂ψ The generators of J are all deﬁned in terms of the wi by h1 := w1 H,

h2 := w2 H,

with the exception of h0 , which is the relation. Also recall the deﬁnition of α1 and α2 (see Sect. 3.2.3). These vector ﬁelds obey α1 H2 = H and α2 H2 = H2 , moreover α1 H = −f1 and α2 H = −f2 . Using this, and the solution of (7.11) we deﬁne β1 (y1 , y2 ) := γ0 (y1 , y2 ), β2 (y1 , y2 ) := y1 γ1 (y1 , y2 ) + y2 γ2 (y1 , y2 ) + a0 , α := a1 w1 + a2 w2 + α − γ1 (H, H2 )α1 − γ2 (H, H2 )α2 . We then get αH2 + β2 (H, H2 ) = a1 w1 H2 + a2 w1 H2 + α H2 + a0 = g2 (modulo h0 ) since wi H2 = 0 by deﬁnition of J, and αH + β1 (H, H2 ) = a1 w1 H + a2 w2 H + α H − γ1 (H, H2 )α1 H − γ2 (H, H2 )α2 H + γ0 (H, H2 ) = a1 hi + a2 h2 + (g1 − g) + γ1 (H, H2 )f1 + γ2 (H, H2 )f2 + γ0 (H, H2 ) = g1 − µi ti (x) (also modulo h0 ), where we used (7.11). These calculations show that α and β = (β1 , β2 ) and µ1 , . . . , µd solve (7.10). Summarizing, we get the following: Proposition 7.5. Suppose E(x) = (H(x), H2 (x)) and g(x) = (g1 (x), g2 (x)). Write g2 as in (7.12) and let α be such that (7.13) holds. Let g := g1 − α H, and suppose that ai ∈ R[[x]], γi ∈ R[[y]] and µi ∈ R are such that (7.11) holds for this g. Then α := a1 w1 + a2 w2 + α − γ1 (H, H2 )α1 − γ2 (H, H2 )α2 β(y1 , y2 ) := ( γ0 (y1 , y2 ) , y1 γ1 (y1 , y2 ) + y2 γ2 (y1 , y2 ) + a0 ) together with the µi solve (7.10) modulo h0 .

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7.3. Deformations of maps

7.3.2 Solving the inﬁnitesimal stability equation The main building block of the algorithm for computing a left-right transformation inducing the given deformation G(x, v) from the universal deformation F (x, v), is the solution to the inﬁnitesimal stability equation (7.11), as was shown in the previous section. If the generators ({hi }, {fi }, {gi }) described in Proposition 3.3 form a standard basis of the reduced tangent space r TE = h0 , h1 , h2 + {1, f1 , f2 }R[[g1 , g2 ]],

the deformation directions ti are easily found, and the normal form algorithm immediately gives a solution to (7.11). However, these generators do not form a standard basis, and we should add generators to turn it into a one. This is done with a suitable generalization of Buchberger’s algorithm, already outlined in Sect. 6.4.5. This creates a new problem: The normal form algorithm now returns a solution to the ‘extended’ inﬁnitesimal stability equation, the equation with the new generators added to it. This solution cannot be used directly to build the left-right transformation. Just as in Sect. 7.2.3 this problem is solved by extending the Buchberger algorithm so that it computes a map Θ that maps expressions using standard basis generators, to those using only the original generators. In this way a solution to the extended inﬁnitesimal stability equation is mapped to a solution to (7.11). r Now some remarks on Buchberger’s algorithm for this case. Since TE is an R[[g1 , g2 ]]-module, to ﬁnd a standard basis one can compute the normal forms of syzygies described by lemma 6.31, and add nonzero ones to the {fi } until each syzygy is reduced to 0. Though this algorithm is correct, eﬃcient it is not. The reason is that it always adds nonzero syzygies at the ‘coarsest’ level of an R[[g1 , g2 ]]-module, while for example ideal-syzygies, which are reduced using ideal generators only to nonzero normal form, may be added to the ideal generators {hi }, thereby reducing the codimension of Im Ψ at least as much, and possibly far more, than addition to the module generators {fi } would. Also, adding to the subalgebra-generators as much as possible leads to increased eﬃciency. An outline of the resulting algorithm is as follows: a) Expand {hi } to a standard ideal basis of hi , then b) Expand {gi } to a standard subalgebra basis of R[[gi ]], then c) Expand {fi } to make ({hi }, {fi }, {gi }) a standard basis for hi +{fi }R[[gi ]]. Remark 7.6. (Eﬃciency) One could add a stage before the last, namely extending {gi } to make ({hi }, {gi }) a standard basis for hi +R[[gi ]]. This makes sense since f0 = 1 and therefore syzygies for hi + R[[gi ]] are also syzygies for the left-right tangent space. However the practical improvement turns out to be slight in our case. The map Θ, mapping back to original generators, is built up during the Buchberger algorithm. We now introduce some notation for the intermediate maps.

