Beginner Teachers in South Africa: School Readiness, Knowledge and Skills

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za Beginner Teachers.indb 3

2/27/09 3:16:16 PM

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Published by HSRC Press Private Bag X9182, Cape Town, 8000, South Africa www.hsrcpress.ac.za First published 2009 ISBN soft cover 978-0-7969-2242-7 ISBN (pdf) 978-0-7969-2259-5 © 2009 Human Sciences Research Council Copy-edited by Lee Smith Typeset by Simon van Gend Cover by Fuel Design Printed by Distributed in Africa by Blue Weaver Tel: +27 (0) 21 701 4477; Fax: +27 (0) 21 701 7302

www.oneworldbooks.com Distributed in Europe and the United Kingdom by Eurospan Distribution Services (EDS) Tel: +44 (0) 20 7240 0856; Fax: +44 (0) 20 7379 0609 www.eurospanbookstore.com Distributed in North America by Independent Publishers Group (IPG) Call toll-free: (800) 888 4741; Fax: +1 (312) 337 5985

www.ipgbook.com

Beginner Teachers.indb 4

2/27/09 3:16:17 PM

contents

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Tables and figures vi Preface vii Acknowledgements viii Executive summary ix Acronyms and abbreviations

Beginner Teachers.indb 5

xii

1

Introduction 1











Conceptual framework Literature review 5 Summary 7

2

Research methodology 9



Introduction 9 Research questions 9 Research design 9

3

Data presentation and analysis 17



Data from beginner teachers 17 Discussion of data from beginner teachers Data from school managers 23

4

Conclusion 41



Implications for policy-makers and school managers



3

19

42

References 47

2/27/09 3:16:17 PM

tables and figures Tables

12

Table 2.1

Sampled schools by phase

Table 2.2

Sampled schools by former education department

Table 2.3

Beginner teachers by province and gender

13

13

Figures

12

Location of sampled schools

Figure 2.2

Beginner teachers by race and gender

14

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Figure 2.1

vi

Beginner Teachers.indb 6

2/27/09 3:16:17 PM

Preface The Teacher Education in South Africa series is produced as part of the Teacher Education Programme (TEP), funded by the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands from 2005 to 2008.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

The programme took place at a critical juncture in the development of teacher education in post-apartheid South Africa. Since 2004, sustained attention has been given to the improvement of teacher education consequent on the revision of the curriculum and the restructuring of higher education. In October 2004, the Council on Higher Education initiated a review of teacher education programmes. On 26 April 2007, a National Policy Framework for Teacher Education and Development was gazetted. This provided the basis for a new system of teacher education and development for a new generation of South African teachers. The TEP emerged within this overall context of enhanced attention being given to the improvement of teacher education. Its overall goal was ‘to contribute to the knowledge and information base for policy formulation and implementation regarding the organisation and practice of teacher education, with a particular emphasis on initial teacher education (both pre-service and upgrading), as well as the professional development of school leaders and managers’ (CEA et al. 2005: 4). The work was organised under four major themes: teacher supply and demand; institutional culture and governance; the development of education management; and literacy and teacher development. The programme was designed by a consortium of agencies with considerable expertise and experience in the field: the Centre for Education Policy Development (CEPD); the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC); the South African Institute for Distance Education (SAIDE); the Centre for Evaluation and Assessment (CEA) at the University of Pretoria; and the Education Foundation Trust (EFT).1 The TEP was developed in consultation with stakeholders such as the national Department of Education (DoE), the Ministerial Working Group on Teacher Education, the Deans’ Forum and the Council on Higher Education/HEQC, amongst others. Briefing and consultation continued through the process of research, for the consortium as a whole and in relation to specific projects. Michael Cosser, HSRC Organisational Manager, Teacher Education Programme

1 The EFT has been disbanded and uncompleted projects have been taken over by the consortium.

vii

Beginner Teachers.indb 7

2/27/09 3:16:17 PM

acknowledgements

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

We would like to thank Matselane Tshukudu and Sharon Flemmit for their help with fieldwork administration and Thobeka Mda, Linda Chisholm and John Pampallis for their valuable suggestions to improve this report and for helping to bring it to finality. We alone remain responsible for all errors of fact and interpretation. We are also grateful to the Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands for their financial support.

viii

Beginner Teachers.indb 8

2/27/09 3:16:18 PM

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This report focuses on the perceptions of beginner teachers about themselves, and the perceptions of school managers about beginner teachers, after the first three years of teaching in public ordinary schools. Since teachers contribute much to learners’ educational achievement and should partly be held accountable for poor learner performance, researching especially beginner teachers is necessitated by the growing realisation that a high number of them leave the profession in their early years of teaching. The government’s investment in subsidising initial teacher training translates into a waste of resources when new teachers resign from teaching or if new trainees do not take up teaching positions.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

This study aimed to cover a wide section of beginner teachers in a number of provinces because it was established that studies on beginner teachers in South Africa are generally small-scale and fall within the realm of postgraduate studies at universities (mainly master’s and doctoral theses). They are also restricted to one province and, within that province, to a single district and only a few schools (Koeberg 1999; Lochner 1993; Van Vuuren 1989). The study of beginner teachers included an investigation of the perceptions of principals and heads of department (HoDs) about the skills and knowledge of beginner teachers. The study also sought to evaluate efforts by individual schools and by district, regional and provincial education offices to support and assist beginner teachers in their work. The evaluation was informed by observations that found that without the necessary support (mentorship, induction programmes), many beginner teachers develop burnout symptoms in a short space of time.

Research questions and design The key research questions aimed at beginner teachers were: • What are beginner teachers’ perceptions of their skills, knowledge and competencies as beginner teachers? • What are beginner teachers’ perceptions of their work experience after the first, second and third year of teaching experience? • Did beginner teachers’ higher education prepare them adequately for the teaching profession? The key research questions aimed at principals and school managers were: • What are the perceptions of principals, deputy principals and subject heads of the skills, knowledge and competencies possessed by beginner teachers? • What do school managers see as key challenges facing beginner teachers? • What in the views of school managers should be done to enhance beginner teachers’ skills, knowledge and competencies? • What should be done to retain beginner teachers within the education system? The study drew extensively from survey research. A questionnaire was developed and administered. However, given the nature of the study (focusing on beginner teachers’ skills, knowledge and competencies), the survey instrument was augmented with a qualitative component as responses about skills, knowledge and competencies of beginner teachers needed to be probed and elaborated on. The study therefore combined both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

ix

Beginner Teachers.indb 9

2/27/09 3:16:18 PM

The study covered teachers in the Free State, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and the Western Cape. These provinces were selected on the basis of earlier research that showed that they were hiring new teachers in higher numbers in relative terms to the other provinces (Crouch 2001). While turnover patterns have stabilised in the interim, at the time of this study these provinces still had the greatest potential to absorb beginner teachers in both urban and rural areas.

Findings

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Analysis of the data indicates positive comments about the current sole provision of teacher education by universities. Research participants noted that some universities offer good teacher education programmes, while others do not. The data showed that many of the participants had no problem with the duration of teacher education programmes. Most were satisfied with beginner teachers’ content knowledge (theoretical knowledge of the learning area or subject they teach). For many, however, the pedagogical knowledge of beginner teachers was an area of concern and it was suggested that the final year of teacher education should be set aside for teaching practice to give teacher trainees enough practical experience of working in classrooms. Overall, beginner teachers’ quality of teaching was not considered problematic. As with beginner teachers’ content knowledge, the data showed that most of the school managers have no reservations about beginner teachers’ assessment practices. This includes their assessment strategies and whether they are able to use assessment to improve teaching and learning. Besides assessment, the research findings dealt at some length with support provided to beginner teachers, noting that most research participants were not aware of any support specifically meant for beginner teachers. Some schools, through their school governing bodies, raise funds for the induction and mentoring of new teachers, while other schools, predominantly in rural and township areas, do not have support structures and programmes for beginner teachers. It was noted that salary incentives, sufficient teaching and learning resources and well-paced educational changes would contribute to beginner teachers staying in the profession. An interesting area is the confidence beginner teachers expressed about their classroom teaching ability. Beginner teachers were confident that they were more than adequate in lesson preparation, content knowledge, making key concepts explicit to learners, relating content knowledge to everyday experiences, helping learners to engage with texts, and creating a stimulating classroom environment. This was in contrast to findings reported in similar studies, and by school managers. Possible explanations for the contradictions were explored, for example, that beginner teachers may feel pressure to be seen to be coping; the teaching experiences may be threatening beginner teachers’ sense of self, and portraying competence may be a coping strategy; teachers may perhaps not be capable of self-reflection in the early stages of their career; or the teachers may genuinely be competent when they start teaching but the schools may erode their confidence and competence, reducing them to incompetent, inexperienced teachers. x

Beginner Teachers.indb 10

2/27/09 3:16:18 PM

Both beginner teachers and school managers reported the challenge of ill discipline in schools. Beginner teachers also expressed the desire to learn more in this area. Managing classrooms and the ill discipline in schools is a challenge for both beginner and experienced teachers. However, this challenge is more pronounced for beginner teachers, who have not yet developed discipline-management strategies and may still be struggling to assert their authority early on in their career.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

School managers, probably as a result of their experience, had concrete ideas on how young teachers could be supported to succeed in the profession. Those same school managers, however, are not necessarily providing the needed support or even facilitating beginner teachers’ access to that support when it is not within the school. The school managers also tend to point fingers at the DoE and its officials for the unfavourable teaching conditions beginner teachers are exposed to. This is because some of the school managers were also once enthusiastic young teachers but have now become disillusioned about their profession or their employer, and are therefore not in a position to motivate and mentor young teachers. The education system in South Africa does not have formal structures, policies and strategies for teacher retention. Some schools and provinces, especially those in urban areas, by virtue of their proximity to resources, easily attract teachers, as opposed to rural provinces and schools that struggle to recruit and retain qualified teachers.

Implications for policy-makers and school managers The findings call for: • differentiated intervention programmes and strategies to tackle the problems experienced by beginner teachers; • the fleshing out of school- or district-based beginner teacher support, with the primary aim of ensuring that these teachers teach well and stay in teaching; • the national DoE to set clear targets and how these can be achieved; • the DoE to invest substantially in the twin roles of the school managers (being an instructional and an operational leader at the same time); • the DoE to continue its training course for all school managers to improve their management of schools; • longer immersion in practical teaching; • the DoE to come up with implementable intervention strategies as well as ensuring the monitoring of proper implementation and support; • the DoE to put in place programmes and plans for the periodic assessment of the impact of educational changes on teachers; • efforts to ensure that learners in poor contexts have competent teachers; • the prioritising of issues of equality and equity in education; • a multi-sectoral approach to pool resources with other government departments, notably the departments of social development, health, and arts, sports and culture; • a high premium being placed on the constant and continued investigation of teaching and learning, including teacher competency.

xi

Beginner Teachers.indb 11

2/27/09 3:16:19 PM

Acronyms and abbreviations CEA Centre for Evaluation and Assessment CEPD Centre for Education Policy Development DoE Department of Education EFT Education Foundation Trust EMIS Education Management Information Systems HoD head of department HSRC Human Sciences Research Council IQMS Integrated Quality Management Systems PERSAL

Personnel and Salary Administration System

SAIDE South African Institute for Distance Education SGB school governing body

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

TEP Teacher Education Programme

xii

Beginner Teachers.indb 12

2/27/09 3:16:19 PM

chapter 1

Introduction

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

This report focuses on the perceptions of beginner teachers about themselves, and the perceptions of school managers about beginner teachers, after the first three years of teaching in public ordinary schools. Beginner teachers are defined as newly qualified teachers who have recently joined the profession and have less than four years of teaching experience. This conceptualisation is informed by studies which point out that the transition phase (initial years of teaching) is recognised as an important segment of a teacher’s career, believed to have long-term implications for teaching effectiveness, job satisfaction and career length (Hebert & Worthy 2001). Older teachers in their late thirties were excluded (see discussion in the methodology section in Chapter 2). This posed a potential problem in the South African context where a considerable number of newly qualified teachers do not get teaching posts immediately after completion of teacher education. These teachers are now being absorbed into the system although they qualified some years ago. As noted, this study attempted to exclude such older teachers. It is difficult to distinguish between older teachers who qualified years back and are only now entering the teaching profession and those of the same age group who have been teaching for a few years, especially if they are employed on a temporary basis. In order to make this distinction, many years of Personnel and Salary Administration System (PERSAL) databases are necessary and special software programmes will have to be written to detect whether teachers appear in databases from previous years. School managers include principals, deputy principals, HoDs and subject heads. The study is premised on the pivotal role teachers play in improving the quality of education offered to all learners. Teachers are key agents in the provision of a quality education system and, as the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation notes, without teachers, education for all by 2015 would be an unobtainable dream and ‘any process that attempts to improve the quality of education, promote peace and harmony and eliminate discrimination requires teachers’ (Unesco 2005a: 1). Given the critical role teachers play in the education system, attempts to improve education (learning outcomes) should necessarily include a study of the teaching profession. There is also a need to take into account the growing body of research (Ball et al. 2005; Darling-Hammond 2000; Osgood & Self 2003) that affirms a positive correlation between teacher competence and learner achievement scores, that is, teachers who have a deep understanding of their subjects or learning areas and instructional strategies are associated with high learning outcomes. Teacher competency is increasingly seen as critical if all learners are to derive benefits from the schooling system. It has been found that in many developing countries, learners benefit less from education due to the poor quality and quantity of instruction (Unesco 2005b). While many countries have made great strides to achieve universal access to education for all their children, the quality of education is suspect, as reflected in test scores (Unesco 2005b).

1

Beginner Teachers.indb 1

2/27/09 3:16:20 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

According to the 2006 Progress in International Reading Literacy Study: i) most South African learners struggle to become literate – to read and write proficiently – both in their home language and often in an additional language, English, which rapidly becomes the language of learning and teaching in all other subjects; and ii) South African Grade 5 learners have not mastered basic reading skills, and achieved the lowest scores in a literacy study of Grade 4 and 5 learners conducted in 39 countries (Howie et al. 2007).

