Battle of Ankara, 1402

BATTLE OF ANKARA 28 July 1402

Research on the battle and notes from the field trip performed for the examination of the battlefield today 28 July 2009 Tuesday

Abdullah Turhal

Altar Modelling 2009

BATTLE OF ANKARA 28 July 1402

Research on the battle and notes from the field trip performed for the examination of the battlefield today 28 July 2009 Tuesday

Abdullah Turhal

©Altar Modelling All rights reserved cannot be copied without permission. Unless otherwise stated, all pictures are taken by the author. Views, pictures, information in this document can be used by individuals for researches and personal use provided that proper referencing is clearly made.

R Reepprraaeesseennttaa V Viittaamm T Tuuuumm pprroopprriiuumm M Muunndduumm aaeeddiiffiiccaa

CONTENTS - Introduction CHAPTER I: - Political and military circumstances before the battle - The comet issue CHAPTER II: - Mobilisation of the two sides - Final preparations - Terrain features of the battlefield CHAPTER III: - The day of the battle - Battle orders and key commanders - Battle and its aftermath CHAPTER IV: -28 July 2009 impressions CHAPTER V: - Ataturk’s special interest in this battle and book of General Ömerhalis CONCLUSION ANNEX I: Chronology ANNEX II: Maps Map I: Geographical and topographic characteristics of the terrain. Map II: Arrival direction of the armies to the battle field Map III: Battle order of the two armies Map IV: Borders of the Ottoman state before and after the battle Map V: Timur’s victories and other states he crushes ANNEX III: Key names ANNEX IV: Glossary of the places at the battle field ANNEX V: Our route ANNEX VI: Note for wargamers BIBLIOGRAPHY

“On that long, hot day that was burning like fire, numerous precious people fell, the commander of death became guide to numerous brave warriors to the nothingness. The battle field was full with armours, helmets and heads, everywhere turned to red with the blood of soldiers. There had been such an activity that the rider of the skies, riding horse named turning world, since the beginning of the turning of the world, has not seen such a war, such a struggle and such a fight” Description of the battle by Hoca Sadettin Efendi’nin in 1580’s Hoca Sadettin Efendi, Tacü’tTevarih, Prepared by İsmet Parmaksızoğlu, Ministry of Culture, 1992, Volume 1, p 272

War mask of Timurids Source: Turks, Royal Academy of Arts, London 2005, p 208

INTRODUCTION This year is the 607th anniversary of the Battle of Ankara, one of the greatest battles of world history which is highly important not only for Turkish Ottoman history but also for the history of the world. There are not many battles in the world military history where around 250 thousand combatants on both sides participate. This battle is not only significant for the high number of combatants, the existence of two highly exceptional commanders leading these two armies, the careful tactics used and methods followed by these two military geniuses, the tactful and brilliant use of geography, topographic features and all other means makes this battle stand out among others. Besides these reasons, there is one simple reason we wanted to examine this battle and that is it took place in Ankara where we live. For all these reasons we carried out an extensive research, visited the battle field and wanted to share our notes and observations with residents of Ankara and Turkish military history enthusiasts. We also wanted to share this study with non-Turkish speakers thinking they too share our enthusiasm to learn more about this major battle of the middle ages. The battle took place on July 28, 1402. And on July 28, 2009, on the 607th anniversary of the battle we visited the battlefield and areas surrounding the battle site. Advanced cultures are aware of the fact that the days they live have not been achieved easily. This is why they wonder about their past, conduct researches and show their respect by reading and working hard to learn their history. Battle field researches are becoming more important in the military history studies. In many parts of the world, people gather at battlefields on the anniversaries and pay tribute to their ancestors who fought and fell for them. They wear like them and enact moments from those battles. Such advanced cultures also carry out archaeological studies on their battlefields which provide valuable material for the historians to fully understand what really happened on that day. All these efforts give them all the tools necessary to educate and teach the younger generations. Of course if there is no intention to educate and teach youngsters, then you should be ready to see ugly building arising over these precious historical sites by greedy and wily building contractors As Altar Modelling, with our modest resources, we wanted to share our findings with you about a major battle that took place 40-50 km from where we live. Contrary to belief of some people, Ankara is not a dull city having no eye catching feature. Ankara had always been an important mysterious city throughout history. This city, which does not reveal its mysteries easily, deserves respect as it played a very significant role in the foundation of both the Ottoman state and the Republic of Turkey. We do hope you can start looking differently to this city and to its history. Abdullah Turhal Ankara, Turkey 2 August 2009

CHAPTER I:

POLITICAL AND MILITARY CIRCUMSTANCES BEFORE THE BATTLE Ottoman expansion towards west and east continued throughout the 14 century under the effective leadership of sons and grandsons of Osman Gazi, the founder of the Ottoman state. With conquests, Ottomans proved their military and political might. While Ottomans were strengthening their rule in Anatolia and in the Balkans, in the east around Mavaraunnehir, another predominantly Turkish state was getting more powerful each day. This state, under the leadership of Timur, established control over Samarkand and then expanded their rule significantly to almost every direction. This process began in 1370 when Timur gained power. He quickly united disorganised Turkish and Mongolian tribes in those areas and from these tribes, he established a mighty steppe army just like in the times of Chengis Khan almost a century ago. Old centres of power and civilisations, like Iran, Azerbaijan and Iraq fell under his control in seven years time.1 Following his victories in the west, he turned to east and conquered entire northern India by 1399.2 Timur’s state was neighboured by 4 different predominantly Turkish states in those years: Turkish Khanagate of India, Golden Horde in Russia, Memluk Sultanate in Egypt and the Ottoman state in Anatolia and Balkans. Timur won victories over the first two and crushed them at battles. The third was under strong pressure by Timur’s hordes and accepted his suzerainty. Only Ottomans remained untouched and now they were in Timur’s target.3 After India, Timur turned his attention to west once again and reached Ottoman borders by 1400. His troops began attacking Ottoman cities in eastern Anatolia. Smaller beys and leaders of tribes and small states began to choose side and those running from Timur took shelter in Bayezid’s court and those Anatolian beys Ottomans took their lands, took shelter in Timur’s court. The provocative activities of these beys in each one’s court escalated the tension between Timur and Bayezid. Bayezid, who was very busy in the west in Balkans were furious with loss of city of Sivas, which was one of the biggest cities in the east and loos of his son defending the city. In line with those days custom, two leaders began exchanging letters. These letters usually serve to understand the position and intention of your opponents save time to finish preparations and understand the next possible move of the opponent. The initial letters were cordial, and was written in a tone of respect to each other to avoid a war But finally as times passes and real agendas became clear and all the preparations are made the tone changes and insults begin and sides challenge the other for war. This is what happened in Bayezid-Timur correspondence as well. 1

İsmail Hakkı Uzunçarşılı, Büyük Osmanlı Tarihi, Cilt 1, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara, s 301 a.g.e., s 302 3 Tahsin Tunalı, Ankara Savaşı, Hayat Tarih Mecmuası, Ocak 1972, s 34 2

THE COMET ISSUE Both states had the most advanced military, political and scientific capabilities of those days. The two geniuses leading these two states made preparations before challenging each other for almost 1-2 years. Among many factors these leaders took into consideration one issue is strikingly interesting and this is the comet issue. In 1401-1402, people in the world witnessed passage of a comet that was visible from the earth for weeks. This comet issue was seriously considered in the eve of the battle. Human interest in such cosmic events is as long as its first existence. The interest in the sky, the stars and all other objects has been observed carefully since ancient times. All the civilisations tried to create a meaning out of these events, try to analyse movements, establish links with the developments in earth. It is unthinkable to assume a comet visible from the earth with naked eye for weeks will go unnoticed. Since ancient times, humans viewed comets as messengers that would bring good fortune for some nations while bring disaster for others. For example, it believed that, Halley, one of the most famous comets known, that is visits our earth every 75.5 years is widely viewed as bad omen in most parts of Europe. Most people in middle ages saw this comet as friend of Turks. In 1456, Pope Calixtus III called believer to pray against Satan, comet and the Turks.4 The comet in 1401-1402 created a similar excitement, fear and concern in the world. Historian Hammer described this comet in his work. According to him “a comet appeared in the sky, moving from west to east. This was visible for three months…All people in Asia and Europe were in frenzy. Romans [Byzantine] named this Lampadius (Hamil-i Fevanis) and saw this as harbinger of bloody battles in the east.” 5 Person named Şemseddin el-Maligi was very close to Timur and only he was able to approach Timur without fear of his furious anger. Thinking Timur had not made given his final decision on whether to go for war with Ottomans, he attempted to use this comet issue to change his mind. He said to Timur “It would not be wrong to rethink this issue, and not rush. Those people observing the skies are suspicious about the judgement of this comet. While some say the comet’s judgement will be for us some argue it will be against us”6 Timur was not satisfied with this comment he sought for counsel from others. He wanted to understand what comet means for him. He brought the astronomer named Abdullah-i Lisan who had great fame in those years for his understanding of the stars and all celestial objects. Abdullah-i Lisan told Timur that the good fortune was on his side. The comet arose from west meant bad fortune for the Kaiser i.e. Bayezid. He supported his argument with some older Arabic books by Muhyiddin-i Magrib. Timur was happy to hear this and