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Note that we start counting from h0 and f0 , to be compatible with the notation used throughout. Deﬁnition 7.7. a) Mk := ⊕ki=0 Re1i b) Nlm := ⊕li=0 R[[y1 , . . . , ym ]]e2i c) Θklm : Mk ⊕ Nlm → M2 ⊕ N22 r Note that TE has 3 ideal generators (including h0 ), 3 module generators (including f0 = 1) and 2 subalgebra generators. The maps Ψklm are deﬁned, in Sect. 6.4.5, in terms of the basis h0 , . . . , hk + {f0 , . . . , fl }R[[y1 , . . . , ym ]], and map from Mk ⊕Nlm to R. On Mk these maps are R-module homomorphisms. On Nlm they are R[[y1 , . . . , ym ]]-module homomorphisms, with obvious multiplication in the domain, while on the range yi · f := gi f . We also introduce the restricted g maps Ψkh : Mk → R and Ψm : N0m → R, with the superscripts denoting the generators in terms of which they are deﬁned. With this notation we can write down the extended Buchberger algorithm. Note that in the text below, whenever a new map Θ(k+1)lm is deﬁned, it is understood to coincide with the previous Θklm on Mk ⊕ Nlm .

Algorithm 7.8. (Extended Buchberger algorithm for LR-tangent spaces) Input: h0 , h1 , h2 , f0 = 1, f1 , f2 , g1 , g2 ∈ R Output: Elements hi , fi , gi and a map Θklm : Mk ⊕ Nlm → M2 ⊕ N22 such that a) ({h0 , . . . , hk }, {f0 , . . . , fl }, {g1 , . . . , gm }) is a standard basis for the left-right tangent space hi + {fi }R[[gi ]], b) Ψklm α = Ψ222 Θklm α for all α ∈ Mk ⊕ Nlm . Algorithm: k ← 2, l ← 2, m ← 2 Θ222 ← Identity map h h k While NFΨ r (Ψk (sij )) = 0 for any 1 ≤ i < j ≤ k, do: h h k hk+1 ← NFΨ r (Ψk (sij ))

h h k Θ(k+1)lm e1(k+1) := Θklm sij − NFΨ α (Ψk (sij )) k ←k+1 EndWhile Compute subalgebra-syzygies {bi } using Algorithm 6.24 g g m = 0 for any i, do: While NFΨ r (Ψm (bi )) g m (Ψ g (b )) gm+1 ← NFΨ r m i

g g m Θkl(m+1) ym+1 := Θklm bi − NFΨ α (Ψm (bi )) m←m+1 Re-compute syzygies {bi } for basis {g1 , . . . , gm } EndWhile Compute LR-tangent space syzygies (Lemma 6.31,6.15; Alg. 6.26, 6.34, 6.36)

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7.3. Deformations of maps

klm While NFΨ (Ψklm (S)) = 0 for syzygy S of 2nd or 3rd kind, do: r klm fl+1 ← NFΨ (Ψklm (S)) r klm Θk(l+1)m e2(l+1) := Θklm S − NFΨ (Ψklm (S)) α l ←l+1 Re-compute syzygies for basis ({h1 . . . hk }, {f1 . . . fl }, {g1 . . . gm }) EndWhile

Proof: In general the output NFΨ r (f ) is equal to f modulo Im Ψ . Since f ∈ Im Ψ it follows that hk+1 ∈ h1 , . . . , hk , gm+1 ∈ R[[g1 , . . . , gm ]] and fl+1 ∈ {hi } + {fi }R[[gi ]]. This with the fact that the condition in the ﬁnal While-loop is false at exit proves part (a), since syzygies of the ﬁrst kind reduce to zero as {h1 , . . . , hk } has been extended to a standard ideal basis in the ﬁrst part of the algorithm. For part (b) we show that Ψklm α = Ψ222 Θklm α is an invariant of the algorithm. Indeed, for k = l = m = 2 equality is trivial, and for other values invariance follows, by induction, from the equality NFΨ r (Ψ S) = Ψ (S − NFα (Ψ S)), which holds for any S and any map Ψ for which a normal form is deﬁned. This proves part (b). Termination is guaranteed if we work inside the ﬁnite dimensional vector space of truncated formal power series, since each new generator increases the set LM hi + {LM fi }R[[LM gi ]] by at least one monomial, by deﬁnition of the normal form. 7.3.3 Example of a LR-tangent space calculation This section is intended to show how algorithm 7.8 works on an easy example. The example was chosen so as to exhibit the essential features of a generic problem instance, but has no extra ‘meaning’ by itself. We consider the following LR-tangent space: (7.14) T = xy 2 , x2 y + a1 y 4 + a2 x4 + {1, xy}R[[a3 (x2 + y 2 ), a4 x4 − a5 x5 ]]. This is the image of Ψ : M2 ⊕ N22 → R as follows: M2 = {e11 , e12 }R N22 = {e21 , e22 }R[[y1 , y2 ]] Ψ : e11 r → h1 r (r ∈ R) e12 r → h2 r e21 Y → f1 Y (g1 , g2 ) (Y ∈ R[[z1 , z2 ]]) e22 Y → f2 Y (g1 , g2 ). Below we shall also use the restricted maps Ψ h : M2 → R and Ψ g : R[[zi ]] → R. The variables a1 , . . . , a5 are coeﬃcients, and are treated as constants. During the calculation certain nondegeneracy-conditions in terms of these coeﬃcients are encountered. These can be read oﬀ from the ﬁnal results.

