AEPA History 05
Teacher Certification Exam
By: Sharon Wynne, M.S. Southern Connecticut State University
XAMonline, INC. Boston
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[email protected] Web www.xamonline.com Fax: 1-781-662-9268 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wynne, Sharon A. History 05: Teacher Certification / Sharon A. Wynne. -2nd ed. ISBN 978-1-60787-711-0 1. History 05. 2. Study Guides. 4. Teachers’ Certification & Licensure. 5. Careers
3. AEPA
Disclaimer: The opinions expressed in this publication are the sole works of XAMonline and were created independently from the National Education Association, Educational Testing Service, or any State Department of Education, National Evaluation Systems or other testing affiliates. Between the time of publication and printing, state specific standards as well as testing formats and website information may change that is not included in part or in whole within this product. Sample test questions are developed by XAMonline and reflect similar content as on real tests; however, they are not former tests. XAMonline assembles content that aligns with state standards but makes no claims nor guarantees teacher candidates a passing score. Numerical scores are determined by testing companies such as NES or ETS and then are compared with individual state standards. A passing score varies from state to state. Printed in the United States of America
AEPA: History 05 ISBN: 978-1-60787-711-0
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About the Subject Assessments AEPA™: Subject Assessment in the Social Studies K-12 examination Purpose: The assessments are designed to test the knowledge and competencies of prospective teachers. The question bank from which the assessment is drawn is undergoing constant revision. As a result, your test may include questions that will not count towards your score. Test Version: There are two versions of subject assessments for social studies tests in Arizona. Although both versions of the test emphasize conceptual comprehension, synthesis, and analysis of the principles of the social sciences, the major difference between versions lays in the degree to which the examinee’s knowledge is tested. Version 1: History 05 - This version requires a greater depth of comprehension in US history, world history, and concepts and skills. Version 2: Social Studies 03 K-12 -This version tests the examinee’s knowledge in history, geography, economics, political science and government and social science skills. Taking the Correct Version of the Subject Assessment: While other states offer just one test called a social science test, Arizona breaks its test into subtopics, such as geography, constitutions of United States and Arizona, Economics and Political Science and Government. However, as Arizona’s licensure requirements change, it is highly recommended that you consult your educational institution’s teaching preparation counselor or your state board of education’s teacher licensure division, to verify which version of the assessment you should take. XAMonline.com website can inform you of what you need to do to become certified in any particular state. Time Allowance, Format, and Length: The time allowance and format for both tests is similar. You will have 4 hours to complete the test and the questions are presented in multiple-choice format. Arizona does test using construct essays or other essay formats. Scoring: Arizona requires applicants for teaching certificates to take tests of professional knowledge and subject knowledge. The subject tests cover grades K-12 and are scored from 100-300 with a required passing score of 240 or higher.
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Content Areas: In both versions of the subject assessments, test content categories are divided into broad areas that roughly overlap between test versions. However, version (1) focuses mainly on World and US history and version (2) covers a number of social studies topics. Test Taxonomy: Both versions of the subject assessments are constructed on the comprehension, synthesis and analysis levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy. In many questions, the candidate must apply knowledge of more than one discipline in order to correctly answer the questions. Additional Information about the AEPA Assessments: The AEPA™ series subject assessments are developed by the Arizona Department of Education of Phoenix, AZ. They provide additional information on the AEPA series assessments, including registration, preparation and testing procedures, study materials such as topical guides that are about 25 pages of information, including approximately 12 additional sample questions. Tests are given 6 times a year in Arizona at selected sites and at designated testing facilities a couple of times a year outside of Arizona. There are two sessions, morning and afternoon, with each session lasting four hours. You may leave when you are finished with the test. Topical Guides versus Study Guides. The latest topical guide developed by the State of Arizona is presented below. The topics are in bold face type. The numbers following the competencies represent the interpretation of the major topics by the State of Arizona test preparation staff.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS DOMAIN I.
CONCEPTS AND SKILLS
Competency 1.0
Understand key historical terms and concepts ..................... 1
Competency 2.0
Apply research skills ............................................................ 7
Competency 3.0
Organize, analyze, and evaluate historical information......... 9
Competency 4.0
Interpret visual representations of historical information ..... 12
Competency 5.0
Apply basic geographic skills, and understand the relationship between geography and history ...................... 18
DOMAIN II.
WORLD HISTORY
Competency 6.0
Understand the impact of the environment, science, and technology on the development of civilization ..................... 27
Competency 7.0
Understand the structure and characteristics of cultures and civilizations.......................................................................... 35
Competency 8.0
Understand the doctrines, philosophical assumptions, and ethical value systems of world religions .............................. 43
Competency 9.0
Understand the historical development of early Mediterranean and Middle Eastern civilizations .................. 51
Competency 10.0
Understand the historical development of Asian, African, and American civilizations ......................................................... 55
Competency 11.0
Understand European, Byzantine, and Islamic civilizations from 500—1500 C.E ........................................................... 61
Competency 12.0
Understand the Renaissance and the Reformation ............ 73
Competency 13.0
Understand European expansion and the interactions among European and non-European societies during the Age of Exploration .......................................................................... 77
Competency 14.0
Understand the Age of Revolution ...................................... 80
Competency 15.0
Understand the Industrial Revolution .................................. 88
Competency 16.0
Understand imperialism and modern warfare ..................... 91
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Competency 17.0
Understand major developments in the arts, literature, religion, and philosophy since the Enlightenment ............... 98
Competency 18.0
Understand political developments, economic trends, and social movements of the twentieth century ....................... 100
DOMAIN III.
UNITED STATES HISTORY
Competency 19.0
Understand the ideas, values, and institutions that have shaped the culture of the United States ............................ 106
Competency 20.0
Understand developments in the arts, literature, science, religion, and philosophy in the United States .................... 114
Competency 21.0
Understand the role of immigration and cultural diversity in the continuing development of the United States.............. 117
Competency 22.0
Understand European exploration of North America and the development of colonial settlements ................................. 127
Competency 23.0
Understand the Revolutionary War and major developments related to the creation of the federal government and establishment of U.S. society............................................ 136
Competency 24.0
Understand the westward movement in U.S. history ........ 149
Competency 25.0
Understand the Civil War and Reconstruction .................. 154
Competency 26.0
Understand industrialization in the United States ............. 165
Competency 27.0
Understand the U.S. rise to world power .......................... 175
Competency 28.0
Understand political and military developments, economic trends, and social movements in the United States since World War I ....................................................................... 183
Competency 29.0
Understand major developments in Arizona history.......... 200
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Bibliography ................................................................................................... 204 Sample Essay ................................................................................................. 206 Sample Test ................................................................................................... 207 Answer Key .................................................................................................... 245 Rigor Table ...................................................................................................... 246 Rationale for Sample Test ............................................................................. 247
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Study and Testing Tips In the preface, emphasis was placed upon the idea of focusing on the right material, in other words, what to study in order to prepare for the subject assessments. But equally important is how you study. learning (lurn’ing) n. 1. the acquiring of knowledge of or skill in (a subject, trade, art, etc.) by study; experience, etc. 2. to come to know (of or about) 3. acquired knowledge or skill. (Definition courtesy of Webster’s New World Dictionary of the American Language, 1987) What we call “learning” is actually a very complicated process built around multifaceted layers of sensory input and reinforcement. When you were a child, learning largely consisted of trial and error experimentation, (i.e. don’t touch that, it’s Hot! Or this tastes Good!). But as we grow older and the neurotransmitters within our brain develop, learning takes on deeper, subtler levels. As adults the neural pathways are fully in place, allowing us to make abstract connections, synthesizing all of our previous experiences (which is essentially what knowledge is), into tremendously complicated, cohesive thoughts. You can increase your chances of truly mastering the information by taking some simple, but effective steps. Study Tips: 1. Some foods aid the learning process. Foods such as milk, nuts, seeds, rice, and oats help your study efforts by releasing natural memory enhancers called CCKs (cholecystokinin) composed of tryptophan, choline, and phenylalanine. All of these chemicals enhance the neurotransmitters associated with memory. Before studying, try a light, protein-rich meal of eggs, turkey, and fish. All of these foods release the memory enhancing chemicals. The better the connections, the more you comprehend. Likewise, before you take a test, stick to a light snack of energy boosting and relaxing foods. A glass of milk, a piece of fruit, or some peanuts all release various memory-boosting chemicals and help you to relax and focus on the subject at hand.
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2. Learn to take great notes. A by-product of our modern culture is that we have grown accustomed to getting our information in short doses (i.e. TV news sound bites or USA Today style newspaper articles.) Consequently, we’ve subconsciously trained ourselves to assimilate information better in neat little packages. If your notes are scrawled all over the paper, it fragments the flow of the information. Strive for clarity. Newspapers use a standard format to achieve clarity. Your notes can be much clearer through use of proper formatting. A very effective format is called the “Cornell Method.” Take a sheet of loose-leaf lined notebook paper and draw a line all the way down the paper about 1-2” from the lefthand edge. Draw another line across the width of the paper about 1-2” up from the bottom. Repeat this process on the reverse side of the page. Look at the highly effective result. You have ample room for notes, a left hand margin for special emphasis items or inserting supplementary data from the textbook, a large area at the bottom for a brief summary, and a little rectangular space for just about anything you want. 3. Dissect the material. Too often we focus on the details and don’t gather an understanding of the concept. However, if you simply memorize dates, places, or names, you may well miss the whole point of the subject. A key way to understand things is to put them in your own words. If you are working from a textbook, automatically summarize each paragraph in your mind. If you are outlining text, don’t simply copy the author’s words. Rephrase them in your own words. You remember your own thoughts and words much better than someone else’s, and subconsciously tend to associate the important details to the core concepts.
4. Turn every heading and caption into a question. Pull apart written material paragraph by paragraph, and don’t forget the captions under the illustrations. Example: If the heading is “Stream Erosion”, flip it around to read “Why do streams erode?” Then answer the questions. If you train your mind to think in a series of questions and answers, not only will you learn more, but it also helps to lessen the test anxiety because you are used to answering questions.
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5. Read, Read, Read. Even if you only have 10 minutes, put your notes or a book in your hand. Your mind is similar to a computer; you have to input data in order to have it processed. By reading, you are storing data for future retrieval. The more times you read something, the more you reinforce the storage of data. Even if you don’t fully understand something on the first pass, your mind stores much of the material for later recall. Create the right study atmosphere. Our bodies respond to an inner 6. clock called biorhythms. Burning the midnight oil works well for some people, but not everyone. If possible, set aside a particular place to study that is free of distractions. Shut off the television, cell phone, pager and exile your friends and family during your study period. If you really are bothered by silence, try background music. Not rock, not hiphop, not country, but classical. Light classical music at a low volume has been shown to aid in concentration. Don’t pick anything with lyrics; you end up singing along. Try just about anything by Mozart, generally light and airy, it subconsciously evokes pleasant emotions and helps relax you. 7. Limit the use of highlighters. At best, it’s difficult to read a page full of yellow, pink, blue, and green streaks. Try staring at a neon sign for a while and you’ll soon see my point; the horde of colors obscure the message. A quick note, a brief dash of color, an underline, and an arrow pointing to a particular passage is much clearer than a horde of highlighted words. Budget your study time. Although you shouldn’t ignore any of the 8. material, allocate your available study time in the same ratio that topics may appear on the test. .
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Testing Tips: 1. Don’t outsmart yourself. Don’t read anything into the question. Don’t make an assumption that the test writer is looking for something else than what is asked. Stick to the question as written and don’t read extra things into it. 2. Read the question and all the choices twice before answering the question. You may miss something by not carefully reading, and then rereading both the question and the answers. If you really don’t have a clue as to the right answer, leave it blank on the first time through. Go on to the other questions as they may provide a clue as to how to answer the skipped questions. If later on, you still can’t answer the skipped ones . . . Guess. The only penalty for guessing is that you might get it wrong. Only one thing is certain; if you don’t put anything down, you will get it wrong! Turn the question into a statement. Look at the way the questions are 3. worded. The syntax of the question usually provides a clue. Does it seem more familiar as a statement rather than as a question? Does it sound strange? By turning a question into a statement, you may be able to spot if an answer sounds right, and it may also trigger memories of material you have read. Look for hidden clues. It’s actually very difficult to compose multiple-foil 4. (choice) questions without giving away part of the answer in the options presented. In most multiple-choice questions you can often readily eliminate one or two of the potential answers. This leaves you with only two real possibilities and automatically your odds go to Fifty-Fifty for very little work. Trust your instincts. For every fact that you have read, you 5. subconsciously retain something of that knowledge. On questions that you aren’t really certain about, go with your basic instincts. Your first impression on how to answer a question is usually correct. 6. Mark your answers directly on the test booklet. Don’t bother trying to fill in the optical scan sheet on the first pass through the test. Just be very careful not to miss-mark your answers when you eventually transcribe them to the scan sheet. 7. Watch the clock! You have a set amount of time to answer the questions. Don’t get bogged down trying to answer a single question at the expense of 10 questions you can more readily answer. Are these tips foolproof? No. The Educational Testing Service (ETS) test writers are well versed in the “art” of writing assessments, and very seldom present “flawed” (read very easy to dissect) questions. However, by applying these tips, you can generally improve your odds of making the right choices. HISTORY
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DOMAIN I. Competency 1.0
CONCEPTS AND SKILLS Understand key historical terms and concepts.
The disciplines within the social sciences, sometimes referred to as social studies, include anthropology, geography, history, sociology, economics, and political science. Some programs include psychology, archaeology, philosophy, religion, law, and criminology. Also, the subjects of civics and government may be a part of an educational curriculum as separate from political science. ANTHROPOLOGY is the scientific study of human culture and humanity, the relationship between man and his culture. Anthropologists study different groups, how they relate to other cultures, and patterns of behavior, similarities and differences. Their research is two-fold: cross-cultural and comparative. The major method of study is referred to as "participant observation." The anthropologist studies and learns about the people being studied by living among them and participating with them in their daily lives. Other methods may be used but this is the most characteristic method used. ARCHAEOLOGY is the scientific study of past human cultures by studying the remains they left behind--objects such as pottery, bones, buildings, tools, and artwork. Archaeologists locate and examine any evidence to help understand the way people lived in past times. They use special equipment and techniques to gather the evidence and make special effort to keep detailed records of their findings because a lot of their research results in destruction of the remains being studied. The first step is to locate an archaeological site using various methods. Next, archaeologists survey the site by making detailed descriptions of it using notes, maps, photographs, and collecting artifacts from the surface. Excavating comes next, either by digging for buried objects or by diving and working in submersible decompression chambers, when underwater. Archaeologists record and preserve the evidence for eventual classification, dating, and evaluating their find. CIVICS is the study of the responsibilities and rights of citizens with emphasis on such subjects as freedom, democracy, and individual rights. Students study local, state, national, and international government structures, functions, and problems. Related to this are other social, political, and economic institutions. As a method of study, students gain experience and understanding through direct participation in student government, school publications, and other organizations. They also participate in community activities such as conservation projects and voter registration drives. ECONOMICS generally is the study of the ways goods and services are produced and the ways they are distributed. It also includes the ways people and nations choose what they buy from what they want. Some of the methods of study include research, case studies, analysis, statistics, and mathematics.
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GEOGRAPHY involves studying location and how living things and earth's features are distributed throughout the earth. It includes where animals, people, and plants live and the effects of their relationship with earth's physical features. Geographers also explore the locations of earth's features, how they got there, and why it is so important. What geographers study can be broken down into four areas: (1) (2) (3)
(4)
Location: Being able to find the exact site of anything on the earth; Spatial relations: The relationships of earth's features, places, and groups of people with one another due to their location; Regional characteristics: Characteristics of a place such as landform and climate, types of plants and animals, kinds of people who live there, and how they use the land; Forces that change the earth, such as human activities and natural forces.
Geographical studies are divided into: Regional: Elements and characteristics of a place or region Topical: One earth feature or one human activity occurring throughout the entire world Physical: Earth's physical features, what creates and changes them, their relationships to each other as well as to human activities Human: Human activity patterns and how they relate to the environment including political, cultural, historical, urban, and social geographical fields of study. Special research methods used by geographers include mapping, interviewing, field studies, mathematics, statistics, and scientific instruments.
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HISTORY is the study of the past, especially the aspects of the human past, political and economic events as well as cultural and social conditions. Students study history through textbooks, research, field trips to museums and historical sights, and other methods. Most nations set the requirements in history to study the country's heritage, usually to develop an awareness and feeling of loyalty and patriotism. History is generally divided into the three main divisions: (a) time periods, (b) nations, and (c) specialized topics. Study is accomplished through research, reading, and writing. Specialized fields of historical study include the following: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Social history – the approach to the study of history that views a period of time through the eyes of everyday people and is focused on emerging trends. Archaeology: study of prehistoric and historic human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data. Art History: the study of changes in social context through art. Big History: study of history on a large scale across long time frames (since the Big Bang and up to the future) through a multi-disciplinary approach. Chronology: science of localizing historical events in time. Cultural history: the study of culture in the past. Diplomatic history: the study of international relations in the past. Economic History: the study of economies in the past. Military History: the study of warfare and wars in history and what is sometimes considered to be a sub-branch of military history, Naval History. Paleography: study of ancient texts. Political history: the study of politics in the past. Psychohistory: study of the psychological motivations of historical events. Historiography of science: study of the structure and development of science. Social History: the study of societies in the past. World History: the study of history from a global perspective.
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POLITICAL SCIENCE is the study of political life, different forms of government including elections, political parties, and public administration. In addition, political science studies include values such as justice, freedom, power, and equality. There are six main fields of political-study in the United States: 1 Political theory and philosophy 2 Comparative governments 3 International relations 4 Political behavior 5 Public administration 6 American government and politics PSYCHOLOGY involves scientifically studying behavior and mental processes. The ways people and animals relate to each other are observed and recorded. Psychologists scrutinize specific patterns, which enables them to discern and predict certain behaviors, using scientific methods to verify their ideas. In this way, they are able to learn how to help people fulfill their individual human potential and strengthen understanding between individuals, as well as groups, nations and cultures. The results of the research of psychologists have deepened our understanding of the reasons for people's behavior. Psychology is not only closely connected to the natural science of biology and the medical field of psychiatry, it is also connected to the social sciences of anthropology, and sociology which study people in society. Along with the sociologists and anthropologists, psychologists also study humans in their social settings, analyzing their attitudes and relationships. The disciplines of anthropology, psychology, and sociology often research the same kinds of problems but from different points of view, with the emphasis in psychology on individual behavior, and how an individual's actions are influenced by feelings and beliefs. In their research, psychologists develop hypotheses, and then test them using the scientific method. The methods used in psychological research include: 1. Naturalistic Observation which includes observing the behavior of animals and humans in their natural surroundings or environment 2. Systematic Assessment, which describes assorted ways to measure the feelings, thoughts, and personality traits of people using case histories, public opinion polls or surveys, and standardized tests. These three types of assessments enable psychologists to acquire information not available through naturalistic observations 3. Experimentation enables psychologists to find and corroborate the cause-and-effect relationships in behavior, usually by randomly dividing the subjects into two groups: experimental group and control group
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SOCIOLOGY is the study of the individuals, groups, and institutions making up human society. It includes every feature of human social conditions. It deals with the predominant behaviors, attitudes, and types of relationships within a society, which is defined as a group of people with a similar cultural background living in a specific geographical area. Sociology is divided into five major areas of study: 1. Population studies: General social patterns of groups of people living in a certain geographical area. 2. Social behaviors: Changes in attitudes, morale, leadership, conformity, and others. 3. Social institutions: Organized groups of people performing specific functions within a society such as churches, schools, hospitals, business organizations, and governments. 4. Cultural influences: Including customs, knowledge, arts, religious beliefs, and language. 6. Social change: Including wars, revolutions, inventions, fashions, and other events or activities. Sociologists use three major methods to test and verify theories: (1) Surveys (2) Controlled experiments (3) Field observation HISTORY is the study of the past, especially the aspects of the human past, political and economic events as well as cultural and social conditions. Students study history through textbooks, research, field trips to museums and historical sights, and other methods. Most nations set the requirements in history to study the country's heritage, usually to develop an awareness and feeling of loyalty and patriotism. History is generally divided into the three main divisions: (a) time periods, (b) nations, and (c) specialized topics. Study is accomplished through research, reading, and writing. History is without doubt an integral part of every other discipline in the social sciences. Historical knowledge goes a long way towards explaining that what happened in the past leads up to and explains the present. Causality: The reason something happens, its cause, is a basic category of human thinking. We want to know the causes of some major event in our lives. Within the study of history, causality is the analysis of the reasons for change. The question we are asking is why and how a particular society or event developed in the particular way it did, given the context in which it occurred.
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Conflict: Conflict within history is opposition of ideas, principles, values or claims. Conflict may take the form of internal clashes of principles or ideas or claims within a society or group, or it may take the form of opposition between groups or societies. Bias: A prejudice or a predisposition, either toward or against something. In the study of history, bias can refer to the persons or groups studied, in terms of a society’s bias toward a particular political system, or it can refer to the historian’s predisposition to evaluate events in a particular way. Interdependence: A condition in which two things or groups rely upon one another; as opposed to independence, in which each thing or group relies only upon itself. Identity: The state or perception of being a particular thing or person. Identity can also refer to the understanding or self-understanding of groups, nations, etc. Nation-state: A particular type of political entity that provides a sovereign territory for a specific nation in which other factors also unite the citizens (e.g., language, race, ancestry, etc.). Culture: the civilization, achievements, and customs of the people of a particular time and place.
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Competency 2.0
Apply research skills.
The resources used in the study of history can be divided into two major groups: primary sources and secondary sources. Primary sources are works, records, etc. that were created during the period being studied or immediately after it. Secondary sources are works written significantly after the period being studied and based upon primary sources. “Primary sources are the basic materials that provide the raw data and information for the historian. Secondary sources are the works that contain the explications of, and judgments on, this primary material.” [Source: Norman F Cantor & Richard I. Schneider. HOW TO STUDY HISTORY, Harlan Davidson, Inc., 1967, pp. 23-24.] Primary sources include the following kinds of materials: •
•
• • •
Documents that reflect the immediate, everyday concerns of people: memoranda, bills, deeds, charters, newspaper reports, pamphlets, graffiti, popular writings, journals or diaries, records of decision-making bodies, letters, receipts, snapshots, etc. Theoretical writings which reflect care and consideration in composition and an attempt to convince or persuade. The topic will generally be deeper with more pervasive values than is the case with “immediate” documents. These may include newspaper or magazine editorials, sermons, political speeches, philosophical writings, etc. Narrative accounts of events, ideas, trends, etc. written with intentionality by someone contemporary with the events described. Statistical data, although statistics may be misleading. Literature and nonverbal materials, novels, stories, poetry, essays , as well as coins, archaeological artifacts, and art produced during the period.
Guidelines for the use of primary resources: 1. Be certain that you understand how language was used at the time of writing and that you understand the context in which it was produced. 2. Do not read history blindly; but be certain that you understand both explicit and implicit references in the material. 3. Read the entire text you are reviewing; do not simply extract a few sentences to read. 4. Although anthologies of materials may help you identify primary source materials, the full original text should be consulted.
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Secondary sources include the following kinds of materials: • • • • • • •
Books written on the basis of primary materials about the period of time. Books written on the basis of primary materials about persons who played a major role in the events under consideration. Books and articles written on the basis of primary materials about the culture, the social norms, the language, and the values of the period. Quotations from primary sources. Statistical data on the period. The conclusions and inferences of other historians. Multiple interpretations of the ethos of the time.
Guidelines for the use of secondary sources: 1. Distinguish between facts and opinions. Do not rely upon only a single secondary source. 2. Check facts and interpretations against primary sources whenever possible. 3. Do not accept the conclusions of other historians uncritically. 4. Place greatest reliance on secondary sources created by the best and most respected scholars. 5. Do not use the inferences of other scholars as if they were facts. 6. Ensure that you recognize any bias the writer brings to his/her interpretation of history. 7. Understand the primary point of the book as a basis for evaluating the value of the material presented. In recent history the way to get noticed in the court of public opinion was to get your name in the newspaper or on the radio. Television began to change all that, with its visual record of events. The proliferation of TV channels has made it very difficult for a lawmaker not to get noticed if he or she does something remarkable. And, of course, we now have the Internet, a vast, heterogeneous world of opportunities. Internet opportunities include not just news websites, but personal websites and the eponymous blogs, public opinion pieces that may or may not be true. The key thing to remember if you are reading things on Web pages is that they might not have undergone the same sort of scrutiny as comparable efforts released by major media outlets to newspapers, radio, and television. Those media processes have built-in safety measures called editors, who will verify information before it is released to the wide world; to be a blogger, all you need is access to a Web-enabled computer and time to write a column. Bloggers routinely do not use editors or run their copy by anyone else before publishing it; as such, they have lower standards of professionalism overall. . What they write might be totally true; the blog, however, is known as a log, a chronicle of thoughts and opinions about the affairs of the day, not so much an account of facts and figures. HISTORY
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Competency 3.0
Organize, analyze, and evaluate historical information.
The practice of dividing time into a number of discrete periods or blocks of time is called “periodization.” Because history is continuous, all systems of periodization are arbitrary to a greater or lesser extent. However, dividing time into segments facilitates understanding of changes that occur over time and identifying similarities of events, knowledge, and experience within the defined period. Further, some divisions of time into these periods apply only under specific circumstances. Divisions of time may be determined by date, by cultural advances or changes, by historical events, by the influence of particular individuals or groups, or by geography. Speaking of the World War II era defines a particular period of time in which key historical, political, social and economic events occurred. Speaking of the Jacksonian Era, however, has meaning only in terms of American history. Defining the “Romantic period” makes sense only in England, Europe and countries under their direct influence. Many of the divisions of time that are commonly used are open to some controversy and discussion. The use of BC and AD dating, for example, has clear reference only in societies that account time according to the Christian calendar. Similarly, speaking of “the year of the pig” has greatest meaning in China. An example of the kind of questions that can be raised about designations of time periods can be seen in the use of “Victorian.” Is it possible to speak of a Victorian era beyond England? Is literature that is written in the style of the English poets and writers “Victorian” if it is written beyond the borders of England? Some designations also carry both positive and negative connotations. “Victorian” is an example of potential negative connotations, as well. The term is often used to refer to class conflict, sexual repression, and heavy industry. The term “Renaissance” is generally read with positive connotations. Sometimes several designations can be applied to the same period. The period known as the “Elizabethan Period” in English history is also called “the English Renaissance.” In some cases, the differences in designation refer primarily to the specific aspect of history that is being considered. For example, one designation may be applied to a specific period of time when one is analyzing cultural history, while a different designation is applied to the same period of time when considering military history.
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A synthesis of information from multiple sources requires an understanding of the content chosen for the synthesis, first of all. The writer of the synthesis will, no doubt, wish to incorporate his/her own ideas, particularly in any conclusions that are drawn, and show relationships to those of the chosen sources. That can only happen if the writer has a firm grip on what others have said or written. The focus is not so much on documentary methods but on techniques of critically examining and evaluating the ideas of others. Even so, careful documentation is extremely important in this type of presentation, particularly with regard to which particular edition is being read in the case of written sources; and date, location, etc., of online sources. The phrase “downloaded from such-and-such a website on suchand-such a date” is useful. If the conversation, interview, or speech is live, date, circumstances, and location must be indicated. The purpose of a synthesis is to understand the works of others and to use that work in shaping a conclusion. The writer or speaker must clearly differentiate between the ideas that come from a source and his/her own. Helping students become critical thinkers is an important objective of the social studies curriculum. History, geography, and political science classes provide many opportunities to teach students to recognize and understand reasoning errors. Errors tend to fall into two categories: a) inadequate reasoning; and b) misleading reasoning. Following are examples of each: Inadequate reasoning: 1.
2.
3. 4.
5.
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Faulty analogies: The two things being compared must be similar in all significant aspects if the reasoning is to be relied upon. If there is a major difference between the two, then the argument falls apart. False cause (Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc): after this, therefore because of this. There must be a factual tie between the effect and its declared cause. Ad Hominem: Attacking the person instead of addressing the issues. Slippery Slope: The domino effect. This is usually prophetic in nature— predicting what will follow if a certain event occurs. This is only reliable when it is used in hindsight—not in predicting the future. Hasty Conclusions: Leaping to conclusions when not enough evidence has been collected. A good example is the accusations made in the 1996 bombing at the summer Olympics in Atlanta. Not enough evidence had been collected and the wrong man was arrested.
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Misleading reasoning: 1. 2.
3. 4.
The Red Herring:often used in politics—getting your opponent on the defensive about a different issue other than the one under discussion. Ad Populum or Jumping on the Bandwagon: “Everybody’s doing it, so it must be right.” Biggest is not necessarily best when it comes to following a crowd. Appeal to Tradition: “We’ve always done it this way.” Often used to squelch innovation. The False Dilemma or the Either/Or Fallacy: No other alternative is possible except the extremes at each end. Used in politics a lot. The creative statesman finds other alternatives.
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Competency 4.0
Interpret visual representations of historical information.
We use illustrations of various sorts because it is often easier to demonstrate a given idea visually instead of orally. This is especially true in the areas of education and research because humans are visually stimulated. Among the more common illustrations used in political and social sciences are various types of maps, graphs and charts. Photographs and globes are also useful, even though they are limited in what kind of information that they can show. Although maps have advantages over globes and photographs, they do have a major disadvantage. The major problem of all maps comes about because most maps are flat and the Earth is a sphere. It is impossible to reproduce exactly on a flat surface an object shaped like a sphere. In order to put the earth's features onto a map they must be stretched in some way. This stretching is called distortion. Distortion does not mean that maps are wrong, it simply means that they are not perfect representations of the Earth or its parts. Cartographers, or mapmakers, understand the problems of distortion. They try to design them so that there is as little distortion as possible in the maps. The process of putting the features of the Earth onto a flat surface is called projection. All maps are really map projections. There are many different types. Each one deals in a different way with the problem of distortion. Map projections are made in a number of ways. Some are done using complicated mathematics.
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However, the basic ideas behind map projections can be understood by looking at the three most common types:
(1) Cylindrical Projections - These are done by taking a cylinder of paper and wrapping it around a globe. A light is used to project the globe’s features onto the paper. Distortion is least where the paper touches the globe. For example, suppose that the paper was wrapped so that it touched the globe at the equator, the map from this projection would have just a little distortion near the equator. However, in moving north or south of the equator, the distortion would increase as you moved further away from the equator. The best-known and most widely used cylindrical projection is the Mercator Projection. Gerard’s Mercator, a Flemish mapmaker, first developed it in 1569. (2) Conical Projections - The name for these maps comes from the fact that the projection is made onto a cone of paper. The cone is made so that it touches a globe at the base of the cone only. It can also be made so that it cuts through part of the globe in two different places. Again, there is the least distortion where the paper touches the globe. If the cone touches at two different points, there is some distortion at both of them. Conical projections are most often used to map areas in the middle latitudes. Maps of the United States are most often conical projections. This is because most of the country lies within these latitudes. (3) Flat-Plane Projections - These are made with a flat piece of paper. It touches the globe at one point only. Areas near this point show little distortion. Flat-plane projections are often used to show the areas of the north and south poles. One such flat projection is called a Gnomonic Projection. On this kind of map, all meridians appear as straight lines, Gnomonic projections are useful because any straight line drawn between points on it forms a Great-Circle Route.
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Great-Circle Routes can best be described by thinking of a globe and when using the globe the shortest route between two points on it can be found by simply stretching a string from one point to the other. However, if the string was extended in reality, so that it took into effect the globe's curvature, it would then make a great-circle. A great-circle is any circle that cuts a sphere, such as the globe, into two equal parts. Because of distortion, most maps do not show greatcircle routes as straight lines, Gnomonic projections, however, do show the shortest distance between the two places as a straight line, because of this they are valuable for navigation. They are called Great-Circle Sailing Maps. Different maps reflect the great variety of knowledge covered by social sciences, and it is important to develop adequate map reading skills to gain this wealth of information Graphs are another kind of visual representation of information, and they may be used for two purposes: 1. To present a model or theory visually, in order to show how two or more variables interrelate. 2. To present real world data visually, in order to show how two or more variables interrelate. Graphs are most useful when one wishes to demonstrate the sequential increase, or decrease of a variable or to show specific correlations between two or more variables in a given circumstance. Bar graphs are the most commonly used graphs, as they show differences between given sets of variables, and they are easy to understand. However, bar graphs cannot show the actual proportional increase, or decrease, of each given variable to each other. They may only show information at a specific point in time. Thus in order to accomplish this, one must use a line graph. Line graphs can be of two types: a linear or non-linear graph. A linear line graph uses a series of straight lines; a non-linear line graph uses a curved line. Though the lines can be either straight or curved, all of the lines are called curves.
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A line graph uses a number line or axis. The numbers are generally placed in order, equal distances from one another. The number line is used to represent a number, degree or some other variable at a specific point on the line. Two lines are used, intersecting at a specific point. They are referred to as the X-axis (horizontal) and the Y-axis (vertical). Together they form a coordinate system. The difference between a point on the line of the X-axis and the Y-axis is called the slope of the line, or the change in the value on the vertical axis divided by the change in the value on the horizontal axis. The Y-axis number is called the rise and the X-axis number is called the run, thus the equation for slope is: SLOPE = RISE - (Change in value on the vertical axis) RUN - (Change in value on the horizontal axis) The slope tells the amount of increase or decrease of a given specific variable. When using two or more variables, one can plot the amount of difference between them in any given situation. This makes the information on a line graph more informative and accurate than a simple bar graph. Knowledge of the slope and how it is measured helps us to describe verbally the pictures we are seeing visually. For example, if a curve is said to have a slope of "zero", you should picture a flat line. If a curve has a slope of "one", you should picture a rising line that makes a 45-degree angle with the horizontal and vertical axis lines. The preceding examples are of linear (straight line) curves. With non-linear curves, the slope of the curve is constantly changing, so as a result, we must then understand that the slope of the non-linear curved line will be at a specific point. How is this done? The slope of a non-linear curve is determined by the slope of a straight line that intersects the curve at that specific point. In all graphs, an upward sloping line represents a direct relationship between the two variables. A downward slope represents an inverse relationship between the two variables. In reading any graph, one must always be very careful to understand what is being measured, what can be deduced and what cannot be deduced from the given graph. Charts are another visual representation of information. One of the most common types, because it is easiest to read and understand, is the pie-chart. You can see pie-charts used often, especially when one is trying to illustrate the differences in percentages among various items, or when one is demonstrating the divisions of a whole.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE Posters: The power of the political poster in the 21st century seems trivial considering the barrage of electronic campaigning, mudslinging, and reporting that seems to have taken over the video and audio media in election season. Even so, the political poster has long been a powerful propaganda tool. For example, in the 1st century AD, a poster that calls for the election of a Satrius as quinquennial has survived to this day. Nowhere have political posters been used more powerfully or effectively than in Russia in the 1920s in the campaign to promote communism. Many of the greatest Russian writers of that era were the poster writers. Those posters can only be understood in light of what was going on in the country at the time. [Today we see posters primarily at rallies and protests where they are usually hand-lettered and hand-drawn. The message is rarely subtle. Understanding the messages of posters is easy when placed in the context it is being used. For example, a poster reading “Camp Democracy” can only be understood in the context of the protests of the Iraq War near President George W. Bush’s home near Crawford, Texas. “Impeach” posters are understood in 2006 to be directed at President Bush, not a local mayor or representative. Cartoons: The political cartoon (aka editorial) presents a message or point of view concerning people, events, or situations using caricature and symbolism to convey the cartoonist's ideas, sometimes subtly, sometimes brashly, but always quickly. A good political cartoon will have wit and humor, which is usually obtained by exaggeration that is slick and not used merely for comic effect. It will also have a foundation in truth; that is, the characters must be recognizable to the viewer and the point of the drawing must have some basis in fact, even if it has a philosophical bias. The third requirement is a moral purpose. Using political cartoons as a teaching tool enlivens lectures, prompts classroom discussions, promotes critical thinking, develops multiple talents and learning styles, and helps prepare students for standardized tests. It also provides humor. However, it may be the most difficult form of literature to teach. Many teachers who choose to include cartoons in their social studies curricula caution that, while students may enjoy them, it is doubtful whether they are actually getting the cartoonists’ messages. The best strategy for using cartoons in teaching is a sub skills approach that leads students step-by-step to higher orders of critical thinking. For example, the teacher can introduce caricature and use cartoons to illustrate the principles. Students are able to identify and interpret symbols if they are given the principles for doing so and they get plenty of practice. Political cartoons exist are more readily available to teachers and educators than ever before.
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A popular example of an editorial cartoon that provides a way to analyze current events in politics is the popular comic strip “Doonesbury” by Gary Trudeau. In the time period prior to the 2004 presidential election, Alex, the media savvy teenager does her best for political participation. In January she rallies her middle school classmates to the phones for a Deanathon and by August she is luring Ralph Nader supporters into discussions on Internet chat rooms. Knowledgeable about government, active in the political process, and willing to enlist others, Alex has many traits sought by the proponents of civics education.
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Competency 5.0
Apply basic geographic skills, and understand the relationship between geography and history.
To properly analyze a given map, one must be familiar with the various parts and symbols that most modern maps use. For the most part, this is standardized, with different maps using similar parts and symbols, including: The Title - All maps should have a title, just like all books should. The title tells you what information is to be found on the map. The Legend - Most maps have a legend. A legend tells the reader about the various symbols that are used on that particular map and what the symbols represent, (also called a map key). The Grid - A grid is a series of lines that are used to find exact places and locations on the map. There are several different kinds of grid systems in use; however, most maps do use the longitude and latitude system, known as the Geographic Grid System. Directions - Most maps have some directional system to show which way the map is being presented. Often, a map will show a small compass with arrows showing the four basic directions, north, south, east, and west. The Scale - This is used to show the relationship between a unit of measurement on the map versus the real world measure on the Earth. Maps are drawn to many different scales. Some maps show a lot of detail for a small area. Others show a greater span of distance. For instance the scale might be something like 1 inch = 10 miles for a small area or for a map showing the whole world it might have a scale in which 1 inch = 1,000 miles. Maps have four main properties.. They are (1) the size of the areas shown on the map. (2) The shapes of the areas, (3) Consistent scales, and (4) Straight line directions. A map can be drawn so that it is correct in one or more of these properties. No map can be correct in all of them. Equal areas - One property which maps can have is that of equal areas. In an equal area map, the meridians and parallels are drawn so that the areas shown have the same proportions as they do on the Earth. For example, South America is 118 times the size of Greenland. On an equal area map, South America will cover 118 times the space that is covered by Greenland.. The Mercator projection is an example of a map that does not have equal areas. In it, Greenland appears to be about the same size of South America. This is because the distortion is large at the poles, and Greenland lies near the North Pole.
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Conformality - A second map property is conformality, or correct shapes. There are no maps which can show very large areas of the earth in their exact shapes. Only globes can really do that, however Conformal Maps are as close as possible to true shapes. The United States is often shown by a Lambert Conformal Conic Projection Map.
Consistent Scales - Many maps attempt to use the same scale on all parts of the map. Generally, this is easier when maps show a relatively small part of the earth's surface. For example, a map of Florida might be a Consistent Scale Map. Generally maps showing large areas are not consistent-scale maps. This is so because of distortion. Often such maps will have two scales noted in the key. One scale, for example, might be accurate to measure distances between points along the Equator. Another might be then used to measure distances between the North Pole and the South Pole. Maps showing physical features often try to show information about the elevation or relief of the land. Elevation is the distance above or below the sea level. The elevation is usually shown with colors, for instance, all areas on a map which are at a certain level will be shown in the same color. Relief Maps - Show the shape of the land surface, flat, rugged, or steep. Relief maps usually give more detail than simply showing the overall elevation of the land's surface. Relief is also sometimes shown with colors, but another way to show relief is by using contour lines. These lines connect all points of a land surface which are the same height surrounding the particular area of land. Thematic Maps - These are used to show more specific information, often on a single theme, or topic. Thematic maps show the distribution or amount of a variable over a certain given area. Population density, climate, economic information, cultural or political information may be shown on a thematic map. Information can be gained looking at a map that might take hundreds of words to explain otherwise. Maps reflect the great variety of knowledge covered by the social sciences. To show such a variety of information maps are made in many different ways.
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The earth's surface is made up of 70% water and 30% land. Physical features of the land’s surface include mountains, hills, plateaus, valleys, and plains. Other landforms include deserts, deltas, canyons, mesas, basins, foothills, marshes and swamps. Earth's water features include oceans, seas, lakes, rivers, and canals. Mountains are landforms with rather steep slopes at least 2,000 feet or more above sea level. Mountains are found in groups called mountain chains or mountain ranges. At least one range can be found on six of the earth's seven continents. North America has the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains; South America the Andes; Asia the Himalayas; Australia the Great Dividing Range; Europe the Alps; and Africa the Atlas, Ahaggar, and Drakensburg Mountains. Hills are elevated landforms rising to an elevation of about 500 to 2000 feet. They are found everywhere on earth including Antarctica where they are covered with ice. Plateaus are elevated landforms usually level on top. Depending on location, they range from being an area that is very cold to one that is cool and healthful. Some plateaus are dry because they are surrounded by mountains that keep out any moisture. Some examples include the Kenya Plateau in East Africa, which is very cool. The plateau extending north from the Himalayas is extremely dry while those in Antarctica and Greenland are covered with ice and snow. Plains are described as areas of flat or slightly rolling land, usually lower than the landforms next to them. Sometimes called lowlands (and sometimes located along seacoasts) they support the majority of the world's people. Some are found inland and many have been formed by large rivers. This resulted in extremely fertile soil for successful cultivation of crops and numerous large settlements of people. In North America, the vast plains areas extend from the Gulf of Mexico north to the Arctic Ocean and between the Appalachian and Rocky Mountains. In Europe, rich plains extend east from Great Britain into central Europe on into the Siberian region of Russia. Plains in river valleys are found in China (the Yangtze River valley), India (the Ganges River valley), and Southeast Asia (the Mekong River valley). Valleys are land areas found between hills and mountains. Some have gentle slopes containing trees and plants; others have steep walls and are referred to as canyons. One example is Arizona's Grand Canyon of the Colorado River. Deserts are large dry areas of land receiving ten inches or less of rainfall each year. Among the better known deserts are Africa's large Sahara Desert, the Arabian Desert on the Arabian Peninsula, and the desert Outback covering roughly one third of Australia.
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Deltas are areas of lowlands formed by soil and sediment deposited at the mouths of rivers. The soil is generally very fertile and most fertile river deltas are important crop-growing areas. One well-known example is the delta of Egypt's Nile River, known for its production of cotton. Mesas are the flat tops of hills or mountains usually with steep sides. Sometimes plateaus are also called mesas. Basins are considered to be low areas drained by rivers or low spots in mountains. Foothills are considered a low series of hills found between a plain and a mountain range. Marshes and swamps are wet lowlands providing growth of such plants as rushes and reeds. Oceans are the largest bodies of water on the planet. The four oceans of the earth are the Atlantic Ocean, one-half the size of the Pacific and separating North and South America from Africa and Europe; the Pacific Ocean, covering almost one-third of the entire surface of the earth and separating North and South America from Asia and Australia; the Indian Ocean, touching Africa, Asia, and Australia; and the ice-filled Arctic Ocean, extending from North America and Europe to the North Pole. The waters of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans also touch the shores of Antarctica. Seas are smaller than oceans and are surrounded by land. Some examples include the Mediterranean Sea found between Europe, Asia, and Africa; and the Caribbean Sea, touching the West Indies, South and Central America. A lake is a body of water surrounded by land. The Great Lakes in North America are a good example. Rivers, considered a nation's lifeblood, usually begin as very small streams, formed by melting snow and rainfall, flowing from higher to lower land, emptying into a larger body of water, usually a sea or an ocean. Examples of important rivers for the people and countries affected by and/or dependent on them include the Nile, Niger, and Zaire Rivers of Africa; the Rhine, Danube, and Thames Rivers of Europe; the Yangtze, Ganges, Mekong, Hwang He, and Irrawaddy Rivers of Asia; the Murray-Darling in Australia; and the Orinoco in South America. River systems are made up of large rivers and numerous smaller rivers or tributaries flowing into them. Examples include the vast Amazon Rivers system in South America and the Mississippi River system in the United States. Canals are man-made water passages constructed to connect two larger bodies of water. Famous examples include the Panama Canal across Panama's isthmus connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans and the Suez Canal in the Middle East between Africa and the Arabian Peninsula connecting the Red and Mediterranean Seas. Weather is the condition of the air which surrounds the day-to-day atmospheric conditions including temperature, air pressure, wind and moisture or precipitation which includes rain, snow, hail, or sleet.
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Climate is average weather or daily weather conditions for a specific region or location over a long or extended period of time. Studying the climate of an area includes information gathered on the area's monthly and yearly temperatures and its monthly and yearly amounts of precipitation. In addition, a characteristic of an area's climate is the length of its growing season. Four reasons for the different climate regions on the earth are differences in: • • • •
Latitude, The amount of moisture, Temperatures in land and water, and The earth's land surface.
There are many different climates throughout the earth. It is most unusual if a country contains just one kind of climate. Regions of climates are divided according to latitudes: • • •
0 - 23 1 /2 degrees are the "low latitudes" 23 1/2 - 66 1/2 degrees are the "middle latitudes" 66 1/2 degrees to the Poles are the "high latitudes"
The low latitudes are comprised of the rainforest, savanna, and desert climates. The tropical rainforest climate is found in equatorial lowlands and is hot and wet. There is sun, extreme heat and rain--everyday. Although daily temperatures rarely rise above 90 degrees F, the daily humidity is always high, leaving everything sticky and damp. North and south of the tropical rainforests are the tropical grasslands called "savannas," the "lands of two seasons"--a winter dry season and a summer wet season. Further north and south of the tropical grasslands or savannas are the deserts. These areas are the hottest and driest parts of the earth receiving less than 10 inches of rain a year. These areas have extreme temperatures between night and day. After the sun sets, the land cools quickly, dropping the temperature as much as 50 degrees F. The middle latitudes contain the Mediterranean, humid-subtropical, humid-continental, marine, steppe, and desert climates. Lands with Mediterranean climate are considered "sunny" lands found in six areas of the world: lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea, a small portion of southwestern Africa, areas in southern and southwestern Australia, a small part of the Ukraine near the Black Sea, central Chile, and Southern California. Summers are hot and dry with mild winters. The growing season usually lasts all year and what little rain falls are during the winter months. What is rather unusual is that the Mediterranean climate is located between 30 and 40 degrees north and south latitude on the western coasts of countries. The humid subtropical climate is found north and south of the tropics and is very moist. The areas having this type of climate are found on the eastern side of their continents and include Japan, mainland China, Australia, Africa, South America, and the United States--the southeastern coasts of these areas. An interesting feature of their locations is that warm ocean currents are found there. The winds that blow across these currents bring in warm moist air all year round. HISTORY
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Long, warm summers, short, mild winters, and a long growing season allow for different crops to be grown several times a year. All contribute to the productivity of this climate type, which supports more people than any of the other climates. The marine climate is found in Western Europe, the British Isles, the U.S. Pacific Northwest, the western coast of Canada and southern Chile, along with southern New Zealand and southeastern Australia. A common characteristic of these lands is that they are either near water or surrounded by it. The ocean winds are wet and warm bringing a mild, rainy climate to these areas. In the summer, the daily temperatures average at or below 70 degrees F. During the winter, because of the warming effect of the ocean waters, the temperatures rarely fall below freezing. In northern and central United States, northern China, south central and southeastern Canada, and the western and southeastern parts of the former Soviet Union is found the "climate of four seasons," the humid continental climate--spring, summer, fall, and winter. Cold winters, hot summers, and enough rainfall to grow a variety of crops are the major characteristics of this climate. In areas with humid continental climate are some of the world's best farmlands as well as important activities such as trading and mining. Differences in temperatures throughout the year are determined by the distance a place is found inland, away from the coasts. The steppe or prairie climate is located in the interiors of large continents like Asia and North America. These dry flatlands are far from ocean breezes and are called prairies or the Great Plains in Canada and the United States and steppes in Asia. Although the summers are hot and the winters are cold as in the humid continental climate, the big difference is rainfall. In the steppe climate, rainfall is light and uncertain, 10 to 20 inches a year mainly in spring and summer. Where rain is more plentiful, grass grows; in areas of less rain, the steppes or prairies gradually become deserts. These are found in the Gobi Desert of Asia, central and western Australia, southwestern United States, and in the smaller deserts found in Pakistan, Argentina, and Africa south of the Equator. The two major climates found in the high latitudes are "tundra" and "taiga." The word "tundra" meaning "marshy plain" is a Russian word and aptly describes the climatic conditions in the northern areas of Russia, Europe, and Canada. Winters are extremely cold and very long. Surprisingly less snow falls in the area of the tundra than in the eastern part of the United States. However, due to the harshness of the extreme cold, very few people live there and no crops can be raised. Despite having a small human population, many plants and animals are found there.
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The "taiga" is the northern forest region and is located south of the tundra. In fact, the Russian word "taiga" means 'forest." The world's largest forestlands are found here along with vast mineral wealth and fur-bearing animals. The climate is extreme that very few people live here, not being able to raise crops due to the extremely short growing season. The winter temperatures are colder and the summer temperatures are hotter than those in the tundra are because the taiga climate region is farther from the waters of the Arctic Ocean. The taiga is found in the northern parts of Russia, Sweden, Norway, Finland, Canada, and Alaska with most of their lands covered with marshes and swamps. In certain areas of the earth there exists a type of climate unique to areas with high mountains, usually different from their surroundings. This type of climate is called a "vertical climate" because the temperatures, crops, vegetation, and human activities change and become different as one ascends the different levels of elevation. At the foot of the mountain, a hot and rainy climate is found with the cultivation of many lowland crops. As one climbs higher, the air becomes cooler, the climate changes sharply and different economic activities change, such as grazing sheep and growing corn. At the top of many mountains, snow is found year round. Development of civilizations. Human communities subsisted initially as gatherers – gathering berries, leaves, etc. With the invention of tools it became possible to dig for roots, hunt small animals, and catch fish from rivers and oceans. Humans observed their environments and soon learned to plant seeds and harvest crops. As people migrated to areas in which game and fertile soil were abundant, communities began to develop. When people had the knowledge to grow crops and the skills to hunt game, they began to understand division of labor. Some of the people in the community tended to agricultural needs while others hunted game. As habitats attracted larger numbers of people, environments became crowded and there was competition. The concept of division of labor and sharing of food soon came, in more heavily populated areas, to be managed. Groups of people focused on growing crops while others concentrated on hunting. Experience led to the development of skills and of knowledge that made the work easier. Farmers began to develop new plant species and hunters began to protect animal species from other predators for their own use. This ability to manage the environment led people to settle down, to guard their resources, and to manage them. Camps soon became villages. Villages became year-round settlements. Animals were domesticated and gathered into herds that met the needs of the village. With settled life it was no longer necessary to “travel light.” Pottery was developed for storing and cooking food.
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By 8000 BCE, culture was beginning to evolve in these villages. Agriculture was developed for the production of grain crops, which led to a decreased reliance on wild plants. Domesticating animals for various purposes decreased the need to hunt wild game. Life became more settled. It was then possible to turn attention to such matters as managing water supplies, producing tools, making cloth, etc. There was both the social interaction and the opportunity to reflect upon existence. Mythologies arose and various kinds of belief systems. Rituals arose that re-enacted the mythologies that gave meaning to life. As farming and animal husbandry skills increased, the dependence upon wild game and food gathering declined. With this change came the realization that a larger number of people could be supported on the produce of farming and animal husbandry. Two things seem to have come together to produce cultures and civilizations: a society and culture based on agriculture and the development of centers of the community with literate social and religious structures. The members of these hierarchies then managed water supply and irrigation, ritual and religious life, and exerted their own right to use a portion of the goods produced by the community for their own subsistence in return for their management. Sharpened skills, development of more sophisticated tools, commerce with other communities, and increasing knowledge of their environment, resources and the need to protect their possessions from outsiders led to further division of labor and community development. As trade routes developed and travel between cities became easier, trade led to specialization. Trade enables a people to obtain the goods they desire in exchange for the goods they are able to produce. This, in turn, leads to increased attention to refinements of technique and the sharing of ideas. The knowledge of a new discovery or invention provides knowledge and technology that increases the ability to produce goods for trade. As each community learns the value of the goods it produces and improves its ability to produce the goods in greater quantity, industry is born. By nature, people are essentially social creatures. They generally live in communities or settlements of some kind.. Settlements are the cradles of culture, political structure, education, and the management of resources. The relative placement of these settlements or communities are shaped by the proximity to natural resources, the movement of raw materials, the production of finished products, the availability of a work force, and the delivery of finished products. The composition of communities will, at least to some extent, be determined by shared values, language, culture, religion, and subsistence.
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Settlements begin in areas that offer the natural resources to support life – food and water. With the ability to manage the environment one finds a concentration of populations. With the ability to transport raw materials and finished products, comes mobility. With increasing technology and the rise of industrial centers, comes a migration of the workforce. Cities are the major hubs of human settlement. Almost half of the population of the world now lives in cities. These percentages are much higher in developed regions. Established cities continue to grow. The fastest growth, however, is occurring in developing areas. In some regions there are “metropolitan areas” made up of urban and sub-urban areas. In some places cities and urban areas have become interconnected into “megalopoli” (e.g., Tokyo-KawasakiYokohama). The concentrations of populations and the divisions of these areas among various groups that constitute the cities can differ significantly. North American cities are different from European cities in terms of shape, size, population density, and modes of transportation. While in North America, the wealthiest economic groups tend to live outside the cities, the opposite is true in Latin American cities. There are significant differences among the cities of the world in terms of connectedness to other cities. While European and North American cities tend to be well linked both by transportation and communication connections, there are other places in the world in which communication between the cities of the country may be inferior to communication with the rest of the world. Rural areas tend to be less densely populated due to the needs of agriculture. More land is needed to produce crops or for animal husbandry than for manufacturing, especially in a city in which the buildings tend to be taller. Rural areas, however, must be connected via communication and transportation in order to provide food and raw materials to urban areas.
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DOMAIN II. Competency 6.0
WORLD HISTORY Understand the impact of the environment, science, and technology on the development of civilization
The Agricultural Revolution, initiated by the invention of the plow, led to a thoroughgoing transformation of human society by making large-scale agricultural production possible and facilitating the development of agrarian societies. During the period during which the plow was invented, the wheel, numbers, and writing were also invented. Coinciding with the shift from hunting wild game to the domestication of animals, this period was one of dramatic social and economic change. Numerous changes in lifestyle and thinking accompanied the development of stable agricultural communities. Rather than gathering a wide variety of plants as hunter-gatherers, agricultural communities became dependent on a limited number of plants or crops that are harvested. Subsistence became vulnerable to the weather and dependent upon planting and harvesting times. Agriculture also required a great deal of physical labor and the development of a sense of discipline. Agricultural communities became sedentary or stable in terms of location. This made the construction of dwellings appropriate. Dwellings tended to be built relatively close together, creating villages or towns. Stable communities also freed people from the need to carry everything with them and the move from hunting ground to hunting ground, which facilitated the invention of larger, more complex tools. As new tools were envisioned and developed it began to make sense to have some specialization within the society. Skills started to have greater value, and people began to do work on behalf of the community that utilized their particular skills and abilities. Settled community life also gave rise to the notion of wealth. It was now possible to keep possessions. In the beginning of the transition to agriculture, the tools that were used for hunting and gathering were adequate to the tasks of agriculture. The initial challenge was in adapting to a new way of life. Once that challenge was met, attention turned to the development of more advanced tools and sources of energy. Six thousand years ago, the first plow was invented in Mesopotamia. This plow was pulled by animals. Agriculture was now possible on a much larger scale. Soon tools were developed that made such basic tasks as gathering seeds, planting, and cutting grain faster and easier. It also became necessary to maintain social and political stability to ensure that planting and harvesting times were not interrupted by internal discord or a war with a neighboring community. Finding ways to store the crop and prevent its destruction by the elements and animals was also an important need.
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Settled communities that produce the necessities of life are self-supporting. Advances in agricultural technology and the ability to produce a surplus of produce create two opportunities: first, the opportunity to trade the surplus goods for other desired goods, and second, the vulnerability to others who steal to take those goods. Protecting domesticated livestock and surplus, as well as stored, crops becomes an issue for the community. This, in turn, leads to the construction of walls and other fortifications around the community. The ability to produce surplus crops created the opportunity to trade or barter with other communities in exchange for desired goods. Traders and trade routes began to develop between villages and cities. The domestication of animals expanded the range of trade and facilitated the exchange of ideas and knowledge. The Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries resulted in even greater changes in human civilization and even greater opportunities for trade, increased production, and the exchange of ideas and knowledge. The first phase of the Industrial Revolution (1750-1830) saw the mechanization of the textile industry, vast improvements in mining, with the invention of the steam engine, and numerous improvements in transportation, with the development and improvement of turnpikes, canals, and the invention of the railroad. The second phase (1830-1910) resulted in improvements in a number of industries that had already been mechanized through such inventions as the Bessemer steel process and the invention of steam ships. New industries arose as a result of the new technological advances, such as photography, electricity, and chemical processes. New sources of power were harnessed and applied, including petroleum and hydroelectric power. Precision instruments were developed and engineering was launched. It was during this second phase that the Industrial Revolution spread to other European countries, to Japan, and to the United States. The direct results of the industrial revolution, particularly as they affected industry, commerce, and agriculture, included: • • • • •
Enormous increases in productivity Huge increases in world trade Specialization and division of labor Standardization of parts and mass production Growth of giant business conglomerates and monopolies
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A new revolution in agriculture facilitated by the steam engine, machinery, chemical fertilizers, processing, canning, and refrigeration
The political results included: • • •
•
Growth of complex government by technical experts Centralization of government, including regulatory administrative agencies Advantages to democratic development, including extension of franchise to the middle class, and later to all elements of the population, mass education to meet the needs of an industrial society, the development of media of public communication, including radio, television, and cheap newspapers Dangers to democracy included the risk of manipulation of the media of mass communication, facilitation of dictatorial centralization and totalitarian control, subordination of the legislative function to administrative directives, efforts to achieve uniformity and conformity, and social impersonalization.
The economic results were numerous: • • • • • •
The conflict between free trade and low tariffs and protectionism The issue of free enterprise against government regulation Struggles between labor and capital, including the trade-union movement The rise of socialism The rise of the utopian socialists The rise of Marxian or scientific socialism
The social results of the Industrial Revolution include: • • • • • • • • •
Increase of population, especially in industrial centers Advances in science applied to agriculture, sanitation and medicine Growth of great cities Disappearance of the difference between city dwellers and farmers Faster tempo of life and increased stress from the monotony of the work routine The emancipation of women The decline of religion Rise of scientific materialism Darwin’s theory of evolution
Increased mobility produced a rapid diffusion of knowledge and ideas. Increased mobility also resulted in wide-scale immigration to industrialized countries. Cultures clashed and cultures melded.
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The Reformation period consisted of two phases: the Protestant Revolution and the Catholic Reformation. The Protestant Revolution came about because of religious, political, and economic reasons. The religious reasons stemmed from abuses in the Catholic Church including fraudulent clergy with their scandalous immoral lifestyles; the sale of religious offices, indulgences, and dispensations; different theologies within the Church; and frauds involving sacred relics. The political reasons for the Protestant Revolution involved the increase in the power of rulers who were considered "absolute monarchs" who desired all power and control, especially over the Church. The growth of "nationalism" or patriotic pride in one's own country was another contributing factor. Economic reasons included the greed of ruling monarchs to possess and control all lands and wealth of the Church, the deep animosity against the burdensome papal taxation, the rise of the affluent middle class and its clash with medieval Church ideals, and the increase of an active system of "intense" capitalism. The Protestant Revolution began in Germany with the revolt of Martin Luther against Church abuses. It spread to Switzerland where it was led by Calvin. It began in England with the efforts of King Henry VIII to have his marriage to Catherine of Aragon annulled so he could wed another and have a male heir. The results were the increasing support given not only by the people but also by nobles and some rulers, and of course, the attempts of the Church to stop it. The Catholic Reformation was undertaken by the Church to "clean up its act" and to slow or stop the Protestant Revolution. The major efforts to this end were supplied by the Council of Trent and the Jesuits. Six major results of the Reformation included: • • • • • •
Religious freedom Religious tolerance More opportunities for education Power and control of rulers limited Increase in religious wars Increase in fanaticism and persecution
A number of individuals and events led to the time of exploration and discoveries. The Vivaldo brothers and Marco Polo wrote of their travels and experiences, which signaled the early beginnings. From the Crusades, the survivors made their way home to different places in Europe bringing with them fascinating, new information about exotic lands, people, customs, and desired foods and goods such as spices and silks.
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The Renaissance ushered in a time of curiosity, learning, and incredible energy sparking the desire for trade to procure these new, exotic products and to find better, faster, cheaper trade routes to get to them. The work of geographers, astronomers and mapmakers made important contributions and many studied and applied the work of such men as Hipparchus of Greece, Ptolemy of Egypt, Tycho Brahe of Denmark, and Fra Mauro of Italy. The word "Renaissance" literally means "rebirth", and signaled the rekindling of interest in the glory of ancient classical Greek and Roman civilizations. It was the period in human history marking the start of many ideas and innovations leading to our modern age. The Renaissance began in Italy with many of its ideas starting in Florence, controlled by the infamous Medici family. Education, especially for some of the merchants, required reading, writing, math, the study of law, and the writings of classical Greek and Roman writers. A combination of a renewed fascination with the classical world and new infusion of money into the hands of those so fascinated brought on the Renaissance. In the areas of art, literature, music, and science, the world changed for the better. Most famous are the Renaissance artists, first and foremost Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael but also Titian, Donatello, and Rembrandt. All of these men pioneered a new method of painting and sculpture—that of portraying real events and real people as they really looked, not as the artists imagined them to be. One does not have to look further than Michelangelo’s David to illustrate this. Literature was also a focus during the Renaissance. Humanists Petrarch, Boccaccio, Erasmus, and Sir Thomas More advanced the idea of being interested in life here on earth and the opportunities it can bring, rather than constantly focusing on heaven and its rewards. The monumental works of Shakespeare, Dante, and Cervantes found their origins in these ideas as well as the ones that drove the painters and sculptors. All of these works, of course, owe much of their existence to the invention of the printing press, which occurred during the Renaissance.
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The Renaissance changed music as well. No longer just a religious experience, music could be fun and composed for its own sake, to be enjoyed in fuller and more humanistic ways than in the Middle Ages. Musicians worked for themselves, rather than for the churches, as before, and so could command good money for their work, increasing their prestige. Science advanced considerably during the Renaissance, especially in the area of physics and astronomy. Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo led a Scientific Revolution in proving that the earth was round and certainly not perfect, an earthshattering revelation to those who clung to medieval ideals of a geocentric, church-centered existence. All of these things encouraged people to see the world in a new way, more real, more realized, and more realistic than ever before. Contributions of the Italian Renaissance period were in: Art - the more important artists were Giotto and his development of perspective in paintings; Leonardo da Vinci was not only an artist but also a scientist and inventor; Michelangelo was a sculptor, painter, and architect; and others including Raphael, Donatello, Titian, and Tintoretto Political philosophy - the writings of Machiavelli Literature - the writings of Petrarch and Boccaccio Science - Galileo Medicine - the work of Brussels-born Andrea Vesalius earned him the title of "father of anatomy" and had a profound influence on the Spaniard Michael Servetus and the Englishman William Harvey In Germany, Gutenberg's invention of the printing press with movable type facilitated the rapid spread of Renaissance ideas, writings and innovations, thus ensuring the enlightenment of most of Western Europe. Contributions were also made by Durer and Holbein in art and by Paracelsus in science and medicine.
