Applied Aspects of Optical Communication and LIDAR

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Applied Aspects of Optical Communication and LIDAR

OTHER TELECOMMUNICATIONS BOOKS FROM AUERBACH Broadband Mobile Multimedia: Techniques and Applications Yan Zhang, Shiwen Mao, Laurence T. Yang, and Thomas M Chen ISBN: 978-1-4200-5184-1

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Millimeter Wave Technology in Wireless PAN, LAN, and MAN Shao-Qiu Xiao and Ming-Tuo Zhou ISBN: 978-0-8493-8227-7

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Rebecca Copeland ISBN: 978-0-8493-9250-4 Cooperative Wireless Communications Yan Zhang, Hsiao-Hwa Chen, and Mohsen Guizani ISBN: 978-1-4200-6469-8 Data Scheduling and Transmission Strategies in Asymmetric Telecommunication Environments Abhishek Roy and Navrati Saxena ISBN: 978-1-4200-4655-7 Encyclopedia of Wireless and Mobile Communications Borko Furht ISBN: 978-1-4200-4326-6 IMS: A New Model for Blending Applications Mark Wuthnow, Jerry Shih, and Matthew Stafford ISBN: 978-1-4200-9285-1 The Internet of Things: From RFID to the Next-Generation Pervasive Networked Systems Lu Yan, Yan Zhang, Laurence T. Yang, and Huansheng Ning ISBN: 978-1-4200-5281-7 Introduction to Communications Technologies: A Guide for Non-Engineers, Second Edition Stephan Jones, Ron Kovac, and Frank M. Groom ISBN: 978-1-4200-4684-7 Long Term Evolution: 3GPP LTE Radio and Cellular Technology Borko Furht and Syed A. Ahson ISBN: 978-1-4200-7210-5

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Yan Zhang, Laurence T. Yang, and Jianhua Ma ISBN: 978-1-4200-5537-5 Value-Added Services for Next Generation Networks Thierry Van de Velde ISBN: 978-0-8493-7318-3 Vehicular Networks: Techniques, Standards, and Applications Hassnaa Moustafa and Yan Zhang ISBN: 978-1-4200-8571-6 WiMAX Network Planning and Optimization Yan Zhang ISBN: 978-1-4200-6662-3 Wireless Quality of Service: Techniques, Standards, and Applications Maode Ma and Mieso K. Denko ISBN: 978-1-4200-5130-8

AUERBACH PUBLICATIONS www.auerbach-publications.com 5P0SEFS$BMMr'BY E-mail: [email protected]

Applied Aspects of Optical Communication and LIDAR

Nathan Blaunstein Shlomi Arnon Arkadi Zilberman Natan Kopeika

Auerbach Publications Taylor & Francis Group 6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300 Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742 © 2010 by Taylor and Francis Group, LLC Auerbach Publications is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business No claim to original U.S. Government works Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 International Standard Book Number: 978-1-4200-9040-6 (Hardback) This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint. Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the publishers. For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright. com (http://www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged. Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Applied aspects of optical communication and LIDAR / authors, Nathan Blaunstein … [et al.]. p. cm. “A CRC title.” Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4200-9040-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Free space optical interconnects. 2. Optical communications. 3. Optical radar. 4. Light--Transmission. 5. Meteorological optics. I. Blaunstein, Nathan. II. Title. TK5103.592.F73A67 2010 621.382’7--dc22 Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the Auerbach Web site at http://www.auerbach-publications.com

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A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

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A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

Particulate Size Distribution

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Energy transfer (inertial sub-range)

Energy injection

~K–5/3 l0 Km~1/l0 Energy dissipation

L0 K0~1/L0

Figure 1.4 Schematic description of turbulent cascade process. K is the spatial wavenumber K _ 1/L; L is the eddy size.

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–14.5 –15 –15.5 –16 –16.5 –17 –17.5 10–2

10–1

100 Height, km

101

102

Figure 1.5 H-V 5/7 (dashed) and Middle East (solid) turbulence strength ( (h) vertical proﬁle models.

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29

AT M O S P H E RE

K0

Km

KB

Figure 1.6 Schematic dependence of the 1D power spectrum vs. wave vector for different turbulence models. Here K0 corresponds to the boundary between large scales and the inertial interval, Km is between the inertial interval and Batchelor’s interval [94], and KB is between the Batchelor and diffusion intervals. The numbers represent a in Equation 1.43. (From A. Zilberman, E. Golbraikh, and N. S. Kopeika, “Lidar studies of aerosols and non-Kolmogorov turbulence in the Mediterranean troposphere,” Proc. SPIE, vol. 5987, pp. 15–26, 2005. With Permission.)

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30

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Power Law Exponents for Different Turbulence Models (Inertial Interval) VELOCITY FIELD

p

D(r) _ r F1D(K) _ K–a

PASSIVE SCALAR FIELD

KOLMOGOROV

HELICAL

KOLMOGOROV

HELICAL

p 2/3 a 5/3

p 4/3 a 7/3

p 2/3 a 5/3

p 1/3 a 4/3

Note: F1D(K) is the 1D spectrum.

AT M O S P H E RE

31

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32

A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

4.5 4 3.5 3 α 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5 5 Height, km

5.5

6

6.5

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Figure 1.7 Changes in spectral exponent a (1D spectrum) with altitude [100]; 30 m altitude resolution.

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O P TI C A L WAV E P R O PA G ATI O N IN T H E AT M O S P H E RE

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C2n Values for a Typical Summer Day 5

C2n (m–2/3) (Times 10E–14)

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24

Figure 2.7 C 2n values for a typical summer day as determined from He-Ne beam-of-arrival ﬂuctuations. (From N. S. Kopeika, A System Engineering Approach to Imaging, SPIE Optical Engineering Press, Bellingham, WA, 1998. With Permission.)

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90

A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

10–12 Measured

C2n [m–2/3]

Predicted 10

–13

10–14

10–15 3:00

9:00

15:00 Hours

21:00

3:00

BC 10–13 Measured

C2n [m–2/3]

Predicted 10–14

10–15

10–16 3:00

9:00

15:00 Hours

21:00

3:00

BC

Figure 2.10 Comparison between measured and “practical” modeled average C 2n values: (a) Golan and (b) Negev experiments. (From S. N. Bendersky, N. Kopeika, and N. Blaunstein, “Atmospheric optical turbulence over land in middle east coastal environments: Prediction modeling and measurements,” Applied Optics, vol. 43, pp. 4070–4079, 2004. With Permission.)

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91

O P TI C A L WAV E P R O PA G ATI O N IN T H E AT M O S P H E RE

10–11

Measured data Macroscale model MOS model

C2n [m–2/3]

10–12 10–13

Golan

10–14 Negev 10–15 10–16 30

40

50

60 70 Relative Humidity [%]

80

90

100

BC 10–11

Measured data Macroscale model MOS model

10–12 C2n [m–2/3]

Golan 10–13 Negev

10–14 10–15 10–16

0

3

6

9 12 Wind Speed [m/s]

15

18

BC

Figure 2.11 Comparison between measured and modeled C2n values versus (a) relative humidity and (b) wind speed data. (From S. N. Bendersky, N. Kopeika, and N. Blaunstein, “Atmospheric optical turbulence over land in middle east coastal environments: Prediction modeling and measurements,” Applied Optics, vol. 43, pp. 4070–4079, 2004. With Permission.)