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Standard ideal basis Following algorithm 7.8, ﬁrst we ﬁnd a standard ideal basis for xy 2 , x2 y + a1 y 4 + a2 x4 . As a term order we choose the graded order with x < y. The ﬁrst (and only) syzygy between the generator’s leading monomials is s12 = xe11 − ye12 whose image under Ψ h is −a2 yx4 − a1 y 5 . This element reduces to −a1 y 5 + a2 a1 x2 y 4 + a22 x6 by addition of a2 x2 times the second generator. The result has leading monomial y 5 , which is not in Im Ψh = xy 2 , x2 y . Adding it to the basis (with pre-image e13 ) gives rise to two new nontrivial syzygies. The syzygy s13 = −a1 y 3 e11 − xe13 maps to −a22 x7 − a2 a1 x3 y 4 , which needs no reduction since its leading monomial is x7 . The other syzygy, nor those involving x7 , give new elements. The ﬁnal standard ideal basis is {h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 } := {xy 2 , x2 y + a1 y 4 + a2 x4 , − a1 y 5 + a2 a1 x2 y 4 + a22 x6 , − a22 x7 − a2 a1 x3 y 4 }. Using the expressions for the syzygies, and the subsequent reduction, the new basis elements h3 , h4 can be expressed in the original ones. Algorithm 7.8 collects this information in the map Θ. As a map from M4 to M2 , it takes the following form: 10 x −x2 − a1 y 3 Θ= . 0 1 −y + a2 x2 xy − a2 x3 For example, from the fourth column it follows that h4 is equal to (−x2 − a1 y 3 )h1 + (xy − a2 x3 )h2 . Figure 7.1 depicts the standard basis, and the leading monomial occurring in the ideal.

Fig. 7.1

Leading monomials of an ideal, and of its standard basis.

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7.3. Deformations of maps

Standard subalgebra basis In the second part of the algorithm, the set {g1 , g2 } = {a3 (x2 + y 2 ), a4 x4 − a5 y 4 } is extended to a standard subalgebra basis. The syzygies involved are called the syzygies of the ﬁrst kind, see Chap. 6. These syzygies may be computed using algorithm 6.24. It begins by computing a Gr¨ obner basis for the ideal z1 − a3 x2 , z2 − a4 x4 with respect to the elimination term order with {z1 , z2 } < {x, y}. The resulting Gr¨ obner basis is {a4 z12 − a23 z2 , z1 − a3 x2 }. Here z1 and z2 correspond to the respective generators of the subalgebra. Following algorithm 6.24 we select those basis elements that do not depend on x or y. There is only one such generator, yielding the syzygy a4 z12 − a23 z2 . Its image under Ψ g is 2a23 a4 x2 y 2 + a23 (a5 + a4 )y 4 , and since its leading monomial is x2 y 2 this element cannot be reduced. A second round gives a larger Gr¨ obner basis, but the only binomial involving only the zi is the one already considered. The standard subalgebra basis thus becomes {g1 , g2 , g3 } := {a3 (x2 + y 2 ), a4 x4 − a5 y 4 , 2a23 a4 x2 y 2 + a23 (a5 + a4 )y 4 }. This completes the second stage. The leading monomials of elements of the subalgebra are shown in Fig. 7.2. Those associated with generators are shown as thick bullets. The data in Fig. 7.2 leaves open the possibility that g2 , with leading monomial x4 , is now superﬂuous, since there is another generator with leading monomial x2 . Indeed g2 can be written in terms of the other two, and may be deleted from the generating set, resulting in what could be called a minimal standard basis. Such a reduction may shorten subsequent calculations, however we shall not use this.

Fig. 7.2

Leading monomials of a subalgebra, and of its standard basis.