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Since teachers contribute much to learners’ educational achievement and should partly be held accountable for poor learner performance, researching the teaching profession is thus appropriate and timely in the South African context. Researching the teaching profession, especially beginner teachers, is also necessitated by the growing realisation that a high number of them leave the profession in their early years of teaching. A case in point is the United States of America, where it has been found that ‘a third of beginning teachers quit within their first three years on the job’ (Stansbury & Zimmerman 2001: 1). O’Brien et al. (2007) cite Ewing (2001) and Ewing and Smith (2002), who claim that teacher attrition is a major problem in Australian schools and that between 20 per cent and 50 per cent of beginner teachers leave the profession in the first three to five years. In England and Wales, it was found that between 5 per cent and 8 per cent of teachers leave the profession prematurely (Smithers 1990 cited by Macdonald 1999). In the Czech Republic, many graduates leaving faculties of education do not search for teaching jobs (Vlckova 1999). This was confirmed by Hebert and Worthy (2001), who cite the 1996 Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development report that as many as 25 per cent of Czech Republic graduates of teacher education programmes elect not to enter the teaching profession. In South Africa, it has been found that teachers under the age of 30 tend to resign in significant numbers in comparison to older teachers (ELRC 2005). Samuel (2002) notes that where there are available job prospects in the broader economy, beginner teachers tend to leave the teaching profession in higher numbers. When new teachers resign from teaching or if trainees do not take up teaching positions, the investment by government in subsidising initial teacher training translates into a waste of resources. There is also a need to factor in the glaring impact of the HIV/ AIDS pandemic, which takes the lives of a considerable number of teachers – largely in poor communities (Shisana et al. 2005) – and the resultant challenges of filling the vacant posts due to death. While there are no official figures from the DoE on teachers who have left or who leave annually to take up teaching posts overseas, it seems a significant number of teachers have emigrated from South Africa since 1994 (Appleton et al. 2006; De Villiers 2007; De Villiers & Degazon-Johnson 2007; Manik 2007). When all these factors are taken together, they signify challenges to teacher supply. Many countries, including South Africa, are confronting mounting problems of teacher supply and this raises important questions about the strategies that governments across the globe devise to retain beginner teachers and ensure that they improve their teaching capabilities and competencies. It is therefore troubling, from the perspective both of enhancing educational quality and optimising the resources spent in preparing new teachers, that many governments across the world do not invest enough in beginner teachers’ earlier years of teaching. In the case of Ghana, Akyeampong describes the situation as follows: ‘rather sadly, there is a total lack of commitment by the education establishment to the early years of the beginning teachers’ professional 2

Beginner Teachers.indb 2

2/27/09 3:16:21 PM

Introduction

life. Three years spent in formal teacher training do not produce the kind of changes expected or necessary for effective teaching’ (2001: 4).

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

The preceding observations call for greater attention to be paid to the experiences of teachers in general and particularly those in their earlier years in the profession. Two issues need to be emphasised here: • A high number of new teachers need to remain in teaching, both to ensure continuity and renewal in the teaching profession and because some governments invest substantially in their professional training (initial teacher preparation). • New teachers need to be supported in order to enhance their teaching skills, knowledge and competencies. Paying attention to teacher competencies can serve, on another level, as a way of tackling the perennial problem of educational disadvantage that characterises so many societies. Educational disadvantage, apart from being determined in material terms – what certain schools lack and the poverty of many learners – should additionally be conceptualised in the sense of the quality and quantity of instruction given to learners: whether teachers are able to facilitate access to the specialised knowledge of the school – what is termed ‘epistemological access’, a notion popularised by Wally Morrow (2007). Where the quality and quantity of instruction is highly compromised, often as a result of teacher incompetence, it can safely be concluded that inequalities in education are still being perpetuated. In a nutshell, the competency of the teacher goes a long way towards reducing educational disadvantage in terms of epistemological access. The skills, knowledge and competencies of beginner teachers should be such that they facilitate access to school knowledge and help improve educational outcomes and achievement. These ideas informed the decision to conduct a study that investigated the knowledge and competencies of beginner teachers in South Africa.

Conceptual framework Voice discourse provided the conceptual framework in this study, which illuminates the plurality of voices and critiques of the voice discourse as applicable to beginner teachers’ voices and school managers’ voices. Voice discourse Voice discourse has a long history and, given the narrow confines of this study on the views (voices) of teachers and school managers, its trajectory cannot be exhausted here. Only its essential components will be dealt with. The discourse of voice emerged out of a critique of the dominant quantitative mode of investigation founded on claims of objectivity and rationality, which viewed other methods of enquiry as less objective and credible. Proponents of the discourse (postmodernists, feminists, so-called third world scholars) argue that the dominant method of investigation is rooted in particular histories, classes and social milieus. It is seen to be predominantly western, male and middle class, and excludes other ways of viewing phenomena. These other ways are regarded as less authentic and credible because they are largely based on the experiences of certain actors.

3

Beginner Teachers.indb 3

2/27/09 3:16:21 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

Young (2000: 528) summarises the position of voice discourse as follows: ‘Voice discourse asserts the claims of experience and the equal validity of the perspectives of all groups, whether expert or not, on the grounds that claims for knowledge, to be in some objective sense independent of the social position of the knower, are untenable.’ The fundamental position of voice discourse is to recognise that knowledge and truth claims are inescapably rooted in social activities, forms of life or practices, and this privileges experience in knowing phenomena.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Plurality of voices The analysis of voice discourse suggests a plurality of voices even within the same category of people, for example, within a group of principals or teachers. This results from the divergent backgrounds and contexts from which actors come (Hargreaves 1996). It is thus important to bear in mind that even if we talk about the voice of principals, that voice should not be viewed in homogeneous terms. The contexts that affect principals’ voices in particular ways may be the districts in which they work, the professional associations they are part of and the overall economic wellbeing of the area or location, such as the suburb. Some contexts create knowledge and experience that is liberating, while others create knowledge and experience that is limiting (Hargreaves 1996). For example, it is expected that the experiences of principals in suburban schools will be somewhat different from the experiences of their colleagues in rural communities. The voices of principals in a particular location do not embody qualities that are generic to all principals across different contexts. Thus the issue of the context in which the research participants live has a significant bearing on their experiences. Young (2000: 526) claims that experience forms the ‘foundation of all knowledge and therefore the basis for claiming that all knowledge or truth claims are equivalent, whether they derive from common sense, folk tradition, laboratory-based scientific research or systematic, disciplinary knowledge’. The position taken in this study on beginner teachers is that lived experience is central in knowing phenomena, hence the study creates space for the voices of school managers – from their experiences with beginner teachers, based on observation of their lessons and going through their files – as a source for understanding the skills, knowledge and competencies of beginner teachers. Voice discourse, like all other intellectual projects, has been and continues to be critiqued; one of the main criticisms levelled against it relates to the issue of relativism (a situation where everything goes). In encouraging different voices to be included in the production of knowledge, the end product of voice discourse will amount to taking all voices as meritorious and credible in themselves and this will lead to relativism. This will make it difficult to figure out how to improve things, as there is no agreement about a yardstick. Young, who to some extent supports the argument presented by Moore and Muller (1999), suggests that ‘in rejecting the claims for any kind of objective knowledge, the logic of their [voice discourse theorists’] position is nihilist and leads to the cynicism of social scientists who reject the grounds of their practice or, in the case of Baudrillard, give up social science altogether’ (Young 2000: 534). Being nihilistic means the agents have lost a sense of purpose and development. The position of nihilism can be taken further to a point where researchers see no point at all in any social science or philosophy.

4

Beginner Teachers.indb 4

2/27/09 3:16:21 PM

Introduction

There is a need to acknowledge that all claims to knowledge are not equally credible – there are some that are suspect while others carry more weight. All voices are subjected to critique. Further, in this study, the voices (views and perceptions) of school managers are analysed against the voices of beginner teachers, as well as against findings of other studies in the area of beginner teachers’ school experiences (challenges and potentialities).

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Literature review There is a wide range of literature pertinent to this study, which led to a wide literature review. The literature reviewed mainly covers entry into teaching, the supply of teachers and the life of a teacher. The factors considered to affect how teaching is experienced, especially by a beginner teacher, are: proficiency of students enrolling for teaching, initial teacher education programmes in higher education, transition from university teacher trainee to a classroom teacher, teacher support and induction programmes, challenges for beginner teachers, location of the school, the status of the teaching profession, and perceptions of principals and other school managers about beginner teachers. Not all of these factors are dealt with in this study. Teacher education programmes As reported earlier, the reviewed literature covered the broad area of entry into teaching, which includes training of teachers. The literature on beginner teachers identifies the substance and relevance of teacher training programmes and courses as an area of concern, in addition to the quality of Grade 12 learners (matriculants) taking teaching as a career. It is suggested that some teacher education programmes fail to prepare teachers adequately for their teaching task. A concern was raised by the Ministerial Committee on Teacher Education about the way beginner teachers are being prepared for the realities of the classroom: ‘A major misgiving is that overly theoretical courses are failing to turn out teachers of value and substance’ (DoE 2005b: 16). The main problem, therefore, is the content of teacher education programmes; this content is largely theoretical and says little about the practicalities of everyday classroom life. The argument is not to discard the theoretical orientation of the teacher education programmes, but to balance this with practical teaching skills. A view gaining currency in Australia, according to Kevin Donnelly, director of consulting group Education Strategies, is that the approaches to teacher training [should] focus as much on analysing how education supposedly reproduces social inequality as it does on teaching teachers how to teach. Teachers are there to critique mainstream society and to fight for greater equity and social justice. (Donnelly 2005) Much emphasis is therefore placed on issues of equality and equity rather than on how to assist a new teacher to teach well; teachers are trained to critique the dominant practices prevalent in the broader society rather than to teach well. In other words, schools must work at several levels to redress injustice in society.

5

Beginner Teachers.indb 5

2/27/09 3:16:22 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

Former teachers, Stanulis and Thornton (2000), in retrospect, recognise the limitation of their teacher education programme, suggesting they were not adequately prepared to manage diverse classrooms. They also note that teachers today are being asked to teach technological and analytical skills to learners from a broad range of backgrounds, to prepare them to read and write at sophisticated levels, to think critically, and to apply their knowledge to solving real-world problems (Strong & Baron 2004). Teacher education programmes do not adequately prepare new teachers for their expanded roles. In short, the skills teachers need to develop are both complex and demanding (Borko & Livingston 1989 as cited by Strong & Baron 2004). From teacher trainee to classroom teacher

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

In addition to the limitations of initial teacher education programmes in keeping up with classroom realities, it has been found that the transition from university teacher trainee to practising teacher is fraught with difficulties. It should not be assumed that initial teacher preparation will enable the teacher trainee to smoothly adjust and adapt to the teaching conditions at a real school. The shift from being a university student to being a classroom teacher in most cases is a dramatic one. It has been suggested that some aspects of teaching effectively are best learned on the job during the induction period rather than in teacher preparation (Feiman-Nemser 2003), which implies that however thorough teacher preparation may have been, the transition from teacher trainee to practising teacher needs to be carefully handled. In defence of teacher training programmes, it can be argued that beginner teachers have legitimate and specific needs that cannot be grasped in advance or outside of the contexts of teaching. In other words, teaching skills (teacher competency) are developed fully through teaching in a specific classroom. No university course can teach a new teacher how to blend knowledge of particular learners and knowledge of particular content in decisions about what to do in specific situations. For instance, the handling of disruptive behaviour highlights part of the gap between a teacher trainee and a practising teacher, as it has been reported that experienced teachers generally handle this kind of situation well, while beginner teachers struggle (FeimanNemser 2003). While trainees will have been taught about classroom management and discipline, the reality of the classroom brings concrete challenges. Additionally, the challenge that beginner teachers face relates to the uncertainty of teaching itself. As some education researchers observe, teaching is to a large extent an uncertain practice. Segal (1998) maintains that teachers cannot be absolutely certain in advance about how the lesson will develop and what learners will gain from it. Ayers (1995) concurs with Segal and states that the preparation a teacher gets from curriculum guidelines and supervision does not guarantee success in teaching. Unique classroom situations, teachers’ personalities and values, and choices made all make teaching very uncertain. The uncertainty of teaching practice has to do with the fact that teachers manage multiple and often contradictory goals at the same time, and this poses considerable challenges to all teachers, particularly beginner ones. Teacher support and induction programmes A number of studies (Ellsworth & Monahan 1998; Freiberg 2002; Hebert & Worthy 2001; Roerig et al. 2002) observe that most beginner teachers are thrust into 6

Beginner Teachers.indb 6

2/27/09 3:16:22 PM

Introduction

classrooms (a new territory for most of them) without the necessary support and mentoring. Some analysts note that new teachers are expected to sink or swim without the required support. It was observed that, through trial and error, new teachers develop a repertoire of teaching strategies. This haphazard process of strategy development may take several years, by which time many struggling, unprepared beginner teachers have already left the classroom (Freiberg 2002).

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Drawing from career and technical education literature, it is suggested that the best way to support, develop and cultivate an attitude of lifelong learning in beginner teachers is through a new teacher induction programme focused on teacher training, support and retention. In Ruhland and Bremer’s (2002) study, beginner career and technical education teachers reported that personal support from other educational professionals in the form of a mentor or peer support group was key to staying in the teaching profession. According to the National Framework for Teacher Education in South Africa, ‘the practice of launching novice teachers into employment without explicit on-site induction is unsatisfactory’ (DoE 2005b: 16). The report makes the point that newly qualified teachers are not supported through a critical induction into the world of schooling, and may become easily disillusioned and/or develop practices that replicate poor-quality teaching and learning (DoE 2005b). The core argument is for the national DoE to come up with systems and programmes, at the school or at district level, to support beginner teachers. Put differently, beginner teachers cannot be expected to fulfil all their teaching responsibilities without some support and assistance. It is thus encouraging and commendable that the draft policy document on teacher education and development released for public comment by the national DoE states, among other pertinent issues, that the Ministry of Education will ensure that ‘systems are developed for [the] induction and mentoring of new teachers’ (DoE 2006: 13). The key challenge, therefore, is to implement induction programmes so that teachers are kept in the classroom long enough to gain command of content and methods, and develop a ‘conditional instinct’ to guide learners and their learning.

Summary In the reviewed literature, the study area of beginner teachers starts from the profile of teacher education students. Although not dealt with in this report, a major area of study encompasses who the new entrants are to education programmes at universities and colleges of education. In our literature review, we noted reservations and concerns about teacher education programmes in institutions tasked with the professional preparation of teachers. There is a feeling from some quarters that teacher education programmes are too theoretical and far removed from the experiences of classroom life. Others have argued that the teacher education programmes cannot keep up with changes and uncertainties in the teaching world. Lastly, the literature stressed the importance of induction, mentoring and general support of beginner teachers. It is within this context and backdrop that this study took place.

7

Beginner Teachers.indb 7

2/27/09 3:16:22 PM

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za Beginner Teachers.indb 8

2/27/09 3:16:23 PM

chapter 2

Research methodology Introduction

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Studies on beginner teachers in South Africa tend to be small-scale ones falling within the realm of postgraduate studies at universities (mainly master’s and doctoral theses). They are also restricted to one province and, within that province, to a single district and a few schools (Koeberg 1999; Lochner 1993; Van Vuuren 1989). As a result, this study aimed to cover a wide section of beginner teachers in a number of provinces. The study included an investigation of the perceptions of principals and HoDs about the skills and knowledge of beginner teachers. The study also sought to evaluate efforts by individual schools and by district, regional and provincial education offices to support and assist new teachers in their work. The evaluation was informed by earlier observations (see Knobloch & Whittington 2002) which found that without the necessary support (such as mentorship and induction programmes), many beginner teachers develop burnout symptoms in a short space of time.

Research questions The key research questions aimed at beginner teachers were: • What are the perceptions of beginner teachers of their skills, knowledge and competencies as beginner teachers? • What are the perceptions of beginner teachers of their work experience after the first, second and third year of teaching? • Did beginner teachers’ higher education prepare them adequately for the teaching profession? The key research questions aimed at principals and school managers were: • What are the perceptions of principals, deputy principals and subject heads of beginner teachers’ skills, knowledge and competencies? • What do school managers see as the key challenges facing beginner teachers? • According to school managers, what should be done to enhance the skills, knowledge and competencies of beginner teachers? • What should be done to retain beginner teachers within the education system?