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95

O P TI C A L WAV E P R O PA G ATI O N IN T H E AT M O S P H E RE

C2n [m–2/3]

10–12

Measured data Macroscale model Extension macroscale model

10–13 Golan –14

10

10–15 90

92

94 96 Relative Humidity [%]

98

100

BC 10–12

Measured data Macroscale model Extension macroscale model

C2n [m–2/3]

Golan 10–13

Negev

10–14

10–15

8

10

12 14 Wind Speed [m/s]

16

18

BC

Figure 2.12 Comparison between measured and modeled C 2n values versus: (a) relative humidity data for Golan coastal zone, normalized to U = 8 m/s and T = 20°C, and (b) wind speed data for both Negev and Golan coastal zone, normalized to RH = 40% and T = 20°C. (From S. N. Bendersky, N. Kopeika, and N. Blaunstein, “Atmospheric optical turbulence over land in middle east coastal environments: Prediction modeling and measurements,” Applied Optics, vol. 43, pp. 4070–4079, 2004. With Permission.)

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96

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O P TI C A L WAV E P R O PA G ATI O N IN T H E AT M O S P H E RE

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12 0

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12 2

A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

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A PPLIED A SPECTS

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12 4

A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

Output optics

Laser probe beam

Laser

Detectors Backscattered radiation Telescope

Data acquisition

Figure 3.1

Computer

Schematic overview of a lidar system.

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Backscattered light

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Jitter sensor Telescope PC Delay generator ICCD camera

Figure 3.3 Imaging lidar system setup, off-axis monostatic conﬁguration. ICCD = intensiﬁed charge-coupled device. (From A. Zilberman and N. S. Kopeika, “Laser beam wander in the atmosphere: Implications for optical turbulence vertical proﬁle sensing with imaging LIDAR,” J. Appl. Remote Sensing, vol. 2, 023540, 1 January 2008. With Permission.)

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Normal Probability Plot

Probability

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Figure 3.8 Thresholding of the image intensity distribution of lidar-received signal averaged along one axis, IX [42]; SNR 16 dB; (a) before thresholding, (b) after thresholding. Dashed line corresponds to the median level of mean intensity distribution.

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A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

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Figure 3.11 Retrieved C n2 proﬁles for two nights — 27 August 2003 (solid line) and 28 August 2003 (dotted line), 11:30 p.m.–1:00 a.m. local time — and proﬁles calculated from models: the AFGL CLEAR I night model (dash-dot) for the New Mexico desert in summer; modiﬁed version of the HV model that is typical for Mauna Kea, Hawaii [31] (dots); the HV-21 model that is valid in Albuquerque, New Mexico (dash). (From A. Zilberman and N. S. Kopeika, “Aerosol and turbulence characterization at different heights in semi-arid region,” in Atmospheric Optical Modeling, Measurement, and Simulation, Proc. SPIE, no. 5891, pp. 129–140, 2005. With Permission.)

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A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F LID A R

151

Power Spectrum, W(z,f )

100

10–1

10–2

10–3 10–2

10–1 f [Hz] (a)

Power Spectrum, W(z,f )

10

0

10–1

10–2

10–3

10–4 10–2

10–1 f [Hz] (b)

Power Spectrum, W(z,f )

100 10–1 10–2 10–3 10–4 10–2

10–1 f [Hz] (c)

Figure 3.13 Power spectrum, W(z, f), of the intensity ﬂuctuations of a lidar signal for various altitudes, z: (a) –2.27 km; (b) –3.02 km; (c) –4.07 km; (d) –6.7 km. The solid line in each graph corresponds to a = 5/3. (From A. Zilberman, E. Golbraikh, N. S. Kopeika, A. Virtser, I. Kupershmidt, and Y. Shtemler, “Lidar study of aerosol turbulence characteristics in the troposphere: Kolmogorov and non-Kolmogorov turbulence,” Atmos. Res., vol. 88, pp. 66–77, 2008. With Permission.)

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A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

Power Spectrum, W(z,f )

100

10–1

10–2

10–3 10–2

10–1 f [Hz] (d)

Figure 3.13

(Continued )

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Height, km

5 4 3 2 1 0

0

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4

6 Wind Speed, m/s

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12

Figure 3.14 Wind velocity proﬁle used in calculations. (From A. Zilberman, E. Golbraikh, N. S. Kopeika, A. Virtser, I. Kupershmidt, and Y. Shtemler, “Lidar study of aerosol turbulence characteristics in the troposphere: Kolmogorov and non-Kolmogorov turbulence,” Atmos. Res., vol. 88, pp. 66–77, 2008. With Permission.)

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4

γ = 2.35 + 0.051h

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2

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Height, km

Figure 3.15 Changes in spectral exponent a with altitude for frequency interval of 0.04 Hz ≤ f ≤ 0.1 Hz; 30 m altitude resolution. (From A. Zilberman, E. Golbraikh, N. S. Kopeika, A. Virtser, I. Kupershmidt, and Y. Shtemler, “Lidar study of aerosol turbulence characteristics in the troposphere: Kolmogorov and nonKolmogorov turbulence,” Atmos. Res., vol. 88, pp. 66–77, 2008. With Permission.)