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Standard left-right tangent space basis Now for the third and ﬁnal stage. This stage deals with syzygies of the second and third kind. These involve at least one element of the form fi Y (g1 , . . . , gm ). If the other element is also of this form, but with a diﬀerent fi , we speak of syzygies of the third kind. (The same fi leads to subalgebra-syzygies, or syzygies of the ﬁrst kind). If the other element is from the ideal hi , it is a syzygy of the second kind – see Chap. 6 for more details. The syzygies are found by a Gr¨ obner basis calculation. To implement this stage eﬃciently, all syzygies found are reduced by the normal form algorithm, with nonzero ones being added to the basis, before the syzygies of the extended basis are re-calculated. The resulting basis may contain superﬂuous elements. However the reduction of the calculation time is signiﬁcant, while a larger basis amounts to only a slight overhead for the normal form calculations. The superﬂuous elements may also be identiﬁed and deleted after the standard basis calculation, if desired. The resulting basis may again be called a minimal standard basis, in analogy with Gr¨ obner bases (see e.g. [CLO92, p. 90]). Let’s ﬁrst calculate the syzygies of the third kind, between elements of the ideal and the subalgebra-module. In the notation of lemma 6.29, we need generators z β e2i of the N32 -submodule of elements that map into LM h1 , h2 , h3 under Ψ2 = ΨN32 . This is what algorithm 6.34 calculates. At this point the two generators of the algebra-module are f0 = 1 and f1 = x2 y 2 . The generator t2 − f1 makes the variable t2 play the role of f1 . Of course f12 and higher powers are in general not in T , but we will ﬁlter out these higher powers of t2 later, which is possible by choice of term order. By adding the generators zi − gi , i = 1, 2, 3, we let the variables z1 , z2 , z3 play the role of subalgebra-generators g1 , g2 , g3 . Finally, the monomial generators of LM h1 , h2 , h3 are just LM h1 , LM h2 , LM h3 themselves, since they already formed a standard ideal basis. So we have the generators {t2 − x2 y 2 , z1 − a3 x2 , z2 − a4 x4 , z3 − 2a23 a4 x2 y 2 , xy 2 , x2 y, −a1 y 5 , −a22 x7 }, a Gr¨ obner basis with respect to the elimination term order with {zi } {t2 } {x, y} of which is {z3 , a4 z12 − a23 z2 , z22 , t2 z1 , t2 z2 , t22 , xz1 z2 , xt2 , yz1 , yz2 , yt2 a3 x2 − z1 , xy − t2 , y 5 }. We are after the monomials involving only the zi , and t2 in degree at most 1. Using algorithm 6.36 we ﬁnd the following generating set: {z3 , t2 z1 , t2 z2 , z22 }. These monomials correspond to the elements g3 , f1 g1 , f1 g2 and g22 with leading monomials x2 y 2 , x3 y, x5 y and x8 respectively, indeed lying in LM hi . This gives only one term of the binomial syzygy. The other term is computed by subtracting a multiple of some ideal generator, such that the leading monomial vanishes. The

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7.3. Deformations of maps

ﬁrst syzygy is then e.g. g3 −2a23 a4 xh1 , which has leading monomial y 4 and cannot be reduced. This gives a new subalgebra-module generator, f2 = a23 (a4 + a5 )y 4 . The second syzygy is f1 g1 − a3 xh2 with leading monomial xy 3 . This one can be reduced, via h1 . The result has leading monomial x5 and cannot be reduced further, giving a second new subalgebra-module generator f3 = −a3 x(a2 x4 + a1 y 4 ). The other two elements can be reduced to 0. Next, we compute the syzygies of the second kind, among elements of the subalgebra-module. The algorithm computing these is described in Proposition 6.26, and leads to two syzygies: a4 g12 − a23 g2

and

− a4 a23 (a4 + a5 )g3 − 4a43 a24 f2 g2 .

Since after the second stage the algebra generators form a standard basis, the ﬁrst syzygy, which does not involve the module generators, is guaranteed to reduce to zero. The second must be checked, and turns out also to reduce to zero. To complete the third stage we have to check all syzygies of the third kind involving the new generators f2 and f3 . There are four new syzygies: f2 g1 − a22 a3 (a4 + a5 )xy 2 h1 , f2 g2 − a22 a4 (a4 + a5 )x3 y 2 h1 ,

f3 g1 − f3 g2 −

a23 x7 a2 h4 , a3 a4 2 a2 x h4 ,

which all reduce to 0. The ﬁnal result is in Fig. 7.3, with the monomials associated to the fi shown as bullets. Summarizing, we found the following module generators in the ﬁnal stage: f1 = xy,

f2 = a23 (a4 + a5 )y 4 ,

f3 = −a3 (a2 x5 + a1 xy 4 ).

Codimension The monomials not in the tangent space T span a complement. In this case a complement is formed by the set {x, x3 , y, y 2 , y 3 }, and the codimension of the LR-tangent space is 5.

Fig. 7.3

Leading monomials in a LR-tangent space.

