African American Troops In World War II

Elite

OSPREY PUBLISHING

African American Troops in World War II

A L E X A N D E R M. BIELAKOWSKI is a former US Army Reserve officer w h o c o m p l e t e d his PhD

CONTENTS

in US and Military History at Kansas State University. He has published on such diverse topics as Polish-Americans in the American Civil War, the interwar US Army Journal,

• Racial segregation in the US forces - the Selective Service A c t - President Roosevelt and Executive O r d e r 8802

Cavalry

Gen Dwight D Eisen-

hower as the first c o m m a n d e r of NATO, and Vietnam w a r movies; he is also the author of Osprey's Warrior 8 9 , US Cavalryman

INTRODUCTION

1891-1920.

Currently he t e a c h e s military history at the US Army C o m m a n d and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas.

us ARMY • General Benjamin O.Davis Sr • US Army Air C o r p s / Force: C o l o n e l Benjamin O.Davis Jr and the 'Tuskegee A i r m e n ' - 99th Fighter Squadron - 332nd Fighter G r o u p - 477th B o m b a r d m e n t G r o u p • A r m o r e d Force and Tank Destroyers: 761st Tank Battalion 827th Tank Destroyer Battalion • Cavalry • Field, Coast and Antiaircraft Artillery • Infantry: 9 2 n d Infantry Division - 93rd Infantry Division 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion - volunteer infantry replacements, 1945 - Executive O r d e r 9981 • S u p p o r t and service troops • Life overseas

us NAVY

27

• Steward's Mate Doris Miller • USS Mason - PC 1264 - Naval Construction Battalions • T h e Port C h i c a g o disaster, July 17, 1944 - its aftermath RAFFAELE RUGGERI w a s born in 1964 in Bologna, w h e r e he still lives and w o r k s . After

US MARINE CORPS

44

A c a d e m y he w o r k e d in several

• Letter o f Instruction 421 • G u n n e r y Sergeant Gilbert H.Johnson

areas of graphics and design

• 51st Defense Battalion - 5 2 n d Defense Battalion - other units

studying at the Fine Arts

before deciding to devote himself to illustration. He has long been interested in military history and has illustrated a number of books for Osprey.

OTHER MARITIME SERVICES • US Coast Guard - early

49

integration

• US M e r c h a n t Marine - SS Booker T. Washington

BIBLIOGRAPHY

53

PLATE COMMENTARIES

55

• Uniforms: US Army - US Navy - US Marine Corps

INDEX

64

Elite

•

158

African American Troops in World War II

First published in Great Britain in 2007 by Osprey Publishing, Midland House, West Way, Botley, Oxford 0X2 OPH, UK 443 Park Avenue South, New York, NY 10016, USA E-mail: [email protected] © 2007 Osprey Publishing Ltd.

Artist's

note

Readers may care to note that the original paintings from which the colour plates in this book were prepared are available for private sale. All reproduction copyright whatsoever is retained by the Publishers. All inquiries should be addressed to:

All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrical, chemical, mechanical, optical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner. Inquiries should be addressed to the Publishers. ISBN: 978 1 84603 072 7 Editor: Martin Windrow Page layouts by Ken Vail Graphic Design, Cambridge, UK Typeset in Helvetica Neue and ITC New Baskerville Index by Glyn Sutcliffe Originated by PPS Grasmere, Leeds, UK Printed in China through World Print Ltd. 07 08 09 10 11

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

A CIP catalog record for this book is available from the British Library FOR A CATALOG OF ALL BOOKS PUBLISHED BY OSPREY MILITARY AND AVIATION PLEASE CONTACT: NORTH AMERICA Osprey Direct, c/o Random House Distribution Center, 400 Hahn Road, Westminster, MD 21157 E-mail: [email protected] ALL OTHER REGIONS Osprey Direct UK, P.O. Box 140 Wellingborough, Northants, NN8 2FA, UK E-mail: [email protected] Buy online at w w w . o s p r e y p u b l i s h i n g . c o m

TITLE PAGE M a y 1 9 4 4 : A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s o l d i e r s of t h e 2 5 t h I n f a n t r y R e g i m e n t (Colored), 9 3 r d Division, a d v a n c e c a u t i o u s l y t h r o u g h t h i c k b a m b o o j u n g l e off t h e N u m a - N u m a Trail o n Bougainville, S o l o m o n I s l a n d s . (NARA)

Raffaele Ruggeri, Via Indipendensa 22, 40121 Bologna, Italy e-mail: raffaeleruggeri@libero.

it

The Publishers regret that they can enter into no correspondence upon this matter.

AFRICAN AMERICAN TROOPS IN WORLD WAR II INTRODUCTION U R I N G W o r l d War II, h u n d r e d s o f t h o u s a n d s o f African A m e r i c a n s served in segregated units in the US military. T h e racial policies o f the a r m e d forces in the 1940s relegated m o s t o f t h e m to tasks that were often b o t h m o r e physically d e m a n d i n g a n d m o r e d e m e a n i n g than t h o s e assigned to E u r o p e a n A m e r i c a n s . A l t h o u g h e a c h b r a n c h o f the military had different policies regarding the admittance a n d e m p l o y m e n t o f African A m e r i c a n s , the e n d o f W o r l d War II f o u n d black A m e r i c a n s serving in every b r a n c h a n d in every theater o f the war. Within the o b v i o u s limitations o f space in a

D

Private Lloyd A.Taylor, a n A r m y Air C o r p s d i s p a t c h e r a t M i t c h e l Field, NY City, p o s e d w i t h a C h i n e s e - l a n g u a g e primer. T h e caption states that this former medical student at Temple University s t u d i e d l a n g u a g e s as a hobby, a n d h a d a l r e a d y mastered Latin, Greek, Spanish, French, German and Japanese. Although a n e x t r e m e c a s e , Taylor's c u r r e n t e m p l o y m e n t is a stark r e m i n d e r of t h e p o t e n t i a l w a s t e d by t h e Army's racial prejudices in t h e 1 9 4 0 s . (NARA)

August 1 9 4 3 : Undersecretary of W a r R o b e r t P . P a t t e r s o n is seen after inspecting the 3 6 9 t h C o a s t A r t i l l e r y R e g t in H a w a i i , congratulating the regimental commander, Col C h a u n c e y M.Hooper. Also s h o w n are ( s e c o n d left) t h e c o m m a n d e r of t h e H a w a i i a n D e p t , L t G e n R o b e r t C . R i c h a r d s o n Jr, a n d (right) t h e 3 6 9 t h ' s r e g i m e n t a l e x e c u t i v e officer, LtCol Harry B . R e u b e l . (NARA)

b o o k o f this size, it is the author's h o p e to give at least a brief overview o f the subject, together with basic facts o n a few significant units. W h i l e t h e majority o f the a p p r o x i m a t e l y half-million African Americans w h o served overseas during World War II were draftees, overall they demonstrated the same enthusiasm ( o r lack thereof) f o r military service as their white c o u n t e r p a r t s . F o r many African Americans their service in W o r l d War II was filled with irony: they were b e i n g asked to fight fascism a n d racism abroad, while they themselves e n d u r e d racism at h o m e . While the p u r p o s e o f the two ugly signs was very different, it remains true that the world's justified outrage at the painting o f the w o r d "Jude" o n G e r m a n Jewish storefronts in the 1930s did n o t carry over to the use o f the w o r d " C o l o r e d " o n public amenities in the A m e r i c a n South. T h e Selective Service A c t o f 1940 allowed f o r the induction o f a n u m b e r o f African A m e r i c a n s equal to their percentage o f the national p o p u l a t i o n , which translated into 10.6 percent. However, since the majority o f African A m e r i c a n s were generally ranked in the lowest two intelligence classes, the military resisted inducting that p r e d e t e r m i n e d p e r c e n t a g e . T h e A r m y argued that if 10.6 p e r c e n t o f all draftees were African A m e r i c a n , it w o u l d have to organize ten o f its c o m b a t divisions c o m p l e t e l y with African Americans. T h e question o f what to d o with "excess" African Americans was a perpetual p r o b l e m f o r the US military during the war. 1

2

1

2

After D e c e m b e r 1942, President Franklin D.Roosevelt ordered that the US military would n o longer accept volunteers, and all American men were thereafter subject to Selective Service - conscription, commonly known as the "draft." Roosevelt's decision was made because t o o many men with important civilian skills were volunteering for combat duty, thus denying those skills to the national economy. Under the terms o f the draft men with strategic skills would be deferred from service for the duration o f the war. All incoming servicemen and w o m e n were tested and placed in five classes, Class I being the highest and Class V the lowest. T h e low ranking o f African Americans was mainly a result o f the p o o r quality o f the education open to them in the South, where the majority o f black Americans still lived.

While President Franklin D.Roosevelt favored desegregation o f the military, he was prevented f r o m acting u p o n his wish because the Democratic Party, his political p o w e r base, was c o n s i d e r e d a Southern party. If all o f the Southern legislators withdrew their s u p p o r t f r o m President Roosevelt he w o u l d find it impossible to pass any legislation. Instead, o n June 25, 1941, Roosevelt signed Executive O r d e r 8802, which prevented discrimination o n the basis o f race, c r e e d , c o l o r o r national origin by any c o r p o r a t i o n possessing a defense contract with the US g o v e r n m e n t . Despite protests f r o m business owners and labor unions, t o o m u c h m o n e y was at stake for them to risk the g o v e r n m e n t ' s wrath by n o n - c o m p l i a n c e ; for their part, the S o u t h e r n legislators were generally unaffected by Executive O r d e r 8802, because so little industry was located in their region.

US ARMY T h e majority o f the US military's segregated units were f o u n d in the Army, and African Americans were represented in every o n e o f the Army's c o m b a t , support and service arms, including the A r m y Air C o r p s (later, Air F o r c e ) . Despite their unequal treatment, it was in the A r m y that black Americans f o u n d opportunities for leadership unparalleled in the rest o f American society at that time. Many African Americans reached senior leadership positions, and o n e officer r e a c h e d the rank o f brigadier-general. This achievement was all the m o r e striking in that the pre-war US Army had fewer than 5,000 African A m e r i c a n s in just f o u r regiments (24th & 25th Infantry and 9th & 10th Cavalry). T h e most senior African A m e r i c a n in the A r m y at the outbreak o f World War II was Benjamin O.Davis Sr. B o r n in 1880, Davis b e g a n his military career as a s e c o n d lieutenant in the Separate Battalion ( C o l o r e d ) , District o f C o l u m b i a National Guard in April 1898. Only two months later, he was offered the position o f first lieutenant in the 8th US Volunteer Infantry ( C o l o r e d ) . After serving with the 8th Volunteers until March 1899, Davis enlisted in the ranks o f the 9th US Cavalry Regiment ( C o l o r e d ) , and was p r o m o t e d to c o r p o r a l while serving as a clerk. H e then passed a competitive examination for a Regular A r m y commission, and was sworn in as a s e c o n d lieutenant in May 1901. Over the next 40 years Davis rose to the rank o f c o l o n e l , and rotated between duties as the Professor o f Military Science and Tactics at Wilberforce University in O h i o and the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama; tours as the US military attache in Monrovia, Liberia; and relatively brief periods o f c o m m a n d with the 369th Infantry R e g i m e n t ( C o l o r e d ) , New York National Guard, and the 372nd Infantry R e g i m e n t ( C o l o r e d ) , O h i o National Guard. (Note: hereafter in this text, for the sake o f brevity, the suffix " C o l o r e d " b o r n e by all African American units will usually b e omitted.) Since the Army was d e t e r m i n e d to prevent Benjamin Davis from c o m m a n d i n g white officers, his skills were underutilized, and he seldom served in positions that befitted his rank and e x p e r i e n c e . During World War I, for instance, he was sent to the Philippines, where h e served as the black 9th US Cavalry Regiment's supply officer. O n this blighted career path Davis was following in the weary footsteps - f r o m West Point, via the 9th Cavalry to W i l b e r f o r c e , the Philippines and Liberia - o f Col

September 1 9 4 1 : African A m e r i c a n A r m y Air C o r p s c a d e t s r e p o r t in t o C a p t B e n j a m i n O . D a v i s Jr, t h e c o m m a n d a n t of c a d e t s a t Tuskegee Field, Alabama. Davis w a s only t h e f o u r t h African American to graduate f r o m t h e US M i l i t a r y A c a d e m y a t W e s t Point, NY, a n d w a s t h e first black American to be rated as a pilot in t h e Air C o r p s - s e e P l a t e A 1 . (NARA)

Charles D.Young ( 1 8 6 5 - 1 9 2 2 ) , the third black American to graduate f r o m West Point, with the class o f 1889. Finally, in January 1941, Davis b e c a m e the first African American general officer in A m e r i c a n history, when he was p r o m o t e d to brigadiergeneral and o r d e r e d to Fort Riley, Kansas, to take c o m m a n d o f the 4th Cavalry Brigade in the 2 n d Cavalry Division. After serving for a total o f 42 years and reaching mandatory retirement age, Davis was surprised to b e called back to active duty, to serve as an advisor o n "negro p r o b l e m s " in the US Army's Office o f the Inspector General. H e retired o n July 14, 1948, after 50 years o f active duty. Despite his achievements, Davis's career clearly demonstrated many o f the worst c o n s e q u e n c e s o f racial prejudice in the US Army. African Americans were w e l c o m e - provided that they r e m e m b e r e d their pre-ordained place in the power structure. T h e spectacle o f an African A m e r i c a n in officer's u n i f o r m violated all o f the p r e c o n c e i v e d notions o f those days regarding intelligence and leadership abilities, qualities o f which white Americans were raised to believe they had a m o n o p o l y . US A r m y A i r C o r p s / F o r c e T h e African Americans w h o served in the Army Air Force have probably received m o r e attention than any o t h e r black A m e r i c a n servicemen in W o r l d War II. T h e "Tuskegee A i r m e n " were seen as the most important " e x p e r i m e n t " involving African Americans during the war, because these

pilots were c o m m i s s i o n e d o f f i c e r s . W h i l e the A r m y h a d m u c h experience with black enlisted m e n , there were very few African American officers (only five achieved officer rank in the Regular A r m y between 1865 and 1939), and many senior A r m y officers did n o t believe that African Americans had the necessary intellectual and leadership capabilities to serve in c o m m i s s i o n e d rank. T h e success o f the "Tuskegee A i r m e n " was a major b l o w to these racist assumptions. T h e first African American officer to b e accepted for pilot training was Benjamin O.Davis Jr. T h e future general's son was also the first African American admitted to the US Military A c a d e m y at West Point during the 20th century. Entering West Point in 1932, Davis e n d u r e d four years o f "silencing", during which n o other cadet spoke to h i m unless required to d o so in the classroom o r o n duty (an ordeal which Charles Young had also suffered half a century b e f o r e ) . In 1936, Davis graduated near the top o f a class that i n c l u d e d the future general officers William P.Yarborough, Creighton W.Abrams Jr and William C.Westmoreland. 3

Davis had requested duty with the Air C o r p s , but h e was i n f o r m e d that, since there were n o " c o l o r e d " units in that C o r p s , and the A r m y did not anticipate creating any, there was n o n e e d for a " c o l o r e d " pilot. Instead, Davis was c o m m i s s i o n e d in the infantry and assigned to the 24th Infantry R e g i m e n t at Fort B e n n i n g , Georgia. After a year with the 24th Infantry and another year as a student at the Infantry S c h o o l , he b e c a m e the Professor o f Military Science and Tactics at the Tuskegee Institute. Reflecting o n his father's A r m y career, Davis a c c e p t e d this assignment with a sense o f d o o m , believing that h e c o u l d also l o o k forward only to years rotating between W i l b e r f o r c e University and Tuskegee. Thankfully, after b e i n g p r o m o t e d to general rank, Benjamin O.Davis Sr. requested his son b e assigned as an aide, and the y o u n g e r officer m o v e d to Fort Riley, Kansas. After only a few m o n t h s at Fort Riley, Davis f o u n d o u t that the A r m y was reversing its policy o n African Americans in the Air Corps. Davis was a m o n g the first class o f 13 black aviation cadets at the Tuskegee A r m y Air Field. After c o m p l e t i n g flight training, Davis was quickly p r o m o t e d to lieutenant-colonel and m a d e the c o m m a n d e r o f the newly f o r m e d 99th Pursuit Squadron (Colored) - the first African A m e r i c a n unit in the Air Corps. All m e m b e r s o f the black Air Corps units organized during W o r l d War II had to o v e r c o m e racial prejudice o n several levels. Initially, there were n o African American instructors available for flight o r o t h e r training, and white instructors generally t e n d e d to d e m a n d higher standards o f black students than they did f r o m o t h e r Americans. A n example o f this attitude is the fact that only five o f the first 13 African A m e r i c a n aviation cadets c o m p l e t e d the p r o g r a m , w h i c h was a significantly higher failure rate than e n c o u n t e r e d a m o n g white cadets. Even after an African A m e r i c a n training cadre had b e e n established, black aviation cadets had to e n d u r e segregated facilities that were certainly "separate" but far f r o m "equal." T h e officers' c l u b at the Tuskegee Army Air Field refused to admit African Americans, but there was n o c o r r e s p o n d i n g African A m e r i c a n officers' c l u b . Following the creation o f the A r m y Air Forces in July 1941, all A r m y aviation-related 3

The nickname came from their training site at Moton Field (later, Tuskegee Army Air Field) o n the campus o f the Tuskegee Institute (now Tuskegee University) near Montgomery, Alabama.

issues c a m e u n d e r the direction o f G e n H e n r y H. " H a p " A r n o l d . Like the rest o f the AAF, A r n o l d c o n s i d e r e d African A m e r i c a n pilots to b e an " e x p e r i m e n t , " and felt n o n e e d to deviate f r o m established Army rules regarding their segregation and treatment.

M e m b e r s of a g r o u n d c r e w of t h e 3 3 2 n d FG in Italy fit a d r o p t a n k t o t h e w i n g of a P - 5 1 D M u s t a n g . Left t o right: T e c h Sgt C h a r l e s K . H a y n e s , Staff Sgt James A.Sheppard, and Master S g t F r a n k Bradley. T h e f i g h t e r g r o u p u s e d auxiliary f u e l t a n k s for l o n g - d i s t a n c e f l i g h t s w h i l e escorting bombers over G e r m a n t e r r i t o r y . (NARA)

Even b e f o r e the 99th Pursuit S q u a d r o n (later r e n a m e d the 99th Fighter S q u a d r o n ) c o m p l e t e d its training and left for c o m b a t duty in the Mediterranean, the 332nd Fighter Group - which ultimately i n c l u d e d the 99th, 100th, 301st and 3 0 2 n d Fighter Squadrons - was o r g a n i z e d to a c c o m m o d a t e the further training o f African American aviation cadets. Unfortunately, the influx o f officers, cadets and enlisted m e n caused Tuskegee Field to b e c o m e hopelessly overcrowded, a situation that was only slightly eased by the departure overseas o f the 99th. T h e attitude o f the s u r r o u n d i n g white c o m m u n i t y did nothing to h e l p the situation at the airfield. T h e "Jim C r o w " system which reigned t h r o u g h o u t the South in those days was very m u c h alive in Tuskegee; this caused great resentment a m o n g the African A m e r i c a n officers, many o f w h o m were f r o m the N o r t h and had never b e f o r e e x p e r i e n c e d such overt racism. A n o t h e r p r o b l e m that c o n t r i b u t e d to the c r a m p e d facilities at T u s k e g e e was an excess o f non-flying p e r s o n n e l . Early in 1942, since the n a t i o n was n o w at war, the Air C o r p s s t o p p e d discharging individuals w h o h a d f l u n k e d o u t o f flying s c h o o l ; instead, these m e n were retained at T u s k e g e e , despite having n o suitable e m p l o y m e n t .