Research design As this study targeted as many beginner teachers as possible, surveys proved to be the most suitable research instrument, hence the study drew extensively from survey research. A questionnaire was developed and administered. However, given the focus on beginner teachers’ skills, knowledge and competencies, the survey instrument had to be augmented with a qualitative component, as responses about these issues needed to be probed and elaborated on. The study therefore combined both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

9

Beginner Teachers.indb 9

2/27/09 3:16:23 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

Questionnaires and interview instruments were developed to guide the gathering of relevant data. Data from the questionnaires were analysed and informed the drafting of the interview instrument as a further elaboration and probing of the responses provided in the questionnaires. The research instruments were designed in such a way that they entailed both evaluation and exploratory aspects of the research. Evaluation is the systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide feedback about some object. The generic goal of most evaluations is to provide ‘useful feedback’ to a variety of audiences, including sponsors, donors, client groups, administrators, staff and other relevant constituencies. Most often, feedback is perceived as ‘useful’ if it aids in decision-making. Exploratory research is a type of research conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined, or because it allows researchers to gain a greater understanding of something that they do not know enough about. The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given situation.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

The • • • • • • •

instruments addressed the following: profile of the respondents; beginner teachers’ training; content and pedagogical knowledge of beginner teachers; beginner teachers’ assessment practices; support and management culture; opinions about their training; and whether beginner teachers want to stay in the profession.

In addition to the above, the research participants were also given the opportunity to raise other matters relating to beginner teachers’ skills, knowledge and competencies. Sampling As mentioned, the study covered teachers in five provinces: the Free State, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and the Western Cape. These provinces were selected on the basis of earlier research that showed that they were hiring new teachers in higher numbers in relative terms to the other provinces (Crouch 2001). Using PERSAL data, Crouch (2001) indicates that the five provinces had the highest ratio of beginner teachers joining the educator profession from 1998 to 1999. While turnover patterns have stabilised in the interim, at the time of this study (2006), these provinces still had the greatest potential to absorb beginner teachers in both urban and rural areas. To draw the sample, provincial-level PERSAL and Education Management Information Systems (EMIS) data showing appointment gains were used. Since appointments include beginner and experienced educators, these data were censored to exclude experienced educators. The PERSAL and EMIS data also indicated which schools appointed the largest number of new educators. The data provided an initial measure of the population size, the institutions beginner teachers graduated from, and information on the race, gender, age and educational achievements of beginner teachers. Whereas four provinces had initially been selected, more in-depth analysis of the PERSAL and EMIS databases necessitated the inclusion of a fifth province, the Free State, to supplement the low number of schools in the Western Cape employing beginner teachers. 10

Beginner Teachers.indb 10

2/27/09 3:16:23 PM

Research methodology

In selecting schools and teachers, these steps were followed: • A list of schools with educators who began their teaching careers in 2003, 2004 and 2005 was requested from the provincial education departments. • Only personnel who were permanently employed and appointed between 1 January 2003 and 31 December 2005 were considered for inclusion. • In order to reduce the possibility of older, more experienced teachers being included in the survey, the sample was further limited to teachers who were born on or after 1 January 1980. In cases where this did not produce enough schools and teachers, the birth date of teachers was extended to those born on or after 1 January 1976.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

The verification of school and eligible beginner teacher details was essential. This led to the exclusion of a number of potential respondents who were found to be ineligible. For instance, teachers who had not gone into teaching immediately after graduating from college or university were excluded, even though they could have been in their first three years of teaching at the time of the study. The series of challenges encountered affected the sampling strategy, and the final list of schools was ultimately obtained by default. Schools The selection of the schools was based on the presence of permanently employed beginner teachers (a minimum of two in each school). The intention was to apply a stratified random sampling technique to EMIS and PERSAL data where necessary – stratified by primary and secondary, urban and rural, and previous (pre-1994) education department. In four provinces (Free State, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga), 75 schools were chosen from each province, while in the Western Cape, 40 schools were chosen, making a total of 340 schools. The selection of schools was informed by data from the national DoE. Eight hundred questionnaires were sent to the selected 340 schools in the five provinces. Schools were also requested to indicate whether they were located in suburban areas, townships, rural areas or on farms. Five hundred and thirty completed questionnaires were returned. The majority of schools (41 per cent) were located in urban areas such as suburbs, 28 per cent in townships, while 31 per cent were located in rural areas (see Figure 2.1). The profile, in terms of the location of schools by province, differs. Most schools in KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga were in rural areas, in the Free State most schools were in townships, while in Gauteng and the Western Cape most schools were in suburbs. South African society is characterised by migration to the cities, which results in more people staying in these places – hence the high percentage of suburban and township schools in the sample. Schools in urban areas are also able to raise funds and create more teaching positions than those in rural areas. To a certain extent, this illustrates the inequalities in the resource base of schools in relation to geographic location. Schools in urban areas experience an increase in enrolment due to migration of families from rural to urban areas, hence the greater demand for beginner teachers in these urban schools.

11

Beginner Teachers.indb 11

2/27/09 3:16:24 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

Figure 2.1 Location of sampled schools Percentage

Rural

100

Suburb

Township

90 80

74

70 60 47

50 40

41

32

30

21

20

41

38 27

21

18

17

8

10 0

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

61

56

Free State

Gauteng

26

31

28

13

KwaZulu-Natal Mpumalanga Western Cape

Total

The aim of the sampling methodology was to maintain a 50/50 balance between primary and secondary schools. The appointment of new teachers, however, depends on the availability of posts at a school, irrespective of whether the school is a primary or a secondary school, or a rural or an urban school. Fifty per cent of all the schools sampled were secondary schools, while primary and combined schools made up the rest (see Table 2.1). Table 2.1 Sampled schools by phase Province

Combined* %

Primary %

Secondary %

Free State

13

30

57

Gauteng

2

69

29

KwaZulu-Natal

2

49

49

Mpumalanga

10

32

58

Western Cape

0

35

65

Total

6

44

50

Note: * Combined school includes both primary and secondary phases.

The sampled schools were linked to EMIS databases to provide information on the employment of beginner teachers at schools, according to former education department. Prior to 1994 South Africa had 18 education departments distributed throughout the provinces. For the purpose of this report, these former education departments were standardised by categorising them according to the population group they serviced before 1994, that is, African, coloured, Indian or white (see Table 2.2).

12

Beginner Teachers.indb 12

2/27/09 3:16:25 PM

Research methodology

Table 2.2 Sampled schools by former education department Western Cape %

Former education department

Free State %

Gauteng %

KwaZuluNatal %

Mpumalanga %

African

68

22

58

74

9

53

Coloured

0

0

0

0

30

3

Indian

0

2

28

0

0

8

White

29

76

7

15

61

31

New*

3

0

7

11

0

5

Total %

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Note: * New schools refer to schools registered with provincial departments of education after 1994.

Teachers The majority (53 per cent) of beginner teachers in the sampled schools were employed in schools from former African education departments such as the Department of Education and Training, and the KaNgwane, KwaNdebele and KwaZulu education departments. Approximately 31 per cent of beginner teachers were employed in former white education department schools, such as the Cape Education Department, the Transvaal Education Department, the House of Assembly and the Free State education department. A small percentage (8 per cent) was appointed in former Indian (House of Delegates) schools and 3 per cent in former coloured (House of Representatives) schools, the latter regional to the Western Cape. Five per cent of teachers were appointed in schools registered with provincial departments of education after 1994, referred to as new schools. The intention of the research was to reach as many beginner teachers as possible and, once again where possible, to maintain a 50/50 split in terms of gender. Table 2.3 gives a picture of the respondents by province and gender, and indicates that women constitute the highest proportion (69.5 per cent) of beginner teachers in the sampled schools; men make up 30.5 per cent. This corresponds to EMIS and PERSAL data which show that approximately 71 per cent of post level 1 teachers are women and 29 per cent are men. On the other hand, in terms of the gender distribution Table 2.3 Beginner teachers by province and gender Province

Male %

Female

Gauteng

20.4

79.6

KwaZulu-Natal

22.4

77.6

Mpumalanga

37.4

62.6

Free State

45.7

54.3

Western Cape

14.0

86.0

Total

30.5

69.5

%

13

Beginner Teachers.indb 13

2/27/09 3:16:25 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

of principals, HoDs and subject heads in the same schools where the study was conducted, males constituted 53 per cent and females 47 per cent. An analysis of the racial profile of beginner teachers in the sampled schools provides the following information: Africans make up 52 per cent of beginner teachers, followed by whites (39 per cent), Indians (6 per cent) and coloureds (3 per cent). In terms of gender (see Figure 2.2), 57.4 per cent of African beginner teachers are female and 42.6 per cent are male, giving a difference of 14.8 per cent – a very small difference compared to the other racial groups. White beginner teachers show an immense difference in the proportion of female to male teachers, reflecting the overall proportion of male to female white teachers in the profession. Females make up 83.3 per cent of all white beginner teachers, and males only 16.7 per cent. Indian beginner teachers show the same trend as white beginner teachers, with females making up 85.2 per cent and males 14.8 per cent. Coloured beginner teachers also have a considerable difference in percentage points between female (68.8 per cent) and male (31.2 per cent) teachers, but not as wide as that shown in the gender breakdown of white and Indian beginner teachers. Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Figure 2.2 Beginner teachers by race and gender Percentage 100

Male

90

85.2

80 60 50 40

83.3

68.8

70

Female

69.5

57.4 42.6 31.3

30 20

30.5 14.8

16.7

10 0

African

Coloured

Indian

White

Total

More than half (51.4 per cent) of beginner teachers in the sample are permanently employed, 45.4 per cent are temporarily employed, 1.3 per cent are substitute teachers and 1.9 per cent did not respond. According to some of the temporary teachers interviewed, many are employed by the DoE at overcrowded schools as a temporary measure to relieve the heavy workload of staff at a particular school. They are employed on a contractual basis, the period determined by the school, with the option of renewing the contract. Beginner teachers provided information on their highest qualification obtained. The information was disaggregated as follows: • 2.3 per cent have matric or lower than matric; • 0.4 per cent have matric plus one year (incomplete qualification); • 0.8 per cent have matric plus two years (incomplete qualification); 14

Beginner Teachers.indb 14

2/27/09 3:16:26 PM

Research methodology

• • • • • • •

31 per cent have matric plus three years’ educator training (e.g. PTD); 31.4 per cent have matric plus four or five years’ educator training (e.g. BEd, BPed); 3.4 per cent have a bachelor’s degree with no educator training (BA, BSc, BCom); 25 per cent have a bachelor’s degree with educator training (B+HDE, UED); 5.1 per cent have an honours or equivalent degree (BHons); 0.4 per cent have a master’s degree; and 0.6 per cent did not respond.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

The majority (92.9 per cent) of beginner teachers are qualified, while 7.1 per cent are underqualified (3.7 per cent have matric plus two years’ educator training or less and 3.4 per cent have a bachelor’s degree with no educator training). School managers For the survey, a two-stage random cluster sample of 600 school management personnel was drawn and stratified in terms of urban–rural schools, private–public distinctions, and socio-economic profiles of the areas in which the schools are located. Initial analysis of the survey data assisted in identifying participants for face-to-face interviews in four provinces (the Western Cape, Gauteng, Mpumalanga and KwaZuluNatal). Five schools were visited for the interviews in Mpumalanga, in three regions/ districts – Mhlanga/Ekangala, Nelspruit and Steelpoort. In Gauteng, two schools were visited in Pretoria North and two in Ekurhuleni East. In the Western Cape, two schools were visited in Kuilsriver and two in Khayelitsha. Four schools were visited in KwaZulu-Natal. In each school, one HoD from those who had completed the questionnaire was interviewed. Data collection methods Written surveys To access as many beginner teachers as possible, the written survey was chosen as the preferred initial research instrument. Eight hundred written questionnaires were sent to 340 schools in the five provinces. The schools included both primary and secondary schools. Five hundred and thirty completed questionnaires were returned, a response rate of 62 per cent. The questionnaire was developed according to the themes listed earlier. Face-to-face interviews As noted, analysis of survey data assisted in identifying respondents for face-to-face interviews. The objective of the interviews was to verify the responses of the survey and therefore formed part of the triangulation mechanism to see if there was any discrepancy between the two data sets (Did research participants agree with the overall findings of the survey or not?). Semi-structured interviews were conducted with teachers and school managers. This study notes the particular strength of the interview, confirming Olesen’s (1994) 15

Beginner Teachers.indb 15

2/27/09 3:16:26 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

proposition that if you want to know something about people’s activities, the best way of finding out is to ask them. The use of interviews also indicates a willingness on the part of the interviewer to treat individuals both as the heroes of their own drama and as valuable sources of particular information. Interviews introduced a human face to the data and aimed to test both the sincerity of the responses in the survey, as well as whether the respondents agreed with the preliminary analysis of the data or if they thought it was not a true representation of what they had said in the survey.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

When developing the interview instrument, a number of factors were considered and helped to phrase the questions. For example, one of the issues that came out strongly was the overall positive rating of the beginner teachers’ knowledge and the quality of their teaching. The interviews conducted with a number of HoDs served as elaboration and confirmation of survey data, and thus followed the same themes identified in the analysis of the survey data. Examples of themes pursued in the interview schedule were: the key challenges faced by beginner teachers; support structures and mechanisms; and the adequacy of beginner teachers’ professional training and their knowledge of their respective learning areas. In Mpumalanga, five schools were visited – three primary and two secondary. The schools were located in townships and suburbs in the Bronkhorstspruit, Witbank and Nelspruit areas. The interviews were conducted primarily with HoDs and beginner teachers. In KwaZulu-Natal, two primary and two secondary schools were visited over a period of two days. An analysis of the PERSAL data shows that the majority of beginner teachers prefer teaching in urban areas, hence the location of the selected schools in township and suburban areas. Interviews were conducted with deputy principals, HoDs and beginner teachers, and in two cases, with principals. Four schools (two primary and two secondary) were visited in the Western Cape in the following areas: Parow, Grabouw, Khayelitsha and Macassar. In three of the schools, interviews were conducted with principals and in one case, with the facilitator for teacher training. Six beginner teachers were interviewed, but in one school, due to unforeseen circumstances, it was not possible to interview beginner teachers. In Gauteng, two schools were visited in Pretoria North and two in Ekurhuleni East.

16

Beginner Teachers.indb 16

2/27/09 3:16:27 PM

chapter 3

Data presentation and analysis This section presents the data obtained through the surveys and the interviews – the data from the two research instruments are not treated separately. However, data from beginner teachers and data from school managers are initially presented and analysed separately, and then discussed together later.

Data from beginner teachers This section looks at beginner teachers’ education and training, specifically classroom activities and pedagogical competencies.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Classroom activities Teachers were asked about the pre-service training they had received in classroom activities, which were divided into student teaching; methods and materials you were taught; how to structure teaching and learning activities; discipline and classroom management strategies; education theory; assessment theories and practices; and interpersonal and public relations/skills. The ‘classroom activities’ section investigated the extent to which the teacher training curriculum programmes supported trainee teachers’ teaching. These curriculum programmes or themes were rated by teachers according to a four-point scale with the following parameters: ‘A lot’, ‘Moderately’, ‘Somewhat’ and ‘Not at all’. Most beginner teachers (63 per cent) considered ‘Student teaching’, the practical component of the education course, to be the most beneficial programme preparing them for the teaching profession. This could be because they gained first-hand experience of the school environment through interacting with learners, teachers and school management in a real school setting. A large proportion (48 per cent) of beginner teachers also considered the programmes ‘Methods and materials you were taught’ and ‘How to structure teaching and learning activities’ to be beneficial in their teaching practice. Teacher training programmes which received the lowest positive ratings from beginner teachers were ‘Education theory’, ‘Assessment theories and practice’ and ‘Interpersonal and public relations/skills’. More than 20 per cent of beginner teachers did not perceive these three programmes to have any impact at all on teaching practice. The implication of this information is that a large proportion of beginner teachers regard the practical component of their teacher education programme as the most beneficial. Beginner teachers felt that emphasis should be placed on methods, materials and how to structure teaching and learning activities. Not many beginner teachers put much faith in the theoretical component of the teacher education programme, specifically ‘Education theory’ and ‘Assessment theories and practice’.