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The effects of the Renaissance in the Low Countries can be seen in the literature and philosophy of Erasmus and the art of van Eyck and Breughel the Elder. Rabelais and de Montaigne in France also contributed to literature and philosophy. In Spain, the art of El Greco and de Morales flourished, as did the writings of Cervantes and De Vega. In England, Sir Thomas More and Sir Francis Bacon wrote and taught philosophy and inspired by Vesalius. William Harvey made important contributions in medicine. The greatest talent was found in literature and drama and given to mankind by Chaucer, Spenser, Marlowe, Jonson, and the incomparable Shakespeare. The Renaissance ushered in a time of curiosity, learning, and incredible energy sparking the desire for trade to procure these new, exotic products and to find better, faster, cheaper trade routes to get to them. The work of geographers, astronomers and mapmakers made important contributions and many studied and applied the work of such men as Hipparchus of Greece, Ptolemy of Egypt, Tycho Brahe of Denmark, and Fra Mauro of Italy. The Scientific Revolution was characterized by a shift in scientific approach and ideas. Near the end of the 16th century, Galileo Galilei introduced a radical approach to the study of motion. He moved from attempts to explain why objects move the way they do and began to use experiments to describe precisely how they move. He also used experimentation to describe how forces affect non-moving objects. Other scientists continued in the same approach. Outstanding scientists of the period included Johannes Kepler, Evangelista Torricelli, Blaise Pascal, Isaac Newton and Leibniz. This was the period when experiments dominated scientific study. This method was particularly applied to the study of physics. The Agricultural Revolution occurred first in England. It was marked by experimentation that resulted in increased production of crops from the land and a new and more technical approach to the management of agriculture. The revolution in agricultural management and production was hugely enhanced by the Industrial Revolution and the invention of the steam engine. The introduction of steam-powered tractors greatly increased crop production and significantly decreased labor costs. Developments in agriculture were also enhanced by the Scientific Revolution and the learning from experimentation that led to philosophies of crop rotation and soil enrichment. Improved systems of irrigation and harvesting also contributed to the growth of agricultural production.
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The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain and spread elsewhere, was the development of power-driven machinery (fueled by coal and steam) leading to the accelerated growth of industry with large factories replacing homes and small workshops as work centers. The lives of people changed drastically and a largely agricultural society changed to an industrial one. In Western Europe, the period of empire and colonialism began. The industrialized nations seized and claimed parts of Africa and Asia in an effort to control and provide the raw materials needed to feed the industries and machines in the "mother country". Later developments included power-based electricity and internal combustion, replacing coal and steam.
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Competency 7.0
Understand the structure and characteristics of cultures and civilizations
Although written records go back about 4,500 years, scientists have pieced together evidence that documents the existence of humans (or “man-apes) as much as 600,000 years ago. The first manlike creatures arose in many parts of the world about one million years ago. Slowly, these creatures developed into types of men who discovered fire and tools. These creatures had human-sized brains and inbred to produce Cro-Magnon type creatures (25,000 years ago), from which homo sapiens descended. These primitive humans demonstrated wide behavior patterns and great adaptability. Little is known in the way of details, including when language began to develop. They are believed to have lived in small communities that developed on the basis of the need to hunt. Cave paintings reveal a belief that magic pictures of animals could conjure up real ones. Some figurines seem to indicate belief in fertility gods and goddesses. Belief in some form of afterlife is indicated by burial formalities. Fire and weapons were in use quite early. Archaeological evidence points to the use of hatchets, awls, needles and cutting tools in the Old Stone Age (one million years ago). Artifacts of the New Stone Age (6,000-8,000 BCE) include indications of polished tools, domesticated animals, the wheel, and some agriculture. Pottery and textiles have been found dating to the end of the New Stone Age (Neolithic Period). The discovery of metals in the Bronze Age (3,000 BCE) is concurrent with the establishment of what are believed to be the first civilizations. The Iron Age, followed quickly on the heels of the Bronze Age. By 4,000 BCE, humans lived in villages, engaged in animal husbandry, grew grains, sailed in boats, and practiced religions. Civilizations arose earliest in the fertile river valleys of the Nile, Mesopotamia, the Indus, and the Hwang Ho Valleys. Prerequisites of civilization: • • • •
Use of metals rather than stone for tools and weapons A system of writing A calendar A territorial state organized on the basis of residence in the geographic region
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The earliest known civilizations developed in the Tigris-Euphrates Valley of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) and the Nile Valley of Egypt between 4000 BCE and 3000 BCE. Because these civilizations arose in river valleys, they are known as fluvial civilizations. Geography and the physical environment played a critical role in the rise and the survival of both of these civilizations. The Fertile Crescent was bounded on the West by the Mediterranean Sea, on the South by the Arabian Desert, on the north by the Taurus Mountains, and on the east by the Zagros Mountains. First, the rivers provided a source of water that would sustain life, including animal life. The hunters of the society had ample access to a variety of animals, initially for hunting to provide food, as well as hides, bones, antlers, etc. from which clothing, tools and art could be made. Second, the proximity to water provided a natural attraction to animals which could be herded and husbanded to provide a stable supply of food and animal products. Third, the rivers of these regions overflowed their banks each year, leaving behind a deposit of very rich soil. As these early people began to experiment with growing crops rather than gathering food, the soil was fertile and water was readily available to produce sizeable harvests. In time, the people developed systems of irrigation that channeled water to the crops without significant human effort on a continuing basis. The designation “Fertile Crescent” was applied by the famous historian and Egyptologist James Breasted to the part of the Near East that extended from the Persian Gulf to the Sinai Peninsula. It included Mesopotamia, Syria and Palestine. This region was marked by almost constant invasions and migrations. These invaders and migrants seemed to have destroyed the culture and civilization that existed. Upon taking a longer view, however, it becomes apparent that they actually absorbed and supplemented the civilization that existed before their arrival. This is one of the reasons the civilization developed so quickly and created so such an advanced culture. Spatial organization is a description of how things are grouped in a given space. In geographical terms, this can describe people, places, and environments anywhere and everywhere on Earth.
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The most basic form of spatial organization for people is where they live. The vast majority of people live near other people, in villages and towns and cities and settlements. These people live near others in order to take advantage of the goods and services that naturally arise from cooperation. These villages and towns and cities and settlements are, to varying degrees, near bodies of water. Water is a staple of survival for every person on the planet and is also a good source of energy for factories and other industries, as well as a form of transportation for people and goods. Another way to describe where people live is by the geography and topography around them. The vast majority of people on the planet live in areas that are very hospitable. Yes, people live in the Himalayas and in the Sahara, but the populations in those areas are small indeed when compared to the plains of China, India, Europe, and the United States. People naturally want to live where they won’t have to work really hard just to survive, and world population patterns reflect this. We can examine the spatial organization of the places where people live. For example, in a city, where are the factories and heavy industry buildings? Are they near airports or train stations? Are they on the edge of town, near major roads? What about housing developments? Are they near these industries, or are they far away? Where are the other industry buildings? Where are the schools and hospitals and parks? What about the police and fire stations? How close are homes to each of these things? Towns and especially cities are routinely organized into neighborhoods, so that each house or home is near to most things that its residents might need on a regular basis. This means that large cities have multiple schools, hospitals, grocery stores, fire stations, etc. Related to this is the distance between cities, towns, villages, or settlements. In certain parts of the United States and definitely in many countries in Europe, the population settlement patterns achieve megalopolis standards, with no clear boundaries from one town to the next. Other, more sparsely populated areas have towns that are few and far between and have relatively few people in them. Some exceptions to this exist, of course, like oases in the deserts; for the most part, however, population centers tend to be relatively near one another or at least near smaller towns. Most places in the world are in some manner close to agricultural land as well. Food makes the world go round and some cities are more agriculturally inclined than others. Rare is the city, however, that grows absolutely no crops. The kind of food grown is almost entirely dependent on the kind of land available and the climate surrounding that land. Rice doesn’t grow well in the desert, for instance, nor do bananas grow well in snowy lands. Certain crops are easier to transport than others and the ones that aren’t are usually grown near ports or other areas of export.
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The one invention that changed all of these things, of course, was the airplane. Flight made possible global commerce and goods exchange on a level never before seen. Foods from all around the world could be flown literally around the world and, with the aid of refrigeration techniques, be kept fresh enough to sell in markets nearly everywhere. The same was true of medicine and, unfortunately, weapons. During the 14th and 15th centuries, the Muslim Empire experienced great expansion. The conquest of Ghana by Muslim Berbers in 1076 permitted rule to devolve to a series of lesser successor states. By the 13th century, the successor state of Kangaba established the Kingdom of Mali. This vast trading state extended from the Atlantic coast of Africa to beyond Gao on the Niger River in the east. Much of the history of Mali was preserved by Islamic scholars because the Mali rulers converted to Islam and were responsible for the spread of Islam throughout Africa. The expansion of the Mali kingdom began from the city of Timbuktu and gradually moved downstream along the Niger River. This provided increasing control of the river and the cities along its banks, which were critical for both travel and trade. The Niger River was a central link in trade for both west and north African trade routes. The government of the Mali kingdom was held together by military power and trade. The kingdom was organized into a series of feudal states that were ruled by a king. Most of the kings used the surname “Mansa” (meaning, “sultan”). The most powerful and effective of the kings was Mansa Musa. The religion and culture of the kingdom of Mali was a blend of Islamic faith and traditional African belief. The influence of the Islamic empire provided the basis of a large and very structured government which allowed the king to expand both territory and influence. The people, however, did not follow strict Islamic law. The king was thought of in traditional African fashion as a divine ruler removed from the people. A strong military and control of the Niger River and the trade that flourished along the river, enabled Mali to build a strong feudal empire.
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Farther to the east, the king of the Songhai people had earlier converted to Islam in the 11th century. Songhai was at one time a province of Mali. By the 15th century, Songhai was stronger than Mali and it emerged as the next great power in western Africa. Songhai was situated on the great bend of the Niger River. From the early 15th to the late 16th centuries, the Songhai Empire stood one of the largest empires in the history of Africa. The first king, Sonni Ali, conquered many neighboring states, including the Mali Empire. This gave him control of the trade routes and cities like Timbuktu. He was succeeded by Askia Mohammad, who initiated political reform and revitalization. He also created religious schools, built mosques, and opened his court to scholars and poets from all parts of the Muslim world. During the same period, the Zimbabwe kingdom was built. “Great Zimbabwe” was the largest of about 300 stone structures in the area. This capital city and trading center of the Kingdom of Makaranga was built between the 12th and 15th centuries. It was believed to have housed as many as 20,000 people. The structures were built entirely of stone, without mortar. The scanty evidence that is available suggests that the kingdom was a trading center that was believed to be part of a trading network that reached as far as China. The area known today as the Republic of Benin was the site of an early African kingdom known as Dahomey. By the 17th century, the kingdom included a large part of West Africa. The kingdom was economically prosperous because of slave trading relations with Europeans, primarily the Dutch and Portuguese, who arrived in the 15th century. The coastal part of the kingdom was known as “the Slave Coast.” This kingdom was known for a very distinct culture and some very unusual traditions. In 1729 the kingdom started a female army system. A law was passed stating that females would be inspected at the age of 15. Those thought beautiful were sent to the Palace to become wives of the king. Those who were sick or were considered unattractive were executed. The rest were trained as soldiers for two years. Human sacrifice was practiced on holidays and special occasions. Slaves and prisoners of war were sacrificed to gods and ancestors. The slave trade provided economic stability for the kingdom for almost three hundred years. The continuing need for human sacrifices caused a decrease in the number of slaves available for export. As many colonial countries declared the trade of slaves illegal, demand for slaves subsided steadily until 1885 when the last Portuguese slave ship left the coast. With the decline of the slave trade, the kingdom began a slow disintegration. The French took over in 1892.
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Asian Empires The Ottoman Empire is to be noted for its ability to unite a highly varied population as it grew through conquest and treaty arrangement. This ability is to be attributed to military strength, a policy of strict control of recently invaded territories, and an Islamic-inspired philosophy that stated that all Muslims, Christians and Jews were related because they were all “People of the Book.” The major religious groups were permitted to construct their own semiautonomous communities. Conquering armies immediately repaired buildings, roads, bridges, and aqueducts or built them where needed. They also built modern sanitary facilities and linked the city to a supply structure that was able to provide for the needs of the people. This religious and ethnic tolerance was the basis upon which a heterogeneous culture was built. It quickly transformed a Turkish empire into the Ottoman Empire. The attitude of tolerant blending and respect for diverse ethnic and cultural groups, in time produced a rich mix of people that was reflected in multi-cultural and multi-religious policies that were based on recognition and respect for different perspectives. Ottoman architecture, although influenced by Seljuk, Byzantine and Arab styles, developed a unique style of its own. Music was important to the elites of the empire. Two primary styles of music that developed were Ottoman classical music and folk music. Again, both styles reflect a basis in the diversity of influences that came together in the unified empire. The Mongol Empire, founded by Genghis Khan, included the majority of the territory from Southeast Asia to central Europe during the height of the empire. One of the primary military tactics of conquest was to annihilate any cities that refused to surrender.
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Government was by decree on the basis on a code of laws developed by Genghis Khan. It is interesting that one of the tenets of this code was that the nobility and the commoners shared the same hardship. The society, and the opportunity to advance within the society, was based on a system of meritocracy. The carefully structured and controlled society was efficient and safe for the people. Religious tolerance was guaranteed. Theft and vandalism were strictly forbidden. Trade routes and an extensive postal system were created linking the various parts of the empire. Taxes were quite onerous, but teachers, artists and lawyers were exempted from the taxes. Mongol rule, however, was absolute. The response to all resistance was collective punishment in the form of destruction of cities and slaughter of the inhabitants. The lasting achievements of the Mongol Empire include: • • •
Reunification of China and expansions of its borders, Unification of the Central Asian Republics that later formed part of the USSR, Expansion of Europe’s knowledge of the world.
The Ming Dynasty in China followed the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. In addition to its expansion of trade and exploration of surrounding regions, the period is well known for its highly talented artists and craftsmen. The Hongwu emperor rose from peasant origins. He distributed land to small farmers in an effort to help them support their families. To further protect these family farms, he proclaimed title of the land non-transferable. He also issued an edict by which anyone who cultivated wasteland could keep the land as their property and would never be taxed. One of the major developments of the time was the development of systems of irrigation for farms throughout the empire. Hongwu maintained a strong army by creating military settlements. During peace, each soldier was given land to farm and, if he could not afford to purchase equipment, it was provided by the government. The legal code created during the period is generally considered one of the greatest achievements of the dynasty. The laws were written in understandable language and in enough detail to prevent misinterpretation. The law reversed previous policy toward slaves, and promised them the same protection as free citizens and great emphasis was placed on family relations. It was clearly based on Confucian ideas. The other major accomplishment of this dynasty was the decision to begin building the Great Wall of China to provide protection from northern horsemen.
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The Mogul Empire reached its height during the reign of Akbar. In the administration of the empire, Akbar initiated two notable approaches. First, he studied local revenue statistics for the various provinces within the empire. He then developed a revenue plan that matched the revenue needs of the empire with the ability of the people to pay the taxes. Although the taxes were heavy (one third to one half of the crop), it was possible to collect the taxes and meet the financial needs of the empire. Second, he created a rank and pay structure for the warrior aristocracy that was based on number of troops and obligations. Akbar also introduced a policy of acceptance and assimilation of Hindus, allowed temples to be built, and abolished the poll tax on non-Muslims. He devised a theory of “rulership as a divine illumination” and accepted all religions and sects. He encouraged widows to remarry, discouraged marriage of children, outlawed the practice of sati, and persuaded the merchants in Delhi to recognize special market days for women who were otherwise required to remain secluded at home. He sponsored regular debates among religious and scholarly individuals with different points of view. The empire supported a strong cultural and intellectual life. The unique style of architecture of the Mogul Empire was its primary contribution to South Asia. The Taj Mahal was one of many monuments built during this period. The culture was a blend of Indian, Iranian and Central Asian traditions. Other major accomplishments were: • • • • • • •
Centralized government Blending of traditions in art and culture Development of new trade routes to Arab and Turkish lands A unique style of architecture Landscape gardening A unique cuisine The creation of to languages (Urdu and Hindi) for the common people.
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Competency 8.0
Understand the doctrines, philosophical assumptions, and ethical value systems of world religions
Judaism: Judaism is the oldest of the Western world’s three monotheistic religions. It grew out of the ancient religion of the Hebrews or Israelites. This early religion shared a number of common elements and primordial stories with neighboring peoples, especially the Mesopotamian and Babylonian cultures. Judaism’s sacred writing, the Hebrew Scripture, is generally referred to as Torah or Tanakh. It consists of 24 books which are divided into three sections: Law (Torah), Prophets (Envoi’s), and Writings (Ketuvim). The word and law of God were transmitted orally for many generations prior to the writing of the Hebrew Scripture. The Mishnah is the collection of the oral tradition. The Gemara is a collection of commentary by the rabbis (teachers). The tradition of living interpretation and commentary continued through the centuries. Halakah is the tradition of interpretation of law, history and practice. Kabbalah is a body of Jewish mystical literature. Kabbalah arose from a movement in France in the 11th Century that discovered an esoteric system of symbolic interpretation of scripture. Judaism is centered in belief in a single, all-powerful, all-seeing, and all-knowing God. God chose the Hebrew people from all the people of the earth and entered into a covenant with them. “I will be your God, and you will be my people.” This covenant implies special privileges, but it also implies certain obligations of the people. The life of the people is to be structured around the promises and commandments of God. The Law provides the structure of religious practice and daily life. The Law is the guide for making ethical choices that reflect and demonstrate their unique character as the chosen people of God. Failure to act in accordance with God’s law is a willful act, called sin. Sin destroys the proper relationship between the person and God. It is, however, possible to return from willful rebellion and restore the broken relationship with God. Judaism is also marked by a strong sense of communal identity and sin can be either individual or communal. The Jewish people, as the chosen people of God, are to remain separate or apart from other peoples in several ways. First, the Jews are to avoid marriage to persons outside the faith. Second, they are to observe certain dietary restrictions The rules for kosher (ritually correct) food preparation and consumption are quite detailed, and include prohibitions against eating certain animals, including pork and shellfish, specifications for the slaughter and butchering of meat, and a prohibition against mixing meat and dairy products. Third, Jews shall not marry foreigners (this protects the faith of the community against other influences and conflicting ideas. Fourth is the circumcision of all males (This is both an act of obedience to the covenant and an indication of the separateness of the people).
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Among devout Jews, special times for prayer are at dawn, noon, dusk and, for some, bedtime. The Jewish Sabbath is observed from sunset on Friday until sunset on Saturday. The Sabbath is a day of rest. Many observant Jews gather on the Sabbath for worship in synagogues, where a Rabbi leads them in readings from the Scriptures, prayer and singing. The Jewish religious calendar is based on a lunar calendar, so the dates of religious holidays vary from year to year. With the exception of the New Year observance and the Day of Atonement, most holidays are based on either seasonal or historical events. The frequent prohibitions against idolatry in Hebrew Scripture reflect a deep and abiding concern that no limited entity or belief be mistaken for the one true God by God’s chosen people. The basic beliefs of Judaism are: (1) There is one and only one God with whom each believer has direct personal experience and to whom prayers may be addressed. (2) God is the ultimate authority and possesses final dominion over the universe, which He created. (3) Life is holy. (4) The Torah is a guide to correct living and a source of continued revelation of the word of God. (5) Group worship and prayer are indispensable elements of a righteous life. (6) Jews share a broad common diversity and a sense of collective purpose and responsibility to one another. Today, there are three basic branches or schools of Jewish belief and practice. Orthodox Judaism is the most rigorous and the smallest branch. This group conducts worship in Hebrew and interprets the Law very strictly and literally. Reform Judaism, which originated in the 18th century, attempted to integrate Judaism into the mainstream European culture. Law, doctrine, and ritual are more liberally interpreted, and dietary laws generally are not observed. Conservative Judaism combines doctrinal reform with traditional observance. Attempts to retain much of the old orthodoxy while not losing touch with contemporary culture has made Conservative Jews somewhat slower in embracing most of the changes of Reform Judaism.
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Christianity: Christianity grew out of Judaism and its belief that God would send a Messiah (“anointed one”) who would establish the Kingdom of God on earth. Jesus of Nazareth appeared in the early years of the first century CE, preaching repentance in preparation for the arrival of the Kingdom of God. His brief (about three years) ministry of teaching, preaching, healing and miracles gathered followers from among the common and the despised of his day, as well as nonJews and the wealthy. This ministry was confined to the areas of Galilee and northwest Palestine. According to Christian writings, Jesus eschewed the separatism of Judaism and reached out to the poor, the sick, and the social outcasts. He preached a Kingdom of God not of this world, which ran contrary to Jewish expectation of a political Messiah who would establish an earthly kingdom. As the movement grew, the teachings of Jesus were perceived as a danger to the political order by both the Jews and the Roman government. Jesus was handed over to the authorities by one of his closest followers, arrested, tried, and crucified. According to Christian belief, Jesus rose from the dead on the third day, appeared to his disciples and then ascended to heaven. Christians believe that Jesus was the Son of God who died on the cross as an offering and sacrifice that saved humankind from sin. Those who believe in him will be saved. Christian scripture (the Bible) consists of two major parts: the Old Testament, which is an adoption of the Hebrew Scripture, and the New Testament, which consists of 27 books. As an outgrowth of Judaism, Christianity accepts many of the beliefs, though not the practices of Judaism. Fundamental beliefs of Christianity are: (1) there is one God who is the creator and redeemer of humankind; God is all-knowing, all-powerful, and all-present; (2) Jesus Christ is the unique Son of God who is the savior of humankind. The doctrine of the Trinity teaches that the one God has three natures through/by which God is active in the world: God the Father, the creator and governor of creation, is the judge of humankind, God the Son (Jesus) is God in the flesh, who came among humankind to save them from sin, and God the Holy Spirit is the invisible presence of God for believers to provide strength, faith and guidance. Christians observe Sunday as the Sabbath because Jesus was believed to have risen from the dead on a Sunday morning. Christian worship consists of the reading of scripture, the proclamation of the word of God, prayer, and the observance of the Sacraments. The Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches recognize seven sacraments: baptism, confirmation, marriage, ordination, anointing and absolution of the sick and dying, the confession of sins, and the Eucharist or Holy Communion. Protestant churches recognize only two sacraments: baptism and Holy Communion. Christians believe that each human being has an eternal soul that will be judged by God after death. The soul will then be “rewarded” or punished according to one’s faith and actions in life. Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox also believe in the existence of a purgatory, which is a state in which some souls are purified for entry to heaven.
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Christian ethics are based on the Ten Commandments of the Old Testament and the teachings of Jesus, which include the “Golden Rule” (Do unto others as you would have them do unto you”) and a broadening of the application of the commandments. Until 1054 there was one Christian Church. In 1054 the Eastern Orthodox Church split from the Roman Catholic Church over several issues of belief and practice. In the 16th century, several reformers split from the Roman Catholic Church, again over issues of belief and practice, in what is known as the Protestant Reformation. Islam: In about 610 CE a prophet named Mohammed came to some prominence with a new religion called Islam (=submission [to the will of God]). The new religion came from the same source of Judaism and Christianity, God, the creator of the universe, and it recognizes both religions. After early persecution, the religion began to gain adherents. The teachings of Islam are in a holy book, The Quran, which instructs Muslims on ways of life, including worship, morality and behavior. Muslims observe 5 prayers a day, have a month of fasting and practice charity and alms giving as a part of their religion. During the month of pilgrimage, some Muslims travel to Mecca for a spiritual journey. Please refer to Competency 11.0 for further discussion on Islam. Hinduism: Hinduism is unique among the major religions of the world in that it has no identifiable founder, no single theological system, no single code of ethics, and no central religious organization. Modern Hinduism evolved from an ancient religion called Vedism, which dates from around 1500 BCE. Hinduism is expressed in many forms, most of which are “henotheistic” – recognizing a single God that is manifested or expressed in other gods and goddesses. Hinduism recognizes several sacred writings: the Vedas are the chants of the priestly class of the Aryan (“noble”) people who introduced Vedism into the Indian subcontinent; the four central texts – the Rig Veda (“hymn knowledge”), the Yajur Veda (“ceremonial knowledge”), the Sama Veda (“chant knowledge”) and the Atharva Veda (“knowledge from Atharve,” a Vedic teacher); the Brahmana and Aranyakas, which are ceremonial rules that were later added to the other Vedas; and the Upanishads, which is a collection of poetry and prose that explores the basic philosophical and spiritual concepts of Hinduism. The Upanishads teach that spiritual mastery is achievable by all who practice correct meditation and discipline. Two other important Hindu texts are the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, which include the Bahagavad Gita. The Bhagavad Gita teaches that duty (dharma) and action are equal to prayer and sacrifice as paths to spiritual perfection.
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Hinduism is a very diverse religion. Beliefs and practices vary from one school to another. Central beliefs are: 1. Worship is an individual or family matter. 2. Atman and Brahman are generally understood as “Soul” and “divine spirit”. Brahman is the course and substance of all existence; when it is understood as the “self” of humans, it is called Atman. 3. The spiritual goal of Hinduism is to understand and experience that there is no difference between one’s self and the rest of the universe. 4. Maya, which is used to describe the world, comes from the concepts of magic and matter and is often translated “illusion”. This belief is that the world has a single spiritual nature and is not divided into “things”. 5. Karma is the moral consequence of every act in the course of human life. 6. Samsara is the cycle of birth and rebirth in life. The path of the soul through rebirth is determined by the individual’s karma. 7. Moksha, which means “liberation” or “freedom,” refers to the soul breaking free of the endless cycle of rebirth in life. Moksha is attained by freeing oneself of egotism and anger and losing one’s sense of individuality in maya. The ultimate goal of Hinduism is the achievement of recognition that one’s self is indistinguishable from Brahman. In addition, Hindus also believe in pursuing worldly goals, including religious and social duty, economic security and power, and pleasure, all of this according to one’s place in society. The caste system provides the framework of society and this process. The society is divided into four major “castes” that are defined by social standing and occupation. These are the priestly class, the aristocratic protectors of society, the class of merchants, landowners and moneylenders, and the laborers. Those outside the caste system were the “Untouchables.” Yoga is an active path to spiritual perfection. Evolving around the cults of anthropomorphic gods, there are three major theistic traditions. Vishnu is the force of preservation, Shiva is a god of destruction, and Brahma is the creative force. Hindus honor a number of incarnations of these gods, including Rama and Krishna. Hindus believe that all living things share a common element of Brahman, and thus are to be respected. Some animals are understood to be manifestations of certain deities. The most honored animal is the cow. Buddhism: Buddhism was developed and taught by Siddhartha Gautama in what is now Nepal around 563 BCE. Upon consideration of the suffering of people in the world, he traveled widely, studying and meditating. He experienced “enlightenment” and thus earned the name Buddha, which means “the awakened one” or “the enlightened one.” He then created an order of monks and taught the Buddhist philosophy of escape from life’s cycle of suffering through compassion, nonviolence, and moderate living.
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The central written text of Buddhism is called the Tipitaka, the “three baskets” or collections of Buddhist thought. Although these were not written down until many years after the death of the Buddha, these texts are accepted as his exact words. The three baskets are: the sutras, which are the teachings in the form of dialogues and sermons; the vinaya, which are the rules for monastic life; and the abhidharma, a systematic ordering of the lessons of the sutras. A number of beliefs and ideas are shared with Hinduism, from the context of which Buddhism arose. These include nonviolence and the cycle of birth and rebirth. The idea of nirvana is quite similar to moksha in the Hindu tradition, which is an escape from the cycle of rebirth. However, Buddhism teaches that nothing is permanent, including the universal spirit or the self. The Buddha taught that there is constant change in the universe and that all things will, in time, decay and disappear. Because nothing can endure unchanged forever, desire is infinite and insatiable. Peace and enlightenment are thus possible only by renouncing desire and accepting that existence is not permanent. The Three Jewels of Buddhism are the three things that are the heart of Buddhist belief: (1) the Buddha is the model of what all humans should aspire to be or become, (2) the overarching Buddhist worldview and way of life, and (3) the community of Buddhist nuns and monks. The Four Noble Truths summarize the Buddhist worldview: (1) all life involves suffering, (2) suffering is caused by desire, (3) desire can be overcome, and (4) the way to overcome desire is to follow the eightfold path. The Noble Eightfold Path summarizes the steps one should practice simultaneously to understand the universe, to live compassionately, and to achieve peace and enlightenment – (1) right views, (2) right intentions, (3) right speech, (4) right conduct, (5) right work, (6) right effort, (7) right meditation, and (8) right contemplation. There are three major schools or branches of Buddhism: Theravada Buddhism (Doctrine of the Elders) adheres most closely to the earliest practices. The monastic life has special importance in this branch. The ideal is a person who has attained perfect enlightenment and the end of all desire. Mahayana Buddhism (Greater Vehicle) focuses on compassion for others over personal progress toward enlightenment. The ideal of this branch is the “bodhisattva” – an enlightened person who postpones entry into Nirvana to help others. Vajrayana Buddhism (Tantric Buddhism) emphasizes ritual, including the use of mantras (chants) hand gestures, mandalas (icons of the universe) and prayer wheels.
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Confucianism: is a Chinese religion based on the teachings of the Chinese philosopher Kung Fu-Tzu (translated, Confucius). There is no clergy, no organization, and no belief in a deity or in life after death. Confucius took a code of ethics and the teaching of a scholarly tradition, and systematized it. The teachings of Confucius were written down in the Analects. These writings deal with individual morality and ethics and with the correct exercise of power by rulers. Confucianism is essentially a “humanitarian ethical system” built on five key values: (1) Ren, reciprocal human feeling; (2) Yi, righteousness; (3) Li, propriety, which includes ritually correct behavior; (4) Zhi, knowledge; and (5) Xin, trustworthiness. These five values enable one to exercise the virtues of Xiao, filial piety, and Wen, civilization. Confucianism was primarily a philosophical and ethical system until about the first century CE, when Buddhism was introduced into China. It gradually began to take on aspects of a religion. Taoism: a native Chinese religion with worship of more deities than almost any other religion. It is believed to have been founded by Lao Tzu, who was a contemporary of Confucius. The word Tao means path or way. The central writing of Taoism is the Tao Te Ching (The Way and its Power). The 81 brief chapters, in poetry, discuss the nature of the Tao, which is the source and essence of all being. Primary Taoist concepts, practices and beliefs are: (1) Tao is the first cause of the universe and the force that flows through all life; (2) the goal of each believer is to develop harmony with the Tao; (3) there are many gods, which are manifestations of the one Tao; (4) answers to life’s problems are to be sought through inner meditation and outward observation; (5) time is cyclical, not linear; (6) health and vitality are to be strengthened; (7) the five main organs and orifices of the body correspond to the five parts of the universe – fire, water, metal, earth, wood; (8) the development of virtue is the chief goal of believers; (9) the three “Jewels” to be cultivated in life are moderation, humility and compassion; (10) humans should allow nature to take its course; (11) one should carefully consider each action in advance; (12) one should be kind to others; and (13) people are compassionate by nature. A basic Taoist symbol is the Yin and Yang. It represents the balance and the essential unity of opposites in the universe. Shinto: Shinto is a native religion of Japan that developed from native folk beliefs and involved the worship of spirits and demons in animals, trees, and mountains. According to its mythology, deities created Japan and its people, which resulted in worshipping the emperor as a god. Shinto was strongly influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism but never had strong doctrines on salvation or life after death.
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There are “Four Affirmations” in Shinto: (1) Tradition and the family (the family is the primary mechanism for preserving traditions); (2) Love of nature (nature is sacred. To be in contact with nature is to be close to the Gods, who reside in natural objects); (3) Physical cleanliness; and (4) “Matsuri” (the honor and worship of the Kami and the ancestral spirits. Morality in Shinto is defined by what is in the best interest of the group.
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Competency 9.0
Understand the historical development of early Mediterranean and Middle Eastern civilizations
Ancient civilizations were those cultures which developed to a greater degree and were considered advanced. These included the following with their major accomplishments. The culture of Mesopotamia was definitely autocratic in nature. The various civilizations that criss-crossed the Fertile Crescent were very much top-heavy, with a single ruler at the head of the government and, in many cases, also the head of the religion. The people followed his strict instructions or faced the consequences, which were usually dire and often life-threatening. The civilizations of the Sumerians, Amorites, Hittites, Assyrians, Chaldeans, and Persians controlled various areas of the land we call Mesopotamia. With few exceptions, tyrants and military leaders controlled the vast majority of aspects of society, including trade, religions, and the laws. Each Sumerian city-state (and there were a few) had its own god, with the city-state’s leader doubling as the high priest of worship of that local god. Subsequent cultures had a handful of gods as well, although they had more of a national worship structure, with high priests centered in the capital city as advisors to the tyrant. Trade was vastly important to these civilizations since they had access to some but not all of the things that they needed to survive. Some trading agreements led to occupation, as was the case with the Sumerians, who didn’t bother to build walls to protect their wealth of knowledge. Egypt and the Phoenician cities were powerful and regular trading partners of the various Mesopotamian cultures. Legacies handed down to us from these people include: • • • • •
The first use of writing, the wheel, and banking (Sumeria); The first written set of laws (Code of Hammurabi); The first epic story (Gilgamesh); The first library dedicated to preserving knowledge (instituted by the Assyrian leader Ashurbanipal); The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (built by the Chaldean Nebuchadnezzar)
The ancient civilization of the Sumerians invented the wheel; developed irrigation through use of canals, dikes, and devices for raising water; devised the system of cuneiform writing; learned to divide time; and built large boats for trade. The Babylonians devised the famous Code of Hammurabi, a code of laws.
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Egypt made numerous significant contributions including construction of the great pyramids; development of hieroglyphic writing; preservation of bodies after death; making paper from papyrus; contributing to developments in arithmetic and geometry; the invention of the method of counting in groups of 1-10 (the decimal system); completion of a solar calendar; and laying the foundation for science and astronomy. The earliest historical record of Kush is in Egyptian sources. They describe a region upstream from the first cataract of the Nile as “wretched.” This civilization was characterized by a settled way of life in fortified mud-brick villages. They subsisted on hunting and fishing, herding cattle, and gathering grain. Skeletal remains suggest that the people were a blend of Negroid and Mediterranean peoples. This civilization appears to be the second oldest in Africa (after Egypt). Either the people were Egyptian or heavily influenced by Egyptians at a very early period in the development of the society. They appear to have spoken Nilo-Saharan languages. The area in which they lived is called Nubia. The capital city was Kerma, a major trading center between the northern and southern parts of Africa. During the period of Egypt’s Old Kingdom (ca. 2700-2180 BCE), this civilization was essentially a diffused version of Egyptian culture and religion. When Egypt came under the domination of the Hyksos, Kush reached its greatest power and cultural energy (1700-1500 BCE). When the Hyksos were eventually expelled from Egypt, the New Kingdom brought Kush back under Egyptian colonial control. The collapse of the New Kingdom in Egypt (ca. 1000 BCE) provided the second opportunity for Kush to develop independently of Egyptian control and to conquer the entire Nubian region. The capital was then moved to Napata. For the most part, the Kushites apparently considered themselves Egyptian and inheritors of the pharaonic tradition. Their society was organized on the Egyptian model, adopting Egyptian royal titles, etc. Even their art and architecture was based on Egyptian models. But their pyramids were smaller and steeper. In what has been called “a magnificent irony of history”, the Kushites conquered Egypt in the eighth century, creating the twenty-fifth dynasty. The dynasty ended in the seventh century when Egypt was defeated by the Assyrians. The Kushites were gradually pushed farther south by the Assyrians and later by the Persians. This essentially cut off contact with Egypt, the Middle East and Europe. They moved their capital to Meroe in about 591 BC, when Napata was conquered. Their attention then turned to sub-Saharan Africa. Free of Egyptian dominance, they developed innovations in government and other areas. HISTORY 52
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In government, the king ruled through a law of custom that was interpreted by priests. The king was elected from the royal family. Descent was determined through the mother’s line (as in Egypt). But in an unparalleled innovation, the Kushites were ruled by a series of female monarchs. The Kushite religion was polytheistic, including all of the primary Egyptian gods. There were, however, regional gods which were the principal gods in their regions. Derived from other African cultures, there was also a lion warrior god. This civilization was vital through the last half of the first millennium BC, but it suffered about 300 years of gradual decline until it was eventually conquered by the Nuba people. The ancient Assyrians were warlike and aggressive due to a highly organized military and used horse drawn chariots. The Hebrews, also known as the ancient Israelites instituted "monotheism," which is the worship of one God, Yahweh, and combined the 66 books of the Hebrew and Christian Greek scriptures into the Bible we have today. The Minoans had a system of writing using symbols to represent syllables in words. They built palaces with multiple levels containing many rooms, water and sewage systems with flush toilets, bathtubs, hot and cold running water, and bright paintings on the walls. The Mycenaeans changed the Minoan writing system to aid their own language and used symbols to represent syllables. The Phoenicians were sea traders well known for their manufacturing skills in glass and metals and the development of their famous purple dye. They became so proficient in the skill of navigation that they were able to sail by the stars at night. Further, they devised an alphabet using symbols to represent single sounds, which was an improved extension of the Egyptian principle and writing system. The ancient Persians developed an alphabet; contributed the religions and philosophies of Zoroastrianism, Mithraism, and Gnosticism; and allowed conquered peoples to retain their own customs, laws, and religions. The classical civilization of Greece reached the highest levels in man's achievements based on the foundations already laid by such ancient groups as the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Minoans, and Mycenaeans. HISTORY 53
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Among the more important contributions of Greece were the Greek alphabet derived from the Phoenician letters which formed the basis for the Roman alphabet and our present-day alphabet. Extensive trading and colonization resulted in the spread of the Greek civilization. The love of sports, with emphasis on a sound body, led to the tradition of the Olympic games. Greece was responsible for the rise of independent, strong city-states. Note the complete contrast between independent, freedom-loving Athens with its practice of pure democracy and the rigid, totalitarian, militaristic Sparta. Other important areas that the Greeks are credited with influencing include drama, epic and lyric poetry, fables, myths centered on the many gods and goddesses, science, astronomy, medicine, mathematics, philosophy, art, architecture, and recording historical events. The conquests of Alexander the Great spread Greek ideas to the areas he conquered and brought to the Greek world many ideas from Asia. Above all, the value of ideas, wisdom, curiosity, and the desire to learn as much about the world as possible was a major objective of the conquests. The ancient civilization of Rome lasted approximately 1,000 years including the periods of Republic and Empire, although its lasting influence on Europe and its history was for a much longer period. There was a very sharp contrast between the curious, imaginative, inquisitive Greeks and the practical, simple, down-to-earth, nononsense Romans, who spread and preserved the ideas of ancient Greece and other culture groups. The contributions and accomplishments of the Romans are numerous but their greatest included language, engineering, building, law, government, roads, trade, and the "Pax Romana". Pax Romana was the long period of peace enabling free travel and trade, spreading people, cultures, goods, and ideas all over a vast area of the known world. A most interesting and significant characteristic of the Greek, Hellenic, and Roman civilizations was "secularism", where emphasis shifted away from religion to the state. Men were not absorbed in or dominated by religion as had been the case in Egypt and the nations located in Mesopotamia. Religion and its leaders did not dominate the state and its authority was greatly diminished.
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Competency 10.0 Understand the historical development of Asian, African, and American civilizations. The first empire in history was probably in Mesopotamia, and it was probably the Akkadians, led by Sargon, conqueror of Sumeria. Sargon didn’t last long as an emperor, however. He was succeeded as the master of Mesopotamia by a host of famous names, including the Amorite leader Hammurabi, he of the famous Code. Another of the famous leaders of the Middle Eastern peoples was Nebuchadnezzar, leader of the Chaldeans. We know this name better for two famous episodes in world history: the building of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Babylonian Captivity, the capture of and transport of the ancient Israelites. Other rulers of the Fertile Crescent include the warrior-tribes the Hittites and the Assyrians, both powerful and successful in their day. But the Middle East empirebuilding phase didn’t really build until Darius the Great came onto the scene. Darius was the man who built a collection of cities and satraps into the Persian Empire, one of the largest the world had ever seen. It stretched from Egypt, which it conquered eventually, to the boundaries of India. Millions of people owed their lives and their allegiances to Darius and to his successors. The head of the Persian Empire was the most powerful man in the world. He was also the head of the various religions that dotted his large empire, with various locations believing in local gods and spirits representing aspects of Nature. This was not a new idea, since it had been done in Mesopotamian empires before and especially well in Egypt. It should be mentioned here that Egypt had an empire of its own, of sorts. The Egyptian civilization encompassed many cities up and down the Nile River in northeastern and east-central Africa, and the production capacity and religious fervor of these Egyptians was incredibly high. The pharaohs who were in command of all aspects of the lives of the Egyptian people were also heads of the various religions. Even though each Egyptian god had its own temple and each temple had its own priests, the pharaoh was the liaison between the people and their gods. Egyptian goods flowed from ports and trade centers to locations all over the Mediterranean area and into central Asia. Egypt also was a captivating takeover goal for many neighbors; the only ones to succeed were a Persian, a Macedonian, and a Roman.
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As big as the Empire was, the Persians always wanted more. They grew covetous of the growing Greek civilization, which was looking to expand in all directions, especially to the east, to areas claimed by the Persians. A series of disagreements escalated into a series of battles and then a full-blown war, which the Greeks refer to as the Persian Wars. This struggle had some of the most famous battles in the world, including Marathon (in which the Greeks won despite being vastly outnumbered), Thermopylae (in which a valiant group of Spartans held off thousands of Persian warriors for several days), Salamis (a naval battle that the Greeks won despite being outgunned and outnumbered), and Plataea (in which the Greeks sealed the deal by finally outnumbering the Persians). These victories convinced the Persians not to attempt another invasion of Greece, but it didn’t mean the end of the Empire. That end came at the hands of Alexander the Great, a Macedonian general who conquered both Greece and Persia, eventually adding Egypt, Phoenician cities, and part of India, and created an empire that was staggering in its geography and impact. The Greek empire more than any other conqueror resulted in cultural exchanges with the people of the land. This was known as Hellenization, and it brought the Greek enlightened way of life to the peoples of the East while also bringing the exotic goods and customs of the East to Greece. Until this time, the peoples of East and West exchanged goods and customs in small ways but were overall suspicious of their enemies. Alexander changed all that, bringing both sides together under one banner and beginning an exchange of ideas, beliefs, and goods that would capture the imagination of rulers for years after his untimely death. The East had its share of empires as well, especially in China. From an early age, China had emperors who were in charge of vast territories and vast numbers of people. The Chinese, especially, were good at exporting their goods and customs, especially along the famous Silk Road. Exotic spices flowed along this road to the Middle East and to Rome. The Chinese empire steadily expanded, rivaling even Rome in breadth and accomplishments by the time of the famous Han Dynasty. When Rome fell, China lived on. The Ottoman Empire is to be noted for its ability to unite a highly varied population as it grew through conquest and treaty arrangement. This ability is to be attributed to military strength, a policy of strict control of recently invaded territories, and an Islamic-inspired philosophy that stated that all Muslims, Christians and Jews were related because they were all “People of the Book.” HISTORY
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The major religious groups were permitted to construct their own semiautonomous communities. Conquering armies immediately repaired buildings, roads, bridges, and aqueducts or built them where needed. They also built modern sanitary facilities and linked the city to a supply structure that was able to provide for the needs of the people. This religious and ethnic tolerance was the basis upon which a heterogeneous culture was built. It quickly transformed a Turkish empire into the Ottoman Empire. The attitude of tolerant blending and respect for diverse ethnic and cultural groups, in time produced a rich mix of people that was reflected in multi-cultural and multi-religious policies that were based on recognition and respect for different perspectives. Ottoman architecture, although influenced by Seljuk, Byzantine and Arab styles, developed a unique style of its own. Music was important to the elites of the empire. Two primary styles of music that developed were Ottoman classical music and folk music. Again, both styles reflect a basis in the diversity of influences that came together in the unified empire. The Mongol Empire, founded by Genghis Khan, included the majority of the territory from Southeast Asia to central Europe during the height of the empire. One of the primary military tactics of conquest was to annihilate any cities that refused to surrender. Government was by decree on the basis on a code of laws developed by Genghis Khan. It is interesting that one of the tenets of this code was that the nobility and the commoners shared the same hardship. The society, and the opportunity to advance within the society, was based on a system of meritocracy. The carefully structured and controlled society was efficient and safe for the people. Religious tolerance was guaranteed. Theft and vandalism were strictly forbidden. Trade routes and an extensive postal system were created linking the various parts of the empire. Taxes were quite onerous, but teachers, artists and lawyers were exempted from taxes. Mongol rule, however, was absolute. The response to all resistance was collective punishment in the form of destruction of cities and slaughter of the inhabitants. The lasting achievements of the Mongol Empire include: • • •
HISTORY
Reunification of China and expansions of its borders Unification of the Central Asian Republics that later formed part of the USSR Expansion of Europe’s knowledge of the world
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The Mughal Empire reached its height during the reign of Akbar (1556-1605). In the administration of the empire, Akbar initiated two approaches that are notable. First, he studied local revenue statistics for the various provinces within the empire. He then developed a revenue plan that matched the revenue needs of the empire with the ability of the people to pay the taxes. Although the taxes were heavy (one third to one half of the crop), it was possible to collect the taxes and meet the financial needs of the empire. Second, he created a rank and pay structure for the warrior aristocracy that was based on number of troops and obligations. He introduced a policy of acceptance and assimilation of Hindus, allowed temples to be built, and abolished the poll tax on non-Muslims. He devised a theory of “rulership as a divine illumination” and accepted all religions and sects. He encouraged widows to remarry, discouraged marriage of children, outlawed the practice of sati, and persuaded the merchants in Delhi to recognize special market days for women who were otherwise required to remain secluded at home. The empire supported a strong cultural and intellectual life. He sponsored regular debates among religious and scholarly individuals with different points of view. The unique style of architecture of the Mogul Empire was its primary contribution to South Asia. The Taj Mahal was one of many monuments built during this period. The culture was a blend of Indian, Iranian and Central Asian traditions. Other major accomplishments were: • • • • • • •
Centralized government Blending of traditions in art and culture Development of new trade routs to Arab and Turkish lands A unique style of architecture Landscape gardening A unique cuisine The creation of to languages (Urdu and Hindi) for the common people
The Ming Dynasty in China followed the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. In addition to its expansion of trade and exploration of surrounding regions, the period is well known for its highly talented artists and craftsmen. The Hongwu emperor rose from peasant origins. He distributed land to small farmers in an effort to help them support their families.
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To further protect these family farms, he proclaimed title of the land nontransferable. He also issued an edict by which anyone who cultivated wasteland could keep the land as their property and would never be taxed. One of the major developments of the time was the development of systems of irrigation for farms throughout the empire. Hongwu maintained a strong army by creating military settlements. During peacetime, each soldier was given land to farm and, if he could not afford to purchase equipment, it was provided by the government. The legal code created during the period is generally considered one of the greatest achievements of the dynasty. The laws were written in understandable language and in enough detail to prevent misinterpretation. The law reversed previous policy toward slaves, and promised them the same protection as free citizens. Great emphasis was placed on family relations. It was clearly based on Confucian ideas. The other major accomplishment of this dynasty was the decision to begin building the Great Wall of China to provide protection from northern horsemen. The ancient Persians developed an alphabet; contributed the religions/philosophies of Zoroastrianism, Mithraism, and Gnosticism; and allowed conquered peoples to retain their own customs, laws, and religions. In India, Hinduism was a continuing influence along with the rise of Buddhism. Industry and commerce developed along with extensive trading with the Near East. Outstanding advances in the fields of science and medicine were made, along with being one of the first civilizations to be active in navigation and maritime enterprises during this time. The civilization in Japan appeared during this time having borrowed much of their culture from China. It was the last of these classical civilizations to develop. Although they used, accepted, and copied Chinese art, law, architecture, dress, and writing, the Japanese refined these into their own unique way of life, including incorporating the religion of Buddhism into their culture. The civilizations in Africa south of the Sahara were developing the refining and use of iron, especially for farm implements and later for weapons. Trading was overland using camels and at important seaports. The Arab influence was extremely important, as was their later contact with Indians, Christian Nubians, and Persians. In fact, their trading activities were probably the most important factor in the spread of and assimilation of different ideas and stimulation of cultural growth. The people who lived in the Americas before Columbus arrived had a thriving, connected society. The civilizations in North America tended to spread out more and were in occasional conflict but maintained their sovereignty, for the most part. The South American civilizations, however, tended to migrate into empires, with the strongest city or tribe assuming control of the lives and resources of the rest of the nearby peoples. HISTORY
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Native Americans in North America had a spiritual and personal relationship with the various Spirits of Nature and a keen appreciation of the ways of woodworking and metalworking. Various tribes dotted the landscape of what is now the U.S. They struggled against one another for control of resources such as food and water but had no concept of ownership of land, since they believed that they were living on the land with the permission of the Spirits. The North Americans mastered the art of growing many crops and, to their credit, were willing to share that knowledge with the various Europeans who eventually showed up. Artwork made of hides, beads, and jewels was popular at this time. The most well known empires of South America were the Aztec, Inca, and Maya. Each of these empires had a central capital in which lived the emperor, who controlled all aspects of the lives of his subjects. The empires traded with other peoples; and if the relations soured, the results were usually absorption of the trading partners into the empire. These empires, especially the Aztecs, had access to large numbers of metals and jewels, and they created weapons and artwork that continue to impress historians today. The Inca Empire stretched across a vast period of territory down the western coast of South America and was connected by a series of roads. A series of messengers ran along these roads, carrying news and instructions from the capital, Cusco. The Incas, however, did not have the wheel. The Mayas are most well known for their famous pyramids and calendars, as well as their language, which still stumps archaeologists.
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Competency 11.0 Understand European, Byzantine, and Islamic civilizations from 500—1500 C.E. Rome was one of the early Italian cities conquered by the Etruscans, who ruled over Rome until 509 BCE, when they were overthrown by the Roman Republic. The Etruscans had absorbed and modified Greek civilization. Such elements of Greek culture as writing, certain religious practices, and engineering skills were passed on to the Italian peoples during their rule. The period prior to the establishment of the Republic remains a mystery to modern historians. The following has been reconstructed: Rome was composed of three tribes each divided into clans. Clans were composed of groups of families. There was a division into a class of nobles and the class of commoners very early. The nobles, called patricians (fathers) appear to have been the privileged class that functioned as an advisory council to the king and had certain political rights. There was no protective function in the government and thus there was no army. Protection of the citizenry was the responsibility of the father of the family, who was also the priest of the religious cult of the home. The father was also a patron to commoner clients. In exchange for services to the family, these clients were given political and legal protection. The family unit, then, was composed of the family itself, free clients, and slaves (once wars of conquest began). The early kings were elected by the nobles, and ruled with supreme power in legal matters and in time of war. They were advised by the council, or the senate, which was composed of 30 senators (10 to each tribe). The religion of the early Romans was animistic – they believed that every thing was inhabited by a spirit. These were not personified or anthropomorphic until just prior to the birth of the Republic. The religion absorbed a number of Greek and Etruscan elements. The household religion was devoted to household gods, called lares and penates. They were believed to protect the household. Ancestors were worshiped and their death masks were maintained in an in-house chapel. The primary factors that led to the overthrow of the last king and the establishment of the Roman Republic appear to be: (1) a desire to be free of the Etruscans; (2) a desire to put an end to the tyranny of the last king; and (3) the kind of political evolution that occurred elsewhere as the noble classes wanted to cast aside the control of the monarch and establish an aristocratic form of government.
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The factors that enabled Rome to conquer Italy were: • • • • • •
Geographical location in the center of the peninsula with no mountain barriers, A sturdy citizen army and superior military tactics, The disunity of their enemies, The use of a superior form of imperialism, by which military veterans settled in conquered areas, providing structure and guidance that allowed self-government to local peoples, A highly disciplined family structure and a very powerful father, A superior form of government – the republic.
The structure of the early Republic was clearly aristocratic. The nobles subjugated the commoners and dominated both the consuls and the Senate. In 450 BC a written law gave new rights to the common people: the right to popular assembly, the creation of tribunes to protect the rights of all citizens, the creation of special new officials (judges and treasury officials), who were to make government fairer and more efficient. By 287 BC, the Hortensian law allowed nobles and commoners to intermarry and permitted commoners to hold public offices. The next 275 years, approximately, were occupied with expansion. This involved numerous wars of conquest. By 100 BC, Rome controlled most of the Hellenistic world. This rapid conquest was one of the factors in the decline of the Republic. The republic did not have the infrastructure to absorb the conquered people. In addition, there was political decay, vast economic and social change, and military failure. In politics, the Senate refused to grant rights to the mass of the populace. A civil war erupted between rival factions. And, lacking adequate infrastructure, Rome was not able to provide good government to conquered territories. Heavy taxation of these territories, oppression by the government, and corrupt resident government officials led to decay. Critical social and economic changes included the ruin of small farmers by importing slaves from conquered areas, a vast migration of the poor to the city of Rome, a failure to encourage and invest in industry and trade, the dissatisfaction of the new business class, and a general decline in morale among all classes of citizens. At the same time, the republic experienced a vast slave uprising in Southern Italy and faced the first attacks from Germanic invaders. The end of the Republic was marked by two significant power struggles. The first was the grasp of power by the First Triumvirate in 59 BCE. The Triumvirate consisted of Caesar, Pompey and Crassus. Caesar eliminated Pompey and attempted to establish a dictatorship. Caesar made many reforms, including reducing the power of the Senate, but he was killed in the Senate in 44 BCE.
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The following year experienced the rise of the Second Triumvirate, composed of Octavian, Mark Antony, and Lepidus. Octavian (later called Augustus) emerged victorious from the ensuing power struggle and became ruler of Rome in 31 BCE. Octavian (Augustus) established a “disguised monarchy” in which he appeared to share power with the Senate, though withholding most power. He established the boundaries of Rome on the Rhine and Danube rivers, improved government, and extended citizenship rights to all Roman soldiers. The power of the emperor was gradually enlarged by his successors. The height of the empire was achieved under “the five good emperors” – Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius. The major contributions of the Roman Empire are: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Peace and prosperity (the Pax Romana) The codification of Roman law A unified empire that allowed much self-government to component citystates The introduction of the idea of separation of powers and popular sovereignty The development of the “science” of public administration Formalized methods of tax collection Construction of an extensive civil service program Tolerance and the granting of citizenship rights to all inhabitants Engineering and construction of excellent roads, bridges, aqueducts and sanitation systems Construction of massive buildings – coliseums, public baths, basilicas Architectural innovations in the use of vaults and arches Preservation of Greek artistic techniques Development of education Refinement of rhetoric Literature: Cicero, Caesar, Lucretius, Virgil, Juvenal, Livy, Plutarch Extension of philosophy in the Greek tradition
The reasons for the decline of the Roman Empire are still a matter of debate. Political: a period of anarchy and military emperors led to war and destruction; Diocletian reconstructed the Empire, establishing a “divine-right” absolute monarchy, a new imperial bureaucracy, and new administrative divisions to lessen the burden of ruling; Diocletian also reorganized the army, and established a new efficient, but very oppressive, taxation system. Constantine reunited the Empire, but moved the capital to the East. All of this reform demoralized the city-states.
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Economic: the rise of large villas owned and controlled by landlords who settled poor people on the land as hereditary tenants who lived under conditions of partial servitude; use of wasteful agricultural methods; a decline of commerce; skilled workers were bound to jobs and were forced to accept government wages and prices; corruption, lack of productivity and inadequate investment of capital; the draining of gold from the western part of the empire through unfavorable trade balances with the East. Biological, ecological and social: deforestation, bad agricultural methods, diseases (particularly malaria), earthquakes, immorality, and brutalization of the masses in the cities, demoralization of the upper classes. This was accompanied by the decay of pagan beliefs and Roman ideals with the rise of Christianity. The beginning of the barbarian infiltrations and invasions further weakened the sense of Roman identity. All of these factors contributed to an empire that was ill equipped to contend with invaders. The Han Dynasty in China lasted from 206 BCE to 220 CE. The Dynasty was founded by the family known as the Liu clan. Within China, the period of the Han Dynasty (some 400 years) is generally considered one of the greatest periods in Chinese history. During this period China officially became a Confucian state. The empire was prosperous and commerce flourished. The empire also extended its influence, both culturally and politically, over Mongolia, Korea, Vietnam and Central Asia. Following the death of Emperor Qin Shi Huang of the Qin Dynasty, there was widespread unrest. The resulting revolts were led by peasants, prisoners, soldiers, and descendants of the nobles of the “Six Warring States”. These ongoing uprisings toppled the Qin dynasty in 206 BCE. The leader of the insurgents divided the country into 19 feudal states. What followed was five years of war among the states. The struggle was essentially between Chu Han and Liu Bang. Liu Bang eventually won the struggle and became the first emperor of the Han dynasty. The new empire maintained the administrative structure of the previous dynasty, but established vassal states for the sake of political expediency. Emperor Gao (Liu Bang) divided the country into “feudal states” to appease his wartime allies. His intention, however, was to consolidate his power and then to consolidate the empire. After his death, his successors tried to rule China by combining legalist methods with the Taoist philosophical ideals. This produced a stable centralized government, revival of the agricultural sector, and the break-up of the “feudal states.”
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Prior to Emperor Wu the government reduced taxation, reduced the government’s control over the lives of the people, created stability, and assumed a subservient relationship to neighboring tribes. During the reign of Emperor Wu, who led the most prosperous period of the Dynasty, the empire fought back and gained control of present day Qinghai, Gansu and northern Vietnam. This emperor also made China a Confucian state. This enabled Confucian scholars to gain prominence as the core of the civil service. Emperor Wu also sent an envoy to the West and pioneered the route known as the Silk Road. To finance his program of expansion, Emperor Wu gave control of land to merchants. This resulted in legalizing the privatization of land. Land taxes were based on the size of fields rather than income. This led to the rise of a landholding class. Major accomplishments of the Han Dynasty include: • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Development of a strong military Westward expansion Enabling of secure caravan traffic across Central Asia Development of a “tributary system” with non-Chinese local powers that allowed these non-Chinese states autonomy in exchange for symbolic recognition of Han overlordship Creation of the Silk Road Conversion to a Confucian state The invention of paper Intellectual, literary and artistic revival Introduction of a policy of the government buying surplus commodities and selling them in periods of want to prevent hunger and speculation Restricting the coining of metal to the government Ssu-ma Chien’s narrative of the history of China up to his own time Production of one of the world’s first dictionaries The scientists of the period came close to working out the true length of the solar year First observation of sunspots The assertion that eclipses were not the warnings of Providence, but natural phenomena Artistic carving in stone depicted realistic action Making of mirrors, glass and lacquered objects The introduction of Buddhism into China.
After the death of Wu Ti in 87 BCE, the Han dynasty experienced a rapid decline. In 9 CE, Wang Mang seized the throne and ruled as emperor for almost 15 years. He tried to introduce dramatic innovations and by doing so, became very unpopular with the rich. His reforms included ending slavery, dividing large estates, and price-fixing. When he was killed, the Han line was restored.
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The later Han rulers were relatively weak and incompetent. An insurrection by the Taoist Red Turbans contributed to the decline of the dynasty. Further weakening resulted from internal corruption and political infighting. The dynasty ended when its capital was captured by the Huns. The Medieval Catholic Church was the single most unifying organization in the West, exercising influence at every level of society. Catholic bishops and archbishops were named from the ranks of noblemen, and acted as advisors to royal leaders. Parish priests oversaw the indoctrination of peasants and the collection of church taxes, called tithes. The church was the central building of most medieval towns. The Catholic Church was also the primary provider of formal education, establishing universities in Italy and France. The university tradition of higher learning was itself an extension of an interest in learning that grew out of the Catholic monasteries, which were isolated communities of religious monks devoted to service to the Church. The High Middle Ages refers to the period in Europe between the Early and Late Middle Ages, spanning approximately the eleventh, twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The period is noted for a rapid increase in population that contributed to dramatic changes in society, culture, and political organization. During this period, the concept of the nation state took hold as populations became more stable and people began to think of themselves as belonging to a larger group of ethnically similar cultures. In Italy, the independent nation states such as Venice, Pisa and Florence were established, providing a basis for the Renaissance. The concept of inherited nobility gained wide acceptance and knighthood and chivalry developed as virtuous codes of conduct. The Crusades took place during the High Middle Ages, further strengthening the importance of these orders of knights, and solidifying the strength of the western Church throughout Europe. As the power and influence of the Church grew, it contributed to the growth of art and architecture, particularly in the development of the great gothic cathedrals, most of which were constructed during this era. The routes opened by Crusaders marching to Jerusalem opened the way for an increase in trade, and contributed to the growth of many cities based on this trade. A merchant class developed and began to exert its influence on political and economic affairs.
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Crucial advances in thinking and technology occurred during the High Middle Ages. Improvements in shipbuilding and clock-making led to advances in navigation and cartography, setting the stage for the Age of Exploration. The field of printing, while not yet to the stage that Gutenberg was to take it in the fifteenth century, expanded the availability of texts, serving a growing educated class of people. The philosophy of Scholasticism, which emphasized empiricism and opposed mysticism in Christian education, was espoused by Thomas Aquinas. The population increase that had brought these significant developments to Europe in the High Middle Ages was suddenly reversed in the mid-fourteenth century by the Black Plague, which decimated the region. As the concept of the nation state arose, so did the idea of national borders and national sovereignty, leading to numerous wars, which in turn had deleterious effects on the economy. These events are now used to mark the period of transition between the High Middle Ages and the Late Middle Ages. The Byzantines (Christians) made important contributions in art and were important in the preservation of Greek and Roman achievements including architecture (especially in Eastern Europe and Russia), as well as the development of the Code of Justinian and Roman law. Byzantium was known for its exquisite artwork (including the famous church Hagia Sophia), something for which the West was never known. Bordering the east of Europe was the Byzantine Empire, which was the Eastern Roman Empire, after it was split into two by Emperor Diocletian. Diocletian’s successor, Emperor Constantine renamed the capital Byzantium to Constantinople, after himself. With the fall of Western Rome in 476 CE, the Byzantine emperors, starting with Justinian, attempted to regain the lost western territories. Due to ineffective rulers between the seventh and ninth centuries CE, any gains were completely lost, which reverted the territorial limits to the eastern Balkans of Ancient Greece and Asia Minor. The late ninth through eleventh centuries were considered the Golden Age of Byzantium. Although Constantine had earlier made Christianity the official state religion of Rome, it left an unresolved conflict between Christian and Classical (Greek and Roman) ideals for the Byzantines. There were points of contention between the Pope in Rome and the Patriarch of Constantinople including celibacy of priests, language of the Liturgy (Latin in the west, Greek in the east), religious doctrine, and other unsettled issues. These issues led to the Great Schism, which permanently split the church into the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Churches. HISTORY
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Perhaps the most wide-ranging success of the Byzantine Empire was in the area of trade. Uniquely situated at the gateway to both West and East, Byzantium could control trade going in both directions. Indeed, the Eastern Empire was much more centralized and rigid in its enforcement of its policies than the feudal West. A few years after the death of the Emperor Justinian, Mohammed was born (570 CE) in Mecca, a small Arabian town near the Red Sea. Before this time, Arabians played only an occasional role in world history. Arabia was a vast desert of rock and sand, except the coastal areas on the Red Sea. It was populated by nomadic wanderers called Bedouin, who lived in scattered tribes near oases where they watered their herds. Tribal leaders engaged in frequent war with one another. The family or tribe was the social and political unit, under the authority of the head of the family, within which there was cruelty, infanticide, and suppression of women. Their religion was a crude and superstitious paganism and idolatry. Although there was regular contact with Christians and Jews through trading interactions, the idea of monotheism was foreign. What vague unity there was within the religion was based upon common veneration of certain sanctuaries. The most important of these was a small square temple called the Kaaba (cube), located in the town of Mecca. Arabs came from all parts of the country in annual pilgrimages to Mecca during the sacred months when warfare was prohibited. For this reason, Mecca was considered the center of Arab religion. In about 610 a prophet named Mohammed came with a new religion Islam (submission [to the will of God]) and his followers were called Muslims – those who had surrendered themselves to God. His first converts were members of his family and his friends. Islam preached monotheism and the sole worship of God, the creator of the universe, and taught morality, justice and equality. As the new faith began to grow, it remained a secret society. When Muslims began to make their faith public, they were met with opposition and persecution from the pagan Arabs, who feared the new religion and the possible loss of the profitable trade with the pilgrims who came to the Kaaba every year. Islam slowly gained ground, but the persecution of Muslims became more severe in Mecca. In 622, Mohammed and his close followers fled the city of Mecca and found refuge in Medina to the North. His flight is called the Hegira. This event marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar. Mohammed became the ruler of Medina, making it the capital of a rapidly growing state. In the years that followed, Islam spread significantly. It attracted many people from the Bedouin tribes. By 630, Mohammed was strong enough to return to Mecca in a non-violent conquest and make it the religious center of Islam, toward which all Muslims turned to pray, and the Kaaba the most sacred Mosque or temple. Medina remained the political capital.