4

Refik Özdek, Merhaba Halley: Uzay ve Kuyruklu Yıldızlar, Tercüman Aile ve Kültür Kitaplığı, İstanbul 1986 , s 55 ve 59 5 Joseph von Hammer Purgstall, Büyük Osmanlı Tarihi, Sabah Yayınları, s 355-356 6 Hoca Sadettin Efendi, Tacü’t-Tevarih, Hazırlayan İsmet Parmaksızoğlu, Kültür Bakanlığı, 1992, Cilt 1, s 256

he ordered beginning of all preparations for the battle (1401)7 Timur and all his commanders took a major victory in the west as granted from that moment on.8 This very clever comment caused a boost to the morale in the Timur’s army. Until that moment, Timur’s army was rather reluctant to face Ottomans in battle. They were aware that Ottomans were not like other armies they easily crushed so far, their soldiers were well disciplined, well trained and would not leave the battlefield easily and run away from the battle. On top of these concerns, the comet lowered their morale significantly as common wisdom told them “a celestial object in the west would bring disaster to the army coming from east”.9 Timur was aware of this problem in his army. Actually he made up his mind long before and he based his decisions on his strategy, readiness of his army and all other technical reasons that would present him victory. But he could not turn a blind eye to the low morale of his troops. Therefore he found the other astronomer to get a verdict in his favour. When Timur found this second person and when he was told that “victory belong to the army heading from east, and commander of western army will fell captive” 10, then he got the answer he wanted to hear. He ordered this verdict spread quickly and his army became ready for war.11 Timur was a complicated character and one of those leaders which is difficult to understand easily. Many of his decisions were regarded as contradictory by people around him and by historians later writing about him. There were times when he seemed as a superstitious person but at the end of the day he did what he believed was right and denied any advices based on superstitions.12 For example, before a battle in India, his fortune tellers told him that it was not the best time for attack. He told to these people “neither sorrow, happiness nor disaster is determined by the judgement of stars but all is determined by the will of Allah”. He made all preparations and then attacked and became victorious.13 As a great military commander, Timur asked every possible piece of information from his men and his entourage; he filtered them and took every decision based on his judgement. However, he did refrain using any seeming irrational means to reach his real aims. If a superstitious verdict would be used for his aim, he would not have hesitated to use it. All he cared was the readiness and effectiveness of his army, his grand strategic and political aims and victory. He kept fortune tellers, astronomers, listened to them but he gave the final decision at all times.

7

ibid., s 258 Hammer, s 356 9 Melzig, Ankara Meydan Muharebesi, Çituri Biraderler Basımevi, İstanbul 1941, s 15 10 ibid., s 15 11 An incident lowered morale on the Ottoman side. While soldiers were erecting Sultan’s tent, the mast collapsed and killed three soldiers. This accident having no visible cause like wind or interference was regarded as bad omen. See Şerif Baştav, 16. asırda yazılmış Grekçe anonim Osmanlı tarihi (1373-1512), Ankara Üniversitesi DTCF Yayınları, Ankara, 1973, s 104 12 Yusuf Ziya Özer, “Timur’un yaptığı işlere toptan bir bakış”, Belleten, Türk Tarih Kurumu basımevi, Ankara, 1945, Cilt IX, s 458 13 ibid., s 458 8

CHAPTER II:

MOBILISATION OF THE TWO SIDES “He would not refrain to meet his enemies seeking evil, in battle while he had a big army and rich resources under his command. He [Bayezid] opened his wings and flew to remain as the only one in this world”14

In their correspondence, Timur asked Bayezid to fulfil some conditions and these were actually not possible to do. In fact, these were insults to Bayezid and his sovereign rights. Timur knew this well, therefore he was not surprised to get similarly insulting replies from Bayezid. During this time, Timur gained the necessary time he needed and he also wanted to leave the blame of the battle on Bayezid to claim that Bayezid caused the war between two Turkish states. So, a deadly confrontation became inevitable from that time on. Bayezid has proved his military capabilities at various battles. He was a smart commander knowing his army well and mobilise and command it effectively. He played a decisive role in the 1389 Battle of Kosovo and in the 1396 Battle of Nicopolis where Ottoman army under his command defeated a major crusader army formed with troops, some of were elite from almost all European kingdoms and principalities. Naturally, such victories gave confidence to Bayezid. All his orders were obeyed immediately even during the battle. He examined all moves of his opponent, carefully plan before actual war began. His spies scattered all around brought him valuable intelligence. Bayezid was a master commander who could use geography and topography in a way to get maximum advantage for his army. And finally, he himself was a warrior never hesitating to use his sword and axe in one-to-one battle. All those unique characteristics we stated above were applicable to Timur as well. Timur also fought many battle in his entire lifetime. He was a careful master to analyse the weaknesses and strengths of both his army and his opponent’s army. He had an extensive spy network. He worked long hours to analyse this intelligence brought to him. All his orders were passed immediately to any unit of his army even if they were engaged in bloody fight. Such traits were not visible in Bayezid’s opponents in the west and for Timur’s opponents in the east. Neither of them had faced any opponent in their calibre in the battlefield before. This meant they had to be extra careful, to analyse much better the movement of the other. They were aware any careless act would be punished severely by the opponent waiting for such an opportunity.

14

Hoca Sadettin Efendi, s 250

After capturing Sivas, Timur did not move further to west. He had problems in getting information from his spy network. His extensive network could not bring him good quality intelligence about Bayezid and his army. He also knew his forces would not be sufficient enough for well trained, disciplined Ottoman forces therefore he had to wait the arrival of reinforcements from Central Asia to arrive in Anatolia.15 The letters were exchanged during this waiting period. When ready, Timur cut the communication with insults and moved on. Bayezid, too, was watching carefully. He assembled all Ottoman army in Bursa and moved toward east. Following two main roads, Ottoman army reached Ankara. Bayezid left heavy equipment and baggage cars at Ankara castle and moved swiftly toward Sivas. He could get good information via his spies about Timur:’s army.16 While Bayezid was approaching Sivas from north, forward forces of both armies engaged in skirmishes in the mountainous area between Sivas and Tokat. Timur knew that all the critical passages were hold by Ottomans in this difficult mountainous area, therefore he did not push in this direction and headed south toward Kayseri. Timur’s army began a very slow and cautious march toward Kayseri fearing of a sudden attack of Ottomans. Bayezid’s plan was to draw Timur’s army majority of which was cavalry to mountains and hunt them down in the narrow passages. Since Timur did not take the bait and moved south, Bayezid also began to withdraw to west following the way they came from. Now, both armies began their march in parallel to each other from east to west toward Ankara. Timur was hoping Ottomans would follow them from behind (through Sivas and then Kayseri). But Bayezid was not an ordinary commander and he did not take this bait either. Impassable mountains separated both armies. While Timur approached Kırsehir, the mountains were no more an obstacle and when Timur saw Ottoman forces, he thought Bayezid came from that direction but he soon understood that was a small Ottoman contingent only. Timur could not risk an ambush therefore he quickly marched toward Ankara and laid siege to the Ottoman castle in Ankara. He positioned bulwark of his army in the south to wait for the Ottomans coming south east, from the direction they passed earlier. While Timur was commanding personally the siege of Ankara castle, his messengers brought him news that Bayezid the Thunderbolt is in Ankara. He came not from south east as Timur expected, Bayezid came from north east. Timur was shocked both by the speed of Ottomans and the direction they came. Bayezid set up his encampment at Cubuk plain near Meliksah village.17 This meant Timur was caught by surprise and in wrong position. Bayezid “the Thunderbolt” once again proved he was worthy of the nickname given to him. Ottoman commanders offered Bayezid to attack unprepared army of Timur at once but he refused and told them he wanted to defeat Timur in proper order and allowed him to assemble and deploy his army in its battle formation on the Cubuk plain. It seems, behind this very knightly attitude, Bayezid’s decision was based on some military plans and necessities of that moment. Most probably, Bayezid did not hastily rush his already 15