17

Beginner Teachers.indb 17

2/27/09 3:16:27 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

The data pertaining to classroom activities curriculum programmes were further analysed to disaggregate the responses by gender, to see to what extent the responses differ between males and females. Male beginner teachers had higher and more positive responses than female beginner teachers regarding their preservice teacher training. In all the categories, the proportion of responses of male teachers was highest in the column ‘A lot’, indicating a positive response to preservice teacher training. Although the data are not analysed by gender, there seems to be a strong tendency among male teachers to be more positive than their female counterparts. Female beginner teachers ranked ‘Education theory’ higher than male beginner teachers – it was the fourth highest curriculum element selected by female beginner teachers, and the sixth highest for males. ‘Discipline and classroom management strategies’ was regarded by many males as the second most important curriculum element to impact positively on their teaching, while female beginner teachers ranked it lower, as their fifth most important curriculum element.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Pedagogical competencies The different styles or approaches to teaching are often referred to as the teacher’s pedagogy. When deciding what teaching method to use, a teacher will need to consider learners’ background knowledge, the environment, their learning goals, as well as the standardised curriculum as determined by their school district. Beginner teachers indicated how they perceived their own pedagogical competencies by completing a range of statements. Judging from the percentage responses to each statement, beginner teachers were very confident about their pedagogical competence in the classroom. When combining the categories ‘Strongly agree’ and ‘Agree’, more than 90 per cent of beginner teachers were extremely confident that they were more than adequate in lesson preparation, content knowledge, making key concepts explicit to learners, relating content knowledge to everyday experiences, helping learners to engage with texts, and creating a stimulating classroom environment. They also all felt that they were competent in classroom management. Interest in knowledge or skill areas Teachers also had to indicate knowledge or skill areas that they have an interest in pursuing. Respondents could only select one option from a given list. The majority considered ‘Counselling’ (36 per cent) as the most important area for further training, followed by ‘Classroom management and discipline’ (26 per cent), ‘Methods and materials in subject area’ (15 per cent), ‘Teaching methods’ (9 per cent) and ‘Education theory’ (5 per cent). One of the main reasons why ‘Classroom management and discipline’ and ‘Counselling’ were emphasised was clarified during the interview sessions. Beginner teachers felt that with the abolition of corporal punishment, they had not received training in alternative methods to deal with undisciplined learners. They had also

18

Beginner Teachers.indb 18

2/27/09 3:16:27 PM

Data presentation and analysis

not received training to deal with learners with learning problems or with family and social problems. The data were further analysed to observe whether there were any significant differences between types of schools. Both primary and secondary school respondents gave ‘Counselling’ the highest rating and ‘Education theory’ a low rating. However, there were significant differences in responses to the other options. Beginner teachers in secondary schools emphasised both ‘Counselling’ and ‘Classroom management and discipline’ as a first option, while the preference for ‘Counselling’ alone was more pronounced in primary schools. A significant proportion of teachers in secondary schools selected ‘Method and material in subject area’ as a third option, after ‘Counselling’ and ‘Classroom management and discipline’, while only a small proportion in primary schools selected this as an option.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Discussion of data from beginner teachers The responses of beginner teachers to questions dealing with conceptual knowledge, their grasp of their subject and concepts, and preparation and presentation of lessons were mainly positive. Most affirmed that they planned and prepared their lessons adequately, demonstrated adequate subject knowledge, were able to make key concepts explicit to learners, helped learners to engage with and interpret the subject matter, and that they were competent in classroom management. If the above data were to be accepted as an accurate reflection of the quality of the new cadre of beginner teachers in the profession, then it would suggest that institutions involved in the pre-service training of teachers have developed teacher education curricula that produce young teachers of high quality. However, accepting beginner teachers’ conceptual knowledge to be adequate to impressive would be in stark contrast to findings of several recent studies that deal with South African teacher quality. Vinjevold and Taylor (1999), for instance, argued that the main problems in South African schools were teachers’ low levels of conceptual knowledge, their poor grasp of their subject, and the range of errors made in the content and concepts presented in their lessons. The Ministerial Committee on Teacher Education (DoE 2005b) echoed these findings. Jansen (2004) also found that most teachers (especially in high schools) are under-prepared to teach the subject matter accurately and clearly. Why then is there such a major difference between the findings of recent research studies and the responses from beginner teachers? Assuming that the often cited work of Vinjevold and Taylor (1999), among others, is authoritative, then there are two possible conclusions. The first could be that the self-reported assuredness reflected in the responses of beginner teachers who participated in this study is questionable. In this case, the argument could be that despite their claims, recently qualified teachers are in reality not particularly well qualified or prepared to practise in schools. This would inevitably lead to a situation where the mediocrity of new teaching recruits merely reproduces the general ethos of mediocrity in the teaching corps that is claimed to exist by Vinjevold and Taylor (1999).

19

Beginner Teachers.indb 19

2/27/09 3:16:28 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

A second possible explanation for the contradiction between the teachers’ selfreported confidence and competence and the weakness of beginner teachers reported by researchers could be that something happens to the largely good-quality graduates who come out of our teacher education institutions – their experience in schools as full-time teachers, without nurturing or support, may eventually leach away their motivation and expertise. The discussion which follows interrogates only the possibility that the high level of self-reported competence of beginning teachers is not necessarily reflective of the reality. Later, the teachers’ self-reported competence will be analysed against the data collected from their school managers on the same issue, as well as against findings from the three studies already mentioned (DoE 2005b; Jansen 2004; Vinjevold & Taylor 1999).

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

The selections and comments teachers made in the survey were subjective. Teachers would have ascribed, consciously or not, underlying assumptions and consequences to each chosen answer and comment. This means that there is a likelihood that some respondents, anxious to present the ‘right picture’, felt pressure to exaggerate their own capabilities. It is possible that some young teachers deliberately inflated their own ratings because of the fear that school principals might study their completed questionnaires, despite the commitment of the HSRC to confidentiality in terms of a code of research ethics. In cases where beginner teachers may have exaggerated their competence, the triangulation of sources (teachers, school managers and literature/ other research findings) therefore helps to reduce the unreliability of the data. There are several other explanations for the high ratings beginner teachers give themselves. It is well documented that the first few years of teaching are extremely difficult for most teachers and present them with a range of experiences that are threatening to their sense of self. For many beginner teachers, to admit fallibility may not be an option and so, as they struggle to sustain their sense of personal competence, self-reported competence and confidence may serve as a coping mechanism. According to Samuel (2005), teacher identity within the early stages of a career is often uncertain and directed towards survival rather than towards developing teaching professionalism as an independently identified goal. Perhaps most beginner teachers really do think they are doing well in terms of their perception of a potentially threatening environment. Alternatively, it can be argued that beginner teachers are under such pressure to survive in their first two years that they have no space to engage in sustained levels of self-reflection, and that this is something that can be developed later. One principal, asked in an interview whether a teacher who is a relative newcomer to the field can be reliably assessed, argued as follows: I would say it is very difficult to have a rating of a teacher within the first two years. A teacher might have excellent communicative skills; a teacher on the other hand might have wonderful grounding and knowledge about the subject matter. But all the other aspects and issues that the person has to deal with will make him a good teacher. If he fails to pitch up for an after school training session, is he still a good teacher? If he stays absent the first quarter for four to five days, is he still a good teacher? You should 20

Beginner Teachers.indb 20

2/27/09 3:16:28 PM

Data presentation and analysis

look at the whole picture. If you mean by teacher, class teaching, that’s one aspect. Therefore you need to look at a much wider scope in view so that you can have a full picture of what is good and what is average, etc. Another contributing factor to beginner teachers resisting pressure to be self-critical could arise from what some have referred to as ‘teacher bashing’, where the actions of a few teachers are responsible for the negative public images of teaching in South Africa (SACE 2005). The South African Council of Educators argues that this has not only devalued the profession, but has also contributed to low teacher morale.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

These ways of explaining what may be interpreted as low levels of self-reflection among the respondents in this study require further exploration through the fields of developmental psychology, initial work experience of newly qualified professionals and identity formation of teachers in South Africa. The dominantly positive responses from beginner teachers and their self-assuredness invite consideration of whether beginner teachers have the necessary tools or the inclination to evaluate themselves. To consider this possibility, we must recap the findings on the beginner teachers’ knowledge. The view of beginner teachers was that within their initial teacher training curriculum, the programmes which most impacted on their current experience as full-time teachers were ‘Student teaching’, ‘Teaching methods’, ‘Materials development’ and ‘Discipline and classroom management strategies’. The programmes that, in their view, least impacted on their recent teaching experience were ‘Education theory’ and ‘Assessment theories and practices’. The pre-service training skills that received the highest rankings from beginner teachers were ‘Discipline and classroom management strategies’, ‘Communication skills’ and ‘Making subject matter interesting to learners’. The lowest ranked skills included ‘Assessment theories and practices’ and ‘Ability and willingness to reflect’. The kinds of knowledge and skills that beginner teachers were most likely to select for further training were counselling skills and classroom and management skills, whereas the lowest ranked skills set was ‘Education theory’. What the data analysis suggests is that beginner teachers do not fully appreciate the value of the theoretical foundations of their training. They also do not believe that understanding the theory and practice of assessment is particularly important in their daily practice. Yet, ironically, it is precisely these two fields that in theory and praxis can support the evolution of a teacher as a reflexive professional. The capacity for auto-critique is essential if teachers are to remain in a process of self-development and self-improvement through their careers. The data suggest that the inclination towards these activities is not strongly developed in beginner teachers. It could be that teacher training institutions do not sufficiently emphasise these skills, or teach theory badly, or teach poor theory unlinked to practice, or that young teachers simply do not value these skills. The question is, then, how can such faculties be developed? If young teachers are expected to be self-critical, where do they get the insights from when they are in a school? There are probably some developmental opportunities in schools where the ethos encourages pride in teacher professionalism and growth. But where does the inspiration come from in schools which do not have this strong ethos?

21

Beginner Teachers.indb 21

2/27/09 3:16:29 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

At the time that this study was conducted (2006), the DoE was implementing a form of teacher supervision and evaluation that recognised the capacity to be self-critical as an important element of teacher development. The Integrated Quality Management Systems (IQMS) represented a shift from the system of inspection to a system of selfevaluation and external evaluation. The system also attempted to link performance with the development and remuneration of teachers (SACE 2005). Each performance standard included a number of criteria. For each of these criteria there were four descriptors which were derived from the four-point rating scale: • Rating 1: Unacceptable. This level of performance does not meet minimum expectations and requires urgent intervention and support. • Rating 2: Satisfies minimum expectations. This level of performance is acceptable and is in line with minimum expectations, but development and support are still required. • Rating 3: Good. Performance is good and meets expectations, but some areas are still in need of development and support. • Rating 4: Outstanding. Performance is outstanding and exceeds expectations. Although performance is excellent, continuous self-development and improvement are advised (DoE 2003). However, this system experienced some problems. A newspaper article (Rapport 31 August 2006) reported that education officials were concerned that in 2006 approximately 90 per cent of Gauteng teachers were allocated the highest mark (4), and that Western Cape scores were also very high. The article mentioned that unconfirmed rumours had it that all teachers in KwaZulu-Natal were being considered for merit bonuses. This means that all teachers satisfied the minimum expectations, or received a score of 2 on the rating scale. According to a spokesperson from the Free State education department, only 127 teachers received a score of 4 in 2005, but more than 12 552 out of a total of 19 623 teachers, or 64 per cent, received a score of 3. In the North West, where the results for only three districts were available, 60 of 12 154 teachers received a score of 4 in 2006, against 6 704 who received a score of 3. The article closed with a remark from Firoz Patel, the Deputy Director General of Education, who agreed that the scores were seemingly on the high side. What is most clearly revealed in this implementation of the IQMS is that there is a broader political, labour and economic context in which teachers are encouraged to apply self-evaluation, and this context affects both beginner and more experienced teachers. The following quotation is taken from the South African Council of Educators’ The State of Teacher Professionalism in South Africa: The performance measurement system on the other hand is based on managerialism which does not acknowledge the ability of teachers to make their own development paths (Gardiner, 2003). Gardiner concludes that IQMS was designed by the bureaucrats to simplify their job – it was conceived more for convenience rather than to support teachers and to recognise their ability to make professional judgement. If this is the case why did teacher organisations agree to sign the policy? One reason could be that the policy is seen as a compromise between developmental appraisal and bureaucratic accountability. It is also important to note that the policy was agreed upon after a lengthy period of discussions. The negotiations that preceded the policy were controversial and contested around issues on: ‘who would control it, what it would contain, who would 22

Beginner Teachers.indb 22

2/27/09 3:16:30 PM

Data presentation and analysis

keep records, who would do the evaluation and whether the departments would be able to enter classrooms to evaluate teacher performance’ (Chisholm and Hoadley, 2005: 5). So, the IQMS is a compromise between the government and the teacher organisations. The fact that the policy is linked to improvement of teachers’ salaries could have played a part in persuading teacher organisation to accept the policy. (SACE 2005: 23)

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Data from school managers The findings presented in this section focus on a number of key issues about beginner teachers mined from the survey and interview data of school managers. The selection of key issues was also informed by a reading of the literature on beginner teachers, which highlighted certain aspects, to the exclusion of others. It is important to note that some questions in the research instruments were condensed into broad categories instead of each question being treated separately. Before looking at the central issues that impact on beginner teachers during their daily routine in schools, it would be appropriate to reflect briefly on the experiences of schools in recruiting suitably qualified teachers. This is important, as a number of studies indicate that some schools encounter serious impediments in recruiting qualified teachers. Recruitment of suitably qualified teachers While recruitment of appropriately qualified teachers is of secondary importance in a study that focuses on beginner teachers’ knowledge, skills and teaching competencies, it constitutes a point of departure in this study. There is a need to pay closer attention to issues that influence entry into the schools, as well as life in the school. Both the survey and interview research instruments solicited information about recruitment of suitably qualified teachers. One of the findings of this study relates to problems experienced in hiring suitably qualified beginner teachers in schools located in suburban and rural communities. Approximately 26 per cent of respondents in suburban schools indicated that they experience some difficulty in this area. Only 19 per cent said they do not encounter problems in hiring appropriately qualified teachers. In contrast, 18 per cent of HoDs in township schools reported experiencing no problems in employing suitably qualified new teachers, compared to only 14 per cent who said they experience problems in this regard. Among rural schools, 14.5 per cent indicated that they encounter problems when looking for suitably qualified teachers; 12.5 per cent said they experience little difficulty. The point remains that a significant number of suburban and rural schools reported encountering difficulties in recruiting teachers, compared to a lower percentage of township schools. For the suburban schools, this was related more to appropriately qualified mathematics and science teachers, while for rural schools, the problem had more to do with the geographic location of the schools. The respondents were asked about factors explaining the difficulty of hiring qualified beginner teachers. Most respondents suggested that there is an overall shortage of suitably qualified science and mathematics beginner teachers. An analysis of the responses showed that while this view was shared by a high number of respondents, there was a slight variation between suburban and rural schools. A considerable 23

Beginner Teachers.indb 23

2/27/09 3:16:30 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

number of respondents from rural communities mentioned that, in addition to a shortage of qualified mathematics and science teachers, the location of their schools contributes to the difficulty in attracting qualified teachers. It was suggested that many people do not want to teach in rural communities. Some respondents pointed out that the teaching profession is not attracting many matriculants and this accounts for the diminishing pool of qualified teachers from which to recruit. This is a result of the decline in the status of the teaching profession: ‘Fewer young people are being attracted to the teaching profession due to negative media coverage [of educational issues], perceived discipline difficulties, etc.’ (Interview, Male, HoD 3, Western Cape, 2006).