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)*.#&5 ."#%(--65 .')-*",#5 .,(-'#--#)(65 .')-*",#5 )/(,35 &3,5"#!".65(55(55.,'#(8 The -*.,&5#-.,#/.#)(5) 5."5%-..,5(52.#(.#)(5)ﬃ7 #(.-5#-5-.,)(!&35#(ﬂ/(535."5*,.#&5-#45#-.,#/.#)(5B+/.#)(-5 g8hh5(5g8hiC65-)5.".535/-#(!5&#,5.5'),5."(5)(510&(!."65)(5 (5).#(5#( ),'.#)(5)/.5."585The /(.#)(5al5B+/.#)(5 g8hhC5#-5'-/,5#(5."52*,#'(.5B+/.#)(5i8iiC65 , h2.5#-5."5 %,(&5 B1"#"5 (5 5 &/&.5 /-#(!5 #-)']-5 #'*,)05 #5 -..,#(!5&!),#."'5DolEC65(5B,C5#-5."5/(%()1(5 /(.#)(8 The ﬀ.#05,#/-5,(!5.".5(55,.,#05 ,)'5."5'-/,5 2.#(.#)(5)ﬃ#(.-5.510&(!."-5) 5ikk65kih65(5gflj5('5B),7 ,-*)(#(!5.)55&#,5-3-.'51#."595&-,C5#-5)/.5 ,)'5f8fn5 .)5g8h5'65(5)0,-5."5/'/&.#)(5')5) 5.')-*",#5,)7 -)&5*,.#&-85Th#-5*,.#&5-#45,(!5#-50,35ﬀ.#05 ),5-..,#(!5) 5 ,#.#)(5.5/&.,0#)&.5BC650#-#&65(5#( ,,5B C510&(!."-85 .5-")/&55().5.".5."5ﬀ.5) 50,#.#)(-5) 5."5, ,.#05#(25 ) 5*,.#&-5)(5."5#-.,#/.#)(5-"*5#-5-'&&5#(5."5-#45,(!5'(7 .#)(5*,0#)/-&38 The '#(5#ﬃ/&.35#(5,.,#0#(!5."5*,.#&5-#45#-.,#/.#)(5 ,)'5 '-/,'(.-5 ) 5 &#!".5 2.#(.#)(5 .5 -0,&5 10&(!."-5 &#-5 #(5 ."5 -)&/.#)(5) 5."5,")&'5#(.!,&5+/.#)(5) 5."5ﬁ,-.5%#(5B+/.#)(5 g8hhC85 (5*,.#65."#-5-)7&&5#&&7*)-5*,)&'5#(0,#&35&-5.)5 5"#!"&35/(-.&5-)&/.#)(5/-50(5,#.,,#&35-'&&5()#-5)'7 *)((.-5 #(5 ."5 '-/,5 +/(.#.#-5 (5 !#05 ,#-5 .)5 2.,'&35 &,!5 -*/,#)/-5)-#&&.#)(-5#(5."5-)&/.#)(8 The 5 ),5 #ﬀ,(.5 &.#./-5 (5 5 ,.,#05 ,)'5 '-/,5 2.#(.#)(5 *,)ﬁ&-5 /-#(!5 ."5 -/#.&5 #(0,-#)(5 '.")5 Djn@kl65 omE85 )'52'*&-5) 5*,.#&5-#45#-.,#/.#)(-5.5#ﬀ,(.5&.#./-5-5 1&&5-5&#,7,#050,.#&5*,)ﬁ&-5) 5*,.#&5)((.,.#)(-5B(/'7 ,5(50)&/'C5,5-")1(5#(5#!/,-5i8gl@i8gn85#!/,5i8gl5-")1-5 50,.#&5*,)ﬁ&5) 5(/',5BC5(50)&/'5BC5)((.,.#)(5,#05 ,)'5."5&#,5.5)(5gj5 /(5hffj5B,7"065 -,&C5Djh65koE85 (5 #!/,5i8gm65(/',5)((.,.#)(-5-55 /(.#)(5) 5&.#./5,.,#05 ,)'5&#,5'-/,'(.-5)(5hg5 /(5hffj5,5-")1(5(5)'*,5 1#."5."5 5^&,_5(5^"43_5.')-*",#5')&5Don65ooE8 ,)ﬁ&-5-")15#(,-5,)-)&52.#(.#)(5#(5."5'#7.,)*)-*",5 (5 ,&.#0&35 ."#%5 &3,-5 .5 &.#./-5 .1(5 g5 (5 l5 %'85 The-5 ,5 -)'1".5 .3*#&5 ),5 -,.5 /-.5 (5 ,5 ,&.5 .)5 ."5 /-.5

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8 7 6

Height, km

5 4 3 2 1 0

0

500

1000 1500 Number Concentration, [cm–3]

2000

2500

(a) 8 7 6

Height, km

5 4 3 2 1 0

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

Volume Concentration, [cm3 cm–3]

1.2

1.4 ×10–11

(b)

Figure 3.16 Number (a) and volume (b) concentration versus. altitude retrieved from lidar measurements on 14 June 2004 in Beer-Sheva (Israel) at 9:30 p.m. (local time) (From A. Zilberman and N. S. Kopeika, “Aerosol and turbulence characterization at different heights in semi-arid region,” in Atmospheric Optical Modeling, Measurement, and Simulation, Proc. SPIE, no. 5891, pp. 129–140, 2005. With Permission.)

16 0

A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N 9 8 7 AFGL “clear”

Height, km

6 AFGL “hazy” 5 4 3 LIDAR

2 1 0 100

101

102

103

104

Number Concentration, [cm–3]

Figure 3.17 Number concentration versus altitude (solid) retrieved from lidar measurements on 21 June 2004 in Beer-Sheva (Israel) at 9:30 p.m. (local time) and compared with the AFGL “clear” (dot) and “hazy” (dash-dot) atmospheric model. (From A. Zilberman and N. S. Kopeika, “Aerosol and turbulence characterization at different heights in semi-arid region,” in Atmospheric Optical Modeling, Measurement, and Simulation, Proc. SPIE, no. 5891, pp. 129–140, 2005. With Permission.) 8

×10–14 1.5 km Altitude

7

02.03.05

dV/dlog(r), [cm3 cm–3]

6 5 14.06.04 4 3 2 1 0 10–2

21.06.04

10–1

100

Radius, [μm]

Figure 3.18 Lidar-measured aerosol volume size distribution at 1.5 km altitude for different days: 2 March 2005 (long dash); 14 June 2004 (short dash); 21 June 2004 (solid). (From A. Zilberman and N. S. Kopeika, “Aerosol and turbulence characterization at different heights in semi-arid region,” in Atmospheric Optical Modeling, Measurement, and Simulation, Proc. SPIE, no. 5891, pp. 129–140, 2005. With Permission.)

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161

')#.#)(5*,)--5(5.)5."5-.,)(!5)(0.#05.#0#.35)/,,#(!5 )0,5-,.5,-65'#(&35.5&)15&.#./-8 #!/,5 i8gn5 -")1-5 (5 2'*&5 ) 5 ."5 &#,7,#05 ,)-)&5 0)&/'5 )((.,.#)(5-55 /(.#)(5) 5*,.#&5-#45 ),5#ﬀ,(.53-5#(5 ,"5 hffk5(5 /(5hffj85The ,-/&.-5) 5&)(!7.#'5)-,0.#)(-5)0,5#ﬀ,(.5 *&-5-")15.".5.,)*)-*",#5,)-)&5&3,-5**,5,)/(5.'*,7 ./,5#(0,-#)(5.5"#!".-5g8k@i5%'65k@m5%'65(5')-.&35#(5."5.,)*)7 */-5,!#)(65_o@gf5%'85-5'(.#)(5*,0#)/-&365.",5#-55)/(,35 .1(5(,7-/, 5,)-)&-5(5.,)*)-*",#5,)-)&-5.5"#!".-5)/.5 f8k@g5%'85)05."#-5)/(,3655,/.#)(5) 5(/',5)((.,.#)(5 ) 5/'/&.#)(5')5 ,.#)(5-51&&5-5),-5')5(55)-,085 )10,65."5)((.,.#)(5(5#(,-5# 55.'*,./,5#(0,-#)(5.5 ."5)/(,35) 55'#2#(!5./,/&(.5&3,5Bg8k@h8k5%'C52#-.-8