Unlike failed white officer candidates, w h o were reassigned to o t h e r aviation p r o g r a m s , there was n o o t h e r place f o r African A m e r i c a n s . By September 1943 the majority o f the 286 failed officer candidates were still at Tuskegee, and suffering f r o m very low m o r a l e . By the e n d o f that O c t o b e r , Tuskegee r e p o r t e d an excess o f 90 officers, m o s t o f w h o m were s e c o n d lieutenants. By then, an average o f seven African American officer candidate s c h o o l graduates were arriving e a c h m o n t h for non-flying assignments at T u s k e g e e . Into c o m b a t T h o u g h the 99th Fighter S q u a d r o n e n t e r e d c o m b a t in the Mediterranean theater in June 1943 as part o f the 33rd Fighter G r o u p , its missions t e n d e d to center o n strafing and dive-bombing, since there were still serious doubts within the AAF hierarchy a b o u t the abilities o f its pilots. Despite being assigned these s u p p o r t missions rather than those that entailed a high risk o f aerial c o m b a t , the 99th still had to put u p with criticism for a lack o f aggressiveness, insufficient air discipline, and n o t operating as a team. In S e p t e m b e r 1943, LtCol Davis was recalled f r o m Sicily to assume c o m m a n d o f the 3 3 2 n d Fighter G r o u p . At the same time he had to d e f e n d the 99th against the allegations that had b e e n l o d g e d by its superiors in the 3 3 r d Fighter G r o u p , w h o r e c o m m e n d e d that the squadron b e relegated exclusively to coastal patrol duties. This r e c o m m e n d a t i o n went u p the chain o f c o m m a n d and was endorsed by LtGen Carl Spaatz, the c o m m a n d e r o f Allied Air Forces

A f t e r long m i s s i o n s o v e r e n e m y territory fighters often returned t o b a s e w i t h only a f e w m i n u t e s ' w o r t h of g a s left in t h e i r t a n k s ; t h e o f f i c e r s ' c l u b of t h e 3 3 2 n d FG w a s n a m e d " T h e T h r e e M i n u t e E g g C l u b " in h o n o r of t h o s e pilots w h o got b a c k j u s t in t i m e . S h o w n h e r e a r e (left t o right): 1st Lts C l a r e n c e A . D a r t and Wilson D.Eagelson, and 2 n d Lt W i l l i a m N.Olsbrook. Dart's s e r v i c e c a p is a f i n e e x a m p l e of the "50-mission crush" beloved of A A F p i l o t s . (NARA)

O c t o b e r 1 9 4 4 : Lt A n d r e w D . M a r s h a l l , a M u s t a n g pilot in the 3 3 2 n d Fighter Group with t h e 1 5 t h Air F o r c e , w a s s h o t d o w n by f l a k d u r i n g a s t r a f i n g mission over G r e e c e . Greek p a r t i s a n s hid h i m f r o m t h e G e r m a n s until t h e British III Corps invaded Greece a few d a y s later. (NARA)

u n d e r G e n Dwight D.Eisenhower, and by G e n A r n o l d , the c o m m a n d e r o f the US Army Air Forces. However, before G e n G e o r g e C.Marshall, Chiefof-Staff o f the US Army, m a d e a decision regarding the future o f the 99th FS, h e o r d e r e d the Army's G-3 (Operations) to carry out a study o f the squadron's p e r f o r m a n c e . Lieutenant-Colonel Davis d e f e n d e d his unit by pointing o u t that, because o f segregation, the African Americans could n o t profit f r o m the e x p e r i e n c e o f white pilots. T h e m e n o f the 99th were well trained and qualified, and c o u l d have b e c o m e members o f any squadron and functioned well in combat; however, segregation meant that they all started at the same level o f inexperience. T h e final report o f the G-3 f o u n d n o qualitative difference between the 99th and white fighter squadrons assigned to the same theater and missions, and this effectively silenced the squadron's critics. In January 1944 the 332nd Fighter G r o u p as a whole deployed to Italy u n d e r the c o m m a n d o f the newly p r o m o t e d Col Benjamin O.Davis Jr. In July the 99th FS j o i n e d the 332nd, and the g r o u p ultimately participated in c o m b a t over Italy, Romania, the Balkans, France and Germany. It c o m p i l e d an impressive c o m b a t r e c o r d - flying m o r e than 15,000 sorties, destroying m o r e than 400 e n e m y aircraft, and never losing a b o m b e r to e n e m y aircraft in m o r e than 200 escort missions. T h r o u g h their actions in c o m b a t these African American pilots earned the respect and acceptance o f their white AAF counterparts.

10

T h e 477th Bombardment Group (Medium) was the only other African A m e r i c a n c o m b a t unit in the A r m y Air Force. Unfortunately, its officers and m e n never had the c h a n c e to prove themselves in combat, d u e to almost constant racial animosity.

T h e 477th - comprising the 616th through 619th B o m b a r d m e n t Squadrons - began its training at Selfridge Field, Michigan, but racial problems were created by the base c o m m a n d e r , w h o prohibited African American officers f r o m using the officers' club. T h e unit was then m o v e d twice, first to G o d m a n Field, Kentucky, and then to Freeman Field, Indiana, in an attempt to isolate them rather than to solve the racial problems. As a result o f the Army Air Force's policy o f segregation the 477th was plagued with b o t h m a n p o w e r surpluses and shortages. T h r e e months after the g r o u p ' s original (and missed) d e p l o y m e n t date, the 477th was short 26 pilots, 43 co-pilots, two bombardier-navigators and n o fewer than 288 gunners. As a result, training t o o k 15 m o n t h s - five times the normal time - and the g r o u p was still n o t p r e p a r e d for c o m b a t . T h e racial climate in the g r o u p b e c a m e increasingly volatile as whites tried to e n f o r c e segregation, and the result was a series o f incidents at the Freeman Field officers' club. A total o f 101 African A m e r i c a n officers were arrested for attempting to enter the c l u b against the orders o f the base c o m m a n d e r . T h e A r m y Chief-of-Staff, G e n Marshall, had to intervene personally, and o r d e r e d the release o f the African A m e r i c a n officers, w h o received only an administrative r e p r i m a n d . After the e n d o f the war in E u r o p e , Col Benjamin O.Davis Jr. and his African American officers replaced the entire white c o m m a n d structure o f the 477th and o f G o d m a n Field, where the g r o u p had b e e n transferred after the officers' club incident. S o m e African American officers argued that the segregationists had ultimately w o n , because the Army Air Force had thus created an all-black base. Nevertheless, African Americans did gain the opportunity to advance in rank and had c o m m a n d opportunities never before envisioned. T h e 477th B G was preparing for c o m b a t in the Pacific when the war e n d e d .

O n April 2 5 , 1 9 4 5 , t h e s a m e d a y t h a t t h e U S First A r m y m e t up with t h e Soviet Red Army at T o r g a u o n t h e River E l b e , M 5 A 1 S t u a r t t a n k s of t h e 7 6 1 s t T a n k Bn p a r k in t h e t o w n s q u a r e of C o b u r g , G e r m a n y ; e a c h t a n k b a t t a l i o n ' s C o D usually h a d t h e s e light t a n k s . T h e s t a t u e is of P r i n c e A l b e r t of S a x e - C o b u r g G o t h a , t h e c o n s o r t of Q u e e n V i c t o r i a . (NARA)

A r m o r e d F o r c e a n d Tank D e s t r o y e r s While only a few African A m e r i c a n tank units were organized, and t h o u g h the tank destroyers were a short-lived branch o f the Army, these units i n c l u d e d African A m e r i c a n officers, and p r o v e d that they c o u l d master c o m p l e x m a c h i n e r y as easily as white Americans. Several tank destroyer units were m a n n e d exclusively by African Americans, f r o m the c o m m a n d e r d o w n to the lowest private. T h e success o f these units h e l p e d to prove that African A m e r i c a n officers had leadership potential equal to that o f whites. T h e 761st Tank Battalion was the first African American a r m o r e d unit in c o m b a t . T h e battalion l a n d e d over O m a h a Beach, Normandy, o n O c t o b e r 10, 1944; it had six white and 30 African American officers, and 676 black enlisted m e n . F r o m N o v e m b e r 7, when it was c o m m i t t e d to c o m b a t , the battalion spent 183 days in action; during this time the m e m b e r s o f the 761st w o n 11 Silver Stars and 69 Bronze Stars. O n its first day in c o m b a t the lead tank o f C o m p a n y B was set o n fire, the tank c o m m a n d e r killed and another crewman severely w o u n d e d . A c o r p o r a l f r o m the crew m a n n e d a m a c h i n e gun in the disabled tank, silencing several e n e m y m a c h i n e gun positions and a G e r m a n anti-tank team. T h e tank was hit twice m o r e , but the crew r e m a i n e d with it. By the e n d o f only their s e c o n d day in c o m b a t , the 761st had certainly earned the right to their m o t t o " C o m e O u t Fighting." During N o v e m b e r the 761st Tank Bn suffered 24 killed in action, 81 w o u n d e d in action, 44 non-battle casualties, and 14 tanks lost. Tanks c o u l d b e r e c o v e r e d and repaired, o r replaced, but m e n were n o t so easy to c o m e by. During N o v e m b e r n o replacements arrived, and the battalion e n d e d the m o n t h with a shortage o f 113 m e n . O n D e c e m b e r 4 the first replacements arrived, but these were n o t trained tankers and had to receive on-the-job training. T h o u g h African American soldiers anxious to see c o m b a t requested transfers to the 761st, the battalion r e m a i n e d perpetually short o f trained personnel. During the Battle o f the Bulge the battalion aided in the breakthrough to the surrounded 101st A i r b o r n e Division. By the e n d o f the war in E u r o p e the 761st was in Austria, where it m e t u p with Soviet troops. T h e battalion remained in G e r m a n y until it was inactivated o n J u n e 1, 1946.

* * * N o t every tank and tank destroyer unit had the same leadership and motivation as the 761st Tank Battalion; and o n e o f the worst examples o f failure in these respects was the 827th Tank Destroyer Battalion. T h e 827th T D Bn arrived in the E u r o p e a n theater in N o v e m b e r 1944 following a c a n c e l e d d e p l o y m e n t to the Pacific in spring 1944 c a n c e l e d because the battalion was d e e m e d insufficiently trained. Just b e f o r e the 827th d e p a r t e d for E u r o p e the c o m m a n d i n g and executive officers were replaced, in the belief that new leadership might improve the unit. All o f the senior officers in the battalion shared the o p i n i o n that the unit w o u l d never p e r f o r m adequately in c o m b a t and should be c o n v e r t e d to a n o n - c o m b a t role o r inactivated. By the time it was s h i p p e d to E u r o p e the 827th had b e e n o n active duty for two years, during which time it had had eight different c o m m a n d e r s , had b e e n o r g a n i z e d u n d e r f o u r different tables o f organization and equipment, and had b e e n r e - e q u i p p e d with main w e a p o n s f o u r times. This degree

o f turmoil w o u l d have b e e n difficult for any unit, but it was worse for the 827th for other reasons. Approximately 80 percent o f the battalion's enlisted personnel ranked in the two lowest classes o f the US Army's standardized intelligence tests. As a result, the battalion had never been able to form a strong cadre o f n o n c o m s , and the officers did not fare much better. African American j u n i o r officers were expected to motivate their m e n b e y o n d any reasonable standard; when they "failed," they were removed and replaced with white officers, most o f w h o m were either Southerners or had previously served with African American T D units that had b e e n inactivated - and w h o therefore already had a negative attitude toward the future o f the unit. Not surprisingly, these new white officers were n o m o r e successful in leading and motivating the 827th than their black predecessors. T h e c o m m a n d e r then d e t e r m i n e d that the enlisted m e n , rather than the officers, were to blame for the unit's problems. In September 1944, as the unit prepared to move to Europe, preparations were disrupted by two court-martials, o n e involving an ax murder. Both cases indeed demonstrated the degree o f indiscipline within the unit; neither officers n o r N C O s were able to control their m e n . After arriving in France the battalion p e r f o r m e d a five-day m a r c h in D e c e m b e r 1944 over icy roads to j o i n the Seventh Army. So many accidents, breakdowns, cases o f speeding and column-breaking, slow starts and late arrivals o c c u r r e d that w h e n the battalion arrived many o f its vehicles immediately went in for significant repairs. It was an inauspicious beginning, and things w o u l d only get worse. O n D e c e m b e r 20 the 827th was attached to the 12th A r m o r e d Division. T h e battalion was placed in reserve for three days, during which it saw n o action but e x p e r i e n c e d p r o b l e m s with discipline a m o n g its crews, many o f w h o m left their vehicles u n g u a r d e d to gather firewood and build fires against the bitter cold. O n January 6, 1945, the battalion was o r d e r e d to assist the 79th Infantry Division; b u t b e f o r e the 827th c o u l d move out, an officer and an enlisted man shot each other when the officer attempted to break u p a fight a m o n g the soldiers, and a disgruntled soldier attacked the first sergeant o f another company. T h e sergeant, while shooting at his attacker, accidentally hit another i n n o c e n t enlisted man. In yet another company, the c o m p a n y c o m m a n d e r reported that approximately 75 percent o f his m e n were missing.

March 2 8 , 1945: correspondent Ted S t a n f o r d of t h e P i t t s b u r g h Courier

i n t e r v i e w s 1st Sgt M o r r i s

O . H a r r i s , a t a n k e r of t h e 7 8 4 t h T a n k B a t t a l i o n . H e r e H a r r i s is leaning on an M 3 halftrack; e a c h tank company had one halftrack in its m a i n t e n a n c e s e c t i o n , a n d o t h e r s w e r e o n t h e t a b l e of e q u i p m e n t of h e a d q u a r t e r s , recon and mortar platoons. E s t a b l i s h e d in 1 9 0 7 , t h e P i t t s b u r g h Courier

was once

t h e country's most widely read African American newspaper, w i t h a n a t i o n a l c i r c u l a t i o n of a l m o s t 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 . (NARA)

Between January 8 and 20 the c o m p a n i e s o f the 827th p e r f o r m e d at varying levels - s o m e better than c o u l d possibly b e e x p e c t e d , and others very poorly. In o n e incident, o n January 14, a tank destroyer that was parked in a barn where anti-tank mines were stored caught fire. W h e n o r d e r e d to drive the b u r n i n g vehicle o u t b e f o r e the mines e x p l o d e d , the crew refused. Instead, white infantrymen ran into the barn and carried the mines o u t b e f o r e the w h o l e structure caught fire. T h e 827th T D Bn's problems resulted in an investigation by the Inspector General's office, and this disclosed some instructive facts. Some companies o f the 827th had acquitted themselves well, despite their own officers' low expectations; this was especially creditable when seen against the background - they were strafed by German aircraft, and fighting in support o f white American infantrymen w h o were themselves disorganized and confused. Nevertheless, every white officer o f the 827th expressed doubts about his men's abilities and courage. T h e Inspector General made three primary recommendations. These were, firstly, that the 827th be withdrawn f r o m the line, given additional training, and then be returned to combat; secondly, that the m e n refusing to engage the enemy be tried by court-martial; and thirdly, that the c o m m a n d i n g officer be replaced. T h e c o m m a n d i n g general o f VI Corps, to which the battalion was attached, r e c o m m e n d e d instead that the unit b e disbanded, and his superior, the c o m m a n d i n g general o f Seventh Army, agreed. However, the 6th A r m y G r o u p did n o t concur. It seems that the investigating officer had q u e s t i o n e d only the officers, and n o t the enlisted m e n o f the 827th. A new investigating officer interviewed enlisted m e m b e r s o f the battalion, and f o u n d that most o f them were c o m p e t e n t in their tasks, but that the o v e r w h e l m i n g majority did not want to g o back into c o m b a t . After the G e r m a n surrender in May 1945 the issue o f the 827th was finally settled when the battalion was n a m e d as a surplus unit so that it c o u l d b e returned to the United States. It is important to b e clear a b o u t the reasons for the p r o b l e m s within the 827th. T h e s e were mostly the result o f p o o r training, p o o r discipline, and p o o r leadership, exacerbated by frequent changes in organization, e q u i p m e n t , and officers. Nevertheless, parts o f the battalion p e r f o r m e d well e n o u g h that fair-minded officers c o n c l u d e d that m o r e skillful leadership at crucial points in the battalion's life w o u l d have resulted in a far m o r e effective unit. Cavalry M o r e than 10,000 African American cavalrymen served during World War II. After the Army d e c i d e d to dismount the horse cavalry, however, they were uncertain what to d o with these troopers. O n February 25, 1943, the 2nd Cavalry Division was activated with African American enlisted p e r s o n n e l . Despite being trained as a c o m b a t division, and despite the n e e d for m o r e c o m b a t troops in Italy, after the 2nd Cavalry Division began arriving in Oran, Algeria, o n March 9, 1944, it was inactivated and its personnel used to create support and service units. O n e small unit o f African American cavalrymen retained their horses throughout the war, 4

4

During World War II the 1st and 2nd Cavalry Divisions retained their pre-war "square" structure, each with two cavalry brigades o f two regiments. The units o f the 2nd Cav Div were 4th Cav Bde (9th & 10th Cav Regts), and 5th Cav Bde (27th & 28th Cav Regts). Meanwhile, all infantry divisions in the US Army adopted a "triangular" structure, which eliminated the brigades and included instead three infantry regiments, each o f three battalions.

but they did so only in order to train white officer cadets at the US Military Academy. A small n u m b e r o f black cavalrymen traded their horses for armored cars and saw c o m b a t in Italy and the Pacific, as the division reconnaissance troops o f the 92nd and 93rd Infantry Divisions.