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By taking over the pilgrimage, the sacred city and the sanctuary from paganism, Mohammed made it easier for people to join the religion. By the time of his death in 632, most of the people of Arabia had become at least nominal adherents of Islam. Mohammed brought a collection of divine revelations (suras) known as the Koran (reading), which has since been the holy book of Islam. The Koran contains Islam’s teachings on moral and theological questions, legislation on political matters, and comments on current events. Islam has five basic principles: 1. The oneness and omnipotence of God – Allah. • Mohammed is the prophet of Allah to whom all truth has been revealed by God. • To each of the previous prophets (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus) the truth was also revealed. 2. One should pray five times a day at prescribed intervals, facing Mecca, 3. Charity – for the welfare of the community. 4. Fasting from sunrise to sunset every day during the holy month of Ramadan to cleanse the spirit. 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca should be made if possible once during one’s lifetime, and if no one suffers thereby. The moral principles of Islam are: • • • •
The practice of the virtues of charity, humility and patience, Enemies are to be forgiven, Avarice, lying and malice are condemned, and Drinking (alcohol), eating pork, and gambling are prohibited.
Muslims believe that on the Day of Judgment, all souls would be judged by God, based on their behavior on earth. The infidel would be condemned to a hell (jahannam) of perpetual fire; the good/faithful would go to Paradise, a beautiful place of cool waters, sensual delights, and ease. Islam emphasizes a strong sense of predestination. The Koran also elevates the level of women and gives them equal rights as men. A man can marry as many as four wives, but only if he loves and treats them equally. Divorce was easy, but the wife had to be given a dowry. Islam combined elements of Christianity, Judaism, and Arab values of family and community. The resulting doctrine was a mixture of ideas that is original when taken as a whole. It appealed to both the simple Arab of the prophet’s day and to the intellect of more civilized people.
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After the death of Mohammed, Abu Bakr was chosen as his successor to manage the Muslim empire. He took the title of Caliph. The title was retained throughout the duration of the Muslim Empire. The Muslims immediately launched an amazing series of conquests that in time extended the empire from the Indus to Spain. During the period of expansion there was a brief civil war that occurred because Ali was proclaimed Caliph at Medina. He was opposed by an aristocratic family of Mecca called the Umayyad. Ali was assassinated in 661, and the Umayyads emerged supreme, handing the caliphate down in their family for nearly a century. Because their strongest support was in Syria, they moved the capital from Medina to Damascus. Despite political divisions, the Muslim world maintained strong economic, religious and cultural unity throughout this period. Mohammed had taught that all Muslims are brothers, equal in the sight of God. Conversion to Islam erased the differences between peoples of different ethnic origin. The converts to Islam, who brought their cultural traditions, probably contributed more to this emerging synthetic civilization than the Arabs. This blending of cultures, facilitated by a common language, a common religion, and a strong economy, created learning, literature, science, technology and art that surpassed anything found in the Western Christian world during the Early Middle Ages. Interestingly, the most brilliant period of Islamic culture was from the eighth century through the eleventh, coinciding with the West’s darkest cultural period. Reading and writing in Arabic, the study of the Koran, arithmetic and other elementary subjects were taught to children in schools attached to the mosques. In larger and wealthier cities, the mosques offered more advanced education in literature, logic, philosophy, law, algebra, astronomy, medicine, science, theology and the tradition of Islam. Books were produced for the large reading public. The wealthy collected private libraries and public libraries arose in large cities. The most popular subjects were theology and the law. But the more important field of study was philosophy. The works of the Greek and Hellenistic philosophers were translated into Arabic and interpreted with commentaries. These were later passed on to the Western Christian societies and schools in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. The basis of Islamic philosophy was Aristotelian and Neo-platonic ideas, which were essentially transmitted without creative modification.
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The Muslims were also interested in natural science. They translated the works on Galen and Hippocrates into Arabic and added the results of their own experience in medicine. Avicenna was regarded in Western Europe as one of the great masters of medicine. Muslims also adopted the work of the Greeks in the other sciences and modified and supplemented them with their own discoveries. Much of their work in chemistry was focused on alchemy (the attempt to transmute base metals into gold). The Muslim culture outdistanced the Western world in the field of medicine, primarily because the people weren’t constrained by the sort of superstitious fervor that had so embraced the West at this time. The Muslim doctor Al-Razi was one of the most well-known physicians in the world and was the author of a medical encyclopedia and a handbook for smallpox and measles Adopting the heritage of Greek mathematics, the Muslims also borrowed a system of numerals from India. This laid the foundation for modern arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry and algebra. Islamic art and architecture tended to be mostly uniform in style, allowing for some regional modification. There were influences from Byzantine, Persian and other sources. The floor plan of the mosques was generally based on Mohammed’s house in Medina. The unique elements were the tall minarets from which the faithful were called to prayer. Interior decoration was the style now called arabesque. Islam had discouraged paintings or other images of living creatures, so these continued to be absent from mosques, although they occasionally appeared in book illustrations and secular contexts. But skilled craftsmen produced the finest art in jewelry, ceramics, carpets, and carved ivory. The Muslims also produced sophisticated literature in both prose and poetry. Little, however, of their poetry or prose was carried down by Western culture. The best-known works of this period are the short stories known as the Arabian Nights and the poems of Omar Khayyam. Feudal societies in Europe and Asia. The system of feudalism became a dominant feature of the economic and social system in Europe. It was a system of loyalty and protection where the strong protected the weak, who returned the service with farm labor, military service, and loyalty. Life was centered around a vast estate, owned by a nobleman and his family, called a "manor." The manor was a complete village supporting a few hundred people, mostly peasants. Improved tools and farming methods made life more bearable; life was hard for most people on the manor, but very few ever left the manor or traveled from their village during their lifetime.
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Feudalism was the organization of people based on the ownership of land by a Lord or other Noble who allowed individuals known as peasants or serfs to farm the land and to keep a portion of it. The lord or noble, in return for the serfs’ loyalty, offered them his protection. In practical effect, the serf was considered property owned by his lord with little or no rights at all. The lord’s sole obligation to the serfs was to protect them so they could continue to work for him (in most cases, though not all lords were men). This system would last for many centuries. In Russia it would last until the 1860s. The end of the feudal manorial system was triggered by the outbreak and spread of the infamous Black Death, which killed over one-third of the total population of Europe. Those who survived and were skilled in any job or occupation were in demand, and many serfs or peasants found freedom and, for that time, a decidedly improved standard of living. Strong nation-states became powerful and people developed a renewed interest in life and learning. From its beginnings, Japan developed an imperial form of government, with the divine emperor being able to do no wrong and, therefore, serving for life. Kyoto, the capital, became one of the largest and most powerful cities in the world. Slowly, though, as in Europe, the rich and powerful landowners, the nobles, grew powerful. Eventually, they had more power than the emperor. This required a great attitude change in the minds of the Japanese people, but their attitudes did change. The nobles were lords of great lands and were called Daimyos. They were of the highest social class and had people of lower social classes working for them, including the lowly peasants, who had few privileges other than ‘the honor’ of being allowed to work for the great Daimyos. The Daimyos were served by warriors known as Shogun, who were answerable only to the Daimyo. The Shogun code of honor was an exemplification of the overall Japanese belief that every man was a soldier and a gentleman. The contradiction that the emerging social classes identified didn’t seem to get noticed much, nor did the needs of women. The main economic difference between imperial and feudal Japan was that the money that continued to flow into the country from trade with China, Korea, and other Asian countries and from good, old-fashioned plundering on the high seas no longer made its way into the emperor’s coffers but rather the pockets of the Daimyos. Feudalism developed in Japan later than it did in Europe and lasted longer as well. Japan dodged one huge historical bullet when a huge Mongol invasion was driven away by the famed kamikaze, or “divine wind,” in the twelfth century. Japan was thus free to continue to develop itself as it saw fit and to refrain from interacting with the West, especially. This isolation lasted until the nineteenth century.
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Competency 12.0 Understand the Renaissance and the Reformation. The purpose of the Crusades was to rid Jerusalem of Muslim control. These series of violent, bloody conflicts affected trade and stimulated later explorations seeking new, exotic products such as silks and spices. The Crusaders came into contact with other religions and cultures and learned and spread many new ideas. During this time, the system of feudalism became the dominant feature. It was a system of loyalty and protection where the strong protected the weak, who returned the service with farm labor, military service, and loyalty. Life was centered around a vast estate called a manor, owned by a nobleman and his family. A manor was a complete village supporting a few hundred people, mostly peasants. Life was very difficult for the peasants or serfs on the manor, who were much like slaves. Most serfs never left the manor during their entire lifetime. Also coming into importance at this time was the era of knighthood and its code of chivalry as well as the tremendous influence of the Church (Roman Catholic). Until the period of the Renaissance, the Church was the only place where people could be educated. The Bible and other books were hand-copied by monks in the monasteries. Cathedrals were built and were decorated with art depicting religious subjects. With the increase in trade and travel, cities sprang up and began to grow. Craft workers in the cities developed their skills to a high degree, eventually organizing guilds to protect the quality of the work and to regulate the buying and selling of their products. City government developed and flourished centered on strong town councils. Active in city government and the town councils were the wealthy businessmen who made up the rising middle class. The end of the feudal manorial system was triggered by the outbreak and spread of the infamous Black Death, which killed over one-third of the total population of Europe. Those who survived and were skilled in any job or occupation were in demand and many serfs or peasants found freedom and, for that time, a decidedly improved standard of living. Strong nation-states became powerful and people developed a renewed interest in life and learning. In other parts of the world were the Byzantine and Saracenic (or Islamic) civilizations, both dominated by religion. The major contributions of the Saracens were in the areas of science and philosophy. Included were accomplishments in astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, medicine, literature, art, trade, manufacturing, agriculture, and a marked influence on the Renaissance period of history.
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The Byzantines (Christians) made important contributions in art and the preservation of Greek and Roman achievements including architecture (especially in Eastern Europe and Russia), and the development of the Code of Justinian and Roman law. Italian Renaissance and the Reformation. The word "Renaissance" literally means "rebirth", and this period signaled the rekindling of interest in the glory of ancient classical Greek and Roman civilizations. It was the period in human history marking the start of many ideas and innovations leading to our modern age. The Renaissance began in Italy, mainly Florence, which was controlled by the infamous Medici family. Education, especially for some of the merchants, required reading, writing, and math, the study of law, and the writings of classical Greek and Roman writers. A combination of a renewed fascination with the classical world and new infusion of money into the hands of those so fascinated brought on the Renaissance. In the areas of art, literature, music, and science, the world changed for the better. Among the famous Renaissance artists are Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael, Titian, Donatello, and Rembrandt. All of these men pioneered a new method of painting and sculpture—that of portraying real events and real people as they really looked, not as the artists imagined them to be. One need look no further than Michelangelo’s David to illustrate this. Literature was a focus during the Renaissance. Humanists Petrarch, Boccaccio, Erasmus, and Sir Thomas More advanced the idea of being interested in life here on earth and the opportunities it can bring, rather than constantly focusing on heaven and its rewards. The monumental works of Shakespeare, Dante, and Cervantes found their origins in these ideas, as well as the ones that drove the painters and sculptors. All of these works, of course, owe much of their existence to the invention of the printing press, which occurred during the Renaissance. The Renaissance changed music as well. No longer just a religious experience, music could be fun and composed for its own sake, to be enjoyed in fuller and more humanistic ways than in the Middle Ages. Musicians worked for themselves, rather than for the churches, as before, and so could command good money for their work, increasing their prestige. Science advanced considerably during the Renaissance, especially in the area of physics and astronomy. Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo led a Scientific Revolution in proving that the earth was round and certainly not perfect, an earthshattering revelation to those who clung to medieval ideals of a geocentric, church-centered existence.
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All of these things encouraged people to see the world in a new way, more real, more realized, and more realistic than ever before. Contributions of the Italian Renaissance period were in: Art - the more important artists were Giotto and his development of perspective in paintings; Leonardo da Vinci was not only an artist but also a scientist and inventor; Michelangelo was a sculptor, painter, and architect; and others including Raphael, Donatello, Titian, and Tintoretto Political philosophy - the writings of Machiavelli Literature - the writings of Petrarch and Boccaccio Science - Galileo Medicine - the work of Brussels-born Andrea Vesalius earned him the title of "father of anatomy" and had a profound influence on the Spaniard Michael Servetus and the Englishman William Harvey In Germany, Gutenberg's invention of the printing press with moveable type, facilitated the rapid spread of Renaissance ideas, writings and innovations, thus ensuring the enlightenment of most of Western Europe. Contributions were also made by Durer and Holbein in art and by Paracelsus in science and medicine. The effects of the Renaissance in the Low Countries can be seen in the literature and philosophy of Erasmus and the art of van Eyck and Breughel the Elder. Rabelais and de Montaigne in France also contributed to literature and philosophy. In Spain, the art of El Greco and de Morales flourished, as did the writings of Cervantes and De Vega. In England, Sir Thomas More and Sir Francis Bacon wrote and taught philosophy and were inspired by Vesalius. William Harvey made important contributions in medicine. The greatest talent was found in literature and drama and given to mankind by Chaucer, Spenser, Marlowe, Jonson, and the incomparable Shakespeare. The Renaissance ushered in a time of curiosity, learning, and incredible energy, sparking the desire for trade to procure these new, exotic products and to find better, faster, cheaper trade routes to get to them. The work of geographers, astronomers and mapmakers made important contributions and many studied and applied the work of such men as Hipparchus of Greece, Ptolemy of Egypt, Tycho Brahe of Denmark, and Fra Mauro of Italy.
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The Reformation period consisted of two phases: the Protestant Revolution and the Catholic Reformation. The Protestant Revolution came about because of religious, political, and economic reasons. The religious reasons stemmed from abuses in the Catholic Church including fraudulent clergy with their scandalous immoral lifestyles; the sale of religious offices, indulgences, and dispensations; different theologies within the Church; and frauds involving sacred relics. The political reasons for the Protestant Revolution involved the increase in the power of rulers who were considered "absolute monarchs" wanting all power and control, especially over the Church; and the growth of "nationalism" or patriotic pride in one's own country. Economic reasons included the greedy desire of ruling monarchs to possess and control all lands and wealth of the Church; deep animosity against the burdensome papal taxation; the rise of the affluent middle class and its clash with medieval Church ideals; and the increase of an active system of "intense" capitalism. The Protestant Revolution began in Germany with the revolt of Martin Luther against Church abuses. It spread to Switzerland where it was led by Calvin. It began in England with the efforts of King Henry VIII to have his marriage to Catherine of Aragon annulled so he could wed another and have a male heir. The results were the increasing support given not only by the people, but also by nobles and some rulers, and of course, the attempts of the Church to stop it. The Catholic Reformation was undertaken by the Church to "clean up its act" and to slow or stop the Protestant Revolution. The major efforts to this end were supplied by the Council of Trent and the Jesuits. Six major results of the Reformation included: • Religious freedom • Religious tolerance • More opportunities for education • Power and control of rulers limited • Increase in religious wars • An increase in fanaticism and persecution.
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Competency 13.0 Understand European expansion and the interactions among European and non-European societies during the Age of Exploration. The Age of Exploration actually had its beginnings centuries before exploration actually took place. The rise and spread of Islam in the seventh century and its subsequent control over the holy city of Jerusalem led to the European so-called holy wars, the Crusades, to free Jerusalem and the Holy Land from this control. Even though the Crusades were not a success, those who survived and returned to their homes and countries in Western Europe brought back with them new products such as silks, spices, perfumes, and new, different foods. Luxuries that were unheard of gave new meaning to colorless, drab, dull lives. New ideas, new inventions, and new methods also came to Western Europe with the returning Crusaders and these new influences centered around intellectual stimulation, which led to the period known as the Renaissance. The revival of interest in classical Greek art, architecture, literature, science, astronomy and medicine, the increased trade between Europe and Asia, and the invention of the printing press helped to push the spread of knowledge and start exploration. For many centuries, mapmakers had made maps and charts which stimulated curiosity about other lands and the seeking of more knowledge. At the same time, the Chinese were using the magnetic compass in their ships. Pacific Islanders were going from island to island, covering thousands of miles in open canoes, navigating by the sun and stars. Arab traders were sailing all over the Indian Ocean in their dhows. The trade routes between Europe and Asia were slow, difficult, dangerous, and very expensive. Between sea voyages on the Indian Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea and the camel caravans in central Asia and the Arabian Desert, trade was still controlled by the Italian merchants in Genoa and Venice. It would take months and even years for the exotic luxuries of Asia to reach the markets of Western Europe. A faster, cheaper way had to be found, which would bypass traditional routes and end the control of the Italian merchants. Prince Henry of Portugal (also called the Navigator) encouraged, supported, and financed the Portuguese seamen who led the search for an all-water route to Asia. A shipyard was built along with a school teaching navigation. New types of sailing ships were built, which would carry the seamen safely through the ocean waters. Experiments were conducted in newer maps, newer navigational methods, and newer instruments. These included the astrolabe and the compass, enabling sailors to determine direction as well as latitude and longitude for exact location. Although Prince Henry died in 1460, the Portuguese continued sailing along and exploring Africa's west coastline.
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In 1488, Bartholomew Diaz and his men sailed around Africa's southern tip and headed toward Asia. Diaz wanted to push on but turned back because his men were discouraged and weary from the long months at sea, extremely fearful of the unknown, and just refusing to travel any further. However, the Portuguese were finally successful ten years later in 1498 when Vasco da Gama and his men, continuing the route of Diaz, rounded Africa's Cape of Good Hope, sailing across the Indian Ocean, reaching India's port of Calicut (Calcutta). Although, six years earlier, Columbus had reached the New World,, da Gama had proven that Asia could be reached from Europe by sea. Columbus' first transatlantic voyage was to try to prove his theory or that Asia could be reached by sailing west. To a certain extent, his idea was true. It could be done but only after figuring how to go around or across or through the landmass in between. Long after Spain dispatched explorers and her famed conquistadors to gather wealth for the Spanish monarchs and their coffers, the British were searching valiantly for the "Northwest Passage," a land-sea route across North America and open sea to the wealth of Asia. It wasn't until after the Lewis and Clark Expedition when Captains Meriwether Lewis and William Clark proved conclusively that there simply was no Northwest Passage. It did not exist. However, this did not deter exploration and settlement. Spain, France, and England, along with some participation by the Dutch, led the way with expanding Western European civilization in the New World. These three nations had strong monarchial governments and were struggling for dominance and power in Europe. With the defeat of Spain's mighty Armada in 1588, England became undisputed mistress of the seas. Spain lost its power and influence in Europe and it was left to France and England to carry on the rivalry, leading to eventual British control in Asia as well. The importance of the Age of Exploration was not just the discovery and colonization of the New World, but a) better maps and charts, b) newer, more accurate navigational instruments, c) increased knowledge, d) great wealth, e) new and different foods and items unknown in Europe and, f) a new hemisphere as a refuge from poverty, persecution, and a place to start a new and better life. The fact that Asia could be reached by sea proved that the earth was round and that ships and sailors would not sail off the edge of a flat earth and disappear.
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With the increase in trade and travel, cities began to grow. Craft workers in the cities developed their skills, eventually organizing guilds to protect the quality of the work and regulate the buying and selling of their products. City governments developed and flourished centered on strong town councils. Active in city government and the town councils were the wealthy businessmen who made up the growing middle class. In addition, a number of individuals and events during the time of exploration and discoveries shaped the the spread and development of ideas. The Vivaldo brothers and Marco Polo wrote of their travels and experiences, which signaled the early beginnings of new worlds. From the Crusades, the survivors made their way home to different places in Europe, bringing with them fascinating, new information about exotic lands, people, customs, and desired foods and goods such as spices and silks. For France, claims to various parts of North America were the result of the efforts of such men as Verrazano, Champlain, Cartier, LaSalle, Father Marquette and Joliet. Dutch claims were based on the work of Henry Hudson. John Cabot gave England its stake in North America along with John Hawkins, Sir Francis Drake, and the halfbrothers Sir Walter Raleigh and Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Actually the first Europeans in the New World were Norsemen led by Eric the Red and later, his son Leif the Lucky. However, before any of these, the ancestors of today's Native Americans and Latin American Indians crossed the Bering Strait from Asia to Alaska, eventually settling in all parts of the Americas.
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Competency 14.0 Understand the Age of Revolution. The period from the 1700s to the 1800s was characterized in Western countries by opposing political ideas of democracy and nationalism. This resulted in strong nationalistic feelings and people of common cultures asserting their belief in the right to have a part in their government. The American Revolution resulted in the successful efforts of the English colonists in America to win their freedom from Great Britain. After more than one hundred years of mostly self-government, the colonists resented the increased British meddling and control. They declared their freedom, won the Revolutionary War with aid from France, and formed a new independent nation. The French Revolution was the revolt of the middle and lower classes against the gross political and economic excesses of the rulers and the supporting nobility. It ended with the establishment of the First in a series of French Republics. Conditions leading to the revolution included extreme taxation, inflation, lack of food, and total disregard for the very poor living standards of the people on the part of the rulers, nobility, and the Church. The American Revolution and the French Revolution were similar yet different, liberating their people from unwanted government interference and installing a different kind of government. They were both fought for the liberty of the common people, and they both were built on writings and ideas that embraced such an outcome. Both Revolutions proved that people could expect more from their government and that such rights as self-determination were worth fighting—and dying—for. Several important differences need to be emphasized: The British colonists were striking back against unwanted taxation and other sorts of “government interference.” The French people were starving and, in many cases, destitute and were rebelling against an autocratic regime that cared more for high fashion and courtly love than food and health for the people.. • •
The American Revolution involved a year long campaign, of often bloody battles, skirmishes, and stalemates. The French Revolution was bloody to a degree but mainly an overthrow of society and its outdated traditions. The American Revolution resulted in a representative government, which marketed itself as a beacon of democracy for the rest of the world. The French Revolution resulted in a consulship, a generalship, and then an emperor—probably not what the perpetrators of the Revolution had in mind when they first rose against the king and queen.
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The major turning point for Latin America, already unhappy with Spanish restrictions on trade, agriculture, and the manufacture of goods, was Napoleon’s move into Spain and Portugal. Napoleon’s imprisonment of King Ferdinand VII made the local agents of the Spanish authorities feel that they were in fact agents of the French. Conservative and liberal locals joined forces, declared their loyalty to King Ferdinand, and formed committees (juntas). Between May of 1810 and July of 1811, the juntas in Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Venezuela, Bolivia and Colombia all declared independence. Fighting erupted between Spanish authorities in Latin America and the members and followers of the juntas. In Mexico City another junta declared loyalty to Ferdinand and independence. Society in Latin America was sharply distinguished according to race and the purity of Spanish blood. Miguel Hidalgo, a 60-year-old priest and enlightened intellectual, disregarded the racial distinctions of the society. He had been fighting for the interests of the Indians and part Indian/part white citizens of Mexico, including a call for the return of land stolen from the Indians. He called for an uprising in 1810. Simon Bolivar had been born into Venezuela’s wealthy society and educated in Europe. With Francisco de Miranda, he declared Venezuela and Columbia to be republics and removed all Spanish trading restrictions. They removed taxes on the sale of food, ended payment of tribute to the government by the local Indians, and prohibited slavery. In March 1812 Caracas was devastated by an earthquake. When the Spanish clergy in Caracas proclaimed the earthquake God’s act of vengeance against the rebel government, they provided support for the Spanish government officials, who quickly regained control. When Ferdinand was returned to power in 1814, it was no longer possible for the rebel groups to claim to act in his name. Bolivar was driven to Colombia, where he gathered a small army that returned to Venezuela in 1817. As his army grew, Spain became concerned, and the military moved into the interior of Venezuela. This action aroused the local people to active rebellion. As he freed slaves, Bolivar gained support and strength. Realizing that he did not have the strength to take Caracas, he moved his people to Colombia. Bolivar’s forces defeated the Spanish and organized “Gran Colombia” (which included present-day Ecuador, Colombia and Panama), and he became president in 1819. When Ferdinand encountered difficulties in Spain, soldiers assembled to be transported to the Americas revolted. Several groups in Spain joined the revolt and, together, drove Ferdinand from power. Bolivar took advantage of the opportunity and took his army back into Venezuela. In 1821, Bolivar defeated the Spanish, took Caracas, and established Venezuelan freedom from Spanish rule.
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In Peru, San Martin took his force into Lima amid celebration. Bolivar provided assistance in winning Peru’s independence in 1822. Bolivar now controlled Peru. By 1824, Bolivar had combined forces with local groups and rid South America of Spanish control. In 1807, Queen Maria of Portugal fled to escape Napoleon. The royal family sailed to Brazil, where they were welcomed by the local people. Rio de Janeiro became the temporary capital of Portugal’s empire. Maria’s son Joao ruled as regent. He opened Brazil’s trade with other nations, gave the British favorable tax rates in gratitude for their assistance against Napoleon, and opened Brazil to foreign scholars, visitors and immigrants. In 1815, he made Brazil a kingdom that was united with Portugal. By 1817 there was economic trouble in Brazil and some unrest over repression (such as censorship). This discontent became a rebellion that was repressed by Joao’s military. When Napoleon’s forces withdrew from Portugal, the British asked Joao to return. Liberals took power in Portugal and in Spain and both drafted liberal constitutions. By 1821, Joao decided to return to Portugal as a constitutional monarch. He left his oldest son Pedro on the throne in Brazil. When Portugal tried to reinstate economic advantages for Portugal and restrict Brazil, resistance began to grow. Pedro did not want to be controlled by Portugal and was labeled a rebel. When he learned that Portuguese troops had been sent to arrest him, he prohibited the landing of the ship, sent them back to Portugal and declared independence in 1922. In a little more than a month he was declared Emperor of Brazil. Until the early years of the twentieth century Russia was ruled by a succession of Czars. The Czars ruled as autocrats or, sometimes, despots. Society was essentially feudalistic and was structured in three levels. The top level was held by the Czar. The second level was composed of the rich nobles who held government positions and owned vast tracts of land. The third level of the society was composed of the remaining people, who lived in poverty as peasants or serfs. There was discontent among the peasants. There were several unsuccessful attempts to rebel during the nineteenth century, but they were quickly suppressed. The Russian Revolutions of 1905 and 1917, however, were quite different.
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The causes of the 1905 Revolution were: • • • • • • •
Discontent with the social structure Discontent with the living conditions of the peasants Discontent with working conditions despite industrialization The general discontent was aggravated by the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) with inflation, rising prices, etc. Peasants who had been able to eke out a living began to starve Many of the fighting troops were killed in battles Russia lost to Japan because of poor leadership, lack of training, and inferior weaponry. Czar Nicholas II refused to end the war despite setbacks In January 1905 Port Arthur fell.
A trade union leader, Father Gapon, organized a protest to demand an end to the war, industrial reform, more civil liberties, and a constituent assembly. Over 150,000 peasants joined a demonstration outside the Czar’s Winter Palace. Before the demonstrators even spoke, the palace guard opened fire on the crowd. This destroyed the people’s trust in the Czar. Illegal trade unions and political parties formed and organized strikes to gain power. The strikes eventually brought the Russian economy to a halt. This led Czar Nicholas II to sign the October Manifesto, which created a constitutional monarchy, extended some civil rights, and gave the parliament limited legislative power. In a very short period of time, the Czar disbanded the parliament and violated the promised civil liberties. This violation further stirred discontent and rebellion. The causes of the 1917 Revolution were: • •
•
The violation of the October Manifesto Defeats on the battlefields during WWI caused discontent, loss of life, and a popular desire to withdraw from the war. • The Czar continued to appoint unqualified people to government posts and handle the country with general incompetence. • The Czar also listened to his wife’s (Alexandra) advice. She was strongly influenced by Rasputin. This caused increased discontent among all level of the social structure. WWI had caused another surge in prices and scarcity of many items. Most of the peasants could not afford to buy bread.
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Workers in Petrograd went on strike in 1917 over the need for food. The Czar again ordered troops to suppress the strike. This time, however, the troops sided with the workers. The revolution then took a unique direction. The parliament created a provisional government to rule the country. The military and the workers also created their own governments, called soviets (popularly elected local councils). The parliament was composed of nobles, who soon lost control of the country when they failed to comply with the wishes of the populace. The result was chaos. The political leaders who had previously been driven into exile returned. Lenin, Stalin and Trotsky won the support of the peasants with the promise of “Peace, Land, and Bread”. The parliament, on the other hand, continued the country’s involvement in the war. Lenin and the Bolshevik Party gained the support of the Red Guard and together overthrew the provisional government. In short order, they had complete control of Russia and established a new communist state. The most significant differences between the 1905 and 1917 revolutions were the formation of political parties and their use of propaganda and the support of the military and some of the nobles in 1917. Declaration of Independence and the Declaration of the Rights of Man. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) was one of the most famous and influential political theorists before the French Revolution. His most important and most studied work is The Social Contract (1762). He was concerned with what should be the proper form of society and government. However, unlike Hobbes, Rousseau did not view the state of nature as one of absolute chaos. The problem as Rousseau saw it was that the natural harmony of the state of nature was due to people's intuitive goodness not to their actual reason. Reason only developed once a civilized society was established. Rousseau's most direct influence was upon the French Revolution (1789-1815). The Declaration of the Rights of Man and The Citizen (1789), explicitly recognized the sovereignty of the general will as expressed in the law. In contrast to the American Declaration of Independence, it contains explicit mention of the obligations and duties of the citizen, such as assenting to taxes in support of the military or police forces for the common good. In modern times, ideas such as Rousseau's have often been used to justify the ideas of authoritarian and totalitarian systems.
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The three most basic rights guaranteed by the Declaration of Independence are “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” The first one is self-explanatory: Americans are guaranteed the right to live their lives in America. The second one is basic as well: Americans are guaranteed the right to live their lives free in America. (This principle has been violated for many people throughout history, most notably African-Americans .) The last basic right is more esoteric, but no less important: Americans are guaranteed the right to pursue a happy life. First and foremost, they are allowed the ability to make a life for themselves in America, “the Land of Opportunity.” That happiness also extends to the pursuit of life free from oppression or discrimination, two things that, again, African-Americans, women, and non-white Americans have suffered from to varying degrees throughout the history of the country. The Declaration of Independence is an outgrowth of both ancient Greek ideas of democracy and individual rights, and the ideas of the European Enlightenment and the Renaissance, especially the ideology of the political thinker John Locke. Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826), the principle author of the Declaration, borrowed much from Locke's theories and writings. John Locke was one of the most influential political writers of the 17th century. He put great emphasis on human rights and put forth the belief that when governments violate those rights, people should rebel. He wrote the book "Two Treatises of Government" in 1690, which had tremendous influence on political thought in the American colonies and helped shape the U.S. Constitution and Declaration of Independence. Essentially, Jefferson applied Locke's principles to the contemporary American situation. Jefferson argued that the currently reigning King George Ill had repeatedly violated the rights of the colonists as subjects of the British Crown. Disdaining the colonial petition for redress of grievances (a right guaranteed by the Declaration of Rights of 1689), the King seemed bent upon establishing an "absolute tyranny" over the colonies. Such disgraceful behavior itself violated the reasons for which government had been instituted. The American colonists were left with no choice. "It is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such a government, and to provide new guards for their future security" wrote Thomas Jefferson. By 1776, the colonists and their representatives in the Second Continental Congress realized that things were past the point of no return. The Declaration of Independence was drafted and declared July 4, 1776. George Washington labored against tremendous odds to wage a victorious war. The turning point in the Americans' favor occurred in 1777 with the American victory at Saratoga. This victory was supported by the French decision to align themselves with the Americans against the British. With the aid of Admiral deGrasse and French warships blocking the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, British General Cornwallis trapped at Yorktown, Virginia, surrendered in 1781 and the war was over. The Treaty of Paris officially ending the war was signed in 1783.
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The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen is a document created by the French National Assembly, issued in 1789. It sets forth the “natural, inalienable and sacred rights of man.” It proclaims the following rights: • Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may only be founded upon the general good. • The aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural and imprescriptible rights of man: liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression. • All sovereignty resides essentially in the nation. No body or individual may exercise any authority which does not proceed directly from the nation. • Liberty is the freedom to do everything which injures no one else; hence the exercise of these rights has no limits except those which assure to the other members of the society the enjoyment of the same rights. These limits can only be determined by law. • Law can only prohibit such actions as are hurtful to society. • Law is the expression of the general will. Every citizen has a right to participate in the formation of law. It must be the same for all. All citizens, being equal in the eyes of the law, are equally eligible to all dignities and to all public positions and occupations, according to their abilities. • No person shall be accused, arrested or imprisoned except in the cases and according to the forms prescribed by law. • The law shall provide for such punishments only as are strictly and obviously necessary. • All persons are held innocent until they have been declared guilty. If it is necessary to arrest a person, all harshness not essential to the securing of the prisoner’s person shall be severely repressed by law. • No one shall be disquieted on account of his opinions, including religious views, provided their manifestation does not disturb the peace. • The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man. • The security of the rights of man and of the citizen requires public military force. These forces are, therefore, established for the good of all and not for the personal advantage of those to whom they shall be entrusted. • A common contribution is essential for the maintenance of the public forces and for the cost of administration. This should be equitably distributed among all the citizens in proportion to their means. • All the citizens have a right to decide, either personally or by their representatives, as to the necessity of the public contribution. • Society has the right to require of every public agent an account of his administration. • A society in which the observance of the law is not assured, nor the separation of powers defined, has no constitution at all.
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Since property is an inviolable and sacred right, no one shall be deprived thereof except where public necessity, legally determined, shall clearly demand it, and then only on condition that the owner shall have been previously and equitably indemnified.
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Competency 15.0 Understand the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Great Britain and spread elsewhere, refers to the development of power-driven machinery (fueled by coal and steam) leading to the accelerated growth of industry, with large factories replacing homes and small workshops as work centers. The lives of people changed drastically and a largely agricultural society changed to an industrial one. In Western Europe, the period of empire and colonialism began. The industrialized nations seized and claimed parts of Africa and Asia in an effort to control and provide the raw materials needed to feed the industries and machines in the "mother country". Later developments included power based on electricity and internal combustion, replacing coal and steam. There was a marked degree of industrialization before and during the Civil War, but at war's end, industry in America was small. After the war, dramatic changes took place. Machines replaced hand labor, extensive nationwide railroad service made possible the wider distribution of goods, invention of new products made them available in large quantities, and large amounts of money flowed in from bankers and investors for expansion of business operations. American life was definitely affected by this phenomenal industrial growth. Cities became the centers of this new business activity resulting in mass population movements and tremendous growth. This new boom in business resulted in huge fortunes for some Americans and extreme poverty for many others. The discontent this caused resulted in a number of new reform movements from which came measures to control the power and size of big businesses and to help the poor. Of course, industry before, during, and after the Civil War was centered mainly in the North, especially the tremendous industrial growth. The late 1800s and early 1900s saw the increasing buildup of military strength and the U.S. becoming a world power. The use of machines in industry enabled workers to produce a large quantity of goods much faster than by hand. With the increase in business, hundreds of workers were hired and assigned to perform a certain job in the production process. This was a method of organization called "division of labor" and by increasing the rate of production, businesses lowered prices for their products, making the products affordable for more people. As a result, sales and businesses were increasingly successful and profitable. A great variety of new products or inventions became available such as the typewriter, the telephone, barbed wire, the electric light, the phonograph, and the gasoline automobile. From this list, the one that had the greatest effect on America's economy was the automobile.
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The increase in business and industry was greatly affected by the many rich natural resources that were found throughout the nation. Industrial machines were powered by abundant water supply. The construction industry, as well as products made from wood, depended heavily on lumber from the forests. Coal and iron ore were needed in abundance for the steel industry, which profited and increased from the use of steel in such things as skyscrapers, automobiles, bridges, railroad tracks, and machines. Other minerals such as silver, copper, and petroleum played a large role in industrial growth, especially petroleum, from which gasoline was refined as fuel for the increasingly popular automobile. Between 1870 and 1916, more than 25 million immigrants came into the United States, adding to the phenomenal population growth. This tremendous growth aided business and industry in two ways: (1) The number of consumers increased, creating a greater demand for products, thus enlarging the markets for the products, and (2) with increased production and expanding business, more workers were available for newly created jobs. The completion of the nation's transcontinental railroad in 1869 contributed greatly to the nation's economic and industrial growth. Some of the benefits of using the railroads were that raw materials were shipped quickly by the mining companies and finished products were sent to all parts of the country. Many wealthy industrialists and railroad owners saw tremendous profits steadily increasing due to this improved method of transportation. As business grew, methods of sales and promotion were developed. Salespersons went to all parts of the country promoting the various products, opening large department stores in the growing cities, offering varied products at reasonable, affordable prices. People who lived too far from the cities, making it impossible to shop there, had the advantage of using a mail order service, buying what they needed from catalogs furnished by the companies. The developments in communication, such as the telephone and telegraph, increased the efficiency and prosperity of big business. Investments in corporate stocks and bonds resulted from business prosperity. As individuals began investing heavily in eager desire to share in the profits, their investments made available the needed capital for companies to expand their operations. From this, banks increased in number throughout the country, making loans to businesses and significant contributions to economic growth. At the same time, during the 1880s, government made little effort to regulate businesses. This gave rise to monopolies where larger businesses overpowered their smaller competitors, and assumed complete control of their industries.
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Some owners in the same business would join or merge to form one company. Others formed what were called "trusts," a type of monopoly in which rival businesses were controlled but not formally owned. Monopolies had some good effects on the economy. Out of them grew the large, efficient corporations, which made important contributions to the growth of the nation's economy. Also, the monopolies enabled businesses to keep their sales steady and avoid sharp fluctuations in price and production. The downside of monopolies was that some business leaders acquired so much power, they were able to take advantage of smaller businesses.. Those who had little or no competition would require their suppliers to supply goods at a low cost, sell the finished products at high prices, and reduce the quality of the product to save money. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, significant reforms and changes and changes were made in the areas of politics, society, and the economy. There was a growing need to reduce the levels of poverty and improve living conditions. Also, large businesses needed to be regulated and governmental reforms were needed to eliminate corruption and respond to the people’s needs., Until 1890, there was very little success, but from 1890 on, the reformers gained increased public support and were able to achieve some influence in government. Since some of the reformers referred to themselves as "progressives," the period of 1890 to 1917 is referred to by historians as the Progressive Era. Skilled laborers were organized into a labor union called the American Federation of Labor in an effort to gain better working conditions and wages for its members. Farmers joined organizations such as the National Grange and Farmers Alliances. Farmers were producing more food than people could afford to buy. This was the result of (1) new farmlands rapidly sprouting on the plains and prairies, and (2) development and availability of new farm machinery and newer and better methods of farming. They tried selling their surplus abroad but faced stiff competition from other nations selling the same farm products. Other problems contributed significantly to their situation. Items they needed for daily life were highly priced. Having to borrow money to carry on farming activities kept them constantly in debt. Higher interest rates, shortage of money, falling farm prices, dealing with the so-called middlemen, and the increasingly high charges by the railroads to haul farm products to large markets all contributed to the desperate need for reform to relieve the plight of American farmers.
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Competency 16.0 Understand imperialism and modern warfare. World War I (1914 to 1918) Emotions ran high and minor disputes magnified into major ones and quickly led to threats of war. Especially sensitive to these conditions was the area of the Balkan Peninsula. Imperialistic colonization for industrial raw materials, military build-up (especially by Germany), and diplomatic and military alliances created tensions that could easily be sparked into full-scale war. In July 1914, the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Countess Sophie were assassinated in Serbia. The Archduke was heir to the Austrian throne. A few weeks later, World War I had broken out. The causes of the war were the surge of nationalism, the increasing strength of military capabilities, massive colonization for raw materials needed for industrialization and manufacturing, and military and diplomatic alliances. In Europe, Italy and Germany were united into one nation made up of many smaller states. There were revolutions in Austria and Hungary, the FrancoPrussian War, the dividing of Africa among the strong European nations, interference and intervention of Western nations in Asia, and the breakup of Turkish dominance in the Balkans. In Africa, France, Great Britain, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Germany, and Belgium controlled the entire continent with the exception of Liberia and Ethiopia. In Asia and the Pacific Islands, only China, Japan, and present-day Thailand (Siam) kept their independence. The others were controlled by the strong European nations. In the United States, under the administration of Theodore Roosevelt, the U.S. armed forces grew strong. Roosevelt's foreign policy was summed up in the slogan of "Speak softly and carry a big stick," backing up diplomacy with a strong military. During the years before the outbreak of World War I, evidence of U.S. emergence as a world power could be seen in a number of actions. Based on the Monroe Doctrine of non-involvement of Europeans in Western Hemisphere affairs, President Roosevelt forced Italy, Germany, and Great Britain to remove their blockade of Venezuela. Roosevelt gained the rights to construct the Panama Canal by threatening force, and assumed the finances of the Dominican Republic to stabilize it and prevented any intervention by Europeans. Furthermore, in 1916 under President Woodrow Wilson, to keep order, U.S. troops were sent to the Dominican Republic.
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World War I broke out in 1914, eventually involving nearly 30 nations, and ended in 1918. One of the major causes of the war was the tremendous surge of nationalism during the 1800s and early 1900s. People of the same nationality or ethnic group sharing a common history, language or culture began uniting or demanding the right of unification, especially in the empires of Eastern Europe, such as Russian Ottoman and Austrian-Hungarian Empires. Getting stronger and more intense were the beliefs of these people’s loyalty to common political, social, and economic goals was becoming more intense, and this outweighed their loyalty to the empire that controlled their region. World War I saw the introduction of such warfare as use of tanks, airplanes, machine guns, submarines, poison gas, and flame-throwers. Fighting on the Western front was characterized by a series of trenches that were used throughout the war until 1918. U.S. involvement in the war did not occur until 1916. When the war began in 1914, President Woodrow Wilson declared that the U.S. was neutral and most Americans were opposed to any involvement. In 1916, Wilson was reelected to a second term based on his efforts at keeping America out of the war. For a few months after, he put forth most of his efforts to stopping the war, but German submarines began unlimited warfare against American merchant shipping. At the same time, Great Britain intercepted and decoded a secret message from Germany to Mexico, urging Mexico to go to war against the U.S. The publishing of this information along with continued German destruction of American ships resulted in the eventual entry of the U.S. into the conflict. This was the first time the country prepared to fight on non-American soil. Though unprepared for war, governmental efforts and activities resulted in massive defense mobilization, with America's economy directed to the war effort. America made important contributions of war materials, but its greatest contribution to the war was manpower, soldiers desperately needed by the Allies.
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Some ten months before the war ended, President Wilson proposed a program called the Fourteen Points as a method of bringing the war to an end with an equitable peace settlement. Five points on this plan outlined general ideals of international interaction; eight points immediately set to resolving territorial and political problems; the fourteenth point counseled establishing an organization of nations to help keep world peace. When Germany agreed in 1918 to an armistice, it assumed that the peace settlement would be drawn up on the basis of these Fourteen Points. However, the peace conference in Paris ignored these points and Wilson had to be content with efforts at establishing the League of Nations, an international peace-keeping organization. Italy, France, and Great Britain, having suffered and sacrificed far more in the war than America, wanted retribution. The peace treaties at the end of World War I punished the Central Powers severely, taking away arms and territories, and requiring payment of reparations. Germany was punished more than the others and, according to one clause in the treaty, was forced to assume the responsibility for causing the war.
World War II (1939 to 1945) The U.S. had opposed Japan's invasion of Southeast Asia, an effort by Japan to gain control of that region's rich resources. As a result,, the U.S. stopped all important exports to Japan, whose industries depended heavily on petroleum, scrap metal, and other raw materials. Later, Roosevelt refused to allow Japan to withdraw its funds from American banks. General Tojo, who became the Japanese premier in October 1941, quickly realized that the U.S. Navy was powerful enough to block Japanese expansion into Asia. Deciding to cripple the U.S. Pacific Fleet, the Japanese aircraft, without warning, bombed the Fleet December 7, 1941, while at anchor in Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. Temporarily, the Japanese attack was a success. It destroyed many aircraft and disabled much of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. In the end, it was a costly mistake on the part of the Japanese, as the U.S. prepared to wage war against Japan.
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In 1939, World War II had started in Europe, triggered by Hitler’s expansionist policies from Germany into neighboring countries. Military strategy in the European theater of war was developed by Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin. These Allies were to concentrate on Germany's defeat first, then Japan's. The start was made in North Africa, pushing Germans and Italians off the continent, beginning in the summer of 1942 and ending successfully in May 1943. Before the war, Hitler and Stalin had signed a non-aggression pact in 1939, which Hitler violated in 1941 by invading the Soviet Union. The German defeat at Stalingrad, marked a turning point in the war, and was brought about by a combination of entrapment by Soviet troops and death of German troops by starvation and freezing due to the horrendous winter conditions. All this occurred at the same time the Allies were driving the Germans and Italians out of North Africa. The liberation of Italy began in July 1943 and ended May 2, 1945. The third part of the strategy was D-Day, June 6, 1944, with the Allied invasion of France at Normandy. At the same time, starting in January 1943, the Soviets began pushing the German troops back into Europe and they were greatly assisted by supplies from Britain and the United States. By April 1945, Allies occupied positions beyond the Rhine and the Soviets moved on to Berlin, surrounding it by April 25. Germany surrendered May 7 and the war in Europe was finally over. Meanwhile, in the Pacific, in the six months after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Japanese forces moved across Southeast Asia and the western Pacific Ocean. By August 1942, the Japanese Empire was at its largest size and stretched northeast to Alaska's Aleutian Islands, west to Burma, and south to what is now Indonesia. Invaded and controlled areas included Hong Kong, Guam, Wake Island, Thailand, part of Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines. The raid of General Doolittle's bombers on Japanese cities and the American naval victory at Midway along with the fighting in the Battle of the Coral Sea helped turn the tide against Japan. Island-hopping by U.S. Seabees and Marines, and the grueling bloody battles fought resulted in gradually pushing the Japanese back towards Japan.
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After victory was attained in Europe, concentrated efforts were made to secure Japan's surrender, but it took dropping two atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki to finally end the war in the Pacific. Japan formally surrendered on September 2, 1945, aboard the U.S. battleship Missouri, anchored in Tokyo Bay. The war had finally ended. Before war in Europe had ended, the Allies had agreed on a military occupation of Germany. It was divided into four zones each one occupied by Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States, with the four powers jointly administering Berlin. After the war, the Allies agreed that Germany's armed forces would be abolished, the Nazi Party outlawed, and the territory east of the Oder and Neisse Rivers taken away. Nazi leaders were accused of war crimes and brought to trial. After Japan's defeat, the Allies began a military occupation directed by American General Douglas MacArthur, who introduced a number of reforms eventually stripping Japan of its military institutions and transforming it into a democracy. A constitution was drawn up in 1947 transferring all political rights from the emperor to the people, granting women the right to vote, and denying Japan the right to declare war. War crimes trials of 25 war leaders and government officials were also conducted. The U.S. did not sign a peace treaty until 1951. The treaty permitted Japan to rearm, but took away its overseas empire. Again, after a major world war, came efforts to prevent war from occurring again throughout the world. Preliminary work began in 1943 when the U.S., Great Britain, the Soviet Union, and China sent representatives to Moscow where they agreed to set up an international organization that would work to promote peace around the earth. In 1944, the four Allied powers met again and made the decision to name the organization the United Nations. In 1945, a charter for the U. N. was drawn up and signed, taking effect in October of that year. Major consequences of the war included horrendous death and destruction, millions of displaced persons, the gaining of strength and spread of Communism and Cold War tensions as a result of the beginning of the nuclear age. World War II had ended more lives and caused more devastation than any other war.
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Besides the losses of millions of military personnel, the devastation and destruction directly affected civilians, reducing cities, houses, and factories to ruin and rubble, and totally wrecking communication and transportation systems. Millions of civilian deaths, especially in China and the Soviet Union, were the result of famine. More than 12 million people were uprooted by war’s end, having no place to live. Those included were prisoners of war, those that survived Nazi concentration camps and slave labor camps, orphans, and people who escaped war-torn areas and invading armies. Changing national boundary lines also caused the mass movement of displaced persons. Germany and Japan were completely defeated; Great Britain and France were seriously weakened; and the Soviet Union and the United States became the world's leading powers. Although allied during the war, the alliance fell apart as the Soviets pushed Communism in Europe and Asia. In spite of the tremendous destruction it suffered, the Soviet Union was stronger than ever. During the war, it took control of Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia and by mid-1945 parts of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Finland, and Romania. The Soviet Union helped Communist governments gain power in Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and North Korea. China fell to Mao Zedong's Communist forces in 1949. Until the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the dissolution of Communist governments in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, the United States and the Soviet Union faced off in what was called a Cold War. The possibility of the terrifying destruction by nuclear weapons loomed over both nations. The last century and a half has been a time of rapid and extensive change on almost every front. Notably, there has been a growing concern for human rights and civil rights. The end of imperialism and the liberation of former colonies and territorial holdings have created new nations and increased communication and respect among the nations of the world. Democracy has grown; Communism has risen and almost fallen. Nations are no longer ruled by distant mother countries or their resident governors. But these freedoms have been won at great cost in human lives. Both political and individual freedoms have been won through struggle. Nationalism has risen and created new states and nations have cultivated a national identity. Yet these individual nations have been brought into contact and cooperation in ways never before experienced in human history. Scientific and technological developments, new thinking in religion and philosophy, and new political and economic realities have combined to begin to create a global society that must now learn to define itself and understand how to cooperate and respect diversity in new ways. After the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Europe began a 100-year period of relative peace. There were vast changes in agricultural technology, new policies of land tenure, and the rise of both capitalism and mercantilism. Liberal and democratic institutions began to exercise greater influence throughout the world. HISTORY
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The developing technologies of war have moved society from battle with swords and spears to battle with single-shot muskets and cannon; from cannon and muskets came repeating rifles and the Gatling gun; from those, automatic weapons were developed. Cannon were replaced by missiles and rockets that were able to be propelled farther and farther. Bombs became more and more powerful, culminating in the atomic bomb. And in every development, the act of war became more remote for those engaging in it. The cost of war was paid in civilian lives,, and the fighters were becoming more removed from it. Developments for war, however, also brought benefits as such things as plastics, alloys, electronic devices were perfected for industrial or medical purposes. The development of the radio is a case in point. Developed to a new extent during WWI, new applications were discovered for peacetime communication and entertainment. Throughout the Cold War and the Arms Race, more attention and more money were devoted to the development of weapons than to the conditions of human existence. The deeper human problems have been more seriously addressed only since the end of the Cold War and the Arms Race. Only then could attention be given to the growing divide between the rich and the poor. The conditions of life in cities and in third world countries have only begun to be addressed. The massive relocation from the farm to the city has changed the way people think about the environment, about values, and about other people.
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Competency 17.0 Understand major developments in the arts, literature, religion, and philosophy since the Enlightenment. The literature of this period reflects an attempt to come to terms with the nature and the cost of war, the meaning of the human struggle for freedom and the ability to enjoy basic human and civil rights. Literature has cried out against change and it has embraced change. By the beginning of the twentieth century, literature was reflecting the struggle of the modern individual to find a place and a meaning in a new world that seemed like a jungle. But literature has shown that not only does the modern human not know how to find meaning, he/she does not actually know what he/she is seeking. It is this crisis of identity that has been the subject of most modern literature. This can be seen is the writings of Joseph Conrad, Sigmund Freud, James Joyce, Eugene O’Neill, Luigi Pirandello, Samuel Beckett, George Bernard Shaw, T.S. Eliot, Kafka, Camus, Pasternak, Graham Greene, Tennessee Williams, and a host of others. Changes in thought are evident in the worlds of literature and art. The main development in the nineteenth century was Romanticism, an emphasis on emotion and the imagination. This was a direct reaction against the logic and reason so stressed in the period preceding the Enlightenment. Famous Romantic authors included John Keats, William Wordsworth, Victor Hugo, and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. The horrors of the Industrial Revolution gave rise to realists such as Charles Dickens, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Leo Tolstoy, and Mark Twain, who described life as they saw it, for better or for worse (and it was usually worse). The most famous movement of the 1800s, however, was Impressionism. The idea was to present an impression of a moment in time; one of life’s fleeting moments memorialized on canvas. A list of famous impressionists is a who’s who of the most famous painters in the world: Monet, Degas, van Gogh, Manet, Cezanne, Renoir, and the list goes on. More than any other time in the history of the arts, Impressionism produced famous faces and famous canvases. In art and architecture, there had been a search for new forms and for basic symbols that would speak a universal language. This fragmentation and anxiety found expression in cubism and surrealism. In painting, one need only consider the works of Cezanne and Picasso and Dali. In Sculpture, artists took one of two directions: either looking back and preserving the conventional ideals of beauty, or experimenting with distortion and the abstract concepts of time and force. Architecture tended to move toward more functional lines and expressions.
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In religion and philosophy there have been great changes as well. For much of the period, religious interpretation tended to swing like a pendulum between the liberal and the conservative. By the end of the twenty-first century, however, the struggle for meaning and identity had resulted in a generalized conservative trend. This tendency can be seen in most religions today. Religion and philosophy are, to be sure, the means of self-definition and the understanding of one’s place in the universe. Recent conservative trends, however, have had a polarizing effect. Issues of the relationship of Church and State have arisen and been resolved in most countries during this period. Yet, at the same time there has been an increasing effort to understand the religious beliefs of others, either to create new ways to define one’s religion in relation to other religions, or as the basis of new attacks on the values and teachings of other religions. This same struggle resulted in the rise of the philosophical movement known as existentialism, as seen in the writings of Soren Kierkegaard, Karl Jaspers, and Jean-Paul Sartre.
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Competency 18.0 Understand political developments, economic trends, and social movements of the twentieth century. Decolonization refers to the period after World War II when many African and Asian colonies and protectorates gained independence from the powers that had colonized them. The independence of India and Pakistan from Britain in 1945 marked the beginning of an especially important period of decolonization that lasted through 1960. Several British colonies in eastern Africa and French colonies in western Africa and Asia also became independent countries during this period. Colonial powers had found it efficient to draw political boundaries across traditional ethnic and national lines, thereby dividing local populations and making them easier to control. With the yoke of colonialism removed, many new nations found themselves trying to reorganize into politically stable and economically viable units. The role of nationalism was important in this reorganization, as formerly divided peoples had opportunity to reunite. Nationalism is most simply defined as the belief that the nation is the basic unit of human association, and that a nation is a well-defined group of people sharing a common identity. This process of organizing new nations out of the remains of former colonies was called nation building. Nation building in this fashion did not always result in the desired stability. Pakistan, for example, eventually split into Bangladesh and Pakistan along geographic and religious lines. Ethnic conflicts in newly formed African nations arose, and are still flaring in some areas. As the United States and the Soviet Union emerged as the dominant world powers, these countries encouraged dissent in post-colonial nations such as Cuba, Vietnam and Korea, which became arenas for Cold War conflict. With the emergence of so many new independent nations, the role of international organizations such as the United Nations grew in importance. The United Nations was formed after World War II to maintain peaceful ties between countries. Dismayed by the failure of the former League of Nations to prevent war, the organizers of the United Nations established the ability to impose sanctions and restrictions on member states, and to deploy peacekeeping troops to areas of potential conflict. Other international organizations arose to take the place of former colonial connections. The British Commonwealth and the French Union, for example, maintained connections between Britain and France and their former colonies. Global migration saw an increase in the years during and following World War II. During the war, many Jews left the hostile climate of Nazi Germany for the United States and Palestine. Following the war, the Allied countries agreed to force German people living in Eastern Europe to return to Germany, affecting over 16 million people. In other parts of the world, instability in post-colonial areas often led to migration. HISTORY
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During World War II Americans gave the federal government a greater degree of control over the economy, key institutions and services, in order to ensure both their personal welfare and their security. This led to a significant growth in both the reach and the size of the federal government. The nation had faced two major crises: The Great Depression and World War. The government had assumed greater responsibility for ensuring the basic needs of its citizens, promoting economic opportunity for all, and managing economic growth. The government had also taken on the role of providing for the military safety and security of the nation against foreign enemies. This marked the culmination of a major change in the role of the federal government that many have called “the rise of the welfare state.” Since the First World War, regulatory agencies had been created to control the actions of big business, to protect labor, to protect the rights and privileges of minorities. In addition, a truly national culture had emerged from the shared hardships, the growth of the railroad and the radio, the introduction of the automobile, and the war effort itself. These factors had smoothed out many of the regional differences that previously divided the social and cultural interests of the American people. New challenges had led to the growth of the power and control of the federal government. The attempts to bring the nation through both the depression and the war had taken much experimentation. Franklin Roosevelt and his administration drew upon past experience to bring the nation through crisis. Roosevelt’s use of the radio to speak to the American people permitted him to rally the populace and persuade the public to consider new ideas and new approaches to the problems of the day. Essentially, Roosevelt convinced the nation that a more active role for the federal government both internationally and at home would prevent another depression and another world war. This transition was very important in American history and in the national ethos. Americans had traditionally distrusted a centralization of authority in the federal government. They had also traditionally repudiated international alliances and commitments. Yet both of these changes came about in the years following WWII. In many ways, the period from 1945 to 1972 was a time of unprecedented prosperity for everyone in the nation. Wages climbed, car and home ownership increased, and average educational levels rose as the veterans of the war used their G.I. benefits to get a fully paid college education. People were willing to give the government a major role in perpetuating this prosperous society. Just as WWII had united the people in a common commitment to the purpose of supporting the troops and winning the war, they again rallied together to support the government in the Cold War.
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Major technological developments since 1945: • Discovery of penicillin (1945) • Detonation of the first atomic bombs (1945) • Xerography process invented (1946) • Exploration of the South Pole • Studies of X-ray radiation • U.S. airplane flight at supersonic speed (1947) • Invention of the transistor (1947) • Invention of long-playing record (1948) • Studies in the science of chemo genetics (1948) • Mount Palomar reflecting telescope (1948) • Idlewild Airport opening in NY City • Discovery of cortisone (1949) • USSR testing of first atomic bomb (1949) • Launching of U.S. guided missile which traveled 250 miles (1949) • Separation of Plutonium (1950) • Wide use of meprobamate tranquilizer (1950) • Antihistamines gain popularity in treating colds and allergies (1950) • Production of electric power from atomic energy (1951) • Invention of first heart-lung machine (1951) • First solo flight over the North Pole (1951) • Development of yellow fever vaccine (1951) • Use of isotopes in medicine and industry (1952) • Production of contraceptive pill (1952) • Explosion of first hydrogen bomb (1952) • Nobel Prize in medicine for discovery of streptomycin (1952) • Discovery of Cave Cougnac with prehistoric paintings (1953) • Hydrogen bomb explosion by USSR (1953) • Arrival at the summit of Mount Everest by Hillary and Tenzing (1953) • Connection of lung cancer to cigarette smoking (1953) • Conversion of first U.S. submarine to nuclear power (1954) • Polio vaccine invention (1954) • Discovery of Vitamin B12 (1955) • Discovery of the molecular structure of insulin (1955) • First artificial manufacture of diamonds (1955) • Beginning of development of “visual telephone” (1956) • Beginning of Transatlantic cable telephone service (1956) • USSR launching of first earth satellites (Sputnik I and II) (1957) • Mackinac Straits Bridge in Michigan opening as the longest suspension bridge (1957) • Introduction of stereo recordings (1958) • Creation of NASA (1958) • USSR launching of rocket with 2 monkeys aboard (1959) • Nobel Prize for Medicine for synthesis of RNA and DNA (1959) HISTORY
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The first decade and a half after WWII was a time of great hope and economic prosperity in America. Europe was redefined and began to recover from the devastating effects of the war. The spirit of people around the world was marked by a commitment to peace and reconstruction. The threat of the spread of communism and the Cold War was a palpable feature of everyday life. During these years the discoveries and innovations of the War years in both science and technology were simultaneously directed to: (1) peaceful and lifeenhancing uses of technology and (2) the buildup of sufficient military and weaponry to ensure the security of the nation against any future aggression. The days of empires were over. Nations rose from former colonial holdings. Borders and boundaries were essentially stable. New territories had been explored and civilized. With the available technology and the remaining urge to push boundaries and explore new worlds, attention turned to the remaining uninhabited areas: the North and South Poles, the mountain heights, and space. Significant advances in science and medicine made it possible to treat and prevent deadly and crippling diseases. Life expectancy rose, and with it, the desire to develop new enhancements for living. As millions of returning veterans took advantage of the G.I. bill and advanced their education, society gave more attention to education at all levels. The women’s rights movement is concerned with the freedoms of women as differentiated from broader ideas of human rights. These issues are generally different from those that affect men and boys because of biological differences or social constructs. The rights the movement has sought to protect throughout history include: • • • • • • • • • • • •
The right to vote The right to work The right to fair wages The right to bodily integrity and autonomy The right to own property The right to an education The right to hold public office Marital rights Parental rights Religious rights The right to serve in the military The right to enter into legal contracts
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The movement for women’s rights has resulted in many social and political changes. Many of the ideas that seemed very radical merely 100 years ago are now normative. Some of the most famous leaders in the women’s movement throughout American history are: • • • • • • • • • •
Abigail Adams Susan B. Anthony Gloria E. Anzaldua Betty Friedan Olympe de Gouges Gloria Steinem Harriet Tubman Mary Wollstonecraft Virginia Woolf Germaine Greer
Many within the women’s movement are primarily committed to justice and the natural rights of all people. This has led many members of the women’s movement to be involved in the Black Civil Rights Movement, the gay rights movement, and the recent social movement to protect the rights of fathers. After WWII, women were expected to return to the life of homebound docility of the pre-war years. But during the war, they had been actively recruited into the workplace, indeed into traditionally male jobs in heavy industry. They were no longer willing to give up the freedoms they enjoyed and the opportunities to explore their full potential.. The post-war years were a time of hope and great prosperity. Women, like minorities, began to demand their legal rights and freedoms. The women’s movement, like the Civil Rights Movement and other efforts to accomplish social reform and human rights, grew from the opportunities that arose from the same periods of struggle and hardship that led others to demand their rights and freedoms. The Cold War was, more than anything else, an ideological struggle between proponents of democracy and those of communism. The two major players were the United States and the Soviet Union, but other countries were involved as well. It was a “cold” war because no large-scale fighting took place directly between the two big protagonists. It wasn’t just form of government that was driving this war, either. Economics were a main concern as well. A concern in both countries was that the precious resources (such as oil and food) from other like-minded countries wouldn’t be allowed to flow to “the other side.” These resources did not flow much between the U.S. and Soviet Union, either.
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The Soviet Union kept much more of a tight hold on its supporting countries, including all of Eastern Europe, which made up a military organization called the Warsaw Pact. The Western nations responded with a military organization of their own, NATO or North American Treaty Organization. Another prime battleground was Asia, where the Soviet Union had allies in China, North Korea, and North Vietnam and the U.S. had allies in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and South Vietnam. The Korean War and Vietnam War were major conflicts in which both protagonists played big roles but didn’t directly fight each other. The main symbol of the Cold War was the arms race, a continual buildup of missiles, tanks, and other weapons that became ever more technologically advanced and increasingly more deadly. The ultimate weapon, which both sides had in abundance, was the nuclear bomb. Spending on weapons and defensive systems eventually occupied great percentages of the budgets of the U.S. and the USSR, and some historians argue that this level of spending played a large part in the downfall of the USSR. The war was a cultural struggle as well. Adults brought up their children to hate “the Americans” or “the Communists.” Cold War tensions spilled over into many parts of life in countries around the world. The ways of life in countries on either side of the divide were so different that they seemed entirely foreign to outside observers. The Cold War continued to varying degrees from 1947 to 1991, when the Soviet Union collapsed. Other Eastern European countries had seen their communist governments overthrown by this time as well, marking the shredding of the “Iron Curtain.” The “Iron Curtain” referred to the ideological, symbolic and physical separation of Europe between East and West. The major thrust of U.S. foreign policy from the end of World War II to 1990 was the post-war struggle between non-Communist nations, led by the United States, and the Soviet Union and the Communist nations who were its allies. It was referred to as a "Cold War" because its conflicts did not lead to a major war of fighting, or a "hot war." Both the Soviet Union and the United States embarked on an arsenal buildup of atomic and hydrogen bombs as well as other nuclear weapons. Both nations had the capability of destroying each other but because of the continuous threat of nuclear war and accidents, extreme caution was practiced on both sides. The efforts of both sides to serve and protect their political philosophies and to support and assist their allies resulted in a number of events during this 45-year period.
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DOMAIN III.
UNITED STATES HISTORY
Competency 19.0 Understand the ideas, values, and institutions that have shaped the culture of the United States
Declaration of lndependence - The Declaration of lndependence was the founding document of the United States of America. The Declaration of Independence was passed in 1776. The Articles of Confederation were the first attempt of the newly independent states to reach a new understanding amongst themselves. The Declaration was intended to demonstrate the reasons that the colonies were seeking separation from Great Britain. Conceived by and written for the most part by Thomas Jefferson, it is not only important for its ideas, but also for how these ideas are expresses. The Declaration is in many respects a poetic document. Instead of a simple recitation of the colonists’ grievances, it set out clearly the reasons why the colonists were seeking their freedom from Great Britain. They had tried all means to address their grievances and resolve the dispute peacefully. It was now the right of a people to separate themselves from that power that was keeping them from fully expressing their rights to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness". Articles of Confederation - This was the first political system under which the newly independent colonies tried to organize themselves. It was drafted after the Declaration of lndependence, on November 15, 1777, ratified by the thirteen states, and took effect on March 1, 1781.