-/,'(.-5(,5!,)/(5B-/, 5&3,65/*5.)5if5'C5-")15.".5 .",5#-5),,&.#)(5.1(5"(!-5#(5./,/&(5-.,(!."5(5,)7 -)&5)((.,.#)(50&/-5DgffE85 .51-5)-,05.".5#(,-5,)-)&5 )((.,.#)(5&-5.)5#(,--5#(5./,/&(5-.,(!."85*(#(!5)(5 1#(5-*65."#-5'3555,-/&.5) 5#.#)(&51,'#(!5) 5'#(.5#,5 #(5,)-)&5&3,-5/5.)5."5#(,-5,)-)&5-),*.#)(5) 5,#.#)(8 Th5 ,-/&.-5 ) 5 &)!(),'&7ﬁ..5 0,!5 -#45 #-.,#/.#)(-5 ,.,#05 ,)'5&#,5'-/,'(.-5,5!#0(5#(5#!/,5i8go651"#"5-")1-5#ﬀ,(.5 ')&-5 ),5)'*,#-)(85 (5#!/,5i8go65^",0_5#-5."5('5) 5."5&)&5 #,5-.,'5B),5&)&51#(C5.".5**,-5 ,)'5."5",5&)(!5 ,#]-5 "5,)--5!3*.5(5#(#85 .5#-5",.,#45355-*#ﬁ5#-.,#/7 .#)(5) 5.')-*",#5*,--/,65 -.5"(!5#(51#(5#,.#)(65-",*5,#-5#(5 .'*,./,5B-)'.#'-5gh@gkp5#(5gf@gh5":5#8865'),5."(5gpO"@gC65 (5+/#%5 &&5#(5,&.#05"/'##.35B/*5.)5gf@hfzC5DgfgE85 .5(5#(0)&05 1#(-51#."55-/, 50&)#.35) 5_if@kf5%'I"5(5/-.5-.),'-8 &71),&5 -5 #(0)&05 ,)-)&5 .,(-*),.5 35 1#(-5 )0,5 &,!5 #-.(-65-)5.".5./&5,)-)&5*)*/&.#)(-5) .(5,#05 ,)'5#ﬀ,7 (.5-)/,-85Th#-5'%-5#.5#ﬃ/&.5 ),5')&-5.)5),,&.51&&51#."5 5 "#!"5 !,5 ) 5 *,#.#&#.35 /-5 #ﬀ,(.5 ,)-)&5 .3*-5 -/"5 -5',#(65)(.#((.&65-,.65.865'35#(ﬂ/(5-#'/&.()/-&35."5 '-/,'(.-5#(55!#0(5&).#)(8 .5 *,-(.65 )(&35 -*,-5 &#,5 .5 )/.5 0,.#&5 #-.,#/.#)(5 ) 5 ,)-)&-5,50#&&85The-5.5*)#(.5)/.5-)'5#'*),.(.5 ./,-5 ) 5,)-)&I/-.50,.#&5*,)ﬁ&-85),52'*&65')()/5.5&85DgfhE5 (&345/-.5*&/'-5.,(-*),.5.)5."5 #.,,((535.1)5&#,5

16 2

A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

102 5 km Altitude

dN/dlog(r), [cm–3 μm–1]

100 10–2

Sharav

10–4 Haze 10–6 10–8 10–10 10–12 10–2

10–1

100

101

Radius, [μm]

Figure 3.19 Lidar-derived average ASD at 5 km altitude (solid lines) for haze and Sharav condition compared to models: MODTRAN, background tropospheric (dash-dot); AFGL (dot); mineral transported, MODTRAN (dash) [42].

-3-.'-5#(5#ﬀ,(.5*,.-5) 5."5 #.,,((85),#(!5.)5."-5 ,-,",-65."5.,(-*),.5/-.5)0,5."5 #.,,((5#-5)((7 .,.5'#(&35.5&.#./-5.1(5g8k5(5k5%'85The )-,05/-.5 .,(-*),.5#-5'/&.#&3,:5-0,&51&&7ﬁ(5&3,-51,5..5#(5 ."5 ,5.,)*)-*",8 (5 #.#)(65 ."5 )-,05 ,)-)&5 &3,-5 (5 5 )((.5 .)5 .')-*",#5./,/&(5&3,-5),5.)5"(!-5#(5."5./,/&(.5"07 #),5) 5#,5 ﬂ)1-85()1&!5)/.5*,.#/&.50,.#&5#-.,#/.#)(5 (5*,)0#5#.#)(&5#( ),'.#)(5,&.#(!5.)5."5.')-*",#5./,7 /&(e ﬁ&5B&.#./65-.,(!."65-*.,&5"0#),C65(50#50,-8

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A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F LID A R

16 3

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16 4

A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

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A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F LID A R

16 5

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16 6

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A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F LID A R

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16 8

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A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

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4

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17 2

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Factory

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Airport

Figure 4.1 A schematic illustration of an optical wireless communication network. (From D. Kedar and S. Arnon, “Urban optical wireless communication network: The main challenges and possible solutions,” IEEE Commun. Magazine, vol. 42, pp. S2–S7, 2004. With Permission.)

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O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N C H A N N E L S

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174

A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

Transmitter

E/O

Bits

Figure 4.2

Receiver

Channel

O/E

D.D

Bits

Optical wireless system scheme.

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Transmitter

Data in bits

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Modulator

Driver

The transmitter scheme.

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Optics

Light

O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N C H A N N E L S

17 5

Photons Scattering Absorption

Figure 4.4 The channel. (From H. Manor and S. Arnon, “Performance of an optical wireless communication system as a function of wavelength,” Appl. Opt., vol. 42, pp. 4285–4294, 2003. With Permission.)

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Receiver Filter

Clock Recovery

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Figure 4.5

Optics

Filter

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The receiver scheme. TIA transimpedance ampliﬁer.

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Receiver Data out bits Decision Device

17 6

A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

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O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N C H A N N E L S

17 7

Link Budget

100

Normalized Received Power

10–1 10–2 10–3 10–4 10–5 10–6 10–7 10–8 100

101

102

103

104

Distance Separation Between Transmitter and Receiver [m]

Figure 4.6

Normalized received power as a function of distance.

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Telescope Gain (Aperture radius 10 cm) 125

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100

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18 2

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10

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18 5

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18 9

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19 0

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Mapping Symbol to Laser Power

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O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N C H A N N E L S

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Multi-scattering environment

Cluster of sensor nodes Transmitting node Receiving nodes

Figure 4.14 Possible scenario; microsensors strewn ad hoc on the ground self-orientate to face vertically upward. Communication is achieved by virtue of backscatter from multi-scattering environment. (From D. Kedar and S. Arnon, “Non-line-of-sight optical wireless sensor network operating in multi scattering channel,” Appl. Opt., vol. 45, pp. 8454–8461, 2006. With Permission.)

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20

30

40

50

Spectral efﬁciency as a function of K factor.

K

C H A N N EL A N D SI G N A L D ATA PA R A M E T E RS

219

Cn

I

K

SNR

BER

C

C

Figure 5.3 The model ﬂow diagram. (From A. Tiker, N. Yarkoni, N. Blaunstein, A. Zilberman, and N. Kopeika, “Prediction of data stream parameters in atmospheric turbulent wireless communication links,” Appl. Opt., vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 190–199, 2007. With Permission.)

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8

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10 ×10–14

b 20 as a function of C n2 for different ranges of the channel.

