Armies of the Ancient Near East, 3000 BC-539 BC: organisation, tactics, dress and equipment

Weapons were also of palace issue. Old or warped bows lire described as being changed for new ones lIIthe palace. Some bows had bronze 'arms'. G reat quantities of arrows we re Siored at the palace for use in emergencies. Batches of 20,000 an: mentioned in texu from Nuzi. 90 illustrafes fhe grell vniety ofhelmelS current in the Near East du ring the second millennium B.C. Ma,.,~nn(l usually seem to ha\'C shaved their heads in order to wear the tight-filling helmets, as sho ..... n by 9Oa. This probably also made the wearing ofbronu helmets more IOlerable in the heat of sum mer. 90b is a prpislI mal".i, i1h15trlted on the decorative covering or a chariOi or Tuthmosis IV, Ind described in the: Nuzi texts. Leather helmets were only inrrequently worn by chariOh~ers but were probably the sliIndatd headgear orlhe inrantry. Seven gOltskins were nceded to make three such helmets, the hides being CUt into several triangular strips which were llced together It the edges, alternate strips seem to have betn dyed different colou rs, in thr« or more layen. This panicular helmet has. crest or plaited leather. Crested htlmeu ....-ere described u tqiptu or suppuru. 140

90c i3 a sim pl~ , high-crowned, bronze helmet or gurpisu sifXJrri, by far the commonest type of helmet used throughout the Near EaSt by chariot~rs (~r. figs. 15, 89·91). Helmets of this type: are frequently iIIustr:ned in Egyptian sources as tri bute from Canaan, Mitanni and Karduniuh (Babylonia). Typically, these helmets have textile creSIS dyed red or blue. 90d is a bronze helmel with a plaited leather crest and separate bronze cheek·pieces and aventail, as desc ribed in a Nuzi text, issued to a chariotee r together with a suit ofbronze·sl~\·ed leather armour. It is almost identical 10 the helmet worn by Hitt ite guardsme n (~ f. fig . 107).

90e is a simple gurpifll siparri kllrsimelu, or 'bronze sc:ale helmel', of which 87 and 88 wear more elaborate examples, probably called 'great helmets'. These helmets were always iuued in conjunction wit h the complete suits of mail of the househo ld chariotee rs or royal mariyonna. The simpler versions consisted of less than 20 very long, curved scales, while 'great helmets' had from 140-2{)O sc:ales. BOlh types were based on a woollen, felted liner weighing 0.75kg. Thc 100ai \I.·eights of such helmets va ried from 2.72·3.56kg. Though expe:nsh'c and exceedingly complex in const ru ct ion, sca.le helmets of this type would offer protection against bloW5 and missiles than the leather or sheet bronze: examples .

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92 91 and 92 arc c hariot-drivers. T eXIS from Nuzi make it clear thai both crewmen ofa chariot were issued with suits of armour offering the same levels of protection, though chariot-drive rs were in addition pro\·ided with shields, aritu. 9 1 wears a medium· length bronze corslet with the usuall:rlkhaltl, or belt. His helmet is of a tall, bronze: va riety iIlustrat~d in Egyptian sou rces as having a blue· painted reinforcing rib on the aown to which is allached a red textile or horsehair cresl . In hi3 righl hand he c:arries

:II

whip or ishwkhkhll, the tOP of which is decoraled with a round ball of lapis lazuli.

92 is t:lken from the gold, deconl ive chariot cab of TUlhmosis IV, on whi~h 3re sce nes of the Phuaoh pUlling flight Canaanite and Syrian chariOIS. Only a few of the warriors ..... ear coats of ma il, Ihough several wear helmets, indiClting that Mitanni's ..... estern vusals could nO( always match tne generally high standards of equipment prevalent further east.

10

141

This driver h:is only a pair of tUfiuu, known in NUli as fUfiwa, though these are covered with numerous bronze discs. Nuz;an texts describe as tarllumazi the set of armour issued to the household charioteers of the kingdom of Arrapha, This comprised a coat of mail with sleeves o\'er which were worn both Italltu and fU fima, together with a collar, dirk, and helmet. These selcet warriors would look like figure 88, though also having 89'5 Ita.!ku and Ihis figure's lUliwa. Other texIS suggest thaI futiwa we re frequently worn over other armours for added protection. This man wears a highly decorated kilt over trousers. Around his neck he wears a common ornament, a melal disc decorated with a cross, sometimes described as a 'Kassite Cross', 91a shows types of shidd (aritu) used by charioteers.

93.

HURRI·MITANNIAN CHARIOT

The chariot, or /UJrltabw, and horses, or SiH, were often as well·armoured as the charioteers who dro\'e them, Inven· tories from Nuzi list large numbers and various types of horse and chariOt armour. This is supponed by Ihe pictorial representations from the chariot body ofThutmose IV. Textile protection offeh or h:iir about Jcm. in thickness, and extending from the withers of the horse to the loin, was known as a paras/ullamll_ This was also provided with a neck piece or ", ifu , Sometimes men could be equipped wilh similar lexlile armour. A ppa~ntly 22 minas ofh:iir were required to make two sctS of horse armour. The parashshamu could be used on its own or as an undergarment for a leather. copper or bronze scale sariam and lirpisu for the ha rK. The o:hariot body could also be equipped with a scale soriam. One inventory me ntions over 100 chariots with scale prOteC1jon. The ch:iriot shown in 93, derived from the chariot body ofThutmose IV, h3S such a scale coveting on the CIlb, with a hole for the qui~r. The scales on the coat orthe horse seem to be rather stylised. Archaeological evidence exists for rectangular scales, weighing 80 grammes elich, as shown on the fully armoured horsc in 9Ja. ChariolS could also be provided with simple dyed cloth covers, or pliralll. 12 goatskins with thongs were required 10 cover a chariOt. Chariots we re drawn by I span, simiI/O, oftwo horses, which need nOI alwa)'ll be the same colour. Red, black, white and chestnut horses are known.

93

142

Chariot wheels of 4, 6 (93b) and 8 spokes are known from seals, and wheels were oiled to prevem wa rping in tht hot climate. Between 9 and II sheepskins were required to cover the floor, I1Qruqqa, of the chariot and the yokes wtre padded with wool. Tht equipment of a c.hariot included two bows, twO quivers, a 'chariol·shield' and a ,IIukudu or 'lance'. Inventories also refer to wagons and possibly even a 4·wheeltd III.-agon. Assyrian and Kmite chariots would have been similar and there is ample evidence that Mitannian ideas spread as far as Canaan, Egypt, Haui and even the Aegean. 94 & 95.

KASSITE BABYLONIANS 17TH TO 13TH CENTURY B .C.

There are few represtntations of uoops known from this period in Babylonia, a period which is gcnmlly poor in most forms of rep resentational an. Thest figures are taken from representations on inscribed boundary stones, known as kudurru . 94 is a Kassite king. The crossed bands on his chest may be textile armour of the tutnoa type. His headdress seems to be an early form of the type later worn by Assyrian and Babylonian kings. The archer shown in 95 is taken from an unfi nished kudurTu, dating to around 1200 B.C., found in SUS3, where it had been uke n as booty by the plundering Elamites ofShutruk·Nahunte. Chariots probably owed much of thelr design and equipment to Mitannian models. The chariot was called I1QrkablQ, and Kassite seals depict vehicles with a box·like cab, crossed quivers on the sides, spoked wheels, the axle positioned beneath the centre of the cab, a horizontal supporting pole joining the cab to the end of the dnIught·pole and drawn by tWO horses. Representations of Assyrian chariots dating to Ihe end oflhis period show vehicles quite diffe rent 10 the 9th century Assyrian type, but perhaps similar to that of the Kassites. The cab consisted of an open framework which does not appear to hav" been covered, although covers, like those used by the Milanni, would perhaps have been available. The dra ught-polt is braced by a sbon supporting pole as well as a long horizontal pole. Light, six-spoktd wheels were positioned It the rear of the cab. Crossed quivers were moumed on the sidC1 of the cab and g spear was held in a holSter mounted diagonally on the sid" in a similar manner to 96 and most laler Assyrian and Nco-Hittite chariots, (possibly originating with h.-\itannian chariots). One Assyrian seal shows a chariot with I fla t· topped cab which appears to have 'fenestrations' in the sides. The form of some of these chariots is shown in 95a.

94

95

'"

96 & 91.

CANAANITE AND SYRIAN CHARIOTRY, 1STH TO 13TH CENTURY B.C .

The chariot is base:d on a vehicle depicted on an ivory plaque from Megiddo d~fing to the 13th century B.C.. The scene shows 11 returning ",o')Gnnu aecomp~nied by runners and leading two bound Shaasu Btdouin or 'Apiru '. The weapon eases contain a herty spear and a wooden club as well as arrows. In battle the horse would be protected by a textile trapper, which could be covered with scales in the ease of wealthy or elite ",oryan"a . The term for a chariot was merkht!btl. Canaanite and Syrian military organisation was mongly influenced by Al itanni, especially in the case: of chariotry. Many eharioteen would resemble figures 87-92 in appearance and chariots similar to 93 would be known. Ret jennu charioteen dressed as figure 97 arc shown bring If1I.mpled by Tutankhamun in scenes from a painted box from his 10mb. H is richly-coloured and embroidered robes would in reality be concealed by armour, and the Egyptian artiSi may simply have copied the dress of visiting dignitaries. Clothing colours included white (most common), blue, green, crimson and purple. The last twO colours. kno~-n as argamonnu and rokiltu. we re dyes obtained from shdlfish. The dye produced was known as kinaJcltka, and would be u5t'd only by the wealthiest and most impOTlant "'0I)",nllO, madder provided a cheap substitute. This charioteer carries a painted wickerwork shield. A type ofcrMs·band armour and tuselltd kilt worn by an Vgaritic king is shown in 971. Textual sources indicate that this type of armour known as 'Ulima or ruti"". was sometimes worn over scale or lamellar armour.

98.

SYRIAN INFANTRY, ISTH TO 13TH CENTU RY B.C.

These troops represent the supporting infantry of the Syrian chariony. They we re usually equipped with welpons best suited to skirmishing, such as javelins, throw-sticks and the bow. Shields were not very common, but would be simi1.ar to that of 97. T he right hand figure wears a long-sleeved robe which faste ned at the front and which is often shown being worn by tribute· bearers in Egyptian tomb scencs. It was usually white with coloured hem-bands.

99.

CANAANITE INFANTRY, 1STH TO 13TH CENTURY B.C.

These would be typieal of the majori ty of hupsh", or peasant soldiers. T he left h:.md warrior appears in reliefs of the Rarncs.side period in Egypt. while the righ t hand figure comes from an ivory plaque from Megiddo. These troops su pplied their own equipment so there could be great variation. NOI all possessed shields, and many would only have bows or slings, Armour would be very rare Cltcepl ro r simple leJUile Iype$ su(h as webbing or kalher bands, Various types of turban or hc:adc101h could be wom. Figure 99a shows the held of a Shaasu Bedouin with dl4lracteristic swept-back hair, otherwise, his appearance corresponds closely to figure 111. The style oftassclled kilt favoured by the Sea-I'eoples was in fact long, common along the coast of Can~3n and Phoenicia. 99b is an example of the huge ~i l -like standards that flew abo\'e the battlements of Canaanite cities, as depicted in Egyptian reliefs.

100.

EARLY HATTIAN WARRIOR , c. 2400 B.C.

Later H ittite reliefs depicting axe·wielding gods (often considered as evidence for H ittite axemen). arc most probably archaising representations reflecting dress lind equipment of the pre-Hittite inhabitants of the Haiti-land. Reliefs at Malatya show the rather archaic type of chariot iIIustl"3tcd by 100c, which is dearly not contemporary with the types in use in the 1st millennium B.C., the dote of the reliefs. This is a god's vehicle, pulled by oxen, probably deri\'ed from a vehicle like the Sumerian 'stnddle-car'. P resumably onagers would be used in baltle. Hattian seals depict four-wheeled vehicles as well, nOI unlike the Sumerian Iypes. A representation of an Early Hattian charioteer shows him wearing a conical helme!. Two types ofaxe-hcad arc shown in lOOa, and there 3rc very many variants from different parts of Anatolia during the Early Bronze Age. The spcarhelds shown in lOOb arc long and narrow, perru.ps suitable for long, thrusting·spean. The dagger is derived from a type found in the princely tombs of Allca Huyuk, U is the bronze stag shown in IOOd. This could ~ 3 5t3nd3rd, 513ff-head or simply a lerminal from a piece of furniture. Other bronze objects which are likely to have been standards were flat, circular, grille-like solar symbols. Weapon finds from tombs at Dom included shon spean, shon swords and daggen, small axes and maces. Anatolia was rich in metals and wn astride the trade roul~ from Mesopotamia to the sources of tin and copper further west. The Assyrians se:t up special trading colonies among the Hanian city-states to comer this trade. Even iron w~s not unknown to the Haitians, but it was rare and far more valuable than gold. It remained a symbol of wealth and prcstige unt il well afte r this period, and was used occasionally for princely weapons. It was no practical substitute for bronze. 144

a 99 145

100

101 .

a

b

d

HIlTITE CHARIOTRY, 14TH TO 13TH CENTURY B.C.

The chariots illustrated hen arc taken from the Egyptian reliefs depicting the bailIe of Kadesh. The varicly of designs probably reflws the vuious regions oflhe Hini!e Empire from which contingents we re drawn. 101 and lOla seem (0 be constructed with slats or wood. IOlb, it possibly covered with laminated hide, and 10Ic is similar to the typical Canaanite or Syrian t)'PC and probably belongs 10 allies from this region. The mort robust examples have the axles SC:t funhcr forward than was normal in Syria, Canaan and Egypt. They rep resent Annolian types crewed by three men. The Hittite chariotrY:1( K.:Idesh would have represented a wide range of cha riot lactics, varying from the skirmishing tactics of Syria to the close-combat tedmiques of the Aegean area. How to respond to these different types of chariot tactics must have added somewhat to the Egyptian confusion at Kadcsh. The horses in the K~desh reliefs are usually shown as unarmoured bUI a scene from the temple of Abu Simbtl shows armour as i1lust:-ated here. The H inile chariot horses in this scene are clearly armoured with a scale lariam worn over a textile tr~pper, as used by their Mitanni2n counterpans, ~nd a studded fabric girpiJU. 102, 103 & 104.HITTITE CHARIOT C R E WMEN, 14TH TO 13TH CENTURY B.C. The crew of a Hillite three·man chariot consisted of a shieldless driver, shiddless spearman and a shield·btarer who doubled as a spearman. It is possible that the three·man crew developed from a laclic of allowing a chariot runner 10 ride in the chariot. All the crew could bt dressed as 102 and 103, but many were equipped with long, sale (();Its as 104, (I04a is an example of a scale). All the figures here have: bet" given shields 10 iIIuslI1l1e Ippc1lrance Ind va rielY. The long scale coats are colou red alternately red and blue in the Ramesseum reliefs giving a striped effect. This is probably intended to represent rows of sales, alternating with stitching, or alternate rows of painted sales. The sleeveless garments worn by 102 and 103 are probably a form oftcxtile armour. The fact that both arnn arc left free suggests thIn it was Ihid and inflexible. Beneath this was worn long robts in plain colours or with em· broidered patterns.

146

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.. . . . . .... '

101

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..

rn a

102 103

147

104

Hinile soldiers were norm~lIy dean·shnen and wore their hair in long pigtails or scalp·locks (102a). 11 has betn often suggested that ~ memory of these vr.lfriors lIl2y have given risc to the legend of the Amazons and it is interesting 10 note that in the Egyplian K~desh inscriptions, R~messes II displiragingly refers to t he H ittite charioteers 8sltumty, literally meaning 'woman·warriors'. Many Hittites wore helmets of Mitannian designs surmounted by plumes. There were tWO types of shidd, both made of wickerwork covered by le~ther. The concave-sided type could be equipped with a boss. Spears were usuall)' over 2m. long and up to four were carried in each vehicle. In the casc of chariotry from Nonhem Syria a few mwmen substituted a bow. The Hittite charioteers depicted in a scene at Abu Simbel carr)' the..ir spears o\'tr the shoulder and at an angle poi",ing backwards with the shaft pressed into the hip and pit of the arm. This answers to the description of the wJultuIQ7l, or 'at ease' position in H ittite drill manu als.

105 & 1&6.

HITTITE INFANTRY

Hittite infantry included native Hittites and allies from Central AnDlolia, dressed as 105, and allies from North· Western and South·Western Anatolia who usually wore short kilts and headge:lt linking them to the laler Sea-Ptoples. 106 illustrates allied infanlry from Syria. T he Anatolian infantry were Hrmed with short spears and daggcoTS, while some Syrians wcore archers. Thco Anatolians carried a shield likc tha t shown in 105 although not all soldiers possessed one. Syrians appear 10 ha ve been usually shiddless. Clothing, especially that of the Syrians, would be gaudily embroidered. Glazed tiles, depicting captives, from the site of Pi-Ramesses in Egypt, indicate the range of colours and patterns. Colours included black, while, red, blue, green and yellow. These troops, together wil h those described under 108-111, arc somet imes refcrred to as tuhuyeru in Egyptian records.

106

105

o 107

148

107.