J u n e 2 8 , 1 9 4 4 : m e n of t h e 3 3 3 r d Field A r t i l l e r y Bn dig in o n e of their 1 5 5 m m M 1 howitzers soon a f t e r a r r i v i n g in N o r m a n d y ; e a c h such battalion had three batteries each with four

Field, Coast and Antiaircraft Artillery During World War II, African American soldiers were f o u n d in all three artillery branches in the US Army. T h e Army had distinguished between Field and Coast artillery since 1901. T h e differences between the two were self-evident: field artillery was mobile and e m p l o y e d o n the battlefield, while coast artillery was generally immobile and designed to protect the American coast from invasion. Before World War II a new type o f unit was created from within the Coast Artillery: Antiaircraft Artillery, whose importance was dramatically emphasized by events in Europe in 1939-40 and in the Pacific theater in 1941-42. During World War II the Army organized 27 African American field artillery battalions. While 11 o f these battalions were assigned to the African American 2nd Cavalry, 9 2 n d and 93rd Infantry Divisions, and nine (including the three assigned to the 2nd Cavalry) were later reorganized as Engineer battalions, the remaining ten were organized as separate battalions generally c o m i n g u n d e r corps c o m m a n d s . These units were equipped with either 105mm o r 155mm howitzers, and were attached at random to divisions in n e e d o f non-division artillery support assets. At the outbreak o f the war the Army had m o r e "traditional" than AA coastal artillery units. By the e n d o f the war, however, Coast Artillery functions had largely vanished as the reality o f m o d e r n airpower b e c a m e apparent. ( T h e Coast Artillery also i n c l u d e d additional searchlight and barrage balloon battalions, the latter to d e f e n d A m e r i c a n troops and installations o n the g r o u n d by preventing e n e m y low-altitude strafing runs.) As the war progressed, coast and A A artillery units within the USA increasingly b e c a m e "caretakers" for stateside installations. Just as the war demonstrated that tanks were better than tank destroyers at killing

h o w i t z e r s . T h i s unit w a s o n e of t e n n o n - d i v i s i o n a l A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n field artillery battalions t o s e e c o m b a t a s c o r p s or army assets. The 1 5 5 m howitzer could send a 95lb shell out to a m a x i m u m r a n g e of 9 m i l e s . (NARA)

15

N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 4 : M e m b e r s of t h e S-3 ( O p e r a t i o n s ) s e c t i o n of t h e 4 7 7 t h Antiaircraft Artillery Bn (Air W a r n i n g ) s t u d y m a p s a t Oro Bay, N e w G u i n e a . (NARA)

o t h e r tanks, so it also p r o v e d that aircraft were better than artillery at destroying o t h e r aircraft. This d o w n g r a d i n g o f their role led to a large n u m b e r o f coastal and A A units b e i n g m a n n e d by African American soldiers, w h o were generally n o t trusted by the A r m y hierarchy to p e r f o r m m o r e critical tasks. In turn, as m a n p o w e r shortages b e c a m e m o r e apparent, African A m e r i c a n Coast and A A Artillery units were often reorganized as Engineer and Quartermaster elements, in o r d e r to maintain the flow o f supplies to c o m b a t units (see below, Support and Service T r o o p s ) . INFANTRY T h e largest percentage o f African American c o m b a t soldiers was f o u n d in the infantry, and m o r e than 20,000 black infantrymen fought in E u r o p e and the Pacific. N o t only did many African Americans serve in segregated infantry units, but s o m e were part o f an experiment that involved the creation o f the first racially integrated units in American military history. This e x p e r i m e n t was so successful that it helped to justify President Harry S.Truman's decision to integrate the US military in 1948. 92nd Infantry Division During W o r l d War I this f o r m a t i o n had seen four m o n t h s o f c o m b a t o n the Western Front, where it participated in the 1918 Meuse-Argonne offensive, and suffered m o r e than 1,500 casualties. O n O c t o b e r 15, 1942, the division was reactivated at Ft McClellan, Alabama, with the 365th, 370th and 371st Infantry Regiments, the 597th through 600th Field Artillery Battalions, and Engineer and Medical battalions both n u m b e r e d 317th. T h e 370th Infantry was the first unit o f the division to

arrive in Italy, and went into c o m b a t o n the A r n o river front n o r t h o f R o m e o n August 24, alongside the 1st A r m o r e d Division; the o t h e r division units went into action o n O c t o b e r 6. During the northern Italian campaign the 9 2 n d "Buffalo" Division saw significant action, and suffered 2,997 battle casualties including 548 killed and 206 missing; only 56 m e n were listed as prisoners. It was reorganized in M a r c h / A p r i l 1945, when the 365th Infantry b e c a m e a replacement training unit and the 371st was assigned rear security duties; for the last few weeks o f the war it had o n e black regiment ( 3 7 0 t h ) , o n e white ( 4 7 3 r d ) , and o n e "Nisei" Japanese A m e r i c a n regiment (442nd Regimental C o m b a t T e a m ) . T h o u g h the 9 2 n d Division represented less than 2 p e r c e n t o f African American troops in the Army, it received disproportionate m e d i a attention. This was n o t always f r o m positive motives; the division's c o m b a t p e r f o r m a n c e was m i x e d , and there were always those w h o were eager to slander African American GIs generally by seizing o n particular incidents. As with so many o t h e r black units, the c o r e o f the p r o b l e m s

September 1943: the h e a d q u a r t e r s staff of t h e 9 2 n d Inf Div e s t a b l i s h e d in a n a n c i e n t G r e e k t e m p l e of N e p t u n e in Italy. Sitting at t h e improvised desks a r e (front t o b a c k ) : S g t s J a m e s S h e l l m a n , G i l b e r t A.Terry, J o h n W.Phoenix, Curtis A.Richardson a n d L e s l i e B . W o o d . In f r o n t of t h e d e s k s a r e (front t o b a c k ) : T e c h Sgt Gordon A.Scott, Master Sgt Walter C.Jackson, Sgt David D.Jones and W O Carlyle M.Tucker. (NARA)

S e p t e m b e r 7, 1 9 4 4 : a c o m b a t p a t r o l f r o m t h e 9 2 n d Inf Div a d v a n c e , s o m e 3 m i l e s n o r t h of L u c c a , Italy. T h e b a z o o k a t e a m h a v e j u s t f i r e d a n AT r o c k e t ; t h e M 9 A 1 model bazooka had a m a x i m u m r a n g e of 3 0 0 y a r d s . By t h i s d a t e e a c h rifle c o m p a n y h a d five b a z o o k a s , a n d t h e y w e r e also i s s u e d o n a g e n e r o u s scale to other battalion and r e g i m e n t a l s u b - u n i t s for a n t i t a n k d e f e n s e . (NARA)

N o v e m b e r 1 9 4 4 : s o l d i e r s of a n 8 1 m m mortar platoon from the 9 2 n d Inf Div in a c t i o n a g a i n s t t a r g e t s n e a r M a s s a in n o r t h e r n Italy. T h e w e a p o n s c o m p a n y of e a c h of t h e t h r e e b a t t a l i o n s of e a c h i n f a n t r y r e g i m e n t h a d six of t h e s e m o r t a r s . (NARA)

suffered by those o f the 9 2 n d Division was p o o r leadership (starting with the division c o m m a n d e r , MajGen Edward M . A l m o n d ) , and inadequate training. T h e white officers assigned to the formation were unhappy to b e there; significant n u m b e r s o f t h e m were - deliberately - selected f r o m a m o n g Southerners, many o f w h o m p r o v e d unable to see b e y o n d their ancestral prejudices. 93rd Infantry Division T h e regiments o f this formation had seen m o r e combat in World War I than any other American units. It had b e e n activated in D e c e m b e r 1917, and organized f r o m African American National Guard units from New York, Illinois, Connecticut, Maryland, Massachusetts, O h i o , Tennessee and the District o f Columbia, and African American draftees from South Carolina. By the time o f America's entry into the war the French Army had

been fighting at h i d e o u s cost for three years; it was desperate for reinforcements and - with its own extensive colonial infantry c o m p o n e n t - was free o f any neuroses about black c o m b a t troops. Consequently, the regiments o f the 93rd were "loaned" to the French; it was originally intended that they would be returned and reorganized as a division o f the A m e r i c a n Expeditionary F o r c e , but this did not happen. Instead, the regiments remained attached to French divisions until the end o f the war in November 1918. They first went into action in the Verdun sector in June 1918, and went o n to fight in the Champagne-Marne sector that fall; by the Armistice in N o v e m b e r they had suffered more than 3,500 casualties and earned 322 gallantry decorations. Reactivated o n May 15, 1942, at Ft H u a c h u c a , A r i z o n a , the 93rd Division i n c l u d e d the 25th, 368th and 369th Infantry Regiments, with the 593rd t h r o u g h 596th Field Artillery Battalions and the 318th Engineer and Medical battalions. T h e division was d e p l o y e d to the Pacific, arriving o n Guadalcanal progressively between January and March 1944. It served in New Guinea, the n o r t h e r n S o l o m o n s and the Bismarck A r c h i p e l a g o ; however, owing to A r m y p r e j u d i c e against African American units m u c h o f the division w o u l d s p e n d the war p e r f o r m i n g labor and security duties. T h e 25th Infantry did see c o m b a t when it was attached to the "Americal" Division in March-April 1944 o n Bougainville island. T h e 93rd Cavalry Reconnaissance T r o o p was also attached to X I V Corps to raid, patrol and maintain perimeter positions. In April 1945 the 93rd Division o c c u p i e d Morotai, Dutch N e w Guinea, and r e c o r d e d scattered skirmishes along the northwestern coast o f the island, where the division c o n t i n u e d its labor and security missions. Since the Army prevented the 93rd as a w h o l e f r o m seeing any significant c o m b a t , the division's wartime battle casualties a m o u n t e d to only 138 m e n killed and w o u n d e d .

M a r c h - A p r i l 1 9 4 4 : s o l d i e r s of t h e 2 5 t h Inf R e g t , t h e n d e t a c h e d f r o m its p a r e n t 9 3 r d Inf Div t o s u p p o r t t h e " A m e r i c a l " Div, w a i t behind an M 4 A 3 Sherman tank to assault J a p a n e s e positions a l o n g E m p r e s s A u g u s t a Bay o n Bougainville in t h e S o l o m o n I s l a n d s . (NARA)

April 1 9 4 4 , beside t h e E a s t - W e s t Trail, B o u g a i n v i l l e : S g t J o h n C . C l a r k a n d S t a f f Sgt Ford M . S h a w , f r o m C o E, 2 5 t h Infantry, c l e a n t h e i r G a r a n d rifles. T h e c o n s t a n t d a m p a n d filth of t h e j u n g l e , a n d t h e M 1 ' s relatively c o m p l e x s e m i automatic action, m a d e this a frequent and very necessary p r e c a u t i o n . (NARA)

555th Parachute Infantry Battalion This unit was b o r n as a test c o m p a n y , activated at Fort Benning, G e o r g i a , o n D e c e m b e r 30, 1943, as the 555th Parachute Infantry C o m p a n y . T h e A r m y authorized the f o r m a t i o n o f a c o m p a n y with African A m e r i c a n officers and enlisted m e n ; all m e m b e r s o f the c o m p a n y were to b e volunteers, with an enlisted cadre selected f r o m the 9 2 n d Infantry Division. O n N o v e m b e r 25, 1944, after m o n t h s o f training, the c o m p a n y m o v e d to C a m p Mackall, N o r t h Carolina, where it was r e o r g a n i z e d a n d redesignated as C o m p a n y A o f the 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion. In May 1945, the 555th was sent to the West Coast o f the United States to fight forest fires. Stationed at P e n d l e t o n Field, O r e g o n , the b a t t a l i o n ' s p a r a t r o o p e r s p a r t i c i p a t e d in d a n g e r o u s missions t h r o u g h o u t the Pacific Northwest d u r i n g the s u m m e r and fall o f 1945. N i c k n a m e d the "Triple Nickles" o r the " S m o k e J u m p e r s , " the battalion r e t u r n e d to C a m p Mackall in O c t o b e r 1945. T h e 555th then transferred to Fort Bragg, N o r t h Carolina, where it r e m a i n e d for the n e x t two years a n d was attached to the 8 2 n d A i r b o r n e Division. O n D e c e m b e r 15, 1947, the battalion was inactivated and most o f its p e r s o n n e l w e r e r e a s s i g n e d to the 3rd B n , 505th A i r b o r n e Infantry R e g i m e n t .

Volunteer infantry replacements By D e c e m b e r 1944 the US A r m y was e x p e r i e n c i n g severe shortages o f infantry replacements in E u r o p e . T h e shortfalls o f riflemen began in July 1944, soon after the invasion o f France. T h e p r o b l e m was so severe that the Army began retraining enlisted m e n from other specialties to serve as infantry-men. T h e G e r m a n A r d e n n e s offensive o f m i d December further exacerbated the situation. T h e only readily available and relatively untapped source o f manpower was the African American service and support units already serving in the European theater. T h e suggestion o f drawing u p o n these units for volunteer infantry r e p l a c e m e n t s was w e l c o m e d by the S u p r e m e A l l i e d C o m m a n d e r , G e n Dwight D . E i s e n h o w e r ; however, since integration was still u n acceptable to many senior officers a n d politicians, he had to find a way to hide his real intention. T h e r e f o r e , a request was put out for volunteers f r o m all service and support units, regardless o f race; publicly, it was stated that if there were m o r e black volunteers than were n e e d e d for existing African American combat units, those m e n w o u l d b e used in other organizations. T h e call for volunteers was issued o n D e c e m b e r 26, and since white units h a d already b e e n c o m b e d o u t f o r infantry replacements, the overwhelming majority o f the volunteers came f r o m a m o n g those for w h o m the appeal was originally intended - African Americans. Within two months almost 5,000 o f them signed u p , but since the Army c o u l d n o t afford to strip t o o many service and support units, the n u m b e r accepted was initially limited to 2,500. As part o f the arrangement the volunteers had to give u p any rank they possessed in their previous units; thus, a first sergeant (the most senior N C O ) in a Quartermaster unit would have to b e willing to b e c o m e a private in order to serve as an infantryman. In January 1945 the first volunteers gathered for six weeks o f infantry conversion training. After training, the African A m e r i c a n infantrymen were organized into 53 platoons, each with a white p l a t o o n leader a n d platoon sergeant. T h e platoons were divided between two a r m o r e d divisions (the 12th and 14th) and eight infantry divisions (the 1st, 2 n d , 8th, 9th, 69th, 78th, 99th and 104th.) Each p l a t o o n i n c l u d e d a b o u t 60 m e n - almost 50 p e r c e n t m o r e than the n o r m a l strength, in o r d e r to provide replacements for battle casualties. T h r e e volunteer platoons were assigned to each division, o n e for each o f its infantry regiments. At the e n d o f the war it was m a d e clear to the African A m e r i c a n volunteers that the e x p e r i m e n t had e n d e d , and the majority o f t h e m were reassigned to African A m e r i c a n units.

M a r c h 1 9 4 4 : a s t i c k of 1 6 A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n soldiers ride a C - 4 7 t r a n s p o r t o n t h e w a y t o o n e of t h e i r r e q u i r e d f i v e qualifying jumps before being awarded t h e i r " w i n g s " a t Fort B e n n i n g , G e o r g i a . All r a n k s of t h e e n t i r e 5 5 5 t h P a r a c h u t e Inf Bn w o u l d be African Americans; they would make dangerous jumps, b u t a g a i n s t f o r e s t f i r e s in t h e Pacific Northwest rather than a n y h u m a n e n e m y . (NARA)

21

C r e w e d by A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n G I s , US Army 2

1

ton trucks and

a Dodge weapons-carrier wind precariously along a mountainside on t h e Ledo R o a d , t h e only l a n d s u p p l y route b e t w e e n Allied rear b a s e s in India a n d t r o o p s in northern Burma and China. (NARA)

T h e experiment was carefully scrutinized by Eisenhower's headquarters. In July 1945, after the cessation o f the war in Europe, a survey was undertaken a m o n g the white officers and platoon sergeants w h o had had contact with the African American platoons. In addition, an anonymous questionnaire was submitted to m o r e than 1,000 white enlisted m e n to determine their attitudes toward the black riflemen. (Interestingly, n o African Americans were interviewed.) M o r e than 80 p e r c e n t o f the white officers and N C O s interviewed believed that African A m e r i c a n soldiers had p e r f o r m e d "very well" in c o m b a t , and an almost equal n u m b e r believed that African Americans c o u l d p e r f o r m as well as white infantrymen if they had the same training and e x p e r i e n c e . Nearly all the white soldiers were surprised that, despite initial a p p r e h e n s i o n , the white and black infantrymen worked well together. T h e majority o f the officers t h o u g h t that the experiment s h o u l d b e c o n t i n u e d a n d e x p a n d e d , rather than retaining the segregated African A m e r i c a n units. R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s based o n these findings were o p p o s e d by many senior A r m y officers, including the A r m y Chief-of-Staff G e n G e o r g e C.Marshall a n d G e n O m a r N.Bradley, the senior A m e r i c a n field c o m m a n d e r in E u r o p e . Bradley argued that most o f the African A m e r i c a n platoons had participated in only m i n o r c o m b a t operations; that they were m a d e u p o f African Americans o f "above average" intelligence; and that racial tension had arisen w h e n the "integrated"

companies were in rest and recreational areas. Marshall agreed with Bradley regarding the unusual quality o f the volunteers and the uniqueness o f the e m e r g e n c y that had p r o m p t e d their e m p l o y m e n t . (It should b e n o t e d that b o t h Marshall and Bradley, while professional Army officers o f the highest caliber, haled f r o m S o u t h e r n states Virginia and Missouri, respectively.) Nevertheless, the volunteer platoons e x p l o d e d many racial myths and first, that o f African A m e r i c a n cowardice. If that were true, then why were thousands o f black soldiers willing to trade the safety o f duties in the rear - and many o f them, their N C O pay and status - for c o m b a t in the snowy forests o f the Bulge, against G e r m a n units that had recently proved so aggressive? Secondly the myth that close contact between the races would result in conflict; in fact, there were very few racial incidents in the "integrated" c o m p a n i e s . T h e last myth to b e e x p o s e d was the belief that Southern officers were better suited to lead African A m e r i c a n units, because o f their e x p e r i e n c e o f contact in civilian life. Since the p l a c e m e n t o f the v o l u n t e e r p l a t o o n s was n o t d e p e n d e n t o n preconceived segregationist notions, p l a t o o n leaders and c o m p a n y c o m m a n d e r s had b e e n c h o s e n fairly randomly, and i n c l u d e d many N o r t h e r n officers. T h e success o f the v o l u n t e e r p l a t o o n s c o u l d therefore have little to d o with the regional b a c k g r o u n d o f the officers. In the end, the most long-term effect o f the lessons o f the volunteer platoons in the Battle o f the Bulge would n o t b e felt until July 26, 1948, when President Harry S.Truman signed Executive O r d e r 9981, which provided equal treatment and opportunity for all members o f the US military regardless o f race.