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

In contrast, those who said they experience little difficulty in recruiting appropriately qualified teachers mentioned a few reasons for this: the proximity of their schools to universities and the fact that teacher trainees conduct their practice teaching in their schools. The teacher trainees ‘are being spotted when they come for practice teaching and recruited then’ (Interview, Male, HoD 2, KwaZulu-Natal, 2006). Observation of beginner teachers’ lessons The research instrument solicited information from school managers concerning the number of lessons of beginner teachers they observe per annum. Part of the rationale behind this question is that lesson observations by school managers enable them to gain a comprehensive and detailed picture of the competencies of beginner teachers – what they can and cannot do. This is also based on research findings that show the indispensability of physically observing lessons offered by beginner teachers in order to gain an understanding of their teaching capabilities and competencies (Ball & Bass 2000). After a preliminary analysis of the survey data, it was clear that about one-third (33.7 per cent) of school managers do not observe a considerable number of beginner teachers’ lessons. In the follow-up interviews, almost all the respondents from township and rural schools agreed that they observe few lessons of beginner teachers, largely as a result of their own teaching load. This is exacerbated by the high number of learners in each class. One of the respondents was quite angry at the suggestion that he should observe teachers’ lessons while he was ‘overloaded’ with teaching responsibilities as well as management duties. Some of these school managers felt it is illogical of the DoE to expect them to assist new teachers while their teaching load affords them little time, if any, to observe beginner teachers’ lessons: I would respond quickly to that. Admission of learners in the township is a problem. In some of the classes we have more than 50 learners instead of the ratio of 1 to 35. We cannot turn the learners away as the department says we should admit them and they will come and help but they never pitch. And some of the parents insist that they want their children at this school because they cannot afford transport money. Now how do you observe a class with 52 learners? Now as an HoD I have more classes. Now in terms of the administrative job I cannot do everything [emphasised with stern voice]. I need to mark, I need to do lesson plan, I need to check learners’ classwork and homework. I mean in my class I have 54 learners, 24

Beginner Teachers.indb 24

2/27/09 3:16:30 PM

Data presentation and analysis

I can show you the class lists if you want. In other classes there are more than 57 learners. We are overloaded with work and the department does not help. (Interview, Male, HoD 2, Gauteng, May 2006) Essentially, the respondent argues that, given their workload, it is unrealistic of the DoE to expect HoDs to observe the lessons of beginner teachers. Two issues stand out in the preceding quote: teacher workload and large classes. In a situation where an individual hardly manages to adequately attend to their own teaching responsibilities, asking that person to oversee other teachers’ work is not only taxing but also unrealistic. The respondent indicates that he would love to get a sense of beginner teachers’ teaching but cannot do this because of large classes and teaching load.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Thus, most school managers relied heavily on teachers’ files to get a sense of their teaching capabilities, rather than on observing lessons. It is through educators’ files that school managers gain an understanding of beginner teachers’ skills and competencies. An HoD stated the following in an interview: Normally what we do is, we have got dates where they [teachers] submit files, which we call ‘educators’ files’ and then we control them. There are various aspects that we look at. And in looking at the various aspects in the files, you can tell where the teacher has got problems. We also go through the learners’ books that he [the teacher] is teaching. And by looking at this you could tell where the teacher is struggling. But over and above that we have this IQMS now. There is a questionnaire that you have to fill in and by going through the questionnaire you are able to identify where the teacher is struggling. (Interview, Male, HoD 1, Gauteng, May 2006) Many of the HoDs interviewed shared this point of looking at beginner teachers’ files to understand their teaching capabilities and competencies. In both the survey and the interviews, a high number of respondents highlighted the fact that educator files enable them to identify areas of strength and weakness in beginner teachers’ schoolwork. By going through teachers’ files, school managers are able to devise appropriate intervention strategies to enhance the skills of new teachers. Very few research participants identified the lack of lesson observations as a limitation in their attempts to gain a full picture of the teaching capabilities of beginner teachers. In the interviews about the role of teachers’ files, three types of responses were recorded: the importance of the files; some mixed reactions showing both the merits and demerits of the files; and negative responses. Within the first category of responses, the interviewees asserted the importance of teacher files: Of course the files are very important, they give you the idea of what you have taught and what you still have to teach and so on. And when the HoD goes through your file he gets an idea where each educator needs some kind of help. You need some help here, you need to do something about this area, improve this, you know what I am talking about. (Interview, Male, HoD 3, KwaZulu-Natal, May 2006) The second category of responses to the teacher files was neutral or indicated both merits and demerits. In this category, school managers recognised the amount of work that went into keeping an up-to-date file, but also cautioned against teachers whose excellent files were not reflected in their classroom teaching. 25

Beginner Teachers.indb 25

2/27/09 3:16:31 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

In relation to the third category of responses, the participants were very sceptical about the value of teachers’ files, arguing that what is in the file is not a true reflection of what transpires in the classroom: They can put all the lesson plans, all the tests, put all the question papers, your classwork, your homework and everything. It would look glamorous, glittering, but at the end of the day, is what is in your file a reflection of what you do in class? That’s the question. I know there was a teacher who worked here. Every time when I looked at the file it was good. I never got any hassles. He did not give me any hassles but pay him a visit in class, Hm! We are talking of a different story altogether. He could hardly say a good thing in his lesson. You would look at the children in front of him and feel sorry for them. He was not doing anything. What was in the file was totally different from what was presented in class. (Interview, Male, HoD 1, KwaZulu-Natal, May 2006)

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

The essence of the argument here is that what is contained in an educator’s file is not necessarily a reflection of what is actually presented in class. This highlights the importance of complementing the file with classroom observation – something that most of the school managers in this study did not do. It is important, however, to note that while lesson observations provide valuable information about teaching competencies, they have their own limitations – the teaching–learning environment is transformed from a natural to an artificial one, and becomes threatening due to the presence of the principal, the HoD or, worse, a district education official. Professional training of beginner teachers The research participants were asked about their general perceptions of beginner teachers’ professional training. Overall, a high number of respondents (68 per cent) rated the training beginner teachers had received as satisfactory and highly commendable. Only about 8 per cent raised issues with beginner teachers’ training while 24 per cent suggested it was average. Most respondents alluded to the fact that universities, which are generally rated higher than the now defunct colleges of education, are offering teacher training. The main contention is that the kind of higher education institution and its reputation contribute to whether a teacher education programme is good or not. According to the respondents, it does not necessarily matter whether the teachers went through a three- or four-year teacher training course; what is key is the type of institution that the teacher attended. Most of the respondents classified institutions of higher learning (into historically white/ metropolitan universities such as the University of Cape Town and the University of the Witwatersrand, and historically black/rural universities such as Turfloop and the University of Fort Hare), noting that they influence the knowledge, skills and competencies of beginner teachers. If these institutions are perceived not to be good, this implies that their graduates are also not good. On this issue, there were no significant differences between the provinces and the different school types (suburban, township, rural, farm). The main point is that the majority of respondents suggested that teacher education provided by universities is much better than that which was offered in the past by 26

Beginner Teachers.indb 26

2/27/09 3:16:31 PM

Data presentation and analysis

colleges of education. It should be noted, however, that the research participants were not overtly critical about the education that was provided by the colleges. Beginner teachers’ commitment

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

The research instrument solicited information about beginner teachers’ lesson attendance. About 90 per cent of the respondents across the provinces and different school types stated that beginner teachers attend their lessons regularly. Nearly all the research participants (above 92 per cent) reported very few instances of beginner teachers failing to attend lessons consistently. Interview data also confirmed the existence of school attendance registers and the monitoring of lesson attendance. It is encouraging to note the improvement in lesson attendance since the late 1980s and early 1990s, periods which were characterised by laxity among some teachers in attending their lessons (a phenomenon commonly referred to as the lack of a culture of teaching and learning) (Christie 1998; Christie & Potterton 1997). This resulted in the national DoE introducing school and lesson attendance registers whereby teachers had to sign for being present at the school. However, as will be shown later, being at school and in class is only a means to an end, rather than an end in itself. What counts most is whether productive teaching takes place while the teacher is in class. Teachers could regularly attend school and lessons and yet engage in minimal teaching. Beginner teachers’ skills, knowledge and competencies In line with the overall aim of the study, a large part of the research instrument focused on beginner teachers’ content and pedagogical knowledge, and required school managers to rate this. The reasoning behind this set of questions arises from the growing body of research that shows a positive correlation between teachers who have a deep understanding of their subject or learning area (including pedagogical skills) and high learner achievement scores. Briefly, this study privileges beginner teachers’ (and all other teachers’) content and pedagogical knowledge in an attempt to improve schooling and educational quality. The school managers were thus asked if beginner teachers possessed the requisite skills and knowledge to teach well. The respondents were asked to rank the content knowledge of beginner teachers on a scale of 1 to 5 (with 1 representing the lowest ranking, least desirable, and 5 the highest ranking, most desirable). Sixty-one per cent of the respondents pointed out that beginner teachers’ content knowledge was good (4 to 5 on the scale). In contrast, 35 per cent rated beginner teachers’ content knowledge as average, while 4 per cent suggested that some beginner teachers’ content knowledge was poor (1 to 2 on the scale). The responses were disaggregated by the geographic location of the schools in an attempt to see whether the responses from school managers in, for example, suburban or township schools differed significantly from those in rural schools – there were no significant differences in opinion among the provinces. There were also no significant differences across the various categories of school. The data were further analysed in terms of the qualifications of the research participants and, similarly, there were no significant differences in the answers provided by those with honours, master’s or doctoral degrees and those with junior degrees.

27

Beginner Teachers.indb 27

2/27/09 3:16:32 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

In interviews with the school managers, similar perceptions of beginner teachers’ content knowledge (generally good) emerged. One of the respondents put it this way: I personally think they [beginner teachers] are good. I mean they are taught the new curriculum, OBE [Outcomes Based Education]. They know it better than the older teachers. Actually the older teachers struggle with the new curriculum and not the new teachers. I don’t see a problem with their knowledge of the new curriculum. (Interview, Male, HoD 2, Mpumalanga, May 2006)

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Another respondent voiced the same argument: ‘I feel that beginner teachers sometimes are more informed because they have studied the latest research. It is the older teachers that should improve their practice’ (Interview, Male, HoD 2, Western Cape, April 2006). Still another respondent captured the essence of good content knowledge as follows: ‘Most of the teachers have the academic knowledge but I do feel they need more “hands on” experience’ (Interview, Male, HoD 1, Western Cape, April 2006). While the respondent indicated that beginner teachers know their learning areas, he simultaneously expressed reservations about beginner teachers’ applied pedagogical knowledge (practice teaching), an issue which many other respondents raised. In relation to beginner teachers’ pedagogical knowledge, about 50 per cent of the respondents suggested it was satisfactory, while 43 per cent ranked it as average. Only 7 per cent identified pedagogical knowledge as a problem area. As with content knowledge, there were no significant differences in opinion among the provinces or the various school types on beginner teachers’ pedagogical knowledge. Research participants were required to provide reasons for their rating of pedagogical knowledge. A number of participants mentioned the insufficient practical preparation of beginner teachers, which manifested itself in, for example, poor use of the chalkboard and poor classroom management. It was suggested that teacher training institutions should give a considerable amount of time to practice teaching to fully prepare beginner teachers for their teaching responsibilities. One HoD explained: Learnerships and internships in which students actually engage in the teaching and learning processes are woefully inadequate. A year-long wishy-washy of pseudo-academic and little practical experience means that many [new teachers] fall back on their recollections of their own (often poor) schooling. (Interview, Male, HoD 1, KwaZulu-Natal, May 2006) Thus when one compares the responses of school managers about beginner teachers’ content knowledge and their pedagogical knowledge, the latter was ranked low. This indicates that a major area of attention should be pedagogical knowledge. In addition to knowledge of the content and pedagogy, school managers were asked about the quality of beginner teachers’ teaching – whether they thought these teachers taught well or poorly. Over 55 per cent (combining the ‘Good’ and ‘Very good’ categories) of school managers thought beginner teachers do a good job. About 43 per cent ranked beginner teachers’ teaching as average and only 2.3 per cent rated their teaching as poor.

28

Beginner Teachers.indb 28

2/27/09 3:16:32 PM

Data presentation and analysis

While an insignificant percentage of respondents rated the quality of teaching as poor, this should be a point of concern, given that a significant percentage (43.1) ranked beginner teachers’ quality of teaching as average and only a few (8 per cent) rated it as ‘Very good’. To summarise, the quality of teaching and content and pedagogical knowledge were generally rated highly. According to many school managers, the knowledge, skills and quality of beginner teachers are not points of major concern.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

When asked to provide reasons for the positive way they rated beginner teachers’ teaching, 20 per cent of the respondents mentioned the fact that universities are the exclusive providers of teacher education, as colleges of education were either incorporated into universities or closed down in 2001. This implies that school managers in the sample seem to be doubtful of the quality of teacher training offered by colleges of education as compared to that offered by universities. As one research participant put it: We no longer get teachers from colleges and I think it is good. [Some of] these teachers are taught the latest information and research about teaching. But I don’t think they are given enough practical experience. (Interview, Male, HoD 1, Gauteng, May 2006) On the issue of inadequate practical knowledge, one of the school managers recommended ‘hands-on’ teacher training, as done in the medical profession: ‘[Teacher training] should have three years training plus one year of “hands-on” training in a good school – [an] intern[ship] year as medical doctors have’ (Interview, Male, HoD 2, KwaZulu-Natal, May 2006). Another school manager had this to say: They [beginner teachers] should be exposed to important things applicable in the education field. For example, they struggle with chalkboard writing. The fourth year should be an intern year, so that students gain vital experience of teaching practice. (Interview, Male, HoD 4, KwaZulu-Natal, May 2006) The central thrust in these quotations relates to practice teaching. The respondents suggest that this aspect is not given sufficient attention at teacher education institutions and hence leaves new teachers with little practical experience in teaching. One respondent thus recommended a year-long internship in a school and, as he argued, ‘…a good school which would provide relevant exposure and experience to the dynamics of teaching’ (Interview, Male, HoD 3, Gauteng, May 2006). It is worth commenting on the emphasis of a ‘good school’. If internship is offered in a poorly managed school, it would defeat the purpose of such a programme. It could be argued, however, that sending student teachers to ‘good’ schools for teaching practice, when they will not get teaching posts in those schools, does not prepare them for what they will encounter in poorly managed schools. The point that teacher training courses do not prepare new teachers for classroom realities was also made in the literature review. So, although many research participants appear to be satisfied with teacher training located in universities (there are, however, reservations about certain universities), there is concern that these institutions are not giving new teachers adequate practical experience. This weakness of teacher preparation programmes will be dealt with in more detail later.