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The newly independent states were unwilling to give too much power to a national government. They were already fighting Great Britain. They did not want to replace one harsh ruler with another. After many debates, the form of the Articles was accepted. Each state agreed to send delegates to the Congress. Each state had one vote in the Congress. The Articles gave Congress the power to declare war, appoint military officers, and coin money. The Congress was also responsible for foreign affairs. The Articles of Confederation limited the powers of Congress by giving the states final authority. Although Congress could pass laws, at least nine of the thirteen states had to approve a law before it went into effect. Congress could not pass any laws regarding taxes. To get money, Congress had to ask each state for it, no state could be forced to pay. Thus, the Articles created a loose alliance among the thirteen states. The national government was weak, in part, because it didn't have a strong chief executive to carry out laws passed by the legislature. This weak national government might have worked if the states were able to establish peaceful relations with one another. However, many different disputes arose and there was no way of settling them. Thus, the delegates went to meet again to try to amend the Articles; instead they ended up removing them and created a new Constitution that would better deal with these earlier situations. They created a government that Benjamin Franklin described as being the best government they were able to create. This might be true considering that the Constitution has lasted, through civil war, foreign wars, depression, and social revolution for over 200 years. It is truly a living document because of its ability to remain strong while allowing itself to be changed with changing times. Westward expansion occurred for a number of reasons, the most important being economic. Cotton had become most important to most of the people who lived in the southern states. The effects of the Industrial Revolution, which began in England, were now being felt in the United States. With the invention of power-driven machines, the demand for cotton fiber greatly increased for the yarn needed in spinning and weaving. Eli Whitney's cotton gin made the separation of the seeds from the cotton much more efficient and faster. This, in turn, increased the demand, and more and more farmers became involved in the raising and selling of cotton. The innovations and developments of better methods of long-distance transportation moved the cotton in greater quantities to textile mills in England as well as the areas of New England and the Middle Atlantic States in the U.S. As prices increased along with increased demand, southern farmers began expanding by clearing increasingly more land to grow more cotton. Movement, settlement, and farming headed west to utilize the fertile soils. This, in turn, demanded increased need for a large supply of cheap labor. The system of slavery expanded, both in numbers and in the movement to lands "west" of the South. HISTORY 107
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Cotton farmers and slave owners were not the only ones heading west. Many, in other fields of economic endeavor, began the migration: trappers, miners, merchants, ranchers, and others were all seeking their fortunes. The Lewis and Clark expedition stimulated the westward push. Fur companies hired men, known as "Mountain Men", to go westward, searching for the animal pelts to supply the market and meet the demands of the East and Europe. These men, in their own way, explored and discovered the many passes and trails that would eventually be used by settlers in their trek to the west. The California gold rush also had a very large influence on the movement west. There were also religious reasons for westward expansion. Increased settlement was encouraged by missionaries who traveled west with the fur traders. They sent word back east for more settlers and the results were tremendous. By the 1840s, the population increases in the Oregon country alone were at a rate of about a thousand people a year. People of many different religions and cultures, as well as Southerners with black slaves, made their way west. There were also political motives for westward expansion. It was the belief of many that the United States was destined to control all of the land between the two oceans or, as one newspaper editor termed it, "Manifest Destiny." This mass migration westward put the U.S. government on a collision course with the Indians, Great Britain, Spain, and Mexico. The fur traders and missionaries ran up against the Indians in the northwest and the claims of Great Britain for the Oregon country. The U.S. and Britain had shared the Oregon country but, by the 1840s, with the increases in the free and slave populations and the demand of the settlers for control and government by the U.S., the conflict had to be resolved. In a treaty, signed in 1846 by both nations, a peaceful resolution occurred, with Britain giving up its claims south of the 49th parallel. In the American southwest, the results were exactly the opposite. Spain had claimed this area since the 1540s, had spread northward from Mexico City, and, in the 1700s, had established missions, forts, villages, towns, and very large ranches. After the purchase of the Louisiana Territory in 1803, Americans began moving into Spanish territory. A few hundred American families were allowed to live in what is now Texas, but had to agree to become loyal subjects to Spain. In 1821, Mexico successfully rebelled against Spanish rule, won independence, and chose to be more tolerant towards the American settlers and traders. The Mexican government encouraged and allowed extensive trade and settlement, especially in Texas. Many of the new settlers were southerners and brought with them their slaves. Slavery was outlawed in Mexico and technically illegal in Texas, although the Mexican government looked the other way.
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With the influx of so many Americans and the liberal policies of the Mexican government, there came to be concern over the possible growth and development of an American state within Mexico. Settlement restrictions, cancellation of land grants, the prohibition of slavery and increased military activity brought everything to a head. The order of events included the fight for Texas independence, the brief Republic of Texas, eventual annexation of Texas, statehood, and finally war with Mexico. The Texas controversy was not the sole reason for war. Since American settlers had begun pouring into the Southwest, the cultural differences played a prominent part. Language, religion, law, customs, and government were totally different and opposite between the two groups. A clash was bound to occur. The impact of the entire westward movement had several results: the completion of the borders of the present-day conterminous United States; the bloody war with Mexico; the ever-growing controversy over slave versus free states affecting the balance of power in the U.S. Congress, especially the Senate; and finally the Civil War itself. Political Systems The Magna Carta - This charter has been considered the basis of English constitution liberties. It was granted to a representative group of English barons and nobles on June 15, 1215 by the British King John, after they had forced it on him. The English barons and nobles sought to limit what they had come to perceive as the overwhelming power of the Monarchy in public affairs. The Magna Carta is considered to be the first modern document that sought to try to limit the powers of the given state authority. It guaranteed feudal rights, regulated the justice system, and abolished many abuses of the King's power to tax and regulate trade. It restricted the king from enforcing new taxes without first consulting a Great Council, made up of nobles, barons, and Church people. Significantly the Magna Carta only dealt with the rights of the upper classes of the nobility, and all of its provisions excluded the rights of the common people. However, gradually, the rights won by the nobles were given to other English people. The Great Council grew into a representative assembly called the Parliament. By the 1600s, Parliament was divided into the House of Lords, made up of nobles and the House of Commons. Members of the House of Commons were elected to office. In the beginning, only a few wealthy men could vote. Still, English people firmly believed that the ruler must consult Parliament on money matters and obey the law. Thus, it did set a precedent that there was a limit to the allowed power of the state. This precedent would have no small effect on the history of political revolution, notably the American Revolution.
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The Petition of Right - This was the title of a petition that was addressed to the King of England Charles I, by the British parliament in 1628. The Parliament demanded that the king stop proclaiming new taxes without its consent. Parliament demanded that he cease housing soldiers and sailors in the homes of private citizens, cease proclaiming martial law in times of peace, and cease imprisoning subjects without good cause being shown.. After some attempts to circumvent these demands, Charles finally agreed to them. These rights later had an important effect on the demands of the revolutionary colonists, who felt that as Englishmen, they too were entitled to these rights. The Petition of Right was also the basis of specific protections that the designers of the Constitution included in their document. British Bill of Rights - Also known as the Declaration of Rights, it spelled out the rights that were considered to belong to Englishmen. It was granted by King William III in 1869. It had previously been passed by a convention of the Parliament and it came as a result of the struggle for power that took place in Great Britain, known as The Glorious Revolution. This was a revolution that was accomplished with virtually no bloodshed, and led to King William Ill and Queen Mary II becoming joint sovereigns. The Declaration itself was very similar in style to the later American Bill of Rights. It protected the rights of individuals and gave a person accused of a crime the right to trial by jury. It outlawed cruel punishments and also stated that a ruler could not raise taxes or an army without the consent of Parliament. The colonists, as Englishmen, were protected by these provisions. The colonists considered abridgments of these rights, which helped to contribute to the revolutionary spirit of the times. All of these events and the principles that arose from them are of key to understanding the process that eventually led to the ideals inherent to the Constitution of the United States. These universal ideals have become the basis for human freedoms throughout the world.
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The Legal System The Federal Court System is provided for in the Constitution of the United States. This system was based on the theory that the judicial power of the federal government could not be entrusted to the individual states, many of which had opposed the idea of a strong federal government in the first place. Thus Article III, Section 1, of the Constitution says: "the judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish". In accordance with these provisions, Congress passed the Judiciary Act in 1789, organizing the Supreme Court of the United States and establishing a system of federal courts of inferior jurisdiction. The states were left to establish their own judicial systems subject to the exclusive overall jurisdiction of the federal courts, and to Article VI of the Constitution, which declared the judges of the state courts to be bound to the Constitution and to the laws and treaties of the United States. Thus developed in the United States a dual system of judicial power and authority. The jurisdiction of the federal courts is further defined in Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution as extending in law and in equity to all cases arising under the Constitution. Also, the jurisdiction of federal courts extends through federal legislation to controversies in which the United States is a party. These include controversies arising from treaties with other governments, maritime cases on the high seas in areas under American control, disagreements between the states, between a citizen and a state, between citizens in different states and between a citizen and a foreign nation. The federal courts were also originally empowered with jurisdiction over problems between citizens of one state and the government of another state. The 11th Amendment to the Constitution (ratified 1795), however, removed from federal jurisdiction cases in which citizens of one state were the plaintiffs and the government of another state was the defendant. The amendment, though, did not disturb the jurisdiction of the federal courts in cases in which a state government is a plaintiff and a citizen of another state the defendant. The federal courts also have exclusive jurisdiction in all patent and copyright cases and, by congressional law in 1898, the federal courts were empowered with original jurisdiction in all bankruptcy cases. The courts established under the powers granted by Article Ill Section 1 & 2 of the Constitution are known as Constitutional Courts. Judges of the Constitutional courts are appointed for life by the President, with the approval of the Senate. These courts are the district courts, lower courts of original jurisdiction, and the courts of appeals (before 1948, known as the circuit court of appeals), exercising appellate jurisdiction over the district courts and the Supreme Court. A district court functions in each of the more than ninety federal judicial districts and in the District of Columbia.
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A court of appeals functions in each of the ten federal judicial circuits and also in the District of Columbia, (The federal district court and the circuit court of appeals of the District of Columbia perform all of the same functions discharged in the states by the state courts). All of the lower federal courts operate under the uniform rules of procedure promulgated by the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest appellate court in the country and is a court of original jurisdiction according to the Constitution "in all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party". By virtue of its power to declare legislation unconstitutional (see Section 1.2 Marbury vs. Madison), the Supreme Court is also the final arbitrator of all Constitutional questions. Other federal courts, established by Congress under powers to be implied in other articles of the Constitution, are called legislative courts. These courts are the Court of Claims, the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals, the Customs Court, and the territorial courts established in the federally administered territories of the United States. The special jurisdictions of these courts are defined by the Congress of the United States. (Except in the case of the territorial courts, which are courts of general jurisdiction), the specialized functions of these courts are suggested by their titles. The State Courts - Each State has an independent system of courts operating under the laws and constitution of that particular state. Broadly speaking, the state courts are based on the English judicial system as it existed in colonial times, but as modified by succeeding statues. The character and names of the various courts differ from state to state, but the state courts as a whole have general jurisdiction, except in cases in which exclusive jurisdiction has, by law, been vested in the federal courts. In cases involving the United States Constitution or federal laws or treaties and such, the state courts are governed by the decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States and their decisions are subject to review by it. Cases involving the federal Constitution, federal laws, or treaties, may be brought to either the state courts, or the federal courts. Ordinary civil suits not involving any of the aforementioned elements can be brought only to the state courts, except in cases of different state citizenship between the parties. In this case, the suit may be brought to a federal court. By an act of Congress, however, suits involving different federal questions or different state citizenship may be brought to a federal court only when it is a civil suit that involves $3,000 or more. All cases that involve a smaller amount must be brought to a state court only. In accordance with a congressional law, a suit brought before a state court may be removed to a federal court at the option of the defendant.
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Bear in mind that any general statements about state courts attempts to give a typical explanation of all of them, and is subject to many exceptions. The following may be taken as a general comprehensive statement of state courts’ respective jurisdictions, functions, and organization. County courts of general original jurisdiction exercise both criminal and civil jurisdictions in most states. A few states maintain separate courts of criminal and civil law inherited from the English judicial system. Between the lower courts and the supreme appellate courts of each state in a number of states, are intermediate appellate courts, which, like the federal courts of appeals, provide faster justice for individuals by disposing of a large number of cases which would otherwise be added to the overcrowded calendars of the higher courts. Courts of last resort, the highest appellate courts for the states in criminal and civil cases are usually called State Supreme Courts. The state court system also includes a number of minor, local courts with limited jurisdiction.; These courts dispose of minor offenses and relatively small civil actions. Included in this classification are police and municipal courts in various cities and towns, and the courts presided over by justices of the peace in rural areas. Specifically, in regards to the state of Florida, there are 16 circuit courts. Florida is also part of the United States Fifth Judicial Circuit of the Federal Court system and it also has two federal court districts at a lower level. The State Supreme Court is comprised of seven justices that are elected for six-year terms.
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Competency 20.0 Understand developments in the arts, literature, science, religion, and philosophy in the United States. American Popular music evolved from folk music. This was the music of the first half of the century, characterized by a consistent structure of two verses, a chorus, and a repetition of the chorus. The songs were written to be sung by average persons, and the tunes were usually harmonized. Much of this music originated in New York’s Tin Pan Alley. Particularly notable during this period were Irving Berlin, George and Ira Gershwin, and a host of others. After WWII, teen music began to dominate. New forms emerged from various ethnic and regional groups including Blues, Rhythm and Blues and Rap from the African American community; Country music from the south and the southwest, folk music, jazz, rock and roll, and rock. In the U.S. realism tended to find regional expressions including the Ashcan School and Robert Henri, Midwestern Regionalism and Grant Wood. Other particularly notable painters are Edward Hopper and Georgia O’Keeffe. The New York School came to be known for a style known as Abstract Expressionism and included such artists as Jackson Pollock, Willem de Kooning, and Larry Rivers. Other painters of the period were Mark Rothko, Clement Greenberg, Ellsworth Kelly and the Op Art Movement. In sculpture, many of the same patterns and trends were applied. Innovations included the exploration of empty space (Henry Moore), the effort to incorporate cubism in three dimensions (Marcel Duchamp), and the use of welded metal to create kinetic sculpture (Alexander Calder). Postmodernism has been the description of the expansion of forms and the valuing of innovation since 1950. This has included Minimalism, Figurative Styles, Pop Art, Conceptual Art and Installation Art. Photography has developed as an art form, as well, during the twentieth century. The literature of this period has expressed an attempt to come to terms with the nature and the cost of war, the meaning of the human struggle for freedom and the ability to enjoy basic human and civil rights. Literature has cried out against change and it has embraced change. By the beginning of the 20th century, literature was reflecting the struggle of the modern individual to find a place and a meaning in a new world that seemed like a jungle. Literature has reflected the observation that not only does the modern human not know how to find meaning, he/she does not actually know what he/she is seeking. It is this crisis of identity that has been the subject of most modern literature. This can be seen is the writings of Joseph Conrad, Sigmund Freud, James Joyce, Eugene O’Neill, Luigi Pirandello, Samuel Beckett, George Bernard Shaw, T.S. Eliot, Kafka, Camus, Pasternak, Graham Greene, Tennessee Williams, and a host of others.
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The historical record of African-Americans is known to all. Sold into slavery by rival tribes, they were brought against their will to the West Indies and southern America to slave on the plantations in a life-long condition of servitude and bondage. The 13th Constitutional Amendment abolished slavery; the 14th gave them U.S. citizenship; and the 15th gave them the right to vote. Efforts of wellknown African-Americans resulted in some improvements although the struggle was continuous. Many were outspoken and led protests against the continued onslaught of discrimination and inequality. The leading black spokesman from 1890 to 1915 was educator Booker T. Washington. He recognized the need of vocational education for AfricanAmericans, educating them for skills and training for such areas as domestic service, farming, the skilled trades, and small business enterprises. He founded and built in Alabama the famous Tuskegee Institute. W.E.B. DuBois, another outstanding African-American leader and spokesman, believed that only continuous and vigorous protests against injustices and inequalities coupled with appeals to black pride would effect changes. The result of his efforts was the formation of the Urban League and the NAACP (the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) which today continue to eliminate discriminations and secure equal rights. Others who made significant contributions were Dr. George Washington Carver's, whose work improved agricultural techniques for both black and white farmers; the writers William Wells Brown, Paul L. Dunbar, Langston Hughes, and Charles W. Chesnutt; the music of Duke Ellington, W.C. Handy, Marion Anderson, Louis Armstrong, Leontyne Price, Jessye Norman, Ella Fitzgerald, and many others.
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Students of American history are greatly familiar with the accomplishments and contributions of American women. Previous mention has been made of the accomplishments of such 19th century women as: writer Louisa Mae Alcott; abolitionist Harriet Beecher Stowe; women's rights activists Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott; physician Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell; women's education activists Mary Lyon, Catharine Esther Beecher, and Emma Hart Willard; prison and asylum reform activist Dorothea Dix; social reformer, humanitarian, pursuer of peace Jane Addams; aviatrix Amelia Earhart; women's suffrage activists Susan B. Anthony, Carrie Chapman Catt, and Anna Howard Shaw; Supreme Court Associate Justices Sandra Day O'Connor and Ruth Bader Ginsberg; and many more who have made tremendous contributions in science, politics and government, music and the arts (Jane Alexander who is National Chairperson of the National Endowment for the Arts), education, athletics, and law. Refer to Competency 17 for additional arts and literature discussion.
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Competency 21.0 Understand the role of immigration and cultural diversity in the continuing development of the United States. Native American cultures In North America, the landscape was well suited to settlement and exploration. The North American continent, especially what is now the United States, had a few mountain ranges and a handful of wide rivers but nothing near the dense jungles and staggeringly high mountains that South America did. The area that is now Canada was cold, but otherwise conducive to settlement. As a result, the Native Americans in North American were more spread out and their cultures more diverse than their South American counterparts. Native American tribes lived throughout what we now call the United States in scattered settlements.. They adopted different customs, pursued different avenues of agriculture and food gathering, and made slightly different weapons. They fought among themselves and with other peoples. To varying degrees, they had established cultures long before Columbus or any other European explorer arrived on the scene. Perhaps the most famous of the Native American tribes is the Algonquians. We know so much about this tribe because they were one of the first to interact with the newly arrived English settlers in Plymouth, Massachusetts and elsewhere. The Algonquians lived in wigwams and wore clothing made from animal skins. They were proficient hunters, gatherers, and trappers who also knew quite a bit about farming. Led by a brave man named Squanto, they shared this agricultural knowledge with the English settlers, including how to plant and cultivate corn, pumpkins, and squash. Other famous Algonquians included Pocahontas and her father, Powhatan, both of whom are immortalized in English literature, and Tecumseh and Black Hawk, known foremost for their fierce fighting ability. To the overall Native American culture, they contributed wampum and dream catchers.
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Another group of tribes who lived in the Northeast were the Iroquois, who were fierce fighters but also forward thinkers. They lived in long houses and wore clothes made of buckskin. They, too, were expert farmers, growing the “Three Sisters” (corn, squash, and beans). Five of the Iroquois tribes formed a Confederacy that was a shared form of government. The Iroquois also formed the False Face Society, a group of medicine men who shared their medical knowledge with others but kept their identities secret while doing so. These masks are one of the enduring symbols of the Native American era. Living in the Southeast were the Seminoles and Creeks, a huge collection of people who lived in chickees (open, bark-covered houses) and wore clothes made from plant fibers. They were expert planters and hunters and were proficient at paddling dugout canoes. The bead necklaces they created were some of the most beautiful on the continent. They are best known, however, for their struggle against Spanish and English settlers, especially led by the great Osceola. The Cherokee also lived in the Southeast. They were one of the most advanced tribes, living in domed houses and wearing deerskin and rabbit fur. Accomplished hunters, farmers, and fishermen, the Cherokee were known over the continent for their intricate and beautiful basketry and clay pottery. They also played a game called lacrosse, which survives to this day in countries around the world.
In the middle of the continent lived the Plains tribes, such as the Sioux, Cheyenne, Blackfeet, Comanche, and Pawnee. These peoples lived in teepees and wore buffalo skins and feather headdresses. (It is this image of the Native American that has made its way into most American movies depicting the period.) They hunted wild animals on the Plains, especially the buffalo. They were well known for their many ceremonies, including the Sun Dance, and for the peace pipes that they smoked. Famous Plains people include Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull, authors of the Custer Disaster; Sacagawea, leader of the Lewis & Clark expedition; and Chief Joseph, the famous Nez Perce leader.
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Dotting the deserts of the Southwest were several tribes, including the famous Pueblo, who lived in houses that bear their tribe’s name, wore clothes made of wool and woven cotton, farmed crops in the middle of desert land, created exquisite pottery and Kachina dolls, and had one of the most complex religions of all the tribes. They are perhaps best known for the challenging vista-based villages that they constructed from the sheer faces of cliffs and rocks and for their adobes, mud-brick buildings that housed their living and meeting quarters. The Pueblos chose their own chiefs. This was perhaps one of the oldest representative governments in the world. Another well-known southwestern tribe was the Apache, with their famous leader Geronimo. The Apache lived in homes called wickiups, which were made of bark, grass, and branches. They wore cotton clothing and were excellent hunters and gatherers. Adept at basketry, the Apache believed that everything in Nature had special powers and that they were honored just to be part of it all. The Navajo, also residents of the Southwest, lived in hogans (round homes built with forked sticks) and wore clothes of rabbit skins. Their major contribution to the overall culture of the continent was in sand painting, weapon-making, silversmithing, and weaving. Some of the most beautiful woven rugs ever were crafted by Navajo hands. Living in the Northwest were the Inuit, who lived in tents made from animal skins or, in some cases, igloos. They wore clothes made of animal skins, usually seals or caribou. They were excellent fishermen and hunters and crafted efficient kayaks and umiaks to take them through waterways and harpoons with which to hunt animals. The Inuit are perhaps best known for the great carvings that they left behind. Among these are ivory figures and tall totem poles. For the Native Americans, life was centered around finding and growing food. They were great farmers and hunters. They grew such famous crops as maize, or corn, potatoes, squash, pumpkins and beans; they also hunted all manner of animals for food, including deer, bears, and buffalo. Despite the preponderance of crop-growing areas, many Native Americans did not domesticate animals except for dogs. They did raise pigs and chickens for food, and these animals were kept in pens outside the houses. Religion for nearly all of these tribes included beliefs in higher powers, extending to Spirits in the sky and elsewhere in Nature. Native Americans were polytheistic, and there is no record of any religious conflict between tribes.
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North America had large concentrations of people and houses, but it differed from South America in that there were no large civilization centers like the cities of elsewhere in the world, and there was no established system of writing. Though close in degree of civilization, the native peoples north of Mexico varied widely in customs, housing, dress, and religion. Among the native peoples of North America there were at least 200 languages and 1500 dialects. Each of the hundreds of tribes was somewhat influenced by its neighbors. Communication between tribes that spoke different languages was conducted primarily through a very elaborate system of sign language. Several groups of tribes can be distinguished. The Woods Peoples occupied the area from the Atlantic to the Western plains and prairies. They cultivated corn and tobacco, fished and hunted. The Plains Peoples, who populated the area from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, were largely wandering and warlike, hunting buffalo and other game for food. After the arrival of Europeans and the re-introduction of the horse, they became great horsemen. The Southwestern Tribes of New Mexico and Arizona included Pueblos, who lived in villages constructed of adobe (sun-dried brick), cliff dwellers, and nomadic tribes. These tribes had the most advanced civilizations. The California Tribes were separated from the influence of other tribes by the mountains. They lived primarily on acorns, seeds and fish, and were probably the least advanced civilizations. The Northwest Coast Peoples of Washington, British Columbia and Southern Alaska were not acquainted with farming, but built large wooden houses and traveled in huge cedar canoes. The Plateau Peoples who lived between the plains and the Pacific Coast lived in underground houses or brush huts and subsisted primarily on fish. The native peoples of America, like other peoples of the same stage of development, believed that all objects, both animate and inanimate, were endowed with certain spiritual powers. They were intensely religious, and lived every aspect of their lives as their religion prescribed. They believed a soul inhabited every living thing. Certain birds and animals were considered more powerful and intelligent than humans and capable of influence for good or evil.
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Most of the tribes were divided into clans of close blood relations, whose totem was a particular animal from which they were often believed to have descended. The sun and the four principal directions were often objects of worship. The shaman, a sort of priest, was often the medicine-man of a tribe. Sickness was often believed to be the result of displeasing some spirit and was treated with incantations and prayer. Many of the traditional stories resemble those of other peoples’ in providing answers to primordial questions and guidance for life. The highest virtue was self-control. Hiding emotions and enduring pain or torture unflinchingly was required of each. Honesty was also a primary virtue, and promises were always honored no matter what the personal cost. The communities did not have any strict form of government. Each individual was responsible for governing himself or herself, particularly with regard to the rights of other members of the community. The chiefs generally carried out the will of the tribe. Each tribe was a discrete unit with its own land. Boundaries of tribal territories were determined by treaties with neighbors. There was an organized confederation among certain tribes, often called a nation. The Iroquois confederation was often referred to as The Five Nations (later The Six Nations). Customs varied from tribe to tribe. One consistent cultural element was the smoking of the calumet, a stone pipe, at the beginning and end of a war. In Native American communities, no individual owned land. The plots of land that were cultivated were, however, respected. Wealth was sometimes an honor, but generosity was more highly valued. Agriculture was quite advanced and irrigation was practiced in some locations. Most tribes practiced unique styles of basketwork, pottery and weaving. History of immigration. Until the middle of the twentieth century, voluntary migrations to America were primarily European. After WWII, a large number of Europeans were admitted to the U.S. and Canada. These were considered the most desirable immigrants. Immigration policies based upon ethnicity or country of origin were not eliminated until the 1960s. The impact of the Cold War on migration patterns was very significant. American policies toward immigration became more open to political escapees from communist countries, partly out of a desire to embarrass these nations. The number of immigrants from third-world nations was also increasing dramatically. The end of the Cold War marked a shift in migration patterns such that migrations from south to north came to dominate global migration. A significant change in immigration policy occurred after WWII. Both the U.S. and Canada began to distinguish between economically motivated voluntary immigrants and political refugees. The conditions that existed after the war made it clear that some immigrants had to be treated differently on the basis of humanitarian concerns. Fear of persecution caused massive migrations. The United Nations created the International Refugee Organization in 1946. In the next three years this organization relocated over a million European refugees. HISTORY
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Immigration policy in the U.S. was carefully aligned with foreign policy. President Truman introduced the Displaced Persons Act in 1948, which facilitated the admission of more than 400,000 persons from Europe. During the 1950s, however, the immigration policy became very restrictive. The McCarran-Walter Immigration Nationality Act of 1952 established a quota system and was clearly anti-Asian. The number of refugees from Eastern Europe far exceeded these quotas. Both President Truman and President Eisenhower urged extension of the quotas, and in time they were abandoned. Refugees from communist Europe were admitted under the President’s Escapee Program of 1952 and the Refugee Relief Act of 1953. Immigration by Asians had been restricted for some time and this policy did not change after WWII. The changes in immigration policies and the great influx of Europeans brought a wide variety of people into the U.S. To be sure, some were farmers and laborers, but many were highly trained and skilled scientists, teachers, inventors, and executives. This migration added to the American “melting pot” experience. The immigrants provided new sources of labor for a booming economy and the introduction of new cultural ideas and contributions to science and technology. The acceptance and assimilation of European immigrants was, for the most part, easier than the prejudiced assimilation of persons of Asian descent, particularly after the recent hostilities with Japan. Internment of people of Japanese ancestry. From the turn of the twentieth century, there was tension between Caucasians and Japanese in California. A series of laws had been passed discouraging Japanese immigration and prohibiting land ownership by Japanese. The Alien Registration Act of 1940 (the Smith Act) required the fingerprinting and registration of all aliens over the age of fourteen. Aliens were also required to report any change of address within five days. Almost five million aliens registered under the provisions of this act. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (December 7, 1941) raised suspicion that Japan was planning a full-scale attack on the West Coast. Many believed that American citizenship did not necessarily imply loyalty. Some authorities feared sabotage of both civilian and military facilities within the country. By February 1942, Presidential Executive Orders had authorized the arrest of all aliens suspected of subversive activities and legalized the creation of exclusion zones where people could be isolated from the remainder of the population and kept where they could not damage national infrastructure. These War Relocation Camps were used to isolate about 120,000 Japanese and Japanese Americans (62% were citizens) during World War II.
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Ethnic, racial, and religious groups. The thirteen English colonies were successful and by the time they had gained their independence from Britain, were capable of governing themselves. They had a rich historical heritage of law, tradition, and documents leading the way to constitutional government conducted according to laws and customs. The settlers in the British colonies highly valued individual freedom, democratic government, and hard work. While some eighty percent of the American colonists were of European descent, the proportion of these who were of English descent decreased during the 1700s as more and more settlers from other countries settled in the colonies. Settlers from Germany, Scotland and Ireland made up nearly a third of colonials from Europe, often settling in separate communities. By 1775, approximately one fifth of the colonial population was of African ancestry, primarily living in slavery in the southern colonies. Some free black people did live and work in the northern colonies. The colonists were a diverse group in terms of religion, as well. Of those who were members of a church – and many colonists did not belong to a church – the vast majority were Protestant Christians. In Maryland and Delaware there were significant groups of Roman Catholics, and a small number of Jews living in the northern colonies. Within Protestantism, there were several divisions. In the northern Puritan regions, the Congregational Church was organized, and received support from the colonies. In the South, the Church of England was widespread. In the ethnically varied middle colonies, a more diverse religious group existed. The Quakers, who had been driven out of the Puritan regions, settled in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania. Immigrants from Scotland founded Presbyterian churches. Baptist churches began to emerge after the Great Awakening of the 1740s ignited religious sentiments among many Protestants. Other denominations also took hold in the colonies, including Lutherans, Mennonites and Dutch Reformed churches. In the Puritan regions, personal responsibility toward one’s community was a basic value that was based on the religious commitment one made to the church. The earliest settlements were centered on the church and the meetings among church members to decide public matters eventually transformed into the New England town meeting, a community-based system of government that is still used today. In educational matters, Puritans felt it important that everyone be able to study the Bible, and so ensured that their children received an elementary education. HISTORY 123
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Publicly funded grammar schools were established in New England to provide secondary education. The country’s first college, Harvard, was established in Cambridge, Massachusetts, as were several others, including Yale, Dartmouth and Brown in other parts of New England. In the middle colonies, the more diverse population led to a less homogenous region in terms of community relationships. The large number of Germans in the area meant that the German language remained in common use in many small communities. Marriage within these communities was encouraged. The Quaker Church was more inclusive than the Congregationalists in the north, holding that all people were equal before God, and that women had an equal position in the church. Presbyterian Church members were arranged into synods that were able to make decisions on church matters without an authoritarian hierarchy. These “democratic” systems of church organizations supported democratic values that made their way into civic matters. A public responsibility toward the less fortunate was another Quaker tenet that culminated in the establishment of institutions such as public hospitals. Education in the middle colonies was influenced largely by the Enlightenment movement, which emphasized scholarly research and public service. Benjamin Franklin embodied these principles in Philadelphia, which became a center of learning and culture, owing largely to its economic success and ease of access to European books and tracts. In the South, the wealthy elite landowners looked to England for culture. The Church of England was legally established throughout the colonies, and received public money in support. Wealthy planters were able to exercise their influence over their local regions through their authority over the local church organization. A hierarchical social system developed, with the wealthy planters at the top, followed by merchants, smaller farmers, and slaves. In the back country, Scots-Irish settlers lived in small farm communities outside of this system. During the Great Awakening, the hierarchy was threatened as Baptist congregations formed. Many planters sought to disrupt these congregations, sometimes with violence. In education, as in many fields, wealthy southerners looked to England. Some would send their sons to London for schooling, and to learn the manners of British gentlemen. British tutors were hired for wealthy southern children. Among the Roman Catholic communities in Maryland, some families sent their sons to Jesuit schools in France. Education for less wealthy southerners was not as widely available as it was in the North. As other groups moved into the area, such as German Lutherans, elementary education became more common.
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After the Civil War, African Americans left the rural South and migrated to the North in search of opportunity, many settled in Harlem in New York City. By the 1920s Harlem had become a center of life and activity for persons of color. The music, art, and literature of this community gave birth to a cultural movement known as the Harlem Renaissance. The artistic expressions that emerged from this community in the 1920s and 1930s celebrated the black experience, black traditions, and the voices of black America. Major writers and works of this movement included Langston Hughes (The Weary Blues), Nella Larsen (Passing), Zora Neale Hurston (Their Eyes Were Watching God), Claude McKay, Countee Cullen, and Jean Toomer. Many refer to the decade of the 1920s as The Jazz Age. The decade was a time of optimism and exploration of new boundaries. It was a clear movement in many ways away from conventionalism. Jazz music, uniquely American, was the country’s popular music at the time. The jazz musical style perfectly typified the mood of society. Jazz is essentially free-flowing improvisation on a simple theme with a four-beat rhythm. Jazz originated in the poor districts of New Orleans as an outgrowth of the Blues. The leading jazz musicians of the time included Buddy Bolden, Joseph “King” Oliver, Duke Ellington, Louis Armstrong, and Jelly Roll Morton. As jazz grew in popularity and in the intricacy of the music, it gave birth to Swing and the era of Big Band Jazz by the mid 1920s. Some of the most notable musicians of the Big Band era were Bing Crosby, Frank Sinatra, Don Redman, Fletcher Henderson, Count Basie, Benny Goodman, Billie Holiday, Ella Fitzgerald, and The Dorsey Brothers among others. New York City has historically been the point of entry into the U.S. for millions of immigrants. This made the city a major haven for oppressed people throughout the world and the point of entry that made the nation the “melting pot” that it is. The decision to locate the headquarters of the United Nations in New York has also made it a critical center of international politics and democracy. As one of the first colonized areas in the nation, New York was a major point of entry for immigrants. The melding of the Dutch, French and British settlers into a unified colony was the first step along the way to becoming the melting pot that New York has been to this day. The large harbor and the growing reputation of the state for business, industry, and commerce, made New York a desirable destination for immigrants who were seeking freedom and opportunity. The development of Ellis Island as an immigrant processing center made it the point of entry for millions who came to America in search of political or religious freedom, safe haven from political oppression, and the quest for the American dream. The gift of the Statue of Liberty, and its placement in New York harbor, made New York the symbol of American opportunity and freedom.
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Throughout the history of America, New York has welcomed people from all parts of the world and created within the state a truly international and unique cultural mecca. To be sure, some groups of immigrants created their own sub-cultures within the state. Many of those continue today. Through the port of New York and the city’s ability to acclimate and absorb immigrants and provide them a living, the nation has welcomed a population that has been repeatedly enriched by the cultural mix. The Irish Famine of 1845-1849 is alternately referred to as the Irish Potato Famine, The Great Famine or the Great Hunger. The immediate cause of the famine was the appearance of “the blight.” This was the destruction of the potato crops due to a fungus. The potato was the primary food source for much of the population of Ireland at the time. Deaths were not officially recorded, but are believed to be in the 500,000 to one million range during the five years from 1846 to 1851. Although estimates vary, the number of people who emigrated during this period from Ireland to the United States is in the neighborhood of two million.
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Competency 22.0 Understand European exploration of North America and the development of colonial settlements. Refer to Competency 13.0 for Age of Exploration. Colonialism The part of North America claimed by France was called New France, and it consisted of the land west of the Appalachian Mountains. This area of claims and settlement included the St. Lawrence Valley, the Great Lakes, the Mississippi Valley, and the entire region of land westward to the Rockies. France established the permanent settlements of Montreal and New Orleans, thus gaining control of the two major gateways into the heart of North America, the vast, rich interior. The St. Lawrence River, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi River along with its tributaries made it possible for the French explorers and traders to roam at will, virtually unhindered in exploring, trapping, trading, and furthering the interests of France. Most of the French settlements were in Canada along the St. Lawrence River. Only scattered forts and trading posts were found in the upper Mississippi Valley and Great Lakes region. The rulers of France originally intended New France to have vast estates owned by nobles and worked by peasants who would live in compact farming villages--the New World version of the Old World's medieval system of feudalism. However, this was not easy to accomplish. Each of the nobles wanted his estate to be on the river for ease of transportation. The peasants working the estates wanted the prime waterfront location, also. The result of all this real estate squabbling was that New France's settled areas wound up mostly as a string of farmhouses stretching from Quebec to Montreal along the St. Lawrence and Richelieu Rivers. In the non-settled areas in the interior were the French fur traders. They got acquainted with the friendly tribes of Indians, spending the winters with them and getting the furs needed for trade. In the spring, they would return to Montreal in time to take advantage of trading their furs for the products brought by the cargo ships from France. Most of the wealth for New France and its "Mother Country" was from the fur trade, which provided a livelihood for many people. Manufacturers and workmen back in France, ship-owners and merchants, as well as the fur traders and their Indian allies all benefited. However, the freedom of roaming and trapping in the interior was a strong enticement for the younger, stronger men and resulted in the French neglecting to strengthen the areas settled along the St. Lawrence.
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Into the 18th century, the rivalry with the British was getting stronger and stronger. New France was united under a single government and enjoyed the support of many Indian allies. The French traders were very diligent in conserving the forests and driving away game upon which the Indians depended for life. It was difficult for the French to defend all of their settlements as they were scattered over half of the continent. However, by the early 1750s, in Western Europe, France was the most powerful nation. Its armies were superior to all others and its navy was giving the British stiff competition for control of the seas. The stage was set for confrontation in both Europe and America. Spanish settlement had its beginnings in the Caribbean with the establishment of colonies on Hispaniola (at Santo Domingo which became the capital of the West Indies), Puerto Rico, and Cuba. There were a number of reasons for Spanish involvement in the Americas, to name just a few: • • • • •
the spirit of adventure the desire for land expansion of Spanish power, influence, and empire the desire for great wealth expansion of Roman Catholic influence and conversion of native peoples
The first permanent settlement in what is now the United States was in 1565 at St. Augustine, Florida. A later permanent settlement in the southwestern United States was in 1609 at Santa Fe, New Mexico. At the peak of Spanish power, the area in the United States claimed, settled, and controlled by Spain included Florida and all land west of the Mississippi River--quite a piece of choice real estate. Of course, France and England also lay claim to the same areas. Nonetheless, ranches and missions were built and the Indians who came in contact with the Spaniards were introduced to animals, plants, and seeds from the Old World that they had never seen before. Animals brought in included: horses, cattle, donkeys, pigs, sheep, goats, and poultry. Barrels were cut in half and filled with earth to transport and transplant trees bearing apples, oranges, limes, cherries, pears, walnuts, olives, lemons, figs, apricots and almonds. Even sugar cane and flowers made it to America along with bags bringing seeds of wheat, barley, rye, flax, lentils, rice, and peas. All Spanish colonies belonged to the King of Spain. He was considered an absolute monarch with complete or absolute power and claimed rule by divine right, the belief being God had given him the right to rule and he answered only to God for his actions. His word was the law. The people had no voice in government. The land, the people, and the wealth all belonged to him to use as he pleased. He appointed personal representatives, or viceroys, to rule for him in his colonies. They ruled in his name with complete authority. Since the majority of them were friends and advisors, they were richly rewarded with land grants, gold and silver, privileges of trading, and the right to operate the gold and silver mines. HISTORY
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For the needed labor in the mines and on the plantations, Indians were used first as slaves. However, they either rapidly died out due to a lack of immunity from European diseases or escaped into nearby jungles or mountains. As a result, African slaves were brought in, especially to the islands of the West Indies. Some historians state that Latin American slavery was less harsh than in the later English colonies in North America. Three reasons are given: 1.
The following of a slave code based on ancient Roman laws
2.
The efforts of the Roman Catholic Church to protect and defend slaves with the purpose of converting them
3.
The lack of prejudice due to racial diversity in Spain, controlled at one time by dark-skinned Moors from North Africa.
Regardless, slavery was still slavery and was very harsh--cruelly denying dignity and human worth and leading to desperate resistance. Spain's control over her New World colonies lasted more than 300 years, longer than England or France. To this day, Spanish influence remains in names of places, art, architecture, music, literature, law, and cuisine. The Spanish settlements in North America were not commercial enterprises, but were for protection and defense of the trading and wealth from their colonies in Mexico and South America. The Russians hunting seals came down the Pacific coast; the English moved into Florida and west into and beyond the Appalachians; and the French traders and trappers were making their way from Louisiana and other parts of New France into Spanish territory. The Spanish never realized or understood that self-sustaining economic development and colonial trade was so important. Consequently, the Spanish settlements in the U.S. never really prospered. The nation had only itself to blame for this. The treasure and wealth found in Spanish New World colonies went back to Spain to be used to buy whatever goods and products were needed there, instead of setting up industries to strengthen the economy. As the amount of gold and silver was depleted, Spain could not pay for the goods needed and was unable to produce goods for themselves. Also, at the same time, Spanish treasure ships at sea were being seized by English and Dutch "pirates" taking the wealth to the coffers of their own countries.
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Before 1763, when England was rapidly on the way to becoming the most powerful of the three major Western European powers, its thirteen colonies physically occupied the least amount of land. Moreover, it is interesting that even before the Spanish Armada was defeated, two Englishmen, Sir Humphrey Gilbert and his half-brother Sir Walter Raleigh were unsuccessful in their attempts to build successful permanent colonies in the New World. Nonetheless, the thirteen English colonies were successful and, by the time they had gained their independence from Britain, were more than able to govern themselves. They had a rich historical heritage of law, tradition, and documents leading the way to constitutional government conducted according to laws and customs. The settlers in the British colonies highly valued individual freedom, democratic government, and hard work. The English colonies, with only a few exceptions, were considered commercial ventures to make a profit for the crown or the company or whoever financed its beginnings. One was strictly a philanthropic enterprise and three others were primarily for religious reasons but the other nine were started for economic reasons. Settlers in these unique colonies came for different reasons: • • • •
religious freedom political freedom economic prosperity land ownership
The colonies were divided generally into the three regions of New England, Middle Atlantic, and Southern. The culture of each was distinct and affected attitudes, ideas towards politics, religion, and economic activities. The geography of each region also contributed to its unique characteristics. The New England colonies consisted of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire. Life in these colonies was centered on the towns. Farming was done was by each family on its own plot of land, but a short summer growing season and limited amount of good soil gave rise to other economic activities such as manufacturing, fishing, shipbuilding, and trade. The vast majority of the settlers shared similar origins, coming from England and Scotland. Towns were carefully planned and laid out the same way. The form of government was the town meeting, where all adult males met to make the laws. The legislative body, the General Court, consisted of an upper and lower house.
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The Middle or Middle Atlantic colonies included New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. New York and New Jersey were at one time the Dutch colony of New Netherland and Delaware at one time was New Sweden. These five colonies, from their beginnings were considered "melting pots" with settlers from many different nations and backgrounds. The main economic activity was farming, with the settlers scattered over the countryside cultivating large farms. The Indians were not as much of a threat as in New England, so the colonists did not have to settle in small farming villages. The soil was very fertile, the land was gently rolling, and a milder climate provided a longer growing season. These farms produced a large surplus of food, not only for the colonists themselves but also for sale. This colonial region became known as the "breadbasket" of the New World and the New York and Philadelphia seaports were constantly filled with ships being loaded with meat, flour, and other foodstuffs for the West Indies and England. There were other economic activities such as shipbuilding, iron mines, and factories producing paper, glass, and textiles. The legislative body in Pennsylvania was unicameral or consisted of one house. In the other four colonies, the legislative body had two houses. Also units of local government were in counties and towns. The Southern colonies were Virginia, North and South Carolina, and Georgia. Virginia was the first permanent successful English colony and Georgia was the last. The year 1619 was a very important year in the history of Virginia and the United States with three very significant events. First, sixty women were sent to Virginia to marry and establish families; second, twenty Africans, the first of thousands, arrived; and third, most importantly, the Virginia colonists were granted the right to self-government and they began by electing their own representatives to the House of Burgesses, their own legislative body. The major economic activity in this region was farming. Here too the soil was very fertile and the climate was mild, with a longer growing season. The large plantations eventually requiring large numbers of slaves were found in the coastal or tidewater areas. Although the wealthy slave-owning planters set the pattern of life in this region, most of the people lived inland away from coastal areas. They were small farmers and very few, it any, owned slaves. The settlers in these four colonies came from diverse backgrounds and cultures. Virginia was colonized mostly by people from England while Georgia was started as a haven for debtors from English prisons. Pioneers from Virginia settled in North Carolina while South Carolina welcomed people from England and Scotland, French Protestants, Germans, and emigrants from islands in the West Indies. Products from farms and plantations included rice, tobacco, indigo, cotton, corn and wheat. Other economic activities included lumber and naval stores (tar, pitch, rosin, and turpentine) from the pine forests and fur trade on the frontier. Cities such as Savannah and Charleston were important seaports and trading centers. HISTORY
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In the colonies, the daily life of the colonists differed greatly between the coastal settlements and the inland or interior. The Southern planters and the people living in the coastal cities and towns had a way of life similar to that of towns in England. The influence was seen and heard in the way people dressed and talked, the architectural styles of houses and public buildings, and the social divisions or levels of society. Both the planters and city dwellers enjoyed an active social life and had strong emotional ties to England. On the other hand, life inland on the frontier had marked differences. All facets of daily living--clothing, food, and home, economic and social activities--were all connected to what was needed to sustain life and survive in the wilderness. Everything was produced within the colonies.. They were self-sufficient and extremely individualistic and independent. There were little, if any, levels of society or class distinctions as everyone considered themselves to be equal to all others, regardless of station in life. The roots of equality, independence, individual rights and freedoms were extremely strong and well developed. People were not judged by their fancy dress, expensive house, eloquent language, or titles following their names. In Europe, Italy and Germany each were totally united into one nation from many smaller states. There were revolutions in Austria and Hungary, the Franco-Prussian War, the dividing of Africa among the strong European nations, interference and intervention of Western nations in Asia, and the breakup of Turkish dominance in the Balkans. In Africa, France, Great Britain, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Germany, and Belgium controlled the entire continent except Liberia and Ethiopia. In Asia and the Pacific Islands, only China, Japan, and present-day Thailand (Siam) kept their independence. The others were controlled by the strong European nations. An additional reason for European imperialism was the harsh, urgent demand for the raw materials needed to fuel and feed the great Industrial Revolution. These resources were not available in the huge quantity so desperately needed, which necessitated (and rationalized) the partitioning of the continent of Africa and parts of Asia. In turn, these colonial areas would purchase the finished manufactured goods. Europe in the nineteenth century was densely populated.. Populations were growing but resources were not. The peoples of many European countries were also agitating for rights as never before. To address these concerns, European powers began to look elsewhere for relief.
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One of the main places for European imperialist expansion was Africa. Britain, France, Germany, and Belgium took over countries in Africa and claimed them as their own. The resources (including people) were then shipped back to the mainland and claimed as colonial gains. The Europeans went about “civilizing the savages,” reasoning that their technological superiority gave them the right to rule and “educate” the peoples of Africa. Southeast Asia was another area of European expansion at this time, mainly by France. So, too, was India, colonized by Great Britain. These two nations combined with Spain to occupy countries in Latin America. Spain also seized the rich lands of the Philippines. As a result of all this activity, a whole new flood of goods, people, and ideas began to come back to Europe and a whole group of people began to travel to these colonies, to oversee the colonization and to “help bring the people up” to the European level. European leaders could also assert their authority in these colonies as they could not back home. Relations between the colonies and Europe. The New England colonies were primarily settled by English colonists but other nations had a presence in the New World as well, and the colonies remained connected to the political and economic developments in Europe. The Dutch West India Company founded a colony in what is now New York, establishing it as New Holland. It was eventually captured by English settlers and named New York, but many of the Dutch families that had been granted large segments of land by the Dutch government were allowed to keep their estates. As hostility built between England and the colonies over the taxation of tea, colonists turned to the Dutch to supply them with this important import. To the north of the Anglo-American colonies, the French were establishing a significant presence in what is now eastern Canada. Spain was advancing in its colonization of parts of the Caribbean, where much of the early slave trade originated. The American colonies found themselves swept into international political affairs whenever the homeland, Britain, was in conflict with Europe. The case of France is an example. England and France were historic rivals who shared a new border in the New World. Disputes over control of the Ohio River between French and British colonies were one of the primary causes leading into the Seven Years’ War among many of the European powers. Anglo-American colonists, still considering themselves British subjects, fought valiantly against the French and their Indian allies. George Washington emerged as an effective military leader during this conflict.
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Later, the animosity between the English and French would work to the advantage of the revolutionary colonists, who received aid from France in their struggle against England. Holland, with its long connection to the American colonies, was the second nation after France to recognize their independence. Spain, while not officially recognizing the independence of the colonies, joined the Revolutionary War on the side of the colonists owing to a disagreement with Britain over possession of Gibraltar. From the earliest times, the fortunes of the colonists were caught up in international affairs, and relied on their political and economic connections with Europe to advance and gain eventual independence. The English colonies, with only a few exceptions, were considered commercial ventures to make a profit for the crown or the company or whoever financed their beginnings. One was strictly a philanthropic enterprise and three others were primarily for religious reasons, but the other nine were started for economic reasons. Settlers in these unique colonies came for different reasons: • • • •
religious freedom political freedom economic prosperity land ownership
The war for independence occurred due to a number of changes, the two most important ones being economic and political. By the end of the French and Indian War in 1763, Britain's American colonies were thirteen out of a total of thirty-three scattered around the earth. Like all other countries, Britain strove for having a strong economy and a favorable balance of trade. To achieve that delicate balance, a nation needs wealth, self-sufficiency, and a powerful army and navy. This is why the overseas colonies developed. The colonies would provide raw materials for the industries in the Mother Country, be a market for finished products by buying them and assist the Mother Country in becoming powerful and strong. In the case of Great Britain, a strong merchant fleet would be a school for training for the Royal Navy and would provide bases of operation for the Royal Navy. The foregoing explained the major reason for British encouragement and support of colonization, especially in North America. So between 1607 and 1763, at various times for various reasons, the British Parliament enacted different laws to assist the government in getting and keeping this trade balance. One series of laws required that most of the manufacturing be done only in England. Laws were passed to prohibit exporting any wool or woolen cloth from the colonies, and forbid the manufacture of beaver hats or iron products. The colonists were not concerned as they had no money and no highly skilled labor to set up any industries, anyway.
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The Navigation Acts of 1651 put restrictions on shipping and trade within the British Empire. This increased the strength of the British merchant fleet and greatly benefited the American colonists. Since they were British citizens, they could have their own vessels to build and operate. By the end of the war in 1763, the shipyards in the colonies were building one third of the merchant ships under the British flag. There were quite a number of wealthy, American, colonial merchants. The Navigation Act of 1660 restricted the shipment and sale of colonial products to England only. In 1663 another Navigation Act stipulated that the colonies had to buy manufactured products only from England and that any European goods going to the colonies had to go to England first. These acts were a protection from enemy ships and pirates and from competition from European rivals. The New England and Middle Atlantic colonies at first felt threatened by these laws, as they had started producing many of the same products being produced in Britain. But they soon found new markets for their goods and began what was known as a “triangular trade." Colonial vessels started the first part of the triangle by sailing for Africa loaded with kegs of rum from colonial distilleries. On Africa's West Coast, the rum was traded for either gold or slaves. The second part of the triangle was from Africa to the West Indies where slaves were traded for molasses, sugar, or money. The third part of the triangle was home, bringing sugar or molasses (to make more rum), gold, and silver. The major concern of the British government was that the trade violated the 1733 Molasses Act. Planters had wanted the colonists to buy all of their molasses in the British West Indies but these islands could give the traders only about one eighth of the amount of molasses needed for distilling the rum. The colonists were forced to buy the rest of what they needed from the French, Dutch, and Spanish islands, thus evading the law by not paying the high duty on the molasses bought from these islands. If Britain had enforced the Molasses Act, economic and financial chaos and ruin would have occurred. Nevertheless, for this act and all the other mercantile laws, the government followed the policy of "salutary neglect," deliberately failing to enforce the laws. In 1763, after the war, money was needed to pay the British war debt, for the defense of the empire, and to pay for the governing of 33 colonies scattered around the earth. It was decided to adopt a new colonial policy and pass laws to raise revenue. After all, it was reasoned, the colonists were subjects of the king and since the king and his ministers had spent a great deal of money defending and protecting them (this especially for the American colonists), it was only right and fair that the colonists should help pay the costs of defense, especially theirs. The earlier laws passed had been for the purposes of regulating production and trade which generally put money into colonial pockets. The colonists saw that these new laws would take some of their hard-earned money unjustly and illegally. HISTORY
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Competency 23.0 Understand the Revolutionary War and major developments related to the creation of the federal government and establishment of U.S. society. By the 1750s in Europe, Spain was no longer the most powerful nation nor a contender. The remaining rivalry was between Britain and France. For nearly 25 years, between 1689 and 1748, a series of "armed conflicts" involving these two powers had been taking place. These conflicts had spilled over into North America. The War of the League of Augsburg in Europe, from 1689 to 1697, had been King William's War. The War of the Spanish Succession, from 1702 to 1713, had been Queen Anne's War. The War of the Austrian Succession, from 1740 to 1748, was called King George's War in the colonies. The two nations fought for possession of colonies, especially in Asia and North America, and for control of the seas, but none of these conflicts was decisive. The final conflict, which decided once and for all who was the most powerful, began in North America in 1754, in the Ohio River Valley. It was known in America as the French and Indian War and in Europe as the Seven Years’ War, since it began there in 1756. In America, both sides had advantages and disadvantages. The British colonies were well established and consolidated in a smaller area. British colonists outnumbered French colonists 23 to 1. Except for a small area in Canada, French settlements were scattered over a much larger area (roughly half of the continent) and were smaller. However, the French settlements were united under one government and were quick to act and cooperate when necessary. In addition, the French had many more Indian allies than the British. The British colonies had separate, individual governments and very seldom cooperated, even when needed. In Europe, at that time, France was the more powerful of the two nations. Both sides had stunning victories and humiliating defeats. Much of the credit for British victory goes to William Pitt. He was a strong leader, enormously energetic, self-confident, and determined on a complete British victory. Despite the advantages and military victories of the French, Pitt succeeded. In the army he got rid of the incompetents and replaced them with men who could do the job. He sent more troops to America, strengthened the British navy, gave the officers of the colonial militia equal rank to the British officers - in short, he saw to it that Britain took the offensive and kept it to victory. Of all the British victories, perhaps the most crucial and important was winning Canada.
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The French depended on the St. Lawrence River for transporting supplies, soldiers, and messages-the link between New France and the Mother Country. Tied into this waterway systems were the connecting links of the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi River and its tributaries, along which were scattered French forts, trading posts, and small settlements. When, in 1758, the British captured Louisburg on Cape Breton Island, New France was doomed. Louisburg gave the British navy a base of operations preventing French reinforcements and supplies getting to their troops. Other forts fell to the British, including Frontenac, Duquesne, Crown Point, Ticonderoga, and Niagara, those in the upper Ohio Valley, and, most importantly, Quebec and finally Montreal. Spain entered the war in 1762 to aid France but it was too late. British victories occurred all around the world, in India, in the Mediterranean, and in Europe. In 1763 in Paris, the nations of Spain, France, and Britain met to draw up the Treaty of Paris. Great Britain got most of India and all of North America east of the Mississippi River, except for New Orleans. Britain received from Spain control of Florida and returned Cuba and the islands of the Philippines to Spain. France lost nearly all of its possessions in America and India and was allowed to keep four islands: Guadeloupe, Martinique, Haiti on Hispaniola, and Miquelon and St. Pierre. France gave Spain New Orleans and the vast territory of Louisiana, west of the Mississippi River. Britain was now the most powerful nation. Where did all of this leave the British colonies? Their colonial militias had fought with the British and they too benefited. The militias and their officers gained much experience in fighting, which was very valuable later. The thirteen colonies began to realize that cooperating with each other was the only way to defend themselves. At the start of the war for independence, in 1754, Benjamin Franklin proposed to the thirteen colonies that they unite permanently to be able to defend themselves. This was after the French and their Indian allies had defeated Major George Washington and his militia at Fort Necessity. This left the entire northern frontier of the British colonies vulnerable and open to attack. Delegates from seven of the thirteen colonies met at Albany, New York, along with the representatives from the Iroquois Confederation and British officials. Franklin's proposal, known as the Albany Plan of Union, was totally rejected by the colonists. They simply did not want each of the colonies to lose its right to act independently. However, the seed was planted.
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Before 1763, except for trade and supplying raw materials, the colonies had been left to manage their own affairs.. England looked on them merely as part of an economic or commercial empire. Little consideration was given as to how they were to conduct their daily affairs, so the colonists became very independent, self-reliant, and extremely skillful at handling those daily affairs. This, in turn, gave rise to leadership, initiative, achievement, and vast experience. In fact, there was a far greater degree of independence and self-government in the British colonies in America than could be found in Britain or the major countries on the Continent or any other colonies. There were a number of reasons for this: 1. The religious and scriptural teachings of previous centuries put forth the worth of the individual and equality in God's sight. Freedom of worship and freedom from religious persecution were major reasons to live in the New World. 2. European Protestants, especially Calvinists, believed and taught the idea that government originated from those governed, that rulers were required to protect individual rights and that the governed had the right and privilege to choose their rulers. 3. Trading companies put into practice the principle that their members had the right to make the decisions and shape the policies affecting their lives. 4. The colonists believed and supported the idea that a person's property should not be taken without his consent, based on the highly regarded English document, the Magna Carta, and English common law. 5. From about 1700 to 1750, population increases in America came about through immigration and generations of descendants of the original settlers. The immigrants were mainly Scots-Irish who hated the English, Germans who cared nothing about England, and black slaves who knew nothing about England. The descendants of the original settlers had never been out of America at any time. 6. In America, as new towns and counties were formed, there began the practice' of representation in government. Representatives to the colonial legislative assemblies were elected from the district in which they lived, chosen by qualified property-owning male voters, and representing the interests of the political district from which they were elected. One thing to remember is that each of the 13 colonies had a royal governor appointed by the king, representing his interests in the colonies. Nevertheless, the colonial legislative assemblies controlled the purse strings, having the power to vote on all issues involving money to be spent by the colonial governments.
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Contrary to this was the governmental set-up in England. Members of Parliament were not elected to represent their own districts. They were considered representative of classes, not individuals. If some members of a professional or commercial class or some landed interests were able to elect representatives, then those classes or special interests were represented. Some large population centers had no direct representation at all, yet the people there considered themselves represented by men elected from their particular class or interest somewhere else. Consequently, it was difficult for the English to understand why the American merchants and landowners claimed they were not represented, because they themselves did not vote for members of Parliament. The colonists' protest of "no taxation without representation" was meaningless to the English. Parliament represented the entire nation, was completely unlimited in legislation, and had become supreme; and the colonists were incensed at the English attitude of "of course you have representation--everyone does." The colonists considered their colonial legislative assemblies equal to Parliament, an idea totally unacceptable in England. There were two different environments: the older traditional British system in the Mother Country and the new ideals and ways of living in America. In a new country, a new environment has little or no tradition, institutions or vested interests. New ideas and traditions grew quickly, pushing aside old ideas and old traditions. By 1763, Britain had changed its perception of its American colonies to their being a "territorial" empire. The stage was set and the conditions were right for a showdown. It began in 1763 when Parliament decided to have a standing army in North America to reinforce British control. In 1765, the Quartering Act was passed requiring the colonists to provide supplies and living quarters for the British troops. In addition, efforts by the British were made to keep the peace by establishing good relations with the Indians. Consequently, a proclamation was issued which prohibited any American colonists from making any settlements west of the Appalachians until provided for through treaties with the Indians. The Sugar Act of 1764 required efficient collection of taxes on any molasses brought into the colonies, and gave British officials free license to conduct searches of the premises of anyone suspected of violating the law. The colonists were taxed on newspapers, legal documents, and other printed matter under the Stamp Act of 1765. Although a stamp tax was already in use in England, the colonists rebelled, and after the ensuing uproar of rioting and mob violence, Parliament repealed the tax.
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Of course, great exultation, jubilance, and wild joy resulted when news of the repeal reached America. However, Parliament attached the Declaratory Act to the repeal. This act unequivocally stated that Parliament still had the right to make all laws for the colonies and denied their right to be taxed only by their own colonial legislatures--a very crucial legislation that was virtually unnoticed at the time. Other acts leading up to armed conflict included the Townshend Acts passed in 1767 taxing lead, paint, paper, and tea brought into the colonies. This increased tensions and resulted in the British sending troops to New York City and Boston. In Boston, mob violence provoked retaliation by the troops, bringing about the deaths of five people and the wounding of eight others. The Boston Massacre shocked Americans and British alike. Subsequently, in 1770, Parliament voted to repeal all the provisions of the Townshend Acts with the exception of the tea tax. In 1773, the tax on tea sold by the British East India Company was substantially reduced, fueling colonial anger once more. This gave the company an unfair trade advantage and forcibly reminded the colonists of the British right to tax them. Merchants refused to sell the tea; colonists refused to buy and drink it; and a shipload of it was dumped into Boston Harbor--a most violent Tea Party. Major events of the Revolutionary War In 1774, the passage of the Quebec Act extended the limits of that Canadian colony's boundary southward to include territory located north of the Ohio River. However, the punishment for the Boston Tea Party came in the same year with the Intolerable Acts. Boston's port was closed, the royal governor of the colony of Massachusetts was given increased power, and the colonists were compelled to house and feed the British soldiers. The propaganda activities of the patriot organizations Sons of Liberty and Committees of Correspondence kept the opposition and resistance activities going.. Delegates from twelve colonies met in Philadelphia on September 5, 1774, in the First Continental Congress. They opposed acts of lawlessness and wanted some form of peaceful settlement with Britain. They maintained American loyalty to the Mother Country and affirmed Parliament's power over colonial foreign affairs. They insisted on repeal of the Intolerable Acts and demanded ending all trade with Britain until this took place. The reply from George III, the last king of America, was an insistence on unconditional colonial submission to British rule. With the start of the Revolutionary War April 19, 1775, the Second Continental Congress began meeting in Philadelphia on May 10 that year, to conduct the business of war and government for the next six years.