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Nondegeneracy conditions The set LM T of leading monomials looks like Fig. 7.3 only if the coeﬃcients associated to those monomials are nonzero. In this case, there are four nondegeneracy-conditions. The following table lists them, together with the related generators, and some monomials that will disappear from LM T if the condition is not met: Condition:

Generators:

a1 = 0 a2 = 0 a3 = 0 a4 + a5 = 0

h3 h4 , f3 g1 f2

Monomials: y5 x7 , x5 x2 y4

Note that the leading coeﬃcient 2a23 a4 of g3 does not contribute a nondegeneracycondition, since the associated monomial x2 y 2 (and multiples) is already contained in the ideal-part of LM T .

Appendix

A.1 Classiﬁcation of term orders A term order < for Gr¨ obner bases is required to have the following properties: 1. m ≥ 1, 2. If m ≤ m then mm ≤ mm , 3. The order < is a total order.

(Noetherian) (Multiplicative)

(For the deﬁnition of total order, see Sect. 6.3.2.) Such orders are called admissible orders. For term orders in formal power series rings, property 1, Noetherianness, is not required. Here we shall use the term admissible order to refer to term orders satisfying property 2 and 3. It turns out to be possible to classify all admissible term orders, and to describe them in a uniform way. In order to formulate the result, we need the following ordering of univariate polynomials. For polynomials f, g ∈ R[Z], deﬁne f ≥ g if and only if LC(f − g) ≥ 0, where the ordinary term ordering for univariate polynomials (1 < Z < Z 2 < · · · ) is supposed. This is equivalent to the perhaps more intuitive deﬁnition f ≥g

⇔

f = g or f (x) − g(x) → ∞

(x → ∞).

Let ηi ∈ R[Z] for i = 1, . . . , n be n rationally independent polynomials, then a term order on the variables x1 , . . . , xn , or equivalently on vectors in Nn , can be deﬁned as follows: DeﬁnitionA.1. (Term order <η ) For α, β ∈ Nn , let α <η β if and only if i αi ηi < i βi ηi . The result of this section is that this is in fact the most general way of deﬁning term orders: Proposition A.2. For every admissible term order < on x1 , . . . , xn there exists a vector of univariate polynomials η such that < coincides with <η . Moreover, the polynomials have degree at most n − 1. This result is proved in [Rob85] and [Wei87]. Here we give a diﬀerent proof using nonstandard analysis (see [Rob88] for a nice introduction), which is both shorter and, in our opinion, more intuitive. The idea is as follows. It is easy to show that

H. Broer, I. Hoveijn, G. Lunter, and G. Vegter: LNM 1806, pp. 153–158, 2003. c Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2003

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A.1. Classiﬁcation of term orders

a linear form on vectors in Nn satisfying some nondegeneracy conditions deﬁnes a term order. Conversely, every term order is ‘close’ to such a order deﬁned by a linear form, in the sense that given any term order and a ﬁnite set of monomials, there exists a linear form such that the corresponding term order coincides with the given order on the ﬁnite set. The actual term order is therefore a ‘limit’ of such linear form orders, in the appropriate sense. Taking the limit is technically unpleasant, but this part becomes straightforward using nonstandard analysis. The ﬁrst part of the proof is based on the proof of [Stu96, Proposition 1.11], for which we need the following familiar lemma: Lemma A.3 (Farkas). [Sch86, Ch. 7.3] Let A be a matrix and b a row vector. Then there exists a row vector y ≥ 0 with yA = b if and only if bx ≥ 0 for every column vector x with Ax ≥ 0. Here x ≥ 0 for a vector x means that every component of x is nonnegative. Proof of proposition A.2: Let M ∈ N be unbounded, and let αi for i = 1, . . . , M n be the elements of [0, M − 1]n ⊂ Nn ordered in such a way that i < j ⇔ αi < αj . Deﬁne αij := αj − αi , and Cij := {x ∈ Rn |αij · x ≥ 0}, ! C := Cij . 1≤i<j≤M n

(The set Cij contains all vectors x such that αi ≤x αj , where x is interpreted as a vector of polynomials of degree 0.) We claim that C = {0}. Suppose on the contrary that C only contains the zero vector. This means that there is no nonzero vector x such that αij ·x ≥ 0 for all i < j. If A is the matrix consisting of the row vectors αij with i < j, this implies that the condition of Farkas’ lemma is trivially satisﬁed, so there exist nonnegative real numbers yij such that yij αij = (−1, −1, . . . , −1). (A.1) 1≤i<j≤M n

Since the αij are rational, we may suppose that the yij are too. Then, by clearing denominators, (A.1) can be written as yij αij = −b, (A.2) 1≤i<j≤M n are nonnegative integers, and b is some nonnegative integer vector. where the yij Note that the multiplicative property and total orderedness together imply the more general

m1 < m2 and m3 ≤ m4

⇒

m1 m3 < m2 m4 .