HlTfITE GUARDSMAN

This is taken from numerous small figurines and sculptures found at Boghaz.koy, the ancient Hillite capital of HallUS2S, which represent gods in the ceremonial dress ofa roya l guardsman. In battle this man would almost cenainly appear as a fully armoured charioteer. He has, however, retained his helmet from his war panoply. This type of helmet is de$Cribed in texts from Nuzi and is associated with the expensive protec1ive equipment of the elite maryll""u, (cr. figure 90(1). The hdmel was &rolred. under the dUn with a leather strap. Hittite royal gua rds were known as malwli, and it seems quite reasonable

10 suppose

that they were elite chariotry.

In battle the Hitlite king would have appeared as a panicularly well-cquipped chariOietr. This guardsman is dr($Sed for palace or parllde duties.

108, 109, 110, JJI & 112.

SEA PEOPLES

The 'SelI·People' was a collective name given by the Egyplians 10 various displaced peoples and sea·raiders, consisting oflhe Sherden, Lukka, Ekwesh, Teresh, Sheklesh, Pelesel, Tjeklter, Denyen and Weshwesh. It is nOI possible to establish for certain the appearance of many of these, especi.ally the Ekwesh, Luklta and Weshwesh. The Olhers can be identified in Egyptian reliefs depicting captives, and some may be compared to representations of Hittite allies in eadier reliefs. A common fealu re of dress was the tasselled kilt, nalive to Soulhern Anatolia and the Levanl. The Tercsh and Shck!esh wore banded linen or leather armour in addition, while the Sherden, Pcleset, (and probably Denyen and Tjeklter) wore a leather or metal cuirass. The homed helmel wn charllcteristic of Ihe Sherden, and also occurs on bronze statues orwarrio('gods from Cyprus and Sardinia (sec also 203). The Sherden were armed with long swords (over I m.), javelins and round bucklers. The 'tall-crown' worn by the Peleset, Denyen and T jekker was not made with feathe rs as often thought, but was prob~bly a circlet of reeds, stiffened hai r, horsehair, linen or leather strips. It wu held in place by a deco rated fillet and chin·strap. This headgear is also found on ant hropomorphic coffins from Palestine. It may be relaled to a son of swepl-back headdress like that of the Shaasu (99a) and some of the Hittite allies (Illb). This headdress distinguished the Sheklcsh, while III could represent either a Sheklesh or Tercsh. The headcloth shown in lila is also associned with the Te.resh and occurs among some Hiuilt allies, as does a type of turban shown in l l lc, which is associa ted with the PelCSCI and T jekker. The cuirass worn by 108 and 110 could be bronze or lealher. It appea rs to be similar in conception 10 the Dendra armour but with the abdominal plates reduced in size to give lorso protection only, and without. ne<:k-guard. The studs on the shoulder plates aTe not rivets but an imitation of hum~n anatomy_ This might also explain the rib-li.ke markings on the lower part of the cuirllss instead of plates.

108

109

149

The buckler was pro~bly leather with moulded boucs or bronze bosscs attached, many or the helmets were probably also lealhef. The kilt may be reinrorced with leather st rips. T he Medinet Ha bu scenes show clothing brightly coloured in green, blue, red and white. Most w.:llrriors were inrantry. but some chariots crewed by three men took pan in the land attack on Egypt. Egyptianstyle charims arc depicted, but they may in reality have been an Anatolian type. Illustration 112 shows one orthe cans drawn by fou r oxen c:lrrying the families and belongings of the Sea-Peoples which rormed a large proponion or their land rorces. T he Egyptian reliers show fighting laking place among the cans.

a

'* b

c

112

113.

HEBREW INFANTRYMAN, 11TH CENTURY B.C.

There arc hardly any reprcscmalions of Hebrew warriOR and their appearance has to be aummised wilh evidence gleaned from neig hbouring stalcs. This figu re is an attempt to reconstruct the dress and equipment or an il hayi/, a 'valiant man', o r an ish ballllf, 'picked man' during the reigns or Saul and Dayid (c. 1025-1006 B.C. and 1006-968 s.c.). His equipment is a mixture orc..naanite and Philistine items and includes a shield, mtlgtn, a thrusting spear, romaA, and a bronze helmet or kobha'. D.:IIvid's 'Mighty Men' or gibborim may have .:IIlso worn a sca le or lamellar corslet, shiryon, similar to that worn by fig. 91 . The great mass or Israel's militiamen would be: much more lighdy· equipped, the majority being armed with the javelin, hani/h, or sling.

ISO

The equipmem of troops such as this would probably be: in a constant process of change u his original 10C1111y made possessions we re replaced by booI:y from the battlefield and items obtained by trade.

a 114

.

".

113

114.

AMMONITE RULER

Ammon, Edom and Moab wert kingdoms located ta5t of the Jordan ri ver. Edom was al ready an organised Slate with a king befort the Hebrtws entered Cannn under Joshua. A large pan of their populations were settled and lived in tOWIll. Their military organisation was similar to that ofthe early Hebrews and based on a uibal levy. Their forces were mainly infinity, and on one occasion the king of Ammon is said to have had to hire chariotry from Mesopotamia, Syril and Anm·Zobeh 10 m~t In Israelite threat. 114a shows the head of the Moabite king, 8alua.

115

I"

11 5.

LEVANTlNE CHARIOTRY, 12TH TO 10TH CENTURY B.C.

These iIlustnllions are based on the nume rous Syrian representations of chariotry in ivorywork and on a scene from an ivory box from Enkomi in Cyprus. The charioteers in this hunting scene are accompanied by runners wearing Peleset·style headgear. T he chariot remained relatively unchanged from earlier Canaanite and Syrian types. The horse is protected with a scale or lamellar trapper and is provided with extra padding beneath the wooden yoke-saddle. The warrior's scale coat fastened at the front on most Syriall examples. and Solomon's charioteers would probably have appeared very similar. Since he obtained his chariots from Egypt they wou.ld presumably be similar to fig. 23. The lail of the horse has been plaited. Elite Israelite charioteers were called nt"ar, a term obviously derived from the Canaanile Ile-arim. When Ahab was besieged in ~maria by Ben·Hedad II, the Syrians were rOUted by 232 ne'ars who we re pan of Ahab's retinue.

116, 117 &: 118.

ASSYRIAN ROYAL DRESS, 9TH TO 7TH CENTURIES B.C.

116. These figures are taken fro m the massive stone throne dais found in the eAaf masMTli, or arscn3i, at the Assyrian mili tary capital of Kalhu (modem Nimrod). Scenes on the dais depict the mccting of Shalmaneser Ill, the King of Assyria, with Marduk-z.akir-shumi, the K ing of Babylon, in about 850 B.C.

Both kings carry long staffs of office, and wear distinctive crowns_ The AS5yrian royal crown appears to have b«n derived from a simple while 'fez' or polos of Kassite origin (cf. fig. 94) which formed pan of Kassite ctlun dreS5. This sim ple polos was worn by both the king, high officials of the coun, and the nobi lity in Assyria until the tenth century B.c. At this time the king') polos was distinguished by a small cone placed on the top, and, later, by a long, red, brow·band around the base. By the reign of As.hllrnuirpal II, only high- ranking serV;1015 of the king'. house hold are de picted wea ring the simple polos, and even thU restricted usage seems to have been forbidden as roya l power and perogative increased during the ninth century. The nobility, however, were quick to usurp the privileges of royal dress when the power of the' monarchy was weak, as was the cue during the reign ofShalmanescr IV (782-773 B.C.).

Shalmane5C.T III wears a long, simple tunic, fringed at the hem, and a shawl thrown over one shoulder and seC\l~d al the waist with ~ broad, metal belt. Marduk,·z.akir-shumi, similarly dressed, wears a fringed double shawl, open at the front on the left side, the long fringe of whic h is ga thered over the right arm_ The sleeves of his long tunic are richly decorated with woven or applique panerns. The decoration on Assyrian royal robes of the time could be simila r, w ith either geometric designs and metal or fabric ap pliques of chariots and hunting scenes. The Baby lonian ki ng's hair is gathered in a distinctive, thick plait down his back. The Babylonian crown appears in a «mical form which wi ll remain more or less unchlmged for 400 years.

116

117 152

Both kings carry long swords, Shalmancser's being decorated at the hili mod the chape with images oftwistiog, snarling, lions; their interlocked paws grasping each other across the weapon. On tht tnrone dais attendants Sland behind tach king, carrying his bows and quivers. 117 is a reprtsentation of Esarhaddon from the Zinjirli sttla showing the abject subminion of Tirharka of Egypt ' and Abdi·milki of Sidon. The Assyrian crown became progressively taller and more elaboratt during the eighth and seventh centuries, with decorative bands of metal rasellcs. Tht king's ceremonial robes consist of a long, white robe, split at the front and deroroted with tiers of coloured trim and a rringed, tasselled, hem. A shon, trimmed shawl is worn over tht shoulders, both robe and shawl being secured with a plaited bell at the waist. The trim and fringes could be coloured red, blue, or green, or mulli-coloured_ The entire robe could also be covered with applique rasellcs or stus. Unlike earlier kings, Esarhaddon wears boots instead of sandals. This type or ceremonial royal costume (aside from the crown) is allested from the thirteenth century unt il the end of the Nco-Assyrian period. The mace appears to have constituted part of this formal dress. In his left hand the king carries a sweet-smelling flower, or a perfume.holder in the form of a lotus. Before the laIc eighth ccnwry, Assyrian hair was long, faUing on the shoulders in a fan-shape.. Afier this time, Assyrians wore their hair bunched 'square' on the shoulders. Royal beards, cut square, are always shown as impressively long" and much longer than a commoner's beard. 118 shows King Ashurbanipal dressed for the hunting field, and as such probably cowes close to depicting the kind of garments wor!, by seventh century Assyrian kings when on campaign. The long robe, richly derorated with metal plaques of stars (the symbol of IshtaT, the Assyrian goddess of 10l'e and war). is hitched up under the metal waistbelt. and is split at the rront for riding. On the breast of the robe is a large, applique panel, with melal plaques or the MorningoStar Oanking a winged disc (the symbol or Ashur) abo\le a sacred tree. The garment's short sleeves, which ha\le bands of intricate decoration, end beneath gold spiral arm·bands.

118

a

153

The king wears high, leather boots, which scem to nave been often dyed blue, with red trim and a brown heelreinforcement and sole. The boots' long laen are carried up to be tied belo..... the kn~. The long, woollen socks, always worn wi th boots of this typc, have rows of zig·ug colour, either red, blue, green or white, (red, while and blue being the most common combination). The Assyrians ~dopled the wearing of boots ~nd soc:k$ (which end JUSt above the knct) from the highland Manneans during the late eight century. Around his head the king wears a brow band, with a decoration of large metal rosettes. The long ends of the band tnil down the king's back to his waist . As he is hunting, the king carries a shon sword under his sword·belt (abo\'e the metal w:Ustbelt) and suspended from a wide baldric (lISa, omitted from liB for reasons of clarity). A long, composite bow is carried below his left arm, on which he wean a wrist-guard, or bracer, tied around his foreann and thumb.

The 1.....'0 rods carried below the waistbelt appear to be writing styli, since AshurbanipaJ, unlike most other oriental monarchs (and, indeed, the great mass of the population) was literate in Akkadian, and to a lesser atent, Sumerian - a feat of which the king was immensely proud. Much of our knowledge of Mesopotamian IiteI'lllure is derived from Assyrian tUtS copied for Ashurbanipal's library at Nineveh (the capital of Assyria in the seventh century B.C.). The king is shown with dnwn sword about to face a wounded lion on foo t. Captions prepared, but never C2rved OntO, Ashurbanipal's palace rdiefs lell how, after a 5uccessful lion-hum, the ki ng and his bodyguard of young Elamite princes (NS the 'Kardakes', or youth·troop of the later Persian kings) had dismoun ted to collen the kill. One lion, however, was wounded and only shamming dead; as the king approached it leapt up and attacked the king, who managed to despatch it with his sword - his squires having run off in fright! All Mesopotamian kings wore large amounts of jewellery. Here, the king arm bands.

we~rs

large, lunate earrings and spiral

118b shows the shape oflhe royal parasol in the ninth century; lISe the rather more angular eight h and seventh century version with a rearward sunshade. Mesopotamian parasols seem to ha\'e been identiC21 in construction to Chinese examples, the body being stiffened cloth stretched over supporting ribs. The ribs were tied to a ring on the pole, by which it could be o~ ned and closed. The edge of the parasol shade was decorated wi th dusters of tassels, the pole itself terminating in a large:, dccontive pomegranate. Assyrian royal parasols we re generally C2rr ied by palace eunuchs, like figure 152. The parasol wu a mark of royalty.

119.

ASSYRIAN CHARIOT, 9TH CENTURY B. C.

Assyrian cha riot design evolved rapidly in the 9th

~ntury

due to innuences from Iran and the Transcaucasus.

In 91h ~ntury Assyrian art the chariot a.b is depicted as ~ 00. of slightly below hip-heigh.I, ilS solid sides sloping gemly down from the rounded up~ r rear corners to the front. Although the cab framework is hidden by the solid sides we C2n assume, by analogy with earlier Egyptian chariots still e.tant, that a single wooden pole was heat-bent through steaming to roughly the shape of ~ 'C' to form the lower frame for the chariot floor. The open ends of the 'C' were joined with a mon iced spar, and the actual noor wu made from leather thongs passed through slots cut in the lower-frame and interwoven to provide a nexible, strong and supple surfa~ which would absorb the bumps ~nd jolts of navel on an otherwise unsprung 'Ie hide. T his nooring was usually covered by II woven rug in Near·Eastern chariOts and the tassels of such rugs are onen shown behind the whccls of Assyrian charlOIS (cf. fig. 126). The C2b's uppe r rail was similarly made from a heat-bent pole, its ends being joined to the rear of the lower frame and secured at the front by one or more straight wooden Struts. This frame was probably covered with oxhide, stitched and luhed around tbe upper rail and lower frame.

It is dear that this construction was intended to produce a light but strong C2b. T he joints of the floor fnme were kepI tightly dosed by the weig ht of the ete:w on the interwoven thong floor, and the upper ra il made resilient by the use of as few joints IS possible by heat-bending. The ends of the {loor fnme were probably protected by calcite or bronze knobs, as on earlier Egyptiln chariots. With the change to a sqUire chariot cab in the 8th century these would have ceued to have any practical use, and indeed, later CypriOt chariots had & decorated oval disc secured with a bronze finial in this position. 119a shows a plan view of the C2b, and 119b, the underside revealing the subframe. 154

119

e

b

• 11'"

• ow 155

It ls possible that, as with later Cypriot chariolS of si milar construction, 9th century Assyrian chariols had an upright partition divid ing the cab down the C1: ntre and ~ t~l1 melal hoop si tuat ed behind this and above the axle. A paTtition would givt tht crtw an inttrnal support to bract thtmsdve$ againat during turns or to Ita n on if ti rtd, whilst the hoop would havt been an aid to climb into Ihe cab and have funcliontd 2S the su pport for the round, spiktd, shield whi ch is often shown closing the open r!!ar of the cab. Assyrian chariolS probabl)' had only a partial partition as a third crewman is often shown riding behind the other two and is always shown grasping a leather loop knotted to the iunction of the draught -pole supports an d upper rail atlhe cab front. This extra handhold may have been necessary because the third crewman's movements were restricted by a partition Ihat kept him off balance whilst not being high enough to provide a handhold. The cab front was probably aboul 0.80 metres high at the front , rising 10 0.90 met res at Ihe rear, with a depth of box from fro nt to back of 0.63 metres. It is howe\'cr in the des ign of the chariot sub-frame and the draught-pole ,hat 9th century Assyrian chariots differ most signilicaOily from the cQnstruction Qf ellrlier Near·Easte,rn chariQIS, these: cha nges being mosl evident on I he highly-detailed ChariOiS frQm the bu·rdiefs of Ashurnasirpal II (883-859 B.C.). Earlier chariots, as exemplified by surviving Egyptian examples, had a simpl!! sub-frame with a single, heal·bent draught-pole sandwiched between the rear·mounted axle and the IWO grooved mountings that connected the axle to the sides of Ihe floor frame. The draught·pole thus ran beneath Ihe centre oftht cab floor, being secured by ltalhtf thongs to tht front of tht floor frame, befort curving up""':Irds IQ suppon the yoke, The cha ri Ots depicted on Ashurnasirpal's reliefs, howe"'tr, displayed several unusual features that one ""'QUId not expect if they were constructed in this ""':Iy. All save IWO of these: cha rims have draught-poles thai clearly pass acrosstht IQwer from of the cab tQ a ribbed clemen! situated on a wtdgt--shaptd spar that passes at the level of the cab floor, back, behind the wheel, to Ihe axle. In addition, several chariots arc shown with a second curved shafl below the draught·pole which ioins a similar ribbed clement and spar, below, and sometimes overlapped by, the first. These clear and consisltnt details can only mtan that these chariots had tWO draught-poles, no longtr htat-bem 10 pass under the floor frame, but socketed into two separatt spars pbced on either side Qf,he cab, the ribbed eltment being a metal clasp secu ring this vital joint. The twO draught-poles converged a shon distanct ahead of the cab to run together up to tht yoke. This ' Y-pole' construction was most probably derived from the two-wheeled 'A-framt' cans of the Transcaucasus and may possibly have been employed on 10th CCIUUry Ira nian chari ots.