B5&-)5,-/&.-5#-/--5#(5"*.,-5g5(5h8C5#!/,5k8j5-")1-5."5 *((5) 5."5./,/&(5*,'.,5b hf50,-/-5."5*,'.,5 h(65 -5)(5+/.#)(5k8gh65 ),5#ﬀ,(.5,(!-65 65) 5."5"((&8 -5(55-(5#(5#!/,5k8j65."5)..)'5/,05#-5 ),5."5,(!5) 5 gff5'5(5."5.)*5/,05#-5 ),5."5,(!5) 5mff5'85-/&.-5-")1(5#(5 #!/,5k8j5),,-*)(5.)5#ﬀ,(.5&0&-5) 5.')-*",#5./,/&(95 ,)'5 1%-.5 B.5 -'&&5 ,(!-C5 .)5 -.,)(!-.5 B.5 &,!5 ,(!-C85 The ()'#(&5 0&/-5 ) 5 ."5 , ,.#05 #(25 -.,/./,5 *,'.,5 /-5 #(5 )/,5)'*/..#)(5,5 ,)'5 h(5{5gf @gk5'@hIi5.)5 h(5{5gf @gi5'@hIi65),7 #(!5.)5 ,(-5hj5(5il651#."55'(50&/5) 5¡ h(°5{5gf @gk5'@hIi85 -5 )&&)1-5 ,)'5."5#&&/-.,.#)(5#(5#!/,5k8j65."5,.5) 5b hf5#(,-5 *(-5 )(5 "((&5 ,(!5 (5 #.5 #(,--5 '),5 ."(5 -0,&5 .#'-5 1"(5 5#(,--5 ,)'5gff5.)5mff5'5 ),5)(-.(.5 h(8 .5 ."5 -'5 .#'65 -5 )&&)1-5 ,)'5 #!/,5 k8k65 1",5 ."5 -'5 *((5#-5-")1(5 ),5#ﬀ,(.510&(!."-651#."5."5#(,-5) 5 ."5#(.(-#.35) 5./,/&(5-.,(!."5 ),5)(-.(.5"((&5,(!5 5(5 #ﬀ,(.510&(!."5l5 ,)'5f8g5.)5f8m5N'65b hf5#(,--5&#(,&385-5 &-)5 )&&)1-5 ,)'5#!/,5k8k651#."5."5#(,-5) 5."510&(!."5 ,)'5

C H A N N EL A N D SI G N A L D ATA PA R A M E T E RS

2 21

Figure 5.5

b 20 as a function of C 2n for different wavelengths; range L 1 km.

f8g5.)5f8m5N'5 ),55)(-.(.5&#(%5,(!5) 5 55g5%'65."5-#!(&5ﬂ/./7 .#)(5 #(265 b hf65 ,--5 -#!(#ﬁ(.&365 /-5 1#."5 ."5 #(,-5 ) 5 10&(!."5) 5)*.#&510-65."5ﬃ#(35) 5."5-..,#(!5ﬀ.5) 5 ,3-5)'-5(!&#!#&8 .5 #-5 #(.,-.#(!5 ()15 .)5 (&345 5 -5 5 /(.#)(5 ) 5 5 ,),5.5."5)*.#&5,#0,5B),5..),C85#!/,5k8l5-")1-5-.7 .,*&).-5 ) 5 ."5 2*.5 5 ,-/&.-5 0,-/-5 ."5 0&/-5 ) 5 65 ),#(!5 .)5 +/.#)(5 k8gj65 3#&5 ,)'5 ."5 2*,#'(.&5 '7 -/,'(.5 .5 .%(5 ,)'5 ,(-5 o5 (5 il85 The )..)'5 /,05 #(5 #!/,5 k8l5 ),,-*)(-5 .)5 ."5 1%-.5 &0&5 ) 5 .')-*",#5 ./,7 /&(65/-/&&35)-,05.5(#!"..#'85The /**,5/,05),,-*)(-5 .)53.#'5'-/,'(.-651"(5."5-.,)(!-.5&0&-5) 5.')-*",#5 ./,/&(51,5).#(85The ()'#(&50&/-5) 5."5, ,.#05#(25 -.,/./,5*,'.,5.5(#!"..#'5(53.#'51,5)/.5 h(5{5gf @gk5 '@hIi5(5 h(5{5gf @gi5'@hIi65,-*.#0&385The -"5/,0-5#(5#!/,5k8l5 ),,-*)(5.)5#(.,'#.5&0&-5) 5./,/&(65*&)..51#."5-.*-5) 5 $(h y i8k L gf gk '@hIi65 '-/,5 &)(!5 hj5 ")/,-5 B,!,&--5 ) 5 ."5 .#'5) 53C8

222

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10–1 Weak turbulence Strong turbulence 10–2

10–3

10–4

10–5

10–6 0

5

10

15

20

25

SNR, dB

Figure 5.6 Plots of the expected BER results versus values of SNR, yielded from experimental measurement data for a 3.76 km propagation path.

*)(5."5-'52*,#'(.&50&/-5) 5."5, ,.#05#(25-.,/7 ./,5 *,'.,-65 1"#"5 -,#5 .')-*",#5 ./,/&(65 #.#)(&5 0&/.#)(-5 ) 5 2*.5 5 0,-/-5 5 ),5 #ﬀ,(.5 *,)*!.#)(5 *."-5 1,5 '85 0&/.#)(5 ,-/&.-5 0)&05 ,)'5 **&3#(!5 +/.#)(5 k8gj5 ),5*,)*!.#)(5*."-5) 5k65h65(5f8k5%'65-")1(5#(5#!/,5k8m6565 (565,-*.#0&36535/-#(!52*,#'(.&5.5).#(5#(5 ,(-5 o5(5il8 -5-(5 ,)'5#!/,5k8m5(5).",-65(5#(,-5#(5*,)*!.#)(5#-7 .(5.1(5."5.,(-'#..,5(5."5,#0,5-3-.'-53#&-5(5#(,-5 #(52*.55,-/&.-5-52*.5 ,)'5&)(!,5*."-5.",)/!"85 (5#7 .#)(65!*-5.1(51%5(5-.,)(!5./,/&(5/,0-5)'5-'&&,8 5)'*,#-)(5) 55(55/,0-5)0,52.,'52*,#'(.&5 ./,/&(5)(#.#)(-5B h(5{5gf @gk5 '@hIi5(5 h(5{5gf @gi5 '@hIi5 ),537 .#'5(5(#!"..#'65,-*.#0&3C5 ),5#ﬀ,(.5*,)*!.#)(5&(!."-5#-5 -")1(5#(5#!/,5k8n85),#(!5.)5."#-5*&).65#ﬀ,(-5.1(5."5 3.#'5/,0-5 ),5."5-'5.')-*",#5./,/&(50&/5,5-'&&65 #(5)'*,#-)(51#."5."5(#!"..#'5/,0-5!*8 -5 -(5 ,)'5 #!/,5 k8n65 -.,)(!5 ./,/&(5 .')-*",#5 )(#7 .#)(-65ﬁ(535 h(5{5gf @gi'@hIi65,-/&.5#(5,&.#0&35!,.55(65

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10–1 Weak turbulence Strong turbulence 10–2

10–3

10–4

10–5

10–6 0

5

10

15

20

25

SNR, dB BC 10–1 Weak turbulence Strong turbulence 10–2

10–3

10–4

10–5

10–6

10–7 0

5

10

15

20

25

SNR, dB BC

Figure 5.7 Evaluation of BER versus SNR values, corresponding to different atmospheric turbulence levels, for (a) 5 km propagation path, (b) 2 km propagation path, and (c) 0.5 km propagation path.