αj , and using general multiplicative property this For all i < j we have αi < the implies in particular that yij αi < yij αj . On the other hand, αij = αj − αi

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155

so (A.2) can be written as yij αj + b = yij αi , that is, yij αj < yij αi . This contradiction shows that C = {0}. Now choose a nonzero vector ω ∈ C, and recursively deﬁne the following sequence of vectors: ω 0 := ω, ω i :=

ωi maxj=1,...,n |ωji |

,

ω i ), ω i := st( ω i+1 := ω i − ω i. Here st(x) denotes the standard part of x. Every ω i has at least one coeﬃcient equal to ±1, and the corresponding coeﬃcient of ω i is also ±1, so ω i+1 becomes zero there, and stays zero for increasing i. Hence, the number of zero entries in ω i is at least i. Now assume that for some k < n we have that ω k+1 k smallest k−i i is the zero vector. We claim that η := i=0 Z ω is the required vector of polynomials. Observe that the components of η are polynomials with standard coeﬃcients, of degree at kmost ni − 1. We can write ω = i=0 ζi ω , where the ζi are positive constants. Note that ζi+1 /ζi is inﬁnitesimal, since ω i+1 is a vector with inﬁnitesimal coeﬃcients for i = 0, . . . , k −1. Now let α and β be distinct standard integer vectors with α < β. Because M is unbounded we have that α, β ∈ [0, M − 1]n , and this implies that α <ω β, or k ζi ω i · (α − β) < 0. i=0

t Now let 0 ≤ t ≤ k be the smallest integer such that i=0 ζj ω j · (α − β) = 0. This i t means that ω · (α − β) = 0 for i = 0, . . . , t − 1, and ω · (α − β) = 0. Dividing by ζt , we can write ω t · (α − β) < −

k ζi i ω · (α − β). ζ i=t+1 t

The left hand side is standard and nonzero, the right hand side is inﬁnitesimal, so we ﬁnd ω t · (α − β) < 0. Together with ω i · (α − β) = 0 for i = 0, . . . , t − 1 this implies that α <η β. This proves that <η coincides with < for any pair of standard integer vectors. Since both term orders are standard, by the Transfer axiom of nonstandard analysis they are identical.

A.2 Proof of Proposition 5.8 We need the following version of Nakayama’s lemma. For the proof see e.g. [Mar82, Ch. 1], or [Was74, p. 8].

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A.2. Proof of Proposition 5.8

Lemma A.4 (Nakayama). Let K and L be E Γ -modules, then K + mL ⊃ L

⇒

K ⊃ L.

Here m is the unique maximal ideal in E Γ of germs of functions vanishing at the origin. We also need the following lemma. It is a symmetric version of the fundamental geometric lemma. See [Mar82] for a proof. Lemma A.5. (Symmetric geometric lemma) Let F (t, x) : R × Rn → R be a t-dependent family of Γ -invariant functions, deﬁned on a neighborhood of (t, x) ∈ [0, 1] × {0}, and suppose there exists a vector ﬁeld X ∈ VnΓ of the form ∂ Xi (t, x)vi + ∂t i=1 n

X=

(where Xi are Γ -invariant families of functions and vi are generators of VnΓ as a module over EnΓ ), deﬁned on a neighborhood (t, x) ∈ [0, 1] × {0}, such that XF = 0. Then there exists a Γ -equivariant germ of a diﬀeomorphism φ : Rn → Rn such that F (0, φ(x)) = F (1, x) and φ(0) = 0. Proof (of Proposition 5.8. Parts (a) and (b) are based on [Mar82, IV.4.2]): We ﬁrst introduce some notation. Let l be the integer such that M = Mk ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ml . Let π denote the projection π : mk → M . Let αim ∈ m be homogeneous germs such that αim is of degree m, and such that the set {παim }im forms a basis of M . The generators of VnΓ are vi , in particular Tf = vi (f )E Γ . n We write g = f + h, where g is the germ that is supposedly isomorphic to f . We have h ∈ mk by hypothesis. (a, ﬁrst part) The ﬁrst part consists of proving that Tf +th ⊃ mk for t ∈ [0, 1]. By hypothesis, Tf ⊃ mk , so we can ﬁnd λijm such that αim = λijm vi (f ). j

Next, deﬁne the linear operator H on M by Hαim := π λijm vi (h). j

Using this we ﬁnd

(A.3) πTf +th ⊃ spanR {

λijm vi (f + th)}im =

j

spanR {(I + tH)αim }im = spanR {αim }im = M. The penultimate equality holds, for t ∈ [0, 1], if I + tH is invertible for these values of t, which is true if πh = π(g − f ) ∈ M is small enough. Equation (A.3) can also be written as