Drivers from the 6 6 6 t h Q M Truck C o , w h o c h a l k e d up 2 0 , 0 0 0 m i l e s each without an accident since arriving in t h e E T O . S o l d i e r s like t h e s e w e r e i n s t r u m e n t a l in s u c c e s s f u l l y s u p p l y i n g t h e US A r m y via t h e R e d Ball E x p r e s s . Left t o right: T e c h 5 S h e r m a n Hughes, Tech 5 Hudson Murphy and Pfc Zacariah Gibbs. Note t h a t all h a v e a c q u i r e d t h e M 1 9 4 4 " I k e " j a c k e t . (NARA)

Support and service troops By far the largest n u m b e r o f African Americans in the US Army served in s u p p o r t and service units. Every o n e o f the Army's support and service support arms c o n t a i n e d African American soldiers, w h o were frequently called u p o n to p e r f o r m hazardous and crucially important duties with little o r n o r e c o g n i t i o n for their efforts. T h e majority o f these duties were physically d e m a n d i n g , and s o m e were considered b e n e a t h the dignity o f white soldiers. Many African A m e r i c a n units were converted to new designations or specializations w h e n they arrived overseas. In most cases they p e r f o r m e d tasks for which they had never b e e n specifically trained. T h e African American units in greatest d e m a n d and most consistently employed were those o f the Engineer and Quartermaster branches o f the service. While it might b e imagined that such troops w o u l d require a fair a m o u n t o f specialized training, they generally n e e d e d nothing m o r e than physical strength and the ability to operate a m o t o r vehicle. Although the first units shipped were generally less well trained than those that followed, the sense o f urgency early in America's participation in the war put a higher value o n simply filling immediate needs. T h e s e units, w h o received little attention or fame, were in fact often a m o n g the first to arrive in c o m b a t zones. For instance, black engineers arrived b e f o r e o t h e r A m e r i c a n g r o u n d units at Port Moresby, New Guinea, the m o s t vital single bastion o f resistance to the Japanese operations there. Right across the i m m e n s e expanses o f the Pacific, they arrived just b e h i n d initial landing forces in o r d e r to construct airfields, and the roads and a n c h o r a g e s necessary to k e e p a steady stream o f supplies m o v i n g forward to the troops o n the front lines. Equipped with bulldozers, trucks, o r simply o n f o o t , they m o v e d across the icy wilderness o f Alaska, the j u n g l e s and hills o f the C h i n a - B u r m a - I n d i a theater and the coral reefs o f the Pacific, building the infrastructure necessary f o r the military transportation w i t h o u t w h i c h c o m b a t operations were simply impossible. African A m e r i c a n Port and A m p h i b i o u s Truck c o m p a n i e s f o u n d themselves attached to A r m y and Marine units for the invasions o f Pacific islands such as Saipan, Tinian, Iwo Jima and Okinawa. During the battle o f Iwo Jima, b e g i n n i n g o n February 19, 1945, two US Army Port c o m p a n i e s and three A m p h i b i o u s Truck c o m p a n i e s ( e q u i p p e d with DUKWs) were attached to V A m p h i b i o u s Corps (Marine). Port c o m p a n i e s m a n n e d harbours t h r o u g h o u t the world, even in places where n o p o r t had ever b e f o r e existed. In N o r m a n d y o n June 6, 1944, the African A m e r i c a n 320th A A Balloon Bn set u p barrage balloons to p r o t e c t the invasion fleet and the troops o n the beaches f r o m low-flying G e r m a n aircraft. At the same time, A m p h i b i o u s Truck, Quartermaster and A m m u n i t i o n c o m p a n i e s began u n l o a d i n g and transporting the supplies without which the b e a c h h e a d c o u l d n o t have b e e n established and d e f e n d e d . African A m e r i c a n Transportation c o m p a n i e s were attached to infantry and a r m o r e d divisions as they f o u g h t their way eastwards across E u r o p e . Many o f these c o m p a n i e s b e c a m e semi-permanent elements o f these divisions, e v e n serving as t e m p o r a r y i n f a n t r y m e n w h e n circumstances required. For instance, during the drive across France the 57th O r d n a n c e A m m u n i t i o n C o was e n g a g e d by 65 Germans at the

French town o f P e r o n n e , with n o o t h e r A m e r i c a n units in support. T h e soldiers o f the c o m p a n y killed 50 a n d c a p t u r e d the r e m a i n i n g 15 Germans; f o u r m e n were cited f o r bravery d u r i n g this e n c o u n t e r , and were awarded two French C r o i x d e G u e r r e , o n e Silver Star and o n e Bronze Star. T h e logistic lifeline o f the advancing armies was, notoriously, stretched o u t perilously l o n g and thin during the many m o n t h s that the original N o r m a n d y b e a c h h e a d r e m a i n e d the o n l y available disembarkation point. This lifeline d e p e n d e d u p o n the Quartermaster truckers, w h o sped supplies forward along the roads o f N W E u r o p e by the priority traffic system christened the "Red Ball Express." In the e n d , the sheer quantity o f work p e r f o r m e d by African A m e r i c a n units was m o r e than planners had ever envisioned b e f o r e the war. Many o f these small units c h a n g e d their designations and functions as n e e d e d ; s o m e o f them - such as the d u m p truck c o m p a n i e s - were always in d e m a n d . In total, m o r e than 4,000 small African A m e r i c a n service and s u p p o r t units were organized during W o r l d War II. In March 1944, b e f o r e the invasion o f France, the majority o f the nearly 700,000 African A m e r i c a n soldiers w e r e still in the U n i t e d States; b u t by D e c e m b e r 1944 m o r e than two-thirds o f t h e m were overseas. T h e trend c o n t i n u e d , a n d by April 1945 this figure

Private William A.Reynolds displays a m a c h i n e gun bullet which lodged above the w i n d s h i e l d of his a m b u l a n c e w h e n h e w a s s t r a f e d by a G e r m a n plane near the front in F r a n c e . H e w o r e t h e s p e n t b u l l e t o n his d o g - t a g c h a i n f o r g o o d l u c k . (NARA)

h a d risen a b o v e 70 p e r c e n t . O f the approximately 470,000 black soldiers serving overseas in D e c e m b e r 1944, a r o u n d 170,000 were Quartermaster t r o o p s , 110,000 were Engineers, and 65,000 were Transportation t r o o p s . For the most part the Quartermaster truck and service companies, the laundry and d u m p truck c o m p a n i e s , and the Engineer and Port units spent their overseas service in harbors, base camps and depots; they p e r f o r m e d routine duties, with few if any opportunities for heroism. T h o u g h their service was in the main rather unexciting, they were n o m o r e o r less efficient than similar units o f any race. Interactions between African A m e r i c a n and white soldiers, and between black A m e r i c a n troops and foreign civilians, were generally m o r e often positive than negative. T h e efficiency o f most African American units was never as high as it c o u l d have b e e n if the training and leadership they were given had truly b e e n equal to that o f white units; but likewise, their efficiency was generally never as p o o r as white segregationists continually claimed. Life overseas T h e A m e r i c a n R e d Cross created a n u m b e r o f clubs staffed with and exclusively f o r African A m e r i c a n s . By February 1944 there were 23 African A m e r i c a n clubs, but the very existence o f the segregated clubs smacked o f the "separate, but e q u a l " treatment that so many black Americans were f o r c e d to e n d u r e in the Southern USA. T h e American R e d Cross and its clubs were i n d e p e n d e n t o f the federal government; but the close association between them and the Army overseas did n o t p e r m i t the average enlisted man o r officer to notice any clear distinction between the two institutions o r their policies. O f the letters written by white A m e r i c a n soldiers w h o m e n t i o n e d the issue o f race, the majority discuss their surprise at the lack o f racial p r e j u d i c e a m o n g the British p e o p l e . T h e y were s h o c k e d that many British w o m e n saw n o p r o b l e m in d a n c i n g with o r even dating African A m e r i c a n soldiers ( s o m e believed that black Americans s o m e h o w c o n v i n c e d the allegedly gullible British that they were Native A m e r i c a n s ) . Others t o o k consolation f r o m the belief that only the British lower classes were friendly to African Americans. While this issue m i g h t seem u n i m p o r t a n t ( o t h e r than to white Americans trying to get a d a t e ) , s o m e were c o n c e r n e d as to h o w the friendly treatment African Americans generally received in Britain might affect their post-war expectations w h e n they returned h o m e . While the post-World War I saying had b e e n , " H o w d o y o u k e e p them d o w n o n the farm after they've seen Paris?", white soldiers n o w s e e m e d to worry, " H o w can you k e e p t h e m in their place n o w that they've dated a British w o m a n ? " For African A m e r i c a n soldiers the color-blindness o f the British Isles was an u n e x p e c t e d pleasure; but for white officers, the situation in Britain was c o m p l i c a t e d . Officers serving with African Americans were b o t h relieved that they did n o t have to worry a b o u t racial animus a m o n g their hosts, and c o n c e r n e d as to h o w white GIs w o u l d react to the relaxed British attitudes. White officers serving with white American soldiers t e n d e d to share their m e n ' s o p i n i o n s - that this exposure to British calmness over race was simply g o i n g to make things m o r e difficult in post-war America.

US NAVY

I n d i a , July 1 9 4 3 : A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s off d u t y in c r i s p khakis, enjoying a rickshaw ride.

Prior to World War II, African A m e r i c a n sailors were only allowed to serve in Navy kitchens. T h e US Navy's senior leadership initially resisted extending their role b e y o n d kitchen duties; eventually, however, two warships were crewed exclusively with African A m e r i c a n sailors, t h o u g h they were c o m m a n d e d by white officers. N o black officers were available for these ships, because only 13 African Americans were c o m m i s s i o n e d as line officers in the Navy during W o r l d War II. Additionally, the US Navy organized several African A m e r i c a n construction battalions, which saw c o m b a t in the Pacific. Steward's Mate Doris Miller Doris Miller, known as " D o r i e " to his friends, was b o r n in W a c o , T X , o n O c t o b e r 12, 1919. In high s c h o o l he was a fullback o n the football team, and he worked o n his father's farm. O n S e p t e m b e r 16, 1939, the 20-yearold Miller enlisted in the US Navy as a mess attendant, 3rd class. H e j o i n e d the Navy instead o f the A r m y because h e wanted to travel, to learn a trade ( c o o k i n g ) , and to earn m o n e y to h e l p his family. Miller's first assignment was aboard the USS Pyro (AE-1), an a m m u n i t i o n ship. O n January 2, 1940, he transferred to the battleship USS West Virginia (BB-48), where he b e c a m e the ship's heavyweight b o x i n g c h a m p i o n . O n D e c e m b e r 7, 1941, Miller was a b o a r d the West Virginia w h e n the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. Having risen at 6.00am that m o r n i n g ,

For all t h e d e m e a n i n g t r e a t m e n t t h e y o f t e n e n d u r e d , t h e w a r did bring n e a r l y half a million b l a c k Americans an opportunity to see far countries and other cultures s o m e of w h i c h g a v e t h e m f o o d for t h o u g h t . (NARA)

27

In F e b r u a r y 1 9 4 4 , 1 2 m e m b e r s of t h e " G o l d e n T h i r t e e n " a r e pictured soon after their commissioning ceremony as t h e first b l a c k line o f f i c e r s in t h e U S Navy. W h i l e A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s had served as Navy officers before this date, none had been "line" officers - the only c a t e g o r y w h o c o u l d c o m m a n d a ship a t s e a . Left t o right, f r o n t : E n s i g n s G e o r g e Clinton Cooper, G r a h a m Edward M a r t i n , J e s s e W a l t e r Arbor, J o h n Walter Reagan and Reginald Ernest Goodwin; back: Ensigns D e n n i s D . N e l s o n I I , Phillip George Barnes, Samuel Edward B a r n e s , D a l t o n Louis B a u g h , James Edward Hare and Frank Ellis S u b l e t t , a n d W a r r a n t O f f i c e r C h a r l e s Byrd Lear. N o t p i c t u r e d h e r e is E n s i g n W . S y l v e s t e r W h i t e . (NARA)

Miller was collecting laundry w h e n general quarters was s o u n d e d . H e h e a d e d for his battle station, an antiaircraft battery magazine, only to find it already destroyed by a t o r p e d o strike. Miller then went u p to the main d e c k , where he b e g a n carrying w o u n d e d sailors to safety. T h e n an officer o r d e r e d h i m to the bridge o f the ship to aid the already w o u n d e d captain; and after d o i n g this, Miller m a n n e d a .50cal A A machine gun, firing o n the Japanese aircraft until h e ran o u t o f ammunition, and the o r d e r was put o u t to a b a n d o n ship. During the attack the West Virginia was struck by two armor-piercing b o m b s ( b o t h o f which penetrated the ship's d e c k ) , and five torpedoes in her left side. T h e explosions f r o m those strikes caused severe flooding b e l o w decks, and she slowly sank to the b o t t o m o f "Battleship Row." Unlike the m o s t f a m o u s battleship in Pearl H a r b o r that m o r n i n g , the USS Arizona (BB-39), the West Virginias losses were quite moderate: only 130 killed and 52 w o u n d e d o u t o f a crew o f 1,541 m e n . For his bravery that m o r n i n g , Miller was awarded the Navy Cross, the Navy's s e c o n d highest award for valor after the Medal o f H o n o r . Miller was next assigned to the armored cruiser USS Indianapolis (CA-35) and, in spring 1943, to the newly constructed escort carrier USS Liscome Bay (CVE-56). During Operation "Galvanic" o n November 20-23, 1943 - the assault landings o n Makin and Tarawa atolls in the Gilbert Islands - the Liscome Bay's aircraft supported operations ashore. At 5.10am o n N o v e m b e r 24 a t o r p e d o from the Japanese submarine 1-175 struck near the stern o f the carrier. T h e aircraft b o m b magazine detonated

soon afterwards; the carrier sank within minutes, and Dorie Miller was a m o n g the 646 sailors w h o lost their lives. O n June 30, 1973, the Navy commissioned the USS Miller (FF-1091), a Knox-class frigate, in his honor. For African Americans, Dorie Miller was the first and greatest h e r o o f World War II. USS Mason

(DE 5 2 9 )

T h e destroyer escort USS Mason was o n e o f only two US Navy vessels whose crews were c o m p o s e d entirely o f African Americans. Just as the 99th Fighter Squadron had b e e n an "experiment" for the AAF, so the Mason was c o n s i d e r e d an e x p e r i m e n t to find o u t w h e t h e r African Americans were capable o f p e r f o r m i n g m o r e than menial tasks in the Navy. T h e captain o f the Mason, LtCdr William M.Blackford, had previously captained the USS Phoebe, a minesweeper working in the Aleutian Islands. Blackford, w h o came o n active duty f r o m the Naval Reserve in January 1941, was only two semesters short o f finishing a PhD in chemistry at the University o f Virginia. His great-grandmother, Mary Berkeley M i n o r B l a c k f o r d , had b e e n n o t e d as an abolitionist, but he himself was n o crusader for African American rights; he simply treated his sailors as h u m a n beings. T h e first real test for the USS Mason was h e r shakedown cruise in April 1944, during which b o t h the m a c h i n e r y o f the ship and the crew's ability to work with their new e q u i p m e n t were tested. Exercises, b o t h day and night, i n c l u d e d towing, refueling, g u n n e r y and d r o p p i n g d e p t h charges. T h e Mason and her crew p e r f o r m e d well during the cruise, b u t the Navy's Bureau o f Personnel r e p o r t i n c l u d e d m o r e discussion o f the ship's appearance than o f her actual p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e USS Masons s e c o n d voyage, to the U n i t e d K i n g d o m , w o u l d also be her most difficult. As part o f C o n v o y NY-119 the destroyer e n d u r e d 30 days o f near-record wind and waves, which sank three tugs, eight car floats and five cargo barges. O n O c t o b e r 18, 1944, w h e n land was sighted and the m o n t h - l o n g ordeal was almost at an e n d , the weather got even worse: the wind increased to 60 knots and visibility d r o p p e d to zero. Unfortunately, this p r o v e d to b e m o r e than the Masons structure c o u l d e n d u r e , a n d the ship's d e c k split - two b e a m s in o n e c o m p a r t m e n t collapsed, and the seam h o l d i n g the d e c k together b r o k e .

May 27, 1942: Adm Chester W.Nimitz, C-in-C Pacific Fleet, pins t h e N a v y C r o s s - t h e U S Navy's s e c o n d h i g h e s t m e d a l f o r valor a f t e r t h e M e d a l of Honor - on Steward's M a t e 3rd Class "Dorie" Miller at a c e r e m o n y in P e a r l Harbor, H a w a i i - t h e s c e n e of M i l l e r ' s a c t s of b r a v e r y a b o a r d t h e s t r i c k e n b a t t l e s h i p U S S West Virginia

d u r i n g t h e a t t a c k of

D e c e m b e r 7, 1 9 4 1 . On November 2 4 , 1 9 4 3 , M i l l e r w o u l d b e lost at sea w h e n the carrier USS Liscome

Bay w a s t o r p e d o e d by

a J a p a n e s e s u b m a r i n e . (NARA)

On J u n e 2 , 1 9 4 2 , W i l l i a m B a l d w i n b e c a m e t h e first A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n US Navy recruit classified for G e n e r a l S e r v i c e - prior t o this d a t e t h e y could only join t h e Navy as s t e w a r d s , w o r k i n g in t h e ships' k i t c h e n s . (NARA)

Nevertheless, within two hours the d e c k was repaired. T h e Mason then assisted 12 o t h e r ships in the convoy, b e f o r e sailing to the coast o f France to salvage barges until the e n d o f that m o n t h . C o m m a n d e r B l a c k f o r d r e c o m m e n d e d his c r e w f o r a unit c o m m e n d a t i o n f o r their efforts d u r i n g C o n v o y NY-119, but the c o m m e n d a t i o n never materialized. T h e convoy's c o m m a n d e r also r e c o m m e n d e d the Mason and her captain for decorations; again, they were never awarded. Amazingly, the Masons crew did n o t know about these n o m i n a t i o n s until 50 years later, w h e n a researcher p r o d u c e d a b o o k o n the ship. During their several c o m b a t cruises the crew o f the USS Mason e x p e r i e n c e d different attitudes regarding their race in the different ports they visited. T h e r e c e p t i o n they received while visiting Belfast, N o r t h e r n Ireland, was the most positive; f r o m the Ulster p o i n t o f view the destroyer's crew were simply a n o t h e r b u n c h o f "Yanks." While the English had often referred to them, amiably e n o u g h , as "Tan Yankees" (an un-English term they must have learned f r o m A m e r i c a n s ) , the N o r t h e r n Irish m a d e n o distinction whatever, and they were well treated during their stay. O n J u n e 12, 1945, Blackford was abruptly p r o m o t e d and transferred to the Great Lakes Naval Training Station. T h e ship's next captain, LtCdr N o r m a n Meyer, had a very different attitude toward the m e n o f the USS Mason. H e wrongly believed that the majority o f his crew were

illiterate, and that he had inherited a ship with a p o o r r e c o r d . Meyer, a US Naval A c a d e m y graduate, was responsible for the m o s t embarrassing incident involving the Mason w h e n h e accidentally r a m m e d the USS Spangenburgwhile pulling into a N o r t h River pier in N e w York City. After only three m o n t h s aboard Meyer relinquished c o m m a n d ; and the Mason was d e c o m m i s s i o n e d a m o n t h later, in O c t o b e r 1945. In 1998 the Secretary o f the Navy, J o h n H.Dalton, d e c i d e d to n a m e an Arleigh Burke-class destroyer the USS Mason ( D D G 8 7 ) , to mark the contributions o f the sailors o f the wartime DE 529. PC 1 2 6 4 T h e patrol craft PC 1264 was the s e c o n d o f the two US Navy vessels whose crews were c o m p o s e d entirely o f African Americans. T h o u g h she was actually in service l o n g e r than the Mason, the PC 1264 - a smaller vessel, with a smaller crew (only 300 tons as o p p o s e d to the Masons 1,100, and 63 m e n against the destroyer's 156) - has sunk into even greater obscurity than her counterpart. Popularly known as "subchasers," the 369 patrol craft launched during World War II were almost exclusively crewed by reservists and draftees with minimal sea experience. Their duties were wide-ranging, and included escorting convoys, hunting submarines, sinking small enemy vessels, shooting down aircraft, bombarding landing areas, and leading landing craft in to invasion beaches. Designed to be p r o d u c e d easily in small yards, the subchasers were used in all theaters o f the war.

M a r c h 2 0 , 1 9 4 4 : at the Boston Navy Y a r d , A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n sailors look o v e r t h e i r n e w l y commissioned ship, t h e USS Mason

(Destroyer Escort 5 2 9 ) -

t h e first N a v y v e s s e l t o h a v e a predominantly African American c r e w . (NARA)

A g u n c r e w of six A f r i c a n Americans who received the Navy C r o s s f o r s t a n d i n g by t h e i r 4 0 m m A A g u n w h e n t h e i r ship w a s d a m a g e d by e n e m y a t t a c k in t h e P h i l i p p i n e s . Left t o right: Steward's M a t e s Jonell Copeland, Que Gant, Harold C l a r k Jr, J a m e s E.Dockery, A l o n z o A . S w a n n a n d Eli B e n j a m i n . (NARA)

T h e captain o f PC 1264, Lt Eric P u r d o n , was n o t c h o s e n because o f any particular qualities relating to his African A m e r i c a n crew. Rather, he seems to have b e e n selected simply because he was available and had served o n a n o t h e r subchaser, b e f o r e briefly - for three months c o m m a n d i n g yet another. P u r d o n was given the c h a n c e to volunteer for the assignment and did so willingly; it b r o u g h t h i m two things he wanted - a c o m m a n d , and a challenge. All o f the other ship's officers were also volunteers. With o n e e x c e p t i o n (the executive officer, w h o was a jazz aficionado and had black friends), n o n e o f the other officers had any particular feeling for o r against African Americans. It is interesting to n o t e that all o f t h e m were N o r t h e r n e r s o r Californians. T h e PC 1264 was commissioned o n April 24,1944, at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. T h e ship's 22 months o f service proved to b e largely uneventful; she spent her career patrolling the east coast o f the United States and the Caribbean. T h e closest she came to c o m b a t was during stops in Southern ports, when the officers and crew were threatened with lynchings, for being "race-mixers" or "bothering o u r w o m e n , " respectively. In May 1945 a m o m e n t o u s event o c c u r r e d o n the PC 1264 when a new officer reported aboard: Ensign Samuel L. Gravely Jr., w h o would b e c o m e , in 1971, the first African American admiral in the US Navy. T h e ship was preparing for duty in the Pacific when the war e n d e d o n August 15, 1945. After VJ-Day many officers and sailors began to b e discharged; Lt Purdon turned over c o m m a n d o f PC 1264 o n O c t o b e r 31. By the time the ship was d e c o m m i s s i o n e d o n February 7, 1946, the entire ship's c o m p l e m e n t was only five officers and 28 sailors.