Uzunçarşılı, , s 306 ibid., s 308 17 ibid., s 310 16

tired army on Timur’s fresh cavalry forces. He wanted to draw Timur into the trap he long ago prepared and which he believed would eliminate all advantages of Timur’s army. Timur deployed his army in battle order in the south of the Cubuk plain. That night, both armies waited morning with great stress. In the morning, on those vast plain armies of two great Turkish states under the command of two great Turkish rulers were ready to engage in a bloody and deadly battle. Bayezid was overlooking the plain from a hill near Meliksah village while Timur was near Saraykoy village. 18 Water resources were abundant on Timur’s side of the plain. Records indicate Ottomans faced shortage of water.19 Some sources claim Ottomans did not spend time to change river beds to supply water because Bayezid believed he can swiftly defeat enemy just like in Nicopolis. This argument may be valid because Bayezid managed to achieve a similar scene he managed to get in Nicopolis. Just like in Nicopolis, he would swiftly crush first enemy attack, push them back to the castle he hold (Ottoman commanders hold the castle of Nicopolis and Ankara and stayed behind enemy forces) and achieve quick victory.20

18

Mufassal Osmanlı Tarihi, İskit Yayınevi, Şehir Matbaası, İstanbul 1957, s 197 Mehmed Neşri, Neşri tarihi, Cilt 1, Kültür ve Turizm bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara 1983,s 167 20 Also see Herbert Melzig, Ankara Meydan Muharebesi, Çituri Biraderler Basımevi, İstanbul 1941, s 29 19

FINAL PREPARATIONS Both sides took their battle order in the Cubuk plain. There are various accounts on the size of each army. It is reasonable to think the size of Timur’s army was around 160 thousand while Bayezid’s army was around 70 thousand.21 Timur’s army was almost entirely cavalry while Ottomans were foot soldiers having cavalry as well. Timur had 32 war elephants.22 Vulnerable areas of these elephants were covered by armour.23 Warriors in the tower situated at the top of these elephants could throw arrows and fire.24 The intention was to scare Ottoman cavalry and crush Ottoman foot soldiers with these elephants.25 Since Ottoman horses were not familiar with elephants, it was stated that Ottoman horses were scared. 26 Timur placed importance to keep elephants in his army. Despite many difficulties of using elephants in battles, he brought these all the way to Anatolia. According to the Spanish envoy, who visited Timur in 1403, the Timurids believed a war elephant was equal to thousand foot soldier in a battle because when they attack they crush everything on their path and when they get injuries, they attack even with more furiously and with the sharp blades attached to their teeth they could destroy everything and moreover, they could fight without food for three days.27

21

Uzunçarşılı, s 311 Johannes Schiltberger, Türkler ve Tatarlar arasında (1394-1427), İletişim Yayınları, İstanbul 1995, s 66 23 Tahsin Berkman, Harp Tarihi, Harp Okulu Basımevi, 1949, s 109 24 İsmail Hami Danişmend, İzahlı Osmanlı Tarihi Kronolojisi, Cilt 1, Türkiye Basımevi, İstanbul, 1947, s 130, Justin Marozzi, Timurlenk, Yapı Kredi yayınları, Istanbul 2005, s 353 25 Danişmend, s 130, Bozkurt, s 64-65 ve Finkel, s 26 26 Tunalı, s 37 27 Ruy Gonzales De Clavijo, Timur Devrinde Kadis’ten Semerkand’a Seyahat, Kesit Yayınları, Ocak 2007, 158 ( ve sayfa 131 ve 152) ve İspanyol elçisi Clavijo’nun Semerkand Sefaretnamesi, Hayat Tarih Mecmuası, Ağustos 1967, s 22. In essence, use of elephants at battles were challenging. Besides with usual difficulties of its care, food and keeping conditions, elephants are peaceful in their nature and this animal is seriously disrupted with the chaos, noise and smell at the battlefield, can easily panic and then can crush anything on its path, including its own troops. An injured elephant may open the way by crushing his own troops. That kept elephant use limited since ancient times. 22

TERRAIN FEATURES OF THE BATTLEFIELD “Look how Thunderbolt [Bayezid] trapped Iron [Timur]. Only a commander like Iron could break this trap, no other can break such a trap” Comment of Marshal Gazi Mustafa Kemal Ataturk after assessing the Battle of Ankara on map.28

It was Bayezid who determined the location of the battle. This military genius proved demonstrated before how he could use geographical features much to the advantage of his army. The above comment of another great military genius, Ataturk, reflects the truth. Bayezid deployed his army much faster than Timur anticipated and came from a direction Timur could not expect and Bayezid draw Timur into a battlefield which would be detrimental to Timur’s fast cavalry forces which significantly outnumber his army composed of mainly foot soldiers.29 Battle field is a vast plain of Cubuk. On the east of the area, there was Cubuk stream. On the west there were Mount Karabayır and Mount Mire. The 1611 m Mount Mire was the highest mountain in this region. On the west of Mount Mire, there was Ova stream. Two hills, Calkaya and Böğrek were close to Mount Mire. Cataltepe (Yarbayırları) formed the northern border of the battlefield. The Hamamtepesi hill near Meliksah village overlooked the entire plain. Bayezid had assessed his opponent well. Therefore, an ideal battlefield for Ottomans should possess features like: - not permitting highly mobile cavalry forces to run to flanks and rear of his army. - his troops, which are well trained and which are accurate shooters could see approaching enemy quickly and shoot from fortified positions from the front. - Since well disciplined Ottoman troops could not be taken out from fortified positions easily, the area should contain high hills to enable his troops to resist and shoot from above. 28

Bozkurt, s 84 History records one another major battle in this area. According to historian Hammer Bayezid and Timur fought in the same place in the north west of Ankara at the hill of Stella where Roman general Pompeii defeated King Mitridiates of Pontus. Hammer, s 359. In his work, General Omerhalis also touched upon this issue and he noted a visitor from the museum of Geneva to Ankara in 1929 saying this Roman battle took place in Cubuk. This expert said “this must be the battlefield for those two major battles that gave shape to the destiny of two empires. There is enough space to deploy large army here”. Bıyıktay, s 73, footnote. As a reminder, war between Roman Empire and Kingdom of Pontus was important in Roman history. The final one took place between Pompeii the Great and the Mithridaetes VI around 66 BC. With this victory Pontus threat was overcome and Rome stopped the most serious threat to its rule since the times of Hannibal of Carthage. 29

All those prerequisites Bayezid sought was present in this area he chose. Mount Mire protected Ottoman right flank preventing Timur cavalry to circle Ottomans from the rear and flanks. Those who attempt such a move could be stopped with archers deployed on Calkaya and Bogrek hills. The rear was sealed with Cataltepe naturally. Bayezid fortified this area as well. So, he secured his right and rear and these natural obstacles would also serve Bayezid’s troops to retreat safely to all directions.30 Ottoman line was formed in the south of Meliksah village. Camps, tents were established. Hamamtepesi hill where Bayezid commanded his army was behind the centre of the army. It was high and easy to defend. Janissaries were deployed here. All the waves of cavalry attacks to the centre were broken by accurate and effective shots of the Janissaries. Only the Ottoman left flank was relatively more vulnerable as it was in the plain lacking any natural obstacles. Timur cavalry could crush this flank. But still Bahadırtepe hill slightly behind could constitute a defensive hold for Ottomans should they were forced to retreat. From this hill they could regroup and resist. As per custom, Rumelian army was on the left flank. Being aware of the vulnerability, Bayezid deployed Ottoman reserves closer to rear of left flank. When the war began, Timur would order first attack on this flank.