Appendix

157

Tf +th + m · mk ⊃ mk , and, by Nakayama, this implies Tf +th ⊃ mk , proving the ﬁrst part. (a, second part) As h ∈ mk , the statement Tf +th ⊃ mk implies that, for any Γ deﬁned on some neighborhood of τ ∈ [0, 1], we can ﬁnd germs Xi (t, x) ∈ E1+n (t, x) = (τ, 0), so that Xi vi (f + th) = −h. i ∂ Now write F (t, x) = f (x) + th(x), and deﬁne the vector ﬁeld X := ∂t + i Xi (t, x)vi , then XF = 0. By compactness of [0, 1] we can ﬁnd a ﬁnite number of such vector ﬁelds that can be combined to one deﬁned on the entire interval. Lemma A.5 now provides the required isomorphism between F (0, ·) = f and F (1, ·) = f + h = g. (b) The hypothesis m · Tf ⊃ mk implies that there exist λijm ∈ m such that αim = λijm vi (f ). j

As h ∈ mk we also have vi (h) ∈ mk , so λijk vi (h) ∈ mΓ mΓk . But Tf +th = αim + t j λijm vi (h)E Γ , that is, Tf +th + m · mk ⊃ mk , and by Nakayama this n implies Tf +th ⊃ mk . The rest of the proof is the same as the second part of (a). (If not, note that VΓ /(m · VΓ ) (c) We assume that the vi are homogeneous. 0 is ﬁnite dimensional, and write vi = j vij + vi,rest where vij are ﬁnitely many Γ homogeneous terms, and vi,rest is an element of mV , so that vij E Γ +m·VΓ = n VΓ . Now use Nakayama to conclude that the vij generate VΓ over EnΓ , then use these vij instead of the vi .) Write fk for the homogeneous kth degree part of f . We will prove the equivalence fk ∼Γ g. The same argument with g = f then proves fk ∼Γ f , completing the proof. First we prove that Tfk ⊃ mk . By hypothesis h := f − fk ∈ m · mk , so we can write h = h1 hk with hi ∈ mi . vi maps mj into itself, so vi (h) = h1 vi (hk ) + vi (h1 )hk ∈ m · mk , or vi (f ) ∈ Tfk + m · mk . So we have mk ⊂ Tf = vi (f )E Γ ⊂ Tfk + m · mk . n

Applying Nakayama we ﬁnd Tfk ⊃ mk . This inclusion implies the existence of λijm such that αim = λijm vj (fk ), j

and, as gim , vj and fk are homogeneous, we may assume that the λijm are too. Now write g = fk + hk + h>k , where hk is homogeneous of degree k, and h>k only contains terms of degree k + 1 and higher. We deﬁne the operators Hk and H>k on M by λijm vj h(>)k . H(>)k αim := π j

158

A.2. Proof of Proposition 5.8

We prove that H>k is nilpotent. Let deg(f ) denote the total degree of a homogeneous germ f , sdeg(f ) the smallest total degree of terms of f , and set deg(0) = sdeg(0) = ∞. Then sdeg(H>k αim ) ≥ min(deg(λijm ) + sdeg(vj (h>k ))) > j

> min(deg(λijm ) + deg(vj0 (fk ))) = deg(αim ) = m, j

j0 so H>k maps Mm into Mm+1 ⊕ Mm+2 ⊕ · · · ⊕ Ml , so it is nilpotent, say H>k = 0. The operator I + t(Hk + H>k ) is invertible, for t ∈ [0, 1], if Hk is small enough, i.e., if π(fk − g) = π(f − g) is small enough. Indeed, the inverse is given by the sum

(A.4)

(I + t(Hk + H>k ))−1 =

∞

(−t(Hk + H>k ))j ,

j=0

and nilpotency of H>k allows us to derive the inequality !(Hk + H>k )j ! ≤ C!Hkj−j0 !, where C is some constant, so that for small Hk , (A.4) converges. We have now:

πTf +t(hk +h>k ) ⊃ spanR {

λijm vi (f + t(hk + h>k ))} =

j

spanR {(I + t(Hk + H>k )gim }im = spanR {gim } = M,

(t ∈ [0, 1])

where we used that I + t(Hk + H>k ) is invertible. Now apply Nakayama to conclude that Tf +th ⊃ mk , where h = hk + h>k . The rest of the proof is the same as the second part of (a).

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Index

adjoint equation, 80, 81, 85 adjoint operator, 79 approximate symmetries, 24

– of right tangent space, 95 coeﬃcient, deﬁnition of, 27 conserved quantity, 26, 50, 67

BCKV normal form, 33, 97 BCKV-restricted morphism, 25, 98 bifurcation – Hamiltonian pitchfork, 41 – pitchfork, 62 – saddle–node, 62 – saddle-node, 41 binomial lemma, 116 Birkhoﬀ normal form, 23, 28 Birkhoﬀ normal form algorithm, 85 – n2 log n, 88 – and eﬃciency, 86–88 – cubic, 87 – exponential, 86 – quadratic, 87 Birkhoﬀ normal form procedure, 80 – and formal power series, 28 – and integrability, 86 – and resonance, 83 – and symmetry, 81 Buchberger algorithm, 110, 120 – extended, 146, 153 – for module over subalgebra, 128 – for subalgebra basis, 125 Buchberger’s algorithm, 5

de-reduction, 38, 68 deformation, 93 – of function, 94, 142 – of map, 101, 148 deformation direction, 3, 93 Deprit’s algorithm, 86 detuning parameter, 12, 26, 37, 58 distinguished parameter, 3, 25, 30, 97