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(continued on page 41)

S U P P O R T & SERVICE T R O O P S 1: Chaplain 2: Tech 3, 92nd Quartermaster C o 3: Tech 5, 152nd Coast Artillery Group

Naval C o n s t r u c t i o n B a t t a l i o n s In O c t o b e r 1942 the US Navy created the first segregated construction battalions (CBs, better known as "Seabees"). Eventually the Navy established 17 Special and two regular Construction Battalions with white officers and African A m e r i c a n sailors, and m o r e than 14,000 black Americans served in these segregated units during W o r l d War II. M e n assigned to these construction battalions received instruction in a wide variety o f duties, s o m e involving particular skills a n d others merely requiring physical strength. Additionally, since m o s t o f their work t o o k place close to the front lines, they also received small arms a n d o t h e r c o m b a t training. T h e construction battalions p e r f o r m e d all o f the Navy's overseas c o n s t r u c t i o n w o r k , i n c l u d i n g b u i l d i n g airfields, r o a d s , h o u s i n g , defensive positions, d o c k s , wharves, b r i d g e s , canals a n d storage facilities, and also u n l o a d e d e q u i p m e n t . Seabees were also frequently called u p o n to fight alongside g r o u n d c o m b a t t r o o p s o r to p r o t e c t themselves f r o m Japanese attacks. For e x a m p l e , in the Palau Islands, 200 African American Seabees j o i n e d an assault against Japanese positions, and half o f them b e c a m e casualties during the first week o f c o m b a t . T h e Seabees' efforts m a d e the difference between victory and defeat during a n u m b e r o f Pacific island operations.

D e c e m b e r 1 9 4 2 : m e n of t h e U S Navy's 3 4 t h C o n s t r u c t i o n Bn d i s e m b a r k f r o m a landing c r a f t during assault training. While " S e a b e e s " w e r e specifically tasked with construction work, t h e y w e r e also e x p e c t e d t o defend themselves and their sites f r o m J a p a n e s e a t t a c k s . (NARA)

The Port Chicago disaster, July 17, 1944 As the war in the Pacific e x p a n d e d , Port C h i c a g o , California, located 35 miles n o r t h o f San F r a n c i s c o , b e c a m e a m a j o r m u n i t i o n s facility for the US Navy. By 1944 e x p a n s i o n a n d i m p r o v e m e n t o f the pier at Port C h i c a g o a l l o w e d f o r the l o a d i n g o f two ships simultaneously. Most o f the d a n g e r o u s w o r k , the l o a d i n g a n d u n l o a d i n g o f m u n i t i o n s , was d o n e by African A m e r i c a n sailors. Unfortunately, neither the sailors n o r their white officers h a d r e c e i v e d any special training in the l o a d i n g a n d u n l o a d i n g o f m u n i t i o n s , t h o u g h they d i d receive s o m e i n s t r u c t i o n in g e n e r a l c a r g o h a n d l i n g . T h e m a j o r i t y o f their e x p e r i e n c e c a m e f r o m w o r k i n g with the m u n i t i o n s o n a day-to-day basis. T h e l o a d i n g o f ships w e n t o n a r o u n d the c l o c k , and the d i f f e r e n t w o r k crews d e v e l o p e d a sense o f c o m p e t i t i o n regarding w h o c o u l d l o a d the m o s t in an e i g h t - h o u r shift. Since this race h e l p e d to increase the s p e e d o f l o a d i n g , officers e n c o u r a g e d what they saw as healthy rivalry. In S e p t e m b e r 1 9 4 4 , d u r i n g t h e 1st M a r i n e Div's b i t t e r l y r e s i s t e d invasion of P e l e l i u in t h e P a l a u I s l a n d s , t h i s g r o u p of A f r i c a n American Seabees acted as stretcher bearers for t h e 7 t h M a r i n e s . (NARA)

O n the evening o f July 17, 1944, two merchant ships were being l o a d e d at the Port C h i c a g o pier, the SS Quinault Victory and the SS E.A.Bryan. T h e munitions being l o a d e d were a combination o f high explosive and incendiary b o m b s , depth charges and ammunition - m o r e than 4,000 tons in all. In addition, 16 railroad cars were o n the pier carrying another 400 tons o f munitions. T h e r e were 320 cargo handlers, c r e w m e n and sailors p e r f o r m i n g the stevedore duties that night.

At 1 0 . 1 8 p m an e n o r m o u s e x p l o s i o n r i p p e d i n t o the n i g h t sky; a c o l u m n o f s m o k e and flames e r u p t e d f r o m the pier, a n d j u s t six s e c o n d s later a s e c o n d massive e x p l o s i o n f o l l o w e d a b o a r d the E.A.Bryan. T h e seismic s h o c k wave was so massive that it was felt as far away as B o u l d e r City, Nevada. T h e E.A.Bryan, the p i e r a n d n e a r b y buildings c o m p l e t e l y disintegrated; the Quinault Victory was spun i n t o the air, its remains crashing b a c k i n t o the bay 500 feet f r o m its a n c h o r a g e . T h e 320 m e n o n duty that n i g h t w e r e killed instantly, while a n o t h e r 390 were w o u n d e d , a n d the blast d a m a g e d every building in Port C h i c a g o . T h e air filled with splinters o f glass a n d o t h e r debris, later f o u n d as far as two miles away. T h e blast even caused d a m a g e 48 miles away across the Bay in San Francisco. O f the 320 m e n killed in the e x p l o s i o n 202 w e r e African A m e r i c a n s ; the disaster at Port C h i c a g o a c c o u n t e d f o r 15 p e r c e n t o f all African Americans killed in W o r l d War II. Despite the devastation, less than a m o n t h after the worst h o m e - f r o n t disaster o f World War II, Port C h i c a g o was again l o a d i n g munitions b o u n d for the Pacific. T h e repercussions o f the e x p l o s i o n were b o t h positive and negative. Prior to the disaster, US Coast Guard instructions o n safe ship loading were often violated, because it was felt that they were either n o t safe e n o u g h o r n o t fast e n o u g h ; the officers and m e n o n the pier e x p e r i m e n t e d with new p r o c e d u r e s which they felt were b o t h safer and faster. After the e x p l o s i o n , the Navy instituted a n u m b e r o f

Enlisted sailors serving on Espiritu S a n t o Island in t h e N e w H e b r i d e s , placing 6 i n shells in m a g a z i n e s a t t h e Naval A m m u n i t i o n D e p o t ; t h e y w e a r w o r k i n g " d u n g a r e e s . " Left to right: S e a m e n 1st Class Dodson B.Samples, Raymond W y n n , E d w a r d L.CIavo a n d J e s s e Davis. (NARA)

43

changes in munitions handling p r o c e d u r e , and formalized training with certification was required b e f o r e a loader was allowed o n the docks. T h e munitions themselves were also redesigned to make them safer while loading.

Beginning on J u n e 1 , 1 9 4 2 , for t h e first t i m e in history, t h e US M a r i n e Corps b e g a n to enlist African A m e r i c a n s ; t h e first of m o r e t h a n 1 9 , 0 0 0 t o serve during t h e w a r w a s Pvt H o w a r d P.Perry, s e e n h e r e in t h e forest-green service uniform w i t h service c a p . (NARA)

T h e e x p l o s i o n had obviously shaken everybody working in the port. For the African A m e r i c a n s , working in a segregated unit u n d e r d a n g e r o u s c o n d i t i o n s , discontent s o o n gave way to o p e n hostility. O n August 9, 1944, less than a m o n t h after the e x p l o s i o n , African American survivors o f the disaster were o r d e r e d to begin loading munitions at the Mare Island facility; subsequently 258 black sailors refused to continue to load munitions. O f these, 208 were given summary court-martials and were s e n t e n c e d to b a d c o n d u c t discharges and the forfeit o f three m o n t h s ' pay for disobeying orders. T h e remaining 50 were given general court-martials o n the charge o f mutiny. Since the United States was at war, these m e n were eligible for the death penalty; in the event they each received sentences o f between eight and 15 years at hard labor. In January 1946 all o f them were given c l e m e n c y and the r e m a i n d e r o f their sentences were remitted. It was n o t until D e c e m b e r 23, 1999, that President William J.Clinton granted them a full and complete pardon.

US MARINE CORPS T h e outbreak o f World War II f o u n d the US Marine Corps without a single African American officer o r enlisted man. In fact, the Marine Corps had never allowed African Americans to j o i n , and was the last branch o f the US military to admit them when it was o r d e r e d to d o so by President Roosevelt in J u n e 1942. U n d e r these c i r c u m s t a n c e s it s h o u l d n o t b e surprising that n o t a single African A m e r i c a n Marine Corps officer was c o m m i s s i o n e d during World War II. Despite these limitations, many African A m e r i c a n units were f o r m e d by the Corps, and saw active service in the Pacific. 5

A l t h o u g h the Marine Corps began to allow African Americans to enlist, few were interested, since the Corps was c o m m o n l y known as the "white man's service." In the first m o n t h o f recruiting only 63 African Americans enlisted, and four m o n t h s p r o d u c e d only half o f the 1,200 that the Marine

44

5

T h e first African American Marine officer was commissioned o n November 10, 1945 - Frederick C.Branch, a veteran o f the 51st Defense Bn, was commissioned second lieutenant in the USMC Reserve, but soon thereafer was discharged from active duty.

Corps believed they n e e d e d as a m i n i m u m cadre for the p r o p e r training o f the roughly 1,000 African A m e r i c a n troops w h o w o u l d enter the Corps each m o n t h as a result o f the Selective Service system, b e g i n n i n g in January 1943. T h e C o m m a n d a n t o f the Marine Corps, LtGen T h o m a s H o l c o m b , made it clear that the Corps did n o t want African Americans even though it was n o w f o r c e d to accept them. In March 1943, H o l c o m b issued Letter o f Instruction 421, which r e m a i n e d classified until after World War II. This d o c u m e n t stated that African Americans w o u l d never be placed in a situation in which they were superior in rank to any white Marine. T h e Corps did n o t want this situation to b e obvious to African Americans, so they also had a policy o f r e m o v i n g white N C O s f r o m African A m e r i c a n units as s o o n as c o m p e t e n t black N C O s were prepared to replace them. Segregation in the Marine Corps began with the training o f African American draftees, which took place at a newly established c a n t o n m e n t in the grounds o f C a m p Lejeune, North Carolina - M o n t f o r d Point C a m p . T h e c o m m a n d e r o f Montford Point C a m p was Col Samuel A . W o o d s Jr, a Southerner w h o had graduated f r o m the Military College o f South Carolina (better known as the Citadel). H e accepted the idea o f segregation, but his calmness and fairness nevertheless earned him the respect o f his troops. W o o d s cultivated a paternalistic relationship with his Marines, and there was some wry affection in his nickname o f "the Great White Father."

T h i s g u n m a n n e d by m e n of t h e U S M C 5 1 s t D e f e n s e Bn w a s named "Lena H o m e " after the famous African American singer a n d m o v i e a c t r e s s . (NARA)

Since the Marine Corps needed c o m p e t e n t African American n o n commissioned officers, they relied u p o n black recruits w h o had previous military experience with the Army or Navy. O n e o f the first o f these was Gilbert H."Hashmark" Johnson, who earned his nickname from wearing o n his uniform sleeve three o f the diagonal "hashmark" stripes indicating previous completed military enlistments. Born in 1905, Johnson j o i n e d the US Army in 1923 and served two enlistments with the 25th Infantry Regiment. Starting in 1933, he also served an enlistment as a steward in the Navy; in May 1941 he rejoined the Navy, again as a steward, before being allowed to transfer to the Marine Corps in November 1942.

T h e b a t t l e of S a i p a n in J u n e 1 9 4 4 s a w t h e first A f r i c a n

Since J o h n s o n had infantry experience ranging from company clerk to squad leader, he was ideally suited to serve in the Corps. After c o m p l e t i n g basic training he was chosen as an assistant drill instructor u n d e r a white N C O , and after his subsequent p r o m o t i o n he became a drill instructor. In January 1945, G u n n e r y Sergeant J o h n s o n became the sergeant-major o f the Montford Point C a m p . H e continued to serve in the USMC after World War II, retiring in 1955. T w o years after his death in 1972, the Marine Corps r e n a m e d M o n t f o r d Point C a m p as C a m p Gilbert H.Johnson.

A m e r i c a n M a r i n e s killed a n d w o u n d e d in c o m b a t , w h e n m e n of s u p p o r t c o m p a n i e s g o t d r a w n into i n f a n t r y f i g h t i n g . H e r e S t a f f S g t T i m e r l a t e K i r v e n (left) a n d C p l S a m u e l J . L o v e Sr., u n i f o r m e d in k h a k i s , a r e p o s e d f o r t h e photographer wearing their P u r p l e H e a r t s . (NARA)

51st Defense

Battalion

T h e first, and for a time the only African American Marine Corps c o m b a t unit was 51st Defense Battalion ( C o m p o s i t e ) . Defense battalions were o r g a n i z e d to solve the p r o b l e m s faced by the Marine Corps in placing garrisons o n the smaller overseas possessions that the Navy used as bases, and in d e f e n d i n g the naval bases that e n a b l e d the United States to p r o j e c t its p o w e r toward Japan. T h e most famous o f the wartime battalions was a d e t a c h m e n t f r o m the 1st Defense Bn that fought at Wake Island. By the e n d o f 1942 the nature o f the d e f e n s e battalions' role was c h a n g i n g . Rather than repulsing a m p h i b i o u s landings, they were m o r e likely to b e d e f e n d i n g against Japanese air strikes. In J u n e 1943 the t e r m " C o m p o s i t e " was r e m o v e d f r o m the 51st Defense Bn, a n d the unit was r e o r g a n i z e d . T h e battalion n o w c o n t a i n e d three g r o u p s : a Seacoast Artillery G r o u p , e q u i p p e d with 1 5 5 m m guns; an Antiaircraft Artillery G r o u p , with 9 0 m m g u n s ; and a Special

W e a p o n s G r o u p , e q u i p p e d with m a c h i n e g u n s , 2 0 m m a n d automatic c a n n o n .

40mm

In January 1944 the 51st Defense Bn b e g a n its j o u r n e y to the Pacific when it m o v e d by rail to San D i e g o , CA; it was assigned to replace the 7th Defense Bn, already located in the Ellice Islands, and set sail a b o a r d the merchantman SS Meteor o n February 11. T h e 51st Defense Bn remained o n N a n o u m e a and Funafuti in the Ellice Islands for roughly six months, during which it saw almost n o e n e m y action. W h i l e in the Ellice Islands the battalion had reorganized as an A A unit, losing its 155mm guns but adding m o r e 9 0 m m , and e x c h a n g i n g its m a c h i n e guns and 2 0 m m c a n n o n for m o r e 4 0 m m weapons. O n S e p t e m b e r 8, 1944, the battalion sailed for Eniwetok Atoll in the Marshall Islands, which was under sporadic surveillance and occasional harassment by Japanese aircraft. Duty o n Eniwetok was routine and relatively b o r i n g , enlivened only by the occasional crash o r f o r c e d landing o f A m e r i c a n planes. T h e battalion sailed back to A m e r i c a in N o v e m b e r 1945, and d i s b a n d e d at Montford Point in January 1946.

S e e n h e r e o n April 1 7 , 1 9 4 5 , Pfc L u t h e r W o o d w a r d of t h e U S Marine Corps' 4th Ammunition Co w a s awarded the Bronze Star f o r "his bravery, initiative a n d battle-cunning." The award would later be upgraded to t h e Silver Star. (NARA)

52nd Defense Battalion On December 15, 1943, the second African American U S M C defense battalion was o r g a n i z e d from a cadre o f 400 officers and men transferred f r o m 51st Defense Bn before it left for the Pacific. O n August 24, 1944, after m o r e than six months o f training, the 5 2 n d moved to Camp Pendleton, California, and o n S e p t e m b e r 21 b o a r d e d the transport USS Winged Arrow (AP-170). Arriving in the Marshall Islands, they t o o k over the d e f e n s e o f two M a r i n e air groups f r o m other A A units o n Majuro and Kwajalein atolls. For six months, f r o m O c t o b e r 1944 to March 1945, the battalion g u a r d e d the Marine airstrips against Japanese air attack, and f o r m e d reconnaissance parties that searched the smaller islands for Japanese stragglers. T h e 52nd Defense Bn d e p l o y e d to the recaptured island o f G u a m o n May 4, 1945, remaining there for the rest o f the war. In N o v e m b e r 1945 the 52nd relieved the 51st o n Kwajalein and Eniwetok. In May 1946, after returning to M o n t f o r d Point, the battalion was redesignated the 3rd Antiaircraft Artillery Bn ( C o m p o s i t e ) .

March 1945: three African American Marines pause to e a t d u r i n g t h e b a t t l e of I w o J i m a . Left t o right: P f c s W i l l i e J . K a n o d y , Elif Hill a n d J o h n A l e x a n d e r . (NARA)

Other Marine Corps units By the spring o f 1943 the Marine C o r p s discovered a n e e d for stevedores to m o v e supplies f r o m the rear areas into c o m b a t zones. T h e Corps o r g a n i z e d two kinds o f units - D e p o t c o m p a n i e s and A m m u n i t i o n c o m p a n i e s - to fill this n e e d . A l t h o u g h these c o m p a n i e s were envisioned as merely a source o f labor, while the two defense battalions were seen as c o m b a t units, the reality p r o v e d quite the opposite. T h e defense battalions spent most o f the war fighting b o r e d o m , while the d e p o t a n d a m m u n i t i o n c o m p a n i e s saw c o m b a t o n Saipan, Tinian, G u a m , Peleliu, Iwo Jima and Okinawa, and suffered most o f the African A m e r i c a n Marine C o r p s casualties. T h e 1st Marine D e p o t C o - the first o f n o fewer than 51 - was activated o n March 8, 1943, and the 1st Marine A m m u n i t i o n C o - the first o f 11 - was f o r m e d o n O c t o b e r 1 that year. In b o t h types o f c o m p a n y African A m e r i c a n troops carried rifles, carbines o r sub-machine guns, but were n o t e q u i p p e d with any heavier weapons. O n June 15, 1944, the d e p o t c o m p a n i e s saw their first action o n Saipan when a squad fought as infantry to reinforce a thinly held line, and the majority o f a c o m p a n y h e l p e d eliminate Japanese infiltrators. O n Saipan, Private Kenneth J.Tibbs b e c a m e the first African A m e r i c a n in the Marine Corps to b e killed in c o m b a t .

O n September 15, 1944, the 1st Marine Division m a d e an assault landing o n the island o f Peleliu, with the 11th Marine D e p o t C o and the 7th Marine A m m u n i t i o n C o in support. T h e 11th D e p o t C o paid a price for their part in this battle, with 17 m e n w o u n d e d - the highest casualty rate of any African American USMC c o m p a n y during the war. T h e p r o l o n g e d fighting for Okinawa involved a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2,000 African Americans, a larger concentration than for any previous battle. Black Marine casualties during the battle a m o u n t e d to o n e killed and 18 w o u n d e d , o n e o f them twice. By the e n d o f the war 19,168 African Americans had served in the Marine Corps.