30

Not to fall in ambush is one important aspect of effective use of geography by the commander of an army. Another aspect is not to be trapped. A commander must arrange for routes to safely retreat his troops. Bayezid was a master of using terrain features to most of his advantage. Thanks to measures he took beforehand, Ottoman troops retreated in masses with their commanders to safe areas. Should Bayezid had not considered this, entire Ottoman amry would have been annihilated by the Timur forces and Ottomans may have never arise from this defeat.

CHAPTER III:

THE DAY OF THE BATTLE There is no consensus on the exact of the battle. Some sources cite July 20 while other point to July 28. In this study, we do find the latter more convincing based on our research, therefore we acknowledge that the battle took place on July 28, 1402 (27 Zilhicce 804 in old Islamic calendar)31

BATTLE ORDER AND KEY COMMANDERS Ottoman army took classical battle order on two flanks and centre (heart as called by the Ottomans). Sultan Bayezid was in the centre with his sons Mustafa, Musa and Isa. Kapıkulu cavalry (sipahis) and Kapıkulu infantry (Janissaries) were covering their front and in the first line there were azaps. Anatolian army was on the right flank while Rumelian army was on the left. Serbian cavalry under the command of Stephan Lazarevic, the brother-in-law of Bayezid was on the right flank. Soldiers from recently conquered or subdued Anatolian beyliks and Black Tartars were behind the two flanks. In the rear, there were the reserve forces. Timur deployed his army on two lines; he was in the centre of second line. His sons were commanding flanks. Elephants were in the front of these orderly formed lines. So, “two giant armies faced each other like human eater double-headed dragon. They were ready and waiting impatiently for command, thirsty of each other’s blood” 32

31 32

Danişmend, s 128, Uzunçarşılı, s 310 Nizamüddin Şâmi, Zafername, Türk Tarih Kurumu Basımevi, Ankara 1987, s 305

Sultan Bayezid “the Thunderbolt” Original gravure from the 1662 French translation of the book of Byzantine historian Laonicus Chalcondyle Source: Blaise de Vigenere, Histoire Generale Des Tvrcs: Contenant l'Histoire De Chalcondyle. Tradvite Par Blaise De Vigenaire, Auec les illustrations du mesme Autheur. Et Continvee Ivsqves en l'an MDCXII par Thomas Artus; Et en cette Edition, par le Sieur de Mezeray, iusques en l'annee 1661, Paris 1662 Middle East Technical University Library, Ankara Turkey (ML Rare Collection catalogue no DR485 .V673)

Amir Timur Timur literally meant “Iron”. Ottoman historians called Timur Timurlenk due to his disability in his foot. Timurlenk meant Timur the lame and this passed to other languages in such forms as “Tamarlane”, “Tamerlan”, “Tamerlanos”, “Tamerlanes” etc. Main motive of the Ottoman historians to call him by his disability was to insult him. It is not acceptable to use this name containing an insult to one of the greatest Turkish conquerors of history. We do need to show proper respect and call him Timur, Amir Timur, Timur Gurgan or Demir Original gravure from the 1662 French translation of the book of Byzantine historian Laonicus Chalcondyle Source: Blaise de Vigenere, Histoire Generale Des Tvrcs: Contenant l'Histoire De Chalcondyle. Tradvite Par Blaise De Vigenaire, Auec les illustrations du mesme Autheur. Et Continvee Ivsqves en l'an MDCXII par Thomas Artus; Et en cette Edition, par le Sieur de Mezeray, iusques en l'annee 1661, Paris 1662 Middle East Technical University Library, Ankara Turkey (ML Rare Collection catalogue no DR485 .V673)

BATTLE AND ITS AFTERMATH “Warriors on both sides were hitting swords on other heads so fast that one could think swords were pouring from the clouds. Souls of man of war were screaming with the sounds created by maces and arrows. The dust crated by horses of cavalry darkened the day, battlefield was filled with bodies. Zafername33

After soldiers on both sides finished their prayers, horns and drums on the Timur side was heard. All the banners were opened and Timur’s army began to march. A mass steel wall was approaching.34 Battle began with the attack of Timur’s right flank on Ottoman left flank. 35 Ottoman left flank managed to stop this first wave of attack and launched counter attack on Timur’s right flank. Despite endless armoured cavalry and elephants in front of the Timur’s army, Rumelian army of the Ottoman left flank managed to move forward. 36 But at this stage, Timur used his secret weapon. He managed to convince Black Tartars to shift side before using his spy network and those Black Tartars deployed as reserves on the rear of Ottoman left flank began to attack charging Rumelian army in the back. This caused the collapse of the left flank of the Ottomans as they were left in the middle of two fires. Same treason showed up its nasty face on the Ottoman right flank. Timur ordered the beys under his command to show themselves to soldiers who were deployed in the reserve of Ottoman right flank. Seeing their former lords, these began attacking Ottoman right flank from the rear and this flank collapsed as well. Despite loosing of flanks, Ottoman centre was fiercely fighting back. Entire Timur army began to encircle the Ottoman centre. Bayezid, with his Kapıkulu infantry, cavalry and Serbian knights continued to fight. Even Timur appreciated the determination and loyalty of the Serbians. 37 . By noon time, Ottoman commanders offered sultan to consider retreat. Bayezid refused this but allowed them to retreat together with large amount of troops. In the afternoon, with his Kapıkulu troops, Bayezid retreated to Cataltepe. His loyal household troops and solaks were with him. 38 Entire Cataltepe hill was surrounded by tens of thousands of Timur troops. “They could have run away but they were honourable, they dared to stand against death”. 39 Bayezid’s sword was broken, he fought with a heavy battle axe, killing anyone approaching him with one stroke “he was hitting so strongly, there was no need for a second stroke” 40 33

a.g.e., s 306 Tahsin Ünal, Türk Askerlik Kültürü, Berikan Yayınları, Ankara 2001 , s 128 35 Necati Tacan, Batı Türklerinin (Osmanlılar) Teessüs ve İstila Devirlerinde Harb Güdemi Usulleri, 103 sayılı Askeri Mecmuanın lahikası, Askeri Matbaa, İstanbul, 1936, s 34 ve Mufassal Osmanlı Tarihi, İskit Yayınevi, Şehir Matbaası, İstanbul 1957, s 198 36 Mufassal Osmanlı Tarihi, s 199 37 Mehmed Neşri, Neşri tarihi, Cilt 1, Kültür ve Turizm bakanlığı Yayınları, Ankara 1983,s 167 ve Uzunçarşılı, s 313 38 Neşri, s 168 39 Hoca Sadettin Efendi, s 275 40 Uzunçarşılı, s 313 34

Sultan Bayezid “the Thunderbolt’s last stand at the Battle of Ankara Illustration commissioned to illustrator Miguel Coimbra by Altar Modelling. Copyright Altar Modelling. Cannot be copied or used.

In late hours in the evening, Bayezid managed to break the siege and moved north with a group of men. Approximately 16km north of Cataltepe, his horse stumbled and caused Bayezid to fell. “what has the horse of sultan who was like Alexander the Great done? He dropped the shah like a falling star, as if a lightning landed to earth from the sky” 41 Timurid soldiers chasing him so closely under the command of Chagatai Khan Mahmut Khan grabbed him before Bayezid could find opportunity to change horse. 42 Cavalry moving ahead of Bayezid to open the way was on the hill which was later named Cankurtaran (life saver) hill. The place where Bayezid was captured was in the skirts of this hill. To keep this memory alive forever, a village was established here by Tartars and was named Mahmutoglan village. 41 42

Hoca Sadettin Efendi, s 276 Ömer Halis s 72 ve 89-90

Mahmut Khan took captured Bayezid to Timur’s tent. They passed the battlefield, from north down to south crossing entire plain. Bayezid heard on the way the wounded calling his name, his hands were tied and he moved among the Ottoman deaths on the fields. 43 The battle that has begun early in the morning lasted 14-15 hours until midnight.44 was finally over. There are numerous theories, conspiracies and speculations for the aftermath of the battle. The issues like how Bayezid lost his life, how Timur treated him were all issues full of ambiguities and conspiracies. Whatever the true story is, one thing is certain that a great military commander lost his life on 3 March 1403, at the age of 43 in captivity. 45 “finally, he too flew like bird with the breezes from the world of souls” 46 After his victory, Timur send messages to King of France and King of England and told them he defeated the Ottoman sultan whom they could not defeat at Nicopolis. 47 Battle of Ankara is one of most notable tragedies of Turkish history. After this battle, the unity in Anatolia disrupted, rival beyliks re-emerged, Bayezid’s son engaged in struggle for the Ottoman throne and Ottoman grip on rival states weakened. But, due to strong institutional character of Ottoman states whose roots were established by Bayezid’s father Murad I and the forces saved from the battle, Ottomans did not perish. On the other hand, victorious Timur turned back to east, took all Black Tartars with him and launched his new offensive on China, which was the ultimate prize for any steppe warrior’s dream. But he lost his life in 1405 before realising this objective. His state he created lost power gradually and disappeared. Only in India, Timur’s descendants, his grandsons managed to establish powerful Babur Empire (Mughal Empire), which lasted until British came in 19th century.