Campbell-Baker-Hausdorﬀ formula, 82 canonical subalgebra basis, 7, 104, 110, 121 central singularity, 27, 32, 37 codimension – of function, 5, 92 – of ideal, 103, 129 – of left-right tangent space, 54, 101, 128

eﬃciency, see Birkhoﬀ normal form algorithm elimination order, see term order energy–momentum map, 100 – normal form, 61 equivalence, 92 – of dynamical systems, 10, 24, 25, 37 – of function germs, 95 equivariance – of vector ﬁeld, 94 equivariant vector ﬁelds, 52 exponential map algorithm, 88 Farkas’ lemma, 162 ﬁnite determinacy, 32 fold catastrophe, 3 formal power series, 33 – and Birkhoﬀ normalization, 28 – and normal form map, 136 – and standard basis, 135 – and term orders, 135 – and truncation, 138 geometric lemma, symmetric, 164 germ of a function, 94 Gr¨ obner basis, 105, 118

168

graded Lie algebra, 79 Hamiltonian polar coordinates, 36 Hilbert basis, 6 Hilbert basis of S1 -invariant functions, 43 hyperbolic umbilic, 27, 37, 96 ideal membership problem, 104 ideal, polynomial, 103 inﬁnitesimal stability equation, 4, 33, 143 – solution of, 145, 152 initial speed, 93 integrability, 24 integrable approximation, 24 Jacobian ideal, 95 jet map, 95 Kas and Schlessinger’s algorithm, 141 – for functions, 144 – for maps, 148 Kepler problem, 24 Kolmogorov’s quadratically convergent method, 88 largest monomial subideal, 134 leading coeﬃcient, 106 leading monomial, 103, 111 – cancellation of, 108, 109, 112 leading monomial ideal, 103 leading term, 106 left–right transformations, 6 left-right transformation, 50, 100 lexicographic order, see term order Lie triangle algorithm, 85 monomial, 104, 111 monomial map, 114 monomial order, see term order monomial subideal, 134 monomial, deﬁnition of, 108 Morse lemma, see symmetric Morse lemma Nakayama’s lemma, 163 non-resonance condition, 81 nondegeneracy condition, 1 – 1 : 2 resonance, 37, 58, 68 – 1 : 3 resonance, 59

Index

– 1 : 4 resonance, 60 nonstandard analysis, 161 normal form algorithm, 108, 117 – for left-right tangent space, 133 – for module over subalgebra, 126 – for subalgebra basis, 124 normal form map, 113 – and formal power series, 136 normal form property, 113 normalizing transformation – computation of, 90 – existence of, 91 parameter, deﬁnition of, 27 path formulation, 25, 98, 99 perturbation, 86, 87 planar reduction method, 24, 30 Poincar´e map – numerical, 44, 71 Poincar´e-von Zeipel method, 85 polynomial division, 103, 108 preparation theorem, 33, 91, 102 reduced normal form, 117 reduced phase space, 43 reduced tangent space, 6, 54, 57 reduction methods, 49 resonance, 26, 28, 82 reversibility, see symmetry, time-reversal right transformation, 3, 94 S-polynomial, 109 SAGBI basis, 7, 104, 110, 121 Schreyer’s monomial ordering, 104 second normalization, see unique normal form short periodic orbit, 62, 65 singular circle, 26, 31, 36, 39, 41 singularity theory, 56 splitting lemma, 3 spring-pendulum, 34 standard basis, 5, 104, 110, 112 – for left-right tangent space, 128 – for module over subalgebra, 125 – for subalgebra, 121 – for submodule, 120 standard map, 104, 114 standard map theorem, 114 standard representation, 108, 112 – of syzygy, 116

Index

symmetric Morse lemma, 96 symmetric reduction, 24 symmetry – and Birkhoﬀ normal form procedure, 81 – and reduction, 31 – approximate, 26, 77 – time-reversal, 9, 27, 51 – torus, 23 syzygy, 113 – for left-right tangent space, 129, 133 – for module over subalgebra, 126 – for subalgebra basis, 124 – module, 15 – standard representation of, 116 tangent space, 92 – and left-right transformation, 54, 101 – and right-transformation, 94

169

– complement to, 143 – reduced, 6, 54, 57 term order, 106, 111 – classiﬁcation of, 161 – reﬁned, 112 term, deﬁnition of, 108 topology of S3 , 42 transﬁnite induction, 136 transversal deformation, 93, 95 transversal implies versal, 95 unfolding, 93 unique normal form, 83, 84 universal deformation, 93 – of function, 143 versal deformation, 93, 95 versality, 33