It is not as ytt clear when Ihis draught system was adopted in Assyria. HQVo'e\'er, Ashurnasirpalll cam paigned IQ the non h of Assyria early in his reign and it is prQbable that he made his artists go lQ considerable trouble lQ show a lechnologicalldvance of which he WIllS proud. Cenainly his an isl! seem to hove been very unsure as 10 the btst way Qf portraying the twO draught·poles si nce Ihc represen tations ofttn difftr. This change in construction will have given a muc h st ronger sub-frame and a more secu re cab for only a slight increase in weight. The draught-pole spus, taking tht place of the earlier moumings bc:twctn the floor frame and axle, would hayt sup poned the noor fram t for a greater pan Qfitsltngth, whereas a longitudinal beam bc:tween Ihe spars and beneath the front of the cab would have provided more: support he re than the earlier, single draughtpole. The dQuble draught·polt would be less susceptible IQ 1:l.[cral stressc:s during turns and would bt Q\'trall more rigid an d have a greater resistance to accident and the rigours of campllign. It is also probable that the change from a rounded to a square: cab that took place at t.he end of the 9th century B.C. in Assyria was a by·product of these cha nges tQ the sub-frame. A more: economical and spacious cQnstruction could be achieved by omitting tht floor frame and basing the ClIb and floor directl y on the rectangu lar sub-frame formed by the draught<pole spars. In addit ion to the metal clasps at tht junctiQn with the sub-frame, tht ' Y·pole' ls shQwn IQ be supported at tWO other points; at the point whert the converging draught.poles meet, and at the end of the combined pole$. T he former suplXlrt is clurly derived from earlier pole-braces ofleathe r thongs which reinforced the connection bttwten pole an d cab, or wooden struts, placed so as 10 apptaf IS a 'V' whtn vitwed from above, which also suengthened the cab front. On 9th cefl!ury Assyrian chariots thls combined cab and draught-pole support appears as a curved rod, branch.ing into twO at Ihe junction wilh the draught-pole j where it joins a collar securing the fV,'Q elemenlS of the 'Y-pole'. The second draught·pole brace was probably designed to support its far end, and takes the fQnn Qf an d l iptic~l demenl, ofl en with a serrated upper tdge. running from the top of the cab front to the yoke. The serrated effect along the upper edgt of the support proliably represents either a series of metal rings or loops of leather used to fasten a decorative, elliptical, cloth over a wooden polt. This pole curved upwards from the upper rail of the cab bcfQre bending down to join Iht dnught·polc ntar the yoke. One end Qfthe decorative cloth was knQlled to tht top of the cab/draugh t-pole support, the other to the yoke· peg. A simila r arrangement of a doth suspended rrom 156

an upJX' r pole is shown on some early conlemporary Nco- m illie OrthOSI:lU (cf. fig . 169) and on carlier M )'cen~e:m frescoes. Howe\'er, where t ri3ngul~r , uther than elliplical, c10lhs appear it may be presumed Ih3t the cloth is hung not from :II pole, but from a taut thong supponing the pole·end_ The usc of II thong instead of a pole may be found on earlier, 121h centu ry, Assyrian chariots, on chariots from Geometric Greek vases, and some Neo- Hmile rdiefs. The thong and pole braces funCliontd in a similar way to th ... thongs or StrulS between Ihe cab and draught·pole described previously, wit h the solid pole \'arie ty perhaps preveming the draught·pole from moving venially :lind placing undue strain on the joints with the draught-pole spars. This lype of chariot is depictcd in reliefs from the reigns of Ashurnasirpal II al Nimrud and on the bronze gates of Balawat, daling to the reign of $halmancse:r III . T hese chariots arc shown being d rawn b)' two or thrce horses. It has been suggested thaI the third horse wu a replacement, harnessed to one side of the team as an outrigger. This would present problems in d riving and incrtase the chances ofa horse being wounded. Should this occur at speed, lhe cruariOt would proh2bly be rendered usdess as n fighting unit, perhaps collapsing, wrecking the vchicle, Ihrowing the crew and inju ring the other horses; a situation unlikely 10 be reClifi ed by a single spare horse, and an impraClicaltaClical 3rrangemen1. However Iranian and other sources ckarl)' depiClthree-ho rse choriots at this dale. Four·horse chllTiots appcar 10 have been reSlTic,,:d 10 elite units. The Iwo-horse ch3riot yoke ..... as adop ted 10 take four horses by Ihe outer ho rses being anached to the upturned ends of the yoke. Only the inner horses bad wooden yoke-saddles and the outer horses would thus exert no pull. This was funher improved later on to enable equal pull. The harnessing arrangemem is shown in 11 9c. T his is designed for a 2, 3, or 4·horsc cha riol and sho .....s the breast-band 3nd backing dement. Armament com prised bo....., axes, spear and dans. T ..... o crossed qui\,ers were anached 10 the sides of the cab; Ihe spear ..... as held in a separate holster. Sometimes standards w~ re carried in the chariot, such as 11ge. They ..... ere disc·shaped, benring the image of the god Ashur or olher religious devices. The horses in this illuslralion (based on a Nimrud relid ), wear II dC(outed textile armour as shown on the king's chariot. Other chariot hoT$CS have plain lextile armou r, some ..... ith lamellar trappers. Figure 119d shows an Assyrian brand.

120

a

121

151

120.

ASS YRIAN C HARI OTEER , 9TH CENTURY B . C .

This chariot~ r is wearing II long, scale sanam, probably II development of the earlier H urri-Mi t:lnnian ty~. It differs in being longe r and being equip~d with a scale 'coif (girpisu). On his head he wears II conical Assyrian helmet (hu/iam). Iron (pardll,) was now coming into more general usc, but bronze was still the principle metal ustd for armour, iron being used as a cheap substitute and for weapons. Archers equip~d in this way are depicted in scenes on the bronze gates of Balawat, dating to the reign of Shalmaneser Ill, and on re liefs of Ashumasirpal ll, operating dismounted at seiges. The extra armour wou ld probably be: pa n icula rly useful in such exposed aCtivities as mining, and charioU')' coul d not be usefully employed moun ted on suc h occasions. Figure 120a shows the small round shield used by ch:lrioteers :It this time. T he boss is shaped in the form of a lion's ht'3d. It rould instead by tove red in spiked bosses ( 122b). C hariOH:rew consisted Qf two o r three: men, the third man att ing as a shield·bearer to th e archer, dressed as figu re 122. 121.

ASSY R IAN C AVA LRY T EAM, 9TH CENTURY B.C.

The Assyrian use of ovalry, mounted warr io rs as opposed to scouts or messengeI"$, is fir:st recorded in the annals of the sixth regnal yea r of T u kulti-Ninun a II (890-884 B.C.) when it seems that the fi nt faltering steps in this dir«tion wert takm. It 5eCTnlI probable that the use of cavalry grtw naturally OUt of riding unbitthcd chariot outriggers, a process which gained impetus under the stimulus of Iranian, and possibly Aramacan, practic:c. In Assyr ia the e\'olving ovalry arm appea rs to have become formalised in the reign ofTukulti-Ninurta n, since this reign's style of chariot harness then beromes the 'traditional' form of cavalry harness until the mid-8l h cenrury B.C. These figures an: de rived from bas-reliefs of Asumasirpa l II. It is noticeable that cavalrymen were still ronsidercd as pan of the 'chariot-s)'Stem', oper.ning in pairs like cha rioteers without a t hariot. Here, the 'chariot-warrior' wears a highly dccornted runic lind wrap-around kilt with II wide waistband (cf. fig . 139) un der a narrow belt. A tasselled quiver and long iron sword are ca rried on II sing le baldric over the rig ht shoulder. His head is p rotected by an iron conical helmet with inlaid ba nds of crook! of bronze. In contrast, the 'charioteer' wears an iro n skullcap or pfgulla/u, and ca rries a shield and spear, bot h standard items of cha riot equipment. H e manages both horses, like a thariotc:t:r, enabling the :lrcher to concentrate on his shooting just as if he were in a chariot . Though the riders of non-royal horses are still shown using the 'donkey·scat', and riding on the horse's rump without a saddledoth, the doth on the king'! horse (alwa~ shown in dose att endan ce on the royal chariot and managed by a cavalry 'cha rioteer') is in the correct position for a true horse sell. T his probably indicalC$ that the tnditional 'donkey-scat' was at lut seen to be unnt(essary on horseback, no doubt because of a greate r exptrienc:c of riding in varying conditions due to cavalry warfare. In ge neral, [he form ofhorsc-harness is identical to that of chariot horses on plnde. H owever, in using the breastplate as pan of the harness it seems that an earlie r element of harness, no longe r \'cry common for chariot horses, is rttained as a ' u aditiona l' eleme nt by As hurnasirpal II 's cavalry, though not by Shalman~r Ill's ca\'alry horses. Ca\'alry horses are nOt shown weari ng any fo rm ofprotecti\,e trapper, in common usc fo r chariot horses, until the mid-7th century B.C. During the reig n of Ashurnasirpai II's son, Shalmanescr Ill, both members of the ca \'IIlry 'team' were equipped with coniol belmtts. On occasion, when crossing rough tc rnin and bridges, the 'chariote(,r ' is shown ca rrying the arc her's bow and quiver, thereby gh'ing the impression that some 9th cent ury cavalrymen were arm ed with both spear and bow, although this is not the (lISC. Here, the cavalry arther is shown with an enemy's severed head slung from the bridle. While it was common for Assyrian warriors to colleCt heads to prove their wlour and gain sha res of the C3.mpaign's booty, this practice is also att ested ror Iran ian mounted nomads and may \lle11 be a result of their general influenc:c at this date. An alternative view would be that it was the Assyrians who introduced the lrani:ans to the pleasures of headhunting! 122, 123, 124 & 125.

ASSYR IAN INFANTRY, 9TH CENTURY B.C.

These figures are based on representations of Assyrian soldien from the reigns of AshurnasirpallJ (883-859 B.C .) and his son, Shalmaneser III (858-82>1 B.C.). From the reign of Ashumasi rpal ll until the collapse of the Nco-Assyrian empire, the kings of Assyria decorated their palatcs with la rge limestone bas-reliefs, wh ich came increasingly to depict the military exploits of the king and the State. Due ro their large scale and detail these reliefs pro\'ide the most complete picture available of the appearance of a powerful Near-Eastern Slate at war.

158

a

b 122

12 3

124

125

122 is an infant ry spearman, probably an asJltJriltli. or elite soldier, since non-clitc troops would ve ry likely not be issued with heimets, or wear such richly decorated garmenn. He wears a plain woollen tunic with a wrap-around kil t having rnuticoloured trim, Ind stepped, zig.ng detontion of, probably. Aromacan inspiration (cf. fig. 175). For offence:, the warrior's main weapon is a javelin or short spear, a sword being carri ed suspended from a baldric. For protection he bears I rectangular com'a shield, made: of wooden slavu. or tetds, bound togethe r with leather

lhongs,

"9

1223 and 122b show Ihe Iype of round, bronze-faced shields carried by ca\'~lry shieldbearers ~nd some UJlrurirw_ These: shields could ti lher be plain, wilh a simple boss and turned-o\'er rim (a), or adorned with one or more conttmric ro ....'1 of metal spikes (b) intended for offensive use_ These shields are more frequently used by infantrymen during the reign of Shalmaneser III. 12] is probably an officer, as denoted by the mace he carries and his richly decorated garments. His fringed quiver strap is slightly unusual. He could be a rub kisri commanding archers or spearmen. 124 shows the more reprcstntative dress for Assyrian infamry archcrs oflhis dalt:, save he is vcry likely again an officer as his hdmel h:u a double row of 'crooks', or horns. The majority of archers 31 this time, apa rt from Ihe uslrurinu, would probably not be issued with hdmel5. 125 is an :1rI:her levied from the subjeo Aramaean Sillies of the lazirah and Syria, though native Assy rian peasam, or Iruprhu, bowmen would be very similar. The man's straighl hai r, which hangs in lhick bunches, and the small end'lassd 9t the back of his headband suggest that thiSlilrcher is a Suhtan . Ashurnasirpal n claimed the submission of Suhi. The land ofSuhi, strategically silUaled on Ihe lowe r-middle Euphrates nonh of Babylonia, had cellscd paying tribute 10 Assyria in 882 B.C. and, with Babylonian help, had fought olTtwo Assyrian campaigns, in 818 and sometime after 811 B.C. The latter campaign, though not decisively in Assyria's favour, brought Suhi to terms, and numbe rs of Suheans we re settled in Kal hu.

126.

NEO-ASSYRIAN C HARIOT 8T H CE"'TURV B.C_

This type first appears in the reign of Tiglath·Pileser 1II (145-121 B.C.). It is larger, heavier and rectangular in pbn. This design makes beller use of the sub-frame introduced in the previous century and described under 119. This chariot could now accommooale as many as four occupants. The crossed quivers were replaced by rued venical quivers althe front corners of the cab. /I. more efJicieOl harnessing arrangement enabled the elliplical duught-poJe suppon 10 be replaced by a thong, still supponing a decorated panel (126~). Eventu311y Ihis w~s dispensed with altogCther. The wheels had become larger, now having eight spokes. The inner rim or felloe is seemingly separate from the oUler felloe, to which it is attached by four quadril31eral pieces of mel ai, nailed on 10 the side of the oUler rim. The na\'e and ends of the wheel spokes was melal sheathed. The OUler rim was rectangular in section. The actual body of the chariot, wheels, roke and dmught-pole were probably made from a variety of types of wood. The cab, especially thai of the king, was often highly-decot:lted with embossed bronze (or gold in lhe case of the king) strips, mellil rosettes, paim or inlay. This chariot, like one depicted in wall'paintings from Kar-Shalmaneser (Til-Banip), has its c:lb covered in reoanguillf metal plates, as have been found in excavations such as at Nimrud (see 42b and cf. 110). The horse is armoured in a similar manner. The Til-Barsip paintings show the following colours on chariotr},; cr~[s, tassels and fringes attached to the horse harness were coloured red and blue (usually in aitern3ting oonds), ch3riot horses were blue (i.e. grey), red, brown, black and white. The cab could have a red and blue border, while the wheels were coloured yellow or while (natural wood?). Reins and IC3ther equipment were reddish brown. As with e3rlier ch3riots, four horses were probably used, although only two are shown. Apart from the evidence oflhe harnessing system, some scenes showing chariots being ferried across rh'ers depict four unharnessed horses following behind, and more crests than horses are shown. This type of chariot continued, with minor modifications through Sargon II's reign.

127.

NED-ASSYRIAN C HARIOT CREW, 8TH CENTURY B .C. (DISMOUNTED).

Charioteers frequently fought on foot at sieges. Here the chariot drh'e r prOlettS the chariO! archer with the Iypical large siege-shield of plaited reed, while Ihe shield·bearer cominues his function of prolecting Ihe archer from highangle fire with his round shield. Both have drawn their swords sintt they arc emplaced close to Ihe besieged (own and are in danger of sallies from il. The armou r of c hariolee rs became lighter throughout the 8th century, possibly due 10 changes in tactical function, but also probabl)' for reasons of expensc. Tiglat.h-Pi!eser Il l 's reforms had resulted in the chariot corps losing much of its 'feudal', aristocr.uic :!.Spect and the stUle wu now bearing the COSI of its tquipmem to a far gTealct extent. HeN: the lamellar COOl extends 10 the upper thigh only.

160

126

a

127 161

128. C AVALRY OF TIGLATH·PlLESER

m,

8TH C ENTURY B.C.

Surviving representations from Tigllllh.Pilcscr lII 's reign do not depict mounted archen, but this is probably due to the chance of disco\'ery and survival of material. Though riders arc still shown in traditional pairs, both now control their own mounu. It is unclear if ClIvalry still aCtually fought in pairs or if this appearance is due to anistic convention alone, though it seems tactically probable that they did. Here the foreground rider lits on a uddlecloth of animal hide which relains its hoo\'cs for d«orative effect . The ncckNnd Iiso appears to be solely decorati\'e. Ar moured horsemen appear for the first time in the reign ofTiglath.Pilcscr lU, (128a). This rider appears 10 be an Aramaean from his uyle of beard, though his equipment is Assyrian.

a

J29.

ARCHER OF TIGLATH·PILESER III .

This archer would Ippear to be of the same rank as 123 and, possibly, 132. He is undoubtedly an offlctr and is probably a dismounted C3\'Ilryman. He wears a ribbl:d waist·belt, plain IUnic and plain wrap-3round kilt (sec figure 114). 129a shows I vuiant tasselled form of quivef--cover.

130

a

129 162

130.

NEO-ASS YRIAN C HARIOT C REW, REIGN OF SARGON II

During the rtign ofTiglath-Pil~ r II, the chariot crew had consisted of three, and occasionally, four. During the reign ofSargon 1I it wu also usually three men, but by the reign of Ashurbanipal at the latest, the standard crew comprised four men. The three-man crew consisted of lhe driver, or m~orrik, arche r, or marn dllmqu and the 'thirdman', or roshlishu, who acted as a shield·bearer and no doubt a spearman. Grooms w~re known as milia! appari. One reason for the increasc in number of crew, and con sequ~nl ly slr~ngth in close-combat, may b~ th~ incr~3se in the effiei~ ncy of cavalry. Cavalry were making th~ cbariot ever mor~ redundant in all but shock action, in which the chariotry now specialised. This in itself might indicat~ som~whll the limitations of cavalry in this r~specl.