43

Melzig, s 30 Danişmend, s 130 45 Tunalı, s 39 46 Hoca Sadettin Efendi, s 325 47 Uzunçarşılı, s 314 44

“…I marched with my soldiers on Kaiser via Angurya. Kaiser Bayezid met me with four hundred thousand foot and mounted soldiers. When battle begun, I defeated the Roman army. My soldiers brought the Kaiser before me. I returned Samarkand from my 7 Year Campaign with victory and glory”.

Battle of Ankara in Timur’s words Tüzükat-ı Timur, Kaynak yayınları, İstanbul, 2004

Defeated Bayezid brought before victorious Timur. A 1903 Liebig postcard depicting this scene. Source: Altar Modelling archive

CHAPTER IV:

28 JULY 2009 IMPRESSIONS After lengthy in house research, finally time to go on site had arrived. At 8am on 28 July 2009, Tuesday, we departed from Konutkent toward Esenboğa airport road with our private vehicle. In the route we determined, we would pass through Sarayköy, Dumlupınar and reach İkipınar and finally to Meliksah village. In other words, we planned to pass through south of the battlefield move north in the western border turn to east and stop at Meliksah village where Bayezid established his camp and directed the battle watching over Hamamtepesi hill. From here we will move further north to visit Mahmutoglan village, where Bayezid was captured by Timur’s soldiers.

Satellite image of the battlefield today showing the current location of the villages. Source: GoogleMaps

After 40-45 minutes drive we reached the Esenboga Airport- Cubuk junction. We headed west to Dumlupınar via Yenice-Dumlupınar road. At Kızılca, we turned right and headed north. Soon enough, we saw the İkizce Lake on our left. From İkipınar village, we turned east and reached Calkaya hill, a remarkable scene with red sand and rocks. From this moment on we could see Mount Mire (1611 m) with all its magnificence. Since there are

many antennas on this mountain, it is easily recognisable from anywhere in these areas. We reached Meliksah village. Bayezid established his camp here and he commanded his army from the hill named Hamamtepesi. This is a vantage point and from here you can see all battlefield. We were there around 10.30 and saw that this was an ordinary day for the inhabitants of this village. We did not feel extreme heat yet and there was even a very mild wind.

Lake Ikizce. The mountain on the right is Mount Mire.

Mount Mire and antennas on its peak

Calkaya and red sand and rocks

We are now at the ancient bath ruins. The place Bayezid established his camp was named Hamamtepesi [Hill of the bath] apparently named after this bath.

Bath ruins at the Meliksah village. Entire one wall of the bath has collapsed.

Collapsed wall of the bath.

The bath was present here even in 1402. This structure look like ancient Roman structures but there is not much information about it. The villager living at house close to the bath told that the bath was full of water and they could swim in it when they were child. He told in 1970’s there were some drilling activity here and this caused flood and entire village were under water. Then drilling was performed in the lower area in the entrance of the village and this bath became dry. There is a large private pool facility in the lower area now. This villager in his late 50s told us what he was told by his father and grandfather. According to one of those stories, during Bayezid’s time a soldier drowned in this bath and it became forbidden to enter this pool and it was filled with stones to decrease its depth. The grave of the soldier was in the village graveyard on that hill. Currently there is a small structure on the Hamamtepesi hill belonging to the water well. His father told what he heard from his father and they knew Ottomans set up tents in this area.

Melikşah village and the vantage point, best spot to watch the entire battlefield Source: GoogleEarth

The point we stood at Hamamtepesi hill had good view of the plain and the battlefield. The clear view here demonstrated what a perfect choice Bayezid had made to command the battle.

The plain as seen from the Hamamtepesi

Looking north, toward the opposite direction of the plain from Hamamtepesi. With its red colour you can easily spot Calkaya and Mount Mire with its peak full of antennas in the back.

Now it is almost 11.00 and there was no sign of extreme hot. It was obvious, we were much luckier than those who suffered hot weather 607 years ago on this plain. Looking down the hill, you can see farmers harvesting crops in the fields. Further ahead in the horizon, the Esenboga Airport could be seen on the left while Mount Huseyin Gazi could be seen on the right.

Looking to the battlefield from Hamamtepesi. On the left, there is the Esenboga airport and on the right there is Mount Huseyin Gazi and city of Ankara

Looking to the battlefield from Hamamtepesi. This vast, peaceful and quite plain hosted one of the biggest battles of history.

We left Hamamtepesi hill and drove down to cross the battlefield using the small path opened for the agricultural vehicles. Temperature was 26 ºC and it was still difficult to say it was a very hot day. We stopped in the middle of the plain and looked back to Hamamtepesi hill. It was clear that on this plain this hill seemed like a steep obstacle, a difficult place to approach especially when Janissaries poured arrows on you. From where we stand, when we looked ahead to south, to the direction where Timur’s cavalry came, we see, visibility was difficult here. Ottoman soldiers here had to defend against whatever they see from here.

Looking at Hamamtepesi from the middle of the battlefield. As can be seen, Timur’s cavalry had to climb up this ramp to reach Ottoman centre and Bayezid under the lethal rain or arrows of Ottoman archers

The view of the battlefield is so clear from the Hamamtepesi but when you come down to the plain the visibility is not so clear. Ottoman soldiers waiting in the battlefield had poor visibility of the oncoming hordes of Timur cavalry and naturally, they had to react to whatever they come upon themselves.

We then drove to Cataltepe, northern border of the battlefield. Bayezid defended this hill with several thousand elite Kapıkulu cavalry and infantry until midnight. To reach Cataltepe, you need to go to Kutuören village and turn right and drive among the fields. Approaching Cataltepe, you could understand how mighty natural obstacle it was.

Cataltepe (also known as Yarbayırları) seals the northern end of the battle field. The road on the right leads to Kutuören village from the Meliksah village

Hamamtepesi hill was overlooking the plain, but Cataltepe overlooks entire area, a much higher place. This hill range seals the battle field on the north. It perfectly protected Ottoman rear but at the same time presented Ottomans to retreat safely to any direction. Bayezid must have calculated all the possibilities so that he ordered fortifications made on this hill before the battle began and deployed soldiers on critical passages. Unfortunately, his worst case scenario turned out to be true and he was forced to make his last stand on this hill.

Bahadırtepe hill, the highest hill on the east of the battlefield. Only natural obstacle that Ottoman left wing could hold should they were forced to retreat.

The view from Cataltepe was impressive. Entire area was under your feet. What we saw was vast plains now shared among villagers as fields for farming but when Bayezid looked from here in 1402 he saw “all flanks in disarray, few soldiers left on the field and piles of Ottoman deaths and enemy surrounding everywhere” 48

48

Ömer Halis s 87

View of Meliksah village and all Cubuk plain from Cataltepe.

Cataltepe witnessed one of the bloodiest struggle in history of medieval warfare. Bayezid deployed Janissaries in fortified holes on the routes suitable for Timur’s cavalry to infiltrate. These killed many such cavalry as they approached to these positions. And Bayezid with his Kapıkulu cavalry ran everywhere to hunt down those who by chance managed to pass these Janissary positions and made their way up the hill. Rest of the Timur army was watching this fight with admiration but also, Timur’s soldiers became tired and sick of numerous failed attempts. 49

49

ibid., s 88

View of Meliksah village and all Cubuk plain from Cataltepe. The red hill on the right is Calkaya. Bayezid had this view of the plain when he retreated to Cataltepe.

View of Meliksah village and all Cubuk plain from Cataltepe. On the left there is the Esenboga Airport and on the right Mount Huseyin Gazi and city of Ankara.