224

A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

10–2 10–3 10–4

10–5 10–6 10–7 10–8 10–9 10–10 0

5

10

15

20

25

SNR, dB BC

Figure 5.7

(Continued)

10–1 Day L = 2000 m Day L = 3762 m Night L = 2000 m Night L = 3762 m

10–2

10–3

10–4

10–5

10–6

10–7 0

5

10

15

20

25

SNR, dB

Figure 5.8 Comparison between 2 km and 3.76 km propagation lengths for extreme daytime and nighttime experimental turbulence conditions.

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0.1

0.01

SNR = 5 dB 0.001 SNR = 10 dB 0.0001

SNR = 15 dB SNR = 20 dB

0.00001 100

1000 Propagation Path [meters]

10000

Figure 5.9 Representation of BER in strong atmospheric turbulence media as a function of propagation length, L, for different SNR values.

-)65*&355 '$),5 ,)&5 #(5 #(!5 ﬀ.-65 /-5 35 ./,/&(5 Do65 goE85 The, ),65 .",5 ,5 -/$.-5 ) 5 *,.#/&,5 #(.,-.5 ),5 -.#'.#)(5 ) 5 )*.#&5)''/(#.#)(5*,'.,-65-/"5-55(55(5*,7 #.#)(5) 5'2#'&5&)---65/-535-.,)(!5./,/&(8 (5 ."5 -#-5 ) 5 2*,#'(.&5 .5 .%(5 ,)'5 ,(5 o65 #!/,5 k8o5 *,)0#-5 0&/.#)(5 ) 5 5 #(5 -.,)(!5 .')-*",#5 ./,7 /&(5'#5-55 /(.#)(5) 5*,)*!.#)(5&(!."65 65 ),5#ﬀ,(.5 5 0&/-85 )''/(#.#)(5 &#(%5 .,-5 1,5 .%(5 ,)'5 f8j5 .)5 l5 %'85),5&--5."(5f8j5%'5*."-5."5,,),5#-5(!&#!#&65(5 ),5)0,5 l5%'5*."-65)*.#&5)''/(#.#)(5-3-.'-5B&-,-C5,5().5/-/&&35 **&#8 )52*&#(5."5,-/&.-5).#(65150&)*5."5 )&&)1#(!5')&5 ),5 *,.#&5*,#.#)(5) 55-55 /(.#)(5) 5*,)*!.#)(5*."5&(!."5 (5 -*#ﬁ5 -#!(&7.)7()#-5 0&/-5 ) 5 1#,&--5 .')-*",#5 )*.#&5 )''/(#.#)(5&#(%-65 ),5-.,)(!5./,/&(5'#9 5

E &( D 5

Bk8ijC

1",5 5B#(5'.,-C5#-5."5*,)*!.#)(5*."5&(!."65(5e5(5d5,5 -.#'.5 -#!(&7.)7()#-5 *((.5 .),-65 !#0(5 #(5 #!/,5 k8gf85

226

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Figure 5.10 Diagram of e and d factors versus SNR values: (a) general view from 5 to 21 dB, and (b) close-up view from 12 to 21 dB.

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&#.#)(5)(#.#)(-5 ),5."#-5')&5,5-5 )&&)1-95BC5-.,)(!5.')7 -*",#5 ./,/&(5 '#:5 BC5 *,)*!.#)(5 *."5 &(!."5 ,)'5 f8j5 .)5 l5%':5BC5-#!(&7.)7()#-50&/-5 ,)'5j5.)5hg5:5(5BC55 ,)'5 h8k5gf @k5.)5gf @h8 )5*,-(.5."5*#.35),5-*.,&5ﬃ#(35B ),5%()1(5(1#."5 ) 5."5"((&C6515ﬁ,-.5(5.)5.,'#(5,&.#)(-5.1(5."5-#(7 .#&&.#)(5#(265s h 65(5b hf651"#"5#-5."5*,'.,5.".5),,-*)(-5.)5 ."5&0&5) 5./,/&(85The *,'.,5b hf55{5f8g5 ),51%5ﬂ/./.#)(-5 (5{5j5 ),5-.,)(!5ﬂ/./.#)(-85-#(!5+/.#)(-5k8gf@k8gi6515"05 ,.5 5 !,*"5 .".5 ')(-.,.-5 ."5 ,&.#)(-5 .1(5 b hf5 (5 s h 5 B-5#!/,5k8ggC8 -5 (5 5 -(5 ,)'5 #!/,5 k8gg65 1#."5 ."5 !,)1."5 ) 5 b f5 B#8865 -.,)(!,5 ./,/&(5 *,./,.#)(-C65 ."5 -#(.#&&.#)(5 #(25 .".5 -,#-5 ."5 -#!(&5 #(!5 !,)1-85 (5 (5 &-)5 )-,05 ."5 0-.5 #ﬀ,(5.1(5."5!,*"-5 ),555f5B*)#(.5,#0,C5(555o5 B&,!5)&&#'.#(!5&(-C85The #(,-5) 55&&)1-5)&&.#)(5) 5&&5,3-5 .,5 -..,#(!5 35 ./,/&(5 &)(!5 ."5 105 *."85 ),5 5 5 f5 ."5 -#(.#&&.#)(5#(25!,)1-5,*#&35-5b f5!,)1-5B-.,)(!, ﬂu./.#)(-C65

Figure 5.11

s 2I as a function of b 20.