131, 132 & 133 .

NEO·ASSYRIAN C AVALRY, REIGN OF SARGON II

These figures are based on the reli~fs from Dur·Sharr ukin (Khorsabad; 'Sargon's city') and paintings from Til· Barsi p. 131and 133 are spe arm~n , equipped additionally with the bow, and 132 is a mount~d archer. Th~ s p~ar was quite long and tbrust ovel'3rm, usually held near the bUll. The Til-Barsip paintings depict cavalry such as 133, dressc:d in wh ile or brown tunics, with a white fringe, red and blue banded socks, black and white pallerned kilts and blue boots. The blue helmelS probably represent iron. Bo....'S arc yellow and spear·shaHs, red. Horse \tappings, crests and tassels 3re red and blue. The saddle of 133, which has an animal's paw still attached, could have a black sponed pattern indicating the use of exotic animal skins. Horses could be black, while, grey, reddish brown or darker brown, and texts mention bay horses. Different breeds of horses were known such as the 'kuscan' ('Kushite') and the '!-.tesean' (from Iran), which were yoke-horscs. The qUI\-cr of 132, also served as a bow-case. l'he co\'ers of some were decorated with a bird's head instead ofa tassel.

132 133 163

134,135 & 136. INFANTRY, TlGLATH·PILESER

m TO SARGON II

Figure 134 is an unannou red infantry speurman as they appea red in the reigns ofthese 1",'0 kings. l14a sho ....., variant types of helmet. At this time most infantry were Itillunarmoured, as were the cavalry. Figure 135 is an infantry guardsman ofSargon n . He carries a decorated circular, conical shield. These shields were simply a cone ofleather, probably over a wicker base, with a sheet bron7.e central 'boss'. The T il·Barsip paintings show that dothing coloun were predominantly red, blue or white, and shields could be decorated with ahe mate concentric bands afblue and red. Figure 136 is an armoured slinger ofTiglath·Pileser III. Like the other infantry, he is not yet equipped with socks and boots, later standard issue and coming inlO use at this time, together with lamellu armour. There were several types of shield know n in the Auyrian army, though to which types the terms; arilu, shallalu, kabobu, sahu and lukslru refe r is nOI dta!. A large reed shield for archers was called Iffllslraiabolt (from the word for 'cover'). It was probably like thai in 127, and reeds were espeeially grown for its manufaclU re. Another ilem of soldiers' equipment ..... as the "IIUO'u, or WlIter·bottle .

a

136 134

137.

AUXILIARY TROOPS OF TIGLATH·PILESER

m

The reforms ofTiglath·Pileser III turned conquered regions into provinCC!l, from which lTOOpS could be ailed up as sob sharTi, in the same way as Assyrians. These troops are from the Aramaean and Neo-Hittite pro\'inces, and, at this time, retain some of their distinctive equipment. The helmets are derived ultimately from Uranian designs, which we re used by the Neo-Hittites and, in Anatolia, by the Phrygian! (Mushki). Figures 137b and c wear NcoHillite boots, and figu res 137a and b wea r ltIt/iw·baldrics and metal ir/II plates (discussed under 149). l73e, rand g show yet more types of helmet . Helmet crests appear for the first lime in Assyrian armies in the reign ofTiglath. Pileser m. 164

e

f

g

a 138 & 13"

b

c

d

AUXILIARV TROOPS OF SARGON

n

Figure 138 also ""cars a limit'" and irlll, Uranian or Nto-Hittitt itylc of hclmci and a tun ic deconted in I manner known in Uranu, and Nto-Hinite stllles. H e carries a sword, (namwnI or patru). and the wickerwork consuuction on the inside of his shield is clearly visible.

The archer, 139, may be an Aramacan. [39a and b show other associated hairstyles ofthcsc auxiliuies, and 139d the type: of p:ulcming thaI occurs on their kilts. 139c is a long. narrow form of quiver used by these !toops, Arrows were known as mu/",ul/w, qallN, s/lI"//ali"" shukudu or 111111.

d 138 139

c '65

Aumann lighl-troops, such as Gurrara, h u'ara and Ru'a, were much used as lookouts and for securing lines of communication. Troops from mountainous regions to the nonh-west of Assrria may have been naturally good at operating in difficult terrain . Assyrian auxiliarie:, and other personnel, shown wearing feather circlets on some reliefs, arc nO! auxilia ries from Philistia, but Assyrian priests and soldiers panaking in a festival. 140.

NEO-ASSYRIA N C HARIOT, 7TH CENTURV B.C.

This illustmes the chariot as it appeared in the reigns of Sc:nnacherib and Ashurbanipal. The dimensions of the cab were about 1.5m. in width, slighlly less than 1m. high and about 1m. deep. 140b shows a plan of the chariot, and 140c shows a section of the whed which is still as described under 126 except that the diamete r has increased yet again, and could now be as high as a man. The rim of the wheel was now often studded with the rounded heads of nails driven into it. This would improve grip and strengthen the attachment of the oUler rim to the inner rim. The dimensions and the open back are confirmed by the reliefs of Ashurbanipal's lion·hulll, showing the: rear closed by :I large shield. secured by straps to the: cab sides. This is shown being carried on the back ofa servalll during the preparation for the hu nt. Ordinary wa r-chariols had dispensed with such rear protection at this time. T he draught.pole disappears under the cab and probably continues to the end of the Clib for stre ngth of construction. T he pole is further reinforced by a curved rod connecting it 10 Ihe top of the front of the cab. The axle: was set at the extreme rear of the cab, under the floor . The chariot was drawn by four horses as revuled by a frontal view of the yoke ( 140a) as it appears in rd iefs. The: horses arc: protected by a fo rm of textile armour. T he reliefs of the battle of the Ulai river from the South West palace at Nineveh show the armour in some de tail. Each j, equipped with a large cover upon his back, perhaps of thick fel t or leather. It is secured at the Tear and tOp, and lappets hanging down at each side give some protection to the legs while not impeding movement. The neck and chest are covered up to the car by a thick section secured to the back-cloth and along the back of the neck by a series of toggles. Other reliefs show the neck cloth scored with three lines, which could show that it was later made up ofthrc:c: overlapping seclions giving greater frc:c:dom of movement. Such textile armour would have given adequale protection against spent or stray missiles and lc:ssc:n the impact of di rect hilS. The horse wu secured to, and pulled the chariot by, a chest-band attached to the yoke. which had four curved :md padded half-collars. ElIch collar had an anached chest-bind. A second band passed unde r Ihe chest. behind the fore-legs, but is sometimes omilled from reliefs. Around the neck of each horse went a SlTap for a bell, no doubt to add its \'oice psychological elTecl.

10

Ihe thunder of a charge for

Forward, and each side of the cab were positioned two quivers. apparently an integral pan of the frame and not detachable.

141.

NEO·ASSYRIA N CHARIOT CRE W, 7TH CENTURY B.C .

The crew shown here date 10 the re.ign of Ashurbanipal. The archer uses a composite bow and the shield-bearen carry ribbed shields. The shields we re held high and tilted to cover both front and side of the dri\'er and archer when ad\'1Incing in the face of mis.s.iles. They also enable the rear to be: protmed in close: combat or when ..... ithdrawing while being shot al. One of the shield-bearers must therefore hold Ihe shield in his right hand. Each of the: crew wears a waisl-length lamellar corslet (often slc:c:vcless) over I short·sleeved tunic reaching 10 Ihe knc:c:. Socks and boots were worn as standard issue in the Assyrian army and somelimes a iOn of 'cummerbund' or sash was worn about the waist. under a thin leather belt. The quivers contained not only urows but short weighted iavelins or dans known as sllitrakllu, or ,iflaM, (141b). 141a shows I bow-casc:, hung by means of Ihrc:c: st raps attached to a medallion, hanging from the cab. The artistic record for Wilr chariotS is unfonunalely incomplete for the reigns ofSc:nnacherib and Esarhaddon. Ho_r, a recenlly discovered relieffragmem from Nine\'eh depicts a four-man crew from the reign of Sc:nnacherib. They arc on parade and therefore nOI in armour. There are two shield-bearers wilh con\'ex shields (see fig_ 145).

16'

140 \

a

•

•

b

•

="W

=DF'

a

C 167

b

142.

NEQ·ASSYRIAN GUARD CAVALRY LANCER, 7TH CENTURY B .C.

T his figure depicts a qum bll/i sha pi/halli from the relief'cycle Set up in the Southern Palace of Sennacherib ('The Palace Without an Equal') rep resenting the Assyrian siege of Lachish in 10 1 S.c. He wears the now standardised equipment of' Assyrian' heavy units, comprising a helmet, short corslet, short·sleeved linen tunic, fringed wrap-around kill, and boots with long socks. His sleeveless lamellar corslet has a complete fringe of leather pteruges, and his pointed helmet of polished iron, which has large, hinged cheek-pieces, is adorned with a bronze strip around the rim :md a double row of crooks, possibly to indicate the wearer's ra nk. For offence he is armed with both a hea vy thrusting·spear, az marll, and a short composite angular bow, qash/u (later known as the 'Akkadian bow', qashw akkadu, to distinguish it from the Cimmerian or Scythian bow). T he term azmaru, which first occurs during the se<:ond half of the second millenium, had by the time oftbe laler Sargonids come to describe a heavy spear issued to both infantry and some cavalry. It was made of e'm wood or mu"allU (cornel or dogwood), a native hardwood noted for its straight growth, and appears to have been produced in two sizes from 2.5·3.5 metres long. Infantry appear most frequently with shoner azmaru and cavalry lancers with the longer version. The bow, when not in use, was carried in the quiver. Assyrian quivers were usually tubular during the 7th century and made of sheet bronze decorated in repousee with horizontal bands and rosettes. This guardsman has a slightly unusual leather quiver which has clearly stretched to accommodate the bow. Quivers of this type arc sometimes shown with covers decorated with a cockerel's head (no-doubt because of the similarity of a crowing cockerel's head and neck to the long, stretched, cover), fig. 142a. A short iron sword is suspended from a wide baldric, decorated with metal rosettes, ove.r the right shoulder. It would appear that all qllrubilli fha pi/halli were usually armed with both spear and bow.

The horse·harness is generally typical of that issued 10 Assyrian cavalry unilS during Ihe reign ofSennacherib, apart from the large, decorated collar which distinguished the horses of royalty and palace unitS. The horse's poll has been shaved for coolness and is protected from the sun by a bead brow cushion. A leather frontlet hangs from the browband and the top of the rrontlet 's point is decorated with a large, domed disc. Actual examples from Zinjirli were 5.2cm. in diameter. The saddle of plaited leather is decorated at the corners with multi-coloured tassels. The breastband has banjoshaped appliques of brODze or bone and seems to hne secured the saddle in the absence of a girth, which is only rarely shown. 143.

NEQ·ASSYRlAN CAVALRY LANCER, LATER ITH CENTURY B .C.

The qurubuti sha pi/halli of Ashurbanipal's reign, and therefore presumably Esarhaddon's, differed very little in appearance from fig. 142, except that their helme ts were more likely to have integral cheek·pieces. However, by 653 S.c. at the latest Assyrian cavalrymen arc always shown in baule riding fully·protected horses. Rel iefs dating 10 the reign of Ashurbanipal show both cavalry lancers and archers riding horses prolected by textile armour similar to that worn by chariot horses. Two basic designs are shown and also a few minor variations. The main difference being in the number and arrangement of the textile sections and the method offastening. The type illustrated here is the most widely depicted in the reliefs. It consists either ofa single large backcloth, or twO halves, as suggested by the tOggles securing it across the horses' rump. The backcloth is also secured under the tail and under the belly, the straps being single or double. Four rounded lappets provide some protection for the legs. Another section of cloth covering the ho rses' chest and throat is anached to the backcloth by toggles at the side of the neck. In what may be a later de\'elopmem, the backcloth cominues around the horse's chest with no visible join, suggesting a one·piece housing which joined on one side of the neck only. Sometimes the backcloth is shown decorated with parallel bands around the borders. It is imeresting to nOle that the armoured crew, horses and weaponry of a four·man, four· horse chariOI would be equivalent to four of this type of cavalryman, while dispensing with the vehicle. The development of this advanced form of cavalry may thus have hastened the redundancy of the chariot, being more economic and tactically flexible.

168

14 2

169

144.

NEO·ASSYRlAN INFANTRY OFFICER, 7TH CENTURY B.C.

Again derived from the: Ulai rc:lief
146

147

144 145, 146 & 147.

NEO·ASSYRIAN ROYAL GUARDSMEN, 7TH CENTURY B .C.

145 is an infantry gua rdsman of the reign of Sennachetib (704-681 B.C.). He wears the stllndard issue: lamellar corslet, short·sleeved tunic, wflIp-around fringed kilt, and boolS with long patterned socks. His pointed iron helmet, derorated with bronze sirips and crooks, is t)'pial ofSennacherib's reign, having luge, sepafllte hinged chm-pieces. The large coniCliI shield, mllde of bronze· coloured 1ellther edged and decofll ted with large bossed rivelS, was only arried by guardsmen. From Ihis il appears tha t in Sen nacheri b's rei gn armou red spearmen did not exiST outside lhe guard or kisir SharTUli. 170

146 is an infanlryman of the leis;, shamlti ofSennacherib's grandson, Ashurbanipal (668-627 B_G.). His appearance, although superficially similar to fig. 145, demons trates several changes ofdelai!. The soldier's pointed iron he.lmet has integral cheek-pica:s and a rim that is slighlly lower althe back in order to give some protection to the neck. The most obvious change, the tremendous increase in shield size, is sympto ma tic of an increasing preoccuplltion with protcetion oflhe later Neo-Assyrian military and reileen II desire to minimise casualties caused by missiles. The change to the larger shield probably came abou t following Esarhaddon's unsuccessful Egyptian expedition of

674 B.C. Figure 147 is a guard officer in coun dress with II highly·pa mmed tunic, cord headband and symbolic macc-ofoffice. Such officers were referred to as sha hllla,i, or 'staff-bearers'. 148.

NEQ·ASSYRIAN HEAVY INFANTRY SPEARMAN , ITH CENTURY B .C.

Armoured infantry spearmen, apan from guards, do not appear until the reign of Esarhaddon, who gttatly ClI:panded the regu lar army. He wears a corslet with partial pterugn and a helmet with integral check-pieces. He carries a la rge, curved, round-topped shield of leather, bound with bronze. The shield is shown painted blue in the source. The considerable variety of helmets which could be worn are shown by 148:1.

14 8

a 149, ISO & 151.

NEO·ASSYRIAN MEDIUM INFANTRY SPEARMEN, 7TH CENTURY B .C.

These figures show the later slyies of dress and equipment ofthe Aramaean and Neo-Hittile soldiers first recru.ited intO the: Assyrian army by Tiglath-Pilcscr III and Sargon 11 during the 8th century B.C. All show strong Auyrianizing influences, and have to a great ClI:tem lost their regionl l and national details of dr ess, probably liS D result of the issue of equipment from central 1110/ masharti, or arKnals, in metropolitan Auyria.

171

149 dau!s from Ihe reign ofSennacherib and Ihe bronze bowl-shaped helmet wilh separate chcck-piCCC5 and upright 'pole' crest is I dislinnive feature of Ihis king's 'Iuxiliary' spearmen. This soldier wears a long tunic decor-ned wilh broad blue and ~ bands, as shown on :I late-phase NCO-Assyrian wa ll-])ain ting from the governor's palace al Til-Barslp in nonhern Syria. His helmel crest is similarly chequered red Ind blue. Over his mnic he wears a wide bronze belt II the wlisl, a IImitulbaldric 10 suppon his shon iron sword, and a large bronze irtu [0 protect the chcs:l . h is possible 10 identify $C\'eral forms of irtu, the simplest being a large, flll round plate, Ihe more elaborate cxamplcs, u shown here, having I prominenl central domed boss and curled-Q\'er rim. The min's round shield, carried by a central handgrip, was mlde of woven rteds tied with leather or reed binding on the inside and bound by a bronze rim. The: shidd's face, oftm shown with a central bronze boss. is shown in fig. 151 and has the eha.racterlstic 'building-block' effect which was produccd by tbe imerweaving of:l thick rm facing some Scm. thick. FaCC$ of such shields ....·ete usually plinted I solid colour, red being common. 150 & lSI arc soldiers of Ashurbanipil's army. Both soldiers' helmets ITe of iron inlaid with bronze and ha\'e integ ral ch«k-picces and crest-holders. The pictorial sources of this king's reign indicate tbat mosl uniu of medium spearmen we re equipped with a reed-work ve rsion of the new, large body-shield (cf. fig . 148). Rccords of the later 7th «mury mention the large-scale. delibe rate plaming of reeds along the Tigris for shield manufacture. Some companies of spcarmen retained the older form of round shield, however, either because it was tradi tional to their arell of recruitmem or because of Ashurbanipal's particular rc ve ra nce for Sennache ri b's memory. 151 wears the boots and long socks of ' Assyrian' soldiers, and is either an officer, or more probably belongs to an elite com pany or the kirir Jlwrrrlti, os is possibly indicated by the double-crooked helmtt. All these warrion art armed with short iron swords slung from a baldric form ing pari or thei r luttitu,

150

152

172

152.