As this fight continued for hours, Bayezid’s sword shattered into pieces. He grabbed a heavy battle axe and continued to destroy enemy with this axe. More than 100 thousand combatants of Timur still could not break the resistance of several thousand Ottomans. When Bayezid saw his men were becoming less, he decided to break the siege and take all what is left with him. With 300 mounted warriors, he broke the siege and rode north. 50 He fought waves of reluctant and tired Timurid cavalry to make his way out and he became successful.

50

ibid., s 88

As we move further up on Cataltepe, this is the view you get. Meliksah village, Calkaya hill with its red colour on the right and view of the entire Cubuk plain. On the left there is the Esenboga Airport and on the right Mount Huseyin Gazi and city of Ankara.

When Timur heard Bayezid broke the siege, he ordered a fresh regiment to pursue him. He ordered Chagatai Khan to follow him with fresh and powerful cavalry unit. After Bayezid moved 16km away from Cataltepe, his horse stumbled and Bayezid fell and Mahmut Khan captured him under the skirt of Cankurtaran hill. We wanted to visit Mahmutoglan village where he was captured. For this reason we had to head back to main road and we drove from Meliksah to Cubuk-Ankara highway. We passed over Cubuk stream. In this month of the year, the water level was always very low in this stream and that not an exception in 1402 either.

Water level at the Cubuk stream on 28 July 2009

We reached Mahmutoglan village. This village is different. It does not resemble to other villages we have seen in this area so far. The geography has the traits of Black Sea region rather than Central Anatolian region. There were houses built on steep hills as in Black Sea. Our luck crossed our path with the person in that village who knew all about Bayezid and the battle according to villagers. 90 year old Yasar Amca (uncle) [Yaşar Yurdakul] told us he heard stories told from generations to generations from his father and grandfather.

Yasar Amca pointing to the forest area on the Cankurtaran hill where Bayezid was captured. Sultan was captured immediately when his horse fallen. The vanguard cavalry moving ahead of Bayezid to clear way could see this but could not do anything and their lives were saved this way. This is the reason why this hill is named Cankurtaran. (Literally Cankurtaran means “life saver” in Turkish)

Despite his age, Yasar Amca was quite fit and active and his mind was clear and he was very much willing to tell us all about Bayezid and the history of the village. He told us “come and I will show you where Bayezid was captured”.

Second hill from the left is Cankurtaran hill. The higher hill on the right has castle ruins supposedly from the ancient Roman period.

Yasar Amca told us that this village was established after 1402 in the name of “Mahmut Pasha”, “Timur’s commander, one of his pashas” Majority of the villagers living today are descendants of Tartars. Even after Ottomans set their rule, they did not pursue punitive act against residents here. Cherry trees decorate the village all around and cherries shine like small light bulbs on these trees. Then Yasar Amca took us to the tomb of Mahmut Dede. He told us that this was the tomb of Timur's pasha and villagers call him Mahmut Dede. “These people descend from his person” he told us. Mahmut Dede’s tomb is under two lonely trees that be reached passing through the fields.

Two lonely trees on the tomb of Mahmut Dede

While we were wondering the tomb of such an important person, we were surprised to see the grave Yasar Amca pointed us as here is the tomb of Mahmut Dede. It looked as if it was made very recently. It was an oval shaped grave whose boundaries were marked with ordinary stones. Yasar Amca told us, last year this grave was opened and disrupted by one of the residents living in Cubuk for gold. he informed the village head. They found the skull of Mahmut Dede lying under the tree. But now, nothing seems to be there. This was a rather strange situation. If, as argued by Yasar Amca that this tomb was the grave of Mahmut Dede, the ancestors of all these people in the village, Timur’s commander, the person who captured Bayezid and more importantly one of the last heir of Chengis Khan, how come such an important person were treated like this? Our research indicates Mahmut Khan lost his life several months before Bayezid lost his life. He lost his life in Keciborlu (further south toward Antalya) due to illness but we could not find his burial place. How come such an important person rest under a tree unnoticed for 600 years? The villagers claim that this is the case, but as well known, there are hundreds of such tombs in Anatolia that villagers place great spiritual and religious importance. We do not believe our elder, 90 year old guide, make up such a story but we seriously look into this issue and continue our research on this issue.

Yasar Amca points to the opened and disrupted grave of Mahmut Dede.

Opened and disrupted grave of Mahmut Dede

After leaving Mahmutoğlan, we reached in 40-45 minutes, around 5pm to our staring point at Konutkent, Ankara. Those who wonder where battle of Ankara took place, our answer would be clear and straight: Areas, starting from Eymir and Mogan lakes in the south up to north passing through entire Ankara city up to Cubuk and to Mahmutoglan village, were the area of manoeuvring armies of Ottomans and Timurids. 250 thousand warriors, hundreds of thousands of horses, dozens of war elephants, marched over these lands, fought, perished and mixed to earth here. In short terms, entire city of Ankara that we live in today was the battle field.

CHAPTER IV:

ATATÜRK’S SPECIAL INTEREST IN THIS BATTLE AND WORK OF GENERAL ÖMERHALIS 51

Today, we owe our knowledge about the battle of Ankara and especially the exact location of the battlefield to the special interest of Ataturk and extremely valuable study of General Omerhalis published in 1934. Although there were plenty of reference to the battle in Ottoman, Timurid, European and Arabic sources, none clearly indicated the location of battlefield. This continued until 1930’s. Ataturk had special interest in the battle of Ankara. When he had chance, he toured the area and cross checked the features in the region with historical sources hoping to identify the exact location. One day, early in the morning he left Presidential Palace and toured the Cubuk plain. Upon his return he said to those around him that the battle must definitely have took place in the area around Esenboga airport as he said, there was no other suitable place for a major battle field. 52 In his 1934 study, one of veteran commanders of Turkish War of Independence who later became general, General Omerhalis53 located the exact coordinates of the battlefield without leaving any doubts after a thorough examination of all historical sources and various site visits in the Cubuk area. 54

51

Ataturk, was born in 1881 in Salonika. He graduated from the Military Academy in 1902 and from the Army War College in 1905. He fought in Tripoli and in the First World War. Gained great success on the Çanakkale front during 1915. With the occupation of the motherland, he landed in Samsun on May 19, 1919 and launched the National Struggle for liberation of Turkey. He opened the way for victories in İnonu Battles. He was appointed as Commander-in-Chief on August 5, 1921. After Sakarya and Baskomutanlık Battles he was appointed Marshal on September 19, 1921 and was granted the title of Gazi. He announced the Proclamation of the Republic on October 29, 1923. He became the first President of the Republic of Turkey. In 1934, he was granted surname Atatürk, meaning “Father of Turks”. With his great revolutions, Turkey became an independent, secular, modern and strong state. One of the greatest soldiers in world history, a great political leader, passed away on November 10, 1938. 52 Ragıp Üner, Ankara Meydan savaşının dramı, mektuplaşmalar, Atatürk’ün bu savaş hakkında düşünceleri, Hayat Tarih Mecmuası, Kasım 1976, s 96 53 http://www.zafer.aku.edu.tr/komutan1.htm 54 Ömer Halis s 70-73

Cover of Omerhalis’ book Ömer Halis [Bıyıktay], Timur’s Anatolia Campaign in the Seven Year Campaign and Battle of Ankara, Military Printing Office, Istanbul 1934

Map no 5 showing the exact location of the battlefield in the study of Omerhalis. Source: Ömer Halis [Bıyıktay], Timur’s Anatolia Campaign in the Seven Year Campaign and Battle of Ankara, Military Printing Office, Istanbul 1934, Map no 5

General Omerhalis at Melikşah village during one of his site visits. The picture must have been taken at the bath ruins. The hill in the back marked with cross is Cataltepe. Source: Ömer Halis [Bıyıktay], Timur’s Anatolia Campaign in the Seven Year Campaign and Battle of Ankara, Military Printing Office, Istanbul 1934, picture between pages 72 and 73

Ataturk was an admirer of Timur. He expressed this to those close to him at various opportunities. Mahmut East Bozkurt in his book titled “Ataturk and Demir” noted “Ataturk was very fond of Timur. He was impressed with Timur’s military and political skills” 55 He noted that Ataturk told “if I was born in Timur’s time I could not achieve what he achieved. But if he lived in my time, he could have achieved much bigger successes”. Once Ataturk compared Bayezid and Timur. Bozkurt noted Ataturk loved Bayezid as a hero as well and he told “Bayezid was a great commander but when compared to Timur he is a child, a brave mad young lad”. 56 Ataturk must have largely impressed with Timur’s achievement of establish a strong empire from zero without inheriting anything from his ancestors. With his conquests, Timur realised the dream of all rulers who would name themselves conqueror even if they manage to achieve a portion of what Timur did. Except for China, Timur fulfilled 55 56