228

A P P LIED A S P EC T S O F O P TI C A L C O M M U NI C ATI O N

(5 ),555o5."5!,)1."5#-5'/"5'),5'),.5(5#-5&--5-(-#.#05 .)5ﬂ/./.#)(85Th#-5(552*&#(535."5'),5*,#-5^ )/-#(!5 ﬀ._5) 5."5#(#.#&5'5*--#(!5.",)/!"5./,/&(.5'#535/-5 ) 55..),51#."55)&&#'.5&(-85)165/-#(!5+/.#)(5k8ii6515 -#'/&.5."55*,'.,5-55 /(.#)(5) 5s h 5#(5#!/,5k8gh8 ,)'5#!/,5k8gh5 ),555f5(5#!/,5k8gh5 ),555gf6515-5.".5 -5."5ﬂ/./.#)(-5!,)1-655n5f:5#8865."5"((&5.(-5.)5)'55 '/&.#*."53&#!"5"((&855(5-5 ,)'5#!/,5k8gh5.".5 ),55 -'&&5-#(.#&&.#)(5#(25B&--5."(5f8gC65."50&/5) 55#-5)/.5gf5/.5 ,)*-5,*#&35-5s h 5#(,--85(5."5).",5"(65 ),555gf5."5#(#.#&5 0&/5#-5'/"5&,!,:5#8865.",5,5..,5)(#.#)(-5 ),55)''/(#7 .#)(5"((&85 (5."#-5-65.",5#-55!,.5.,#),.#)(5-5s h 5!,)1-65 /.5#.5)-5().5.(5.)54,)5-5 -.5-5#(5."5-5) 555f8 -#(!5+/.#)(5k8ig6515(5()150&/.5."5-*.,&5ﬃ#(35-5 5 /(.#)(5) 585The ,-/&.-5,5-")1(5#(5#!/,5k8gi5(55 ),555 f651",5b f5-.,.-5 ,)'5f5(5 ,)'5f8g65,-*.#0&385-52*.5(5 )-,05 ),5 ,#)5 *,)*!.#)(5 DijE65 ),5 (5 )*.#&5 "((&5 15 ﬁ(5 .".5-55!,)1-5."5ﬃ#(35!,)1-5.)5/(#.35-51&&8 .5(55-(5.".5 ),5."5-5#(51"#"5.",5,5()5ﬂ/./.#)(-5 )0,5."5"((&65-51",5b f5-.,.-5 ,)'5f5B-5#!/,5k8giC65."5 *#.35!,)1-5,*#&365(5&,!,50&/-5) 55,5"#0651",5 15 )-,05 ^-./,.#)(_5 ) 5 -*.,&5 ﬃ#(35 ),5 )(-.(.5 (7 1#."5b 18 Th#-5(552*&#(5-5 )&&)1-85#."555s5gf65."5ﬀ.-5) 5./,7 /&(5,50,35-'&&5B#8865."5"((&5#-5&)-5.)5."5#&5-C85(5 #(,-5 #(5 5 )",(.5 )'*)((.5 ) 5 ."5 -#!(&-5 -5 )'*,5 .)5 (5 #()",(.5 )(5 (().5 "(!5 ."5 ﬀ.-5 ) 5 *,)*!.#)(5 )(#.#)(-5 )(5."5#&5"((&51#."55s5gf85"(5ﬂ/./.#)(-5,5*,-(.5&&5 ."5.#'5Bb f55f65#!/,5k8giC650(50,35-'&&5)(-65."5ﬃ#(35 )-5().5!,)15-5,*#&35-5)-,05,&#,65(5-./,.#)(5#-5)-,05 ),5-'&&,50&/-5) 585The -'5.((35#-5)-,05 ),555gf65-5 *,-(.5#(5#!/,5k8gj8 The -'5.((35) 5-./,.#)(5) 5-*.,&5ﬃ#(35.)5/(#.35#-5 )-,05 ),5 -'&&,5 0&/-5 ) 5 5 /5 .)5 5 )&&#'.#(!5 ﬀ.5 ) 5 ."5 &(-5.5."5,#0,85Th/-65# 5.",5#-55,#0,51#."55)&&#'.#(!5&(-5 B55kC650(5# 55#-5-'&&65#8865."5'/&.#*&5-..,#(!5ﬀ.-5 ,)'5./,7 /&(5,5-/ﬃ#(.&35&,!5.".65/5.)5 )/-#(!5ﬀ.-65-./,.#)(5#-5 )-,05.5."5-'&&,550&/-8

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10 d=0 9 8

K-Parameter

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

2

σ2I

BC

BC

Figure 5.12 K as a function of s 2I for (a) d = 0 and (b) d = 10. (From A. Tiker, N. Yarkoni, N. Blaunstein, A. Zilberman, and N. Kopeika, “Prediction of data stream parameters in atmospheric turbulent wireless communication links,” Appl. Opt., vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 190–199, 2007. With Permission.)

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1 = 100 d = 0, β20 starts d from

0.95 0.9

C [bit/sec/Hz]

0.85 0.8 0.75 0.7 0.65 0.6 0.55 0.5

Reyleigh channel

0

10

20

30

40 50 60 K-Parameter

70

80

90

100

BC '(&('&%#

!('*

)"! $$"

&#(&

BC

Figure 5.13 Spectral efﬁciency for d 0 (point receiver): (a) b 20 starts from 0; (b) b 20 starts from 0.1. (From A. Tiker, N. Yarkoni, N. Blaunstein, A. Zilberman, and N. Kopeika, “Prediction of data stream parameters in atmospheric turbulent wireless communication links,” Appl. Opt., vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 190–199, 2007. With Permission.)

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2 31

'(&('&%#

!('*

)"! $$"

&#(&

BC '(&('&%#

!('*

)"! $$"

&#(&

BC

Figure 5.14 Spectral efﬁciency for d 10 (large collimating lens): (a) b 20 starts from 0; (b) b 20 starts from 0.1. (From A. Tiker, N. Yarkoni, N. Blaunstein, A. Zilberman, and N. Kopeika, “Prediction of data stream parameters in atmospheric turbulent wireless communication links,” Appl. Opt., vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 190–199, 2007. With Permission.)

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)165 15 #(0-.#!.5 ."5 -*.,&5 ﬃ#(35 ) 5 ."5 .')-*",#5 "((&50,-/-5."5#(5*,'.,55 ),50,#)/-5-85-/&.-5) 5 )'*/..#)(-5,5-")1(5#(5#!/,5k8gk5(55 ),55*)#(.5(5)&7 &#'.5&(-5,#0,65,-*.#0&38 .5#-5&,&35-(5.".651#."5(55#(,-5 ,)'5g5.)5gl565."5 -*.,&5ﬃ#(35(55#(,-5i@k5.#'-85The ﬀ.5*(-5)(5 ."5 #(!5 ",.,#-.#-5 ) 5 ."5 "((&:5 #8865 )(5 *,'.,5 85 .5 #-5 &,5.".5 ),555k@gf65."5 5)'*)((.5*,0#&-5(55 /,.",5 #(,-5) 55*,'.,5)-5().5"(!5."5-*.,&5ﬃ#(35) 5."5 "((&85Th#-5.((35#-5)-,05)."5 ),5."5*)#(.5(5 ),5."5)&7 &#'.5&(-5,#0,8 #(&&36515(&345."5ﬀ.-5) 5 #(!5B8!865."5"(!-5) 5."5 5*,'.,C5)(55)(#.#)(-51#."#(5."5./,/&(.51#,&--5)'7 '/(#.#)(5 &#(%85 The ,-/&.-5 ,5 -")1(5 #(5 #!/,5 k8gl65 ),5 )."5 5 *)#(.5,#0,5(55,#0,51#."5)&&#'.#(!5&(-5B#8865 ),55"(!7 #(!5/*5.)5oC85 .5#-5&,&35-(5.".51#."5,-5) 5 #(!5#(-#5."5 "((&5 B#8865 1#."5 #(,-5 ) 5 5 *,'.,C65 ."5 5 *,'.,5 #-5 ,-5 -",*&385 ),)0,65 -5 )&&)1-5 ,)'5 ."5 #&&/-.,.#)(-65 ."5 ,.5) 5,-5) 55#(,--51#."5(5#(,-5) 5."5)&&#'.#(!5 *,'.,6565) 5."5,#0,8 )5)'*,5"((&-65."55)'*/.5 ),5."5"),#4)(.&5*."5 ) 5g5%'5.5"#!".-5) 5g@h5%'5#-5-")1(5#(5#!/,5k8gl65.%#(!5#(.)5 )/(.5 .5 ),5 h(5 -5 )(5 ."5 )'*/.5 '(5 0&/5 ) 5 ¡ h(° @'7hIi5DilE8 -5 -(5 ,)'5 ."5 ,-/&.-5 ) 5 ."5 )'*/..#)(-5 *,-(.5 #(5 #!/,5k8gl5 ),5."5"#!".5,(!5) 5g@h5%'65."5-'5.((35) 5 5-",*5,-51#."5#(,-5) 55*,'.,65).#(5.5&)1,5 &.#./-5) 5gff@hff5'5B-5#!/,5k8glC65#-5)-,05",5.))8 )10,65 .5 "#!",5 &.#./-5 /5 .)5 1%5 ./,/&(5 B¡ h(°5 5 @5'@hIi5.5g@h5%'5)'*,5.)5¡ h(°555@'@hIi5.5gff@hff5'C65 ),5."5"),#4)(.&5.')-*",#5"((&-51",5."5 5)'*)((.5 2-5."5'/&.#*."5B C5)'*)((.5B#8865 ),555gC65."55 ",.,#-.#5)'-5(!&#!#&5(5(55#!(),5-51&&5-5).",5 #(!5 ",.,#-.#-5 #(5 ."5 -#!(5 ) 5 )*.#&5 .')-*",#5 &#(%-5 .1(5-.,.)-*",#5*&. ),'-8 ),#(!5.)5."5,-/&.-65*,-(.5#(5#!/,5k8gl5(565."5)*.#7 '&5&!),#."'5 ),5."5'#(#'#4.#)(5) 551-5*, ),'5 ),5# 7 ,(.5 -#./.#)(-5 )/,,#(!5 )0,5 )*.#&5 .')-*",#5 )''/(#.#)(5