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One historian explained that the British were interested only in raising money to pay war debts, regulate the trade and commerce of the colonies, and look after business and financial interests between the Mother Country and the rest of her empire. The establishment of overseas colonies was first and foremost a commercial enterprise, not a political one. The political aspect was secondary and assumed. The British took it for granted that Parliament was supreme, and was recognized as such by the colonists. They were very resentful of the colonial challenge to Parliament's authority. They were indifferent to politics in America and had no wish to exert any control over it, but as resistance and disobedience grew in America, the British increased their efforts to punish the colonists and quell their demands. The British had been fairly lax and inconsistent in enforcement of the mercantile or trade laws passed in the years before 1754. The government itself was not particularly stable, so actions against the colonies occurred in anger and their attitude was one of a moral superiority, that they knew how to manage America better than the Americans did themselves. This of course pointed to a lack of sufficient knowledge of conditions and opinions in America. The colonists had been left on their own for nearly 150 years and by the time the Revolutionary War began, they were quite adept at self-government and adequately handling the affairs of their daily lives. The Americans equated ownership of land or property with the right to vote. Property was considered the foundation of life and liberty and, in the colonial mind, these went together. Therefore when an indirect tax on tea was made, the British felt that since it wasn't a direct tax, there should be no objection to it. The colonists viewed any tax, direct or indirect, as an attack on their property. They felt that as a representative body, the British Parliament should protect British citizens, including the colonists, from arbitrary taxation. Since they felt they were not represented, Parliament, in their eyes, gave them no protection. So, war began. On August 23, 1775, George III declared that the colonies were in rebellion and warned them to stop. By 1776, the colonists and their representatives in the Second Continental Congress understood that the war had effected permanent changes.. The Declaration of Independence was drafted and declared July 4, 1776. George Washington labored against tremendous odds to wage a victorious war. The turning point in the Americans' favor occurred in 1777 with the American victory at Saratoga. This victory came about when the French decided to align themselves with the Americans against the British. With the aid of Admiral deGrasse and French warships blocking the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, British General Cornwallis trapped at Yorktown, Virginia, surrendered in 1781 and the war was over. The Treaty of Paris, officially ending the war, was signed in 1783. During the war, and after independence was declared, the former colonies now found themselves independent states. The Second Continental Congress was conducting a war with representation by delegates from thirteen separate states. The Congress had no power to act for the states or to require them to accept and follow its wishes. A permanent united government was needed. On November 15, 1777, the Articles of Confederation were adopted, creating a league of free and independent states. HISTORY 141
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Articles of Confederation Articles of Confederation - This was the first political system under which the newly independent colonies tried to organize themselves. It was drafted on November 15, 1777, ratified by the thirteen states, and took effect on March 1, 1781. The newly independent states were unwilling to give too much power to a national government. They were already fighting Great Britain. They did not want to replace one harsh ruler with another. After many debates, the form of the Articles was accepted. Each state agreed to send delegates to the Congress. Each state had one vote in the Congress. The Articles gave Congress the power to declare war, appoint military officers, and coin money. The Congress was also responsible for foreign affairs. The Articles of Confederation limited the powers of Congress by giving the states final authority. Although Congress could pass laws, at least nine of the thirteen states had to approve a law before it went into effect. Congress could not pass any laws regarding taxes. To get money, Congress had to ask each state for it, and no state could be forced to pay. Thus, the Articles created a loose alliance among the thirteen states. The national government was weak, in part, because it did not have a strong chief executive to carry out laws passed by the legislature. This weak national government might have worked if the states were able to establish peaceful relations with one another. However, many different disputes arose and there was no way of settling them. Thus, the delegates went to meet again to try to amend the Articles; instead they ended up creating a new Constitution that would resolve these earlier shortcomings.. The central government of the new United States of America consisted of a Congress of two to seven delegates from each state, with each state having just one vote. The government under the Articles solved some of the postwar problems but had major weaknesses. Some of its powers included borrowing and coining money, directing foreign affairs, declaring war and making peace, building and equipping a navy, regulating weights and measures, and asking the states to supply men and money for an army. The delegates to Congress had no real authority as each state carefully guarded its own interests and limited powers under the Articles. Also, the delegates to Congress were paid by their states and had to vote as directed by their state legislatures. The weaknesses were the lack of power to regulate finances or trade, to enforce treaties, or provide military power. Something better and more efficient was needed. In May of 1787, delegates from all states except Rhode Island began meeting in Philadelphia. At first, they met to revise the Articles of Confederation as instructed by Congress; but they soon realized that much more was needed. Abandoning the instructions, they set out to write a new Constitution, a new document, the foundation of all government in the United States and a model for representative government throughout the world. HISTORY
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The first order of business was the agreement among all the delegates that the convention would be kept secret. No discussion of the convention outside of the meeting room would be allowed. They wanted to be able to discuss, argue, and agree among themselves before presenting the completed document to the American people. The delegates were afraid that if the people were aware of what was taking place before it was completed, the entire country would be plunged into argument and dissension. It would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to settle differences and come to an agreement. Between the official notes kept and the complete notes of future President James Madison, an accurate picture of the events of the Convention is part of the historical record. The delegates went to Philadelphia representing different areas and different interests. They all agreed on a strong central government but not one with unlimited powers. They also agreed that no one part of government could control the rest. It would be a republican form of government (sometimes referred to as representative democracy) in which the supreme power was in the hands of the voters who would elect the men who would govern for them. Of course, when work was completed and the document was presented, nine states needed to approve for it to go into effect. There was no lack of discussion, arguing, debating, and haranguing. The opposition had three major objections: 1) The states seemed as if they were being asked to surrender too much power to the national government. 2) The voters did not have enough control and influence over the men who would be elected by them to run the government. 3) A lack of a "bill of rights" guaranteeing hard-won individual freedoms and liberties. Eleven states finally ratified the document and the new national government went into effect. It was no small feat that the delegates were able to produce a workable document that satisfied all opinions, feelings, and viewpoints. The separation of powers of the three branches of government and the built-in system of checks and balances to keep power balanced were the basic tenets to safeguard against corruption in government.. The constitution provided for the individuals and the states an organized central authority to keep a young inexperienced nation on track. The system of government was so flexible, it has continued in its basic form to this day. In 1789, the Electoral College unanimously elected George Washington as the first President of the United States.
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Of the newly created government, Benjamin Franklin said, "though it may not be the best there is", he "wasn't sure that it could be possible to create one better". This might be true, considering that the Constitution has lasted, through civil war, foreign wars, depression, and social revolution for over 200 years. It is truly a living document because of its ability to remain strong while allowing itself to be changed with changing times. The Constitution of the United States. Ratification of the U.S. Constitution was by no means a foregone conclusion. The representative government had powerful enemies, especially those who had seen firsthand the failure of the Articles of Confederation. The strong central government had powerful enemies, including some of the guiding lights of the American Revolution. Those who wanted to see a strong central government were called Federalists, because they wanted to see a federal government reign supreme. Among the leaders of the Federalists were Alexander Hamilton and John Jay. These two men, along with James Madison, wrote a series of letters to New York newspapers, urging that the state ratify the Constitution. These became known as the Federalist Papers. In the Anti-Federalist camp were Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry. These men and many others like them were worried that a strong national government would descend into the kind of tyranny that they had worked so hard to abolish. In the same way, they wrote a series of arguments against the Constitution called the Anti-Federalist Papers. In the end, both sides achieved most of what they wanted. The Federalists established their strong national government, which was held in place by the famous “checks and balances.” The Anti-Federalists got the Bill of Rights, the first ten Amendments to the Constitution, and a series of laws that protect some of the most basic of human rights. The states that had been in doubt for ratification of the Constitution signed on when the Bill of Rights was promised.
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Early presidential administrations. George Washington (1789-1797) faced a number of challenges during his two terms as President. There were boundary disputes with Spain over the Southeast, and wars with the Indians on the western frontier. The French Revolution and the ensuing war between France and England created great turmoil within the new nation. Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State, was proFrench and believed the U.S. should enter the fray. Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury, was pro-British and wanted to support England. Washington took a neutral course, believing the U.S. was not strong enough to be engaged in a war. Washington did not interfere with the powers of the Congress in establishing foreign policy. Two political parties were beginning to form by the end of his first term. In his farewell address, he encouraged Americans to put an end to regional differences and exuberant party spirit. He also warned the nation against long-term alliances with foreign nations. John Adams, of the Federalist Party, was elected President in 1796. When he assumed office, the war between England and France was in full swing. The British were seizing American ships that were engaging in trade with France. France, however, was refusing to receive the American envoy and had suspended economic relationships. The people were divided in their loyalties to either France or England. Adams focused on France and the diplomatic crisis known as the XYZ Affair. During his administration, Congress appropriated money to build three new frigates and additional ships, authorized the creation of a provisional army, and passed the Alien and Sedition Acts which were intended to drive foreign agents from the country and to maintain dominance over the Republican Party. When the war ended, Adams sent a peace mission to France. This angered the Republicans. The Election of 1800 pitted a unified and effective Republican Party against a divided and ineffective Federalist Party. Thomas Jefferson won the election of 1800. Jefferson opposed a strong centralized government as a champion of States’ Rights. He supported a strict interpretation of the Constitution. He reduced military expenditures, made budget cuts, and eliminated a tax on whiskey. At the same time, he reduced the national debt by one third. The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the nation. During his second term, the administration focused on keeping the U.S. out of the Napoleonic Wars. Both the French and the British were seizing American ships and trying to deny the other access to trade with the U.S. Jefferson’s solution was to impose an embargo on all foreign commerce. The cost to the northeast was great and the embargo was both ineffective and unpopular.
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James Madison won the election of 1808 and inherited the foreign policy issues with England. During the first year of his administration, trade was prohibited with both Britain and France. In 1810, Congress authorized trade with both England and France. If either nation would accept America’s view of neutrality, the President was to forbid trade with the other nation. Napoleon pretended to comply. Madison thus banned trade with Great Britain. The British continued to harass American ships and captured sailors and forced them to become members of the British Navy (impressment). In June of 1812, Madison asked Congress to declare war on Great Britain. The nation was not prepared to fight a war, especially with the strong British army. The British were successful in blockading U.S. ports and troops entered Washington and burned the White House and the Capitol. There were some notable American victories in the war, particularly Andrew Jackson’s victory at New Orleans. This victory encouraged Americans to believe the war had been successful. The result was a tremendous rise in nationalism. The war ended with the Treaty of Ghent, in which Britain finally accepted U.S. independence. The war had been strenuously opposed by the Federalist Party, which even began to speak of secession. By the time the war was over, the party had been so deeply embarrassed and discredited that it was no longer a national political party. The political party system in the U.S. has five main objects or lines of action: (1) To influence government policy (2) To form or shape public opinion (3) To win elections (4) To choose between candidates for office (5) To procure salaried posts for party leaders and workers
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In the domestic affairs of the new nation, the first problems dealt with finances - paying for the war debts of the Revolutionary War and other financial needs. Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton wanted the government to increase tariffs and place taxes on certain products made in the U.S., for example, liquor. This money would be used to pay war debts of the federal government, as well as those of the states. There would be money available for expenses and needed internal improvements. To provide for this, Hamilton favored a national bank. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson, along with southern supporters, opposed many of Hamilton's suggested plans. Later, Jefferson relented and gave support to some proposals in return for Hamilton and his northern supporters agreeing to locate the nation's capital in the South. Jefferson continued to oppose a national bank but Congress set up the first one in 1791, chartered for the next 20 years. In 1794, Pennsylvania farmers, who made whiskey, their most important source of cash, refused to pay the liquor tax and started what came to be known as the Whiskey Rebellion. Troops sent by President Washington successfully put it down with no lives lost, thus demonstrating the growing strength of the new government. The Judiciary Act set up the U.S. Supreme Court by providing for a Chief Justice and five associate justices. It also established federal district and circuit courts. One of the most important acts of Congress was the first 10 amendments to the Constitution, called the Bill of Rights, which emphasized and gave attention to the rights of individuals. Under President John Adams, a minor diplomatic upset occurred with the government of France. By this time, the two major political parties called Federalists and Democratic-Republicans had fully developed. Hamilton and his mostly northern followers had formed the Federalist Party, which favored a strong central government and was sympathetic to Great Britain and its interests. The Democratic-Republican Party had been formed by Jefferson and his mostly Southern followers, and they wanted a weak central government and stronger relations with France. In 1798, the Federalists, in control of Congress, passed the Alien and Sedition Acts written to silence vocal opposition. These acts made it a crime to voice any criticism of the President or Congress, and unfairly treated all foreigners.
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The legislatures of Kentucky and Virginia protested these laws, claiming they attacked freedoms and challenged their constitutionality. These Resolutions stated mainly that the states had created the federal government, which was considered merely as an agent for the states and was limited to certain powers and could be criticized by the states, if warranted. They went further stating that states' rights included the power to declare any act of Congress null and void if the states felt it unconstitutional. The controversy died down as the Alien and Sedition Acts expired, one by one, but the doctrine of states' rights was not finally settled until the Civil War. Supreme Court Chief Justice John Marshall made extremely significant contributions to the American judiciary. He established three basic principles of law, which became the foundation of the judicial system and the federal government. He started the power of judicial review, the right of the Supreme Court to determine the constitutionality of laws passed by Congress. He stated that only the Supreme Court had the power to set aside laws passed by state legislatures when they contradicted the U.S. Constitution. He established the right of the Supreme Court to reverse decisions of state courts. After the U.S. purchased the Louisiana Territory, Jefferson appointed Captains Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore it, to find out exactly what had been bought. The expedition went all the way to the Pacific Ocean, returning two years later with maps, journals, and artifacts. This led the way for future explorers to make available more knowledge about the territory and resulted in the Westward Movement and the later belief in the doctrine of Manifest Destiny.
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Competency 24.0 Understand the westward movement in U.S. history. In between the growing economy, expansion westward of the population, and improvements in travel and mass communication, the federal government faced periodic financial depressions. Contributing to these downward spirals were land speculations, availability and soundness of money and currency, failed banks, failing businesses, and unemployment. Sometimes conditions outside the nation would help trigger these problems; at other times, domestic politics and presidential elections were the cause. The growing strength and influence of two major political parties with opposing philosophies and methods of conducting government did not ease matters. Westward expansion occurred for a number of reasons, most important being economic. Cotton had become most important to most of the people who lived in the southern states. The effects of the Industrial Revolution, which began in England, were now being felt in the United States. With the invention of powerdriven machines, the demand for cotton fiber greatly increased for the yarn needed in spinning and weaving. Eli Whitney's cotton gin made the separation of the seeds from the cotton much more efficient and faster. This, in turn, increased the demand and more and more farmers became involved in the raising and selling of cotton. The innovations and developments of better methods of long-distance transportation moved the cotton in greater quantities to textile mills in England, as well as the areas of New England and Middle Atlantic States in the U.S. As prices increased along with increased demand, southern farmers began expanding by clearing more land to grow more cotton. Movement, settlement, and farming headed west to utilize the fertile soils. This, in turn, demanded increased need for a large supply of cheap labor. The system of slavery expanded, both in numbers and in the movement to lands "west" of the South. Cotton farmers and slave owners were not the only ones heading west. Many, in other fields of economic endeavor, began the migration: trappers, miners, merchants, ranchers, and others were all seeking their fortunes. The Lewis and Clark expedition stimulated the westward push. Fur companies hired men, known as "Mountain Men", to go westward, searching for the animal pelts to supply the market and meet the demands of the East and Europe. These men, in their own way, explored and discovered the many passes and trails that would eventually be used by settlers in their trek to the west. The California gold rush also had a very large influence on the movement west.
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There were also religious reasons for westward expansion. Increased settlement was encouraged by missionaries who traveled west with the fur traders. They sent word back east for more settlers and the results were tremendous. By the 1840s, the population increases in the Oregon country alone were at a rate of about a thousand people a year. People of many different religions and cultures as well as Southerners with black slaves made their way west. There were also political reasons for westward expansion. It was the belief of many that the United States was destined to control all of the land between the two oceans or as one newspaper editor termed it, "Manifest Destiny." This mass migration westward put the U.S. government on a collision course with the Indians, Great Britain, Spain, and Mexico. The fur traders and missionaries ran up against the Indians in the northwest and the claims of Great Britain for the Oregon country. The U.S. and Britain had shared the Oregon country, but by the 1840s, with the increases in the free and slave populations and the demand of the settlers for control and government by the U.S., the conflict had to be resolved. In a treaty, signed in 1846 by both nations, a peaceful resolution occurred, with Britain giving up its claims south of the 49th parallel. In the American southwest, the results were exactly the opposite. Spain had claimed this area since the 1540s, had spread northward from Mexico City, and, in the 1700s, had established missions, forts, villages, towns, and very large ranches. After the purchase of the Louisiana Territory in 1803, Americans began moving into Spanish territory. A few hundred American families in what is now Texas were allowed to live there, but had to agree to become loyal subjects to Spain. In 1821, Mexico successfully revolted against Spanish rule, won independence, and chose to be more tolerant towards the American settlers and traders. The Mexican government encouraged and allowed extensive trade and settlement, especially in Texas. Many of the new settlers were southerners and brought with them their slaves. Slavery was outlawed in Mexico and technically illegal in Texas, although the Mexican government looked the other way. With the influx of so many Americans and the liberal policies of the Mexican government, there came to be concern over the possible growth and development of an American state within Mexico. Settlement restrictions, cancellation of land grants, the prohibition of slavery and increased military activity brought everything to a head. The order of events included the fight for Texas independence, the brief Republic of Texas, eventual annexation of Texas, statehood, and finally war with Mexico. The Texas controversy was not the sole reason for war. Since American settlers had begun, pouring into the Southwest, the cultural differences played a prominent part. Language, religion, law, customs, and government were totally different between the two groups. A clash was bound to occur.
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The impact of the entire westward movement resulted in the completion of the borders of the present-day conterminous United States. Among the effects of westward movement were the bloody war with Mexico, the ever-growing controversy over slave versus free states affecting the balance of power or influence in the U.S. Congress, especially the Senate, and finally to the Civil War itself. Manifest Destiny In the United States, territorial expansion occurred in the expansion westward under the banner of "Manifest Destiny." In addition, the U.S. was involved in the War with Mexico, the Spanish-American War, and support of the Latin American colonies of Spain in their revolt for independence. In Latin America, the Spanish colonies were successful in their fight for independence and selfgovernment After the U.S. purchased the Louisiana Territory, Jefferson appointed Captains Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore it, to find out exactly what had been bought. The expedition, called the Corps of Discover included a slave named York, a dog, forty young men, a female Indian named Sacagawea and her infant son. They traveled all the way to the Pacific Ocean, returning two years later with maps, journals, and artifacts. This led the way for future explorers to make available more knowledge about the territory and resulted in the Westward Movement and the later belief in the doctrine of Manifest Destiny. It was the belief of many that the United States was destined to control all of the land between the two oceans, or as one newspaper editor termed it, "Manifest Destiny." This mass migration westward put the U.S. government on a collision course with the Indians, Great Britain, Spain, and Mexico. The fur traders and missionaries ran up against the Indians in the northwest and the claims of Great Britain for the Oregon country. The U.S. and Britain had shared the Oregon country. By the 1840s, with the increase in the free and slave populations and the demand of the settlers for control and government by the U.S., the conflict had to be resolved. In a treaty, signed in 1846, by both nations, a peaceful resolution occurred, with Britain giving up its claims south of the 49th parallel. In the American southwest, the results were exactly the opposite. Spain had claimed this area since the 1540s, had spread northward from Mexico City, and, in the 1700s, had established missions, forts, villages, towns, and very large ranches. After the purchase of the Louisiana Territory in 1803, Americans began moving into Spanish territory. A few hundred American families in what is now Texas were allowed to live there, but had to agree to become loyal subjects to Spain.
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In 1821, Mexico successfully revolted against Spanish rule, won independence, and chose to be more tolerant towards the American settlers and traders. The Mexican government encouraged and allowed extensive trade and settlement, especially in Texas. Many of the new settlers were southerners who brought their slaves with them. Slavery was outlawed in Mexico and technically illegal in Texas, although the Mexican government looked the other way. Friction increased between landhungry Americans swarming into western lands and the Mexican government, which controlled these lands. The clash was not only political but also cultural and economic. The Spanish influence permeated all parts of southwestern life: law, language, architecture, and customs. By this time, the doctrine of Manifest Destiny was in the hearts and on the lips of those seeking new areas of settlement and a new life. Americans were demanding U.S. control of not only the Mexican Territory but also Oregon. Peaceful negotiations with Great Britain secured Oregon, but it took two years of war to gain control of the southwestern U.S. In addition, the Mexican government owed debts to U.S. citizens whose property was damaged or destroyed during its struggle for independence from Spain. By the time war broke out in 1845, Mexico had not paid its war debts. The government was weak, corrupt, irresponsible, tom by revolutions, and not in decent financial shape. Mexico was also bitter over American expansion into Texas, and the 1836 revolution, which resulted in Texas independence. In the 1844 Presidential Election, the Democrats pushed for annexation of Texas and Oregon and after winning, they started the procedure to admit Texas to the Union. When statehood occurred, diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Mexico were ended. President Polk wanted U.S. control of the entire southwest, from Texas to the Pacific Ocean. He sent a diplomatic mission with an offer to purchase New Mexico and Upper California, but the Mexican government refused to even receive the diplomat. Consequently, in 1846, each nation claimed aggression on the part of the other and war was declared. The treaty signed in 1848 and a subsequent one in 1853 completed the southwestern boundary of the United States, reaching to the Pacific Ocean, as President Polk wished. The impact of the entire westward movement resulted in the completion of the borders of the present-day conterminous United States. Contributing factors include the bloody war with Mexico, the ever-growing controversy over slave versus free states, affecting the balance of power or influence in the U.S. Congress, especially the Senate and finally to the Civil War itself. HISTORY 152
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Frontier Life The post-Reconstruction era represents a period of great transformation and expansion for the United States, both economically and geographically, particularly for the South, recovering from the devastation of the Civil War and migration west of the Mississippi River. Great numbers of former slaves moved west, away from their former masters, lured by the promise of land. White migration was also spurred by similar desires for land and resources, leading to boom economies of cotton, cattle and grain, starting in Kansas and spreading westward. Although industrial production grew fastest in the South during this period, it was still predominantly agricultural, featuring land tenancy and sharecropping, which did not really advance the freed slaves economically, since most of the land was still owned by the large plantation landowners. The economic chasm dividing white landowners and black freedmen only widened as the tenants sank further into debt to their landlords. Westward movement of significant populations from the eastern United States originated with the discovery of gold in the West in the 1840s and acquired greater momentum after the Civil War. Settlers were lured by what they perceived as unpopulated places with land for the taking. However, when they arrived, they found that the lands were populated by earlier settlers of Spanish descent and Native Americans, who did not particularly welcome the newcomers. These original and earlier inhabitants frequently clashed with those who were moving west. Despite having signed treaties with the United States government years earlier, virtually all were ignored and broken as westward settlement accelerated and the government was called upon to protect migrating settlers. This led to a series of wars between the United States and the various Native American Nations that were deemed hostile. Although the bloodshed during these encounters was great, it paled compared to the number of Native Americans who died from epidemics of deadly diseases for which they had no resistance. Eventually, the government sought to relocate inconveniently located peoples to Indian reservations, and to Oklahoma, which lacked the resources needed and was geographically remote from their home range. The justification for this westward expansion, at the expense of the previous inhabitants was that it was America’s “Manifest Destiny” to “tame” and settle the continent from coastto-coast. Another major factor affecting the opening of the West to migration of Americans and displacement of native peoples was the expansion of the railroad. The transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, joining the West Coast with the existing rail infrastructure terminating at Omaha, Nebraska, its westernmost point. This not only enabled unprecedented movement of people and goods, it also hastened the near extinction of bison, which the Indians of the Great Plains, in particular, depended on for their survival.
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Competency 25.0 Understand the Civil War and Reconstruction. The issue of tariffs was a divisive factor during this period, especially between 1829 and 1833. The Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812 had completely cut off the source of manufactured goods for Americans, so it was necessary to build factories to produce what was needed. After 1815 when the war had ended, Great Britain proceeded to get rid of its industrial rivals by unloading its goods in America. To protect and encourage its own industries and products, Congress passed the Tariff of 1816, which required high duties to be levied on manufactured goods coming into the United States. Southern leaders, such as John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, supported the tariff with the assumption that the South would develop its own industries. For a brief period after 1815, the nation enjoyed the "Era of Good Feelings." People were moving into the West, industry and agriculture were growing, and a feeling of national pride united Americans in their efforts and determination to strengthen the country. However, over-speculation in stocks and lands for quick profits backfired. Cotton prices were rising so many Southerners bought land for cultivation at inflated prices. Manufacturers in the industrial North purchased land to build more plants and factories as an attempt to have a part of this prosperity. Settlers in the West rushed to buy land to reap the benefits of the increasing prices of meat and grain. To have the money for all of these economic activities, all of these groups were borrowing heavily from the banks and the banks themselves encouraged this by giving loans on insubstantial security. The first major clash between North and South occurred during 1819-1820 when James Monroe was in office as President; the clash related to admitting Missouri as a state. In 1819, the U.S. consisted of 21 states: 11 free states and 10 slave states. The Missouri Territory allowed slavery and if admitted would cause an imbalance in the number of U.S. Senators. Alabama had already been admitted as a slave state, and that had balanced the Senate with the North and South each having 22 senators. The first Missouri Compromise resolved the conflict by approving admission of Maine as a free state along with Missouri as a slave state, thus continuing to keep a balance of power in the Senate, with the same number of free and slave states.
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An additional provision of this compromise was that with the admission of Missouri, slavery would not be allowed in the rest of the Louisiana Purchase territory north of latitude 36 degrees 30'. This was acceptable to the Southern Congressmen, since it was not profitable to grow cotton on land north of this latitude line anyway. It was thought that the crisis had been resolved, but in the next year, it was discovered that in its state constitution, Missouri discriminated against the free blacks. Anti-slavery supporters in Congress went into uproar, determined to exclude Missouri from the Union. Henry Clay, known as the Great Compromiser, then proposed a second Missouri Compromise, which was acceptable to everyone. His proposal stated that the Constitution of the United States guaranteed protections and privileges to citizens of states, and Missouri's proposed constitution could not deny these to any of its citizens. The acceptance in 1820 of this second compromise opened the way for Missouri's statehood--a temporary reprieve only. In late 1818, the Bank of the United States and its branches stopped renewal of personal mortgages and required state batiks to immediately pay their bank notes in gold, silver, or national bank notes. The state banks were unable to do this so they closed their doors and were unable to do business. Since mortgages could not be renewed, people lost all their properties and foreclosures were rampant throughout the country. At the same time, as all of this was occurring, cotton prices collapsed in the English market. Its high price had caused the British manufacturers to seek cheaper cotton from India for their textile mills. With the fall of cotton prices, the demand for American manufactured goods declined, revealing how fragile the economic prosperity had been. In 1824, a higher tariff was passed by Congress, favoring the financial interests of the manufacturers in New England and the Middle Atlantic States. In addition, the 1824 tariff was closely tied to the presidential election of that year. Before becoming law, Calhoun had proposed the very high tariffs in an effort to get Eastern business interests to vote with the agricultural interests in the South (who were against it), with supporters of candidate Andrew Jackson siding with whichever side served their best interests. Jackson himself would not be involved in any of this scheming.
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The bill became law, to Calhoun's surprise, due mainly to the political maneuvering of Martin van Buren and Daniel Webster. By the time the higher 1828 tariff was passed, feelings were extremely bitter in the South, who believed that the New England manufacturers greatly benefited from it. Vice-President Calhoun, also speaking for his home state of South Carolina, promptly declared that if any state felt that a federal law was unconstitutional, that state could nullify it. In 1832, Congress took the action of lowering the tariffs to a degree, but not enough to please South Carolina, which promptly declared the tariff null and void, threatening to secede from the Union. In 1833, Congress lowered the tariffs again, this time at a level acceptable to South Carolina. Although President Jackson believed in states' rights, he also firmly believed in the preservation of the Union. A constitutional crisis had been averted but sectional divisions were getting deeper and more pronounced. The abolition movement was growing rapidly, becoming an important issue in the North. The slavery issue flared again, not to be done away with until the end of the Civil War. It was obvious that the newly acquired territory would be divided up into territories and later become states. In addition to the two factions of Northerners who advocated prohibition of slavery and of Southerners who favored slavery, a third faction arose supporting the doctrine of "popular sovereignty" which stated that people living in territories and states should be allowed to decide for themselves whether or not slavery should be permitted. In 1849, California applied for admittance to the Union and the furor began. The result was the Compromise of 1850, a series of laws designed as a final solution to the issue. Concessions made to the North included the admission of California as a free state and the abolition of slave trading in Washington, D.C. The laws also provided for the creation of the New Mexico and Utah territories. As a concession to Southerners, the residents there would decide whether to permit slavery when these two territories became states. In addition, Congress authorized implementation of stricter measures to capture runaway slaves.
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A few years later, Congress took up consideration of new territories between Missouri and present-day Idaho. Again, heated debate over permitting slavery in these areas flared up. Those opposed to slavery used the Missouri Compromise to prove their point, showing that the land being considered for territories was part of the area the Compromise had designated as banned to slavery. But on May 25, 1854, Congress passed the infamous Kansas-Nebraska Act, which nullified this provision, created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, and provided for the people of these two territories to decide for themselves whether or not to permit slavery. Feelings were so deep and divided that any further attempts to compromise were met with little, if any, success. Political and social turmoil prevailed. Kansas was called "Bleeding Kansas" because of the extreme violence and bloodshed throughout the territory, since two governments existed there, one pro-slavery and the other antislavery. The Supreme Court in 1857 handed down a decision guaranteed to cause explosions throughout the country. Dred Scott was a slave whose owner had taken him from slave state Missouri to free state Illinois, into Minnesota Territory, free under the provisions of the Missouri Compromise, then finally back to slave state Missouri. Abolitionists pursued the dilemma by presenting a court case, stating that since Scott had lived in a free state and free territory, he was in actuality a free man. Two lower courts had ruled before the Supreme Court became involved, one ruling in favor and one against. The Supreme Court decided that residing in a free state and free territory did not make Scott a free man because Scott (and all other slaves) was not a U.S. citizen or a state citizen of Missouri. Therefore, he did not have the right to sue in state or federal courts. The Court went a step further and ruled that the old Missouri Compromise was now unconstitutional because Congress did not have the power to prohibit slavery in the Territories. Anti-slavery supporters were stunned. They had just recently formed the new Republican Party and one of its platforms was keeping slavery out of the Territories. Now, according to the decision in the Dred Scott case, this basic party principle was unconstitutional. The only way to ban slavery in new areas was by a Constitutional amendment, requiring ratification by three-fourths of all states. At this time, this was out of the question because the supporters would be unable to get a majority due to Southern opposition.
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In 1858, Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas were running for the office of U.S. Senator from Illinois and participated in a series of debates, which directly affected the outcome of the 1860 Presidential election. Douglas, a Democrat, was up for re-election and knew that if he won this race, he had a good chance of becoming President in 1860. Lincoln, a Republican, was not an abolitionist, but he believed that slavery was wrong morally and he firmly believed in and supported the Republican Party principle that slavery must not be allowed to extend any further. Douglas, on the other hand, originated the doctrine of "popular sovereignty" and was responsible for supporting and getting through Congress the inflammatory Kansas-Nebraska Act. In the course of the debates, Lincoln challenged Douglas to show that popular sovereignty reconciled with the Dred Scott decision. Either way he answered Lincoln, Douglas would lose crucial support from one group or the other. If he supported the Dred Scott decision, Southerners would support him but he would lose Northern support. If he stayed with popular sovereignty, Northern support would be his but Southern support would be lost. His reply to Lincoln, stating that Territorial legislatures could exclude slavery by refusing to pass laws supporting it, gave him enough support and approval to be re-elected to the Senate. But it cost him the Democratic nomination for President in 1860. Southerners came to the realization that Douglas supported and was devoted to popular sovereignty but not necessarily to the expansion of slavery. On the other hand, two years later, Lincoln received the nomination of the Republican Party for President. In 1859, abolitionist John Brown and his followers seized the federal arsenal at Harper’s Ferry in what is now West Virginia. His purpose was to take the guns stored in the arsenal, give them to slaves nearby, and lead them in a widespread rebellion. He and his men were captured by Colonel Robert E. Lee of the United States Army, and after a trial with a guilty verdict, he was hanged. Most Southerners felt that the majority of Northerners approved of Brown's actions but in actuality, most of them were stunned and shocked. Southern newspapers took great pains to quote a small but well-known minority of abolitionists who applauded and supported Brown's actions. This merely served to widen the gap between the two sections.
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The final straw came with the election of Lincoln to the Presidency the next year. Due to a split in the Democratic Party, there were four candidates from four political parties. With Lincoln receiving a minority of the popular vote and a majority of electoral votes, the Southern states, one by one, voted to secede from the Union as they had promised they would do if Lincoln and the Republicans were victorious. The die was cast. The slavery issue was at the root of every problem, crisis, event, decision, and struggle from then on. The next crisis involved the issue concerning Texas. By 1836, Texas was an independent republic with its own constitution. During its fight for independence, Americans were sympathetic to and supportive of the Texans and some recruited volunteers who crossed into Texas to help the struggle. Problems arose when the state petitioned Congress for statehood. Texas wanted to allow slavery but Northerners in Congress opposed admission to the Union because it would disrupt the balance between free and slave states and give Southerners in Congress increased influence. The section of the North was industrial with towns and factories growing and increasing at a very fast rate. The South had become agricultural, eventually becoming increasingly dependent on the one crop of cotton. In the West, restless pioneers moved into new frontiers seeking land, wealth, and opportunity. Many were from the South and were slave owners, bringing their slaves with them. So between these three different parts of the country, the views on tariffs, public lands, internal improvements at federal expense, banking and currency, and the issue of slavery were decidedly, totally different. This period of U.S. history was a period of compromises, breakdowns of the compromises, desperate attempts to restore and retain harmony among the three sections, short-lived intervals of the uneasy balance of interests, and ever-increasing conflict. At the Constitutional Convention, one of the slavery compromises concerned counting slaves for deciding the number of representatives for the House and the amount of taxes to be paid. Southerners pushed for counting the slaves for representation but not for taxes. The Northerners pushed for the opposite. The resulting compromise, sometimes referred to as the "three-fifths compromise," was that both groups agreed that three-fifths of the slaves would be counted for both taxes and representation. The other compromise over slavery was related to how much control the central government would have over commercial activities such as trade with other nations and the slave trade. It was agreed that Congress would regulate commerce with other nations including taxing imports. Southerners were worried about taxing slaves coming into the country and the possibility of Congress prohibiting the slave trade altogether. The agreement reached allowed the states to continue importation of slaves for the next 20 years until 1808, at which time Congress would make the decision as to the future of the slave trade. During the 20-year period, no more than $10 per person could be levied on slaves coming into the country. HISTORY
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These two "slavery' compromises were a necessary concession to have Southern support and approval for the new document and new government. Many Americans felt that the system of slavery would eventually die out in the U.S., but by 1808, cotton was becoming increasingly important in the primarily agricultural South and the institution of slavery had become firmly entrenched in Southern culture. It is also evident that as early as the Constitutional Convention, active anti-slavery feelings and opinions were very strong, leading to extremely active groups and societies. Sectionalism The drafting of the Constitution, its ratification and implementation, united 13 different, independent states into a Union under one central government. The two crucial compromises of the convention delegates concerning slaves pacified Southerners, especially the slave owners, but the issue of slavery was not settled and from then on, sectionalism became stronger and more apparent each year. Slavery in the English colonies began in 1619 when 20 Africans arrived in the colony of Virginia at Jamestown. From then on, slavery had a foothold, especially in the agricultural South, where a large amount of slave labor was needed for the extensive plantations. Free men refused to work for wages on the plantations when land was available for settling on the frontier. Therefore, slave labor was the only recourse left. If it had been profitable to use slaves in New England and the Middle Colonies, then without doubt, slavery would have been more widespread. It is interesting that the West was involved in the controversy as well as the North and South. By 1860, the country was made up of these three major regions. The people in all three sections or regions had a number of beliefs and institutions in common. Of course, there were major differences with each region having its own unique characteristics. The basic problem was their development along very different lines. The North was industrial, with towns and factories growing and increasing at a very fast rate. The South had become agricultural, eventually becoming increasingly dependent on the one crop of cotton. In the West, restless pioneers moved into new frontiers seeking land, wealth, and opportunity. Many were from the South and were slave owners, bringing their slaves with them. So between these three different parts of the country, the views on tariffs, public lands, internal improvements at federal expense, banking and currency, and the issue of slavery were decidedly, totally different. This period of U.S. history was a period of compromises, breakdowns of the compromises, desperate attempts to restore and retain harmony among the three sections, short-lived intervals of the uneasy balance of interests, and everincreasing conflict.
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One of the first serious controversies involved the small states versus the large states over representation in Congress. Virginia's Governor Edmund Randolph proposed that state population determine the number of representatives sent to Congress, also known as the Virginia Plan. New Jersey delegate William Paterson countered with what is known as the New Jersey Plan, each state having equal representation. After much argument and debate, the Great Compromise was devised, known also as the Connecticut Compromise, as proposed by Roger Sherman. It was agreed that Congress would have two houses. The Senate would have two Senators, giving equal powers in the Senate. The House of Representatives would have its members elected based on each state's population. Both houses could draft bills to debate and vote on, with the exception of bills pertaining to money, which must originate in the House of Representatives. Another controversy involved economic differences between North and South. One concerned the counting of the African slaves for determining representation in the House of Representatives. The southern delegates wanted this but didn't want it to determine taxes to be paid. The northern delegates argued the opposite: count the slaves for taxes but not for representation. The resulting agreement was known as the "three-fifths" compromise. Three-fifths of the slaves would be counted for both taxes and determining representation in the House. The last major compromise, also between North and South, was the Commerce Compromise. The economic interests of the northern part of the country were ones of industry and business, whereas the south's economic interests were primarily in farming. The Northern merchants wanted the government to regulate and control commerce with foreign nations and with the states. Of course, Southern planters opposed this idea as they felt that any tariff laws passed would be unfavorable to them. The acceptable compromise to this dispute was that Congress was given the power to regulate commerce with other nations and states, including levying tariffs on imports. However, Congress did not have the power to levy tariffs on any exports. This increased Southern concern about the effect it would have on the slave trade. The delegates finally agreed that the importation of slaves would continue for 20 more years with no interference from Congress. Any import tax could not exceed 10 dollars per person. After 1808, Congress would be able to decide whether to prohibit or regulate any further importation of slaves. These two slavery compromises were a necessary concession to have Southern support and approval for the new document and new government. Many Americans felt that the system of slavery would eventually die out in the U.S., but by 1808, cotton was becoming increasingly important in the primarily agricultural South and the institution of slavery had become firmly entrenched in Southern culture. It is also evident that as early as the Constitutional Convention, active anti-slavery feelings and opinions were very strong, leading to extremely active groups and societies. HISTORY
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As the nation extended its borders into the lands west of the Mississippi, thousands of settlers streamed into the West. They brought their ideas and adapted them to the development of the unique characteristics of the region. Equality for everyone, as stated in the Declaration of Independence, did not yet apply to minority groups, black Americans or American Indians. Voting rights and the right to hold public office were restricted in varying degrees in each state. All of these factors decidedly affected the political, economic, and social life of the country and all three were focused in the attitudes of the three sections of the country on slavery. Friction increased between land-hungry Americans swarming into western lands and the Mexican government, which controlled these lands. The clash was not only political but also cultural and economic. The Spanish influence permeated all parts of southwestern life: law, language, architecture, and customs. By this time, the doctrine of Manifest Destiny was in the hearts and on the lips of those seeking new areas of settlement and a new life. Americans were demanding U.S. control of not only the Mexican Territory but also Oregon. Peaceful negotiations with Great Britain secured Oregon, but it took two years of war to gain control of the southwestern U.S. In addition, the Mexican government owed debts to U.S. citizens whose property was damaged or destroyed during its struggle for independence from Spain. By the time war broke out in 1845, Mexico had not paid its war debts. The government was weak, corrupt, irresponsible, tom by revolutions, and not in decent financial shape. Mexico was also bitter over American expansion into Texas and the 1836 Revolution, which resulted in Texas independence. In the 1844 Presidential election, the Democrats pushed for annexation of Texas and Oregon and after winning, they started the procedure to admit Texas to the Union. When statehood occurred, diplomatic relations between the U.S. and Mexico were ended. President Polk wanted U.S. control of the entire southwest, from Texas to the Pacific Ocean. He sent a diplomatic mission with an offer to purchase New Mexico and Upper California but the Mexican government refused to even receive the diplomat. Consequently, in 1846, each nation claimed aggression on the part of the other and war was declared. The treaty signed in 1848 and a subsequent one in 1853 completed the southwestern boundary of the United States, reaching to the Pacific Ocean, as President Polk wished.
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It is ironic that South Carolina was the first state to secede from the Union and the first shots of the war were fired on Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. Both sides quickly prepared for war. The North had more in its favor: a larger population; superiority in finances and transportation facilities; manufacturing, agricultural, and natural resources. The North possessed most of the nation's gold, had about 92% of all industries, and almost all known supplies of copper, coal, iron, and various other minerals. Since most of the nation's railroads were in the North and mid-West, men and supplies could be moved wherever needed; food could be transported from the farms of the mid-West to workers in the East and to soldiers on the battlefields. Trade with nations overseas could go on as usual due to control of the navy and the merchant fleet. The Northern states numbered 24 and included western (California and Oregon) and border (Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, Missouri, and West Virginia) states. As 1860 began, the nation had extended its borders north, south, and west. Industry and agriculture were flourishing. Although the U.S. did not involve itself actively in European affairs, the relationship with Great Britain was much improved. Nations that dealt with the young nation now accorded it more respect and admiration. Nevertheless, war was on the horizon. The country was deeply divided along political lines concerning slavery and the election of Abraham Lincoln. Although the colonies won independence, wrote a Constitution forming a union of those states under a central government, fought wars and signed treaties, purchased and explored vast areas of land, developed industry and agriculture, improved transportation, saw population expansion westward, and increased the number of states admitted to the Union annually, the issue of human slavery had to be settled once and for all. One historian has stated that before 1865, the nation referred to itself as "the United States are…," but after 1865, "the United States is ..." It took the Civil War to finally, completely unify all states into one Union. Major political developments and military campaigns The war strategies for both sides were relatively clear and simple. The South planned a defensive war, wearing down the North until it agreed to peace on Southern terms. The only exception was to gain control of Washington, D.C., go north through the Shenandoah Valley into Maryland and Pennsylvania in order to drive a wedge between the Northeast and mid-West, interrupt the lines of communication, and end the war quickly. The North had three basic strategies: a.
blockade the Confederate coastline in order to cripple the South;
b.
seize control of the Mississippi River and interior railroad lines to split the Confederacy in two;
c.
seize the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, driving southward joining up with Union forces coming east from the Mississippi Valley.
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The South won decisively until the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1 - 3, 1863. Until Gettysburg, Lincoln's commanders, McDowell and McClellan, were less than desirable,. Lee, on the other hand, had many able officers, Jackson and Stuart depended on heavily by him. Jackson died at ChancellorsviIle and was replaced by Longstreet. Lee decided to invade the North and depended on. Stuart and his cavalry to keep him informed of the location of Union troops and their strengths. Four things worked against Lee at Gettysburg: 1)
The Union troops gained the best positions and the best ground first, making it easier to make a stand there.
2)
Lee's move into Northern territory put him and his army a long way from food and supply lines. They were more or less on their own.
3)
Lee thought that his Army of Northern Virginia was invincible and could fight and win under any conditions or circumstances.
4)
Stuart and his men did not arrive at Gettysburg until the end of the second day of fighting and by then, it was too little too late. He and the men had had to detour around Union soldiers and he was delayed getting the information Lee needed.
Consequently, he made the mistake of failing to listen to Longstreet and following the strategy of regrouping back into Southern territory to the supply lines. Lee felt that regrouping was retreating and almost an admission of defeat. He was convinced the army would be victorious. Longstreet was concerned about the Union troops occupying the best positions and felt that regrouping to a better position would be an advantage. He was also very concerned about the distance from supply lines.
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Competency 26.0 Understand industrialization in the United States. Also refer to Competency 15 for discussion of the Industrial Revolution. Natural resources are features of the earth’s surface or substances that occur naturally and are considered to have value in their original form. Natural resources that are extracted, or purified become commodities. Thus, mining, oil extraction, fishing and forestry are generally considered natural resource industries. Natural resources are classified into renewable and non-renewable resources. Renewable resources are living resources that can renew themselves if they are not over-harvested. These include fish, coffee, forests, etc. Non-living renewable natural resources include water, wind, soil, tides and solar radiation. The natural resources of a nation often determine its economy and its wealth. This, in turn, contributes to the nation’s political influence. A nation with significant resources in raw metallic ores, petroleum deposits, coal, etc. will develop an economy and a culture based, at least to some degree, on the extraction and refinement of those raw materials. Such natural resources as rain forests provide the raw materials for the development of medicines and other products. Civilizations require supplies of water and food products. Agricultural communities will develop in regions with arable land that can produce crops for its own needs and for other regions. The ability to move water to high-demand areas and to harness the power of water and wind to provide energy is another use of natural resources. Societies that support their economy by managing, harvesting, extracting, and utilizing natural resources develop cultural identities that reflect the means of subsistence. These societies and cultures will develop the means of sustaining and protecting both the resources and the ecosystems. Environmental and geographic factors have affected the pattern of urban development and the rest of the US. In turn, urban infrastructure and development patterns are interrelated factors, which affect one another. The growth of urban areas is often linked to the advantages provided by its geographic location. Before the advent of efficient overland routes of commerce such as railroads and highways, water provided the primary means of transportation of commercial goods. Most large American cities are situated along bodies of water. For example, New York’s major cities include Buffalo, on Lake Erie, Albany, on the Hudson River, and of course New York City, situated on a large harbor where two major rivers meet the Atlantic Ocean. Where water traffic was not provided for naturally, New Yorkers built a series of canals, including the Erie Canal, which sparked the growth of inland cities. HISTORY
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As transportation technology advanced, the supporting infrastructure was built to connect cities with one another and to connect remote areas to larger communities. The railroad, for example, allowed for the quick transport of agricultural products from rural areas to urban centers. This newfound efficiency not only further fueled the growth of urban centers, it changed the economy of rural America. Where once farmers had practiced only subsistence farming – growing enough to support one’s own family – the new infrastructure meant that one could convert agricultural products into cash by selling them at market. For urban dwellers, improvements in building technology and advances in transportation allowed for larger cities. Growth brought with it a new set of problems unique to each location. The bodies of water that had made the development of cities possible in their early days also formed natural barriers to growth. Further infrastructure in the form of bridges, tunnels and ferry routes were needed to connect central urban areas with outlying communities. As cities grew in population, living conditions became more crowded. As roads and bridges became better, and transportation technology improved, many people began to look outside the city for living space. Along with the development of these new suburbs came the infrastructure to connect them to the city in the form of commuter railroads and highways. In the case of New York City, which is situated mainly on islands, a mass transit system became crucial early on to bring essential workers from outlying areas into the commercial centers. Land use is the function of the land – what use is made of it. Land use and development models are theories that attempt to explain the layout of urban areas, primarily in “more economically developed countries” or in “less economically developed countries”. Two primary land use models are generally applied to urban regions. These are: (1) The Burgess model (also called the concentric model), in which cities are seen to develop in a series of concentric circles with the central business district at the center, ringed by the factories and industrial usage area, ringed by the low class residential area, then the middle class residential area, and finally the high class residential area (often suburbs); and (2) The Hoyt model (also called the Sector Model), in which the central business district occupies a central area of a circle, with factories and industry occupying an elongated area that abuts the city center, and with the low class residential area surrounding the industrial area, and the middle class residential area forming a semi-circle toward the other side of the city center, and a small upper class residential sector extending from the city center out through the middle of the middle-class residential area.
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In rural areas, land use will probably include agriculture, forestry, and possibly fishing. The Von Thunen Model observes a city as the center of a state or region, from which a series of concentric circles emanates, each devoted to particular rural land usage patterns: the first ring from the city would be devoted to dairy farming and intensive farming, which allows produce to reach the market quickly. The second zone would focus on timber and firewood for fuel and building materials, which, because of its weight, needs to be relatively close to the city. The third zone would be dedicated to extensive field crops such as grains. The fourth zone would be dedicated to ranching and/or animal husbandry. Beyond this, unoccupied wilderness would remain. The growth of suburbs had the effect in many cities of creating a type of economic segregation. Working class people who could not afford new suburban homes and perhaps an automobile to carry them to and from work were relegated to closer, more densely populated areas. Frequently, these areas had to be passed through by those on their way to the suburbs, and rail lines and freeways sometimes bisected these urban communities. In the modern age, advancements in telecommunications infrastructure may have an impact on urban growth patterns as information can pass instantly and freely between almost any two points on the globe, allowing access to some aspects of urban life to those in remote areas. Big business and rise of organized labor As business grew, methods of sales and promotion were developed. Salespersons went to all parts of the country, promoting the varied products, opening large department stores in the growing cities, offering the varied products at reasonable affordable prices. People who lived too far from the cities, making it impossible to shop there, had the advantage of using a mail order service, buying what they needed from catalogs furnished by the companies. The developments in communication, such as the telephone and telegraph, increased the efficiency and prosperity of big business. Investments in corporate stocks and bonds resulted from business prosperity. In their eager desire to share in the profits, individuals began investing heavily. Their investments made available the needed capital for companies to expand their operations. From this, banks increased in number throughout the country, making loans to businesses and significant contributions to economic growth. At the same time, during the 1880s, government made little effort to regulate businesses. This gave rise to monopolies where larger businesses engulfed their smaller competitors and assumed complete control of their industries.
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Some owners in the same business would join or merge to form one company. Others formed what were called "trusts," a type of monopoly in which rival businesses were controlled but not formally owned. Monopolies had some good effects on the economy. Out of them grew the large, efficient corporations, which made important contributions to the growth of the nation's economy. Also, the monopolies enabled businesses to keep their sales steady and avoid sharp fluctuations in price and production. At the same time, the downside of monopolies was the unfair business practices of the business leaders. Some acquired so much power that they took advantage of others. Those who had little or no competition would require their suppliers to supply goods at a low cost, sell the finished products at high prices, and reduce the quality of the product to save money. One result of industrialization was the growth of the Labor Movement. There were numerous boycotts and strikes which often became violent when the police or the militia was called in to stop them. Labor and farmer organizations were created and became a political force. Industrialization also brought an influx of immigrants from Asia (particularly Chinese and Japanese) and from Europe (particularly European Jews, the Irish, and Russians). High rates of immigration led to the creation of communities in various cities like “little Russia” or “little Italy.” Industrialization also led to overwhelming growth of cities as workers moved closer to their places of work. The economy was booming, but that economy was based on basic needs and luxury goods, for which there was to be only limited demand, especially during times of economic recession or depression. The charter of the National Recovery Administration included a statement defending the right of labor unions to exist and to negotiate with employers. This was interpreted by thousands as support for unions. But the Supreme Court declared this unconstitutional. There were several major events or actions that are particularly important to the history of organized labor during this decade: • • • • • •
The Supreme Court upheld the Railway Labor Act, including its prohibition of employer interference or coercion in the choice of bargaining representatives (1930). The Davis-Bacon Act provided that employers of contractors and subcontractors on public construction should be paid the prevailing wages (1931). The Anti-Injunction Act prohibited Federal injunctions in most labor disputes (1932). Wisconsin created the first unemployment insurance act in the country (1932). The Wagner-Peyser Act created the United States Employment Service within the Department of Labor (1933). Half a million Southern mill workers walked off the job in the Great Uprising of 1934.
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The Secretary of Labor called the first National Labor Legislation Conference to get better cooperation between the Federal Government and the States in defining a national labor legislation program (1934). The U.S. joined the International Labor Organization (1934). The Wagner Act (The National Labor Relations Act) established a legal basis for unions, set collective bargaining as a matter of national policy required by the law, provided for secret ballot elections for choosing unions, and protected union members from employer intimidation and coercion. This law was later amended by the Taft-Hartley Act (1947) and by the Landrum Griffin Act (1959). The Guffey Act stabilized the coal industry and improved labor conditions (1935). It was later declared unconstitutional (1936). The Social Security Act was approved (1935). The Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO) was formed within the AFL to carry unionism to the industrial sector. (1935). The United Rubber Workers staged the first sit-down strike (1936). The United Auto Workers used the sit-down strike against General Motors (1936). The Anti-Strikebreaker Act (the Byrnes Act) made it illegal to transport or aid strikebreakers in interstate or foreign trade (1936). The Public Contracts Act (the Walsh-Healey Act) of 1936 established labor standards, including minimum wages, overtime pay, child and convict labor provisions and safety standards on federal contracts. General Motors recognized the United Auto Workers in 1937. US Steel recognized the Steel Workers Organizing Committee in 1937. The Wagner Act was upheld by the Supreme Court (1937). During a strike of the Steel Workers Organizing Committee against Republic Steel, police attacked a crowd gathered in support of the strike, killing ten and injuring eighty. This came to be called The Memorial Day Massacre (1937). The CIO was expelled from the AFL over charges of dual unionism or competition (1937). The National Apprenticeship Act established the Bureau of Apprenticeship within the Department of Labor (1937). The Merchant Marine Act created a Federal Maritime Labor Board (1938). The Fair Labor Standards Act created a $0.25 minimum wage, stipulated time-and-a-half pay for hours over 40 per week. The CIO becomes the Congress of Industrial Organizations.
Effects of industrialization on the physical environment Since the dawn of agriculture, humans have modified their environment to suit their needs and to provide food and shelter. These changes always impact the environment, sometimes adversely from a human perspective.
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Agriculture, for instance, often involves loosening topsoil by plowing before planting. This in turn affects how water and wind act on the soil, and can lead to erosion. In extreme cases, erosion can leave a plot of agricultural land unsuitable for use. Technological advances have led to a modern method of farming that relies less on plowing the soil before planting, but more on chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides. These chemicals can find their way into groundwater, affecting the environment. Cities are large examples of how technological change has allowed humans to modify their environment to suit their needs. At the end of the 18th Century, advances made in England in the construction of canals were brought to New York and an ambitious project to connect Lake Erie with the Hudson River by canal was planned. The Erie Canal was built through miles of virgin wilderness, opening natural areas to settlement and commerce. Towns along the canal grew and thrived, including Buffalo, Rochester and Albany. The canal also opened westward expansion beyond the borders of New York by opening a route between the Midwest and the East Coast. Further advances in transportation and building methods allow for larger and denser communities, which themselves impact the environment in many ways. Concentrated consumption of fuels by automobiles and home heating systems affect the quality of the air in and around cities. The lack of exposed ground means that rainwater runs off roads and rooftops into sewer systems instead of seeping into the ground, and often makes its way into nearby streams or rivers, carrying urban debris with it. New York City, the nation’s largest city, has had considerable impact on its island environment and is making extensive use of new technology to reduce its energy use. New York City has the world’s largest mass transit system, for instance, including hybrid buses that reduce emissions. New “clean” methods of energy production are being explored, such as underwater turbines that are run by tidal forces, and wind power. Cities like New York also impact the surrounding areas that supply resources such as water. A large portion of the Catskill Mountains in New York is restricted from development because the watershed supplies water to New York City Ecology is the study of how living organisms interact with the physical aspects of their surroundings (their environment), including soil, water, air, and other living things. Biogeography is the study of how the surface features of the earth – form, movement, and climate – affect living things.
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Immigration and industrialization Between 1870 and 1916, more than 25 million immigrants came into the United States adding to the phenomenal population growth taking place. This tremendous growth aided business and industry in two ways: (1) The number of consumers increased creating a greater demand for products, thus enlarging the markets for the products; and (2) with increased production and expanding business, more workers were available for newly created jobs. The completion of the nation's transcontinental railroad in 1869 contributed greatly to the nation's economic and industrial growth. Some examples of the benefits of using the railroads were that raw materials were shipped quickly by the mining companies and finished products were sent to all parts of the country. Many wealthy industrialists and railroad owners saw tremendous profits steadily increasing due to this improved method of transportation. Innovations in new industrial processes and technology grew at a pace unmatched at any other time in American history. Thomas Edison was the most prolific inventor of that time, using a systematic and efficient method to invent and improve on current technology in a profitable manner. The abundance of resources, together with growth of industry and the pace of capital investments led to the growth of cities. Populations were shifting from rural agricultural areas to urban industrial areas and by the early 1900s a third of the nation’s population lived in cities. Industry needed workers in its factories, mills and plants; rural workers were being displaced by advances in farm machinery and the increased use of other forms of automation. The dramatic growth of population in cities was fueled by growing industries, efficient transportation of goods and resources, and the people who migrated to those new industrial jobs. Increased urban populations, often packed into dense tenements, without adequate sanitation or clean water, led to public health challenges. These required cities to establish sanitation, water and public health departments to cope with and prevent epidemics. Until the middle of the twentieth century, voluntary migrations to America were primarily European. After WWII, a large number of Europeans were admitted to the U.S. and Canada. These were considered the most desirable immigrants. Indeed, immigration policies based upon ethnicity or country of origin were not eliminated until the 1960s. The impact of the Cold War on migration patterns was very significant. American policies toward immigration became more open to political escapees from communist countries, partly out of a desire to embarrass these nations. The number of immigrants from third-world nations was also increasing dramatically. The end of the Cold War marked a shift in migration patterns such that migrations from south to north came to predominate global migration.
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A significant change in immigration policy occurred after WWII. Both the U.S. and Canada began to distinguish between economically motivated voluntary immigrants and political refugees. The conditions that existed after the war made it clear that some immigrants needed to be treated differently on the basis of humanitarian concerns. Fear of persecution caused massive migrations. The United Nations created the International Refugee Organization in 1946. In the next three years this organization relocated over a million European refugees. Immigration policy in the U.S. was carefully aligned with foreign policy. President Truman introduced the Displaced Persons Act in 1948, which facilitated the admission of more than 400,000 persons from Europe. During the 1950s, however, the immigration policy became very restrictive. The McCarran-Walter Immigration Nationality Act of 1952 established a quota system and was clearly anti-Asian. The number of refugees from Eastern Europe far exceeded these quotas. Both President Truman and President Eisenhower urged extension of the quotas, and in time they were abandoned. Refugees from communist Europe were admitted under the President’s Escapee Program of 1952 and the Refugee Relief Act of 1953. Immigration by Asians had been restricted for some time and this policy did not change after WWII. The changes in immigration policies and the great influx of Europeans brought a wide variety of people into the U.S. To be sure, some were farmers and laborers, but many were highly trained and skilled scientists, teachers, inventors, and executives. This migration added to the American “melting pot” experience. The immigrants provided new sources of labor for a booming economy and the introduction of new cultural ideas and contributions to science and technology. The acceptance and assimilation of European immigrants was, for the most part, easier than the prejudiced assimilation of persons of Asian descent, particularly after the recent hostilities with Japan. Political movements Populism is the philosophy concerned with the common sense needs of average people. Populism often finds expression as a reaction against perceived oppression of the average people by the wealthy elite in society. The prevalent claim of populist movements is that people come first. Populism is often connected with religious fundamentalism, racism, or nationalism. Populist movements claim to represent the majority of the people and call them to stand up to institutions or practices that seem detrimental to their well-being. Populism flourished in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Several political parties were formed out of this philosophy, including: the Greenback Party, the Populist Party, the Farmer-Labor Party, the Single Tax movement of Henry George, the Share Our Wealth movement of Huey Long, the Progressive Party, and the Union Party.
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In the 1890s, the People’s Party won the support of millions of farmers and other working people. This party challenged the social ills of the monopolists of the “Gilded Age.” The tremendous change that resulted from the industrial revolution led to a demand for reform that would control the power wielded by big corporations. The gap between the industrial moguls and the working people was growing. This disparity between rich and poor resulted in a public outcry for governmental reform that would end the political corruption and elitism of the day. This fire was fueled by the writings on investigative journalists – the “muckrakers” – who published scathing exposes of political and business wrongdoing and corruption. The result was the rise of a group of politicians and reformers who supported a wide array of populist causes. The period 1900 to 1917 came to be known as the Progressive Era. Although these leaders came from many different backgrounds and were driven by different ideologies, they shared a common fundamental belief that government should be eradicating social ills and promoting the common good and the equality guaranteed by the Constitution. The reforms initiated by these leaders and the spirit of Progressivism were farreaching. Politically, many states enacted the initiative and the referendum. The adoption of the recall occurred in many states. Several states enacted legislation that would undermine the power of political machines. On a national level, the two most significant political changes were (1) the ratification of the 19th Amendment, which required that all U.S. Senators be chosen by popular election, and (2) the ratification of the 19th Amendment, which granted women the right to vote. Major economic reforms of the period included aggressive enforcement of the Sherman Antitrust Act; passage of the Elkins Act and the Hepburn Act, which gave the Interstate Commerce Commission greater power to regulate the railroads; the Pure Food and Drug Act, which prohibited the use of harmful chemicals in food; The Meat Inspection Act, which regulated the meat industry to protect the public against tainted meat. Over two thirds of the states passed laws prohibiting child labor, workmen’s compensation was mandated, and the Department of Commerce and Labor was created. Responding to concern over the environmental effects of the timber, ranching, and mining industries, Roosevelt set aside 238 million acres of federal lands to protect them from development. Wildlife preserves were established, the national park system was expanded, and the National Conservation Commission was created. The Newlands Reclamation Act also provided federal funding for the construction of irrigation projects and dams in semi-arid areas of the country.
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The Wilson Administration carried out additional reforms. The Federal Reserve Act created a national banking system, providing a stable money supply. The Sherman Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act defined unfair competition, made corporate officers liable for the illegal actions of employees, and exempted labor unions from antitrust lawsuits. The Federal Trade Commission was established to enforce these measures. Finally, the 16th Amendment was ratified, establishing an income tax. This measure was designed to relieve the poor of a disproportionate burden in funding the federal government and make the wealthy pay a greater share of the nation’s tax burden.
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Competency 27.0 Understand the U.S. rise to world power Until the middle of the nineteenth century, American foreign policy and expansionism was essentially restricted to the North American Continent. America had shown no interest in establishing colonies in other lands. Specifically, the U.S. had stayed out of the rush to claim African territories. The variety of imperialism that found expression under the administrations of McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt was not precisely comparable to the imperialistic goals of European nations. There was a type of idealism in American foreign policy that sought to use military power in territories and other lands only in the interest of human rights and the spread of democratic principles. Much of the concern and involvement in Central and South America, as well as the Caribbean, was to link the two coasts of the nation and to protect the American economy from European encroachment. When the revolution began in Cuba, it aroused the interest and concern of Americans who were aware of what was happening “at their doorstep.” When the Spanish attempted to put down the revolt, the women and children of Cuba were treated with great cruelty. They were gathered into camps surrounded by armed guards and given little food. Much of the food that kept them alive came from supplies sent by the U.S. Americans were already concerned over years of anarchy and misrule by the Spanish. When reports of gross atrocities reached America, public sentiment clearly favored the Cuban people. President McKinley had refused to recognize the rebellion, but had affirmed the possibility of American intervention. Spain resented this attitude of the Americans. In February 1898, the American battleship Maine was blown up in Havana harbor. Although there was no incontrovertible evidence that the Spanish were responsible, popular sentiment accused Spanish agents and war became inevitable. Two months later, Congress declared war on Spain and the U.S. quickly defeated them. The peace treaty gave the U.S. possession of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, Guam and Hawaii, which was annexed during the war.
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Although the idea of a canal in Panama goes back to the early sixteenth century, work did not begin until 1880 by the French. The effort had collapsed and the U.S. completed the task, opening the Panama Canal in 1914. Construction was an enormous task of complex engineering. The significance of the canal is that it connects the Gulf of Panama in the Pacific Ocean with the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. It eliminated the need for ships to skirt the southern boundary of South America, effectively reducing the sailing distance from New York to San Francisco by 8,000 miles (over half of the distance). The Canal results in a shorter and faster voyage, thus reducing shipping time and cost. The U.S. helped Panama win independence from Colombia, in exchange for control of the Panama Canal Zone. A large investment was made in eliminating disease from the area, particularly yellow fever and malaria. After WWII, control of the Canal became an issue of contention between the U.S. and Panama. Negotiations toward a settlement began in 1974, resulting in the Torrijos-Carter Treaties of 1977. Thus began the process of handing the Canal over to Panama. On December 31, 1999, control of the Canal was handed over to the Panama Canal Authority. Tolls for the use of the Canal have ranged from $0.36, when Richard Halliburton swam the canal, to about $226,000. The Open Door Policy refers to maintaining equal commercial and industrial rights for the people of all countries in a particular territory. The Open Door policy generally refers to China, but it has also been used in application to the Congo basin. The policy was first used by the U.S., but its basis came from the treaties made with China after the Opium War (1829-1842). The essential purpose of the policy was to permit equal access to trade for all nations with treaties with China while protecting the integrity of the Chinese empire. This policy was in effect from about 1900 until the end of WWII. After the war, China was recognized as a sovereign state. There was no longer opportunity for other nations to attempt to carve out regions of influence or control. When the Communist Party came to power in China, the policy was rejected. This continued until the late 1970s, when China, once again, began to adopt a policy of encouraging foreign trade. Big Stick Diplomacy was a term adopted from an African proverb, “speak softly and carry a big stick,” to describe President Theodore Roosevelt’s policy of the U.S. assuming international police power in the Western Hemisphere. The phrase implied the power to retaliate if necessary. The intention was to safeguard American economic interests in Latin America. The policy led to the expansion of the U.S. Navy and to greater involvement in world affairs. Should any nation in the Western Hemisphere become vulnerable to European control because of political or economic instability, the U.S. had both the right and the obligation to intervene.
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Dollar Diplomacy describes U.S. efforts under President Taft to extend its foreign influence in Latin America and East Asia via economic power. The designation derives from Taft’s claim that U.S. interests in Latin America had changed from “warlike and political” to “peaceful and economic.” Taft justified this policy in terms of protecting the Panama Canal. The practice of dollar diplomacy was, from time to time, anything but peaceful, particularly in Nicaragua. When revolts or revolutions occurred, the U.S. sent troops to resolve the situation. Immediately upon resolution, bankers were sent in to loan money to the new regimes. The policy persisted until the election of President Woodrow Wilson in 1913. Wilson repudiated the dollar diplomacy approach to foreign policy within weeks of his inauguration. Wilson’s “moral diplomacy” became the model for American foreign policy to this day. Wilson envisioned a federation of democratic nations, believing that democracy and representative government were the foundation stones of world stability. Specifically, he saw Great Britain and the United States as the champions of self-government and the promoters of world peace. Wilson’s beliefs and actions set in motion an American foreign policy that was dedicated to the interests of all humanity, rather than merely American national interests. Wilson promoted free trade and international commerce as the key to a strong national economy, and as a means of acquiring a voice in world events. This approach to foreign policy was based on three elements: (1) maintain a combat-ready military to meet the needs of the nation, (2) promote democracy abroad, and (3) improve the U.S. economy through international trade. Wilson believed that democratic states would be less inclined to threaten U.S. interests. This American isolationist approach was given a lasting blow in 1941 with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. The nation arose and forcefully entered the international arena. Declaring itself "the arsenal of democracy", it entered the Second World War and emerged the strongest power on the Earth. It would now have a permanent and leading place in world affairs. Since the end of the Second World War, the United States had perceived its greatest threat to be the expansion of Communism in the world. To that end, it had devoted a larger share of its foreign policy, and economic and military might to combating Communism. In the aftermath of the Second World War, with the Soviet Union having emerged as the second strongest power on Earth, the United States embarked on a policy known as "Containment” of the Communist menace. This led to what came to be known as the "Marshall Plan" and the "Truman Doctrine". The Marshall Plan utilized economic aid that was sent to Europe to prevent the spread of communism.