ASSYRIA N MILITARY SCRlBE

This scribe

3p~"rs

in .:nun

dr~,

rhOllilh other.! are shown in more prnctiOll clothing like 147. H is long, friniled

robe is belted al the WliIIisl and a multi-coloured, fringed shoulder·band is wrapped ~round the body. Such fringes could be coloured ahemately in blue and white, or be red overall. The basic garmtnt was white. Scri bes are usu~lIy shown in pairs, making lists of caprured equipment lind other spoils of war, liS well as record ing Ihe names of soldiers. One scribe wrOle in cuneiform on a day tablet, while the other wrote on either II. wax writingboard usi ng a stylus, or in ink on papyrus. It is e\'en possible that some of these scribes He in faa war':lrIists, making skelches in preparation for the delailed battle-reliefs Ihat would be made for the kin g's palace. All matters concerning Ihe preparation and condua of a campaign were aHended and rcrorded by scribes. Delailed repom were requirtd by rulers, and military organisation depended on wrinen !'«Ords in order to function effickntly. Such documents were Slored in archh'es together with diplomatic co"espondence. This arrangement applied in the Near East for most of the period covered in Ihis book. The durability of these tablm 3nd the fact that Ihey are devoid of the kind ofexaggtration and propaganda found in royal annals (which would be poimless and coumer' productive in bureaucratic records), make them invaluable sources for reconstructing military organisation. Couriers carried messages wrilfen on day tablets, one source mentions such a me!;S.lge being found in bag around the neck of a messenger who was apprehended.

II.

leather

Maps and plans on tablels were nOi unknown.

153

154

153 & 154 .

NEO·ASSYRIAN ARMOURED MISSILE TROOPS, 6TH CENTURY B.C .

The slinger is laken from reliefs of Scnnacherib, although those: of Ashurbanipal would be identical. He wears the standard issue equipment of an Assyrian soldier, but some slingers are shown in reliefs with bare fecI. The large, sphcrical Assyrian sling-stones, consistantly depicted in reliefs, \lre known from excavations at Lachish, :l J udc:ln stronghold Siormed by Sennocherib. Examples examined during rcse:arch for Ihis book have an avenge diameter of6cm., and weigh from 193 to 270gm., which should be compared 10 an average weight of Hellenistic lead sling-shol of around 65gm. T hese: sling-stones had been roughed out of rectangular limestone cubes, with only limited smoothing and finishing, and some had clear evidence of shanering impaclS. The conlel of the archer is unusual in having shon sleeves but no pteruge~. During the reign of Ashurhanipal, hC3vy archers and slingers commonly wore a headcloth, like that of figure 154, instead of the iron helmet. 173

155 & 156.

NEO-ASSYRIAN LIGHT ARCHERS

These soldiers are levies conscripted from subjm peoples, and were employed to fight in thei r nalive fashion. Figure ISS is a Neo-Hi uite from Carchemish doting to the reign of Sennacherib. Alternative headgear is shown in 156a. Figure 156 is an Aramaean \e\'Y of Ashurb3nipal. 156b shows the headgear ofChaldean levies who would otherwise appear similar to these.

156

155

157 & 158.

BABYLONAIN ROYAL DRESS 8TH TO 7TH CENTURY B.C.

Figure 157 represents the Chaldean rebel, and sometime king of Babylon, Merodach·Baladan (Marduk·apal.iddina 721·710 B.C.), Dnd 158 represents Nabonidu$ (Nabu Na 'id 556·539 B.C.) last of the Chaldean dynasty ""'hich ruled the Nco-Babylonian Empire . He was an elderly man at the time of his defeat by Cyrus, and is shown here with a white beard. Both carry a staff of kingship and wear the conical Babylonian crown.

159 & 160.

NEO·BABYLONIAN TROOPS 7TH TO 6TH CENTURY B.C.

Figure 159 represents :I Babylonian guardsman of the 7th century B.C., and like most nath'e Babylonia ns (trOOpS from Akkad, 3S opposed to Chaldeans and Arumaeans), is quite ' Assyrian' in his appearance. He wears a helmet and lameller corslet of Assyrian type and a la rge, conical, leather shield as used by Assyrian royal guards (c. r: 146). He wea rs a simple, plain (Unic and does wit.hout the heavier, woollen gear, socks and boots fU\'ou red in Assyria, whe re the climate was colder. The troops illustrated in 160 are Chaldeans, levied by the kings of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. They wore short (Unics, caps or he:ldclolhs ending in long tassels and simple fillets. 160a is an archer, rep resenting the majority of Chaldean troops. These were available in large nu mbers, and in order to make them more effective in dose· combat some were equipped with spears and shields in addition to the bow, as shown in 160b. Figure 160c is purely a spearman, equipped with a large body·shield, possibly made of woven r~ds, similar 10 thaI used by Assyrian troops towards the end oflhe Assyrian Empire (c.f. 148 and 150). Babyloni~n cavalry, dtpiCled in Assyrian reliefs, appear to be very similar to 160b and c, but lack shields. Babyloni3n chariots would be similar 10 Assyrian Iypes. However, the captured Babylonian charims of Shamash·shuma·ukin have archaic crossed-qui\'ers al {heir sides, and yokes fo r only two horses, so they may have been slow to match Assyrian changes in design.

'"

157

158

160

a 115

b

c

161, 162, 163 & 164. ELAMrTe WARRIORS ITH CENTURY B.C. Thcse illustflltions are based on representations ofElamile troops depicted in thc reliefs from the palace of Ashurbanipal at Nincve.h, now in the British Museum. The reliefs conctrn the victory of Ashurbanipal over the Elamite king, Teumman, at the river Ulai. The Elamite chariot (161) consisted ofa luge, flat platform, which could have low, scmi-cirrular sides (16 1a and b). II had two large, 12·$poked wheels and the axle was positioned beneath the ctnue of the pl:uform. These chariots were dfllwn by two or fOUf mules or small horses. The reliefs depict chariots being swept away by the rive r Ulai, and show from views oflhe yoke. dearly designed for four horses or mules. Other, overturned chuiots show two or four animals. The crew consisted of a driver and up [0 three archers, who sal or knelt on the platform which was covered in a reed mat. The mobile, massed archers would be quite effective in themselves apart from any dose-combat abili ty these chariol5 may have possessed. They may have provided a son of ban Ie field transport for archers, and reliefs show la rge numbers making good their escape from the bailie in this way. Figure 162 is an Elamile king or officer. He wears a long robe and a cloak into which he has tucked his right arm. There are two types of headgear which seems 10 distinguish officen or nobles; the cap worn by 162 has II feather hanging from the back, and 1623 shows a bulbous cap with fabric neck guard and ribbon. The ordinary soldiers wear only a doth headband. The cavalry, 163, we re identical in dress 10 the infantry, but carried a spear and bow. They ride on a large r breed of horse t han those shown harnessed 10 the c hariots. Like the Assyrians. they probably made a distinction between riding and dnlught horses, and employed a smaller breed ofhorsc (attested later on in Iran) for dnught purposes. The quiver, which appears 10 be of a Siandard type, may have bee:n embossed lC1lther, stiffened fabric or even panly of bronze. It was tied on, with (he knOt resting on th~ soldier's che:s(. The infantry archers appear 10 have made up the majority of the infantry, and were quite uniform in appeannce (164). Assyrian texts, howeve r, menlion troops hearing bow and shield and ' heavily.armed archers'. Such trOOpS do not appea r in the rdiefs and Iheir appearance is not known. Presumably the Assyrian anins did not have access 10 this informalion, while the scribes had verbal accounts and probably ballle·repons at their disposal. Assyrian accounlS also mention the nobles bed«ked in silver bangles and riding in chariots with gold and silver trappings. Elamite armies were effective and numerous, defeating the Assyrians on seveflll occasions. They featured mobility, sound 13ctical sense. and reliably supponed Babylonian rebels against Assyria. Together with Uranu and Egypt, they were a serious rival to the Assyrian Empire.

a

161

b 176

162

164

163

165 & 166 .

MANNAEAN WARRI O RS

The Mannal inhubilcd the Iranian highlands direct ly 10 the east of Assyria, and many Assyrian campaigns \l,rere dircCI!:d into Ihis region. These illustrations an: based on drawings on pomry dating 10 Ihe 10th «nlUI')' B.C. Ind Ihe archaeological finds from Hasanlu, dliling 10 the end of the 9th century B.C. hory pands carved with reprcscmations of troops from H asanlu arc panicuiarly informative as 10 miliulry developments in North-Wesl Iran 31 this lime:. Figure 165 is a spcannan wearing some: son of textile body armour and c.arrying a painted wicker shield. 166 is a cavalryman. His horse is decor-ned with a bead-colJar necklace: with 11 bell anached 10 ii, and a pfOlectivt melal from lei. 166a s hows 1110'0 types ofhdmcl which could have betn worn by wealthier troops, and may be romparcd with Uranian designs. Figure: 1 65~ is ~n infantryman from the Hasanlu ivories. The diSlincth'c headgear worn by troops from this sou rer is perhaps a 'crown' of roldw textile, held on by a chinsua p, with I studded neck.guard. It is somew hat reminiscent of the laler Persian ' tiara'. Metal, Assyrian-ltyle helmets, sometimes with sepa rate earnaps we re also worn. Spears had socketed iron or bronze heads and side-urns consisted of swords , mam and small axes. The small round shield, which appears to have been convex with a wide rim, was probably made of leather or wood as no examples have survived. These shields arc also shown on the ivories being used by the enemy troops, who are otherwise completely naked. Archers depicted on the Huanlu ivories show more variation in appeal1lnee. Some have curly hair while OIhers have straight ha ir. Some wear turbans, and othert wear studded fillets. "I.ost appear to be dressed in the same type of tunic as 165a. 1l\ey arc olien shown shooting from a knteling posi!ion. Bronze quivert Ind bronze or iron arrowheads were used. Ca\'1lry on th e ivories appear like 166, but wear tunics and helmets like 165a. The ivories also pro\·ide evidence ofcha riot ry, which were crewed by two men and drawn by twO horses. Crews and chariot cabs arc not completely preserved. but the cab has a box-like profile, wider a( the top than the bottom. The wheels have sll: spokes and the axle is fixed beneath the centre or the C1IIb. A knob 8t the rear may be a shield boS5 or Structural, and crossed quivers mounted on the side of the cab arc shown on a metal plaque. The chariot crew consisted of an archer and II driver. The chariot horses reKmble that in 166, but wear feathered crcsts. 177

Th~ tlOOPS occur in battlc: scenes which show groups of chariotry, a .... alry and ar t"he rs operating together, and in one case tWO ranks of three cavalry operating in line.

166

167 .

IRANIAN WARRIOR 8TH CENTURY B.C.

Warriors and dignila ries wearing this slyle of dress in Assyrian reliefs represent peoples of the Zagros Mounlains and Nonh·West Iran, such as the Madai (Medes), Mannai, and warriors from regions l uch as Zikinu, Zamua, Na'iri and Shupria. The shield is shown being used by the defenders of the city ofPuashi. It was probably made of reeds insened through strips of coloured leather, in such a way that each reed passed through the strip twice, so that the s!rip would form a panel on the face of the shield. He uses an animal skin cloak, which is shaped 10 faslen over one shoulder lind hn a hole for one arm, to give some protection to his unshielded side. It would be a useful garment generally in these cold regions, (c.f. 73). 168.

IRANIAN INFANTRYMAN, 6TH CENTUR Y B.C.

This figure is included in order to show the element of continuity of Assyrian and Babylonian practice into the early Persian period. Although largely outside the time limit of this book, the Archaemenid Empire represents the last greal Near·Easlern military system, and hn more in common wilh its Near·Eastern and cullurally relaled predecessors than Iny later age. Also, before her rise to power, Parsumash or Parsuash, as the small Inn ian region was known, was in conlact with Assyria and Babylon, and for a time, tributary 10 AHyria . Parsumash began her rise to empire, probably with the take-over of Anshan from the Elamites in the early 7th century B.C. The Medel and Elamites were absorbed in the early 6th century B.C. This was achieved under King Ku rash (Cyrus I). The Babylonians referred 10 Ihe Persian trOOpS by a archaic term for the peoples of Ihis part of Inn, calling them 'shield ·bearing Gudans'. 178

168

Tht headclOlh, tunic and

d~gger

are

dislincli~

items of Persian dress. but he wears A»yrian'slyle socks on his

legs I1Ither than trousers. He carries a la rge: rectangular ~ed shield. II is interesting to notc that combinations of spear and bow, and shield and bow, wc:re: already being experimented with by the Babylonians al the time orlhe

Penian conquest, possibly influencing Persian

p~i~.

The: basic Achacmc:nid unit was the khafro (I lima! Median

translation of kis",) commanded on Babylonian lines by shaJtnu. With the conquest of the East by AIC:llandcr, a complete cycle: of military development comes to a close, to be replaced by another.

169, 170 & 171.

NEO·HITTITE CHARIOTRY 9TH TO 8TH CENTURY B.C.

There ate many represc:nt3lions orNeo- H inill~ chariOl$; sour~ including reliefs from the sites of Care hem ish, Aulatya. Sakje-gozu, Tayanat, Te-ll·H alaf and Zinjirli, and the- ivory plaques of Syrian workmanship from Nimrud (which deconued furniture brought as tribute from Neo-Hinite ci lies). These represemations dale!O the 9th and 8m cmturies B.C. The-re- are many poims of similarity wit h Assyrian churiots, and the Assyrians may have- been infiue-nce-d by some a5ptC1.s of Neo-Hinite chariot design.

Neo-Hinite- charion exhibit some changes during the 9th and 8th centuries B.C. The axle- was mO\'ed from beneath the cemrc of the- cab to the rear. The nu mber of spokes in the wheel was increased from six 10 eight (although the- six·spoked type continued in use). The- cab was originally curved at the- front and changes to a de-e-pc:r, and perhaps rCClan gulur, shape. T he number of cre-w increased from twO to four, as demonstrated in a represe ntation of 11 veT)' heavy Ch3riOt on an ivory from Nimrod (170 and 171). It is also probable thatlhe number of horses increased from tWO 10 four 10 enable the increaSC' in weight and number of crew. Like- many Assyrian re-presenlations, NcoHinite anists did not ancmpt to show four horses, usually making do with only one, (an anislic convenience which the authors IhemSC'lves have found usefu l!). A captured chariot from Lachish, show n in an Assy rian relief, has a yoke- for four horses and this number we-re- in use in Egypt and Cyprus by th e 7th century. Funhcrmore, some Neo-Hinill~ reliefs show the horse without a yoke saddle and with a pendant on the outer rein, chal1lctefistic of the outside horses of a four-horsed chariot which were harnessed in a different manner to the inne- r pair. until a new type of yoke wu inv('nt('d in Assyria in Ihe- 8th c('ntury B.C. Th(' horus and crew of the 81h century NeoHinil(, cha riots are oft('n shown wuring consid(' rab l(' amounts of seal(' armour, but this was protnbl y also available earlier. Crossed quive-rs on the sides, ellipliall supponing rod for the yoke·pole and the shield hung al the rear of Ihe cab. remained characteristic of the Nco-H ittite chariot throughout Ih(' period. The cab of 169 is based on I rd ief from Carchemish. It is probably covered wilh low bronze bosses, unless this is a convention for a scale cover. long known in the Near Easl. later Assyrian chariots also being co\'ered in bronze plales. The scale armour for the hone has the scales arl1lnged in a different direction on the neck to enable movement. An Assyrian text m('ntions an iron sariam for a horse, captured from a Nco- Hillile kingdom. The chariot in 170 is cJelIrly me origin orlhe Egyptian design shown in 40, and a similar hand.grip is present in the relief from Sakjegozu. A fabric panel was hung from the supporting pole, possibly 10 balance the hull)' chariot cab. 119

The ' ....,o-man ere ..... ' comprised an archer and a driver. The armoured charioleers ""ould resemble figures liS and 120, ..... hile unarmoured chariol crew ..... ould resemble 172. A fouT-man crew, consiSlcd of an unarmoured driver, an n eher, a spenman, and anOlher soldier, possibly a shield-bearer or anOlher spearman. 171 is based on the ere ..... in the Nimrud ivory plaque, butlhe Ur:lTIian-style helmtl is taken from a relief from Zinjirli. The crew arc wtll armoured. The spearman .....ears a shon, scale corsltl wilh what may be pteruges, but the shape suggcsls a row of large scales like that shown in 4h. The scene makes it quite clear how the spear was mcantto be used. Its size and the knob al the e:nd suggest Ihot it is more than JUSt a javelin. It would be: useful to fend orr cavalry or infamry ..... ho ..... e:re: attacking the vulnerable reu of the chariot, in the same way as reliefs sho"" it being used against lions in hunting see:ne:s. Nco-Hinite fdids are more than 400 years later than the Hin itc Empire, and do not constitute valid evidence: for the appearance of chariOlS and troop! of that lime:. They cxhibilthe influence of Assyria and Uranu, nOI pre5CnI in the earlier period.

180

171

172.

NEO·HITTITE GUARDSMAN AND OFFI CER 9TH CENTURY B .C.