OTHER MARITIME SERVICES US C o a s t G u a r d T h e US Coast Guard traces its military roots to August 4, 1790, when Secretary o f the Treasury Alexander Hamilton established the Revenue Cutter Service. The modern Coast Guard is a combination o f five predecessors: the Revenue Cutter Service; the Lifesaving Service (created in 1878 and merged with the Revenue Cutter Service in 1915, the new service taking the name Coast Guard); the Lighthouse Service (created in 1789 and absorbed in 1939); and the Bureau o f Navigation and Steamboat Inspection (itself a merger o f two agencies organized in 1884 and 1838 respectively, absorbed in 1942). While African A m e r i c a n s first b e g a n to serve in the R e v e n u e Cutter Service in 1831, and 1st Lt Michael A.Healy b e c a m e the first African American to c o m m a n d a US g o v e r n m e n t vessel (the R e v e n u e Cutter Chandler) in 1877, the Coast Guard itself d i d n o t a c c e p t African Americans to serve in capacities o t h e r than stewards until March 1942. T h e first g r o u p o f 150 black volunteers was trained at Manhattan Beach Training Station, N e w York City; they r e c e i v e d i n s t r u c t i o n in seamanship, knots, lifesaving and small-boat handling. W h i l e classes and other official activities were integrated, the sleeping and mess facilities r e m a i n e d segregated.

A u g u s t 1 9 4 4 : F i r e m a n 1st C l a s s C h a r l e s Tyner, U S C o a s t G u a r d , examines the considerable f r a g m e n t h o l e in his h e l m e t , received during t h e landings in S o u t h e r n F r a n c e - O p e r a t i o n " D r a g o o n . " Tyner w a s lucky t o e s c a p e w i t h only a m i n o r s c r a t c h . (NARA)

T h e majority o f A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s w e r e assigned to shore duty, including security and labor details, and worked as y e o m e n , storekeepers, r a d i o m e n , pharmacists, coxswains, electricians, carpenters and boatswains. O t h e r African Americans served o n horse and d o g patrols o n America's b e a c h e s , o n the watch for e n e m y infiltration. Since so m a n y African A m e r i c a n s were assigned to shore duty, the Coast G u a r d l e a d e r s h i p h a d a legitimate m a n p o w e r p r o b l e m : it was nearly i m p o s s i b l e to rotate white Coast G u a r d s m e n to shore duties w i t h o u t transferring African A m e r i c a n s to cutters, which w o u l d have i n t e g r a t e d the vessels. In J u n e 1943, Lt Carlton Skinner p r o p o s e d that a g r o u p o f African A m e r i c a n s b e integrated into the

Two U S C o a s t G u a r d o f f i c e r s aboard a cutter on t h e North Atlantic patrol: Ens J.J.Jenkins (left) a n d Lt(jg) C l a r e n c e S a m u e l s . (NARA)

crew o f a single cutter as an e x p e r i m e n t . T h e C o m m a n d a n t o f the USCG, A d m Russell R.Waesche, a g r e e d , a n d S k i n n e r was p r o m o t e d to l i e u t e n a n t - c o m m a n d e r and given c o m m a n d o f the weather ship USS Sea Cloud ( I X - 9 9 ) . T h e Sea Cloud h a d an integrated crew o f 173 officers and m e n with f o u r African A m e r i c a n officers a n d 50 African A m e r i c a n Coast G u a r d s m e n . A l t h o u g h the e x p e r i m e n t o f integration a b o a r d the Sea Cloud lasted a year, n o racial incidents o c c u r r e d , a n d the integrated c r e w was just as efficient as any o t h e r in the Coast G u a r d . As a result the U S C G b e g a n to integrate o t h e r cutters d u r i n g the r e m a i n d e r o f the war. M o r e than 5,000 African A m e r i c a n s served in the Coast G u a r d during W o r l d War II, a n d a b o u t 965 rose to the ranks o f petty o r warrant officers. T h e first African A m e r i c a n c o m m i s s i o n e d o f f i c e r in the Coast G u a r d was J o s e p h Jenkins, w h o was c o m m i s s i o n e d as an ensign in the Coast G u a r d Reserve o n April 14, 1943 - almost a full year b e f o r e the first black A m e r i c a n s w e r e c o m m i s s i o n e d in the Navy. O f necessity, therefore, the Coast Guard b e c a m e the first b r a n c h o f the US military to desegregate. In fact, o n July 26, 1948, w h e n President Truman o r d e r e d the integration o f the US military with Executive O r d e r 9981, the Coast Guard was already desegregated.

T h e USCG w e r e early to form integrated crews. Here two men, both from Ohio - John R.Smith (left) a n d D a n i e l J . K a c z o r o w s k i operate their 2 0 m m cannon aboard a Coast Guard-manned invasion t r a n s p o r t d u r i n g t h e N o r m a n d y l a n d i n g s . T h e original p r i n t s h o w s t h e last s p e n t shell c a s i n g still flying up a s S m i t h s l a m s t h e n e w m a g a z i n e in p l a c e . (NARA)

February 8, 1 9 4 3 : the captain a n d s o m e of t h e c r e w of t h e Liberty Ship SS T.Washington

Booker

p o s e for a p i c t u r e

just after completing their maiden voyage to England. Left t o right: S e c o n d M a t e C . L a s t i c , M i d s h i p m e n T.J.Young a n d E.B.HIubik, R a d i o O p e r a t o r C.BIackman, Chief Engineer T.A.Smith, Captain Hugh Mulzac, Chief M a t e Adolphus Fokes, L i e u t e n a n t H.Kruley, S e c o n d E n g i n e e r E.P.Rutland, a n d T h i r d E n g i n e e r H . E . L a r s o n . (NARA)

US M e r c h a n t M a r i n e M e r c h a n t shipping has b e e n an integral part o f the A m e r i c a n e c o n o m y s i n c e b e f o r e the f o u n d i n g o f the U n i t e d States. In fact, the i m p r e s s m e n t o f A m e r i c a n seamen by the British was the immediate cause o f the War o f 1812. During W o r l d War II the United States p r o d u c e d approximately 2,700 m e r c h a n t ships, o f which 17 were n a m e d f o r African A m e r i c a n s ; the first o f these, the SS Booker T.Washington, was christened in 1942. H u g h Mulzac b e c a m e the first African American m e m b e r o f the m e r c h a n t marine to c o m m a n d an integrated crew during World War II, w h e n f o r five years h e served as the captain o f the SS Booker T.Washington. B o r n o n March 26, 1886, in the British West Indies, he b e c a m e a seaman in his youth; h e t o o k US citizenship in 1918, and e a r n e d his captain's rating in the m e r c h a n t marine that same year, but racial p r e j u d i c e prevented his c o m m a n d i n g a ship. M o r e than 20 years passed b e f o r e h e was o f f e r e d c o m m a n d o f the Booker T.Washington, an integrated vessel w h o s e crew represented 18 different nationalities. During W o r l d War II this ship m a d e 22 voyages and carried 18,000 troops to E u r o p e and the Pacific. T h e US M a r i t i m e S e r v i c e , the official training o r g a n i z a t i o n o f the M e r c h a n t M a r i n e , h a d a n o n - d i s c r i m i n a t i o n policy during a time w h e n m o s t o f the US military was still segregated. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 4 , 0 0 0 b l a c k A m e r i c a n s s e r v e d as m e r c h a n t s e a m e n d u r i n g W o r l d W a r II, w h i c h a m o u n t s to r o u g h l y 10 p e r c e n t o f the total. A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n s served in every capacity a b o a r d these m e r c h a n t ships, regularly g o i n g into c o m b a t z o n e s to deliver m e n a n d supplies.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Published primary sources: Davis, Benjamin O., Jr., Benjamin American (Washington, DC;

O. Davis, Jr.: Smithsonian

Institution Press, 1991) G r o p m a n , Alan L., Air Force Integrates, 1945-1964 ( W a s h i n g t o n , D C ; O f f i c e o f Air F o r c e History, 1978) Lee, Ulysses, United States Army in World War II: Special Studies - Employment of African-American Troops (Washington, DC; Government Printing Office, 1966) MacGregor, Morris J., Jr., Integration of the Armed Forces, 1940-1965 (Washington, D C ; US A r m y Center for Military History, 1989) Nalty, Bernard C , Right to Fight: African-American Marines in World War II (Washington, D C ; Marine Corps Historical Center, 1995) Osur, Alan M., African-Americans in the Army Air Forces During World War II: The Problem of Race Relations (Washington, D C ; Office o f Air F o r c e History, 1977) Shaw, H e n r y I., 8c Ralph W.Donnelly, AfricanAmericans in the Marine Corps (Washington, D C ; History and Museums Division, Headquarters Marine Corps, 1975) Secondary sources: General works Alt, William E., & Betty L.Alt, African-American Soldiers, European-American Wars: AfricanAmerican Warriors from Antiquity to the Present (Westport, C T ; Praeger Publishers, 2002) Astor, Gerald, Right to Fight: A History of AfricanAmericans in the Military (Novato, CA; Presidio Press, 1998) Brandt, Nat, Harlem at War: The African-American Experience in WWII (Syracuse, NY; Syracuse University Press, 1996) Buckley, Gail L., American Patriots: The Story of African-Americans in the Military from the Revolution to Desert Storm (New York; R a n d o m H o u s e , 2001) Canfield, Bruce N., US Infantry Weapons of World War II ( L i n c o l n , RI; A n d r e w Mowbray Publishers, 1994) Dabbs, H e n r y E., African-American Brass: AfricanAmerican Generals and Admirals in the Armed Forces of the United States (Charlottesville, VA; Howell Press, 1997)

E d g e r t o n , R o b e r t B., Hidden Heroism: AfricanAmerican Soldiers in America's Wars (Boulder, C O ; Westview Press, 2001) Hawkins, Walter L., African American Generals and Flag Officers: Biographies of Over 120 AfricanAmericans in the United States Military (Jefferson, N C ; McFarland, 1993) J o h n s o n , Jesse J., Pictorial History of AfricanAmerican Soldiers in the United States: In War and Peace (1619-1969) ( H a m p t o n , VA: published by the author, 1970) Lanning, Michael L., African American Soldier: From Crispus Attucks to Colin Powell (Secaucus, NJ; Carroll Publishing, 1997) K o h n , Richard H., et al, Exclusion of AfricanAmerican Soldiers from the Medal of Honor in World War II: The Study Commissioned by the United States Army to Investigate Racial Bias in the Awarding of the Nation's Highest Military Decoration (Jefferson, N C ; M c F a r l a n d 8c Company, 1997) Kryder, Daniel, Divided Arsenal: Race and the American State During World War II (New York; C a m b r i d g e University Press, 2000) Nalty, Bernard C , Strength for the Fight: A History of African-American Americans in the Military (New York; Free Press, 1986) N i c h o l s , L e e , Breakthrough on the Color Front ( C o l o r a d o Springs, C O ; T h r e e C o n t i n e n t s Press, 1993) Wright, Kai, Soldiers of Freedom: An Illustrated History of African Americans in the Armed Forces (New York; African-American Dog 8c Leventhal Publishers, 2002) US Army: Abdul-Jabbar, K a r e e m , 8c A n t h o n y W a l t o n , Brothers in Arms: The Epic Story of the 761st Tank Battalion, WWIFs Forgotten Heroes (New York; Broadway B o o k s , 2004) A r n o l d , T h o m a s S., Buffalo Soldiers: The 92nd Infantry Division and Reinforcements in World War II, 1942-1945 (Manhattan, KS; Sunflower University Press, 1991) Biggs, Bradley, Triple Nickles: America's First AllAfrican-American Paratroop Unit ( H a m d e n , C T ; A r c h o n B o o k s , 1986) Carter, Allene G., 8c Robert L.Allen, Honoring Sergeant Carter: Redeeming an African-American World War II Hero's Legacy (New York; Amistad Press, 2003)

Colley, David P., Blood for Dignity: The Story of the First Integrated Combat Unit in the US Army (New York; St Martin's Press, 2003)

African-Americans in World War II (Jefferson, N C ; McFarland 8c Company, 1985) K n a p p , G e o r g e E., Buffalo Soldiers at Fort Leavenworth in the 1930s and Early 1940s (Fort Leavenworth, KS; C o m b a t Studies Institute o f the US A r m y C o m m a n d 8c General Staff C o l l e g e , 1991)

Colley, David P., Road to Victory: The Untold Story of World War IFs Red Ball Express (Washington, D C ; Brassey's Inc, 2000) Fletcher, Marvin E., America's First AfricanAmerican General: Benjamin O.Davis, Sr, 1880-1970 (Lawrence, KS; University Press o f Kansas, 1989)

M c G u i r e , Phillip, ed., Taps for a Jim Crow Army: Letters from African-American Soldiers in World War II (University Press o f Kentucky, 1993) M o o r e , Brenda L., To Serve My Country, To Serve My Race: The Story of the Only African American WACs Stationed Overseas During World War II (New York; New York University Press, 1996)

Gibran, Daniel K., 92nd Infantry Division and the Italian Campaign in World War II (Jefferson, N C ; McFarland 8c C o m p a n y , 2001) G o o d m a n , Paul, Fragment of Victory in Italy: The 92nd Infantry Division in World War II (Nashville, T N ; Battery Press, 1993) Griggs, William E., World War II African-American Regiment That Built the Alaska Military Highway: A Photographic History (Jackson, MS; University Press o f Mississippi, 2002)

M o r e h o u s e , Maggi M., Fighting in the Jim Crow Army: African-American Men and Women Remember World War II (Lanham, M D ; Rowman 8c Littlefield, 2000) Putney, Martha S., When the Nation Was in Need: African-Americans in the Women's Army Corps During World War II (Scarecrow Press, 2001) Sasser, Charles W., Patton's Panthers: The AfricanAmerican 761st Tank Battalion in World War II (New York; Pocket Books, 2004)

Hargrove, H o n d o n

Stanton, Shelby L., US Army Uniforms of World

T h e color g u a r d , o f f i c e r s a n d m e n of t h e 4 1 s t E n g i n e e r R e g t ( G e n e r a l S e r v i c e ) , a t Ft B r a g g , N o r t h C a r o l i n a . D u r i n g t h e w a r t h e 4 1 s t E n g i n e e r s s e r v e d in L i b e r i a , A l g e r i a , Italy, F r a n c e a n d G e r m a n y . (NARA)

B., Buffalo

Soldiers in Italy:

War II ( M e c h a n i c s b u r g , Books, 1991) US Army Air Force:

PA;

Stackpole

Francis, Charles E., Tuskegee Airmen: The Men Who Changed a Nation (Boston; Branden Publishing Company, 1997) Greene, R o b e r t E., Pictorial Tribute to the Tuskegee Airmen of World War II (Fort Washington, M D ; R.E.Green Publisher, 1992) Holway, J o h n B., Red Tails, African-American Wings: The Men of America's African-American Air Force (Las Cruces, N M ; Yucca Tree Press, 1997) H o m a n , Lynn M., & T h o m a s Reilly, AfricanAmerican Knights: The Story of the Tuskegee Airmen ( G r e t n a , LA; Pelican P u b l i s h i n g Company, 2001) H o m a n , Lynn M., 8c T h o m a s Reilly, Tuskegee Airmen (Charleston, SC; Arcadia Publishing, 1998) Jakeman, R o b e r t J., Divided Skies: Establishing Segregated Flight Training at Tuskegee, Alabama, 1934-1942 ( T u s c a l o o s a , A L ; University o f Alabama Press, 1992) McGee-Smith, Charlene E., Tuskegee Airman: The Biography of Charles E.McGee - Air Force Fighter Combat Record Holder (Boston; Branden Publishing C o , 1999) M c G o v e r n , James R., African-American Eagle: General Daniel 'Chappie' James, Jr (Tuscaloosa, AL; University o f Alabama Press, 1985)

Sandler, Stanley, Segregated Skies: All-AfricanAmerican Combat Squadrons of World War II (Washington, D C ; Smithsonian Institute Press, 1998) Warren, James C , Freeman Field Mutiny (San Rafael, CA; D o n n a Ewald Publishers, 1995) US Marine Corps: D e Clouet, Fred, First African-American Marines: Vanguard of a Legacy (Nashville, T N ; James C.Winston Publishing C o m p a n y , 1995) Fischer, Perry E., 8c B r o o k s E.Gray, AfricanAmericans and European-Americans - Together Through Hell: US Marines In World War II (Turlock, CA; Millsmont Publishing, 1994) US Navy: Blackford, Mansel G., ed., Board the USS Mason: The World War II Diary of James A.Dunn ( C o l u m b u s , O H ; O h i o State University Press, 1996) Kelly, Mary P., Proudly We Served: The Men of the USS Mason (Annapolis, M D ; Naval Institute Press, 1995)

Osur, Alan M., Separate and Unequal: Race Relations in the Army Air Forces During World War II ( W a s h i n g t o n , D C ; Air F o r c e H i s t o r y 8c Museums Program, 2000)

N a t i o n a l Park S e r v i c e , Port Chicago Naval Magazine (Washington, DC; Government Printing Office, 2005) N e w t o n , A d o l p h W., Better Than Good: An AfricanAmerican Sailor's War, 1943-1945 (Annapolis, M D ; U n i t e d States Naval Institute Press, 1999) P u r d o n , Eric, African-American Company: The Story of Subchaser 1264 ( A n n a p o l i s , M D ; U n i t e d States Naval Institute Press, 2000)

Phelps, J.Alfred, Chappie: America's First AfricanAmerican Four-Star General - The Life and Times of DanielJames, Jr (Novato, CA; Presidio Press, 1991)

Stillwell, Paul, ed., Golden Thirteen: Recollections of the First African-American Naval Officers (Annapolis, M D ; Naval Institute Press, 1993)

PLATE COMMENTARIES UNIFORMS T h e uniforms w o r n by African Americans during W o r l d War II did n o t differ f r o m those w o r n by their white counterparts. Since they are described and illustrated in m u c h greater detail in o t h e r Osprey titles, only a brief summary will b e repeated h e r e . 6

US A r m y During World War II the "dress blues" u n i f o r m was n o t a required purchase item for Reserve, National Guard, o r draftee officers o r 6

See Men-at-Arms 342, The US Army in World War II (1) The Pacific, 347 (2) The Mediterranean, and 350 (3) Northwest Europe. Also, Elite 46 & 51, The US Army Air Force (1) and (2); Elite 59, The US Marine Corps 1941-45; and Elite 80, The US Navy in World War II.

enlisted m e n ; d u e to wartime priorities and material shortages, even most newly c o m m i s s i o n e d Regular A r m y officers did n o t own o n e .