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The Truman Doctrine offered military aid to those countries that were in danger of communist upheaval. This led to the era of the Cold War, in which the United States took the lead along with the Western European nations against the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc countries. It was also at this time that the United States finally went against George Washington's advice against "European entanglements", and joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO. This was formed in 1949 and was comprised of the United States and several Western European nations for the purposes of opposing communist aggression. The United Nations was also formed at this time (1945) to replace the defunct League of Nations for the purposes of ensuring world peace. Even with American involvement, the UN would prove largely ineffective in maintaining world peace. In the 1950s, the United States embarked on what was called the "Eisenhower Doctrine". This aimed at trying to maintain peace in a troubled area of the world, the Middle East. However, unlike the Truman Doctrine in Europe, it would have little success. The United States also became involved in a number of world conflicts in the ensuing years. Each had, at the core, the struggle against communist expansion. Among these were the Korean War (1950-1953), the Vietnam War (1965-1975), and various continuing entanglements in Central and South America and the Middle East. By the early 1970s, under the leadership of Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, the United States and its allies embarked on the policy known as "Détente". This was aimed at the easing of tensions between the United States and its allies and the Soviet Union and its allies. By the 1980s, the United States embarked on what some saw as a renewal of the Cold War. This owed to the fact that the United States was becoming more involved in trying to prevent communist insurgency in Central America. A massive expansion of armed forces and the development of space-based weapons systems were undertaken at this time. The Soviet Union, with a failing economic system and a foolhardy adventure in Afghanistan, found itself unable to compete. By 1989, events had come to a head. This ended with the breakdown of the Communist Bloc, the virtual end of the monolithic Soviet Union, and the collapse of the communist system by the early 1990s. Now the United States remains active in world affairs in trying to promote peace and reconciliation, with the new specter of nationalism rising to challenge it.
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US interventions and annexations The first "hot war" in the post-World War II era was the Korean War, which began on June 25, 1950 and ended on July 27, 1953. Troops from Communist North Korea invaded democratic South Korea in an effort to unite both sections under Communist control. The United Nations organization asked its member nations to furnish troops to help restore peace. Many nations responded, and President Truman sent American troops to help the South Koreans. The war dragged on for three years and ended with a truce, not a peace treaty. Like Germany then, Korea remained divided and does so to this day. In 1954, the French were forced to give up their colonial claims in Indochina, the present-day countries of Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. Afterwards, the Communist northern part of Vietnam began battling with the democratic southern part over control of the entire country. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, U.S. Presidents Eisenhower and Kennedy sent to Vietnam a number of military advisers and military aid to assist and support South Vietnam's non-Communist government. During Lyndon Johnson's presidency, the war escalated with thousands of American troops being sent to participate in the war in South Vietnam. The war was extremely unpopular in America and caused such division among its citizens that Johnson decided not to seek reelection in 1968. It was in President Richard Nixon's second term in office that the U.S. signed an agreement ending war in Vietnam and restoring peace on January 27, 1973. By March 29, the last American combat troops and American prisoners of war left Vietnam for home. It was the longest war in U.S. history, and to this day carries the perception that it was a "lost war."
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In 1962, during the administration of President John F. Kennedy, Premier Khrushchev and the Soviets decided, as a protective measure for Cuba against an American invasion, to install nuclear missiles on the island. In October, American U-2 spy planes photographed over Cuba what were identified as missile bases under construction. The White House needed to handle the situation without starting a war. The only recourse was removal of the missile sites and preventing more being set up. Kennedy announced that the U.S. had set up a "quarantine" of Soviet ships heading to Cuba. It was, in reality, a blockade, but the word ‘blockade’ was not used in order not to imply an act of war. A week of incredible tension and anxiety gripped the entire world, until Khrushchev finally capitulated. Soviet ships carrying missiles for the Cuban bases turned back and the crisis eased. What precipitated the crisis was Khrushchev's underestimation of Kennedy. The President made no effort to prevent the erection of the Berlin Wall and was reluctant to commit American troops to invade Cuba and overthrow Fidel Castro. The Soviets assumed this was a weakness and decided they could install the missiles without any interference. As tensions eased in the aftermath of the crisis, several agreements were made. The missiles in Turkey were removed, as they were obsolete. A telephone "hot line" was set up between Moscow and Washington to make it possible for the two heads of government to have instant contact with each other. The U.S. agreed to sell its surplus wheat to the Soviets. Once the American West was subdued and firmly under United States control, the United States started looking beyond its shores. Overseas markets were becoming important as American industry produced goods more efficiently and manufacturing capacity grew. Out of concern for the protection of shipping, the United States modernized and built up the Navy, which by 1900 ranked third in the world, giving it the means to become an imperial power. The first overseas possessions were Midway Island and Alaska, purchased in 1867 as championed by William Henry Seward.
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By the 1880s, Secretary of State James G. Blaine pushed for expanding U.S. trade and influence to Central and South America. In the 1890s, President Grover Cleveland invoked the Monroe Doctrine to intercede in Latin American affairs when it appeared that Great Britain was going to exert its influence and power in the Western Hemisphere. In the Pacific, the United States lent its support to American sugar planters who overthrew the Kingdom of Hawaii, and eventually annexed it as U.S. territory. During the 1890s, Spain controlled overseas possessions including Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Cuba. Cubans rebelled against Spanish rule and the U.S. government found itself besieged by demands from Americans to assist the Cubans in their revolt. The turning point was the Spanish-American War in 1898, when the explosion of the USS Maine was used as a pretext for the United States to invade Cuba. The underlying reason was the ambition for empire and economic gain. Two months later, Congress declared war on Spain and the U.S. quickly defeated them. The war with Spain also triggered the dispatch of the fleet under Admiral George Dewey to the Philippines, followed up by sending Army troops. Victory over the Spanish proved fruitful for American territorial ambitions. Although, in a rare moment of idealism, Congress passed legislation renouncing claims to annex Cuba, the United States gained control of the island of Puerto Rico, a naval harbor at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba, the Philippines and various other Pacific islands formerly possessed by Spain. The decision to occupy the Philippines, rather than grant it immediate independence, led to a guerrilla war, the “Philippines Insurrection” that lasted until 1902. U.S. rule over the Philippines lasted until 1942, but unlike the guerrilla war years, American rule was relatively benign. The peace treaty gave the U.S. possession of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, Guam and Hawaii, which was annexed during the war.
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This success enlarged and expanded the U.S. role in foreign affairs. Under the administration of Theodore Roosevelt, the U.S. armed forces were built up, greatly increasing its strength. Roosevelt's foreign policy was summed up in the slogan of "Speak softly and carry a big stick," backing up the efforts in diplomacy with a strong military. During the years before the outbreak of World War I, evidence of U.S. emergence as a world power could be seen in a number of actions. Using the Monroe Doctrine of non-involvement of Europe in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere, President Roosevelt forced Italy, Germany, and Great Britain to remove their blockade of Venezuela. He gained the rights to construct the Panama Canal by threatening force and assumed the finances of the Dominican Republic to stabilize it and prevent any intervention by Europeans. In 1916 under President Woodrow Wilson, to keep order, U.S. troops were sent to the Dominican Republic. In Africa, France, Great Britain, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Germany, and Belgium controlled the entire continent except Liberia and Ethiopia. In Asia and the Pacific Islands, only China, Japan, and present-day Thailand (Siam) kept their independence. The others were controlled by the strong European nations. Before the 1890s, the U.S. had little to do with foreign affairs, was not a strong nation militarily, and had inconsequential influence on international political affairs. In fact, the Europeans looked on the American diplomats as inept and bungling in their diplomatic efforts and activities. However, all of this changed when the Spanish-American War of 1898 saw the entry of the United States as a world power.
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Competency 28.0 Understand political and military developments, economic trends, and social movements in the United States since World War I The Great Depression The 1929 Stock Market crash was the powerful event that marked the beginning of the Great Depression in America. Although the crash of the Stock Market was unexpected, it was not without identifiable causes. The 1920s had been a decade of social and economic growth and hope. But the attitudes and actions of the 1920s regarding wealth, production, and investment created several trends that quietly set the stage for the 1929 disaster. Unemployment quickly reached 25% nationwide. People thrown out of their homes created makeshift domiciles of cardboard, scraps of wood and tents. With unmasked reference to President Hoover, who was handling the situation incompetently, these communities were called “Hoovervilles.” Families stood in bread lines, rural workers left the dust bowl of the plains to search for work in California, and banks failed. More than 100,000 businesses failed between 1929 and 1932. The despair that swept the nation left an indelible scar on all who endured the Depression. When the stock market crashed, businesses collapsed. Without demand for products, other businesses and industries collapsed. This set in motion a domino effect, bringing down the businesses and industries that provided raw materials or components to these industries. Hundreds of thousands became jobless. Then the jobless often became homeless. Desperation prevailed. Little had been done to assess the toll hunger, inadequate nutrition, or starvation took on the health of those who were children during this time. Indeed, food was cheap, relatively speaking, but there was little money to buy it. Everyone who lived through the Great Depression was permanently affected in some way. Many never trusted banks again. Many people of this generation later hoarded cash so they would not risk losing everything again. Some permanently rejected the use of credit.
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In several parts of the country, economic disaster was exacerbated by natural disaster. The Florida Keys were hit by the “Labor Day Hurricane” in 1935. This was one of only three hurricanes in history to make landfall as a Category 5 storm. More than 400 died in the storm, including 200 WWI veterans who were building bridges for a public works project. In the Northeast, the Great Hurricane of 1938 struck Long Island, causing more than 600 fatalities, decimating Long Island, and resulting in millions of dollars in damage to the coast from New York City to Boston. By far the worst natural disaster of the decade came to be known as the Dust Bowl. Due to severe and prolonged drought in the Great Plains and previous reliance on inappropriate farming techniques, a series of devastating dust storms occurred in the 1930s that resulted in destruction, economic ruin, and dramatic ecological change. Plowing the plains for agriculture removed the grass and exposed the soil. When the drought occurred, the soil dried out and became dust. Wind blew away the dust. Between 1934 and 1939 winds blew the soil to the east, all the way to the Atlantic Ocean. The dust storms, called “black blizzards” created huge clouds of dust that were visible all the way to Chicago. Topsoil was stripped from millions of acres. In Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Kansas and Colorado over half a million people were homeless. Many of these people journeyed west in the hope of making a new life in California. Crops were ruined, the land was destroyed, and people either lost or abandoned homes and farms. Fifteen percent of Oklahoma’s population left. Because so many of the migrants were from Oklahoma, the migrants came to be called “Okies” no matter where they came from. Estimates of the number of people displaced by this disaster range from 300,000 or 400,000 to 2.5 million. During the first 100 days in office, the Roosevelt Administration responded to this crisis with programs designed to restore the ecological balance. One action was the formation of the Soil Conservation Service (now the Natural Resources Conservation Service). The story of this natural disaster and its toll in human suffering is poignantly preserved in the photographs of Dorothea Lange. The New Deal The 1929 Stock Market crash was the powerful event that marked the beginning of the Great Depression in America. Although the crash of the Stock Market was unexpected, it was not without identifiable causes. The 1920s had been a decade of social and economic growth and hope. But the attitudes and actions of the 1920s regarding wealth, production, and investment created several trends that quietly set the stage for the 1929 disaster.
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The new president, Franklin D. Roosevelt won the White House on his promise to the American people of a “new deal.” Upon assuming the office, Roosevelt and his advisers immediately launched a massive program of innovation and experimentation to try to bring the Depression to an end and get the nation back on track. Congress gave the President unprecedented power to act to save the nation. During the next eight years, the most extensive and broadly based legislation in the nation’s history was enacted. The legislation was intended to accomplish three goals: relief, recovery, and reform. The first step in the “New Deal” was to relieve suffering. This was accomplished through a number of job-creation projects. The second step, the recovery aspect, was to stimulate the economy. The third step was to create social and economic change through innovative legislation. The National Recovery Administration attempted to accomplish several goals: • • • • • • • • • • •
Restore employment Increase general purchasing power Provide character-building activity for unemployed youth Encourage decentralization of industry and thus divert population from crowded cities to rural or semi-rural communities Develop river resources in the interest of navigation and cheap power and light Complete flood control on a permanent basis Enlarge the national program of forest protection and to develop forest resources Control farm production and improve farm prices Assist home builders and home owners Restore public faith in banking and trust operations Recapture the value of physical assets, whether in real property, securities, or other investments.
These objectives and their accomplishment implied a restoration of public confidence and courage. Among the “alphabet organizations” set up to work out the details of the recovery plan, the most prominent were: •
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Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA), designed to readjust agricultural production and prices thereby boosting farm income Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), designed to give wholesome, useful activity in the forestry service to unemployed young men
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Civil Works Administration (CWA) and the Public Works Administration (PWA), designed to give employment in the construction and repair of public buildings, parks, and highways Works Progress Administration (WPA), whose task was to move individuals from relief rolls to work projects or private employment
To provide economic stability and prevent another crash, Congress passed the Glass-Steagall Act, which separated banking and investing. The Securities and Exchange Commission was created to regulate dangerous speculative practices on Wall Street. The Wagner Act guaranteed a number of rights to workers and unions in an effort to improve worker-employer relations. The Social Security Act of 1935 established pensions for the aged and infirm, as well as a system of unemployment insurance. Cold War Since the end of the Second World War, the United States had perceived its greatest threat to be the expansion of Communism in the world. To that end, it devoted a larger share of its foreign policy, diplomacy, and both economic and military might to combating it. In the aftermath of the Second World War, with the Soviet Union having emerged as the second strongest power on Earth, the United States embarked on a policy known as "Containment” of the Communist menace. This involved what came to be known as the "Marshall Plan" and the "Truman Doctrine". The Marshall Plan employed economic aid that was sent to Europe in the aftermath of the Second World War to prevent the spread of communism. The Truman Doctrine offered military aid to countries that were in danger of communist upheaval. This led to the era known as the Cold War, in which the United States took the lead along with the Western European nations against the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc countries. It was also at this time that the United States went against George Washington's' advice of "European entanglements", and joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO. This was formed in 1949 and was comprised of the United States and several Western European nations for the purposes of opposing communist aggression. The United Nations was also formed at this time (1945) to replace the defunct League of Nations for the purposes of ensuring world peace. Even with American involvement, the UN would prove largely ineffective in maintaining world peace. In the 1950s, the United States embarked on what was called the Eisenhower Doctrine. This aimed at trying to maintain peace in a troubled area of the world, the Middle East. However, unlike the Truman Doctrine in Europe, it would have little success.
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Probably the highlight of the foreign policy of President Richard Nixon, after the end of the Vietnam War and withdrawal of troops, was his 1972 trip to China. Since 1949, when the Communists gained control of China, the policy of the U.S. government refused to recognize the Communist government but regarded the legitimate government of China to be that of Chiang Kai-shek, exiled on the island of Taiwan. In 1971, Nixon sent Henry Kissinger on a secret trip to Peking to investigate whether or not it would be possible for America to give recognition to China. In February 1972, President and Mrs. Nixon spent a number of days in the country visiting well-known Chinese landmarks, dining with the two leaders, Mao Tse-tung and Chou En-lai. Agreements were made for cultural and scientific exchanges, eventual resumption of trade, and future unification of the mainland with Taiwan. In 1979, formal diplomatic recognition was achieved. With this one visit, the pattern of the Cold War was essentially shifted. In the administration of President Jimmy Carter, Egyptian President Anwar elSadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin met at presidential retreat Camp David and agreed, after a series of meetings, to sign a formal treaty of peace between the two countries. In 1979, the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan was perceived by Carter and his advisers as a threat to the rich oil fields in the Persian Gulf, but at the time, U.S. military capability to prevent further Soviet aggression in the Middle East was weak. During the last year of Carter's presidential term, the crisis of the 53 American hostages held in Iran unfolded. The shah had been deposed and control of the government and the country was in the hands of Muslim leader, Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Khomeini's extreme hatred for the U.S. was the result of the 1953 overthrow of Iran's Mossadegh government, sponsored by the CIA. To make matters worse, the CIA proceeded to train the shah's ruthless secret police force. So when the terminally ill exiled shah was allowed into the U.S. for medical treatment, a fanatical mob stormed into the American embassy in Tehran, taking the 53 Americans as prisoners, supported and encouraged by Khomeini.
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President Carter froze all Iranian assets in the U.S., set up trade restrictions, and approved a risky rescue attempt, which failed. He had appealed to the UN for aid in gaining release for the hostages and to European allies to join the trade embargo on Iran. Khomeini ignored UN requests for releasing the Americans, and Europeans refused to support the embargo so as not to risk losing access to Iran's oil. American prestige was damaged and Carter's chances for reelection were doomed. The hostages were released on the day of Ronald Reagan's inauguration as President, when Carter released Iranian assets as ransom. The foreign policy of President Ronald Reagan was, in his first term, focused primarily on the Western Hemisphere, particularly in Central America and the West Indies. U.S. involvement in the domestic revolutions of El Salvador and Nicaragua continued into Reagan's second term when Congress held televised hearings on what came to be known as the Iran-Contra Affair. A cover-up was exposed showing that profits from secretly selling military hardware to Iran had been used to give support to rebels, called Contras, who were fighting in Nicaragua. In 1983 in Lebanon, 241 American Marines were killed when an Islamic suicide bomber drove an explosive-laden truck into U.S. Marines headquarters, located at the airport in Beirut. This tragic event came as part of the unrest and violence between the Israelis and the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) forces in southern Lebanon. In the same month, 1,900 U.S. Marines landed on the island of Grenada to rescue a small group of American medical students at the medical school, and depose the leftist government. Perhaps the most intriguing and far-reaching event towards the end of Reagan's second term was the arms-reduction agreement Reagan reached with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev. Gorbachev began easing East-West tensions by stressing the importance of cooperation with the West and relaxing the harsh and restrictive life of the people in the Soviet Union. In retrospect, it was clearly a prelude to the events occurring during the administration of President George Bush. After Bush took office, it appeared for a brief period that democracy would gain influence in China, but the brief movement was quickly crushed. The biggest surprise was the fall of the Berlin Wall, resulting in the unification of all of Germany, the loss of power of the Communists in other Eastern European countries, the fall of Communism in the Soviet Union and the breakup of its republics into independent nations. The countries of Poland, Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Albania, and Bulgaria replaced Communist rule for a democratic one. HISTORY
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The former Yugoslavia broke apart into individual ethnic enclaves with the republics of Serbia, Croatia, and Bosnia-Herzegovina embarking on wars of ethnic cleansing between Catholics, Orthodox, and Muslims. In Russia, as in the other former republics and satellites, democratic governments were put into operation and the difficult task of changing communist economies into ones of capitalistic free enterprise began. For all practical purposes, it appeared that the tensions and dangers of the post-World War II "Cold War" between the U.S. and Soviet-led Communism were over. President Bush, in December of 1989, sent U.S. troops to invade Panama and arrest the Panamanian dictator Manuel Noriega. Although he had periodically assisted CIA operations with intelligence information, Noriega laundered money from drug smuggling and gunrunning through Panama's banks. Though ignored for a short time, this situation became too embarrassing for the American intelligence community. When a political associate tried unsuccessfully to depose him and an off-duty U.S. Marine was shot and killed at a roadblock, Bush took action. Noriega was brought to the U.S. where he stood trial on charges of drug distribution and racketeering. During the time of the American hostage crisis, Iraq and Iran fought a war in which the U.S. and most of Iraq's neighbors supported Iraq. In a five-year period, Saddam Hussein received from the U.S. $500 million worth of American technology, including lasers, advanced computers, and special machine tools used in missile development. The Iraq-Iran war was a bloody one, resulting in a stalemate and a UN truce to end it. Neighboring Kuwait, in direct opposition to OPEC agreements, increased oil production. This caused oil prices to drop, which upset Hussein, who was deeply in debt from the war and dependent on oil revenues. After a short period of time, Saddam invaded and occupied Kuwait. The U.S. put into action Operation Desert Storm, the liberation of Kuwait. In four days, February 24-28, 1991, the war was over and Iraq had been defeated, its troops driven back into their country. Saddam remained in power although Iraq's economy was seriously damaged. President Bill Clinton sent U.S. troops to Haiti to protect the efforts of JeanBertrand Aristide to gain democratic power. Troops were also sent to Bosnia to assist UN peacekeeping forces. Clinton’s administration inherited the problem of Somalia in East Africa, where U.S. troops had been sent in December 1992 to support UN efforts to end the starvation of the Somalis and restore peace. The efforts were successful at first, but eventually failed due to the severity of the intricate political problems within the country. After U.S. soldiers were killed in an ambush along with 300 Somalis, American troops were withdrawn and returned home.
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The Middle East is defined by its name and its geographic position. It is in the middle of the globe, a position that enables it to exert tremendous influence on not only the trade that passes through its realm of influence, but also the political relations between its countries and those of different parts of the world. From the beginnings of civilization, the Middle East has been a destination—for attackers, for adventure-seekers, for those starving for food and for other resources, from iron to oil. The countries of the Middle East play an important role in the economics of the world. First and foremost is the importance of oil. Saudi Arabia, most notably, but also Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Dubai, and the United Arab Emirates are huge exporters of oil; in some cases, the amount of oil that one of these countries exports exceeds 90 percent of its’ total economic outflow. Most of the world requires oil in vast quantities, to run its machines and especially its transportation vehicles—cars, trucks, airplanes, and buses. The majority of the world’s developed nations would be helpless without this oil, and so the governments of these nations will pay nearly any price to keep that oil flowing from the Middle East into their countries. The oil-rich exporters of the Middle East can hold the rest of the world hostage by increasing the price of oil even slightly, since the consumption for even a small, developed nation numbers in the billions of gallons every month. (The Middle East is not the only place to get oil by any means; Russia, for example, is another excellent source of oil. The appeal of the Middle East countries as sources of oil is that it is much easier to reach and put on tankers than it is to procure from the wilds of central Russia.) It can be argued that whoever controls a country in the Middle East controls the oil. With few exceptions, all of these countries have strong central governments, which control the collection and export of oil. If a country were to take over one of these big exporters, the infrastructure would already be in place to control the flow of oil. The recent American occupation of Iraq illustrates this, since the existing oil companies were taken over by American operations. The countries of the Middle East, despite their economic similarities, have important differences in their government, belief systems, and global outlooks. Iran and Iraq fought a devastating war in the 1980s. Iraq invaded Kuwait in the late 1990s. It is not unlikely that other conflicts will arise in the future. Another large factor of the instability in the Middle East is ethnic strife. It’s not just Muslims who occupy these countries. Each country has its own ethnic mix. A good example of this is Iraq, which has a huge minority of Kurdish people. Saddam Hussein, the former dictator of Iraq, had a policy of racial persecution against Kurds. Iraq is an example of a religious conflict, with the minority Shiites now in power and Hussein’s Sunnis out of power. These two groups are in constant conflict. The prospect of a civil war in Iraq looms large, as it does in other neighboring countries, which have their own ethnic problems.
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Religious conflict is the underlying cause for conflict in Israel, too, as Israelis and Palestinians continue a centuries-old fight over religion and geography. This conflict goes back to the beginnings of Islam, in the seventh century. Muslims claimed Jerusalem, capital of the ancient civilization of Israel, as a holy city, in the same way that Jews and Christians did. Muslims seized control of Palestine and Jerusalem and held it for a great many years, prompting Christian armies from Europe to muster for the Crusades, in a series of attempts to “regain the Holy Land.” For hundreds of years after Christendom’s failure, these lands were ruled and inhabited by Muslims.. In recent centuries, Palestine was made a British colony and then eliminated in favor of the modern state of Israel. Since that last event, in 1948, the conflict has escalated to varying degrees. The addition of Israel to the Middle East equation presents a religious conflict not only with the Palestinians, but also with the Arab peoples of neighboring Egypt and Syria. The armed forces of all of these countries have so many advanced weapons that they would seem to be a deterrent to further bloodshed, yet the attacks continue. In the last 40 years, Israel has won two major wars with its neighbors. Nearly daily conflict continues, much as it has for thousands of years. A full-blown war in this region would certainly involve Israel’s neighbors and, by extension, other large countries in the world, most notably the United States. Civil Rights Movements The phrase “the civil rights movement” generally refers to the nation-wide effort made by black people and those who supported them to gain equal rights to whites and to eliminate segregation. Discussion of this movement is generally understood in terms of the period of the 1950s and 1960s. The key people in the civil rights movement are: Rosa Parks -- a black seamstress from Montgomery Alabama who, in 1955, refused to give up her seat on the bus to a white man. This event is generally understood as the spark that lit the fire of the Civil Rights Movement. She has been generally regarded as the “mother of the Civil Rights Movement.” Martin Luther King, Jr. -- the most prominent member of the Civil Rights movement. King promoted nonviolent methods of opposition to segregation. The “Letter from Birmingham Jail” explained the purpose of nonviolent action as a way to make people notice injustice. He led the march on Washington in 1963, at which he delivered the “I Have a Dream” speech. He received the 1968 Nobel Prize for Peace. HISTORY
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James Meredith – the first African American to enroll at the University of Mississippi. Emmett Till – a teenage boy who was murdered in Mississippi while visiting from Chicago. The crime of which he was accused was “whistling at a white woman in a store.” He was beaten and murdered, and his body was dumped in a river. His two white abductors were apprehended and tried. They were acquitted by an allwhite jury. After the acquittal, they admitted their guilt, but remained free because of double-standard laws. Ralph Abernathy – a major figure in the Civil Rights Movement, he succeeded Martin Luther King, Jr. as head of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference Malcolm X – a political leader and part of the Civil Rights Movement. He was a prominent Black Muslim. Stokeley Carmichael – one of the leaders of the Black Power movement that called for independent development of political and social institutions for blacks. Carmichael called for black pride and maintenance of black culture. He was head of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. Key events of the Civil Rights Movement include: Brown vs. Board of Education, 1954 The murder of Emmett Till, 1955 Rosa Parks and the Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955-56 – After refusing to give up her seat on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama, Parks was arrested, tried, and convicted of disorderly conduct and violating a local ordinance. When word reached the black community, a bus boycott was organized to protest the segregation of blacks and whites on public buses. The boycott lasted 381 days, until the ordinance was lifted. Strategy shift to “direct action” – nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience, 1955 – 1965. This action consisted mostly of bus boycotts, sit-ins, freedom rides. Formation of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, 1957. This group was formed by Martin Luther King, Jr., John Duffy, Rev. C. D. Steele, Rev. T. J. Jemison, Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth, Ella Baker, A. Philip Randolph, Bayard Rustin and Stanley Levison. The group provided training and assistance to local efforts to fight segregation. Non-violence was its central doctrine and its major method of fighting segregation and racism.
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The Desegregation of Little Rock, 1957. Following up on the decision of the Supreme Court in Brown vs. Board of Education, the Arkansas school board voted to integrate the school system. The NAACP chose Arkansas as the place to push integration because it was considered a relatively progressive Southern state. However, the governor called up the National Guard to prevent nine black students from attending Little Rock’s Central High School. Sit-ins – In 1960, students began to stage “sit-ins” at local lunch counters and stores as a means of protesting the refusal of those businesses to desegregate. The first was in Greensboro, North Carolina. This led to similar campaigns throughout the South. Demonstrators began to protest parks, beaches, theaters, museums, and libraries. When arrested, the protesters made “jail-no-bail” pledges. This called attention to their cause and put the financial burden of providing jail space and food on the cities. Freedom Rides – Activists traveled by bus throughout the Deep South to desegregate bus terminals (required by federal law). These protesters undertook extremely dangerous protests. Many buses were firebombed, attacked by the KKK, and protestors were beaten. They were crammed into small, airless jail cells and mistreated in many ways. Key figures in this effort included John Lewis, James Lawson, Diane Nash, Bob Moses, James Bevel, Charles McDew, Bernard Lafayette, Charles Jones, Lonnie King, Julian Bond, Hosea Williams, and Stokeley Carmichael.
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The Birmingham Campaign, 1963-64. A campaign was planned to use sit-ins and kneel-ins in churches, and make a march to the county building to launch a voter registration campaign. The City obtained an injunction forbidding all such protests. The protesters, including Martin Luther King, Jr., believed the injunction was unconstitutional, and defied it. They were arrested. While in jail, King wrote his famous Letter from Birmingham Jail. When the campaign began to falter, the “Children’s Crusade” called students to leave school and join the protests. The events became news when more than 600 students were jailed. The next day more students joined the protest. The media was present, and broadcast to the nation, vivid pictures of fire hoses being used to knock down children, with dogs attacking some of them. The resulting public outrage led the Kennedy administration to intervene. About a month later, a committee was formed to end hiring discrimination, arrange for the release of jailed protesters, and establish normative communication between blacks and whites. Four months later, the KKK bombed the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church, killing four girls. The March on Washington, 1963. This was a march on Washington for jobs and freedom. It was a combined effort of all major civil rights organizations. The goals of the march were: meaningful civil rights laws, a massive federal works program, full and fair employment, decent housing, the right to vote, and adequate integrated education. It was at this march that Martin Luther King, Jr. made the famous “I Have a Dream” speech. Mississippi Freedom Summer, 1964. Students were brought from other states to Mississippi to assist local activists in registering voters, teaching in “Freedom schools” and in forming the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party. Three of the workers disappeared – murdered by the KKK. It took six weeks to find their bodies. The national uproar forced President Johnson to send in the FBI. Johnson was able to use public sentiment to effect passage in Congress of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
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Selma to Montgomery Marches, 1965. Attempts to obtain voter registration in Selma, Alabama had been largely unsuccessful due to opposition from the city’s sheriff. M.L. King came to the city to lead a series of marches. He and over 200 demonstrators were arrested and jailed. Each successive march was met with violent resistance by police. In March, a group of over 600 intended to walk from Selma to Montgomery (54 miles). News media were on hand when, six blocks into the march, state and local law enforcement officials attacked the marchers with billy clubs, tear gas, rubber tubes wrapped in barbed wire and bull whips. They were driven back to Selma. National broadcast of the footage provoked a nation-wide response. President Johnson again used public sentiment to achieve passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. This law changed the political landscape of the South irrevocably. Key policies, legislation and court cases included the following: Brown v. Board of Education, 1954 – the Supreme Court declared that Plessy v. Ferguson was unconstitutional. This was the ruling that had established “Separate but Equal” as the basis for segregation. With this decision, the Court ordered immediate desegregation. Civil Rights Act of 1964 – bars discrimination in public accommodations, employment and education Voting Rights Act of 1965 – suspended poll taxes, literacy tests and other voter tests for voter registration. Since 1941, a number of anti-discrimination laws have been passed by the Congress. These acts have protected the civil rights of several groups of Americans. These laws include: • • • • • • • • • • •
Fair Employment Act of 1941 Civil Rights Act of 1964 Immigration and Nationality Services Act of 1965 Voting Rights Act of 1965 Civil Rights Act of 1968 Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 Age Discrimination Act of 1975 Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 Civil Rights Act of 1991 Employment Non-Discrimination Act
Numerous groups have used various forms of protest, attempts to sway public opinion, legal action, and congressional lobbying to obtain full protection of their civil rights under the Constitution.
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“Minority rights” encompasses two ideas: the first is the normal individual rights of members of ethnic, racial, class, religious or sexual minorities; the second is collective rights of minority groups. Various civil rights movements have sought to guarantee that the individual rights of persons are not denied on the basis of being part of a minority group. The effects of these movements may be seen in guarantees of minority representation, affirmative action quotas, etc. The disability rights movement was a successful effort to guarantee access to public buildings and transportation, equal access to education and employment, and equal protection under the law in terms of access to insurance, and other basic rights of American citizens. As a result of these efforts, public buildings and public transportation must be accessible to persons with disabilities. Discrimination in hiring or housing on the basis of disability is also illegal. A “prisoners’ rights” movement has been working for many years to ensure the basic human rights of persons incarcerated for crimes. Immigrant rights movements have provided for employment and housing rights, as well as preventing abuse of immigrants through hate crimes. In some states, immigrant rights movements have led to bi-lingual education and public information access. Another group movement to obtain equal rights is the lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender social movement. This movement seeks equal housing, freedom from social and employment discrimination, and equal recognition of relationships under the law. The women’s rights movement is concerned with the freedoms of women as differentiated from broader ideas of human rights. These issues are generally different from those that affect men and boys because of biological differences or social constructs. The rights the movement has sought to protect throughout history include: • • • • • • • • • • • •
The right to vote The right to work The right to fair wages The right to bodily integrity and autonomy The right to own property The right to an education The right to hold public office Marital rights Parental rights Religious rights The right to serve in the military The right to enter into legal contracts
The movement for women’s rights has resulted in many social and political changes. Many of the ideas that seemed very radical merely 100 years ago are now normative.
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Some of the most famous leaders in the women’s movement throughout American history are: • • • • • • • • • •
Abigail Adams Susan B. Anthony Gloria E. Anzaldua Betty Friedan Olympe de Gouges Gloria Steinem Harriet Tubman Mary Wollstonecraft Virginia Woolf Germaine Greer
Many within the women’s movement are primarily committed to justice and the natural rights of all people. This has led many members of the women’s movement to be involved in the Black Civil Rights Movement, the gay rights movement, and the recent social movement to protect the rights of fathers. Globalization Globalization is defined as the principle of the interdependence of all the world's nations and their peoples. Within this global community, every nation, in some way to a certain degree, is dependent on other nations. Since no one nation has all of the resources needed for production, trade with other nations is required to obtain what is needed for production, to sell what is produced or to buy finished products, to earn money to maintain and strengthen the nation's economic system. Developing nations receive technical assistance and financial aid from developed nations. Many international organizations have been set up to promote and encourage cooperation and economic progress among member nations. Through the elimination of such barriers to trade as tariffs, trade is stimulated resulting in increased productivity, economic progress, increased cooperation and understanding on diplomatic levels. Those nations not part of an international trade organization not only must make those economic decisions of what to produce, how and for whom, but must also deal with the problem of tariffs and quotas on imports. Regardless of international trade memberships, economic growth and development are vital and affect all trading nations. Businesses, labor, and governments share common interests and goals in a nation's economic status. International systems of banking and finance have been devised to assist governments and businesses in setting the policy and guidelines for the exchange of currencies.
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The global economy had its origins in the early twentieth century, with the advent of the airplane, which made travel and trade easier and less time-consuming than ever. With the recent advent of the Internet, the world might be better termed a global neighborhood. Airplanes travel the fastest of any mode of transportation on the planet. They can reduce travel time, resulting in not only shorter tourist trips but also shorter trade trips, meaning that goods (especially perishable foods) can travel farther and wider than ever before. . Trucks, trains, and ships carry cargo all over the world. Trains travel faster than ever, as do ships. Roads are more prevalent and usually in better repair than they have ever been, making truck and even car travel much easier. With all of this capability has come increasing demand. People had traditionally acquired their goods using their own means or from traders who lived nearby. As technology improved, trade routes got longer and demand for things from overseas grew. This demand feeds the economic imperative of creating more supply, which fuels demand, and vice versa. An increase in demand for a product of limited supply presents some problems. . A good example is wood, paper, and other goods that are made from trees. The demand for paper, especially these days, is staggering. In order to fulfill that demand, companies are cutting down more and more trees. Forests around the world are being depleted at an alarming rate, especially in the precious rainforests of South America. Recycling of paper is very much a focus for many people today, but it cannot keep up with clear-cutting. Nonrenewable resources like coal and oil are in worldwide demand, but the supplies are not infinite. . Making it easier to ship goods all over the world has made demand grow at an unbelievable rate, raising concerns about supply and the possibility of their eventually running out. Globalization has also brought about welcome and unwelcome developments in the field of epidemiology. Vaccines and other cures for diseases can be shipped relatively quickly all around the world. For example, this has made it possible for HIV vaccines to reach the remotest areas of the world. Unfortunately, the preponderance of global travel has also meant that the threat of spreading a disease to the world by an infected person traveling on an international flight is quite real.
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The most recent example of technology contributing to globalization is the development of the Internet. Instant communication between people millions of miles apart is possible just by plugging in a computer and connecting to the Net. The Internet is an extension of the telephone and cell phone revolutions; all three are developments that have brought faraway places closer together. All three allow people to communicate no matter the distance. This communication can facilitate friendly chatter and, of course, trade. A huge number of businesses use cell phones and the Internet to do business these days, also using computers to track goods and receipts quickly and efficiently. Globalization has also brought financial and cultural exchange on a worldwide scale. A large number of businesses have investments in countries around the world. Financial transactions are conducted using a variety of currencies. The cultures of the countries of the world are increasingly viewed by people elsewhere in the world through the wonders of television and the Internet. Not only goods, but also belief systems, customs, and practices are being exchanged. With this exchange of money, goods, and culture has come an increase in immigration. Many people who live in less-developed nations see what is available in other places and want to move there, in order to improve their living standards. This can conceivably create an increase in immigration. Depending on the numbers of people who want to immigrate and the resources available, this could become a problem. The technological advances in transportation and communications have made such immigration easier than ever.
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Competency 29.0 Understand major developments in Arizona history. The Southwest cultural region of the US is an area where Native and Latin American culture has had the most influence. Arizona and New Mexico are the two states that make up the main part of the Southwest, with some of the surrounding states of California, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Oklahoma and Texas extending into the region. Major cities in the region include Phoenix and Albuquerque. Once a part of Spanish territory, then a part of Mexico, the Southwest has retained its cultural connection to these countries. Native American cultures established settlements in this region thousands of years ago, and their influence is still seen. Arizona has the largest population of Native Americans in the US. The West region extends from the Pacific Coast of the US eastward to the Rocky Mountains and includes the states of California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. Major western cities include Los Angeles, San Francisco, Denver, Salt Lake City, Portland and Seattle. Arizona history up to 1877 Archaeological evidence suggests that native peoples arrived in the area that is now Arizona as early as 16,000 years BCE. Some time between 2500 and 1000 BCE, agriculture was developed in the region and permanent settlements were established. Around 200 AD, the art of pottery emerged among the native cultures of the Arizona region. Three major cultures are known to have developed during this period, the Anasazi, the Mogollan and the Hohokam. Later, around the 14th Century AD, the Apache people migrated to the region from the Midwest. In 1539, a French Franciscan named Marcos de Niza explored the Arizona region reaching the site of present day Phoenix. He returned to Mexico with a story of seeing a great city of gold, Cibola, from a distance, and based on this evidence Coronado mounted another expedition in 1640. Coronado's expedition ranged through what is modern New Mexico and Arizona, but did not find the mythical city. Neither did he find the Pacific Ocean, which de Niza also claimed to have seen. The Spanish slowly began to move into the region, which was populated by Native Americans, and in the late 17th century began to establish Catholic missions. The first church in the area was started by the Jesuit Father Eusebio Kino in 1687. Kino later selected the site of the first mission in the area, Mission San Xavier del Bac, which is still active and located near Tucson. The primary purpose of the Spanish missions was the conversion of the native people to Christianity.
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Spanish colonization continued through the 18th century, with some coming in search of silver and copper, and, finding little or none. These people stayed to establish small subsistence farms. Spain established fortified towns called presidios at Tubac in 1752 and at Tucson in 1775. Northward expansion was limited partly by the presence of the Apache natives, who sometimes raided Spanish settlements. The Franciscans, who had replaced the Jesuits in the region under order of the Spanish King Charles III in 1765, endeavored to make peace with the Apaches to facilitate northward development. In 1811, the people of Mexico went to war against Spain, winning independence in 1821. Thereafter, Arizona became part of Mexico. The war had devastated Mexico's economy, and support for the frontier presidios dwindled. Apache attacks increased. In the 1840s, American mountain men began entering the area. In the 1840s, a popular ideal arose among Americans that expanding into the western part of the continent was an important priority. This belief that expansion was inevitable and even desirable came to be known as "Manifest Destiny." As Mexico withdrew from its northernmost territories, the US eyed the region as a prime target for expansion. In 1845, the US annexed Texas, which was formerly part of Mexico, and which then claimed to be an independent republic. Mexico had never recognized Texas' independence, however, and the ensuing conflict over the matter sparked the MexicanAmerican War in 1846. Fighting followed for two years, ending with US troops marching on and capturing Mexico City. In the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in 1848, Mexico agreed to sell its northern territories, including the New Mexico Territory and California to the US. This purchase included all but the southernmost portion of present day Arizona. This last portion was later purchased in the Gadsden Purchase of 1853. The New Mexico Territory was officially created in 1850, and was made up of what are now New Mexico and Arizona. In 1861, as the nation was going to war, settlers in the southern portion of the New Mexico territory organized the Confederate Territory of Arizona, siding with the southern states. Union troops took control of the region in 1862. On February 24, 1863, Arizona was separated from the New Mexico Territory and became the Arizona Territory, with much the same borders it has today. Settlement of the Arizona territory continued as pioneers arrived from the east. From the north, Mormon settlers entered the territory from Utah and founded several towns.
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Since the 1830s, the United States had been following a policy of relocating Native peoples who lived in lands wanted by the US. Natives were moved to reservations, sometimes very far from where they had traditionally lived. Native tribes sometimes responded to relocation efforts with force, and so called Indian Wars erupted throughout the frontier. In 1863, a band of Navajos in Arizona resisted relocation, and were eventually trapped in Canyon de Chelly, Arizona, and forced to march to a reservation in Texas. The US maintained systematic pressure on the Apache people as well, who continued to resist for several years. Prospectors in search of precious metals staked claims in Arizona, hoping to strike it rich. They did find copper, which was to become a major mining endeavor for the region, but large quantities of more precious ores eluded them until 1877, when Ed Schieffelin discovered silver on the Tombstone claim. Schieffelin's discovery of a rich vein of silver ore set off a rush of people into the territory and made Tombstone one of the richest towns in the southwest. The boom lasted only ten years, but the large influx of people led to the expansion of the railroads through the state, contributing directly to its further expansion. Major developments in Arizona history from 1877 to the present Fortunately for the miners of Arizona, as the silver boom diminished and the national demand for copper increased. Copper had been mined in Arizona for centuries, but not until the 1890s did Arizona become a major producer. The coming of the railroad allowed for market production of copper, and also expanded market farming, especially in cotton and cattle ranching. Copper, cotton and cattle became the three "Big C's" that dominated the Arizona economy for the next 50 years and are still important today. Apache resistance to relocation continued into the final decades of the 19th century, most famously under the leadership of Geronimo. Geronimo’s band of warriors eluded defeat and capture by the US until 1886, when Geronimo surrendered at Skeleton Canyon, Arizona. Geronimo was made a prisoner of war and lived until 1909 in US Custody. On February 14, 1912, Arizona became the 48th state, a few weeks after New Mexico. In that same year, women were granted voting rights in Arizona. With the entry of the US into World War I, Arizona saw another mining boom, this time for copper. Cotton was also in high demand. The years following the war were prosperous for Arizona, but the Great Depression of the 1930s hit the state especially hard. The Arizona economy began to pick up again in the late 1930s, however, as World War II approached and the US prepared for war. Metal prices began to climb, and Arizona saw another boom. After the US entered the fighting in 1941, Arizona was faced with a serious labor shortage as many men were taken into service. As a result, many Mexican laborers found work at Arizona mines and farms. HISTORY
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As the US military increased its activity over the course of the war, Arizona's year-round clear weather and inland location made it an ideal spot for air training and military bases, which proliferated and contributed significantly to the economy. Civilian defense plants soon followed, bringing more workers and commerce to the state. In recent years, Arizona has benefited from its sunny climate and natural resources such as the Grand Canyon, which bring tourism to the state. The climate also lures retirees from all over the nation. Arizona Senator Barry Goldwater, running as a conservative Republican, was nominated to run for President in 1964 against Lyndon B. Johnson. Johnson prevailed, and Goldwater returned to serve in the Senate. In 1981, President Ronald Reagan nominated Arizona Judge Sandra Day O'Connor to the US Supreme Court, the first woman to serve as a Supreme Court Justice.
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Bibliography Adams, James Truslow. (2006). "The March of Democracy," Vol 1. "The Rise of the Union". New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, Publisher. Barbini, John & Warshaw, Steven. (2006). "The World Past and Present." New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, Publishers. Berthon, Simon & Robinson, Andrew. (2006. "The Shape of the World." Chicago: Rand McNally, Publisher. Bice, David A. (2006). "A Panorama of Florida II". (Second Edition). Marceline, Missouri: Walsworth Publishing Co., Inc. Bram, Leon (Vice-President and Editorial Director). (2006). "Funk and Wagnalls New Encyclopedia." United States of America. Burns, Edward McNall & Ralph, Philip Lee. (2006. "World Civilizations Their History and Culture" (5th ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Inc., Publishers. Dauben, Joseph W. (2006). "The World Book Encyclopedia." Chicago: World Book Inc. A Scott Fetzer Company, Publisher. De Blij, H.J. & Muller, Peter O. (2006). "Geography Regions and Concepts" (Sixth Edition). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Publisher. Encyclopedia Americana. (2006). Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier Inc, Publisher. Heigh, Christopher (Editor). (2006). "The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and Ireland." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Publisher. Hunkins, Francis P. & Armstrong, David G. (2006). "World Geography People and Places." Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co. A Bell & Howell Company, Publishers. Jarolimek, John; Anderson, J. Hubert & Durand, Loyal, Jr. (2006). "World Neighbors." New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. London: Collier Macmillan Publishers. McConnell, Campbell R. (2006). "Economics-Principles, Problems, and Policies" (Tenth Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Publisher. Millard, Dr. Anne & Vanags, Patricia. (2006). "The Usborne Book of World History." London: Usborne Publishing Ltd., Publisher.
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Novosad, Charles (Executive Editor). (2006). "The Nystrom Desk Atlas." Chicago: Nystrom Division of Herff Jones, Inc., Publisher. Patton, Clyde P.; Rengert, Arlene C.; Saveland, Robert N.; Cooper, Kenneth S. & Cam, Patricia T. (2006). "A World View." Morristown, N.J.: Silver Burdette Companion, Publisher. Schwartz, Melvin & O'Connor, John R. (2006). "Exploring A Changing World." New York: Globe Book Company, Publisher. “The Annals of America: Selected Readings on Great Issues in American History 1620-1968." (2006). United States of America: William Benton, Publisher. Tindall, George Brown & Shi, David E. (2006). "America-A Narrative History" (Fourth Edition). New York: W.W. Norton & Company, Publisher. Todd, Lewis Paul & Curti, Merle. (2006). "Rise of the American Nation" (Third Edition). New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, Inc., Publishers. Tyler, Jenny; Watts, Lisa; Bowyer, Carol; Trundle, Roma & Warrender, Annabelle (2006) 'The Usbome Book of World Geography." London: Usbome Publishing Ltd., Publisher. Willson, David H. (2006). "A History of England." Hinsdale, Illinois: The Dryder Press, inc., Publisher
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE Sample Essay Question Discuss the emergence, expansion, and evolution of Islam
Islam is a monotheistic faith that traces its traditions to Abraham and considers the Jewish and Christian patriarchs and prophets, including Moses, King Solomon and Jesus Christ as earlier “Prophets of God”. Mohammed was born in 570 CE in a small Arabian town named Mecca. Around 610, Mohammed started to preach a new religion called Islam or submission to the will of God; his followers were called Muslims. His first converts were members of his family and his friends. As the new faith began to grow, it remained a secret society. But when Muslims began to make their faith public, they met with opposition and persecution from the pagan Arabs who feared the loss of profitable trade with the pilgrims who came to the Kaaba every year to trade and worship their idols. In 622, Mohammed and his close followers fled persecution in Mecca and found refuge in Medina. His flight is called the Hegira. Mohammed’s followers increased in Medina and he established it as the capital of a rapidly growing state. Islam continued to gain in popularity in Arabia. It attracted many converts from Bedouin tribes and its ideas of equality and justice appealed to people of all walks of life. By 630, Mohammed returned to Mecca in a non-violent conquest, and made it the religious center of Islam, toward which all Muslims turned to pray. By taking over the sacred city, Mohammed made it easier for people to join the religion. By the time of his death in 632, most of the people of Arabia had become adherents of Islam. The Islamic holy book brought by Mohammed is known as The Koran. The words of the Koran are believed by Muslims to have been dictated to Muhammad as the Word of God. The Koran contains the Islamic teachings on moral and theological questions, legislation on political matters, and comments on current events. Five basic principles of Islam are that there is no God but Allah, the God of Mohammed and all the previous prophets, prayer five times a day facing Mecca, charity, fasting during Ramadan and pilgrimage to Mecca. The Islamic armies conquered the Arabian Peninsula, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Syria and Persia by 650 CE and expanded to North Africa and most of the Iberian Peninsula by 750 CE. During this period of expansion, the Muslim conquerors established great centers of learning in the Middle East.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE Sample Test 1.
4.
Studies in astronomy, skills in mapping, and other contributions to geographic knowledge came from: (Easy)
Which one of the following is not a use for a region’s wetlands? (Average Rigor) A. Produces fresh clean water
A. Galileo B. Provides habitat for wildlife B. Columbus
2.
C. Eratosthenes
C. Provides water for hydroelectric power
D. Ptolemy
D. Controls floods 5.
Which one of the following does not affect climate? (Rigorous) A. Elevation or altitude
The geographical droughtstricken region of Africa south of the Sahara and extending east and west from Senegal to Somalia is: (Easy)
B. Ocean currents A. The Kalahari C. Latitude B. The Namib D. Longitude C. The Great Rift Valley 3.
Soil erosion is most likely to occur in large amounts in: (Easy)
D. The Sahel
A. Mountain ranges B. Deserts C. Tropical rainforests D. River valleys
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 6.
9.
Meridians, or lines of longitude, not only help in pinpointing locations but are also used for: (Average Rigor)
The Ganges River empties into the: (Skill 1.4 (Easy) A. Bay of Bengal B. Arabian Sea
A. Measuring distance from the Poles
C. Red Sea B. Determining direction of ocean currents
D. Arafura Sea 10.
C. Determining the time around the world
7.
D. Measuring distance on the equator
A. All subject to some sort of distortion
The Yangtze River primarily flows in which direction? (Easy) A. North
B. Always entirely accurate
B. South
D. Difficult usually to understand
C. Not very useful in political science studies
C. East
11.
D. West 8.
Maps as a rule are: (Easy)
The Nile River flows in which direction? (Easy)
A. Haberdasher B. Geographer
A. North
C. Cartographer
B. South
D. Demographer
C. East D. West
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The name for those who make maps is: (Easy)
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 15. A boycott is: (Average Rigor)
12. The “father” of modern economics is considered by most economists to be: (Average Rigor)
A. The refusal to buy goods or services
A. Thomas Robert Malthus B. An imbalance of trade B. John Stuart Mill C. Adam Smith
C. The refusal to speak in court
D. John Maynard Keynes
D. A Writ of Assistance
13. Which political theorist says that capitalism could be maintained if there were sufficient checks on the economy? (Average Rigor)
16. The study of the ways in which different societies around the world deal with the problems of limited resources and unlimited needs and wants is in the area of: (Average Rigor)
A. Marx B. Keynes
A. Economics
C. Weber
B. Sociology
D. Locke
C. Anthropology D. Political Science
14. The idea that continued population growth would, in future years, seriously affect a nation’s productive capabilities was stat (Rigorous)
17. The idea or proposal for more equal division of profits among employers and workers was put forth by: (Rigorous)
A. Keynes A. Karl Marx B. Mill B. Thomas Malthus C. Malthus C. Adam Smith D. Friedman D. John Stuart Mill
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 21.
18. The purchase of goods or services on one market for immediate resale on another market is: (Average Rigor)
Government regulation of economic activities for favorable balance of trade was the first major economic theory. It was called: (Rigorous)
A. Output A. Laissez-faire
B. Enterprise
B. Globalism
C. Arbitrage
C. Mercantilism
D. Mercantile
D. Syndicalism
19. Potential customers for any product or service are not only called consumers but can also be called a: (Average Rigor)
22. The economist who disagreed with the idea that free markets lead to full employment and prosperity and suggested that increasing government spending would end depressions was: (Rigorous)
A. Resource B. Base C. Commodity D. Market
A. Keynes
20. The economic system promoting individual ownership of land, capital, and businesses with minimal governmental regulations is called: (Easy)
B. Malthus C. Smith D. Friedman 23. The belief that government should stay out of economic affairs is called: (Average Rigor)
A. Macro-economy B. Micro-economy
A. Mercantilism
C. Laissez-faire
B. Laissez-faire
D. Free enterprise
C. Democratic-Socialism D. Corporatism
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 24.
26.
A tariff is: (Easy) A. A law passed by the Congress and vetoed by the President
The process of the state taking over industries and businesses is called: (Average Rigor) A. Industrialization
B. An appointed official mandated to preserve public order
B. Nationalization
C. A tax a government places on internationally traded goods, usually goods entering a country
D. Amalgamation
C. Redistribution
27. One method of trade restriction used by some nations is: (Rigorous)
D. A tax a government places on goods produced for domestic use, another name for it is a “sales tax”
A. Limited treaties B. Floating exchange rate
25.
George Washington’s opinion of America trading with other nations was: (Average Rigor)
C. Bill of exchange D. Import quotas 28. The “father of political science” is considered to be: (Average Rigor)
A. Approval in only some instances B. Disapproval
A. Aristotle C. Approval B. John Locke D. Unsure C. Plato D. Thomas Hobbes
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 31. In the United States government, the power of taxation and borrowing is: (Rigorous)
29. There is no doubt of the vast improvement of the US Constitution over the weak Articles of Confederation. Which one of the four accurate statements below is a unique yet eloquent description of the document? (Rigorous)
A. Implied or suggested B. Concurrent or shared C. Delegated or expressed
A. The establishment of a strong central government in no way lessened or weakened the individual states.
D. Reserved 32. “Marbury vs. Madison (1803)” was an important Supreme Court case which set the precedent for: (Rigorous)
B. Individual rights were protected and secured.
A. The elastic clause
C. The Constitution is the best representation of the results of the American genius for compromise.
B. Judicial review C. The supreme law of the land
D. Its flexibility and adaptation to change gives it a sense of timelessness.
D. Popular sovereignty in the territories
30. In the US government, the power of coining money is: (Rigorous)
33. What Supreme Court ruling established the principal of judicial review? (Rigorous)
A. Implied or suggested
A. Jefferson vs. Madison
B. Concurrent or shared
B. Lincoln vs. Douglas
C. Delegated or expressed
C. Marbury vs. Madison
D. Reserved
D. Marbury vs. Jefferson
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 37. To become a citizen, an individual must generally have lived in the United States for at least: (Rigorous)
34. To be eligible to be elected President one must: (Rigorous) A. Be a citizen for at least five years
A. Six years B. Be a citizen for seven years
B. Five years
C. Have been born a citizen
C.
D. Be a naturalized citizen
D. Ten years
One year
38. The ability of the President to veto an Act of Congress is an example of: (Rigorous)
35. The first ten amendments to the Constitution are called the: (Easy) A. Bill of Petition
A. Separation of Powers
B. Petition of Rights
B. Checks and Balances
C. Rights of Man
C. Judicial Review D. Presidential Prerogative
D. Bill of Rights
39. If a president neither signs nor vetoes a bill officially for ten days it is called: (Average Rigor)
35. The Congress can override a President’s veto with a _______ vote. (Rigorous) A. One-half
A. A pocket veto
B. Two-thirds
B. A refused law
C. Six-tenths
C. Unconstitutional
D. Three-fourths
D. A presidential veto
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 43. An amendment is: (Easy)
40. The term that describes the division of government function is: (Easy)
A. A change or addition to the United States Constitution
A. Free enterprise B. The right of a state to secede from the Union
B. Constitutional Prerogative
C. To add a state to the Union
C. Checks and Balances D. Separation of Powers
D. The right of the Supreme Court to check actions of Congress and the President
41. In the United States, the right to declare war is a power of: (Rigorous)
44. The Bill of Rights was mostly written by: (Average Rigor)
A. The President B. Congress C. The Executive Branch
A. Thomas Jefferson
D. The States
B. James Madison C. George Washington
42. In the US, checks and balances refers to: (Average Rigor)
D. Alexander Hamilton 45. To be a naturalized citizen means: (Easy)
A. The ability of each branch of government to “check” or limit the actions of the thers B. Balance of payments
A. To have been refused citizenship
C. International law
B. To have a dual-citizenship
D. The federal deficit
C. To be a “natural” or native born citizen D. To acquire citizenship
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 48. In the United States, federal investigations into business activities are handled by the: (Rigorous)
46. In the United States government, power or control over public education, marriage, and divorce is: (Rigorous)
A. Department of Treasury A. Implied or suggested B. Security & Exchange Commission
B. Concurrent or shared
C. Government Accounting Office
C. Delegated or expressed D. Reserved
D. Federal Trade Commission
47. Under the brand new Constitution, the most urgent of the many problems facing the new federal government was that of: (Rigorous)
49. The source of authority for national, state, and local governments in the US is: (Rigorous) A. The will of the people
A. Maintaining a strong army and navy
B. The US Constitution B. Establishing a strong foreign policy
C. Written laws D. The Bill of Rights
C. Raising money to pay salaries and war debts
50. The programs such as unemployment insurance and health insurance for the elderly are the responsibility of: (Rigorous)
D. Setting up courts, passing federal laws, and providing for law enforcement officers .
A. Federal government B. Local government C. State government D. Communal government
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 51.
54.
The term that best describes how the Supreme Court can block laws that may be unconstitutional from being enacted is: (Rigorous)
The US government’s federal system consists of: (Average Rigor) A. Three parts, the Executive, the Legislative, and the Judiciary
A. Jurisprudence B. Three parts, the Legislative, the Congress, and the Presidency
B. Judicial Review C. Exclusionary Rule
C. Four parts, the Executive, the Judiciary, the courts, and the Legislative
D. Right of Petition 52.
The United States legislature is bicameral, this means: (Easy)
D. Two parts, the Government and the governed
A. It consists of several houses
55.
B. It consists of two houses
To “impeach” a President means to: (Average Rigor) A. Bring charges against a President
C. The Vice-President is in charge of the legislature when in session
B. Remove a President from office
D. It has an upper and lower house
C. Re-elect the President 53.
D. Override his veto
Which of the three branches of government is responsible for taxation? (Average Rigor) A. Legislative B. Executive C. Judicial D. Congressional
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 56.
59.
The power to declare war, establish a postal system, and coin money rests with which branch of the government? (Rigorous)
The Executive branch refers to: (Easy) A. The Senate B. The Legislature
A. Presidential C. Congress B. Judicial D. The President and Vice-President
C. Legislative 60.
D. Executive 57.
Which of the following is an important idea expressed in the Declaration of Independence? (Rigorous)
A. A law made against an act after it has been committed B. A law proclaimed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court
A. People have the right to change their government
C. An Executive Act
B. People should obey the government authority
D. A law relating to the postal system
C. A monarch is a bad thing 61.
D. Indirect democracy is best 58.
An “Ex post facto law” is: (Average Rigor)
The Judiciary Act of 1789 established the: (Average Rigor)
The Judiciary refers to: (Easy) A. The President B. Congress
A. Supreme Court C. The legal system B. Principle of Judicial Review
D. The system of states’ rights
C. State court system D. Federal and circuit court system
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 65. What is the form of local government that acts as an intermediary between the state and the city? (Average Rigor)
62. The highest appellate court in the United States is the: (Rigorous) A. National Appeals Court B. Circuit Court
A. Metropolitan government
C. Supreme Court
B. Limited government
D. Court of Appeals
C. The Mayor-Council system D. County Commission system
63. Which one of the following is not a function or responsibility of the US political parties? (Rigorous)
66. The Bill of Rights says that any rights it does not mention are: (Rigorous)
A. Conducting elections or the voting process
A. Reserved to the federal government
B. Obtaining funds needed for election campaigns
B. Not important C. Choosing candidates to run for public office
C. Judged by the Supreme Court
D. Making voters aware of issues and other public affairs information
D. Reserved to the states or to the people
64. On the spectrum of American politics, the label that most accurately describes voters to the “right of center” is: (Average Rigor) A. Moderates B. Liberals C. Conservatives D. Socialists
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 69. What was George Washington’s advice to Americans about foreign policy? (Rigorous)
67. America’s weak foreign policy and lack of adequate diplomacy during the 1870s and 1880s led to the comment that “a special Providence takes care of fools, drunkards, and the United States” is attributed to: (Average Rigor)
A. America should have strong alliances B. America should avoid alliances
A. Otto von Bismarck C. Foreign policy should take precedence over domestic policy
B. Benjamin Disraeli C. William Gladstone
D. Domestic policy should take precedence over foreign policy
D. Paul von Hindenburg 68. The doctrine that sought to keep Communism from spreading was: (Average Rigor)
70. “Walk softly and carry a big stick” is a statement associated with: (Average Rigor)
A. The Cold War A. Franklin Roosevelt B. Roll-back B. Theodore Roosevelt C. Containment C. George Washington D. Détente D. Thomas Hobbes
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 74. A political system in which the laws and traditions put limits on the powers of government is: (Average Rigor)
71. The foundation of modern constitutionalism is embodied in the idea that government is limited by law. This was stated by: (Rigorous)
A. Federalism A. John Locke B. Constitutionalism B. Rousseau C. Parliamentary system C. St. Thomas Aquinas D. Presidential system D. Montesquieu 75. A political philosophy favoring or supporting rapid social changes in order to correct social and economic inequalities is called: (Rigorous)
72. The idea of universal peace through world organization was a philosophy of: (Rigorous) A. Rousseau
A. Nationalism B. Immanuel Kant B. Liberalism C. Montesquieu C. Conservatism D. John Locke D. Federalism 73. The principle that “men entrusted with power tend to abuse it” is attributed to: (Average Rigor)
76. Marxism believes which two groups are in continual conflict? (Rigorous)
A. Locke A. Farmers and landowners B. Rousseau B. Kings and the nobility C. Aristotle C. Workers and owners D. Montesquieu D. Structure and superstructure
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 77.
80.
Which of the following is an example of a direct democracy? (Rigorous)
Socialists believe that the government should have a ________ role in the economy: (Average Rigor)
A. Elected representatives A. Lesser B. Greek city-states B. Greater C. The United States Senate C. Equal with business D. The United States House of Representative 78.
D. Less than business 81.
The first organized citystates arose in: (Average Rigor) A. Egypt
One difference between totalitarianism and authoritarianism is that totalitarianism believes in: (Average Rigor) A. Total control over all aspects of society
B. China C. Sumer
B. Minimum government control
D. Greece 79.
C. There is no difference
The founder of the first Communist party and the first leader of the Soviet Union was: (Average Rigor)
D. The difference is unknown
A. Joseph Stalin B. Vladimir Lenin C. John Lennon D. Karl Marx
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 82.
84.
One difference between a presidential and a parliamentary system is in a parliamentary system: (Rigorous)
A. A professional managerial class
A. The Prime Minister is head of government while a president or monarch is head of state
B. The owners of business and industry C. The workers
B. The President is head of government and the VicePresident is head of state
D. The state 85.
C. The President protempore of the Senate is head of state while the Prime Minister is head of government
83.
In a communist system, _________ controls the means of production. (Average Rigor)
Machiavelli was most concerned with describing: (Average Rigor) A. Modern warfare
D. The President appoints the head of state
B. Ancient political philosophy
In an indirect democracy: (Rigorous)
C. Representative government
A. All the people together decide on issues
D. Getting and keeping political power 86.
B. People elect representatives to act for them
Oligarchy refers to: (Easy) A. Rule of a single leader
C. Democracy can never really work
B. The rule of a single political party
D. Government is less efficient than a direct democracy
C. Rule by a select few D. Rule by many
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 87.
89.
Which statement closely resembles the political philosophy of Thomas Hobbes? (Rigorous)
In a parliamentary system, the person who becomes Prime Minister usually: (Average Rigor) A. Chosen by the cabinet
A. Citizens should give obedience to the state authority as a means of survival in a world where man’s nature drives selfinterest and makes man selfish and self-acting
B. Elected by a direct national vote C. Chosen by the president of the country D. Chosen by a majority or coalition of parties in the parliament
B. That citizens have a right to rise against the state whenever they choose 90. C. All state authority is basically evil and should be eliminated
88.