These figures are based on reliefs from the royal palace at Carchcmish. These depict a file of soldiers equipped as l72a, and officers or nobles like J 72b. These were probably 11 unit of elite royal guards. Further evidence for such troops could be the 3000 infanlTY of Plairi ofCarchcmish, recruited into the army of Sargon II following the rebellion of Carchcmish. He also recruited 50 chariots and 200 cavalry, probabl}' also elite troops. Figure i 72a wears a d istinctive variant of the Nco-Hittite or Uranian type of helmet, which hilS IWO short 'horns' mounted lit the from. T hey aTC probably low, bronze boSKS. Both troops ClIrry large, flat or slightly com'ex round shields, slung on thei r backs by leather straps. The faces of these shields may have bun cO\'ercd in sheet bronze, possibly with embossed decoration, as in Uranu, and may also have had bosses in the form oflions' he3ds, as sho~'ll f!Xed to the back of chariots (169, 170). 172a wears traditional Hinitc-style boots. Weaponry comprised thrusting-spea,., and straight swords.

172

b

a 181

173 & 174 .

ARAMAEAN AND NEO-HITTITE CAVALRY 9TH CENTURY B.C.

The use of cavalry by Neo-Hiuile and Aramaean slales is attC'Sled by numerous references in Assy rian records and reliefs depicting cavalrymen from Zinjirli and Tell-Halaf. A rep resentation from Tell-Halaf is Ihe basis for figure 174, and shows Ihat cavalry were using shields, as they were also in Urartu and for a short lime in Assyria. 173 shows a mounted archer. T hc lisl of forcC'S al the battle of Karkar includes equal numbers of cavalry 10 chariotry in Ihe forces of Hamalh and Damascus, and this mighl suggesl some connection between horsemen and chariol crews in t he mil ilary organisalion. T actically, they were probably required 10 operate with the chariotry, :as were Assyrian caval ry. The position of the shield in the Tell-H:alafreliefindicatcs that it was either strapped to the arm to allow the hand to control the reins, or possibly slung on the back. The shield had a ce-ntral boss, and Ihe horseman completes his equipment with a helmet and shon spea r.

175. ARAMAEAN INFANTRYMAN , 10TH TO 8TH CENTURY B.C. The majority of the infantry levied by the Aramaean and Nco-Hittite states were lightly equipped. This figure is a spearman, but archers and slingers were dressed almost identically, though lacking shields and wearing their hair as shown in 175a. Weapons were now made of iron, shidds we re prob:lbly of leluher and clothing was made of woollen cloth, with simple decorative borden and fri nges. 176. ARAMAEAN CAMELRY 9TH TO STH CENTURY B.C. Representations of camel· riders are known from Zinjirli, Tell-Halafand Carchcmish. T hey are sometimes shown armed wit h a bow, so may have been used in a military role if only to prOleCt caravans. Camelry were prob:lbly introduced by the Aramaeans, but were also found in Neo· Hitti te slates. Al lhe battle of Karkar, 1000 camel·riders of an allied Arabian tribe were presem, fighting 310ngside tht NCO-Hittite and Aram2ean comingems. The twO ClImel· riders illustra ted in 176 show the \'lilriatioo in appearance-. Two t)'PCs of saddle were used, one apparently a rectangular 'cushion' or pad of cloth, the other a 50rt of saddle-doth and harness, which had straps for the rider 10 grip with his feet. 177,178 & 179.

NEO-HITTITE TROOPS, STH CENTURY B .C.

These soldiers arc de rived from reliefs at Karatepe, and so may re present the forces of the sme of Que. One of the most interesting fea tures of equipment is Ihe helmel worn by 178. who is presumably a guardsman, or elile infanuyman. This is very similar 10 the helmet worn by 172a, exce-pt that the crest has become larger. T his is the ultima te development of lhe Uranian style of crested helmet and gives t his soldier an almost ' hoplile' appearance, although Nco-Hillite representa tions pre-dale Ihe introduction of the hoplite panoply in Greece. In fa ctlhe Greeks may have been influenced by items of Neo-Hittile and Ura rtian manufacture as the Argos panoply would indicate. The cavalry are shown unshielded bUI using a Ihrusting-spear in an underarm manner, contrary to contemporary Assyrillfl practice. The archer is equipped with a narrow bronze belt, as would be used by many Nco-Hittite troops. He wears one of the many different types of , turban' by which the various Aramaean tribes and North Syrian peoples may be distinguished.

174

173 182

176

(( 175

r

17~7====~~~~~~========~~

179 178

18J

ARAMAEAN AND NEO-HlTTrTE HEADGEAR

ISO.

By examination of foreign tribute-bearers in Assyrian sourCC$ and comparing them to representations from the various Slates of Northern Syria, Anatolia and the Levant, it is possible to establish their distinctive styles of headgear. J udean styles ofwntpping a long, scarf·like headcloth are shown in ISOa . 180b shows ",arianl forms of Phoenician 'turban'. 180c was worn in Tyre. The cap shown in 1SOd is depicted being worn by Jehu of israel on the 'black obdisk' orShalmaneKr III, and was also worn in Damucu5, Kallina, Unqi, and Bit-Adini. l8Oc, which ends in a tusel, was worn in Hamath. 180fis another fashion from Unqi. The headgear in lSOg ""'2S worn in Carchemish, and 1SOh is further headgear from Que and Sam'al. The hat on the right, was fonned by tying·up the cheekpieces on top of the head. ISOi shows twO heads belonging to Mushki. The plaited forelocks on the righi-hand head are allowed to hang over the front of the fillet.

c

a

f

e

d

h

g 180

181.

JUDEAN SOLDIER 8TH TO 7TH CENTURY B.C.

This figure is taken from the Assyrian reliefs showing the. sack of Lachish by Scnnacherib in 701 B.C. This represents the equipment ora typical Judean soldier, and exhibits marked AS$)"Tian influence, panicularly in the helmet and shield. Scnnacherib conscripted many Judeans inlo the kilir Jharruli (royal army). In this corps they appea r wearing Assyrian issue boots, socks and shield but retaining nalive tunic and headdress. This huddress, a son of wrap' around scarf shown in ISla, could be worn instead of, or beneath a helmet.

181

182 184

182 & 183.

A.R A.BlAN DESERT NOMA.DS

~

I

included the Midianitcs,. Amalc:k.iu:s and the later Allib tribes of the hamme, Nabaita~, KJdnaya and Atarunwn \\'hich fought the Assynans. The camellirlt IPpears as a mount for warriors II the beginning of the 151 mllienmum B.C. Before the 7th century It was probably more usual 10 lind a smgle nder, since Auynan repreknllilons of Arabs riding tWO 10 a amel may well be: an mdlCalion of the succeu of dl(: Assymnl' campaign of allnuon. ThlJ in\'OI\"Cd poisoning of well. and garrisoning of oun. forcing lhe nomads 10 .lauGhler their camds and n 'en to dnnk their blood.

Tribes were headed either by kinp, or surpmingly, queen5, as IIluSlnalCd in 182. Organiuuon would be: ~Kd on dan. Ind In army would l imply comprise: a muster of a11lribesmen acknowledging the authonlY of I panKUlar leader. \V'hen raiding, mobility and speed would rcqutrC all'lo'afTiors 10 be: mounled, as tbey could always diimounl ifrcquiml.. The main armament was the bow. Standmi Ixtia consisted ofhit·.oo.run raids in search of easy plundc:r and CJpthu.

183

184, 185, 186 & 181. URA RT IAN WARRIORS Uranu ....u rich In melal5, and beame 1 cenlre for the manufactu re of arm •. The inOuence of UrAnian drs igns can be: uxcd over a wide arel, utending beyond the conlinel oflhe Near East, II lellSt as far lIS Grrett. Items of Unruan manufacture were not only spread by trade. but no doubl: also among the booty of the Cimmerians and Scythians, and lhe tribute nK'!ed by Auyria. Bronze was used extensively, not only for weapoos, scale corslel5, helmets, shields, chariot finlngs and horse: Ifllppinl', bul also bellS and quivers. Iron "''IS a cheap alternative to bronu, uxd for ffiO$I tools and weapons and also 10 some exteot, for armour. The amount of mel:!l rquipmenl available to dlt Urand.QS II uldicatcd by the quantitiel of tribule recorded in inscriptions. and archxologial evidence from excavated cit.dels conllming arsenals. Sarduri II of Uranu once received a .. ribute of 2000 coppcr shields from Kushtuhpi of Kummuhu, Ind when Sargon U sacked Musasir, brontA: crests, scale corslet., hclmelland O\'er 25,000 copper dlirlds were limon, the booty. Howevt-r many items mlly hlI\~ been votive ofTerings, unsuitable for USC: in blttle. 185

These illustrations are based on represtnl:ltions of Uranian uoops in Assyrian reliefs, and on Uranian embossed bronu belts, quivers and armour as ..... ell as extensive an:h.aeoJogical evidence. Figure 184 shows an Unnian spearman of the mid 9th. century B.C. He wears a crested helmet of which there ..... ere many varian IS. 1843 shows a type: "lith a purely metal em!. A type depie1C:: d on the 'bronze gates of Bala..... at' daling 10 Ihe reign ofShalmanestr II of Assyria, sho....., a helmet with a crest running di rectly over Ihe crown, a type Huested in other sources and by surviving examples. It is reminiscent of descriptions of the Karian helmet and possibly anctstrallo it, ultimately influencing Greek designs. Around his waist, over his shorl fringed tunic, he wears a bronze bell, which could pro\'ide limited protection for the abdomen. The Uranian chariot shown in 185 wu similar 10 contemporary Assyrian types in general design, bUllighter, being cre ..... ed by t .....o men and drawn by twO horses. The chariot and harness feature filIny bronze fillings, such as the bosses decor-lling the cab, the bells arou nd the horses' necks and the frontlets ( 185a) protecting thei r foreheads. Heads of animals, such :as horses, could be mounted at the end of the draughl pole. Armament comprises the bow and spear. the Jailer fixed althe rear orlhe c-ab. Chniotry .....eR probllbly provided by Ihc nobility and high offidals, Uranian engraved seals depict the king in his chariot accompanied by an umbrella·bearer, and a variant rype of chariot ..... ith large looped hand·grips attached to the cab. The profile of this variant Cllb shows that its upper edge curves do ..... n at the sides and up at the front, and the wheels have eight Clltved spokes which are rather bulbous at the base. Figure 186 shows an Urartian cavalryman, the cream of the Uf1l rtian army. He is equipped wilh spear and shield. Horse·arc hers probably also existed and Cimmerian mercenaries were probably employed, who would no doubt make extensive use of Urarrian equipmenl. 187 is an Uran;mn noble or omen . Both he and 186 wear boou and leggings and 3 shon tunic, over which 187 wears a long, fringed kilt. Both are equipped with convex, embossed·bronu shields, probably backed by wood or leather. D«oration consisted of concentric rows of animals (187a shows a profile view). Sbields with bosses in the form of the heads of dogs, lions, griffins and bulls were also used. 186, 187 and the crew in 185 are wearing scale or lamell-ar corslets. Scales were usuaUy bronze, measuring Scm long and 2cm wide, with rounded boHoms. They were assembled with Ihe lacing exposed. These figures are aU equipped wilh Ihe conicallype of helmet, ..... hich could be of bronze or iron, decorated with stylised thunder or antler symbols, or rows of serpents. They also wear VlI riant types of bronze bell, which were often highly-decorated with embossed motifs. Archers were similar in appea rance to 184 . Bronu quivers found in Unnian Drsena\s contained betwee:n 354 0 arrows. There were tWO main types of arrowhead, mOSI ofwbich were iron. The mltive type was fiat and spade· shaped, with two barbs, while the distincth'C, barbed, Scythian types we re also available. Surviving bronze quh'ers are tubula r in shape, tWO examples measuring 70 and 90cm in length and IOcm in width. Quivers could also be part bronze and pan leather. Figure l86a shows a bronze quiver.

a 184

•

186

Uranian wall-paintings depict garments coloured red and white, with red or white borders. Chequercd and strip«! patterns were used. Other colours appea ring in paintings, which could have been available for clothing, comprise dark·blue, light-blue, bbck and reddish-brown_

185

a 187

a 187

188.

CIMMERIAN HORSEMA N 8T H·7TH CENTURY B.C.

The Cimmerians, or Gimirraya, were forced from their homelands in southern Russia and across the Caucasus by their dose relations, the Scythians or Ishkula)'a. In terms of dress and appc:ar.mce thtse two tribes of nomadic horsc~n appear virtually identical. Indeed, the Babylonian! of the 6th century B.C. knew what we call the 'Scythian' bow as the 'Cimmerian' bow, and desc ribc
ClCpc'ct

The human head hanging from the horse·trappings hu had the skull removed and only the tanned flesh preserved. According 10 Herodotus, these were the heads of enemies killed in bailie, the best and most respected warriors having, of course, the greatest number. The presence of Innian mounted nomads at the destruction of numerous cities in Asia Minor and Mesopotamia is often attested by the discovery of numbers of the Iypical. small, trilobate bronze arrowheads at such siles. These arrowheads were caSt in threes in small, portable moulds.

189

lBB

a

.88

189 & 190.

PHRYGIANS AND L YDlANS 11TH TO 6TH C ENTURIES

Th~ illustrations are baxd on representations on poltery, temOOlti plaques and &.syrian SOUfte5. 189a is a Phrygian, or Mushki, as they were known in Auyria. A representation oran Anatolian emissary in the Assyrian Til·Barsip paintings depicts a style or dress Ih:1t bears comparison with figures on the plaques rrom Paurli. Tunics decorated with broad coloured or embroidered bancb were worn. So were A5syri~n·style socks decora ted in the same way. The Phrygians were noted ror Iheir skill in Ihis kind or decoration, The Pazarli plaques show what may be greaves WOrn over the socks, while the Til·Barsip painting shows boots. This figure wears the typiCliI type: or boot worn by many mountain peoples at this time and which was adopted in Assyria. Armamenl comprises a shon spear and highly-decoTated small round shield. 189b is an archer carrying what appears 10 be a bow c:lSe on his back. The helmet shown in the Paur li plaque is often considered 10 be or G reek type, but it could equally well be de rived rrom Unrlian or Nco- Hittite designs, which is perhaps more likely (c.c. 137, 178 and 184). Clothing colours included red, black and blue on white.

a 190

Lydian ClII'alry are shown in 190 and 1903, Lydian or Karian inrantry would be like the mercenary iIIus1r.lted in 47. These horsemen are light cavalry. Heavy cavllry would be equipped as 47 but bare.legged. Again, embroidered bands and brightly coloured clothing arc features orthese tcoopt. The horse in 190 appears to have a brand. According to Het(xlotus, Lydian cavalry were armed with long spears and were the most imporlant pari of the Lydian roren. They also seem to have been good and tenacious fighters. Lydian cavalry do not ap~ar to have used the shield.

191 & 192.

CYPRIOT WARRIORS 7TH CENTURY B.C.

These illustrations arc based on discove ries rrom the tombs of Salamis, pottery figurines or warriors, Ind chariotS and representations on embossed me tal bowls. Cypriot chariOtS generally followed Near·Eastern designs. This chariO! is one of the latest lypeS, daling 10 the 7th anlUry B.C. Earlier types would closely rnc:mble 9th century Nco- H ittite and A5Sy ri~n \'ehic\es. From the 81h century B.C. Assyrian influwce beame stronger, following the conquest oflhe Phoemcian statts, (for ye t euli~r chariots refer to 115). This chariot is baxd on actual examples aca\lllted at Salamis on CYPIl15. The cab is constructed of leather over a wooden rramework sUPporling panels or osier. There was a central parlition ending in i bronze looped hand·grip al the rear. The third crewman stood behind the driver and second crewman, holding on to th e hand·grip whic h could also serve as a shield support. In this WDY the rear orthe chlriot was protected. From the late 7th century B.C. onwards, the chariot wou ld have two draught·poles, also appt:l ring in the Neu East, furthe r reslTiaing the chariot's manocu'lTlbiliIY. The wheels of the chuiot had ten spokes, strengthened by len iron nails dril'en through the rim and secured to the axle with large decorated Iynch·pins. The twO drnugh t'poles we re joined by a straight yoke accommodating four horses, and decorated with rou r bronze 'standards' in a similar manner to a model chariot in the Oxus treasure. 189

Horse armour comprised an Oll·hide 'apron', as shown here, wilh a melal breast.plate and side pendanl!. Thesr wrre derorated with Assyrian·inspirrd motifs such as a naked figurr of !shlar (a goddess of 10lle and war) standing on, or holding bac.k lioD figures . The horses also wore metal frontlets and creslS. These tnppings were of bronze, or iC'3ther covered wilh sheet gold. One chariot cab ....'IS deconted with Ii\'e lions' heads. The crew were armed with Ihru.Sling·spcars and round shields. The headgear worn by twO of the CTew are 'turbans' of Ar.lmaean Style, popular in Cyprus al Ihis time. Figure 192 is a CypriOt spearman, based on pouery models of wlrnort and some piclorial representations. Cypriot forces also included arch".rs and ClInlry who were similar in appraunce but lacked shietds. The shietd shown in 192c has a red centre and small red dots on while petals against a black ground as painted on a ponery figure. Olher shields could have long, poimed, bronze bosses. Variant helmets are shown in 192a, the lower example originating in Urartu, a major apoTler of arms and metalwork.