29

Beginner Teachers.indb 29

2/27/09 3:16:33 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

Another reason provided for the high ratings for knowledge and quality of teaching is that in some schools new teachers do not come straight from universities. These schools get teachers who taught elsewhere for some time. You see in our case, we do not get teachers who are fresh from college. You will find a teacher has taught for one year at another school as a temporary teacher and then comes to our school as a permanently employed teacher. The elementary level that they enter into our system is good. Like for instance, now you never find practical teachers [teacher trainees doing practice teaching]. It is very rare. (Interview, Male, HoD 4, Mpumalanga, May 2006)

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Responses about the quality of beginner teachers’ teaching were disaggregated by school type, and no significant differences were observed. When disaggregated by province, significant differences were noted between the Free State and the four other provinces. Gauteng, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal and the Western Cape had fairly similar percentages, whereas the Free State had percentages that were significantly higher than those of the other provinces, by about six percentage points. Assessment practices/strategies Assessment in education forms a key component of the quality of teaching and learning and, if used appropriately, improves teaching and learner outcomes. A section of the research instrument focused on various aspects of assessment, ranging from the variety of assessment strategies used to whether assessment is used to improve teaching and learning. Assessment forms the core component of teaching, in the sense that teachers should be able to use appropriate assessment strategies and such strategies should enable them to diagnose learners’ learning difficulties. The majority of school managers were satisfied with beginner teachers’ assessment practices and their effectiveness and efficiency. Seventy-eight per cent of respondents were of the view that beginner teachers use assessment effectively; only 21 per cent disagreed and 1 per cent did not respond. Most respondents stated that beginner teachers use a variety of assessment methods – such as formative, summative and diagnostic – and that these strategies are used effectively. There was a slight variation between the provinces, with Mpumalanga and the Free State reporting a low percentage of overall effective use of assessment. In the interviews, school managers were asked to provide concrete examples of how assessment is used to improve teaching and learning. All the respondents indicated that beginner teachers are able to use assessment to improve teaching and learning but when asked to name one example, most were unable to do so. In one of the few cases mentioned, a respondent said: Because what we normally do is what we call results analysis, especially if they are writing monthly tests and half-yearly examination. When they finish marking, results are analysed. And if you analyse results, probably you are doing diagnosis, that’s where you find out where learners have difficulties and they come up with intervention programmes and remedy the situation. (Interview, Male, HoD 2, Gauteng, May 2006)

30

Beginner Teachers.indb 30

2/27/09 3:16:33 PM

Data presentation and analysis

While this gives some sense of the use of assessment to improve teaching and learning, it is too broad and somehow casts doubts on the HoD’s familiarity with beginner teachers’ use of assessment. In one of the interviews, it was stated that beginner teachers merely cope with assessment, rather than doing a good job of it: ‘I can say they cope. They are usually go-getters, and ask for information from more experienced teachers and this assists them to cope’ (Interview, Male, HoD 1, Western Cape, May 2006).

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Beginner teacher support One of the themes explored extensively by the research instrument relates to support given to beginner teachers. The importance of support to beginner teachers has been found to be a major factor in determining whether they stay in the profession for any length of time. In the absence of support, a high number of beginner teachers have difficulty coping with the school environment and as a result develop burnout symptoms and opt out of the system. In cases where there is support, it emanates mainly from two sources: the education district office, and the school governing body (SGB) and/or school management. Support from education district office The analysis of responses about support offered to beginner teachers by the DoE (provincial and district offices) showed that 59 per cent of the research participants were not aware of any support by the DoE. Overall, most of the school managers suggested that the DoE gives no support to beginner teachers. Differences were noted in the Free State and Mpumalanga, where a higher percentage of respondents stated that they get support, compared to a low percentage who said there is no support. In the Free State, the difference between those who said they receive support and those who pointed out that there is no support was about 6 per cent, while in Mpumalanga it was 3.2 per cent. Thus, there was no consistent and similar pattern among the five provinces. The 41 per cent who claimed that the DoE district offices provide support to beginner teachers talked at length about workshops initiated by the DoE. These included workshops to familiarise teachers with the changes introduced by the Revised National Curriculum Statement. The survey data about DoE support were probed during individual interviews with HoDs. One respondent said: ‘There is no support at all to assist new teachers. You will get circulars asking you about how many teachers at your school attended courses and it will end there. There is no follow up at all’ (Interview, Male, HoD 1, Mpumalanga, 2006). Another HoD expressed the same view: ‘I am not aware of any support, but at the beginning of each year, there are reports that they [district education office] request. We send to the district, regarding some areas where we need help’ (Interview, Male, HoD 3, Mpumalanga, May 2006). The respondents’ evaluation of the DoE workshops led them to conclude that they are not benefiting either experienced or beginner teachers. According to some of the research participants, the workshops are a waste of time:

31

Beginner Teachers.indb 31

2/27/09 3:16:33 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

But there are too many workshops that teachers go to at the moment. Whether those workshops are helping the teachers, no one knows. I once attended the workshops, when was it? – somewhere in June, during the holidays about the [R]NCS [Revised National Curriculum Statement], that they are trying to introduce. I don’t think the time that is given to the teachers to attend the workshop is enough. So you come back not knowing whether you have gained something or not. But as far as I am concerned, Hayi-i-i! [no, no, no] they are not working! For me they are not working, they are not working at all. You feel you have wasted your time by attending those workshops. (Interview, Male, HoD 2, KwaZulu-Natal, 2006)

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Support from SGBs and school managers The other source of support came from the school itself, either through SGBs or school management. Thirty-nine per cent of research participants pointed out that their SGB offers support to beginner teachers, while 61 per cent said their SGB does not offer support. In terms of the distribution of respondents according to whether they were urban or rural, the pattern of SGB support for beginner teachers was very similar: the majority reported that SGBs do not offer support. Various respondents had this to say about support from SGBs: ‘They [SGBs] are unaware of the needs of the new teachers and are probably unqualified to assist professionally.’ The SGBs are ‘not fully equipped with the skills, knowledge to assist new teachers’. The SGB members are ‘not professionally qualified’ to assist or support beginner teachers. In one case (from a rural school), it was mentioned that the members of the SGB are ‘unavailable most or all of the time, they do not assist’. Overall, a number of interviewees stated that the members of the SGBs do not have the necessary skills or qualifications to assist and support teachers. The school managers were also asked about whether SGBs contribute to the induction of new teachers. Most responses again indicated that this is not the case. Some respondents suggested that the role of the SGB is concerned with governance of the school and has very little to do with matters pertaining to teaching. Research participants discussed indirect support to beginner teachers, through school management being given training in departmental workshops aimed at enhancing the skills, knowledge and teaching competencies of beginner and other teachers. Some schools were reported to have initiated their own support programmes to induct beginner teachers. One of the respondents (Interview, Male, HoD 2, Gauteng, April 2006) captured school-based support as follows: ‘Our SGB gives support to every effort which is aimed at betterment of the school. In the budget they put aside money for professional development.’ It was also stated that SGBs assist with creating the right teaching and learning environment, such as providing teaching and learning resources and attending to disciplinary problems. In addition, he stated that members of the SGB recommend candidates (new teachers) to be employed but are not involved thereafter: ‘Apart from recruitment, no other function is organised by the SGB.’ The respondent suggested that members of the SGB are not involved ‘directly’ in the support of beginner teachers: ‘Individual SGBs ensure that the school is properly managed and funded to ensure that quality teaching and learning takes place.’

32

Beginner Teachers.indb 32

2/27/09 3:16:34 PM

Data presentation and analysis

The data further indicate the (limited) role of subject advisors. It was suggested that while subject advisors are there to assist, they focus on Grade 12 and pay little attention to the lower grades: ‘There are no induction programmes conducted. Subject advisors are only interested in Grade 12’ (Interview, Male, HoD 3, Mpumalanga, April 2006). The point about Grade 12 getting almost all the attention was also observed in a study by Phurutse on matric pass rates, where many teachers argued that less attention is given to the lower grades: The department [of education] pressurises Grade 12 teachers as if school starts and ends at Grade 12. What I mean is, there is no pressure for Grade 8, 9, 10 teachers. So if the department can treat all teachers equally, I think there will be more improvement. I mean Grade 10 teachers are as important as Grade 12 teachers. (Phurutse 2006: 213)

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Beginner teachers’ strengths Given that a growing body of research depicts school managers as instructional leaders with insights into the teaching competencies of their staff, research participants in this study were requested to identify the strengths and weaknesses of beginner teachers. The following were the strengths: • innovative and willing to learn and explore; • good theoretical knowledge; • committed, passionate and energetic; • hardworking; and • respectful of authorities. As noted, the data indicate that the majority of respondents identified beginner teachers’ good content knowledge. It was also suggested that many beginner teachers try to do their best when they start teaching but in due course are bogged down by the system. A significant percentage (60 per cent) stated that beginner teachers are innovative and willing to learn and explore new things. The respondents contrasted this with more experienced teachers, some of whom tend to see teaching as a routine task and who are therefore not exploratory or innovative enough. Many beginner teachers, on the other hand, are committed, passionate and energetic about their new job, although this enthusiasm often wanes with time. One respondent mentioned that one of their new teachers tried to establish a school magazine/newspaper, but because of lack of support, this ended at the conceptualisation phase. The identification of theoretical knowledge as a strength of the beginner teachers was consistent with the positive assessment of their skills, knowledge and competencies. School managers noted, in particular, that beginner teachers are grounded in the new learning areas and curriculum, something that is often lacking in many of the older, more experienced teachers. It was further pointed out that beginner teachers are hardworking and respectful of authorities. This was noted only in the early years of beginner teachers’ teaching careers. As time passes, the risk increases of new teachers emulating the practices of those older teachers who are less hardworking and committed to the profession. If beginner teachers’ hardworking attitude could be nurtured, the DoE would gain much from their employment period.

33

Beginner Teachers.indb 33

2/27/09 3:16:34 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

Beginner teachers’ weaknesses The weaknesses that were identified were (listed in the order of most cited to least mentioned): • lack of teaching experience/poor teaching methodology/lack of thorough planning; • inability to control large classes; • preoccupation with rights and labour issues; and • laziness.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Lack of teaching experience/Poor teaching methodology When asked about beginner teachers’ weaknesses, 67 per cent of respondents identified lack of teaching experience and poor teaching methodology. The first aspect is not surprising, as in most cases these teachers are fresh from institutions of higher learning. However, this contradicts the school managers’ high rating of beginner teachers on an earlier question about their pedagogical practices. Inability to control large classes Analysis of the data indicates that most respondents (58 per cent) viewed beginner teachers’ difficulty in controlling large classes as a weakness. Slight differences were noted in terms of school type – disciplinary problems were more pronounced in secondary than in primary schools. In the interviews, most of the respondents lamented the abolishment of corporal punishment, arguing that this engenders ill discipline in learners as they know they will not be caned or otherwise physically punished. According to most of the interviewees, lack of methods of inflicting (physical) pain on learners contributes to ill discipline. No major differences were noted between the provinces with regard to this issue. Classroom management and discipline was also chosen by most beginner teachers as an area in which they would like to get more knowledge and skills. There seems to be some correlation, therefore, between data from beginner teachers and from school managers on beginner teachers’ need for training and support in the area of learner discipline. Further analysis of the data shows that a number of school managers are of the view that beginner teachers’ inability to control large classes is related to their age. Mature beginner teachers – those in their late thirties – were reported to be able to control large classes. Again this had a gender dimension – it was observed that some female teachers in secondary schools struggle to maintain discipline in class. A case of a female teacher in her early twenties was mentioned and it was noted that older boys in class were most problematic: We had a young beautiful mistress [female teacher] who was a bit short and some of the boys would tease her, and went around telling others that they love her [were sexually attracted to her]. At one time I don’t know exactly what happened in class but she was crying in the staffroom. To tell you the truth, it was really tough for her and I think the school management and all the staff members are to blame [for not giving her support]. Because of this she left the school. I think the other problem is that we have over-age learners who are in their early twenties. They are not well behaved these boys. (Interview, Male, HoD 4, Gauteng, May 2006) 34

Beginner Teachers.indb 34

2/27/09 3:16:35 PM

Data presentation and analysis

At issue here are poor classroom management strategies, which are exacerbated by unruly behaviour that is directed, in most cases, at female teachers. The ill discipline is more pronounced at secondary schools and in some cases may lead to the resignation of new teachers who cannot cope. The analysis of classroom management issues (disciplinary problems) was disaggregated according to school type and showed that township schools have more experiences of learner ill discipline than suburban schools.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Preoccupation with rights and labour issues Another weakness of beginner teachers, according to school managers, relates to rights and labour issues. A considerable number of respondents mentioned that beginner teachers are more concerned with rights and labour issues than with teaching and learning. Laziness About 3 per cent of school managers suggested that some beginner teachers are lazy. These respondents went on to ask why such students opted for teaching in the first place. This can be related to the finding in many studies that some students take teaching not as their first career choice but because they have been denied admission to other faculties. Key challenges for beginner teachers One of the central questions in the interview schedule relates to key challenges faced by new teachers in their early years of teaching. Most of the respondents in the interviews (10 out of 13), especially in township and rural schools, identified general ill discipline in schools as a huge problem for young beginner teachers, whose age in some cases is not very different from that of some of their older learners. One of the HoDs commented: Within our communities, there is no essence and commitment to learning, to studying. When you tip [advise] learners about how to study, they will rather spend all the time watching all the movies and soapies and when it is 11 o’clock they are tired. And in the morning you ask the learners: Can I see your homework? And you find that only one of them did it. Most of the learners are not committed to their learning, especially in the township. It is really a problem; you go from one school to another you find the same thing. I can invite you for a week to do observations around the school and you will see that the learners are not committed to their education. I don’t know what happened but they are not committed and this is really a problem. There is something wrong with today’s learners. And it is not a problem that can be solved by Naledi Pandor [Minister of Education]. (Interview, Male, HoD 3, Mpumalanga, 2006) The problem of learner ill discipline was mentioned frequently and was linked to the scrapping of corporal punishment. School managers also noted the lack of parental support, manifested in parents’ failure to attend school meetings.

35

Beginner Teachers.indb 35

2/27/09 3:16:35 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

Improving beginner teachers’ skills and knowledge There were a number of open-ended questions that did not restrict respondents’ answers. Some questions focused on what school managers thought would enhance the skills, knowledge and competencies of beginner teachers. The following issues were identified (listed from the most cited issue to the least mentioned): • workshops and training programmes offered by the school (54 per cent); • workshops and training programmes offered by the district or department (17 per cent); • a focus on the current syllabus (content learning areas) (11.7 per cent); • induction programmes (10.8 per cent); and • internships (6.5 per cent) (while still a student at the university).