Bozkurt, s 84 Bozkurt, s 84

this. Bozkurt noted “Both Timur and Ataturk are sons of Turkish nation that managed to establish states from nothing. They look like each other in their nature…”57 According to Prof. Afet İnan, Ataturk examined all battles of Timur. he believed Timur’s strategy and his campaigns were perfect militarily. With a handful of warriors, he established a major empire.58 Inan noted Ataturk wrote a play about Timur and dictated this to her. Prof. Inan keeps this in her private archive. Inan noted Ataturk wrote lengthy speeches to Timur when she asked whether others would not speak, Ataturk said when there is Timur no one else can speak in the environment. 59 As a final remark in this section, as known, soldiers mark friendly and enemy forces with different colour codes on maps. Usually red marks enemy while blue marks friendly forces. In 1930’s, in line with Ataturk legacy, all Timur forces were marked blue while Ottomans were shown with red code. In later years, in Turkish Chief of Staff publications, the codes were reversed and now blue showed Ottomans while red showed Timur forces.

Marking the battle of Ankara on map by Turkish soldiers. The map on the left is dated 1934 and the one on the right is dated 1964. Source: Ömer Halis [Bıyıktay], Timur’s Anatolia Campaign in the Seven Year Campaign and Battle of Ankara, Military Printing Office, Istanbul 1934, map No: 5 and Türk Silahlı Kuvvetleri Tarihi IIIncü cilt 1nci kısım (1299-1451), Genelkurmay Basımevi, Ankara 1964, s 64 sonrası kroki 22

57

a.g.e., s 83 Üner, s 96 59 ibid., s 96 58

FINAL REMARKS Ankara, a mysterious city, yet never cries out their mysteries and wont easily reveal what it keeps hidden in itself. This city had been on the critical way between east and west and north and south throughout the history, hosting major events at critical times of history. Battle of Ankara, one of the most important battles in the history of wars is just one example. A battle with combatants around 250 thousand strong on both sides is rare to see. Even in modern times, to convene such a force on one plain was not possible to most nations. Just to make a comparison with another battle in almost same period would be striking. The Battle of Towton of 1461 where total of 40-45 thousand combatants took part is considered as one of the biggest battles fought on English soil, a country that fought in its entire history and fought well in every period.60 Certainly, the importance of one battle is not solely determined with the total number of combatants. The quality, personality of commanders, the tactics they employ, the immediate and future results and impacts of the battle should be taken into consideration. Whatever criterion you would employ, you would see the 1402 Battle of Ankara would stood out as one of the most important battles in the history of wars. Those who wonder where battle of Ankara took place, our answer would be clear and straight: Areas, starting from Eymir and Mogan lakes in the south up to north passing through entire Ankara city up to Cubuk and to Mahmutoglan village, were the area of manoeuvring armies of Ottomans and Timurids. 250 thousand warriors, hundreds of thousands of horses, dozens of war elephants, marched over these lands, fought, perished and mixed to earth here. In short terms, entire city of Ankara that we live in today was the battle field. The developed nations, advanced nations of the world try their best to teach new generations their glorious past. Ataturk’s special interest to this battle and the extraordinarily beautiful and useful work of General Omerhalis were all due to this quest, to teach Turkish generations about their past. Such a high understanding that was launched in 1930’s had faded away in time. Instead these generations got lost in the deep holes of ignorance and illiteracy. The attempts of Ataturk and people like General Omerhalis became history themselves. Those trying to turn dry lands into green became history leaving us with rudely ignorant generations we see everywhere now. This study is dedicated to those people who worked hard to tell us more about our history.

60

The Battle of Towton, 1461, Osprey Publishing, Madrid, 2004, s 7

ANNEX I:

CHRONOLOGY 1227 1242 1336 1359 1360 1370 1371 1375 1376 1380 1382

Death of Chengis Khan Death of Chagatai Khan, son of Chengis Khan Timur was born in Hoca Ilgar village near Sehr-i Sebz (Green city) near Samarkand. Timur rises to the head of Barlas clan by swearing loyalty to the Mongol Khan Bayezid was born Date accepted as the beginning of Timur’s rule. He ascends to rule Samarkand as the ruler of Chagatai Timur’s campaign on Harezm and capture of Harezm. Timur’s campaign on Mongolia Timur’s campaign on Horasan and capture of Heart Timur’s campaign on the shores of Caspian sea

1384

Timur’s Iran campaign, capture Tabriz and launched campaign on Georgia

1387 1389

Timur’s campaign on Armenia Ottoman victory at Kosovo. Bayezid fought at flank commander, upon his fathers death at the battlefield, he became Sultan becoming the only Ottoman sultan to come to throne at a battlefield. Timur’s campaign on Mongolia

1389 1390 1390 1391 1391 1392 1393 1395 1396 1396 1398 1397 1398 1399 1400 1401 1402 1403 1403 1405 1413

Timur’s campaign on Golden Horde (Russia) defeating Toktamıs Khan. Bayezid lays siege of Constantinople. This is the first time this city is taken under siege by Turks. Timur’s campaign on Georgia, Iraq and Iran. Timur’s conquest of Baghdad. Timur defeats once again Toktamis Khan of the Golden Horde. Battle of Nicopolis. Bayezid defeats an elite army assembled by troops from almost all states of Europe. Timur resides in Samarkand. Bayezid defeats Karaman Beylik in Anatolia thereby closing one more step to unite Anatolia under one rule. Timur’s campaign on India. He passes Hindikush mountains with his army and captures Multan and Delhi. Beginning of Timur’s “7 year campaign” Timur captures Ottoman city Sivas. Timur recaptures Damascus and Baghdad. Battle of Ankara Mahmut Khan, the Khan of Chagatais lost his life at Keçiborlu from illness Bayezid lost his life in Aksehir. Timur lost his life at Otrar, Kazakhstan. Bayezid’s son Mehmet I ends power struggle and Ottomans remerge with growing strength.

ANNEX II:

MAPS Map I: Geographical and topographic features of the battlefield Map II: Routes followed by the two armies until the Ankara battlefield Map III: Battle orders Map IV: Extend of Ottoman state before and after the battle Map V: Timur’s campaigns and areas he dominated

MAP I Geographical and topographical features of the battlefield

MAP II Routes followed by the two armies until Ankara battlefield

MAP III Battle order of the two sides

MAP IV Extend of Ottoman state before and after the battle

MAP V Timur’s campaigns and areas he dominated

ANNEX III:

IMPORTANT CHARACTERS OTTOMAN ARMY Sultan Bayezid the Thunderbolt (centre) Vezir Çandarlızade Ali Paşa (centre) İsa Çelebi, Bayezid’s son (centre) Mustafa Çelebi, Bayezid’s son (centre) Musa Çelebi, Bayezid’s son (centre) Hasan Ağa, Agha of the Janissaries (centre) Kara Timurtaş Paşa, Beylerbey of Anatolia (commander of right flank) Stefan Lazareviç, Serbian despot, Bayezid’s brother-in-law (right flank) Süleyman Çelebi, Bayezid’s son (commander of the left flank) Hoca Firuz Beg, Beylerbey of Rumelia (left flank) Mehmet Çelebi, Bayezid’s son (reserve) TIMUR ARMY Amir Timur (centre) Mahmutoğlan, Khan of Chagatai (centre) Emirzade Şahruh (left flank, first line) Emirzade Miranşah (right flank, first line) Emirzade Ömerşah (centre, first line) Emirzade Sultan Hüseyin (left flank, second line) Emirzade Sultan Ebubekir (right flank, second line) Emirzade Muhammed Sultan (reserve)

ANNEX IV:

GLOSSARY OF THE PLACES ON THE BATTLEFIELD HILLS- MOUNTAINS Mount Karabayır: Mountain south of Mount Mire Mount Mire: Highest mountain in the Cubuk plain with 1611m peak. This mountain forms the western border of the battlefield. Easily recognisable with antennas on its peak. Mount İdris: Mountain northeast of Ankara between Cubuk stream and Kalecik. Mount Elmadağ: Mountain in the east of Ankara, south of Cubuk with 1855m peak. Çataltepe hills (Yarbayırları): Hills that form the northern limit of the battlefield. Hamamtepesi hill: Hill south of Meliksah village. Ottomans set up their camp here. Bayezid commanded his army from this vantage point. Kaplı, Kapadı passage: Small passage that gives only way between Mount Karabayır and Mount Mire. Böğrek hill: Hill between Mount Mire Çalkaya hill. Koçbaşı hill: Hill south of Calkaya. Bahadırtepe hill: Hill in the east of battlefield close to Cubuk stream. Çalkaya hill: Hill south of Mount Mire, north of Meliksah village. It is distinctive with its red colour. Mount Cankurtaran: Mountain near Mahmutoglan village. Bayezid was captured in the skirts of this mountain. The forward forces already climbed the mountain saw this below but could not do anything. Their lives were saved, therefore this mountain is named life saver (cankurtaran) Mount Kuyrukçu: Mountain southeast of Lake Emir with its 1517m peak. Mount Emir: Mountain south of Lake Mogan.