In M a y 1 9 4 3 t h e c o m m a n d e r a n d staff o f f i c e r s of t h e 9 9 t h F i g h t e r Squadron pose near Fez, French M o r o c c o . Left t o right: L t C o l B e n j a m i n O . D a v i s Jr., t h e C O ; Capt Hayden C.Johnson, a d j u t a n t ; C a p t E . J o n e s ; Lt W i l l i a m R . T h o m p s o n ; Lt H e r v e r t E . C a r t e r ; Lt E r w i n B . L a w r e n c e , o p e r a t i o n s officer, a n d Lt G e o r g e R . C u r r i e . (NARA)

T h e W o r l d War II service u n i f o r m can b e divided between winter and summer, as well as officer and enlisted m o d e l s . T h e officers' winter dress consisted o f a four-pocket w o o l service coat (tunic) with "peak lapelcollar" and integral cloth belt, o f a dark " c h o c o l a t e " shade o f olive, and pale fawn trousers; this c o m b i n a t i o n was generally referred to as "pinks and g r e e n s . " Officers had the o p t i o n o f wearing a shirt o f the same dark shade as the coat, o r khaki; either shirt c o u l d b e w o r n with a khaki or dark olive necktie. Late in the war, G e n Eisenhower popularized yet a n o t h e r type o f coat, the M 1 9 4 4 w o o l field jacket o r "Ike jacket." A waistlength g a r m e n t m o d e l e d o n the British battledress blouse, this was available for b o t h officers and enlisted m e n , in " c h o c o l a t e " or olive drab w o o l ; it had b e e n i n t e n d e d for field use, but was usually kept for service and walking-out u n i f o r m . Officers' s u m m e r service u n i f o r m consisted o f a khaki shirt, trousers and necktie, with an optional khaki coat (without the cloth b e l t ) . Various overcoats, raincoats and mackinaws were available for b a d weather. T h e enlisted winter service u n i f o r m c o m p r i s e d an olive drab fourp o c k e t coat with " n o t c h e d lapel" collar (but without the integral cloth b e l t ) , and trousers; these c a m e in b o t h light and dark shades, but both a p p e a r e d m o r e yellow-brown than the officers' coat. T h e shirt was either khaki o r a light shade o f olive drab, and c o u l d b e w o r n with either a khaki o r a black necktie. A l o n g , double-breasted w o o l overcoat and

February 10, 1 9 4 5 , near Q u e r c e t a , Italy: C a p t E z e k i a Smith, a company commander in t h e 3 7 0 t h Inf R e g t , 9 2 n d Div receives treatment at t h e 3 1 7 t C o l l e c t i n g S t a t i o n a f t e r sufferii s h e l l f r a g m e n t s in his f a c e and shoulders. Note the "Buffalo" s h o u l d e r s l e e v e insignia - s e e Plate D - and the Medical officer's c u t - o u t c a d u c e u s b a d g e o n his left shirt collar. (NARA)

a rubberized raincoat were issued. T h e enlisted s u m m e r u n i f o r m was almost identical to the officers' m o d e l , and consisted o f a khaki shirt, trousers and necktie, but lacked the khaki service coat. W h e n the United States entered W o r l d War II in D e c e m b e r 1941 the service u n i f o r m and the c o m b a t u n i f o r m were basically identical apart from the addition o f a steel helmet, leggings and w e b gear to the latter. Since the service u n i f o r m had n o t b e e n d e s i g n e d specifically for field use it was impractical in that role: it lacked adequate pockets, was designed to b e form-fitting rather than roomy, was hard to clean, and the necktie was as absurd in c o m b a t as the W o r l d War I " c h o k e r " collar had b e e n . Beginning in 1941, a lined, hip-length, zip-fronted, w i n d p r o o f cotton poplin "Parsons" field jacket b e g a n to b e issued. H e r r i n g b o n e twill fatigue jackets and trousers were also used for field wear, often in combination with pre-war w o o l o r khaki u n i f o r m items. T h e Army subsequently e x p e r i m e n t e d with a c o m p l e t e l y new c o m b a t uniform, designed o n the "layering" principle, that a b a n d o n e d most o f the older conventions. While this sateen c o t t o n M l 9 4 3 u n i f o r m , in the greenish " O D shade N o . 7 , " was n o t a d o p t e d in its entirety, parts o f it did

find their way into general use. T h e most important item was the crotchlength M l 9 4 3 field jacket, with four large pockets, epaulettes, and provision for attaching a pile liner and a hood. Special field u n i f o r m items were issued for some types o f troops, and acquired by others unofficially. T h e two most significantly different field uniforms were those specially designed for airborne and a r m o r e d troops - respectively, the loose M l 9 4 2 paratrooper u n i f o r m , with its many capacious pockets; and the heavily lined windcheater jacket with knit collar, cuffs and waistband, and bib-top overtrousers, p r o d u c e d to protect tank crews in winter.

M a r c h 2 1 , 1 9 4 4 , Italy: Pvt J o n a t h a n H o a g of t h e 9 2 n d Div is d e c o r a t e d w i t h t h e Croix d e G u e r r e by G e n A l p h o n s e J u i n , c o m m a n d i n g g e n e r a l of t h e F r e n c h E x p e d i t i o n a r y C o r p s , for courage while treating wounded even though he himself w a s w o u n d e d . H o a g w e a r s t h e Fifth A r m y s h o u l d e r p a t c h o n his e a r l y p a t t e r n f i e l d j a c k e t . (NARA)

A wide range o f headgear was issued to American soldiers during the war, the most important o f these being the service and garrison caps and the steel helmet. T h e service cap had a large r o u n d crown and a brown leather visor. A l t h o u g h it was the standard h o m e service headgear, few wartime soldiers overseas would own o n e . T h e higher quality officers' m o d e l was popular a m o n g AAF flyers, w h o r e m o v e d the c r o w n stiffener supposedly for ease while wearing h e a d p h o n e s the c o n s e q u e n t dashingly "crushed" a p p e a r a n c e was p r o b a b l y o f m o r e i m p o r t a n c e . T h e garrison cap was m o d e l e d o n the French calot sidecap o f World War I, which c o u l d conveniently b e f o l d e d flat while n o t in use. T h e garrison cap was available in khaki o r the chocolate-like dark olive for officers, and in khaki o r olive drab for enlisted ranks. In 1941 m o s t soldiers were still wearing the M1917A1 dishpan-style steel h e l m e t m o d e l e d o n that used by the British Army in World War I. T h e new pot-shaped M l shell-and-liner design had b e e n approved, but few had yet b e e n manufactured; it was general issue by the e n d o f 1942. At the b e g i n n i n g o f the war soldiers were issued the russet leather service s h o e , which was roughly similar to a m o d e r n lace-up, anklelength hiking b o o t . Over these, soldiers w o r e calf-to-instep cotton canvas leggings that laced t h r o u g h a n u m b e r o f eyelets u p the outsides. These were u n p o p u l a r - they soaked u p water, chafed, and t o o k t o o l o n g to put o n . B e g i n n i n g in 1943 a m u c h m o r e sought-after "two-buckle" b o o t b e g a n to b e issued, with a laced f o o t similar to the service shoe but with an integral leather gaiter-flap at the ankle, fastening with two buckled straps. Various specialist footwear was also available, including the paratroopers' high-lacing ' j u m p " b o o t s , and two types o f canvas and r u b b e r protective o v e r b o o t s for extreme winter conditions.

A: US A R M Y AIR FORCE A1: Lieutenant-Colonel Benjamin O.Davis Jr., 99th Fighter Squadron (Colored); Sicily, August 1943 At this time Col Davis was commanding officer of the 99th FS, then flying mainly ground-attack missions as part of 33rd Fighter Group. He wears the AN-H-15 summer flying helmet with goggles and oxygen mask/radio microphone, and the A4 summer flight suit under his leather A2 jacket and B3 lifejacket. A2: Captain, 477th Bombardment Group (Medium) (Colored); USA, 1944 The heavier flight uniform worn for longer bomber missions in a roomier cockpit consists of the sheepskin B3 jacket and A3 trousers, and A6A boots. This B-25 pilot also wears the khaki summer version of the Army officer's service dress cap. A3: Technical Sergeant This ground crew NCO wears the ubiquitous one-piece herringbone twill (HBT) fatigue coverall, worn throughout the Army for dirty jobs around mechanical equipment, with his rank insignia inked on the sleeve; his headgear is the baseball-style B1 summer mechanic's cap. B: ARMOR & A R T I L L E R Y U N I T S ; NW E U R O P E , W I N T E R 1 9 4 4 - 4 5 B1: Staff sergeant, Field Artillery This NCO wears a combination of casual cold-weather field dress items which would be equally common in the infantry. The M1 steel helmet was worn at most times and places where there was any danger of enemy artillery attack. The high-neck OD wool sweater has a low standing collar and five-button front; it is worn with standard issue wool pants in light shade OD, canvas leggings, and leather-soled russet field shoes. The only unusual feature is the rank insignia sewn to the sweater sleeves - not authorized on this garment, but typical of the latitude allowed by units in the front lines. B2: Corporal, Tank Destroyer Force This soldier has a camouflage net on his M1 helmet. His field

August 1 9 , 1 9 4 5 , in R o u e n , France: Chaplain William T.Green, wearing captain's bars, conducts the wedding ceremony for Cpl William A . J o h n s o n , 1 6 9 6 t h Labor Supervision C o , and Pfc F l o r e n c e A . C o l l i n s , 6 8 8 8 t h Postal D i r e c t o r y Bn - note t h e s h o u l d e r p a t c h of E u r o p e a n T h e a t e r A d v a n c e d Base. This c o u p l e w e r e t h e first African A m e r i c a n s to b e m a r r i e d i n the F T O

(NARA)

jacket in light olive drab poplin is the "Parsons" type (often but erroneously called the M1941 - it had no such official designation); despite the introduction of the longer, greenercolored M1943 field jacket by late 1944 the original model was widely used until the end of the war. On the left sleeve he displays the shoulder sleeve insignia of the whole TD Force above his rank chevrons. His dark shade OD wool pants are tucked into "buckle boots" - the M1943 combat service boot, not yet widely available in the ETO and the object of much trading and larceny. B3: Major, 761st Tank Battalion (Colored) The steel shell of a large size M1 helmet is worn here against sniper's bullets and shell fragments, always perilous to men in the open hatches of AFVs - over the top of the hard leather M1942 armored forces helmet, with its integral radio earphones; in this case the major's rank insignia is soldered to the helmet front. The so-called tanker's jacket - actually the "winter field jacket" - bears the universal Armored Force shoulder insignia with the addition of the battalion number in black. To troops of other branches the comfortable, warmly lined jacket, with knit collar, cuffs and waistband, was probably the second most desirable type to acquire after the leather AAF flight jacket. It is worn here over the winter combat trousers; windproof, water-repellent, and fully lined with blanket material, these had high bib tops at front and rear. The shoulder holster rig for the M1911A1 .45cal semiautomatic pistol was more convenient in the tight confines of a tank turret than a conventional waist-belt holster. C: CAVALRY, 1 9 4 3 - 4 4 C1: First sergeant, 2nd Cavalry Division This senior NCO wears the early-war service uniform of the remaining horsed cavalry units: the M1939 olive drab wool service coat, wool elastique breeches, OD wool shirt with khaki tie, and OD garrison cap with the yellow arm-of-service piping of the cavalry. On the right and left respectively of his notched-lapel collar he displays brass discs bearing the

A n A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n M P staff s e r g e a n t a t Fort B e n n i n g , GA, in April 1 9 4 2 . (NARA)

February 1945: Maj Charity E.Adams and Capt Abbie N . C a m p b e l l (in r a i n c o a t ) i n s p e c t t h e first unit of African American WACs 6 8 8 8 t h P o s t a l D i r e c t o r y Bn t o s e r v e in t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m . All r a n k s w e a r t h e four-pocket service coat, with garrison caps a p p a r e n t l y p i p e d in t h e original W A C b r a n c h c o l o r s of m i x e d g r e e n a n d old g o l d . N o t e t h a t t h e y all s e e m t o w e a r ankle socks over their stockings, and field shoes.

60

(NARA)

"U.S." cypher and the cavalry's crossed sabers. His chevrons and rockers of rank are worn on both sleeves, the divisional insignia on the left shoulder, and a slanting service stripe on the left forearm, marking a completed three-year enlistment. His russet riding boots are of non-regulation pattern and probably privately purchased. C2: Brigadier-General Benjamin O.Davis Sr., 2nd Cavalry Division The commanding general of the 4th Cav Bde also wears service uniform, but with the M1911 service hat, its black-andgold cords and "acorns" indicating general officer's rank. His winter service coat in "chocolate" (OD shade No.51) wool elastique has the half-inch ring of contrasting OD shade No.53 mohair braid around the cuffs which was displayed by all officer ranks. The star of his individual rank, and the officers' cut-out "U.S." cyphers, are pinned to the epaulettes and both upper lapels respectively; he wears the 2nd Cavalry Division shoulder sleeve insignia, but not the cavalry-branch sabers on his lower lapels. General Davis' shirt is in the optional khaki shade No.1 cotton, worn with a black necktie. His riding breeches, in a contrasting light shade of drab, are worn with regulation elkhide legging-topped laced riding boots and spurs. C3: Second lieutenant Jack Roosevelt Robinson In 1947, "Jackie" Robinson would become famous as the first African American to play major league baseball, with the Los Angeles Dodgers; but he had already had his share of fame and controversy. He had been the first student at the University of California, Los Angeles, to receive a varsity letter in four different sports (baseball, basketball, football and track). In World War II he served originally as an enlisted man in the 761st Tank Bn, but, based on his educational achievements, he attended Officer Candidate School and was commissioned second lieutenant. However, Robinson did not ship out to Europe with his battalion - because he was court-martialed for refusing to sit at the back of a public bus in the area traditionally reserved for "coloreds". After being acquitted, he accepted an honorable discharge, and began playing professional baseball with the Kansas City Monarchs in the Negro League.

Lieutenant Robinson is depicted wearing the M1943 field jacket in OD shade No.7, over a khaki shirt and light shade OD tie. When the service coat was not worn - as here - a single officers' cutout national cypher and arm-of-service insignia were to be pinned to the right and left shirt collar respectively. D: INFANTRY, 1 9 4 4 - 4 5 D1: Private first class, 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion (Colored); Camp Mackall, NC, spring 1945 A paratrooper of the only African American airborne unit, posing proudly in dress uniform after earning his "silver wings" - displayed on his left chest. He wears the garrison cap with light blue infantry piping, and on the left front the combined parachute-glider patch introduced in 1943. (This position could also be used to display enameled regimental badges, but they were seldom seen.) As prized as paratrooper insignia was the authorization to wear the pants bloused into highly polished "Corcoran" jump boots. D2: First lieutenant Vernon J.Baker, 370th Infantry Regiment (Colored), 92nd Infantry Division; Viareggio, Italy, April 1945 Lieutenant Baker is depicted in field uniform of M1 helmet with camouflage net, shirt with rank and infantry insignia, M1943 field jacket with 92nd Division "Buffalo" insignia, and M1943 trousers. He carries the .30cal M1 carbine with twomagazine butt pouch, and the M1936 pistol belt supports a .45cal pistol in its russet leather M1916 holster, a twomagazine pistol ammo pouch and first aid pouch. Vernon Baker was a platoon leader in the 370th Infantry; on April 5 and 6, 1945, in mountainous terrain near Viareggio, he crawled forward and destroyed three German machine-gun nests and an observation post, killing or wounding a dozen of the enemy. He then covered the evacuation of his company's casualties by occupying an exposed position and drawing the enemy's fire. Initially Baker was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, the Army's second highest award for valor; but in 1997 his and similar decorations to six other African American soldiers were retrospectively upgraded to the Medal of Honor. Vernon Baker was the only one of the seven soldiers still alive to receive his award. D3: Private, 370th Infantry Regiment, 92nd Infantry Division; Naples, Italy, August 1944 A soldier of the first combat unit of the division to disembark in Italy, wearing summer field uniform of helmet, light OD wool shirt with divisional sleeve insignia, OD wool pants, canvas leggings and field shoes (note that privates did not receive rank insignia until 1968). He is armed with the Garand M1 .30cal semi-automatic rifle, and wears full web gear on the march: M1923 rifle belt, canteen in M1917 cover, and M1928 haversack with integral suspenders, meatcan pouch and M1910 T-handle "intrenching tool." E: SUPPORT & S E R V I C E T R O O P S E1: Chaplain Each infantry regiment had three chaplains in its table of organization, and African American chaplains had a harder task than their white counterparts. Since they often had to intervene on behalf of their congregants in cases of maltreatment, they did more than simply care for their morale and spiritual wellbeing. With the status but not the authority

D e c e m b e r 2 1 , 1 9 4 4 : Lt(jg) H a r r i e t Ida P i c k e n s a n d E n s F r a n c e s Wills b e c a m e t h e first A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n w o m e n t o b e c o m m i s s i o n e d in t h e U S Navy's W A V E S - W o m e n A c c e p t e d f o r V o l u n t e e r E m e r g e n c y S e r v i c e . (NARA)

of an officer, this chaplain wears the "pinks and greens" uniform with a service dress cap; his insignia include the rank bars of captain, and the Christian chaplain's silver cross on the lower lapels. E2: Technician 3rd Grade, 92nd Quartermaster Company (Colored) The Tech 3 was equivalent to a staff sergeant for pay purposes, but his grade indicated technical expertise rather than the command authority of "hard stripe" rank. Many African Americans found themselves in units of the Quartermaster Corps, responsible for supplies - a vital but underappreciated specialty. Many QM Cos, like this one, were numbered after the division to which they were assigned; they consisted of a headquarters, three transport platoons and one service platoon. This Gl wears standard M1943 field uniform with insignia of grade and division. E3: Technician 5th Grade, 152nd Coast Artillery Group (Colored) Wearing the earlier "Parsons" field jacket with wool pants and leggings, this soldier - earning the pay of a corporal belongs to a branch of service which saw many redesignations and changes of mission in the latter part of the war. In June 1944 the 54th Coast Artillery Regiment was redesignated 152nd Coast Arty Gp, under XXI Corps whose shoulder sleeve insignia is illustrated here. However, only a month later the 152nd was disbanded and its men posted away to reinforce other coast artillery units.