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4 SNR = 16 dB

3.5

SNR = 11 dB

C [bit/sec/Hz]

3 SNR = 6 dB

2.5 2 1.5 SNR = 1 dB

1 0.5

0

10

20

30

40 50 60 K-Parameter

70

80

90

100

BC

C [bit/sec/Hz]

4.5 4

SNR = 16 dB

3.5

SNR = 11 dB

3 SNR = 6 dB

2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5

SNR = 1 dB

0

100

200

300 400 K-Parameter

500

600

700

BC

Figure 5.15 Spectral efﬁciency as a function of K parameter (SNR varying) for (a) point receiver and (b) collimated lens receiver (d 10). Range L 1 km. (From A. Tiker, N. Yarkoni, N. Blaunstein, A. Zilberman, and N. Kopeika, “Prediction of data stream parameters in atmospheric turbulent wireless communication links,” Appl. Opt., vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 190–199, 2007. With Permission.)

234

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BER as a Function of K-Parameter Varying Receiver Lens Size 10–1

10–2

Point receiver

BER

10–3

d=0

10–4

d=3 Large collimating lens receiver

10–5

d=6

d=9

10–6

1

2

3

4 K-Parameter

5

6

7

BC BER as a Function of K-Parameter 100

Point receiver

10–5

10–10

d=0

BER

Large collimating lens receiver

d=3

10–15

d=6 10–20

10–25

d=9

0

1

2

3 K-Parameter

4

5

6

BC

Figure 5.16 BER as a function of K parameter for varying receiver lens sizes for heights of (a) 100–200 m and (b) 1–2 km. Range L 1 km. (From A. Tiker, N. Yarkoni, N. Blaunstein, A. Zilberman, and N. Kopeika, “Prediction of data stream parameters in atmospheric turbulent wireless communication links,” Appl. Opt., vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 190–199, 2007. With Permission.)

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1.

BER

10–2 10–4 10–6 10–8 0

Figure 5.17

5

10

15

20

25

30

K

BER as a function of K.

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239

5 il85 85 #%,65 85 ,%)(#65 85 &/(-.#(65 85 #&,'(65 (5 85 )*#%65 ^,#.#)(5) 5.5-.,'5*,'.,-5#(5.')-*",#5./,/&(.51#,&--5 )''/(#.#)(5&#(%-6_5**&85*.8650)&85jl65()85h65**85gof@goo65hffm8 5 im85 85 #!&#,#65 85 ,)%#-65 (5 85 "'#65 ^#(!5 "((&-95 ( ),'.#)(7 ."),.#5(5)''/(#.#)(5-*.-6_5 5,(-85 ( ),'.#)(5Theor365 0)&85jj65()85l65**85hlgo@hloh65goon8 5 in85 8785&)/#(#65 8585#')(65(585 85)&-'#."65^0,!55*, ),7 '(5 ) 5 -#(!&5 (5 '/&.#5 ,,#,5 7 5 -3-.'-5 )0,5 !(,5 #(!5"((&-6_5#&35 85#,&--53-.'-5 )#&5)'*/.8650)&85g65()85g65**85 oi@ggf65hffg8 5 io85 85 85)&-'#."65 85 85,(-.#(65(585 85)-"#(#65^,,),5-..#-.#-5) 5 ,&7.#'5 *)1,5 '-/,'(.-5 #(5 &&/&,5 "((&-5 1#."5 '/&.#*."5 (5 -")1#(!6_5 5,(-85 "#/&,5"()&865 0)&85 ji65 ()85 i65 **85 jio@jjl65 gooj8 5 jf85 85 85 )&-'#."65^The *#.35 ) 5 )1(&#(%5 #(!5 "((&-5 1#."5 0,#7 &5 ,.5 (5 *)1,6_5 5,(-85"#/&,5"()&865 0)&85 jl65 ()85 i65 **85 klo@knf65goom8 5 jg85 85 85)&-'#."5(58585,#365^*#.35) 5 #(!5"((&-51#."5"(7 (&5-#5#( ),'.#)(6_5 5,(-85 ( ),mation Theor3650)&85ji65()85l65**85 gonl@gooh65goom8 5 jh85 8585&.,5(5858585-65^*#.35(5'/./&5#( ),'.#)(5) 51#7 (5'/&.#*."5 #(!5"((&-6_5 5,(-85 ( ),'.#)(5Theor3650)&85jl65 ()85j65**85ginj@gjff65hfff8 5 ji85 85 85 ./,65 ,#(#*&-5 ) 5 )#&5 )''/(#.#)(65 &/1,5 '#5 /&#-",-65gool8 5 jj85 85 &/(-.#(65 85 ,%)(#65 (5 85 .465 ^*.#&5 (5 .'*),&5 #-.,#7 /.#)(5) 5."5I5,#)510-5#(5/#&.7/*5&(5)''/(#.#)(5 &#(%-6_5 5,(-85(.((-5,)*!.#)(650)&85kj65()85n65**85hijk@hikl65 hffl8 5 jk85 85 85 #(.,-65^(5 ."5 *#.35 ) 5 ,#)5 )''/(#.#)(5 -3-.'-5 1#."5 #0,-#.35 #(5 5 3&#!"5 #(!5 (0#,)('(.6_5 5 85 &.5 ,-5 )''/(8650)&85k65**85nmg@nmn65gonm8

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A B B RE V I AT I O NS

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A B B RE V I AT I O NS

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256

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