Mount Hüseyin Gazi: Mountain east of Ankara with 1409m peak. A nice looking mountain which is close to Ankara and very attractively visible from the city. STREAMS, RIVERS AND LAKES Çubuk stream: Stream that divides Cubuk plain from north to south and reaches to the city of Ankara. Cubuk stream is always almost dry in summer months Kızılcaköy stream: Stream that divided Cubuk plain in west east direction and joins Cubuk stream. It runs through the valley between Mount Mire and Mount Karabayır. This stream divided the battlefield in the middle. First encounters happened on this line. Lake Emir: Lake south of Ankara city. Timur positioned all his troops in this area when he arrived from Sivas thinking the battle will be in this region. Lake Mogan: Lake south of Ankara city very near to Lake Emir. Timur positioned all his troops in this area when he arrived from Sivas thinking the battle will be in this region. VILLAGES Melikşah village: Village east of Mount Mire. Ottomans were deployed here. Saray village: Village north of city of Ankara and west of Cubuk stream. Timurids were deployed here. Mahmutoğlan village: Village established after the battle in the name of Timur’s commander, Khan of Chagatais Mahmutoglan who captured Bayezid.

ANNEX V:

OUR ROUTE Recommendations of route for those who want to visit the battlefield Before you start your journey make sure your car is properly passed maintenance. Although it is rather convenient route get enough fuel and make sure you have proper type of tyres for the season. Obey speed limitations and as the driver, make sure everyone in the car fasten their seat belts at all times even in quite looking village roads. Despite entire route is well marked with road signs and helpful villagers, you may like to examine the route using Google Earth or Google Maps before you start your journey. A compass and map would also be very helpful especially when you are off the road.

The battlefield Source: GoogleMaps

Our route was: Leaving Ankara heading to Esenboga Airport via Özal Boulevard To Sarayköy Driving toward Esenboga Airport via Özal Boulevard, Saraykoy village is on the right After Sarayköy, take the Cubuk way in the Esenboğa-Çubuk junction

To Dumlupınar – İkipınar and Melikşah After around 3.5 km turn to Yenice-Dumlupınar village road. Now you are at the outer corner of Esenboga airports runway. After 4 km you will see Dumlupınar village. Passing through Dumlupınar village after 2km turn right from Kızılca village (you may miss this turn as the road sign is small, old and not straight positioned leaning on a wall). As you drive you will meet small lake of İkizce on your left. To İkipınar and Melikşah villages After you pass İkizce lake continue for 2km to north and you reach Ikipinar village. Battlefield is on your right (in the east) now. Drive around 2.85km toward east and you will Meliksah village. As you approach Meliksah you will see red sand and rocks and you will pass through Calkaya hill. To Melikşah village In Meliksah visit Hamamtepesi hill and visit the vantage point we recommended near the village cemetery. To Mahmutoğlan village To reach Mahmutoglan village it would be good to make your way again to the AnkaraCubuk highway as trying to go through villages would be very time consuming and difficult. So, after you leave Meliksah village drive for 5km and you will pass the bridge over Cubuk stream and reach Ankara- Cubuk highway. Head north and you will reach Cubuk town. Follow the signs directing to Cubuk dam. When you reach Cubuk dam entrance do not take this direction but take the left way. Around 2.2km after this point turn right. In 300m there will another junction take the left road and drive north and you will be at the entrance of the village in about 7km

ANNEX VI:

NOTE FOR WARGAMERS Summary of the battle for those who want to bring this battle to their tabletop

Battle of Ankara Date of the battle 28 July1402, Friday Battle field Cubuk plain, Ankara Terrain features of the battlefield Plain area. Cubuk stream flows on the east border while Kızılcaköy stream cuts the plain in the middle. Belligerents Ottomans, Ordû-yi Hümâyûn (Mostly foot soldiers) Azabs Soldiers from Rumelia Soldiers from Anatolia Kapıkulu cavalry (sipahis) Kapıkulu infantry (janissaries) Serbian cavalry Soldiers from recently conquered or subdued Anatolian beyliks (Germiyan, Karaman, Aydın, Saruhan) and Black Tartars

Timurids (Mostly cavalry) Troops from Samarkand and all states and cities conquered and subdued by Timur before he reached Anatolia. Begs (leaders) of Anatolian beyliks who were conquered or subdued by Ottomans and found shelter under Timur in their flight from Bayezid.

Size of the armies Ottomans 70 thousand

Timurids 160 thousand 32 war elephants

Battle orders Ottomans Ottomans were on the north of the plain. Bayezid established his camp near Meliksah village and commanded his troops from Hamamtepesi hill near this village. Bayezid protected his right flank with natural obstacles of Mount Mire and his left flank reached to Cubuk stream on the east.

Timurids Timurids were on the south edge of the plain. They were on the lowlands. Timur established his camp near Saraykoy village and commanded his troops from here. His right flank were on today's Esenboga airport runway while his left flank extended to beginning of the Mount Mire line.

Commanders Ottomans Commander-in-chief Sultan Bayezid the Thunderbolt (centre)

Timurids Commander-in-chief Amir Timur (centre)

Commanders Sultan Bayezid the Thunderbolt (centre) Vezir Çandarlızade Ali Paşa (centre) İsa Çelebi, Bayezid’s son (centre) Mustafa Çelebi, Bayezid’s son (centre) Musa Çelebi, Bayezid’s son (centre) Hasan Ağa, Agha of the Janissaries (centre)

Commanders Mahmutoğlan, Khan of Chagatai (centre)

Kara Timurtaş Paşa, Beylerbey of Anatolia (commander of right flank) Stefan Lazareviç, Serbian despot, Bayezid’s brother-in-law (right flank)

Emirzade Şahruh (left flank, first line) Emirzade Miranşah (right flank, first line) Emirzade Ömerşah (centre, first line) Emirzade Sultan Hüseyin (left flank, second line) Emirzade Sultan Ebubekir (right flank, second line) Emirzade Muhammed Sultan (reserve)

Süleyman Çelebi, Bayezid’s son (commander of the left flank) Hoca Firuz Beg, Beylerbey of Rumelia (left flank) Mehmet Çelebi, Bayezid’s son (reserve) First attack Timur’s army. Right flank of the Timur army attack fiercely to the left wing of the Ottoman army which was relatively more vulnerable due to lack of any natural obstacles to prevent attacking Timur cavalry. Duration of the battle Sources indicate the battle might have begun either at 6am or 10am, continued all day ending in midnight. Roughly, this means a battle lasted for 14-15 hours until Bayezid is captured and last Ottoman troops stopped fighting. Victorious side Timur and his army Outcome * Bayezid fell captive and lost his life in captivity. * The Anatolian beyliks (principalities) re-emerged thus disrupting the Anatolian unity which had been established with great difficulty. Bayezid’s sons had to fight for throne and more importantly had to fight again to take these beyliks under control. * Despite defeat, Ottomans did not collapse. This was due to strong institutionalisation and the fact that majority of the forces could have retreated from the battlefield and haven’t been annihilated. Ottomans needed only some time to remerge. * Timur turned his attention to east and followed the dream of every great conqueror that emerged from the steppes, i.e. to conquer China. However he lost his life in 1405.

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