were larger than the term implies, with (by this date) 4 officers and 102 enlisted men, many of them NCOs, in a headquarters and two large sections each the size of a conventional platoon. African American MPs found themselves in a dilemma if confronted by white GIs, and tended to turn a blind eye to their misdemeanours while concentrating on men of their own units. Technically they had the right and authority to arrest any soldier breaking military law, but if he tried to arrest or even ticket a white soldier, the black MP might face an angry mob. G: US NAVY & COAST GUARD The Navy possessed a wide variety of uniforms designed for different uses. The enlisted "dungarees" or working uniform for "below decks" consisted of dark blue bell-bottom denim pants, a light blue cotton shirt and a white "dixie cup" sailors' cap. For wear "on deck" enlisted sailors had two different uniforms for summer and winter, but basically similar in design. Both featured a pullover "jumper" and bellbottom trousers, in white and very dark blue respectively; the latter came in both dress and plainer working versions. The winter headgear, usually seen only in the USA or UK, was a flat-topped "Donald Duck" cap with a ribbon tally, but the white "dixie cup" was more usually worn even with the blues. Navy officers also had a number of basic uniforms. The most common working dress in the Pacific consisted of a khaki shirt and trousers, worn with or without a black necktie, and either a khaki-topped service cap or a khaki garrison cap. The officers' summer dress uniform was a white single-breasted coat with a "choker" collar, matching F: S U P P O R T & S E R V I C E T R O O P S trousers and a white service cap. Their winter dress uniform F1: Master sergeant, 6888th Postal Directory Battalion was a navy-blue double-breasted jacket with brass buttons, (Colored), Women's Army Corps; UK, 1945 matching trousers and a blue-topped service cap, worn with The WACs were a new branch of the US Army, formed in May 1942 in order to relieve men of clerical responsibilities and free a white shirt and black necktie. Chief petty officers wore a uniform of similar cut, with a service cap bearing simplified them for more physical roles. The original concept had been to recruit 25,000 highly educated, middle-class white women to a distinctions. G1: Signalman 3rd Class, US Navy Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC); fully incorporated into the armed forces as the Women's Army Corps (WAC) from July The enlisted summer dress uniform is worn by this sailor, joining his ship and carrying his hammock. The white 1943, by the end of the war the Corps numbered nearly jumper has a plain matching flap collar worn with a black 100,000 - including just over 4,000 African American women silk neckerchief; apart from his rating patch and the fulfilling more than 240 specific roles. This senior NCO is a diagonal stripe indicating four years' service, both in blackmember of the only African American WAC unit to see on-white, it bears no insignia. Rating badges for the overseas service before VE-day. By this date the original and Seamen's branch were worn on the right sleeve, and by all unpopular stiff, visored "Hobby hat" had given place to a garrison cap (by now made without the branch-of-service color other branches on the left; service stripes appeared only on the left forearm. The jumper is worn with white, pocketless piping). The M1944 wool field jacket, based on the British trousers of only slightly bell-bottomed cut, and the white battledress blouse, was also a popular alternative to the foursailor cap. pocket service coat for any who could get one. It was not G2: Storekeeper 2nd Class, US Coast Guard officially authorized for servicewomen before VE-Day, but many in the ETO acquired locally approved examples made in Britain The USCG wore uniforms almost identical to the USN; this is the enlisted winter blue dress uniform. For both or France. services the blue jumper had three white trimming tapes F2: Technician 4th Grade, Corps of Engineers; Italy, 1945 on the cuffs and around the blue flap collar, which Though enjoying the pay grade of a sergeant, this Engineer had a small white star in each corner. Again, the rating technician probably has no special training in construction badge and service stripes are worn on the left sleeve, but or engineering skills. Many African Americans were in white and red on dark blue for the winter uniform. The assigned to Engineer General Service units, which trousers were more widely bell-bottomed for the blue functioned as stevedores to unload supplies at ports in uniform. The flat-topped cap bears the gold tally "US Europe and the Pacific. COAST GUARD." F3: Sergeant, Military Police, 92nd Infantry Division; G3: Chief Machinist's Mate, US Navy Italy, 1945 This is his rating - his job; his rank is chief petty officer, and MP platoons - part of a division's HQ & HQ Company -

as such he is entitled to a "square rig" dress uniform of similar cut to that of his officers. In peacetime it would take most of a 20-year Navy career to reach this rank, but this CPO has benefited from rapid wartime expansion of the service. The chief's navy-blue double-breasted jacket had two rows of four buttons (instead of an officer's two rows of three), and rating badges and service stripes were displayed on the sleeve as by junior ranks. The service cap had a black leather chinstrap, and the chief's fouled anchor badge on blue backing on the front of the crown. H: US M A R I N E C O R P S The Marine full dress uniform consisted of a navy-blue, single-breasted, brass-buttoned coat with a "choker" collar, trimmed with red piping; a white belt, sky-blue trousers, and a white service cap. The winter service ("Alpha") uniform was in the Corps' distinctive forest-green: a four-pocket, openneck coat with cloth belt, matching trousers, and service cap or garrison cap in the same color. The summer "Bravo" uniform consisted of a khaki shirt, necktie, trousers and garrison cap. The Marine "utility" uniform was made of greenish-drab herringbone twill and was designed to be worn in combat. It was worn with "boondockers" - roughside-out brown leather boots similar in height to the Army service shoe. H1: Gunnery Sergeant Gilbert H.Johnson; Montford Point Camp, NC, spring 1945 The career of the legendary "Hashmark" Johnson, senior drill instructor at Montford Point, is outlined in the body text. Here he is depicted in his forest-green winter service uniform; the garrison cap and both upper lapels bear the blackened USMC eagle-globe-and-anchor badge. The service coat has blackened buttons, and rank and service sleeve insignia in green-on-scarlet. His medal ribbons reflect his previous hitches in the US Army and US Navy before transferring to the Corps in 1942; below them he wears the Expert Rifleman shooting medal. H2: Sergeant, "utilities" This NCO, drilling at Montford Point, has his sleeve rank badge, and the Corps cypher and badge on the single left chest pocket, stenciled in black on his herringbone twill working and field clothing - the "utility uniform, HBT, sage green, P1941." The matching short-visored utility cap, with its gathered crown, also has the USMC badge stencil. For this everyday duty the trousers hang loose over the "boondockers," and no web equipment ("782 gear") is worn. H3: Private first class, full dress uniform "Dress blues" were not an issue or required purchase item for Marines during wartime, but many African Americans still bought this uniform in order to demonstrate their pride in their branch of service. The buttons and the Corps badges on the service cap and collars are bright gilt, and rank insignia gold-on-red; hidden at this angle are the three-button cuff flaps, trimmed at top, rear and bottom with red piping. The sky-blue trousers had red "blood stripes" only for NCOs and officers. The cap peak, chinstrap and boots were polished dark brown "Cordovan" leather. When worn with a frame-buckle Cordovan garrison belt, instead of this white dress belt with a brass plate, this was termed "undress" uniform.

OPPOSITE C a p t D e l i a H.Raney, U S A r m y N u r s e C o r p s , led t h e n u r s i n g staff a t t h e post h o s p i t a l a t C a m p B e a l e , CA; s h e w a s t h e first A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n n u r s e in t h e U S A r m y d u r i n g W o r l d W a r I I . (NARA)

BELOW April 1 9 4 3 : a p l a t o o n of A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n U S M C r e c r u i t s a t M o n t f o r d Point C a m p , N C , a r e a d d r e s s e d by t h e i r drill instructor, S g t G i l b e r t H. " H a s h m a r k " J o h n s o n - s e e P l a t e H 1 . (NARA)

INDEX F i g u r e s i n bold r e f e r t o i l l u s t r a t i o n s . A b r a m s , G e n W. 7 A d a m s , Maj C h a r i t y E. 6 0 African A m e r i c a n servicemen d e p l o y m e n t of 25-26; leadership opportunities 5; officers 28, 28, 5 2 , 5 2 African A m e r i c a n W o m e n ' s A r m y C o r p s (WAC) 60 A l e x a n d e r , Pvt J o h n 4 8 A l m o n d , M a j G e n E d w a r d 18 Arbor, Ens Jesse Walter 28 A r n o l d , G e n H e n r y H . ' H a p ' 8, 10 Baldwin, William 3 0 , 3 0 Barnes, Ens Phillip G e o r g e 28 Barnes, Ens Samuel Edward 28 Baugh, Ens Dalton Louis 28 B e n j a m i n , S t e w a r d ' s M a t e Eli 3 2 Blackford, L t C d r William M. 29, 30 B l a c k m a n , R a d i o O p e r a t o r C. 5 2 Booker T. Washington, U S S 5 2 Bradley, G e n O m a r N. 22, 23 Bradley, Sgt F r a n k 8 B u l g e , battle of t h e 12, 2 3

Kruley, Lt H . 52 Larson, 3rd E n g i n e e r H.E. 52 Lastic, 2 n d M a t e C. 52 L a w r e n c e , Lt E r w i n B. 5 6 Lear, W O Charles Byrd 28 Liscome Bay, U S S 2 8 - 2 9 L o v e Sr., C p l S a m u e l J . 4 6 M a r s h a l l , G e n G e o r g e C. ( 1 8 8 0 - 1 9 5 9 ) 10, 1 1 , 22, 23 M a r s h a l l , L t A n d r e w D . 10 Martin, Ens G r a h a m Edward 28 Mason, U S S 2 9 - 3 1 , 3 1 medical troops 57, 58 Meyer, L t C d r N o r m a n 30, 31 Military Police F 3 (38, 62), 60 Miller, S t e w a r d ' s M a t e D o r i s ' D o r r i e ' 2 7 - 2 9 , 2 9 Miller, U S S 2 9 Mulzac, Capt H u g h 5 2 , 5 2 Murphy, Technician 5th Grade H u d s o n 23 N e l s o n II, E n s D e n n i s D . 2 8 Nimitz, A d m C h e s t e r W. ( 1 8 8 5 - 1 9 6 6 ) Olsbrook, Lt William N.

29

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Campbell, Capt Abbie N. 60 C a r t e r , L t H e r v e r t E. 5 6 Clark, Sgt J o h n C. 20, 20 C l a r k Jr., S t e w a r d ' s M a t e H a r o l d 3 2 C l a v o , S e a m a n 1st C l a s s E d w a r d L . 4 3 C o b u r g , G e r m a n y 11 Collins, Pvt F l o r e n c e A. 5 9 Cooper, Ens G e o r g e Clinton 28 Copeland, Steward's Mate Jonell 32 C u r r i e , L t G e o r g e R. 5 6

p a t r o l craft P C 1264: 3 1 - 3 2 P a t t e r s o n , R o b e r t P. 4 , 4 P e a r l H a r b o r , J a p a n e s e attack o n (7 D e c 1941) 27-28 P e r r y , P v t H o w a r d P. 4 4 , 4 4 P h o e n i x , J o h n W. 17 Pickens, Lt H a r r i e t Ida 61 P o r t C h i c a g o , California, disaster (17 J u l 1944) 42-44 P u r d o n , Lt Eric 32

D a r t , Lt C l a r e n c e A. 9 D a v i s , S e a m a n 1st C l a s s J e s s e 4 3 D a v i s Jr., L t C o l B e n j a m i n O . ( 1 9 1 2 - 2 0 0 2 ) 7, 9 , 1 0 , 1 1 , Al ( 3 3 , 5 9 ) , 5 6 D a v i s Sr., B r i g G e n B e n j a m i n O . ( 1 8 7 7 - 1 9 7 0 ) 5 - 6 , 6, 7, C 2 ( 3 5 , 6 0 ) d e s e g r e g a t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t i o n 5, 2 1 - 2 3 , 5 0 - 5 1 , 5 2 see also r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e D o c k e r y , S t e w a r d ' s M a t e J a m e s E. 3 2

racial prejudice 3 - 5 see also d e s e g r e g a t i o n a n d 4 7 7 t h Bombardment Group (Medium) 10-11; and 827th Tank Destroyer Battalion 12-14; a n d B e n j a m i n O . D a v i s J r . 7; a n d B e n j a m i n D a v i s Sr. 6 - 7 ; a n d B r i t i s h a n d I r i s h a t t i t u d e s 2 6 , 3 0 ; a n d U S M a r i n e C o r p s 44, 45 Raney, Capt Delia H. 62, 63 Reagan, Ens J o h n Walter 28 R e u b e l , L t C o l H a r r y B. 4, 4 R e y n o l d s , Pvt W i l l i a m A. 2 5 R i c h a r d s o n , L t G e n R o b e r t C. 4, 4 R i c h a r d s o n , S g t C u r t i s A. 17 Roosevelt, F r a n k i n D., 3 2 n d P r e s i d e n t of t h e U n i t e d States ( 1 8 8 2 - 1 9 4 5 ) 4, 5, 4 4 R u t l a n d , 2 n d E n g i n e e r E.P. 5 2

Eagelson, Lt Wilson D. 9 Eisenhower, G e n Dwight D. (1890-1969) 10, 2 1 , 2 2 Executive O r d e r s , Presidential; 8 8 0 2 : 5; 9 9 8 1 : 23,51 Fokes, Chief Mate Adolphus

52 S a m p l e s , S e a m a n 1st C l a s s D o b s o n B . Scott, Sgt G o r d o n A. 17 Sea Cloud, U S S 5 1 Shaw, Sgt F o r d M. 20, 20 S h e l l m a n , Sgt J a m e s 17 S h e p p a r d , Sgt J a m e s A. 8 Skinner, LtCdr Carlton 50-51 Smith, Capt Ezekia 57 S m i t h , C h i e f E n g i n e e r T.A. 5 2 S m i t h , P v t J o h n R. 5 1 Spaatz, LtGen Carl 9-10 Spangenburg, U S S 3 1 Stanford, T e d 13 S u b l e t t , E n s F r a n k Ellis 2 8 S w a n n , S t e w a r d ' s M a t e A l o n z o A. 32

Galvanic, O p e r a t i o n 2 8 Gant, Steward's Mate Q u e 32 G i b b s , Pvt Z a c a r i a h 2 3 Goodwin, Ens Reginald Ernest 28 Gravely Jr., E n s S a m u e l L. 32 G r e e n , C h a p l a i n W i l l i a m T. 5 9 Hare, Ens J a m e s Edward 28 H a r r i s , Sgt M o r r i s O . 13 H a y n e s , S g t C h a r l e s K. 8 Healy, Lt M i c h a e l A. 49 H i l l , P v t Elif 4 8 H l u b i k , M i d s h i p m a n E.B. 52 H o a g , Pvt J o n a t h a n 5 8 H o l c o m b , LtGen T h o m a s 45 H o o p e r , C o l C h a u n c e y M . 4, 4 Hughes, Technician 5th Grade Sherman J a c k s o n , Sgt W a l t e r C. 17 J o h n s o n , C a p t H a y d e n C. 5 6 J o h n s o n , C p l W i l l i a m A. 5 9 J o h n s o n , SgtMaj Gilbert H . ' H a s h m a r k ' (40, 63), 46, 63 J o n e s , C a p t E. 5 6 J o n e s , Sgt David D. 17 Juin, Gen Alphonse 58 K a c z o r o w s k i , Pvt D a n i e l J. 5 1 K a n o d y , Pvt Willie J. 4 8 Kirven, Sgt T i m e r l a t e 46

23

HI

43

Taylor, Pvt L l o y d A. 3, 3 T e r r y , Sgt G i l b e r t A. 17 T h o m p s o n , L t W i l l i a m R. 5 6 T i b b s , Pvt K e n n e t h J. 4 8 T r u m a n , H a r r y S., 3 3 r d P r e s i d e n t o f the U n i t e d States (1884-1972) 23, 51 T u c k e r , W O Carlyle M . 17 ' T u s k e g e e A i r m e n ' 7 - 9 , 10 T y n e r , F i r e m a n 1st C l a s s C h a r l e s 4 9 uniforms US Army 55-58 A r m o r a n d Artillery Units Cpl, T a n k Destroyer F o r c e B 2 (34, 59); Maj, 761st T a n k Battalion B 3 (34, 59);

Staff Sgt, Field Artillery Bl ( 3 4 , 5 9 ) C a v a l r y B r i g G e n B e n j a m i n O . D a v i s Sr. C2 (35, 6 0 ) ; First Sgt, 2 n d Cavalry Division CI ( 3 5 , 5 9 - 6 0 ) ; Lt J a c k R o o s e v e l t R o b i n s o n C3 ( 3 5 , 6 0 - 6 1 ) Infantry Lt V e r n o n J. Baker, 370th Infantry R e g i m e n t D 2 ( 3 6 , 6 1 ) ; Pvt, 3 7 0 t h I n f a n t r R e g i m e n t D3 (36, 6 1 ) ; Pvt 5 5 5 t h Parachute Infantry Battalion Dl (36,61) s u p p o r t a n d service troops C h a p l a i n El ( 3 7 , 6 1 ) ; M a s t e r Sgt, 6 8 8 t h P o s t a l D i r e c t o r y B a t t a l i o n Fl ( 3 8 , 6 2 ) ; Military P o l i c e 60, 60; Sgt, 9 2 n d I n f a n t r y D i v i s i o n F3 ( 3 8 , 6 2 ) ; T e c h n i c i a n 3 r d G r a d e , 9 2 n d Q u a r t e r m a s t e r C o m p a n y E2 (37, 6 1 ) ; T e c h n i c i a n 4 t h G r a d e , C o r p s of E n g i n e e r s F2 ( 3 8 , 6 2 ) ; T e c h n i c i a n 5 t h G r a d e , 1 5 2 n d C o a s t A r t i l l e r y G r o u p E3 (37, 61) U S A r m y Air Force C a p t 4 7 7 t h B o m b a r d m e n t G r o u p A2 ( 3 3 , 5 9 ) ; L t C o l B e n j a m i n O . Davis Jr. A l ( 3 3 , 5 9 ) ; T e c h n i c a l Sgt A3 ( 3 3 , 59) US Coast Guard S t o r e k e e p e r 2 n d Class G2 (39, 62) US Marine Corps G u n n e r y Sgt Gilbert H. ' H a s h m a r k ' J o h n s o n H I (40, 6 3 ) ; Pvt First Class H3 (40, 6 3 ) ; Sgt, 'utilities' H2 (40, 63) U S Navy C h i e f Machinist's M a t e G3 (39, 6 2 - 6 3 ) ; S i g n a l m a n , 3 r d Class G l (39, 62) US Army 5-26 41st E n g i n e e r R e g i m e n t 54 A r m o r e d Force a n d Tank Destroyers 12-14; 3 3 3 r d Field Artillery Battalion 15, 15; 761st T a n k B a t t a l i o n 12; 8 2 7 t h T a n k D e s t r o y e r Battalion 12-14 Artillery 15-16 477th Antiaircraft Artillery 16, 16 Cavalry 14-15 Infantry 16-25 9 2 n d I n f a n t r y Division 1 6 - 1 8 , 17, 18; 9 3 r d I n f a n t r y Division 1 8 - 1 9 , 19, 20; 555th P a r a c h u t e Infantry Battalion 20, 21; volunteer replacements 21-23 Nurse Corps 62, 63 resistance to black r e c r u i t m e n t 4 s u p p o r t a n d service troops 2 4 - 2 6 U S A r m y Air C o r p s / F o r c e 6-11 99th Pursuit/Fighter Squadron (Colored) 7-10, 56; 3 3 2 n d Fighter G r o u p 8-10; 477th B o m b a r d m e n t G r o u p (Medium) 10-11 US Coast G u a r d 4 9 - 5 1 , 5 0 , 5 1 US Marine Corps 44-49,63 1st M a r i n e A m m u n i t i o n C o m p a n y 4 8 ; 1st M a r i n e D e p o t C o m p a n y 48; 7th Defense Battalion 47; 7th Marine A m m u n i t i o n C o m p a n y 49; 11th Marine D e p o t C o m p a n y 49; 51st Defense Battalion 4 5 , 4 6 - 4 7 ; 5 2 n d Defense Battalion 45, 47 U S M e r c h a n t Marine 52, 52 U S Navy 2 7 - 3 2 , 4 1 - 4 4 Naval C o n s t r u c t i o n Battalions ('Seabees') 41,42

41,

W a e s c h e , A d m R u s s e l l R. 5 1 West Virginia, U S S 2 7 - 2 8 W e s t m o r e l a n d , G e n W i l l i a m C. ( 1 9 1 4 - 2 0 0 5 ) 7 Wills, E n s F r a n c e s 61 W o m e n A c c e p t e d for V o l u n t e e r E m e r g e n c y Service (WAVES) 61 W o m e n ' s A r m y C o r p s (WAC), African A m e r i c a n 60 W o o d , S g t L e s l i e B . 17 W o o d s Jr., Col S a m u e l A. 45 W o o d w a r d , Pvt L u t h e r 4 7 W y n n , S e a m a n 1st C l a s s R a y m o n d 4 3 Y a r b o r o u g h , G e n W i l l i a m P. 7 Young, Col Charles D. (1864-1922) Y o u n g , M i d s h i p m a n T.J. 5 2

6, 7

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African American Troops in World War II

T h e h i s t o r y o f military forces, artefacts, personalities and techniques of warfare

Half a million African Americans served overseas during World War II, almost all in segregated second-line units. This artificially limited their potential contribution, but their work - especially along the logistic lifelines of the fighting divisions - was vital. This book summarizes the service of these men and Full color a r t w o r k

women; it also focuses on the small proportion who, remarkably, overcame barriers of prejudice to reach the battlefields in combat units of the US forces. Their story is illustrated with wartime photographs and color plates - including portraits of some of the most outstanding heirs of the

Unrivaled detail

Photographs

old "Buffalo Soldiers."

US $17.95/$23.00 CAN ISBN 978-1-84603-072-7

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