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Workshops Fifty-four per cent of the respondents identified workshops and training programmes organised by the schools around learning areas or subjects as ways in which the skills, knowledge and competencies of new teachers can be improved. This was contrasted with workshops and training programmes arranged by the DoE, which were noted to be scarce. HoDs argued that experienced teachers at the schools understand the context of their schools very well and are better able to assist new teachers in improving their skills and competencies. It was suggested that small-scale workshops conducted by the schools are better paced than those offered by the district or provincial departments. It is during such training sessions conducted within their schools that beginner teachers also feel free to ask questions. A number of respondents (17 per cent) identified workshops organised by the department and district offices as necessary intervention programmes to assist beginner teachers to sharpen and enhance their skills, knowledge and competencies. Training in current syllabus Approximately 11 per cent of respondents stated that beginner teachers’ skills and competencies could be enhanced if there was a focus on the recently introduced National Curriculum Statement (and its revised form, the Revised National Curriculum Statement). There was a suggestion that this curriculum is quite demanding and requires teachers to be well versed in it if learners are to benefit. Essentially, the respondents suggest that more attention should be given to training on the national curriculum. Inductions About 10 per cent of the respondents were of the view that, in addition to training in curriculum issues, inductions aimed at orienting beginner teachers to their new responsibilities in schools could assist in enhancing their teaching skills and competencies. The literature reviewed and presented earlier also dealt with this issue and will not be repeated here. Suffice to say that induction programmes have been identified as the surest means of smoothing the transition of newly qualified teachers from university-based teacher trainees to actual teachers in real classrooms. Briefly, new teachers should not be thrust into schools without some form of support or introduction, given the multiple roles and demanding tasks that they have to fulfil.

36

Beginner Teachers.indb 36

2/27/09 3:16:35 PM

Data presentation and analysis

It cannot be assumed that because they have been trained they will be able to fulfil their duties without some mentoring. Internships Lastly, about 7 per cent of the research participants suggested that internships are also a way in which beginner teachers can be assisted in enhancing their teaching skills and competencies. The internship is viewed as a necessary part of the professional preparation of new teachers, which institutions of higher learning should continue to encourage and support.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

A caveat is in order here. Internship and induction programmes could fall under programmes and workshops organised by both the DoE and the higher education institutions offering teacher education, but they have been presented separately in this study. Internships could be arranged by institutions of higher education, while workshops and programmes tend to be the preserve of district offices and schools, hence their separation in this study. Pull and push factors in the teaching profession The responses reported below were sourced through the following questions: ‘What, in your view, will encourage beginner teachers to stay in the teaching profession?’ and ‘What, in your view, makes new teachers leave the profession?’ Factors encouraging teachers to stay or to leave the profession are listed below (from the most cited to the least mentioned): • more incentives; • working environment (difficult working environment, work overload); • drastic educational changes; • resources for teaching and learning; and • supportive and caring management. More incentives Most respondents (85 per cent) cited an increment in incentives as one of the most important factors that will encourage beginner teachers to stay in teaching. When asked about factors that lead beginner teachers to leave the teaching profession, most of the respondents mentioned low pay and lack of incentives. During individual interviews with the research participants, most argued that if salaries were increased and teachers had more incentives, they would stay in teaching and would not seek employment in the private sector. One of the respondents indicated that he has an honours degree in science and that when he compares himself with someone else with the same qualifications in the private sector, he feels ashamed of his remuneration. He pointed out that he was seriously looking for work opportunities outside of teaching. Additionally, the respondent suggested that the lack of incentives and low pay discourage teachers and HoDs from further studies: ‘What is the point of studying further if this isn’t going to be recognised with more incentives and respect in teaching?’ (Interview, Male, HoD 3, Gauteng, May 2006). The unhappiness about salaries was disaggregated by province and showed significant differences. In Gauteng and the Western Cape, about 70 per cent of respondents identified incentives as a problem, compared to only about 20 per 37

Beginner Teachers.indb 37

2/27/09 3:16:36 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

cent in Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal and the Free State. Thus provinces that are predominantly urban tended to identify incentives like high pay and promotions as critical, in contrast to provinces which are largely rural. A plausible explanation for this may be the high cost of living in urban areas. There were also suggestions that teachers are underpaid and that this has to change. As one respondent put it: [In] teaching…we are underpaid. I will give you a practical example. If you take somebody who has a BCom [Bachelor of Commerce] specialising in education and somebody with a BCom going into the private sector, there is a vast difference in terms of salaries, and as a result teachers with a BCom go into private sector. Now teachers with maths and science [as specialisation subjects] tend to go to Telkom, Eskom and Armscor…In terms of age, these new teachers are still energetic and most of these companies grab them. So, in terms of salaries, teachers are underpaid and this leads others to leave the profession. (Interview, Male, HoD 3, Mpumalanga, 2006) Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

When asked whether there is a causal relationship between a good salary and good teaching, the respondent laughed: I cannot answer that now. I understand what you are saying but I cannot answer that now [laughing]. Well I think the standard might improve. I mean, if your workload is that much and at the end of the month you get this very little…but if you get more you will do more. You will tend to come even on Saturdays, [because] you are motivated. I have seen some of my friends who were not happy and now that their salaries are high they do their work with more zest. (Interview, Male, HoD 3, Mpumalanga, 2006) There is no clear causal relationship between a (good) higher salary and good teaching which will result in higher achievement scores. However, the respondent in the preceding quote makes the point that workers are often more committed and sacrifice a lot for their work if they are remunerated well. As witnessed by the respondent, teachers become more motivated and approach their jobs differently when paid higher salaries. Working environment and conditions The majority (68 per cent) of research participants indicated that the working environment can be both a pull and a push factor when deciding whether to stay in or leave the teaching profession. The participants pointed out that classes with high teacher–learner ratios are difficult to teach and often result in beginner (and other) teachers seeking employment elsewhere. Conversely, respondents suggested that if there is a reasonable teacher–learner ratio, beginner teachers tend to stay. Favourable teaching and learning environments thus encourage beginner teachers to stay in teaching. The working environment in rural areas was cited as the most difficult and about 60 per cent of research participants urged the DoE to seriously look into this. In contrast, only 40 per cent of respondents from suburban and township areas identified the working environment as problematic. This fits into the general perceptions and findings from other studies that the working environment is harsh in rural communities when compared to suburbs and township areas.

38

Beginner Teachers.indb 38

2/27/09 3:16:36 PM

Data presentation and analysis

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

In KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga and the Free State, most respondents indicated that if working conditions (for example teacher–learner ratios) were attended to, this would encourage beginner teachers to stay in teaching. In the predominantly urban provinces, Gauteng and the Western Cape, only a few respondents identified the working environment as problematic. As noted, respondents in these two provinces instead suggested that salaries, bonuses and promotions would encourage new teachers to stay in teaching. Drastic educational changes Twelve per cent of participants suggested that drastic educational changes contribute to the attrition rate among beginner teachers. It was pointed out that teachers are inundated with many changes in a short period of time, contributing to teacher burnout. It was noted that while teachers are still trying to make sense of one new policy, another is introduced, and often without consulting teachers. A case in point is the National Curriculum Statement, which was introduced and revised within a short space of time. One of the respondents spoke about a ‘top-down management style’ where decisions are ‘thrown down the throats of teachers’ to implement, and this leads to a sense of insecurity and tension, resulting in a growing attrition rate. Resources for teaching and learning The issue of resources for teaching also featured, although it was not as widely cited as working conditions and more incentives. About 30 per cent of the respondents suggested that beginner teachers decide to leave teaching because they are thrust into classrooms with few teaching and learning resources. This was especially the case in rural areas, but was not mentioned frequently by respondents in urban areas. One of the respondents indicated that some schools lack even basic necessities such as books, and stated that this was unacceptable. Supportive and caring management About 17 per cent of respondents pointed out that in schools with caring and supportive management, beginner teachers tend to stay in teaching. In contrast, schools that lack supportive and caring management contribute to the growing attrition rate among beginner teachers. The data did not show any significant differences between provinces and various school types. Across provinces and schools, an almost equal number of respondents identified supportive and caring school management as important. One participant suggested that mentoring courses at universities assist school managers (principals, HoDs) in creating a caring and supportive environment. As he put it: ‘I have been fortunate to be trained professionally as a mentor. I attended and completed [an] extensive course at UWC [the University of the Western Cape]’ (Interview, Male, HoD 2, KwaZulu-Natal, May 2006). It was indicated that the type of training that school managers provide is central to the development of supportive and caring management. What this points to is the immense role played by school leadership. The literature reviewed in this study also identified this as critical, both in attracting new teachers to certain schools and in ensuring that they stay in teaching for a considerable number of years.

39

Beginner Teachers.indb 39

2/27/09 3:16:37 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

Other factors driving teachers out of the system There were other factors mentioned which explain why some teachers leave the profession. For example, respondents, mostly from the Western Cape, suggested that ‘good teachers (beginner and veteran teachers) leave the profession’ as a result of ‘lack of appreciation by the state’ (poor working conditions and low salaries) (Interview, Male, HoD 2, Western Cape, 2006). Additionally, the media were blamed for being negative when reporting on issues about teachers. There was a general perception that teaching has lost the status it used to enjoy in the past. Attempts should therefore be made to rekindle and revive the respect that teaching once enjoyed in the eyes of the public.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Similarly, a small number, still from the Western Cape, said that the new curriculum is to blame for teachers leaving the system. It was suggested that the new curriculum demands a lot from teachers and one participant argued that it has resulted in more work for teachers, while not providing learners with a good education. As he put it: ‘A change in the education system. Get rid of OBE – it is making learners stupid and working our teachers to death!’ (Interview, Male, HoD 3, Western Cape, 2006).

40

Beginner Teachers.indb 40

2/27/09 3:16:37 PM

chapter 4

Conclusion The presentation of findings from the school managers’ data commenced by briefly noting the difficulties that some schools experience in recruiting suitably qualified teachers. This stems largely from two factors: a shortage of qualified mathematics and science teachers; and the geographic location of certain schools which serves as a repellent factor for teachers, especially if the schools are located in economically depressed communities. Not many teachers want to work in difficult conditions.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

The preceding discussion also illustrated that very few school managers observe beginner teachers’ lessons and, in cases where they do, this is done in a limited way. This was identified as an area of grave concern as it restricts school managers in understanding fully the teaching competencies and capabilities of beginner teachers. It also means that they cannot implement appropriate corrective measures because they have a limited comprehension of beginner teachers’ skills and competencies. While acknowledging the importance of teachers’ files, the discussion argued for periodic observation of beginner teachers’ lessons. Analysis of the data indicates positive comments about the current sole provision of teacher education by universities. However, respondents noted that some universities are known to offer better teacher education programmes than others. Linked to this, most participants were satisfied with beginner teachers’ content knowledge, although their pedagogical knowledge was an area of concern. It was suggested that the final year of teacher education should be set aside for teaching practice to give teacher trainees enough practical experience of working in classrooms. The data showed that many of the research participants had no problem with the duration of teacher education courses. Overall, the quality of teaching of beginner teachers was not identified as problematic. As with beginner teachers’ content knowledge, the data showed that most school managers had no qualms about beginner teachers’ assessment practices. This includes beginner teachers’ assessment strategies and whether they are able to use assessment to improve teaching and learning. Besides assessment, the research findings dealt at some length with support provided to beginner teachers, noting that most of the research participants were not aware of any support specifically meant for beginner teachers. Some schools, through their SGBs, raise funds for the induction and mentoring of new teachers, while other schools, predominantly in rural and township areas, do not have support structures and programmes for beginner teachers. The discussion further looked at what school managers identified as the main weaknesses and strengths of beginner teachers. This was followed by an exposition of the key challenge of classroom management and ill discipline in some schools. It was noted in particular that schools in economically depressed areas were reported to be experiencing difficulties with discipline. Beginner teachers also expressed the desire to learn more in this area.

41

Beginner Teachers.indb 41

2/27/09 3:16:37 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

It was pointed out that salary incentives, sufficient teaching and learning resources and well-paced educational changes will contribute to beginner teachers staying in the profession. An interesting area is the confidence beginner teachers expressed about their classroom teaching ability. Beginner teachers were extremely positive that they were more than competent in lesson preparation, content knowledge, making key concepts explicit to learners, relating content knowledge to everyday experiences, assisting learners to engage with texts, and creating a stimulating classroom environment. This was in contrast to findings reported in similar studies, and to what the school managers reported. Possible explanations for the contradictions were explored, for example, that beginner teachers may feel pressure to be seen to be coping; portraying competence may be a coping strategy; beginner teachers may perhaps not yet be capable of self-reflection; or the teachers may genuinely be competent when they start teaching, but the schools slowly erode their confidence and competence.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

School managers had concrete ideas about how beginner teachers could be supported to succeed in the profession. The same school managers, however, are not necessarily providing the necessary support or even facilitating the teachers’ access to that support. The school managers also tend to point fingers at the DoE and its officials for the unfavourable teaching conditions beginner teachers are exposed to. The education system in South Africa does not have formal structures, policies and strategies for teacher acquisition and retention. Some urban provinces and schools, by virtue of their proximity and easy access to resources, easily attract teachers, while rural provinces and schools struggle to recruit and retain suitably qualified teachers.

Implications for policy-makers and school managers This study has noted that this research area has not been given sufficient attention in South Africa, as it has in other countries. The study of the views and perceptions of principals and HoDs about beginner teachers, and beginner teachers’ views about themselves, was informed by a conceptual framework on voice discourse. The fundamental principle within voice discourse is the need to listen to different voices, irrespective of the expertise of the people being researched. Discourse on voice does not imply that such voices are taken as valid and credible in and of themselves; rather, they are subjected to critique, taking into account the literature in the area. To take such voices as meritorious in themselves would lead to extreme relativism, which is inherently incapable of providing productive lessons about the teaching competencies of beginner teachers. It is also critical to note that voice discourse as applied here is not conceived in singular terms, given the different contexts within which actors articulate their experiences. Acknowledging the heterogeneity of voices enables us to work with the different contexts – such as suburban, township, rural and farm locations – of educational institutions. For example, it was shown in this study that in many respects, and quite substantively, experiences and views from township and rural schools were distinct from those of their suburban counterparts. Such a finding calls for differentiated intervention programmes and strategies to tackle the problems experienced by beginner teachers.