191

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a

192

11

~ 190

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193, 194 & 195.

MI NOAN' AN D MYCENAEAN SPEARMEN c. 161)0- 131)0 B.C.

There are many represemations of this type of infantry in Aege:an ut, The principal sourccs for these figures arc a fresco from Thera, a battle-scene on a sih'cr crater and a decorated dagger blade from Mrcenac, and various engr.lved seals. These spearmen appear to have fought in dose formation an d were probably drilled. The spear. called t }u-Q, was used for thrusting and was at least 4m long. To achieve maximum effect wit h this weapon, both hands were used and a large body-shield was hung from the shoulder with a Strap. Spears and shields answering to this description are mentioned in the Iliad. 193 holds his spear in a posi tion su itable for advancing into combat, as depicted on the Them fresco, where a line of spearmen is advanci ng in this fashion. 193a shows a man who has been beaten to his kn~ in combat, taken from a gold seal engraving, and demOnstmt C1 how the shield provided complete covemge in such a 'receiving' position. 194 and 19 5 have spears levelled for the charge. Two opposing bodies arc: shown dashing in this way on the silver crater from Mycenae. The elabomtc: boars'-tusk helmets and the possession of swords indica tes that these spearmen arc pc:ople of some wealth and social standing (unless infant ry were eq uipped from palace armouries). The shields render body armour unnecessary. Ifsuch troops ""'eTC to keep rook with shields meeting edgNc>cdge, they would achieve efficient protection for all the individual soldiers by acting togtther as a cohesive body. Such a 'shield·wall' would be paniculariy effective against missiles. Archers opc:roted from between the ranks and files of the spearmen, seeking the protection of the shields, (200 sho ws an archer from the same source as 194 operating in this manner). Swords, or pakana, were long" narrow and, like all weaponry, bronn. They were bett er suited for thrusting than slashing. 1953 is a Minoan swo rd.

It would doubtless be difficult to break in to a densely packed shield·wall. AnemplS to fmd ways of doing so may have led to the invention of the ·figurc.of-eight' shield. This type is carried by 195 and shown in profile in 195b. It is clearly a shield that could be used more offensively than the ' tower-shield' curied by 193 and 194. It is deep and possesses a dt-flective ability. A ridge of wood or tough leatht-r Nns down the centre. The ' waist ' might allow greater usc of th e thrusting·sword in the 'press '. With such I shield the bearer could have a better chancc of battering through the ranks of his oppont-nts. When this type appears it is used alongside the tower·shitld. Perhaps only a proponion of the formation were equipped wit h them in order 10 give a 'biting-edge' to the body, bUI personal prefe rence cannot be ruled out .

191

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194

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195

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b

The shields were made of ox·hide, and paneTOs consisted of black. brown or buffblolchcs on a while grou nd. Lines of stitching visible on the from correspond 10 the machment of the shoulder-snap and frame on the reverse. The central ridge of the figurc-of-eight shield was generally buff, the outer edge of the rim being blue, and the inner

«Ige. yellow, Helmets, koroto, were m3de from 51iven of horn CUI from boars' tusks and bound 10 a leather base with leather thongs. The ef(5[ of lhe helmet worn by 193 is possibly also made or horn, alternatively, black or black and whilt horsch:iir plumes and crests could be :l1I3chcd. Kilts could be fringed and elabo ra tely embroidered. Dress sometimes consisted only of ~ coloured 'cod.pit«'. The Aegean peoples werc gener~lIy laU, slim and h~d a 'bronzed' complexion. Hair was very dark, wavy alld usually worn long. Burds were uncommon, but gold death·masks from the shaft·graves of Mycenae suggest that they could Ix worn by kings.

196.

MINOA N AND EARLY MYCENAEA N CHARIOTRV c. 1550· 1250 B.C.

Introduced inlo the Aegean in Ihe 161h celllUry B.C., Ihe Aegean cha riol soon began 10 differ in terms of delail from the Near·Easlern Iype. The four·spoked wheels rema ined standard for a 10llger pcriod but were made stronger and more robust. The axle was posilioned near Ihe rur of the cab, and the draught -pole was strengthened by iii second pole joini ng il horizolllally from Ihe yoke 10 the fronl oflhe cab. Both shafts were funher Strengthened by ~ wooden suppa" or thongs. It is possible lhat Ihis second shaft c:xtended backwards wilhin the cab and curved round to join the noor, providing a panition and means of suppan for the crewmen. These: are all developments designed 10 increase: the strength of the vehicle. In Egyp t and Canaan the emphasis was on lightness because: speed and manocu\'rability were req ui red for a primarily skirmishing role over nat ope n ground. The Aegean chariOl, however, was clearly ~ more robust vehicle intended 10 take the strain of close·combat over broken ground. 192

196

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197

198

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Aegean chariot warfare is 11 much debau:u subiect, the discussion of ..... hich might benefit from the appreciation thai chariO! design underv.'em signific:mt change within the period c. 1550-1150 B.C. T he carliest design .....:as a type: that has been called the 'bo)«hariot', illustrated in 196a. T his W,IS in usc: bet .....etn 155{1 and 145{1 B.C. Bet.....etn 1450 and 1200 B.C. a type: C1Illed the 'dual
MINOAN AND EARLY MYCENAEAN CHARIOTEERS c. 1550. 1.250 B.C.

Figure 197 represcnts the probable appearance: oflhe better-cquipped tIlt,a, or 'rollowers' in full banlt gear. Hi, armou r is based on the famous Dendra panoply. The bronze plates Issemble to rorm front and back ' halves', Ind it is difficult 10 establish whether the lablelS refer to the two hal\'CS or to I pair of corslets aaociated with each SC:I of ch:lriot gear. The plates were backed wit h ltather or linen, and we re loosely fastened by leather thongs 10 allow some degree of moveme nl. The corslet \Io'as called a ,0nJtt (thorll1), and the component pans, whether platcs or sarles, we re known as opowota. Linear B signs sctm to depiC'l corsletS of this Iype in which the neck.guard is dearly discernible. 197d shows ,lllerll view of one 'hair or. pllte corslet. The tablelS n:fer to corslets consisting of20 or 22 large, and 10 or 12 small, upau!o,a. These could hi: types of plate Irmou r, or scale corslets on the Near· Eastern model (sec fig. 15). As these usually required rna.ny more scales than this, rows of scales mighl be imended in the tablets. The Dendra panoply included 1000'er arm guard" ailed 9"0 in the toblNS, where I pair Ire associated wilh each corslel (197a). He: wtars grtl\'CS ofa type found al KaJlithea, the Iype: from Dend ra being shown in 197b. A less ..... ell-cquipped follOVo'er, or I driver, is shown in 198. Such chariO Icc:rs in qui lted white, presumably linen, TUnics arc shown in a fresco from Mycenae. Such a tunic wou ld also make ideal padded p roteclion to be worn beneath Ihe armour of 197. Tunia such 15 those described under 202 could also be. worn. T he gmves arc while and appear to hi: stiffened fabric, probably linen. They appear abundan tly in frescoes, even on otherwise lighdy~uipped troops. With the Dendra panoply we re found Ihe pans for a boars'·tusk helmet which had bronze chetk-picces instead of the more usual horn type. Completely bronze helmels arc ,Iso known. Helmets we re tilled .ortto and some arc desc ribed as having 4 Opawol D and 2 chttk-pieces.

"4

Arm~mcnl for ~ chariol warrior comprised a long spear, il being 10 denea the thrusts ohhi! weapon thaI armours such as the Dendlll panoply were e1pecially devised. An engraved gemstone from Vapheio shows a chariol spearman in aelion. hc uses bolh hands. The source from which 198 is lak~n shows short spears or javelins. These could have ~n alt~rnaliv~ armament or laler have replaced Ihe long spear. Side·arms comprised a lapering shon sword, up 10 60cm long, suilable for insening bet ....·cen Ihc plalcs of an adversary's armour, (197e).

The appearance of lhc armour worn by 197 calls 10 mind medieval lilt-armour. and is clearly designed to deflect IhruSIS. The prolection of the throa! and shoulders is particularly emphasised. The armour imposes limitalions on manocuvrnbility, especially if the wearer was forced 10 fight dismounted. He would be well advised to follow the innruclions attributed in the Iliad 10 warriors of the old .school, such as Nestor, and not break rank and attempt to fight alone, but 'when a man in his own chariot cornell wilhin reach of an enemy chariOl, he should attempt a spear thrust'. from the mid 13th century B.C., charioteers began to appear as in 204, which probably indicates a change ofl:lcti($. Followers may ha\'e worn special uniforms. Tablets refer to (trlain while cloaks as being 'suilable for followers'. The lablelS also confirm lhat an Aegean warrior migh! actually bear the name Achilles or Hector. They also reveal thai so could many of his less noble companiots! The linear B tablets make no mention of shields in usociation with charioleers' equipment and there is nO real evidence thai lower or figure-of-eighl shields were ever used by chariony. The use of round shields by charioteers occurs laler on with the in!roduction of the 'roil' chariot (sec 204). 199 & 200.

MINOAN AND MYCENA.EA.N LIGHT T ROOPS

A fresco from KnosS05 depiclS a line of dark·skinned troops dressed and equipped as 199. The IWO plumes suggesl that they might be Lib~n auxiliaries from Nonh Africa. Tbe so-alled 'siege rhYlon' from M.ycenae shows 11 lown under Inac:k. It is defended by Q few men bearing large reetangular shields and more numerous archers, slingers and slone-throwers. These are completely naked and probably represent the local peasanl! and IOwnsmen nsisting Ihe soldiery. One of these slingers is iIluSITaled in 200. The archer in 200 coml:S from Ihe silver ct"llter from Myctnae mentioned under 193-195 on which archers like lhis arc shown shooling from among Ihe ranks of the spea.rmen. He wears an elaborate boan'-tusk helmet with crest. Archery figures quite prominently in the Iliad, wherc both sides included conringcnlS of archer specialists. This agrm with the impression given by Aegean art that archery played an imporlanl part in wa rfare. In the Iliad, bows arc made of goats' horns, one hom providing each arm of Ihe bow. Arrows wcrc originally lipped with bone or flint, but later langed bronze types were used. Javelins werc most probably called palarja, a term ancestral to the later patton meDning 'javelin'

199

200

195

201

202

:: (0 .... '

a

b 201.

MYCENAEAN U GHT I NFANTRYMAN AND OPPONENT

Combat betwet:n Jightly-cquippcd Achaean troops and rather barbaric opponents is the subject of a fresco at Pylos. II is a mystery who the$( barbarians might be. b\lllbc Iliad reo>rds that the father ofPo]ypoetes, (who led a C
202.

MYCENAEAN INFANTRYMAN c. 1300-1250 B.C.

This ' longhaired Achaean' is typical of many troops depicted in frescoes from Mycenae, Pylos and Tiryns. He carries a round shield and short spear and could wear a boars'·wsk helmet . He wears sandals in addition to his greavcs. T he exact form of this footwear is illuStrated by I model fOOl from Mallia (2021). The great populuity of linen greaves may be because they served the purpose of boolS and would be useful protection when figbting, hunting and travelling among the rocky hillsides and scrub of the region. He wears a white tunic, or !tilO, edged with black bands. T ablets list various items of clothing, including tunics of purple wool, edged dIHh, and grey or white doth. Large woollen cloaks and purple ' double cloaks' ue ment ioned. Cloaks and tunics could also be of linen. The Tiryns frescoes show gree n and red tunics.

'"

203

•• •, •• •

.

204

a

203.

LATER MYCENAEAN WARRIOR 13TH TO 12TH CENTURY B.C.

Taken from the famous 'warrior vase' from Mycenae, this figure chtes to the darkening daY' of My~naean civilisation around 1200 B.C. He could answer to some of the descriptions of warriors in the Iliad, with his sheet·bronze cuirass, greaves and almost round shield (like an invened peltl, Iller characteristic of the Troad and Dardanelles region). The markings on the: inside edge of the shield reveal how the outer layer of hide, possibly even sheel bronze. was attach·ed. He wears a 'bell' cuirass of bronze. a type allesu:d also in cent ral Europe. The helmet could be studded fabric. leal her or embossed bronze. The auachment of boars' tusks or cows' horns gives an effect reminiscent of the Sherden. The bronze greaves we re possibly worn O\'er the textile t)'PC. or even over woollen socks as were later used by the Phrygians, Urartians and Assyrians. He marches wilh a few personal nllions tied up in a bundle and hanging from his shoTt spear. His principal side·arm would be II long slashing sword, as shown in 20)a. This replaces the carlier narrow types and t.he design may havt originated in cenlnll Europe. On the vase, the armour i.s coloured black, probably representing dark bronze, and the inside of the shield is buff. 197

204 .

LATER MYCENAEAN CHARIOTEERS AND HORSEM AN, c. 1250·1100 B.C.

The IYPC of chariOl shown here, known as the 'rail-chariol', appeared during the 13th century B.C. and eventually replaced the earlier Iypcs. This illustration is based on various depictions of chariOlry on pottery, which show chariots consisting oflinlc besides a platform and a rail. The legs of the crew arc clearly visible through the open sides. The appc:annce of the charioteen is similar to the warrior described in 203 and similarly markedly diffcrenl from Ihe preceding age. II was common (or one or both of the wurion to carry round shields and they were armed with short spears or javelins. This cha riot and its crtw arc most cenainly Ihe rcsull of a major change in chariot (actics, if not military organisation in general. h would 5«m highly probable thai Ihcsc men mighl d ismount 10 fi gh t more readily Ihan earlier Aegean chariotry, and they answer well to mosl of Ihe descriptions of chariot fight ing contained in the Iliad. These charioteen seem to be wearing linen cuirasscs which do not eXlend over their shoulden. Around their waim the)' may be wearing bronze bellS. They wear woollen socks beneath bronze greaves, or only linen greaves. They !u\'e simple crested helmeu. There arc drawingsof'dual'-chariots wllh three·and four·man ~drcsscd in a similar manner to these, accompanied by standards like that in 204b. 204a is a hOl'$(man, also known from drawings on ponery. There are a few such representations daling from the late ISlh century B.C. 10 around 1200 B.C., bUI they probably became increasingly common beyond this date. One example shows a m:ln currying what appears to be a round shield. This figure wears a bronze helmet, a 'bell· cuirass' and possibly greaves. The evemual breakdown of the Aegean palace economics (and therefore the elabofllle organisation required to maintain the chariotry) may have hastened the development of cavalry. Litency was lost and only returned centuries later wi th a diffe rent scripi (derived from I'hocnicil), so the palace regulation of mililary foren probably ceased . It is possible thai the horseman was simply a warrior not wealthy enough to possess a chariot and so uses a horse to transport him to the b3lllefield. Alternatively, the dnmalic change in chariot tactics might be partly due to t.he appearance of horsc:men who could fulfil the majorily of their roles more economically. 205.

HARAPPAN PRINCE

The drcss of Ihis figure is taken from a fngment of sculpture which is usually regarded as represcnting a prince: or II pricst. His dress is quite possibly purely civilian or religious in function. It is illuslflilled here to portny a high ranking personage. The rank and file probably wore a plain white cOllon dhoti. Small domed pieces of copper have been found which might have been fixed to II textile base as II SOrt of armour. The decoralion oftMS man's robe mal' be a stylised imitation of animal skin or similar scwn-on obiects. A rectangular shield is possibly represented on one Indus seal.

205

a

b 198

The metal weapons were made of copper or poor-quality bronze and arc rather weak in design. They include langed spearheads which ne brood, leaf·shaped and flat. They would need to be insened into the shaft to provide a stn:ngthening central rib. :\xe blades were also flat; socketed types being known. but f'~re (205b). A type of shon sword is shown in 205a. Three ty~ of SlOne mace head existed. round, pen.shaped and mOSt commonly, lentoid. The under-del'eloped close-rombat weapons 'tand in contrast to Ihe missile weapons. The balhed arrowheads were alwars copper. Sling proi~l ill.'$ came in th ree types; a small round or slight ly o\'al type, and tWO much hea\'ier I)'pe.$ of baked clay \\'dghing ]75g and 750g. Some large potlery balls found at the bak: of defences could ha\'e been hand thrown mbsiles. A) sling amm unition is associated with the defences oflown5, this may be the weapon of the rank and file milit ia in times of emergency. 206.

EGYPTIAN SIEGE DEVIC E

Siege methods during the Old and Middle Kingdoms included the use ofooltering-rams and wheeled scaling-ladders (shown in a 10mb at Saqqara and demonstrating that the wheel was known before tht Hrksos). A de\·ice depicted in tombs of the 12th Dynasty 31 Beni·Hasan was a long·shafted weapon with. presumably,:J. hefty melal poim, which required three men to wield. This was opcr:ued directly beneath the battlements, the crew being protected by a large pavise. h WllS either used to prise apm the mud bricks or thc rampan or to kctp points of the wall clear of defenders to enable assault by scaling-ladder. While the ass:lUh ",us in progress, archers suppressed the defenders with shooting. In the New Kingdom, d ties were assaulted through breachC':S in the walls, probubly created by rams or mining. Elite units usually led the aS$2ult. Other methods we re 10 assault the walts wilh scaling. ladders or desHoy the gates wilh axes or fire. On one occasion an assault party was smuggled into Joppa hidden in b.1skets. Rdiefs of the siege of Oapur in Canaan at the Ramesseum show troops app roocbing the walts under co\'er of pem.houses. These were fab ri c stfetched over a wooden frame and concealed a smDll assaul t pany from missiles. In later pcrioos, siege techniques became more sophisticated. The !'iye stela memions siege'lOwers, b;illering.rams and siegc-- ramps. Egyptian cities comained \':1.51 (emple enclosures which were used as fOTi resst'5 in times of emergency. lo \emphis was captured by Piye by means of am phibious assault through the harbour.