The “cult of personality” is an idea most associated with: (Average Rigor)
D. People are generally good and cooperative if given a chance
A. Democracy
As a rule, the relationship between fascism and communism is: (Average Rigor)
C. Fascism
B. Anarchism
D. Communism
91.
A. They are the same thing B. Unknown at present
Which political economic system discourages private land ownership? (Rigorous)
C. Antagonistic A. Capitalism D. Cooperative B. Socialism C. Agriculturalism D. Welfare Capitalism
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 92.
95.
The “history of all societies is one of class struggle” is a statement associated with: (Average Rigor)
A. A private or civil action brought into court
A. John Locke
B. A type of confection
B. Thomas Jefferson
C. A penal offense
C. Karl Marx
D. One who solicits 96.
A. Belonging to a political party
The results of the Renaissance, Enlightenment, Commercial and Industrial Revolutions were more unfortunate for the people of: (Rigorous)
B. Educating oneself
A. Asia
C. Running for political office
B. Latin America
D. Voting
C. Africa
To plead “the Fifth Amendment” means to: (Rigorous)
D. Middle East
D. Thomas Hobbes 93.
94.
A “tort” refers to: (Average Rigor)
An obligation identified with citizenship is: (Easy)
97.
B. Plead “no contest” in court
Which ancient civilization is credited with being the first to develop irrigation techniques through the use of canals, dikes, and devices for raising water? (Easy)
C. Ask for freedom of speech
A. The Sumerians
D. Ask to appear before a judge when charged with a crime
B. The Egyptians
A. Refuse to speak so one does not incriminate oneself
C. The Babylonians D. The Akkadians
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 101. Bathtubs, hot and cold running water, and sewage systems with flush toilets were developed by the: (Average Rigor)
98. An early cultural group was so skillful in navigating on the seas that they were able to sail at night guided by stars. They were the: (Average Rigor)
A. Minoans A. Greeks B. Mycenaeans B. Persians C. Phoenicians C. Minoans D. Greeks D. Phoenicians 102. The end to hunting, gathering, and fishing of prehistoric people was due to: (Average Rigor)
99. Development of a solar calendar, invention of the decimal system, and contributions to the development of geometry and astronomy are all the legacy of: (Average Rigor)
A. Domestication of animals B. Building crude huts and houses
A. The Babylonians C. Development of agriculture
B. The Persians
D. Organized government in villages
C. The Sumerians D. The Egyptians 100. The first ancient civilization to introduce and practice monotheism was the: (Average Rigor) A. Sumerians B. Minoans C. Phoenicians D. Hebrews
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 103.
105.
The early ancient civilizations developed systems of government: (Rigorous)
The “father of anatomy” is considered to be: (Easy) A. Vesalius
A. To provide for defense against attack
B. Servetus
B. To regulate trade
C. Galen
C. To regulate and direct the economic activities of the people as they worked together in groups
D. Harvey 106.
D. To decide on the boundaries of the different fields during planting seasons
“Poverty is the parent of revolution and crime” was from the writings of: (Average Rigor) A. Plato B. Aristotle
104.
Which one of the following is not an important legacy of the Byzantine Empire? (Rigorous)
C. Cicero D. Gaius 107.
A. It protected Western Europe from various attacks from the East by such groups as the Persians, Ottoman Turks, and Barbarians B. It played a part in preserving the literature, philosophy, and language of ancient Greece
A. The language of Latin B. Roman law, justice, and political system
C. Its military organization was the foundation for modern armies
C. Engineering and building D. The writings of its poets an historians
D. It kept the legal traditions of Roman government, collecting and organizing many ancient Roman laws
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The Roman Empire gave so much to the world, especially the Western world. Of the legacies below, the most influential, effective and lasting is: (Rigorous)
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 108.
111.
The circumference of the earth, which greatly contributed to geographic knowledge was calculated by: (Easy) A. Ptolemy
China’s last imperial ruling dynasty was one of its most stable and successful and, under its rule, Chinese culture made an outstanding impression on Western nations. This dynasty was: (Rigorous)
B. Eratosthenes A. Min C. Galileo B. Manchu D. Strabo C. Han 109.
India’s greatest ruler is considered to be: (Rigorous)
D. Chou 112.
A. Akbar
The world religion which includes a caste system is: (Average Rigor)
B. Asoka A. Buddhism C. Babur B. Hinduism D. Jahan C. Sikhism 110.
An extensive knowledge of surgery and medicine as well as principles of irrigation, fertilization and terrace farming was unique to: (Easy)
D. Jainism 113.
The principle of zero in mathematics is the discovery of the ancient civilization found in: (Easy)
A. The Mayans A. Egypt B. The Atacamas B. Persia C. The Incas C. India D. The Tarapacas D. Babylon
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 114.
116.
In Western Europe, the achievements of the Renaissance were unsurpassed and made these countries outstanding cultural centers on the continent. All of the following were accomplishments except: (Rigorous)
A. Extensive exploration B. Craft workers and their guilds
A. Investment of the printing press
C. The invention of the printing press
B. A rekindling of interest in the learning of classical Greece and Rome
D. Increased travel and trade
117.
C. Growth in literature, philosophy and art D. Better military tactics
115.
Which one of the following did not contribute to the early medieval European civilization? (Rigorous) A. The heritage from the classical cultures
The changing focus during the Renaissance when artists and scholars were less concerned with religion but centered their efforts on a better understanding of people and the world was called: (Easy)
B. The Christian religion C. The influence of the German Barbarians D. The spread of ideas through trade and commerce
A. Realism B. Humanism C. Individualism D. Intellectualism
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The ideas and innovations of the period of the Renaissance were spread throughout Europe mainly because of: (Rigorous)
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 118.
119.
120.
Charlemagne’s most important influence on Western civilization is seen today in: (Rigorous)
Which one of the following is not a reason why Europeans came to the New World? (Rigorous)
A. Relationship of church and state
A. To find resources in order to increase wealth
B. Strong military for defense
B. To establish trade
C. The criminal justice system
C. To increase a ruler’s power and importance
D. Education of women
D. To spread Christianity
Which French Renaissance writer wrote about the dangers of absolute powers and later examined himself in an effort to make inquiries into humankind and nature? (Average Rigor)
121.
The Age of Exploration begun in the 1400s was led by: (Easy) A. The Portuguese B. The Spanish
A. Francois Rabelais
C. The English
B. Desiderius Erasmus
D. The Dutch
C. Michel de Montaigne
122.
D. Sir Francis Bacon
Who is considered to be the most important figure in the spread of Protestantism across Switzerland? (Average Rigor) A. Calvin B. Zwingli C. Munzer D. Leyden
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 123.
The English explorer who gave England its claim to North America was: (Average Rigor)
126.
A. Raleigh
Historians state that the West helped to speed up the Industrial Revolution. Which one of the following statements was not a reason for this? (Rigorous)
B. Hawkins A. Food supplies for the ever increasing urban populations came from farms in the West
C. Drake D. Cabot 124.
B. A tremendous supply of gold and silver from western mines provided the capital needed to built industries
The “divine right” of kings was the key political characteristic of: (Average Rigor) A. The Age of Absolutism
C. Descendants of western settlers, educated as engineers, geologists, and metallurgists in the East, returned to the West to mine the mineral resources needed for industry
B. The Age of Reason C. The Age of Feudalism D. The Age of Despotism 125.
Colonial expansion by Western European powers in the 18th and 19th centuries was due primarily to: (Rigorous)
D. Iron, copper, and other minerals from western mines were important resources in manufacturing products
A. Building and opening the Suez Canal B. The Industrial Revolution C. Marked improvements in transportation D. Complete independence of all the Americas and loss of European domination and influence
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 127.
129.
One South American country quickly and easily gained independence in the 19th century from European control; was noted for the uniqueness of its political stability and gradual orderly changes. This most unusual Latin American country is: (Average Rigor)
Which one of the following would not be considered a result of World War II? (Rigorous) A. Economic depressions and slow resumption of trade and financial aid B. Western Europe was no longer the center of world power
A. Chile C. The beginnings of new power struggles not only in Europe but in Asia as well
B. Argentina C. Venezuela
D. Territorial and boundary changes for many nations, especially in Europe
D. Brazil
128.
130.
B. Kaiser William II
A well-known World War II figure who said that ”democracy was like a rotting corpse that had to be replaced by a superior way of life and more efficient government” was: (Easy)
C. Von Moltke
A. Hitler
D. Hindenburg
B. Stalin
Nineteenth century German unification was the result of the hard work of: (Average Rigor) A. Otto von Bismarck
C. Tojo D. Mussolini
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 131.
134.
The international organization established to work for world peace at the end of the Second World War is the: (Average Rigor)
Which one of the following Indian groups was not found in the West Indies? (Average Rigor) A. Totonacs
A. League of Nations
B. Caribs
B. United Federation of Nations
C. Ciboney D. Arawaks
C. United Nations D. United World League 132.
135.
Of all the major causes of both World Wars I and II, the most significant one is considered to be: (Rigorous)
A. Delaware
A. Extreme nationalism
B. Virginia
B. Military buildup and aggression
C. Georgia D. New York
C. Political unrest 136.
D. Agreements and alliances
133.
The international organization established to work for world peace at the end of the First World War was the: (Easy)
Of the thirteen English colonies, the greatest degree of religious toleration was found in: (Average Rigor) A. Maryland B. Rhode Island C. Pennsylvania
A. United Earth League
D. Delaware
B. Confederate States C. United Nations D. League of Nations
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The only colony not founded and settled for religious, political or business reasons was: (Rigorous)
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 137.
138.
The year 1619 was a memorable for the colony of Virginia. Three important events occurred resulting in lasting effects on US history. Which one of the following is not one of the events? (Average Rigor) A. Twenty African slaves arrived. B. The London Company granted the colony a charter making it independent.
Seventeen sixty-three was the year of Great Britain’s total victory over her European rivals and the establishment of a global empire. Of the American colonies, a European statesman accurately prophesied that these colonies no longer needed English protection and would soon gain independence. He was: (Average Rigor) A. Edmund Burke B. Comte de Rochambeau
C. The colonists were given the right by the London Company to govern themselves through representative government in the Virginia House of Burgesses
C. Count Vergennes D. William Pitt 139.
D. The London Company sent to the colony 60 women who were quickly married, establishing families and stability in the colony.
“These are the times that try men’s souls” were words penned by: (Easy) A. Thomas Jefferson B. Samuel Adams C. Benjamin Franklin D. Thomas Paine
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 140.
142.
After 1783, the largest “land owner” in the Americas was: (Easy) A. Britain
The political document that was the first to try to organize the newly independent American colonies was the: (Average Rigor) A. Declaration of Independence
B. Spain C. France
B. Articles of Confederation D. United States C. The Constitution 141.
France decided in 1777 to help the American colonies in their war against Britain. This decision was based on: (Rigorous)
D. The Confederate States 143.
Give the correct order of the following: (Rigorous) A. The Constitution, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation
A. The naval victory of John Paul Jones over the British ship “Serapis” B. The survival of the terrible winter at Valley Forge
B. The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, the Articles of Confederation
C. The success of colonial guerilla fighters in the South
C. The Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, the Constitution
D. The defeat of the British at Saratoga
D. The Articles of Confederation, the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 144.
147.
The Declaration of Independence owes much to the philosophy of: (Rigorous)
Which one of the following was not a reason why the United States went to war with Great Britain in 1812? (Rigorous)
A. Vladimir Lenin A. Resentment by Spain over the sale exploration, and settlement of the Louisiana Territory
B. Karl Marx C. Thomas Hobbes
B. The westward movement of farmers because of the need for more land
D. John Locke
145.
Which one of the following events did not occur during the period known as the “Era of Good Feeling?” (Rigorous)
C. Canadian fur traders were agitating the northwestern Indians to fight American expansion D. Britain continued to seize American ships on the high seas and force American seamen to serve aboard British ships
A. President Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine B. Spain ceded Florida to the United States 148.
C. The building of the National Road D. The charter of the second Bank of the United States
146.
The US Constitution was ratified by the required number of states in: (Easy)
The principle of “popular sovereignty” allowing people in any territory to make their own decision concerning slavery was stated by; (Average Rigor) A. Henry Clay B. Daniel Webster
A. August, 1861
C. John C. Calhoun
B. July, 1776
D. Stephen A. Douglas
C. June, 1788 D. September, 1848
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 149.
151.
US foreign minister Robert R. Livingstone said, “From this day the United States takes their place among the greatest powers.” He was referring to the action taken by President Thomas Jefferson: (Average Rigor)
A. Better farming methods and technology
A. Who had authorized the purchase of the Louisiana Purchase
B. Surveying to set boundaries
B. Who sent the US Marines and naval ships to fight the Barbary pirates
C. Immigrants and others to seek new land D. The railroad to get them there
C. Who had commissioned the Lewis and Clark expedition 152. D. Who repealed the Embargo Act 150.
Many American authors were noted for “local Color” writings about the way of life in certain regions. Which one of the following was not associated with the other three in writing about life in the mining camps of the West? (Average Rigor)
The belief that the United States should control all of North America was called: (Easy) A. Westward Expansion B. Pan Americanism C. Manifest Destiny D. Nationalism
A. Hamlin Garland B. Joaquin Miller C. Bret Harte D. Mark Twain
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From about 1870 to 1900 the settlement of America’s “last frontier”, the West, was completed. One attraction for settlers was free land but it would have been to no avail without: (Rigorous)
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 153.
154.
155.
A. America has a right to spread throughout the American continent from coast to coast
The post-Civil War years were a time of low public morality, a time of greed, graft, and dishonesty. Which one of the reasons listed would not be accurate? (Rigorous)
B. The United States should respect the right of native peoples encounters in its push westward
A. The war itself because of the money and materials needed to carry on the War
C. The rest of the world powers should stay out of this part of the world
B. The very rapid growth of industry and big business after the War
D. America should strive to be the dominant world power
C. The personal example set by President Grant
The American concept of Manifest Destiny means: (Average Rigor)
D. Unscrupulous heads of large impersonal corporations
After the War of 1812, Henry Clay and others proposed economic measures, including raising tariffs to protect American farmers and manufacturers from foreign competition. These measures were proposed in the period known as: (Average Rigor)
156.
After the Civil War, the US adapted an attitude of isolation from foreign affairs. But the turning point marking the beginning of the US becoming a world power was: (Rigorous)
A. Era of Nationalism A. World War I B. American Expansion B. Expansion of business and trade overseas
C. Era of Good Feeling
C. The Spanish-American War
D. American System
D. The building and financial of the Panama Canal
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 157.
159.
The three day Battle of Gettysburg was the turning point of the Civil War for the North leading to ultimate victory. The battle in the West reinforcing the North’s victory and sealing the South’s defeat came the day after Gettysburg at: (Rigorous)
It can be reasonably stated that the change in the United States from primarily an agricultural country into an industrial power was due to all of the following except: (Rigorous) A. Tariffs on foreign imports B. Millions of hardworking immigrants
A. Perryville B. Vicksburg
C. An increase in technological developments
C. Stones River D. Shiloh 158.
D. The change from steam to electricity for powering industrial machinery
The Radical Republicans who pushed the harsh Reconstruction measures through Congress after Lincoln’s death lost public and moderate Republican support when they went too far: (Rigorous)
160.
A. During the building of the railroads
A. In their efforts to impeach the President
B. After 1865 with the growth of cities
B. By dividing ten southern states into militarycontrolled districts
C. With the rise of industrial giants such as Carnegie and Vanderbilt
C. By making the ten southern states give freed African-Americans the right to vote
D. During the war years of 1861-1865
D. Sending carpetbaggers into the South to build up support for Congressional legislation
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The American labor union movement started gaining new momentum: (Rigorous)
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 161.
163.
During the 1920s, the United States almost completely stopped all immigration. One of the reasons was: (Rigorous)
A. Limited its involvement in European affairs
A. Plentiful cheap unskilled labor was no longer needed by industrialists
B. Shifted foreign policy emphasis from Europe to Asia
B. War debts from World War I made it difficult to render financial assistance
C. Passed significant legislation pertaining to aid to farmers and tariffs on imports
C. European nations were reluctant to allow people to leave since there was a need to rebuild populations and economic stability
D. Entered the greatest period of economic growth in its history 164.
D. The United States did not become a member of the League of Nations
162.
After World War II, the United States: (Rigorous)
The makeup of today’s modern newspapers including comics, puzzles, sports, and columnists was a technique first used by: (Average Rigor)
A number of women worked hard in the first half of the 19th century for women’s rights but decisive gains did not come until after 1850. The earliest accomplishments were in: (Average Rigor) A. Medicine B. Education C. Writing
A. William Randolph Hearst D. Temperance B. Edward W. Scripps C. Joseph Pulitzer D. Charles A. Dana
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 165.
168.
In which of the following disciplines would the study of physical mapping, modern or ancient, and the plotting of points and boundaries be least useful? (Rigorous)
The study of social behavior of minority groups would be in the area of: (Average Rigor) A. Anthropology B. Psychology
A. Sociology C. Sociology B. Geography D. Cultural Geography C. Archaeology 169. D. History 166.
The only Central American country with no standing army, a freely elected government, and considered the oldest democracy in the region is: (Average Rigor)
A. History B. Anthropology C. Cultural Geography D. Archaeology
A. Costa Rica 170.
B. Belize C. Honduras D. Guatemala 167.
The study of past human cultures based on physical artifacts is: (Average Rigor)
Geography was first studied in an organized manner by: (Easy)
The study of the exercise of power and political behavior in human society today would be conducted by experts in: (Easy) A. History B. Sociology
A. The Egyptians C. Political Science B. The Greeks D. Anthropology C. The Romans D. The Arabs
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 171.
173.
Public administration, such as public officials in the areas of budget, accounting, distribution of public funds, and personnel management, would be part of the field of: (Average Rigor)
The study of “spatial relationships and interaction” would be done by people in the field of: (Average Rigor) A. Political Science B. Anthropology
A. Anthropology C. Geography B. Sociology D. Sociology C. Law and Taxation 174. Which scientist has made major contributions to the study of human origins? (Average Rigor)
D. Political Science and Economics 172.
The philosopher who coined the term “sociology” also stated that social behavior and events could be measured scientifically. He is identified as: (Average Rigor)
A. Evans B. Schliemann C. Margaret Mead D. The Leakeys
A. Auguste Comte B. Herbert Spencer C. Rousseau D. Kant
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 175.
176.
177.
The chemical process of radiocarbon dating would be most useful and beneficial in the field of: (Average Rigor)
“Participant observation” is a method of study most closely associated with and used in: (Rigorous)
A. Archaeology
A. Anthropology
B. Geography
B. Archaeology
C. Sociology
C. Sociology
D. Anthropology
D. Political Science 178.
Nineteenth century imperialism by Western European nations had important and far-reaching effects on the colonial peoples they ruled. All four of the following are the result of this. Which one was most important and had lasting effects on key 20th century events? (Rigorous)
The study of a people’s language and writing would be part of all of the following except: (Rigorous) A. Sociology B. Archaeology C. History D. Geography
A. Local wars were ended 179.
B. Living standards were raised C. Demands for selfgovernment and feelings of nationalism surfaced
Who is considered to be the first European explorer of the Arizona region? A. Hernando De Soto B. Cabeza de Vaca C. Marcos de Niza
D. Economic developments occurred
D. Juan de Onate
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 180.
183. Often cited as a major cause of United States involvement World War I this event had a significant tie to Arizona:
When was Arizona admitted as the 48th State of the United States? A. 1821
A. Sinking of USS Maine B. 1848 B. Sinking of the USS Arizona C. 1853 C. Zimmerman Telegram D. 1912 D. Thornton Affair 181.
182.
184. The following Arizonan was not a candidate for United States President:
Which Indian culture was not a major force in Arizonian History? A. Cherokee
A. Morris Udall
B. Navajo
B. Stewart Udall
C. Hohokam
C. Barry Goldwater
D. Apache
D. John McCain 185. The westernmost battle of the Civil War took place at:
Which city was not a capital of Arizona? A. Prescott
A. Phoenix
B. Tucson
B. Picacho Peak
C. Phoenix
C. Santa Fe
D. Tombstone
D. Fort Yuma
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 186. The Gadsden Purchase between the United States and Mexico acquired the southern portion of New Mexico and Arizona from Mexico. The primary interest of the United States in acquiring this property was: A. Silver mines B. Helping Santa Anna, the Mexican President C. Establish forts along the Mexican border D. Construct railroad lines
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE Answer Key 1. D 2. D 3. C 4. C 5. D 6. C 7. C 8. A 9. A 10. A 11. C 12. C 13. B 14. C 15. A 16. A 17. D 18. C 19. D 20. D 21. C 22. A 23. B 24. C 25. C 26. B 27. D 28. A 29. C 30. C 31. B 32. B 33. C 34. C 35. D 36. B 37. B 38. B 39. A 40. D
41. B 42. A 43. D 44. B 45. D 46. D 47. C 48. D 49. A 50. C 51. B 52. B 53. A 54. A 55. A 56. C 57. A 58. D 59. D 60. A 61. C 62. C 63. A 64. C 65. A 66. D 67. A 68. C 69. B 70. B 71. C 72. B 73. D 74. B 75. B 76. C 77. B 78. C 79. B 80. B
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81. A 82. A 83. B 84. D 85. D 86. C 87. A 88. C 89. D 90. C 91. B 92. C 93. D 94. A 95. A 96. C 97. A 98. D 99. D 100. D 101. A 102. C 103. C 104. C 105. A 106. B 107. B 108. B 109. A 110. C 111. B 112. B 113. C 114. D 115. B 116. C 117. D 118. A 119. C 120. B
121. A 122. A 123. D 124. A 125. B 126. C 127. D 128. A 129. A 130. D 131. C 132. A 133. D 134. A 135. C 136. B 137. B 138. C 139. D 140. B 141. D 142. B 143. C 144. D 145. A 146. C 147. A 148. D 149. A 150. A 151. D 152. C 153. A 154. D 155. C 156. C 157. B 158. A 159. A 160. B
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161. A 162. C 163. D 164. B 165. A 166. A 167. B 168. C 169. D 170. C 171. D 172. A 173. C 174. D 175. A 176. C 177. A 178. A 179. C 180. D 181. A 182. D 183. C 184. B 185. B 186. B
TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE Rigor Table
Easy 20% 1,3,5,7,8,9,10,11,20,24,35,4 0,43,45,52,59,61,86,93,97,1 05,108,110,113,115,121,130 ,133,139,140,146,152, 167, 170
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Average 40% 4,6,12,13,15,16,18,19,23, 25,26,28,39,42,44,53,54, 55,58,60,64,65,67,68,70, 73,74,78,79,80,81,84,85, 88,89,90,92,95,98,99,100 ,101,102,106,112,119, 122,123,124,127,128,131 ,134,136,137,138,142, 148,149,150,153,154,162 ,164, 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175
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Rigorous 40% 2,14,17,21,22,27,29,30,31, 32,33,34,36,37,38,41,46,47 ,48,49,50,51,56,57,62,63,6 6,69,71,72,75,76,77,82,83, 87,91,94,96,103,104,107, 109,111,114,116,117,118,1 20,125,126,129,132,135, 141,143,144,145,147,151,1 55,156,157,158,159,160, 161,163, 165, 176, 177, 178
TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE Rationales with Sample Questions 1.
Studies in astronomy, skills in mapping, and other contributions to geographic knowledge came from: (Easy) A. Galileo B. Columbus C. Eratosthenes D. Ptolemy
Answer: D. Ptolemy Ptolemy (2nd century AD) was important in the fields of astronomy and geography. His theory stated that the earth was the center of the universe and all the other planets rotated around it, a theory that was later proven false. Ptolemy was important for his contributions to the fields of mapping, mathematics, and geography. Galileo (1564-1642) was also important in the field of astronomy but did not make the mapping and geographic contributions of Ptolemy. He invented and used the world’s first telescope and advanced Copernicus’ theory that the earth revolved around the sun, much to the dismay of the Church. 2.
Which one of the following does not affect climate? (Rigorous) A. Elevation and altitude B. Ocean currents C. Latitude D. Longitude
Answer: D. Longitude Latitude is the primary influence of earth’s climate as it determines the climatic region in which an area lies. Elevation or altitude and ocean currents are considered to be secondary influences on climate. Longitude is considered to have no important influence over climate.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 3.
Soil erosion is most likely to occur in large amounts in: (Easy) A. Mountain ranges B. Deserts C. Tropical rainforests D. River valleys
Answer: C. Tropical rainforests Soil erosion is most likely to occur in tropical rainforests as the large amount of constant rainfall moves the soil at a greater rate across a greater area. Mountain ranges and river valleys experience some soil erosion but don’t have the levels of precipitation found in a tropical rainforest. Deserts have virtually no soil erosion due to their climate. 4.
Soil erosion is most likely to occur in large amounts in: (Easy) A. Mountain ranges B. Deserts C. Tropical rainforests D. River valleys
Answer: C. Tropical rainforests Soil erosion is most likely to occur in tropical rainforests as the large amount of constant rainfall moves the soil at a greater rate across a greater area. Mountain ranges and river valleys experience some soil erosion but don’t have the levels of precipitation found in a tropical rainforest. Deserts have virtually no soil erosion due to their climate.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 5.
The geographical drought-stricken region of Africa south of the Sahara and extending east and west from Senegal to Somalia is: (Easy) A. The Kalahari B. The Namib C. The Great Rift Valley D. The Sahel
Answer: D. The Sahel The (A) Kalahari is located between the Orange and Zambezi Rivers and has an annual rainfall of about 5 to 20 inches. The (B) Namib is a desert, rocky plateau along the coast of Namibia in Southwest Africa that receives less than .5 inches of rainfall annually. The (C) Great Rift Valley is a fault system that runs 3000 miles from Syria to Mozambique and has great variations in elevation. Therefore, it is the (D) Sahel, the region of Africa South of the Sahara and extending East and West from Senegal to Somalia. The Sahel experienced a serious drought in the 1960s and then again in the 1980s and 1990s. International relief efforts have been focused there in an effort to keep the region alive. 6.
Meridians, or lines of longitude, not only help in pinpointing locations, but are also used for: (Average Rigor) A. Measuring distance from the Poles B. Determining direction of ocean currents C. Determining the time around the world D. Measuring distance on the Equator
Answer: C. Determining the time around the world Meridians, or lines of longitude, are the determining factor in separating time zones and determining time around the world.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 7.
The Yangtze River primarily flows in which direction? (Easy) A. North B. South C. East D. West
Answer: C. East The Yangtze River runs from Tibet through China and flows eastward to the Pacific Ocean. The Yangtze River is an important travel and trade route through China and meets the Pacific at Shanghai.
8.
The Nile River flows in which direction? (Easy) A. North B. South C. East D. West
Answer: A. North The Nile River flows from Central Africa, north to the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile River Delta is in Egypt.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 9.
The Ganges River empties into the: (Easy) A. Bay of Bengal B. Arabian Sea C. Red Sea D. Arafura Sea
Answer: A. Bay of Bengal The Ganges River runs 1,560 miles, northeast through India across the plains to the Bay of Bengal in Bangladesh. The Ganges is considered to be the most sacred river in India according to the Hindus. 10. Maps as a rule are: (Easy) A. All subject to some sort of distortion B. Always entirely accurate C. Not very useful in political science studies D. Difficult usually to understand Answer: A. All subject to some sort of distortion Maps as a rule are all subject to some sort of distortion. Since they are representing a three-dimensional world in a two-dimensional representation, it will never be completely accurate. Even maps that are specifically designed to limit distortion still will lack total accuracy. Maps are still very helpful in most social science disciplines and generally designed to be understood easily using keys and symbols.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 11. The name for those who make maps is: (Easy) A. Haberdasher B. Geographer C. Cartographer D. Demographer Answer: C. Cartographer (A) Haberdasher is a “British dealer in men’s furnishings” according to the dictionary. (B) Geographers study mostly locations, conditions, and spatial relations. (C) Cartographers are people who make maps. (D) Demographers would be most concerned with the study of human populations.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 12. The “father” of modern economics is considered by most economists today to be: (Average Rigor) A. Thomas Robert Malthus B. John Stuart Mill C. Adam Smith D. John Maynard Keynes Answer: C. Adam Smith Adam Smith (1723-1790) is considered by many to be the “father” of modern economics. In the Wealth of Nations, Smith advocated for little or no government interference in the economy. Smith claimed that individuals’ self-interest would bring about the public’s welfare. It is important to note that Smith was firmly against the free market systems of monopoly power and warned that the private sector, particularly large manufacturers, if left unregulated could potentially stand in opposition to the public welfare. John Maynard Keynes 1883-1946) was also an important economist. He advocated an economic system in which government regulations and spending on public works would stimulate the economy and lead to full employment. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was a progressive British philosopher and economist, whose ideas came closer to socialism than to the classical capitalist ideas of Adam Smith. Mill constantly advocated for political and social reforms, including emancipation for women, labor organizations, and farming cooperatives. Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) was a British economist who introduced the study of population and early on considered famine, war, and disease to be the primary checks on world population. He later modified his views and recognized his early theoretical shortcomings and shifted his focus to the causes of unemployment.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 13. Which political theorist says that capitalism could be maintained if there were sufficient checks on the economy? (Average Rigor) A. Marx B. Keynes C. Weber D. Locke Answer: B. Keynes The great German political and economic philosopher (A) Karl Marx (1818-1883), who is generally regarded as the founder of modern socialism and communism, believed that capitalism was not fixable and was the pretense for the rise of revolutionary socialism and communism. (B) John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) advocated an economic system in which government regulations and spending on public works (checks and balances) would stimulate the economy and lead to full employment. This broke from the classical idea that free markets would lead to full employment and prosperity. He was still a firm believer in capitalism, but in a less classical sense. (C) Max Weber (1864-1920) was a German sociologist most concerned with examining social and environmental roles in the rise of capitalism, such as the ideals of religion (Calvinism) and its influence on economics (capitalism). (D) John Locke (1632-1704), whose book Two Treatises of Government has long been considered a founding document on the rights of people to rebel against an unjust government was an important figure in the founding of the US Constitution and on general politics of the American Colonies.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 14. The idea that continued population growth would, in future years, seriously affect a nation’s productive capabilities was stated by: (Rigorous) A. Keynes B. Mill C. Malthus D. Friedman Answer: C. Malthus (C) John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) advocated an economic system in which government regulations and spending on public works would stimulate the economy and lead to full employment. (C) Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) was the English economist who had the idea that population growth would seriously affect a nation’s productive capabilities. Malthus’ ideas also included predictions about running out of food and a natural selection-like process brought about by population that would maintain balance. His theory was proven wrong long ago. (B) Mill (1806 -1973), an English economist and (D) Friedman (1912- ) an American economist contrasted one another greatly. Mill was almost a Socialist and wrote the early work in Political Economy while Friedman was a financial advisor in the arch conservative government of President Ronald Reagan.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 15. A boycott is: (Average Rigor) A. The refusal to buy goods or services B. An imbalance of trade C. The refusal to speak in court D. A Writ of Assistance Answer: A. The refusal to buy goods or services A boycott is the refusal to buy goods or services. Boycotts were used as a powerful tool of nonviolent fighting during the fifties and sixties by civil rights activists. An example is the us boycott in Montgomery, Alabama in 1955 started when Mrs. Rosa Parks refused to obey the law forcing segregation on public buses. This boycott was successful in achieving the goal. In 1956 the Supreme Court outlawed segregation on public buses. 16. The study of ways in which different societies around the world deal with the problems of limited resources and unlimited needs and wants is in the area of: (Average Rigor) A. Economics B. Sociology C. Anthropology D. Political Science Answer: A. Economics The study of the ways in which different societies around the world deal with the problems of limited resources and unlimited needs and wants is a study of Economics. Economists consider the law of supply and demand as fundamental to the study of the economy. However, Sociology and Political Science also consider the study of economics and its importance in understanding social and political systems.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 17. The idea or proposal for more equal division of profits among employers and workers was put forth by: (Rigorous) A. Karl Marx B. Thomas Malthus C. Adam Smith D. John Stuart Mill Answer: D. John Stuart Mill (A) Karl Marx (1818-1883) was the German social philosopher and economist who wrote The Communist Manifesto and numerous other landmark works in his goal to help the world understand the inability of capitalism to provide for the workers, the idea of class struggle, and the central role of economy. (B) Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) was a British economist who introduced the study of population and early on considered famine, war, and disease to be the primary checks on world population. He later modified his views and recognized his early theoretical shortcoming and shifted his focus to the causes of unemployment. (C) Adam Smith (1723-1790) is considered by many to be the “father” of modern capitalist economics. In the Wealth of Nations, Smith advocated for little or no government interference in the economy. Smith claimed that an individual’s selfinterest would bring about the public’s welfare. It is important to note that Smith was firmly against the free market systems of monopoly power and warned that the private sector, particularly large manufacturers, if left unregulated could potentially stand in opposition to the public welfare. (D) John Stuart Mill (18061873) was the progressive British philosopher and economist whose ideas came closer to socialism than to the classical capitalist ideas of Adam Smith. Mill constantly advocated for political and social reforms, including emancipation for women, labor organizations, farming cooperatives, and most importantly a more equal division of profits among employers and workers.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 18. The purchase of goods or services on one market for immediate resale on another market is: (Average Rigor) A. Output B. Enterprise C. Arbitrage D. Mercantile Answer: C. Arbitrage Output is an amount produced or manufactured by an industry. Enterprise is simply any business organization. Mercantile is one of the first systems of economics in which goods were exchanged. Therefore, arbitrage is an item or service that an industry produces. The dictionary definition of arbitrage is the purchase of securities on one market for immediate resale on another market in order to profit from a price discrepancy. 19. Potential customers for any product or service are not only called consumers but can also be called a: (Average Rigor) A. Resource B. Base C. Commodity D. Market Answer: D. Market Potential customers for any product or service are not only customers but can also be called a market. A resource is a source of wealth; natural resources are the basis for manufacturing goods and services. A commodity is anything that is bought or sold, any product.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 20. The economic system promoting individual ownership of land, capital, and businesses with minimal governmental regulations is called: (Easy) A. Macro-economy B. Micro-economy C. Laissez-faire D. Free enterprise Answer: D. Free Enterprise (D) Free enterprise or capitalism is the economic system that promotes private ownership of land, capital, and business with minimal government interference. (C) Laissez-faire is the idea that an “invisible hand” will guide the free enterprise system to the maximum potential efficiency. 21. Government regulation of economic activities for favorable balance of trade was the first major economic theory. It was called: (Rigorous) A. Laissez-faire B. Globalism C. Mercantilism D. Syndicalism Answer: C. Mercantilism (A) Laissez-faire is the doctrine that calls for no government interference in economic and political policy. (B) Globalism is not an economic or political theory, nor is it an actual word in the English language. Globalization is the idea that we are all increasingly connected in a worldwide system. (D) Syndicalism is similar to anarchism claiming that workers should control and govern economic policies and regulations as opposed to state control. Therefore, (C) mercantilism is the best regulation of economic activities for a favorable balance of trade.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 22. The economist who disagreed with the idea that free markets lead to full employment and prosperity and suggested that increasing government spending would end depressions was: (Rigorous) A. Keynes B. Malthus C. Smith D. Friedman Answer: A. Keynes John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946) advocated an economic system in which government regulations and spending on public works would stimulate the economy and lead to full employment. This broke from the classical idea that free markets would lead to full employment and prosperity. He was still a firm believer in capitalism, but in a less classical sense than Adam Smith (1723-1790), whose Wealth of Nations advocated for little or no government interference in the economy. Smith claimed that an individual’s self-interest would bring about the public’s welfare. It is important to note that Smith was firmly against the free market systems of monopoly power and warned that the private sector, particularly large manufacturers, if left unregulated could potentially stand in opposition to the public welfare.
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23. The belief that government should stay out of economic affairs is called: (Average Rigor) A. Mercantilism B. Laissez-faire C. Democratic-Socialism D. Corporatism Answer: B. Laissez-faire (A) Mercantilism was an economic system that dominated trade between the major nations of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries in which there was believed to be a fixed amount of wealth in the world and a country must attain the riches of another (usually in the form of precious metals0 in order to achieve economic growth. Mercantilism was characterized by intense government involvement in the economy. The belief that government should stay out of economic affairs, and thus the reactionary doctrine to mercantilism is called laissez-faire economics and follows a strict capitalist model of economics. (C) DemocraticSocialism showed up in European countries such as Sweden, Belgium, and the Netherlands following World War I. Democratic-Socialism called for democratic political parties to play an important role in shaping the economy in order to avoid the problems of free enterprise capitalism and exploitation in favor of more equality and nationalization.
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24. A tariff is: (Easy) A. A law passed by the Congress and vetoed by the President B. An appointed official mandated to preserve public order C. A tax a government places on internationally traded goods, usually goods entering a country D. A tax a government places on goods produced for domestic use, another name for it is a “sales tax” Answer: C. A tax a government places on internationally traded goods, usually goods entering a country A tariff is a tax that a government places on goods imported and entering a country. A tariff is not a law, although it can be enforced by law. Tariffs are often in place as a protection to domestic producers. Tax on domestic goods that are sold to domestic consumers is a sales tax. 25. George Washington’s opinion of America having trade with other nations was: (Average Rigor) A. Approval in only some instances B. Disapproval C. Approval D. Unsure Answer: C. Approval George Washington (1732-1799) approved of US trade with other nations although he was firmly against creating permanent alliances with foreign countries as evidenced by his farewell address in 1796.
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26. The process of the state taking over industries and businesses is called: (Average Rigor) A. Industrialization B. Nationalization C. Redistribution D. Amalgamation Answer: B. Nationalization The process by which the state takes over industries and businesses is called nationalization. This is characteristic of a socialist or communist system in which the state completely controls and regulates commerce. The opposite of nationalization, privatization is the process by which business and industry previously controlled by the government comes under control of private enterprise. 27. One method of trade restriction used by some nations is: (Rigorous) A. Limited treaties B. Floating exchange rate C. Bill of exchange D. Import quotas Answer: D. Import quotas One method of trade restriction used by some nations is import quotas. The amounts of goods imported are regulated in an effort to protect domestic enterprise and limit foreign competition. Both the United States and Japan, two of the world’s most industrialized nations have import quotas to protect domestic industries.
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28. The “father of political science” is considered to be: (Average Rigor) A. Aristotle B. John Locke C. Plato D. Thomas Hobbes Answer: A. Aristotle (D) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) wrote the important work Leviathan in which he pointed out that people are by all means selfish, individualistic animals that will always look out for themselves and therefore, the state must combat this nature desire. (B) John Locke (1632-1704) whose book Two Treatises of Government has long been considered a founding document on the rights of people to rebel against an unjust government was an important figure in the founding of the US Constitution and on general politics of the American Colonies. (C) Plato (427347 B.C.) and Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) both contributed to the field of political science. Both believed that political order would result in the greatest stability. In fact, Aristotle studied under Plato. Both Plato and Aristotle studied the ideas of causality and the Prime Mover, but their conclusions were different. Aristotle, however, is considered to be “the father of political science” because of his development of systems of political order the true development, a scientific system to study justice and political order.
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29. There is no doubt of the vast improvement of the U.S. Constitution over the weak Articles of Confederation. Which one of the four statements below is not a description of the document? (Rigorous) A. The establishment of a strong central government in no way lessened or weakened the individual states B. Individual rights were protected and secured C. The Constitution demands unquestioned respect and subservience to the federal government by all states and citizens D. Its flexibility and adaptation to change gives it a sense of timelessness Answer: C. The Constitution demands unquestioned respect and subservience to the federal government by all states and citizens. The U.S. Constitution was indeed a vast improvement over the Articles of Confederation and the authors of the document took great care to assure longevity. It clearly stated that the establishment of a strong central government in no way lessened or weakened the individual states. In the Bill of Rights, citizens were assured that individual rights were protected and secured. Possibly the most important feature of the new Constitution was its flexibility and adaptation to change which assured longevity. Therefore, the only statement made that doesn’t describe some facet of the Constitution is “The Constitution demands unquestioned respect and subservience to the federal government by all states and citizens”. On the contrary, the Constitution made sure that citizens could critique and make changes to their government and encourages such critiques and changes as necessary for the preservation of democracy.
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30. In the United States government, the power of coining money is: (Rigorous) A. Implied or suggested B. Concurrent or shared C. Delegated or expressed D. Reserved Answer: C. Delegated or expressed In the United States government, the power of coining money is delegated or expressed. Therefore, only the United States government may coin money, the states may not coin money for themselves. 31. In the United States government, the power of taxation and borrowing is: (Rigorous) A. Implied or suggested B. Concurrent or shared C. Delegated or expressed D. Reserved Answer: B. Concurrent or shared In the United States government, the power of taxation is concurrent or shared with the states. An example of this is the separation of state and federal income tax and the separate filings of tax returns for each.
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32. “Marbury vs Madison (1803)” was an important Supreme Court case which set the precedent for: (Rigorous) A. The elastic clause B. Judicial review C. The supreme law of the land D. Popular sovereignty in the territories Answer: B. Judicial review Marbury vs. Madison (1803) was an important case for the Supreme Court as it established judicial review. In that case, the Supreme Court set precedence to declare laws passed by Congress as unconstitutional. Popular sovereignty in the territories was a failed plan pushed by Stephen Davis to allow states to decide the slavery question for themselves. In his attempt to appeal to the masses in the pre-Civil War elections. The supreme law of the land is just that, the law that rules. The elastic clause is not a real term. 33. What Supreme Court ruling established the principal of Judicial Review? (Rigorous) A. Jefferson vs Madison B. Lincoln vs Douglas C. Marbury vs Madison D. Marbury vs Jefferson Answer: C. Marbury vs Madison Marbury vs Madison established the principal of judicial review. The Supreme Court ruled that it held no authority in making the decision (regarding Marbury’s commission as Justice of the Peace in District of Columbia) as the Supreme Court’s jurisdiction (or lack thereof) in the case, was conflicted with Article III of the Constitution.
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34. To be eligible to be elected President one must: (Rigorous) A. Be a citizen for at least five years B. Be a citizen for seven years C. Have been born a citizen D. Be a naturalized citizen Answer: C. Have been born a citizen Article II, Section 1 of the United States Constitution clearly states, “No person except a natural-born citizen, or citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President, neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States.” 35. The first ten amendments to the Constitution are called the: (Easy) A. Bill of Petition B. Petition of Rights C. Rights of Man D. Bill of Rights Answer: D. Bill of Rights The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the Constitution. They were added to the Constitution within the first two years of ratification and applied only to the federal government. Since then, the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment in 1868 afforded most of the Bill of Rights to the states as well.
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36. The Congress can override a President’s veto with a _______ vote. (Rigorous) A. One-half B. Two-thirds C. Six-tenths D. Three-fourths Answer: B. Two-thirds The Congress can override a President’s veto with a two-thirds vote. 37. To become a citizen, an individual must generally have lived in the United States for at least: (Rigorous) A. Six years B. Five years C. One year D. Ten years Answer: B. Five years To become a citizen, an individual must generally have lived in the United States for at least five years.
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38. The ability of the President to veto an act of Congress is an example of: (Rigorous) A. Separation of Powers B. Checks and Balances C. Judicial Review D. Presidential Prerogative Answer: B. Checks and Balances The ability of the President too veto an act of Congress is an example of checks and balances. Judicial review is the checks and balances exerted by the Judicial on the Legislative Branch. The system of checks and balances prevents any one branch of the United States Government from becoming too powerful and corrupt. 39. If a president neither signs nor vetoes a bill officially for ten days, it is called: (Average Rigor) A. A pocket veto B. A refused law C. Unconstitutional D. A presidential veto Answer: A. A pocket veto If the president neither signs nor vetoes a bill officially for ten days while the legislature is in session, there is an automatic veto called a “pocket veto”. The legislature cannot override a pocket veto, however the bill may be reintroduced at a later time.
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40. The term that describes the division of government function is: (Easy) A. Free Enterprise B. Constitutional Prerogative C. Checks and Balances D. Separation of Powers Answer: D. Separation of Powers (A) Free enterprise is the system of capitalism in which there is little or no government involvement in the economy and there is private control over the means of production. (C) Checks and balances is the system in place to prevent over-concentration of power in any one branch of government. The term (D) “separation of powers” best describes the division of government. 41. In the United States, the right to declare war is a power of: (Rigorous) A. The President B. Congress C. The Executive D. The States Answer: B. Congress In the United States, the right to declare war is a power of the Congress or Legislative branch. After Congress declares war, the President and Executive branch are in control as the Commander in Chief of the military.
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42. In the United States, checks and balances refers to: (Average Rigor) A. The ability of each branch of government to “check” or limit the actions of the others B. Balance of payments C. International law D. The federal deficit Answer: A. The ability of each branch of government to “check” or limit the actions of the others In the United States, checks and balances refers to the ability of each branch of government (Executive, Legislative, and Judicial) to “check” or limit the actions of the others. Examples of checks and balances are: The Executive branch limits the Legislature by power of veto over bills and appointments in the court system. The Judicial branch limits the power of the Legislature by judicial review and the ability to rule laws unconstitutional and may also determine executive orders unconstitutional. The Legislature checks the Executive by power of impeachment. 43. An amendment is: (Easy) A. A change or addition to the United States Constitution B. The right of a state to secede from the Union C. To add a state to the Union D. The right of the Supreme Court to check actions of Congress and the President Answer: A. A change or addition to the United States Constitution An amendment is a change or addition to the United States Constitution. No amendment refers to states’ abilities to succeed or be annexed or the right of the Supreme Court to check actions of Congress and the President.
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44. The Bill of Rights was mostly written by: (Average Rigor) A. Thomas Jefferson B. James Madison C. George Washington D. Alexander Hamilton Answer: B. James Madison The Bill of Rights, along with the majority of the Constitution, was mostly written by James Madison. Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence. Washington and Hamilton were present at the Constitutional Convention of 1787 in Philadelphia and they were advocates of federalism or increasing the power of the federal government. 45. To be a naturalized citizen means: (Easy) A. To have been refused citizenship B. To have dual-citizenship C. To be a “natural” or native born citizen D. To acquire citizenship Answer: D. To acquire citizenship To be a naturalized citizen in the United States is to acquire citizenship by meeting several requirements including a swearing to uphold the US Constitution, a judgement of good character, and event he ability to read and write English (often controversial as English is not the official language of the United States).
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46. In the United States government, power or control over public education, marriage, and divorce is: (Rigorous) A. Implied or suggested B. Concurrent or shared C. Delegated or expressed D. Reserved Answer: D. Reserved In the United States government, power or control over public education, marriage, and divorce is reserved. This is to say that these powers are reserved for the people of the states to decide for themselves. 47. Under the brand new Constitution, the most urgent of the many problems facing the new federal government was that of: (Rigorous) A. Maintaining a strong army and navy B. Establishing a strong foreign policy C. Raising money to pay salaries and war debts D. Setting up courts, passing federal laws, and providing for law enforcement officers Answer: C. Raising money to pay salaries and war debts Maintaining strong military forces, establishment of a strong foreign policy, and setting up a justice system were important problems facing the United States under the newly ratified Constitution. However, the most important and pressing issue was how to raise money to pay salaries and war debts from the Revolutionary War. Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804) then Secretary of the Treasury proposed increased tariffs and taxes on products such as liquor. This money would be used to pay off war debts and to pay for internal programs. Hamilton also proposed the idea of a National Bank.
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48. In the United States, federal investigations into business activities are handled by the: (Rigorous) A. Department of Treasury B. Security and Exchange Commission C. Government Accounting Office D. Federal Trade Commission Answer: D. Federal Trade Commission The Department of Treasury (A) established in 1789, is an executive government agency that is responsible for advising the president on fiscal policy. There is no such thing as a Government Accounting Office. In the United States, Federal Trade Commission or FTC handles federal investigations into business activities. The establishment of the FTC in 1915 as an independent government agency was done so as to assure fair and free competition among businesses. 49. The source of authority for national, state, and local governments in the United States is: (Rigorous) A. The will of the people B. The United States Constitution C. Written laws D. The Bill of Rights Answer: A. The will of the people The source of authority for national, state, and local governments in the United States is the will of the people. Although the United States Constitution, the Bill of Rights, and the other written laws of the land are important guidelines for authority, they may ultimately be altered or changed by the will of the people.
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50. The programs such as unemployment insurance and health insurance for the elderly are the responsibility of: (Rigorous) A. Federal Government B. Local Government C. State Government D. Communal Government Answer: C. State Government Assistance programs, such as unemployment insurance and free health insurance for the elderly is the responsibility of state governments. 51. The term that best describes how the Supreme Court can block laws that may be unconstitutional from being enacted is: (Rigorous) A. Jurisprudence B. Judicial Review C. Exclusionary Rule D. Right of Petition Answer: B. Judicial Review (A) Jurisprudence is the study of the development and origin of law. (B) Judicial review is the term that best describes how the Supreme Court can block laws that they deem as unconstitutional as set forth in Marbury vs. Madison. The (C) “exclusionary rule” is a reference to the Fourth Amendment of the Constitution and says that evidence gathered in an illegal manner or search must be thrown out and excluded from evidence. There is nothing called the (D) “Right of Petition”, however the Petition of Right is a reference to a statement of civil liberties sent by the English Parliament to Charles I in 1628.
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52. The United States legislature is bicameral, this means: (Easy) A. It consists of several houses B. It consists of two houses C. The Vice-President is in charge of the legislature when in session D. It has an upper house and a lower house Answer: B. It consists of two houses The bi-cameral nature of the United States legislature means that it has two houses, the Senate and the House of Representatives, that make up the Congress. The Vice-President is part of the Executive branch of government but presides over the Senate and may act as a tiebreaker. An upper and lower house would be parts of a Parliamentary system of government such as the governments of Great Britain and Israel. 53. Which of the three branches of government is responsible for taxation? (Average Rigor) A. Legislative B. Executive C. Judicial D. Congressional Answer: A. Legislative The Legislative branch of government is responsible for taxation. The Congress is responsible for levying federal taxes while state legislatures determine the individual state’s taxes. The Executive branch is often though to be responsible for taxation, as taxation is often a highly talked about issue in presidential campaigns, but it is in fact the Legislature that is responsible.
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54. The United States government’s federal system consists of: (Average Rigor) A. Three parts, the Executive, the Legislative, and the Judiciary B. Three parts, the Legislative, the Congress, and the Presidency C. Four parts, the Executive, the Judiciary, the courts and the Legislative D. Two parts, the Government and the governed Answer: A. Three parts, the Executive, the Legislative, and the Judiciary The United States government’s federal system consists of three parts: the Executive, the Legislative, and the Judiciary. The Executive branch consists of the President, Vice-President, and Cabinet. The Legislative branch consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives, also known as Congress, and the Judiciary is made up of the courts and the judiciary. All three branches keep each other in line through a system of checks and balances. 55. To “impeach” a President means to: (Average Rigor) A. Bring charges against a President B. Remove a President from office C. Re-elect the President D. Override his veto Answer: A. Bring charges against a President Contrary to much popular understanding of impeachment, it means to bring charges against a President. It does not mean to remove or re-elect the President. Andrew Jackson and William Jefferson Clinton are the only two United States Presidents to have been impeached. Jackson and Clinton were both acquitted during hearings and remained in office. Richard M. Nixon resigned from office as the House of Representatives prepared impeachment proceedings.
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56. The power to declare war, establish a postal system, and coin money rests with which branch of the government: (Rigorous) A. Presidential B. Judicial C. Legislative D. Executive Answer: C. Legislative The power to declare war, establish a postal system, and coin money rests with the Legislative branch of the government. However, the President or Executive branch becomes the commander in chief and has strong influence over wartime activities. The President may veto Congress in its decision to go to war, although in our current political climate, more often it is the President who urges Congress to declare war. 57. Which of the following is an important idea expressed in the Declaration of Independence? (Rigorous) A. People have the right to change their government B. People should obey the government authority C. A monarchy is a bad thing D. Indirect democracy is best Answer: A. People have the right to change their government Although “people should obey their government”, “monarchy is a bad thing”, and “indirect democracy is best” may have very well been sentiments held by the authors of the Declaration of Independence. In the actual document the express statement is clearly that “people have the right to change their government”, a sentiment that is still very important today.
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58. The Judiciary Act of 1789 established the: (Average Rigor) A. Supreme Court B. Principle of Judicial Review C. State court system D. Federal and circuit court system Answer: D. Federal and circuit court system The Supreme Court was established in 1789 by Article III of the United States Constitution. The principle of Judicial Review was established from Marbury vs. Madison in 1803. The state court system was established within the thirteen original colonies and since then the United States Constitution has existed side by side with the federal court system. The federal circuit system was established by the Judiciary Act of 1789. 59. The Executive branch refers to: (Easy) A. The Senate B. The Legislature C. Congress D. The President and Vice-President Answer: D. The President and Vice-President The Executive branch of government refers to the President and Vice-President. The Senate, Legislature, and Congress all refer to the Legislative branch.
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60. An “Ex Post facto Law” is: (Average Rigor) A. A law made against an act after it has been committed B. A law proclaimed unconstitutional by the Supreme Court C. An Executive Act D. A law relating to the postal system Answer: A. A law made against an act after it has been committed An “ex post facto” law, is one in which a law makes illegal an act that when committed was legal, or it can change the penalty for a crime committed after the fact. Ex post facto laws are illegal under the United States Constitution and may not be carried out by any part of the justice system. 61. The Judiciary refers to: (Easy) A. The President B. Congress C. The legal system D. The system of states’ rights Answer: C. The legal system The Judiciary refers to the legal system of courts, judges, and due process. The President is part of the Executive branch and the Congress is part of the Legislative branch.
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62. The highest appellate court in the United States is the: (Rigorous) A. National Appeals Court B. Circuit Court C. Supreme Court D. Court of Appeals Answer: C. Supreme Court The highest appellate court in the United States is the Supreme Court. There is also a federal circuit court of appeals and a state system that includes appellate courts and state supreme courts, but they are not as high as the United States Supreme Court. 63. Which one of the following is not a function or responsibility of the US political parties? (Rigorous) A. Conducting elections or the voting process B. Obtaining funds needed for election campaigns C. Choosing candidates to run for public office D. Making voters aware of issues and other public affairs information Answer: A. Conducting elections or the voting process The US political parties have numerous functions and responsibilities. Among them are obtaining funds needed for election campaigns, choosing the candidates to run for office, and making voters aware of the issues. The political parties, however, do not conduct elections or the voting process, as that would be an obvious conflict of interest.
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64. On the spectrum of American politics the label that most accurately describes voters to the “right of center” is: (Average Rigor) A. Moderates B. Liberals C. Conservatives D. Socialists Answer: C. Conservatives (A) Moderates are considered voters who teeter on the line of political centrality or drift slightly to the left or right. (B) Liberals are voters who stand on the left of center. (C) Conservative voters are those who are “right of center”. (D) Socialists would land far to the left on the political spectrum of America. 65. What is the form of local government that acts as an intermediary between the state and the city? (Average Rigor) A. Metropolitan Government B. Limited Government C. The Mayor-Council System D. County-Commission System Answer: A. Metropolitan Government Metropolitan Government was the form of local government that acts as an intermediary between the state and the city and comes form the idea of municipal home rule first enacted by Missouri in 1875. As suburbs grew and cities declined a bit, it became more important to have an intermediary between the city and state governments.
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66. The Bill of Rights says that any rights it does not mention are: (Rigorous) A. Reserved to the federal government B. Not important C. Judged by the Supreme Court D. Reserved to the states or to the people Answer: D. Reserved to the states or to the people The Bill of Rights says that any rights it does not mention are reserved to the states or to the people. This means that just because a right is not listed specifically in the Bill of Rights does not necessarily mean that that right does not exist or that it may be violated.
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67. America’s weak foreign policy and lack of adequate diplomacy during the 1870s and 1880s led to the comment that “a special Providence takes care of fools, drunkards, and the United States” is attributed to: (Average Rigor) A. Otto von Bismarck B. Benjamin Disraeli C. William Gladstone D. Paul von Hindenburg Answer: A. Otto Von Bismarck Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881), a conservative, and William Gladstone (18091898), a liberal, were political rivals in Great Britain. Gladstone was greatly disliked by both his rival Disraeli and his Queen for being such a staunch political and economic reformer. Paul von Hindenberg (1847-1934) was a German field marshal and president (1925-1934) who fought against the Americans in World War I. However, it was Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898), the German statesman who came to be known as the Iron Chancellor, who once said “a special Providence takes care of fools, drunkards, and the United States”. Bismarck was saying that despite the United States’ shortcomings in foreign policy, leadership and military strength, they continued to grow and gained power in the face of much better run governments, armies and foreign policy makers.
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68. The doctrine that sought to keep communism from spreading was: (Average Rigor) A. The Cold War B. Roll-back C. Containment D. Détente Answer: C. Containment The doctrine that sought to keep communism from spreading was called (C) containment. Containment was the creation of the Truman Administration following World War II and spawned the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO, in 1949. (A) The Cold War was the escalation of the threat of war between the United States and the Soviet Union following World War II up to the collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the full collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe in 1991. The Cold War was a nonviolent state of extreme tension in which fears ran high and threats were made but not carried out. The idea of (B) rollback is probably a reference to policy used at some point in the Vietnam War to scale back the intensity of fighting and pull US troops out of Vietnam.
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69. What was George Washington’s advice to Americans about foreign policy? (Rigorous) A. America should have strong alliances B. America should avoid alliances C. Foreign policy should take precedence over domestic policy D. Domestic policy should take precedence over foreign policy Answer: B. America should avoid alliances George Washington (1732-1799), the first President of the United States, after his refusal to run for a third term, did warn in his farewell speech in 1797 that the United States should avoid permanent foreign alliances. This sentiment could be seen throughout his presidency as he was very cautious and careful in his foreign policy by never getting in too deep. 70. “Walk softly and carry a big stick” is a statement associated with: (Average Rigor) A. Franklin Roosevelt B. Theodore Roosevelt C. George Washington D. Thomas Hobbes Answer: B. Theodore Roosevelt “Walk softly and carry a big stick” is a statement made by Theodore Roosevelt (1858-1919) in reference to his foreign policy, which was just as aggressive as his domestic policy. Roosevelt advocated for a new extension of the Monroe doctrine extending the idea all the way through South America. The statement also refers to Roosevelt’s dealing with the Panama Canal situation, the opendoor policy with China, and the formation of the Hague tribunal.
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71. The foundation of modern constitutionalism is embodied in the idea that government is limited by law. This law was stated by: (Rigorous) A. John Locke B. Rousseau C. St. Thomas Aquinas D. Montesquieu Answer: C. St. Thomas Aquinas (A) John Locke (1632-1704), whose book Two Treatises of Government has long been considered a founding document on the rights of people to rebel against an unjust government, was an important figure in the founding of the US Constitution and on general politics of the American Colonies. (D) Montesquieu (1689-1755) and (B) Rousseau (1712-1778) were political philosophers who explored the idea of what has come to be known as liberalism. They pushed the idea that through understanding the interconnectedness of economics, geography, climate and psychology that changes could be made to improve life. Therefore, it was St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) who merged Aristotelian ideas with Christianity, who helped lay the ideas of modern constitutionalism and the limiting of government by law.
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72. The idea of universal peace through world organization was a philosophy of: (Rigorous) A. Rousseau B. Immanuel Kant C. Montesquieu D. John Locke Answer: B. Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was the German metaphysician and philosopher, who was a founding proponent of the idea that world organization was the means for achieving universal peace. Kant’s ideas helped to found such world peace organizations as the League of Nations in the wake of World War I. 73. The principle that “men entrusted with power tend to abuse it” is attributed to: (Average Rigor) A. Locke B. Rousseau C. Aristotle D. Montesquieu Answer: D. Montesquieu The principle that “men entrusted with power tend to abuse it” is attributed to Montesquieu (1689-1755), the great French philosopher whose ideas based much on Locke’s ideas, along with Rousseau, had a strong influence on the French Revolution of 1789. Although it would be reasonable to assume that Locke, Rousseau, and Aristotle would probably agree with the statement, all four of these men had profound impacts on the ideas of the Enlightenment, from humanism to constitutionals.
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74. A political system in which the laws and traditions put limits on the powers of government is: (Average Rigor) A. Federalism B. Constitutionalism C. Parliamentary system D. Presidential system Answer: B. Constitutionalism Constitutionalism is a political system in which laws and traditions put limits on the powers of government. Federalism is the idea of a strong, centralized national government to hold together the nation. The parliamentary system, such as the governments of Great Britain and Israel, are systems in which a group of representatives are led by a prime minister contrasting with a presidential system which is run by a head of state, the elected (or sometimes self-appointed) president. 75. A political philosophy favoring or supporting rapid social changes in order to correct social and economic inequalities is called: (Rigorous) A. Nationalism B. Liberalism C. Conservatism D. Federalism Answer: B. Liberalism A political philosophy favoring rapid social changes in order to correct social and economic inequalities are called Liberalism. Liberalism was a theory that could be said to have started with the great French philosophers Montesquieu (16891755) and Rousseau (1712-1778). It is important to understand the difference between political, economic, and social liberalism, as they are different and how they sometimes contrast one another in the modern world. HISTORY
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76. Marxism believes which two groups are in continual conflict: (Rigorous) A. Farmers and landowners B. Kings and the nobility C. Workers and owners D. Structure and superstructure Answer: C. Workers and owners Marxism believes that the workers and owners are in continual conflict. Marxists refer to these two groups as the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The proletariat is exploited by the bourgeoisie and will, according to Marxism, rise up over the bourgeoisie in class warfare in an effort to end private control over the means of production. 77. Which of the following is an example of a direct democracy? (Rigorous) A. Elected representatives B. Greek city-states C. The Constitution D. The Confederate States Answer: B. Greek city-states The Greek city-states are an example of a direct democracy as their leaders were elected directly by the citizens and the citizens themselves were given voice in government. (A) Elected representatives in the United States as in the case of the presidential elections are actually elected by an electoral college that is supposed to be representative of the citizens. As we have learned from the elections of 2000, this is a flawed system. The United States Congress, the Senate, and the House of Representatives are also examples of indirect democracy as they represent the citizens in the legislature as opposed to having citizens represent themselves.
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78. The first organized city-states arose in: (Average Rigor) A. Egypt B. China C. Sumer D. Greece Answer: C. Sumer Although Greece is well known for their advance organization of city-states, it was the Sumerians in Southern Mesopotamia around the fourth millennium B.C. who first established organized city-states. 79. The founder of the first Communist Party and the first leader of the Soviet Union was: (Average Rigor) A. Joseph Stalin B. Vladimir Lenin C. John Lennon D. Karl Marx Answer: B. Vladimir Lenin Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) was the founder of the first Communist Party and led the Soviets to victory in the October Revolution of 1917. The Bolshevik based his ideas for revolution and socialism on the works of the great German political and philosopher Karl Marx (1818-1883), who is generally regarded as the founder of modern socialism and communism. Joseph Stalin (1879-1953) took over the USSR after Lenin’s death and fought off Trotsky for power in the party. Stalin was well known for his intensely repressive tactics against dissent in the party.
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80. Socialists believe that the government should have a _________ role in the economy. (Average Rigor) A. Lesser B. Greater C. Equal with business D. Less than business Answer: B. Greater Socialists believe that the government should have a greater role in the economy, including state control of the means of production, in order to assure that there is an equal distribution of wealth and resources to all of the people. Capitalists by contrast believe that government should have little or no involvement with the economy and that free enterprise and private ownership over the means of production will regulate itself in the best interest of the people. 81. One difference between totalitarianism and authoritarianism is that totalitarianism believes in: (Average Rigor) A. Total control over all aspects of society B. Minimum government control C. There is no difference D. The difference is unknown Answer: A. Total control over all aspects of society One difference between totalitarianism and authoritarianism is that totalitarianism believes in total control over all aspects of society. Totalitarian governments seek to control all aspects of society; political, economic, and social. An authoritarian regime would be one more interested in complete obedience to a leader or most probably a dictator.
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82. One difference between a presidential and a parliamentary system is a parliamentary system: (Rigorous) A. The Prime Minister is head of government, while a president or monarch is head of state B. The President is head of government and the Vice-President is head of state C. The President, pro-tempore of the Senate is head of state while the prime minister is head of government D. The President appoints the head of state Answer: A. The Prime Minister is head of government, while a president or monarch is head of state. In a parliamentary system, the Prime Minister is the head of the government and the president or monarch is the head of state. In a presidential system, the President is the head of government and the head of state. 83. In an indirect democracy: (Rigorous) A. All the people together decide on issues B. People elect representatives to act for them C. Democracy can never really work D. Government is less efficient than a direct democracy Answer: B. People elect representatives to act for them In an indirect democracy people elect representatives to act for them. An example of an indirect democracy would be the United States government in which the people elect a president, vice-president, senators, and representatives to make decisions and run the government. An example of a direct democracy would be the government of the Greeks in Athens during the Classical Period, in which citizens represented themselves in their own government.