42

Beginner Teachers.indb 42

2/27/09 3:16:38 PM

Conclusion

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

The overall finding, especially from school managers, is the lack of investment in beginner teachers’ first few years in the profession. Many beginner teachers are thrust into classrooms without the necessary support and mentorship, and as a result, a significant number of them exit the system in their early years of teaching. It was noted that beginner teachers do not receive much support from either the school or the education district officials. There are no nationally or provincially coordinated programmes to support new teachers, who are left on their own to either sink or swim. A few respondents in the Western Cape mentioned courses at some universities that were targeted at helping school managers to mentor new teachers. The respondents valued the knowledge and skills acquired during these courses. This suggests that institutions of higher learning should rethink implementing mentorship programmes. In addition, there is a need to flesh out school- or district-based beginner teacher support, with the primary aim of ensuring that these teachers teach well and stay in teaching. Although not the focus of this study, it was found that school management across provinces and school types is still predominantly male. Efforts should be made to change this situation, especially seeing that female teachers form the majority in the teaching profession. Many studies have reported a high representation of male teachers in school management; what is worrying is the sluggish progress made in changing this situation. Unless the DoE sets clear targets and indicates how these can be achieved, not much is going to change in this area. There is also a need to put in place a monitoring and evaluation framework, which should be constantly reviewed. It was also found that school managers generally observe very few of their beginner teachers’ lessons. The reasons given for this are school managers’ heavy workloads and the high teacher–learner ratios in some schools. This leaves principals and HoDs with little time to attend to beginner teachers’ administrative work. Part of the central argument of this study is for principals and HoDs to have sufficient time to work with beginner teachers (and all other teachers). Lesson observations will provide school managers with a comprehensive picture of the teaching competencies and capabilities of beginner teachers, and will allow them to put in place appropriate intervention strategies to enhance their teaching. The national DoE should invest substantially in the twin roles of the school managers – that of being both an instructional and an operational leader at the same time. The majority of research participants rated the content and pedagogical knowledge of beginner teachers highly. Only a few provided a negative picture of the pedagogical content knowledge of beginner teachers. Similarly, the quality of beginner teachers’ teaching was regarded as satisfactory, although a significant number suggested it was average. Some national and international studies discussed earlier painted a different picture, arguing that the content and pedagogical knowledge of many teachers, including beginner teachers, was not good. Also, the overwhelming evidence of low achievement among many learners (see DoE 2004, 2005a), especially from township and rural schools, seems to suggest poor teaching. Thus the views of school managers about the content and pedagogical knowledge of beginner teachers should not be taken at face value. While it is worth listening to school managers’ views in this regard, it is important to take into account empirical evidence about school achievement. School managers may not be critical and reflective enough about their staff and this poses serious challenges to school improvement initiatives. It is thus most welcome that the national DoE has embarked on a course for all school 43

Beginner Teachers.indb 43

2/27/09 3:16:38 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

managers to improve their management of schools. This programme could go a long way towards helping principals to be critical about their schools. Being critical about the functioning of one’s school is a necessary step in improving teaching and learning. When asked which areas beginner teachers were interested in learning more about, the majority selected ‘Counselling’ and ‘Classroom management and discipline’. The area of classroom and discipline management was also identified by managers as an area in which beginner teachers were weak. The skill of counselling is becoming a critical one, as in many societies, violence is increasing both inside and outside of schools. In South Africa, many learners are also exposed to, or are themselves victims of, physical and sexual abuse, extreme poverty and HIV/AIDS. As a result of HIV/ AIDS, some young learners become heads of households. It is in such situations that teachers feel inadequate as effective educators, as the classroom and school situation demands more of them than teacher training prepared them for.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

A number of strengths of beginner teachers were identified, including being innovative, exploratory and hardworking, and having good theoretical knowledge. At the same time, a number of weaknesses were identified, such as lack of practical knowledge and being more concerned with rights and labour issues than with teaching. Teachers placed high value on the practical component of the education course, ‘Student teaching’. To reinforce what is seen as a useful and beneficial part of teacher education, and to increase beginner teachers’ chances of success, a longer period of practical teaching is strongly advocated. The usual suspects – low teacher salaries; poor working conditions, including high teacher–learner ratios, lack of teaching resources and increased workloads; and an uncaring state and media – were all cited as factors contributing to many beginner teachers’ early exit from the profession. Additionally, the data showed that the drastic and sweeping educational changes accompanying Curriculum 2005 and the OBE approach, and the expanded role of the teacher (more administrative duties and paperwork instead of increased instructional time), contribute to teacher dissatisfaction about their employment and may lead to attrition. The national DoE should come up with implementable intervention strategies and ensure monitoring of proper implementation and support. The study noted that educational changes have also impacted on teachers who have been in the system for many years. This calls for strategies by the DoE to put in place programmes and plans for the periodic assessment of the impact of educational changes on all teachers. Principals and HoDs suggested ways in which the skills, knowledge and competencies of teachers can be enhanced. The critical point is that all learners should have competent and skilful teachers – teachers who can teach well. This is of particular concern in schools located in economically depressed areas, which are known to produce poor results, as measured by Grade 12 pass rates. Concerted efforts should be directed at ensuring that learners in such poor contexts have competent teachers. South Africa continues to be afflicted by huge disparities in education. For example, some suburban schools with fully functional SGBs are able to raise funds and run induction courses, while other schools struggle with basic necessities. The latter schools are often located in poor communities with learners from poor families, and 44

Beginner Teachers.indb 44

2/27/09 3:16:39 PM

Conclusion

it is within this context that ill discipline and even violence among learners manifest themselves. The issue of equality and equity in education must continue to be addressed as a priority area. Some of the issues that were mentioned do not fall strictly within the sphere of influence of the DoE – such as social problems and generally poor behaviour among learners – and this calls for a multi-sectoral approach of pooling resources with other government departments, notably the departments of social development, health, and arts, sports and culture.

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

This study has attempted to illuminate the world of beginner teachers. The study reveals that beginner and experienced teachers experience teaching differently. The challenges they face are also different. While beginner and experienced teachers teach under the same conditions in their schools and geographical areas, over time they gain experience and better coping mechanisms. However, beginner teachers’ early experience of teaching influences how they turn out in terms of motivation, commitment and expertise in teaching. This study confirms findings from other studies that it is important to nurture teachers during their early years of teaching, as they are a fragile group that can and will be lost to teaching if not nurtured. On the other hand, the pattern of younger teachers leaving teaching after a few years seems to be a common practice worldwide. According to Crouch and Perry, ‘the peaks for leaving [the teaching profession] are 59 and 23’ (2003: 489). The first age group (59) leaves to retire, while the second (23) may have joined the profession ‘while awaiting better prospects’ (Crouch & Perry 2003: 489). Beginner teachers (and all other teachers) are central to the improvement of educational quality, and sustained efforts should be directed at continually investigating their teaching competencies. This should include plans to figure out possible intervention strategies to enhance their skills, knowledge and competencies so that learners benefit from attending school. The study of teachers and teaching deserves much more attention than it has been given, particularly in the light of growing empirical evidence that good teaching makes a huge difference to learning, regardless of the socio-economic status of the learners. A high premium should be placed on the constant and continued investigation of teaching and learning, including teacher competency.

45

Beginner Teachers.indb 45

2/27/09 3:16:39 PM

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za Beginner Teachers.indb 46

2/27/09 3:16:39 PM

REFERENCES Akyeampong K (2001) Teacher training in Ghana: Does it count? Country report 1. The Multi-Site Teacher Education Research Project (MUSTER). Institute of Education, University of Sussex Appleton S, Morgan WJ & Sives A (2006) Should teachers stay at home? The impact of international mobility. Journal of International Teacher Development 18: 771–786 Ayers W (ed.) (1995) To become a teacher: Making a difference in children’s lives. New York: Teachers College Press Ball DL & Bass H (2000) Interweaving content and pedagogy in teaching and learning to teach. In J Boaler (ed.) Multiple perspectives on mathematics teaching and learning. Westport, CT: Ablex Publishing

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Ball DL, Hill HC & Bass H (2005) Knowing mathematics for teaching: Who knows mathematics well enough to teach third grade, and how can we decide? American Educator Fall 2005: 14–22 CEA, CEPD, EFT, HSRC & SAIDE (2005) Teacher education in South Africa. Proposal for a research and development programme to be conducted by a consortium comprising: Centre for Education Policy Development (CEPD); Centre for Evaluation and Assessment (CEA), University of Pretoria; Education Foundation Trust (EFT); Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC); and South African Institute for Distance Education (SAIDE). Funding proposal submitted to the Royal Netherlands Embassy. Access limited to consortium members Christie P (1998) Schools as (dis)organizations: The breakdown of the culture of learning and teaching in South African schools. Cambridge Journal of Education 28(3): 283–300 Christie P & Potterton M (1997) School development in South Africa: A research project to investigate strategic interventions for quality improvement in South African schools. Johannesburg: Catholic Institute of Education Crouch L (2001) Turbulence or orderly change? Teacher supply and demand in South Africa: Current status, future needs and the impact of HIV/AIDS. Discussion paper 26. The Multi-Site Teacher Education Research Project (MUSTER). Centre for International Education, University of Sussex Crouch L & Perry H (2003) Educators. In Human resources development review 2003: Education, employment and skills in South Africa. Cape Town & East Lansing: HSRC Press & Michigan State University Press Darling-Hammond L (2000) Reforming teacher preparation and licensing: Debating the evidence. Stanford University, Teachers College Record 102(1): 28–56 De Villiers R (2007) Migration from developing countries: The case of South African teachers to the United Kingdom. Perspectives in Education 25(2): 67–76 De Villiers R & Degazon-Johnson R (2007) The political dichotomy of teacher migration: Editorial. Perspectives in Education 25(2): vii–xii. Available at http://journals.sabinet. co.za/ej/ejour_persed.html DoE (Department of Education, South Africa) (2003) Integrated Quality Management Systems. Pretoria: Department of Education. Available at www.elrc.co.za/ UploadedDocuments/IQMS%20Training%20Manual.doc DoE (2004) Grade 3 Foundation Phase systemic evaluation report. Pretoria: Department of Education

47

Beginner Teachers.indb 47

2/27/09 3:16:40 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

DoE (2005a) Grade 6 Intermediate Phase systemic evaluation report. Pretoria: Department of Education DoE (2005b) A national framework for teacher education in South Africa. Report of the Ministerial Committee on Teacher Education, 16 June. Pretoria: Department of Education DoE (2006) The national framework for teacher education and development in South Africa: ‘More teachers; better teachers’. Pretoria: Department of Education Donnelly K (2005) The wacky curriculum. Available at www.Theage.com.au. Accessed March 2005 Ellsworth J & Monahan A (1998) Teaching and learning: Evaluating the novice teacher. Studies in Educational Evaluation 24(1): 71–86 ELRC (Education Labour Relations Council) (2005) Educator attrition and mortality in South Africa: A study into gross educator attrition rates and trends, including analysis of the causes of these by age and gender, in the public schools system in South Africa 1997–2004. Cape Town: HSRC Press Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Feiman-Nemser S (2003) What new teachers need to learn. Educational Leadership 60(8): 25–29 Freiberg HJ (2002) Essential skills for new teachers. Educational Leadership 59(6): 56–60 Hargreaves A (1996) Revisiting voice. Educational Researcher January/February: 1–8 Hebert E & Worthy T (2001) Does the first year of teaching have to be a bad one? A case study of success. Teaching and Teacher Education 17: 897–911 Howie S, Venter E, Van Staden S, Zimmerman L, Long C, Scherman V & Archer E (2007) Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS) 2006 summary report: South African children’s reading achievement. Pretoria: University of Pretoria Jansen J (2004) Autonomy and accountability in the regulation of the teaching profession: A South African case study. Research Papers in Education 19(1) March: 51–66 Knobloch NA & Whittington MS (2002) Novice teachers’ perceptions of support, teacher preparation quality, and student teaching experience related to teacher efficacy. Journal of Vocational Education Research 27(3): 331–341 Koeberg JC (1999) The induction and professional socialisation of beginner teachers in Cape Town schools. MEd thesis, University of the Western Cape Lochner HJ (1993) Die problematiek van die nuutaangestelde onderwyser in die hoerskole. MEd thesis, University of Stellenbosch Macdonald C (1999) Teacher attrition: A review of literature. Teaching and Teacher Education 15: 835–845 Manik S (2007) To greener pastures: Transnational teacher migration from South Africa. Perspectives in Education 25(2) June: 55–65 Moore R & Muller J (1999) The discourse of ‘voice’ and the problem of knowledge identity in the sociology of education. British Journal of Sociology of Education 20(2): 189–206 Morrow W (2007) Learning to teach in South Africa. Cape Town: HSRC Press O’Brien P, Goddard R & O’Keeffe M (2007) Burnout confirmed as a viable explanation for beginning teacher attrition. Australian Association for Research in Education Annual 48

Beginner Teachers.indb 48

2/27/09 3:16:41 PM

References

Conference: Research Impacts: Proving or improving? 25–29 November, Fremantle, Australia OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) (1996) Education at a glance. Paris: Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development Olesen V (1994) Feminism and models of qualitative research. In NK Denzin & P Lincoln (eds) Handbook of qualitative research. London: Sage Osgood VM & Self MJ (2003) Pathway to survival: A new teacher induction initiative. Workforce Education Forum 30(2): 27–53 Phurutse MC (2006) Listening to matric teachers: Township realities and learner achievement levels. In V Reddy (ed.) Marking matric: Colloquium proceedings. Pretoria: HSRC Press

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Roerig AD, Pressley M & Talotta DA (2002) Stories of beginner teachers: First-year challenges and beyond. Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press Ruhland SK & Bremer CD (2002) Professional development needs of novice career and technical education teachers. Journal of Vocational and Technical Education 19(1). Available at http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JCTE/v19n1/ruhland.html. Accessed January 2009 SACE (South African Council of Educators) (2005) The state of teacher professionalism in South Africa. Paper prepared for the South African Council for Educators (SACE) by the Wits Education Policy Unit. Available at http://sace.org.za/download.php/?file=The%20 State%20of%20Teacher%20Professionalism%20in%20South%20Africa.doc. Accessed January 2009 Samuel M (2002) Working in the rain: Pressures and priorities for teacher education curriculum design in South Africa: A case-study of the University of Durban-Westville. International Journal of Educational Development Special Edition April 22(3): 397–410 Samuel M (2005) Accountability to whom? For what? Teacher identity and the force field model of teacher development. Keynote address at 50th International Council on Education and Teaching (ICET) World Assembly, 12–15 July, University of Pretoria, South Africa Segal S (1998) The role of contingency and tension in the relationship between theory and practice in the classroom. Journal of Curriculum Studies 30(2): 199–206 Shisana O, Peltzer K, Zungu-Dirwayi N & Louw J (2005) The health of our educators: A focus on HIV/AIDS in South African schools. Cape Town: HSRC Press Smithers A (1990) Teacher loss. Interim report to the Leverhulme Trust, January. University of Manchester, School of Education Stansbury K & Zimmerman J (2001) Lifelines to the classroom: Designing support for beginner teachers. WestEd Improving education through research, development and service. A WestEd Knowledge Brief. San Francisco: WestEd Stanulis RN & Thornton F (2000) Survey of early childhood education graduates. Unpublished document, University of Georgia Strong M & Baron W (2004) An analysis of mentoring conversations with beginning teachers: Suggestions and responses. Teaching and Teacher Education 20: 47–57

49

Beginner Teachers.indb 49

2/27/09 3:16:41 PM

Beginner teachers in South Africa

Unesco (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation) (2005a) Wanted! Teachers. In Education Today, newsletter of Unesco’s education sector, No. 12, January–March. Paris: Unesco Unesco (2005b) Education for all: The quality imperative. Paris: Unesco Van Vuuren MJ (1989) Induksie van die beginneronderwyser in die Departement Onderwys en Opleiding. MEd thesis, Rand Afrikaans University, Johannesburg Vinjevold P & Taylor N (1999) Getting learning right. A report on the president’s Education Initiative Project. Johannesburg: The Joint Education Trust & Department of Education Vlckova K (1999) Being a teacher in the Czech Republic. Prague: Faculty of Education, Charles University

Free download from www.hsrcpress.co.za

Young MFD (2000) Rescuing the sociology of educational knowledge from the extremes of voice discourse: Towards a new theoretical basis for the sociology of the curriculum. British Journal of Sociology of Education 21(4): 523–536

50

Beginner Teachers.indb 50

2/27/09 3:16:42 PM