206

207.

ASSY RI AN SIEGE ENGINES

Fixed or mobile siege towers equip ped with a massive iron·shod ram fi rst appear in reliefs during the reign of Ashumasirpal. T he re is te)(t ual evidence that such de\'kcs existed in some form a few centuries before in the Near East. These towers appear to have bet'n cOnStrocted at the siegt' sinCl: they utilise large numbe rs of infan u,)' shields and sometimes chariot wheels. Two of Asburnasirpal's engines art' shown in 207a and b.

".

207

•••

b

d

200

By the reign ofTiglath-Pileser HI, the ram had developed into a lighter and more-mobile weapon, (207c-f are engines from the reigns of Tiglath-Pileser 10 Sennacherib). The ram body could be made of three sections, front , middle and rear, most probably of wicker, covered in leather and sometimes secured b}' two double rows of toggles (207f, daling to Sennacherib). The front was usually talle r than the rest forming a small turret with a window. The ram was usually moved on four wheels, but some early types show six. T he ram itself was long and thin, protruding from high up the front of the machine, ending in a large 'spearhead'. This type of ram, known 10 the classical world as a 'drill' was inserted between the courses of the wall's brickwork and moved from side to side, pulling out the bricks and weakening the wall. Often twO such 'drills' are preseO! (207d and e), which togethe r with a long hanging loop t hat sometimes occurs, gives the impression that the ram was intended [0 imitate an elephant, (herds of which still existed in the wilderness regions on the banks of the Euphrates, and were hunted by Assyrian kings). Indeed, other siege engines certainl)' attempt [0 imitate other animals, such as 207c and another shown on the bronze gatcs of Bala""'3t, dating 10 Shalmanescr Ill. In these cases, the 'snow' of the beast was probably shod in metal to provide a ram. These rams would be used against [he gates. The size of the crew and how the ram was worked is not readily apparent. One archer and :I man with a water ladle arc shown in the 'drill' types, and perhaps four men were required to work the 'drill '. These together with a couple of archers, an officer and a 'ladler', comprised the crew. T he body of the 'drill' engine was about 5-Sm long and was pushed up to the wall by the crew inside, with perhaps some outside help. The ram itself was probably some Sm in length. A text of Sennacherib refers to siege engines as 'great wall flies', perhaps this is a reference to the rather light rams shown in 207d-f. Rivers were crossed by means of innated animal skins, either supporting individual swimming soldiers (207g), or joined together to support rafts. Horses were swum across, while unharnessed chariots were transported by means of the kelek, a large round 'coracle' of hides stretched O\'er a frame.

208

208.

d

NEW KINGDOM EGYPTIAN BAGGAG E

In enemy territory Egyptian armies constructed marching camps surrounded by a palisade of shields. The entrances we re closed by large grid-like gates and guarded by sentries with staves. Chariots and ox-carts (208 a-c) were parked in special areas, and the Pharaoh's large pre-fabricated tent was set up in ils own enclosure in the centre of the camp. It included a throne dais, shrine and folding campaign furniture. 20Bd is a pack-donkey. The soldiers pitched small, rectangular-plan, round-topped lents which probably served a small group of men. Equipment and packs we re stacked at the enlrance of the tent. Camp followers included artisans 10 repair chariots, boys who carried OUI menial tasks for the soldiers and no doubt numerous women. In faci some female members of Ramesses' household had to be instructed to keep clear of the fighting by the vizier, when Ihe Amun camp was attacked at Kadesh. 201

209.

ASSYRIAN CAMP AND BAGGAGE

Assyrian camps depicted in relief" are shown 10 be:: fortified. They were 0 \ '31 in sh3pe wilh lowers al regular intervals. These camps firs! appured during Ihe reign of Ashurnasirpal, when Ihey were divided imo quarters by cr05s· ro~ds. By the time of Senn~cherib Ihere is only one road running Ihrough Ihe cenlre of the camp. It is probable that thest camps were n01 buill every nighl, but as a secure bast for a whole campaign. The ClImp w~s probably buill of mud· brick for the lower p~n ofJhe wall, with wooden upper·works and b~l11ements. It was possibly surrounded by a ditch. The reliefs show the interior of the tamp laken up by twO types of tent, and baggage animals and equipment. The ordinary soldiers' and officers' lents resemble Ihose oflhe Bedoui n (modern and ~ncient), being open fronted to altch the cool brec-zes, the side walls kepI up by guy ropes, helped by a three-branched internal support, CUt from a nec-. This type is shown in 209a. The scene inside is shown in gre~t detail in the reliefs. Jars and pots hang from the tent-poles, often also a double·yoke fo r ~ cart, and a donkey pannier. Officers had proper beds and more equipment than do the 'mher-ranks', who make do with mattrnses. only. In both ClIse5 each native Assyrian is shown with one or more attendants (grooms, kitchen servants), who, in the case of 'other ranks ' at least, would be a soldie r of a lowe r grade (an auxiliary or levy archer). The king's tent is different from the olhe rs. It is mostly hidden by a canyas screen around ii, but the visible top

shows [I 10 have had an open stction in Ihe roof for lighl (209b).

209

c 202

It is possible ttJ.at one tent was provided for each live-or ten·man section in the Royal Army, the lower status levies having to make-do without. The tentS and equipment were carried on the backs of mules, donkeys and camels, attended by dril'ers (209c). The bulkiest items were loaded OntO cans.

210

210.

ASSYRIAN SACRED CHARIOT

Like many Near·Eastern arm ies, the Assyrians carried images of their gods into battle in the form of military standards. These pro\·ided a rallying point and source of encouragement for the noops, and the practice is attested for the Mitanni, Kassites, Egyptian s, HinittS, Sumerians and Akkadians as well lIS Assyrians. It was also common practice to mount such standards in chariOI5 of their ow n and use them to lead sections of the army on the march. The Assyrians regarded their chid god, Ashur, lIS a prolttlor oflheir army and the state, and belie:ved Ihaltheir mili tary conquests were ca rried OUt according to his will. The Mitanni and H ittites thought in a similar manner and also regarded wa r between opposing cou nnies lIS a kind of lawsuit, in wh ich the gods were the judges. This chariot is one of a pair of religious chariots depicted in a relief dating 10 the reign of5f:nnacherib. It is shown unharnessed in the camp. attended by priests. The dix mounted upon the pole bore the image of the god. Only the rare and va luable white horses were considered suitable for the se:rvice: of the gods. Assyrian texIS sometimes mention a great number of gods accompanying the army incl uding; Ashur, Sin, Shamash, Adad, Bel, Nabu,lshtar of Nineveh, Queen of Kidm uki, Ishtar of Arbela, Ninuna, Urgal and Nusku. Perhaps these refe r to unit standards lIS well, or standards accompanying wings and larger formations within the army. Armies ....'efC olien accompanied by priests who considered the omens before campaigns and battles were commenced.

SELECT BmLlOGRAPHY The following works are some of the most useful for study of the warfare of the ancient Near East. Howe\·er it is far from exhaustive and reade rs who wish to pursue the subjttl funher are advised to consult lhe bibliographies of these works also. ADAMS, W. Y. Nllbia, Corridor ro Afrim . 1977. ANDE RSON, J. K . Ancitnl Grllk Horu manslrip. Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1961. ANDRAE, W. CDlouud Cuamit:s f rom A slrur and Earlitr Ancirnt A ssyrian ]flail· Paintings. London, 1925. Alugrabllngtn in St ndSt:lrirll: V. Djt Kltinfllndt W II St ndst:lrirli. Berlin, 1943. HAINES, J. and ,\1ALEK, J. Atlas of Anotnt Egypt. Oxford, 1980. BARNETT, R. D . and FORMAN, W. Auyrjan Palau Relit/! alld Tnl'ir injlutnCl' on tlrt ScJllpturtl of Babylollia IJnd PtrJia. PI1Igue, 1959. 203

BARNETI, R. D. and FAULKNER, M. The SculptllrtJ of Tiglarh·Pileser Ill. London, 1962. BARNETI, R. D. North Syrian and Related Harness Decoration, Vordero{lsiatische Arcllaologie. Festschrift A. Moortgat (ed. BITIEL K., el al). Berlin p. 21·6. A Catalogue of the Nimrud Ivoriu, with other examples of Ancient Ncar Eastern Ivories in the British Museum. 2nd cd. London, 1975. Sculptures from the Nor/h Palau of Ashurbanipal at Nillnith. London, 1976. BIETAK, M. Avaris alld Piramesse, Archaeological Exploration ill the East"" Nile Delta. Oxford, 1979. BLEGEN et al. The Palau of Nmor at Pylas /·/11. 1973. BOEHMER, R. Die Klein/umle WII Bogazko;rHattusna. Wisscnschafiliche Veroffendichlungen der deutschen Orient· Gescllschaft 87. Berlin, 1972. BOTIA, P. E. and FLANDIN, M. E. MonlimentS de Nim.'wh: decouvert et decrit par M.P.E. Botta; mesure et dessine par M. E. F1andin. 5 Vo1s. Paris, 1849·50. BREASTED, 1. H. The Baule of Kaderh. Univ. of Chicago Decennial Publications 5,1903. Ancient R ecords of Egypt I-IV. Chicago, 1906. BRINKMAN, j. A. A Political History of Post·Kassite Babylonia. An. Or. 43. BUDGE, E. A. W. Assyrian Seulplum in the British Museum: Reig" of Ashur,"asir.pal, 885·860 B.e. London, [914. BUREN, E. D. van. Symboh of rhe gods in Mesopofamian aTi. Rome, 1945. BURNE, A. H. Some Notes on the Battle of Kadesh. JouTllal of EgyplJan Archaeology 7, 1921. CANBY, 1. V. Decorated Garments in Ashurnasirpal's Sculpture. Iraq 33(1) 1971 , pp. 3 1·53. CARTER, H. and MACE, A. C. The tomb of Tuto{lllkho{lmen 1. London, 1923. CARTER, H. Thr lomb of Tut~nkh~men II. London, 1927. CHAMPOLLIO N. MOllumentt de l'Egypu et de la Nubie Ill. Paris, 1829. CURTIS, 1. E. An examinatioll of Late Asryrian mtfolwork with special refi'TrnCi' 10 maurialfrom Nimrod. Unpublished Thesis, Univ. of London, 1979. CURTO, S. The Military Art of the Allciellt Egyptians. DALTON, O. M. The Treasure of the OXIIS. 3rd ed. London, 1964 . DARESSY, M. G. Fouilla de 10 oollee des rois, 1898-99. Cairo, 1902. DAVIES, N. de G. The Rock Tombs of El Amarna i·vi. London, 19{)3-o8. The Rock Tombs of Deir el Gebrawi i·ii. London, 1902. DAVIES, N. de G. The Tomb of Ken·Amun a/ Thebes, two parts. New York, 1930. DAVIES, T . M . The Tomb of louiya and Touiyou. London, 1907. DAVIES, W. V. The Origin of the Blue Crown. Journal of Egypllall Archaeology 68, 1982. DESBOROUGH, V. R. d'A. The Lan Mycenaeans and fheir Sua:;mors 1200-1000 Be. Oxford, 1964. DUNHAM, D. The Royal Cemeteries of Kush: EI Kurru. Cambridge (Mass.), 1950. DYSON, R. H., Jr. The Architecture of Hasanlu; Periods I to IV, American Journal of Archaeology. 81, 1977 pp. 548·52. ELA T, M. The Campaigns ofShaimaneser III against Aram and Israel,lmul Explorafioll Journal 25, 1975, pp. 25·35. ELLIS, R. A Note on some Ancient Near Eastern Linchpins, Berytus 16, 1966, pp. 41·8. EMERY, W. B. Egypt in Nubia. London, 1965. Archaic Egypt. Harmondswonh, 196 1. ERMAN, A. L'fe in Anciem Egypf. 1895. The Litera/ure af the Anclem Egyptians. London, 1927. FAULKNER, R. O. The Battle of Kadesh. MDAIK 16, 1958, pp. 93·111 Egyptian Military Standards. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 39, 1953. Egyptian Standards. JouTllal Df Egypllan Art:haeology 27, 1941. FINKELSTEIN, J. J. Cuneiform Texts from Tell Billa, Journal of Cliliei/orm Studies, 7(1), 1953 pp. 111·176. FRANKFORT, H. The Art and Archiucture of the Ancient Orient. Harmondsworth, 1970. FLOOKER, J. T. Mycenaean Greece. 1977. FRANKEL, D. F. Tht Ancient Kingdom of Urartu. London, 1979. GADD, C. J. The Stones of Asryria. London, 1936. GARDENER, A. H. The Kadesh /liscriptions of Ramesm II. Oxford, 1960. GARSTANG, J. and GURNEY, O. R. The Geography of fhe Hittite Empire. London, 1959. GELB, I. J. Hurrians and Subarians. Chicago, 1944. GHIRSHMAN, R. Fouilles de Sialk pres de Kashan. 2 Vols. Paris, 1939. The a rn of Ancient Iran from in Origins to Ihe lillie of Alexander Ihe Great. New York, 1964. Deux oeillieres en bronze des rois d'Uraflu, Arlibus A siae 27, 1964, pp. 49·60. GjERSTADT, E. The S wtdish Cyprus Expedilioll, 11. Stockholm, 1935. GORDON, C. H. Ugaritic Literature. Rome, 1949. GOEDICKE, H. The Battle of Kadesh. Journal of Egyplian Archaeology 58, 1972. GOETZE, A. Warfare in Ancient Minor, Iraq 25, 1963.

204

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TALLIS, N. C. The Design 0/ Nro.Assyriali Horse Hamus and Chariotsdrm'lIg the Ninth Ce,rtUry B. C. Unpublished M.A. Thesis. Birmingham, 1982. TATTON·BROWN, V. ed. Cyprus BC, 7000 Years 0/ History. London, 1979. THOMPSON, R. CAMPBELL and HUTC H1NSON, R. W. A Century 0/ Exploration in Nil/twh. London, 1929. The Sit(' ofth(, Palace of Ashurnasirpal at Ninev('h, ('xcavated in 1929-30 on be'half of the British Museum. Annals 0/ Ar(hatology and Anthropology, University of Liverpool 18, 1931, pp. 79-112. THUREAU-DANGIN, F. Unt rllation de fa huiriemerompagrredtSargon (7 14 avo J. -C.) T~tes cuneiforrnes, Louvre III. Paris, 191 2. et al. Anlan Tash. Paris, 1931. and DUNAND, M. Til Barsip. 2 Vols. Paris, 1936. TRIGGER, B. G. Nubia Under the Pharaoh London, 1976. UNGER, E. Die Wicderherstellung des Bronzetores von Balawat, MilleilulIgmdtJ dnlfSfhm Ardlaologisrhm lnstituts, Alhenische ableilung, 45, 1920, pp. I-IDS. Der Obelisk des Konigs Auurnasirpall aus Niniw. Leipzig, 1932. VENTRIS, M. and CHADWICK, J. Documtnts in MJI'enaean Greek. 2nd ed. Cambridge, 1973. WAINWRIGHT, G. A. Some Sea Peoples. Journal 0/ Neor Eastern Studrts 41, 1961. WHEELER, M. The Indus Civilisation. , 1953. WOLFF, D. M. Ein hiSlOrischcr Wagentyp im Fddheer Sanheribs,Arrhiv/ur On"mt/orschung II, 1936, pp. 231-4. and OPITZ, S. Jagd zu pferde in der ahorientalischen und k1assischen Kunst, Ar,hiv fur Oriell1/0rKhung 10, 1935, pp. 317·59. WOOLLEY, C. L. and LAWRENCE, T. E. Charchem ish 1·111. O)[ford, 1914. Ur E)[cav3tions II. Tht Royal Cemttery. O)[ford, 1934. W1LKINSON, J. G. Manl/tTs and Cuuoms 0/ the Ancient Egyptians. London, 1878. XENOPHON, Allabasis. Cyropatdia. Jlellenica. YADIN, Y. The Art 0/ War/are in Biblical Lands in the Light 0/ Archatological DiKOWry. London, 1963. YEIVIN, S. Canaanite and Hittite Strategy. Joumal 0/ N ear Eastern Srudits 9, 1950. YOUNG, R. S. The 1961 Campaign al Gordion, AmtTican Journal 0/ Archatology 66, 1962, pp. 153-68. YOYOTTE, J. and LOPEZ, J. L'Organisalion de l'Armee au Nouvd Empire Egyplien. Bib. Or. 1/2, 1969. ZACCAGNINI, C. The Rural Landscape 0/ th~ Land 0/ ATTaphe. Rome, 1979.

In addition much useful information on military matlers may be' found in the revised edition of the Cambn"dge Ancr"etrt Hisrory I-IV, 3rd ed., Cambridge, 1970-.

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