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84. In a communist system, __________ controls the means of production. (Average Rigor) A. A professional managerial class B. The owners of business and industry C. The workers D. The state Answer: D. The state In a communist system, the state controls the means of production as opposed to a capitalist system in which the owners of business and industry control the means of production or an anarchist system in which workers themselves would control the means of production. 85. Machiavelli was most concerned with describing: (Average Rigor) A. Modern warfare B. Ancient political philosophy C. Representative government D. Getting and keeping political power Answer: D. Getting and keeping political power Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) was an Italian Renaissance writer who, in his 1532 principle work The Prince, describes the way a young prince must gain and hold power. Contrary to ideas of representative government, The Prince claims that through tyranny and repression a unified Italian State may be achieved. Debates still exist over whether or not The Prince was in fact a satire of the Medici regime under which Machiavelli was a statesman.
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86. Oligarchy refers to: (Easy) A. Rule of a single leader B. The rule of a single political party C. Rule by a select few D. Rule by many Answer: C. Rule by a select few Monarchy is the (A) rule of a single leader. The (B) rule of a single political party has no clear definition but can range from fascism or national-socialism like that of Hitler’s Germany to the socialism of Castro’s Cuba. (C) Rule by a select few is an oligarchy. Oligarchy was described by Aristotle as rule by a few economic elite in efforts to advance their interests and often involves notions of aristocracy and limited democracy of Classical Athens to the indirect democracy of the United States.
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87. Which statement closely resembles the political philosophy of Thomas Hobbes? (Rigorous) A. Citizens should give obedience to the state authority as a means of survival in a world where man’s nature drives self interest and makes man selfish and self-acting B. That citizens have a right to rise against the state whenever they choose C. All state authority is basically evil and should be eliminated D. People are generally good and cooperative if given a chance Answer: A. Citizens should give obedience to the state authority as a means of survival in a world where man’s nature drives self interest and makes man selfish and self-acting Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), the English philosopher, mathematician, and rationalist believed that men were basically self –serving and would destroy one another in their personal quest for power, therefore, he said that the state must be created (he favored a monarch), to ensure the safety of man against himself and his neighbors. 88. As a rule, the relationship between fascism and communism is: (Average Rigor) A. They are the same thing B. Unknown at present C. Antagonistic D. Cooperative Answer: C. Antagonistic Fascism and communism are more or less polar opposites. While fascism sits to the extreme right of the political spectrum, communism sits at the extreme left. Therefore, they are by nature antagonistic of one another.
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89. In a parliamentary system, the person who becomes Prime Minister is usually: (Average Rigor) A. Chosen by the cabinet B. Elected by a direct national vote C. Chosen by the president of the country D. Chosen by a majority or coalition of parties in the parliament Answer: D. Chosen by a majority or coalition of parties in the parliament The Prime Minister is not chosen by the cabinet. He, in fact, chooses the cabinet from the majority party in parliament. The Prime Minister is not elected by a direct national vote like the president of a constitutionalist government such as the United States. The Prime Minister is in fact chosen by a majority or coalition in power in the parliament. 90. The “cult of personality” is an idea most associated with: (Average Rigor) A. Democracy B. Anarchism C. Fascism D. Communism Answer: C. Fascism The “cult of personality” is an idea most associated with Fascism. Democracy, anarchism, and communism all place the importance of the citizens and their collective welfare over the needs or egos of the leaders. Fascism is quite the contrast as it depends on the power and obedience of a totalitarian leader such as Germany’s Hitler or Italy’s Mussolini in the rise to state power. This utilization of a “cult of personality” is usually through a one party system and a repression of dissidents. Some communist regimes such as Mao in China or Stalin in Russia have been accused of capitalizing on the cult of personality as well, but it is a tool most associated with fascism. HISTORY
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91. Which political economic system discourages private land ownership? (Rigorous) A. Capitalism B. Socialism C. Agriculturalism D. Welfare Capitalism Answer: B. Socialism Capitalism and welfare capitalism both encourage the private ownership of land. Socialism encourages the nationalization and redistribution of land in which the government owns the land and allocates its usage in the best interests of the people.
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92. The “history of all societies is one of class struggle” is a statement associated with: (Average Rigor) A. John Locke B. Thomas Jefferson C. Karl Marx D. Thomas Hobbes Answer: C. Karl Marx (A) John Locke (1632-1704) was the English enlightenment philosopher who believed in the middle class’ right to property and prosperity. (B) Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) was the 3rd President of the United States and his Jeffersonian democracy was concerned with preserving individual and states’ rights from the federal government. (C) Karl Marx (1818-1883), who is generally regarded as the founder of modern socialism and communism, claimed that the “History of all societies is one of class struggle”. This illustrates his placement of class struggle as the central struggle within a society. (D) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) the English philosopher, mathematician, and rationalist believed that men were basically self-serving and would destroy one another in their personal quest for power. Therefore, he said that the state must be created (he favored a monarchy) to ensure the safety of man against himself and his neighbors.
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93. An obligation identified with citizenship is: (Easy) A. Belonging to a political party B. Educating oneself C. Running political office D. Voting Answer: D. Voting (A) Although belonging to a political party and (B) educating oneself are often done in preparation for voting, and (C) running for political office is the right of citizens who feel that they could serve their constituency well, only (D) voting is considered to be an obligation identified with citizenship. 94. To plead “the Fifth Amendment”, means to: (Rigorous) A. Refuse to speak so one does not incriminate oneself B. Plead “no contest” in court C. Ask for freedom of speech D. Ask to appear before a judge when charged with a crime Answer: A. Refuse to speak so one does not incriminate oneself To plead the Fifth Amendment means to refuse to speak so one does not incriminate oneself. Pleading “no contest” is a term of the judiciary in which a defendant admits to having committed a crime in return for a favorable plea bargain. Freedom of speech is assured in the First Amendment.
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95. A “tort” refers to: (Average Rigor) A. A private or civil action brought into court B. A type of confection C. A penal offense D. One who solicits Answer: A. A private or civil action brought into court A tort refers to a private or civil action brought into court. An example of a tort could be a breach of contract in which the injured party may sue for compensatory damages. The earliest tort law was created as a protection from property and personal trespass. 96. The results of the Renaissance, Enlightenment, Commercial and the Industrial Revolutions were more unfortunate for the people of: (Rigorous) A. Asia B. Latin America C. Africa D. Middle East Answer: C. Africa The results of the Renaissance, Enlightenment, Commercial and Industrial Revolutions were quite beneficial for many people in much of the world. New ideas of humanism, religious tolerance, and secularism were spreading. Increased trade and manufacturing were surging economies in much of the world. The people of Africa, however, suffered during these times as they became largely left out of the developments. Also, the people of Africa were stolen, traded, and sold into slavery to provide a cheap labor force for the growing industries of Europe and the New World.
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97. Which ancient civilization is credited with being the first to develop irrigation techniques through the use of canals, dikes, and devices for raising water? (Easy) A. The Sumerians B. The Egyptians C. The Babylonians D. The Akkadians Answer: A. The Sumerians The ancient (A) Sumerians of the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia are credited with being the first to develop irrigation techniques through the use of canals, dikes, and devices for raising water. The (B) Egyptians also practiced controlled irrigation but that was primarily through the use of the Nile’s predictable flooding schedule. The (C) Babylonians were more noted for their revolutionary systems of law than their irrigation systems. 98. An early cultural group was so skillful in navigating on the sea that they were able to sail at night guided by stars. They were the: (Average Rigor) A. Greeks B. Persians C. Minoans D. Phoenicians Answer: D. Phoenicians Although the Greeks were quite able sailors and developed a strong navy in their defeat of the Persians at sea in the Battle of Marathon, it was the Eastern Mediterranean culture of the Phoenicians that had first developed the astronomical skill of sailing at night with the stars as their guide. The Minoans were an advanced early civilization off the Greek coast on Crete more noted for their innovations in terms of sewage systems, toilets, and running water. HISTORY
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99. Development of a solar calendar, invention of the decimal system, and contributions to the development of geometry and astronomy are all the legacy of: (Average Rigor) A. The Babylonians B. The Persians C. The Sumerians D. The Egyptians Answer: D. The Egyptians The (A) Babylonians of ancient Mesopotamia flourished for a time under their great contribution of organized law and code, called Hammurabi’s Code (1750 B.C.), after the ruler Hammurabi. The fall of the Babylonians to the Persians in 539 B.C. made way for the warrior-driver Persian Empire that expanded from Pakistan to the Mediterranean Sea until the conquest of Alexander the Great in 331 B.C. The Sumerians of ancient Mesopotamia were most noted for their early advancements as one of the first civilizations and their contributions towards written language known as cuneiform. It was the (D) Egyptians who were the first true developers of a solar calendar, the decimal system, and made significant contributions to the development of geometry and astronomy.
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100. The first ancient civilization to introduce and practice monotheism was the: (Average Rigor) A. Sumerians B. Minoans C. Phoenicians D. Hebrews Answer: D. Hebrews The (A) Sumerians and (C) Phoenicians both practiced religions in which many gods and goddesses were worshipped. Often these gods/goddesses were based on a feature of nature such as a sun, moon, weather, rocks, water, etc. The (B) Minoan culture shared many religious practices with the Ancient Egyptians. It seems that the king was somewhat of a god figure and the queen, a goddess. Much of the Minoan art point to worship of multiple gods. Therefore, only the (D) Hebrews introduced and fully practiced monotheism, or the belief in one God.
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101. Bathtubs, hot and cold running water, and sewage systems with flush toilets were developed by the: (Average Rigor) A. Minoans B. Mycenaeans C. Phoenicians D. Greeks Answer: A. Minoans The (A) Minoans were one of the earliest Greek cultures and existed on the island of Crete and flourished from about 1600 B.C. to about 1400 B.C. During this time, the (B) Mycenaean were flourishing on the mainland of what is now Greece. However, it was the Minoans on Crete that are best known for their advanced ancient civilization in which such advances as bathtubs, hot and cold running water, sewage systems and flush toilets were developed. The (C) Phoenicians also flourished around 1250 B.C., however, their primary development was in language and arts. The Phoenicians created an alphabet that has still considerable influence in the world today. The great developments of the (D) Greeks were primarily in the fields of philosophy, political science, and early ideas of democracy.
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102. The end to hunting, gathering, and fishing of prehistoric people was due to: (Average Rigor) A. Domestication of animals B. Building crude huts and houses C. Development of agriculture D. Organized government in villages Answer: C. Development of agriculture Although the domestication of animals, the building of huts and houses and the first organized governments were all very important steps made by early civilizations, it was the development of agriculture that ended the once dominant practices of hunting, gathering, and fishing among prehistoric people. The development of agriculture provided a more efficient use of time and for the first time a surplus of food. This greatly improved the quality of life and contributed to early population growth.
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103. The early ancient civilizations developed systems of government: (Rigorous) A. To provide for defense against attack B. To regulate trade C. To regulate and direct the economic activities of the people as they worked together in groups D. To decide on the boundaries of the different fields during planting seasons Answer: C. To regulate and direct the economic activities of the people as they worked together in groups Although ancient civilizations were concerned with defense, trade regulation and the maintenance of boundaries in their fields, they could not have done any of them without first regulating and directing the economic activities of the people as they worked in groups. This provided for a stable economic base from which they could trade and actually had something worth providing defense for.
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104. Which one of the following is not an important legacy of the Byzantine Empire? (Rigorous) A. It protected Western Europe from various attacks from the East by such groups as the Persians, Ottoman Turks, and Barbarians B. It played a part in preserving the literature, philosophy, and language of ancient Greece C. Its military organization was the foundation for modern armies D. It kept the legal traditions of Roman government, collecting and organizing many ancient Roman laws. Answer: C. Its military organization was the foundation for modern armies The Byzantine Empire (1353-1453) was the successor to the Roman Empire in the East and protected Western Europe from invaders such as the Persians and Ottomans. The Byzantine Empire was a Christian incorporation of Greek philosophy, language, and literature along with Roman government and law. Therefore, although regarded as having a strong infantry, cavalry, and engineering corps along with excellent morale amongst its soldiers, the Byzantine Empire is not particularly considered a foundation for modern armies.
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105. The “father of anatomy” is considered to be: (Easy) A. Vesalius B. Servetus C. Galen D. Harvey Answer: A. Vesalius Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) is considered to be the “father of anatomy” as a result of his revolutionary work on the human anatomy based on dissections of human cadavers. Prior to Vesalius, men such as Galen, (130-200) had done work in the field of anatomy, but they had based the majority of their work on animal studies. 106. “Poverty is the parent of revolution and crime” was from the writings of: (Average Rigor) A. Plato B. Aristotle C. Cicero D. Gaius Answer: B. Aristotle Aristotle once wrote “Poverty is the parent of revolution and crime”, a comment that is probably as relevant today as it was in Aristotle’s day. It showed his true insight as one of the great political and social commentators and philosophers of all time.
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107. The Roman Empire gave so much to the world, especially the Western world. Of the legacies below, the most influential, effective and lasting is: (Rigorous) A. The language of Latin B. Roman law, justice, and political system C. Engineering and building D. The writings of its poets and historians Answer: B. Roman law, justice, and political system Of the lasting legacies of the Roman Empire, it is their law, justice, and political system that has been the most effective and influential on our Western world today. The idea of a Senate and different houses is still maintained by our United States government and their legal justice system is also the foundation of our own. We still use many Latin words in our justice system, terms such as habeas corpus and voir dire. English, Spanish, Italian, French, and others are all based on Latin. The Roman language, Latin itself has died out. Roman engineering and building and their writings and poetry have also been influential but not nearly to the degree that their governmental and justice systems have been.
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108. The circumference of the earth, which greatly contributed to geographic knowledge, was calculated by: (Easy) A. Ptolemy B. Eratosthenes C. Galileo D. Strabo Answer: B. Eratosthenes There is no doubt to Ptolemy and Galileo’s influence as astronomers. (A) Ptolemy as an earlier theorist and (C) Galileo as a founder of modern scientific knowledge of astronomy and our place in the galaxy. However, it was (B) Eratosthenes (275 B.C. – 195 B.C.), the Greek writer, philosopher, and astronomer, who is credited with measuring the earth’s circumference as well as the distances between Earth, sun, and moon. (D) Strabo was more concerned with geography and history than astronomy.
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109. India’s greatest ruler is considered to be: (Rigorous) A. Akbar B. Asoka C. Babur D. Jahan Answer: A. Akbar Akbar (1556-1605) is considered to be India’s greatest ruler. He combined a drive for conquest with a magnetic personality and went so far as to invent his own religion, Dinillahi, a combination of Islam, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Hinduism. Asoka (273 B.C.-232 B.C.) was also an important ruler as he was the first to bring together a fully united India. Babur (1483-1540) was both considered to be a failure as he struggled to maintain any power early in his reign, but later to be somewhat successful in his quest to reunite Northern India. Jahan’s (15921666) rule of India is considered to be the golden age of art and literature in the region. 110. An extensive knowledge of surgery and medicine as well as principles of irrigation, fertilization and terrace farming was unique to: (Easy) A. The Mayans B. The Atacamas C. The Incas D. The Tarapacas Answer: C. The Incas The Incas of Peru had an extensive knowledge of surgery and medicine as well as principles of irrigation, fertilization, and terrace farming. These were unique achievements for an ancient civilization.
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111. China’s last imperial ruling dynasty was one of its most stable and successful and under its rule, Chinese culture made an outstanding impression on Western nations. This dynasty was: (Rigorous) A. Ming B. Manchu C. Han D. Chou Answer: B. Manchu The (A) Ming Dynasty lasted from 1368-1644 and was among the more successful dynasties but focused attention towards foreign trade and encouraged growth in the arts. Therefore, it was the (B) Manchu Dynasty, the last imperial ruling dynasty, which came to power in the 1600s and expanded China’s power in Asia greatly that was and still is considered to be among the most important, most stable, and most successful of the Chinese dynasties. The (C) Han and (D) Chou Dynasties were part of the “ancient” dynasties of China and while important in Chinese History, their influence did not hold impression on Western nations as the Manchu. 112. The world religion, which includes a caste system, is: (Average Rigor) A. Buddhism B. Hinduism C. Sikhism D. Jainism Answer: B. Hinduism Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism all rose out of protest against Hinduism and its practices of sacrifice and the caste system. The caste system, in which people were born into castes, would determine their class for life including who they could marry, what jobs they could perform, and their overall quality of life. HISTORY
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113. The principle of zero in mathematics is the discovery of the ancient civilization found in: (Easy) A. Egypt B. Persia C. India D. Babylon Answer: C. India Although the Egyptians practiced algebra and geometry, the Persians developed an alphabet, and the Babylonians developed Hammurabi’s Code, which would come to be considered among the most important contributions of the Mesopotamian civilization, it was the Indians that created the idea of zero in mathematics changing drastically our ideas about numbers.
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114. In Western Europe, the achievements of the Renaissance were unsurpassed and made these countries outstanding cultural centers on the continent. All of the following were accomplishments except: (Rigorous) A. Invention of the printing press B. A rekindling of interest in the learning of classical Greece & Rome C. Growth in literature, philosophy, and art D. Better military tactics Answer: D. Better military tactics The Renaissance in Western Europe produced many important achievements that helped push immense progress among European civilization. Some of the most important developments during the Renaissance were Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press in Germany and a reexamination of the ideas and philosophies of classical Greece and Rome that eventually helped Renaissance thinkers to approach more modern ideas. Also important during the Renaissance was the growth in literature (Petrarch, Boccaccio, Erasmus), philosophy (Machiavelli, More, Bacon) and art (Van Eyck, Giotto, da Vinci). Therefore, improved military tactics is the only possible answer as it was clearly not a characteristic of the Renaissance in Western Europe.
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115. The changing focus during the Renaissance when artists and scholars were less concerned with religion but centered their efforts on a better understanding of people and the world was called: (Easy) A. Realism B. Humanism C. Individualism D. Intellectualism Answer: B. Humanism Realism is a medieval philosophy that contemplated independence of existence of the body, the mind, and God. The idea of individualism is usually either a reference to an economic or political theory. Intellectualism is the placing of great importance and devotion to the exploring of the intellect. Therefore, the changing focus during the Renaissance when artists and scholars were less concerned with religion but centered their efforts on a better understanding of people and the world was called humanism. 116. The ideas and innovations of the period of the Renaissance were spread throughout Europe mainly because of: (Rigorous) A. Extensive exploration B. Craft workers and their guilds C. The invention of the printing press D. Increased travel and trade Answer: C. The invention of the printing press The ideas and innovations of the Renaissance were spread throughout Europe for a number of reasons. While exploration, increased travel, and spread of craft may have aided the spread of the Renaissance to small degrees, nothing was as important to the spread of ideas as Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press in Germany. HISTORY
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117. Which one of the following did not contribute to the early medieval European civilization? (Rigorous) A. The heritage from the classical cultures B. The Christian religion C. The influence of the German Barbarians D. The spread of ideas through trade and commerce Answer: D. The spread of ideas through trade and commerce The heritage of the classical cultures such as Greece, the Christian religion which became dominant, and the influence of the Germanic Barbarians (Visigoths, Saxons, Ostrogoths, Vandals and Franks) were all contributions to early medieval Europe and its plunge into feudalism. During this period, lives were often difficult and lived out on one single manor, with very little travel or spread of ideas through trade or commerce. Civilization seems to have halted progress during these years.
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118. Charlemagne’s most important influence on Western civilization is seen today in: (Rigorous) A. Relationship of church and state B. Strong military for defense C. The criminal justice system D. Education of women Answer: A. Relationship of church and state Charlemagne was the leader of the Germanic Franks responsible for the promotion of the Holy Roman Empire across Europe. Although he unified governments and aided the Pope, he re-crowned himself in 802 A.D. to demonstrate that his power and right to rule was not a grant from the Pope, but rather a secular achievement. Therefore, although he used much of the Church’s power in his rise to power, the Pope in turn used Charlemagne to ascend the Church to new heights. Thus, Charlemagne had an influence on the issues between Church and state.
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119. Which French Renaissance writer wrote about the dangers of absolute powers and later examined himself in an effort to make inquiries into humankind and nature? (Average Rigor) A. Francois Rabelais B. Desiderius Erasmus C. Michel de Montaigne D. Sir Francis Bacon Answer: C. Michel de Montaigne (A) Francois Rabelais (1490-1553) was a French writer and physician who was both a practicing monk (first Franciscan then later Benedictine) and a respected humanist thinker of the Renaissance. (B) Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) was a Dutch humanist who was very critical of the Catholic Church but was equally conflicted with Luther’s Protestant Reformation. Although Luther had once considered him an ally, Erasmus opposed Luther’s break from the church and favored a more internal reform to corruption, he never left the Catholic Church. (D) Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was an English philosopher and writer who pushed the idea that knowledge must come from thorough scientific knowledge and experiment, and insufficient data must not be used in reaching conclusions. (C) Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592), a French essayist from a mixed background, half Catholic and half Jewish, did write some about the dangers of absolute powers, primarily monarchs but also of the Church. His attitude changed as his examination of his own life developed into a study of mankind and nature.
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120. Which one of the following is not a reason why Europeans came to the New World? (Rigorous) A. To find resources in order to increase wealth B. To establish trade C. To increase a ruler’s power and importance D. To spread Christianity Answer: B. To establish trade The Europeans came to the New World for a number of reasons; often they came to find new natural resources to extract for manufacturing. The Portuguese, Spanish and English were sent over to increase the monarch’s power and spread influences such as religion (Christianity) and culture. Therefore, the only reason given that Europeans didn’t come to the New World was to establish trade. 121. The Age of Exploration begun in the 1400s was led by: (Easy) A. The Portuguese B. The Spanish C. The English D. The Dutch Answer: A. The Portuguese Although the Age of Exploration had many important players among them, the Dutch, Spanish and English, it was the Portuguese who sent the first explorers to the New World.
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122. Who is considered to be the most important figure in the spread of Protestantism across Switzerland? (Average Rigor) A. Calvin B. Zwingli C. Munzer D. Leyden Answer: A. Calvin While Huldreich Zwingli (1484-1531) was the first to spread the Protestant Reformation in Switzerland around 1519, it was John Calvin (1509-1564), whose less radical approach to Protestantism who really made the most impact in Switzerland. Calvin’s ideas separated from the Lutherans over the “Lord’s Supper” debate over the sacrament, and his branch of Protestants became known as Calvinism. Calvin certainly built on Zwingli’s early influence but really made the religion widespread throughout Switzerland. Thomas Munzer (14891525) was a German Protestant reformer whose radical and revolutionary ideas about God’s will to overthrow the ruling classes and his siding with the peasantry got him beheaded. Munzer has since been studied and admired by Marxists for his views on class. Leyden (or Leiden) was a founder of the University of Leyden, a Protestant place for study in the Netherlands.
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123. The English explorer who gave England its claim to North America was: (Average Rigor) A. Raleigh B. Hawkins C. Drake D. Cabot Answer: D. Cabot Sir Walter Raleigh (1554-1618) was an English explorer and navigator, who was sent to the New World in search of riches. He founded the lost colony at Roanoke, Virginia, and was later imprisoned for a supposed plot to kill the King for which he was later released. Sir John Hawkins (1532-1595) and Sir Francis Drake (1540-1596) were both navigators who worked in the slave trade, made some voyages to the New World, and commanded ships against and defeated the Spanish Armada in 1588. John Cabot (1450-1498) was the English explorer who gave England claim to North America. 124. The “divine right” of kings was the key political characteristic of: (Average Rigor) A. The Age of Absolutism B. The Age of Reason C. The Age of Feudalism D. The Age of Despotism Answer: A. The Age of Absolutism The “divine right” of kings was the key political characteristic of The Age of Absolutism and was most visible in the reign of King Louis XIV of France, as well as during the times of King James I and his son, Charles I. The divine right doctrine claims that kings and absolute leaders derive their right to rule by virtue of their birth alone. They see this both as a law of God and of nature. HISTORY
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 125. Colonial expansion by Western European powers in the 18th and 19th centuries was due primarily to: (Rigorous) A. Building and opening the Suez Canal B. The Industrial Revolution C. Marked improvements in transportation D. Complete independence of all the Americas and loss of European domination and influence Answer: B. The Industrial Revolution Colonial expansion by Western European powers in the late 18th and 19th centuries was due primarily to the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain that spread across Europe and needed new natural resources and therefore, new locations from which to extract the raw materials needed to feed the new industries.
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126. Historians state that the West helped to speed up the Industrial Revolution. Which one of the following statements was not a reason for this? (Rigorous) A. Food supplies for the ever-increasing urban populations came from farms in the West. B. A tremendous supply of gold and silver from western mines provided the capital needed to build industries. C. Descendants of western settlers, educated as engineers, geologists, and metallurgists in the East, returned to the West to mine the mineral resources needed for industry. D. Iron, copper, and other minerals from western mines were important resources in manufacturing products. Answer: C. Descendants of western settlers, educated as engineers, geologists, and metallurgists in the East, returned to the West to mine the mineral resources needed for industry. The West helped to speed up the Industrial Revolution in a number of important and significant ways. First, the land yielded crops for the growing urban populations. Second, the gold and silver supplies coming out of the Western mines provided the capital needed to build industries. Also, resources such as iron and copper were extracted from the mines in the West and provided natural resources for manufacturing. The descendants of western settlers typically didn’t become educated and then returned to the West as miners. The miners were typically working class with little or no education.
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127. One South American country quickly and easily gained independence in the 19th century from European control; was noted for the uniqueness of its political stability and gradual orderly changes. This most unusual Latin American country is: (Average Rigor) A. Chile B. Argentina C. Venezuela D. Brazil Answer: D. Brazil While Chile, Argentina, and Venezuela all have had histories marred by civil wars, dictatorships, and numerous violent coups during their quests for independence, Brazil experienced a more rapid independence. Independence was gained quickly and more easily than the other countries due to a bloodless revolution in 1889 that officially made Brazil a republic and the economic stability they had in place from a strong coffee and rubber based economy.
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128. Nineteenth century German unification was the result of the hard work of: (Average Rigor) A. Otto von Bismarck B. Kaiser William II C. von Moltke D. Hindenburg Answer: A. Otto von Bismarck (A) Otto von Bismarck is the man most often credited with the unification of Germany. Bismarck became the first Chancellor of a unified Germany. He ultimately lost power to his successor Kaiser William II, who ultimately led Germany into World War I, when nationalist sentiment proved too strong for the united Germany. Ultimately, Germany’s concessions in the Treaty of Versailles to end World War I, and Adolf Hitler’s Nazi regime’s defeat at the hands of Allied forces in World War II had destroyed the unified Germany that Bismarck had achieved in the mid to late 1800s.
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129. Which one of the following would not be considered a result of World War II? (Rigorous) A. Economic depressions and slow resumption of trade and financial aid B. Western Europe was no longer the center of world power C. The beginnings of new power struggles not only in Europe but in Asia as well D. Territorial and boundary changes for many nations, especially in Europe Answer: A. Economic depressions and slow resumption of trade and financial aid Following World War II, the economy was vibrant and flourished from the stimulant of war and an increased dependence of the world on United States industries. Therefore, World War II didn’t result in economic depressions and slow resumption of trade and financial aid. Western Europe was no longer the center of world power. New power struggles arose in Europe and Asia and many European nations underwent changing territories and boundaries.
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130. A well known World War II figure who said that democracy was like a rotting corpse that had to be replaced by a superior way of life and more efficient government was: (Easy) A. Hitler B. Stalin C. Tojo D. Mussolini Answer: D. Mussolini (A) Adolf Hitler (1889-1945), the Nazi leader of Germany, and (C) Hideki Tojo (1884-1948), the Japanese General and Prime Minister, were well known World War II figures who led Axis forces into war on a quest of spreading fascism. (B) Joseph Stalin (1879-1953) was the Communist Russian head of state during World War II. Although all three were repressive in their actions, it was (D) Benito Mussolini (1883-1945), the Fascist and widely-considered incompetent leader of Italy during World War II, who once said “democracy was like a rotting corpse that had to be replaced by a superior way of life and more efficient government”.
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131. The international organization established to work for world peace at the end of the Second World War is the : (Average Rigor) A. League of Nations B. United Federation of Nations C. United Nations D. United World League Answer: C. United Nations The international organization established to work for world peace at the end of the Second World War was the United Nations. From the ashes of the failed League of Nations, established following World War I, the United Nations continues to be a major player in world affairs today.
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132. Of all the major causes of both World Wars I and II, the most significant one is considered to be: (Rigorous) A. Extreme nationalism B. Military buildup and aggression C. Political unrest D. Agreements and alliances Answer: A. Extreme nationalism Although military buildup and aggression, political unrest, and agreements and alliances were all characteristic of the world climate before and during World War I and World War II, the most significant cause of both wars was extreme nationalism. Nationalism is the idea that the interests and needs of a particular nation are of the utmost and primary importance above all else. Some nationalist movements could be liberation movements while others were oppressive regimes, much depends on their degree of nationalism. The nationalism that sparked WWI included a rejection of German, Austro-Hungarian, and Ottoman imperialism by Serbs, Slavs and others culminating in the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand by a Serb nationalist in 1914. Following WWI and the Treaty of Versailles, many Germans and others in the Central Alliance Nations, malcontent at the concessions and reparations of the treaty started a new form of nationalism. Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime led this extreme nationalism. Hitler’s ideas were an example of extreme, oppressive nationalism combined with political, social and economic scapegoating and was the primary cause of WWII.
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133. The international organization established to work for world peace at the end of the First World War was the: (Easy) A. United Earth League B. Confederate States C. United Nations D. League of Nations Answer: D. League of Nations The (B) Confederate States were those that seceded from the Union bringing about the Civil War. The (B) United Nations was established following World War II as an international organization for world peace. The (D) League of Nations was formed at the end of World War I to work towards world peace. The many shortcomings of the (D) League of Nations, including a lack of membership of powerful nations, led to a need for a new international organization, the United Nations, to help end and keep the peace after World War II. 134. Which one of the following Indian groups was not found in the West Indies? (Average Rigor) A. Totonacs B. Caribs C. Ciboney D. Arawaks Answer: A. Totonacs The Caribs were native peoples of Lesser Antilles, West Indies, who drove out the Arawaks in the late 1300s. The third important group indigenous to the West Indies was the Ciboney. Therefore, the Totonacs were the only group given that was not found in the West Indies. The Totonacs were coastal Mexicans rallied by Cortes to help fight the Aztec civilization under Montezuma.
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135. The only colony not founded and settled for religious, political, or business reasons was: (Rigorous) A. Delaware B. Virginia C. Georgia D. New York Answer: C. Georgia The Swedish and the Dutch established Delaware and New York as Middle Colonies. They were established with the intention of growth by economic prosperity from farming across the countryside. The English, with the intention of generating a strong farming economy settled Virginia, a Southern Colony. Georgia was the only one of these colonies not settled for religious, political or business reasons as it was started as a place for debtors from English prisons. 136. Of the thirteen English colonies, the greatest degree of religious toleration was found in: (Average Rigor) A. Maryland B. Rhode Island C. Pennsylvania D. Delaware Answer: B. Rhode Island The greatest degree of religious tolerance in all of the colonies was found in Rhode Island. Roger Williams, founder of Providence and Rhode Island, had objected to the Massachusetts colonial seizure of Indian lands and settlements and the relationship between these seizures and the Church of England. Williams was banished from Massachusetts and purposely set up Rhode Island as the first colony with a true separation of church and state.
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137. The year 1619 was a memorable year for the colony of Virginia. Three important events occurred resulting in lasting effects on US history. Which one of the following was not one of the events? (Average Rigor) A. Twenty African slaves arrived. B. The London Company granted the colony a charter making it independent. C. The colonists were given the right by the London Company to govern themselves through representative government in the Virginia House of Burgesses. D. The London Company sent to the colony 60 women who were quickly married, establishing families and stability in the colony. Answer: B. The London Company granted the colony a charter making it independent. In the year 1619, the Southern colony of Virginia had an eventful year including the first arrival of twenty African slaves, the right to self-governance through representative government in the Virginia House of Burgesses (their own legislative body), and the arrival of sixty women sent to marry and establish families in the colony. The London Company did not, however, grant the colony a charter in 1619.
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138. The year 1763 was Great Britain’s total victory over her European rivals and the establishment of a global empire. Of the American colonies, a European statesman accurately prophesied that these colonies no longer needed English protection and would soon gain independence. He was: (Average Rigor) A. Edmund Burke B. Comte de Rochambeau C. Count Vergennes D. William Pitt Answer: C. Count Vergennes Edmund Burke (1729-1797) was a British statesman that did believe in some political reforms in Great Britain’s dealing with the American colonies but still believed in the needed guidance and power of the crown in maintaining order. He supported the Declaratory Acts that reasserted Great Britain’s control over the colonies in 1766. Burke was important in both the American and French Revolutions. Comte de Rochambeau (1725-1807) was a French marshal who helped George Washington during the American Revolution. William Pitt (17591806) was a British statesman who was also a liberal in terms of his ideas for change in economic policy but he never speculated about the future independence of the American colonies. Count Vergennes or Charles Gravier Vergennes (1717-1787) was the French statesman who made the accurate prophecy that the American Colonies would soon be independent from Great Britain. Vergennes not only supported the American Revolution but also helped negotiate the Treaty of Paris in 1783 that secured independence for the colonies.
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139. “These are the times that try men’s souls” were words penned by: (Easy) A. Thomas Jefferson B. Samuel Adams C. Benjamin Franklin D. Thomas Paine Answer: D. Thomas Paine Thomas Paine (1737-1809), the great American political theorist, wrote “these are the times that try men’s souls” in his 16 part pamphlet The Crisis. Paine’s authoring of Common Sense was an important step in spreading information to the American colonists about their need for independence from Great Britain. 140. After 1783, the largest “land owner” in the Americas was: (Easy) A. Britain B. Spain C. France D. United States Answer: B. Spain Despite the emergence of the United States as an independent nation in control of the colonies over the British, and the French control of Canada, Spain remained the largest “land owner” in the Americas controlling much of the southwest as well as much of Central and South America.
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141. France decided in 1777 to help the American colonies in their war against Britain. This decision was based on: (Rigorous) A. The naval victory of John Paul Jones over the British ship “Serapis” B. The survival of the terrible winter at Valley Forge C. The success of colonial guerilla fighters in the South D. The defeat of the British at Saratoga Answer: D. The defeat of the British at Saratoga The defeat of the British at Saratoga was the overwhelming factor in the FrancoAmerican alliance of 1777 that helped the American colonies defeat the British. Some historians believe that without the Franco-American alliance, the American Colonies would not have been able to defeat the British and American would have remained a British colony.
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142. The political document that was the first to try to organize the newly independent American Colonies was the: (Average Rigor) A. Declaration of Independence B. Articles of Confederation C. The Constitution D. The Confederate States Answer: B. Articles of Confederation The political document that was the first to try to organize the newly independent American colonies was the deeply flawed but immensely important Articles of Confederation. As a precursor to the United States Constitution, the Articles of Confederation, presented to the Second Continental Congress in 1776 and ratified in 1781, proved ineffective in presenting the power of the central or federal government. Although the Articles of Confederation fostered a true national unity for the first time, its weakness in subordinating the federal government to the states, made it less respected than the Constitution, which was ratified in 1789.
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143. Give the correct order of the following: (Rigorous) A. The Constitution, the Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation B. The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, the Articles of Confederation C. The Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, the Constitution D. The Articles of Confederation, the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution Answer: C. The Declaration of Independence, the Articles of Confederation, the Constitution The correct order of implementation of the doctrines listed below are: 1) 2) 3)
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Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776) The Articles of Confederation (March 1, 1781) The Constitution (April 30, 1789)
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144. The Declaration of Independence owes much to the philosophy of: (Rigorous) A. Vladimir Lenin B. Karl Marx C. Thomas Hobbes D. John Locke Answer: D. John Locke The Declaration of Independence owes much to the philosophy of the great enlightenment writer John Locke (1632-1704). Locke’s empiricism and belief in the welfare of the middle class and their need to own property was a huge landmark in political philosophy. His work Two Treatises on Civil Government proved to be a huge influence on the formation of new governments such as the United States. His ideas about the right to life, liberty and property, which the founding fathers of the US changed to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness to justify slavery and other injustices, was a cornerstone of the Declaration of Independence.
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145. Which one of the following events did not occur during the period known as the “Era of Good Feeling”? (Rigorous) A. President Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine B. Spain ceded Florida to the United States C. The building of the National Road D. The charter of the second Bank of the United States Answer: A. President Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine The so-called “Era of Good Feeling” describes the period following the War of 1812. This was during the Presidency of James Madison and focused the nation on internal national improvements such as the building of the second national bank (Charter for Bank of United States), construction of new roads (National Road), and the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812 by forcing Spain to cede Florida to the United States. Of the possible answers, only the Monroe Doctrine (1823), which called for an end to any European occupation and colonization in the Americas, was not a part of the “Era of Good Feeling”, it came a bit after. 146. The US Constitution was ratified by the required number of states in: (Easy) A. August, 1861 B. July, 1776 C. June, 1788 D. September, 1848 Answer: C. June, 1788 The United States Constitution was ratified by the required nine states on June 21, 1788. July of 1776 was the Declaration of Independence. August, 1861 was the start of the Civil War. 1848 marked the discovery of gold in California and started the “gold rush”.
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147. Which one of the following was not a reason why the United States went to war with Great Britain in 1812? (Rigorous) A. Resentment by Spain over the sale, exploration, and settlement of the Louisiana Territory B. The westward movement of farmers because of the need for more land C. Canadian fur traders were agitating the northwestern Indians to fight American expansion D. Britain continued to seize American ships on the high seas and force American seamen to serve aboard British ships Answer: A. Resentment by Spain over the sale, exploration, and settlement of the Louisiana Territory The United States went to war with Great Britain in 1812 for a number of reasons including the expansion of settlers westward and the need for more land, the agitation of Indians by Canadian fur traders in eastern Canada, and the continued seizures of American ships by the British on the high seas. Therefore, the only statement given that was not a reason for the War of 1812 was the resentment by Spain over the sale, exploration and settlement of the Louisiana Territory. In fact, the Spanish continually held more hostility towards the British than towards the United States. The War of 1812 is often considered to be the second American war for independence.
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148. The principle of “popular sovereignty”, allowing people in any Territory to make their own decision concerning slavery was stated by: (Average Rigor) A. Henry Clay B. Daniel Webster C. John C. Calhoun D. Stephen A. Douglas Answer: D. Stephen A. Douglas (A) Henry Clay (1777-1852) and (B) Daniel Webster (1782-1852) were prominent Whigs whose main concern was keeping the United States one nation. They opposed Andrew Jackson and his Democratic party around the 1830s in favor of promoting what Clay called “the American System”. (C) John C. Calhoun (1782-1850) served as Vice-President under John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson, and then as a state senator from South Carolina. He was very pro-slavery and a champion of states’ rights. The principle of “popular sovereignty”, in which people in each territory could make their own decisions concerning slavery, was the doctrine of (D) Stephen A. Douglas (1813-1861). Douglas was looking for a middle ground between the abolitionists of the North and the pro-slavery Democrats of the South. However, as the polarization of proand anti-slavery sentiments grew, he lost the presidential election to Republican Abraham Lincoln, who later abolished slavery.
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149. U.S. foreign minister Robert R. Livingstone said, “From this day the United States take their place among the greatest powers.” He was referring to the action taken by President Thomas Jefferson: (Average Rigor) A. Who had authorized the purchase of the Louisiana Territory B. Who sent the US Marines and naval ships to fight the Barbary pirates C. Who had commissioned the Lewis and Clark expedition D. Who repealed the Embargo Act Answer: A. Who had authorized the purchase of the Louisiana Territory Livingstone’s claim that “from this day, the United States takes their place among the greatest powers” was a reference to Jefferson’s authorization and acquisition of the Louisiana Territory. What he meant was that now the United States was beginning to fulfill what would later become known as “Manifest Destiny”, and it would be this growth of physical size and political power that put the United States on course to be a world super power.
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150. Many American authors were noted for “local color” writings about the way of life in certain regions. Which one of the following was not associated with the other three in writing about life in the mining camps of the West? (Average Rigor) A. Hamlin Garland B. Joaquin Miller C. Bret Harte D. Mark Twain Answer: A. Hamlin Garland Hamlin Garland (1860-1940), unlike the other three authors mentioned, grew up in the mid-western farmlands and wrote stories that were bitter pictures of the difficulties of farm life. He also wrote political critiques. Joaquin Miller (18391913), an American poet, moved in 1852 to the Oregon frontier where he wrote about life in gold-mining camps, experiences with Native Americans, and painted an overall energetic and pleasant picture of frontier life. Bret Harte (1836-1902) moved to California at age 19 and wrote local-color short stories of life in mining camps and on the western frontiers of California. Mark Twain (1835-1910), however, was perhaps the most well known and celebrated novelist of early American. Twain, also known as Samuel Langhorne Clemens, was born in Missouri and lived in a variety of places before making it out West, first to Carson City, Nevada, and then later to Sacramento. Twain would return to Hartford, Connecticut, where he spent his later years and wrote Roughing It in 1887, about the difficult lives he saw lived on the Western frontier. Twain is best known for his books The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, the former of which is considered by many to be the first truly great American novel.
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151. From about 1870 to 1900, the last settlement of America’s “last frontier”, the West, was completed. One attraction for settlers was free land but it would have been to no avail without: (Rigorous) A. Better farming methods and technology B. Surveying to set boundaries C. Immigrants and others to see new lands D. The railroad to get them there Answer: D. The railroad to get them there From about 1870 to 1900, the settlement for America’s “last frontier” in the West was made possible by the building of the railroad. Without the railroad, the settlers never could have traveled such distances in an efficient manner. 152. The belief that the United States should control all of North America was called: (Easy) A. Westward Expansion B. Pan Americanism C. Manifest Destiny D. Nationalism Answer: C. Manifest Destiny The belief that the United States should control all of North America was called (B) Manifest Destiny. This idea fueled much of the violence and aggression towards those already occupying the lands such as the Native Americans. Manifest Destiny was certainly driven by sentiments of (D) nationalism and gave rise to (A) westward expansion.
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153. The American concept of Manifest Destiny means: (Average Rigor) A. America had a right to spread throughout the American continent from coast to coast B. The United States should respect the right of native peoples it encounters in its push westward C. The rest of the world power should stay out of this part of the world D. American should strive to be the dominant world power Answer: A. America had a right to spread throughout the American continent from coast to coast The American concept of Manifest Destiny was a means of justifying expansion across the entire continent. Much like the other nationalistic movements that came before or since, Manifest Destiny put the needs and wants of those identifying themselves as Americans over the needs or wants of others. Manifest Destiny was a doctrine that justified the removal and extermination of many Native Americans already occupying lands in the West.
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154. After the War of 1812, Henry Clay and others proposed economic measures, including raising tariffs to protect American farmers and manufacturers from foreign competition. These measures were proposed in the period known as: (Average Rigor) A. Era of Nationalism B. American Expansion C. Era of Good Feeling D. American System Answer: D. American System Although there is no official (A) “Era of Nationalism”, it could be used to describe the time leading up to and including the First and Second World Wars, as nationalism was on the rise. (B) American Expansion describes the movement of American settlers across the frontier towards the West. The so-called (C) “Era of Good Feeling” is the period after the War of 1812 but doesn’t describe the policies proposed by Clay. The economic measures, including raising tariffs to protect American farmers and manufacturers from foreign competition, was known as the (D) American System.
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155. The post-Civil War years were a time of low public morality, a time of greed, graft, and dishonesty. Which one of the reasons listed would not be accurate? (Rigorous) A. The war itself because of the money and materials needed to carry on war B. The very rapid growth of industry and big business after the war C. The personal example set by President Grant D. Unscrupulous heads of large impersonal corporations Answer: C. The personal example set by President Grant The post-Civil War years were a particularly difficult time for the nation and public morale was especially low. The war had plunged the country into debt and ultimately into a recession by the 1890s. Racism was rampant throughout the South and the North where freed Blacks were taking jobs for low wages. The rapid growth of industry and big business caused a polarization of rich and poor, workers and owners. Many people moved into the urban centers to find work in the new industrial sector, jobs were typically low-wage, long hours, and poor working conditions. The heads of large impersonal corporations were arrogant in treating their workers inhumanely and letting morale drop to a record low. The heads of corporations showed their greed and malice towards the workingman by trying to prevent and disband labor unions.
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156. After the Civil War, the United States adapted an attitude of isolation from foreign affairs. But the turning point marking the beginning of the US becoming a world power was: (Rigorous) A. World War I B. Expansion of business and trade overseas C. The Spanish-American War D. The building and financing of the Panama Canal Answer: C. The Spanish-American War The turning point marking the beginning of the United States becoming a super power was the Spanish-American War. This was seen as an extension of the Monroe doctrine, calling for United States dominance in the Western Hemisphere and removal of European powers in the region. The United States’ relatively easy defeat of Spain in the Spanish-American War marked the beginning of a continuing era of dominance for the United States. In addition, in the post-Civil War era, Spain was the largest land owner in the Americas. Their easy defeat at the hands of the United States in Cuba, the Philippines, and elsewhere showed the strength of the United States across the globe.
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157. The three-day Battle of Gettysburg was the turning point of the Civil War for the North leading to ultimate victory. The battle in the West reinforcing the North’s victory and sealing the South’s defeat came the day after Gettysburg at: (Rigorous) A. Perryville B. Vicksburg C. Stones River D. Shiloh Answer: B. Vicksburg The Battle of Vicksburg was crucial in reinforcing the North’s victory and sealing the South’s defeat for a couple of reasons. First, the Battle of Vicksburg potentially gave the Union full control of the Mississippi River. More importantly, the battle split the Confederate Army and allowed General Grant to reach his goal of restoring commerce to the important northwest area.
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158. The Radical Republicans who pushed the harsh Reconstruction measures through Congress after Lincoln’s death lost public and moderate Republican support when they went too far: (Rigorous) A. In their efforts to impeach the President B. By dividing ten southern states into military-controlled districts C. By making the ten southern states give freed African-Americans the right to vote D. Sending carpetbaggers into the South to build up support for Congressional legislation Answer: A. In their efforts to impeach the President The public support and the moderate Republicans were actually being drawn towards the more radical end of the Republican spectrum following Lincoln’s death during Reconstruction. Because many felt as though Andrew Johnson’s policies towards the South were too soft and were running the risk of rebuilding the old system of white power and slavery. Even moderate Republicans in the North felt as though it was essential to rebuild the South but with the understanding that they must be abide by the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendment assuring Blacks freedom and the right to vote. The radical Republicans were so frustrated that the President would make concessions to the old Southerners that they attempted to impeach him. This turned back the support that they had received from the public and from moderates.
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159. It can be reasonably stated that the change in the United States from primarily an agricultural country into an industrial power was due to all of the following except: (Rigorous) A. Tariffs on foreign imports B. Millions of hardworking immigrants C. An increase in technological developments D. The change from steam to electricity for powering industrial machinery Answer: A. Tariffs on foreign imports It can be reasonably stated that the change in the United States from primarily an agricultural country into an industrial power was due to a great degree of three of the reasons listed above. It was a combination of millions of hard-working immigrants, an increase in technological developments, and the change from steam to electricity for powering industrial machinery. The only reason given that really had little effect was the tariffs on foreign imports.
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160. The American labor union movement started gaining new momentum: (Rigorous) A. During the building of the railroads B. After 1865 with the growth of cities C. With the rise of industrial giants such as Carnegie and Vanderbilt D. During the war years of 1861-1865 Answer: B. After 1865 with the growth of cities The American Labor Union movement had been around since the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The Labor movement began to first experience persecution by employers in the early 1800s. The American Labor Movement remained relatively ineffective until after the Civil War. In 1866, the National Labor Union was formed, pushing such issues as the eight-hour workday and new policies of immigration. This gave rise to the Knights of Labor and eventually the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in the 1890s and the Industrial Workers of the World (1905). Therefore, it was the period following the Civil War that empowered the labor movement in terms of numbers, militancy, and effectiveness.
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161. During the 1920s, the United States almost completely stopped all immigration. One of the reasons was: (Rigorous) A. Plentiful cheap, unskilled labor was no longer needed by industrialists B. War debts from World War I made it difficult to render financial assistance C. European nations were reluctant to allow people to leave since there was a need to rebuild populations and economic stability D. The United States did not become a member of the League of Nations Answer: A. Plentiful cheap, unskilled labor was no longer needed by industrialists The primary reason that the United States almost completely stopped all immigration during the 1920s was because their once, much needed, cheap, unskilled labor jobs, made available by the once booming industrial economy, were no longer needed. This had much to do with the increased use of machines to do the work once done by cheap, unskilled laborers.
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162. The makeup of today’s modern newspapers – including comics, puzzles, sports, and columnists – was a technique first used by: (Average Rigor) A. William Randolph Hearst B. Edward W. Scripps C. Joseph Pulitzer D. Charles A. Dana Answer: C. Joseph Pulitzer (A) William Randolph Hearst (1863-1951) was better known for his vast “empire” of publications, mostly newspapers and magazines. (B) Edward W. Scripps (1854-1926) set up the first chain of newspapers in the United States called the Scripps-McRae League and later set up the Scripps-Howard chain. (D) Charles A. Dana (1819-1897) was a newspaper editor most well known for his strong stance on the Civil War and his relentless pursuit of exposing corruption in the post-Civil War administration of Grant. The answer is, therefore, Joseph Pulitzer (1847-1911). His papers, New York World and Evening World, were the first to include such modern techniques as comics, puzzles, columnists, illustrations, and sports.
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163. After World War II, the United States: (Rigorous) A. Limited its involvement in European affairs B. Shifted foreign policy emphasis from Europe to Asia C. Passed significant legislation pertaining to aid to farmers and tariffs on imports D. Entered the greatest period of economic growth in its history Answer: D. Entered the greatest period of economic growth in its history After World War II, the United States did not limit or shift its involvement in European affairs. In fact, it escalated the Cold War with the Soviet Union at a swift pace and attempted to contain Communism to prevent its spread across Europe. There was no significant legislation pertaining to aid to farmers and tariffs on imports. In fact, since World War II, trade has become more liberal than ever. Free trade, no matter how risky or harmful to the people of the United States or other countries, has become the economic policy of the United States called neo-liberalism. Due to this, the United States after World War II entered the greatest period of economic growth in its history and remains a world superpower.
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TEACHER CERTFICATION STUDY GUIDE 164. A number of women worked hard in the first half of the 19th century for women’s rights but decisive gains did not come until after 1850. The earliest accomplishments were in: (Average Rigor) A. Medicine B. Education C. Writing D. Temperance Answer: B. Education Although women worked hard in the early 19th century to make gains in medicine, writing, and temperance movements, the most prestigious accomplishments of the early women’s movement was in the field of education. Women such as Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), Alice Palmer (1855-1902), and of course Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910), led the way for women, particularly in the area of higher education.
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165. In which of the following disciplines would the study of physical mapping, modern or ancient, and the plotting of points and boundaries be least useful? (Rigorous) A. Sociology B. Geography C. Archaeology D. History Answer: A. Sociology In geography, archaeology, and history, the study of maps and plotting of points and boundaries is very important as all three of these disciplines hold value in understanding the spatial relations and regional characteristics of people and places. Sociology, however, mostly focuses on the social interactions of people and while location is important, the physical location is not as important as the social location such as the differences between studying people in groups or as individuals.
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166. The only Central American country with no standing army, a freely elected government, and considered the oldest democracy in the region is: (Average Rigor) A. Costa Rica B. Belize C. Honduras D. Guatemala Answer: A. Costa Rica Belize, Guatemala, and Honduras have all struggled over the past few hundred years. Efforts for independence from colonial powers such as Spain and Great Britain proved difficult and brought up many difficult issues such as the violent border disputes between Guatemala and Belize as late as the 1980s and 1990s that created strong tensions and almost all out war. Honduras experienced many bloody civil wars since its quest for independence began in the early 19th century. Even today, Honduras struggles as one of the poorest nations in the world and has continued to experience serious exploitation and abuses of workers by first world multinational corporations. Since the late 18th century, Costa Rica on the other hand, has experienced longstanding democracy and stability. They have no army and despite a couple of breakdowns in the political system, most notably in 1917 and 1948, it is considered the longest standing democracy in Central America.
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167. Geography was first studied in an organized manner by the: (Easy) A. Egyptians B. Greeks C. Romans D. Arabs Answer: B. Greeks The Greeks were the first to study geography, possibly because of the difficulties they faced as a result of geographic conditions. Greece had difficulty uniting early on as their steep, treacherous, mountainous terrain made it difficult for the city-states to be united. As the Greeks studied their geography, it became possible to defeat more powerful armies on their home turf, such as the great victory over the Persians at Marathon. 168. The study of the social behavior of minority groups would be in the area of: (Average Rigor) A. Anthropology B. Psychology C. Sociology D. Cultural Geography Answer: C. Sociology The study of social behavior in minority groups would be primarily in the area of Sociology, as it is the discipline most concerned with social interaction and being. However, it could be argued that Anthropology, Psychology, and Cultural Geography could have some interest in the study as well.
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169. The study of past human cultures based on physical artifacts is: (Average Rigor) A. History B. Anthropology C. Cultural Geography D. Archaeology Answer: D. Archaeology Archaeology is the study of past human cultures based on physical artifacts such as fossils, carvings, paintings, and engraved writings. 170. The study of the exercise of power and political behavior in human society today would be conducted by experts in: (Easy) A. History B. Sociology C. Political Science D. Anthropology Answer: C. Political Science Experts in the field of political science today would likely conduct the study of exercise of power and political behavior in human society. However, it is also reasonable to suggest that such studies would be important to historians (study of the past, often in an effort to understand the present), sociologists (often concerned with power structure in the social and political worlds), and even some anthropologists (study of culture and their behaviors).
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171. Public administration, such as public officials in the areas of budgets, accounting, distribution of public funds, and personnel management, would be a part of the field of: (Average Rigor) A. Anthropology B. Sociology C. Law and Taxation D. Political Science and Economics Answer: D. Political Science and Economics Public administration, such as public officials in the areas of budgets, accounting, distribution of public funds, and personnel management, would be parts of the fields of Economics and Political Science. While political scientists would be concerned with public administration, economists would also be concerned with the distribution of public funds, budgets, and accounting and their effects on the economy.
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172. The philosopher who coined the term “sociology” also stated that social behavior and events could be measured scientifically. He is identified as: (Average Rigor) A. Auguste Comte B. Herbert Spencer C. Rousseau D. Immanuel Kant Answer: A. Auguste Comte Auguste Comte (1798-1857) was a French philosopher and social reformer who founded the school of positivism. Comte identified the uses of different scientific applications as dependent on the preceding science in the order of mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and finally his coined term, sociology. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) also helped spread sociology, although his evolutionary theory was more practical and popular than it was scientific. Rousseau (1712-1778) was a political philosopher who explored the idea of what has come to be known as liberalism. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was the German metaphysician and philosopher who was a founding proponent of the idea that world organization was the means for achieving universal peace.
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173. The Study of “spatial relationships and interaction” would be done by people in the field of: (Average Rigor) A. Political Science B. Anthropology C. Geography D. Sociology Answer: C. Geography Geography is the discipline within Social Science that most concerns itself with the study of “spatial relationships and interaction”.
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174. Which scientist has made major contributions to the study of human origins? (Average Rigor) A. Evans B. Schliemann C. Margaret Mead D. The Leakeys Answer: D. The Leakeys Although each of the above-mentioned people made significant contributions to the study of human history, (A) English archeologist Sir Arthur Evans (18511941) has been primarily associated with the excavation of the Knossos on the island of Crete. (B) Heinrich Schliemann (1922-1890) was the German archeologist most well known for the excavation of the ruins of Troy. (C) Margaret Mead (1901-1978) was a cultural anthropologist most acclaimed for her 1928 book Coming of Age in Samoa. Besides authoring numerous books, she was also the curator of ethnology at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. (D) The Leakeys, Louis (1903-1972), Mary (1913-1976) and son Richard (1944-), discovered fossils in East Africa that changed the world consensus about the age of humans and also discovered ancient fossils in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. The Leakeys, however, were most concerned with the study of early human origins.
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175. The chemical process of radiocarbon dating would be most useful and beneficial in the field of: (Average Rigor) A. Archaeology B. Geography C. Sociology D. Anthropology Answer: A. Archaeology Radiocarbon dating is a chemical process that helps generate a more absolute method for dating artifacts and remains by measuring the radioactive materials present in them today and calculating how long it takes for certain materials to decay. Since geographers mainly study locations and special properties of earth’s living things and physical features, sociologists mostly study human society and social conditions and anthropologists generally study human culture and humanity, the answer is archaeology because archeologists study past human cultures by studying their remains.
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176. Nineteenth century imperialism by Western Europe nations had important and far-reaching effects on the colonial peoples they ruled. All four of the following are the results of this. Which one was the most important and had lasting effects on key 20th century events? (Rigorous) A. Local wars were ended B. Living standards were raised C. Demands for self-government and feelings of nationalism surfaced D. Economic developments occurred Answer: C. Demands for self-government and feelings of nationalism surfaced The 19th century imperialism by Western European nations had some very serious and far-reaching effects. The most important and lasting effect on events of the 20th century were the demands for self-government and the rise of nationalism. Both World War I and World War II were caused to a large degree by the rise of nationalist sentiment across Europe and Asia. Nationalism has also fueled numerous liberation movements and revolutionary movements across the globe from Central and South America to the South Pacific to Africa and Asia.
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177. “Participant observation” is a method of study most closely associated with and used in: (Rigorous) A. Anthropology B. Archaeology C. Sociology D. Political science Answer: A. Anthropology “Participant observation” is a method of study most closely associated with and used in (A) anthropology or the study of current human cultures. (B) Archaeologists typically the study of the remains of people, animals or other physical things. (C) Sociology is the study of human society and usually consists of surveys, controlled experiments, and field studies. (D) Political science is the study of political life including justice, freedom, power and equality in a variety of methods. 178. The study of a people’s language and writing would be part of all of the following except: (Rigorous) A. Sociology B. Archaeology C. History D. Geography Answer: A. Sociology The study of a people’s language and writing would be a part of studies in the disciplines of sociology (study of social interaction and organization), archaeology, (study of ancient artifacts including written works), and history (the study of the past). Language and writing would be less important to geography that tends to focus more on locations and spatial relations than on the people in those regions and their languages or writings. HISTORY
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179. Who is considered to be the first European explorer of the Arizona region? A. Hernando De Soto B. Cabeza de Vaca C. Marcos de Niza D. Juan de Onate Answer: C. Marcos de Niza Hernando De Soto (A) was a Spanish Explorer who first explored Florida and the Southeastern United States. Cabeza de Vaca (B) was a Spanish Explorer of Texas and Mexico. Juan de Onate (D) explored the New Mexico area which became a territory of Spain. Marcos de Niza (C) is believed to be the first European explorer of the Arizona territory in 1539. He reported to Francisco Vasquez de Coronado a story of Cibola (city of gold). In 1540 Coronado led an exhibition into the Southwest region in search of Cibola. 180. When was Arizona admitted as the 48th State of the United States? A. 1821 B. 1848 C. 1853 D. 1912 Answer: D. 1912 Mexico’s independence of Spain in 1821 meant Arizona became a Mexican territory. The Mexican-American war followed the United States annexation of Texas in 1845, with all out war breaking out in 1846 and continuing to 1848. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) ended the war with the United States acquiring portions of Arizona, New Mexico and a number of other States. The remaining portion of Arizona was purchased in 1853 with the completion of the Gadsden Purchase. Arizona was admitted as the 48th State of the United States in 1912.
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181. Which Indian culture was not a major force in Arizonian History? A. Cherokee B. Navajo C. Hohokam D. Apache Answer: A. Cherokee Among the earliest Native Americans was the Hohokam tribe which dominated the Arizona region. Largely farmers their disappearance from the region remains a mystery. The Navajo culture settled in caves in the northeast part of Arizona. Today the Navajo reservation crosses four States. Apache leaders Cochise and Geronimo led two major uprisings in the Arizona territory. The Cherokee culture settled in southeastern United States. 182. Which city was not a capital of Arizona? A. Prescott B. Tucson C. Phoenix D. Tombstone Answer: D. Tombstone The first capital of the Arizona territory was Prescott. The capital was changed to Tucson in 1867 and to Phoenix in 1889. Tombstone began as a mining town and became a center of violence, including the shootout at the OK Corral between the Clantons and the Earps.
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183. Often cited as a major cause of United States involvement in World War I this event had a significant tie to Arizona. A. Sinking of USS Maine B. Sinking of the USS Arizona C. Zimmerman Telegram D. Thornton Affair Answer: C. Zimmerman Telegram The battleship USS Maine was sunk by an explosion in the Havana, Cuba harbor in 1898. The sinking of the Maine was the primary cause of the SpanishAmerican War. In 1941 the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii resulted in the sinking of the battleship USS Arizona. The Thornton Affair or skirmish in 1846 was a primary justification of the Mexican-America war and involved a battle between American forces under the command of Captain Thornton and a Mexican force along the Texas border with Mexico. The Zimmerman Telegram was one of the reasons the United States entered World War I. It was an effort to encourage Mexico to align with Germany in exchange for Arizona’s return to Mexico.
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184. The following Arizonan was not a candidate for United States President: A. Morris Udall B. Stewart Udall C. Barry Goldwater D. John McCain Answer: B. Stewart Udall Representative Morris Udall sought the Democratic nomination for President in 1976 losing to President Jimmy Carter. Barry Goldwater won the Republic nomination for President in 1964 but lost to President Lyndon Johnson. Senator John McCain sought the Presidency in 2000 and 2008. Stewart Udall served as Secretary of Interior under President Kennedy and President Johnson and did not seek the Presidency. 185. The westernmost battle of the Civil War took place at: A. Phoenix B. Picacho Peak C. Santa Fe D. Fort Yuma Answer: B. Picacho Peak The Phoenix area was not developed until the period following the Civil War. Santa Fe was the site of several skirmishes during the Civil War. Fort Yuma was a Union Fort which was a center of western control by Union forces. Picacho Peak near Tucson, Arizona was the westernmost battle of the Civil War. The southern portion of the Arizona territory with was part of the Gadsden Purchase aligned with the Confederacy.
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186. The Gadsden Purchase between the United States and Mexico acquired the southern portion of New Mexico and Arizona from Mexico. The primary interest of the United States in acquiring this property was: A. Silver mines B. Helping Santa Anna, the Mexican President C. Establish forts along the Mexican border D. Construct railroad lines Answer: D. Construct railroad lines The Gadsden Purchase was a plan recommended by Secretary of War Jefferson Davis to President Franklin Pierce to have U.S. Minister to Mexico James Gadsden to negotiate with Santa Anna to purchase southern Arizona and New Mexico from the Mexicans. The purchase price was $10 million. The purpose of the purchase was to allow for the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad route.
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City, State Zip Credit card number_______-________-_________-________ EMAIL _____________________________ PHONE FAX TITLE AEPA EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION 36 AEPA BASIC SKILLS 96, 97, 98 AEPA ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 01 AEPA ENGLISH 02 AEPA SOCIAL STUDIES 03 AEPA BIOLOGY 07 AEPA CHEMISTRY 08 AEPA PHYSICS 09 AEPA MIDDLE SCHOOL MATHEMATICS 37 AEPA MATHEMATICS 10 AEPA HEALTH 18 AEPA LIBRARY-EDUCATIONAL MEDIA 12 AEPA ART SAMPLE TEST 13 AEPA SPANISH 15 AEPA HISTORY 05 AEPA FRENCH SAMPLE TEST 16 AEPA SPECIAL EDUCATION - EMOTIONAL DISABILTIES 24 978-1-58197-770-7 AEPA SPECIAL EDUCATION: CROSSCATEGORY 22 978-1-58197-745-5 AEPA CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES AND ARIZONA 33 978-1-58197-740-0 AEPA POLITICAL SCIENCE/AMERICAN GOVERNMENT 06 978-1-58197-291-7 AEPA PROFESSIONAL KNOWLEDGE ISBN 978-1-58197-747-9 9781-58197-749-3 978-1-58197-738-7 978-1-58197-703-5 978-1-58197-731-8 978-1-58197-732-5 978-1-58197-722-6 978-1-58197-748-6 978-1-58197-642-7 978-1-58197-641-0 978-1-58197-746-2 978-1-58197-734-9 978-1-58197-729-5 978-1-58197-735-6 978-1-58197-969-5 978-1-58197-736-3 978-1-58197-739-4
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